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Ø º ILLUSTRATED UNIVERSALHISTORY A CLEAR AND CONCISE HISTORY OF ALL NATIONS, WITH A FULL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE CLOSE OF THE FIRST 1 O O YEARS NATION A. L IND E P E N D E N C E . TO WHICH IS AIDDED A HISTORY OF ALL RECENT IMPORTANT EVENTS, INCLUDING THE TURCO-RUSSIAN WAR, THE ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HAYES, ETC. BY ISRAEL SMITH CLARE, Illustrated with Portraits and full-page Engravings. J. C. McCURDY & CO., PHII ADELPHIA, PA.; CINCINNATI, O.; CHICAGO, ILL.; AND ST. LOUIS, MO. 1878. 7/, 24ſ. Øee, *...*.*.*. sº tº JT- %3- /723 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by ISRAEL SMITH CLARE, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by ISRAEL SMITH CLARE, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington lºad Ft Lunae +b + fT. wipe. PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITTI ON BUILDIN G. F. O PRIMER TY THIE MAINT CIENTIENNIAL EXPOSITION BUILDING, PHILAIDDELPHIA PREFACE HE author of this work, having, in common with others, felt the want of a book which could truly be called a treatise on universal history, has un- dertaken the task of supplying such want; and, as the result of a great expense of time and labor, this volume is presented to the public. For convenience, though somewhat arbitrarily, the work is divided into three parts, each containing the record of an important era in the history of the world. Book First contains an historical account of the ancient world, embracing the period from the Creation of Man to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, A. D. 476. Book Second embraces the history of the Middle Ages, comprising the time from the Fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Discovery of America, inclusive. Book Third comprises a record of the modern period, describing the epoch from the Discovery of America to the present time. Great historical events have been arranged logically rather than chronologically, and great care has been taken to detail facts in proportion to their relative impor- tance. The author has also taken great pains to omit what is irrelevant, and he has selected from the great mass of historical matter those events which have exerted a controlling influence upon the destinies of the world. The greatest prominence is given to the annals of those nations of ancient and modern times which have acted a leading part on the stage of the world’s history; and, with this view, Greece and Rome are made to stand out with their due prom- inence among the nations of antiquity, while Germany, France, England, and America are exhibited as the leading actors in the modern drama. To enable the reader or student to easily acquire and retain a knowledge of the facts related, and to observe their relation, the subject-matter of this work is arranged un many divisions and subdivisions; and each subject is minutely analyzed, and the outlines of the various subjects furnish appropriate headings for the different paragraphs. In addition to a full account of the annals of the nations of the Old World, a complete history of the United States, up to the present time, is given; also a gen- eral history of the Spanish American Republics, subjects which are not treated of to the same extent in other works of this kind. 425866 iv ARE FA CE. j The history of the United States is made to embrace the period of the first cen. tury of our existence as an independent nation; and a separate title-page is given to it. The history of our country is divided into three periods:—Ist. The period of the American Revolution; 2d. The period of national development, extending from the time of the adoption of our National Constitution in 1789 to the close of the war with Mexico; 3d. The period of the slavery agitation and the civil war, and recent events. All the leading events of each Administration are narrated, according to their relative importance, or their bearing upon the destinies of our country. The Table of Contents embraces a general outline of the book, and is analyti- cal. In the Chronological Index, the great events in the history of the human race are arranged in chronological order, and reference is made to the pages on which the events named, are found. In the Alphabetical Index, all the proper names found in the book are arranged alphabetically, with their pronunciation, and reference is also made to the pages on which they occur. The book, as arranged, is well adapted for general reading, for reference, and for private study. & With these few introductory remarks, the author submits the volume to the public, with the hope that it may prove of valuable service to the student of history and to the general reader. I. S. CLARE. AZ2//erszz//e, Pa., C () N T E N T S. BOOK FIRST-ANCIENT HISTORY. THE EARLIEST AGES. FAGE, 1. ANTEDILUVIAN HISTORY, . dº tº † g e 2 I 2. THE DISPERSION OF MANKIND, . g * tº ſº . 2 I ORIENTAL NATIONS. I. CHINA, ge g * {} & * £e § 22 2. INDIA, . sº * ſº o e : tº • 23 3. ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA, . tº wº de ſº {º 24 4. EGYPT, . & * “º ſº fº & & • 25 5. PHOENICIA, . jº * e º & © tº 26 6. THE HEBREWS OR ISRAELITES, . tº tº ſº gº . 27 I. The Patriarchs, . & e gº te º & 27 2. The Hebrews in Egypt, g 4. & tº de . 28 3. The Exodus of the Israelites, e e fe ſº & 28 4. The Period of the Pudges, . g sº sº $º • 29 5. The Reign of Saul, * te * wº º dº 3O 6. The Reign of David, us ğ & e e • 3O 7. The Reign of Solomon, . & g © º tº 3 I 8. The Kingdom of Israel, tº © ſº tº gº . 3 I 9. The Kingdom of Judah, de t tº ſº e 32 7. MEDIA AND PERSIA, g g º * * * • 33 HISTORY OF GREECE. 1 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT GREECE, . te e tº º 35 2, GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY, . * * * • . 36 3. LEGENDARY PERIOD OF GREECE, e dº e Q gº 37 1. Early Settlements in Greece, * º e & , 37 2. The Heroic Age, * tº * * § e ſº 37 3. The Amphictyonic Council and the Olympic Festival, ſº • 39 4. Greek Colonies, . & ſº e s g tº 4O 4 THE PERIOD OF THE LAwgiveRS, tº g § - 4O 1. Zycurgus, &he Spartan Lawgiver, º & s • * 40 2. The Messenian Wars, * tº wº us tº • 42 (v) . VI COAVZ.EAVZ.S. 3. Draco and Solon, the Lawgivers of Athens, • 4. The Tyrants of Athens, e e 5. The Seven Wise Men of Greeee, º 5. THE FLOURISHING PERIOD OF GREECE, I. Z%e Persian War, . * & e 2. Affairs of Athens and Sparta, . o º 3. The Peloponnesian War, º g ſº 4. Retreat of the Ten Thousand and Peace of Antalcidas, 5. The Olymthian and Theban Wars, & 6 THE MACEDONIAN PERIOD, . º & 1. Philip of Macedon, . e º 2. Alexander the Great, & & & 3 Antipater and Alexander's Successors, * 4. Z%e Achaian Ceague and the Fall of Greece, 5. The Ptolemies, the Seleucidae, and the Maccabees, HISTORY OF ROME. I. ANCIENT ITALY, º e e º º 2. ROME UNDER THE KINGS, I. 2. A’omulus, º º The Successors of Æomulus 3. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, & e I. Wars with the AEtruscans and zwith Porsenna, 2. Contests between the Patricians and the Plebeians, 3. Conquest of Veii and the Invasion of the Gauls, 4. The Laws of Caius Licinius Stolo, 5. Wars with the Samnites and the Latins, 6. The War with Pyrrhus, . e º o 7. The First Punic War, tº * 8. Illyrian and Gallic Wars, º º e 9. The Second Punic War, ſº * Io. Macedonian, Syrian, and Grecian Wars, º II. The Third Punic War, º º 12. A&oman Conquest of Spain, º 13. Sedition of the Gracchi, º e e 14. Age of Caius Marius and Cornelius Sylla, 15. Civil War of Marius and Sylla, . 16. Age of Cnaeus Pompey and Şulius Cæsar, o 17. Civil War of Pompey and Caesar, . * 18. Caesar's Dictatorship, e º 19. Maré Antony and Octavius Cæsar, . 20. Civil War of Octavius and Antony, e e 4. THE ROMAN EMPIRE, & tº º 1. The Reigns of the Caesars, º I. The Reign of Augustus, . & º 2. Reign of Tiberius, . • © º 3. Reign of Caligula, PAGE. 42 43 45 45 47 48 5 I 52 53 53 54 59 6o 64 COAVZ'EAVZ.S. vii * PAGE. 4. Reign of Claudius, . G e & o sº 95 5. Reign of Nero, . ſº º e e sº • 95 6. Reign of Galba, * ſº tº s © º 96 7. Reign of Otho, . * > gº tº ſº . 96 8. Reign of Vitellius, . º tº ge tº g 97 9. Reign of Vespasian, * sº tº º • • 97 Io. Reign of Titus, © ſº gº tº sº * 98 II. Reign of Domitian, g e ſº o ſº , 98 2 7%e Aºze Good Emperors, º g º e & 99 1. Reign of Nerva, º º e i. e , 99 2 Reign of Trajan, ge g e & tº ſº 99 3. Reign of Adrian, * tº o iº tº . 99 4. Reign of Antoninus Pius, . tº e ſº * IOO 5. Reign of Marcus Aurelius, { } e & & . IOO 3 The Period of Military Despotism, { } tº & º IOO 1. Reign of Commodus, . tº gº gº * , IOO 2. Reign of Pertinax, . tº e sº tº g IOI 3. Reign of Didius Julianus, º sº * * • IOI 4. Reign of Septimius Severus, º © e o IOI 5. Reign of Caracalla, is º e s te • IOI 6. Reign of Macrinus, . . . g • * > º IO2 7. Reign of Heliogabalus, . & ſº de tº • IO2 8. Reign of Alexander Severus, e * & e IO2 9. Reign of Maximin, tº o & e º ... I O2 Io. Reign of Gordian, . • & tº º tº IO3 II. Reign of Philip, e ſº e tº e . IO3 12. Reign of Decius, . tº g wº g * IO3 13. Reign of Gallus, . ū & * g . IO4 14. Reign of Valerian, . * , * © ſº gº IO4 15. Reign of Gallienus, tº © & * e • IO4 16. Reign of Flavius Claudius, . * gº * * IO4 17. Reign of Aurelian, te e dº ſº (* . IO5 18. Reign of Tacitus, . * º 2. Q IO5 19. Reign of Probus, g tº © { } . IO5 20. Reign of Carus, e & tº g IO5 21. Reign of Diocletian, . ſº * * e . IO5 22. Reign of Constantine the Great, g tº ğ e Ioô 23. Reign of Constantius II., tº { } * tº . IOS 24. Reign of Julian the Apostate, & tº tº * Io8 25. Reign of Jovian, tº ë g º tº Io9 4. Barbarian Inroads and Fall of the Western Roman Empire, . IO9 1. Reign of Valentinian and Valens, gº & g . Io9 2. Reign of Theodosius the Great, º g e º I IO 3. Reign of Honorius, º ſº * * º • I IO 4. Reign of Valentinian III., . * ſº * º I I I 5. Reign of Maximus, e º * t (* • II 2 6. The Last Roman Emperors of the West, . tº e II 2 viii COAVTEAVTS. BOOK SECOND–THE MIDDLE AGES. THE DARK AGES. PAGE. I, ITALY AND THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE, ſº tº e ë . II.7 I. Italy under the Heruli and the Ostrogoths, º tº e 117 2, 7%e Byzantine Empire under justinian, . ſº * . I I 7 3. The Zombard Kingdom in Northern Italy, © & ë I Ig 2 THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN, . g s , I2O 3 THE SARACEN EMPIRE, º ſº e tº * © I2O I. Mohammed, . º tº tº º e gº . I2O 2. Mohammed's Successors, e te e & º I2 I 1. Reign of Abubekir, tº & tº e º ... I 2 I 2. Reign of Omar, e sº º * tº * I 22 3. Reign of Othman, ſe tº * Q e . I23 4. Reign of All, * e te ſe te jº I23 5. Reigns of the Ommiyades, e g sº tº . I23 6. Reigns of the Abbassides, . . e & g g I24 4. THE FRANK EMPIRE, g s g º gº gº . I 25 1. The Reigns of the Merovingians, e Ye o tº I25 2. The Reigns of the Carlovingians, . g tº g . I26 1. Reign of Pepin the Little, . & * e o 126 2. Reign of Charlemagne, . { } º g dº . I26 3. Charlemagne’s Successors, . e º gº e I29 5. BARBARIAN RAVAGES IN EUROPE, g º º tº . I29 EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. I. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM, • e g is tº g g I 30 2. CHIVALRY, © o tº e * ſº gº . I3 I 3. THE PAPACY AND HIERARCHY, e o e * © I32 4. MONACHISM, ſº º º e ſº wº * • I 33 THE CRUSADES. 1. THE FIRST CRUSADE, is ſº ſº g te e [34 2. THE SECOND CRUSADE, . tº tº e tº sº . I 37 3. THE THIRD CRUSADE, tº & º © tº º I37 4. THE FOURTII CRUSADE, . & & & e . I38 5. THE FIFTH CRUSADE, * tº ſº & dº ſº I39 6. THE SIXTH CRUSADE, . iº dº © g . I39 7. THE SEVENTH CRUSADE, g te tº tº e o I4O 8. CONSEQUENCES OF THE CRUSADES, tº {º o i- • I 4C LATIN STATES. I ITALIAN STATES, g gº * º * {} g I42 I. The Papal States of Rome, , * & t e , I42 2. The Duchy of Milan, . * ſº * & wº I42 COAVTEAVT.S. IX PAGE. 3. The Republic of Venice, º º & gº te • I43 4. The Republic of Genoa, , e e º p º I44 5. The Republic of Florence, º © º * • I44 6. The Kingdom of Maples and Sicily, © © º I45 2, KINGDOM OF FRANCE, . e º º º r . I46 I. Carlovingian Kings of France, . e º o e I46 2. France under House of Capet, º * Q e . I46 I. Reign of Hugh Capet, o e º © e I46 2. Reign of Robert, e º e o e I47 3 Reign of Henry I., . g © e © tº I47 4. Reign of Philip I., º º º º º . I47 5. Reign of Louis VI., º º o e º I48 6. Reign of Louis VII., . e g º tº . I48 7. Reign of Philip Augustus, . © º e º I49 8. Reign of Louis VIII., . o e º e . I 50 9. Reign of Louis IX., or St. Louis, . º º º I 50 Io. Reign of Philip the Hardy, e e Q e . I 50 II. Reign of Philip the Fair, . º e º º I 50 12. Reign of Louis X., ſº e g e e . I 5 I 13. Reign of Philip the Tall, . º © e º I51 14. Reign of Charles the Fair, © º e g . I5 I 3. France under the House of Valois, º e e - I52 1. Reign of Philip of Valois, g º º º . I 52 2. Reign of John the Good; . • * * © º I53 3. Reign of Charles the Wise, e e & e . I54 4. Reign of Charles VI., tº º º e e I54 5. Reign of Charles the Victorious, º ſº o . I 55 6. Reign of Louis XI., e º º e o I56 7. Reign of Charles the Courteous, gº e e . I 57 8. Reign of Louis XII., e e e . . . I58 3. IBERIAN KINGDOMS, ſº e e & * . 158 GERMANIC STATES. 1. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE OF GERMANY., . e e º I59 1. Carlovingian Sovereigns of Germany, e º te . I 59 2. Germany under the Saxon and Frankish Emperors, . e I59 I. Reign of Conrad I., of Franconia, © * e . I 59 2. Reign of Henry the Fowler, o º º º I6c 3. Reign of Otho, the Great, e e Q e . I6c 4. Reign of Otho II., . º te º dº I6o 5. Reign of Otho III., º e e º e -60 6. Reign of Henry the Saint, . o e & I 60 7. Reign of Conrad II., . e e gº º . 160 8. Reign of Henry III., e © o º I61 9. Reign of Henry IV., . tº e cº e . I61 ^ Io. Reign of Henry V., f º e e º I62 II. Reign of Lothaire the Saxon, . tº <> c . I62 COMTEAVTS, 3. Germany under the Hohenstauffens, I. Reign of Conrad III., 2 Reign of Frederic Barbarossa, 3. Reign of Henry VI., 4. Reign of Otho IV. and Philip of 5. Reign of Frederic II., 4. The Interregnum, 5. Emperors of Different Houses, » I. Reign of Rodolph of Hapsburg, 2. Reign of Adolph of Nassau, 3. Reign of Albert of Austria, . 4. Reign of Henry VII., of Luxemburg 5. Reign of Louis the Bavarian and Frederic the Fair 6. Germany under the House of Luxemburg, I. Reign of Charles IV., 2. Reign of Wenceslaus, 3. Reign of Rupert of the Palatinate, 4. Reign of Sigismund, 7. Germany under the House of Hap 1. Reign of Albert II., 2. Reign of Frederic III., . 3. Reign of Maximilian I., HE KINGDOM OF ENGLAND, 1. England under the Saxon and Danis sözerg, A Kings, . I. The Reigns of the Anglo-Saxon Kings, 2. The Danish Kings of England, 3. The Restored Saxon Dynasty, 2. England under the Morman Dynasty, 1. Reign of William the Conqueror, 2. Reign of William Rufus, 3. Reign of Henry I., 4. Reign of Stephen of Blois, . 3. England under the Plantagenets, 1. Reign of Henry II., o . Reign of John, . Reign of Henry III., . Reign of Edward I., . Reign of Edward II., . Reign of Edward III., . Reign of Richard II., ſ . Reign of Richard the Lion-h earted, 4. England under the House of Lancaster, . 1. Reign of Henry IV., 2. Reign of Henry V., 3. Reign of Henry VI., 5. England under the House of York, I. Reign of Edward IV., Swabia, . of Austria, PAGE, I62 I62 I62 163 I64 I64 165 166 I66 I66 I66 167 167 I68 I68 I68 I68 I69 17o 17o 17o 171 171 171 I71 I72 172 I73 I73 I73 I73 I73 I74 I74 I74 I75 I75 176 177 177 I79 18q I8c I81 ISI 183 183 COAVTEAVT.S. 2. Reign of Edward V., º © 3. Reign of Richard III., . • " . e 6. England under the House of Tudor, º 1. Reign of Henry VII., . o te tº 5. ThE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS, e * SLAVONIC STATES. ! THE KINGDOM OF POLAND, 2. THE RUSSIAN OR MUSCOVITE EMPIRE, TARTARIC STATES. 1. THE KINGDOM OF HUNGARY, o o º - 2. THE MOGUL AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES, º º DISCOVERIES. I. IMPORTANT INVENTIONS,. 2. THE SEA-PASSAGE TO INDIA, 3. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA, º I. Spanish Expeditions and Discoveries, . º 2. English and French Expeditions and Discoveries BOOK THIRD–MODERN HISTORY. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 1 AGE of CHARLEs V. AND HENRY VIII., I. The German Reformation, e º 2. The Wars between Charles V. and Francis Z., I. Charles V., Francis I., and Henry VIII., . . First War between Charles V. and Francis I., . Second War between Charles V. and Francis I., Wars against the Infidels, © cº º . Third War between Charles W. and Francis I., . Fourth War between Charles V. and Francis I., . War between Charles V. and Henry II. of France, 3. The Religious War in Germany, © 4. The Reformation in England, e I. Reign of Henry VIII., . o wº º 2. Reign of Edward VI., 3. Reign of Mary, . © & te . The Reformation in the Scandinavian Kingdoms, . The Society of Şesuits, º o e . Spanish Conquests in America, . Persia and India, . e tº : 7 : PAGE. I84 . I84 185 . I85 185 186 I88 189 I90 I92 I93 • I93 I93 • I95 I99 I99 2O2 2O2 • 202 2O3 2O4 2O5 2O5 2O6 2O6 209 • 209 2II , 2I2 2I 3 • 2 I3 2I4 • 215 xii * COAVTEAVTS. 2. AGE OF PHILIP II. AND ELIZABETH, . I. Spain and Portugal, & º e 2. The War of Independence in the Netherlands, . 3. Civil and Religious Wars in France, I. Reign of Henry II., te 2. Reign of Francis II., . º * > 3. Reign of Charles IX., º & º 4. Reign of Henry III., . cº gº 5. House of Bourbon–Reign of Henry IV., 4. Elizabeth of England and Mary of Scotland, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I. THE THIRTY YEARs' WAR, I. Causes and Origin of the War, 2. Palatine Period of the War, {º 3. Danish Period of the War, . e e 4. Swedish Period of the War, 5. French Period of the War, 2. THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION, . tº I. England under the House of Stuart, e I. Reign of James I., . tº • e 2. Reign of Charles I., 3. The Civil War, & o 2. The Commonwealth of England, tº 3. The Restored House of Stuart, . te e I. Reign of Charles II., 2. Reign of James II., . e © * 3. The Revolution of 1688, º 4. Reign of William and Mary, & o 3. THE WARS OF LOUIS XIV., º I. France under Richelieu and Mazarin, . e I. Richelieu’s Administration, 2. Mazarin’s Administration, . e ge 2. The Government and Wars of Louis XIV., 1. Louis XIV., and his War with Spain, o 2. The War with Holland, 3. Turkish Invasion of Austria, 4. Persecution of the Huguenots, g 5. The War of the League of Augsburg, o 4, THE ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES, I. Virginia, te ſº $º tº I. Virginia under the London Company, 2. Virginia a Royal Province, . º g 2. Massachusetts, º te 1. The Plymouth Colony, * tº 2. The Massachusetts Bay Colony, PAGE 2I 5 2I5 216 218 218 218 219 22O 22I 222 225 * 225 227 227 229 23.I 232 232 232 234 235 24O 244 244 246 . 24.7 248 249 249 249 249 25O 250 25 I 252 253 254 255 255 255 256 257 257 258 COAVZZAVZ.S. xiii PAGE. 3. New York, g ſº iº e * > iº s 259 1. The Dutch Colony of New Netherland, te c . 259 2. The English Province of New York, © te 26c 4. New Hampshire, © º g º º * . 261 5. Maryland, & * tº ſº g cº e 261 6. Connecticut, . g tº tº © tº tº . 262 7. Æhode Zºland, . g tº & * e © 263 8. Delaware, . g tº tº © º tº . 264 9. AWorth and South Carolina, c ſº ſº tº o 264 I, North Carolina, . tº © © g g . 264 2. South Carolina, tº e tº tº tº e 265 Io. Mew jersey, . & e º g tº Q . 266 II. Pennsylvania, . tº tº * > * tº º 266 I2. Georgia, e ſº sº o g e e . 267 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. I. THE AGE OF PETER THE GREAT AND CHARLES VI., * G . 268 I. The War of the Spanish Succession, . * e º 268 I. Causes and Origin of the War, c e * . 268 2. Events of I702 and I703, . º tº ſe º 269 3. Events of I704, tº cº gº tº tº . 269 4. Events of I705, g * * º g o tº 27O 5. Events of 1706, ū g & tº G . 270 6. Events of 1707, & iº wº g º tº 27I 7. Events of 1708, tº ſº. e º gº * > . 27 I 8. Events of I709, tº • * * g * º 271 9. Events of I7 Io, tº tº iº & e . 27.I Io. Events of 171 I, tº te e g © sº 272 II. Events of I712, 1713, and I714, tº tº e . 272 2. The Northern War, wº © tº * {º * > 273 3. General Affairs of Europe, . º ſº g º . 278 4. Persia and India, * tº tº ſº º 28I 2, THE AGE OF FREDERIC THE GREAT AND CATHARINE II., e . 281 I. The War of the Austrian Succession, . wº c tº 281 I. Causes and Origin of the War, . tº ge Q . 281 2. Events of 1741, tº e tº º º tº 282 3. Events of I742, g º & tº e . 283 4. Events of I743, & e * tº ū e 283 5. Events of 1744, tº e g * º • 284 6. Events of I745, 1746, 1747, and 1748, • º º 284 2. The Seven Years' War, $ ſº o © o . 286 I. Causes and Origin of the War, te © & sº 286 2. Events of 1756, g º o * . tº . 287 3. Events of 1757, e {º tº e wº ſº 287 4. Events of 1758, º tº tº º Ç . 289 5. Events of 1759, & & & tº * > g 29O 6. Events of 1760, we º tº * e . 29I 7. Events of 1761, 1762, and 1763, . o g gº 292 XIV COAVTEAVTS. 3. The Partitions of Poland and Russo-Turkish Wars, 4. General Affairs of Europe, e e e 5. Conquests of the English East-India Company, • 3. THE ANGLO-FRENCH Colon[AL WARs, g e I. French Settlements in North America, © º 2. King William's War, . o 3. Queen Anne's War, e º º o 4. King George's War, ſº e tº te 5. The French and Zmedian War, e e e I. Causes and Origin of the War, º g 2. Events of I754, º t o 3. Events of 1755, e º º o 4. Events of 1756, º © º tº 5. Events of 1757, O º º o 6. Events of 1758, e tº e tº 7. Events of 1759, e e e º 8. Events of 1760, tº & ſº º 9. Events of 1761, 1762, 1763, e * e 6. The War of the American Revolution, e º 4. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, . • e o I. Causes of the Revolution, e º 2. The Time of the French Mational Assembly, I. Events of 1789, º º 2. Events of 1790 and 1791, . tº e 3. The Period of the French Zegislative Assembly, I. Events of 1792, © © e 4. The French Republic under the Mational Convention, I. Events of 1792, e e tº 2. Events of I793, e & e º 3. Events of 1794, 4. Events of I795, e e 5. 7%e AErench A'epublic under the Directory, I. Events of 1796, e º e 2. Events of 1797, º o e 3. Events of 1798, c + - 4. Events of 1799, e º º º NINETEENTH CENTURY. I THE GOVERNMENT AND WARS OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, 1. Napoleon, First Consul of the French Republic, I. Events of 18oo, 2. Events of 1801, © © e º 3. Events of 1802, e e e º 4. Events of 1803, o • º e 5. Events of 1804, e 2. Mapoleon, Emperor of the French, º I. Events of 1804, . º º o e PAGE. 293 296 298 300 3OO 3OI 3Ol 3O2 3O2 3O2 3O3 3O3 3O4. 304 305 305 . 306 306 3O7 3O9 309 3I2 3I2 315 316 316 3I9 3I9 . 32O 323 • 324 325 • 325 326 327 329 • 334 33I 331 333 333 334 335 335 335 COAVZZAVZ.S. XV . Events of 1806, . Events of 1808, e º Events of 181o, dº & . Events of 1811, 49 9. Events of 1812, Io. Events of 1813, II. Events of 1814, ſo i 3. The Restored Bourbons and the Hundred Days, 2. POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE, e 1. Condition of Europe after Bonaparte's Fall, I. The Holy Alliance, º 2. The Royalist Reaction in France, 3. The Social Struggle in England, 2. European Revolutions of 182O and 1821, I. The Revolution in Spain, 2. The Revolution in Portugal, -> 3. The Revolution in Naples, 4. The Revolution in Piedmont, 3. The Greek Revolution, I. Events of 1821, . Events of 1822, . Events of 1824 and 1825, Events of 1826, . Events of 1827, . Events of 1828, . Events of 1829, e º . Events of 1831, 1832, and 1833, 4 AEuropean Revolutions of 1830 and 1831, 1. The French Revolution of 1830, 2. The Belgian Revolution, e . Events of 1805, & º . . Events of 1807, o º ſº . Events of 1809, º o o . Events of 1823, © © º 3. The Polish Insurrection of 1830 and 1831, 4. Insurrections in Germany and Italy, . English Reforms, o © . The Spanish Civil War of 1833–39, Dissensions in Turko-Egyptian Empire, . Growth of the Anglo-Indian AEmpire, . European Revolutions of 1848 and 1849, 1. The French Revolution of 1848, : 2. Revolutions in Germany, Austria, and Prussia, 3. Revolutions in Italy, . & & 4. The Hungarian Rebellion of 1848, 1849, 3. THE LATEST WARS AND REvolutions, I. The Coup d’Etat of Louis Napoleon, 374 PAGE. 335 • 336 337 • 339 34O • 341 342 342 346 350 • 353 353 • 353 353 • 354 355 • 355 356 356 357 • 357 357 358 358 359 359 • 359 359 . 360 360 360 360 . 363 364 . 365 366 367 368 368 370 37o 378 380 384 384 xvi COMWTEM 7.S. PAGE 2. The Crimean War, ſº cº º º ſº . 386 3. The Sepoy Mutiny in British India, . & & o 389 4. Z%e Italian War, . e º © º 39 I 5. The Zalian Revolution of 1860 and 1861, tº 394 6. The Greek Revolution of 1862, º º © * 394 7. The Polish Insurrection of 1862, 1863, and 1864, 395 8. AEussian Serf Emancipation, ſº o o t 395 9. The Schleswig-Holstein War of 1864, . * º © 396 Io. The Sezezz Weeks’ War, e 397 II. English Reforms, º -> e * 4. 399 12. 7%e Spanish Revolution of 1868, . º © 4OO 13. The Franco-German War, e 4OI 14. The Italian Revolution of 1870, . 4I2 15. The French Civil War of 1871, te 4. I4 16. The Spanish Revolution of 1873, . tº © 42I 17. Æecent Affairs of European Nations, . e 2 43O 4. THE SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, e º º 433 I. The Spanish American War of Independence, . © 433 I. Causes of the Spanish American Revolution, 433 2. The Revolution in Mexico, º g e & 434 3. The Revolution in Colombia, 435 4. The Revolution in La Plata, 438 5. The Revolution in Bolivia, º tº º 438 6. The Revolution in Chili, . e e & 439 7. The Revolution in Peru, 439 2. South America since the Revolution, 44O 3. The Republic of the United States of Mexico, 44I I. The Administration of General Victoria, . º 44. I 2. Administrations of Guerrera, Bustamente, and Pedraza, 442 3. First Presidency and Dictatorship of Santa Anna—The Texan Revolution, º e e º º 443 4. Bustamente's Second Administration, . tº 444 5. Santa Anna’s Second Presidency and Dictatorship, . 445 6. Administrations of Herrera, Paredes, and Santa Anna—The War with the United States, tº tº e e . 446 7. Administrations of Herrera, Arista, Santa Anna, Alvarez, Com- onfort, and Zuloaga, º º º e • 447 8. The Administration of Benito Juarez—The French Invasion and the Emperor Maximilian, 448 HISTORY OF THE FIRST ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. I. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, 455 I. Causes of the Revolution, º 3. º tº ge • 455 2. The War of American Independence, . º º o 460 1. Events of 1775, . 460 2. Events of 1776, º tº º º º 462 COAV7'EAVTS. xvii PAGE. 3. Events of 1777, ſº g º e tº • 465 4. Events of 1778, & e º © & º 468 5. Events of 1779, e © c o • * . 469 6. Events of 1780, o e e e Q º 47 I 7. Events of 1781, º e º e {º , 472 8. Events of 1782 and 1783, . e © & © 475 3. The Constitution of the United States, e e º • 475 I. Formation of the Constitution, º ge º º 475 2. The Constitution, e º o o g . 476 3. Adoption of the Constitution, © º º º 477 2. THE GROWING AMERICAN UNION, & º tº tº . 478 I. Washington’s Administration, . º º º 478 2. John Adams's Administration, Gº tº © º . 480 3. Jefferson’s Administration, . o º o * 481 4. Madison's Administration, e º e o , 483 I. The War with Great Britain—Events of 1812, cº º 484 2. Events of 1813, dº o e e º . 485 3. Events of 1814 and 1815, . e -> º o 488 5. Morazoe's Administration, . & ſº © e - 49 I 6. John Quincy Adams's Administration, º º º 493 7. Jackson’s Administration, . e º º tº - 493 8. Van Burenz’s Administration, . º º & © 495 9. Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations, . º º . 496 Io. Polk's Administration, . * tº º º º º 497 I. The War with Mexico, . tº o e & # 498 , SLAVERY AGITATION AND THE CIVIL WAR, . © º e 500 I. Taylor's and Fillmore’s Administrations, . © º • 500 2. Pierce's Administration, º º © º • 501 3. Auchanan’s Administration, te e e º • 502 A. J.incoln’s Administration, º & º © © 505 I. The Civil War—Events of 1861, º s * > • 505 2. Events of 1862, e e º O e º 508 3. Events of 1863, * tº tº o Q • 5 I3 4. Events of 1864, º º e ſº o tº 516 5. Events of 1865, e de * ſº tº . . 52O 5. Johnson’s Administration, tº o º © e 522 6. Grant’s Administration, e e e e e • 524 THE NEW STATES, tº e e Q © º © 529 A IIISTORICAL RETROSPECT, e o º e º , 532 THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, e e º º º 538 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, . º e * tº & - 544 ALPHABETICAL INDEX AND PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY, o o 569 2 AR M S OF THE NATION S. E C U A D C R . GR. B. R ITA N. A U S T R A. A R M S OF THE NAT I O N S. L- U E E C K . FRAN K FORT. s Ax Q by Y. Sw IT 7 ER LAN. D. D E N MAR K . H. O. L.L.A. N. D. - M A LTA . I O N A N s LEs. J A PA. N. . FLAGS OF THE NATIONS. Lºn ITED STATES. Sºw ITZ E R LAN D. PER G A . - PER U, MERCH. PARA GuAY, MERCH. BAN DOM N GO, MERCH. HAWAIIAN ISL. MERCH. TUR KEY, MAN orwar: M Exito, M. E.R CH. PORTUGAL, ROY PORTUGAL, Ens-GN. HAYTI. Ll E. E. R.I.A. | MOROCCO. TRIPOLI.TUNHS Hawaii AN ISL. R.O.Y. GREECE, MERCH. TUR KEY, MERCH. tun I S. MAN or WAR. FL. A C S OF THE NAT I O N S. ARGENT in E REP. BRAZIL., in PERIAL. B E LGl U M , MERCH. BO Livi A. -º-Y Pt. Ecua Do R. FRANCE. GERMANY. MERCH. DEN MARK, Roy. DEN MARK, MERCH. Swed E. N., MERCH. Norway, M. ERCH. METHERLANDS, Roy. ºf- net HERLAnD5, Ension. Russia , 1 MP. Russia. MERCH. H B O OK. I. ANCIENT HISTORY. THE EARLIESTAGES. ANTEDILUVIAN HISTORY. The Creation—The Antediluvians.—Aſter God had created the heaven ... and the earth; had separated the land from the water; and had created the beasts of the field, the fowl of the air, and the fish of the sea; and had clothed the earth with verdure and vegetation, he created man in his own image, and endowed him with the giſts of reason and speech, to be the ruler of the world. The first pair, Adam and Eve, were placed in the beautiful Garden of Eden, on the River Euphrates, in Mesopotamia, where they remained until, contrary to the command of the Creator, they ate of the ſorbidden fruit, and thus lost their purity and childlike innocence. Their eldest son, Cain, killed his brother Abel, and became “a fugitive and vagabond in the earth.” . In the course of time, the descendants of Adam and Eve became very numerous. All that we know of the history of the Antediluvians, or the people who lived beſore the Deluge, is contained in the first six chapters of the book of Genesis. The Deluge.—In the course of many centuries after the Creation, mankind grew so extremely wicked, that the Almighty determined to destroy, by a great deluge of water, every human being that dwelt on the face of the earth, with the exception of Noah and his wife, and his three sons and their wives, who accord- ingly saved themselves during the Deluge by having gone into the Ark which Noah had built by direction of the Lord. When the waters, which aſter a rain of forty days and ſorty nights had covered the face of the earth, had subsided, the Ark rested on a loſty mountain in Armenia, called Ararat. At length Noah and those that were with him came forth from the Ark, and their descendants multi- plied. THE DISPERSION OF MANKIND. The Tower of Babel—The Confusion of Tongues.—In the course of more than a century aſter the Deluge, the descendants of Noah became very numerous, and inhabited a region watered by the Euphrates, and known as the “Land of Shinar.” In this country they commenced building a city, and also the great Tower of Babel, whose top, they boasted, should “reach to heaven.” But after the tower had been built to a considerable height, the Lord suddenly confounded the language of the presumptuous children of men, whereupon they abandoned their foolish and wicked attempt and dispersed over the face of the earth, dividing into many tribes and nations, each having a language peculiar to itself. This is known as the “Confusion of Tongues.” (at ) 22 4 AVCAEAV7' HASTOA' V. Noah and his three sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth.-After the dis. persion of mankind from the Tower of Babel, Noah is supposed to have traveled eastward and founded China. Noah's three sons were Ham, Shem, and Japheth. Ham is thought to have journeyed to Africa, which became peopled with his descendants; while Shem remained in Asia, where his descendants for a long time continued to inhabit the Land of Shinar; and Japheth is believed to have peopled Asia Minor and Northern Asia, and thence his descendants spread over Europe. ORIENTAL NATIONS. CHINA. Antiquity and Civilization of China.-China ranks as the oldest nation on the face of the earth. Its authentic history dates back to a period of four thousand years from the present time. It is supposed to have been founded by Noah soon after the dispersion of mankind from the Tower of Babel. The Chinese of ancient times had attained to a considerable degree of civilization, but when they had reached a certain point they made no further progress, and have remained in nearly the same condition up to the present time. The ancient Chinese knew nothing of Egypt, Greece, Rome, or the great nations of western Asia. Confucius.-Chinese annals are very obscure until the time of Confucius, who lived about five hundred years before Christ. Confucius was the most famous character that China has ever produced. His virtues were as great as his talents and learning. For the purpose of reforming the people, he traveled about the country, lecturing to them, and instructing them on the benefit of virtue and morality, and in a short time he had numerous disciples and converts, who followed his precepts. His great works on moral philosophy, which have been held in great reverence by the Chinese up to the present time, teach the people to be virtuous and orderly, and to do unto others as they would that others should do unto them, and define the duties of the emperor to his people, and also the duties of the people to their emperor. Building of the Great Wall.—About three centuries after the time of Con- fucius, and about two centuries before Christ, a great warrior, called Chi-hoang-ti, was emperor of China. For the purpose of putting a stop to the inroads of the Tartars into the Chinese territories, Chi-hoang-ti caused the Great Wall, fifteen hundred miles in length, to be erected on the northern frontiers of his dominions, This wall is now mostly in ruins. It is said that after the Great Wall had beck completed, Chi-hoang-ti entertained the desire of being regarded by future genera. tions as the founder of the great Chinese monarchy, and that for this purpose he ordered all historical and other writings to be destroyed, so that nothing might thereafter be known of Chinese history previous to his time. Some learned men OR/EAVTAZ AVA 77 OA/S. 23 were punished with death for attempting to hide some valuable books. Some of the works of Confucius and other eminent writers were, however, concealed, and after the death of the vain-glorious emperor, they were taken from their places of concealment. From the time of Chi-hoang-ti to the present, many dynasties have occupied the throne of China. INDIA. Antiquity of Hindoo Civilization—Hindoostan and the Deccan.——India or Hindoostan was one of the most ancient seats of civilization. India was not like China, united into a single monarchy, but it was divided into numerous petty states, of which, but very little is known. The period of the settlement of the Hindoos in India is not known. That portion of India north of the Vindyha mountains was called Hindoostan, while that part of the country south of those mountains was named Deccan. The Brahmins.—It is supposed that the first form of government that existed in India was that of a powerful priesthood, and that the first code of laws was compiled by priests or Brahmins, who were celebrated for their learning, and who were held in great reverence by all classes of Hindoos. Their laws were drawn from the Vedas or sacred writings. Hindoo Castes.—According to the Brahminical code, the Hindoos, or Indians, were divided into four distinct classes or castes. The members of each caste were not allowed to intermarry or associate with those of another caste. This rule has been strictly adhered to by the Hindoos up to the present time. The first caste was that of the priests or Brahmins, who possessed the chief power in political as well as religious affairs, and who were held in greater respect and veneration than the princes. The second caste was the warrior class, to which the princes belonged. The third caste was composed of the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and mechanics. The fourth caste was that of the servants and laborers. Every man was obliged to pursue the occupation of his father, and it was considered worse than death to violate any of the rules of caste. Hindoo Religion—Brahma and Buddha.-The Hindoos worshiped one Supreme deity known as Brahma, whom they regarded as Creator. The two gods, Siva, the Preserver, and Vishnu, the Destroyer, were reverenced as forms of the chief deity. The Hindoos also made the sun, moon, and stars objects of adoration. The Brahmins taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. The Brahminical religion was reformed by Buddha, who appeared in India about five centuries before Christ. Buddha labored with great zeal to lessen the power of the priesthood, and to abolish the distinctions of caste. Hindoo Literature and Art—Productions and Trade.—The Hindoos made great advancement in literature, and many of their works, all of which are written in the sacred and now obsolete Sanscrit language, are about 3,000 years old. The ruins of stately temples and grottoes bear witness to the degree of artistic skill posessed by the Hindoos. The great abundance of the natural and artificial productions of India has always kept that country the grand centre and emporium of the maritime and caravan trade, and has also made it a constant prey to foreign invasion and conquest. 24 ORIEAVTAZ AVA 7TWOAVS. ASSYRIA AND BAEYLONIA. Assyria and Babylonia or Chaldea—Founding of Nineveh.-Among the most ancient, the most civilized, and the most powerful nations of the ancient world, were Assyria and Babylonia or Chaldea. Ashur, one of the sons of Shem, is regarded by many as the founder of the Assyrian empire, and also of its capital, She famed city of Nineveh. This great and magnificent city, which is supposed to have been situated on the east bank of the river Tigris, was surrounded by a waii IOO feet high, flanked with 1,500 towers, each 200 feet high. Nineveh is believed to have had, at one time, a population of about 800,000 souls. Founding of Babylon by Nimrod.—The great city of Babylon, which stood on both sides of the river Euphrates, was the capital of the Babylonian Empire, and it far surpassed Nineveh in size, power, and magnificence. The walls of Babylon were 350 feet high and 87 feel thick, flanked with high towers, and pierced with IOO gates of brass. Babylon was founded by Nimrod, “the mighty hunter before the Lord,” a grandson of Ham. There are some who also regard Nimrod as the founder of Nineveh. After his death, Nimrod was deified for his great actions, and worshiped as “Belus,” or “Baal.” Reign of Ninus.--Some consider Ninus as the son and successor of Nimrod, Assyria and Babylonia forming one great empire; while others regard Ninus as an Assyrian king, who conquered Chaldea and united it with Assyria more than four centuries after the time of Nimrod. Conquests of Queen Semiramis.-Queen Semiramis, the wife and successor of Ninus, is said to have greatly extended the Assyrian empire by conquest, carrying her victorious arms as far as the borders of India on the east, and to the deserts of Central Africa on the west. This famous queen adorned Babylon with magnificent works, such as the hanging gardens, and she devoted some attention to the internal improvement of her extensive dominions. Decline and Fall of the First Assyrian Empire.—The Assyrian empire rapidly declined under the weak successors of Semiramis; and in the year 888 B.C., the governor of the Medes rebelled against the Assyrian king, Sardanapalus. Being besieged in Nineveh by his rebellious subject, and unable to deſend his capital with success, Sardanapalus set fire to his palace and perished with it in the flames. Thus fell the first Assyrian empire. (B. C. 888.) The Second Assyrian Empire—Destruction of Nineveh.-More than a century after the fall of the first Assyrian empire, Assyria again became a powerful and extensive empire under such warlike kings as Shalmanezar and Sennacherib, who are celebrated for their wars against the Israelites. The second Assyrian empire, like the first, was of short duration. Its overthrow took place in the year 606 .B. C., when the united armies of the Medes and the Chaldeans took and destroyed the great city of Nineveh. Rise of the Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar.—The Babylon lan empire, which was erected on the ruins of the great Assyrian monarchy, acquired great power under the warlike Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered Jerusalem and carried the Jews into the seventy years' Babylonian captivity, and who also subjected the Phyenician kingdom of Tyre to the Babylonian dominion. &ºººº&&№jº-• Sae^Ss ASSYRIAN WAR CHARIOT N WAR CHARIOT EGYPTi OAQ ZEAV ZAZ AVA 7TWOAWS. 25 conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great of Persia.-The Babylonian empire was overthrown by the conquering Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, who, in the year 538 B. C., took Babylon and caused the last Persian king, Belshazzar, who was at the time feasting with his nobles, to be put to death. The Babylonians were then subjected to the sway of the Persians. (B. C. 538.) EGYPT. Divisions of Ancient Egypt—Misraim or Menes.—The ruins and monil- ments of ancient civilization found in Egypt render that country one of the Imost interesting on the globe. The country is kept fertile by the annual inundations of the Nile, occasioned by the heavy rains in the highlands of Abyssinia. Egypt was anciently divided into three great divisions;–namely: Upper Egypt, Middle Egypt, and Lower Egypt. Misraim, or Menes, a son of Ham, is regarded by many as the founder of the ancient Egyptian nation, and to have been its first king; while others believe Menes and Misraim to have been different characters, and that Menes flourished about two centuries after the time of Misraim. The Great Cities of Memphis and Thebes.—The capital of Middle Egypt, or Heptanomis, was Memphis, the City of the Pharaohs, the founding of which is ascribed to the first Egyptian king, Menes. This great city was located on the west bank of the Nile, in the region containing the most splendid of the pyramids, which extend for a distance of seventy miles on the west side of the Nile. Among the ruins of Memphis are those of the Labyrinth, a building consisting of a number of intricate passages communicating with each other. The capital of Upper Egypt, or the Thebais, was the magnificent city of Thebes, the founding of which is also attributed to Menes by some writers, while others think that Thebes was built many centuries later. Thebes is said to have extended over 23 miles, and to have had IOO gates. Its immense size and great splendor are still attested by the ruins of magnificent temples, splendid palaces, colossal statues, obelisks, sphinxes, the tombs of kings hewn in the solid rock, and the subterranean catacombs. The ruins of Thebes extend for seven miles along both banks of the Nile. Egyptian Castes, Religion, Manufactures, Commerce, and Arts.-The ancient Egyptians were a brown race, and were divided into seven distinct classes or castes. The most respected of these castes were the priests and the warriors; next the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and sailors; while the shepherds, who composed the lowest caste, were greatly despised. The Egyptian religion was a horrible superstition, the lower classes of people worshiping different kinds of animals and idols. The Egyptians showed much skill and dexterity in the practice of the useful arts, their principal branches of manufacture being the weav ing of cotton and linen cloth, and working in copper and brass. Agriculture also received much attention. An extensive commerce was carried on with other coun. tries, gold, ivory, ebony, skins, and slaves being brought from Ethiopia, incense from Arabia, and spices from India; and in exchange for these articles, grain and cloth were exported; but as the Egyptians had not attained much skill in the art of ship-building, their trade was carried on principally by the Greek and Persian merchants. The Egyptians also made a great degree of progress in the fine arts, such as music, painting, sculpture, and architecture. The ruins of magnificent 26 AAVC/EAVZ HYSTOA Y. columns and grand edifices fully testify to the degree of skill attained by this great people in architecture. Conquests of King Sesostris.-The most renowned king of Egypt was Sesos, tris, who made extensive conquests in Asia and Africa. In the countries which he subdued, Sesostris caused monuments to be erected bearing the inscription, “Sesos- tris, King of Kings, and Lord of Lords, has conquered this territory by the power $f his arms.” It is not known with certainty at what period this great king lived. Moeris and Cheops.-The most famous of Egyptian kings after Sesostris were Moeris and Cheops. Moeris caused an immense lake to be constructed to regulate the inundations of the Nile. Cheops is noted as the builder of the largest of the pyramids, which covers eleven acres of ground and is 480 feet high, and on which Ioo,000 men are said to have been employed for forty years. Psammeticus and the Migration to Ethiopia.-Psammeticus, who reigned over Egypt about seven centuries before Christ, invited Greek soldiers and settlers into his kingdom for the purpose of weakening the power of the priesthood and strengthening the authority of the monarch, in consequence of which measure 240,000 Egyptians left their country and settled in Ethiopia, now Nubia. Necho and Psammenitus—conquest of Egypt by the Persians.—Necho, who was king of Egypt about 600 years before Christ, is noted as the founder of the Egyptian naval and maritime power. The last of the Pharaohs, or native kings of Egypt, was Psammenitus, who was defeated in the bloody battle of Pelusium by the victorious Cambyses, king of Persia, who treated the Egyptians with great cruelty and put their unfortunate monarch to a violent death. (B.C. 525.) The battle of Pelusium was the death-blow to Egyptian independence; and the land of the Pharaohs became a province of the great Persian empire, and so remained until it was subdued by the famous Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great. Since the loss of its ancient independence, Egypt has been successively subject to the sway of the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the Saracens, the Mamelukes, and the Turks, the last of whom still hold the country tributary. PHOENICIA. Position and Character of the Phoenician Territory.—Phoenicia was the name applied to a narrow strip of territory bordered on the east by the mountains of Lebanon, and on the west by the Mediterranean sea. The surface of the country was sandy and hilly, and not adapted to agriculture; but the coasts abounded with good harbors, and the cedars of Lebanon supplied material in great abundance for ship-building. The Phoenicians therefore devoted their whole attention to manufac- tures and commerce; and at a very early period they became the greatest manufac- turing, commercial, and maritime people of antiquity. Phoenician States and Colonies.—The Phoenician people were not united ander one government, but each Phoenician city, with the territory adjacent to it, constituted a small independent state with an hereditary sovereign at its head, the political power being shared with the priests and the nobles. The Phoenician worship of Moloch was attended with horrible human sacrifices, and that of Baal with disgraceful ceremonies. Phoenician colonies were established on the Medi. OA’MEAV7.4 Z MA 7TWOM.S. 27 terranean islands of Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia, on the Southern shores of Spain, and on the northern coast of Africa. The most celebrated of the Phoenician colonial establishments were Gades, now Cadiz, in Southern Spain, the oldest city in Europe; and Carthage, in Northern Africa, a commercial city which was founded in the year 880 B.C., by the Tyrians, under the conduct of Queen Dido, and the fame of which soon eclipsed that of the mother country. Phoenician Manufactures, Navigation and Commerce.—The Phoenicianº made some important discoveries, such as glass, the art of dyeing purple, and writing by means of letters: they were universally noted for their skill in casting metals, weaving, and architecture; and their manufactures of glass and linen, articles of gold, silver, ivory, and bronze, perfumes and purple dye were sources 2f great national wealth. Phoenician vessels not only navigated the Mediterranean sea for the purpose of trafficking in their own productions and in those of the remote East, namely spices, frankincense, oil, wine, corn, and slaves;–but they even passed beyond the Pillars of Hercules and procured tin from the mines of Cornwall, in Britain, and traded with the people on the shores of the Baltic sea. The Phoeni- cians also had commercial intercourse with the Arabs and the Hindoos, and it is said that under the auspices of Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, a Phoenician fleet, in a voyage of three years, doubled the Cape of Good Hope. Tyre and Sidon—Decline and Fall of the Phoenician States.—The leading Phoenician cities were Tyre and Sidon. These two kingdoms for a long time defended themselves successfully against the attempts of other nations to subdue them; but in the eighth century before Christ, Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, conquered Sidon, and Tyre also after a long siege, and compelled the Phoenicians to pay tribute. In the year 587 B.C., the famous Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar, besieged and took Tyre and subdued Phoenicia. When, in the year 538 B. C., Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, extended his sway over Western Asia, both Tyre and Sidon fell into his power, and Phoenicia became a Persian province. About the year 350 B.C., Sidon, heading a rebellion of the Phoenician states, attempted to throw off the yoke of Persian supremacy; and when in consequence of this revolt, the king of Persia ordered the most prominent of the inhabitants of Sidon to be put to death, the Sidonians set fire to their city, and perished with it in the flames. Sidon was afterwards rebuilt. In the year 332 B.C., Tyre was taken and destroyed after a seven months' siege by the illustrious Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great. With the fall of Tyre and the founding of the great com- mercial city of Alexandria, in Egypt, Phoenician commerce and maritime glory passed away forever. THE HEBREWS OR ISRAELITES. THE PATRIARCHS. Abraham.—Abraham, a Chaldean shepherd, who remained faithful to the Lord while nearly the whole of mankind were sunk in idolatry, is regarded as the founder of that chosen race of God, the Hebrews or Israelites. At the command of Jehovah, Abraham left his pasture lands on the Euphrates, and, taking with him nis herds, settled with his servants and his brother's son, Lot, in the “promised 28 ORIENTAL MATIONS. land” of Canaan (afterwards called Palestine), where they continued their pastoral life, and where they received from the native inhabitants the name “Hebrews,” meaning, “strangers from the other side.” Isaac.—Isaac, the son of Abraham and Sarah, continued the chosen race, while Ishmael, Abraham's son with Hagar, became the progenitor of the Arabs. Isaac took for his wiſe Rebecca, with whom he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. Jacob.-Jacob, the younger Son of Isaac, persuaded his brother Esau to sell his birthright for a mess of pottage. Jacob also obtained a blessing which his father had intended to bestow on Esau, and was declared the chief of the Hebrew race, Jacob had twelve sons, the descendants of each of which formed a distinct tribe mong the Israelites, as the Hebrews were afterwards called, from Jacob's surname, Israel. THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT. Joseph sold into Egypt—Settlement of Jacob in Egypt.—As Jacob bestowed his chief favor on Joseph, his son with Rachael, his other sons, moved with envy, sold their brother as a bond-slave to some merchants who took him to Egypt. Joseph remained faithful to God and was finally rewarded for his integrity. He at length obtained the favor of Pharaoh, as the king of Egypt was called, was made ruler over Egypt, and for his instrumentality in saving the land from famine, he was permitted by Pharaoh to invite his father and his brethren into Egypt. Jacob and his family then settled in the “Land of Goshen,” as that part of Egypt on the east side of the Lower Nile was called. The Israelites Oppressed in Egypt—Moses.—After the death of Joseph, other Egpytian kings “who knew not Joseph,” treated the Children of Israel with cruelty and oppression, and held them in bondage for two centuries. At length the king of Egypt gave orders that all the Hebrew male children should be thrown into the Nile the instant that they were born; but one of them was saved by the mercy of the king's daughter, who found the child in an ark of bulrushes by the side of the river, and who named him Moses, because she drew him out of the water, and brought him up as her own son. At the age of forty years, Moses was obliged to flee for his life to the deserts of Arabia, for slaying an Egyptian whom he had seen ill-treating a Hebrew. $ tº THE EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES. The Ten Plagues—Destruction of Pharaoh’s Host in the Red Sea.— At length Moses was inspired with the high purpose of delivering his people ſrom the Egyptian bondage. But Pharaoh did not agree to permit the Israelites to depart from Egypt until struck with fear and terror aſter the Ten Plagues had been inflicted upon the land. After the Hebrews, led by Moses and his brother Aaron, had left the shores of Egypt, Pharaoh endeavored to bring then back by force; but the pursuing hosts of the Egyptian king were destroyed in the Red Sea. The Wandering in the Wilderness—The Ten Commandments.-For forty years, the discontented Israelites, led by Moses and Aaron, wandered in the Wilderness in the northwestern part of Arabia. During this time the Ten Commandments were delivered to Moses on Mount Sinai. These and other laws ORIEAV ZAZ, MA 77OM.S. 29 were preserved in the Ark of the Covenant. According to the arrangement of Moses, Jehovah was king, and in His name the elders of the tribes conducted the government. The affairs of religion were watched over by the High Priest and the Levites. The sacrifices and feasts of the Passover, Pentecost, and the Taber- nacles constituted the bond between the Lord and His chosen people. Instead of the nomadic life, Moses determined upon agriculture as the chief occupation of the Hebrews. Death of Moses—Joshua and the Settlement in the Promised Land.-- Moses did not live to lead his people into the Promised Land. After appointing Joshua as his successor, the great Hebrew lawgiver gazed from Mount Nebo upon the magnificent country watered by the River Jordan, and then disappeared from among the living. The Children of Israel were faithful to Jehovah all the days of Joshua, under whose leadership they at last reached the Promised Land of Canaan. After subduing the Amorites and other tribes, a distribution by lot took place, by which the conquered territory was divided among the Twelve Tribes of the Hebrew nation. THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES. The Rule of the Judges—Idolatry of the Israelites.—During the period from the death of Joshua to the accession of Saul as the first king over Israel, the Hebrew nation was ruled by Judges. During this period the Children of Israel frequently plunged into idolatry, for which apostasy they suffered heavy punishments by being delivered into power of their enemies; but when they again turned to the God who by His servant Moses had brought them safely out of Egypt, they were delivered from the oppressive yoke of foreign domination by heroic leaders whom the Lord had appointed for the purpose. Deliverance of the Israelites by Othniel, Ehud, Deborah and Barak.-- First the Israelites were conquered by the king of Mesopotamia, from whose yoke they were delivered by Othniel, whom the Lord had chosen as their leader. After- wards they were oppressed by the king of Moab, but were at length liberated by the valor of Ehud. Again the Children of Israel offended the Lord by their sin- fulness and idolatry and were given into the power of Jabin, king of Canaan, whose tyrannical yoke they had borne for twenty years when the Lord chose the prophetess Deborah and Barak, her general, to liberate them. The Canaanites were routed with heavy loss and their general Sisera was killed by Jael, to whose tent he had fled for safety. Overthrow of the Midianites by Gideon.—The Israelites again abandoned the worship of Jehovah, and were in consequence duly punished by being subdued and oppressed by the Midianites; but the prophet Gideon, whom the Lord had appointed to liberate His people, taking with him a band of three hundred men, made a night attack on the immense host of the Midianites, who, struck with terror and consternation, turned their weapons against each other, and left 120,000 of their number dead on the field, only 15,000 escaping. Liberation of the Israelites by Jephthah and Samson.—The Children of Israel again ſell into idolatry, for which the Lord delivered them to the Philistines and Ammonites, from whose supremacy they were liberated by the heroism of 3o AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. Jephthah. Afterward, the Israelites suffered forty years from oppression by the Philistines, and were delivered from their yoke by the valor of Samson, who was celebrated for his wonderful strength. Administrations of Eli and Samuel—Saul Anointed King over Israel. —On the death of Samson, Eli became Judge over Israel. The wickedness of the sons of Eli offended the Lord; and 30,000 Israelites perished in battle against the Philistines. After Eli's death, the prophet Samuel judged Israel. Samuel ruled with wisdom and justice; but the tyranny of his sons, with whom he shared his power, caused the Hebrew people to demand a king, who should reign over them like the kings of other nations. After vainly endeavoring to dissuade the people from their desire for kingly rule, the good Samuel anointed Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, king over Israel. (B. C. Io95.) REIGN OF SAUL. Defeat of the Ammonites—Divine Displeasure with Saul.—Soon after his accession to the throne of Israel, Saul defeated the Ammonites with great slaughter. Afterwards, while engaged in a war with the Philistines, Saul took upon himself a duty which belonged to the High Priest alone,—that of offering the solemn sacrifice. The Diving displeasure at this action was revealed to Saul by the prophet Samuel; and the people of Israel became disheartened, and the army of Saul was reduced to 600 men; but the army of the Philistines was at length overthrown by Saul’s son, Jonathan. Saul’s Violation of the Divine Command—David Anointed King.—After Jonathan's victory over the Philistines, Saul conducted successful wars against other nations; and made a prisoner of Agag, king of the Amelekites, and, contrary to the Divine command, spared the life of his captive. Because of Saul's disobedience, the Lord resolved to transfer the royal power to another family, and the shepherd boy, David, of the tribe of Judah, was secretly anointed king by Samuel. (B. C. Io95.) David Slays Goliath—Saul's Jealousy of David—Saul’s Death.-Soon after David had been anointed king over Israel, a new war broke out between the Israelites and the Philistines, in which David slew the Giant Goliath of Gath, the champion of the Philistines. Moved by jealousy and resentment, Saul made several attempts to take the life of David; and, to seek refuge from the anger of Saul, David was obliged to live much of his time in exile in a Philistine city and in the dens and caves of the mountains of Palestine. At length the Philistines invaded the Hebrew territories, and the Israelites were defeated and several of Saul’s sons were slain in battle on Mount Gilboa; and, to avoid falling into the hands of the Philistines, Saul killed himself by falling on his own sword. REIGN OF DAVID. Civil War Between the Houses of David and Saul.—Even after Saul’s death, David did not obtain undisputed possession of the throne of Israel, for some of the Hebrew tribes adhered to Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, and for a long time the Hebrew nation was rent by a civil war between the Houses of David and Saul, until at length Ishbosheth was slain by his own guards, whereupon David was acknowledged at Hebron as king by all the tribes of Israel. OR/EAWTAZ MA 7TWO.M.S. 3I David's Conquests—Damascus and Jerusalem.—After David had been acknowledged king of Israel by all the Hebrew tribes, he extended his kingdom in every direction by conquests. He conquered the Syrian city of Damascus, and humbled the Philistines. He subdued Jebus, or Jerusalem, the strong city of the Jebusites, on Mount Zion, and made it the capital of his kingdom. After the conquest of Jerusalem, David waged successful wars against many of the słrround. ing nations, which he compelled to pay tribute. During the siege of Rabbah, the Ammon.te capital, David took to himself the wife of Uriah, caused her husband to be put to death, and by so doing offended the Lord. David was a great poet, as well as a successful warrior, as is is fully attested by the Psalms, or religious songs, which he composed. Rebellion and Death of Absalom—Death of David.—In the latter part of the reign of David, his son Absalom rebelled against his father, and was put to death by Joab, David's general. Two others of David's sons, Ammon and Adoni- jah, also died violent deaths. David died after a glorious reign of forty years, and was succeeded on the throne of Israel by his son Solomon. (B. C. IoI5.) REIGN OF SOLOMON. Visit of the Queen of Sheba.-Solomon reigned over a mighty and extensive kingdom, and his alliance and friendship were sought by many of the most powerful princes. His fame spread into distant lands; and the Queen of Sheba, who had heard of his wisdom, came to visit him from a far country. The closest friendship existed between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. Building of the Temple—Commercial Relations.—For seven and a half years Solomon was occupied in building at Jerusalem a magnificent Temple to the Lord. He also erected a splendid palace for himself. Solomon obtained much wealth from commerce, to which he gave great encouragement. His vessels sailed to Ophir, a rich country in Southern Asia; and by means of caravans a trade was carried on with the people of Central Asia. Solomon's Idolatry—Rebellion of Jeroboam.—Solomon took to himself wives from foreign nations, permitted them the exercise of their idolatrous worship, and even became an idolater himself. Enemies then arose against him on all sides. The oppressive taxes which were necessary to support his luxury, magnificence, and extravagance, produced a rebellion headed by Jeroboam. The rebellion was, how- ever, suppressed, and the Hebrew kingdom was preserved from dismemberment until the following reign. THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. Accession of Rehoboam—“Revolt of the Ten Tribes”—The Two Kingdoms.-On the death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam succeeded to the throne of the Hebrew kingdom, when, in accordance with the prophecy of Ahijah, ten of the Twelve Tribes of the Children of Israel revolted, and chose Jeroboam, of the tribe of Ephraim, as their king, thus forming the kingdom of Israel or Ephraim, the capitals of which were the cities of Shechem and Samaria. The two tribes of Judah and Benjamin, which remained faithful to Rehoboam, constituted the king- dom of Judah, of which Jerusalem was the seat of government. This dismember- 32 AAWCIENT HISTORY. ment of the IHebrew kingdom took place 975 years before Christ, and is known as “The Revolt of the Ten Tribes.” Idolatry of Jeroboam and his Successors—The Assyrian Captivity.— The wicked Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, introduced the worship of idols into his kingdom. All his successors were sinful and idolatrous, and brought upon their people in consequence the heavy punishments of God. The prophets Elijah, Elisha, Hosea, Amos, and Jonah vainly warned them of the consequences of their idolatry, At length, Shalmanezar, king of Assyria, invaded the kingdom of Israel, took Samaria, its capital, after a siege of three years, and carried Hoshea, the last king of Israel, and the greater portions of his subjects captive to Assyria. (B. C. 721.) With the “Assyrian Captivity,” the history of the Ten Tribes ends. The kingdom of Judah lasted I30 years longer than that of Israel. THE POIN GDOM OF JUDA.H. Idolatry of Rehoboam—Capture of Jerusalem by Shishak of Egypt.— After the Revolt of the Ten Tribes, Rehoboam, who reigned at Jerusalem as king of Judah, and his subjects abandoned the worshrp of Jehovah and fell into idolatry, for which sin they suffered a heavy punishment by an invasion of their country by Shishak, king of Egypt, who took Jerusalem and carried away the treasures of the Temple and the palace. Reign of Hezekiah—Miraculous Destruction of the Assyrian Host.— At length after the reigns of many wicked kings, the pious Hezekiah was king of Judah. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, the son of Shalmanezar, resolved to subdue the kingdom of Judah, because Hezekiah, to escape paying tribute to the Assyrian king, had entered into an alliance with the king of Egypt, with whom the Assyrian monarch was then at war. Sennacherib led a mighty army against Jerusalem and laid siege to the city, but the Assyrian host was almost entirely destroyed in a single night by the miraculous interposition of the Lord, and Sennacherib fled from the land in dismay. Idolatry of Judah—Capture of Jerusalem by Pharaoh Necho.—Again the worship of Jehovah was cast aside, and the people of Judah corrupted with idolatry, when, as was always the case when they forsook the Lord, they were con- quered by their enemies. At one time, Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, invaded the kingdom of Judah, and carried the wicked king, Jehoahaz, captive to Egypt, where he died. Capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar—The Babylonian Captivity. —At length the famous Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, invaded the kingdom of Judah, took Jerusalem, plundered the Temple, carried the king, Jechomiah, and many of his subjects into his own dominions, and oppressed those that remained. Among the captives was the prophet Daniel. Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, resolved to liberate his people from the Babylonian yoke, whereupon Nebuchadnezzar led a mighty army against Jerusalem, which he finally carried by storm at midnight, after a siege of eighteen months, during which the inhabitants of the city suffered all the horrors of famine. Many of the wretched inhabitants were slaughtered by the victorious Babylonians. The city and the Temple of Jerusalem were burned to the ground. The sons of Zedekiah were killed before their father's eyes; ca. OAC/EAV7.4 Z. AVA 7TWOAVS. 33 * after Zedekiah had been deprived of his eyes, he and the greater porticin of his subjects were carried into the seventy years’ “Babylonian Captivity.” (B. C. 588.) Edict of Cyrus and Return of the Jews to their own Country.—After Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, had conquered Babylon, he issued an edict per- mitting the Jews to return to their own country and to rebuild the city and Temple of Jerusalem. Only a small number, under Zerubbabel, returned at first, and com- menced rebuilding the Temple, but the work was not completed until the year 515 B. C. About the year 406 B. C. Ezra and Nehemiah and a large number of their countrymen returned to Palestine, rebuilt the Holy City, and reëstablished the laws of Moses. The king of Persia appointed Nehemiah governor of Judea, which was then a province of the Persian Empire. Judea was afterwards joined to the Persian satrapy of Syria. The Jews had been taught that misfortunes and calamities were the consequences of idolatry; and from the time of the Babylonian Captivity, they were careful to shun idolatry and to avoid intercourse with idolatrous nations. MEDIA AND PERSIA. The Median Empire—Dejoces, Phraortes, Cyaxares, and Astyages.— The Medes, coming from the East, settled in the region south of the Caspian Sea, and were at first under the Assyrian dominion; but about the year 708 B.C. they established their independence, chose Dejoces as their king, and made Ecbatana the capital of their kingdom. Phraortes, the son and successor of Dejoces, conquered the Persians, a people similar to the Medes in race, language, manners, institutions, and religion. Under Cyaxares, the third king of Media, the Median Empire acquired great power and territorial extent. His successor, Astyages, was the last of the Median kings. ( tº Founding of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great.—Cyrus, whose mother was a daughter of Astyages, but whose father was a Persian, aroused the Persians against the ruling Medes, led an army into Media, deposed Astyages, established the independence of the Persians, and in turn subjected the Medes to their sway. Cyrus, surnamed “the Great,” thus laid the foundations of the great Persian Empire, which for more than two centuries was the dominant power in Asia. Overthrow of Croesus, King of Lydia, by Cyrus.-After Cyrus the Great had founded the Persian kingdom, he became involved in a war with the wealthy Croesus, king of Lydia, a country in the western part of Asia Minor. Cyrus defeated the Lydians in the battle of Thymbra, took and burned Sardis, the capital of Lydia, and made Croesus his prisoner. (B. C. 546.) After the conquest of the kingdom of Lydia, the Greek cities of Asia Minor were reduced under the dominion of Persia. Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus.-After his conquests in Asia Minor, Cyrus the Great led an army against the proud city of Babylon, which he besieged and finally took by entering the city by the channel of the Euphrates, the waters of which he had turned off through a new channel which he had caused to be dug. This was the end of the Babylonian Empire. The last Babylonian king, Belshazzar, who was feasting with his subjects and defiling the sacred vessels of the Jews when the victorious Persians entered the city, was put to death. The fall of Babylon 3 34' AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. placed Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia under Persian authority; and Cyrus issued an edict permitting the captive Jews to return to their own country and to rebuild the city and the Temple of Jerusalem. Invasion of Scythia by Cyrus—His Defeat and Death.-After the con- quest of Babylon, the triumphant Cyrus invaded the Scythian territories east of the Caspian Sea. Cyrus was at first successful, defeating the Scythians in battle; but he was subsequently defeated and taken prisoner. The Scythian queen, Thomyris, in revenge for the death of her son, who had fallen in battle, caused the great Cyrus to be put to death in a most cruel manner, and his severed head to be thrown into a vessel filled with the blood of Persian soldiers. (B. C. 530.) Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses—His Losses in Africa.-The mighty Cyrus was succeeded on the Persian throne by his son, the cruel and tyrannical Cambyses. After his accession to the throne of Persia, Cambyses invaded Egypt and defeated the Egyptian king, Psammenitus, in the great battle of Pelusium; and the land of the Pharaohs was reduced under Persian sway. The hard-hearted Cambyses treated the conquered Egyptians with the most barbarous cruelty and tyranny, and put the unfortunate Psammenitus to a violent death. Cambyses next subdued some of the African tribes, and laid the Greek colony of Cyrenaica under tribute; but an army which he had sent to conquer the little oasis of Siwah, in which the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon was the centre of a small independent priestly state, perished in a simoom in the desert; and another army which he had sent against Ethiopia nearly perished from hunger. After a reign of nine years, Camby- ses died from the effects of a wound which he had accidentally inflicted upon himself with his own sword. (B. C. 521.) Accession of Darius Hystaspes—Revolt of Babylon.—On the death of Cambyses, Darius Hystaspes was raised to the throne of Persia. Soon after the accession of Darius Hystaspes, Babylon revolted against Persian rule; but, after a siege of twenty months, Darius reduced the city, and, in consequence of the rebel- lion, he caused 3,000 of the inhabitants to be put to death, and the IOO gates of the city to be torn down and the walls to be demolished. Invasion of Scythia by Darius Hystaspes—His Disgraceful Retreat. —After the suppression of the Babylonian revolt, Darius Hystaspes invaded Scythia, a country northeast of the Euxine or Black Sea. The Scythians retreated before Darius and his army, and laid waste the country, that the invaders might find no subsistence from it. The consequence of this destructive method of warfare was that the Persians were obliged to abandon their scheme of conquest and to make a disgraceful retreat to avoid perishing from hunger. War with Greece—Great Extent of the Persian Empire.—After his unsuccessful expedition into Scythia, Darius Hystaspes returned to Persia and carried his conquering arms in the East to the borders of India. A revolt of the Greek cities of Asia Minor was next suppressed by Darius. A memorable war with Greece then broke out. This war, which through its whole course was inglorious for Persia, continued through a period of more than forty years, and terminated during the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, the second successor of Darius Hystaspes. Under Darius Hystaspes and his successors the Persian Empire extended from Greece to India, and from the deserts of Africa to Central Asia. It included portions of Thrace and Macedon in Europe, Egypt and other portions AZSTOA Y OF GA EAECE. 35 of Africa, and all that part of Asia embraced by modern Turkey, Persia, Beloochis- tan, Afghanistan, and Turkestan. Darius Hystaspes devoted more attention to the consolidation of his vast empire than to its enlargement. For purposes of government he divided his empire into twenty provinces, called satrapies, the governors of which were called satraps. He established as the capitals of the Persian Empire, Susa in the spring, Ecbatana in the summer, and Babylon in the winter. Decline and Fall of the Persian Empire.—The extensive empire of Persia, comprising many countries, held together only by military power and not by any harmony of interests, feelings or institutions, rapidly declined after the reign of Darius Hystaspes. The acquisition of wealth and the enjoyment of luxury for two centuries brought upon the Persians effeminacy, indolence, and the loss of all military virtue. After the Persian Empire had continued little more than two centuries it was invaded and subdued by the conquering Alexander the Great of Macedon. Religion of the Medes and the Persians.—The religion of the Medes and the Persians was that founded by the ancient sage Zoroaster and explained in the sacred books of the Zend-Avesta, according to which there are two principles, a good spirit, Ormuzd, and an evil spirit, Ahriman, which shall wage war against each other until the end of the world, when the good spirit shall triumph and the human race be rendered happy. This religion was represented by a powerful priesthood called the Magi; and the good spirit was worshiped under the form of the Sun and of fire. HISTORY OF GREECE. GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT GREECE. Extent of Ancient Greece.—Ancient Greece comprised in addition to Modern Greece, the whole northern part of the peninsula between the Archipelago and the Mediterranean, and some of the territory beyond, which now constitutes a part of the Turkish Empire. Ancient Greece was about 400 miles long, and was divided into three parts. Peloponnesus, or Southern Greece.—The southern part of Greece, or the peninsula, anciently called the Peloponnesus, but now styled the Morea, was about I40 miles long, and included the states of Laconia, Argolis, Achaia, Arcadia, Elis, and Messenia. The chief city of this section was Sparta or Lacedæmon, the capital of Laconia. w Hellas, or Central Greece.—The central part of Greece, called Hellas, was less in extent than the Peloponnesus, and embraced the states of Attica, Boeotia, Euboea, Doris, Phocis, Locris, AEtolia, and Acarnania. The chief cities of this section were Athens, the capital of Attica, and Thebes, the capital of Boeotia. 36 AAWC/EAV7" HZS 7"O R. V. Northern Greece.—The northern part of Ancient Greece, not included in Modern Greece, but forming part of the Turkish Empire, contained the states of Thessaly, Epirus, now called Albania, and Macedonia. In this part of Ancien: Greece was Mount Olympus, the residence of the gods and goddesses. GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. The Celestial Deities.—The Greeks divided their deities into three classes Celestial, marine, and infernal. The celestial gods were Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The celestial goddesses were Juno, Minerva, Venus, Diana, Ceres, and Vesta. The chief of the celestial deities was Jupiter. The Marine and Infernal Deities—Mount Olympus.-Neptune was the chief of the marine deities, and Pluto of the infernal. Mount Olympus, in Thes- Saly, was regarded as the heavenly residence of the gods, by whom the affairs of mortals are governed. These gods and goddesses were worshiped by the Romans, as well as by the Greeks. Origin of the Gods—The Titans.—According to Grecian mythology, first came Chaos, a shapeless mass; then Earth, the mother of the gods, who produced Uranus, or Heaven. Earth married Uranus or Heaven, and from this union sprung the Titans, a race of giants. The Titans made war on their father Uranus and dethroned him. His son, Saturn, who reigned in his stead, ordered all his male children to be destroyed as soon as they were born, but his wife, Rhea, concealed from him Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto. The Titans made war on Saturn and dethroned him. His son, Jupiter, restored him to the throne, but afterwards deposed him and reigned in his place. Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto.—Jupiter now divided the dominion of the universe with his two brothers, Neptune and Pluto, reserving heaven for himself, and assigning the sea to Neptune, and the infernal regions to Pluto. Jupiter was the chieſ and father of the gods. Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Bacchus, and Vulcan.—Apollo was the god of music, poetry and medicine, and driver of the sun. At Delphi there was a temple to Apollo, unto which people from all parts of Greece came to find out the events of futurity. Mars was the god of war. Mercury was the messenger of the gods, ared the patron of travelers, shepherds, merchants, and orators, the inventor of letters, and the god of merchants and of thieves. Bacchus was the god of wine and of drunkards, and a great conqueror, having subdued India and other countries, Vulcan was the god of fire and of blacksmiths, having his forges under Mount Etna, in Sicily. Juno, Minerva, Venus, Diana, Ceres, and Vesta.-Jumo, the queen of heavoºl, was the wiſe and sister of Jupiter, with whom she had many disputes, which caused much confusion in heaven. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom. Venus was the goddess of beauty and the queen of laughter, grace, and pleasure. Dia ha was the goddess of hunting. There was a famous temple to Diana at Ephesus, in Asia Minor. Ceres was the goddess of corn and of harvests. Vesta was the virgin. goddess who plesided over the domestic hearth. º f ; 11t |..}}#}; º § j i ; * i # f # = y. . # § , ſº $ !. º i :i i # º º º #4 ‘.*º : - & ( ) 'W ; "|" || º Al"º. _{! ^ſº § % % Č § º - - º §§ à º º: sº Tº * - º Q}, ºtº ºsº º º === º --~~~2: | Ǻ Xºlº (, ſº tº Mº * !!!" & 'iſ']]|}}} - * --~~ !' ... . . ). | ſ º ſ * º * # , ºft| |; |j; l : º Ø lſº º U sº. | £º % Bºzº ; | º ; i. à. º \\ #; - | Z. ( – \, ºsº §§§ & | t º g r | §º \|||} | àºjīlīſīlī;| º Żºſſºſºlſ|| ſ ilºſºlſ|| | %ºgº? | §l sº | NSN liº 4 | zºğ% º § º RN, * |# zº, § | . { [. i Š | l ==: | | | 1. & * {". } º ſº º | | ) | '') ſ | |} With / §ºſiº - š º-ºº: | \ g jºšiljić •: -") f uſiº gºers \ ſ f l ſº ! {}! º t ". º */ !' ... º ! º t º | !) i ; i i : ; : : # Aſ/STOA’ Y OF GA8 AE AECAE. 37 THE LEGEN DARY PERIOD OF GREECE. EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN GREECE. The Pelasgians and the Hellenes.—The first inhabitants of Greece were the Pelasgia.js, who were mere savages. They lived in caves and fed on roots and acorns, and clothed themselves with the skins of beasts. At an uncertain period, the Hellenes, an Asiatic people, found their way into Greece, and drove away, of intermingled with, the Pelasgians. The Hellenes were divided into three ºries, the Dorians, the Ionians, and the AEolians. Inachus, Cecrops, Lelex, Cadmus, Danaus, and Pelops.-The oldest city in Greece was Argos, the capital of Argolis, which was founded in the year 1856 B C. by Inachus, a Phoenician. In the year 1556 B. C., three hundred years after the founding of Argos, Cecrops, an Egyptian, founded, in Attica, a city which he named Athens, in honor of the goddess Athena, or Minerva. Corinth was founded in the year 1520 B. C. The Egyptian, Lelex, laid the foundation of the celebrated city of Sparta, or Lacedæmon, in Laconia, about the year 152O B. C. Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, with its famous citadel, the Cadmea, was founded about the year 1493 B.C. by the Phoenician Cadmus. In the year 1485 B.C., an Egyptian, named Danaus, is said to have arrived at Argos with fifty daughters, and to have taught the peoplesto dig wells. About the year 1350 B.C., Pelops, a son of a king of Phrygia, a country in Asia Minor, landed in the peninsula of Southern Greece, which was named in his honor Peloponnesus, or Island of Pelops. THE HEROIC AGE. Hercules.—A fabulous personage of the period known as the Heroic Age was Hercules, who was celebrated for his wonderful feats of strength. While yet an infant he is said to have crushed to death two huge serpents which the goddess Juno had sent to destroy him. He is said to have cleansed the stables of the king of Elis, which had remained uncleansed for thirty years, by turning into them a river which flowed close by. Another of his ſeats was the killing of the Numean Lion by putting his arms around its neck. Another of his fabled labors was the destruction of the Hydra of Lerna, a nine-headed serpent. At first the heads of this monstrous serpent would grow on again as soon as they had been cut off; but finally, by searing the neck of the serpent with a hot iron, Hercules was enabled to destroy the gigantic reptile. It is also said that Hercules traveled to Spain, where he killed the tyrant Geryon, king of Gades, now Cadiz, who had three heads, six legs, and six arms. It is also related that Hercules separated Spain from Aſrica, and connected the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean by heaping up a . mountain on each side. These mountains were named the Pillars of Hercules. Many other labors and adventures are said to have been performed by Hercules. Theseus.--To Theseus, who is said to have been king of Athens, are ascribed many feats of strength similar to those of Hercules. He ruled with wisdom and mildness, and contributed much to the welfare and progress of Athens. In the latter part of his life, Theseus became a predatory adventurer and robber, and commiited many crimes, among which was the carrying off of Helen, the daughter 38 AAVC/EMT HISTORY. of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. Helen was rescued by her brothers, Castor and Pollux, who were afterwards deified. Argonautic Expedition.—In the time of Hercules, Jason, a prince of Thessaly, went on the celebrated Argonautic Expedition, so-called from the ship Argo in which he sailed. The story of the Argonautic Expedition, according to the Greek poets, was as follows: Phryxus, a Theban prince, and his sister, Helle, being obliged to leave their native country in order to save themselves from the cruelty Yf their step-mother, mounted on the back of a winged ram with a golden fleece, for the purpose of being carried to Colchis, a country on the eastern border of the Euxine or Black Sea, where an uncle of theirs was king. While they were passing over the strait now called the Dardanelles, Helen became giddy, and fell into the water and was drowned. For this reason the strait was named Hellespont, or Sea of Helle. Phryxus arrived safely in Colchis, and sacrificed his winged ram to Jupite in acknowledgment of Divine protection, and put the golden fleece in that deity's temple. He was afterward murdered by his uncle, who wished to obtain possession of the golden fleece. It was to avenge the death of Phryxus and to secure the golden fleece that Jason undertook the Argonautic Expedition. Jason not only obtained the golden fleece, bnt married Media, a daughter of the king of Colchis. The Trojan War.—The most important event of the early period,of Grecian history was the famous Trojan War, the knowledge of which we derve chiefly from Homer's Iliad. The beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, was car- cred away by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy or Ilium, in Asia Minor. The Greek princes, indignant at this outrage, and bound by a previous promise, assem- bled their armies, and having appointed Agamemnon, one of their number, com- mander-in-chief, crossed the AEgean Sea and laid siege to Troy (B. C. I 194). The chief of the Greek leaders besides Agamemnon, were Achilles of Thessaly and Ulysses of Ithaca. During the siege of Troy many bold exploits are said to have been performed by both. Of these exploits the most celebrated was the killing of the Trojan Hector by the Grecian Achilles. Finally, after a siege of ten years, Troy was taken by a stratagem of Ulysses. The Greeks after having con- structed a large wooden horse, filled it with soldiers, and then retiring a short distance, pretended to abandon the siege. The Trojans then brought the wooden horse into the city. During the night the Greek soldiers got out of the wooden horse and opened the gates of the city, which was then entered by the Grecian army. Troy was reduced to ashes, and its inhabitants were driven away or put to death (B. C. I.184). But the conquerors met with many misfortunes: Achilles died in Troy; Ulysses wandered about for ten years before he was enabled to reach his native shores; and Agamemnon was murdered by his own faithless wife. Return of the Heraclidae.—About eighty years after the fall of Troy (IrO4 B. C.), the Dorians, led by the descendants of Hercules, migrated from their mountainous country of Doris to the Peloponnesus, of which they took possession, driving away its former inhabitants, or reducing them to slayery. This is known as the “Return of the Heraclidae.” Corinth, Argolis, Sycyon, Messenia, and Laconia were gradually subdued, and thus the fate of the whole of the Pelopon- nesus was changed. Patriotic Devotion of Codrus—Athens a Republic.—About the year IO68 AZSZTORY OF GRA’Aº CE. 39 B. C., the Dorians invaded Attica and threatened Athens. The Dorians having consulted the oracle of Delphi, were told that they would conquer Athens if they did not kill Codrus, the Athenian king. When Codrus was informed of the answer of the Delphic oracle, he determined to sacrifice his life for his country; and going into the Dorian camp disguised in the dress of a peasant, he provoked a quarrel with a Dorian soldier and suffered himself to be killed. When the Dorians recog- nized the body as that of Codrus, they retreated from Attica and gave up the contest in despair. Out of respect to the memory of Codrus, the Athenians declared that no one was worthy of succeeding him as king of Athens; and abolishing the monarchy altogether, established an aristocratic republic, the chief-magistrates of which were called archons. These archons were at first chosen for life ſtom the family of Codrus. Afterwards they were appointed for ten years, and still later a senate of archons was elected annually. INSTITUTION OF THE AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL AND THE OLYMPIC FESTIVAL. The Temple of Delphi and the Amphictyonic Council.—While the rest of Greece was distracted by intestine wars, Delphi, the chosen spot of Apollo, escaped the ravages of contending armies; and, in order to sufficiently secure the temple of Delphi from being plundered by warlike bands, that famous sanctuary was placed under the special protection of the Amphictyonic Council, so called from its reputed founder, the legendary Amphictyon, who is asserted by some to have been one of the early kings of Attica. This council consisted of two deputies from each of the leading states of Greece; and it assembled twice a year, in the spring at Delphi. and in the autumn at the pass of Thermopylae. The duties of the Amphictyonic Council were to effect a settlement of all religious and political disputes that might arise among the different Grecian states, and to decide upon proposals of peace or war with foreign nations. Each deputy took an oath that he would never subvert or injure any Amphictyonic city, and that he would oppose by force of arms, any such outrage if attempted by others. He also swore that if any party in any way injured the sacred territory of Delphi, or formed designs against the temple to Apollo, he would do his utmost to bring the offenders to punishment. The Amphic- tyonic Council was sometimes of great advantage to the Greeks, but it very seldom exercised much influence in preventing domestic dissensions or civil wars among the Grecians. Establishment of Grecian Republics and the Olympic Festival.—In the process of time nearly all the states of Greece abolished monarchy and estab- lished republican governments. The division of Greece into as many independent republics as there were Grecian towns, and the almost incessant wars that distracted the Hellenic race, greatly retarded the progress of Grecian civilization. At length, Ephitus, king of Elis, having obtained authority from the Delphic oracle, instituted the Olympic Festival, by which the Greeks, nothwithstanding their almost constant wars with each other, were enabled to meet on friendly terms once in every four years, or Olympiad, as such a period of time was thereafter called, at Olympia, a town in Elis. The establishment of the Olympic Festival took place in the year 884 B. C., from which time the Greeks thereafter reckoned time. To this festival all the people of Greece were invited; and in order to enable them to attend, the 4O AAVC/EAV7" HISTOR V. Delphic oracle commanded that a general armistice should take place some time before and aſter each celebration. The Olympic Festival consisted of religious rites to Jupiter, and of various games, such as wrestling and boxing matches, foot and chariot races, and other contests requiring strength and agility, and of compositions in poetry and music. The victors in the Olympic Games were crowned with olive wreaths, which was esteemed by the Greeks as a very high h \nor. GREEK COLONIES. Greek Colonies in Asia Minor—AEolian and Ionian Confederacies.- . Many of the former inhabitants of the Peloponnesus who had been expelled by the Dorians and the Heraclidae, crossed the AEgean Sea, into Asia Minor, where they established flourishing colonies. Thus the AEolians founded the twelve AEolian states, which were afterwards united into the AEolian Confederacy; and further south were the Ionian colonies, which, in the course of time, were formed into the Ionian Confederacy. Cyprus, Crete, Thrace, and Macedon—Byzantium.—Greek colonies were established in Cyprus, Crete, on the shores of the Euxine (now Black) Sea, the Propontis (now Sea of Marmora), the Hellespont (now Dardanelles), in Thrace and Macedonia. The city of Byzantium (now Constantinople), founded by Byzas in the year 606 B. C., was the most prosperous of the Grecian colonies in this quarter. Cyrene—Syracuse and Messana—Magna Graecia.--In Northern Africa was the flourishing city of Cyrene, corresponding to the modern Barca. The cities of Syracuse and Messana, in Sicily, were established by the Greeks; while in Southern Italy the number of Grecian settlements was so great that they were together named Magna Graecia, or Great Greece. Thus in process of time, the Grecian race, language, religion, institutions, and manners, were diffused over many of the fairest portions of the then known world. THE PERIOD OF THE LAWGIVERS. LYCURGUS, THE SPARTAN LAWGIVER, Travels of Lycurgus—Establishment of his Code.—From the time that the Dorians had established themselves in the Peloponnesus, two kings reigned jointly at Lacedaemon. The kings of Sparta belonged to the race of the Heraclidae. At length, in the ninth century before Christ, on the death of Polydectes, one of the kings, his brother Lycurgus succeeded him, but soon resigned the royal dignity in favor of the infant son of Polydectes, and retired from Greece. Lycurgus went to Crete, where he studied the excellent laws of Minos, the Cretan lawgiver. He also obtained wisdom from the priests of Egypt and from the Brahmins of India. On his return to Greece, he directed his attention to the ſraming of a constitution for Lacedaemon. He had consulted the Delphic Oracle, which told him that the constitution which he should establish would be the most excellent that ever existed. Having secured the support of the most prominent citizens of Sparta, Lycurgus obtained the enactment of a code of laws by which the System of government, the division of property, and the education of the people were to be established on a new and unchangeable basis. A/STORY OF GREECE. 4I Political Institutions of Lycurgus.-Lycurgus estat lished a Senate of thirty members who were to be elected for life. No one could be chosen a senator until he was sixty years of age. The two kings were members of the Senate, and always presided over its deliberations. Besides being presidents of the Senate, the kings were always the commanders of the armies. There were also assemblies of the people, which had no right to originate any law, but only to approve or reject what had been proposed by the Senate. To guard against the exercise of unconstitutional power, five officers, called Ephori, were yearly chosen by the people of Sparta, for the purpose of punishing, by fine or flogging, all who violated the constitution and the laws, not exempting even Senators and kings. Social Institutions of Lycurgus.-Lycurgus next devoted himself to a refor- mation of the social institutions and manners of the Spartan people. He first divided all the lands of Laconia equally among all the free citizens of Sparta. To prevent the accumulation of wealth, Lycurgus forbade the use of gold and silver for currency, and only allowed iron money to be used, attaching to a great quantity a very small value, so that a Spartan dollar weighed about fifty pounds. Useless arts and foreign commerce were abandoned, and thus was struck the death-blow to luxury. In order to still further prevent luxury and to insure sobriety, all Spartans of whatever age or rank were required to eat at the public tables, which were sup- plied with the plainest and least relishing food, each individual being required to contribute monthly a certain portion of provisions for the public use. Regular attendance at the public meals was strictly enforced, and no one was permitted to eat at home or in private. Lycurgus took great pains to introduce a short and forcible style of expression among his countrymen, in which he succeeded so well that the Spartans soon became celebrated for the terseness and brevity of their speech. Such a style of expression is called laconic, from Laconia, the name of the Spartan territory. Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad, nor were foreigners permitted to spend much time in Sparta. As soon as an infant was born it was taken to certain public officers, who examined it; and if it was found to be deformed it was considered as of no use to the state, and was consequently destroyed. At the age of six years all children were taken from theit parents and educated in public. The greatest care was taken to develop their physical nature, while very little attention was paid to their mental culture. To make them abhor drunken- ness the Spartan slaves were made drunk. When the Spartan youth beheld the rediculous and disgraceſul conduct of the slaves, they were careful never to reduce themselves to so degrading a condition. The sole objects of Spartan education were to prepare the people of Lacedaemon for war, and the aim of Lycurgus was to make the Spartans a warlike race, not, however, to enlarge their termitory, as he dreaded the consequences of an extension of the Lacedaemonian territory beyond the borders of Laconia. The Spartan youth were taught to be sober, cunning, per- severing, brave, insensible to hardship, patient in suffering, obedient to their superiors, and unyielding in their devotion to their country. To make them cun- rung in war, they were taught and encouraged to steal provisions; but if they were detected in the act they were severely whipped, not, however, for stealing, but for not being careful enough to escape detection. The Spartan slaves, or Helots, as they were called, from the town of Helos, where their ancestors had made an obstinate resistance to the conquering Dorians, were the property of the state; and to them only were assigned the duties of agriculture and the mechanical arts, while 42 AAVCYEAVT HAS YOR P. the free citizens of Lacedæmon only employed themselves in war and military exercises, in superintending the public schools, in conversation, or in religious service. The principle underlying the whole system and institutions of Iycurgus was, the citizen for the state, and not the state for the citizen. Death of Lycurgus.—It is said that after Lycurgus had finished his code of laws, he went into voluntary exile; but before leaving Sparta, he made the Lacedae- monians swear that they would not violate or change any of his laws until his return. But Lycurgus intended never to return. After leaving Lacedaemon, he went to Crete, where he died; and so the Spartans, bound by their oath, were obliged to abide by his laws forever. THE MESSENIAN WARS. The First Messenian War.—About a century after the time of Lycurgus (743 B.C.), a war broke out between the Spartans and the Messenians, which lasted twenty years. The Messenians, under their valiant leader, Aristodemus, fought bravely for their freedom, but were at last conquered and compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of the Lacedæmonians. This contest is known as the “First Messenian War.” The Second Messenian War.—The tyranny of the Spartans led to a revolt of the Messenians about the year 685 B.C., thirty-nine years after the close of the First Messenian War. This was the beginning of the “Second Messenian War.” The Messenians, under their able general, Aristomenes, successively defeated their enemies. The Lacedaemonians, desparing of a successful termination of the war, consulted the Delphic oracle, which told them that they must seek a leader among the Athenians if they wished to conquer their enemies. The Athenians, in derision, sent the lame schoolmaster and poet, Tyrtaeus, to lead the Spartan armies. But Tyrtaeus proved himself as good a leader as could have been chosen; for, by his patriotic appeals, he aroused the martial pride of the Lacedæmonians. After the war had continued seventeen years, it ended in the defeat of the Messenians, who were reduced to slavery. Many of the conquered Messenians, however, abandoned their country and migrated to Sicily, where they founded the city of Messana. DRACO AND SOLON, THE LAWGIVERS OF ATHENS. Draco's Code.—While Sparta, under the laws of Lycurgus, was advancing in power and prosperity, Athens was greatly distracted and nearly brought to the brink of ruin by the contests of domestic factions. In this situation of affairs, Draco, one of the leading nobles of Athens, framed for the Athenian people a code of laws so severe that it was said that “they were written in blood instead of ink.” He punished even the slightest offenses with death, saying that the smallest crimes deserved death and that he had no severer punishment for the greatest ones, Draco's cruel system, which the Athenian aristocracy intended to use as an instru ment for the oppression of the poorer citizens, was soon abolished. Wretched State of Affairs in Athens—Solon Frames a Code.—The dissensions of the three parties in Athens, and the bitter feeling existing between the rich and the poor, had reduced the state to a deplorable condition. Some of the A.A.STOMe V O/7 G/2/2/2CZ. 43 citizens had become very wealthy; while others had been reduced to extreme poverty, and were burdened with debts which they could not discharge. What particularly inflamed the poor against the rich was the existence of a law which gave to the creditor the right to make a slave of his debtor. An insurrection of the poor was feared, when the wise, talented, and virtuous Solon, a descendant of Codrus, and one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, was requested by many prom- inent Athenian citizens to make himself king of Athens, so that he might restore order to the distracted state. This advice Solon declined to follow, but he applied himself to the framing of a code of laws which he thought would restore quiet and prosperity to his country. Solon’s Reforms.-Solon first ameliorated the condition of the poorer classes by cancelling all their debts, by reducing the rate of interest, and by abolishing imprisonment or enslavement for debt; and he restored to freedom those debtors who had been enslaved by their creditors, and repealed all of Draco's laws except the one which declared murder punishable with death. Four Classes of Citizens in Athens.—Solan next divided the citizens of Athens into four classes, according to the sum of their yearly incomes. The two higher or aristocratical classes were required to serve as cavalry in time of war, while citizens of the two lower classes composed the infantry. The highest offices in the state were open only to the highest class, a few of the lowest offices to the second and third classes, while citizens of the lowest class could not be chosen to any office whatever. The largest amount of the taxes were to be paid by the highest class, the remainder by the second and third classes, while the lowest class was exempt from all taxation. Laws were to be originated by a senate or council of four hundred members, afterward increased to five hundred, while a general assembly of the citizens of Athens had the power of approving or rejecting the laws or measures proposed by the senate or council. The senators were to be chosen annually. The Court of Areopagus.--The Court of Areopagus, which held its sittings on the eastern side of the Athenian Acropolis, was composed of such individuals as had worthily discharged the duties of archonship; and it possessed paramount jurisdiction in criminal cases. This court also exercised a censorship over the public morals, the affairs of religion, and the education of the people; and it was empow- ered to punish impiety, profligacy, and idleness. It also possessed the power of annulling or changing the decrees of the general assembly of the people. Solon’s Travels.--When Solon had finished his code of laws, he made the Athenians swear that they would keep them for ten years, after which he traveled abroad, visiting Egypt, Crete, and Lydia, and returned to his native country at the expiration of ten years. THE TYRANTS OF ATHENS. Usurpation of Pisistratus.-Soon after Solon had established his wise system of laws, the government of Athens was usurped by Pisistratus, a relative of Solon's and a leader of the democratic party of Athens, who had made himself a great favorite with the poor. Having wounded himself, Pisistratus appeared before the people, in the public square in Athens, and declared that he would leave Athens if he were not allowed a body-guard to protect himself against his political enemies. 44 AAVC/EAV7' AIS 7 OA’ V. whom he accused of having attempted to take his life. His partisans immediately voted him a body-guard of fifty men. He afterwards seized the Acropolis, or citadel of Athens, and made himself master of the city; and usurped the whole power of the government, and made himself sole ruler, or Tyrant of Athens. Pisis- tratus, however, ruled with justice and mildness, and confirmed his power by his generous treatment of the poor. He improved Athens, and encouraged art and literature. - Hippias and Hipparchus.-On the death of Pisistratus, his sons, Hippias and Hippar hus, succeeded him in the government of Athens. Like their father, Hippias and Hipparchus ruled with mildness and wisdom, doing much for the welfare and prosperity of Athens; but from the time that Hipparchus had been assassinated by two young Athenians, Harmodius and Aristogiton, Hippias governed with the most cruel and unmitigated tyranny, until the Athenian people expelled him and his family from Athens (B. C. 510). After his expulsion from Athens, Hippias retired into the Persian dominions in Asia Minor, where he did much to bring about a war between the Greeks and the Persians. THE SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE. Names of the Seven Wise Men.—The Seven Wise Men of Greece were Thales of Miletus, Solon of Athens, Periander of Corinth, Bias of Priene, Chilo of Lacedæmon, Cleobulus of Lyndus, and Pittacus of Mitylene. Ancient writers mention two occasions on which these seven sages met together, once at Delphi, and a second time at Corinth. Maxims of the Seven Wise Men.—The Seven Wise Men endeavored to enlighten and improve their fellow-men by disseminating a number of moral truths and precepts in the form of maxims and proverbs. The following are some of the maxims of the philosopher Thales, a native of Miletus, a city of Ionia, who was regarded as the greatest of the Seven Wise Men: “Never do that which you blame in others;” “It is better to adorn the mind than the face;” “The most diſſicult thing is to know one's self, the easiest to give advice to others.” Some of the pre- cepts of Solon, the great lawgiver of Athens, were: “Reverence God and your parents;” “Mingle not with the wicked.” Among the maxims of Bias, who was a great orator of Priene, a city of Ionia, were the following: “Endeavor to gain the good will of all men;” “Speak of the gods with reverence.” Some of the proverbs of Chilo, who was one of the Ephori of Sparta, were: “Reverence old age;” “Govern your anger;” “Be not over-hasty;” “Seek not impossibilities.” A few of the maxims of Periander, who was ruler or Tyrant of Corinth, were: “I’leasure is fleeting, but honor is immortal;” “The intention of crime is as sinful as the act;” “Prudence can accomplish all things;” “Perform what you have promised.” Of the precepts of Cleobulus, who was king or Tyrant of Lyndus, in the island of Rhodes, the following are a few: “Be more attentive than talkative;” “Detest ingratitude;” “Educate your children.” The following are a few of the proverbs of Pittacus, who was for a short time king of Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos; “Whatever you do, do it well;” “Know your opportunity.” These and many other proverbs and rules of life, the Seven Wise Men of Greece sought and improved every opportunity of bringing forward and enforcing. Aſſ/STOA’ V OA' GA’AºA. CAE. 45 { HYE FLO URISHING PERIOD OF GREECE. THE PERSIAN WAR (B. C. 490-449). Revolt or the Greek Cities of Asia Minor against Persia.-The Greek cities of Asia Minor, which had been subdued by King Cyrus the Great of Persia, at length attempted to regain their independence. The Athenians, who were at this time indignant at the mosolence of the Persian king, Darius Hystaspes, who demanied that they should restore the exiled Tyrant Hippias to power in Athens if they did not wish to incur the hostility of Persia, assisted the revolted cities in their efforts to throw off the Persian yoke. The Greeks took and burned the city of Sardis, in Lydia, but the rebellion was finally crushed, and the revolted cities were again brought under the dominion of Persia. Commencement of the Persian War.—When the Persian king heard of the burning of Sardis, he became very much exasperated, and resolved to revenge him- self on the Athenians by invadurig their territory, and, if possible, conquer all Greece. A large Persian army, under the command of Mardonius, the son-in-law of Darius Hystaspes, after being defeated in a night attack, finally effected the sub- jugation of Thrace and Macedonia, but at length returned to Asia on account of the heavy loss sustained by the Persian fleet off Mount Athos. Persian Invasion of Greece.—King Darius Hystaspes again assembled large armies for the invasion and conquest of Greece. Heralds were sent to the Greek cities demanding earth and water as symbols of submission. This demand was complied with by the smaller Grecian states, which feared the consequences of provoking the displeasure of the King of Persia, but Athens and Sparta treated the Persian heralds with the greatest cruelty, throwing them into deep wells and telling them to “take there their earth and water.” In the year 490 B.C., a Persian fleet con- veyed an army of I2O,OOO men, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes, to the shores of Greece. After conquering several islands of the AEgean Sea, and after having destroyed the city of Eretria, which had aided the revolted Greek cities of Asia Minor, the Persian army landed in Attica, and advanced to the plain of Marathon, about twenty miles northeast from Athens. Battle of Marathon.—The Athenians, greatly alarmed at the formidable invasion of their territory by the Persians, applied to the Spartans for aid, but the Superstitious Lacedaemonians refused to give any assistance before a full moon. The Athenian army of only IO,OOO men, assisted by 1,000 Plataeans, then marched to Marathon to attack the Persian army of more than IOO,OOO mem. By the advice of Miltiades, the ablest of the ten Athenian generals, was fought the memorable battle of Marathon, in which the Athenians gained a most glorious victory. After naving suffered immense losses, the defeated Persian hosts fled in haste and con- fusion from the field and took refuge in their ships. Among the killed on the side Gf the Persians was Hippias, the expelled tyrant of Athens. Disgrace and Death of Miltiades.—Miltiades was now regarded as the Saviour of Greece, but his fickle countrymen soon treated him with the basest ingratitude. For having failed in an attempt to subdue the island of Paros, he was condemned to pay a fine of fifty talents and to be cast into prison, where he died of a wound which he had received at Paros. The fine was finally paid by his son Cimon. k. 46 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. Aristides and Themistocles.—After the death of Miltiades, the two most remarkable men of Athens were Aristides and Themistocles, both of whom, though opposed to each other in everything else, labored alike for the greatness and welfare of their country. Aristides was entirely devoid of personal ambition and was anxious only for the public welfare. Thenistocles, however, wished to make Athens great and powerful in order that he might win for himself an imperishable fame Themistocles, who was bold, artful, and unscrupulous, at length procured oy ostracism the banishment of the more candid and conscientious Aristides, who, on account of his uprightness, had acquired the surname of “the Just.” Themistocles makes Athens a Great Naval Power.—Having now secured the chief power in Athens in his own hands, Themistocles devoted all his energies to the glory and welfare of his country. It was owing to his exertions that the Athenian navy was so strengthened and increased that in a short time Athens was mistress of the seas. Formidable Invasion of Greece by Xerxes.—Darius Hystaspes died while making preparations for a second invasion of Greece. His plans were, however, executed by his son and successor, Xerxes, who, after suppressing a rebellion against his authority in Egypt, led an army of two millions of fighting men into Greece, in the year 480 B. C., ten years after the battle of Marathon. Battle of Thermopylae.—No resistance was made to the advance of the immense hosts of the Persians until they arrived at the pass of Thermopylae, where they found 8,000 Greeks under the command of the Spartan king, Leonidas. Xerxes sent a herald to the Greeks, ordering them to lay down their arms. Leoni- das replied, “Come and take them.” When some one said that the Persians were so numerous that their darts would darken the sun, Diences, a Spartan, replied, “Then we shall fight in the shade.” For several days the Persians had vainly endeavored to force their way through the narrow pass of Thermopylae, when, for a large bribe, Epialtes, a traitor from the Grecian army, showed them a secret path over the mountains. When Leonidas heard of this treachery, he sent away all his troops, excepting 3OO Spartans and 700 Thespians, with whom he resolved to die rather than flee before the enemy. The little band of Grecians fought with the courage of desperation until every one of their number had been slain. Thus perished Leonidas and his brave band,-winning for themselves an immortal fame. The spot where they fell was afterwards marked by a monument, on which were inscribed these words, “Go, stranger, and tell at Lacedaemon that we died here in obedience to her laws.” Athens Burned by the Persians.—After the battle of Thermopylae and the fall of Leonidas, the Persians spread devastation through Attica, and took Athens, which they reduced to ashes, after it had been abandoned by its inhabitants. (B.C. 480.) Battle of Salamis.-The Grecian fleet retired to the promontory of Artemi- sium, whither it was pursued by the Persian fleet. Eurybiades, the Spartan admiral, was in favor of Sailing to the Corinthian isthmus, to act in conjunction with the land forces; but the counsels of the Athenian Themistocles and his former rival, Aristides, whom he soon afterward restored to power, who opposed the plan of Eurybiades, finally prevailed, and thus brought about the famous Sea-fight of Salamis, in which the Persian fleet was thoroughly annihilated by the Grecian fleet. (480 A/STORY OF GREECE. 47 B. C.) King Xerxes, who, from a neighboring height, had watched the progress of the battle, fled with the utmost haste from Greece with a part of his army. Battle of Plataea.—The king of Persia left an army of 300,000 men, under the command of Mardonius, in Greece. The following year (B. C. 479), the Persians were defeated and Mardonius was killed in the battle of Plataea, by the Grecians under the Spartan king Pausanias and the Athenian Aristides. The number of slain on the side of the Persians was 200,000 men. Battle of Mycale.—On the very day of the battle of Plataea, the Greek fleet annihilated the Persian navy in a great battle off the promontory of Mycale, in Asia Minor. Tigranes, the Persian admiral, and 40,000 of his men were slain. Evacuation of Greece by the Persians.—Greece was now completely freed from her foreign invaders, and the dangers which had threatened her independence had passed away. From this time to its close, the war was conducted with vigor on the seas and in the dominions of the Persian Empire. Conquest of Cyprus and Byzantium.—The Greeks, under the Spartan king Pausanias and the Athenian leaders, Aristides, Themistocles, and Cimon, the son of Miltiades, continued the war against the Persians with great success. After wresting the island of Cyprus from the Persians, the Grecian fleet under the chief command of Pausanias proceeded against the city of Byzantium (now Constanti, nople), which was taken after a spirited siege. Treachery of the Spartan King Pausanias.-After the capture of Byzan tium, the Spartan king Pausanias proved a traitor to the liberties of Greece. He agreed to aid the Persian king in subduing Greece, on condition that Xerxes should give him one of his daughters in marriage and make him governor of Greece which was to be a Persian province. The Lacedaemonians recalled their treacher ous chief, and tried him for treason, but did not find him guilty. Even at Sparta Pausanias carried on a treasonable correspondence with the King of Persia, until he was obliged to flee for his life to the Temple of Minerva, where he perished from hunger. Battle of the Eurymedon.—In the year 469 B. C. the Greeks, under the command of the Athenian Cimon, inflicted a crushing defeat on the fleet and army of the Persians, on the river Eurymedon, in Asia Minor. Two hundred of the Persian ships were taken, and the rest destroyed, while the Persian land force was almost entirely cut to pieces. Peace with Persia.-The war between Greece and Persia continued twenty years after the battle of Eurymedon, and it was only after the death of Cimon that a treaty of peace was made, by which the King of Persia acknowledged the inde lendence of the Greek cities of Asia Minor. (B. C. 449.) AFFAIRS OF ATHENS AND SPARTA. Themistocles Causes Athens to be Rebuilt and Fortified.—While the w ur with Persia continued, Themistocles caused Athens to be rebuilt and surrounded by a strong wall, and the harbor of Piraeus to be formed, which was afterwards connected with Athens by a double wall. This fortifying and strengthening of Athens aroused the jealousy of the Spartans, who accordingly endeavored to pro- cure the fall of Themistocles. 48 AAVC/EAVT HISTOA V. Banishment and Suicide of Themistocles.—About this time the fame of Themistocles had aroused the envy of numerous enemies among his own country- men, who soon afterwards succeeded in having the ambitious statesman banished by ostracism for ten years. Themistocles went to the court of the King of Persia, by whom he was received with great respect and treated with much honor; but when the Great King wanted him to aid the Persians in conquering Greece, Themistocles poisoned himself rather than fight against the liberties of his country. Athens Under Aristides and Cimon—Supremacy of Athens.— .4 fter ºne panishment of Themistocles the destines of Athens were controlled by Aristides and Cimon. After the death of Aristides, the chief direction of affairs was entrusted to Cimon alone. Owing to the treachery of Pausanias, Sparta lost the influence which she had exercised in Grecian affairs; and for a considerable period Athens was the leading state of Greece. Sparta Destroyed by an Earthquake.—Even before the close of the Persian war, the jealousies of Sparta and Athens were aroused to such a degree that a war had become imminent between those two states, when, in the year 464 B.C., Sparta was destroyed by an earthquake. Rebellion of the Spartan Helots and the Messenians.—Following close upon the calamity just related was a rebellion of the Spartan Helots or slaves. (B. C. 463.) The Messenians also attempted to free themselves from the Spartan yoke, and fortified their citidel of Ithome. In this extremity the Spartans invoked the aid of the Athenians. But when the Athenian army arrived at Sparta it was dismissed. This proceeding, which showed how little the Lacedaemonians trusted the Athenians, so exasperated the latter that they banished Cimon by ostracism, because by his direction the Athenian army had been sent to Lacedaemon. He was, however, afterwards recalled and again intrusted with the chief power in Athens. After a war of ten years’ duration, the Messenians submitted to the Spar- tans, on condition of being permitted to remove with their families from the Pelo- ponnesus to the seaport town of Naupactus, in the state of Locris, on the northern shores of the Corinthian gulf (B. C. 453). Athens in the Time of Pericles.—After the death of Cimon, the affairs of Athens were conducted by the talented and virtuous Pericles, under whom that city attained the highest pinnacle of wealth, power, splendor, and refinement. The Athenian navy ruled the seas; and island after island in the AEgean sea was com- pelled to acknowledge the sway of Athens. Wars of Athens with Thebes and Sparta.-In the meantime Athens had become involved in wars with several of the minor Grecian cities. For the purpose of weakening the power and influence of Athens, Sparta and Thebes joined her enemies. The Athenians who marched against the Spartans were defeated in the battle of Zanagra; but they afterwards gained a brilliant victory over the Theban allies of Sparta, which restored the Supremacy to Athens and closed the contest for short time. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR (B. C. 431–404). War Between Athens and Corinth—The Peloponnesian War.—The general peace which Greece had for a short time enjoyed was soon disturbed by a AZS 7'OA” Y OF GA2A2A2 CAE. 49 war between Athens and Corinth, which at length became a general Grecian war. When Corinth became involved in a war with Corcyra, one of her colonies, Athens assisted Corcyra. , Soon afterward Potidaea, a Corinthian colony tributary to Athens, revolted, and was aided by Corinth. The Corinthians, accusing Athens of inter- ſering with them and their colonies, induced most of the Peloponnesian states, with Sparta at their head, to join Corinth in the war against Athens and her allies. This contest, which is known as the Peloponnesian War, devastated Greece for a period of twenty-seven years. Invasion of Attica—Devastation of the Peloponnesus.-In the year 43 : B. C., the Lacedaemonian king, Archidamus, with 6,OOO Peloponnesian troopſ, invaded and ravaged Attica, while at the same time the Athenian navy committed terrible devastations on the Peloponnesian coasts. The Spartans were soon recalled to defend their own territory; but in the following year (B. C. 430), they again marched into Attica and laid waste the country. Plague at Athens—Death of Pericles.—While Athens was threatened by the Spartans and their allies, a frightful plague broke out in that city, and carried off thousands of the inhabitants. Among those who fell victims to the ravages of this pestilence was the distinguished Pericles, whose skillful statesmanship had raised Athens to the summit of her renown. Reduction of Potidaea—Siege and Fall of Plataea.—The war still con- tinued, and the most frightful ravages and cruelties were committed by both parties. Potidaea had already been reduced by the Athenians, who drove away the inhabi- tants (B. C. 430). Four years after the reduction of Potidaea, Plataea, which was in alliance with Athens, was compelled, after a three years' siege, to surrender to the Spartans, who put the garrison to death and reduced the women and children to slavery (B. C. 427). Peace of Nicias—Renewal of the Peloponnesian War.—At length all parties became tired of the contest, and a treaty of peace for fifty years, called the “Peace of Nicias,” was concluded in the year 421 B. C. The Peloponnesian War was, however, soon renewed, as the Corinthians and other allies of the Lacedaemo- nians refused to accede to the terms of the Peace of Nicias, which they regarded as humiliating to them. Alcibiades.—Chief among those who were instrumental in increasing the jeal- ousy and hatred which existed between Athens and Sparta was the Athenian Alci- biades, the wealthy and handsome nephew of Pericles. This remarkable person was an eloquent orator, but an ambitious, artful and unprincipled demagogue. For the gratification of his hatred against Sparta, Alcibiades artfully prevented a return of friendship between that state and Athens. By his advice, the Athenians subdued the Island of Melas, an ally of Sparta, and reduced the women and children to *lavery. Athenian Expedition to Sicily.—The Athenians were induced by Alcibiades to send a land and naval expedition against Sicily, for the purpose of bringing tha island under the sway of Athens. The expedition sailed under the command of Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus. Disgrace of Alcibiades.—Before the Athenian fleet and army had reached Sicily, Alcibiades, being accused of offenses against religion and designs against the 4. So AAVC/EAV7' HISTORY. state, was ordered by the Athenian government to return home; but instead of re- turning to Athens, he went to Sparta, where he was honorably received, and his proffered services were accepted by the Lacedaemonians. Alcibiades now gratified his revenge by doing his countrymen all the injury in his power; and by his arti- fices he induced the Spartans to make war on the Athenians, and caused the de- pendencies of Athens to revolt. Siege of Syracuse.—When the Athenian fleet and army had reached Sicily they laid siege to the city of Syracuse. Lamachus met with his death during the siege. The Syracusans were aided by the Spartans, and the whole Athenian flee was destroyed. The Athenian land force was compelled to surrender; and its gal lant general, Nicias, killed himself when he learned that the Syracusans had deter. mined to put him to death. His troops were shut up in the prisons of Syracuse for seventeeen days, during which time many of them died. Those that survived were sold into slavery. Recall of Alcibiades.—The condition of Athens was indeed gloomy when Alcibiades, who had contributed so much to the misfortunes which had befallen his country, quarreled with the Spartans and became reconciled to his countrymen. After annihilating the Lacedaemonian fleet in the battle of Cysicus, Alcibiades en- tered Athens, amid the wildest acclamations of the people. Revolutions in Athens—The Council of Four Hundred.—At this time Athens was torn by the dissensions of the aristocratic and democratic parties. A revolution had placed a “Council of Four Hundred” in power by subverting the democratic constitution; but in a short time another revolution restored the former democratic government. Second Disgrace and Assassination of Alcibiades.—The Athenians re- warded Alcibiades with a golden crown, and gave him the chief command of the land and naval forces of the Athenian Republic; but he enjoyed the favor of his countrymen only for a short time. When, in the absence of Alcibiades, the Athe- nian fleet was defeated by the Spartan fleet, he was accused of neglect of duty, de- prived of his command, and banished from Athens. He retired first to Thrace, and afterwards to Asia Minor. At length the Lacedaemonians induced the Persian gov- ernor of Asia Minor to procure the assassination of Alcibiades. Persian Aid to Sparta—Battle of Ægospotamos.-The able Spartan com- mander, Lysander, at this time received important aid from Cyrus, the son of Da- rius Nothus, King of Persia, and satrap of the Persian provinces of Asia Minor. Through the negligence of the Athenian commanders, the Athenian fleet was de- feated at Ægospotamos, or Goat's river, by the Spartan fleet under Lysander. Capture of Athens by the Lacedaemonians.—After compelling all the Athenians throughout Greece to return to their city, Lysander with the Spartan navy appeared before Athens, while a large Spartan army blockaded the city by land. When, on account of the overcrowded condition of the city, the Athenians had suffered greatly from famine, Athens was surrendered to the besieging Laceda. monians (B. C. 4O4). The long walls surrounding the city were torn down ; the Athenians were compelled to restore all their conquests; to surrender all their vessels but twelve; and to join the Peloponnesian alliance. Supremacy of Sparta.-From the time of the fall of the once-powerful and AZZSTOA” W OF GRAEAECAE. 51 once-glorious Republic of Athens, Sparta was for a considerable period the leading state of Greece in power and political influence; and she exercised her superiority in an arrogant and domineering manner toward the other Grecian communities. The Thirty Tyrants of Athens—The Council of Ten.—When the Spartan I ysander captured Athens, he subverted the democratic government and placed the city under the rule of thirty Athenians who were the friends of Sparta. These thirty aristocratic rulers, on account of their tyranny, rapacity, and cruelty, and execution of their opponents of the democratic party, were called the “Thirty Tyrants of Athens.” They held their power only eight months. At length a number of Athenian exiles from all parts of Greece collected in Boeotia, and, choosing their patriotic countryman, Thrasybulus, as their leader, resolved to depose the Thirty Tyrants and restore the democratic constitution. Thrasybulus, at the head of his followers, whose numbers rapidly increased, marched toward Athens, siezed the Piraeus, and defeated a force which the Thirty Tyrants had sent against him. The Thirty Tyrants were then deposed and a “Council of Ten” were sub- stituted in their place. The Council of Ten exercised their authority in the same odious and despotic manner as the Thirty Tyrants had done; and when the Athenian people rose against them, they applied to the Lacedaemonians for assistance in quell- ing the insurrection; but the Spartans, who were divided into two parties at home, finally allowed the Athenians to depose the Council of Ten and re-establish their democratic form of government (B. C. 403). Condemnation and Death of Socrates.—During the rule of the restored democracy in Athens, the immortal Socrates, the wisest and most virtuous of the Grecian philosophers, was compelled to drink the cup of poison. He was unjustly accused of perverting and corrupting the morals of the young. His judges declared him guilty and condemned him to suffer death by drinking poison. Socrates dis- dained to save himself by fleeing from the country, as urged by his friends; and, when the fatal moment arrived, he drank the poison with the cheerfulness and calmness of a philosopher. (B. C. 399.) THE RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND AND THE PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. Cyrus and Artaxerxes Mnemon of Persia—Retreat of the Ten Thou- Sand.—On the death of Darius Nothus, King of Persia, the Persian crown fell to his elder son Artaxerxes Mnemon; but Cyrus, the brother of Artaxerxes, *pired to the Persian throne, and a civil war ensued. Cyrus was assisted by the Greek cities of Asia Minor, and with II.3,OOO men he marched against Arta- **, who had raised an army of 900,000 men to oppose him. A great battle was fought on the plain of Cunaxa, not very far from Babylon, in which Cyrus was killed and his army routed. The Persians offered peace to the Grecian allies of *; but the Grecian ambassadors who were sent to arrange the terms of the *S*nt with the Persians were put to death. The Greeks now saw that they must either submit to the enemy, or fight their way through a hostile country, more than ** miles from home. Having chosen Xenophon, a young Athenian, for their leader, Io,000 of their number, after almost incredible difficulties, and after a * of four months, arrived at the shores of the Euxine (now Black) sea. This 52 AAVCI EAVT HASTORY. is known as the “Retreat of the Ten Thousand.” Xenophon, who was one of the most celebrated of ancient historians, wrote an admirable account of this famous retreat. War Between Sparta and Persia—The Corinthian War.—The King of Persia, after the fall of his brother, waged a war against the Greek cities of Asia Minor, which were aided by the Spartans, who under their powerful king, Agesilaus, defeated Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap of Asia Minor, in a great battle fought near Sardis. (B. C. 395.) But Artaxerxes soon gave Agesilaus sufficient employ Inent in Greece, by causing Athens, Corinth, and Thebes to make war on Lacedae. mon. Conon, an Athenian, was supplied with a fleet with which he defeated the Spartan navy. The walls of Athens were rebuilt through Persian assistance; but the Athenian army was defeated by the Lacedaemonians in the battle of Coronaea. (B. C. 394.) Peace of Antalcidas.-The war between Sparta and Persia, and the general war in Greece, known as the “Corinthian War,” were terminated in the year 387 B. C. by a treaty of peace arranged between the Persian Artaxerxes and the Spar- tan Antalcidas, therefore denominated the “Peace of Antalcidas.” By this treaty, which was readily ratified by all the parties engaged in the war, the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the island of Cyprus were surrendered to Persia, and the inde. pendence of the various commonwealths of Greece was guaranteed. THE OLYNTHIAN AND THEBAN WARS. Reduction of Mantinea—The Olynthian War.—The Spartans, who since the Peloponnesian war had been the most powerful people of Greece, exercised their supremacy in an arrogant and insolent manner toward the smaller Grecian communities. Thus on a slight pretext they made war on the city of Mantinea, in Arcadia, which, after a brave defense, surrendered to a Spartan army. The jealousy of the Lacedæmonians was next aroused against the powerful Macedonian city of Olynthus, which had become the head of a formidable confederacy. The Olynthians gained several great victories over the Spartans; but finally, after a vigorous siege, Olynthus was compelled to surrender to a Lacedaemonian army. Seizure of the Cadmaea—Aristocracy in Thebes—The Theban War.— A Spartan army, on its way to attack Olynthus, had seized the Cadmaea, the citadel of Thebes, at a time when peace existed between Thebes and Lacedaemon. By the aid of the Spartans an aristocratic government was established in Thebes, where- upon many of the democratic citizens of that place fled to Athens. After the Theban people had groaned under the tyranny of their aristocratic rulers for four years, they rose in insurrection and put their oppressors to death; and, with the as sistance of the returned exiles and an Athenian army, the Spartan garrison, which had upheld the government of the aristocracy, was compelled to surrender. A was followed between Sparta and Thebes. Athens at first sided with Thebes, but after w irds took the part of the Lacedaemonians. Through the abilities of such general, as Pelopidas and Epaminondas, Thebes became the most powerful state of Greece Battle of Leuctra—Invasion of Laconia—Battle of Mantinea.— Fpam. inondas, at the head of 6,000 Thebans, defeated 20,000 Spartans in the battle of Leuctra, in which the Spartan king Cieombrotus was killed. (B. C. 381.) Epam * AZSTORY OF GREECE. 53 inondas afterwards invaded Laconia, and advanced to the very walls of Sparta, where a hostile army had not appeared for five centuries; and at Mantinea the Thebans gained another great victory over the Lacedaemonians, but the valiant Epaminondas was slain in a moment of triumph, and with his death ended the glory of Thebes forever. (B. C. 362.) Peace was concluded between Thebes and Lacedæmon soon after the battle of Mantinea. Greece's flourishing period had uow passed away. THE MACED ONIAN PERIOD. PHILIP OF MACE DON. The Phocians and the Amphictyonic Council—The Sacred War.— The Theban War had not closed more than four years when the Grecian states be- came involved in another contest known as the “Sacred War.” This war origin- ated in the following manner: the Thebans, through motives of revenge, brought before the Amphictyonic Council an accusation of sacrilege against the people of Phocis, who had been guilty of bringing under cultivation a portion of the lands belonging to the sacred temple to Apollo at Delphi; whereupon the Council sen- tenced the Phocians to pay a heavy fine; but instead of obeying the decree of the Council, the Phocians robbed the Delphic temple of its treasures to obtain the means of carrying on a war against Thebes and the Amphictyonic Council. The Athenians and the Spartans sided with the Phocians; while the Thebans, the Locrians, and the Thessalians united against them, and sustained the Amphictyonic Council. Subjugation of the Phocians by King Philip of Macedon.—After the Sacred War had continued several years, King Philip of Macedon, who had long been wishing for an opportunity of meddling in the internal affairs of Greece, was induced to join the coalition against Phocis. The Phocians were subdued by Philip and deprived of their two votes in the Amphictyonic Council, while Mace- don was made an Amphictyonic state. From that time Phocis ceased to exist as an independent state; many of its inhabitants were carried into slavery, or retired into voluntary exile, and those who remained were compelled to pay tribute. Charge against the Locrians—Capture of Elatea by Philip.–King Philip of Macedon had already subdued the Greek cities of Amphipolis and Olynthus, in Macedonia. At length, the Locrians, being charged with the same crime which the Phocians had committed,—cultivating the lands of the Delphic temple to Apollo, -were also condemned to pay a heavy fine; and when they refused to com- Ply, Philip of Macedon again led his army into Greece; but instead of conquering the Locrians, he seized and strengthened the town of Elatea. Battle of Chaeronea—End of Grecian Independence.—The Athenians, who were now aroused, by the eloquence of the orator Demosthenes, to a sense of the dangers with which the liberties of Greece were threatened, concluded an alli ance with Thebes against King Philip of Macedon. The combined Athenian and Theban armies were defeated by the Macedonian king in the decisive battle of Chae- ronea, which put an end to the independence of the Grecian Republics. (B. C. 338.) The vanquished Grecians were treated with mildness by their Macedonian con- 54 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. queror, who was preparing for the great object of all his ambition,-the subjugation of the tottering empire of Persia, Grecian Congress at Corinth—Assassination of Philip.–Philip of Mace- don now assembled a congress of the Grecian states at Corinth. By this congress the Ring of Macedon was invested with the chief command of the Grecian and Mace- donian armies. While making preparations to invade the Persian Empire, Philip was assassinated by Pausanias, a Macedonian nobleman, in revenge for some private injury. (B. C. 336.) ALEXANDER THE GREAT (B. C. 336-324). Accession of Alexander—Revolts against his Authority—Fall of Thebes.—The murdered Philip was succeeded on the throne of Macedon by his son Alexander, surnamed “the Great,” who had received a thorough education at the hands of the celebrated Athenian philosopher Aristotle, and who proved him- self worthy to sit on the throne of his father. No sooner had Alexander ascended the throne, than the Illyrians and other Northern tribes, which had been subdued by Philip, made an irruption into Macedonia, but they were speedily reduced by the arms of Alexander. Some of the Grecian states, with Athens and Thebes at their head, thinking this a favorable opportunity, attempted to shake off the Macedonian yoke; but the sudden appearance of the youthful Alexander in their midst soon put an end to all resistance. Thebes was taken by storm and razed to the ground, only the house of the poet Pindar and several other dwellings being spared; and the inhabitants were sold into slavery. Athens and the other Greek states immdiately submitted, and were generously pardoned by Alexander. The Persian Empire.—At this time the vast region of country extending from the shores of the AEgean sea to the banks of the Indus, and from the plains of Central Asia to the deserts of Africa, was embraced in the great Persian Empire. The Great King, Darius Codomannus, who at this time ruled over this extensive empire, was a prince possessed of some vigor, ability, courage, and many praiseworthy quali- ties; but the Persian people, enervated by wealth and luxury, were devoid of the military virtues of their ancestors in the times of the great Cyrus and Cambyses. Alexander's Invasion of Asia.-After having quelled the revolts against his authority in Greece, and after being made generalissimo of the Greek and Mace- donian armies, Alexander entrusted the government of Greece and Macedon to Antipater, one of his generals, and proceeded on his career of Eastern conquest. He crossed the Hellespont, in the spring of the year 334 B.C., with an army of 35,000 men, commanded by able officers, such as Clitus, Parmenio, Ptolemy, and Antigonus. Battle of the Granicus.-Of the Macedonian hosts, Alexander himself was the first to spring upon the Asiatic continent; and after having visited Troy and sacrificed to the gods there, he advanced to the river Granicus, where he found a large army of Persians, commanded by Memnon the Rhodian and other Fersian satraps of Western Asia, drawn up to oppose his further progress. After some opposition from the enemy, the Macedonians effected a landing on the opposite side of the river. In the battle which ensued the youthful Macedonian king displayed the courage of the most daring soldier, slaying with his own hands several Persians Y * • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • £& * & * • • • • # @ » ºg ...«*' ; A NAP [] X ****...! 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Alexander's Progress in Asia Minor—Cutting of the Gordian Knot. - I he importan; cities of Ephesus and Sardis welcomed the young hero-king. Mile tus and Halicarnassus, however, presented closed gates; but both were taken after being vigorously besieged. By his generous treatment of the inhabitants of the conquered provinces, and by his wise regard for established customs and institutions, Alexander secured their attachment to his cause. Onward Alexander proceeded, securing the submission of province after province. In the citadel of Gordium there was a very ancient chariot with a knot twisted in the most complicated manner, regarding which an oracle had declared that whoever should loosen this knot should win the empire of Asia. Being unable to unfasten the knot, Alexander, it is asserted by some, cut it with his sword, considering that sufficient to make him lord of Asia. The first campaign of Alexander the Great in Asia closed with the complete con- quest and pacification of all Asia Minor. (B. C. 334.) Battle of the Issus.-By the death of Memnon of Rhodes, the King of Persia lost the ablest of his generals. In the spring of the year 333 B.C., after his recov- ery from a severe illness at Tarsus, a city in Cilicia, Alexander advanced into Syria, where he learned, to his surprise and pleasure, that the Persian king, Darius Codo mannus, with an army of 700,000 men, was already on the plain of Issus. Notwith standing the overwhelming numerical superiority of the Persians, the Macedonians advanced to the river Pinarus, on the opposite side of which Darius had drawn up his army. No sooner had Alexander crossed the river than the barbarian forces which composed the right and left wings of the Persian army fled in confusion, but the Greek mercenaries of the King of Persia for a while gallantly held their ground. After an obstinate contest, the Persians gave way on all sides; and the battle of the ISãus ended in another splendid victory for Alexander the Great. The Persians lef I to,000 men dead on the field, while the total loss of the Macedonians did not ex- ceed 500 men. King Darius Codomannus fled from the field in the beginning of the battle; and his wife, daughters, and infant son fell into the hands of Alexander, who, contrary to the ancient custom, treated them with the greatest kindness. The wife of Darius, who was considered the most beautiful woman in Asia, died soon after her capture, and received a most magnificent burial from the King of Macedon. On hearing of this, Darius is said to have exclaimed, “If it be the will of Heaven that I am no longer king of Asia, may Alexander be my successor l’” Siege and Capture of Tyre.—Alexander’s victory of the Issus made him **ter of the greater part of Syria and Phoenicia. At Damascus a vast amount of *asure, belonging to the King of Persia, fell into his hands. The famous Phoeni * Sea Port of Sidon and other cities submitted to the conqueror; but Tyre, the greatest of them all, relying on the strength of its insular situation, defiantly rejected the summons to Surrender, and gallantly withstood a siege of seven months. In order to open a Passage for his army to the city, Alexander caused a mole with 56 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. towers to be constructed from the main-land to the island on which the city was built. During the construction of this mole the Macedonians were severely galled by the Tyrians, who retarded the operations of their enemies by ignited darts, vari- ous kinds of projectiles, and fire-ships. The advance of the mole was slow; and one night a Tyrian hulk filled with combustibles set fire to the mole, and thus suc- ceeded in destroying the result of much labor. Convinced, by this misfortune, of the necessity of having the aid of vessels in his assault upon the city, Alexander pro- cured from Sidon and other Asiatic maritime cities, numerous war-galleys in addition to the squadrons of Cyprus and Rhodes. With these valuable auxiliaries, the King of Macedon recommenced operations with increased vigor by both land and sea. The mole was reconstructed, breaches were made in the city walls by the battering- rams and other engines of the besiegers, and finally Tyre was carried by Storm. During the assault, which lasted two days, the Tyrians defended their city with the courage of despair, pouring boiling tar and burning Sand on the assailants. The Tyrians suffered a heavy punishment for their obstinate defense of their city, 8,000 of them being slain and 30,000 sold into slavery. (B. C. 332.) Siege and Capture of Gaza.-After having taken Tyre and obtained the sub- mission of Jerusalem, Alexander directed his course southward and besieged and took the Philistine city of Gaza, which had refused to recognize his sway. The conqueror inflicted a heavy punishment on the captured city, destroying the entire garrison of 1,000 men, and causing Batis, the governor, to be dragged around the city behind his chariot, in barbarous imitation of Achilles, who dragged Hector around the walls of Troy. The fall of Gaza completed the conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great. (B. C. 332.) Alexander in Egypt—Founding of Alexandria.-After the reduction of Gaza, Alexander advanced into Egypt for the purpose of, bringing that country under his authority. The Macedonian conqueror was joyfully received by the peo- ple of Egypt, who were tired of Persian oppression, and they gladly submitted to his sway. Alexander won the respect and favor of the Egyptians by participating, at Memphis, in the worship of their bull-deity, Apis. While in Egypt, Alexander founded the celebrated city which was named in his honor—Alexandria. For many succeeding ages, Alexandria continued to be the centre of commerce and civilization. After the founding of Alexandria, the Macedonian king passed over to the little oasis of Siwah, on which was situated the renowned temple of Jupiter Ammon, with the view of consulting the oracle of that deity. After receiving a most favorable reply from the oracle, Alexander returned to Memphis. Alexander’s Return to Asia—Battle of Arbela and Gaugamela.-In the year 331 B. C., after arranging the government of Egypt, Alexander the Grea, declaring that “the world no more admitted of two masters than of two suns,” and directing his course toward the very heart of the Persian Empire, crossed the Eu. phrates and the Tigris, and advanced against Darius Codomannus, who had in the meantime assembled a new army in Assyria, consisting of more than a million of men, gathered from the Eastern provinces of his empire. With only 47,000 men, Alexander met the immense hosts of the Persian king near the town of Arbela, on the plain of Gaugamela, east of the Tigris, where was fought the great battle that decided the fate of Asia. The Persians began the battle by a charge of the Scythian cavalry and the war-chariots on the right wing of the Macedonian army, but after a HISTORY OF GREECE. 57 desperate contest they were forced back, and Darius ordered his lines to advance, Alexander broke the lines of the enemy by suddenly pushing his columns in between the left wing and the centre of the Persian army. This movement threw the Per sians into disorder, and in a great measure decided the battle in favor of Alexander The Parthian and Indian horse were routed by the Thassalian cavalry, and the battle terminated in the utter defeat of the Persians. The loss of the Persians was 40,000 men, while that of the Macedonians was only 500. Such was the fanicus battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, which placed the Persian Empire in the hands of Alexander the Great of Macedon. (B. C. 331.) Alexander at Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis.-After the battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, Alexander devoted some time to the consolidation of his power in the subjugated provinces. In the opulent city of Babylon the accumulated wealth of the Persian monarchy fell into his hands. At Susa, the capital of Susiana, and like Babylon, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, Alexander secured a still greater accession to his treasury; but at Persepolis, the capital of Persia proper, where Alexander spent several months, still further accessions of wealth came into his possession. During his stay at Persepolis, Alexander, on one occasion, while under the influence of wine, caused the destruction, by fire, of the old palace of the Persian monarchs—an act which afterwards caused him much regret. Assassination of King Darius Codomannus.-After the battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, King Darius Codomannus fled to Ecbatana, the capital of Media, and one of the capitals of the Persian Empire. After arranging the governments of the conquered provinces, Alexander left Persepolis for Ecbatana, with the view of obtaining possession of the person of the Persian king. On the approach of the Macedonian conqueror, Darius fled to the mountainous region of Bactriana, whither he was hastily pursued by Alexander. But Darius was murdered in his flight by several of the attendants of the treacherous Bessus, the Persian satrap of Bactriana. Alexander in his pursuit found the dead body of Darius. The generous Macedo- nian king honored the remains of his unfortunate rival with a magnificent burial, and treated the family of Darius with all due respect. The murderers of the Per- sian king afterwards fell into the hands of Alexander, who, with a spirit of the keenest resentment, and in imitation of the customs of the East, punished them with a most cruel death. Alexander in Scythia.-The provinces of Bactriana, Ariana, and Sogdiana, comprising an important part of the vast region of Central Asia, anciently known as Scythia, but now called Tartary and Turkestan, were subdued by Alexander the Great only after great exertions and sacrifices on his part. The gallant Macedonian warriors, who had defied sword and lance on many a sanguinary field, narrowly escaped perishing from hunger and fatigue. Before the close of his Scythian can. paign, Alexander married Roxana, the “Pearl of the East,” a Bactrian princess, whom he had taken prisoner at the capture of a Scythian fortress. Alexander's love of conquest did not deter him from devoting some attention to the civilization and durable welfare of the countries which he had subjugated. Four new towns, famed Alexandria, in his honor, became the centre of the caravan trade, and diffused the Grecian civilization among the people of Central Asia. On one occasion, in Bac- triana, while heated with wine, Alexander killed, with his own sword, his old companion, Clitus, who had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus, for some 58 AMCIENT HISTORY. sarcastic remark as they were drinking—a crime which caused him much bittel repentance. º º Alexander's Invasion of India—Porus, the Indian King.—Ambitious of further conquests, Alexander the Great, in the year 327 B. C., invaded India with a powerful army composed of European and Asiatic soldiers. Alexander's progress was vigorously opposed by the warlike tribes inhabiting the region drained by the Indus and its tributaries; nevertheless Alexander pushed forward to the Hydaspes, one of the tributaries of the Indus, on the opposite side of which 3 powerful Indian prince, Porus, King of the Punjab, had assembled a considerable army. Alexander succeeded in crossing the Hydaspes, and in a fierce engagement defeated Porus and took him prisoner. When brought into the presence of Alexander, and asked by him how he should like to be treated, Porus replied, “Like a king;” and the con- queror, pleased with the loftiness and majesty of person of his royal captive, and with the good sense displayed by him, not only gave Porus his liberty, but restored to him his dominions, and made him viceroy of all the Macedonian conquests in India. Alexander's Return to Persia.-After having founded two cities on the Hy daspes, Nicaea and Bucephala, the former meaning “city of victory,” and the latter named in honor of Alexander's celebrated war-horse, Bucephalus, which died near the spot, the conqueror marched eastward to the Hyphasis, and was preparing to add the fertile region watered by the Ganges to his empire, when his soldiers, see- ing no end to their toils and hardships, positively refused to follow him any further, and Alexander was obliged, with great reluctance, to abandon his career of conquest and to return to Persia. After marching back to the Hydaspes, Alexander resolved upon returning by a new route, along the coasts of the Arabian sea and the Persian gulf, and with this end in view he procured a considerable number of vessels to convey his army down the Indus. The passage of the army down the river occu- pied several months, on account of the opposition from the barbarians on the banks of the stream. Upon reaching the ocean, Alexander is said to have sat upon a rock near the shore, gazing at the wide expanse of waters, and to have wept bitterly that there were no more worlds to conquer. Disembarking his land troops, Alexander marched along the sea-coast with his main force, leaving his admiral, Nearchus, to pursue his way to the Euphrates by sea. The toils and hardships of this march were extremely severe. Three-fourths of the army perished in the deserts of Ged- rosia from hunger, thirst, fatigue, and from the miseries of the climate. Alexander cheered his troops in their march by magnanimously sharing in all their privations. Upon reaching the shores of the Persian gulf the army of Alexander was rejoined by the fleet under Nearchus. The march of Alexander and his army through the fertile district of Carmania, a province of Persia, resembled a triumphal procession; and the soldiers, once more in a friendly country, believed their hardships over and abandoned themselves to enjoyment. The Last Actions and Measures of Alexander the Great.—After his re- urn to Persia, Alexander the Great devoted his attention to the organization of a permanent government for the extensive empire which he had established. He aimed at uniting the Persians and the Macedonians into one great nation possessed of the institutions and the civilization of Greece; and after his return to Persepolis, the Macedonian customs permitting polygamy, Alexander married Statira, daughter of the murdered Darius Codomannus, and thousands of his officers and soldiers married AZS 7'OA’ Y OF GA’AºA2 CE. 59 Persian and Median women. Alexander's mild and generous treatment of the con- quered people made him as much respected and beloved by the Persian nobility and people as if he had been their native, legitimate prince. During the last years of his life, Alexander's mind was occupied with schemes, which, to his credit, were directed to the durable improvement of the countries which he had subdued: he opened the navigation of the Euphrates, founded many towns, and marked out com- mercial depots to connect the trade of the Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Indus. Illness and Death of Alexander the Great.—While planning schemes for fresh conquests, Alexander the Great met with a premature death from the effects of his dissolute and intemperate habits. After visiting Susa and Ecbatana, and projecting important improvements in those cities, Alexander proceeded toward Babylon, which city he intended to make the capital of his vast empire. He was reluctant to enter Babylon, on account of various prophecies announcing that spot as destined to prove fatal to him; but grief for the death of Hephæstion, the inti- mate friend of his youth, at Babylon, determined him to visit that city. Upon reaching Babylon, the conqueror was attacked with a sudden illness, caused by his excessive indulgence in strong drink, which carried him to his grave, at the early age of thirty-two years, and after having reigned over Macedon and Greece twelve years. (B. C. 324.) When asked, just before his death, to whom he left his vast empire, Alexander replied, “To the most worthy.” The remains of Alexander were conveyed to Alexandria, in Egypt, where they were interred. ANTIPATER AND ALEXANDER'S SUCCESSORS Lacedaemonian Revolt.—While Alexander the Great was pursuing his con quering career in Asia, some of the Peloponnesian states, with Lacedaemon at their head, attempted to shake off the hated yoke of Macedonian supremacy; but, by the defeat and death of the Spartan king Agis II. in battle against Antipater, the Mace- donian viceroy of Greece put an end to the revolt. The Lamian War.—As soon as intelligence of the death of Alexander the Great reached Greece, several of the Grecian states, with Athens at their head, at- tempted to regain their independence of Macedonian supremacy. The Athenian General Leosthenes, marching into Thessaly, at first defeated Antipater and be- sieged the Macedonians in the town of Lamia; but the Macedonian viceroy, after being reinforced, defeated the Athenians and compelled them to accept a humiliat. ing peace. Athens was required to abolish her democratic form of government; Macedonian garrisons were to be placed in her fortresses; and her leading orators were to be given up. This struggle, the seat of which was the town of Lamia, in Thessaly, is known as the “Lamian War.” Demosthenes and Phocion.—The great Athenian orator Demosthenes, a vio- lent opponent of Macedonian rule, rather than surrender himself to Antipater, poisoned himself. Some time afterward the democratic party in Athens gained the ascendency, and compelled Phocion, the leader of the aristocratic party, one of the ablest and most virtuous of men, as well as one of the greatest of orators, to diink the cup of poison. Perdiccas, Regent of the Macedonian Empire—Regency of Antipater. 6o - AAWC/EAV7' HISTOR V. —As Alexander the Great had appointed no successor, the mighty empire which he had founded soon fell to pieces. After many fierce and sanguinary wars among his generals, in which Alexander's whole family and all his relatives perished, the empire was divided into four kingdoms. At first Perdiccas, to whom Alexander had left his signet ring, obtained the regency of the Macedonian Empire, but when he aimed at the undivided sovereignty of all the Alexandrian dominions, the other leading Macedonian generals, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Craterus, and Antipater, formed a league against him. In the war against his rivals Perdiccas was assasinated, whereupon Antipater, the viceroy of Macedon and Greece, was made regent, and the sovereignty of the empire was again divided. Polysperchon and Cassander—Demetrius Phalereus.--Antipater, at his death, appointed Polysperchon, the oldest of Alexander's surviving generals, to the government of Macedon and Greece. This appointment produced a civil war between Polysperchon and Cassander, Antipater's son, who wished to occupy his father's place. After defeating Polysperchon in the battle of Megalopolis, Cassan- der usurped the government of Macedon and Greece. In order to further secure his power, Cassander caused all the surviving members of the family of Alexander the Great, including his mother Olympias, his wife Roxana, and her son Alexander, to be put to death. Cassander entrusted the government of Athens to Demetrius Phalereus, whose administration of ten years was so popular that the Athenians “aised 360 brazen statues to his honor; but at length, having lost all his popularity oy his dissipated habits, Demetrius was compelled to retire into Egypt, all his statues but one being thrown down. Coalition against Antigonus—Battle of Ipsus—Dismemberment of the Empire.—In the meantime, the regency of the vast Alexandrian empire had been * conferred upon Antigonus, who had already overrun all Syria and the greater part of Asia Minor, and who aspired to the undivided sovereignty of the Macedonian empire. Hereupon four of the leading Macedonian generals, Cassander, governor of Macedon and Greece, Lysimachus of Thrace and Bithynia, Seleucus of Syria, and Ptolemy of Egypt, entered into a coalition against him. In the year 301 B. C. was fought the battle of Ipsus, in Asia Minor, in which Antigonus was defeated and killed. The extensive empire founded by Alexander the Great was then divided into the four following kingdoms: Macedon and Greece; Thrace and Bithynia; The Syrian Empire of the Seleucidae; and Egypt under the Ptolemies. Demetrius Poliorcetes, Pyrrhus, Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy Ceraunus.-After the battle of Ipsus, Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, proceeded to Greece, but the Athenians refused to receive him. After entering into an alliance with Seleucus, King of Syria, Demetrius appeared before Athens, which after a long siege he captured; but instead of punishing the Athenians for their obstinate resistance, he treated them with unexpected magnanimity, supplied their wants, and did all in his power to relieve them from the miseries which the long siege had occasioned. After the death of Cassander, Demetrius siezed the throne of Macedon and Greece; but seven years afterward, Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, and Lysimachus, King of Thrace, successively possessed themselves of the kingdom of Macedon, and Demetrius died in captivity. (B. C. 283.) After Lysimachus had reigned over Macedon six years, a war broke out between him and Seleucus, King of Syria; and Lysimachus was defeated and slain in battle near Sardis. Soon Aſ/STORY OF GREAECE. 61 afterward, Seleucus was assassinated in Thrace by Ptolemy Ceraunus, Son of Ptolemy, King of Egypt. (B. C. 280.) i * Invasion of Macedon and Greece by the Gauls.-In the year 280 B.C., Macedonia was invaded by an immense horde of barbarians, called Gauls, under their chief, Brennus; and Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had usurped the throne of Macedon, was defeated and slain in battle against them. After frightfully ravaging Macedonia, the Gauls under the leadership of Brennus invaded Greece the next year (B. C. 279), and marched into Phocis for the purpose of plundering the temple to Apollo at Delphi. The Grecians met and defeated the barbarians at the pass cſ Thermopylae, where their ancestors under the brave Leonidas two centuries before had made so heroic a defense against the immense Persian hosts of Xerxes; but the Gauls, like the Persians, marched by a secret path over the mountains, revealed to them by a traitor from the Grecian army; and the Greeks were finally obliged to retreat. Finding their way unobstructed, the barbarians then pushed forward to Delphi; but the Phocians soon arose against them and harassed their flank and rear, and at Delphi a very violent storm and earthquake so terrified the superstitious Gauls, and caused such a panic in their ranks, that they fought against each other, and were at last so weakened by mutual slaughter that they retired from Greece, many being slaughtered by the exasperated Greeks without mercy. The Gallic leader, Brennus, who had been severely wounded before Delphi, killed himself in despair. The shattered remnants of the Gauls then passed over into Asia Minor, and settled in the country named after them, Galatia. Antigonus I., King of Macedon, and Pyrrhus, King of Epirus.-After the death of Ptolemy Ceraunus, Antigonus I., son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, seized the throne of Macedon and Greece; but he found a powerful rival competitor in the ambitious Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. After having failed in an expedition into Italy against the Romans, Pyrrhus aimed at reducing the whole of Greece and Macedonia under his own dominion, and with this end in view he invaded Mace- donia; but he was soon obliged to retire into the Peloponnesus, and after being repulsed in an attack on Lacedaemon, he entered Argos, where a terrible conflict ensued, in which Pyrrhus was killed by a huge tile hurled upon him from a house- top by an Argive woman, who was enraged at seeing that he was about to slay her son. (B. C. 272.) The death of Pyrrhus put an end to the long struggle for power among Alexander's successors in the West, THE ACHAIAN LEAGUE AND THE FALL OF GREECE. Rise of the Achaian League under Aratus of Sicyon.—A new power now arose in Greece which soon became a formidable adversary to Macedonian supre- macy in Greece, and which at one time promised fair to revive the former glory and influence of the Hellenic race. This power was the celebrated Achaian League, which at first consisted only of twelve towns of Achaia associated togethel for common defense and forming a little confederated republic, all the towns being equally represented in the federal government, which was entrusted with all mat- ters concerning the general welfare, while each town retained the right of managing its own domestic affairs. The Achaian League did not possess much political in- fluence until about the middle of the third century before Christ, when Aratus, an 62 ANCIENT HISTORY. exile from Sicyon, with a few followers, took the city by surprise in the night, and without the cost of a single life, liberated it from the sway of the tyrants who had ..ong oppressed it with their despotic rule. (B.C. 251.) Dreading the hostility of the King of Macedon, Aratus induced Sicyon to join the Achaian League. Aratus soon became the idol of the Achaians, and soon after the accession of Sicyon to the League, he was placed at the head of the Achaian armies. Corinth, which had been seized by a stratagem of King Antigonus I. of Macedon, and whose citadel was occupied by a Macedonian garrison, was delivered by a gallant enterprise of Aratus of Sicyon, and was also induced to join the Achaian League. Other cities afterward acceded to the confederacy; but Argos and Corinth, influenced by the Spartans, at length seceded from the League. In wars with the Macedonians, the Achaians triumphed. The AEtolian League and the Spartans—Agis III. and Cleomenes.— Besides the King of Macedon, the enemies of the Achaian League were the AEto- lian League and the Spartans. The AEtolian League, which was a confederation of the rudest of the Grecian tribes, had by degrees extended its supremacy over Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, and other Grecian states. The valiant Spartan kings, Agis III. and Cleomenes, endeavored to restore the ancient glory and greatness of Lace- daemon by reviving the long-neglected laws of Lycurgus, the foundation of Sparta's former glory. They met with considerable opposition from the wealthy and aristo- cratic citizens of Lacedæmon, and Agis III. was cruelly murdered in prison; but Cleomenes succeeded in his endeavors by causing the opponents to his schemes to be removed by assassination. The ambitious Cleomenes aimed at the elevation of Sparta to the rank of the first power in Greece; and as the Achaian League was the chief obstacle in the way of his cherished designs, all his emergies were directed to efforts for the dissolution of that formidable confederacy. Achaian and Macedonian Alliance—Capture of Sparta—Death of Aratus.-Seeing that the liberties of Greece were in greater danger from Spartan than from Macedonian ambition, Aratus of Sicyon, the Achaian chieftain, entered into an alliance with King Antigonus II. of Macedon, the old enemy of the Acha. ian League. Cleomenes was defeated and Lacedæmon captured by the King of Macedon. (B. C. 221.) Afterwards, in a war against the AEtolian League, Aratus formed an alliance with Philip II., the successor of Antigonus II. on the throne of . Macedon; but when Aratus displeased Philip by advising him not to enter into an alliance with the Carthaginians in their war against the Romans, the Macedonian king caused the valiant leader of the Achaian League to be poisoned. (B.C. 213.) Subjugation of Sparta by Philopoemen, the Successor of Aratus.-The successor of Aratus of Sicyon in the administration of the affairs of the Achaian League was the talented and virtuous Philopoemen, who subdued the Spartans, and compelled them to abolish the laws of Lycurgus and to join the Achaian League. In a general assembly of the Greeks, Philopoemen was hailed as the restorer of Grecian liberty. Philip II. of Macedon at war with the Romans—Battle of Cynosceph- alae.-During the second war between Rome and Carthage, King Philip II. of Macedon entered into an alliance with the Carthaginians against the Romans. To give Philip sufficient employment in Greece, the Romans induced the AEtolians and the Spartans to wage war against the King of Macedon. After the conclusion of Azāzoxy of GREECE. 63 peace between Rome and Carthage, the Roman general Flaminius, who had been sent into Greece with a large army, defeated King Philip II. in a decisive battle fought in Thessaly, near a range of low hills, called from their peculiar shape, Cynos- cephalae, or dogs' heads. (B. C. 197.) Philip II. was obliged to accept peace and to acknowledge the independence of Greece. At the Isthmian Games, the Roman general, to gratify the vanity of the Greeks, proclaimed the liberation of Greece from Macedonian oppression; but the Romans were now as intent on extending their supremacy over Greece as the King of Macedon had been in maintaining his sway there. Subjugation of the AEtolians by the Romans.—Several years after the de feat of Philip II. of Macedon, the Ætolians took up arms against the Romans, and formed an alliance with Antiochus the Great, King of Syria, the enemy of Rome. The AEtolians were completely defeated and deprived of their independence by the Romans; and their ally, the Syrian king, having suffered a disastrous defeat by the Romans in the great battle of Magnesia, in Asia Minor, was compelled to accept a disadvantageous peace. (B. C. 193.) Messenian Revolt and Death of Philopoemen.—The Messenians attempt- ing to secede from the Achaian League, Philopoemen was sent to reduce them to submission; but being taken prisoner, the valiant Achaian leader was compelled to drink the cup of poison. (B. C. 183.) The Achaians, however, conquered Messene the following year, and put the murderers of Philopoemen to death. Perseus, King of Macedon, at war with Rome—Battle of Pydna.-The wicked Perseus, who on the death of his father, Philip II., had made his way to the throne of Macedon by the bloodiest crimes, was driven by the ambition of the Romans into a war against that people; but he suffered a crushing defeat in, the great battle of Pydna by the Roman army under the command of Paulus AEmilius (B. C. 168), and being soon afterward taken prisoner, the unfortunate king was car. ried to Rome to grace the triumph of his conqueror; and Macedonia became a Roman province. One thousand Achaian chiefs, who were accused of having a secret under- standing with Perseus, were seized and carried to Rome as hostages. After many of these chiefs had died at Rome, the rest returned to Greece, burning with ven- geance against the Romans. Conquest of Greece by the Romans—Destruction of Corinth.--Twenty years after the overthrow of the Macedonian monarchy, the arrogance of the Romans, who assisted the Spartans in a war against the Achaians, and who demanded that the Achaian League should be reduced to its original limits, induced the Achaians to take up arms in defense of the independence of Greece against Roman encroach- ments. (B. C. 148.) The Achaians were defeated in several bloody battles, and finally the Roman army, commanded by the Consul Mummius, took Corinth by storm and reduced it to ashes. Greece then became a Roman province under the name of Achaia. (B. C. 146.) Thus ends the history of the celebrated and once flourishing Republics of Ancient Greece. We shall next proceed to a brief notice of the two most powerful and extensive kingdoms that arose from the dismember Enent of the vast empire of Alexander the Great. 64 AAVC/EAV7' HISTORY THE PTOLEMIES THE SELEUCIDAE AND THE MACCA- BEES. Egypt under the Ptolemies.-Upon the dismemberment of Alexander's em- pire in the year 301 B. C., Ptolemy, a leading Macedonian general, ascended the throne of Egypt, and became the founder of a dynasty that ruled that country for nearly three centuries. One of the most celebrated of this race of monarchs was Ptolemy Philadelphus, who encouraged commerce and liberally patronized the arts and learning, and founded the great library in Alexandria. Under the Ptolen ies, Egypt was one of the most powerful kingdoms in the world; and Alexandria, which was at that time the metropolis of the country, became the commercial centre of the world, and the seat of Greek art, literature, civilization, and refinement. The Ptole- mies ceased to rule Egypt in the year 30 B.C., when Augustus Caesar erected that country into a Roman province. The Syrian Empire of the Seleucidae.—Upon the dissolution of Alexander’s empire (301 B.C.), Seleucus, another Macedonian general, became King of Syria, and founded the dynasty of the Seleucidae, which ruled over Syria and other coun- tries of Western Asia for more than two centuries. Seleucus founded the magnifi- cent cities of Seleucia and Antioch. The Syrian Empire of the Seleucidae extended from the shores of the Mediterranean to the banks of the Euphrates. One of the most noted kings of this dynasty was Antiochus the Great, who became involved in an unfortunate contest with the Romans, by which his dominions were greatly reduced in territorial extent. The Parthian Empire, which arose about the middle of the third century before Christ, deprived the Syrian kings of many of their terri- tories in the East. The Romans put an end to the rule of the Seleucidae in the year 65 B.C., and Syria became a Roman province. The Jews under the Maccabees or Asmonians.—Ptolemy Soter made Judea an Egyptian province; but on the accession of Ptolemy Epiphanes to the throne of Egypt, the famous Antiochus the Great annexed the Jewish territories to the Syrian Empire. Antiochus Epiphanes, the second successor of Antiochus the Great on the throne of Syria, plundered the sacred Temple of Jerusalem of its trea- sures, and attempted to thrust aside the worship of Jehovah by introducing the Greek idolatry into Judea; and when the Jews resolutely opposed this project they were violently persecuted. At length, when the tyranny of the Syrian king became intol- erable, the Jews, under the leadership of the heroic family of the Maccabees, or Asmonians, revolted, and made a vigorous resistance. Judas Maccabeus, the eldest of these leaders, after gaining many victories over the Syrians, entered Jerusalem in triumph and restored the Jewish worship. But the war still continued, and the valiant Judas was slain in battle after many Syrians had fallen beneath his pow- erful arm. His brother, Jonathan Maccabeus, then became Sovereign and high- priest; but he was at last treacherously murdered by the King of Syria. Simon Maccabeus, another brother, succeeded to the Jewish throne and high-priesthoºd, and the Jewish nation greatly prospered under his administration; but he was at last assassinated by his son-in-law Ptolemy. Simon’s sons and successors freed Judea from the Syrian yoke, but the Jewish state was for a long time Very much distracted by domestic dissensions and weakened by civil war. About the middle of the first century before Christ Judea became tributary to Rome, and in the first part of the first century of the Christian era the country was erected into a Roman province. AZSTORY OF ACOMAE. 65 HISTORY OF ROME. ANCIENT ITALY. foivisions of Ancient Italy.—Ancient Italy was divided into three sections: Cisalpine Gaul, or Gaul this side of the Alps, in the northern part; Italy proper in the centre; and Magna Graecia, or Great Greece, in the south. Cisalpine Gaul.—Cisalpine Gaul was divided by the river Padus (now Po) into two divisions; the one on the north side of that stream being called Gallia Trans. padana, and the one on the south side being named Gallia Cispadana. Venetia was in the northeastern part of Cisalpine Gaul, and Liguria in the southwestern part. Italy Proper.—The states of Italy proper, or Central Italy, were Etruria, Latium, Umbria, Picernum, Campania, Samnium, and the Sabine territory. Etruria was early noted for its civilization and progress in the arts and sciences. The Etruscans or inhabitants of Etruria, formed a confederacy of twelve towns, each of which was independent in regard to its own domestic affairs. Magna Graecia.-Magna Graecia, or Great Greece, embraced the states of Apulia, Calabria, Lucania, and Brutium. The chief city of Magna Graecia was Tarentum, the people of which were famous for their luxury and wealth. Magna Graecia was early settled by the Greeks, who brought with them the arts and institutions of their native country. Ancient Inhabitants of Italy—-The Pelasgians and the Greeks.--The abor- igines, or earliest known inhabitants of Italy, were, like those of Greece, called Pelas- gians. The Pelasgians of Italy resembled those of Greece in character and man- mers. They were divided into many independent tribes. Their chief occupation was agriculture. They built towns with cyclopean walls of unhammered stone. The chief tribes of the Italian Pelasgians were the Etruscans, the Sabines, the Latins, the Siculi, the CEnotrians, and the Tyrrhenians. It was about 1,000 years before Christ when the Greeks founded in Southern Italy the colonies which were collectively called Magna Graecia, or Great Greece. In Sicily the Greeks founded Messana, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Naxus, Catana, and other towns. Grecian colonies were also settled in Corsica and Sardinia. ROME UNDER THE KINGS (B. C. 753–54O). ROMULUS. Legend of AEneas.-According to the Roman legend, AEneas, a famous T o- jan warrior, left his native country immediately atter the fall of Troy, and male his way to the western shores of Italy, where he founded the city of Lavinium. After slaying in battle Latinus, King of Latium, AEneas united the Latins with his own followers; and thereafter the united people were called Latins. Thirty years after- wards, the Latins removed to the Alban Mount, where they built the city of Alba. 5 66 AAVC/EAVT HISTOR V. Y. Legend of Romulus and Remus.-Several centuries after the events just related, there reigned at Alba a king named Procas, who had two sons, Numitor and Amulius. When Procas died, Numitor was to succeed to the throne of Alba; but Amulius seized the throne and made himself king, and afterwards caused the son of Numitor to be slain, and made his daughter Sylvia become a Vestal Virgin. Sylvia married Mars, the god of war, with whom she had twin sons, Romulus and Remus. Amulius ordered the two infants to be drowned in the Tiber, but the basket which contained them floated to the foot of the Palatine Hill, where they were found by a she-wolf, which carried them to her den and nursed them as i.e. own offspring. Some time afterward the two children were taken to the house of a shepherd on the Palatine Hill, where they were brought up. At length Remus was taken to Alba and brought before Amulius. Romulus and his friends went to Alba and rescued Remus, killed Amulius, and placed Numitor on the throne of Alba. Founding of Rome by Romulus.-Romulus and Remus prepared to return to the Palatine Hill, where they resolved to build a city, and they inquired of the gods by divination which should give his name to the city. They watched the heavens for one day and one night; and at Sunrise Remus saw six vultures, and soon after- ward Romulus saw twelve. It was decided that the favor of the gods was on the side of Romulus, who accordingly began to build a city on the Palatine Hill. When Remus, who was mortified and angry, saw the low wall and the ditch which inclosed the space for the new city, he scornfully leaped over and exclaimed, “Will this keep out an enemy?” Upon this insulting conduct, Remus was slain, either by Romulus or by one of his followers. The city, which was named Rome, in honor of Romulus, is thought to have been founded 753 years before Christ. Rome at first contained a thousand dwellings; and its population was rapidly increased by exiles, criminals, ſugitives from justice, and desperate characters of all sorts, who fled to the new city fol refuge. Romulus, First King of Rome—Seizure of the Sabine Women.—Rom ulus was chosen the first King of Rome, and a Senate of one hundred members was established. But the Romans, as the inhabitants of the new city were called, were without wives; and as the neighboring people refused to give their daughters in marriage to such desperate characters, Romulus determined upon securing by strat- agem what he could not obtain by force. He therefore arranged some games and shows at Rome, and invited the neighboring people to attend. The Sabines and Latins came in great numbers, bringing their wives and daughters with them. When the shows began, Romulus gave a signal, whereupon the Roman youth rushed upon the unsuspecting strangers, seized the most beautiful maidens, and carried them off for wives. war with the Sabines—Treachery and Death of Tarpeia.-The outrage just mentioned led to a war between the Romans and Sabines. A large army under Titus Tatius, the Sabine king, laid siege to Rome. The Romans garrisoned and fortified the Capitoline Hill. Tarpeia, the daughter of the Roman commander, agreed to open the gates of the fortress to the Sabines if they would give her the golden bracelets which they wore on their arms. She accordingly opened the gates; but as soon as the Sabines entered the fortress, they killed the traitress with their brazen shields. Having gained possession of the Capitoline Hill, the Sabines were able to defy the Romans for a long time. AZSTORY OF ROMAE. 67 The Temple of Janus.-Many battles were fought between the Romans and the Sabines in the valleys which divide the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. At length, when the Sabines advanced near the city, the Romans retired inside the city walls and shut the gates. As the Sabines were about to enter the city the gates flew open: the Romans again shut them; but they opened a second time: a mighty stream of water burst forth from the Temple of Janus, and swept away the Sabines who had entered the city. Ever afterward the gates of the Temple of Janus stºod open when Rome was at war, that the gods might come out to aid the Romans; but in time of peace the gates were always closed. Peace between the Romans and the Sabines—Union of the Two Nations.—The Romans made great efforts to retake the Capitoline Hill. At length, while the two armies were combating, the Sabine wives of the Romans rushed between the contending forces, and, by their earnest entreaties and supplica- tions, induced both parties to suspend hostilities. A treaty of peace followed, by which the Romans and the Sabines were to be united as one nation, and Romulus and Titus Tatius were to reign jointly at Rome. Soon afterward Titus Tatius was killed at Lavinium, and Romulus thereafter reigned alone. Death of Romulus.-After a reign of thirty-seven years, Romulus came to his death in an unknown manner. The Roman legend states that, while he was pres- ent at a public meeting in the Field of Mars, there arose a great tempest and whirl- wind, while at the same time the sun was eclipsed, and it was as dark as night. When the storm was over, and the light of the sun returned, Romulus was not to be found. It was believed by the superstitious Romans, that his father, Mars, the god of war, had carried him to heaven in a fiery chariot. The Romans built a temple to Romulus and worshiped him as a god by the name of Quirinus. (B. C. 716.) THE SUCCESSORS OF ROMULUS. Peaceful Reign of Numa Pompilius.-The second King of Rome was the wise Sabine, Numa Pompilius, who proved to be a good and peaceful monarch. He encouraged agriculture, reformed the calendar, built temples, and regulated religious affairs, professing to have obtained his directions from the goddess Egeria. Numa also divided the Roman territory equally among the people. After a peace- ful and prosperous reign of forty-two years, Numa died at the age of eighty. (B. C. 673.) Tullus Hostilius—Fight between the Horatii and the Curiatii.-The peaceful Numa Pompilius was succeeded as King of Rome by the warlike Tullus Iſostilius, during whose reign the Romans engaged in a war with the Albans. Just as the armies of the Romans and the Albans were about to engage in conflict, they agreed to have the contest decided by a combat to be fought by six champions, three from each side; and the defeated nation was to become subject to the victor- ious one. In the Roman army there were three twin-brothers called Horatii, and in the Alban army there were three twin-brothers named Curiatii. These, being fixed upon as the champions, took their places between the two armies and engaged in combat. After two of the Horatii had fallen, the other Horatius began to flee; but suddenly turning, he fell upon the three wounded Curiatii, and killed them in Succession. When the victorious Horatius returned to Rome, he met his sister 68 AAVC/EAWT A//STOR V. Horatia, who had been betrothed to one of the Curiatii. Horatia shrieked aloud, and reproached her brother for his bloody deed, which so enraged Horatius that he plunged a knife into his sister's heart, and she fell dead. For this crime Horatius was condemned to death, but he was afterward pardoned because by his victory over the Curiatii he had saved the Romans from slavery. By the terms of the agree. ment made just before the combat, the Albans became subject to the Romans. Ancus Martius.-The fourth King of Rome was Ancus Martius, a grandson of Numa Pompilius. Ancus Martius carried on successful wars against the Latins founded the town of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, and added the Aventine and Janiculum Hills to Rome. He reigned twenty-four years. Tarquin the Elder.—There are different accounts respecting the origin of Tarquinius Priscus, or Tarquin the Elder, the fifth King of Rome. By some his parents are said to have been of Grecian origin: by others he is regarded as of Etruscan extraction. Tarquin the Elder subdued the Latins, the Sabines, and the Etruscans; and improved Rome with many public works, among which were the circus or race-course, the embanking of the Tiber, the sewers for draining the neighboring lakes, the foundations of the walls of the city, which were of hewn stone, and the Forum, or public square. Tarquin the Elder was greatly beloved by his people, and had reigned thirty-eight years when the sons of Ancus Martius caused him to be assassinated. (B. C. 579.) Servius Tullius.-The murdered Tarquinius Priscus was succeeded on the throne of Rome by his son-in-law, Servius Tullius, who proved to be a wise and good king. He protected the poor from the oppressions of the rich, abolished enslavement for debt, and lessened the royal power. The wise legislation of Ser- vius Tullius was displeasing to the higher orders among the Romans; and at length his son-in-law, Tarquinius Superbus, son of Tarquin the Elder, caused the good king to be murdered, and made himself King of Rome. (B. C. 535.) The wicked Tullia, daughter of the murdered Servius Tullius, and wife of Tarquin the Proud, in her haste to congratulate her wicked husband, drove her chariot over her father's corpse, which lay in the street. - Tyrannical Reign of Tarquin the Proud.—Tarquinius Superbus, or Tar. quin the Proud, soon proved to be an unscrupulous tyrant. All classes of Romans felt his severity. The plebeians, or common people, were deprived of their privi- leges; and the patricians, or aristocracy, were plundered of their wealth. Tarquin the Proud conquered the Volscians and other nations. Expulsion of Tarquin the Proud and Abolition of Monarchy.—While the Romans were besieging the town of Ardea, Tarquin’s sons, Sextus, Titus, and Aruns, and their cousin Collatinus, got into a dispute about the good qualities of their wives, and all agreed to visit their homes by surprise. They found the wives of Sextus, Titus, and Aruns feasting and making merry, while Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, was found working at her loom. They all agreed that Lucretia was the worthiest lady. Sextus fell into a violent passion for Lucretia, and shortly after wards he behaved toward her in such a manner that she committed suicide. Lucius Junius Brutus, a relative of the royal family, bound himself by an oatn to avenge the wicked act of Sextus. The outrage of Sextus roused the indignation of the Roman people; and Brutus, showing them the bloody corpse of Lucretia and haranguing them, induced them to expel the royal family from the throne of Rome, à AZSTOA” Y OF ACOME. 69 and to abolish monarchy altogether. Tarquin the Proud and his family, finding themselves abandoned, retired into voluntary exile. (B. C. 51O.) t THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (B. C. 51O-3O). WARS WITH THE ETRUSCANS AND WITH PORSENNA. Consuls—Conspiracy in Favor of Tarquin the Proud.--The overthrow of Tarquinius Superbus and the abolition of monarchy in Rome took place in the year 51o B. C. Rome then became a Republic. The Senate continued to sit, and two chief magistrates called Consuls were to be elected every year. The first Con- suls were Brutus and Collatinus. During their administration, a conspiracy was formed for the restoration of Tarquin the Proud to the throne. Among the con- spirators were the sons of Brutus. From feelings of pure patriotism, their father, who acted as judge when they were tried, condemned them both to death, and had them executed in his presence. War with the Etruscans.—The dethroned Tarquin the Proud received aid from the Etruscans, to whose country he had fled for protection. A large Etruscan force was placed under the command of Tarquin himself and sent against the , Romans. Aruns, the son of Tarquin, and Brutus encountered each other. Each ran his spear through his antagonist, and both fell dead. War with Porsenna, King of Clusium—Horatius Cocles.—Porsenna, King of Clusium, also took the field in favor of the deposed Tarquin the Proud, and advanced against Rome with a large army. The Romans were driven across the Tiber; but the Roman army was saved by the valor of Horatius Cocles, who alone defended the wooden bridge that crossed the river until the Romans had all crossed, and who then cut down the bridge while the enemy's darts were flying all around him, and at last plunged into the stream and reached the opposite shore in Safety. Mutius Scaevola.-At length Porsenna pressed the siege of Rome so closely that the people in the city suffered greatly from famine. But the city was saved by the daring conduct of a young Roman named Mutius Scaevola, who penetrated into the enemy's camp for the purpose of assassinating Porsenna, but who, by mistake, killed one of the attendants of the Clusian king. When threatened with torture unless he made a confession, Mutius Scaevola thrust his right hand into a fire and kept it there until it was burnt off, to show Porsenna that no torture could induce him to betray-le plans of his countrymen. Porsenna, admiring such patriotism and courage, gave Scaevola his liberty; when the heroic young Roman warned the Clusian king to raise the siege of Rome and make peace, as three hundred young Romans had sworn to take his life, and that he had been chosen by lot to make the firs; attempt. Porsenna, alarmed for his life, immediately made peace with the Romans and marched home. So says the Roman legend; but other accounts say that Porsenna educed Rome, and that the Romans afterwards recovered their undependence. 7o AAVC/EAWT HISTORY. CONTESTS OF THE PATRICIANS AND THE PLEBEIANS. © Tyranny of the Patricians.—As soon as Rome was relieved from the hostility of foreign foes, the city began to be distracted by domestic troubles. The two great parties into which the Romans were divided were the patricians, or aristocracy, ind the plebeians, or common people. The patricians, having all power in their ºwn hands, now began to exercise the most unmitigated tyranny over the plebeians, whº were excluded from all the public offices. Having exempted themselves from the payment of tithes, the patricians soon became immensely wealthy; while the ple. beians were compelled to pay taxes for the little farms in their possession, and to perform military service without pay. In time of war the lands of the plebeians were left untilled and their dwellings were often burned by the enemy. They con- sequently became very poor, and incurred debts with the patricians which it was impossible for them to discharge under the existing state of things. If a plebeian failed to discharge his debts when they became due his estate was seized; and he and his whole family became slaves to his creditor, and were thrown into prison and maltreated. Insurrection of the Plebeians.—The evils already related at length resulted in a general insurrection of the plebeians. An old man, covered with rags, pale and famishing, having escaped from his creditor's prison, rushed into the Forum, or public square of Rome, and implored the aid of the people. He showed them the scars of the wounds which he had received in twenty-eight battles with the enemies of Rome. He was immediately recognized as a brave old captain in the army. He related to them that his house had been burned by the enemy in the Etruscan war, and that his taxes were nevertheless rigorously exacted from him. He had been obliged to borrow money, and finally he had lost all his property; and when it be- came impossible for him to discharge his debts, he and his two sons were enslaved by his creditor. He also showed them the marks of the stripes which had been inflicted upon him by his creditor. The plebeians could not now restrain their rage and indignation. They demanded relief. At this instant, news arrived at Rome that the Volscians had taken up arms against the Romans. The plebeians rejoiced at this intelligence: they refused to enlist in the army, and told the patricians to fight their own battles. As the plebeians could not be compelled to enlist, the Consuls promised them relief, whereupon many of them joined the ranks; but no sooner were the Volscians defeated than the debtors were ordered back to their prisons. Having been afterwards deceived, the plebeians withdrew from Rome and took post on the Sacred Mount, about three miles from the city, where they resolved to resist the patricians. Menenius Agrippa–Tribunes of the People.—To avoid the horrors of civil war, the patricians dispatched ten Senators, with Menenius Agrippa at their head, to treat with the plebeians, and to induce them to return to Rome. Agrippa repre- sented to them the disadvantages of dissensions in a state, and related to them the fable of the quarrel between the stomach and the members. The members, com- plaining that the stomach remained idle and enjoyed itself, refused to labor for it any longer: the hands refused to put food to the mouth; the mouth refused to open; and the teeth refused to chew: but while they thus attempted to starve the stomach A/STORY OF ROME. 71 they starved themselves, and at last they discovered that the stomach was as useful to the body as they were themselves. The plebeians understood the moral of the fable, and they agreed to a treaty with the patricians. By this treaty all existing debts were cancelled, and all persons held in bondage for debt received their free- dom. The insurgent plebeians then returned to Rome. It was also agreed that five magistiates, called Tribunes, should be elected annually by the plebeians to watch ovel their interests, and to prevent by the word “veto,” meaning “I forbid,” any ºceasure which endangered the rights and liberties of the Roman people. Banishment of Coriolanus—Veturia and Volumnia.--When, during a famine in Rome, a supply of corn arrived from Sicily, the haughty patrician, Caius Marcius Coriolanus, proposed that none should be given to the plebeians until they consented to have the office of Tribunes abolished. This proposal aroused the in- dignation of the plebeians, and they procured the banishment of Coriolanus. En- raged at this treatment, Coriolanus went to the Volscians; and afterwards he led a Volscian army against Rome, and laid siege to the city; but he was finally induced to retreat from Rome by the entreaties of his wife, Veturia, and his mother, Volum nia, who had gone out of the city at the head of a deputation of Roman ladies, to persuade Coriolanus not to be the cause of the ruin of his country. Coriolanus, yield- ing to the solicitations of his mother, exclaimed, “Mother, you have saved Rome, but you have ruined your son 1" It is said that the Volscians, enraged at the retreat of Coriolanus from Rome, put him to death; but a tradition states he lived to a great age in exile among the Volscians, and that he was often heard to exclaim, “How miserable is the condition of an old man in banishment!” Dictatorship of Cincinnatus—Mount Algidus.-The AEquians, having broken their peace with Rome and having formed a camp on Mount Algidus, lured an army of Romans into a narrow defile, where they must have been taken prisoners had not the patrician Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus, after having been appointed Dictator, come to their relief. The Dictator was an officer superior to the Consuls and the Senate, and he had all power over the laws themselves. When the deputies of the Senate came to inform Cincinnatus that he had been appointed Dictator, they found him ploughing in his field. He immediately left his plough, took command of the army, and marched against the enemy; and, having surrounded them, com- pelled them to surrender to the Romans. At the end of sixteen days, Cincinnatus resigned the dictatorship and returned to his plough. The Decemvirs.-The contests between the patricians and the plebeians still continued. At length the number of Tribunes was increased from five to ten; and the Senate was compelled to agree to the appointment, for one year, of ten Senators, called Decemvirs, to frame a code of laws for Rome. After much labor, the Decemvirs produced the “Laws of the Twelve Tables.” The Decemvirs had dis- charged their duties so well that it was agreed to continue them in office for another year, to enable them to finish their work; but they soon began to make additions to the Laws of the Twelve Tables by which the plebeians were greatly oppressed, and it became evident that they were laboring altogether in the interest of the patricians; and great discontent ensued in consequence. Appius Claudius and Virginia—Privileges of the Plebeians.—A licentious Outrage now occurred in Rome which led to the overthrow of the power of the |Decemvirs Appius Claudius, a leading Decemvir, had conceived a strong passion 72 AAVC/EM 7" H/STORY. for the beautiful Virginia, the daughter of the plebeian Virginius. In order to secure possession of the person of Virginia, Appius Claudius bribed one of his adherents to claim her as one of his runaway slaves. She was brought before the judgment seat of Appius himself, who ordered her to be given up to the claimant. Just at that moment, Virginia's father, to save his daughter from slavery and dis- grace, rushed forward and plunged a knife into her heart. The indignation of the Roman people was aroused by this outrage; and the plebeians, supported by the army, overthrew the power of the Decemvirs and restored the old government The affrighted Appius Claudius was thrown into prison, where he put an end to his own life. Many new privileges were then granted to the plebeians. The law which prohibited marriages between persons of the two classes was repealed. Military Tribunes, with the power of Consuls, were chosen from the plebeians; while two officers, called Censors, were elected from the patricians to take the census once in every five years. CONQUEST OF VEII AND INVASION OF THE GAULS. Siege and Capture of Veii.--The Etruscan city of Veii had long been one of the most formidable enemies of Rome; and when the people of Veii had slain the Roman ambassadors and refused to give Satisfaction for the outrage, the Romans resolved upon the subjugation of the hostile city. After a siege of ten years, Veii surrendered to the Roman army commanded by the patrician Camillus. The cap- tured city was plundered, and its inhabitants were reduced to slavery. Having incurred the hatred of the plebeians by his unequal distribution of the plunder of the conquered city, Camillus was banished from Rome. Invasion of Italy by the Gauls.-Rome was now threatened by a more power- ful enemy than she had ever before encountered. This enemy was the Gauls, who had crossed the Alps into Northern Italy, or Cisalpine Gaul. These barbarians were the inhabitants of the country then called Gaul (now France). According to tradi- tion, a citizen of the Etruscan city of Clusium, having been refused redress from the magistrates of that city for an injury which he had received from one of the chief men of the city, resolved to have revenge on his country. He crossed the Alps into Gaul, taking with him a large quantity of the wines and fruits of Italy. Seeing that the barbarian Gauls were very much pleased with these presents, the injured Clusian invited them to go with him into Italy and take possession of the country which produced these delicacies. Immediately an immense horde of Gauls, taking with them their women and children, crossed the Alps into ltaly, and marched to Clusium, to which they laid siege. The people of Clusium applied for aid to the Romans, who thereupon sent ambassadors to induce the Gauls to withdraw from Italy. March of the Gauls to Rome.—The Roman ambassadors, having failed in the object of their mission, joined the Clusians in an attack on the besieging Gauls, and killed one of the Gallic chiefs. Brennus, the king of the Gauls, demanded satisfaction from the Roman Senate for the conduct of the ambassadors, and when his demand was rejected, he took up his march, with 70,000 of his followers, directly for Rome. Battle on the Allia–Rome Taken and Burned by the Gauls.—On the banks of the river Allia, eleven miles from Rome, a great battle was ſought, in AZSTOA’ Y OA' A' OMAE. 73 which the Roman army, consisting of 40,000 men, was hopelessly annihilated. This defeat rendered it impossible to defend the city, but 1,000 Romans garrisoned the Capitol, which they resolved to defend to the last extremity, while the greater number of the inhabitants of Rome fled for refuge to the neighboring towns. About eighty priests and patricians, resolving never to survive the ruin of their city, clothed themselves in their long robes and awaited death. When the Gauls entered Rome they found the city deserted, and a death-like silence prevailed; but when they entered the Forum, where sat the aged Senators, they were seized with supersiii) is awe at the sight of those venerable persons, whom they imagined to be divinities. At length one of the Gauls seized hold of the white beard of Marcuz Papirius, one of the Senators: the old man, enraged at this insult, struck the inso- lent barbarian with his ivory staff; whereupon the Gauls massacred the Senators, and set fire to Rome, which, with the exception of the Capitol and a few houses on the Palatine Hill, was totally reduced to ashes. Defense of the Capitol.—The Gauls vainly attempted to obtain possession of the Capitol. They endeavored to climb up the steep ascent in the night, and would have succeeded had not the noise of the sacred geese in the Temple of Juno awoke Marcus Manlius, who immediately hastened to the spot and hurled down the rocky precipice such of the Gauls as attempted to make their way inside the walls of the Capitol. Departure of the Gauls from Rome.—When famine began to prey upon the Romans who garrisoned the Capitol, and sickness was rapidly reducing the numbers of the Gauls, Brennus, the Gallic chief, agreed to abandon Rome and its territory on condition of receiving a thousand pounds of gold. While the gold was being weighed, the banished patrician Camillus arrived with an army for the relief of the garrison, and ordered the gold to be taken back to the Capitol, saying, “It has ever been the custom of us Romans to ransom our country, not with gold, but with iron.” A battle followed, and the Gauls were driven from Rome. The Gallic leader, Brennus, was soon afterward taken prisoner by the Romans and put to death. So says the Roman legend concerning the retreat of the Gauls from Rome; but accord- ing to a more probable account, the Gauls were recalled by a sudden invasion of their own country by the Venetians. Rebuilding of Rome.—As Rome was now a heap of ruins, the Roman people contemplated emigrating to Veii; but the persuasion of Camillus, who appealed to their patriotism and exhorted them not to abandon the spot which had been chosen by Romulus, and a fortunate omen, induced them to remain and rebuild their city. Condemnation and Death of Marcus Manlius.--After the city of Rome had been rebuilt, the patricians again began to oppress the plebeians. The patri- clan Marcus Manlius Capitolimus, the brave defender of the Capitol, came forward as the champion of the oppressed plebeians. He paid the debts of helpless credi- tors and did all in his power to alleviate their condition. Having incurred the hatred of his fellow-patricians, he was thrown into prison, but was released at the demands of the plebeians. Being afterward accused by the patricians of aspiring to the sovereignty of Rome, Manlius was condemned to be thrown headlong from the Taipeian Rock, the place of his former glory. After the death of Marcus Man lius, the patricians oppressed the plebeians more rigorously than ever before. 74 AAVC/EAT ANZSTORY. THE LAWS OF CAIUS LICINIUS STOLO. Sextius Lateranus and Licinius Stolo—The Three Laws of Licinius.- Rome was now saved from oligarchical rule by two remarkable men,_Lucius Sex- tius Lateranus and Caius Licinius Stolo, Tribunes of the People. Licinius pro- posed three laws for the guaranty of the rights and liberties of the plebeians: the first opened the office of Consul to the plebeians; the second prohibited any person from holding more than five hundred acres of the public land, the remainder to be distributed among the plebeians as their own property; the third provided that the interest already paid upon debts should be deducted from the capital sum in making payment, and the remainder to be paid in three years. Opposition of the Patricians—Adoption of the Licinian Laws-The patricians resisted the passage of the Laws of Licinius for five years, and tried every means of violence and fraud to frustrate the noble designs of Licinius Stolo; but when the plebeians took up arms for their rights, and gathered together on the Aventine Hill, the Senate, in order to avoid the horrors of civil war, found itself obliged to sanction the three Licinian Laws, amended only by the provision that the judicial functions, which had before been exercised by the Consuls, should devolve upon an officer called Praetor, to be chosen from the patricians; but in less than half a century, both the praetorship and the dictatorship were opened. to the plebeians. WARS WITH THE SAMNITES AND LATINS. First Samnite War.—The ambition of the Romans soon involved them in a war with the Samnites, a powerful Italian nation to the South-east of Rome. The inhabitants of Capua and Campania obtained assistance from the Romans against the Samnites. The Romans defeated the Samnites in two sanguinary engagements. After the war had continued for two years a treaty of peace and alliance was made between the Romans and the Samnites. The Latin War—Titus Manlius—Patriotic Devotion of Decius.-The Romans next turned their arms against their former allies, the Latins, who had vainly demanded of the Romans certain privileges. When the Roman and Latin armies faced each other, the Roman general, Manlius, forbade any soldier in his army leaving his ranks; and when his own son, Titus Manlius, went forward at the challenge of the Latin general, and slew him in single combat, the stern father punished his son with death for disobedience of command. The battle of Vesuvius was decided in favor of the Romans. Before the battle had begun, the augurs had foretold that the victory would be on the side of the Romans if the commander of that portion of the Roman army which was hard pressed would sacrifice himself for nis country. The portion commanded by Decius being hard pressed, that com- mander clothed himself in a large robe, plunged into the thickest of the fight, and was slain. The result of this war was that the Latins were conquered, and their territory, Latium, was annexed to the Roman territories. Second Samnite War—The Caudine Forks.-Jealousies between the Ro mans and the Samnites led to another war between those two nations. The first part of this war was signalized by several Roman victories; but at length the Sam- nite general Pontius, after having lured the Roman army, commanded by the two AZS 7'OAe Y OF ACOME. 75 Consuls, into a narrow defile called the Caudine Forks, surrounded them with his troops and obliged them to surrender themselves prisoners of war. After undergo- ing the humiliation of passing under a yoke formed of three spears, and agreeing to a peace by which all the territory which had belonged to the Samnites before the war was restored to them, the defeated Romans were allowed to return home. Pon- ius kept six hundred Roman knights as hostages for the fulfillment of the provisions of the treaty. I hird Samnite War.—As soon as intelligence of the humiliating peace with ..} e Samnites reached Rome, the Roman Senate declared the treaty null and void, ind ordered the two Consuls, who had negotiated the treaty, to be given up to the Samnites as persons who had deceived them. In vain did Pontius ask that the treaty be faithfully kept, or that the whole Roman army should again be surrendered to him. The noble Samnite general refused to wreak his vengeance on the two Roman Consuls, and, with unusual magnanimity, he restored the six hundred host- ages. Then began the third war between the Romans and the Samnites. This war lasted thirty years, and ended in the complete subjugation of the Samnites and their allies, the Umbrians, the Etruscans, and the Cisalpine Gauls. The old Sam- nite general, Pontius, was taken prisoner; and, after gracing the triumph of the Roman general, he was put to death by order of the Roman Senate. All of Sam- nium then became a Roman province. (B. C. 291.) THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS. War with the Tarentines—War with Pyrrhus, King of Epirus.-The ambition of the Romans next involved them in a war with Tarentum, a luxurious and wealthy Grecian city of Southern Italy. The effeminate and cowardly Taren- tines applied for assistance to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. Pyrrhus, who was desirous of being a great conqueror, agreed to protect the Tarentines from Roman aggression, and landed in Southern Italy with an army of 30,000 men and twenty elephants, the first of those animals ever seen in Italy. Victories of Pyrrhus.-At length a great battle was fought, in which Pyrrhus was seven times repulsed by the Roman Consul Laevinus; but when he brought his elephants into the field, the Romans were routed with frightful slaughter, and Pyrrhus obtained the victory. While viewing the sanguinary field the next day, Pyrrhus exclaimed, “Had I such soldiers as the Romans, the world would be mine, or had they such a general as I, the world would be theirs!” Pyrrhus then attempted to make peace, and for this purpose he sent to Rome his friend, Cineas, the orator. Pyrrhus often said that he won more victories by the eloquence of Cineas than by the swords of his soldiers. The Romans refused to make peace: and Cineas returned and informed Pyrrhus that Rome looked like a great temple, and the Senate like an assembly of kings. A second battle was fought, and Pyrrhus was again victorious, but at such a fearful cost that he exclaimed, “Another such victory, and I am undone!” Noble Conduct of Fabricius.-While the two armies were preparing for a third battle, a letter was brought to Fabricius, the Roman general, from the physi- cian of Pyrrhus, offering, for a large bribe, to poison the King of Epirus. Fabricius was very Indignant at such a proposal, and he informed Pyrrhus of the treacherous 76 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY conduct of his physician. Amazed at the magnanimity of his enemy, Pyrrhus exclaimed, “It would be easier to turn the sun from his course than Fabricius from the path of honor P. In gratitude for the noble conduct of the Roman general, Pyrrhus immediately released all the Romans whom he had taken prisoners, and sent them home rich with presents. Defeat of Pyrrhus—Fall of Tarentum—Extent of the Roman Territory. --Pyrrhus now went over into Sicily to assist the Syracusans in their war against the Carthaginians; but he returned to Italy three years afterwards, and fought a great battle with the Roman Consul, Curius Dentatus. In this battle Pyrrhus was so thoroughly defeated, and his army was so hopelessly shattered, that he immedi- ately evacuated Italy and retired to his own kingdom of Epirus. Tarentum soon afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans, who soon established their authority over all Italy, from Cisalpine Gaul on the north to the straits of Messana on the South. THE FIRST PUNIC WAR (B. C. 263-24O). Carthage.—Rome now became involved in a war with Carthage, a powerful city founded by the Phoenicians in the ninth century before Christ. Carthage was at this time a more powerful republic than Rome. Its colonies and territorial possessions lined the northern coasts of Africa, from the Pillars of Hercules to the borders of Egypt. The Carthaginians were a great commercial and maritime people, and their navy, at this time, ruled the seas. Cause of a War Between Rome and Carthage.—In the year 264 B.C., Hiero, King of Syracuse, united with the Carthaginians in a war against the Mam- ertines, a powerful band of Italian mercenaries, who, by fraud and injustice, had seized the city of Messana. The Mamertimes, on the other hand, obtained the assistance of the Romans, who had long wished for an opportunity of meddling in the affairs of Sicily. Beginning of the First Punic War—Roman Successes in Sicily.—The first war between Rome and Carthage, or the First Punic War, as it is called, com- menced in the year 263 B.C., when a large Roman army under the Consul Claudius landed in Sicily. The Romans soon took possession of Messama, and induced Hiero, King of Syracuse, to desert the Carthaginians and to enter into an alliance with Rome. Being reduced to great exteremities, the Carthaginians fortified the city of Agrigentum, which was soon besieged and captured by the Romans. (B. C. 262.) Carthaginian Fleet on the Italian Coast—Creation of the Roman Navy. —While the Romans were making themselves masters of Sicily, a Carthaginian fleet of sixty ships devastated the coasts of Italy. The Romans were now impressed with the necessity of creating a navy; but they did not know how to build ships. At length a Carthaginian vessel was blown by a storm to the Italian coast; and this served as a model. A Roman fleet of 160 ships was built in sixty days. As the Romans had no naval experience, they invented a machine for grappling the enemy's vessels with their own, and thus enable them to board the enemy’s ships and fight as on land. Two Roman Naval Victories.—In the first naval fight the Romans destroyed sixty Garthaginian vessels without the loss of a single ship of their own. (B. C. Aſ ZSZTORY OF AZOME. 77 260.) Four years later (B. C. 256), a Roman fleet of 360 ships, commanded by the Consuls, Regulus and Manlius, defeated the Carthaginian fleet of 350 ships, under the command of Hanno and Hamilcar Barcas, off the coast of Africa; the Romans sinking thirty of their enemies' vessels and capturing sixty. Roman Conquests in Africa—Defeat of the Romans—Regulus a Pris- oner.—The Roman army under the Consul Regulus next invaded Africa, and, after storming Clypea, subduing Tunes, and capturing seventy-five towns, devastated the country to the walls of Carthage. The Carthaginians now became alarmed, and sued for peace; but as the conditions which Regulus demanded were too humilia- ting for them, they resolved to continue the war. Fortunately for the Carthaginians at this moment, the Spartan general Xantippus was placed at the head of their army. Xantippus fought a terrible battle with the Romans and destroyed the greater part of their army. Only 2,000 Romans escaped from the field; and Reg. ulus himself was taken prisoner. (B. C. 255.) Two Roman Fleets Destroyed by Storms.-A Roman fleet which was laden with spoils taken from the enemy, while on its return voyage, was destroyed by a storm. Another Roman fleet, consisting of 150 ships, shared the same fate; every vessel being swallowed up by the waves. The Carthaginians again became masters of the seas. Battle of Panormus—Embassy of Regulus to Rome.—In Sicily, the Ro- man general Metellus defeated the Carthaginians in a great battle near Panormus (now Palermo); 20,000 Carthaginians being killed, and more than IOO of their elephants being captured. (B. C. 250.) Soon after the battle of Panormus, the Carthaginians, weary of the contest with Rome, took Regulus from his prison and sent him on an embassy to Rome for the purpose of bringing about a peace, making him first swear that in case the negotiations for peace should fail he would return to his dungeon in Carthage. The stern Regulus induced the Roman Senate to reject the peace propositions, and to continue the war. Bound by his oath, he went back to his dungeon in Carthage. Death of Regulus.--It is said that after the return of Regulus to Carthage, the Carthaginians, enraged at his conduct in breaking off the negotiations for peace, cruelly tortured him to death. After cutting off his eye-lids and putting him into a dark dungeon, they exposed his naked eyes to the burning sun, and then put him into a cask set all around with sharp spikes, where he died in agony. This story is believed to have been invented by the Romans to fire their soldiers with deadly hatred against the Carthaginians; and there are good reasons for believing that Regulus died a natural death. End of the First Punic War.—Several great naval victories were afterwards won by the Romans, but several more of their fleets were destroyed by storms. After the First Punic War had continued for a period of twenty-four years, peace was made. (B.C. 240.) By the terms of the treaty, the Carthaginians were to evacuate Sicily, to pay 3,200 talents of silver to defray Rome's expenses in the war, and to deliver up all prisoners and deserters without ransom. Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica Soon afterward became Roman provinces. 78 AAVC/ENT HISTORY. ILLYRIAN AND GALLIC WARS. war with the Illyrians.—The Romans next engaged in a war with the piratical Illyrians, on the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea. Roman ambassadors were sent to the Illyrian queen to complain of the piracies committed by her subjects on the Italian coasts. The Illyrian queen refused to put a stop to what she considered the rights of her subjects, and caused the Roman ambassadors to be put to death. The war which ensued ended in the humiliation of the Illyrians; and the greater part of their country became tributary to Rome. (B. C. 228.) war with the Cisalpine Gauls.-The Romans were obliged next to turn their arms against the Cisalpine Gauls, who had made a sudden irruption into Etruria and advanced as far as Clusium. The war lasted four years, and was ended by a great victory gained over the Gauls by the Roman Consul Claudius Marcellus; the Gallic chief, Viridomarus, and 40,000 of his followers being slain. (B.C. 222.) Cisalpine Gaul then became a Roman province. f THE SECOND PUNIC WAR (B. C. 218–201). Carthaginian Conquests in Spain—Capture of Saguntum.—The Romans next engaged in a second war with Carthage. After the First Punic War, the Car- thaginians were employed in making conquests in Spain, where they intended to form a province which should compensate for the loss of Sicily. They established the city of Carthagena, or New Carthage, on the southern coast of Spain. At length the Carthaginian army, under the famous general, Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar Barcas, laid siege to the Greek city of Saguntum, which was in alliance with Rome. When only nine years old, Hannibal had been induced by his father to swear eternal hatred against the Romans. He took Saguntum after a siege of eight months. (B. C. 219.) Demand of the Romans—Commencement of the Second Punic War. —The Roman Senate sent an embassy to Carthage to demand that Hannibal and his army should be delivered up for having trespassed on Roman territory, and thus violated the peace; and when this unreasonable demand was not complied with, war was declared against the Carthaginians. Thus began the Second Punic War. (B. C. 218.) Hannibal’s Passage of the Alps and Invasion of Italy.—In the spring of the year 218 B. C., Hannibal crossed the Ebro, and after conquering the wild tribes in that vicinity, he crossed the Pyrenees with 60,000 men and thirty-seven elephants, and marched through Southern Gaul toward the Alps, while his brother Hasdrubal held Spain in subjection to Carthaginian sway. After some resistance from the Gauls, and after forcing a passage through South Gaul and over the Rhone, Han- nibal began his famous passage of the Alps. Difficulties almost insurmountable were encountered and overcome before the Carthaginian army appeared or the rich plains of Northern Italy. The Savage Gauls attacked the Carthaginian soldiers with fury, and destroyed many of them while ascending the precipitous, snow-capped and cloud-capped mountains. When the Carthaginian soldiers reached the summit of the Alps, a great fall of snow increased their difficulties by shutting up the paths. Many of the Carthaginians lost their way, and great numbers fell down the rocky precipices and were killed. Finally the Carthaginians found their march im AZS 7'OA” Y OF ACOMAE. 79 peded by a large rock, which, by heating and quenching with vinegar, they split into ſragments; after which they continued their march, and at length appeared on the Italian plains, south of the mountains. During this dangerous passage of the Alps, which occupied fifteen days, Hannibal lost one-half of his army, from hunger, cold, ſatigue, and conflicts with the fierce natives. Many of the elephants and horses had perished. Battles of Ticinus, Trebia, and Placentia.--When intelligence of Hanni bal’s invasion of Italy reached Rome, the Consul Publius Scipio was sent with an army against the invaders. In a battle on the banks of the river Ticinus, Hanni- bal deſeated the Romans and drove them back with heavy loss. Scipio himself was wounded. Hannibal next defeated another Roman army under the Consul Sempronius, on the banks of the river Trebia. The Romans lost 26,000 men, killed, wounded, or drowned in the Trebia; and only IO,OOO survived and suc- ceeded in fighting their way through the ranks of their victorious foe. In a battle fought at Placentia, Hannibal again defeated the Romans. Battle of Trasimenus.—After a short rest in Liguria, Hannibal crossed the Apennines and marched southward, devastating the country through which he passed. After artfully decoying the Roman army under the Consul Flaminius into an unfavorable position near Lake Trasimenus, and favored by a thick fog, Hanni- bal fell upon the surprised and unexpectant Romans, and inflicted upon them a disastrous defeat. Flaminius himself was killed, and 50,000 of his men were slain, or drowned in the lake, and 6,000 were made prisoners. (B. C. 217.) While this great battle was in progress a terrible earthquake took place, which, though it destroyed many cities and towns, overturned mountains, and stopped rivers in their courses, was unnoticed by the combatants. Cautious Policy of Fabius Maximus—Stratagem of Hannibal.—The Roman disaster of Trasimenus quite overwhelmed the people of Rome; but the Senate, unmoved and resolute, appointed Fabius Maximus Dictator. Fabius pur- sued a new and cautious policy, and was in consequence called the Delayer. By closely following the enemy, fatiguing and harassing them, by turning every wrong movement of theirs to his own advantage, and by avoiding decisive battles, Fabius so reduced the strength of the Carthaginians that Hannibal only saved his army from total destruction by driving 2,000 oxen, with bundles of lighted brushwood fastened to their horns, up the heights occupied by the Romans, who, struck with consternation, fled, thus enabling the Carthaginian general to escape with his weak- ened army. Battle of Cannae.—The Roman people, anxious for a great and decisive battle, were dissatisfied with the slow and cautious mode of warfare pursued by Fabius Maximus. In the year 216 B. C., one of the Roman Consuls, Terentius Varro, with 90,000 men, contrary to the advice of Paulus AEmilius, the other Consul, engaged in a great battle, at Cannae, in Apulia, with Hannibal, who then had 60,000 men. The Romans suffered so frightful a defeat that the very existence of Rome was in danger; and the number of slain on the side of the Romans amounted to 50,000 men, among whom were so many knights that Hannibal sent to Carthage three bushels of rings stripped from their fingers. The Consul Paulus AEmilius was killed. The other Consul, Terentius Varro, fled with a few horse. This catas- trophe, the greatest ever experienced by the Romans, created consternation and 8o AAVC/EAV7' HZSTOA' V. º grief at Rome; but the courageous Senate remained as firm and immovable as ever. Hannibal at Capua.-Instead of marching directly upon Rome after his great victory at Cannae, Hannibal led his army into winter quarters in the rich and luxu- rious city of Capua, in Campania, where his veteran solders, giving themselves up to pleasure and debauchery, became effeminate and lost all their love for war. Fall of Syracuse.—After the battle of Cannae, many of the towns of Southern Italy and Sicily revolted against the Romans. Syracuse, which was for a long time defended by the mechanical skill of the great philosopher and mathematician Archimedes, surrendered to the Roman general Marcellus, in the year 212 B. C. The revenge of the Romans was terrible: the inhabitants of the conquered city were slaughtered; Archimedes was killed at his studies; the works of art were carried to Rome; and the prosperity of Syracuse was forever at an end. Reduction of Capua.-Capua, which, like Syracuse, had revolted against the Romans, was besieged by several Roman legions, and Hannibal advanced toward Rome, in the hope of raising the siege of Capua; but he was forced to retreat, and Capua, reduced by famine, was compelled to surrender to the Romans. Twenty- seven Capuan senators died by their own hands, and fifty-three by the axe of the executioner; and the citizens of Capua were reduced to slavery, and the treasures of the unfortunate city were sent to Rome. (B. C. 21.1.) Fall of Tarentum.—Two years after the fall of Capua (B. C. 209), Tarentum was taken by the Romans under Fabius Maximus, who reduced the citizens to slavery and took possession of the treasures of the captured city. All the towns of Southern Italy and Sicily which had revolted against the Romans soon returned to their allegiance. Scipio's Campaign in Spain.—While the war was thus raging in Italy, for- tune was averse to the Romans in Spain, where two large Roman armies had been cut to pieces by the Carthaginians; but after the youthful Cornelius Scipio had been placed in command of the Roman forces in Spain the fortune of the war under- went an entire change; and the Carthaginians, under the command of Hasdrubal, Hannibal’s brother, were reduced to great extremities, and the Supremacy of the Romans was reestablished in Spain. On his return to Rome, Cornelius Scipio was made Consul, being then only twenty-nine years old. Hasdrubal's March to Italy—Battle of the Metaurus.-Hannibal was at length reduced to such straits in Southern Italy that he found himself obliged to summon his brother Hasdrubal from Spain to his assistance. Hasdrubal succeeded in crossing the Pyrenees and the Alps without much opposition; but on the banks of the river Metaurus his army of more than 60,000 men was defeated and destroyed by the Roman army of 45,000 men, commanded by the Consuls Livius and Claudius Nero. The carnage was frightful. The killed on the side of the Carthaginians numbered 56,ooo, among whom was Hasdrubal himself. (B. C. 207.) The bloody head of Hasdrubal was thrown into the camp of Hannibal, who thereupon exclaimed, “I see the doom of Carthage l’’ scipio's Invasion of Africa–Hannibal's Return to Africa.-At length, in the year 202 B.C., the Roman Consul, Cornelius Scipio, the conqueror of Spain, invaded Africa with a large army, whereupon Massinissa, King of Numidia (now Algeria), entered into an alliance with the Romans. Utica was besieged by the AZSZ"O R Y OF ROME. 31 Romans, Tunes opened its gates to the invaders, whereupon the Carthaginian Senate, greatly alarmed for the safety of Carthage itself, recalled Hannibal from Italy for the defence of his own country. (B. C. 202.) After returning to Africa, Hannibal held a conference with Scipio for the purpose of 'making peace, but the inflexible Roman general refused to accept anything but unconditional submission on the part of Carthage, and consequently the attempt at reconciliation failed. Battle of Zama—Close of the Second Punic War.—In the terrible battle of Zamr, which followed the unsuccessful attempt at peace, Hannibal was defeated with the loss of 20,000 men killed, and as many taken prisoners. Peace was then con- cluded; Carthage being required to give up all her foreign possessions outside of Africa, to pay 10,000 talents of silver to Rome in fifty years, to keep no more elephants for war in future, and to restore to the King of Numidia all the territory which she had wrested from him. Thus ended the Second Punic War, after a continuance of seventeen years. (B. C. 20I.) Scipio, thereafter called Africanus, on his return to Rome, was honored with a most splendid triumph; while Hannibal was forced to retire into exile. MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GRECIAN WARS War with Philip II. of Macedon—Battle of Cynoscephalae.—No sooner had the Second Punic War ended than the Athenians applied to the Romans for protection against King Philip II. of Macedon. As Philip had entered into an alli- ance with the Carthaginians against the Romans in the Second Punic War, and as the Romans had long wished for an opportunity of meddling in the affairs of Greece, the request of the Athenians was readily granted. War was declared against the King of Macedon; and in the year 197 B. C., the Roman general Quintus Flaminius, who had been sent into Greece with a large army, inflicted an irretrievable defeat upon the Macedonian king in the battle of Cynoscephalae, in Thessaly. Philip was ohliged to accept a peace by which he was to pay to the Romans Io,000 talents and to acknowledge the independence of Greece. To gratify the vanity of the Greeks, Flaminius, at the Isthmian Games, proclaimed the liberation of Greece from Macedonian oppression; but the Romans were as anx- ious to extend their supremacy over Greece as the Macedonian king had been to maintain his dominion there. War with Antiochus the Great of Syria—Battle of Magnesia. —A few years after the defeat of Philip II. of Macedon, the AEtolians solicited as i from King Antiochus the Great of Syria against the Romans. Antiochus marched into Greece with a powerful army; but was compelled to retreat into Asia Minor, whither he was pursued by the Roman army commanded by Cornelius Scipio Africanus and his brother. After sustaining a frightful defeat in the great battle of Magnesia, near Ephesus, from the Scipios, the King of Syria was forced to accept a peace by which he gave up to the Romans all his territories in Europe and a large Portion of those in Asia Minor, to pay to the Romans 50,000 Euboean talents (a sum equal to $15,000,000), and to deliver up Hannibal, who was then living in exile at his court. Death of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus.--To avoid falling into the hands of the Romans, Hannibal fled to the court of Prusias, King of Bithynia. When Pru- 6 * 82 AAVC/EAV7" HISTORY. sias, fearing to incur the hostility of the Romans, was about to yield to their demand to surrender Hannibal into their hands, the old Carthaginian general put an end to his own life by swallowing poison. (B. C. 183.) His great rival and conqueror, Scipio Africanus, who, having been treated with ingratitude by his own country. men, spent his last days in voluntary exile, died the same year. The valiant Philo poemen, the second chieftain of the Achaian League, was compelled to drink the cup of poison during this same fatal year. War with Perseus, King of Macedon—Battle of Pydna.-The wicked Pºrseus, the son and successor of Philip II. of Macedon, began a fresh war agains the Romans. The Macedonian territories were again invaded; and Perseus Suf. fered a crushing defeat from the Roman general Paulus AEmilius in the battle of Pydna. (B. C. 168.) Perseus was afterward taken prisoner and carried to Rome to grace the triumph of his conqueror; and Macedonia became a Roman province, The Achaians were charged with having given assistance to Perseus, and I,OOO of their chiefs were taken to Rome to answer for their conduct before a Roman tribunal. Conquest of Greece by the Romans—Destruction of Corinth.--Twenty years after the fall of Perseus, the Macedonians revolted; but they were again speedily subdued by the Romans. At the same time the Achaian League took up arms to defend the independence of Greece, which was threatened by the Romans. The Achaians lost several battles; and finally, the Roman Consul Mummius took the city of Corinth by storm and reduced it to ashes. The whole of Greece then became a Roman province under the name of Achaia. (B. C. 146.) Thus ended the independent existence of the celebrated commonwealths of Ancient Greece,— victims to Roman ambition. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR (B. C. 149–146). Origin of the Third Punic War—Demands of the Romans.—The same year that Greece yielded to Roman sway (B. C. 146), Carthage was destroyed by the Romans. After the Second Punic War, Carthage recovered some of her former prosperity, thus awakening the jealousy of the Romans. Carthage was disposed to remain at peace, but the repeated encroachments on their territory by Massinissa, King of Numidia, induced the Carthaginians at length to take up arms to defend their own possessions. The Roman Senate had long been seeking a pretext for war. The elder Cato had made a practice of concluding all his speeches in the Senate, with the sentence, “Delenda est Carthago,” “Carthage must be destroyed.” The Senate, pretending to regard the conduct of Carthage in defending her own ter- ritories against Massinissa as a breach of the peace, declared war. The Carthagi. nians were alarmed, and gave up three hundred noble Carthaginian children as hostages, at the demand of the Romans. The Roman army then crossed over into Africa. The Carthaginians were now commanded to give up all their arms and military stores. This command, hard as it was, was promptly obeyed. The cruel and treacherous Romans next demanded that the Carthaginians should abandon their city and build another city without walls or fortifications, not nearer to the sea-shore than ten miles, while Carthage was to be burned to the ground. The Carthaginians gave themselves up to grief and despair at this cruel and insolent demand; but resolved to perish beneath the ruins of their city raſher than submit to such humili- AISTORY OF ROME. 83 ation. Then began the Third Punic War. (B. C. 149.) The Carthaginians placed Hasdrubal at their head and prepared in earnest to defend their city. Their tem- ples were turned into workshops; and men and women were engaged day and night in manufacturing arms, and the women cut off their long hair to be twisted into bow-strings, Capture and Destruction of Carthage.—The Romans did not expect such an exhibition of courage and patriotism on the part of the Carthaginians; and for three years the Roman army met with some signal repulses. At length, Scipio AEmilianus, the adopted son of the great Scipio Africanus, was placed in command of the Roman army; and after a sanguinary struggle of six days in the streets of Carthage and on the tops of the houses, the city was taken. By order of Scipio, the conquered city was set on fire, and it continued to burn for seventeen days; and 50,000 of the wretched inhabitants of the city were reduced to slavery, while the remaining 5,000 threw themselves into the flames and thus perished with their city. The wife of Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian leader, reproached her husband as a coward and a traitor, and then threw herself and her children into the flames of the burning city. The city walls were then razed to the ground; and the territory of Carthage, under the name of Africa, became a Roman province. (B. C. I.46.) Thus perished, after an existence of eight centuries, the once-mighty Republic of Carthage, which had been mistress of the Mediterranean, and whose power had once made Rome tremble for her own existence. ROMAN CONQUEST OF SPAIN. Viriathus, the Lusitanian Chief.—After the Third Punic War, the Romans had to sustain a hard conflict in Spain with the Lusitanians, a heroic and powerful people, who, under their brave chief, Viriathus, had defeated the Roman armies and frustrated all attempts to reduce them under the Roman yoke. The struggle lasted eight years, and it was only after Caepio, the Roman governor of Spain, had treacherously procured the assassination of Viriathus, that the heroic Lusitanians were subdued. e Siege and Fall of Numantia.-Although the Lusitanians submitted to Roman sway after the death of their valiant chief, the Romans were not yet in undisputed and quiet possession of Spain; as the brave people of Numantia still maintained their independence. After two large Roman armies had been annihilated, Scipio Æmilianus, the conqueror of Carthage, was sent with 60,000 men against the free- dom-loving Numantians. Scipio laid siege to the city of Numantia; and after the Numantians had suffered greatly from famine, they destroyed all their women and children, and then setting fire to their city, threw themselves into the flames and perished to a man. (B C. 133.) After the destruction of Numantia, Spain became a Roman province. Rebellion of the Slaves in Sicily.—Two years before the fall of Numantia (B. C. I31), the slaves in Sicily, who had been treated by their masters with the most unmitigated cruelty, rose in rebellion for the purpose of recovering their free- dom. During this rebellion the most frightful cruelties were committed by both parties. After four large Roman armies had been defeated by the rebellious slaves, Eunus, the able leader of the insurrection, was betrayed into the hands of the Ro- 84 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. mans, after which most of the insurgent slaves were put to death, and peace was secured. (B. C. 133.) SEDITION OF THE GRACCHI. Political and Social Condition of the Roman People.—The political and social condition of Rome at this period was such as to endanger the liberties of Roman citizens. The great mass of the Roman population were extremely poor, while the majority of the nobility were immensely rich. All the lands, as well as the lucrative offices, came into the possession of the nobles; and thus the greatest inequality in the distribution of property existed among the Roman people. The large plantations were cultivated by slaves, and thus the peasants, driven from their lands by unscrupulous and rapacious land-owners, were reduced to the Inost extreme state of poverty and social distress. Tiberius Gracchus.-In this wretched state of affairs at Rome, Tiberius Grac- chus, a Tribune of the People, and son of Cornelia, daughter of the great Scipio Africanus, proposed the enforcement of the long-neglected agrarian law of Licinius Stolo, which prohibited any Roman from holding more than 500 acres of the public land. This proposal of Tiberius Gracchus was violently opposed by the Roman aristocracy, who vainly endeavored to persuade the people that Tiberius was attempting to overthrow the government and disturb the public peace. When the assemblies of the people were about to vote on the Licinian law, the nobles bribed Octavius, another Tribune, to forbid the proceedings; but the people removed him from the tribuneship, and thus secured the passage of the agrarian law. Tiberius next proposed that the treasures which Attalus, King of Pergamus, at his death, by his last will, had left to the Roman people, should be divided equally among the poor. This proposal met with the most vehement resistance from the Roman nobles; and while a new election for Tribunes was going on, Tiberius was addressing the people at the Capitol, when a false report was carried to the Senate, stating that Tiberius had demanded a crown; whereupon the Senators, headed by Scipio Nasica, and accompanied by their retinue, proceeded to the Capitol, where in a bloody conflict they killed Tiberius Gracchus and three hundred of his adherents. (B C. 132.) Caius Gracchus.-Ten years after the death of Tiberius Gracchus, his young and talented brother, Caius Gracchus, advocated the cause of the people; and, being elected a Tribune, took measures for enforcing the agrarian law, and com- menced many reforms in the administration of public affairs; but when a new elec- tion for Tribunes took place, Caius was deprived of the office by false returns and bribery. Caius Gracchus and his adherents were soon afterward attacked on the Aventine Hill by the forces of the Senate, with the Consul Opimius at their head. The party of Caius was defeated with the loss of 3,000 men. Caius Gracchus, being surrounded by his enemies, caused one of his own companions to kill him with his sword. (B, C, 122.) His head was taken to Opimius, who had offered for it a reward of its weight in gold. End of Roman Freedom—Triumph of the Aristocracy.—With the fall of the Gracchi ended the freedom of the Roman people. Thereafter an insolent and corrupt aristocracy ruled the Roman Republic. Rome's most glorious period had HISTORY OF ROME. 85 now passed away; and the Republic had degenerated into a miserable oligarchy. The Tribunes, who had before been the protectors and guardians of popular rights, becºming rich themselves, concurred with the nobles in oppressing the people. AGE OF CAIUS MARIUS AND CORN ELIUS SYLLA, The Jugurthine War.—The venality and corruption of the Roman Senate was clearly made manifest by their conduct in connection with the events which led to the Jugurthine War. Micipsa, King of Numidia, Son of Massinissa, divided his kingdom, at his death, among his two Sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, and his nephew Jugurtha. But Jugurtha, for the purpose of seizing upon the whole king- dom for himself, caused Hiempsal to be murdered, and compelled Adherbal to seek refuge in Rome. The Roman Senate was at first inclined to punish the usurper; but, being corrupted with his gold, at length decreed that the Numidian kingdom should be divided between Jugurtha and Adherbal. Jugurtha then made war upon his cousin Adherbal, and, after obtaining possession of his person, put him to death. The Roman Senate was still disposed to let Jugurtha go unpunished, but the indig- nation of the Roman people caused the usurper to be brought to Rome in order to convict those Senators who had taken bribes from him. While in Rome, Jugurtha caused his cousin Massiva, who aspired to the throne of Numidia, to be murdered in the street. For this crime, Jugurtha was compelled to leave Rome. As he went out of the city, he exclaimed, “Venal city, and soon to perish if a purchaser can be found!” A Roman army which had followed Jugurtha into Africa was defeated, and compelled to pass under the yoke and to evacuate Numidia within ten days. The Roman general Metellus, who had been sent with an army into Africa, drove Jugurtha from his kingdom, whereupon the usurper formed an alliance with his father-in-law, Bocchus, King of Mauritania (now Morocco); but the Roman Consul Caius Marius, a man of rude manners, defeated the united forces of the two kings. Bocchus, in order to obtain peace for himself, betrayed Jugurtha into the hands of the Romans. Jugurtha was carried to Rome to grace the triumph of Marius, after which he was starved to death in prison. Invasion of the Cimbrians and the Teutones.—The Jugurthine War had not yet ended when the Cimbrians and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes of bar- barians, menaced Italy with invasion. These people left their homes in Northern Europe with their women and children for the purpose of seeking a habitation in a more hospitable region. In the year I 13 B. C., they defeated the Roman army commanded by the Consul Papirius Carbo in a sanguinary battle in Norirum. They then passed through Rhaetia into Southern Gaul, and in the course of four years they completely destroyed four large Roman armies. At length, Marius, whom the Roman people, contrary to law, had elected Consul five times in succes sion, was invested with the chief command of the Roman army in Gaul. The Cimbrians then marched into Italy, leaving the Teutones in Gaul to oppose Marius. After trying in vain to provoke Marius to battle, the Teutones marched past his camp and ieeringly asked the Romans if they had any messages to send to their wives. Marius followed the Teutones, and in a bloody battle of two days at Aquae Sextia: the Teutones were hopelessly overthrown, with the loss of 200,oco men killed and taken prisoners. (B. C. Io2.) After crossing the Alps and driving the Roman army under the Consul Catulus across the Padus (now Po), the Cimbrians 86 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. were annihilated by Marius and Catulus with united forces in a great battle near Vercellae. (B. C. IoI.) To avoid falling into the hands of the Romans, the Cim- brians killed themselves. They lost 200,000 slain and taken prisoners. The Social War.—Soon after the overthrow of the Cimbrians and the Teutones, the very existence of Rome was endangered by a frightful war, called the “Social War,” between the Romans and their Italian allies. The allies, headed by the Samnites and the Marsians, having long been deprived of the rights of Roman citi- zenship, now took up arms to compel Rome to grant the long-withheld privileges, or to free themselves from Roman supremacy. They formed a confederation, and made the town of Italica their capital. The Romans were obliged to grant the rights of citizenship to the Latins, the Umbrians, and the Etruscans, to prevent them from joining the revolted allies. In order to escape total ruin, Rome was at last obliged to confer the rights of citizenship on all who would submit. Thus ended, after a continuance of two years, the famous Social War, in which 300,000 of the population of Italy had perished. (B. C. 88.) First Mithridatic War.—Before the close of the Social War, a war broke out in Asia between the Romans and Mithridates, King of Pontus. This powerful monarch, who was also a good linguist, had added several Asiatic states to his dominions, thus awakening the jealousy of the Romans, who were now aiming at supreme sovereignty in Asia. Mithridates caused 80,000 Roman subjects to be put to death in one day, defeated two powerful Roman armies which had been sent against him, and obtained possession of all Asia Minor. The Grecian states, with Athens at their head, had placed themselves under the authority of the King of Pontus. CIVIL WAR OF MARIUS AND SYLLA. Rivalry of Marius and Sylla—Flight and Exile of Marius.-The Roman Senate gave the command of the army sent against Mithridates to Cornelius Sylla, a man of talent and polished manners, but of immoral and dissipated character, who had served under Caius Marius in the Jugurthine War, in the war against the Cim- brians and the Teutones, and in the Social War. But Marius, who was jealous of Sylla's military fame, procured a decree from the Roman people by which the con- duct of the war against Mithridates was transferred from Sylla to himself. Sylla led his army from Southern Italy against Rome, entered the city, and outlawed Marius and eleven of his principal adherents. After a series of dangers and roman- tic adventures, Marius escaped to Africa. (B. C. 88.) Civil War of Marius and Sylla—Capture of Rome by Marius.-As soon as Sylla had passed into Greece to conduct the war against Mithridates, Marius was recalled from Africa by his partisans; and a furious civil war ensued, which ravaged Italy with all its horrors. The Senate and the nobility sided with the party of Sylla, but Rome was besieged by Marius, who at length compelled the city to surrender. A general massacre of all the partisans of Sylla then commenced, and continued for five days and nights. The heads of the murdered Senators and nobles were given to the dogs and to the birds of the air. Death of Marius—Sylla's Victories over Mithridates.—Having gratified his thirst for vengeance, Marius was chosen Consul for the seventh time, but he died in sixteen days from the effects of intemperance. (B. C. 86.) While Italy AZS 7'OA’ Y OF ACOME. 87 was a prey to the horrors of civil war, Sylla took Athens by storm, defeated two large armies of Mithridates, and compelled that king to agree to a peace by which the Romans not only recovered all their provinces in Asia Minor, but were also indemnified for their expenses in the war. (B. C. 84.) Capture of Rome by Sylla—His Dictatorship, Resignation and Death. •. After the 2-nclusion of the First Mithridatic War, Sylla returned to Italy to take yengeance on his enemies. After defeating the partisans of Marius in many battles, Sylla obtained possession of Rome. Like Marius, Sylla determined to massacre all his enemies. All Italy was filled with massacre and blood. In Rome the streets were heaped up with the dead bodies of the massacred partisans of Malius. Having thus glutted his desire for revenge, Sylla caused himself to be appointed Perpetual Dictator, and proclaimed the Cornelian Law, which gave the government into the hands of the aristocracy at Rome. After exercising the Supreme authority for more than two years, Sylla, to the surprise of everybody, resigned his power, and retired to his estate, where he soon afterward died of a loathsome disease. (B. C. 78.) AGE OF CNAEUS POMPEY AND JULIUS CAESAR. Rebellion of Sertorius in Spain.-Sylla’s resignation and death did not put an end to the civil war by which the Roman Republic was distracted. In Spain the partisans of Marius, headed by Sertorius, were still under arms. After Sertorius had gained several victories over the Roman armies which had been sent against them, the youthful Cnaeus Pompey was sent into Spain to quell the rebellion, but he too was defeated; and it was only after Sertorius had been assassinated by his own officers that the rebels were subdued and that peace was restored to Spain. (B. C. 70.) Rebellion of the Slaves under Spartacus.-While the events just related were occurring in Spain, a dangerous rebellion of the slaves, headed by the gladia- tor Spartacus, broke out in Italy. Spartacus, with other gladiators, escaped from his place of confinement at Capua, and induced many slaves to join his standard and fight for their own freedom. Having been joined by fugitives and desperadoes of every sort, Spartacus soon had I2O,OOO men under his command. Spartacus overthrew two large Roman armies commanded by the Consuls, that were sent against him, but at last he was defeated by the Praetor, M. Crassus. Spartacus fought at the head of his followers until he fell covered with wounds and expired upon a heap of Romans who had fallen beneath his sword. Twelve thousand of his followers were put to the sword, and the remainder were finally subdued by Pompey, the growing rival of the wealthy Crassus. (B. C. 70.) War Against the Cilician Pirates.—At this time the Mediterranean sea swarmed with pirates from the mountainous country of Cilicia, in Asia Minor. These pirates would capture towns and villages, and carry off the inhabitants and sell them into slavery. Many Roman nobles and Senators were taken by them, and only obtained their freedom by paying a heavy ransom. Commerce was interrupted by these piracies of the Cilicians, and Rome was threatened with famine, In this dangerous state of affairs, Pompey was invested with the supreme command over all the coasts and Islands of the Mediterranean sea. Powerful Roman fleets 88 AAVCIEAVT HISTORY. were sent against the pirates, who were soon driven from the seas and forced to take refuge in their fortresses in Cilicia, where they were subdued by Pompey, who distri- buted them as colonists in the various cities and towns of Asia Minor. (B. C. 67.) Overthrow of Mithridates and the Seleucidae.—In the year 74 B. C., the Roman Republic became involved in another war with Mithridates, the powerful King of Pontus. After the Roman general Lucullus had driven the Pontic king into Armenia, Pompey was sent to take the chief command of the Roman armies in Asia. In the year 66 B.C., Pompey inflicted a crushing defeat upon Mithri. dates on the banks of the Euphrates. Three years afterwards, Mithridates, aban. doned by his followers and having lost all his dominions, poisoned himself. The year after his victory over Mithridates (B. C. 65), Pompey subverted the Syriar, Empire of the Seleucidae, and Syria became a Roman province. Reduction of Judea.—About this time the throne of Judea was claimed by two brothers, John Hyrcanus and Aristobulus II. Each applied for aid to Pompey, who decided in favor of Hyrcanus. Aristobulus prepared to resist the Romans, and shut himself up in Jerusalem, which was taken by Pompey after a three months' siege. Hyrcanus was seated on the Jewish throne, but was required to pay tribute to Rome. Aristobulus was carried to Rome to grace the triumph of Pompey. Conspiracy of Catiline.—While Pompey was conquering in Asia, the Roman Republic was brought to the very verge of ruin by a conspiracy headed by Sergius Catiline, a man of noble birth, but of ruined fortunes and infamous character. Catiline's chief confederates in the plot were mostly young nobles of desper- afe fortunes, who hoped by overthrowing the government and elevating Catiline to the consulship to obtain possession of the public treasures and the property of the citizens. As the great obstacle to the success of the plans of the conspira- tors was the vigilance of the great orator, M. Tullius Cicero, who was at that time one of the Roman Consuls, it was resolved to murder him. But Cicero obtained a knowledge of the plans of the conspirators from one of their own number whom he had bribed; and the attempt to assassinate the Consul was frustrated. Catiline had the audacity to make his appearance in the Senate House, where Cicerc unmasked the designs of the conspirators; and Catiline, overwhelmed with terror and confusion, fled into Etruria, where his confederates had collected a large army. The Consul Antonius was sent with an army against the conspirators, who, with Catiline at their head, fought with the most desperate courage until every one of their number was slain. (B. C. 63.) Cicero, whose vigilance and patriotism had saved Rome by defeating this infamous conspiracy, received the glorious title of “Father of his Country.” The First Triumvirate.—After the conclusion of his wars in Asia, Pompey returned to Rome and united with Crassus and the youthful Caius Julius Caesar in a po ſtical partnership, called the “First Triumvirate,” by which these three men took upon themselves the government of the Roman Republic, and practically usurped the authority of the Senate. (B. C. 60.) The Triumvirs divided the Republic among themselves: Pompey received Spain, Africa, and Italy; Caesar obtained Gaul, the complete conquest of which was entrusted to him; and Crassus, the richest man in Rome, whºse avarice was unbounded, chose Syria, which was famed for its wealth. AZS 7'O/º V OA' A'OMAE. 89 Disasters and Death of Crassus in Parthia.--To gratify his avarice, the wealthy Crassus, on taking possession of Syria, led an expedition into Parthia, for the purpose of further enriching himself by plundering that country. When the Parthians sent an embassy to Crassus to complain of his aggressive conduct, he boasted that he would give his answer in Seleucia, a suburb of Ctesiphon, the cap- ital of the Parthian Empire. One of the Parthian ambassadors, showing the palm of his hand, replied, “Crassus, hairs will grow there before you see Seleucia.” Crassus then advanced far into the Parthian territories, but he was finally defeated, made prisoner, and put to death by the Parthians. The greater part of his army perished, and the Roman ensigns fell into the hands of the victorious enemy It is said that the triumphant Parthians, in reproach of the insatiate avarice of Crassus, poured melted lead down his throat after his head had been cut off. Julius Caesar's Wars in Gaul, Germany, and Britain.—In the course of eight years, Julius Caesar subdued Gaul. During this period he twice crossed the Rhine into Germany, and twice passed over into Britain. He first invaded Britain in the year 55 B. C., and after subjecting the Britons to tribute, he returned to Gaul; but in the year 54 B.C. occurred his second invasion of Britain, which resulted in the second defeat and subjection of the natives, and Caesar returned to Gaul to complete the subjugation of the wild tribes of that country. While in Gaul, Caesar conquered three hundred nations, took eight hundred cities and towns, subdued three millions of people, killed one million, and reduced another million to slavery. All this woe was inflicted to gratify the ambition of one man. CIVIL WAR OF POMPEY AND CAESAR. Rivalry of Pompey and Caesar.—The death of Crassus left Pompey and Caesar as the only masters of the Roman world. But these two great generals, being jealous of each other's fame, soon became rivals and enemies. When Caesar was refused permission to stand as a candidate for the consulship while absent from Rome, after the termination of his wars in Gaul, and was ordered by the Senate to disband his legions and to lay down his office, Caesar's partisans demanded that Pompey should do the same. But the Senate threatened to declare Caesar a public enemy unless he unconditionally disbanded his army and resigned his provinces within a specified time. By large bribes, Caesar had obtained many and powerful friends in Rome, among whom were Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius, Tribunes of the People. Civil War—Caesar’s March to Rome, and Pompey’s Flight to Greece, —It was now evident that the rivalry of Pompey and Caesar could only be termin. ated on the field of battle. Both parties therefore flew to arms, and the Roman Republic was again involved in all the horrors of civil war. The Tribunes Antony and Cassius fled to Caesar's camp at Ravenna, in Northern Italy, and inflamed the :age of his army against Pompey and the Senate. Caesar's soldiers declared their tlétermination to stand by their general to the last. After some hesitation, Caesar passed the Rubicon, or boundary stream between Umbria and Cisalpine Gaul, and marched hastily toward Rome. The Senate and Pompey, greatly alarmed at Cesar’s rapid advance, fled across the Adriatic sea into Greece; and Caesar entered Rome, and was in possession of all Italy within sixty days. 90 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. Pompey and Caesar in Greece—Battle of Pharsalia–Assassination of Pompey.—After going over into Spain and overthrowing Pompey's adherents in that Roman province, and taking by siege the town of Marseilles, in Gaul, Caesal returned to Rome; and then passed over into Greece to make head against Pom- pey, who had in the meantime collected a large army. The armies of the two rivals met at Pharsalia, in Thessaly, where occurred the battle which decided the fate of the Roman world. Caesar gained the victory, and Pompey fled to Egypt to claim he protection of Ptolemy, the youthful king of that country. (B. C. 48.) Ptolemy, who was then at war with his sister, Cleopatra, had in his army a young Rorgan named Septimius, who persuaded the young king to put Pompey to death in order to gain the favor of the victorious Caesar. As soon as the fallen Pompey, upon arriving at the shores of Egypt, prepared to land, he was assassinated by order of Ptolemy. Caesar in Egypt—Overthrow and Death of Ptolemy.—When Caesar arrived at Alexandria, in Egypt, in pursuit of Pompey and his followers, the bloody head and signet ring of Pompey were brought to him. Caesar wept bitterly, and turned away in disgust at the sight of these relics. He ordered the head of his unfortunate rival to be interred with due honors, and bestowed honors and favors on Pompey’s º adherents. Ptolemy was greatly disappointed when Caesar, captivated by the charms of Cleopatra, decided in favor of her claims to the throne of Egypt. Ptolemy's adherents then arose against Caesar, who, having taken only a few troops with him to Alexandria, was soon involved in the greatest dangers. The palace in which Caesar had taken refuge was set on fire by Ptolemy's partisans, and the great library which had been established by King Ptolemy Philadelphus fell a prey to the flames. Caesar succeeded in making his escape from the city, and afterwards overthrew the army of Ptolemy, who, after the battle, was drowned in the Nile. (B. C. 48.) Caesar’s Victories in Asia, Africa, and Spain.—Caesar next advanced into Asia against Pharnaces, King of Pontus, Son of Mithridates, whom he subdued so easily that he announced his victory to the Roman Senate in three words, “Veni, vidi, vici,” “I came, I saw, I conquered.” After returning to Rome, Caesar passed over into Africa, where his enemies, the younger Cato and the sons of Pompey, still had a large army. Caesar gained a victory in the battle of Thapsus; after which Cato, who had shut himself up in Utica, not wishing to survive the Roman Repub- lic, which he saw had virtually approached its end, committed suicide. (B. C. 46.) After his victory in Africa, Caesar returned to Rome; but the civil war was not fully closed until the following year (B. C. 45), for Cneius and Sextus, the sons of Pom- pey, had raised a large army in Spain. Caesar marched against them and gave them a complete overthrow in the battle of Munda, Cneius was slain while fleeing from the field, but Sextus succeeded in making his escape. CAESAR’S DICTATORSHIP. Dictatorship of Caesar.—Julius Caesar was now made Dictator of the Roman world for life, with the title of Imperator, and was invested with all the powers of a monarch, although the name and outward form of the Republic were permitted to remain. Caesar's statue had been placed beside that of Jupiter in the Capitol, and AZSZTORY OF ROME. 9I on it was marked the inscription, “To Caesar the Demi-god.” He altered the laws, corrected many abuses, granted the privileges of Roman citizens to whole Roman provinces, sent many citizens into the provinces as colonists, caused the Roman laws to be digested into a code, and planned many improvements, such as the digging of canals, the opening of harbors, the construction of roads, the collection of public libraries, the erection of a new theatre, and the building of a magnificent temple to Mars, the god of war. The Dictator entertained the Roman people with magnifi- cent shows, games, and banquets. Twenty thousand tables were placed in the streets (If Rome to feast the people, who had now lost all the republican virtue of their ariceStorS. Conspiracy against Caesar.—Caesar was soon suspected of a design to assume the title of King. At the feast of the Lupercalia, Mark Antony offered him a crown. It was believed that this was done at the secret instigation of the Dictator, but the popular disapprobation of the act obliged Caesar to refuse the title and emblem of royalty. Still it was thought that the Dictator was aspiring to a kingly dignity, and a conspiracy was formed by about sixty Senators for the assassination of Caesar. At the head of the conspirators were the Praetor, M. Cassius, who hated Caesar, and Marcus Junius Brutus, a sincere friend of liberty and a republican of the old stamp, but also a firm friend of Caesar. Assassination of Caesar.—The Ides (15th) of March was the day fixed upon for the assassination to take place. When Caesar had taken his seat in the Senate House, the conspirators approached him under the pretense of Saluting him; and one of them, pretending to make some request, took hold of Caesar’s robe as a signal, whereupon the others rushed upon him with their daggers. The Dictator defended himself vigorously, throwing down such as opposed him, until he saw his dear friend Brutus among the conspirators, and, exclaiming “Et tu Brute!” “Thou too Brutus!” he ſell down at the base of Pompey's statue, pierced with twenty-three wounds, and expired. (B. C. 44.) As soon as the bloody work of the conspira- tors was accomplished, Brutus, brandishing his dagger, congratulated the Senate, and Cicero in particular, on the restoration of Roman liberty. The majority of the Senators, seized with fear and astonishment, fled from Rome and hid themselves in their houses. Funeral of Caesar—Mark Antony—Flight of Brutus and Cassius.-On the day of Caesar's funeral, Mark Antony appeared before the people in the Forum of Rome to deliver the funeral oration. He began artfully to work up the passions of the multitude by enumerating the brilliant exploits and the noble acts of the mur- dered Caesar, and then liſted up his bloody robe and showed them the number of stabs in it. Antony also showed the people an image of wax, representing Caesar’s body all covered with wounds. The people, becoming so excited that they could no longer restrain their indignation against the assassins, stormed the Senate House, tore up the benches to make a funeral pile, and ran through the streets with lighted brands to set fire to the houses of Brutus, Cassius, and the other conspirators. Bru- tus and Cassius fled from Rome to the Eastern Roman provinces, where they deter mined to defend themselves and to arrest the rapid decline of the Roman Republic $)2 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. MARK ANTONY AND OCTAVIUS CAESAR. The Second Triumvirate.—Mark Antony, with the aid of Lepidus, one of his adherents, aimed at the supreme power in the Roman world, but he found a power- ful rival in the youthful Octavius Caesar, the grandson of the murdered Dictator's sister Julia, and his adopted son and principal heir to the vast Roman territories. The Roman world was threatened with another furious civil war, when the rivals, Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius, united in a league called the “Second Triumvi-. rate,” and agreed to take upon themselves the government of the Roman Repub- lic for five years. (B. C. 43.) The Triumvirs made a cruel and tyrannical use of their power by causing all their most powerful opponents to be put to death. Antony sacrificed his uncle, Lepidus yielded his brother, and Octavius, to his eter- nal shame, allowed Cicero to be abandoned to the vengeance of his colleagues. Cicero was murdered by a band of assassins who had been sent after him for that purpose. Brutus and Cassius in Greece—Battle of Philippi—Suicide of Brutus and Cassius.-As soon as Octavius and Antony had finished their bloody work in Rome they marched against Brutus and Cassius, who had raised an army of more than IOO,OOO in the Eastern Roman provinces. At Philippi, in Macedonia, two battles were fought, in both of which Octavius and Antony were victorious. (B. C. 4.I.) Both Brutus and Cassius, in despair at their defeat, committed suicide; and with their death ended the hopes of the Roman Republic forever. After the battle of Philippi, Octavius immediately returned to Rome, while Antony remained in the East. Antony and Cleopatra.--Antony passed over into Asia Minor. While at Tar- sus, a city of Cilicia, the beautiful but wicked Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, came to visit him. Antony was so captivated with the beauty of the Egyptian queen that he went with her to Alexandria, where he abandoned himself to indolence, luxury, and vice, equally regardless of the calls of honor, interest, or ambition. Rebellion in Italy and new Division of the Roman World.—While An- tony was thus wasting his time in Egypt, a formidable rebellion, headed by Lucius, the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of Antony, broke out in Italy against Octavius. But it was not until the rebellion had been suppressed and quiet restored that An- tomy resolved to return to Italy. On his way, at Athens, he met his wife Fulvia, whom he blamed for having caused the recent disturbances in Italy, and treated her with great contempt. Leaving her on her death-bed, Antony hastened to Italy, and met the army of Octavius at Brundusium. It was expected that there would be a bloody struggle; but a friendly treaty was effected, and, to cement the union, Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavius. A new division of the Roman world fol- lowed to Octavius was assigned the West; to Antony, the East; to Lepidus, Africa; and Sextus Pompey, who was also admitted into the partnership, was allowed to hold the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, together with the Peloponnesus. CIVIL WAR OF OCTAVIUS AND ANTONY. Octavius and Antony.—The peace of the Roman world was soon again broken. Octavius quarreled with Sextus Pompey and also with Lepidus, and deprived both of them of their provinces. Pompey fled to the East, where he was slain by one Tºſſ" ſº vi | | | |\| º | | | |N||Nº|| tº \ : ſ | * W **'. JULIUS CAESAR. |ſ|| §§ § § -3 sº ||||| | | l SSºs f tº. - J/ | | Z_Aſ Yº: Ły N WA | ||||WSº § {|| W ſ * *. º Nº. §§ \ 2 WN \ s º 2 SS º N | § a ) ..., § §NW \|| z; º SN \ * g [. Nº | W. \\ } | § | § N N !}} % N § N N \\ | t º º: Q t { § Aft § ſ 1 * | G * l | Nº! º | i N. º iK|º º | Hj | º ſ º º º i | | | 'il ' ' |'' | ! t | | N. ºf , , , * * * * * } /... j}% % 27 #ff ºf CAESAR AUGUSTUS. HISTORY OF ROME. 93 of Antony's lieutenants. Antony was now the only obstacle in the way of the ambition of Octavius, who was anxious to make himself sole master of the Roman world. Antony had in the meantime led an unsuccessful expedition against the Parthians; after which he returned to Egypt, where he again plunged into luxury and dissipation, and allowed himself to be enslaved by the charms of Cleopatra, on whom he bestowed several Roman provinces in Asia. When Antony's wife, Octa- via, went to meet her husband, he ordered her to return to Rome, and shortly after- wards he resolved to marry Cleopatra. Quarrel of Octavius and Antony—Battle of Actium—Flight of Antony. —Antony's foolish and disgraceful conduct rendered a quarrel between him and Octavius unavoidable. Civil war ensued. The fleets and armies of the two rivals met on opposite shores of the Gulf of Ambracia, near the city of Actium, in Epirus. A battle ensued between the two fleets. The two armies, which were ranged on opposite sides of the gulf, were spectators of the conflict, and encouraged the fleets, by their shouts, to engage. Before the victory was decided, Cleopatra, with her Egyptian Squadron, fled from the engagement. Antony, leaving his fleet and army to take care of themselves, immediately followed after the Egyptian queen. The fleet of Octavius obtained the victory, and the land-forces of Antony soon afterward united themselves with the army of Octavius. Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra–Egypt a Roman Province.—After first going to Italy and restoring quiet there, the triumphant Octavius pursued Antony and Cleopatra to Egypt. Antony, finding all his attempts to check the progress of the conqueror useless, and being overcome with ungovernable rage and fury, blamed Cleopatra as the cause of his misfortunes; and being determined never to become a prisoner to his victorious rival, killed himself with his own sword. Cleopatra, who had shut herself up in her palace, finding that Octavius intended to take her to Rome to grace his triumph, put an end to her own life by applying a poisonous reptile to her arm. Egypt immediately submitted to Octavius, and became a Roman province. (B. C. 30.) THE ROMAN EMPIRE. (B. C. 3O—A. D. 476.) THE REIGNS OF THE CAESARS. THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS (B. C. 3O-A. D. 14). Octavius Sole Master, with the Title of Augustus.-The battle of Actium made Octavius sole master of the Roman world. (B. C. 30.) Roman liberty was now gone forever; and the Roman people, who had lost all the virtues and republican spirit of their ancestors, made no attempt to restore the republican constitution. The most illustrious citizens besought Octavius to take the govern- ment into his own hands; and the people, tired of the oppression of the aristocracy, gladly placed themselves under the sway of a single master. The Senate con. ferred upon Octavius all the powers of sovereignty, with the title of Augustus, o, “The Divine,” and of Imperator, or chief governor, for ten years; and gave his name to the sixth (now eighth) month, as the name of Julius Caesar had been given to the fifth (now seventh) month. He was afterwards made Perpetual Tribune of the People, which rendered his person sacred. A force of 9,000 men 94 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. called the Praetorian Guards, was stationed in Rome for the protection of the Emperor's person. Augustus, however, used his power moderately, and ruled with mildness and clemency. He restored the authority of the Senate. The cruel and tyrannical Octavius became the mild and merciful Augustus. General Peace—Great Extent of the Roman Empire—Birth of the Saviour.—After additional conquests by the Romans, and the annexation of Aquitania, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Illyria to the Roman dominions, a general peace prevailed throughout the Roman Empire, which now extended from the Atlantic ocean to the Euphrates, and from the Rhine and the Danube to th African deserts and the falls of the Nile. It was at this time that Jesus Christ, the Saviour of mankind, was born in the little village of Bethlehem, in Judea. Rebellion of the Germans—Defeat of Varus—Death of Augustus.-A few years after the birth of the Saviour, the Germans, who had been subjected to Roman rule, vigorously attempted to recover their independence. The Roman gen- eral, Varus, was enticed into the German forests, where his whole army was cut to pieces. (A. D. 9.) Varus, in despair at this defeat, committed suicide. The loss of this army was a terrible blow to the Emperor Augustus, who, in paroxysms of grief, exclaimed, “Varus ! Varus ! restore me my legions !” The danger of an incursion of the barbarians into Italy was prevented by Tiberius, the son-in-law of the emperor, who was sent with an army to guard the passes of the Rhine. After a remarkably quiet and prosperous reign of forty-four years, Augustus died in the year 14 after Christ. REIGN OF TIBERIUS (A. D., 14–37). Cruelty and Tyranny of Tiberius—Crucifixion of the Saviour.—On the death of Augustus, his son-in-law Tiberius succeeded to the throne of the Roman Empire. Tiberius commenced his reign with an appearance of moderation and clemency, but he soon gave way to his cruel, jealous and despotic nature. In the early part of his reign, the noble and virtuous Germanicus, his nephew, gained brilliant victories over the Germans; but the fame of Germanicus excited the jeal- ousy of the unworthy Emperor, who appointed him governor of the Eastern Roman provinces, and afterwards procured his death by poison. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus Christ, the Redeemer of the human race, was crucified on Mount Calvary, under the praetorship of Pontius Pilate, the Roman Governor of Judea. Crimes of Tiberius and Sejanus—Assassination of Tiberius.—The cruelty of Tiberius increased every day. Many of the nobles died by his orders. His depravity and cruelty were equaled by that of his minister and favorite, Sejanus, who himself secretly aspired to the throne, and who artfully contrived to have the Emperor removed from Rome to the island of Capreae, near Naples, for the pur. pose of freeing him from the cares of government. The emperor soon abandoned himself to every sort of vice and debauchery, while Sejanus was ruling with the utmost cruelty and despotism in Rome, where he caused numbers to be put to death. At length, becoming acquainted with the ambitious designs of Sejanus, Tiberius had him arrested for treason, and put to death. The friends and relatives of Sejanus met with the same fate. At last Tiberius himself was smothered'in his bed by one of his own officers, at the instigation of the unworthy Caligula, son of the worthy Germanicus. (A. D. 37.) HISTORY OF ROME. 95 REIGN OF CALIGULA (A. D. 37–41). Crimes and Follies of Caligula–Assassination of Caligula.-Caligula became the successor of Tiberius. His accession was welcomed by the Roman people. Caligula, like his predecessor, commenced his reign with prudence and mildness, but the people soon found him to be a detestable tyrant and a wicked monster. He ordered all the prisoners in Rome and hundreds of old and infirm citizens to be thrown to wild beasts, for the mere pleasure of seeing them tortured and torn to pieces. He at length claimed divine honors, erected a temple to him self, and instituted a college of priests to superintend the worship of his person, He often invited his favorite horse, Incitatus, to dine at the imperial table, fed him with gilded oats, built him a stable of marble, and his death only prevented him from raising the animal to the dignity of Consul. The foolish emperor often em- ployed inventions to imitate thunder for the purpose of defying Jupiter; and he pretended to converse in whispers with the statue of that divinity, and sometimes pretended to be angry with its answers, and threatened to send it back to Greece. When the Senate appeared reluctant in adulation, he threatened to massacre the whole body. On one occasion, being angry with the citizens, Caligula wished that the whole Roman people had but one head, that he might cut it off at one blow. The emperor's prodigality and tyranny increased every day. At last a conspiracy was formed against the tyrant, and he was murdered by his own guards. (A. D. 41.) REIGN OF CLAUDIUS (A. D. 41–34). Roman Successes in Britain—Assassination of Claudius.-Claudius, brother of Germanicus and uncle of Caligula, was next proclaimed Emperor by the Praetorian Guards, and this choice was confirmed by the Senate. Claudius, who was a perfect idiot, was a mere instrument in the hands of his wife and favorites. The Romans now determined to obtain full possession of Britain, and Claudius sent his general, Aulus Plautius, to conquer the Britons. The Emperor Claudius him- self afterwards undertook an expedition to Britain. The Britons were finally defeated, and their chief, Caractacus, was carried a prisoner to Rome. As Caractacus was walking through the streets of Rome, loaded with chains, he exclaimed, “Alas! is it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home should envy my humble cottage in Britain P’ At length Claudius put to death his wife Messalina, whose crimes and cruelties had become intolerable. The emperor then married his niece Agrippina. After having induced Claudius to appoint her son Nero his suc- cessor, Agrippina caused the emperor to be poisoned. (A. D. 54.) FEIGN OF NERO (A. D. 54-68). Crimes of Nero.—Agrippina having secured the commander of the Praetorian Guards to her interest, Nero was proclaimed Emperor by the army, and this choice was confirmed by the Senate. Nero had been nurtured in the midst of crimes and the people justly dreaded his accession to the throne. He, however, ruled with mildness during the first five years of his reign, while under the influence of his in- structors, Seneca the philosopher, and Burrhus. At length his mother, Agrippina, seeing herself neglected, designed to bestow the crown on Britannicus, the son of Claudius. Becoming aware of this, Nero caused both Agrippina and Britannicus to be put to death. From this time, Nero abandoned himself to cruelty and blood- 96 A NCIEAVT HISTORY. shed. Burrhus, his minister, Seneca the philosopher, and Lucan the poet, and many of the most eminent nobles, were put to death by order of the hard-hearted emperor. Nero's first wife, Octavia, was divorced and murdered, and his second wife, Poppaea, was killed by a kick from her husband. The virtuous Corbulo, who had defeated the Parthians, was rewarded for his victories, by the cruel emperor, with death. During the reign of Nero, the Jews began that rebellion against the Roman power which finally resulted in the destruction of that people as a nation. The Emperor Nero often appeared on the stage as an actor, musician, and gladia for. He also visited Greece, and oſten came forth victor in the Olympic games. Burning of Rome and Persecution of the Christians.—In the year 64 A.D., a frightful conflagration of nine days destroyed the greater part of the city of Rome; and it was generally believed that the fire was kindled by the secret orders of Nero. It is said that the emperor stood upon a high tower while the fire was raging, enjoy- ing the scene, and singing to the music of his harp the Destruction of Troy. In order to withdraw the blame of the cause of this calamity from himself, Nero charged it upon the Christians of Rome, thousands of whom were consequently most cruelly tortured and put to death. Many were covered with the skins of wild beasts and devoured by dogs, some were crucified, and others were burned alive. Victories of Suetonius Paulinus in Britain.—In Britain, the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus gained brilliant victories over the savage tribes of that island. At length the Iceni, under their heroic queen, Boadicea, rose against the Roman power, burned London, and put 70,000 Romans to death. But the Roman general avenged the death of his countrymen in a terrible battle, in which he defeated Boadicea, and in which 80,000 Britons were killed. In despair at this defeat, Boadicea committed suicide. Overthrow and Death of Nero.—Nero's prodigality knew no restraint. The Roman provinces were pillaged to support the emperor's luxurious manner of living. He was popular with the lower classes, to whom he made monthly distributions of corn and frequent supplies of wine, and whom he delighted with magnificent shows. At length, Julius Vindex, the Roman governor of Gaul, unfurled the standard of rebellion; and soon afterward, Galba headed an insurrection in Spain. Vindex was killed in the contest. Galba secured Otho, the commander of the Praetorian Guards, and the Senate to his interest; and Nero, abandoning all hope, caused him- self to be mortally wounded by one of his own freedmen. (A. D. 68.) Nero was the last emperor of the Julian line of the Caesars. REIGN OF GALBA (A. D. 68–69). Overthrow and Death of Galba.-Upon the death of Nero, the virtuous Galba obtained the imperial purple, which, however, he did not wear very long. He allowed himself to be ruled by unworthy favorites; and when Otho, who had been one of his principal adherents, found that the emperor did not name him as his suc, cessor, he induced the Praetorian Guards to revolt. Galba was killed in he streets of Rome during a short struggle, after a reign of seven months. (A. D. 69.) REIGN OF OTHO (A. D. 69). Overthrow and Death of Otho.—The dissolute and unworthy Otho, who was next invested with the purple, was a mere instrument in the hands of the licentious AZSTORY OF ROME. 97 soldiers. He was soon disturbed in the possession of the throne by a revolt of the Roman legions on the German frontier, which proclaimed their vicious commander, Vitellius, Emperor. Otho marched against Vitellius, but his troops were defeated; and Otho, in despair, committed suicide, after a reign of but little more than three months. (A. D. 69.) REIGN OF VITELLIUs (A. D. ea-70). Extravagance and Cruelty of Vitellius.-Upon Otho's death, Vitellius was declared Emperor by the Senate. When Vitellius entered Rome, he caused more than four hundred of the Praetorian Guards to be put to death. Vitellius entrusted the management of public affairs to the most abandoned and debauched wretches. He won the favor of the Roman people by donations of provisions and by expensive entertainments. Vitellius was noted for his gluttonous and luxurious habits. In less than four months he squandered a sum equal to seven millions sterling on the luxuries of the table and ſor expensive banquets. Not satisfied with gratifying his appetite, the emperor indulged in acts of the most unrelenting cruelty. Many who ate with him were put to death without mercy. Many of the wealthy Roman citi- zens were deprived of their property, and also of their lives, by this bloated and debauched emperor. He declared that he derived pleasure from tormenting his victims. On one occasion, when a man was condemned to death, he executed his two sons with their father for begging his life. - Overthrow and Death of Vitellius.-At last the Roman legions in the East engaged in the siege of Jerusalem proclaimed their general, Vespasian, Emperor. Province after province submitted to Vespasian's troops, who marched to Italy and took possession of Rome. A furious and bloody struggle ensued in the city; and Vitellius was seized by his enemies, put to death, and his body thrown into the Tiber, amid the execration of the populace. (A. D. 70.) REIGN OF VESPASIAN (A. D. 70-79). Wise Reforms of Vespasian.—Upon the ignominious death of Vitellius, Ves- pasian was hailed as Emperor by the Roman people. This good and virtuous monarch did all in his power for the welfare of his subjects, by whom he was greatly beloved. He instituted many wise reforms, improved the administration of justice, and restored the discipline of the army and the authority of the Senate. He encouraged the arts and sciences, and beautified Rome with many splendid edifices, of which the Coliseum was the most remarkable. The Emperor Vespasian was very generous, as is fully shown by his refusal to punish certain conspirators who had plotted against him. Jewish Rebellion—Destruction of Jerusalem and of the Jewish Nation. —The Jews, who had risen in rebellion against the Roman power during the reign of Nelo, were subdued during the reign of Vespasian, when they were destroyed as a nation. The rebellion of the Jews was caused by the tyranny of Florus, the Roman governor of Judea. The deluded Jews believed themselves to be able to resist the gigantic power of the whole Roman world. Vespasian had been for three years conducting the war against the Jews when he was called to Rome to receive the imperial purple. When Vespasian leſt Judea, he assigned the command of his legions to his son Titus, who laid siege to Jerusalem during the Feast of the Pass- 7 98 ANCIENT HISTORY. * over, when people from all parts of Judea were gathered in the Holy City. The Jews defended their city with an army of 600,000 men; but while the Roman armies were battering down the walls of the city, the infatuated Jews were divided into two hostile factions, which waged a fierce civil war against each other in the streets of Jerusalem. Both factions defended the city with the most determined bravery, until they were so exhausted by famine and by internal wars that they were compelled to surrender the city to the besieging Romans. But for three months longer the Temple held out against the besiegers. When it was finally taken, Titus, who was anxious to spare this noble edifice, was unable to restrain the Savage fury of his enraged soldiers; and the Holy City and the Temple were reduced to a heap of ruins. (A. D. 70.) Many of the vanquished Jews fell by the swords of their conquerors or died by their own hands, while thousands were sold into slavery. Ever since the destruction of Jerusalem, the Jews, scattered over various parts of the earth, have been outcasts and wanderers. Final Conquest of Britain by Julius Agricola.-The reign of Vespasian is also noted for the final conquest of Britain by the Romans. This was effected by Julius Agricola, two years after the fall of Jerusalem. (A. D. 72.) Agricola car- ried the renown of the Roman arms to the borders of Caledonia (now Scotland); but he was unable to subdue the wild Picts and Scots, who inhabited that rugged country. Agricola also taught the Britons the arts of peace, and introduced among them the Roman customs and manners, thus laying the foundations for the civiliza- tion of the conquered Britons. The Emperor Vespasian died after a reign of nine years. (A. D. 79.) f. REIGN OF TITUs (A. D. 79-81). Good Character of Titus—Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii.- The noble Vespasian was succeeded as Emperor by his son Titus, the conqueror of ſerusalem. Titus had been very dissipated and vicious in his habits; but when he assumed the imperial purple, he reformed, and became, like his father, a virtuous, wise, and just sovereign, having the welfare of his subjects at heart. On this account he was called “The Delight of Mankind.” During the first year of the reign of Titus (A. D. 79), the most terrible eruption of the volcano of Vesuvius ever known occurred, completely destroying the two great cities, Herculaneum and Pompeii. The Emperor Titus died after a reign of two years. (A. D. 81.) REIGN OF DOMITIAN (A. D. 81–96). Tyranny and Follies of Domitian.-The good Titus was succeeded as Emperor by his brother Domitian, who at first appeared to be a just and merciful sovereign; but Domitian's character soon changed, and he became a hard-hearted tyrant. His favorite amusement was archery, and his chief ambition was to enter. tain the Roman people with expensive sports and games. He spent his hours of seclusion in killing flies. This emperor had also a great passion for military glory. He undertook an expedition to Gaul, but as he did not meet with an enemy, he dressed slaves like Germans, took them to Rome, and pretended that they were prisoners whom he had taken in battle. ar Assassination of Domitian.—The Emperor Domitian cruelly persecuted the Christians, and siezed the estates of the wealthy to gratify his avarice. At length A/STOA’ Y OF ACOME. 99 a conspiracy was formed against the despot by his own wife, Domitia, whom he had resolved to put to death; and Domitian, the last of the Caesars, was assassinated after some resistance. (A. D. 96.) THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. REIGN OF NERVA (A. D. 96-98). Noble and Generous Conduct of Nerva.-Upon the assassination of Domitian, the talented and virtuous Nerva was chosen Emperor by the Senate, Nerva was liberal and generous to excess. He made good laws, abolished oppress- ive taxes, and even sold his gold and plate that he might be able to bestow gifts on his friends. He allowed no statue to be erected to himself, and no Senator was punished with death during his mild and merciful reign. This good emperor died after a reign of two years. (A. D. 98.) REIGN OF TRAJAN (A. D. 98–117). Good Character of Trajan.-The next emperor after Nerva was Trajan, who was a mild and merciful monarch as well as a successful warrior. Trajan devoted his attention to the welfare of his empire, and took measures for improving its condition. Notwithstanding his many merits, Trajan was a persecutor of the Christians. Conquest of Dacia by Trajan.—Soon after Trajan became Emperor, the Dacians north of the Danube ravaged the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. The Emperor Trajan led an army against the Dacians, overthrew them in battle, and reduced their country, Dacia, to the condition of a Roman province. When Trajan returned to Rome from his Dacian campaign, a splendid triumph was cele- brated, and the public rejoicing continued for one hundred and twenty days. Trajan’s Asiatic Campaigns.—The Emperor Trajan afterwards marched into Asia for the purpose of subduing the Parthians and the Armenians, who attempted to regain their independence. Parthia, Syria, and Chaldea were conquered by the Roman Emperor after several campaigns. Trajan made a triumphal entry into Babylon, crossed the Tigris, took Ctesiphon, in Syria, and conquered some of the Persian provinces. The fatigues of war hastened Trajan's death, which took place in Cilicia, after a reign of nineteen years. (A. D. II.7.) REIGN OF ADRIAN (A. D. 117-133). Adrian's Love of Peace.—The good Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, who also belonged to the list of good emperors. Adrian was a great lover of peace, and he abandoned all the countries which had been conquered by Trajan, as he deemed them detrimental, rather than valuable, to the Roman Empire. The Emperor Adrian, with all his many virtues, was a persecutor of the Christians. Adrian's Travels.--The Emperor Adrian spent much of his time in traveling over Gaul, Spain, Germany, Britain, Greece, and through all his dominions in Asia and Africa. In Britain he greatly improved the city of York, which was the capi- tal of that Roman province. The emperor also caused a wall to be erected from the river Tyne to Solway Frith, in order to prevent the ravages of the Caledonians, I OO AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. who inhabited the northern part of the island. Adrian died near Naples, after a quiet and prosperous reign of eighteen years. (A. D. 135.) REIGN OF ANTONINUS PIUS (A. D. 135-163). Mºld and Beneficial Rule of Antoninus Pius—Tranquillity of the Em- pire.---Adrian's successor on the imperial throne was the good and peaceful Titus Antoninus, who, on account of his mild and merciful reign, was called Antoninus Pius. The period of the reign of this emperor was the most happy and prosperous that the Roman Empire ever enjoyed, as peace prevailed throughout the whole Roman world. The virtuous Antoninus suspended the persecution of the Christians, and punished their persecutors. He devoted all his energies to the welfare of his sub- jects, and protected the people of the various Roman provinces from the oppression and avarice of their governors. After a tranquil and prosperous reign of twenty- two years, the good Antoninus Pius died. (A. D. 163). REIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS (A. D. 163-18O). Parthian Expedition of Verus.-Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the successor of Titus Antoninus Pius, also belonged to the class of good emperors. Marcus Aurelius shared his power with his unworthy son-in-law, Lucius Verus, whom, Soon after his accession to the throne, he sent with an army against the Parthians. Verus established his residence at Antioch, where he abandoned himself to all sorts of vice, while his officers defeated the Parthians. War Against the Marcomanni—The “Thundering Legion.”—A fright- ful war next broke out between the Romans and the Marcomanni, a powerful German tribe of barbarians. Both Aurelius and Verus took the field against the barbarians; but the intemperate Verus soon died. Marcus Aurelius remained five years in Germany, carrying on the war against the Marcomanni. On one occasion, the Romans were drawn into a narrow defile, where they had almost perished from thirst, when they were relieved by a thunder-storm, which struck into the tents of the barbarians, who, greatly frightened, immediately agreed to a peace with the Romans. It was believed that the storm was sent in answer to the prayers of the Christian soldiers in the Roman army. The emperor immediately named their division “The Thundering Legion.” Character of the Successors of Marcus Aurelius.-The mild and bene- ficent Marcus Aurelius died at Vienna, after a reign of seventeen years. (A. D. 180.) He was the last of a succession of good Roman emperors. With his death the glory of the Roman Empire virtually ended. The greater number of his suc- cessors were detestable and intolerable tyrants, who generally suffered violent deaths. From this time the Roman Empire rapidly verged towards its fall: the laibarians fiom Northern Europe at length pressed heavily upon its northern frontiers, and finally put an end to its existence. THE PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM. REIGN OF COMMODUS (A. D. 18O-192). Feats of Commodus—Assassination of Commodus.-Marcus Aurelius was succeeded on the imperial throne by his son Commodus, who, on account of AZSTORY OF ROME. I O I his vices and cruelties, proved himself unworthy of the imperial dignity. Commo- dus possessed great physical strength; and he often fought with the gladiators in the Amphitheatre, where he conquered seven hundred and fifty times, on which account he styled himself “Conqueror of a Thousand Gladiators.” The tyranny of Commodus at length led to plots against his life; and he was assassinated after a reign of twelve years, and his body was cast into the Tiber. (A. D. 192.) REIGN OF PERTINAX (A. D. 192-193). Assassination of Pertinax.-The virtuous Pertinax succeeded the unworthy Commodus on the imperial throne. Pertinax protected the citizens from the ins',- lence of the Praetorian Guards, who, for this reason, rose against the good emperor and put him to death, after a reign of only three months. (A. D. 193.) REIGN OF DIDIUS JULIANUS (A. D. 193). Purchase of the Empire by Didius Julianus—His Overthrow and Death.-The insolent Praetorian Guards now put up the Roman Empire for sale to the highest bidder. The wealthy Senator, Didius Julianus, bid off at a sum equal to ten millions of dollars, and was accordingly raised to the imperial dignity. This disgraceful transaction raised up several rivals against the unworthy Didius Julianus. These were Septimius Severus, who commanded the Roman legions in Pannonia; Pescennius Niger, in Syria; and Clodius Albinus, in Britain. Sep- timius Severus reached Rome before his rivals and was made Emperor; and Didius Julianus was put to death by the executioner. (A. D, 193.) REIGN OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (A. D. 193–211). Overthrow and Death of Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus.— After securing the imperial purple, Septimius Severus took the field against Pescen- nius Niger, who was defeated and killed in battle on the plain of Issus, famous for the great victory gained by Alexander the Great over the Persians five centuries before. Severus next marched against Clodius Albinus in Gaul; and a terrible battle was fought at Lyons, and Albinus, being defeated and taken prisoner, was put to death. Campaigns of Septimius Severus in Asia and Britain.—Having overcome his rivals, Septimius Severus next marched against the Parthians, who continued their attacks on the Roman power in Asia. Severus defeated the Parthians, and captured their principal cities, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Babylon. The emperor was afterward called to Britain to repress the incursions of the Savage Picts and Scots. After driving back the savages, Severus rebuilt the wall between the Clyde and Forth rivers, for the purpose of keeping the troublesome savages in their own part of the island. The Emperor Septimius Severus died at York, in Britain, after a reign of nearly eighteen years. (A. D. 217.) REIGN OF CARACALLA (A. D. 211-217). Cruelty and Tyranny of Caracalla—Assassination of Caracalla.-Septi- mius Severus left his empire to his two sons, Caracalla and Geta; but Caracalla killed his brother in his mother's arms, and became sole emperor Caracalla proved I O2 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. to be a cruel and tyrannical sovereign. His despotic conduct finally caused his as sassination after a reign of six years. (A. D. 217.) REIGN OF MACRINUS (A. D. 217-218). Overthrow and Death of Macrinus.-Macrinus, captain of the Praetorian Guards, and instigator of the assassination of Caracalla, was next raised to the im- perial dignity; but soon a competitor appeared to contest with him the sovereignty of the Roman Empire. Macrinus was put to death, and his competitor, Heliogº." balus, was raised to the imperial throne. (A. D. 218.) REIGN OF HELIOGABALUS (A. D. 218–222). Vices and Follies of Heliogabalus.-The sensualities, vices, and follies of Heliogabalus soon exhibited themselves. His prodigality knew no bounds. His Suppers sometimes cost sixty thousand dollars each. He dressed himself in gold and purple, and wore the same dress only once. He created a senate of women to arrange the fashions of dress, and raised his horse to the office of Consul. Assassination of Heliogabalus.-The mother of Heliogabalus, for the pur- pose of restraining the emperor's vicious conduct, proposed his cousin, the virtuous Alexander Severus, as his partner in the empire. The affections of the soldiers were soon bestowed on Alexander; and Heliogabalus was assassinated, and his body was cast into the Tiber. (A. D. 222.) REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS (A. D. 222-233). Beneficent Rule of Alexander Severus.-The good Alexander Severus was universally acknowledged as Emperor upon the assassination of Heliogabalus. Alexander soon proved himself in every respect deserving of his high station. He instituted many wise reforms for the benefit of the Roman people. Assassination of Alexander Severus.-The strict military discipline of Alexander Severus inflamed the soldiers against him, and he was murdered by them while engaged in driving away the barbarians who had invaded the northern parts of the Roman Empire. (A. D. 235.) REIGN OF MAXIMIN (A. D. 235-238). Tyranny and Cruelties of Maximin.—The Thracian Maximin, who had in- stigated the Soldiers to the assassination of the worthy Alexander Severus, succeeded to the imperial throne. Maximin soon proved himself to be an intolerable despot. He put rich men to death for the purpose of seizing their estates, and he rigorously persecuted the Christians. Overthrow and Death of Maximin.-At length the tyranny and cruelties of the Emperor Maximin led to a rebellion in Africa, headed by the Pro consul Gor- dian, who was highly esteemed for his virtues. The soldiers of Gordian compelled their general to accept the imperial office. The Senate and people of Rome con- firmed the elevation of Gordian, and declared Maximin, who was then conducting a war against the barbarians in Germany, a public enemy. When Maximin received intelligence of this, he flew into the most ungovernable rage, and resolved to march to Roine and massacre all his opponents. The virtuous Gordian was defeated and AZSTORY OF ROME. 163 slain in battle by Maximin's adherents in Africa. Soon afterward, the detestable Maximin was killed by his own troops while on his march to attack Rome. (A. D. .238.) REIGN OF GOF DIAN (A. D. 238-244). Short Reign and Assassination of Pupienus and Balbinus—Gordian. —Just before the death of the Emperor Maximin, the Roman Senate had appointed Pupicnus and Balbinus Emperors; jealousy and enmity having arisen between them, both were soon assassinated by the Praetorian Guards; whereupon the youth- ful Gordian, a grandson of the Gordian who had fallen in Africa, received the imperial purple. The Persian Empire of the Sassanidae.—The Roman Empire was at this time greatly harassed on the east by the New Persians, who, after having overthrown the Parthian Empire and established the Persian Empire of the Sassanidae, attempted to overthrow the Roman power in Asia. Gordian's Victories over the Persians—Assassination of Gordian- The Emperor Gordian defeated the Persians under their valiant king, Sapor, drove them out of Syria, and compelled them to abandon Mesopotamia; but he was finally assassinated by Philip the Arabian, commander of the Praetorian Guards, who caused himself to be made Emperor. (A. D. 244.) REIGN OF PHILIP THE ARABIAN (A. D. 244-249). The Ioooth Anniversary of Rome.—The Emperor Philip the Arabian sought to signalize his reign by a magnificent celebration of the one thousandth anniversary of Rome. The Roman people were entertained with the most splendid shows, and two thousand gladiators fought in the Amphitheatre for their amusement. Overthrow and Death of Philip the Arabian.—The Emperor Philip sent his general, Decius, with an army, to suppress a rebellion which had broken out in Pannonia. The soldiers of Decius compelled their general to accept the office of Emperor by threatening to kill him if he refused. Philip, on hearing of this, marched against Decius, but was defeated and slain near Verona. (A. D. 249.) REIGN OF DECIUS (A. D. 249-251). Great Persecution of the Christians.—The Emperor Decius was in many respects a wise and virtuous sovereign; but he tarnished his character by the most cruel persecutions of the Christians. Thousands of these persons in various parts of the Roman Empire were driven from their homes, subjected to the severest tor- tures, and put to death in the most cruel manner. Many fled for refuge to the mountains and deserts. Gothic Invasion of the Empire—Defeat and Death of Decius.-During the reign of Decius, occurred a formidable invasion of the Roman Empire by the Goths, a Scandinavian tribe, who crossed the Danube and frightfully devastated Moesia and Thrace. The Emperor Decius marched against the barbarians and gained a great victory over them; but he was at last defeated, and, in despair, he plunged into a marsh and was immediately swallowed up. (A. D. 251.) IO4 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. REIGN OF GALLUS (A. D. 231-253). Cowardly Conduct of Gallus—Assassination of Gallus—AEmilianus.- Upon the death of Decius, Gallus was proclaimed Emperor by the army. Gallus made an ignominious peace with the Goths, and renewed the violent persecution of the Christians which Decius had commenced. The cowardly conduct of Gallus aroused universal indignation among his subjects, and the Roman armies in the East proclaimed AEmilianus Emperor, whereupon Gallus was killed by ms own sol- diers. The Senate refused to recognize AEmilianus as Emperor, whereupon he was put to death by his own troops, and the virtuous Valerian was proclaimed and acknowledged Emperor. (A. D. 253.) REIGN OF VALERIAN (A. D. 253–26O). The Goths and the Scythians—The Persians.—Valerian's shining quali- ties did not appear to much advantage when he became emperor. The Christians were cruelly persecuted, and the Roman Empire was ravaged on the north by the Goths and the Scythians, and on the east by the Persians. Captivity of Valerian in Persia—His Brutal Treatment by Sapor.—The Emperor Valerian defeated the Goths; but when he attempted to drive the Persians out of Syria, he was surrounded by the Persian army, taken prisoner, and carried in triumph to Persia. The Persian king, Sapor, caused the captive emperor to be treated in the most brutal manner, using his neck as a footstool whenever he umounted his horse, and after keeping him in captivity for seven years, caused him to be flayed alive, and his skin to be stuffed and dyed in scarlet, and nailed up in a Persian temple as a great national trophy. (A. D. 260.) REIGN OF GALLIENUS (A. D. 26O-268). Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra.-Gallienus, the son of Valerian, succeeded as Emperor, receiving the intelligence of his father's cruel treatment and death with inward satisfaction. The barbarians now pressed upon the Roman Empire on all sides; and a host of competitors appeared for the throne, the most powerful of whom was Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra, who inflicted severe defeats upon the Persians. Zenobia, Queen of the East—Assassination of Gallienus.-In order to gain the friendship and support of Odenatus, the Emperor Gallienus made him his partner in the Empire, assigning to him the Eastern Roman provinces. But Oden- atus was soon murdered by his own troops, and was succeeded on the throne of Palmyra by his widow, Zenobia, who styled herself “Queen of the East.” All the rivals of Gallienus suffered violent deaths; and Gallienus himself was assassinated while he was besieging one of his rivals in Milan. (A. D. 268.) REIGN OF FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS (A. D. 268-27O.) Defeat of the Goths and Vandals by Flavius Claudius.-Flavius Claudius • succeeded Gallienus on the imperial throne. Claudius defeated the Goths and the Vandals with frightful slaughter; after which he marched against Zenobia, the Queen of the East, but died on his way of a pestilence which had broken out in his army. (A. D. 270.) A/S Z'O/º V OF ROME. IoS REIGN OF AURELIAN (A. D. 27O-273). Quintillius—Defeat of the Germans and Vandals by Aurelian.—Quin- 'illius, the brother and successor of Flavius Claudius, killed himself in despair, after a reign of seventeen days, when he learned that Aurelian had been proclaimed Emperor by the army. (A. D. 270.) Aurelian defeated and drove back the bar- barian Gyths and Vandals from the northern frontiers of the Roman Empire. Overthrow and Captivity of Zenobia.—Aſter his successes over the barbarians in the North, the Emperior Aurelian passed over into Asia, overthrew the Kingdom of Palmyra, carried Zenobia, the Queen of the East, captive to Rome, and presented her with an estate, where, to all appearances, she passed the remainder of her life contentedly. Assassination of Aurelian.—With some commendable qualities, Aurelian possessed a stern and severe disposition. While marching with an army against the Persians, he was assassinated by some of his own officers. (A. D. 275.) REIGN OF TACITUS (A. D. 273). Character of Tacitus.-The enlightened and virtuous Tacitus, a descendant of the historian of that name, was chosen Emperor by the Senate, aſter Aurelian's assassination. Tacitus distinguished himself as a soldier, and died in Cappadocia, while preparing to carry on a war against Persia, after a reign of seven months. (A. D. 275.) REIGN OF PROBUS (A. D. 273–282). Florian and Probus.-Florian, a brother of Tacitus, was proclaimed Emperor by one portion of the army, while Probus was chosen by another portion. As Florian was not acknowledged by the Senate, he killed himself in despair, and Probus was left in full possession of the empire. (A. D. 275.) Defeat of the Barbarians by Probus—Assassination of Probus.-Probus was a successful warrior. He first overthrew the barbarians who had invaded Gaul, killing 100,000 of their number. He next defeated the Goths, the Vandals, and the Sarmatians. Having passed his native city, Sirmium, in Pannonia, Probus em- ployed his soldiers in draining a marsh, but they, disliking the work, became enraged and killed their emperor. (A. D. 282.) REIGN OF CARUS (A. D. 282-283). victories of Carus over the Sarmatians and Persians.—Probus was suc- ceeded on the imperial throne by Carus, commander of the Praetorian Guards, who was proclaimed Emperor by the army. Carus defeated the Sarmatians, aſter which he matched against the Persians, who continued their ravages on the Eastern prov- inces of the Roman Empire. After deſeating the Persians in Mesopotamia, Carus was killed in his tent by lightning. (A. D. 283.) REIGN OF DIOCLETIAN (A. D. 284–3.O3). Short Reign and Assassination of Numerian and Carinus—Diocletian. —Numerian 2nd Carinus, the sons of Carus, succeeded to the empire, but Numerian was soon assassinated, whereupon the soldiers proclaimed Diocletian Emperor Ioé AwcIEWT HISTORY. (A. D. 284) Carinus resolved to dispute the sovereignty with Diocletian, when he was killed by his own troops. (A. D. 284.) Origin and Character of Diocletian.—Diocletian was of low origin, his parents having been slaves. He received his name from Dioclea, a town in Dal- matia, where he was born. He had passed through the various gradations of office, being promoted successively to the offices of Provincial Governor, Consul, and Praetorian Prefect. He owed his elevation entirely to his abilities and merits, and was about forty years of age when he became Emperor. Diocletian possessed many virtues, but he sullied his character by a cruel persecution of the Christians in all parts of the Roman Empire. The “Era of Martyrs.”—The commencement of Diocletian's reign is often called the “Era of Martyrs,” on account of the dreadful persecutions of which the Christians were the victims. This epoch was long observed in the Christian Church, and is still remembered by the Copts of Egypt, the Abyssinians, and other African Christians. Division of the Imperial Authority—Maximian and the Two Caesars.- As the cares of the vast Roman Empire were too great for one person, the Emperor Diocletian divided the imperial authority, taking as his partner in the Empire Maximian, a brave and able soldier, but an ignorant and cruel barbarian. Diocle- tian retained for himself the government of the East, while Maximian ruled over the West. Still the troubles of the Empire were so great that Diocletian took Galerius as his subordinate colleague, or Caesar, while Maximian chose Constantius Chlorus as his subordinate, or Caesar; so that the Roman world was now divided among four sovereigns, of which Diocletian was the chief. Diocletian retained Asia, Galerius ruled over Thrace and Illyricum, Maximian swayed Italy and Africa, and Constantius Chlorus governed Spain, Gaul, and Britain. Suppression of Rebellions in Britain and Egypt—Defeat of the Per- sians.—A rebellion which broke out in Britain was suppressed by Constantius Chlorus after a continuance of ten years. A revolt in Egypt was crushed by Dio- cletian himself, who made the rebellious inhabitants feel the effects of his vengeance. The Moors of Northern Africa, who had attacked the Roman dominioins in that quarter, were vanquished by the arms of Maximian. A war which broke out with Persia was brought to a successful conclusion by Galerius after two campaigns with the Persians. Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian.—After a glorious reign of twenty. years, sullied, however, by a violent persecution of the Christians, the Emperor Diocletian abdicated the imperial throne in the presence of a vast multitude of peo- ple, and retired to private life. (A. D. 305.) On the same day, Maximian resigned his authority. Diocletian never regretted this act, which he survived nine years. When requested by Maximian and others to resume the purple, he replied, “If you would see the cabbages I raise in my garden, you would not ask me to take a throne.” REIGN OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (A. D. 3O6–337). Galerius and Constantius—Constantine—Confusion and Civil War.-- After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus AZSTORY OF ROME. Io? were recognized as Emperors, and each took a subordinate colleague, or Caesar. (A. D. 306.) Constantine died at York, in Britain, and was succeeded by his son Constantine, afterwards surnamed “the Great.” A period of great confusion and sanguinary civil wars followed. Galerius and the two Caesars refused to recognize the claims of Constantine, and very soon the Roman Empire was divided umong six competitors, among whom were Maximian and his son Maxentius; but CCInstan- tine finally prevailed over all his rivals and became sole Emperor. Constantine's Conversion to Christianity.—It was during the progrºss of these civil wars that the Emperor Constantine became a convert to Christianity. While marching against Maxentius, it is said that Constantine saw a luminous cross in the heavens with the inscription, “By this conquer.” This produced a great impression upon Constantine and his whole army. Constantine now consulted the principal teachers of Christianity, and publicly avowed the religion of Christ. Overthrow and Death of Maxentius and Licinius.-Constantine overthrew Maxentius in a desperate battle at the Milvian Bridge. In attempting to make his escape, Maxentius found his death in the waters of the Tiber, and Constantine en- tered Rome in triumph. Internal peace and domestic tranquillity were only restored to the Roman Empire, when Constantine was left in the undisputed sovereignty of the vast Roman world, after his brother-in-law and last rival, Licinius, a zealous cham- pion of paganism, had been defeated in several engagements and put to death. Constantine Sole Emperor—Triumph of Christianity.—Thus after eigh- teen years of confusion and civil war, Constantine the Great became sole master of the Roman world, which extended from the borders of Caledonia to the frontiers of Persia, and from the Red Sea to the Atlas Mountains. The victory of Constan- time the Great over his pagan rivals marked the complete triumph of Christianity over the paganism of the Roman world. Constantine now devoted himself to the establishment of Christianity on a firm basis. He summoned a Council of the Christian Church at Nice, which was attended by numerous bishops and deacons, over which the emperor presided, and in which the doctrines of Arias, who denied the divine nature of Christ, were condemned as heretical. But Constantine, by some great crimes, which stained his character, and among which were the murder of his noble son Crispus, and of his wife Fausta, showed that the doctrines of the crucified Redeemer had little influence in restraining his savage and ferocious dis- position. Constantinople made the Capital of the Roman Empire.—After defeat- ing the Goths and the Sarmatians, the Emperor Constantine returned to Rome, where he was coldly received and insulted by the people for abandoning the religion of his ancestors. Provoked at this treatment, and in order to have his residence nearer the centre of his dominions, Constantine removed the seat of government of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium, which since that time has been called Constantinople, or City of Constantine, in honor of the great emperor. (A. D. 336.) Death of Constantine the Great.—After a memorable and glorious reign of ‘cirty-one years, Constantine the Great, the first Roman emperor who professed Christianity, died at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor. (A. D. 337.) Io8 AAVC/EAV7' HZSZTOR }. REIGN OF CONSTANTIUS II. (A. D. 337-361). The Sons of Constantine—Confusion and Civil War—Constantius II, —After the death of Constantine the Great, the Roman Empire was by his orders divided among his three sons, Constans, Constantine II., and Constantius II., and his two nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. The consequence of this division was sixteen years of confusion and anarchy, during which the Roman Empire was disturbed by usurpation, insurrections, and civil wars; and internal tranquillity was only restored when Constantius II. became sole master of the Roman world, after all his rivals and several usurpers had perished. (A. D. 353.) Julian's Victories over the Germans in Gaul.—While Constantius II., after obtaining the sole sovereignty of the Roman Empire, was in the East, conducting a war against the Persians, his cousin Julian was winning great renown by his victo- ries over the German tribes who had invaded Gaul. After defeating the Germans near Troyes, at Sens, and at Strasburg, Julian secured peace to Gaul, when his soldiers, elated by victory, proclaimed their general Emperor. The Roman world was only saved from the horrors of another civil war by the death of Constantius II., as he was preparing to dispute the sovereignty with Julian. (A. D. 361.) REIGN OF JULIAN THE APOSTATE (A. D. 361-363). Character of Julian—His Opposition to the Christian Religion.—Julian had been educated at Athens, where he had imbibed a fondness for the pagan phi- losophy and religion of the Grecians; and when he became Emperor he renounced the Christian religion and became a pagan, acquiring from that circumstance the surname of “the Apostate.” Julian was, however, a just, wise, and virtuous mon- arch, the only blemish on his character being his renunciation of Christianity and conversion to paganism. He was, however, possessed of an excessive share of vanity; and he seemed more desirous of being considered a philosopher than a sovereign. Julian sought to revive fallen paganism, and labored with great zeal to undo what had been done by the great Constantine. Julian was, however, too good and too wise to engage in a violent persecution of those who professed Christianity, as he allowed all his subjects the same right to opinion which he claimed for him- self; but he attacked the holy religion of the Redeemer in writing, and endeavored to bring it into disrepute by ridicule. Not content, however, with opposing the Christians with the weapons of argument and ridicule, the emperor enacted several disqualifying laws by which he deprived the Christians of wealth, knowledge, and power. He also removed Christians from all civil and military offices, filled their places with pagans, and ordered the Christian schools to be closed. Julian's Attempt to Rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem.—For the purpose of disproving the prophecy of Christ, Julian the Apostate attempted to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, and to restore the Jewish worship; but this design of the em. peror was frustrated, it is said, by the miraculous explosion of fire from the earth, driving away the workmen, and compelling them to abandon their work. Julian's Invasion of Persia—His Retreat and Death.-In a war with the Persians, the Emperor Julian advanced victoriously into the very heart of Persia; but the Persians, defeated in the field, laid waste the country, so that the Roman army, exhausted by hunger, was finally forced to retreat. In a skirmish between AZSTOR P OF A&OME. Io9 * ſhe retreating army and the Persian light cavalry, Tulian received a wound, of which he died the same night. (A. D. 363.) FEIGN. OF JOVIAN (A. D. 363-364). Dishonorable Peace with Persia.-After the death of Julian the Apostate, the army raised the virtuous Jovian, a Pannonian, to the imperial dignity. Upon his accession to the throne, Jovian concluded a dishonorable peace with Persia, by which a large portion of the Roman possessions in Asia were given up. Restoration of Christianity.—The Emperor Jovian, who avowed Christ.anity, restored that holy religion; but he secured the good will of his pagan subjects by allowing them toleration for their worship. The zeal of the people for the Christian religion fully attested how ineffectual were the efforts of the apostate Julian for the restoration of fallen paganism, as the heathen temples were immediately deserted and the heathen priests were left alone at their altars. After a reign of seven months, the good Jovian was accidentally suffocated by the fumes of burning charcoal while sleeping in a damp room. (A. D. 364.) BARBARIAN INROADS, AND THE FALL OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE. REIGN OF VALENTINIAN AND VALENS (A. D. 364–378). Division of the Roman Empire.—Valentinian, Jovian's successor on the im- perial throne, divided the Roman Empire, retaining the Western provinces for him- self, and bestowing the Eastern on his brother Valens. From this time the Roman world was divided into the Eastern and Western Empires, although they were after- wards transiently reunited. Valentinian made Milan his capital, while Valens held his court at Constantinople. The Barbarian Inroads.-The inroads of the barbarians upon the northern an eastern frontiers of the Roman dominions now became more formidable and dan- gerous than ever before: the Picts and Scots harassed Britain; the Saxons began their piracies on the Northern seas; the German tribe of the Allemanni ravaged Gaul; and the Goths crossed the Danube and ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valentinian, who checked the inroads of the barbarians on all sides, died in the year 375 A. D. Defeat of the Goths by the Huns.—After Valentinian’s death, the Gothic nations had been almost annihilated by the Huns, a savage tribe from Central Asia. After crossing the Volga and the Don, and driving before them the tribes of Eastern Europe, the Huns fell upon and vanquished the Ostrogoths, and drove them from their country. The Huns then crossed the Dnieper and the Dniester, and defeated the Visigoths and drove them from their lands. The Goths in Thrace—Battle of Adrianople—Death of Valens.—The Jothic tribes, who had so long defied the arms of the Romans, now appeared as suppliants on the banks of the Danube, and asked permission of Valens, the Eastern Emperor, to occupy and cultivate the waste lands of Thrace. This request was granted on condition that the Goths would resign their arms; but the Roman officers who were sent to see the enforcement of this stipulation were bribed. The Goths ſº \ I IO AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. retained their weapons; and when they began to suffer from famine, they carried plunder and desolation through Thrace Macedonia, and Thessaly. The Goths marched toward Constantinople, and defeated the army of Valens in the bloody pattle of Adrianople. The emperor escaped to a hut, which, during the night, was set on fire by the Goths, and Valens was burned to death. (A. D. 378.) REIGN OF THEODoSIUs THE GREAT (A. D. 378. 393). Gratian and Theodosius.-After the death of Valentinian (A. D. 375), his son Gratian became Emperor of the West. When the throne of the East became vacant by the death of Valens, Gratian assigned it to the Spaniard Theodosius, who closed the war with the Goths by settling a part of that nation in the region of the Danube, and enlisting another part in the Roman armies as Soldiers. Persecution of the Pagans by Theodosius.-The Emperor Theodosius, surnamed “the Great,” was a cruel persecutor of the pagans, and also of the Arian Christians. The pagans of Alexandria, in Egypt, having attacked the Christians of that city, Theodosius ordered all the pagan temples in the city to be pulled down. He atterwards ordered all the heathen temples throughout his empire to be de- stroyed. The reign of Theodosius the Great is noted for the complete triumph of the religion of the crucified Saviour over the ancient paganism. Maximinus, Valentinian II., and Eugenius—Theodosius Sole Emperor. —The severity of the Western Emperor, Gratian, to his pagan subjects, produced an insurrection in Gaul and Britain, headed by Maximinus. Gratian was defeated and killed near Paris, and Maximinus became Emperor of the West. (A. D. 383.) Maximinus was defeated and slain by Theodosius, the Eastern Emperor, and Valentinian II. ascended the throne of the West. (A. D. 388.) Valentinian II. was murdered by the Gaul Arbogastes, whereupon the throne of the West was usurped by Eugenius. Theodosius defeated and killed the usurper, and, reuniting the Eastern and Western Empires, became sole master of the Roman world. (A. D. 394.) Four months afterward, Theodosius the Great died at Milan (A. D. 395), after appointing his elder son, Arcadius, Emperor of the East, and his younger son, Honorius, Emperor of the West. REIGN OF HONORIUS (A. D. 395-423). Alaric the Goth's Invasions of Greece and Italy—Defeat by Stilicho- Soon after the accession of Arcadius and Honorius, the Goths, under their celebrated king, Alaric, commenced a fresh war against the Romans. After Alaric had ravaged nearly all of Greece, Stilicho, the able general of Honorius, marched to the aid of the Greeks. Alaric then abandoned Greece, directed his course toward Italy, and, crossing the Julian Alps, advanced toward Milan. (A. D. 403.) Hon- orius fled from his capital, but was overtaken by the Goths, and ºbesieged by them n Asta. Stilicho hastened to the relief of the emperor, and defeated the Goths with grea: slaughter at Pollentia, in Northern Italy. Instead of abandoning Italy after this deſeat, Alaric marched directly toward Rome, which was saved by the diligence of Stilicho; but the withdrawal of the Goths from Italy was purchased by a heavy ransom. Another Barbarian Invasion of Italy—Stilicho's Victory at Florence. -The timid Emperor Honorius, greatly alarmed at these barbarian invasions, AZSTOA’ V OA' ROME. I I I selected the strong fortress of Ravenna as his residence and seat of government, No sooner was Italy freed from the ravages of Alaric and his Gothic followers, than another hostile inundation of barbarian warriors, consisting of Goths, Vandals, Sueves, Alans, and Burgundians, led by the warlike Radagaisus, appeared, and threatened Italy with slaughter and desolation. The barbarians then crossed the Alps, the Po, and the Apennines, and laid siege to Florence. But again Italy was delivered by the valiant Stilicho, who blockaded the besieging barbarians, and finally, after they had greatly suffered from famine, compelled them to surrender aſ discretion. (A. D. 4O6.) The barbarian leader, Radagaisus, was put to death, and his followers were sold as slaves. Assassination of Stilicho.—Two years after the overthrow of the barbarians at Florence (A. D. 408), Stilicho, whose abilities had delayed the fall of the tottering Roman Empire, was treacherously assassinated by order of the jealous and ungrate- ful Honorius. Olympius—Massacre of the Barbarians in Italy.—The place of Stilicho was supplied by the unworthy Olympius, by whose advice the Emperor Honorius ordered the massacre of the families of the barbarians throughout Italy. This horrible order was cruelly executed, and the result of it was that 30,000 Gothic soldiers in the Roman pay revolted, and invited Alaric to come to Italy and avenge the slaughter of his countrymen. Alaric's Second Invasion of Italy and Capture of Rome.—At the call of his countrymen, Alaric the Goth again invaded Italy, and marched directly to Rome and laid siege to the city. Rome would have fallen into the hands of the barbarian chief, had not the Emperor Honorius yielded to his demand and purchased the retirement of the besiegers by the payment of a heavy ransom. At first Alaric demanded all the gold and silver in the city, all the rich and precious movables, and all the slaves of barbarian origin. When the Roman ambassadors asked, “If such, O King, are your terms, what do you intend to leave us?” the stern chief replied, “Your lives.” These severe terms were, however, somewhat modified, and Alaric agreed to abandon the siege of Rome for a large ransom of gold, silver, and various articles of valuable merchandise. Alaric then retired from the city; but as Honorius refused to comply with the stipulations of the treaty which had been concluded between the Gothic chief and the Romans, Alaric again directed his course to Rome and compelled the city to surrender. (A. D. 410.) The cap- tured city was given up to plunder, but the Goths, professing to be Christians, spared the churches. Death and Burial of Alaric the Goth.-After Rome had suffered six days from the fury of the conquering Goths, the city was abandoned by them; and Jhey marched into Southern Italy, where Alaric died. The body of the barbarian chief was buried in the bed of a small stream, and the captives who had prepared his grave were murdered that the Romans might never find the place of his sepul- chre. (A. D. 4IO.) FEIGN OF VALENTINIAN III. (A. D. 423-435). The Visigoths in Spain.—Upon the death of Honorius (A. D. 423), his youthful nephew, Valentinian III., became Emperor of the West. The Goths soon II 2 AAVC/EAVT HISTORY. withdrew from Italy, and that part of the nation known as Visigoths migrated to Spain, where they founded a kingdom of their own. The Vandals in Africa.-The Vandals, another tribe of Northern barbarians, led by their renowned king, Genseric, passed over from Spain into Africa, con- quered the Roman provinces there, and established a kingdom which lasted more than a century. (A. D. 439.) Conquests of Attila, King of the Huns—Battle of Chalons.—About this time Attila, King of the Huns, a powerful Asiatic tribe, was spreading terror and desolation wherever he directed his course. Attila, justly called “the Scourge of God,” subdued the Scythian and German tribes, defeated the Eastern Emperor, Theodosius II., in three bloody battles, devastated Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, and at length invaded Gaul, where he was defeated by the united armies of the Romans and the Goths in the sanguinary battle of Chalons, in which 162,000 of the barbarians were slain. (A. D. 451.) Hunnic Invasion of Northern Italy—Founding of Venice.—Notwith- standing their defeat at Chalons, the Huns invaded Northern Italy the following year. (A. D. 452.) The fugitives who fled in terror from their homes founded the city and republic of Venice on a number of small islands on the northern shores of the Adriatic sea. Soon after this invasion of Northern Italy, Attila died from the effects of intemperance. (A. D. 452.) REIGN OF MAXIMUS (A. D. 455). Genseric the Vandal’s Invasion of Italy and capture of Rome.—The Emperor Valentinian III. was assassinated by Maximus, whose wife he had corrupted (A. D. 455.) Maximus then became Emperor of the West; and on the death of his wife, which occurred soon afterward, he compelled Eudoxia, the widow of Val- entinian III., to marry him. In revenge, Eudoxia invited Genseric, the Vandal king of Northern Africa, to invade Italy. Genseric and his Vandal followers ac- cordingly crossed the Mediterranean sea into Italy and besieged Rome. (A. D. 455.) The Emperor Maximus was killed in a tumult which arose in the city. Rome soon ſell into the hands of the besieging Vandals, who plundered the city of what the Goths had left. After the victorious Vandals had pillaged the city of Romulus fourteen days and nights, they withdrew; but their vessel laden with the plunder of Rome was wrecked on its passage to Africa. THE LAST EMPERORS OF THE west (A. D. 453-47e). Avitus, Majorian, Severus, Anthemius, Olybrius, Glycerius, Nepos, and Romulus Augustulus.--During the twenty-one years after the pillage of Rome by the Vandals, eight emperors successively occupied the throne of the West. The first of these was a Gaul named Avitus, who had been raised to the throne through the instrumentality of Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths. Avitus was de- throned by the Sueve Ricimer, the commander of the barbarian auxiliaries, and Majorian was invested with the imperial purple. Majorian was deposed by the Soldiers, and Severus was elevated to the throne by Ricimer, who retained all the real power in his own hands. Severus was soon deposed, whereupon the Eastern Emperor, Leo, appointed Anthemius Emperor of the West. Anthemius was put to A/ZSZCO/8 Y OF ROME. II3 death, and Olybrius was raised to the throne. The last three Emperors of the West were Glycerius, Nepos, and Romulus Augustulus. Overthrow of the Western Roman Empire.—As the strength of the Ro: mans diminished, the insolence of the barbarians increased; and finally, when the demand of the barbarians for a third part of the lands of Italy was rejected, Odoa- cer, chief of the Heruli, a German tribe, dethroned the Emperor Romulus Augus- tulus, in the year 476 A. D., and, abolishing the title and office of Emperor of the West, assumed the title of King of Italy. Thus ended the Western Empire of the Romans: the once-proud city of Romulus was occupied by barbarian warriors, and a barbarian chief was seated on the throne of the Caesars. The Eastern, or Byzan- tine Empire, sometimes called the Greek Empire, continued to flourish for nearly a thousand years longer. 8 B O O K II. M ID D L E A G E S. THE DARK AGES. A. ~ ITALY AND THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. ITALY UNDER THE HERULIAND THE OSTROGOTHS. Odoacer, King of Italy.—Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, as King of Italy, fixed his capital at Ravenna. He distributed the lands of Italy among his followers, making the peasants who lived upon the lands their slaves. Odoacer, however, allowed the old Roman laws and institutions to remain, and retained the Roman magistrates in their offices. Theodoric the Ostrogoth.-In the year 588 A.D., after Odoacer had reigned, not without renown, twelve years, Italy was invaded by the renowned Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths. Odoacer was defeated and made a prisoner, and the king- dom of the Heruli in Italy was overthrown. In violation of his plighted word, Theodoric caused the captive Odoacer to be put to death at a riotous banquet. On the overthrow of Odoacer, Theodoric the Ostrogoth became King of Italy, and established his seat of government at Ravenna. Theodoric employed the original inhabitants of Italy in agriculture and commerce, while to his Ostrogothic followers he assigned the duty of defending the state. Like Odoacer, Theodoric allowed the ancient Roman laws and institutions to remain, encouraged agriculture, manufac- tures, and commerce; and Italy enjoyed great prosperity under his rule. Italy con- tinued prosperous under the successors of Theodoric; but in the year 5 54 A. D., Belisarius, the illustrious general of the illustrious Justinian, Emperor of the East, invaded Italy, overthrew the Ostrogothic monarchy, and united Italy with the Byzantine Empire. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE UNIDER JUSTINIAN. Accession of Justinian—War with Persia—Justinian's Armies.—For some time the Eastern Roman, or Greek Empire, often called the Byzantine Em- pire, had been distracted by domestic dissensions, which were only ended when Justinian, a man of humble origin, ascended the throne. During the first five years of his reign, Justinian waged an unsuccessful war against the Persians. Justinian's armies were never led by him in person, and were composed of barbarian mercena- ries, namely, Scythians, Persians, Heruli, Vandals, Goths, and Thracians,—the inhabitants of the empire having long been forbidden to bear arms. Conquest of the Vandal Kingdom in Africa by Belisarius.-The Empe- ror Justinian embraced the determination of conquering the kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, and also that of the Ostrogoths in Italy, and of restoring the vast empire (II.7) - II.8 MYDI) L.A. A GES. of the great Constantine. Justinian's illustrious general, Belisarius, landed in Africa, in September, 533, at the head of 15,000 soldiers, and was joyfully received by the Aficans, who were anxious to shake off the yoke of Vandal supremacy. Gelimer, the Vandal king, was twice routed in battle, and before the close of November the monarchy of the Vandals in Africa was overthrown. Gelimer passed the remainder of his days contentedly in Galatia, in Asia Minor; and the dominion of the Greek Emperor was extended ovér Africa proper. Subversion of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy by Belisarius.-Ir, the year 535 A.D., Belisarrus landed in Sicily at the head of 7,500 Byzantine soldiers, and subdued that island in one campaign; and in the following year (A.D. 536), he landed in Southern Italy, where he was hailed as a deliverer by the old Roman popu- lation. Belisarius obtained possession of Rome, in which city he was besieged for a year by the valiant Ostrogothic king, Vitiges, who failed to reduce the city; but nearly the entire population of the city perished from famine. Vitiges and his Ostrogoths were themselves next besieged in their own capital, Ravenna, which they were finally compelled to surrender, and Vitiges was carried a prisoner to the Byzantine capital; but he was treated with remarkable generosity by the Emperor Justinian, who allowed the captive king to pass the remainder of his days in afflu- ence in Constantinople. Another War Between the Byzantine and Persian Empires.—In the year 540 A.D., another war broke out between the Byzantine and Persian Empires, and Belisarius was summoned from Italy to take the field against the Persians, For a period of sixteen years (A. D. 540–556), Justinian waged war against the Persian monarch, Khosrou the Great. Hostilities were conducted with the most unrelenting obstinacy on both sides. After a fearful destruction of human life peace was finally made in 556, leaving the frontiers of the two empires nearly tº 2 same as they were before the war. Justinian's Treatment of Belisarius—Final Conquest of Italy by Narges. —Belisarius was at length treated with ingratitude by the Emperor Justinian, in whose service he had conquered two kingdoms. On the recall of Belisarius from ſtaly to operate against the Persians, the Ostrogoths recovered their supremacy in Italy. Belisarius was sent back to Italy to recover what had been lost, but he was soon recalled by the jealous emperor, and the command of the Byzantine army in Italy was assigned to Narses, who soon and unexpectedly proved himself a great general like Belisarius. After many bloody encounters, and after two valiant Ostro- gothic kings, Totila and Tejas, had been defeated and slain in battle, the Ostro- gothic kingdom in Italy was finally subverted, and the dominions of the Eastern Emperor were enlarged by the conquest and annexation of Italy. (A. D. 554.) Narses, as the Byzantine Emperor's lieutenant, governed Italy from Ravenna with the title of Exarch. Repulse of the Barbarians by Belisarius—Justinian's Ingratitude to Belisarius.-In his old age Justinian again had recourse to the services of his aged general, Belisarius, to drive away the barbarian Bulgarians and Slavonians, wha had approached the gates of Constantinople. At the head of a small but valiant band, Belisarius repelled the barbarians, but the applauses which the old hero received ſrom the people again excited the jealousy of Justinian; and the ungrateful emperor, charging his faithful servant with aspiring to the imperial throne, caused ty THAZ ZXAA’ K. A GE.S. II9 his eyes to be put out and all of his possessions to be confiscated; and the illustrious general who had subdued two kingdoms was often seen blind, and led by a child, begging alms in the streets to support his living. “The Pandects and Code of Justinian *—Silk Manufacture—Church of St. Sophia.-The period of Justinian's reign, known as the “Era of Justinian,” is one of the most important epochs in the history of the world. The conquests of Justinian were not his greatest glory; but what has immortalized his memory was his celebrated compilation of the Roman laws, known as the “Pandects and Code of Justinian,” which were arranged by his illustrious minister, Tribonian, who, at the head of a commission of ten eminent lawyers, had been appointed for the pur- pose by the emperor. Justinian obtained silk-worms from China, and introduced the manufacture of silk into Europe. He also built the Church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople; but he stained his character by his persecutions of the pagans and the Arian Christians. Death of Justinian—Domestic Dissensions and Decline of the Greek Empire.—The Emperor Justinian died in the year 565 A.D., at the age of eighty- three years. After his death the Eastern Empire was again disturbed by domestic dissensions. The wickedness and depravity of the imperial court at Constantinople soon obscured the lustre that had been shed upon the empire during the reign of Justinian. Emperors ascended the throne by the most revolting crimes. The Greek Empire rapidly declined after the death of Justinian. The Emperor Heraclius, in the beginning of the seventh century, engaged in three great expeditions against the Persians, in which he displayed the greatest military ability, thoroughly defeated Khosron II., the great Persian king, and effectually broke the power of the second great Persian monarchy. THE LOMBARD KINGDOM IN NORTHERN ITALY. Migration of the Lombards to Northern Italy.—In the year 568 A.D., the Lombards, or Longobards (men with long beards), who had for some time occupied Pannonia (now Hungary), led by their king, Alboin, crossed the Alps and settled themselves in that portion of Northern Italy which received from them the name of Lombardy. They took Pavia by storm aſter a siege of three years, and made it the capital of the Lombard kingdom. The Lombards were among the rudest and fiercest of the German tribes. Treatment of the Conquered People—Assassination of Alboin.—The Lombards treated the conquered people with harshness, and deprived them of their possessions; but they also commenced to devote themselves to the cultivation of their newly-acquired lands, and began to make some progress in civilization. The warlike Lombard king, Alboin, was assassinated at the instigation of his wiſe, the beautiful Rosamunda, in revenge for compelling her, during a festival, to drink from the goblet which had been fashioned from the skull of her ſather, the king of the Gepidae, whom Alboin had some years before killed in battle. The Lombard king. dom in Northern Italy lasted more than two centuries, when it was subverted by Charlemagne, the great Carlovingian monarch of the Franks. (A. D. 774.) # I 2G MIDDI, E A GAZ.S. THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN. Helplessness of the Britons—The Angles and Saxons Called to Bri- tain,--Under the rule of the Romans, the inhabitants of Britain became partially civilized and entirely lost their warlike spirit. When, about the middle of the fifth century after Christ, tottering Rome was obliged to withdraw her armies from Britain and her other remote provinces to protect herself against the Northern bar- barians, the peaceful Britons, unable to defend themselves against the savage Picts and Scots of Caledonia (now Scotland), called in the aid of the Angles and Saxons, two German tribes from the region embraced by modern Schleswig and Holstein. Accordingly, in the year 448 A. D., a party of about 300 Saxons, under two leaders, Hengist and Horsa, landed in Britain. Hordes of Saxons and Angles continued to pour into Britain, and assisted the Britons in, driving the Picts and Scots back into Caledonia. Expulsion of the Britons by the Anglo-Saxons.—The Anglo-Saxons soon coveted the beautiful lands of Britain for themselves. They accordingly fell upon the defenseless Britons, whom they killed or drove away. In one of the conflicts between the Saxons and the Britons, the Saxon chief, Horsa, was killed. Many of the unfortunate Britons fled to the mountains of Wales and Cornwall; while others crossed the English Channel and settled in that part of France which is named ſrom them Brittany, or Bretagne. The present inhabitants of Wales, Corn wall, and Brittany are the descendants of the ancient Britons. The Saxon Heptarchy.—After the Anglo-Saxons had obtained possession of Britain, they established seven Small kingdoms collectively designated the “Saxon Heptarchy.” The seven kingdoms were Kent; Sussex, or South Saxony; Wessex, or West Saxony; Essex, or East Saxony; East Anglia; Mercia, and Northumberland. Introduction of Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons.—Towards the close of the sixth century of the Christian era, Pope Gregory the Great commis- sioned the Benedictine monk, Augustine, to preach the religion of the crucified tº Redeemer to the pagan Angles and Saxons in Britain. On Christmas day, 597 A. D., Io,000 Anglo-Saxons were baptized, and Augustine became Archbishop of Canterbury. The Anglo-Saxons soon abandoned their idols, and embraced the religion of the Cross. In the year 827 A.D., the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy were united into one great state called Angle-land or England. & THE SARACEN EMPIRE. MOHAMIMED. The Arabs and their Ancient Religion.—The Arabs, who are descended from Ishmael, “the wild man of the desert,” a son of Abraham, have always been as free as the air they breathe. The ancient religion of the Arabs was Sabaism, or Star-worship. Many of the Arab tribes professed Judaism, some Christianity, and others the Persian religion of Zoroaster. There, in those deserts of Arabia, these wild people have roamed for ages, in proud independence, never bowing to the yoke of a foreign conqueror. THE DARK A GA.S. I 2 I Appearance of Mohammed.—About the beginning of the seventh century of the Christian era, a new religion began to be preached to the Arabians by an imposter called Mohammed, or Mahomet, a descendant of the priestly tribe of the Koreishites, who claimed to be descended from Koreish, the most distinguished c Ishmael's twelve sons. In his youth, Mohammed had made journeys as a mercha t through the desert with the caravans, during which he became convinced bf t-e Superiority of the Christian and Jewish religions over the Arabian idolatry. Mabo. met exhorted his countrymen to abandon their gross idolatrous worship and tº recognize and reverence the One True God, the Creator and Ruler of the entire universe. It was believed by his followers that Mohammed was divinely inspired, and that the angel Gabriel was the medium of communication with the Prophet, to whom, during a period of twenty years, occasional revelations are said to have been made. As Mohammed could neither read nor write, the revelations which are said to have been made to him, were committed to writing by amanuenses; and two years aſter the Prophet's death they were published as the “Koran,” or Moham- medan Bible. The Hegira.-At the age of forty, Mohammed proclaimed the cardinal princi- ple of his creed, “There is but one God, and Mohammed is his Prophet.” At first no one would believe Mohammed, with the exception of his wife, Ayesha; his father-in-law, Abubekir; and his son-in-law, Ali; and in a tumult at Mecca, in the year 622 A. D., the impostor was compelled to flee from that city to Medina. The flight of the Prophet ſrom Mecca is called “the Hegira,” and is the point from which the Mohammedans reckon time, as the Christians do from the birth of Christ. Progress of Islam—Its Establishment in Arabia—Death of Mohammed. —At Medina, Mohammed was received by his converts with demonstrations of joy, and the whole city soon recognized him as its chief and prophet. Mohammed now declared that the new religion was to be established by the sword. The number of his disciples increased daily; and soon they ravaged the country in small bands, and extended the religion of the Prophet by force. After many victories, Moham med obtained forcible possession of Mecca, and the inhabitants of that city soon acknowledged him as their temporal and spiritual ruler. All Arabia soon adopted the new religion, called Islam. Mohammed was grave and dignified in his manner, and was possessed of simplicity, benevolence, and other domestic virtues. He died in the eleventh year of the Hegira. (A. D. 632.) MOHAMMED'S SUCCESSORS. REIGN OF ABU BEKIR (A. D. 632-634) Abubekir, First Caliph—The Koran—Victories of Kaled, “The Sword of God.”—Mohammed was succeeded by his father-in-law, Abubekir, why was styled the First Caliph. Abubekir was the first convert to the religion of the Prophet, and after he became Caliph he collected and arranged the matcrials which had been prepared by Mohammed while at Medina into a book called “the Koran.” The fundamental points of Judaism and Christianity, together writh maxims derived from the fables, legends, and traditions of Arabian and Pe, iian mythology, are among the doctrines taught by the holy book of the Koran. Mohammed required frequent prayers, fasts, giving of alms, and pilgrimages to 1 22 M/Z) D/A A GA.S. Mecca. One great commandment of the Koran was to diffuse Islam by every means, and to compel all nations to accept it with fire and sword. Those who sac- rificed their lives for the propagation of the new faith were promised a paradise of sensual enjoyments. Abubekir's celebrated general, Kaled, called “The Sword of God,” subdued in a short time the few Arabian tribes who had abandoned the new faith, and reëstablished the religion of Mohammed over the whole of Arabia. Invasion of Syria—Siege and Capture of Damascus—Death of Abubts kir.--Aſter all Arabia had received the Moslem faith, it was resolved to carry tº e religi, n of the Koran beyond the borders of Arabia; and preparations were imme. diately made to invade the Byzantine and Persian Empires, both of which had been reduced to a condition of the most deplorable weakness from the long and deso- lating wars that had raged between them. Kaled invaded Persia with an immense army; but he was soon recalled to assist in the conquest of Syria, which had been invaded by several large Saracen armies. The great cities of Palmyra and Bozrah submitted to the invaders. Damascus was besieged by the Saracens, and finally carried by storm. On the very day of the capture of Damascus, Abubekir died. (August 3, 634.) REIGN OF OMAR (A. D. 634-644). Accession of Omar—Battle of Yermouk—Fall of Jerusalem—Conquest of Syria.-Abubekir was succeeded as Caliph by Omar. After the fall of Damas- cus, Emessa and Baalbec or Heliopolis were also reduced by the Saracen arms. The Greek Emperor Heraclius made great efforts to save Syria to his empire; but his armies suffered an overwhelming defeat from the Saracen forces under Kaled in a great battle on the banks of the Yermouk, where 70,000 Byzantine soldiers laid down their lives. (A. D. 636.) After a siege of four months, Jerusalem sur. rendered to Omar, who caused the ground on which the Temple of Solomon had stood to be cleared of its rubbish and prepared for the erection of a Mohammedan mosque, or temple, which still bears the name of the Caliph. The reduction of the great cities of Aleppo and Antioch, in the year 638 A. D., completed the conquest of Syria by the Saracens. Invasion of Persia—Battle of Cadesiah—Conquest of Persia.--While the events just related were occurring in Syria, other Saracen generals were engaged in the subjugation of Persia. In the year of the battle of Yermouk (A. D. 636), one of the bloodiest battles recorded in history was ſought between the Saracens and the Persians on the plain of Cadesiah, the Arabians losing 7,500 men and the Persians IOO,OOO. This great battle broke the power of the Persian monarchy, and five years aſterward (A. D. 641), the Persian king, Yesdejird, like Darius Codomanºus of old, having fled before his conquerors to the mountains, was assassinated by his own officers. With the death of Yesdejird ended ſorever the famous dyr asty of the Sassanidae and the second great Persian Empire; and Persia yielded to the Saracen dominion. Invasion of Egypt—Capture of Memphis and Alexandria.-In the mean time, E-gypt, then a province of the Iłyzantine or Greek Empire, had been tº faded by the Saracen ſorces under Amru. The Copts of Upper Egypt, descendants of the ancient Egyptians, joined the Arabians against the Greeks. Memphis surrendered to the Sor cens aſter a siege of seven months; but Alexandria held out longer and THE DARK A GAZ.S. I23 only ſell into the hands of the Arabians in the year 640 A.D., after an obstinate defense. When Amru asked Omar how he should dispose of the great library in Alexandria, the Caliph replied, “If these writings agree with the Koran, they are useless and need not be preserved: if they disagree, they are pernicious and should be destroyed.” Accordingly that great store of ancient learning was sacrificed to the bigotry and fanaticism of the Saracen monarch. Conquest of Egypt—Founding of Cairo–Assassination of Omar.—The fall of Alexandria decided the fate of Egypt, which country then became a province of the Saracen Empire. The Saracens founded in Egypt a new city which they named Cairo. In the year 644 A. D., Omar's life and eventful reign were terminated by the dagger of an assassin. During Omar's reign of ten years, the Saracens reduced 36,000 cities and villages, demolished 4,000 Christian churches, and erected I,500 Mohammedan mosques. REIGN OF OTH MAN (A. D. 644-635). Accession of Othman—Conquest of Cyprus and Rhodes—Assassination of Othman.—Omar was succeeded in the Caliphate by Othman, Mohammed's early secretary, who published a new edition of the Koran. During Othman's reign of eleven years, the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes submitted to the Saracen power. Othman was assassinated on his throne in the year 655 A. D., while he covered his heart with the Koran. REIGN OF ALI (A. D. 633-663.O). Accession of Ali–Civil War among the Saracens—Assassination of Ali. —Upon the assassination of Othman, Ali, Mohammed's son-in-law, became Caliph. During the reign of Ali, the Mohammedan world became divided into two great religious parties, the Sunnites and the Shiites. A civil war now broke out among , the Saracens; and Ali was assassinated, and the throne of the Caliphs was seized by the family of the Ommiyades. (A. D. 660.) REIGNS OF THE OMMIYADES (A. D. 66O-732). Damascus made the Saracen Capital—Conquests in India and Tartary. —The first Caliph of the dynasty of the Ommiyades was Moawiyah, who made the beautiful city of Damascus the capital of the Saracen Empire. Under the Ommi- yades, the empire of the Saracens and the religion of the Koran were carried into Northern IIindoostan and also into a great portion of Tartary. Unsuccessful Attacks on Constantinople.—Under the Ommiyades, the Sara- cens made several unsuccessful attempts to conquer the Byzantine or Greek Empire. During a period of seven years (A. D. 668–675), Constantinople withstood seven attacks, and was only saved by the newly-invented Greek fire. About forty years afterwards (A. D. 717), the Byzantine capital was again besieged by the Saracens; but after a siege of more than a year, it was relieved by the Bulgarians, who attacked the Saracens and inflicted upon them a crushing defeat. Siege, Capture, and Destruction of Carthage—Conquest of Northern Africa.-Under the Ommiyades, the Arabs prosecuted with vigor their conquests in Northern Aſrica. After a heroic resistance of nine years, Carthage was taken by M 24 MIDDE E A GE.S. storm, and finally and completely destroyed. (A. D. 698.) The Saracens encoun- tered a stubborn resistance from the Moorish and Berber races, whom they finally subdued in the year 709 A. D.; and all Northern Africa became a portion of the vast Saracen Empire. The Moorish tribes, resembling the roving Arabs in their customs and manners, adopted the name, language, and religion of their conquerors. Saracen Invasion of Spain—Battle of Xerxes de la Frontera—Conquest of Spain —No sooner had the Saracens completed the conquest of Northern Aſrica, than they were invited into Spain by Count Julian, a Spanish noble, in revenge for an injury which he had received from the tyrant Roderick, the Visigothic king of Spain. Accordingly, in the year 7II A. D., Tarik, the Arabian general, with a large army, crossed the strait between Africa and Spain which has ever since been called Gibraltar, meaning Gebel al Tarik, or Hill of Tarik. After landing in Spain, Tarik overthrew Roderick in the great seven days' battle of Xeres de la Frontera, which terminated the Visigothic monarchy in Spain. (A. D. 712.) Roderick escaped from the battle-field, but found his death in the waters of the Guadalquivir, After a gallant defense, Merida, the Spanish capital, surrendered to the victorious Saracens, whose dominion was then established in the whole of Spain. (A. D. 713.) Saracen Invasion of France—Terrible Defeat of the Saracens near Tours.-After the conquest of Spain, the Saracens resolved to push their arms across the Pyrenees, and to extend their dominion and religion over France, and, if possible, over all Europe. The Gallic tribes of Southern France submitted without resistance to the conquering Arabs; and Abdelrahman, the Saracen governor of Spain, entered France at the head of a large Arabian and Moorish army, and marched triumph- antly northward, desolating the country along his route with fire and sword, to the very centre of France, and established his camp between Tours and Poitiers. But now the confederacy of Franks, which had long been torn by dissensions, united to oppose the common enemy of Europe and,Christianity. In the year 732 A. D., Charles Martel, “the Hammer,” at the head of a powerful army of Franks, met Abdelrahman and his Saracens near Tours; and after a great battle of seven days, during which several hundred thousand Moslems perished, the victory was decided in favor of the Christian Franks. The tide of Mussulman conquest was rolled back, and Europe was saved to the Christian religion. REIGNS OF THE ABBASIDES (A. D. 732-1218). Overthrow of the Ommiyades by the Abbasides—The Caliphate of Cordova.-The Saracen power had already been greatly weakened by domestic dissensions and civil wars; and in the year 752 A. D., twenty years after the defeat of the Saracens by the Franks, the dynasty of the Ommiyades was overthrown, and the family of the Abbasides, descendants of Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed, seized the throne of the Saracen Caliphate. Abderrahman, the only one of the Ommiyades who escaped destruction, fled to Spain, in which country he ſounded the independent Caliphate of Cordova, which lasted 250 years. Bagdad Founded and Made the Saracen Capital.—Under Al Mansur, the second Caliph of the Abbaside dynasty, the Saracens built on the banks of the Tigris a new city which they named Bagdad, and which became the capital of the Saracen Empire and the great centre of Arabian civilization, learning, wealth, and refinement. THE DARM A GAZ.S. I25 Civilization of the Arabs.-During the reign of Haroun al Raschid (Aaron the Just) and several of his successors, the Arabs carried science and literature to a very high degree of perfection. Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova became famous as the seats of learning, while the greater part of Europe was slumbering in the dark- ness of barbarism. The Arabs taught the arts, sciences, literature, and poetry wherever they established their dominion and religion. Architecture and music ſlourished in all the Arabian cities of Asia, Africa, and Spain. Agriculture, industry, and commerce were encouraged. Decline and Dissolution of the Saracen Empire.—The extensive Saracen Empire, torn by religious and political dissensions, soon declined in power and importance, and before the close of the ninth century it ſell to pieces; and numer- ous petty Mohammedan kingdoms arose from the fragments of the once-vast empire of the Caliphs. Although the civil power of the Saracens was thus subverted, the religion of Mohammed remained in all the countries in which it had been estab- lished. l Decline and Overthrow of the Saracen Power in Spain.—Under the rule of the Mohammedans, Spain enjoyed a greater degree of prosperity and a higher state of civilization, than at any previous period. But the Saracen power in Spain soon began to decline; and in the year IO31 A. D., the Caliphate of Cordova was dissolved into a number of small states, which were gradually conquered by the Christians from their mountainous seats of the Asturias, in the northern part of the Spanish peninsula. In the course of time arose the Christian kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Leon, and Portugal, which waged continual wars against the Mohammedan kingdom of Granada, in the south of Spain. The kingdom of Granada was founded in the year 1238 A. D., and conquered in 1492 by the united power of Aragon and Castile. With the conquest of Granada ended the Mohammedan power in Spain, after it had existed in that country eight centuries. THE FRANK EMPIRE. THE REIGNS OF THE MEROVINGIANS. Conquest of Gaul by Clovis, King of the Franks,—In the fifth century of the Christian era, the Franks, or Freemen, conducted by their warlike king, Clovis, invaded Northern Gaul, subdued the country, and, at Soissons, put to death Syag- rius, the last Roman governor in Gaul. Clovis soon conquered all the country between the Loire and the Seine, and fixed his capital at Soissons, after which he proceeded against the Allemanni on the Rhine, whom he overcame in the battle of Tolbiac. (A. D. 496.) During the battle, Clovis made a vow that if the God worshiped by his wife, who was a Christian princess, would give him the victory he would embrace Christianity. Clovis and 5,000 of his subjects were laptized in the Rhine, on Christmas day, in the year 496 A. D. Savage Character of Clovis.-Christianity had little or no influence on the bloodthirsty disposition of Clovis, IIe put to death all the chiefs or kings who fell into his hands; and, in order to secure himself against rivals, he caused his nearest relations to be murdered. Clovis, who had already made Paris the capital of his kingdom, died in the year 5 II A. D. I26 Al/YDAX/AE A GE.S. Division of the Frank Kingdom.—Aſter the death of Clovis, his dominions were divided among his sons, and thus were formed the three kingdoms: Austrasia, east of the Rhine; Neustria, between the Rhine and the Loire; and Aquitaine, be- tween the Loire and the Pyrenees. These three kingdoms were aſterwards united under one sovereign, and were enlarged by the conquest and annexation of Burgundy. Character of the Merovingian Kings.-Clovis and his descendants are called Merovingians, from Merovaeus, their supposed ancestor. The reigns of the Mero- vingian kings were a period of crime and continual bloodshed. As soon as a king received his crown he caused his male relatives to be put to death. The conse- quence of these murders was that the Merovingian race was reduced to weakness and imbecility; and finally the ministers of the kings, called Mayors of the Palace, usurped all the powers of Sovereignty, leaving to the monarchs nothing more than the empty title of royalty. Pepin d’Heristal and Charles Martel.—At length Pepin d'Heristal, Mayor of the Palace, united the three Frankish kingdoms, Austrasia, Neustria, and Bur- gundy, and made the Mayoralty hereditary in his family; from which time the Merovingian kings ruled only in name, while all the sovereign power was exercised by the Mayors of the Palace. Pepin d’Heristal was succeeded in the Mayoralty by his son, the heroic and valiant Charles Martel, who by his great victory over the Saracens proved to be the Saviour of Christianity in Europe. THE REIGNS OF THE CARLOVINGIANS. REIGN OF PEPIN THE LITTLE (A. D. 731-768). Usurpation of Pepin the Little—Beginning of the Pope's Temporal Power.—On the death of Charles Martel, his son Pepin the Little succeeded to the Mayoralty. Pepin put an end to the nominal reign of the Merovingian dynasty by deposing the imbecile Childeric III., and causing himself to be proclaimed King of the Franks. (A. D. 751.) Pepin the Little and his descendants are called Car- lovingians. The Pope confirmed the dethronement of the Merovingian race, hoping thereby to secure the assistance of Pepin against the Lombards. In return for this favor from the Head of the Church, Pepin endowed the Pope with a large portion of the Adriatic coast of Italy southward ſrom Ravenna. This was the beginning of the temporal power of the Pope. Boniface or Winfried—Introduction of Christianity among the Germans. —During the reign of Pepin the Little, Boniface, or Winfried, the active and zeal- ous English missionary, first promulgated the doctrine of a crucified Redeemer to the savage inhabitants of Germany; and through his efforts churches and bishoprics were established in that country. Boniface preached the Gospel of Christ in Hesse, and displayed such zeal that he was surnamed “The Apostle of the Germans.” Aſter being made Archbishop of Mayence, Winſfied, in his old age, undertook a mission to the pagan I inlanders, who put the noble missionary to a violent death. REIGN OF CHARLEMAC NE (A. D. 768–814). Accession of Charlemagne or Charles the Great.—Pepin the Little died in the year 768 A.D., and left the Frank kingdom to his two sons, Charles and Carlo- 7 HE DAA’ſ A GE.S. 127 mar. On the death of Carloman, in the year 871, Cliarles seized upon all the Frankish dominions, and thus became sole sovereign of the vast Frank monarchy. Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, as he is called, was one of the greatest and wisest monarchs of the Middle Ages, as he did much for the establishment of Chris- tianity and the revival of civilization in Europe. Charlemagne's First War with the Saxons.—After crushing a revolt of the Aquitanians, Charlemagne led an army against the Saxons of Northern Germany. Charlemagne took the fortress of Eresburg, destroyed the pagan idols, and in the year 772 compelled the Saxons to accept a treaty of peace. But this peace was of short duration; and for thirty-two years, Charlemagne waged war against the Saxons, for the purpose of punishing them for their repeated aggressions, and extending his empire and the Christian religion. Conquest of the Lombard Kingdom in Italy by Charlemagne—After his first war with the Saxons, Charlemagne became involved in a war with the Lombards of Northern Italy. The Lombard king, Desiderius, had given protection to the widow of Carloman, the deceased brother of Charlemagne; and when Pope Adrian I. reſused to anoint her sons Kings of the Franks, Desiderius threatened an invasion of the papal dominions. Upon the Pope's appeal for aid, Charlemagne crossed the Alps into Italy with a large army, and compelled Desiderius to shut himself up in his capital, Pavia, which surrendered to the Franks after a six months’ siege. Desiderius was made a prisoner, and spent the remainder of his days in a cloister; and Charlemagne, placing upon his own head the iron crown of the Lom- bards, assumed the title of King of Italy, thus putting an end to the Lombard monarchy which had existed in Northern Italy for two centuries. (A. D. 774.) Charlemagne’s Second War with the Saxons.—While Charlemagne was in Italy, the Saxons expelled the Frank garrisons from their territory. But after the conquest of the Lombards, Charlemagne again led a large army into the Saxon country, subdued the barbarians a second time, and compelled the Saxon chiefs to agree to the peace of Paderborn. The warlike Saxon duke, Witikind, refusing to accept the treaty, fled to the Danes. (A. D. 777.) Charlemagne's Aid to the Christians of Spain—Battle of Roncesvalles. —In the year 778 A. D., Charlemagne went to the assistance of the Christians of Spain against the Saracens. He dismantled Pampeluna and Saragossa, and united all that portion of Spain between the Ebro and the Pyrenees to the great Frank Empire. As the Frankish monarch was recrossing the Pyrenees into France, his rear-guard, under the command of his nephew Roland, was attacked and cut to pieces in the pass of Roncesvalles. Roland himself was among the slain. The battle of Roncesvalles gave rise to many romances, and was celebrated in the poetry of the Middle Ages. Renewal of the War with the Saxons.—While Charlemagne was fighting against the Mohammedans in Spain, the Saxons again took up arms against the Franks; but after his return from Spain, Charlemagne again invaded and ravaged the territories of the Saxons, and again subjugated those fierce people after a series of desperate encounters. The victorious Frankish king compelled many of the coliquered Saxons to join his armies in a war against the Slavonians in the East of Europe. I 28 A/XD DAA; A GAZ.S. Conquest of the Saxons by Charlemagne.—On the march against the Slavo- nians, the Saxons in Charlemagne's army fell suddenly upon the Frankish soldiers and massacred many of them. This treachery was terribly avenged by the Frankish monarch, who devastated the Saxon territory and caused 4,500 Saxons whom he had made prisoners to be put to death. The Saxons now renewed the war, but after sustaining a severe defeat on the Hase they were obliged to submit; and Saxony became a portion of the Frank Empire. Witikind, the Saxon chief, swore fealty to the Frankish monarch, received Christian baptism, and he and his people embraced Christianity. Bishoprics, monasteries, and churches, rapidly sprung up in the Saxon country, *. The Margraviate of Brandenburg—Thassilo, Duke of Bavaria.-In the year 788 A.D., not long after Charlemagne had established the Margraviate of Brandenburg as a check against the destructive inroads of the Slavonians, his nephew, Thassilo, Duke of Bavaria, endeavored to cast off the yoke of Frankish supremacy, with the aid of the wild Avars, who had established themselves in the East of Europe. The treacherous Bavarian duke was defeated, made prisoner, and pun- ished for his faithlessness by perpetual imprisonment in the cloister at Fulda, in Hesse. Charlemagne then incorporated the Dukedom of Bavaria with the great Frank Empire, and established the Eastern Margraviate to check the incursions of the Avars. Charlemagne Crowned at Rome Emperor of the West—Division in the Church.-When Charlemagne had become master of all France, Germany, and Italy, and a large portion of Spain, he proceeded to Rome, where, on Christ- mas day, in the year 800 A.D., as the great Frankish monarch was attending divine service in the Church of St. Peter, Pope Leo III. placed the golden crown of the Roman Empire upon his head, and saluted him with title of “ Emperor of the Ro- mans,” while the people in the church shouted, “Long life to Charles Augustus, crowned by the hand of God great and pacific Emperor of the Romans.” The crowning of Charlemagne at Rome was regarded as a revival of the Roman Empire of the West; and Charlemagne was considered a successor of the Caesars. The capital of Charlemagne's empire was Aix-la-Chapelle. There were now two great empires in Christendom;-that of the East with Constantinople for its capital, and that of the West with Aix-la-Chapelle for its seat of government. The division which had for a long time existed in the Christian Church now ended in a complete separation; and thus arose the Eastern, or Greek Catholic, and the Western, or Roman Catholic Churches. Rebellion of the Saxons—Their Final Subjugation by Charlemagne,— Maddened by the oppressive system of military service, and by the payment of tithes to the Church, the Saxons rose in rebellion against the Frank power; but they were finally reduced to submission in the year 840 A. D.; and Io,000 Saxon fami- lies were forced to settle among the Franks, while colonies of Franks were settled in the Saxon country. Charlemagne’s Domestic Policy.—Charlemagne, who was extremely fond of learning, received instruction from the Saxon Alcuin, one of the greatest scholars of his time. He made the greatest exertions for the advancement of civilization among his subjects, and established order and improved the administration of justice throughout his vast dominions. He encouraged the arts, agriculture, commerce, THE DARK AGES. I29 and literature; and founded schools and cathedrals for the diffusion of intellectual enlightenment and Christianity. His capital, Aix-la-Chapelle, was splendidly em- bellished with palaces, churches, and works of art. Death of Charlemagne.—This great monarch, who did so much to dispel the intellectual darkness which almost universally prevailed in Europe, died in the year 814 A. D., leaving his extensive empire to his son, Louis the Debonnaire (the Good natured). CHARLEMACHINE’S SUCCESSORS. Louis the Debonnaire—His Disposition—Civil War—Battle of Fon. tenaille.—Charlemagne's successors were unable to keep together the great empire which he had built up. Louis the Debonnaire, who was a weak prince and unfit for government, was dethroned by his own sons, who had taken up arms against their father. The sons then quarreled, and a fierce civil war followed. A sanguinary battle of three days was fought at Fontenaille, in Burgundy, in the year 841 A. D., where many thousands of the bravest of the Frank nobles and soldiers were slain. Partition Treaty of Verdun—Dismemberment of the Frank Empire— —Charles the Fat.—Two years after the battle of Fontenaille (843 A.D.), the partition treaty of Verdun was concluded, by which the sons of Louis the Debon- naire divided the Frank Empire among themselves—Lothaire taking Italy, Bur- gundy, and Lorraine; Louis the German obtaining Germany; and Charles the Bald receiving France. By the rapid deaths of most of the Carlovingian princes, the empire of Charlemagne was restored in the year 884 A. D., under the imbecile Charles the Fat; but three years afterward (A. D. 887), it was finally dissolved. BARBARIAN RAVAGES IN EUROPE. The Slavonians or Slaves and the Avars.-The dissolution of the Frank Empire was followed by a time of great confusion, during which Europe was greatly harassed on all sides by the ravages of barbarians. In the East of Europe were the Slavonians, or Slaves, who made the most destructive inroads into the Eastern portions of Germany. The Avars, another fierce tribe, also made very de- structive incursions on the Eastern frontiers of Germany. The Hungarians or Magyars.-Germany was a prey to the ravages of a fiercer and more valiant people than either the Slavonians or the Avars, namely, the Hungarians, or Magyars, a warlike and ferocious tribe of Tartars from Asia, who, after crossing the Ural, under their leader, Arpad, settled in the valleys o the Theiss and Danube rivers, which region has ever since been called Hungary. Fyr several centuries, Germany was harassed by these fierce barbarians, whose ferocity was only tamed when they embraced Christianity, toward the close of the tenth. century. The Saracens in Italy.—While the barbarian Slavonians, Avars, and Magyars ravaged Central Europe, the Saracens ravaged the coasts of Italy after they had established themselves in Sicily. The armies of the Byzantine Empire for a time defended Southern Italy against the Arabs, whose ravages in Italy were only termi- nated after their defeat by Otho II., Emperor of Germany, in the tenth century. I3o M/D/DJCE A G F.S. The Northmen or Normans.—A far more daring and formidable race of bar. barians than the Slaves, the Avars, or the Hungarians, were the freebooting North- men, or Normans, from the Scandinavian peninsula, who kept the coasts of Germas, , France, and England in constant alarm. In their light vessels, the Normans ºr v- aged the coasts of the North Sea, sailed up the mouths of rivers, and, after scCºng a vast amount of booty, returned with it to their homes. For two centur.cs, he Normans, under the name of Danes, ravaged England. A band of Normans, lad by a chief named Rollo, settled in that portion of France named from them, No. mandy. Ruric, a Norman Varangian chief, became the prince of the Russians Slavonic race to the South of the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. Iceland was dis- covered and peopled by Norwegians, who established in that remote island a flour- ishing republic. Greenland was discovered and peopled from Iceland. The Nor- mans are said to have visited the North American continent. EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. Origin of the Feudal System—Division of Lands among the Barba- rians.—We will now proceed to give an account of the Feudal System, or form of government which prevailed throughout Europe during the Middle Ages. The barbarians who overthrew the Western Roman Empire divided the conquered lands among themselves. The chief of each of these tribes of barbarians was called a “king.” Under him were other chiefs or leaders called “barons.” Under each of these barons there were still other chiefs, and under each of these last was a large body of people. The military organization was kept up in the conquered countries. The barbarian conquerors devoted themselves entirely to war, leaving the tilling of the soil to the conquered inhabitants, who became slaves or serfs. The serſs could not be taken from the lands on which they lived, but were bought and sôld with them. Castles of the Kings and Barons—Allotment of the Lands—Feuds or Fiefs.-The kings and barons owned large stone castles, to which they retired when attacked by an enemy. All the personal property of the conquered people was divided by lot among the conquerors; but the lands were regarded as the pro- perty of the king, not to retain, however, but to grant to his followers. The king kept a portion of the lands for his own use. These were called “crown lands;” and the king's power depended upon the extent of his private estates. The remain. der of the lands was bestowed on his subordinate chiefs, the barons, to be held by them for liſe. At the death of a chief or baron, his portion of land, called a “feud," or “fief,” was again taken by the king, who then bestowed it on some other baron. From the term “feud,” the word “feudal” is derived; and by the Feudal System is meant the system based on the feuds or fieſs. © AZ UK’OAAEAAV ZAVSTY7'UTVOAVS. I31 Vassals and Lord-paramount—Conditions of the Allotment—Sub- fiefs.-Those to whom the king granted fiefs were called “vassals of the crown,” or “liegemen.” The giver of the lands was called a “liege-lord,” or “lord-para- mount.” The king bestowed the lands on his vassals, on condition that they should join him with a certain number of soldiers whenever he should call them to arms. To thistley bound themselves by a solemn oath, which was called “swearing fealty.” The king, who was lord-paramount, or liege-lord, in return. Swore to protect mis vassal, and not to continue in arms more than forty days at a time, nor wal against the Church. On the same condition, the vassals of the crown distributed their lands among their followers or vassals. Thus each vassal bestowed fiefs and sub-fiefs on his vassals, each of whom did homage for his lands to his liege-lord. So there were many grades of fiefs and sub-fiefs. Fiefs and Titles become Hereditary.—These fiefs, which were at first granted only for life, at length became hereditary in the families of the great vassals of the crown, each of whose estates at his death passed into the possession of his eldest son. In the same manner, great offices and their titles, such as duke, marquis, count, or baron, finally became hereditary also. Out of this state of things origin- ated the exclusive privileges yet enjoyed by the nobility of Europe. CHIVALRY. Origin of Chivalry—Devotion to the Cause of the Weak and Oppressed. —The great oppressions and abuses to which the Feudal System gave rise, led to the establishment of a remarkable institution throughout Europe about the begin- ning of the eleventh century. This peculiar institution, called Chivalry, originated in the piety of some nobles who wished to give to the profession of arms a religious tendency. These nobles devoted their swords to God, and bound themselves by a solemn oath to use them only in the cause of the weak and the oppressed. Those who took upon themselves these vows were called “knights.” Very soon every noble aspired to the honor of heing a knight; and the result was that much attention was given to the education of the young, for more than physical power was needed before any one could be admitted to the honors of knighthood. Virtues Requisite for Knighthood—Education of a Knight.—The aspi. rant to knighthood was required to be brave, courteous, generous, truthful, obedient, and respectful to his superiors in age or rank, and also to the ladies. The result of the development of these virtuous and noble qualities was that the candidate for knighthood became kind and affable to all who were below him in rank or fortune. The young noble who aspired to knighthood was placed at a very early age under the care of some noble distinguished for his chivalrous qualities, who, in his castle, instructed the young aspirant to knighthood in all the duties of Chivalry. Ceremonies of Admission to Knighthood.—The ceremonies of admission to the order of knighthood were somewhat singular. The candidate was first placed in a bath, to denote that in presenting himself for knighthood, he must pre- sent himself washed from his sins. When he left the bath he was clothed; first in a white tunic, to signify the purity of the life he was vowing to lead; then in a crimson west, to denote that he was called upon to shed blood; and lastly in a com- I 32 Aſ WO DL F A GES. plete suit of black armor, which was an emblem of death, for which he must always be prepared. He took an oath to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to practice courtesy, to defend the Christian religion, to despise the s\lurements of ease, and to vindicate the honor of his name. Dress and Arms of a Knight.—The knight was dressed in a suit of armor which protected his whole person. This armor was sometimes made of mail, that is, links of iron forming a kind of net-work dress, which a sword or a lance could not easily penetrate. Often this armor consisted of plates of iron, which protected the whole body of the knight. The aggressive weapons of a knight were a lance twelve or fifteen feet in length, a large Sword, a dagger, and sometimes a battle-axe, or a steel club called “mace-at-arms.” The knight's war-horse, like himself, was protected by a covering of mail or iron plate. Knights-errant—Tournaments.-Those knights who traveled about from place to place, independent of each other, were called “Knights-errant.” Some. times a great entertainment, called a “tournament,” was given by some king or rich prince, at which a mock combat was held for the knights to display their skill in the use of arms. A vast number of ladies and gentlemen assembled to witness these friendly trials of skill. At the conclusion of the exercises, the judges, who were usually old knights, declared the victors; and the prizes were presented to the successful knights by the noblest or most beautiful lady present. º Good Effects of Chivalry on European Civilization.—The good effects of the institution of Chivalry were many. While it protected the defenseless and the downtrodden in that warlike and barbarous period, the Middle Ages, it contributed much to the final overthrow of feudalism and the revival of European civilization, which had disappeared with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Commerce increased, talent and invention received encouragement, the arts and the sciences began to flourish, and many new towns were built and peopled. THE PAPACY AND HIERARCHY. The Papal Power—Hildebrand.—The Pope, or Head of the Church, assumed command or authority over all the princes and kingdoms of Christendom. He regarded the empire of Germany and all other Christian kingdoms as papal fiefs. From the eleventh to the sixteenth century the papal power was at its height. During that period the power of the Pope was so great that the most powerful monarchs of Europe could be subjected to the greatest humiliations by His Holiness. The most powerful and most illustrious, and the ablest of the Popes, and the one who raised the papacy above every other power in Christendom, was Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), who compelled Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, to come to Italy and stand three days and three nights barefoot in the Snow, without tasting a mouth- ful of food. Interdict and Excommunication.—The two punishments by the influence of which the Pope endeavored to maintain his authority were the interdict and tre excommunication. The papal punishment by the interdict was forbidding or inter- dicting divine service to be publicly performed. When a nation was under an interdict, the churches were all closed, the bells were not rung, the dead were thrown into ditches and holes without any funeral ceremonies, diversions of all sorts were Jº UROPEAAV ZAVSTY7'UZYOAVS. I 33 forbidden, and everything presented an appearance of gloom and mourning. An interdict was leveled at a village, a city, a state, or a nation; but an excommunica. tion was directed against individuals. A person excommunicated by the Pope was regarded as unholy and polluted; and every person was ſorbidden to come near him or render him any ſriendly assistance. If the sentence of excommunication could be enforced, as in most cases it could, the proudest and most powerful mon- arch could become, by a single decree of the Holy See, a miserable outcast. The Power and Influence of the Clergy.—The power and influence of the clergy during the Middle Ages was almost as great and important as was that oſ the nobles and the princes. Besides their ecclesiastical dignities, the superior clergy often held the most important offices of state; and by degrees great numbers of the archbishops, bishops, and abbots acquired extensive possessions, so that they finally became as powerful and influential as most of the princes. The magnificent cathe- drals and abbeys, adorned with all the productions of art, fully attested the greatness of the ecclesiastical residences. tº/[ONACHISM. Origin of Monachism or Monasticism—Life of Solitude and Religious Devotion.—Monachism, or Monasticism, had its birth-place in the East, where a life of solitude and devotion to the contemplation of divine subjects was by degrees adopted by so many, that about the close of the third century of the Christian era, the Egyptian Antonius, who had divested himself of all his vast possessions and selected the desert for his residence, collected the hitherto scattered monks, or mona- chi, as they were called, into enclosed places styled monasteries, cloisters, or con- vents. In these monasteries the monks lived together in fellowship; and Pachomius, the disciple of Antonius, gave the fraternity a rule. The Benedictine Monks—The Augustinians and other Monastic Or- ders.--Monasticism soon extended into Western Europe. In the sixth century, Benedict of Nursia established a monastery on Mount Casino, in Southern Italy, and thus became the founder of the famous order of Benedictine monks, which rapidly spread into all European countries and built many cloisters. Numerous orders of monks arose in the course of time, among which were the Augustinians, so called from their founder, St. Augustine. Other noted monastic orders were the Cistercians, the Premonstrants, and the Carthusians. The Franciscan and Dominican Monks.-Two celebrated monkish orders arose in the thirteenth century, the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The order of Franciscans was founded by the pious Francis of Assisi, a wealthy merchant's son, who, in 1226, renounced all his possessions, clothed himself in rags, and went from place to place, begging and preaching the Gospel. His wonderful zeal for the sal- vation of souls made for him many disciples, who, following his example, renounced their worldly possessions, fasted, prayed, and supported themselves by alms and donations. The order of Franciscans became wide-spread throughout Europe. About the same time arose the order of Dominicans, founded by the learned Span- iard, 1)ominicus. The chief aim of the Dominican monks was the extinction of all heretical doctrines and the preservation of the predominant faith in its original purity. The Dominicans took a vow of absolute poverty, and sought to gain heaven I 34 AM//D/OLA A GAZ.S. by austerity of manner and by a strict religious devotion. The Court of the Inqui- sition, with all its horrible examinations, dungeons, and tortures, was assigned to the Dominicans for the extermination of heretics, as all who differed from the estab- lished Church were called. The Franciscan monks, who mingled with the people, were chiefly engaged in the Salvation of souls; while the Dominicans, who gave their attention to the sciences, filled, by degrees, the chairs of the universities. Monastic Vows—Nuns and Nunneries—Relations of Monachism to the Papacy.—All monks were obliged to take the three vows of celibacy, personal poverty, and obedience. Females who took upon themselves the obligations of Monachism were called “nuns,” and their cloisters or convents were styled “nun neries.” The monastic orders were the strongest support of the power of the Pope, who endowed them with the greatest privileges and removed them from the author- ity of the bishops. * Beneficial Influence of Monachism on Civilization and the Manners of the Age.—Monachism proved a blessing to humanity during the dark and barba- rous period of the Middle Ages. It preserved the remains of ancient civilization, afforded an asylum or place of refuge for the down-tradden and the oppressed, and diffused morality and intellectual enlightenment, and softened the rude manners of those benighted times by the preaching of the Gospel, and by the establishment of schools for education. THE CRUSADES. * wº THE FIRST CRUSADE (A. D. 1096–1099). Christian Pilgrimages to Jerusalem—Outrages upon the Pilgrims.- From the time of the triumph of Christianity over the paganism of the Roman world in the fourth century, it had been a custom among the people of Christian Europe to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem for the purpose of expiating a sinful life, praying at the Holy Sepulchre, and exhibiting gratitude for heavenly mercies. As long as Syria and Palestine formed a part of the Byzantine, Greek, or Eastern Roman Em- pire, access to the Holy City was secured to these pilgrims. While the Holy Land remained under the enlightened dominion of the Saracens or Arabians, the Christian pilgrim was also unmolested in his journey to and from the Holy Sepulchre. But when the Seljuk Turks, a race of fierce barbarians from the plains of Tartary, took Jerusalem in Io?6, and obtained full possession of the Holy Land in Io94, the native Christians and the pilgrims from Europe were ill-treated, and many of them became martyrs to their religion. Those who returned to Europe from their pil- grimages gave a melancholy account of the cruelties and oppressions suffered by the Christians in Palestine at the hands of the infidel Turks, and thus excited the greatest indignation in Christian Europe. THE CRUSADA’.S. I35 Preaching of Peter the Hermit—Enthusiasm ºf the People of Europe. —Among others who had been witnesses of the cruelles and oppressions suffered by the Christians in Palestine was the zealous and fanatical monk, Peter the Hermit, of Amiens, in the French province of Picardy. On his return to Europe from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land; Peter the Hermit resolved to arouse the Christian nations of Europe to a gigantic effort to wrest the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels, Peter went from town to town, and from castle to castle, preaching of the luty of Christian Europe to expel the barbarian Turks from the Holy City. Wner ever he went, numerous crowds assembled to hear him; and very soon all France and Italy were aroused to the wildest enthusiasm for an expedition against the infide. desecrators of the shrine of the Saviour. Pope Urban II. and the Council of Clermont.—Pope Urban II., who zeal- ously abetted the design for an expedition for the redemption of the Holy Land, as- sembled a Council of the Church at Clermont, in Southern France. This Council was attended by numerous bishops and an immense concourse of people. When the Pope, addressing the clergy and the multitude, said, “It is the duty of every one to deny himself and take up the cross, that he may win Christ,” there arose a simultaneous shout, “It is the will of God!” and great numbers demanded to be enlisted in the sacred army. As the symbol of enlistment in the cause of God was a red cross to be worn on the right shoulder, the expedition was called a “Crusade,” and those who engaged in it were called “Crusaders.” All who engaged in the enterprise received from the Church the promise of a remission of sins and an eter- mal heavenly reward after death. The First Band of Crusaders under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless—The enthusiasm for the Crusade was so great throughout Christian Europe that many became impatient at what they considered the slowness of the preparations of princes; and accordingly, in Io96, numerous bands, consisting of thousands of the lowest classes of society, set out for the Holy Land without order or discipline. They were led by Peter the Hermit and a French knight called “Walter the Penniless.” They proceeded through Germany and Hungary towards Constantinople, but very few of them ever reached Asia. Having attempted to obtain the necessaries of life by forcible means in the countries through which they passed, and having carried robbery and desolation through Bulgaria and stormed Belgrade, the inhabitants of those countries rose against them and destroyed nearly the entire band of Crusaders; and Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless had very few followers when they reached Constantinople, where they waited to join the great army of the First Crusade under Godfrey of Bouillon. Fate of other Disorderly Bands.-Other disorderly and undisciplined bands, which violently persecuted and even murdered Jews and others who rejected Christ, followed those of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless; but they were totally destroyed before they reached Constantinople by the people whom they had robbed and plundered. The Great Army under Godfrey of Bouillon—The other Chief Leaders, —Nearly 300,000 of the Crusaders had already perished when the valiant Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, led a powerful and disciplined army toward the Holy Land. The principal leaders of the Crusaders next to Godfrey of Bouillon were Count Hugh ºf Vermandois, brother of King Philip I. of France; Duke Roher" 136 * M/DD/A A GA.S. of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror of England; Count Stephen of Blois, father of King Stephen of England; the chivalrous Count Raymond of Toulouse; Earl Robert of Flanders; and Bohemond, brother of Robert Guiscard, the Norman prince of Southern Italy. This great army of Crusaders set off for Palestine in six divisions, which took different routes to Constantinople, where all were united be- fore passing over into Asia. When the Crusaders arrived in Asia their army con- sisted of 400,000 men, of whom IOO,OOO were cavalry. Siege and Capture of Antioch by the Crusaders—Their Cruelties.—The Crusaders captured Nice, in Asia Minor, in Io97, after a siege of two months, and defeated the Turks in the battle of Dorylaeum. Proceeding in their victorious career, the Christians next laid siege to Antioch. That city was finally taken by the strategy of Prince Bohemond and the treachery of one of the Turks, who left a gate open to the besieging Crusaders. The greatest cruelties were perpetrated upon the unfortunate inhabitants of Antioch, by the victorious Christians, after the capture of the city. Great Christian Victory at Antioch.-A few days after the Crusaders had taken Antioch, an army of 300,000 Turks and Persians appeared before that city. The finding of a “holy lance” in the Church of St. Peter raised the courage of the Christians, who sallied out of the city, and, after a desperate battle, totally defeated the infidels and forced them to a precipitate flight. Siege and Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders—Massacre of Mo- hammedans.—Onward the Crusaders proceeded. When they came in sight of Jerusalem they shouted and wept for joy, and fell down on their knees and offered thanks to God; but their joy was succeeded by rage at beholding the Holy City in the possession of the Mohammedans. The Crusaders therefore laid siege to the city, which they finally took by storm, in July, Io99, after a siege of nearly six months. The streets of the captured city were soon filled with the bodies of 70,000 slaughtered Mohammedans. The conquering Christians believed that they were doing God good service by slaughtering all who rejected the Saviour; and both Jews and Mohammedans were massacred. After this most shocking atrocity, the Crusaders proceeded with hymns of praise to the Hill of Calvary, and kissed the stone which had covered the body of the Saviour; and then offered thanks to the God of Peace for the signal success of their undertaking. Founding of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem.—After the capture of the IIoly City, the Crusaders established the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem, which lasted nearly a century. Their gallant leader, Godfrey of Bouillon, was made ruler of the new state. He was too pious to assume the title of “King;” but called himself “Defender of the Holy Sepulchre,” and wore a crown of thorns instead of one of gold. Godfrey gained a great victory over the Sultan of Egypt, at Ascalon, in August, Io99. He died in the following year (A. D. I IOO), and was succeeded at thc head of the new state by his heroic brother Baldwin. Founding of the Knights of St. John and the Knights Templars.- Some time aſter the First Crusade, two celebrated orders of knighthood arose at Jerusalem These were the Knights of St. John, or Hospitallers, and the Knights Templars, or Red Cross Knights. Both these orders became famous for their mili. tary exploits against the infidels. THE CRUSA/OA.S. I37. THE SECOND CRUSADE (1147–1148). Loss of Christian Fortresses in Palestine—Preaching of St. Bernard, —The Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem suffered many attacks from the infidels, and some of the principal Christian fortresses in Palestine were lost. Under these circum ſtances, Christian Europe undertook a Second Crusade. The pious and e'oquent St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, in Burgundy, preached the closs , n Huance and Germany. (A. D. 1147.) Expeditions under Conrad III., of Germany, and Louis VII., of France. —Powerful expeditions were led toward the Holy Land by Conrad III., Emperor of Germany, and Louis VII., King of France. The army under Conrad marched by way of Constantinople into Asia Minor, where it was decoyed by the treach- erous Greek generals into a waterless desert, where the Turkish cavalry sud- denly attacked and thoroughly annihilated the army of German Crusaders, only a tenth part of whom succeeded in escaping to Constantinople. The French army, led by King Louis VII., marched along the coast, but the greater portion perished from famine and fatigue, and by the Swords of the infidels, before reaching Jerusa- lem. The shattered remnants of the immense hosts of French and Germans, led by the two sovereigns, after reaching the Holy Land, engaged in an unsuccessful siege of Damascus, which was the termination of the Second Crusade. THE THIRD CRUSADE (A. D. 1189-1192). Conquest of Palestine and Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, Sultan of Egypt.—The situation of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem became more and more perilous after the Second Crusade; and at length the valiant Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, reduced a part of Palestine under his sceptre. The magnanimous Saladin finally granted the Christians of Palestine a truce; but when a Christian knight interrupted the passage of Saladin’s mother, seized her treasures, and slew her attendants, the exasperated Sultan of Egypt recommenced hostilities, defeated the Christians in the battle of Tiberias, took Joppa, Sidon, Acre, and other towns, and in 1187 Jerusalem also fell into the possession of the conquering infidel. Sala- din, who surpassed his Christian foes in virtue, generosity, and nobleness of heart, treated the inhabitants of the Holy City with mildness, but caused the crosses to be torn down and the furniture of the Christian churches to be destroyed. Expeditions of Frederic Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, and Richard the Lion-hearted.—Upon the arrival of intelligence of the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, great alarm prevailed throughout the whole West of Europe; and fiom the shores of the Mediterranean to the coasts of the Baltic, armed bands set off for the Holy Land. The three most powerful sovereigns of Europe, Frederic Barbar- ossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard the Lion-hearted of Fngland, led powerful armies against the infidels. (A. D. I 189.) Frederic Barbarossa’s Victory at Iconium—His Accidental Death.-- The Emperor Frederic Barbarbossa with the German army marched by land to Asia Minor, and defeated the Sultan of Iconium in a great battle near the walls of his chief city; but the noble-hearted German Emperor lost his life in a stream 138 AM/DD/CAE A GA2.S. which he had attempted to cross. His second son, Frederic, with a part of the expedition, proceeded to Palestine, and took part in the siege of Acre. Siege and Capture of Acre by Richard the Lion-hearted and Philip Augustus.-Kings Richard the Lion-hearted and Philip Augustus, with the Eng- lish and French armies, after reaching the Holy Land by sea, laid siege to Acre, which ſell into their hands in II92, after a siege of nearly two years, during which nine great battles were ſought before the city. Richard the Lion-hearted was noted for his energy, ability, and valor, as well as for his pride, severily, and cruelty. Arrogance and Cruelty of Richard the Lion-hearted.—By the orders of Richard the Lion-hearted, the German banner, which Duke Leopold of Austria had caused to be erected on the battlements of Acre, was torn down and trampled under foot by the English. When the infidels failed to fulfil the stipulations for the payment of a ransom for the captive Saracens, 3,500 of them fell victims to the fiery temper of the English king. Richard's courage made him feared and respected by the infidels; but notwithstanding his military skill and bravery, his efforts for the recapture of Jerusalem were unavailing. Quarrel of the Kings of England and France—Richard’s Captivity in Germany.—The King of France was jealous of the superior military ability of the King of England. The two monarchs soon quarreled, and Philip Augustus returned to France. After gaining a great victory over Sultan Saladin near Ascalon, Richard the Lion-hearted set out on his return, by sea, to his kingdom. (A. D. I I92.) His vessel, having been driven by a storm to the coast of Italy, Richard proceeded on his way to England, by land, through Germany; but he was seized and imprisoned in the castle of Triſels, by order of the Emperor Henry VI. of Germany, in revenge for the insult to the German flag aſter the capture of Acre, and only obtained his release upon the payment of a heavy ransom by the English people. THE FOURTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1202–1203). Expedition of French and Italian Knights under Count Baldwin of Flanders.--In the year 1202 A. D., the Fourth Crusade was undertaken by French and Italian knights, under Count Baldwin of Flanders, at the instigation of Pope Inno- cent III. After assembling at Venice for the purpose of being conveyed to Pales- tine, the Crusaders captured Zara, in Dalmatia, for the Venetians; but instead of sailing to the Holy Land, they proceeded against Constantinople for the purpose of restoring to the throne of the Byzantine Empire, Isaac Angelus, who had been de- throned and imprisoned by his own brother. Storming of Constantinople by the Crusaders.-Headed by the blind old Dandolo, Doge of Venice, the Crusaders appeared before Constantinople, took the city, and restored Isaac Angelus to the Greek throne; but when the Flench Crusa- ders demanded the rewards which had been promised to them, the inhabitants of Constantinople raised an insurrection in which the Emperor Isaac Angelus and his son Alexius perished. Thereupon the French Crusaders stormed and took the Byzantine capital, plundered the churches, palaces, and dwellings, destroyed many valuable monumerts of art, and filled the whole city with terror and desolation N | %% g. *-- § % % % 2 º eº §à # Sºs. º SS-Kº §§§ g- º SS S Nº. & SºnºS S$ RSNS Sº -º-º- SS N º sº sº º §§ §S. M * * * SS.S.Rcſ SN.S.Nº. §§ § \\S § - §§§ NºSºº s". Sylºw NSN N N \\ w NN RS-R S §§ §§ NSN §§ §§§ w § § § § § § º ſº N §§§ º Ş. SS NS § * \tº - §§ - N. lº.º. §§ º ly - ܺ NNSºS §§§ §§§ W NS ğ N §N §§ R - WN Sºssº ºn º º §§ Yº Sºğ tº "…º.º. § N º 3. º | §§§ § § §§ - S& §§ RICHARD, THE LION-HEARTED, THE CRUSADES, I39 Temporary Subversion of the Greek Empire—A New Roman or Latin Empire.—After plundering Constantinople, the French Crusaders subverted the Byzantine or Greek Empire, and established in its stead a new Roman or Latin Empire, with Constantinople for its capital, and Count Baldwin of Flanders for its sovereign. This Latin kingdom lasted fifty-six years, after which it was overthrown, and the old Byzantine dynasty was restored to the throne of Constantinople in the person of Michael Palaeologus. THE FIFTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1228-1229). Separate Bands of Crusaders—The Child’s Crusade—Expedition of Andrew II. of Hungary.—The Fourth Crusade was without results, concerning Jerusalem; and at times after its conclusion separate bands of Crusaders, without chiefs or without discipline, made journeys to the Holy Land, and ventured upon the hazardous undertakings of restoring the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem and defending the Latin kingdom of Constantinople. On one occasion, 20,000 children left their homes in Europe on a journey to the Holy Sepulchre, but they perished from hunger and fatigue, or were sold into slavery. In 1218, King Andrew II. of Hungary began the Fifth Crusade; but his expedition to Egypt had a disastrous result. Expedition of Frederic II. of Germany to Palestine—Treaty with Melek Kamel.—In 1228, the excommunicated Frederic II., Emperor of Germany, led an expedition into Palestine, at a time when the Sultan of Egypt was at war with the governor of Damascus respecting the possession of Syria and Palestine. The Pope forbade all Christian warriors from joining the expedition until the Emperer Fred- eric II. should be relieved from the curse of the Church. In 1229, Frederick II. concluded a treaty with Sultan Melek Kamel of Egypt, by which Jerusalem and the greater part of the Holy Land were surrendered to the Christians; but the Pope excommunicated the Holy City, and Frederick II. was crowned at Jerusalem with- out being consecrated by the Church. The abandoned Emperor soon returned to Germany. THE SIXTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1250–1254). Ravages of the Corasmins in Palestine—Capture and Massacre of Jerusalem.—In the year 1243 A. D., fourteen years after the Fifth Crusade, the Corasmins, a fierce tribe of barbarians from the plains of Tartary, overran Pales. tine, carrying slaughter and desolation wherever they appeared, took Jerusalem, massacred its inhabitants, destroyed the Holy Sepulchre, and wasted the flower of the Christian chivalry in a desperate battle at Gaza; but they were finally defeated by the Christian and Turkish armies, which, for the moment, united against the ;ommon enemy. Expedition of St. Louis to Egypt—Captivity and Release of St. Louis. —The horrible deeds of the Corasmins in Palestine led to the Sixth Crusade, which was conducted by the French king, Louis IX., or St. Louis, who, in 1250, accom- panied by many of his nobles, sailed at the head of a powerful expedition to Egypt. I4o MIDIO L E A GES. After taking the town of Damietta, the French fleet was destroyed in the Nile by means of Greek fire; and St. Louis was taken prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, and only obtained his freedom by the payment of a heavy ransom. (A. D. 1250.) At length the Mamelukes, a race of Circassians who had been held as slaves in Egypt, obtained control of the government of that country. THE SEVENTH CRUSADE (A. D. 127O-1274). Expedition of St. Louis to Tunis—Siege of Tunis—Death of St. Louis —In 1270, St. Louis undertook the Seventh Crusade—the last of those great expe- ditions of the Christians against the infidels. The French fleet, having been driven by a storm upon the coast of Sardinia, St. Louis resolved to attack the piratical Moors of Northern Africa. The valiant French monarch landed near Tunis, and besieged that city; but soon a pestilential disease carried St. Louis and the greater number of his followers to their graves. The surviving French leaders concluded a treaty of peace with the Moors, and returned to France. Exploits of Prince Edward of England in the Holy Land.—Prince Ed- ward of England (afterward King Edward I.), who participated in the Seventh Crusade, went to the Holy Land, where he performed many gallant exploits, and struck such terror into the hearts of the Saracens that they hired an assassin to mur- der him. Prince Edward wrenched a poisoned dagger from the hand of the assas- sin; but in the scuffle, the prince received a wound in the arm which might have proved fatal had not his affectionate wife, Eleanor, who had accompanied him to Palestine, sucked the poison from the wound. Siege and Capture of Acre by the Turks—Loss of the Holy Land to the Christians.—The infidels gradually recovered their lost power in Palestine; and, in 1291, a Turkish army of 200,000 men appeared before Acre, and, after a vigorous siege, took the city by storm. The remaining Christians voluntarily retired from Syria, which for two centuries had been drenched with the blood of millions of Christian and Mohammedan warriors. CONSEQUENCES OF THE CRUSADES. Influence of the Crusades on Chivalry.—The Crusades ennobled the knightly class by furnishing a higher aim to their efforts, and gave rise to the estab- lishment of new orders, which presented a model of Chiyalry and were presumed to possess all the knightly virtues. Of these new orders were the Knights of St. John, the Knights Templars, and the Teutonic Knights, which combined the spirit of the knight and the monk, their vows being chastity, poverty, obedience, and war against the infidels. The Knights of St. John.—After the re-conquest of the Holy Land by the Turks, the Knights of St. John established themselves in the Island of Rhodes, which was finally wrested from them by the Ottoman Turks, in 1522, when thcy received the island of Malta from the celebrated Charles V., Emperor of Germany and King of Spain. The Knights Templars.—The Knights-Templars acquired great wealth by THE CRUS,4/XAZS. I41 donations and legacies. After the loss of their possessions in Palestine, the greater number of them returned to France, where they abandoned themselves to infidelity and corruption, the consequence of which was the final dissolution of their order. The Teutonic Knights.-The Teutonic Knights were celebrated for their services in the civilization of the countries on the shores of the Baltic sea. They defended Christianity, against the heathen Prussians in the region of the Vistula. and converted the inhabitants of the territory between the Vistula and the Niemcz to Christianity, and established there the German language, customs, and civiliza tion. The cities of Culm, Thorn, Elbing, Königsburg, and others arose; bishop rics and monasteries sprung up; and German industry and civilization produced a complete change. Influence of the Crusades on the Feudal System.—The Crusades gave rise to a free peasantry and tended to break up the Feudal System, as by their means great numbers of serfs received their freedom, and extended the power and influence of the burgher class and of the towns. The rich barons were compelled to sell their possessions, for the purpose of raising money to equip troops and to transport them to the Holy Land. Diffusion of Knowledge.—The Crusades promoted the diffusion of knowledge and the advancement of science and literature. Those who engaged in them were at first deplorably ignorant and illiterate; but when they came in contact with the Greek and Arabian civilization, they acquired a fondness for science and literature, and after returning to Europe they imparted the same spirit to their countrymen. Development of Commerce.—The Crusades gave great encouragement to commerce, as by their means different countries were brought into communication and more intimate commercial relations with each other; and the advantage of a mutual exchange of products was soon perceived. In consequence, great progress was made in the arts of navigation and ship-building; and many flourishing cities, such as Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, acquired immense wealth and attained to vast commercial importance. Influence of the Crusaders on the Church—Crusade against the Albi- genses.—The Crusades gave greater power and influence to the clergy, and multi- plied the riches of the Church. They also tended to exalt the religious enthusiasm produced by them into a spirit of fanatical intolerance. This intolerance was soon manifested in a crusade against the Albigenses, a new religious sect which arose in the South of France. Pope Innocent III. ordered the cross to be preached against the Albigenses and their protector, Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse; whereupon bands of ſamatical warriors overran the fertile region inhabited by the new sect, and spread death and desolation wherever they appeared, destroying cities, towns, and villages, massacring the inhabitants, and converting that beautiful region into a vast wilderness, Finally, in 1228, King Louis VIII. of France undertook a bloody caimpaign against the heretics; and after a desolating war, Count Raymond was defeated and subdued, and the unfortunate creed of the Albigenses was extinguish.d i., blood. The Assassins and The Old Man of the Mountain.—About the time of the First Crusade, the Mohammedan prophet, Hassan, founded the fanatical sect of the “Assassins,” who dwelt in the mountains of Syria, and who became the * I42 M/D/OLAE A.G.E.S. terror alike of Christians, Jews, and Turks. These Assassins were blindly devoted to their chief, “The Old Man of the Mountain,” and paid the most implicit obedi- ence to his commands; and they believed that if they sacrificed their lives for his sake, they would certainly be rewarded with the highest joys of paradise. When- ever the Old Man of the Mountain considered himself injured by any one, he dis- patched some of his Assassins secretely to murder the aggressor. Thus was derived the common name of “assassin,” which has ever since been applied to a secret murderer. LATIN STATES. wº-y ITALIAN STATES. - THE PAPAL STATE OF ROME. Rome under the Popes.—From the time that Pepin the Little, King of the Franks, endowed the Pope with a large tract of territory in Middle Italy, the city of Rome, with its neighboring territory, had been under the dominion of the Popes, who, in uninterrupted succession, have filled the Chair of St. Peter. Feuds at Rome—Rise of Cola di Rienzi—His Fall and Assassination. —Duning the seventy years that the Pope resided at Avignon, in France, Rome was a prey to internal dissensions, and suffered greatly from the lawlessness of the nobles. Out of these intestine disorders and quarrels of the familes of Orsini and Colonna arose Cola di Rienzi, called the “Last of the Tribunes,” who was imbued with the spirit of the ancient Roman republicans, and who endeavored to restore Rome to its ſormer glory and prečminence. Having gained the support of the Roman people by his fiery addresses, Rienzi was made a Tribune of the People; and he seized the supreme power in Rome in 1347, and expelled the lawless nobles; but his impolicy in loading the Roman people with the most oppressive taxes, soon made him unpopular, and, after a brief existence of seven months, his government was overthrown, and he was driven into exile. Rienzi afterwards returned to Rome, and was assassinated during a tumult in the city, in 1354. THE DUCHY OF MILAN. Northern Italy under the Emperor of Germany.—After the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty in Northern Italy, that country was a prey to confusion and anarchy, until it passed under the sway of the Emperor of Germany, in the tenth rentury. In the course of time, Milan and other towns emerged into importance The Lombard League—Peace of Constance—Guelphs and Ghibellines, —In 1177, Milan and other towns of Lombardy formed the Lombard League against the German emperor, and by the Peace of Constance, in 1183, the Lombard cities secured their independence; but Italy was distracted for centuries by the civil wars A. A 7TWAV SZTA 7TE.S. I43 between the Guelphs, or supporters of the Pope, and the Ghibellines, or adherents of the Emperor of Germany. Milan under the Families of Visconti and Sforza.-Milan, which was uled by the family of Visconti, in the process of time acquired nearly the whole of Lombardy. The ruler of Milan and its territory received the title of Duke from the Emperor of Germany. On the death of the last Milanese duke of the family of Visconti, in 1450, the government of the duchy was bestowed on Francisco Sforza. Milan under the French and the Spaniards.-In 1500, the Duchy of Milan was subdued by Louis XII., King of France, and the Milanese duke, Louis Moro, was kept a prisoner for ten years; but the French were finally driven away and Moro was restored to his dukedom. In 1515, the French again took possession of Milan, aſter their king, Francis I., had deſeated the Milanese and their allies, the Swiss, in the battle of Marignano, or “the Battle of the Giants.” In 1525, Milan was conquered by the Spaniards, who retained the duchy for almost two centuries. REPUBLIC OF VENICE. Italian Republics—Origin of Venice.—During the Middle Ages, a number of small republics arose in Italy, the most prominent of which were Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Florence, which were greatly renowned for their extensive commerce and maritime power. The most famous of these Italian republics was Venice, which was founded in the year 452 A. D., by the Veneti, a people of Northern Italy, who fled in terror from their homes during the frightful ravages in Italy by Attila and his Hunnic followers. The fugitive Veneti took refuge among the small islands at the head of the Adriatic sea, and there founded a settlement called Venezia, or Venice. The First Doge, or Duke of Venice—The Rialto.—-For more than two cem- turies, Venice was a simple republic; but in the year 697 A.D., its form of govern- ment was changed by the election of a Doge, or Duke, who was vested with almost absolute power. In the beginning of the ninth century, the central island, Rialto, was connected with the other islands by bridges, and this city of bridges and canals, instead of streets, became a great commercial power. St. Mark—Venetian Aid to the Crusaders.-In the twelfth century, the Venetians adopted St. Mark as their patron saint, having brought, as it is said, his body from Alexandria, in Egypt, to Venice. (A. D. 829.) During the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, Venice greatly increased in wealth, commerce, and naval power; and its territories were enlarged by the annexation of Dalmatia and other provinces. In the First Crusade, the Venetians aided Godfrey of Bouillon with a fleet of 200 vessels; and during the whole period of those Holy Wars, Venice was the great commercial centre and the emporium of the trade between the nations of Europe and those of the East. Ceremony of “Wedding the Adriatic.”—In the twelfth century, the cere. tnomy of “wedding the Adriatic” was instituted, the Pope presenting the Doge of Venice with a ring for the purpose. The ceremony was performed with great pomp, and consisted in casting a ring into the Adriatic, to indicate that the sea was subject to Venice as a bride is to her husband. I 44 MYD DA, E A GA.S. Acquisitions of Venice—Domestic Dissensions—Council of Ten.— Venice acquired possession of many rich towns in Lombardy, and also of Crete, Cyprus, the Peloponnesus, and the islands of the Archipelago (the ancient AEgean sea). Venice, like all the other Italian republics, was torn by the contests of domestic factions. In the fourteenth century, the democratic system in Venice was overthrown, and a government of the aristocracy was erected in its stead. A “Council of Ten” was appointed to prevent any attempt at the reëstablishment of democracy. Height of Venetian Glory—Check Against the Turkish Naval Power, —At the commencement of the fiſteenth century, Venice attained the highest pitch of greatness and prosperity, and was for more than a century the chief commercial and maritime power of the world. Venice did very important service to all Chris- tian Europe by checking the naval power of the Ottoman Turks in the Mediterra- nean sea; but her long maritime wars finally exhausted her resources, and her gov- ernmentt grew despotic and corrupt. Decline of Venetian Commerce and Maritime Power.—The discovery of a sea-passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope sealed the fate of Venice, and her commercial and maritime glory, in a great measure, departed from her; but for several centuries longer Venice continued formidable, and her fleets con- tended succeseſ ully against the Ottoman Turks, who endeavored to secure the control of the Mediterranean sea. League of Cambray Against Venice.—When, at the beginning of the six- teenth century, Venice attempted to extend her territorial possesions in Italy, the powerful “League of Cambray” was formed against her by Pope Julius II., King Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, King Louis XII. of France, and the Emperor Maximilian I. of Germany. (A. D. 1508.) The Venetians soon succeeded in winning the Pope and the King of Spain to their interest, and so contrived to dis- solve the league; and the French, who had threatened the independence of Venice, were soon expelled from Italy. REPUBLIC OF GENOA. Genoa’s Naval Wars with Venice—Domestic Dissensions.—The Repub- lic of Genoa, the great commercial rival of Venice, was often engaged in naval wars with that powerful maritime republic. In these wars, Venice was generally successful. Genoa was greatly weakened by dissensions between the democracy and the aristocracy, or Guelphs and Ghibellines. Acquisition of Genoa by the French—Its Liberation by Andrea Doria. —In the latter part of the fifteenth century, Genoa came into the possession of the French, and afterwards of the Duchy of Milan. In 1528, Andrea Doria, the great Genoese admiral, liberated Genoa from the sway of the French, and reëstablished the republican government, thus winning for himself the title of “Father of his ountry and Restorer of its Liberities.” REPUBLIC OF FLORENCE Conquest of Pisa by Florence—Domestic Dissensions.—The commercial city of Pisa was the first town of any importance in Tuscany; but in a war with A TWAV STATES. I45 Genoa is power was greatly weakened, and finally Pisa was conquered by the Republic of Florence and became a dependency of that powerful state. Florence, which was also distinguished for her commerce and manufactures, was likewise gre',tly weakened by the quarrel between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines; and the state was alternately governed by the aristocracy and the democracy. Wise Rule of Cosmo de Medici and Lorenzo the Magnificent.—In 1428, Cosmo de Medici assumed the government of Florence and ruled with almost dic. tatorial power; but he used his power wisely, thus earning the glorious title of “Father of his Country.” Under the rule of Cosmo de Medici, and that of his distinguished grandson, Lorenzo “the Magnificent,” Florence enjoyed the greates. prosperity; and the arts, sciences, and literature flourished in the state. After the death of Lorenzo the Magnificent, the democratic government was reëstablished in Florence; but in 1530 the republican constitution was again overthrown, and the House of Medici was restored to the government of Florence, through the interſer- ence of Pope Clement VII. and the Emperor Charles V. of Germany. THE POING DOM OF NAPLES AND SICILY. Expulsion of the Saracens from Southern Italy by the Normans.—In the ninth century, Southern Italy was invaded by the Saracens, against whom that country was deſended by the armies of the Byzantine and German Empires; but the Saracens retained possession of many places in Southern Italy, until they were ex- pelled by the Normans, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Hordes of Normans from Normandy poured into Southern Italy and took possession of the country. Robert Guiscard, the Norman Duke of Southern Italy.—In Iobo, Robert Guiscard, a Norman chieftain, led a band of his countrymen into Southern Italy; and was acknowledged by the Pope, Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and other territories in Italy and Sicily which he might wrest from the Greeks and the Saracens. The Norman duke, who was the greatest soldier of his age, extended his conquests throughout Southern Italy, and put an end to the dominion of the Eastern Emperors in Italy. He afterwards led a large army, officered by Norman knights, into the other territories of the Greek Empire, and captured Durazzo after a seven months' siege; and then marching eastward, he threatened Constantinople. He was, how- ever, recalled by Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), to defend the Head of the Church against his inveterate enemy, Henry IV., Emperor of Germany. Kingdom of Naples and Sicily—Royal Houses of Hohenstauffen and Anjou.-Roger I., the brother of Robert Guiscard, wrested Sicily from the Sara cens after a war of several years; and his son, Roger II., ruled over the Norman territories in Italy and Sicily, and ſounded the kingdom of Naples and Sicily; but with the death of William II., the grandson of Roger II., the Norman dynasty in Italy became extinct; and Southern Italy passed under the sway of the German House of Iſohenstauffen, and thus remained until the reign of Manfred, who, in 1266, was defeated in the battle of Benevento, by Charles of Anjou, who thus ob. tained the throne of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, and retained it until the bloody massacre of the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. Naples and Sicily under the Spaniards.-By the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, Charles of Anjou lost Sicily, but he and his posterity ruled over Naples IO 146 MYDA)/A; A GA.S. until 1435, when Naples passed under the dominion of the kings of Aragon, who had ruled over Sicily from the time of the Sicilian Vespers. The French kings endeavored to wrest Naples from the kings of Aragon; but in 1504, Ferdinand the Catholie, King of Spain, effected the final subjugation of Naples and united it with Sicily. The kingdom of Naples and Sicily belonged to Spain for more than two centuries, KINGDOM OF FEANCE, CARLOVINGIAN KINGS OF FRANCE. France under the Carlovingian Dynasty—Charles the Simple.—Under the Carlovingian dynasty, France was divided into a number of principalities vir- tually independent of the central power of the monarchy. The royal power was reduced to mere shadow, and France suffered greatly from the predatory inroads of the Normans from Scandinavia. Under Charles the Simple (898–922), so called because of his imbecility, the royal authority in France fell into contempt, the inso- lent nobles possessed all the power, and the king was closely confined by Count Hugh of Paris. Duke Rollo and the Normans—Usurpation of the throne by Hugh Capet.—In the year 911 A. D., a horde of Normans, led by Duke Rollo, made their appearance in France; and King Charles the Simple, unable to resist their progress, offered Rollo his daughter in marriage and to cede to him a large tract of territory between the Seine and the English Channel, on condition that he should embrace Christianity and acknowledge the King of France as his feudal sovereign. Rollo accepted these propositions, and he and his followers settled in that part of Northern France called from them, Normandy. The Normans immediately aban- doned their former predatory habits, and became peaceſul citizens, cultivating the soil, practicing the arts of civilized life, and adopting the religion, the language, and the customs and manners of the French. On the death of Louis V., the last Carlovingian monarch of France, IIugh Capet, Count of Paris, usurped the French throne. At this period, the French kingdom consisted of only a small territory about Rheims and Paris. FRANCE UNIDER THE HOUSE OF CAPET. REIGN OF HUGH CAPET (A. D. 987–996). Accession of Hugh Capet—Weakness of the Royal Power.--Hugh Capet gained the French clergy to his interest by renouncing the rich abbeys which he had inherited from his father. In an assembly at Noyons, Hugh was formally clected King of France, and was immediately consecrated at Rheims. (A. D. 987.) This was the commencement of the Capetian dynasty, which occupied the throne of France for three and a half centuries. The reign of IIugh Capet was disturbed by the restlessness and ambition of the Trench nobles. There were at this time eight powerſul principalities in France, each independent of the French crown;– namely, Burgundy, Aquitaine, Normandy, Bretagne, Gascony, Flanders, Cham- pagne, and Toulouse; and the royal authority was most insignificant. A TWAV SZTA 7'E.S. I47 REIGN OF ROBERT THE PIOUS (A. D. 996-1O31). Supposed Approach of the End of the World—Excommunication of King Robert.—Hugh Capet died in 996, and was succeeded on the French throne by his son, Robert the Pious. It was generally believed that the world was only to las' 1,000 years aſter the birth of Christ; and on the approach of the year I Doo A. D a general gloom and dread prevailed. The more serious and pious people employed themselves in acts of religious devotion. King Robert was excommunicated and his kingdom laid under an interdict by Pope Gregory V., and the king was obliged to divorce his beloved wife, Bertha, beause she was his fourth cousin. Robert then married Constance of Provence, a proud and indolent princess. REIGN OF HENRY I. (A. D. 1031-1O6O). Project of Queen Constance—Weakness of the Royal Authority.—On the death of King Robert the Pious, in Io91, his son, Henry I. ascended the throne of France; but Robert’s widow, Constance, endeavored to place her favor- ite son on the throne. With the assistance of Duke Robert the Magnificent of Normandy, the father of King William the Conqueror of England, King IIenry I. defeated the project of Constance, who ended her life in prison. So little was the authority of Henry I. respected that the leading French nobles, such as the Counts of Toulouse, Flanders, and Champagne, eclipsed the king in power. REIGN OF PHILIP I. (A. D. 106O-11O8). King Philip I. and Count Baldwin of Flanders.-King Henry I. died in roöo, leaving the crown of France to his son, Philip I.; and the wise and virtuous Count Baldwin of Flanders was appointed the young king's guardian. King Philip I. became a slave to his vices. Duke William of Normandy and his son Robert.—One of King Philip's most powerful vassals, Duke William of Normandy, conquered England and seated himself on the throne of that kingdom. This aroused the jealousy of Philip, who excited Robert, Duke William's son, to rebellion against his father. William besieged his rebellious sor in a castle in Normandy; and Robert Sallied forth, and encountered a knight, whom he threw down, horse and man, but when he sud- denly discovered that he was about to slay his own father he assisted him to rise and implored his pardon. The First Crusade.—During the reign of Philip I., the First Crusade was undertaken by Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless. Hundreds of thous- ands of Crusaders leſt Europe for the redemption of the Holy Land, and great numbers of them perished. Antioch and Jerusalem were, however, wrested from tle infidels, and a new Kingdom of Jerusalem was established, which continued for nearly a century. Wretched Condition of France Under Philip I.-4: The Truce of God ' --The condition of France under King Philip I. was most wretched indeed. The lawless nobles and knights erected castles in the vicinity of Paris, and committed the grossest outrages upon the unoffending inhabitants; but the insolent nobles were chaºtised by the king's son, Louis. In order to check the violence which at this I 48 AM/D/OLA; AGES. time so universally prevailed, the bishops published what was called “The Truce of God,” which enacted that no act of violence should be committed from Wed- nesday evening to Monday morning. REIGN OF LOUIS VI. (A. D. 1108–1137). Good Character of Louis the Fat.—King Philip I. died in 1108, leaving he crown of France to his son, Louis VI., who, on account of his corpulence, was surnamed “the Fat.” Louis VI. was possessed of a good heart, an inflexible love of justice, a ſriendly disposition, and a gay and cheerful temper, although he had no taste for learning and no political talents. He was brave and active, and his magnan sity in sharing with his soldiers their hardships and dangers won for him their attacriment and esteem. Louis the Fat acquired great popularity by humbling the lawless nobles and knights, who had perpetrated the greatest outrages upon the defenseless people. Formation of Communes.—With the view of humbling the French nobles, King Louis VI. granted to the inhabitants of cities and towns charters for forming themselves into associations for mutual defense, called Communes, which ſreed the citizens from feudal servitude, permitted them to nominate their own magistrates, nd required them to take the field only at the command of their sovereign. REIGN OF LOUIS" VII. (A. D. 1137–1180). Annexation of Aquitaine—Count Thibault of Champagne—Second Trusade.—King Louis VI. died in II37, and was succeeded on the French ‘hrone by his son, Louis VII., surnamed “the Young,” to distinguish him from his father. Louis VII. had previously married Eleanor, the sole heiress of Aqui- taine, thus uniting that extensive territory to the French crown. Count Thibault of Champagne had rebelled against the king, but had been reduced to submis- sion and pardoned. But Thibault took up arms a second time; and Louis VII., exasperated at his conduct, attacked his castle of Vitry, and set it on fire, but the flames spread to a village close by and destroyed a church and many of its inmates. Shocked at this accident, the king made peace with Count Thibault; and, as an atonement for the dreadful accident, Louis VII., in connection with Conrad III., Emperor of Germany, engaged in the Second Crusade; but both monarchs were unfortunate in that undertaking, and after losing all but a few of their followers they returned to Europe. Loss of Aquitaine—War between Louis VII. and Henry Plantagenet. —King Louis VII. quarreled with his wife Eleanor, and obtained a divorce from her, thus losing all the vast dower which he had received with her. Eleanoi soon aſterward married Henry Plantagenet, Duke of Normandy, aſterward King Henry II. of England, and thus her extensive possessions were annexed to the Frglish crown. For twenty years Louis and Henry were engaged in almost con- tinual war, as the French king claimed the right of feudal superiority over the English monarch, Luring his war with the Duke of Normandy, Louis besieged Rouen and aſter granting the citizens of the beleaguered town a truce, he perfidiously as- saulted the city, but was justly punished by a vigorous repulse. A TIAW STA 7TES. I49 REIGN OF PHILIP AUGUSTUS (A. D. 118C –1223°. Remarkable Increase of the Royal Power—Improvement of Paris.- King Louis VII. died in 1180, and left the crown of France to his son, Philip II., surnamed Augustus, under whom the political condition of France underwent an entire change. Before this period, the King of France had been merely the feudal chief of a confederacy of princes, but now he became an absolute monarch. Philip Augustus greatly improved Paris and enclosed the city with a strong wall, and built the famous palace of the Louvre. Eager for war with King Henry II. 3f England, one of the most powerful monarchs of that age, Philip Augus- tus induced that king’s sons, Richard and John, to take up arms against their father. Third Crusade—Quarrel between Philip and Richard the Lion-hearted. —King Philip Augustus, in conjunction with King Richard the Lion-hearted of England and the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa of Germany, undertook the Third Crusade. After taking Acre, the Kings of England and France quarreled; and Philip Augustus returned to France, and his ungenerous heart was filled with joy when Richard the Lion-hearted, while on his return to England, was imprisoned in Germany. Conquest of Normandy and the other English Possessions in France by Philip.–Upon the death of Richard the Lion-hearted, in 1189, his brother John usurped the throne of England, and murdered his nephew, Prince Arthur of Bretagne, the rightful heir. Philip Augustus, desirous of the acquisition of Nor- mandy, summoned John, as Duke of Normandy, to Paris, to answer for his conduct; and upon John's refusal to comply, the French king seized on all the English pos- sessions in France,—namely, Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou. Coalition of England, Germany, and Flanders against France—Battle of Bouvines.—A powerful coalition was now formed against the King of France by the King of England, the Emperor of Germany, and the Count of Flanders. France was invaded, but King Philip Augustus defeated the united English, Ger- man, and Flemish forces, numbering 50,000 men, in the battle of Bouvines, near Tournay, on the 27th of August, I2I4. Fourth Crusade—Crusade against the Albigenses.—In the meantime, the Fourth Crusade, undertaken by French and Italian knights, resulted in the tempor- ary subversion of the Greek Empire, and the substitution, in its stead, of a new Latin Empire, with Count Baldwin of Flanders on the throne of Constantinople. The Crusade now undertaken against the new religious sect of the Albigenses, in South- ern France, resulted in the defeat of Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse, the chief of the sect, and the sacrifice of thousands of Albigenses to the fanaticism of their conquerors. French Invasion of England.—The English barons, having risen in rebellion against King John, invited Prince Louis, a son of Philip Augustus, to come to Eng- land and be their king. Prince Louis accepted the invitation gladly, landed in England with a French military force, and had almost completed the conquest of tha. kingdom, when King John died, in 1216. Thereupon the English barons abandoned Prince Louis and refused to recognize him as their sovereign; and the prince was obliged o return to France. i.So Aſ/DDL E A GES. REIGN OF LOUIS VIII. (A. D. 192SS-1226). Successful War against Henry III. of England.—On the death cf King Philip Augustus, in 1223, his son, Louis VIII., became King of France. Louis VIII., surnamed “the Lion,” was a weak monarch; but the wise policy of his father had given such an impulse to the affairs of France that the lºrench contin, ually triumphed ºver the English, whose king, Henry III., had repeatedly attacked the French dominions. Conquest of the Albigenses.—Under the authority of the Pope, Louis the Jon undertook a campaign against the Albigenses; and with a powerful army ht besieged Avignon, but only obtained possession of the town after a heroic defense on the pºrt of its inhabitants, and after 20,000 of his troops had miserably perished from disease and ſamine. REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS (A. D. 1226-127O). Character of Louis IX. or St. Louis—Regency of Queen Blanche.—King Louis VIII. died in 1226, a short time after the fall of Avignon, and left the crown of France to his eldest son, Louis IX., commonly called Saint Louis, on account of his piety. Saint Louis possessed a mild, upright, benevolent, and for- giving disposition. During the minority of Saint Louis, his mother, Queen Blanche, governed the French kingdom as regent. e Sixth and Seventh Crusades—Captivity and Death of St. Louis.-Saint Louis undertook the Sixth Crusade against the infidels. Instead of leading an expedition to the Holy Land, Saint Louis invaded Egypt; and after taking Dami- etta, he was made a prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, but was released on the pay- ment of a heavy ransom. In the Seventh Crusade, twenty years later (A. D. 1270), Saint Louis sailed to Africa and besieged Tunis; but a plague which broke out in the French camp carried Saint Louis and many of his soldiers to their graves. REIGN OF PHILIP THE HARDY (A. D. 127O-1283). Reduction of the King of Tunis.-St. Louis was succeeded on the throne of France by his son, Philip III., surnamed “the Hardy,” who continued the war against the Moors of Africa, and with his uncle, Charles of Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily, reduced the King of Tunis to submission. Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers.-Charles of Anjou greatly oppressed his Sicilian subjects, who, in revenge, massacred 8,000 French in Palermo when the church bell sounded for vespers, on Easter day, 1282. This is known as the Mas- sacre cf the Sicilian Vespers. Charles of Anjou then lost Sicily, and that island passed under the dominion of Peter the Cruel, King of Aragon. REIGN OF PHILIP THE FAIR (A. D. 1285–1914). War with Edward I. of England—Revolt of the Flemings.-King Philip tl.e I ſardy died in 1285, and was succeeded on the French throne by cis sch Philip IV., surnamed “the Fair.” For seven years, Philip the Fair waged an unsuccessful war against King Edward I. of England for the acquisition of Gui. enne. Philip the Fair acquired Flanders, which he governed so oppressively that the Flemings rose in rebellion, massacred 3,000 French in Flanders, and success- JA 7//W STA TES. I51 fully resisted all the efforts of the French king to compel them to submission. The lºlemings were at this time celebrated for their skill in weaving and in other indus- tlial arts Quarrel Between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII.-A fierce Quarrel arose between King Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII., through the attempt of Boniface to prevent the taxation of the clergy in France. The French anonarch treated with contempt every bull of excommunication issued by the Pope, and aſter the death of Boniface, Philip the Fair placed the Archbishop of Bordeaux m the papal chair, with the title of Clement V., and transferred the residence of the Fol e from Rome to Avignon, in the South of France, where it remained for seventy years. Dissolution of the Order of Knights Templars—The Third Estate.— King Philip the Fair also caused the celebrated order of Knights Templars to be condemned and abolished, for alleged corruption and immorality; and the Grand Master and many other members of the order were burned alive, while the rest were treated with the most barbarous cruelty. During the reign of Philip the Fair, the representatives of the Third Estate, or the Communes, were called to meet with the nobility and the clergy in the grand council of the French kingdom, in order to give their consent to the levy of taxes. (A. D. 1302.) REIGN OF LOUIS X. (A. D. 1314–1316). Tumultuous Conduct of the Nobles—Enfranchisement of the Serfs.- On the death of King Philip the Fair, in 1314, the crown of France fell to his eldest son, Louis X., surnamed “Hutin,” meaning disorder or tumult, from the tumultous conduct of the French nobles and clergy, who compelled Louis to restore to them most of the privileges of which they had been deprived by Philip the Fair. Louis X. issued an order enfranchising all the French serfs within the royal domains. Louis X. was under the influence of his uncle, Charles of Valois, who caused DeMarigny, the illustrious prime minister of Philip the Fair, to be executed on the absurd charge of Sorcery. REIGN OF PHILIP THE TALL (A. D. 1316–1321). The States-General—The Salic Law—Persecution of the Jews.—On the death of King Louis X., in 1316, the throne of France fell to his brother, Philip V., surnamed “the Tall,” who assembled the States-General, or the grand assembly of the French nation, to pronounce upon his right to the French throne, which was disputed by the daughter of Louis X. The States-General issued a decree declaring females incapable of inheriting the crown of France. This decree was based on the barbarous code of the Salian Franks, and is therefore called the “Salic Law.” The reign of Philip the Tall is remarkable for a terrible persecution of the Jews in France, and many of them were barbarously massacred in Touraine. REIGN OF CHARLES THE FAIR (A. D. 1921–1328), Accession of Charles the Fair—End of the Direct Line of Capet.— Philip the Tall clied in 1321, and as he only left daughters and no sons, his brother, Charles IV., surnamed “the Fair,” became King of France by the operation of the I52 MIDDLE AGAS. Silic Law. On the death of Charles the Fair, without heirs, in 1328, the direct line of the House of Capet became extinct; and the crown of France fell to Philip of Valois, a nephew of Philip the Fair. FRANCE UNDER THE HOUSE OF WALOIS, REIGN OF PHILIP OF VALOIS (A. D., 1s29-1sso). Clairns of Edward III. of England—His Invasion of France— Battle of Crecy.—Philip of Valois, or Philip VI., the first French king of the House of Valois, soon had a competitor to contend with, in the person of Kung Edward III. of England, who claimed the crown of France as a direct descendant, through his mother, of Philip the Fair; but the French considered this claim invalid, because, by the Salic Law, Isabella, Edward's mother, had no right to the French throne, and therefore Edward could inherit no claims from her. But the King of England, resolving to make his claim good by force of arms, invaded France with a powerful army; and on the 25th of August, 1346, he defeated an immense French army under King Philip VI., in the famous battle of Crecy, in which the French lost 40,000 men, among whom was the blind old King John of Bohemia. In the battle of Crecy, the English had several pieces of cannon, which was the first instance of those weapons of warfare being used. Among those who distinguished themselves by their bravery at Crecy was the English monarch's son, Edward the Black Prince. Defense of Calais—Its Surrender—Story of Eustace St. Pierre.—After the battle of Crecy, King Edward III. laid siege to Calais, the gate to France. The inhabitants had made an obstinate defense for nearly a year, when, threatened with all the horrors of famine, they were finally forced to surrender to the victorious in- vaders. It is said (though the story is now generally discredited) that the King of England, exasperated at the stubborn resistance of the citizens of Calais, agreed to spare the inhabitants, if six of the principal citizens were brought to him, with halters about their necks, ready for hanging; whereupon Eustace St. Pierre, a wealthy mer- chant of Calais, offered himself as the first victim, and five other leading citizens followed his noble example. When the six citizens appeared before Edward III. the stern monarch ordered them to execution, and their lives were only spared through the earnest entreaties of the English nobles, of King Edward's heroic son. the Black Prince, and of his noble-hearted queen, Philippa, who ſell on her knees before her husband and exhorted him not to violate the laws of religion and honor by so inhuman an act. King Edward III. expelled the French inhabitants of Calais and peopled the city with English; and for two centuries that important town remained in the possession of the English. Acquisition of Dauphiny—The First Dauphin—The Black Plague.— . Near the close of the reign of Philip of Valois, the province of Dauphiny was an- nexº~.1 to the territories of the French crown, on condition that the French king's eldest son should thereafter be called “The Dauphin,” as the eldest son of the British monarch is styled “the Prince of Wales.” During the years 1348 and 1349, the Black Plague raged throughout France, and in Paris alone 50,000 persons fell victims to its ravages. . . . * * º * , NW, ſº § % §§ w M d N ſ § §§ | w Nº. Nº. ... º. ºff * * * * * * * * , “, º º, º º § W gº º Š (SSSSSSSSS J-‘ ‘‘ & (C \\ Š N (\\\ *&^s. Aſ‘ſ º: h EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE. ZATIN STATES. I53 REIGN OF JOHN THE GOOD (A. D. 133O-1364) English Invasion of France—Battle of Poitiers—King John a Prisoner. —King Philip VI. died in 1350, and was succeeded on the French throne by his son, John the Good. During this reign an English army of 12,000 men, under Edward the Black Prince, landed in the province of Guienne, and advanced into the very centre of France, where it was confronted by an army of 60,000 Frenchmen under King John. The Black Prince hereupon offered to surrender the conquered terri. to:y and give up the war, if he were permitted to retreat unmolested; but the obsti. nacy of the French monarch, who insisted on terms of unconditional submission, brought on the celebrated battle of Poitiers, which was ſought on the 19th of Sep- tember, 1356, and in which the French were most disastrously defeated, and King John was taken prisoner. King John's Captivity in London—The Dauphin made Regent of France.—King John was carried a captive to London by the victorious Black Prince, who treated the unfortunate monarch with the utmost generosity; and during the four years of his captivity in the English capital, John was treated by King Edward III. more like a guest than a prisoner. . During King John's captivity in London, his son Charles, the Dauphin, was made regent of France. The States-General—Marcel’s Insurrection.—During the regency in France, the Parisian populace, under the leadership of Marcel, the chief of the municipality of Paris, endeavored to restrict the despotic power of the sovereign and to obtain a share in the government of France. The States-General were assembled and conceded the privileges demanded by the people of Paris; but these privileges were afterwards annulled, in consequence of which a frightful insurrection broke out and continued for some time, but it was finally ended by the death of Marcel and the defeat of the cause of popular liberty. Insurrection of the Jacquerie.—At this time a sanguinary insurrection of the French peasantry burst forth, in consequence of the miserable condition of serſdom in which the peasants had so long been kept by the despotic nobility. This great popular revolt is known as the “Insurrection of the Jacquerie,” from Jacques Bon- homme, the name given in derision to a French peasant. The insurgent peasants sacked the feudal castles, and put to death their inmates, without respect to age or . sex. After the peasants had been repulsed in an attack upon one of the towns, they were hunted down like wild beasts, and thousands of them were brutally massacred; and many of the rural districts were almost depopulated, and presented a sad picture of ruin and desolation. Another Invasion of France by Edward III.-Honorable Conduct of King John.-In the meantime King John, still a captive in England, agreed to surrender to the English monarch a large portion of the French dominions, in order to obtain his release; but the States-General of France refused to ratify so humili- ating a treaty; and King Edward III. of England again invaded France but finally made peace, agreeing to release the French monarch on more reasonable conditions. . After a four years' captivity in England, King John the Good returned to his king- dom, and was received with almost universal demonstrations of joy by his subjects; but when his son, Louis, who had been delivered to the King of England as a hostage for the fulfillment of the treaty, escaped, the conscientious King John vol- I54 M/D D.A. E. A. G.E.S. untarily returned to captivity in England, and died soon aſter his arrival there (A. D. 1364.) - Beginning of the Ducal House of Burgundy.—In 1363, the year previous to his death, King John the Good assigned to his son, Philip the Good, the Duchy of Burgundy, as a reward for his gallantry in the battle of Poitiers. This was the beginning of that celebrated Ducal House of Burgundy, which lasted more than a century, and which is so celebrated in French history. REIGN OF CHARLEs THE WISE (A. D. 1864-1880). Character of King Charles the Wise.—John the Good was succeeded on Jne throne of France by his son, Charles V., surnamed “the Wise,” who was of a peaceful disposition, and whose wise measures contributed much to restore pros- perity to the French kingdom. Charles the Wise was fond of study, and possessed talents for statesmanship. He founded the Royal Library in Paris, and liberally patronized literature and art. DuGuesclin—Battle of Navaretta—Loss of English Possessions in France.—King Charles the Wise appointed the great general, DuGuesclin, to the position of High Constable of France. DuGuesclin was defeated and taken pris- oner by the English under the Black Prince in the battle of Navaretta; but after the death of that great English warrior, the Constable conducted the war against the English with great success, depriving them of most of their territories in France. REIGN OF CHARLES VI. (A. D. 138 O-1422). Regency of the Duke of Anjou–Popular Insurrection in Paris.-On the death of King Charles the Wise, in 1380, the crown of France fell to his son, Charles VI., who was then only twelve years old. During the minority of Charles VI., his uncle, the Duke of Anjou, acted as Regent of France. The unjust and oppressive taxes imposed upon the French people occasioned a formidable popular insurrection in Paris, and order was restored with great difficulty. Revolt of the Flemings—Battle of Rcsbecque.—The Flemings having revolted against their ruler, Count Louis of Flanders, a French army was sent to subdue them. In the battle of Rosbecque, in which the King of France himself was present, the Flemish leader, Philip Von Artevelde, and 25,000 of his followers, were defeated and slain by the French commanded by Oliver Clissons, IHigh Con- stable of France. (A. D. 1382.) Increase of the Royal Power—Execution of Popular Leaders.-The great victory at Rosbecque strengthened the royal power in France. All the French towns which had resisted the tyrannical exactions of the monarch were obliged to yield, and all their citizens who had taken a conspicuous part in the popular move- ment were mercilessly put to death, 3,000 being led to the scaffold in Paris alone. (A. D. 1382.) Invasion of France by Henry V. of England—Battle of Azincourt— Treaty of Troyes.—King Charles VI. at length became a victim to insanity; and while in consequence France was distracted by domestic dissensions respecting the Regency, King Henry V. of England invaded the French kingdom, took Har- fleur, and on the 14th of October, 1415, with only 8,000 men, he defeated a French A TWN STATES. I55 army of 50,000 men, in the great battle of Azincourt, and conquered Normandy, after taking its capital, Rouen. In 1422, the Treaty of Troyes was concluded, by which Henry V. of England was to become King of France on the death of King Charles VI., in exclusion of the rights of the Dauphin. Although the States-Gen- eral of France ratified this treaty, it was never carried into effect, Charles VI. ou'living Henry V. several months. (A. D. 1422.) & REIGN OF CHARLES THE VICTORIOUS (A. D. 1422-14631) Charles VII. and Henry VI. of England Crowned Kings of Fiance – On the death of the imbecile Charles VI., in 1422, his son, the Dauplin, was crowned at Poitiers, King of France, with the title of Charles VII.; but, in accord- ance with the Treaty of Troyes, the infant Henry VI. of England had already been crowned at Paris, King of England and France. The army of Chaº les VII. had been disastrously defeated by the Duke of Bedford, the English legent in France (1424); and town after town fell into the hands of the English, until, in 1428, Orleans was the only stronghold remaining in the possession of the French, and even that city was besieged by the victorious invaders. Siege of Orleans—Appearance of Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans.— The English pushed the siege of Orleans with vigor. A Sally was made by the French, but they were repulsed after a short engagement known as “the Battle of the Herrings,” so called because an attack had been made on an English escort which was conveying a supply of herrings to the camp of the besiegers. Orleans was on the point of surrender, when the beleaguered city was relieved, and the deliverance of Charles VII. was effected by one of the most extraordinary circum- stances recorded in history. Joan of Arc, a poor peasant girl of Dom Remy, in Lor- raine, aged nineteen years, had been told by a prophecy that France could only be delivered from its English invaders by a virgin, and her mind became impressed with the belief that she herself was divinely commissioned to effect this great object. She soon induced others, among them King Charles VII. and his officers, to be- lieve in the truth of her divine mission. Charles VII. gave her the command of his army, and she was admitted into Orleans, arrayed in armor and provided with a train of attendants. Under her leadership, the French, influenced by superstition, seemed inspired with fresh courage and hopes, and they soon compelled the Eng- lish to raise the siege of Orleans. (A. D. 1429.) Coronation of Charles VII. at Rheims—Capture and Death of the Maid of Orleans.—Joan of Arc, now called the Maid of Orleans, next urged King Charles VII. to proceed to Rheims, in order to be there crowned and conse- crated King of France; and after several more victories, under the leadership of the valiant Maid, Rheims was wrested from the English, and Charles VII. was crowned in the great cathedral of that city. (A. D. 1429.) Joan then declared her mission firished, and wished to retire from the army; but as the French king insisted lp on ner remaining with the army until the expulsion of the English invaders from Irance, she complied with his wishes. As a reward for the heroine's services, Charles VII. ennobled her family. The English lost town aſter town and suffered defeat after defeat. At length, the French officers, jealous of the ſame of Joan of Arc, allowed the Duke of Burgundy, the ally of the English, to make her a prisoner in a sally from the town of Compeigne. The Duke of Burgundy sold her to the 156 * AMXDD LA; AGES. i)uke of Bedford, the English regent in France, who caused the heroic Maid of Orleans to be burned alive, on the charge of sorcery, in the market-place of Rouen. (A. D. 1431.) r Expulsion of the English from France—Wicked Conduct of the Dau- phin.—Although the French were no longer led by the Maid of Orleans, still they were victorious; and finally, in 1453, the city of Calais was the only place in all France remaining in the hands of the English. Duke Philip the Good of Bur- gundy had become reconciled to the French monarch. In 1436, King Charles VII., now surnamed “the Victorious,” because of his triumph over the English. entered Paris, and reigned in peace. Although Charles the Victorious was re- lieved of the English invaders, the wickedness of his son Louis, the Dauphin, pre- vented him from enjoying quiet. Louis excited a rebellion against his father, who forgave him, but was soon obliged to banish him to Dauphiny, where he so op- pressed the people that they compelled him to flee to Burgundy, where he excited dissatisfaction against Duke Philip the Good. The wicked Dauphin sought to procure his father's death by poison, and the unhappy king was so afraid to taste food that he died from starvation. (A. D. I.461.) REIGN OF LOUIS XI. (A. D. 1461–1483). King Louis XI. and “The League of the Public Good.”—The good Charles the Victorious was succeeded as King of France by his wicked son, Louis XI., who, immediately upon his accession, proceeded to measures so extreme to degrade the French nobles that they formed a defensive league, known as “The League of the Public Good.” At the head of this formidable confederacy were the Dukes of Berri, Bretagne, and Bourbon, and Count Charles of Charolois. 'The league collected a large army, which advanced to Paris, but after Šome fighting without much result, the crafty king, by the most liberal promises, which he never intended to fulfill, contrived to dissolve the league. The Dukedom of Burgundy—Louis XI. a Prisoner to Charles the Bold —At this period the Dukedom of Burgundy was the most prosperous country in Europe; and the cities of Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, and Arras were widely cele. brated for their manufactures and commerce. The Duke of Burgundy, though a vassal of the French crown, was more powerful than most kings, and his court was the most splendid in Europe. In 1468, King Louis XI. went to meet Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, at Peronne; and when Charles discovered that the artful Louis had treacherously excited the Duke’s subjects to rebellion, he seized the perfidious monarch and kept him a prisoner for some time. The Fench king obtained his release only on the most humiliating conditions: he was obliged to surrender several counties to the Duke of Burgundy, and to accompany the Duke to Liege and assist in quelling the revolt which he himself had excited. The two princes vented their anger and disappointment on the unfortunate inhabitants, who were slaughtered without mercy. w Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England—Disasters to Charles the Bold.—In 1475, King Edward IV. of England invaded France with a pow- erful army. I,ouis XI., recollecting the terrible days of Crecy, Poitiers, and Azin- court, was exceedingly alarmed at this English invasion; but he succeeded by large bribes in inducing the English monarch to consent to a treaty of peace. In 1476, A 7TWAV STA 7TES. 157 Charles the Bold, the mighty Duke of Burgundy, made war on the Swiss, by whom he was defeated in the great battles of Granson, Murten, and Nancy, in the last of which he was slain. (A. D. I.477). Reannexation of Burgundy—Mary of Burgundy, and Maximilian of Austria.-Upon the death of Duke Charles the Bold, King Louis XI. seized on Burgundy proper and reannexed that territory to the possessions of the French crown; but he was frustrated in his attempts to obtain possession of the cther terri- tories of the late Duke, as Mary of Burgundy, the daughter of Charles the Bold, disgusted with the treachery of the French king, married the Archduke Maximiliar of Austria, afterwards Emperor of Germany, who obliged Louis XI. to resign his pretensions. The result of this marriage was a rivalry of more than two centuries between France and Germany. After the death of Mary, the King of France incited the Netherland towns to rebellion against Maximilian, but the insurgents were soon reduced to submission. Last Days and Death of King Louis XI.-By Secret treachery or open violence, King Louis XI. had greatly enlarged the French dominions. His consti- tution was broken down and his mind was approaching imbecility. So suspicious was he that his oppressed subjects would revenge themselves by assassinating him, that he shut himself up closely in his castle of Plessis, which he strongly fortified, and no one was permitted to visit him without his invitation. In this gloomy cas- tle, Louis diverted himself with various amusements, one of which was rat-hunting. Louis XI. was delivered from his miserable existence by a slow disease, of which he died in August, 1483. - wa REIGN OF CHARLES VIII. (A. D. 1483-1498). Charles the Courteous and the Acquisition of Brittany.—The wicked Louis XI. left the French crown to his son, Charles VIII., who, on account of his kindness of manner and his amiable qualities, was surnamed “the Courteous.” During his minority, Charles VIII. was under the guardianship of his aunt, the Duchess Anne of Beaujeu. Charles resolving upon the conquest of Brittany, or Bretagne, the only fief in France that yet remained independent of the French crown, a war ensued; and the Bretons were defeated by the French army in the battle of St. Aubin, on the 28th of July, 1488. The Duke of Bretagne died soon afterward; and his daughter Anne, sole heiress of the Duchy of Brittany, married King Charles VIII. in 1491, thus uniting the whole of France under one sovereign. Conquests of Charles VIII. in Italy—Battle of Fornova–Loss of Naples.—France was now at the highest pitch of power; and King Charles he Courteous resolved upon enforcing some claims which he had upon the kingdom of Naples, and for this purpose he invaded Italy with an army of 18,000 men; and after receiving the submission of many Italian cities, he entered Rome and Naples in triumph. But when the King of France considered his Italian conquests secure, a powerful coalition was formed against him by the Italian princes, the Empero? Maxinxilian I. of Germany, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The allies at tempted to cut off Charles's retreat to France, but he defeated their united ſorces in the battle of Fornova, and reached his kingdom in safety; but all his conquests in Italy were lost to him. The whole kingdom of Naples was soon recovered from the French by the able Spanish general, Gonsalvo de Cordova, “the Great Captain.” 158 MXDD/CAE A GAZ.S. REIGN OF LOUIS XII. (A. D. 1498–1513). Character of Louis XII., “The Father of his People.”—On the death of Charles the Courteous, in 1498, without children, his third cousin, the Duke of Orleans, ascended the throne of France with the title of Louis XII., and proved to be one of the best kings that ever wore a crown. He was so solicitous to promote the welfare and happiness of his subjects, and was so dearly beloved by them in return, that he was called “The Father of his People.” Louis XII. took great pains to lessen the taxes and improve the administration of justice. He retained Brittany by marrying Anne, the widow of Charles VIII. French Conquests in Italy—League of Cambray—Battle of Ravenna. —In 1499, King Louis XII. sent an army into Italy to enforce his hereditary claims upon Milan. The French conquered Milan and Genoa, and Louis XII. and King Ferdimand the Catholic of Spain wrested Naples from its king, Frederic; but a quarrel arose between the robbers, and the Spanish king forced the French monarch to yield his claim upon Naples. In 1508, Pope Julius II., the Emperor Maximilian I. of Germany, King Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, and King Louis XII. of France formed the powerful League of Cambray against the Republic of Venice; but the Pope and Louis soon quarreled and open war ensued, and the Venetians secured the alliance of the Pope and the King of Spain. The French defeated the combined forces of their enemies in the great battle of Ravenna, on the 11th of April, 1512. In the following year (1513), King Henry VIII. of England invaded France and won the battle of the Spurs, near Tournay. Louis XII. died in 1515, and was succeeded by his cousin Francis I. - IEERIAN KINGD OMS. Christian Kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal—Battle of To- losa.—During the Middle Ages, the Christian kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal arose in the Iberian or Spanish peninsula. These kingdoms waged con- stant wars against the Moors in the Southern portion of the peninsula. In 1212, the united armies of Aragon and Castile achieved a great victory over the Moors at Tolosa, in the Sierra Morena, aſter which Saracen power in Spain rapidly declined. Aragon's Foreign Possessions—Alphonso the Wise and Alphonso XI. of Castile.—Aragon conquered the Spanish provinces of Valencia, Murcia, and Catalonia; and also the Mediterranean islands of Majorca, Minorca, Sardinia, and Sicily; the latter during the reign of Peter III., and the kingdom of Naples in the time of Alphonso V. Castile wrested much of the Southern portion of Spain from the Moors, thus obtaining the towns of Seville, Cadiz, and Cordova. The most cele- brated kings of Castile were Alphonso the Wise, noted for his fondness for learning, particularly astronomy, and Alphonso XI., famous for his victories over the Moors. Rise of Portugal.—Alphonso VI., King of Castile, bestowed the Earldom of Portugal on his chivalrous son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, who was to rule in fief. The Earl Alphonso I., having gained a great victory over the Moors in I J39, was crowned the first King of Portugal, which he liberated from Castilian sui remacy. King Alphonso III. extended Portugal to its present limits by the annexation of Algarve, the most southern province, which he had conquered ſrom the Moors. GE A2MAAVYC STA 7TES. I59 Union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella—The In- quisition.—In 1474, Isabella ascended the throne of Castile, and in 1479, Ferdi- mand the Catholic became King of Aragon. The two kingdoms were unitcd into one, called Spain, by the marriage of Isabella with Ferdinand. The horrible Court of Inquisition, which condemned Mohammedans, Jews, and others charged with heresy, to tortures, imprisonment, and death itself, was established in Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella. Fall of Granada and End of the Saracen Power in Spain—Conquest of Navarre.—In 1481, Ferdinand and Isabella began a war against the Moorish kingdom of Granada, in the South of Spain, and their armies took the city of Gran- ada, with its famous fortress, the Alhambra, in 1492, after a siege of ten years, thus putting an end to the Saracen power in Spain, after it had existed in that country a period of about eight centuries. In 1512, the whole of Spain was united under one scepter by the conquest and annexation of the kingdom of Navarre, on the south side of the Pyrenees. (, ERMANIC STATES. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE OF GERMANY. THE CARLOVINGIAN SOVEREIGNS OF GERMANY. Germany under the Carlovingian Dynasty—Charles the Fat and Ar- nolph.-The existence of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany began with the Partition Treaty of Verdun, in the year 843 A. D. Under the Carlovingian sover- eigns, Germany was in a most deplorable condition. Charles the Fat was deposed by the German nobles, for making a humiliating peace with the ſree-booting Nor- mans, and his valiant nephew, Arnolph, was elevated to the imperial throne of Germany. Arnolph defeated the savage Avars and Slavonians, and called in the aid of the wild Magyars, or Hungarians, from the region of the Ural; but the Mag- yars soon proved to be a more dangerous enemy than either the Avars or the Sla- VOIlla Il S. GEF MANY UNIDER THE SAXON AND FRANKISH EMPERORS. * REIGN OF CONRAD I. OF FFAN CONIA (A. D. 911–919). Germany an Elective Empire.—On the death of Louis IV., the last of the Carlovirgian sovereigns of Germany, in 9 II, the Dukes of Franconia, Saxony, Swabia, Bavaria, Thuringia, and Lorraine elected Duke Conrad of Francopia Em- peror of Germany. From that time until 1806, Germany continued to be an elec- tive empire. The Emperor Conrad I. spent the whole of his reign of seven years in repelling the invasions of the Hungarians. 16o MIDDA, E A GES, * REIGN OF HENRY THE FOWLER (A. D. 919–936). Defeat of the Hungarians at Merseberg.—On the death of the Emperor Conrad I., in 919, the German princes elected Duke Henry the Fowler of Saxony to the German imperial throne. Henry I. extended the German Empire in all directions, and defeated the Hungarians in the battle of Merseberg, in 933. REIGN OF OTHO THE GREAT (A. D. 996-973). Italy Annexed to the German Empire—Otho Crowned at Milan and Rome.—On the death of Henry the Fowler, in 936, his son Otho I., surnamed “the Great,” was elected Emperor of Germany. Italy was now annexed to the German Empire; and Otho the Great was crowned at Milan with the iron crown of Lombardy, and at Rome with the golden crown of the Empire. Otho's Protectorship over the Pope—Defeat of the Magyars at Lech- feld.—The Emperor Otho the Great made himself protector of the Pope, and in- duced the Roman people to swear that they would recognize no Pope without the coneurrence of the German Emperor. Otho the Great defeated the Magyars in the battle of Lechfeld, in 973, the year of his death. REIGN OF OTHO II. (A. D. 973-983). War with the Greeks in Italy—Otho's Defeat at Bassantello.—On the death of Otho the Great, his son, Otho II., was elected Emperor of Germany. While Otho II. was in Italy, the Greeks disputed his claims to possessions in that country; and the Emperor was defeated by the Greeks and the Saracens in the battle of Bassantello, and only escaped capture by his skill in swimming. REIGN OF OTHO III. (A. D. 983-10O2.) Character of Otho III.-Defeat of the Slavonians.—Otho II. died in 983, and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Germany by his son, Otho III., who was more learned and refined than most princes of his time. Otho III. defeated the Slavonians, who had waged long wars against the German Empire, and com- pelled their leader, Micislaus, Duke of Poland, to do homage. REIGN OF HENRY THE SAINT (A. D. 10O2-1O24.) Character of Henry II.-End of the Saxon Line of Emperors.-On the death of Otho III., in 1002, Henry II. of Bavaria, a relative of the Othos, was chosen Emperor of Germany by the Electoral Princes. Henry II. had a great fondness for the clergy; and on account of his piety he was surnamed “the Saint.” The line of Saxon Emperors ended with the death of Henry, in Io24. REIGN OF CONRAD II. (A. D. 1024-1O39). Burgundy Annexed to the German Empire—Founding of the Cathedral. at Spire.—On the death of Henry the Saint, Duke Conrad of Franconia was elected Emperor of Germany, with the title of Conrad II. Conrad received the iron crewn of Lombardy at Milan and the imperial crown at Rome. Conrad II. united the Duchy of Burgundy with the German Empire. His son-in-law, Ernest of Swabia, claimed the imperial throne of Germany, and raised an insurrection, which was GAERA/AAVYC STA 7TES. , I61 suppressed after a severe struggle. Conrad II. founded the Cathedral of Spire, where he and succeeding Emperors of Germany were buried. REIGN OF HENRY III. (A. D. 1039–1O36). Designs of Henry III. against the German Princes and the Pope.— The Emperor Conrad II. died in 1039, and his son, Henry III., was chosen his successor on the imperial throne of Germany. Henry III. endeavored to diminish the power of the German princes, make himself an absolute monarch, and change Germany from an elective to an hereditary empire. This emperor also tried -o raise himself above the Roman pontiff. Three Popes were ruling at this time, and Henry III. intended to depose them and put German bishops in their places. REIGN OF HENRY IV. (A. D. 1036–11O6). Rebellion in Saxony against the Emperor Henry IV.-Henry III. died in Io;6, and was succeeded as Emperor of Germany by his son, Henry IV., who so oppressed the nobility and people of Saxony, that they rose in rebellion against him, and compelled him to leave the Saxon territory, where he had established his court. After a fierce struggle, Henry IV. conquered the Saxon insurgents by a de- cisive victory which he gained over them on the Unstruth, in Io'ſ 5. Quarrel of Henry IV. with Pope Gregory VII.-The Emperor Henry IV. had a violent quarrel with Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), who endeavored to raise himself above all the princes of Christendom, whom he claimed to be his vassals. Henry was summoned to appear before Gregory, to answer for his conduct in Saxony, but refused obedience to the Pope's command, and caused the Council of Worms to proclaim the deposition of Hildebrand. The Emperor and his parti- sans were in consequence excommunicated by the Pope. About this time, Henry IV. lost the respect of his subjects by a quarrel with his wife; and he was threat- ened with dethronement by the German Princes, unless he would free himself from his excommunication by Hildebrand. In this desperate situation, the Emperor went to Italy, but was refused admission into the Pope's presence, until he had stood three days barefoot in the snow, without tasting any food. After Henry had undergone this humiliation, he was released from the excommunication. w Civil War between Henry IV. and Rudolph of Swabia.--While the Em. peror Henry IV. was in Italy, Rudolph of Swabia was invested with the dignity of Emperor of Germany. The consequence of this was a civil war, in which Henry was victorious; and Rudolph died from the loss of a hand in the battle of Elster. Deposition of Hildebrand by Henry IV.-In 1081, the Emperor Henry IV. led an army into Italy, deposed Pope Gregory VII., who had again excommunicated him, and placed Clement III. in the papal chair. The deposed Hildebrand retired to Naples, where he was protected by Robert Guiscard, the Norman king of that country. * Henry's Quarrel with Pope Clement III.-Rebellion of Henry's Sons. —Henry IV. was at length excommunicated by Pope Clement III., and the impe. rial crown of Germany was claimed by two rivals. The Emperor's own sons rebelled against their father. One of them, Henry, was elected Emperor, and took his father II 162 MIDD LA; AGES. prisoner. The Emperor made his escape, and died at Liege, in Flanders, in the year IIo6 A. D. - REIGN OF HENRY V. (A. D. 11O6–1125). Disagreement Between Henry V. and Pope Clement III.-Upon the death of Henry IV., his son, Henry V., who had so long warred against his father, obtained undisputed possession of the German imperial throne. Pope Clement III, who had been his ally against his father, now quarreled with him. Henry V. was excommunicated by the Pope for seizing the cardinals; but he succeeded, by the Concordat of Worms, in having the power of investing the bishops and abbots with their privileges bestowed on the emperor, while they were to be chosen to their offices by the Pope. ** REIGN OF LOTHAIRE THE SAXON (A. D. 1125–1138). The Hohenstauffens and Duke Henry the Proud of Bavaria.—On the death of Henry V., the last German emperor of the House of Franconia, Lothaire of Saxony received the imperial crown of Germany. As the Hohenstauffens refused to recognize Lothaire as Emperor, the latter strengthened himself by conferring Saxony on Duke Henry the Proud of Bavaria and forming a marriage alliance with the House of Bavaria. The Hohenstauffens, unable to withstand so powerful a combination, found themselves obliged to recognize Lothaire and to accompany him on his expedition to Italy. GERMANY UNDER THE HOHENSTAUFFENS. REIGN OF CONRAD III. (A. D. 1138-1132). Rebellion of Henry the Proud—Guelphs and Ghibellines.—On the death of the Emperor Lothaire, in II38, Conrad III., of the House of Hohenstauffen or Swabia, obtained the imperial crown of Germany from the Electoral Princes in the Diet of Coblentz. Henry the Proud of Bavaria, Lothaire's son-in-law, who aspired to the imperial dignity, rose in rebellion against Conrad III. A civil war was the consequence. It was during this civil war, at the siege of Weinsberg, that the cries of “Hurrah for Welf!” “Hurrah for Waibling !” from which arose the party designations of Welf and Waibling, or Guelph and Ghibelline, were first heard. The ſortress of Weinsberg was compelled to surrender to the Emperor Conrad III. The Welfs, or Guelphs, were the partisans of the Pope, and the Waiblings, or Ghi- bellines, were the supporters of the Emperor of Germany. The contests of these two parties distracted Germany and Italy for three centuries. The death of Henry the Proud only put an end to the struggle between himself and the Emperor Conrad III. Conrad engaged in the Second Crusade, but he was unfortunate in that undertaking. REIGN OF FREDERIC BARBARoss A (A. D. 1132-1190). Frederic Barbarossa's Expeditions to Italy.—Conrad III. died in 1152, and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Germany by his nephew, the chivalrous Frederic Barbarossa, who ruled with firmness and wisdom, and made the German Empire respected abroad. Frederic Barbarossa led six military expeditions to Italy, GAZAC MAAV/C. STA 7TES. I63 for the purpose of subduing the rebellious Italians, who were founding independent republics, and openly setting the authority of the German emperor at defiance. Milanese Rebellion—Siege and Destruction of Milan.—The powerful city of Milan refused to do homage to the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, who received the crown of Lombardy at Pavia and the crown of the Empire at Rome. Arter Frederic's return to Germany, the Milanese destroyed the city of Lodi, which was loyal to the Emperor Frederic proceeded to Italy a second time, and over- came the Milanese in a bloody war. Milan fell into the Emperor's hands, after a Siege of nearly four years, when the walls and buildings of the proud and rebellious city were destroyed. Second Milanese Revolt—Battle of Lignano—Peace of Constance.— The Emperor Frederic Barbarossa at length quarreled with Pope Alexander III., who excommunicated the Emperor and allied himself with the Lombards, who, led by the Milanese, who had rebuilt their city, had again revolted against the imperial authority, and built the city of Alexandria, which was named in honor of the Pope. Frederic Barbarossa left Italy, but soon returned with a powerful army and laid siege to Alexandria; but Henry the Lion of Brunswick refusing to aid the Emperor, the German army was disastrously defeated by the gallant Milanese in the battle of Lignano, in 1176. Frederic Barbarossa himself was missing for several days. The heroism displayed by the chivalrous Emperor won the respect of the Lombard confederates and of the Pope; and a truce of six years was agreed upon, which was the forerunner of the Peace of Constance, which was concluded in 1183, and which was honorable to all parties. At the conclusion of this Lombard war, Frederic Barbarossa returned to Germany. Rise and Fall of Henry the Lion of Brunswick.-Henry the Lion of Brunswick, the enemy of Frederic Barbarossa, had in the meantime conquered the Slavonic provinces of Mecklenburg and Pomerania and other small states, and an- nexed them to his dominions. He also founded the flourishing cities of Munich and Lubec. Henry the Lion was hated by all the other princes of the German Empire, as well as by the Emperor, so that the latter was enabled to take posses- sion of Henry's dukedoms of Saxony and Bavaria. Frederic gave Saxony to Albert of Bernhard and other princes of the House of Hohenstaffen, and Bavaria to the House of Wittelsbach. But the Lion successfully defended himself with the power of his arms for several years; but was finally compelled to submit to the Emperor, when, being obliged to leave Germany, he retired to England. Frederic Barbarossa as a Crusader.—Having overcome all his foes in his own dominions, the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa went with King Richard the Lion hearted of England and King Philip Augustus of France on the Third Cru- sade, in which the Emperor defeated the infidel Turks at Iconium, but he soon afterwards lost his life while crossing a stream. (A. D. I.190.) REIGN OF HENRY VI. (A. D. 1190–1197). Conquest of Naples and Sicily by Henry VI.-Frederic Barbarossa's suc cessor on the imperial throne of Germany was his son, Henry VI. This tyrannical sovereign spent most of his time in Italy. He desired to obtain the crown of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily for his family; but the Neapolitan nobles placed I64 MYD/DL E A GES. one of their own number, Tancred, on the throne of Naples and Sicily, on the death of the last Norman king. A war followed, in which the Emperor Henry VI. succeeded, with the aid of the German Crusaders, in subduing the Neapolitans, and in securing the crown of Naples and Sicily for the Hohenstauffen family. The cruel victors treated the vanquished with the harshest severity, putting out the eyes of many of the captive Neapolitan nobles, burning some, and burying others alive. REIGN OF OTHo IV. AND PHILIP OF Sw ABIA (A. D. 1197–1218), Civil War Between the Rival Emperors.-On the death of Henry VI., a civil war arose respecting the succession to the imperial throne of Germany. Some of the German princes chose Otho IV., brother of Henry VI., while others pro- claimed Philip of Swabia Emperor. This civil war lasted ten years, during which many cathedrals and churches were destroyed. Assassination of Philip—Otho's Quarrel with the Pope.—Philip of Swa- bia was assassinated, in 1208, by Prince Otho of Wittelsbach, from motives of pri- vate revenge; but a dispute now arose between the Emperor Otho IV. and Pope Innocent III. This Pope, who was ambitious, asserted that, as he was the Head of the Church, he was superior to all the princes of Christendom, who were his vassals; but Otho resolved not to yield to the Pope, and was consequently excom- municated. Frederic II.-Renewal of the Civil War.—The Pope sent Frederic of Hohenstauffen to claim the imperial crown of Germany; and a civil war followed between the Guelphs, or adherents of the Pope, and the Ghibellines, or supporters of the Emperor Otho IV. REIGN OF FREDERIC II. (A. D. 1218–123O). Difficulties between Frederic II. and Pope Gregory IX.—When Otho IV. died, in 1218, the right of Frederic II. to the imperial throne of Germany was undisputed. The free-thinking and accomplished Frederic II. was engaged in a continual struggle with the Roman pontiff, who, fearing the loss of his temporal possessions and his power as Head of the Church, endeavored to separate Naples and Sicily from the dominion of the House of Hohenstauffen. As Frederic II. de- layed going on a promised crusade against the infidels, he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. The following year (A. D. 1228), the Emperor went to Pales. tine on the Fifth Crusade, without having the excommunication removed. Frederic defeated the infidel Turks, and obtained Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem from them by treaty; but the Pope now forbade all Christian warriors from joining the standard of the Emperor, who was crowned King of Jerusalem without being con- secrated by the Church. Frederic II. Soon returned to Europe, and proceeded to Italy to protect his Neapolitan possessions, which had been invaded by Papal troops. The Emperor drove the invaders from Naples and marched toward Rome, when the Pope made peace with Frederic and freed him from the excommunication. Subjugation of the Lombards by Frederic II.-Frederic II. now returned to Germany and devoted his attention to the internal affairs of his empire, but his determination to enforce the stipulations of the Peace of Constance involved him in G.E.R.M.A.NYC STA TES. I65 a furious war with the Lombard towns, which refused to recognize the regalian rights which the Emperor claimed over them. Frederic, assisted by the Ghibellines and by the Saracens whom he had settled in Italy, subdued the Lombards after a Sanguinary contest. Quarrel between Frederic II. and the Pope.—When Frederic II. threatened Milan with the same fate which it had experienced from Frederic Barbarossa, and created his son Enzio King of Sardinia, he was again excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX., who accused the free-thinking Emperor of being an enemy to the Christian religion and a secret Mohammedan. The Emperor repelled all the Pope's charges against him, but as public opinion was on the side of the Church, the Pope got the better in the quarrel. Gregory IX. died in 1241. His second successor in the papal chair, Innocent IV., summoned a Council of the Church at Lyons, in France, and excommunicated the Emperor Frederic II., whom he considered false to the Church and a believer in Mohammedanism. Civil War—Henry Raspe of Thuringia and William of Holland.— Another fierce civil war now broke out in Germany and Italy between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. The Guelphic party in Germany chose Henry Raspe of Thuringia as Emperor, in 1246. After the battle of Ulm, in Swabia, Henry died, whereupon Count William of Holland was chosen to succeed him. The civil war was carried on with great cruelty in Italy by both parties. * THE INTERREGNUM (A. D. 1250–1273), Conrad IV. and the Fall of the House of Hohenstauffen.—The Emperor Frederic II. died in 1250, and was succeeded in the imperial dignity by his son, Conrad IV., who, with his half-brother, Manfred, King of Naples, was excommu- nicated by Pope Innocent IV., who declared Naples and Sicily to be papal fiefs. The Emperor Conrad IV. soon died; and Pope Urban IV., the second successor of Innocent IV., bestowed Naples and Sicily as papal fiefs on Duke Charles of Anjou, brother of Saint Louis, King of France. Manfred was defeated and killed In the battle of Benevento, in 1266; and with the defeat and execution of his son Conradine ended the power of the Ghibellines and the House of Hohenstauffen in Naples. Deplorable Condition of Germany—Charles of Cornwall and Alphonso of Castile.—After the death of the Emperor Frederic II., in 1250, Germany was reduced to a most deplorable condition. Lawlessness and robbery prevailed to an alarming extent in every part of the Empire. The Princes of the Empire were constantly at war with each other. Foreign princes were elected Emperors of Germany. Charles of Cornwall, brother of King Henry III. of England, was chosen by one faction, and Alphonso the Wise, King of Castile, by another. This interregnum in Germany lasted about twenty-three years. (A. D. 1250–1273.) The Hanseatic League—The Confederation of the Rhine.—In Northern Germany, the leading towns, such as Hamburg, Lubec, Bremen, Stralsund, Riga, and others, united themselves in a confederation well known in history as the “Fi unseatic League.” The objects of this confederacy of cities were the advance- ment of commerce, the suppression of piracy and lawlessness, and the restoration and preservation of public order. In Western Germany, the towns of Worms, £º I66 MIDDLE AGAES. Spire, Mayence, Strasburg, Basle, and others, formed the “Confederation of the Rhine,” also in the interest of social order. EMPERORS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. REIGN OF RODOLPH OF HAPSBURG (A. D. 127O-1291). Overthrow and Death of Ottocar, King of Bohemia.-In 1273, the Elec- :Irral Princes of the German Empire chose the energetic, chivalrous, and plous Count Rodolph of Hapsburg to the imperial throne of Germany. King Ottocal of Bohemia refused to recognize Rodolph, and the Emperor consequently waged war against the Bohemian king and overthrew him in the bloody and decisive battle of Marchfeld, in 1278. Ottocar himself was among the slain. Founding of the Royal Austrian House of Hapsburg.—The Emperor Rodolph left Wenceslaus, Ottocar's son, in possession of only Bohemia and Mora- via. Ottocar's other territorial possessions—namely, Austria, Styria, and Carniola— Rodolph bestowed on his own sons, and thus became the founder of the Royal Austrian House of Hapsburg, which has ever since occupied the Austrian throne. Restoration of Order in Germany.—By his energy, firmness, and justice, Rodolph succeeded in restoring law and order throughout the Empire. The chiv- alrous Emperor traversed Germany, and reduced the lawless nobles and robber knights to submission, and razed their castles and strongholds to the ground. The illustrious Rodolph died in 1291, and was buried in the Cathedral of Spire. REIGN OF ADOLPH OF NASSAU (A. D. 1291–1298). Purchase of Thuringia by Adolph—War with Frederic “With the Bit- ten Cheek.”—On the death of Rodolph of Hapsburg, in 1291, the German Elec- toral Princes chose Count Adolph of Nassau to the imperial throne. Adolph purchased a portion of the Thuringian territories from Duke Albert the Uncourteous, - —a step which involved the Emperor in a war with Albert's sons, Frederic “with the bitten cheek” and Dietzman, who were heirs to their father's territorial posses- S1OIlS. Dethronement of Adolph and Election of Albert of Austria.-The dis- graceful and dishonest means which the Emperor Adolph employed for the aggran- dizement of his family rendered him exceedingly unpopular with the German people, and disgusted the Electoral Princes to such a degree that they deposed him in 1298, and elected Albert of Austria, son of Rodolph of Hapsburg, Emperor in his stead. Adolph resolved upon a struggle to preserve his crown, but was defeated and killed at Worms by Albert. - REIGN OF ALBERT OF AUSTRIA (A. D. 1298–13O8). Austrian Tyranny over the Swiss-Helvetia was a component part of the German Empire. When the Hapsburgs, whose territorial possessions lay to the north of the Swiss Cantons, came into possession of the hereditary Austrian states, they endeavored to annex Switzerland to the hereditary Austrian dominions, and the Emperor Albert's governors were instructed to exercise the greatest tyranny over the sturdy Swiss mountaineers. GAEA’AMAAVNC STA 7'E.S. 167 League of Rutlı—Legend of William Tell—Assassination of Albert.— The tyranny of the Austrian governors in Switzerland led to the formation of the League of Rutli by three Swiss Cantons,—Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalder.;—and the tyrannical governors were expelled by the Swiss. One of these governors, Gesler, according to a well-known legend, was killed by William Tell, whom the tyrant had compelled to shoot an apple from his son's head, for refusing to bow to the ducal cap of Austria, which the governor had placed upon a pole in a conspic- uous place. The assassination of the Emperor Albert, in the year 1308, by his methew, John of Swabia, only saved the Swiss from his vengeance. REIGN OF HENRY VII, OF LUXEMBURG (A. D. 1808-1313). Henry's Expedition to Italy.—Upon the assassination of Albert of Austria, the Electoral Princes of Germany invested Henry VII., of the House of Luxem- burg, with the imperial dignity. Henry VII. led a military expedition into Italy, where he was well received by the Ghibellines; but the Guelphs rose against the Emperor. Henry marched to attack Florence, a Guelphic city; but he died on the way, and was buried in the Ghibelline city of Pisa. (A. D. 1313.) FEIGN OF LOUIS THE BAV AFIAN AND FREDEFIC THE FAIR OF AUSTRIA (A. D. 1313–1349). Civil War Between the Rival Emperors—Honorable Conduct of Fred- eric.—On the death of Henry VII., another civil war arose in Germany concern- ing the succession to the imperial throne. Some of the German Electoral Princes chose Louis of Bavaria, while others declared for Frederic the Fair of Austria. Frederic was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Muhldorf; but Duke Leopold of Austria, Frederic's brother, refused to accept peace, and Pope John XXII., who sided with Leopold, excommunicated Louis the Bavarian. Frederic the Fair was at length restored to freedom, on condition of persuading his brother Leopold and the Pope to agree to a peace; but as neither Duke Leopold, nor the Head of the Church, would listen to any proposals of peace, the honest Frederic voluntarily returned to captivity; which conduct led to the closest friendship be- tween Frederic and Louis, and the latter was willing to allow his rival a share in the Empire, but the Electoral Princes would not agree to such an arrangement. The Swiss Confederation—Battle of Morgarten.—Upon the assassination of the Emperor Albert I., in 1308, his brother Leopold succeeded him in the sove- reignty of the hereditary Austrian territories. Duke Leopold marched against the Swiss Confederates, but he was thoroughly defeated by them in the narrow pass of Morgarten, in 1315, and only saved himself by a disgraceful flight from the scene of action. The three revolted cantons, Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalden, were soon joined by the towns of Lucerne, Berne, Zug, and Zurich. Quarrel between the Emperor Louis and Pope John XXII.-Soon after Frederic the Fair had returned to captivity, his brother, Duke Leopold of Austria, died; and as Pope John XXII. still obstinately refused peace, the Emperor Louis appointed Frederic the Fair regent of the Empire, and led an army into Italy to humble the stubborn pontiff. Louis caused another Pope to be elected; and before his return to Germany, Frederic the Fair had died. In consequence of the obsti- nacy with which Pope John XXII. and his successor, Benedict XII., retained the I68 MIDDEE A.G.E.S. excommunication against the Emperor Louis, the German Princes declared in the Electoral Diet that in future the confirmation by the Pope should be unnecessary to tle validity of the election of Emperors. s Charles IV., of Luxemburg.—The ambition of the Emperor Louis finally made him unpopular, and the Electoral Princes raised Charles IV., sor of King John of Bohemia, of the House of Luxemburg, to the imperial dignity; bu, Charles was not fully acknowledged Emperor until Louis the Bavarian had been killed in a bear hunt near Munich. GERMANY UNDER THE HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG. REIGN OF CHARLES IV. (A. D. 1349–1378.) S Founding of the University of Prague—The Golden Bull.—The Emperor Charles IV. was an ambitious and avaricious monarch; but he did much for the welfare and prosperity of Germany. In 1348, he founded the University of Prague, which was attended by over 5,000 students. Charles IV. also established the code of laws known as “The Golden Bull,” by which the election of Emperors was left exclusively to the seven leading Princes of Germany. REIGN OF VVENCESLAUS (A. D. 1378–14OO). Lawlessness and Confusion—The Faust-recht.—On the death of Charles IV., in 1378, his son, the dissolute and hard-hearted Wenceslaus, was chosen Em- peror of Germany. During the reign of Wenceslaus great confusion and lawlessness prevailed throughout the Empire. The only law which prevailed over all others was the Faust-recht, or club-law, which called upon every man to take care of himself. Wars between the Cities and the Knights.--To put an end to the prevail- ing disorder and confusion, the towns of Southern and Western Germany formed confederations against the lawless nobles and knights. To oppose these confeder- ations of towns, the knights also united themselves in leagues. Destructive wars ensued between the cities and the knights, and the people of South Germany were reduced to great distress. The Swiss—Battle of Sempach—Patriotic Devotion of Arnold Winkel- tied.—Duke Leopold of Austria was at this time engaged in a war with the Swiss Conſederates. In 1386, the Swiss gained a victory over Leopold and his Austrian and German chivalry in the battle of Sempach, famous for the self-devotion of Arnold Winkelried, a gallant knight of Unterwalden, who plunged into the midst of the enemy, tearing their spears from their hands and burying them in his body, and opened a way for his countrymen, who rushed upon the Austrians and killed or routed their whole force. Duke Leopold and 656 of his nobles were among the slain. REIGN OF RUPERT OF THE PALATINATE (A. D. 14ſ)O-141C), Deposition of Wenceslaus and Election of Rupert of the Palatinate- Disorder, robbery, and lawlessness prevailed to such an extent in Germary that the Electoral Princes deposed Wenceslaus from the imperial throne, in the year 1400, and chose Rupert of the Palatinate in his stead. Rupert, however, did not succeed GE/PMAAV/C. STA 7'ES, * 169 in restoring order and tranquillity to the German Empire. He also failed in his endeavors to heal the dissensions in the Church. REIGN OF SIGISMUND (A. D. 141O-1437). Council of Constance (1414-1418).-The Emperor Rupert died in 1410, and Sigismund, King of Hungary, brother of Wenceslaus, received the imperial dignity from the Electoral Princes of Germany. In order to heal the dissensions in the Church, the Emperor Sigismund induced Pope John XXIII. to summon a great Council of the Church at Constance. For seventy years, the Popes had :esided at Avignon, in France. The Italians and Germans, not succeeding in having the papal residence reëstablished in Rome, elected another Pope: so there were now two Popes, one at Avignon and another at Rome. A Council of the Church which had convened at Pisa proclaimed the deposition of the two Popes, and chose another in their stead; but as the two Popes would not resign their dignities, there were now three Popes reigning at the same time. To remove this scandal, and to purge the Church of its many abuses and corruptions, the grand Council of Con- stance was called. The clergy and Church dignitaries from all Western and Central Europe hastened to Constance at the appointed time, and 150,000 men are said to have been assembled there. The first business of the Council was the deposition of the three Popes and the elevation of Martin V. to the pontifical chair. Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague.—The Council of Con- stance, without effecting any reſormation in the Church, devoted itself earnestly to the consideration of doctrines and opinions differing from those of the Church, and condemned the writings of John Wickliffe, the great English reformer, to be burned. The Council also summoned the learned and pious John Huss, a professor in the University of Prague, who had adopted the opinions of Wickliffe, and preached against the power of the Pope and condemned many of the practices of the Church, to appear and answer for his conduct. Being provided by the Emperor Sigismund with a safe-conduct, Huss went to Constance, but as soon as he arrived there he was imprisoned for preaching heretical doctrines. Having refused to recant, Huss was burned alive, in 1415, by order of the Council of Constance, notwithstanding the Emperor's promise that he should safely return to Prague, the Council being of the opinion that promises made to heretics were not binding. The following year (1416), Jerome of Prague, a Bohemian nobleman, the associate and disciple of Huss, also perished at the stake. Hussite War.—The horrible deed just mentioned, aroused the adherents of Huss in Bohemia to a furious religious war of sixteen years' duration, in which they took a terrible revenge on the Empire and the Church for the death of the great reformer. In vain did the Pope issue interdict after interdict against the Hussites. They stormed the town-house at Prague and murdered the counsellors, which act so enraged the aged ex-Emperor Wenceslaus that he died of apoplexy. Under the leadership of the valiant John Ziska, the Hussite Bohemians defeated the armies of the Emperor Sigismund in many bloody battles. They burned churches and convents in Bohemia and Saxony, and compelled Brandenburg and Bavaria to pay tribute. By the death of Wenceslaus, his Bohemian crown fell to his brother, the Emperor Sigismund, but the latter was unable to obtain possession of the king- don, until a reconciliation was brought about between the Church and the moderate 17o MYD DJ. E. A. G.E.S. Bohemians, or Calixtines, and until the radical Hussites, or Taborites, suffered a defeat near Prague. Some of the Hussites afterwards withdrew from the Church, and formed the sect since known as “The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren.” GERMANY UNDER THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG. REIGN OF ALBERT II. (A. D. 1438–1439.) The Hapsburg-Austrian Dynasty.—After the death of Sigismund, in 1437, his son-in-law, Albert II., of the House of Austria, or Hapsburg, was chosen Em- peror of Germany, from which time until the dissolution of the German Empire, in 1806, the throne of Germany was occupied, with little intermission, by princes of the Hapsburg-Austrian dynasty. * REIGN OF FREDERIC III. (A. D. 1440–1493). The Council of Basle (A. D. 1431-1449).-The Emperor Albert II. died in 1439, and his nephew, the weak and imbecile Frederic III., was elected his successor on the imperial throne of Germany. Another great Council of the Church had been assembled at Basle, in 1431, during the reign of Sigismund, for the pur- pose of effecting the removal from the Church of all the abuses and corruptions which disgraced it. The Council of Basle continued in session until 1449, a period of nearly eighteen years, during which it endeavored to diminish the power of the Pope. To frustrate the designs of the Council, the Pope ordered it to be removed to Ferrara, and afterwards to Florence; but the members of the Council refused to obey the order of the Father of the Church, and elected another Pope in his stead. Having secured the support of the Emperor Frederic III., the lawful Pope, Euge- nius IV., finally triumphed; and the Church was left in her corruption. After having acknowledged Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius IV., as Pope, the Council of Basle dissolved itself (1449). Imbecility of Frederic III.-The Emperor Frederic III. possessed no talents for government. He looked on with seeming indifference when the Ottoman Turks were threatening his hereditary Austrian estates with plunder and desolation, and when the mighty Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy was extending his do- minions to the banks of the Rhine, while at home the imperial authority fell into contempt. Feuds of the Princes, Nobles, and Cities.—The German Empire was again a theatre of the greatest lawlessness. The German princes claimed the right of carrying on war against each other, and made themselves independent of the au- thority of the Emperor. A bloody war was waged by the Swabian League against the Margrave Albert of Brandenburg, the Achilles of Germany, a war in which nine battles were fought and two hundred towns and villages laid in ashes. In Western Germany raged the war of the Palatinate, in which Ulric of Wurtemberg, the Margrave of Baden, and the Bishop of Metz were defeated and made prisoners by the Count Palatine, Frederic the Victorious, near Seckenheim, in 1461. Not. withstanding his success, Frederic the Victorious could not prevent the deposition of his ally, the Archbishop of Mayence, in whose cause he had taken up arms. GERMAAVYC STATES. 171 REIGN OF MAXIMILIAN I. (A. D. 1493–1319). The Land-friede.—The weak and imbecile Frederic III. died in 1493, and was succeeded in the imperial dignity by his son, Maximilian I., who succeeded in securing the establishment, by the Diet of Worms, of the Land-friede, or Land- peace, which put an end to the prevailing lawlessness and private warfare in Ger- many. The Land-friede forbade any private redress of injuries by arms under the penalty of outlawry; and an Imperial Chamber was established to settle disputes among the Princes, and the German Empire was divided into ten Circles. Defeat of the Emperor Maximilian by the Swiss—Peace of Basle.— The Swiss having refused to recognize the Imperial Chamber, the Emperor Maxi- milian marched against them with an army, but he was defeated and compelled to retreat, and in the Peace of Basle, in 1499, to acknowledge the independence of Switzerland. Importance of the Reign of Maximilian I.-The reign of Maximilian I. was an important epoch in the history of Europe; as it was the transition period between the Middle Ages and Modern Times, the period when the night of barbarism was passing away and the light of civilization was again dawning upon Europe; when the Feudal System was giving way to more enlightened usages; and when Chivalry was in its decay. Maximilian died in 1519, and was succeeded as Emperor by his grandson, Charles V. . KING DOM OF ENGLAND. ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXON AND DANISH KINGS. REIGNS OF THE ANGLO-SAXON EINGS (A. D. 827-1017). Founding of the Kingdom of England—Egbert, First King.—In the year 827 A. D., the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy in Britain were united, under the government of Egbert, King of Wessex, into one great kingdom, called Angle-land, or England. Egbert had been educated at the court of Charlemagne, and was an enlightened and accomplished prince. Predatory Incursions of the Danes into England.—During the reigns of Egbert and his successors of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty, the Danes, a daring Scan- dinavian tribe, were continually making irruptions into England and securing a vast amount of booty, which they carried off to their own country. King Alfred the Great and the Danes—Institutions of Alfred.—During the reign of the good and illustrious Alfred the Great, who ascended the throne of England in 871 A. D., the Danes obtained possession of the greater part of the English kingdom; and Alfred became a fugitive among his Anglo-Saxon subjects. On one occasion, King Alfred went into the camp of the Danes, disguised as a harper; and after having obtained the knowledge he wanted, returned to his own subjects and led them against the Danes, whom he conquered after a severe struggle. The Danes whom Alfred had made prisoners, and among whom was their chief, Guthrum, were allowed to remain in England, on condition of becoming Christians. King Alfred the Great had a great fondness for learning, and he gave great encour- agement to the arts, sciences, and literature. He founded the University of Oxford, . I 72 M/ZXD/CA. A GAZS. improved London, reformed the Saxon division of the kingdom into counties or shires, instituted trial by jury, and laid the foundations of the English navy. Alfred the Great, who was himself the most learned man in his kingdom, and who was as virtuous as he was learned, died in the year 901 A. D., and was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Edward the Elder. Renewal of the Incursions of the Danes—Massacre of the Danes in England.—After the death of Alfred the Great the Danes again ravaged England; and in the reign of King Ethelred II., who ascended the English throne in 978, they obtained possession of the greater portion of the country, and King Ethelred several times bribed them to leave the kingdom. When the Danes again returned to England, in the year IOO2 A. D., and committed their former ravages, King Ethelred II. caused all the Danes in England to be massacred. To avenge their death, Sweyn, King of Denmark, with a large army of Danes and Norwegians, invaded England, which he soon subdued. King Ethelred II, fled to Normandy, but soon afterward returned to England. THE DANISH KINGS OF ENGLAND (A. D. 1017-1041). Reign of Canute the Great.—King Ethelred II., at his death, was succeeded on the English throne by his son, Edmund Ironside. Sweyn's son, Canute the Great, King of Denmark, invaded England in IOI6; and on the death of Edmund Ironside, the next year, became sole King of England. At first Canute the Dane treated his Anglo-Saxon subjects with great severity, but he soon embraced Christianity, and thereafter governed with mildness and wisdom. Canute the Great was one of the most powerful monarchs of his time; and before his death, he wore the crowns of four kingdoms, having been King of Denmark since his father's death, in IOI.3, and having conquered England in IOI6, Sweden in IO25, and Norway in IO27. Short Reigns of Harold Harefoot and Hardicanufe.-On the death of Canute the Great, in Io95, his son Harold, surnamed “Harefoot,” on account of his swiftness in running, became King of England. Harold Harefoot died in Io99, and was succeeded on the throne of England by his brother Hardicanute, who died ater a tyrannical reign of two years. (A. D. Ioa I.) THE RESTORED SAXON DYNASTY (A. D. 1041- 1 OG6). Reigns of Edward the Confessor and Harold.—Upon the death of Har- dicanute, in IoAI, the Saxon dynasty was restored to the throne of England, in the person of Edward the Confessor. On Edward's death, in 1066, the English crown was usurped by his wife's brother, Harold. Tostig, Harold’s brother, claimed the English throne, and, with the aid of the Kings of Scotland and Norway, he raised a large army, but was defeated by Harold in a great battle on the river Tyne, in the North of England, on the 25th of September of the same year. (A. D. 1066.) Invasion of England by Duke William of Normandy—Battle of Has- tings.-A few days after Harold's victory over his brother, Duke William of Nor- mandy, to whom Edward the Confessor had bequeathed the English kingdom, and whose pretensions were sanctioned by the Pope, landed on the Southern coast of England, at the head of 60,000 men. In the great battle of Hastings, which was GAERMAAV/C. STA TES. I73 fought on the 14th of October, Ioë6, Harold was killed, and the Duke of Nor- mandy gained a victory which changed the whole fate of England. * ENGLAN ID UNDER THE NORMAN DYNASTY. REIGN of william THE CONQUEROR (A. D. 10ee-1087, “The Norman Conquest” of England.--The battle of Hastings made the Duke of Normandy King of England. From this time he was called “William the Conqueror,” and his subjugation of England is styled “The Norman Conquest.” The immediate result of the battle of Hastings gave William only about one-ſourth of England, and it was only after a war of seven years that the Conqueror com- pleted the subjugation of the entire kingdom. Introduction of the Feudal System into England—Domes-day Book. —William the Conqueror introduced the Feudal System into England by dividing the lands of the conquered kingdom among his Norman favorites, thus depriving the Anglo-Saxon nobility of their rights, and reducing the English peasants to a condition of serfdom. The account of the survey of the lands then made was written in Domes-day Book, or “Book of Judgment,” which is preserved in the Tower of London to this day. REIGN OF WILLIAM RUFUS (A. D. 1087–11OO). Quarrel Between King William Rufus and His Brothers.-William the Conqueror died in Io&7, and was succeeded as King of England by his second son, William Rufus, or “the Red,” so called from the color of his hair; while his eldest, son, Robert, became Duke of Normandy. King William Rufus was involved in quarrels with his brothers, Robert and Henry. He also waged war against Malcolm, King of Scotland. In order to obtain money to join in the First Crusade, Robert sold “his duchy of Normandy to William Rufus, who obtained money to pay for it by forced levies upon his English subjects. REIGN OF HENRY I. (A. D. 11CO-1133). * Quarrel Between King Henry I. and His Brother Robert.—King William Rufus was accidentally killed by one of his companions while hunting, in the year I IOO A. D., and was succeeded on the throne of England by his younger brother, Henry; his elder brother, Robert, being absent in the Holy Land. King Henry I. was surnamed Beauclerc, or “Good Scholar.” After his return ſrom Palestine, Robert recovered Normandy; but a war arose between him and Henry I., and Robert was made prisoner and ended his days in a castle in Wales. REIGN OF STEPHEN OF BLOIS (A. D. 1135-1154). “ Stephen’s Usurpation—Civil War—Matilda’s Triumph and Fall.—On the death of King Henry I., in II35, the English throne was usurped by Count Stephen of Blois, the rightful claimant being Henry's daughter, Matilda, the wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou. The result of Stephen's usurpation was a civil war, which ended in the triumph of Matilda, and she was declared Queen of England; but her tyranny and arrogance disgusted her English friends, and she was finally compelled to flee from the kingdom; and Stephen was restored to the throne. I74 MIDDA, E A GA.S. ENGLAND UNDER THE PLANTAGENETS. REIGN OF HENRY II. (A. D. 1154–1189). Usurpations of the Clergy—Constitutions of Clarendon—Assassination of Becket.—Upon the death of King Stephen, in 1154, the Plantagenet dynasty ascended the throne of England, in the person of Henry II., of Anjou, Matilda's son. Henry II. was one of the greatest monarchs of the Middle Ages, and his reign was cotemporary with that of Frederic Barbarossa in Germany. In order to check the usurpations of the clergy in England, King Henry II. assembled the Fnglish nobles and priests at Clarendon, in 1164; and by the “Constitutions of Clarendon,” which were framed by this assembly, the privileges of the English clergy were restricted. But Pope Alexander III. and Thomas à Becket, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, rejected the Constitutions of Clarendon; and a long and bitter quarrel ensued between the King and the Archbishop. At last, Henry exclaimed in a fit of anger, “Will no one rid me of this troublesome priest!” whereupon four of the King's servants went to Canterbury and killed Becket. The consequence of this assassination was the final triumph of the Church; the assassins were pun- ished, the Constitutions of Clarendon were abolished, and the murdered Becket was canonized by the Pope. Thousands of pilgrims visited Becket's altar, and 'King Henry II. at length went to the tomb of the murdered Archbishop, and there did penance for the crime by allowing the priests to assault him with rods. Conquest of Ireland by the English.-At this time Ireland was divided into five separate kingdoms. In 1171, the Earl of Pembroke, surnamed Strongbow, went over into Ireland to assist Dermot Macmorrogh, King of Leinster, who had been driven from his dominions by the other Irish princes. Dermot soon recov- ered his kingdom, which, at his death, the following year (1172), he left to Earl Strongbow, who had married his daughter. Strongbow immediately resigned his kingdom to King Henry II., who immediately invaded Ireland and subdued the whole island. (A. D. 1172.) Ever since this event the Emerald Isle has been subject to the English crown. Rebellions of King Henry's Sons.—The Sons of King Henry II, were sev- eral times induced by their wicked mother, Eleanor, to take up arms against their father, and were assisted in their rebellion by the Kings of Scotland and France, and also by the English barons. King William of Scotland was taken prisoner by a band of English knights, but was afterwards released, on condition that he and his successors should do homage to the English monarchs for their crown. King Henry II. died in 1189, of grief and anxiety caused by the rebellion of his two sons, Richard and John, who were aided by King Philip Augustus of France. REIGN OF RICHARD THE LION-HEAFTED (A. D. 1189-1199). Richard’s Deeds in Palestine—His Imprisonment in Germany.—IIenry II. was succeeded on the English throne by his elder son, the chivalrous Richard th. B Lion-hearted, who was renowned for his deeds in Palestine as a Crusader. On his return home from the Holy Land, in I 192, Richard was imprisoned in Ger- many, by order of the Duke of Austria and the Emperor Henry VI. of Germany, in revenge for an insult to the German flag in Palestine after the capture of Acre. The English people only obtained Richard's release by paying a ransom of a mil- GAZAZMAAVYC STA 7'E.S. w 175 lion dollars. King Richard the Lion-hearted was killed in 1199, while besieging a castle in Normandy. REIGN OF JOHN (A. D. 1199–1216). Accession of John Lackland.—Richard the Lion-hearted was succeeded on the throne of England by his dissolute brother, John, surnamed “Lackland,” be. cause he lost Normandy and the other territories which the English monarchs had oossessed in France, to the French king, Philip Augustus, after a long contest. King John's Quarrel with Pope Innocent III.-King John quarreled with Pope Innocent III. about the appointment of an Archbishop of Canterbury. The Pope laid the English kingdom under an interdict, and afterwards excommunicated King John, and called upon King Philip Augustus of France to invade England, lethrone John, and take possession of his kingdom. In order to release himself from the excommunication, King John was compelled to surrender his crown and kingdom to the Pope, and to acknowledge himself the Pope's vassal, whereupon John received his kingdom back as a papal fief. The King of France was then forbidden to make war on England, which country the Pope now considered as one of the territories of the Church. Rebellion of the English Barons—Magna Charta Signed by King John. —Disgusted with the dissipation and tyranny of King John, the English barons rose in rebellion against him; and on the 19th of June, 1215, at Runnymede, on the Thames, near Windsor, they compelled the king to sign Magna Charta, or Great Charter of rights and liberties. Among the important articles of this great docu- ment were the following: “No delay should take place in doing justice to every one; and no freeman should be taken or imprisoned, dispossessed of his free tene- ment, outlawed or banished, unless by the legal judgment of his peers.” Magna Charta has ever since been considered the foundation of the free constitution of England. - Civil War in England.—Irritated at the English barons, the Pope excommu- nicated them, and also absolved King John from the oath he had taken. John collected an army of foreign mercenaries, and made war on his barons, who offered the crown of England to the French monarch’s son, Louis, who immediately landed in England with an army, and prepared to contend with King John for the posses- sion of the English throne; but when John died, in 1216, Louis was suddenly aban- doned by the English barons. - REIGN OF HENRY III. (A. D. 1216–1272). Civil War between Henry III. and his Barons—Simon de Montfort.-- The dissolute King John was succeeded in the royal dignity by his son, Henry III., who was a weak and profligate prince, and profuse to his favorites, who were gen. erally unworthy persons. King Henry III, was engaged in a continual struggle with the English barons, who were endeavoring to secure their own rights and the liberties of the English people. The whole kingdom was rent by anarchy and civil war. The chief among the rebellious barons was Simon de Montfort, who, dis- gusted with the vicious conduct and tyranny of the King, called a Parliament, in 1258, which deprived Henry III. of his authority; and a council of twenty-four barons was appointed to govern the English kingdom. 176 - MY/9/0/A2 AGES. Origin of the House of Commons—Civil war—Battles of Lewes and Evesham.—In 1265, Simon de Montfort, who had risen to the dignity of Earl of Leicester, called another Parliament, in which not only the English nobles, but also the cities and boroughs of England were represented. This was the origin of the House of Commons, which, as the popular branch of the English Parliament, has ever been the chief guardian of the rights and liberties of the people of England. An attempt of King Henry III, to recover his lost authority involved him in another civil war with his barons. In the battle of Lewes, in 1264, the king was defeated and made a prisoner by the Earl of Leicester; but Henry afterwards obtained his freedom by the great victory which his son, Prince Edward, gained in the battle of Evesharn, in which the Earl of Leicester and his son were slain. The wretched life and miserable reign of Henry III. terminated with his death, in 1272. | REIGN OF EDVVARD I. (A. D. 1272-13O7.) Edward I. in Palestine–Banishment of the Jews from England.—The chivalrous son of Henry III., Edward I., who was at the time in Palestine as a Crusader, became King of England at his father's death; but he did not return to England until two years afterward. King Edward I. had a great hatred ſor the Jews, and, as soon as he arrived in England from the Holy Land, he confiscated the property of Jews, and banished 13,000 of them from his kingdom. Conquest of Wales by Edward I.-The First Prince of Wales.—Unlike his father, Edward I. was an able monarch. He humbled the English barons and restored order throughout his kingdom. His mind was occupied with the thought of uniting the whole island of Great Britain under one government. When Llewellyn Prince of Wales, refused to do the customary homage to the English king, Edward I. marched against him with an army; and Llewellyn was defeated and slain in battle, and the principality of Wales was annexed to the English dominions. (A. D. 1282.) Irritated at the determined resistance of the Welsh, King Edward I. caused Llewel- lyn's brother, David, and the Welsh bards to be massacred; and then presented his own son, Edward of Caernarvon, to the Welsh people as their prince, since which time the eldest son of the British sovereign has been styled “Prince of Wales.” The Scottish Succession—The Maid of Norway—John Baliol and Robert Bruce.—King Edward I. next attempted to subdue Scotland. When King Alexander III. of Scotland died, in 1286, the Scottish crown fell to his granddaughter Margaret, the daughter of the King of Norway, and the niece of the King of England. Edward secured the marriage of the princess, known as the “Maid of Norway,” with his son, the Prince of Wales. On her voyage from Nor- way to Scotland, the princess died; and thus the plan for uniting England and Scotland under one sovereign was, for a time, frustrated. Among the Scots, many rival competitors now appeared for the crown of Scotland, the leading ones of whom were John Baliol and Robert Bruce, who consented to let Edward I. decide apon their respective claims. The decision of Edward was in favor of Baliol, with the understanding that he should do homage to the King of England for his cl Dwn (A. D. 1293.) War between England and Scotland—Battle of Dunbar.—When Edward I. became involved in a war with King Philip the Fair of France, Baliol formed an alliance with the French monarch. The result of this step of the Scotch king GAERMAAV/C. S.7.4 TES. 177 was a furious war between England and Scotland. Edward I. led an army into Scotland, and defeated Baliol in the battle of Dunbar, in 1292. The victorious Edward soon compelled Baliol to surrender his crown, and carried to London the Scotch crown, sceptre, and the Sacred chair at Scone, on which the Scottish kings sat when they were crowned. (A. D. 1296.) Sir William Wallace—Battles of Stirling and Falkirk—Robert Bruce. --The Scots revolted on Edward's return to England, and, being led by the ga]. lant patriot, Sir William Wallace, a man of obscure origin, gained a victory over the English at Stirling, and regained their independence. Edward I. again in- vaded Scotland, and defeated the Scots under Wallace at Falkirk, in 1298. Wal- lace was betrayed to Edward, who carried the valiant patriot to London, and caused him to be executed. (A. D. 1305.) The Scots again revolted, and were led by Robert Bruce, a grandson of that Robert Bruce who had been a rival candidate with Baliol for the Scotch crown in 1292. In 1306, Bruce was crowned King of Scotland, at Scone. King Edward I. again marched toward Scotland with a powerful army, but died at Carlisle. (A. D. 1307.) On his death bed he ex- horted his son Edward to lead the expedition into Scotland, and not to give up the war until the Scots were entirely subjugated. REIGN OF EDVVARD II. (A. D. 13O7–1327). The War with Scotland—Battle of Bannockburn—Independence of Sctoland.—King Edward I. was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Edward II., who disobeyed his father's dying injunction, and disbanded the army which had been raised for the subjugation of Scotland. For seven years, the Scots, under the leadership of their king, Robert Bruce, carried on the war against the Eng- lish. Finally, in 1314, King Edward II. led an army of Ioo,000 men into Scotland; and on the 24th of June (1314), he fought with Robert Bruce, who had only 30,000 men, the famous battle of Bannockburn, in which the Scots gained a glorious vic- tory and secured the independence of their country. In 1315, Edward Bruce, Robert's brother, went over into Ireland, and the Irish proclaimed him their king; hut he was totally defeated by the English in the battle of Dundalk. Edward's Favorites—Rebellion of the Barons and the Queen—Murder of Edward II.-Edward II. was a weak and profligate sovereign, and he sur- rounded himself with the most unworthy favorites, the chief of whom was a Frenchman named Gaveston, who treated the English barons with such insolence that they openly rebelled, took Gaveston prisoner, and put him to death. Gaves- ton's place in the king's favor was supplied by the dissolute Hugh Spenser, a Welshman, who was as much hated by the English barons as Gaveston had been. The barons, with the Earl of Lancaster at their head, again rebelled against the king, and were joined in their rebellion by the king's wife, Isabella, a daughter of King Philip the Fair of France. Edward II. was dethroned and imprisoned; and in 1325, he was brutally murdered, at the instigation of his queen and her unworthy favorite, Roger Mortimer. REIGN OF EDWARD III. (A. D. 1327-1377). War with Scotland—Battle of Halidon Hill—Flight of David Bruce. —The imbecile and dissolute Edward II. was succeeded as King of England by I2 e 178 AM//)D/CAE A.G.E.S. nis son, the blave and chivalrous Edward III., who was a very able sovereign, Edward III., upon his accession to the throne, caused Roger Mortimer to be put to death, and his mother, Isabella, to be imprisoned, on account of her conduct toward his father. The attempt of King Edward III. to dethrone David Bruce, the reign- ing King of Scotland, led to a war between England and Scotland. Edward invaded Scotland, and gained a victory at Halidon Hill, which placed Scotland at the mercy of the English monarch, King David Bruce being obliged to seek refuge i: France. g Invasion of France by Edward III.-Battle of Crecy—Cannon First Used.—By the death of King Charles the Fair of France, the last of the direct line of the House of Capet, in 1328, the crown of France passed to his cousin, Philip of Valois, the nephew of Philip the Fair. But Edward III. of England claimed to be the proper heir to the French throne, because his mother, Isabella, was a daughter of Philip the Fair; but by the Salic Law, which has always prevailed in France, females are excluded from the throne, and therefore the French denied the validity of Edward's pretensions. To enforce his claims, the King of England led an army into France; and inflicted upon the French army, far superior to his own in numer- ical strength, a complete overthrow in the battle of Crecy, fought on the 25th of August, 1346. The French lost over 40,000 men, among whom was the blind old King John of Bohemia. King Edward and his son Edward, the Black Prince, so called from the color of his armor, greatly distinguished themselves in the battle of Crecy for their bravery. In the battle of Crecy, cannon, but of a rude construction, were first used, the English having several pieces. * Siege and Capture of Calais by Edward III.-Eustace St. Pierre.— After his great victory at Crecy, Edward III. laid siege to Calais, the key to France. The city was stubbornly defended by the Franch for nearly a year, when, reduced by famine, Calais was obliged to surrender. It is said that the English king agreed to spare the inhabitants of Calais, whose long resistance exasperated him, if six of the leading citizens should be sent to him, with ropes about their 'necks, ready for hanging. The unfortunate inhabitants gave way to despair at these hard conditions; but Eustace St. Pierre, a wealthy merchant of Calais, offered himself as one of the victims. Inspired by his noble example, five others followed him. The entreaties of the English nobles, of Edward's queen, Philippa, and of his heroic son, Edward the Black Prince, finally prevailed over the king's obstinate temper and saved the lives of the six noble-hearted citizens. This story is very generally doubted. After the surrender of Calais, Edward III. expelled its French inhabitants, and peopled the city with English; and for two centuries, that important town remained in the possession of the English. * Scottish Invasion of England—Battle of Nevil's Cross—David Bruce a Prisoner.—While the King of England was thus employed in France, the Scots had again raised David Bruce to the throne of their country. Upon his restoration to the Scotch throne, David Bruce invaded England; but in the battle of Nevil's Cross, near Durham, fought on the IOth of October, 1346, the King of the Scotſ, was defeated and made a prisoner by Philippa, the wife of Edward III. Invasion of France by the Black Prince—Battle of Poitiers—King John a Prisoner.—After a truce of several years, King Edward III. again resolved to attack France; and for this purpose, he sent the Black Prince with an army to GA2/8MAAV/C. STA 7TE.S. I79 Guienne, one of the Western provinces of France. The Black Prince advanced into the heart of France with only 12,000 men; but at Poitiers he found himself confronted by a French army of 60,000 men, under King John the Good, the suc- cessor of Philip of Valois on the throne of France. Desiring to retreat, the Black Prince offered to restore all his conquests in France and make peace; but fie French king rejecting all terms but unconditional submission on the part of the invaders, a battle ensued, which, owing to the bravery and skill of the Black Prince, ended in the total defeat of the French, King John himself being taken prisoner. This memorable conflict, known as the battle of Poitiers, occurred on the 17th of Sep. tember, 1346. Captivity of King John of France in London—English Possessions in France.—Edward the Black Prince took King John of France a prisoner to Lon- don. Both the Black Prince and his father treated the captive monarch with the greatest generosity; and during the whole period of his captivity in England, the French king was treated more as a guest than as a captive. The English now had possession of the whole West of France, and the Black Prince and his wife, “the Fair Maid of Kent,” established their court at Bordeaux. Honorable Conduct of King John—Renewal of the War with France. —Edward III. now had two kings in his possession. The King of the Scots was soon ransomed by his subjects. In 1360, a treaty of peace was made between France and England, by which King John was to be released on the payment of a heavy ransom. One of the hostages delivered to the English king having escaped, the French monarch voluntarily returned to captivity in London, where he died in 1364. The war between England and France was renewed in 1368. Edward the Black Prince, who had been highly esteemed for his generosity and moderation, died in 1376; and his father's death occurred the following year. REIGN OF RICHARD II. (A. D. 1377–1399). Wat Tyler's Insurrection.—On the death of King Edward III., in 1377, the son of the Black Prince ascended the throne of England, at the age of eleven years, with the title of Richard II. The lower orders of the English people were discontented with the condition of serfdom in which they were kept, and with the oppressions which they suffered from the privileged classes; and in 1381, a dan- gerous insurrection of the lower classes was occasioned by the indignity which the daughter of Wat Tyler, a blacksmith, at Deptford, in Essex, suffered at the hands of the brutal tax-gatherers. Enraged at the conduct of the tax-gatherers, the black- Smith killed the tax-officer with his hammer; and rousing the people to insurrection, placed himself at their head as leader. The insurgents, 100,000 in number, after assembling at Blackheath, uuder the leadership of Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, broke into London, burned the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered the warehouses, and killed the Chancellor and the Archbishop of Canterbury. King Richard II. went to meet the insurgents, accompanied by a few attendants. Waſ Tyler treated the king with such insolence that William Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, struck him to the ground, whereupon the blacksmith was slain by others of the king's retinue. The enraged insurgents threatened to overwhelm the king's party, but this was averted by the presence of mind of Richard II., who kindly addressed the malcontents, and induced them to return to their homes by promising I 8o MYDI) LE AGA.S. them a release from some of the degrading conditions of serfdom. As soon as order was restored, the government broke its plighted faith by revoking the certifi- cates of freedom which had been granted to the peasants. The consequence of this action was that Richard II. lost the favor of the lower orders. A Regency of Nobles.—The prodigality and dissipation of King Richard II, and his profusion to his unworthy favorites, such as Michael de la Pole, induce l the king's uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, to compel Richard to resign his authority to a regency of nobles. After several years, the king recovered his lost power, and caused his uncle to be put to death. Banishment of Henry of Lancaster—His Usurpation of the Crown.— Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, openly charged Richard II. with the mur- der of the Duke of Gloucester. The king's cousin, Henry of Lancaster, surnamed Bolingbroke, defended Richard against the charge. At length a personal combat was about to take place between Bolingbroke and Mowbray, but the king banished the two noblemen from the kingdom. At last, in 1399, when the king seized on the estates of Henry of Lancaster, that nobleman returned to England, and was Soon at the head of an army of 60,000 men. Henry dethroned his cousin, and caused himself to be crowned King of England, with the title of Henry IV. The fallen Richard ended his life in prison. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF LAN CASTER. FEIGN OF HENRY IV. (A. D. 1399–1413). Conspiracies and Rebellions Against Henry IV.-Battle of Shrews- bury—Owen Glendower.—Henry IV., surnamed Bolingbroke, was the first English king of the Lancaster branch of the Plantagenet dynasty. He had no legal right to the crown, for the true heir was Edmund Mortimer. No sooner had Henry IV. ascended the throne than a dangerous conspiracy was formed against him. At length, the Earl of Northumberland, and his brother, the Earl of West- moreland, the two richest noblemen in England, and who had been chiefly instru- mental in raising Henry to the throne, raised the standard of rebellion against the king. These nobles had gained a victory at Homildon Hill, over the Scotch Earl Douglas, whom they took prisoner; and an order from King Henry forbidding them to admit any of their prisoners to ransom, provoked their resentment. Henry took the field against the rebellious barons, and defeated them in the great battle of Shrewsbury, on the 21st of July, 1403. Henry Percy, surnamed “ Hotspur,” the son of the Earl of Northumberland, was killed in the battle. This rebellion was now quelled, but another immediately broke out, headed by Scrope, Archbishop of York, and Thomas Mowbray, Earl-Marshal of England. . This rebellion was also suppressed, and Scrope was beheaded. King Henry IV. had more, difficulty in subduing the Welsh, who, under the leadership of the valiant Owen Glendower, whom they proclaimed Prince of Wales, fought seven years for their independence. Captivity of the Young Prince of Scotland in England.—One of the most cruel acts of King Henry IV. was the seizure of the young prince James, son of King Robert III. of Scotland. This prince had been sent by his father to be educated in France; but he was seized on his voyage from Scotland to France, by order of the English monarch, who kept the prince a prisoner for eighteen years, GERMAAWIC STATES. 181 when he was finally ransomed by the Scotch people, and became King James I. of Scotland. REIGN OF HENRY V. (A. D. 1413–1422). Reformation in the Character of Henry V.-Persecution of the Lol- lards.-King Henry IV. died of a broken heart, in 1413, whereupon his son, Henry V., became King of England. Henry V. had been very wicked in his youth, asso- tiating with persons of the greatest vices; and on one occasion he was committed to prison by Chief-Justice Gascoigne, for striking the judge, who had sentenced one of the young prince's dissolute companions to prison for highway robbery; but when Henry ascended the throne, he immediately reformed, and became one of the most virtuous persons of his time. Henry V. was a great persecutor of the Lollards, as the followers of John Wickliffe, sometimes called “The Morning Star of the Reſor- mation,” were called. Lord Cobham, and many others of the most prominent Lollards, were condemned and executed. Invasion of France by Henry V.--Battle of Azincourt—Treaty of Troyes.—As France was at this time torn by internal dissensions, King Henry V. considered this a good opportunity to invade that kingdom and claim its crown. In 1415, Henry landed on the Northern coast of France with 30,000 men, and took Harfleur; and, after his army had been reduced by sickness to II,000 men, he de- feated the French army of 50,000 men, in the famous battle of Azincourt, on the 24th of October, 1415, on which occasion Io,000 Frenchmen were killed, and I4,OOO were made prisoners, while the English lost only forty men. Henry V. again in- vaded France in 1417, and in 1422, he concluded with the French king, Charles VI., the Treaty of Troyes, by which the English king was declared to be the suc- cessor to the crown of France. REIGN OF HENRY VI. (A. D. 1422-1461). Coronation of Henry VI. at Paris—The Dauphin, afterward King Charles VII.-King Henry V. died in 1422, and was succeeded on the English throne by his son, Henry VI., who was then only nine months old. King Charles VI. of France died the same year, and the infant Henry VI. was crowned in Paris, King of England and France. Charles's son, the Dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII., resolved to expel the English from France, and secure the French crown, which of right belonged to him. Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans—Expulsion of the English from France.—The English were now in possession of almost the whole of France. Town after town submitted to them, until Orleans was the only place that remained in the possesion of the French, and even that city was besieged by the English. At length, the famous Joan of Arc, a poor peasant girl of Dom Remy in Lorraine, de- clared that she had received a mission from Heaven to drive the English invaders from the soil of France and restore her country’s independence. The Dauphin, having faith in the truth of her mission, gave her command of the army defending Orleans; and the English, excited by superstitious fears, soon relinqu.shed the siege of Orleans. (A. D. 1429.) The French next recovered Rheims from the English; and the Dauphin was crowned in that city as King of France, with the title of Charles VII. Joan's family was ennobled, and she was thereafter called the “Maid I82 AM/DD LE AGAZ.S. & of Orleans.” The French officers finally became jealous of the fame of the heroine, and allowed her to be taken prisoner by the Duke of Burgundy, who sold her to the Duke of Bedford, the English regent in France. The Duke of Bedford stained his hl.herto irreproachable character by causing the valiant Joan of Arc to be burned alive as a sorceress, in the market-place of Rouen. (A. D. I.431.) Although the French were no longer led by the Maid of Orleans, still they were victorious’ and finally, in 1453, the English were completely driven out of France, Calais only remaining in their possession, and Charles VII. was left in full possession of his kingdom. Jack Cade’s Insurrection.—England was now distracted by domestic troubles. II enry VI. was a weak and idiotic prince, and unfit for the difficult station of king. In 1455, an insurrection of the lower classes broke out in Kent, the leader of which was Jack Cade. London was taken possession of by the insurgents, but the rebel- lion was soon suppressed, and Jack Cade was afterwards killed in a garden in Sussex. The Duke of York Claims the Crown—“Wars of the Roses”—Battle of St. Albans.—The reigning family of England had long been unpopular with the English people, on account of the imbecility of the king and the loss of the English conquests in France. This afforded Richard, Duke of York, a good oppor- tunity to claim the crown of England, which had been unlawfully wrested from his ancestors by Henry of Lancaster in 1399. The Duke of York accordingly laid claim to the English crown, for the possession of which he began a war against King Henry VI., in 1455. On the 3d of May of that year, was fought the first battle of St. Albans, in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner by the Duke of York. The civil war which now commenced in England lasted thirty years, and is called “The Wars of the Roses,” the badge of the adherents of the House of York being a white rose, and that of the partisans of the House of Lancaster a red rose. In this long civil war eighty princes of the blood-royal perished, and the ancient nobility of England was nearly annihilated. The Earl of Warwick—Death of the Duke of York—Dethronement of Henry VI.-The greatest general in the Wars of the Roses was the Duke of York’s wife's brother, Nevil, Earl of Warwick, who was the richest nobleman in England, and who maintained on his different estates about 30,000 persons. In the battle of Northampton, in 1460, Henry VI. was defeated and taken prisoner by the Earl of Warwick. Duke Richard of York might now have obtained the royal crown without any difficulty, had not many of the English nobility and King Henry's queen, Margaret of Anjou, a woman of masculine qualities, risen in sup- port of the reigning sovereign; but the Parliament declared the Duke of York to be the lawful successor of Henry VI., thus excluding Prince Edward, the son of Henry VI. and Margaret of Anjou, from the English throne. In 1460, Margaret defeated the Yorkists in the battle of Wakefield, in which Duke Richard of York himself was slain. The Sanguinary Margaret caused the fallen Duke's head to be cut off and placed upon a pole upon the gates of York with a paper crown, in derision of his claim. Shortly afterward, Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick in the second battle of St. Albans, and regained possession of the king's person; but Edward, son of the late unfortunate Duke of York, uniting his forces with those of the Earl of Warwick, compelled Margaret to retreat, and entered London; GAEA&MAAW/C STATES. 183 whereupon the helpless Henry VI. was dethroned, through the agency of the Earl of Warwick, who caused the young Duke of York to be proclaimed King of Eng- land, with the title of Edward IV. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF YORK. FEIGN OF EDVVARD IV. (A. D. 1461–1483). Continuation of the Wars of the Roses—Battle of Towton.—Edward I V, was the first English king of the York branch of the Plantagenet dynasty. The dethronement of Henry VI. did not put an end to the Wars of the Roses; and in 1461, was fought the sanguinary battle of Towton, in which Margaret was de- feated by King Edward IV. and the Earl of Warwick, and in which 36,000 Lan- castrians were slain. Margaret and her husband fled to Scotland, but afterwards returned; and, in 1464, Margaret was again defeated, after which she found refuge in France, and the poor, helpless Henry fell into the hands of Edward IV., who lodged him in the Tower of London. Marriage of Edward IV.-Warwick the King-maker's Alliance with Margaret.—Although the Earl of Warwick had been chiefly instrumental in elevating Edward IV. to the throne of England, that powerful nobleman soon be- came the young king's most inveterate enemy. The Earl of Warwick desired Edward IV. to marry some foreign princess, and was so offended when the king married Lady Elizabeth Grey, an English lady, that he joined the Lancastrians and formed an alliance with Margaret; and Edward was obliged to flee from the kingdom, whereupon the Earl of Warwick dragged poor Henry from his prison, and restored him to the throne. As the Earl of Warwick was so powerful in rais. ing princes to the throne and deposing them again, he was called “the King- maker.” º: * Battle of Barnet and Death of Warwick—Battle of Tewksbury—Fate of Henry's Family.—Edward IV. Soon returned to England, and, deposing Henry VI., regained possession of the royal throne. Edward next marched against the Earl of Warwick, who had taken a position at Barnet, near London. The treachery of the King-maker's nephew, the Duke of Clarence, who deserted with a part of the Lancastrian army to his brother, King Edward IV., brought about the victory of the Yorkists in the battle of Barnet, in which the Earl of Warwick was slain, while bravely fighting for the Lancastrians. (A. D. I.471.) A few weeks later the cause of Margaret was ruined, and she and her son Edward were taken prisoners by Edward IV., in the decisive battle of Tewksbury. Prince Edward was murdered by the Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester, the brothers of King Edward IV.; and a few days afterward Henry VI. was found dead in the Tower, supposed to have been murdered by the Duke of Gloucester. Margaret was im- prisoned in the Tower for five years, after which she was ransomed by the King pf France, in which country she then found refuge and died in 1480. Character of Edward IV.—His Disgraceful Treaties with Louis XI.-- King Edward IV. was now securely on the throne of England. He was a cruel, tyrannical, and profligate monarch. His brother, George, Duke of Clarence, hav- ing incurred the displeasure of the king, was put to death at the instigation of his other brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester. In 1480, Edward IV. invaded 184 MYD/DLA. A GA.S. France with a powerful army, but was bribed to 1eturn to England by the crafty Louis XI., King of France, who thinking of the days of Crecy, Poitiers, and Azin- court, trembled at the very thought of an English army in France. Edward IV. was outwitted in another treaty with the artful Louis XI.; and the vexation which th-s circumstance caused the English king, hastened him to his grave. Iſe died in 1483, leaving the crown of England to his eldest son, Edward V. REIGN OF EDWARD V. (A. D. 1483). Crimes of Richard, Duke of Gloucester—Murder of Edward V. and His Brother.—Edward V. was only thirteen years old when he ascended the throne of England. The young king's wicked uncle, Richard, Duke of Glouces- ter, who had secured for himself the appointment of Protector during the minority of Edward V., aspired to the English crown. After causing the young king's maternal relatives, Lords Rivers and Grey, to be beheaded in prison, the Duke of Gloucester summoned a council, in the presence of which he caused Lord Hastings, another of the young king's relatives, to be beheaded. The wicked Duke of Gloucester then caused himself to be proclaimed King of England, with the title of Richard III.; and at his instigation, Edward V. and his brother, the young Duke of York, were smothered to death in the Tower. - REIGN OF FICHARD III. (A. D. 1483–1483). Plot of the Duke of Buckingham—Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. —The usurping Richard III. was not permitted to enjoy quietly the fruits of his crimes; and his reign was soon disturbed by a plot against his power, headed by the Duke of Buckingham, who had largely contributed to Richard’s elevation to the throne; but the conspiracy was frustrated, and the Duke of Buckingham was executed. There was still remaining one heir of the House of Lancaster. This was Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, whom Richard III. Several times attempted to get into his power, but failed, and who saved himself by fleeing to France. Tudor’s Rise—Battle of Bosworth Field and Death of Richard III.- In 1485, the Earl of Richmond landed on the Southern coast of England, with a small army, composed of English exiles and some French troops, and marched northward to the very centre of England, his army continually increasing in numerical strength. On the 14th of August, I485, was fought the celebrated battle of Bosworth Field, which, through the defection of Lord Stanley, who deserted to the Earl of Richmond with a part of the king's army, ended in the total overthrow of Richard III. In the courage of despair, Richard plunged into the thickest of the fight, crying “Treason! treason!” and fell covered with wounds and expired. The royal crown was taken from the head of the fallen Richard, and placed on the head of the Earl of Richmond, who was crowned, by Sir William Stanley, on the battle-field, and hailed as King of England, with the title of Henry VII. Thus ended the Plantagenet dynasty. GAEAPMAAVYC STA 7/2.S. 185 * ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. REIGN OF HENRY VII. (A. D. 1485–1509). Marriage of King Henry VII.-His Character.—Henry VII., the first English king of the House of Tudor, married the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., and heiress of the House of York, thus uniting the claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster, and putting an end to the civil wars which for thirty years had deluged England with the blood of her own people. Henry VII. was an unambitious monarch, preferring peace to war, and consequently he did not involve his kingdom in foreign wars; but he was exceedingly avaricious, and accumulated an enormous amount of money. & The Impostors, Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck.-In the early part of the reign of Henry VII., Lambert Simnel, the son of a baker at Oxford, attempted to personate the young Earl of Warwick, nephew of Edward IV., and made pretensions to the English crown; but the impostor was defeated, taken pris- oner, and made a menial in the king's household. (A. D. 1487.) Several years afterward, Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Flemish butcher, attempted to counterfeit the person of the young Duke of York, one of Edward IV.'s sons, who was reported to be still alive, and also raised claims to the English throne; but being obliged to surrender himself to the king, this second impostor was imprisoned in the Tower, and having afterward attempted to escape, he was hanged at Tyburn. (A. D. 1490.) Avarice of King Kenry VII.-King Henry VII. was noted for his unbounded avarice. By means of the most arbitrary and vexatious laws, for the violation of which heavy fines were exacted, and by taxes, confiscation of the property of those who had engaged in various conspiracies against the king, and benevolences, or voluntary contributions to the king's service, this royal miser accumulated immense wealth in money, plate, and jewels. Hmportance of the Reign of Henry VII.-Decay of Feudalism in Eng- land.—The reign of Henry VII. was an important era in English history; although there arose one instrument of oppression,-namely, the arbitrary court of the Star Chamber, in which the king presided as judge. Feudalism, which came into Eng- land with the Normal Conquest, disappeared with the extinction of the Plantagenet dynasty. The power of the English aristocracy was rapidly waning, while the royal authority was fast approaching absolutism; and the institutions of the Middle Ages were giving place to more enlightened forms and usages. King Henry VII. died in 1509, after a peaceful reign of twenty-four years, and was succeeded on the Eng. lish throne by his son, Henry VIII. THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS. Founding of the Kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.-After the bold sea-expeditions of the Scandinavians, or Normans and Danes, had ceased, several of the Scandinavian princes founded kingdoms, as Harold Fairhair in Nor- way, the Ynglians in Sweden, and Gorm the Old in Denmark;-but some of the Scandinavian chiefs would not submit to the authority of their kings, and the wars that arose in consequence continued for several centuries, and retarded the intro- duction of Christianity into the Soandinavian kingdoms. 186 M/DD/CAE A GE.S. Introduction of Christianity into the Scandinavian Kingdon.s.—Ansgar, “the Apostle of the North,” introduced the Gospel into Scandinavia in the ninth century; and the kings, Harold Bluetooth of Denmark and Olaf Skotkonung of Sweden, embraced Christianity, but their subjects still held fast to the pagan wor- ship of Odin. In Denmark, Harold's grandson, Canute the Great, the conqueror of England, and in Norway, Olaf the Saint, succeeded in Christianizing their sub- jects in the eleventh century; and in Sweden, Eric the Pious established the religion of the Cross in the twelfth century. The Benedictine monks did much toward the civilization of the three Scandinavian kingdoms. Denmark under Waldemar the Conqueror—Margaret and the Union of Calmar.—In the first part of the thirteenth century, Denmark, with which Nor- way was then united, became a powerful kingdom, under Waldemar the Conqueror, who subdued the Germanic and Slavonic countries on the south and east sides of the Baltic Sea, namely, Holstein, Lauenburg, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Prussia, Cour- lând, Livonia, and Esthonia;-but when Waldemar fell a prisoner into the hands of Count Henry of Schwerin, his vassals rose in rebellion, and his vast empire fell to pieces, the conquered German states returning to the government of their emperor. In 1397, Queen Margareta of Denmark, the “Semiramis of the North,” united the three Scandinavian kingdoms under one sceptre by the celebrated Union of Calmar. Christian I. and Christian II. of Denmark—Liberation of Sweden.— The present House of Oldenburg ascended the throne of Demark in 1448, in the person of Christian I. The cruel massacre of ninety-four Swedish nobles at Stock- holm, in 1520, by order of the hard-hearted and tyrannical King Christian II. of Denmark, produced a revolt of the Swedes, who, under the leadership of the valiant Gustavus Vasa, threw off the oppressive yoke of the Danish king. SLAWONIC STATES. vºy KINGDOM OF POLAND. The Poles or Slavonians of the Plain—Introduction of Christianity.— The lands of the Vistula and the Oder were inhabited by tribes of the Slavonic race, known as Poles, or Slavonians of the Plain. In the year 840 A.D., a simple peasant, named Piast, was chosen duke of the Polish territories. About the middle of the tenth century, the Poles embraced Christianity, after the conversion of their duke, Micislaus, by German missionaries. Establishment of the Kingdom of Poland by Boleslaus I.-The numer. ous Polish principalities were first united into one kingdom under Boleslaus I., who was crowned King of Poland, in 1025; but the Polish kingdom was subsequently subdivided among the family of the Piasts; and Poland was claimed as a fief of the German Empire, until during the reign of the Emperor Frederic II. of Germany, .SZA VOAV/C. SZTA Z E.S. 187 in the first half of the thirteenth century, when it secured its complete national independence. Poland under Vladislaus IV., Casimir the Great, and Louis the Great.—Poland first rose to consideration in the fourteenth century, when King Vladislaus IV. united Great Poland with Little Poland, and was crowned in Cra- cow. The son and successor of Vladislaus IV., Casimir the Great, who obtained the Polish crown in 1333, added Galicia and Red Russia to the Polish dominions, founded the University of Cracow, and showed himself to be a wise legislator; but his efforts to diminish the power of the Polish nobility, and to establish a powerful citizen and burgher class, proved futile, and the Polish peasants, or serfs, continued to live in the most abject servitude. King Casimir the Great died in I370; and, as he was the last of the male line of Piast, the Polish nobles, or voi- wodes, bestowed the crown of Poland on King Louis the Great of Hungary, who proved to be a wise and able monarch. The Jagellos—Casimir IV.-Ascendency of the Voivodes.—After the death of Louis the Great, in 1385, the crown of Poland fell to his son-in-law, Jagello, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who thus became the founder of the dynasty of the Jagellos, which occupied the Polish throne for nearly two centuries. With the accession of Jagello, Lithuania was united with Poland. Casimir IV., who reigned from I447 to I492, subdued the Teutonic Knights, who had for a long time warred against the Poles; but he was obliged to make many concessions to the voiwodes, thus diminishing the royal power. It was the Polish aristocracy, who alone were represented in the Polish Diet, who had a voice in legislation, the raising of taxes, and the levying of troops. The nobles, or voiwodes, only were regarded as citizens in Poland. Height of Poland’s Power and Greatness—Kings Sigismund I. and Sigismund II.-In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the kingdom of Poland was one of the most powerful and extensive monarchies in Europe, stretching from the Baltic to the Euxine, or Black Sea, along the whole frontier of European civili- zation, thus forming an effectual barrier to Germany and the states of Western Europe against barbarian invasion. Sigismund I. and Sigismund II. were great monarchs. Under the former, Lithuania was finally united to Poland; and the Dukedom of Prussia was placed under the feudal supremacy of the Polish kingdom, during the reign of the latter. Poland an Elective Monarchy—Henry of Valois—Poland’s Decay.— The family of the Jagellos became extinct in 1572, whereupon Poland became an elective monarchy, the king being thenceforth chosen by the Polish Diet; and there- after Poland was not called a kingdom, but a republic, though the head of the state was still called a king. The first elective King of Poland was Henry of Valois, afterward King Henry III. of France, who voluntarily resigned his Polish crown after one year's reign. From that period Poland declined. Owing to the weakness of the royal power, domestic dissensions, and frequent contests with Sweden, Rus- sia, and Turkey, Poland gradually decayed, until toward the close of the eighteenth century, when its national existence was extinguished. I88 MYD DJ. E A GES. THE RUSSIAN OF MUSCOVITE EMPIRE. Ruric, the Scandinavian Prince, and the Grand-Duchy of Great Rus- sia.-In the latter half of the ninth century, Ruric, a Scandinavian Varangian chieftain, at the invitation of the people of Novgorod, became prince of the Slavonic tribes to the east of the Baltic sea, who thenceforth were called Russians, because their leader, Ruric, belonged to the Norman family of Russ. Ruric founded the ūrand-Duchy of Great Russia, the capital of which he established at Novgorod. Vladimir the Great—The Greek Christian Church in Great Russia.— Ruric's great-grandson, Vladimir the Great, married a daughter of the Greek Emperor in 988; and Vladimir and his subjects embraced Christianity, and the Greek Christian Church was established in the Russian dominions, which then extended from the Dnieper to the Dwina, and whose capital was then the flour- ishing city of Kiev. +N Division of the Russian Dominions—Russia Tributary to the Golden Horde.—The successors of Vladimir the Great divided the Russian dominions among different heirs; and the consequences were many desolating wars and the gradual decline of the Russian empire. The Lithuanians and Poles conquered portions of the Russian territory on the West; while the Moguls, or Tartars, subdued all the country from the Dnieper to the Vistula; and for nearly two centuries, Russia groaned under the oppression of the Tartar chieftain, the Great Khan of the Golden Horde of Kaptschak, who exacted a heavy tribute from the Russian princes and their subjects. Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of Moscow.—Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of Moscow, who reigned from 1462 to 1505, freed his country from the despotic yoke of the Golden Horde, and greatly enlarged his dominions by conquests in all directions. He abolished the ruinous system of dividing the Russian territories among successive heirs, and thus raised the Muscovite kingdom to the rank of one of the rising powers of Europe. He invited artisans from the other European countries to Russia, and endeavored in various ways to civilize his barbarous people. He also built the Kremlin, or citadel, for the protection of his capital, Moscow. Ivan the Terrible of Moscow.—The grandson of Ivan the Great, Ivan the Terrible, who occupied the grand-ducal throne of Moscow from 1533 to 1588, was the first Muscovite prince who styled himself Czar, or Caesar. This prince con- quered the two Tartar kingdoms of Kasan and Astracan, and extended his empire to the Caucasus. He laid the foundation of a standing army by the organization of a body of troops called Strelitzes. During his reign, Siberia was discovered, and its conquest by the Russians begun. Feodor, the son of Ivan the Terrible, was the last of the male line of Ruric. TAR 7ARZC. S.7.17 E.S. 189 TARTARIC STATES. v-v ºr KINGDôM OF HUNGARY. The Magyars or Hungarians—Introduction of Christianity.—The Tai. taric tribe of Magyars, or Hungarians, who had settled in the valleys of the Theiss and the Danube, in the beginning of the tenth century, and who made plundcring incursions into Germany, were ruled by a number of princes, the chief of whom was Duke Arpad, whose descendants subsequently became the only rulers of Hun gary. Duke Geisa I., who ruled Hungary in the latter half of the tenth century, received the doctrines of Christianity, and employed German missionaries to teach the gospel of a crucified Saviour to his savage people. At the same time, the Mag yars abandoned their nomadic habits, and applied themselves to agriculture. Founding of the Kingdom of Hungary by Stephen the Pious.-Geisa's son, Stephen the Pious, who assumed the title and dignity of King of Hungary, in the year IOOO. A. D., conquered Transylvania, repressed the insolence of the Hungarian nobility, defended the royal power against all enchroachments, and reigned with vigor and wisdom. King Stephen founded monasteries and invited Benedictine monks into Hungary. He was the founder of the political institutions of Hungary, and did much to civilize his barbarous subjects, and to accustom them to the arts of peace; but the progress of Christianity and civilization in Hungary was 'retarded by civil wars among the Magyars after Stephen's death. Geisa II. and Settlement of Flemings and Saxons in Transylvania.- During the reign of Geisa II., in the twelfth century, Flemings from Flanders and Saxons from Germany migrated to, and settled in, Transylvania, and their descend. ants still retain the manners and customs of their ancestors. The Flemings and Saxons in Transylvania built many towns, and converted a desert land into a bloom- ing region. King Andrew II. and the “Golden Privilege.”—In the year 1234 A. D., the Magyar nobles, or magnates, compelled their king, Andrew II., to grant a charter called the “Golden Privilege,” which conceded great privileges to the nobil- ity and the clergy, and was the foundation of the free constitution of Hungary. Any encroachment by the king on the rights secured to the magnates by the Golden Privilege, justified the Hungarian nobles in armed rebellion against their sovereign. The magnates in Hungary, as the voiwodes in Poland, became the actual ruling class, while the Hungarian peasants, or serfs, pined in a condition little better than abject slavery. Andrew III. and Louis the Great.—Andrew III. was the last king of the race of Arpad, and at his death, in 1341, Hungary became an elective kingdom, with Louis the Great, of the Anjou-Neapolitan dynasty, as the first elective king. Under Louis the Great, Hungary attained its highest point of power and prosperity. Louis received the crown of Poland in 1370, extended the Hungarian kingdom to the Lower Danube, and made Venice tributary. He also protected the peasant class I9o MIDDA. AE A GAZ.S. of Hungary from the tyranny of the magnates, improved the administration of justice, and established schools of education throughout the Hungarian kingdom. He also conducted many wars in Italy. Emperor Sigismund of Germany, King of Hungary—Victory of Hun- niyades at Belgrade.-After the death of Louis the Great, in 1384, disputes and contests for the Hungarian crown arose, which for many years distracted the Hun. garian kingdom, and tranquillity was only restored when the Emperor Sigismund of Germany united Hungary with his other possessions. The valiant John Hunniyades of Transylvania saved Hungary from the dominion of the Ottoman Turks by his great victory at Belgrade. Reign of Matthias Corvinus Hunniyades.—In gratitude to the memory of John Hunniyades, the Hungarian Diet bestowed the crown of Hungary on his son, Matthias Corvinus Hunniyades, who proved to be one of the greatest and best of Hungarian sovereigns. He successfully defended his kingdom against the Ottoman Turks, and extended its frontiers on the side of Austria and Germany. He estab- lished a university and a library at Buda, and invited learned men, artists, mechanics, and agriculturists, into Hungary, to advance the civilization of his subjects. Ascendency of the Magnates—Hungary under the House of Hapsburg. —After the death of King Matthias, in 1490, Hungary rapidly declined. The king- dom was invaded by the Ottoman Turks, and the royal power was diminished by the nobility, who made the raising of taxes, the declaring of war, and the making of peace, privileges of the Hungarian Diet. Finally the nobles, or magnates, usurped the whole royal authority. When King Louis II. of Hungary was de- feated and killed by the Turks in the battle of Mohacz, in 1536, a dispute for the Hungarian crown arose, which was finally settled by leaving Transylvania and East Hungary in the possession of the mighty Turkish Sultan, Solyman the Mag- nificent, while West Hungary reverted to the sovereignty of the Archduke Ferdi- mand I. of Austria. Long and bloody wars between the Austrians and the Turks resulted in favor of the House of Hapsburg; and ever since that period, the sove- reign prince of Austria has borne the title and dignity of King of Hungary. 2. THE MOGUL AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES. The Mogul Empire of Zingis-Khan and His Successors.-In the early part of the thirteenth century (A. D. 1227), Zingis-Khan, prince of a warlike no- madic Tartar tribe called Moguls, set out on his career of conquest; first subduing China, after which he marched toward the West with 700,000 warriors, conquer- ing Hindoostan, Persia, and the Corasmin Empire to the east of the Caspian Sea. The cities of Bokhara and Samarcand were reduced to ashes. After the death of Zingis-Khan, his successors carried out his plans of conquest, subduing Russia, Poland, and Hungary, and burning the cities of Kiev, Moscow, and Cracow; after which they crossed the Oder and invaded Silesia, laid its capital, Breslau, in ashes, and defeated and killed Duke Henry of Lower Silesia, in a terrible battle near Liegnitz. The Occidental nations were greatly alarmed, but the conquering Oriental hordes soon turned to the South and overthrew the Caliphate of Bagdad. The last Caliph and 200,000 Mussulmen were slain. Syria was conquered, and its 7ARZAR/C STATES. 191 great cities, Aleppo and Damascus, were destroyed. This vast and unwieldy Mogul Empire soon fell to pieces. Rise of the Ottoman Empire under Othman, Amurath I., and Bajazet. —Near the close of the thirteenth century, the Ottoman Turks, a fierce Tartar tribe professing the doctrines of the Koran, left their seats east of the Caspian sea, and turning to the West, and led by Othman, conquered Asia Minor. The suc- ceeding Ottoman princes formed the Christians whom they took prisoners into a body of infantry called Janissaries. The great Sultan, Amurath I., after fully sub- duing Asia Minor, crossed the Hellespont, or Dardanelles, into Europe, conquered Thrace and Macedon, and made Adrianople the capital of the rising Ottoman Em- pire. In 1390, Amurath I. defeated an army of 500,000 Christians at Cassavo, in Servia, but the warrior Sultan was slain in the battle. Amurath's successor, Baja- zet, “the Lightning,” as he was called on account of his successes, subdued. Thes- Saly and Epirus, and defeated a Christian army of Ioo,000 men, in the bloody battle of Nicopolis; and he had already laid siege to Constantinople, when he was over- thrown by a greater conqueror than himself. The Mogul Empire of Timour or Tamerlane—Battle of Angora.-In the katter part of the fourteenth century (A. D. 1370), Timour the Lame, or Tamer- lane, a descendant of the great Zingis-Khan, set about the reëstablishment of the great Mogul empire; and after leaving his capital, Samarcand, to conquer every nation from Orient to Occident, he subdued India and Persia, destroyed the cities of Bagdad and Damascus, and desolated Asia Minor, filling the whole land with corpses, and reducing many flourishing cities to ashes. Sultan Bajazet now relin- quished the siege of Constantinople, and marched against Tamerlane, but the Sultan was defeated and taken prisoner by the Mogul conqueror, in the great battle of Angora, in Asia Minor, in 1402, and died of grief the following year. The Mogul empire of Tamerlane was soon broken into fragments. Recovery of the Ottoman Empire under Amurath II.-The Ottoman or Turkish Empire soon recovered from the blow inflicted upon it by Tamerlane, under Sultan Amurath II., Bajazet's grandson, who left nothing to the Greek Emperor but his capital, Constantinople; but the rapid conquests of the Turks now alarmed Christian Europe, and a powerful Christian army marched to the assistance of the Eastern Emperor; but this army was disastrously defeated by the infidels, in the bloody battle of Varna, in 1444. Conquest of Constantinople by Mohammed II.-End of the Greek Em- pire.—Sultan Amurath II. died in 1451, and was succeeded on the Turkish throne by his hard-hearted son, Mohammed II., who, with an army of 400,000 men, besieged Constantinople, and finally took that celebrated city by storm, on the 29th of May, 1453. The last Byzantine or Greek Emperor, Constantine Palaeologus, was slain while gallantly defending his capital. The inhabitants of the fallen city were made slaves, and Constantinople became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Thus ended the Eastern Empire of the Romans; the last remnants of Roman and Greek civili zation in the East were now extinguished; the Greek Christian church of St. Sophia Decame a Mohammedan mosque; the crescent supplanted the cross in the city of Constantine; and an infidel barbarian monarch occupied the throne of the first Christian Roman Emperor. I92 MYD DJ. E A GA2S. Turkish Conquest of Greece—Conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selim I.- After the fall of Constantinople and the subversion of the Byzantine Empire, the Ottoman Turks continued to extend their conquests in Europe. The Morea, or Peloponnesus, was next subdued; but Hungary's independence was preserved by the great victory of the valiant Transylvanian prince, John Hunniyades, at Belgrade. In the year 1517, the Turkish Empire was further enlarged by the conquest of Egypt, by Sultan Selim I., who caused a sanguinary massacre of the Mamelukes, who had ruled Egypt since 1270. Great Power and Extent of the Ottoman Empire under Solyman the Magnificent.—The Ottoman Empire attained its highest pinnacle of power and glory during the reign of Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, who ascended the Turkish throne 1520; and for more than a century thereafter, the Ottoman arms maintained their ascendency over those of Christendom. Solyman the Magnificent wrested the island of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John. He also invaded Hungary, and made hill and dale reverberate with the bugle-blast of victory. Solyman's great victory in the battle of Mohacz, in 1526, gave him possession of the Eastern half of Hungary; and in 1529 he appeared before Vienna, and made the Hapsburgs tremble in their own capital. The Ottoman Empire now stretched from Germany to Persia, and in Africa it included Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers. Solyman the Magnificent died in 1566, while besieging Szigeth, in Hungary. Sultan Selim II.-Battle of Lepanto—Turkey’s Decay.—Sultan Selim II., the successor of Solyman the Magnificent, was also a noted monarch; and during his reign the Turks ruled the Mediterranean sea, but their navy was defeated in the battle of Lepanto, in 1571, by the united fleets of Spain and Venice. The decay of military virtue among the Turks, as well as domestic rebellions and exhaustive struggles with Persia, Russia, Poland, Germany, and Venice, led to the rapid decline of the Ottoman Empire, before the end of the seventeenth century. DISCOWERIES. -vºy IMPORTANT INVENTIONS. Invention of the Art of Printing.—Many useful inventions, during the four- teenth and fifteenth centuries, aided vastly in the return of European civilization, at the close of the fifteenth century. The most important of these inventions was that of the art of printing, about the year 1440 A.D., by John Guttenberg, of May- ence, in Germany, and his assistants, Faust and Schoeffer. The result of this use- ful invention was a great increase in the number of books, which now for the first time were attainable by all classes of Society. 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Portuguese Discoveries.—The Portuguese now became renowned for their commercial enterprise, and their zeal for navigation and discovery. The Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape de Verd Islands were discovered and taken possession of by the Portuguese. o Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz.-In 1486, Bartholomew Diaz, a daring Portuguese navigator, discovered the southern point of Africa, which was named the “Cape of Storms;” but the name of this headland was soon changed to that of the “Cape of Good Hope,” because there was now good hope that a sea-passage from Europe to India could easily be found. Vasco de Gama's Voyage to India and Founding of Calicut.—In 1497, during the reign of King Emmanuel the Great of Portugal, Vasco de Gama, another bold Portuguese navigator, sailed round the Cape of Good Hope to India, thus discovering the sea-passage to the East Indies. Vasco de Gama landed at Calicut, on the western coast of Hindoostan, where was planted a Portuguese colony, the first European settlement in the East Indies. Cabral, Almeida, and Albuquerque—Portugal’s Asiatic Empire.—In the year 1500 A. D., the Portuguese navigator, Cabral, while on his voyage to In- dia, discovered the coast of Brazil, in South America, and took possession of that extensive region in the name of his sovereign, the King of Portugal. The Portu- guese Empire in India was extended by the gallant Almeida, who was killed by by the savage Hottentots of Southern Africa, while on his return to Portugal. Albuquerque, Almeida's successor as viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in Southern Asia, conquered the cities of Ormuz and Goa, the latter of which he made the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the East. The illustrious Albu querque finally died of grief at the ungrateful treatment which he had received from his master, King Emmanuel of Portugal. A few years later, the Portuguese established settlements on the island of Ceylon, and conquered the Molucca or Spice Islands. At this period, Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, was the centre of the world’s commerce. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. SPANISH EXPEDITIONS AND DISCOVERIES, Christopher Columbus.-Among others who were attracted to Lisbon was Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor. Columbus believed the earth to be round, and t at India could be reached sooner by sailing westward than by making the long voyage around Africa. He vainly endeavored to procure aid, first from his native city, Genoa, and afterwards from the Kings of Portugal and England. After I 2 I94 MIDDA Ages. waiting for some time, Columbus finally obtained assistance from that noble. hearted queen, Isabella of Castile, who fitted out several vessels for him, and ap- pointed him admiral and viceroy of all the lands that he might discover. The Great Discovery of Columbus.-On the 3d of August, F492, Christo- pher Columbus, with three Spanish vessels, left the harbor of Palos, in south-western Spain; and aſter a voyage of seventy days, he discovered, on the 12th of October (1492), Guanahani, or Cat Island, which he named San Salvador, or Holy Saviour, and of which he took possession in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella, the joint sovereigns of Spain. Columbus found the inhabitants of the island to be of a cop- per color and of savage manners; and, supposing that he had only discovered the coast of India, he called the people Indians,—a name which has since been very inappropriately applied to all the aboriginal inhabitants of the Western Continent. When Columbus returned to Spain he was treated with great honors by the ruling sovereigns of that country. The other Voyages of Columbus—His Death.-Columbus made three other voyages across the stormy Atlantic. In 1493, he discovered the large and import- ant island,of St. Domingo, or Hayti, and ſounded the town of St. Domingo, the first European settlement in the New World. Several other large islands were dis- covered, and Columbus named the whole group “West Indies.” On his third voyage, in 1498, Columbus discovered the great continent of South America, at the mouth of the great river Orinoco. On his fourth and last voyage, during which he discovered Central America (A. D. 1501), his enemies caused him to be sent back to Spain in irons. Christopher Columbus died at Valladolid, in Spain, in 1506; and his remains were afterwards conveyed to Havana, in Cuba, where they still ICIIlºll Il. Amerigo Vespucci-The New Continent Named in His Honor.—Colum- bus did not know that he discovered a new continent, but thought that he had only reached the Eastern shores of Asia. This secret was revealed to Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator, who explored the Eastern coast of South America and pub- lished a glowing description of that vast continent, claiming to be its true discoverer. In honor of this explorer, the New World was unjustly named “America.” Discovery of Florida by John Ponce de Leon.—In the year 1512 A. D., John Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, sailed from Porto Rico, in search of a “fountain of youth,” which was said to exist on the neighboring continent. This fountain was said to restore youth and to perpetuate it. On the 27th of March (1512), Ponce de Leon reached the North American continent at the great peninsula between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and named the domain “Florida,” because its banks were laden with flowers, and because the discovery was made on Pasquas de Flores, or Easter Sunday, when the Spanish churches were decorated with flowers. Ponce de Leon was afterwards killed in a contest with the natives of Florida. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean or South Sea by Balboa.-In 1513, the Spaniard Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien, or Panama, and discovered the Pacific Ocean, which he called “South Sea.” He waded into its waters in ſull costume, and took possession of sea and land in the name of his sovereign, the King of Spain. Balboa was put to death by order of the Spanish governor of Darien, * * Nº ºs l § AE) º = ". zº Ø% * § º Ǻ lº" W . \\\º ill' is' "Iº t & ſ ºf . \ % N is SS % § * †NS | º f º f º Nº. N % ſ º k % ºx N N s s N N s t SS S N § S. --- § s --- * CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. wº º §W \\ W § ^s. W N - * ~ *. Ns WILLIAM PENN, * P/SCO VERAES. I95 Ferdinand Magellan's Circumnavigation of the Globe.—The name “Paci- fic Ocean” was given to the South Sea by Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, who, in the service of the King of Spain, sailed through the straits, in the southern part of South America, which bear his name, in 1520; and who, several years after wards, was killed on the Philippine Islands by the natives, and whose followers returned to Spain by way of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, thus completing the first circumnavigation of the globe. Discovery of the Mississippi River by Ferdinand De Soto.—In 1539, Ferdinand De Soto, then the Spanish governor of Cuba, landed in Florida, and, proceeding westward, discovered the great river Mississippi, and explored the con- tinent as far west as the Rocky Mountains. De Soto died on the banks of the Mississippi river, in 1541; and the remnant of his followers, having suffered terribly, found their way to a Spanish settlement in Mexico. º ENGLISH AND FRENCH EXPEDITIONS AND DIS- COVERIES. - Sebastian Cabot’s Voyages, Discoveries, and Explorations.—In 1496, John Cabot, a native of Venice, but at that time a merchant of Bristol, in England, obtained the aid of King Henry VII. of England in fitting out an expedition for the discovery of a North-west passage to India. . The next year (A. D. 1497), the expedition under the command of John Cabot’s son, Sebastian, sailed westward, and discovered the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland. Thus Sebastian Cabot was the discoverer of the continent of North America. In 1498, Sebastian Cabot again sailed westward, and explored the greater part of the Atlantic coast of the present United States. In 1517, Sebastian Cabot was again sent to find a North- west passage to India; and in 1526, while in the service of the King of Spain, he discovered the great river La Plata, in South America. Expeditions and Explorations of John Verrazzani and James Cartier. —In 1524, Francis I., King of France, employed John Verrazzani, a Florentine, to make discoveries in the New World. Verrazzani explored the Atlantic coast of North America, from the mouth of the Cape Fear River to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and named the region “New France.” In 1534, the French king sent James Cartier, a Frenchman, on an expedition to New France. Cartier discovered the mouth of the great river which he named St. Lawrence. In 1535, Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence, exploring the country to Montreal. B O O K III. MODERN HISTORY. SIXTEENTH CENTURY Aº. A sº- vºy AGE OF HENRY VIII. AND CHARLES V. THE GERMAN REFORMATION. Corruption of the Church—Dr. Martin Luther.—In different ages, as we have seen, there had been men who protested against the assumptions of the Holy See, and the immorality and licentiousness of the clergy; but every attempt at a reformation of the Church had ſailed. The abuses and corruptions of the Church increased. The majority of the clergy were ignorant and immoral. There were many who were dissatisfied with the existing corrupt state of the Church, and who only waited for an opportunity to unite themselves in a powerful opposition to the Roman Pontiff. The opportunity was at length given by Pope Leo X., as we shall presently see; and in 1517, the assumptions of the Holy See were openly opposed by Dr. Martin Luther, a pious Augustinian monk, who was born at Eisleben, in Saxony, on the IOth of November, 1483. Luther early exhibited great capacities for learning; and he had studied jurisprudence four years, when, in 1506, he entered an Augustinian monastery, where he ſound a neglected copy of the Bible, to the study of which he then diligently devoted himself. He soon became convinced of the errors of the existing Romish Church, and his fame for learning and piety procured for him the appointment of Professor in the University of Wittenberg, on the Elbe. Pope Leo X. and the Sale of Indulgences.—In 1513, John de Medicis, of the illustrious ruling family of Florence, was elected Pope with the title of Leo X. In order to deſray the expenses of the building of the great Church of St. Peter, in Rome, which had been begun by his predecessor, Julius III., Leo X. offered the sale of indulgences, or licenses to sin, by which not only past sins, but those that might afterwards be committed, could be pardoned. Agents were sent into different European countries to sell these indulgences, and the Pope obtained a great profit from their sale. Martin Luther and His Ninety-five Theses.—In 1517, the Augustinian monk, Martin Luther, then a professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg, on the Elbe, read in public his famous ninety-five theses, in which he boldly denied the right of the Pope to offer pardon to any but the penitent. This was the begin- ning of the great religious “Reſormation,” which convulsed Europe during the sixteenth century. Luther found many adherents. The Elector of Saxony, who had adopted his views, effectually protected him from all the attempts of the exas- perated Papists to secure him. The Reformation made rapid progress from this (199) 2OO MODEAEAV HZSTORY. time. Luther separated himself more and more from the Romish Church; and the art of printing enabled him to make known his opinions in all Christian coun- tries. Luther's Disputation with Eckius at Leipsic.—In 1519, Dr. Luther had a disputation, at Leipsic, with Dr. Eckius, the papal theologian and professor in Ingol- stadt. Luther there asserted that the Bishop of Rome had not been Pope by the ordination of Christ, and expressed doubts of the Pope's infallibility, or incapability to err. In order to prove that the Papacy was a divine institution, Eckius composed a work in which he endeavored to show that it was derived from Christ through St. Peter. Condemnation of Luther's Writings—Burning of the Bull of Condem- nation.—In 1520, the Pope condemned Luther's writings as heretical and ordered them to be burned, and threatened the great Reformer with excommunication. unless he recanted within sixty days. Luther was still active in exposing the errors and corruptions of the Romish Church; and, on the IOth of December, 1520, in the midst of a vast concourse of people, in the public square of Wittenberg, the great Reformer cast the volumes of the canon-law of the Romish Church, together with the papal bull of condemnation, into the flames. The Emperor Charles V. and the Diet of Worms.-In 1519, the grandson of the Emperor Maximilian I., Charles I. of Spain and Burgundy, was elected Em- peror of Germany with the title of Charles V. The new Emperor, whose first attention was directed to a unity of the Church, called a Diet of the German Em- pire at Worms, in 1520, at which the Reformer of Wittenberg was to appear, to answer for his conduct. Provided with a safe-conduct from the Emperor, Luther went to Worms, and presented himself before the assembled Diet. He avowed himself the author of the writings that were produced; and boldly and firmly vindi- cated his opinions, and rejected the invitation to recant without being convinced from the scriptures of the errors of his views. Through the honorable conduct of the Emperor, Dr. Luther was allowed to return unmolested to Wittenberg. Then the Diet pronounced the ban of the Empire against Luther and his adherents and defenders, and sentenced his writings to the flames. Luther's Confinement in the Wartburg Castle.—After his return to Wit- tenberg, Luther was placed in confinement for protection in the castle of Wartburg, by the Elector Frederic of Saxony. Here the great Reformer commenced his translation of the Bible, which appeared completed in 1534. In 1522, Luther left the Wartburg castle and returned to Wittenberg, for the purpose of checking the hasty innovations of Dr. Carlstadt and the new fanatical sect of the Anabaptists. Rapid Progress of the Reformation.—The Reformation soon spread beyond the borders of Saxony. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse was a believer in the doctrines of the Reformers. In 1524, the Pope entered into the “Alliance of Re- gensburg” with Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and the Duke of Bavaria, for the purpose of preventing the establishment of the new faith in their own territories. The Peasant War.—An insurrection, known as the “Peasant War,” now broke out in different parts of Germany. The peasants, led by such religious fanatics as Thomas Munzer, Hans Miller, and George Metzler, rose in arms against the Ger- man princes and nobles. Thomas Munzer was defeated by the Elector of Saxony S/XTEAEAV7H CEAV7'UR V. 2O I and the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, and captured and executed; and the insurrec- tion was soon suppressed in all parts of the German Empire. Marriage of Luther—Philip Melancthon.—In 1524, Luther left the cloister and married Catharine of Bora, who had formerly been a nun. This aroused the rage of his opponents to a still greater degree. The Reſormation was still making rapid progress in Northern Germany; and Luther had now a co-laborer in the Re- formation, in the mild and peaceable, and learned Philip Melancthon. Diet of Spire—The Protestation.—The Emperor Charles V., determined to arrest the progress of the Reformation, assembled a Diet of the German Empire at Spire, in 1529. In this Diet it was resolved by the Catholic German princes that no further innovations should be made in the Romish religion; and that the progress of the new faith should be checked. The princes who favored the Reformation, entered a protest against this decree of the Imperial Diet, on which account they were called Protestants, a name now applied to all Christians, who do not recog- nize the authority of the Heads of the Romish and Greek Churches, and who differ in doctrine and practice from those churches. Diet of Augsburg—The Augsburg Confession.—The German Emperor called another Diet of his Empire at Augsburg, in 1530, to heal the dissensions in the Church and effect a reconciliation of opinions. In this Diet, Melancthon pre- sented the articles of faith of the Reformers, known as the “Augsburg Confession.” In this confession the abuses in the Romish Church were enumerated. The Cath- olic members of the Diet endeavored to defend the usages of their Church; and no reconciliation of opposing opinions took place, as neither party would make any concessions. After the protesting princes had withdrawn from the Diet, that assem- bly left Augsburg and threatened the Protestants with being put under the ban of the Empire, if they refused to renounce their innovations. Ulric Zwingle—Religious War in Switzerland—Battle of Kappel.— The Protestants were already divided into two great parties. Some were the fol- lowers of Luther, while others were the disciples of the learned priest, Ulric Zwingle, who was born in Switzerland in 1484. Zwingle, who had opposed the sale of indulgences and the corruptions of the Church with all his might, endeavored to improve the morals of the people. He differed from Luther with respect to the Lord's Supper. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse, who endeavored to unite all the opponents of the Church of Rome into one powerful party, induced Luther to have a disputation with Zwingle, at Marburg. Zwingle construed the words, “This is my body,” to mean “This represents my body;” while Luther contended that the body of the Lord was present in the bread and wine. Zwingle offered Luther his hand with tears in his eyes, and asked to be received as a brother; but Luther de- clined the offer, and thrust back his own hand. Luther also refused to recognize those who had adopted Zwingle's doctrines as Christians. A religious war broke out between the Catholics and Zwinglians in Switzerland, in 1530. The Zwinglians were defeated in the battle of Kappel, in 1531; and the noble-hearted Zwingle was slain, and his body was burned by the victorious Catholics. 2O2 MODEA’AV HISTORY. WARS EETWEEN CHARLES V. OF GERMANY AND) FRANCIS I. OF FRANCE. CHARLES V., FRANCIS I., AND HENRY VIII. The Possessions of Charles V.-The dominions over which Charles V. ruled were the most extensive, at that time, in Christendom. Charles V., was the glandson of Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy, and also of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. While yet a youth, Charles was lord of the Netherlands; and on the death of Ferdinand of Aragon, in 1516, he obtained the kingdom of Spain, with Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with the Spanish possessions in America. Shortly afterward, the succession to the sovereignty of the hereditary Austrian territories devolved upon him from his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I: ; and in 1519, he was chosen Emperor of Germany, by the German Electoral Princes. Charles V. soon bestowed his hereditary Austrian estates on his brother Ferdinand, who also added the kingdom of Bohemia and a large portion of Hungary to the possessions of the House of Hapsburg. Francis I. of France.—The great rival of the Emperor Charles V. was the chivalrous Duke Francis of Angouleme, who, on the death of Louis XII., in 1515, ascended the throne of France, with the title of Francis I. ; and who was also a candidate for the imperial throne of Germany, and on the election of Charles V. became his rival enemy. Four wars arose between these two monarchs, caused by the claims of each to the other's possessions in Italy, Navarre, and the Netherlands. Henry VIII. of England.—Charles V. and Francis I. each wished to secure the favor of the vain and capricious Henry VIII. of England. Charles visited Henry in England, and Francis met him at Calais, at the splendid festival, known, on account of its magnificence, as the “Field of the Cloth of Gold.” The Empe- ror, however, succeeded in winning the favor of the English monarch, by bribing and flattering Henry's celebrated Prime Minister, Cardinal Wolsey. IFIRST VVAF EETVVEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. The Allies of Charles V. and Francis I.-Besides securing the aid of the King of England, the Emperor of Germany also obtained the alliance of Pope Leo X., while the King of France received the assistance of the Swiss, the Genoese, and the Venetians. German Invasion of Italy—Loss of Milan to the French.-Since the famous battle of Marignano, in 1515, in which Francis I. had defeated the Milan- ese, the Duchy of Milan had remained in the possession of the French king; but Charles V. claimed the duchy as a fief of the German Empire, and marched a powerful army of German peasants into Italy, against the French and ther Swiss allies. The French soon lost Milan, and an attempt to recover the duchy brought on the battle of Bicocca, in which the French were completely defeated. Tope Leo X., died of joy caused by these events. Pope Adrian VI., Leo's successor, induced Florence and Genoa to enter into an alliance with Charles V. French Invasion of Italy—Defection of the Constable de Bourbon.— Charles V. and Henry VIII. invaded France at the same time, but their forces were driver, back. 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E El ºº::= wº- ſae … zº-，： -， -， --F. 3 №.T. £?！$№， №8 Ź№sSE：™=№ ź@Ē№ 23，2€2，7€$£ №2•---- №t--> --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - º § Sºº-ººlſ éss - É= t #y ---> ！=）!=** S** • •NJĒş№ v . . . . . ````SSST=J=_>s<=$№. ſ „º-“ • • • • • ....№ ~ESE， SYNNY， - -==~： # * ， iºnº- till w | º ~ > ~ ~ ~~ s`ss=ī£ā. № |（：ſae- ·¿|• ... •. ^| 2 } # } º sº º. -- tiº N \ | º \\\\\,\!. | MTNº" |Nº. Sº % - ſº º i Illilill …）----- –！--№ = ====~）.2，1 | E |||||||| '， ， ， ， ， ， FRANCIS l. | A (ligº ·%%%^^^%%Ź№ ‰Ēš ！%ſae： ~~~~ ）% } Ø S& %ae Ø 2āŠNĂ Źè. %% \$: º, N. N SS Z， 2ą，y）- 25 · 222 Nº…Z_2 N %：ſae % %)// w//%%} % ¿??¿ ?%% % % %% % ſ) |} }, ، () Š Š SS SS Nº. SS ， ！ §§ SS SS- § SS 5- ; （±√（√ì ~ ¿?·}， | ， , turſſ SS Ş SSS ----------- . |► ºs！ ：| 2 252，2%§ã,，§§ſýſae ae %% ， %：%`%ēģ ţăē %} //ſ CHARLES V. OF GERMANY. SZXTEAEAVT// CEAV7'UA' V. 293 recovery of Milan; and in 1523, he sent another army into Italy for that purpose, but his undertaking failed, in a great measure, through the conduct of his wicked mother, Louisa of Savoy, whose injustice to the Constable de Bourbon made that powerful French nobleman the most bitter enemy of the French court, and caused him to enter into the service of the German Emperor against his own sovereign. French Retreat from Italy—Death of the Chevalier Bayard.—The French army which had been sent to attempt the recovery of Milan was also unsuccessful, ard was finally compelled to retreat across the Alps, pursued by the German im- perial army under the Constable de Bourbon. During this retreat, the Chevalier Bayard, “the Knight without fear and without reproach,” who commanded the French rear, received a wound of which he shortly afterward died. Bourbon’s Invasion of France—Reconquest of Milan by Francis I.- In 1524, the imperial German forces under the Constable de Bourbon invaded Southern France, and laid siege to Marseilles; but on the approach of Francis I. with a powerful army, Bourbon raised the siege and beat a precipitate retreat. The King of France pursued Bourbon's retreating forces into Italy and recon- quered Milan. Battle of Pavia and Captivity of Francis I.--With characteristic impru- dence, Francis I. laid siege to the strongly fortified town of Pavia, which was de- fended by a numerous garrison, under the command of Antonio de Leyva, an able general. The imperial generals, the most energetic of whom was the Constable de Bourbon, made the greatest efforts to collect a numerous army for the relief of the garrison of Pavia. The inactivity and indiscretion of the French king, who weak- ened his army by sending detachments against Naples and Savona, operated in favor of the imperialists. Bourbon accordingly resolved to attack the French in their intrenchments; and on the 2d of February, 1525, Bourbon’s army stormed the French camp, while at the same time the garrison of Pavia made a furious Sally, thus placing the French between two fires. After a most sanguinary conflict, the French army was almost totally destroyed. Twelve thousand brave warriors were either killed in the encounter, or drowned in the waters of the Ticino. The chiv- alrous Francis himself, after a gallant defense, was compelled to surrender, and conveyed a prisoner to Madrid. In a single line, the captive Francis conveyed the intelligence of the sad event to his mother, “Madame, all is lost but honor.” Peace of Madrid and Release of Francis I.-After a year's captivity in the Spanish capital, the King of France concluded with his triumphant rival the Peace of Madrid. (1526.) In this treaty, Francis I. renounced his claims to Milan, sur- rendered the Dukedom of Burgundy to Charles V., and delivered up his two sons to the Emperor as hostages for the fulfillment of the stipulations. SECOND VVAR BETVVEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. The Holy League Against Charles V.-No sooner had Francis I., after his release, returned to his own kingdom, upon delivering up his two sons as hostages for the fulfillment of the stipulations of the Peace of Madrid, than he openly denied the validity of a treaty that had been extorted from him while a prisoner; and the Pope absolved him from his obligations to the Emperor Charles V. The increasing power of Charles now excited the jealousy of the other princes of Europe; and the 2O4. MODERN HISTORY. Kings of France and England, the Italian princes, and the Pope entered into an alliance called “the Holy League,” to compel the Emperor of Germany to liberate the sons of the French monarch and to restore the Duchy of Milan to the family of Sforza. Capture and Pillage of Rome–Captivity of the Pope.—Irritated at the F ºpe's alliance with the enemies of Charles V., the Constable de Bourbon, who ommanded the German and Spanish forces in Italy, marched upon Rome; and or the 6th of May, 1527, the Eternal City was taken by storm and plundered by the soldiers of a Catholic prince. The Constable de Bourbon was among the slain, The pillage of Rome by the Germans on this occasion, equaled that of the Goths and the Vandals, more than a thousand years before. Convents, claurches, and dwelling-houses were plundered; and nearly 8,000 Romans were massacred on the day of thé capture of the city. Pope Clement VII. was besieged in his castle of St. Angelo, and soon obliged to surrender himself a prisoner. Charles V. affected great sorrow and displeasure at the insults suffered by the Head of the Church, but was inwardly pleased at the Pope's humiliation; and instead of ordering the release of the Holy Father, the hypocritical Emperor commanded prayers for the liberation of the Pontiff to be offered in all the churches in his dominions. Successful Career of Francis I. in Italy—Andrea Doria.-The pillage of Rome and the captivity of the Pope excited the indignation of the allies of Charles V. to such a degree that Francis I. was enabled again to invade Italy and to advance to the very walls of Naples; but the French monarch, by his impolicy and arro- gance, lost his most faithful allies. The Genoese admiral, Andrea Doria, now supported the Emperor of Germany, and restored the Republic of Genoa and earned for himself the glorious title of “Father of his Country and the Restorer of its Liberties. The “Ladies’ Peace” of Cambray.—Both the rival monarchs had flow become anxious for peace; and the second war between Charles V. and Francis I. was closed in 1529, by the “Ladies' Peace” of Cambray, so called because it was negotiated by the aunt of Charles and the mother of Francis. By this treaty the Ring of France relinquished his pretentions to the Duchy of Milan, and paid two million crowns for the ransom of his two sons held as hostages by the German Emperor; but retained possession of the Dukedom of Burgundy. VV AFS AGAINST THE IN FIDELS. Turkish Invasion of Hungary and Austria—Siege of Vienna.-In the meantime, the mighty Sultan of Turkey, Solyman the Magnificent, led an army of 300,000 men into Hungary, and after gaining the battle of Mohacz, advanced to the very walls of Vienna, and laid siege to that proud capital, but the infidels were soon defeated and driven back. (I529.) First Expedition of Charles V. to Africa—Capture of Tunis.-After having driven the Turks from the Austrian territories, the Emperor Charles V., in 1535, led an expedition of 30,000 men to Africa, attacked and captured Tunis, and compelled the Mohammedan prince, Hayraddin Barbarossa, the terror of all Chris- tians, to abandon his piracies, and to set at liberty 22,000 Christian captives, whom the piratical Moors had reduced to slavery. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 2O5 THIRD WAR BETVVEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. Invasion of Italy by Francis I.-On his return to Europe, Charles V. found himself obliged to engage for a third time in hostilities with the King of France, who had formed an alliance with Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, and who, during the Emperor's absence in Africa, had invaded Italy, and, as a preliminary step to the reconquest of Milan, seized Savoy and Piedmont, the Duke of which was in alliance with Charles V. Invasion of France by Charles V.-His Retreat.—In 1536, Charles V. after driving the French from Italy, invaded Southern France with a powerful anny but the French commander, the Constable de Montmorenci, laid waste the country between the Rhone and the Alps, and the Emperor was in consequence obliged to make a disgraceſul retreat after considerable loss. Ten Years' Truce of Nice.—All Christendom was shocked at the alliance of the King of France with the Sultan of Turkey; and in 1538, Pope Paul III. suc- ceeded in inducing Francis I. and Charles V. to conclude the Ten Years' Truce of Nice, which suspended hostilities between the rival monarchs. Second African Expedition of Charles V.-Its Unfortunate End.—In 1541, the Emperor Charles V. led another expedition to Africa, for the purpose of thoroughly annihilating the power of the piratical Mohammedans of Algiers. But this expedition was a total failure. The fleet of Charles was destroyed by a terrible storm, and many of his followers died of a pestilential disease; and the Emperor, who had magnanimously shared all the sufferings of the humblest of his followers, was obliged to reëmbark and return to Europe, without effecting his object. FOURTH VVAR BETVVEEN CHARLES V. ANID FRANCIS I. Coalition against Charles V. and Henry VIII.-In 1542, a fourth war broke out between Francis I. and Charles V.; the Sultan of Turkey, the Kings of Scotland, Denmark, and Sweden, and the Protestant princes of Germany uniting with the King of France; and the King of England taking sides with the Em- peror of Germany. Bombardment of Nice—Disgraceful Spectacle.—The allied French and Turkish fleets vainly bombarded the castle of Nice, in north-western Italy; and, for the first time, the Christian world beheld, with astonishment and shame, the dis- graceful spectacle of Christians and Mohammedans united in hostilities against the leading prince of Christendom. Progress of the War—Battle of Cerisoles.—The war was prosecuted with various success in Spain, in France, in Italy, and in the Netherlands; but the only battle of any consequence was that fought at Cerisoles, in north-western Italy, in which the French gained a most brilliant victory. Invasion of France by Charles V. and Henry VIII.-Peace of Crepy, In 1544, France was invaded on the side of Lorraine, by a powerful German army under the Emperor Charles V., and by way of Calais by a considerable English force under King Henry VIII. The English king captured Boulogne, and the German emperor advanced so rapidly toward Paris that the French monarch became alarmed, and hastily concluded the Peace of Crepy with his powerful rival. By this peace, the two rival monarchs agreed to restore all the conquests which they had 206 MOD EA’AV HISTORY. made during the war, to unite against the Turks, and to suppress the Reformed religion in their respective dominions. From this time, for several centuries, Italy was under the undisputed possession of the House of Hapsburg. At length a treaty of peace was also concluded between the Kings of France and England. Both Francis I. and Henry VIII. died in 1547; and Charles V. directed his whole energy to the suppression of the religious Reformation in the Jerman Empire. VV AF EETVVEEN CHARLES V. A.INID HENRY II. O.F. FFAN CE Alliance of Henry II. of France with the Protestant Princes of Ger- many.—King Henry II. of France, the son and successor of Francis I., engaged in hostilities with the Emperor Charles V., and formed an alliance with the Protest- ant princes of Germany, while in his own dominions he endeavored to arrest the progress of the Reformed doctrines by the most sanguinary persecutions. Siege of Metz.-Henry II. led an army into the German Dukedom of Lor- raine, and captured the strong fortresses of Toul, Verdun, and Metz. These con- quests Charles V. resolved to wrest from the young French monarch. In 1552, Charles laid siege to Metz, which was so gallantly and successfully defended by the French garrison, under the command of the valiant Francis of Lorraine, Duke of Guise, that the German Emperor, after a siege of little more than two months, was obliged to retire and to beat a disgraceful retreat, having lost in all, during the siege, about 40,000 men. Capture and Destruction of Tourenne—Peace of Chateau-Cambresis. —In 1554, Charles V., after a vigorous siege, took the town of Tourenne by assault, destroyed it, and put the entire garrison to the sword. The war was continued between Henry II. and Charles's son, Philip II. of Spain, until 1559, when the Peace of Chateau-Cambresis put an end to the long contest between the Houses of Valois and Hapsburg. THE RELIGIOUS WAR IN GERMANY. The League of Schmalkald.—As the Emperor Charles V., after the Peace of Cambray, in 1529, seemed determined to suppress the religious Reformation in his dominions, the Protestant princes of Germany, with the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse at their head, united, in 1530, for their own protection, and formed an alliance, known as “the League of Schmalkald,” which was joined by the Kings of England, France, Denmark, and Sweden. Effect of the Turkish Invasions of Austria on the Reformation.—The Emperor of Germany was obliged to avoid hostilities with his Protestant subjects at this time, in consequence of the formidable invasions of the Austrian territories by the Turks, who were then the most powerful people in Europe. Thus these con- stant Turkish invasions were highly favorable to the cause of the Reformation, as the Protestants of Germany refused to assist the Emperor in driving back the infidels, as long as the sword of Catholic vengeance was raised over their heads. The plans of Charles V. for the extermination of heresy were thus frustrated, and he found himself obliged to conclude with the League of Schmalkald the Peace of Nuremburg, wn I532. SIXTEAEAZA CENTURY. 2O7 Progress of the Reformation in Germany—The Anabaptists.-The Re- formation still continued to make rapid progress throughout Germany; and the Reformed religion was at length introduced into the Duchy of Wurtemberg, the March of Brandenburg, the Palatinate, Baden, and Cologne. In Munster, a fanati. cal sect, known as “Anabaptists”, became numerous. A few decades later, the Anabaptists experienced a salutary reformation of their doctrines, from Menno, in whilh condition, under the name of Mennonites, they have continued to the present time. The Council of Trent Summoned—Death of Luther.—Importuned by the Emperor Charles V., Pope Paul III. summoned a Council of the Church to meet at Trent, in the Tyrol, for the purpose of effecting a reconciliation of opposing opinions and restoring the unity of the Church. The Protestants, foreseeing that their doctrines would be condemned in a Council held under the auspices of the Pope, rejected it as partial, and demanded, in its stead, a general synod of the Church of Germany. The Council, however, assembled at Trent, in December, 1545. Dr. Martin Luther died in his native city, Eisleben, in Saxony, on the 18th of February, 1546. The Religious War of Schmalkald—Perfidy of Duke Maurice of Sax- ony.—The very first decision of the Council of Trent rendered a reconciliation of opposing opinions hopeless; and the Emperor, having concluded a disgraceful peace with Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, now determined to crush the Reforma- tion by force of arms, and, in the year 1547, the Religious War of Schmalkald broke out between Charles V. and his Protestant German subjects. The Protest- ant princes of Germany seemed to be well prepared for the contest, but all their efforts were rendered fruitless by the perfidy of one of their own number, Duke Maurice of Saxony, who deserted the League of Schmalkald, and allied himself with the Emperor. The Schmalkald forces were soon broken up, and the Protestant towns of Germany were obliged to submit to the Emperor. Defeat of Maurice—Battle of Muhlberg—Captivity of Protestant Princes.—Maurice's cousin, the Elector John Frederic of Saxony, still held out against the Emperor, and defeated Maurice and recovered Saxony. The Emperor marched to the assistance of the perfidious Maurice, and in the decisive battle of Muhlberg, John Frederic was defeated, wounded, and made prisoner by the Emperor, who bestowed the Electorate of Saxony on Maurice. Shortly after the defeat and capture of John Frederic, another leading Protestant prince, the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, was treacherously made a prisoner by the Duke of Alva. The Council of Trent.—The Council of Trent assembled on the 13th of December, 1545. The division in the Church was made greater than before; and the Pope, suspecting the Emperor of Germany of a design to limit the papal power, removed the Council to Bologna, in Italy; but Charles V. forbade the clergy to ièave Trent, and a small number of them remained. The Augsburg Interim—The Leipsic Interim.—For the purpose of bring ing about a restoration of the unity of the Church, the Emperor Charles V. pub lished an edict, which set forth how matters should be conducted until the termin- ation of the Council of Trent; and the “Augsburg Interim” of Charles V, which was strictly conſormable to the tenets of the Romish Church, and the “Leipsic Interim,” which had been framed by Melancthon, were not ſavorably received by the Pro- 208 MODERN HISTORY. testant princes and towns, and were utterly rejected in Northern Germany. The Council of the Church resumed its sittings at Trent. Maurice of Saxony Makes War on the Emperor Charles V.--When the Emperor Charles V. seemed to have attained the object of his desires; when every- thing seemed to insure his elevation to the position of temporal head of all Chris- tendom; and when the Council of the Church had reassembled at Trent, Duke Maurice of Saxony, the prince to whom Charles V. was indebted for the overthrºw of the League of Schmalkald, seeing to what dangers the civil and religious liber. ties of Germany were exposed by the ambitious schemes of the Emperor, suddenly formed a secret alliance with King Henry II. of France, but concealed his designs until the most favorable time arrived for their execution. Maurice immediately granted freedom of religion to the Protestant city of Magdeburg, which he had been for some time besieging; and then, Suddenly throwing off the mask, he marched toward Innspruck, in the Tyrol, to make the Emperor a prisoner. The Council of Trent was broken up in confusion; and Charles V., who was then afflicted with the gout, escaped with difficulty, in the night, into Carinthia, and released the Elector John Frederic of Saxony, whom he had kept a prisoner since the battle of Muhlberg. At the same time, Henry II. of France invaded the German Dukedom of Lorraine, and seized the strong towns of Toul, Verdun, and Metz. Religious Peace of Passau.—Alarmed at the rapid advance of Maurice, the Emperor's brother, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, immediately concluded with the Protestant princes the Religious Peace of Passau, by which the Protestants of Germany were allowed perfect religious freedom; the Landgrave Philip of Hesse was set at liberty; and a permanent peace and amnesty was decided upon. This was the first victory of the Reformation. Death of Maurice.—The triumphant Maurice next marched against the Mar- grave Albert of Brandenburg, who refused to accept the treaty of Passau and still continued the war. Maurice was victorious in the battle of Sivershausen, but re- ceived a wound of which he died a few days afterward. . Religious Peace of Augsburg.—In 1555, the Religious Peace of Augsburg was concluded between Charles V. and his Protestant German subjects, by which the Protestants were allowed perfect liberty of conscience and full toleration for their religion, as well as equal civil and political rights with the Catholics. Abdication and Retirement of Charles V.-Ferdinand I., Emperor.— . The failure of the attempts of Charles V. to restore the unity of the Church made the Emperor lose all interest in the affairs of the world; and in 1556, to the astonish- ment of the whole world, he abdicated all his thrones and retired to the monastery of St. Just, in the West of Spain. He bestowed Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spanish America on his son, Philip II.; and the Austrian territories on his brother Ferdinand, who was chosen by the German Electoral Princes to succeed him on the imperial throne of Germany, with the title of Ferdinand I. Charles spent the remaining two years of his life in religious devotion and mechanical inventions, Having ſailed in repeated attempts to make two watches run exactly alike, he is said to have exclaimed, “I cannot make two watches run alike, and yet, fool that I was, I thought of governing so many nations of different languages and religions, º 3. ". £. : ∞ → ... " 2. a . , Q *…~ * º “33. * \ . . . sº Źā=īš. | 22áſa==， SN \\ // ± §ÊS seq=17% |ſ/// ////// // %） ſae، XX}%- \\（KON)``，``\\ \\§§SSS！！！（ ŘWS， §§§§ N §§ � È\\\\\\\\\ &\$\\ ● * º/）/）;ſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſ % CARDINAL THOMAS WOLSEY. ¿??¿ e … . ！！！！！ … * • • • ► ► ► º z , ， ， . ----* 2…2， ć. Éá ſºáéZ2%22%2 í， á!， -º 22，2 % ∞ √ artºz=ſtruin.№ ſº：：~---ſºzºt, ：| *** ĒĢ%¿%29 *****§§fam faeſſaeſae ≡≡“№ ！！！！！！！! §§, №ſſae ≤ºsº § ¶- ſae ”№.222）ae* |× |-ș,§àÝŠKY@. ¿¿Ē//- Źğ#ķīļūūūj[I]SS=<`S 。azº¿JAUTUIUITŪTĀ s- ºgĶ∞∞∞ -|-، º ， ، ، ، ، ، ، ،}，J:�§%s^ ſaeIZ� ſae.£. ،ſý%>{///// N %%%% №：222€.* £2%* 2· <\^\$\^\~~~ · §§ S”.§§§§ HENRY WIll. SAXTEAEAVTH CEAVTUR Y. 209 and living in different climes!” Two days before his death he went through the ceremonies of his burial. He died in 1558. THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. RElGN OF HENRY VIII. (A. D. 13O9–1347) Accession of Henry VIII.-The avaricious Henry VII., at his death, in 1559, was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Henry VIII., who proved to be one of the most passionate, capricious, and tyrannical sovereigns that ever occu- pied a throne. Henry VIII., who was only eighteen years of age when he became monarch, was one of the most learned princes of his time. He ascended the throne under very happy circumstances: the kingdom was prosperous and at peace; and the claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster were united in the young king's person. Cardinal Wolsey.—As the Earl of Surrey encouraged the lavishness of the youthful monarch, Bishop Fox of Winchester introduced at Court the shrewd and dexterous Thomas Wolsey, who was immediately taken into the service of the king, who at length made him Prime-Minister. For a considerable period, Wolsey acted a more conspicuous part in the affairs of England than his sovereign. In 1518, Wolsey was made a cardinal by the Pope. Cardinal Wolsey had a train of eight hundred servants, and he excelled all churchmen in dignity. He encouraged learning, and invited the learned Erasmus of Rotterdam to come to Oxford to teach Greek. Wolsey's inordinate ambition finally caused his own fall. Invasion of France by Henry VIII.-‘‘Battle of the Spurs”—Battle of Flodden Field.—In 1513, King Henry VIII. invaded France and defeated the French at Tournay, in an action known as “the Battle of the Spurs,” so called because the French army fled at the first onset. After his victory, Henry VIII. immediately returned to England. On the very day of the Battle of the Spurs (September Io, 1513), an English army under Lord Surrey defeated and killed King James IV. of Scotland, in the celebrated “Battle of Flodden Field,” in the north-eastern corner of England. & Visit of the Emperor Charles V. to Henry VIII.-‘Field of the Cloth of Gold.”—The favor of Henry VIII., as we have already seen, was courted by each of the two rival monarchs, Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France. Charles flattered the vanity of Henry by paying him a visit in England, in 1520; after which the English monarch went to Calais to meet the French king. The meeting of Henry and Francis, which took place in June, 152O, in a plain near Calais, lasted a fortnight, and because of the magnificence there displayed, the meeting is known as “the Field of the Cloth of Gold.” Henry VIII. writes a Volume against Luther.—In 1521, King Henry VIII. wrote a Latin volume against Dr. Luther and the Reformation, for which he was loudly praised by Pope Leo X., who conferred upon the royal author the title of “Defender of the Faith,” and sent the king a letter, praising his learning, zeal, ability, and wisdom. Henry VIII. Divorced from Catharine of Aragon and Married to Anne Boleyn.—Henry VIII. had been married to Catharine of Aragon, daughter of I4 2 IO MC DEKAV AZSZTOR P. Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, in 1502. He now applied to Pope Clement VII. for a divorce from Catharine, that he might marry the beautiful Anne Boleyn, one of the ladies of his court. The Pope, fearing the displeasure of the Emperor Charles V., who was Catharine's nephew, refused to grant the request of the Eng- lish king; but Henry, supported by the opinions of learned men, such as the young and virtuous Thomas Cranmer, whom the king made Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1533, obtained a divorce from Catharine, and then married Anne Boleyn. Disgrace and Death of Cardinal Wolsey.—Cardinal Wolsey, who was be deved to be opposed to the divorce of Henry VIII. from Catharine, soon began to lose the king's favor; and at lengh the ambitious cardinal was banished from court, and all his estates were seized by the king. A charge of treason was also preferred against Wolsey. At York, Wolsey was attacked with a violent fever, occasioned by anxiety and grief at his fall. In this dangerous condition, the fallen Minister set out for London, but died on his way, at Leicester Abbey, on the 29th of Novem- ber, 1530. On his death-bed, he uttered these affecting words, “Had I served my God with half the diligence that I served my king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs.” Henry VIII. and the Pope—Henry VIII. created Head of the Church in England.—The Pope was greatly exasperated at Henry VIII., because of his divorce from his first wife; and in consequence, the English monarch separated himself from the Romish Church, and caused an act to be passed by his Parlia- ment, in 1534, transferring the supremacy of the Church in England from the Pope of Rome to the King of England. The English monasteries and nunneries were dissolved, and their possessions were bestowed on the crown. The learned Sir Thomas More, the author of “Utopia,” and Bishop Fisher of Rochester, declined to approve of the act which made the king Head of the English Church, and both were consequently beheaded. The king violently persecuted both Lutherans and Roman Catholics. The Pope at length excommunicated Henry VIII., who re- sented the anger of the Holy Father by causing those who had prepared the excom- munication to be put to death. * Execution of Anne Boleyn—The King’s Marriage with Jane Seymour. —Henry VIII. soon became displeased with Anne Boleyn; and in 1536, he caused her to be beheaded on a false accusation. The very next day after the execu- tion of Anne Boleyn, the king married Jane Seymour, who died the following year. (I537.) - Henry's Last Three Wives, Anne of Cleves, Catharine Howard, and Catharine Parr.—By the advice of his minister, Sir Thomas Cromwell, who had been one of Wolsey's favorite servants, Henry VIII., in 1540, married Anne of Cleves, a German princess, of whom he had seen a portrait which had been taken by Hans Holbein, the great Swiss painter; but the king soon obtained a divorce from Anne, and beheaded Cromwell, who had advised the marriage. Henry VIII. next married Catharine Howard, niece of the Duke of Norfolk; but in 1542, be caused ner to be beheaded, and then married Catharine Parr, who outlived him. - The King’s Zeal Against Lutherans and Roman Catholics.-As we have already said, Henry VIII. vehemently persecuted both Lutherans and Roman Catholics in his own dominions,—the former as heretics, and the latter for refusing S/X7'EEAVZ Hº CEAV7'UA' V. - 2 II to recognize him as Head of the Church in England; and many were burned at the stake. The king was fond of theological discussions, but woe to such as had the hardihood to differ from him. On one occasion, his last wife, Catharine Parr, who was a Protestant, narrowly escaped being sacrificed to his anger, for expressing her religious opinions rather too freely. Cranmer's Translation of the Bible.—The pious Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, who was a zealous friend of the Reformation, was greatly respected by King Henry VIII., whose permission the Archbishop at length obtained to have the Ten Commandments and the Lord’s Prayer translated into English; and finally, with the consent of the king, Cranmer prepared a new translation of the Bible, Wickliffe's translation being too faulty in many particulars. War Between England and Scotland—-Battle of Solway Moss.-In 1541, Henry VIII. commenced a war against Scotland. The English army defeated the Scots in the battle of Solway Moss, which so disheartened the Scotch king, James V., that he died a few months afterward (December, 1542), and the crown of Scot- land fell to his daughter Mary, then a mere child. Peace was made between Eng- land and Scotland in 1546. In 1544, Henry VIII., while at war with France, as an ally of the Emperor Charles V., invaded France and captured Boulogne. Execution of the Earl of Surrey—Death of Henry VIII.-The tyranny of Henry VIII. increased as he advanced in years; and in 1547, he caused the Duke of Norfolk, and his son, the Earl of Surrey, the leading English noblemen, to be arrested. Surrey was executed on a false charge of treason. Henry VIII. died soon afterward. Just before his death, the king signed a warrant for the exe- cution of the Duke of Norfolk, but happily the warrant was not carried into exe- cution. $ REIGN OF EDWARD VI. (A. D. 1547–1553). Accession of Edward VI.-The Duke of Somerset Protector.—The son of Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour, succeeded Henry VIII. on the throne of England, with the title of Edward VI. As the new king, at the time of his acces- sion, was only nine years old, the government of the kingdom was entrusted to his uncle, the Duke of Somerset, with the title of Protector. Edward VI. was edu- cated a Protestant by his uncle, who appointed the virtuous Latimer the young king's preacher. Edward's greatest delight was in studying theology and in listen- ing to sermons; and he gave great promise of becoming a good monarch. Establishment of the Church of England.—The Protector soon set about establishing the Protestant religion in England; and Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley of London were appointed to prepare a book of prayer. The Psalms were translated into English; and the Thirty-Nine Articles were drawn up by Cranmer. These articles are the confession of faith of the Church of England. In order to insure a religious conformity of faith, many of the Catholic prayers were retained. This was the establishment of the Anglican Church. The Protector’s Invasion of Scotland—Battle of Pinkie.—The Protector sought to carry out the wish of Henry VIII. for a marriage of Edward VI. with the young Mary, Queen of Scots. As the Protector did not succeed in accomplish- ing that object by treaty, he led an army into Scotland and defeated the Scottish army in the battle of Pinkie, on the Ioth of September, 1547. This event exasper. 2 I 2 MOZ) EAEAV HISTORY. ated the Scots to such a degree that they sent Mary to France, where she was married to the Dauphin, afterward King Francis II. of France. Execution of Seymour and the Protector—Death of Edward VI.-The wicked Dudley, Earl of Warwick, caused Seymour, the brother of the Duke of Somerset, to attempt to raise himself to the Protectorship, and then induced the Protector to have him executed for high treason. Warwick’s next act was the over- throw and execution of the Protector for high treason. Warwick, who was created Earl of Northumberland, now ruled the kingdom. The pious King Edward VI. died in 1553, at the early age of fifteen years. FEIGN OF MARY (A. D. 1333–1338). Lady Jane Grey—Accession of Mary—Restoration of Catholicism.— The unscrupulous and usurping Earl of Northumberland had procured the appoint- ment of his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, as the successor of Edward VI. to the English throne; but Lady Jane was obliged to yield the throne to Edward's half-sister, Mary, the daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragon. Mary, who was a bigoted Roman Catholic, soon forgot her promises of toleration to her Protestant subjects, and restored the popish religion in her kingdom. Mary's Marriage with Philip II. of Spain—Insurrections.—In 1554, Queen Mary of England married Philip, son of the Emperor Charles V., and after- wards King Philip II. of Spain, who was also an unrelenting Catholic. The con- sequence of this marriage was an insurrection in England, against the authority of Queen Mary, whom the insurgents intended to depose. The revolt was suppressed, and many of the leading insurgents were executed. Lady Jane Grey, whom the malcontents intended to elevate to the English throne, and who was falsely accused of countenancing their design, also died on the scaffold. Religious Persecution—Martyrdom of Ridley, Latimer, Hooper, and Cranmer.—We have already said that Queen Mary restored the Roman Catholic religion in England. She also proceeded to a vigorous persecution of her Protest- ant subjects; and many pious bishops and ministers were burned alive for adhering to the Protestant faith. Among those who thus perished at the stake were Bishop Ridley of London, Bishop Hooper of Gloucester, the pious Latimer, and the good Archbishop Cranmer. The bigoted queen had allowed Cranmer an opportunity to recant; and the Archbishop, in a moment of weakness, signed a paper avowing his belief in popery; but when his strength returned, he again avowed his full belief in Protestant doctrines; and when he was brought to the stake, he first put the hand with which he signed the paper avowing his belief in Roman Catholicism, into the fire, and held it there until it was burnt off, saying, “This is the arm that has offended.” War with France—Battle of St. Quentin—Loss of Calais—Death of Mary.—In 1556, Queen Mary's husband became King of Spain, with the title of Philip II. ; an 1 at the same time, he induced her to join him in a war against France. In 1557, the combined English and Spanish forces defeated the French in the battle of St. Quentin, in Northern France; but in 1558, the important town of Calais, which had belonged to England for two centuries, was taken by the French army under the command of the vallant Francis of Lorraine, Duke of juise. Queen Mary was so overwhelmed at this loss that she died a few months 9: Zº w *3 §2% sº | º si | N N : i .* NSSSs. * * * * * * * * * * * * Nº sº . . . . SS's SS º º Nºss §§§ SSSSSS SS S. Ş - § % § § N s Š § . Y. ; N N § § º MARY | THE BLOODY. ~~!||± š$3<！``− ****** <- . №s !!!! §§ |ìSOEN §§ ≤ $|||||||||||||||||| ſae. ·@Sº №ae, 2. ******） №ff | OF SWEDEN. GUSTAVUS S/X7'EZ2A77 Hº CEAV7'UA' P. - 2 I 3 afterward (November, 1558), saying a short time before her death that the word “Calais” would be engraven on her heart. Mary was succeeded as Queen of England by her half-sister, Elizabeth. THE REFORMATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN KING- DOMS. Sweden's Liberation from Denmark by Gustavus Vasa.—The tyranny and cruelty of King Christian II., of Denmark, who caused ninety-four Swedish nobles to be foully massacred in Stockholm, in 1520, induced the valiant and pati- otic Gustavus Vasa, the son of one of these massacred nobles, to attempt the liber- ation of Sweden from the yoke of the King of Denmark. In the disguise of a peasant, Gustavus Vasa found refuge in the mountainous region of Dalecarlia, whose brave inhabitants flocked to his standard. Gustavus repulsed the Danish troops that had been sent against him, took Upsala, drove the Danish invaders from Swedish soil, and secured his country's independence. In gratitude, the Swedes chose the heroic Gustavus Vasa as their king, and made the Swedish crown hereditary in his family. Establishment of the Lutheran Religion in Sweden.—Under Gustavus Vasa, who died in 1560, the Lutheran religion was established in Sweden. Eric XIV., the son and successor of Gustavus Vasa, became insane, and was imprisoned by his brothers. Eric's successors, John III. and Sigismund, the latter of whom was Sigismund III. of Poland, vainly attempted to restore the popish religion in Sweden; and Sigismund was deposed from his Swedish throne by his uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, who assumed the crown of Sweden, with the title of Charles IX. (1600.) The latter king, and his son and successor, Gustavus Adolphus, warred against Poland. Adoption of Lutheranism in Denmark and Norway.—The tyrannical Christian II. irritated his Danish subjects to such a degree that they dethroned him, and bestowed the crown of Denmark on Frederic II., who established the Lutheran faith in Denmark. The deposed Christian II., who became a Catholic to obtain the aid of the Pope and the Emperor of Germany in his efforts to recover his lost crown, was seized and kept a prisoner for sixteen years. The final and perfect establish- ment of Lutheranism in Denmark was accomplished during the reign of Frederic's son, Christian III. (1534-1559.) . The Lutheran religion was also adopted in Norway. THE SOCIETY OF JESUITS. Ignatius Loyola and Establishment of the Society of Jesus.- The efforts of the Popes to suppress the Reformation, or to arrest its progress, found their chief support in the Order of Jesuits, which was founded in the year 1540, by the excitable and enthusiastic Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish nobleman. After renouncing the military profession, Ignatius made a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepul- chre at Jerusalem; and, after his return to Spain, he acquired in Salamanca and Paris ... the education which he needed, and then he and six associates took upon themselves the three monastic vows of poverity, chastity, and obedience, and swore upon the host to allow the objects of their aspirations and desires to be decided upon by the * 14 M.O.D.E.RAW HISTORY. Pope, and then to yield an unconditional submission to his decision. Shortly afterward, Ignatius and his companions prostrated themselves at the feet of the Holy Father, who confirmned the new Order, which was named “the Society of Jesus.” Ignatius Loyola became the chief of the Order, and his successor, the Span- iard Lainez, framed a constitution for the government of this Society, the members of which were endowed by the Pope with great privileges. - Objects of the Society of Jesuits.-The Jesuits were obliged to disconnect themselves with the rest of the world. Their chief object was to oppose Protes- tantism and to suppress the spirit of inquiry awakened by the Reformation. They endeavored, by persecution and seducement, to win Protestants over to Catholicism; and, by getting the education of youth into their hands, they endeavored to bring up the young in the doctrines of the Romish Church. Spread and Influence of the Order of Jesuits.-The Society of Jesus ac- quired immense wealth by presents and legacies, and was thus enabled to establish schools of education, which attracted the necessitous by imparting instruction gra- tuitously. The Order of Jesuits soon spread over Catholic Europe, and many of its members were engaged, in remote quarters of the globe, in proclaiming the Gospel to heathen. Jesuit missionaries converted many of the American Indians to Christianity, while Jesuitical missions were established in China and Japan. SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA. Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortez.-In 1517, the Spaniard Cordova discovered Mexico, the seat of the flourishing empire of the Aztecs, a partially civilized race of American Indians, who had built large cities and established a regular government. In 1519, Fernando Cortez, a Spanish soldier and adventurer, invaded Mexico with 1,500 men; and being joined by some of the natives, he was enabled to take possession of the city of Mexico, and succeeded by treachery in making the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, a prisoner. The Aztecs rose against the invaders, and killed many of them. The ill-fated Montezuma, having tried to in- duce his people to submit to the strangers, was also put to death by them. Cortez and his followers finally succeeded in conquering the country in 1521; and for three hundred years, Mexico, under the name of New Spain, was a Spanish prov- ince. Cortez, notwithstanding all his services to the Spanish monarch, was treated with ingratitude by his master. Conquest of Peru by Francisco Pizarro.—In 1529, the brave but cruel Spaniard, Francisco Pizarro, with little more than 300 men, invaded the beautiful country of Peru, which was inhabited by a highly civilized American Indian race, whose monarchs were called “Incas.” Like the Aztecs of Mexico, the Peruvians had large cities and a regular government. By treachery, Pizarro made the reign- ing Inca a prisoner; and notwithstanding his promise to give the Inca his liberty, in return for an enormous amount of gold, Pizarro caused his unfortunate captive to be put to death. Pizarro completed the conquest of the country in 1532; and for nearly three centuries, Peru was a province of Spain. About this time, Alma. gro, Pizarro's comrade, discovered Chili. Pizarro and Almagro soon quarreled, and the latter was put to death; but Almagro's son, in revenge, caused Pizarro to be murdered. Nearly the whole of the South American coast came into the pos- S/XZ EEAVZºº CEAV7'UR Y. 215 session of Spain, during the sixteenth century. The precious metals which Spain obtained from her American possessions made her for a time the leading power of Europe, but finally led to her rapid decline. PERSIA AND INDIA. Rise of the Persian Empire under Ismael—Shah Abbas the Great.-- A powerful Mohammedan dynasty arose in Persia, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, in the person of the warlike Ismael. The dynasty founded by Ismael was called the Suffeean dynasty, from the holy shiek Suffee. Ismael was a great conqueror, but he was once defeated by Sultan Selim I. of Turkey. Ismael was succeeded on the Persian throne by his son Tamasp, under whom Persia prospered. In 1582, Shah Abbas the Great, the grandson of Tamasp, ascended the throne of Persia. This celebrated monarch gained many victories over the Turks; and in F622, he deprived the Portuguese of the city of Ormuz, on the Persian Gulf. The arts of peace and internal improvements received great encouragement from Shah Abbas; and the city of Ispahan, which was at that time the capital of Persia, was one of the most splendid and important cities in Asia. The treatment of Shah Abbas toward his children and his relatives was most cruel and inhuman. He caused his oldest son to be put to death, and the eyes of the others to be put out. The Persian Empire rapidly declined under the successors of Shah Abbas. Establishment of the Mogul Empire in India by Baber—Aurungzebe. —In 1525, Baber, a descendant of the great Mogul conqueror, Tamerlane, invaded Hindoostan, overthrew the Afghan dynasty that had ruled in that country for three centuries, and became the founder of a dynasty of Mogul princes which ruled Hin- doostan for more than two centuries. The religion of the Moguls was Mohamme- dan, and their capital was the city of Delhi, in Northern Hindoostan. The most noted of the Mogul princes who occupied the throne of Delhi were Humayan, Jehanghir, Akbar, and Aurungzebe; the last of whom mounted the throne in 1659, by murdering his father and other relatives. Aurungzebe, however, governed with wisdom and mildness; and the Mogul Empire was very prosperous during his long reign. After the death of Aurungzebe, in 1707, the Mogul Empire in India rapidly declined, and soon fell to pieces. AGE OF PHILIP II. AND ELIZABETH. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Philip II. of Spain—The Inquisition—Expulsion of the Moors.-Under the bigoted, tyrannical, and cruel Philip II., the horrible Inquisition, with all its frightſui work, was in full operation in Spain and Naples. Philip's own son, Dom Carlos, died in its dungeons. His half-brother, Don Juan, the victor over the Turks in the great sea-fight of Lepanto, in 1571, died of grief at the treatment which he received from Philip. The Duke of Alva was a cruel instrument for the execu. tion of Philip's tyrannical orders. Philip's tyranny in the Netherlands finally resulted in the loss of those fair provinces to Spain. After the death of Philip II., in 1598, Spain rapidly declined in power and importance. Under his son and successor, 2 I6 MODERAV HIS 7 OAQ V. Philip III., the Moors of Spain, who for more than a century had suffered the most cruel persecutions, formed a conspiracy for the overthrow of the Spanish power; but the plot was discovered, and the Moors were banished from Spain in 1610. Thus 600,000 Mohammedans were cruelly driven from their homes. The Sixty Years' Union of Spain and Portugal.—On the death of King IIenry of Portugal, in 1580, Philip II. of Spain claimed the Portuguese crown, and sent an army under the Duke of Alva to enforce his pretensions. The Portuguese were obliged to submit, the rival claimant, Antonio, being defeated; and Portugal was united with Spain for sixty years. Finally, in 1640, Spanish tyranny produced a rebellion of the Portuguese, who, after a brief struggle, regained their independ- ence, and elected the Duke of Braganza for their king, with the title of John IV. WAR OF INDEPENDENCE IN THE NETHERLANDS. Attempted Introduction of the Inquisition into the Netherlands by Philip II.-King Philip II. of Spain bestowed the vice-regency of the Netherlands on his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, and caused the laws against heresy to be made very severe. At the same time, the Spanish king endeavored to establish the Inquisition, with all its horrible tortures and dungeons, in the Netherlands; and Cardinal Granvella was made Grand Inquisitor. Spanish troops were also sent into the Netherlands to uphold Philip's tyranny. Vain Efforts of Prince William of Orange and Count Egmont for Toleration.—Wain endeavors were made by Prince William of Orange and Count Egmont, to induce the bigoted King of Spain to grant toleration for the Protestant religion in the Netherlands. The Inquisition was opposed by Catholics, as well as by Protestants; and four hundred Roman Catholic nobles petitioned Philip II. for a discontinuance of the horrible institution in the Netherlands; but the bigoted sovereign obstinately refused their request. Violence of Mobs—The Duke of Alva Governor—Death of Count Egmont.—Spanish tyranny at length led to the collection of mobs in Brussels, Ant- werp, and other towns of the Netherlands. These mobs perpetrated many outrages, such as the destruction of crucifixes and images of the saints. In 1567, the infam- ous and bloodthirsty Duke of Alva was sent into the Netherlands with an army by Philip II. Upon Alva's arrival, many of the Netherlanders, among whom was Prince William of Orange, fled to Holland. Count Egmont remained, and was treacherously put to death by order of the Duke of Alva. The Bloody Council—Tyranny of the Duke of Alva—Margaret's Re- signation.—Soon after his arrival in Brussels, with unlimited power, the Duke of Alva established a council, called by the Netherlands, “The Bloody Council,” which inflicted the most severe and cruel punishments upon the Protestants, and also upon the Roman Catholics who opposed his tyranny and that of his master, the King of Spain. Disgusted with the condition of affairs, Margaret of Parma resigned the vice-regency of the Netherlands, and retired to Italy, followed by the respect of the Netherlanders. Prince William of Orange Stadtholder—Adoption of Calvinism.—The Northern Provinces of the Netherlands, in 1572, recognized Prince William of Orange as their ruler, with the title of Stadtholder; and the Synod of Dort, in 1573 SIXTEEAWTH CEAVTUR Y. . 217 recognized Calvinism as the established religion of the Netherlands, and erected a Protestant university at Leyden, as a reward for the gallant defense of the inhabi- tants of that town against a besieging Spanish army. The Duke of Alva's Successors, Louis of Zuniga and Don Juan.— After exercising the most cruel and unmitigated despotism in the Netherlands for six years, the Duke of Alva was finally recalled by the Spanish Court, in 1573, and was succeeded by Louis of Zuniga, who abolished the Bloody,Council and adopted moderate measures; but the Netherlanders, however, continued to resist Spanish authority. Louis of Zuniga died in 1576, and was succeeded by Don Juan, the victor of Lepanto, and the half-brother of the Spanish monarch. The Pacification of Ghent—Alexander Farnese of Parma—Union of Utrecht.—In 1576, Prince William of Orange succeeded in uniting all the prov- inces of the Netherlands in a confederacy, known as “the Pacification of Ghent,” for the purpose of expelling the Spanish troops, and securing the inde- pendence of the Netherlands. In 1578, Don Juan was recalled by the Court of Madrid, and Alexander Farnese of Parma, the son of Margaret, was appointed his successor. As Alexander endeavored to create a hatred between the Northern and Southern Provinces, for the purpose of preserving the latter to the Spanish crown, Prince William of Orange induced the Northern Provinces to unite, in 1579, in a close league, known as “the Union of Utrecht.” Assassination of Prince William of Orange.—King Philip II. had long offered a reward and a title of nobility, to any one who would hand over to him Prince William of Orange, dead or alive. This promise led to some attempts to seize or kill the prince, which, however, failed; but in 1581, William was assas- sinated in the royal banqueting-hall at Delft, by the fanatical Gerhard of Franche- Comte. The assassin was, however, seized, and put to a most cruel death. Prince Maurice of Orange Stadtholder—English Aid to the Nether- landers.-Upon the assassination of Prince William of Orange, the Netherlanders chose his son, Prince Maurice of Orange, for their Stadtholder. Queen Elizabeth of England, the enemy of Philip II. of Spain, sent an army under the Earl of Leicester to the Netherlands, to prevent the Spaniards from suppressing the rebel- lion. This conduct of the English Queen, together with the execution of the Queen of Scots, induced the Spanish monarch to send a gigantic fleet, known as “the Invincible Armada,” for the conquest of England. The destruction of the Armada, by storms and English war-vessels, gave great moral support to the strug- gling Netherlanders. Achievement and Acknowledgment of the Independence of Holland...— The war between the Spanish government and the rebellious Netherlanders con- tinued until 1609, when, through the mediation of the good King Henry IV. of France, the Northern Provinces of the Netherlands, or “the United States of Hol- land,” secured their independence. The Southern Provinces, or Belgium, under she name of “the Spanish Netherlands,” continued to belong to the Spanish crown until 1714, when, by the Treaty of Rastadt, they were ceded to the House of Austria, under the name of “the Austrian Netherlands.” The independence of Holland was formally acknowledged by Spain in 1648, by the Treaty of Westpha- lia, which closed the great Thirty Years' War in Germany. 218 MODERAV HISTORY. Government of Holland—Religious Dissensions—Synod of Dort.— The legislative power of the Republic of the United States of Holland was vested in an assembly called the States-General; and the executive power was exercised by a High Council, at the head of which was a Stadtholder. No sooner was the independence of Holland secured, in 1609, than a religious dispute about the Cal- vinistic doctrine of predestination divided the Dutch people into two parties, the Gormalists, with Prince Maurice of Orange at their head, and the Arminians, at the head of whom was Van Olden Barnveldt, the anthor of the constitutic ri of the Dutch Republic. The Synod of Dort, in 1618, decided in favor of the Gormarists, zund Van Olden Barnveldt was executed. Commerce, Colonies, and Maritime Power of Holland.—Holland emerged from her long struggle for independence strong and prosperous. The IDutch East India Company was formed in 1602, and many of the Portuguese possessions in the East Indies were taken possession of by the Dutch. The Dutch colony of Batavia, in the island of Java, was founded in 1619. The Dutch navy was the largest in Europe; and for almost two centuries, Holland was the most powerful commercial and maritime rival of England. CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. REIGN OF HENRY II. (A. D. 1347–1339). Accession of Henry II.-Persecution of the Calvinists or Huguenots. —The warlike Francis I., known as “the Father and Restorer of Letters,” died in 1547, and was succeeded on the throne of France by his son, Henry II., who, like his father, was a zealous persecutor of the Huguenots, as the French Protestants were called. The Protestants of France, as well as those of Holland, Scotland, and many in England, were believers in the doctrines of John Calvin, the French Reformer, who had adopted the doctrines of Ulric Zwingle. The Calvinists of France were called Huguenots; those of Scotland, Presbyterians; and those of England, Puritans. - War with Spain and England—Battle of St. Quentin—Recovery of Calais.-Henry II. of France, as an ally of the Pope, engaged in a war against Philip II. of Spain and his wife, Queen Mary of England. The French were de- feated by the united English and Spanish forces in the battle of St. Quentin, in Northern France, in 1557; but in the following year (1558), Francis of Lorraine, Duke of Guise, with a French army, wrested Calais from the English, who had possessed that key of France for two centuries. In 1559, the Peace of Chateau- Cambresis was made between the Kings of France and Spain. Queen Mary of England, the wife of Philip II., having died, the Spanish king married the daughter of Henry II, ; while the French monarch married Catharine de Medicis, of the illustrious family of Florence. FEIGN OF FFANCIS II. (A. D. 1359–136O). Accession of Francis II.-The Guises—The Prince of Conde and Ad- miral Coligni.-On the death of King Henry II., in 1559, from the effects of a wound which he received at a tournament, his son, Francis II., who had married the beautiful young Queen Mary of Scotland, ascended the throne of France. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 219 Mary's uncles, the Guises, who were zealous Roman Catholics, gained great influ- ence at the French court; and endeavored to crush the Prostestant party in France, headed by the Prince of Condé and Admiral Coligni. King Francis II. died in 1560, when the Guises retired from court, and Queen Mary sailed for her kingdom of Scotland. REIGN OF CHARLES IX. (A. D. 1560–1574). Charles IX. and Catharine de Medicis—Toleration to the Huguenots - Religious War.—Francis II. was succeeded on the throne of France by his youthful half-brother, Charles IX., during whose minority the Government of France was conducted by his mother, Catharine de Medicis, as queen-regent. Catharine granted toleration to the Huguenots in 1562. The Guises were indignant at this; and as Duke Francis of Guise and his followers were passing the town of Vassy, (they fell upon and slaughtered a number of Huguenots engaged in prayer. This outrage was the signal for a bloody religious war, in which the most shocking cruel- ties were perpetrated by both parties. The Catholics were assisted by Philip II. of Spain and by the Pope, while the Huguenots received aid from Queen Elizabeth of England. * Battle of Dreux—Assassination of Duke Francis of Guise—Peace of Amboise.—The Prince of Condé took the chief command of the Huguenots, while the Duke of Guise placed himself at the head of the Catholics. After the indeci- sive battle of Dreux, the Duke of Guise laid siege to Orleans. The assassination of Duke Francis of Guise by a Protestant saved Orleans to the Huguenots; and during the same year (1564), the Peace of Amboise was made, by which the Cal- vinists were assured of toleration for their religion. Renewal of the War—Assassination of the Prince of Condé-Peace of St. Germain.—The promises of toleration to the Huguenots were soon forgot- ten; and in 1567, the religious war was renewed with all its horrors. The Catholics were victorious in the battle of St. Denis, but their leader, the Constable Montmo- renci, was among the slain. After a few more sanguinary engagements, in which the Huguenots were defeated, and after their leader, the Prince of Condé, had been assassinated by a Catholic, the Peace of St. Germain was concluded, by which the Protestants were again promised religious toleration. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew.—The leaders of the Protestants now were Admiral Coligni and Prince Henry of Bearn, the Prince of Condé's nephew. On the death of his mother, Henry of Bearn became King of Navarre. For the purpose of reconciling the two parties, the young King of France, Charles IX., proposed that his sister Margaret should be married to King Henry of Navarre. The French Catholics, with the Guises and the queen-mother, Catharine de Medi- cis, at their head, had planned secretly to massacre all the Huguenots who should come to Paris for the celebration of the nuptials. Accordingly, at two o'clock in the morning of St. Bartholomew’s day, August 24, 1572, when the alarum bell of St. Germain l'Auxerrois gave a signal, bands of armed assassins rushed upon the de fenseless and unsuspecting Huguenots, and slaughtered them without mercy. The massacre continued for three days; and about 5,000 Protestants were killed in Palis, among whom was the aged Admiral Coligni. The king himself shot at the poor victims, from the windows of his palace. The young Prince of Condé and King 22O & MODERAW HASTOR V. Henry of Navarre were spared only on the condition of becoming Roman Catho. lics; but no sooner were they secure from the power of the papists than they again avowed their old faith. The orders of King Charles IX., for the extension of the massacre to other parts of France, were so well obeyed that 50,000 Protestants were Sacrificed to the cruelty and fanaticism of their Catholic enemies. Some of the Catholic commanders, however, refused to obey the orders of the king; and one of them wrote to the court that he commanded soldiers, not assassins. The French Court was congratulated by Philip II. of Spain; and Pope Gregory XIII. offered thanks to Heaven for “this signal mercy.” This horrible atrocity is known as “The Massacre of St. Bartholomew.” Consequences of the Massacre.—The consequences of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew were quite different from what the French Court had expected. Many of the Roman Catholics renounced their religion and became Huguenots, from a feeling of horror and shame; and the civil and religious war again burst forth with all its former fury. Remorse and Sufferings of King Charles IX.-His Death.-Charles IX. at one time endeavored to put the whole responsibility for the great crime on the Guises; and the next moment he confessed the part he had taken, and expressed. joy at what he considered a blow at heresy; but, from the time of the massacre, he was troubled with remorse and grief, at his participation in the horrible crime. He frequently imagined that he saw the bloody forms of the massacred Protestants before his eyes; he had no rest night or day; and he was often known to sigh and to bemoan himself with tears. His health rapidly declined, and his miserable life was terminated on the 30th of May, I574. - REIGN OF HENRY III. (A. D. 1574–1389). Accession of Henry III.-Duke Henry of Guise and the Catholic League.—Charles IX. was succeeded as King of France by his brother, Henry III., who had been, but a year previous, elected King of Poland, which country he now abandoned, to go to Paris, to take possession of a more delightful kingdom. Henry III. was an imbecile and a dissolute monarch. He made peace with the Huguenots, by granting them religious toleration and the same privileges enjoyed by the Catholics. This exasperated the Catholic party, at the head of which was Duke Henry of Guise, who, with other French Catholic nobles, concluded “The Catholic League,” for the purpose of upholding the popish religion in France. King Henry III. and the Catholic League—Exclusion of Henry of Navarre.--King Henry III. soon declared himself the head of the Catholic League, and renounced his peace with the Huguenots. In 1584, the king's brother, the Duke of Anjou, the heir to the French throne, died, and the Protestant King Henry of Navarre became the nearest heir; but the Catholic party in France attempted to exclude him from the throne, on account of his religion; and Henry III. found himself obliged to revoke all his concessions to the Calvinists. Plot of Henry of Guise—Conflict in Paris—Assassination of the Guises.—Duke Henry of Guise at first only aimed at the suppression of the Re- formed religion in France, but he at length entertained the design of dethroning Hºnry III. and placing himself on the throne of France. The king now became S/X7'EAEAVTH CEAV7'UR V. 22 l alarmed, and ordered some Swiss troops into Paris, in May, 1588, to prevent the Guises from entering the city. The Parisians, however, adhered to the Guises, and began à terrible conflict with the king's troops. The king fled to Chartres, but soon returned to Paris, and procured the assassination of Duke Henry of Guise and his brother, Cardinal Louis of Guise. Another Civil War—Siege of Paris by Henry III.-Assassination of Henry III.-The assassination of the Guises roused the indignation of the French Roman Catholics against King Henry III., and the Pope excommunicated him The king found himself obliged to leave Paris; whereupon he threw himself into the arms of the Huguenots, and received assistance from King Henry of Navarré. A terrible civil war again broke out, and the two King Henrys appeare Sbefore Paris with their armies, and laid siege to the city. The capital was only saved from destruction by the assassination of Henry III., in August, 1589, by James Clement, a fanatical monk. HOUSE OF BOURBON.—REIGN OF HENRY IV. (1389–161O). Accession of Henry IV.-Siege of Paris by Henry IV.-Spanish Relief.-Henry III. was the last French king of the House of Valois; and just before his death he appointed as his successor King Henry of Navarre, who was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon. The Duke of Maine, a brother of the murdered Guises, became the head of the Catholic League; and supported by Philip II. of Spain, he resisted King Henry IV. In 1590, Henry IV. laid siege to Paris; and the Parisians were almost reduced by starvation, when a Spanish army under Alexander of Parma marched to their relief from the Nether. lands. Conversion of Henry IV. to Catholicism and Its Happy Consequences. —On the approach of the Spanish army of relief, King Henry IV. relinquished the siege of Paris; but he continued the war against the Catholic League until 1593, when, for the sake of bringing peace to his subjects, he renounced Calvinism, and made a public profession of Roman Catholicism, in the Church of St. Denis, in Paris. The Parisians now hailed him with joy, the French nobles tendered him their submission, the Pope recalled the excommunication against him, and Philip II. of Spain made peace with him. Edict of Nantes—The Duke of Sully—Character of Henry-In 1598 King Henry IV. issued, at Nantes, an edict which secured to the Huguenots free- dom of conscience, and equal rights and privileges with the Catholics. Henry IV. encouraged agriculture and commerce; and his faithful friend, the Duke of Sully, whom he appointed as his Prime-Minister, arranged the economy of the state. Henry IV. was greatly beloved by his subjects. His mild and forgiving spirit made his worst enemies his best friends, and he proved to be one of the best kings that ever occupied a throne. Henry's Project for a Christian Union—Assassination of Henry IV, —Henry IV. was desirous of having all Christian nations united in a sort of union, with equal freedom for all Christian confessions. On the 14th of May, 1610, this good king was assassinated in his carriage, in the streets of Paris, by the fanatical Ravaillac, a Jesuit. The consternation and the public grief were universal through- 222 MODEAEAV HISTORY. out France, and never was the death of a king so lamented by his subjects. Henry's son, Louis XIII., became his successor. ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND AND MARY OF SCOTLAND. Queen Elizabeth of England—Restoration of the Anglican Church.-- On the death of the bigoted Catholic queen Mary, in 1555, the crown of England fell to her half-sister, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Eliz. abeth was a Protestant; and upon her accession to the throne, she restore, the Anglican Church, which had been overthrown by her Catholic predecessor. Eliz. abeth was regarded as the head of the Protestant party in Europe, while Philip II. of Spain was considered the champion of Roman Catholicism. Queen Elizabeth had an exalted idea of the royal prerogative, and she allowed the Parliament but very few privileges. She was vain and capricious, but these faults were overlooked by her gayety and cheerfulness. The English kingdom was very prosperous during her long reign; agriculture, commerce, and navigation were encouraged; and Eng- land never had a sovereign who swayed the sceptre with more ability than did this mighty queen. Mary, Queen of Scots.-Queen Elizabeth's vanity, and her jealousy of the superior qualities of others, led her to commit an act which has left an ineffaceable stain upon her character, the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary, as we have already seen, had been sent to France, at quite an early age, and married to the Dauphin, afterward King Francis II. of France. On the death of her hus- band, in 1560, Mary, although harshly treated by her mother-in-law, the wicked Catharine de Medicis, still for a time remained in France, which land she most dearly loved. Mary’s Return to Scotland—Calvinism in Scotland—John Knox.- Finally the clamors of her Scotch subjects induced Mary to leave the delightful France, and to return, with great reluctance, to the wild country of the Scots, which she was then to govern. When Mary returned to Scotland, she found the Roman Catholic religion overthown in that country, and Calvinism adopted in its stead. Mary was a strict Roman Catholic, and this was very distasteful to the Scotch Reformers, at the head of whom was the celebrated John Knox. Mary’s Marriage with Lord Darnley-Murder of David Rizzio.—In 1565, Queen Mary, contrary to the advice of the Queen of England, married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who was a rigid Roman Catholic. This marriage was very displeasing to John Knox and the other Scotch Reformers. As Mary was soon treated with neglect by her fickle husband, she bestowed her favor on her private secretary, David Rizzio, an Italian singer. This offended Darnley to such a degree that he formed a plot with some of the Scotch nobles; and the conspirators mur- dered Rizzio in the queen's presence. (1566.) Murder of Lord Darnley—Mary’s Marriage with the Earl of Bothweil. —The Scotch queen now burned with hatred against her husband, but she pºid him a visit when he was taken sick. One night after this visit (February 10, 1567), the people of Edinburgh were awakened by a terrible explosion. Darnley's house had been blown up by gunpowder, and his lifeless body was found at a dis. tance. 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Ž/º #ſº º /.../ g).2% ſ /N § ‘. .N. * % Nº &#% NSSRSS % S/X7'EEAVZ H CEA/7'UR V. 223 the horrible murder; and as Queen Mary married Bothwell three months after- ward, she was believed to have been an accomplice in the crime. Rebellion of the Scotch People against Queen Mary—Bothwell’s Fate. —-Queen Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothwell roused the indignation of the Scotch people, who in consequence rose in rebellion against her. Bothwell fled from Scotland, and lived by piracy, until he was thrown into prison in Denmark, where he became Insane, in which wretched condition he remained the last ten years of his life. Imprisonment and Dethronement of Mary—Regency of the Earl of Murray.—Queen Mary was seized and imprisoned in a lonely castle in the island of Lochlevin, by her rebellious subjects, who compelled her to resign her crown to her infant son, James VI., while her half-brother, the Earl of Murray, was ap- pointed regent during the minority of her son. Mary's Escape from Prison—Her Defeat and Flight to England.—In 1568, Mary escaped from her prison, and raised an army to recover her lost author- ity; but after being defeated by the Earl of Murray, in a battle at Langside, she fled to England to seek the protection of Queen Elizabeth. Elizabeth's Refusal to receive Mary—Retention of Mary in England. —Elizabeth, who was envious of the superior beauty and gracefulness of the Scotch queen, and who feared that she would make pretensions to the English crown, de- clined to receive Mary until she should have cleared herself of the accusation of having been an accomplice in the murder of her second husband, Lord Darnley. As Mary, as an independent sovereign, would not submit to a trial by an English tribunal, she was retained as a prisoner in England by order of Elizabeth. Plots in Favor of Mary—Execution of the Duke of Norfolk.-The reten- tion of Mary in England soon endangered the safety of Elizabeth's throne and life. Conspiracies for dethroning Elizabeth and placing Mary on the throne of England, were undertaken by the English Roman Catholics, of whom there were yet many in the northern part of the kingdom. The Duke of Norfolk, the leading Catholic nobleman in England, was detected in such a plot, and was beheaded in conse- quence, a few years afterward. (1572.) Unsuccessful Rebellion of the English Roman Catholics.—In 1569, a rebellion of the English Roman Catholics, headed by the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, broke out against Elizabeth. The objects of the insurgents were the liberation of the Queen of Scots, and the restoration of the popish religion in England. The efforts of the rebels were unsuccessful, and their leaders were tried, condemned, and punished with death. - Trial and Execution of Mary by Order of Elizabeth.-In 1586, a conspir- acy was formed, by English Roman Catholics, to assassinate Elizabeth, and place Mary on the English throne. The leading conspirators were tried and executed. Mary was tried for being an accomplice in the plot, and was found guilty. Eliza. beth appeared reluctant to consent to the execution of the unfortunate Mary al. though she had long wished for her death. After waiting several months, the English queen signed the death-warrant, and her Prime-Minister, Lord Burleigh, having obtained it from her private secretary, had it hastily executed; and the un- fortunate Mary, Queen of Scots, was beheaded on the 7th of February, 1587, after 2.24 MODERAV HISTORY. * having been kept a prisoner in England for nineteen years. She died with firm- ness. In order to put the responsibility for Mary's execution on her servants, Queen Elizabeth affected great dissatisfaction at the haste with which the death-warrant had been carried into effect; and imprisoned her private secretary, Davison, for having handed the warrant to her Prime-Minister. Philip II. of Spain and his “Invincible Armada.”—The execution of the Queen of Scots aroused the indignation of the Roman Catholics throughout Europe; and Philip II. of Spain fitted out a fleet of 130 vessels, for the subjugation of Eng- land, France, and the Netherlands, at one blow, and for the establishment of a power- ful Roman Catholic empire in Western Europe. This gigantic Spanish fleet was named “the Invincible Armada” by the Catholics, who were confident of its success. Queen Elizabeth’s Preparations for Defense.—Elizabeth, undismayed by the coming storm, made extensive preparations for defense. She called out an army of 40,000 men, and placed it under the command of the Earl of Leicester, her favorite general; and the English fleets were placed under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham. Elizabeth, who displayed great firmness, appeared on horseback before her troops, and made them a short speech, which greatly raised their courage and zeal. Among other things she said, “I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart of a king, and of a king of Eng- land too, and think proud scorn that Parma, or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realms, for which, rather than any dis- honor come upon me, I will take up arms myself.” Destruction of the Spanish Armada.-The Invincible Armada, under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, sailed from Lisbon for the English Channel, in May, 1588. The English fleet under Effingham had just got out of port, when it beheld the Armada approach, in the form of a crescent, extending a distance of seven miles. The English sent a number of fire-ships into the midst of the Armada, destroying many vessels and disabling the whole fleet. The Spanish admiral then resolved to return home; and as the wind blew from the south, he was obliged to sail northward along the Eastern shores of England, around Scot- land, and down along the Western coast of Ireland. But most of the Spanish vessels which escaped the destructive effects of the English fire-ships, were wrecked off the coasts of Scotland, by a succession of the most furious storms, and very few of them returned to the shores of Spain. - Consequences of the Destruction of the Armada.-The moral conse- quences of the destruction of the Invincible Armada were very great: it virtually secured the independence of Holland; it inspired the Huguenots in France with hope; and it raised the courage of the Protestants throughout Europe. From this time Spain rapidly declined in power and national greatness, and her naval superi- ority was broken; while England took her place as a great maritime power. Elizabeth’s Favorites.—The wise Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was Elizabeth's Prime-Minister during the first forty years of her reign. Queen Elizabeth was never married. Her first chief favorite was Robert Dudley, whom she created Earl of Leicester. At a later period, the accomplished Sir Walter Raleign was received into the queen's favor. The Earl of Essex, Leicester's son-in-law, was Elizabeth's last favorite. SE WEAV7'EE.WZTAſ CEAV7'UR V. 225 Catholic Rebellion in Ireland.—When Elizabeth attempted to firmly establish the religious laws of England in Ireland, a formidable rebellion of the Irish peo- ple, who were mostly papists, broke out, under the leadership of the Earl of Tyrone. The rebels were aided by the Pope and by Philip II. of Spain. The English queen appointed her favorite, the Earl of Essex, Lord Lieutenant of Ire- land; but instead of quelling the revolt, Essex made a trealy with the Earl of Tyrone. - Plot and Rebellion of the Earl of Essex—His Execution—Death of Queen Elizabeth.-Displeased with the conduct of her favorite, Elizabeth recalled him. Provoked at this, the Earl of Essex formed a plot with James VI. of Scot- land to dethrone Elizabeth, and raised an insurrection against the queen. When the insurrection was suppressed, Essex was tried and executed. Elizabeth's grief for the death of her favorite, and the conviction that she had lost the affections of her subjects, caused her to bewail herself with tears, during the last moments of her life. She died in 1603, after appointing James VI. of Scotland, son of the ill. fated Mary, her successor. - SEWENTEENTH CENTURY. ~-uy THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (A. D. 1648-4648) CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. Violation of the Rights of the German Protestants.--During the mild and equitable reigns of the Emperors Ferdinand I. (1556–1564) and Maximilian II. (1564–1576), the articles of the religious treaties of Passau and Augsburg were observed, and the German Protestants enjoyed perfect religious toleration; but when the careless and incompetent Rodolph II. occupied the imperial throne (1576 —1612), the Catholic princes of Germany, such as the Archduke Ferdinand of Styria and the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, violated the religious rights and privileges of their Protestant subjects in various ways; while the complaints of the Protestants were unheeded by the weak and negligent Emperor. The Protestant Union and the Catholic League.—In order to secure their religious privileges against the encroachment of the Catholic power, the Protestant princes of Germany concluded an alliance known as “the Protestant Union.” To oppose this Union, the Catholic German princes entered into a compact called “the Catholic League.” Thus Germany was divided into two hostile religious parties. The Protcstant Union secured the aid of Henry IV. of France, and the Dutch Re- public, while the Catholic League obtained the assistance of Philip III. of Spain. The first occasion for hostilities between the two parties, was a dispute between the Elector of Brandenburg and the Count Palatine of Neuburg, for the hereditary pos. 15 - 226 MODERAV HISTORY. sessions of the deeeased Duke of Cleves and Berg. After a bloody war of several years, it was agreed that the Elector of Brandenburg should have Cleves, while the Count of Neuburg should receive Berg and Dusseldorf. The Emperor Rodolph II. Deprived of His Hereditary Dominions.— In consequence of the weakness and negligence of the Emperor Rodolph II., his lelatives compelled him to relinquish Austria and Hungary to his brother Mat- thias. For a while Rodolph secured to himself the respect and support of the Bohemians, by granting them letters-patent which accorded great religious priviliges to the Protestants; but at length he was also compelled to surrender the crown of Bohemia to Matthias, so that the only crown which he still possessed was that of the German Empire. The miserable existence and imbecile reign of Rodolph were ended by his death, in 1612; and his brother Matthias succeeded him on the imperial throne of Germany. Ferdinand, King of Bohemia—Closing of Protestant Churches—Bohe- mian Revolt.—No sooner had Matthias become Emperor of Germany, than he showed himself as incapable of governing as Rodolph, and he soon convinced the German Protestants that they could not expect much favor from him. The Protest- ants of Bohemia were greatly alarmed for the security of their religious liberties when the Emperor Matthias caused his cousin, Duke Ferdinand of Carinthia, to be invested with the crown of Bohemia. At length, in accordance with an imperial decree, a Protestant church which had been erected in the Small town of Closter- grab was destroyed, and another which had been built in the territory of the Abbot of Brannau was closed. The Protestant states of Germany, regarding this as an infraction of the letters-patent, held a meeting in Prague, and presented a remon- strance to the Emperor, who, in his reply, sharply reproved those who had made the complaint, and confirmed the decree prohibiting the building of Protestant churches on ecclesiastical territory. Enraged at this, the Protestant deputies armed themselves, and, with Count Thurn at their head, proceeded to the council-house of Prague with the design of attacking the imperial council, whom they blamed for issuing the harsh decree. After a short dispute, the two Catholic councilors, Mar- tinitz and Slawata, were seized and thrown out of the castle window, more than fifty- six feet, by the enraged Protestant deputies. Notwithstanding the height of their fall, and the shots that were fired after them, both councilors escaped with their lives. The Bohemians established a council of thirty noblemen to govern them, and raised an army, at the head of which they placed Count Thurn. With the aid of the heroic Ernest von Mansfeld, Count Thurn defeated the imperial troops in Bohemia, after which he appeared with his army before Vienna, and made Matthias tremble in his capital. Death of Matthias—Ferdinand II. Emperor—Frederic V. of the Pala- tinate.—In 1619, the Emperor Matthias died, and his bigoted cousin, Ferdinand of Carinthia, was chosen Emperor of Germany, by the Electoral Princes at Frankfort; but the Bohemians refused to acknowledge him as Emperor, and chose as King of Bohemia in his stead the Elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate, the head of the Protestant Union, and son-in-law of King James I. of England. Frederic, weak and incompetent, proved himself unfitted for so momentous a crisis. SE VEAVTEAEAVTH CENTURY. 227 PALATINE PERIOD OF THE WAR. Alliance of Ferdinand II. with Maximilian of Bavaria—Battle of Weissenberg.—The energetic Emperor Ferdinand II. concluded an alliance with the powerful Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of the Catholic League. Maximilian's great general, Tilly the Netherlander, marched into Bohemia and defeated Frederic of the Palatinate in the battle of Weissenberg, near Prague. Frederic, after his defeat, fled in the utmost consternation into the Netherlands, being outlawed and deprived of his hereditary dominions; and Bohemia and Moravia soon submitted to the power of Austria. Dreadful Punishment of the Bohemians.—The unfortunate Bohemians were now cruelly punished for their rebellion. Twenty-seven of the Bohemian nobles were executed; the property of the others was confiscated and bestowed on the Jesuits and other Catholic orders; the Protestant clergymen were gradually banished from Bohemia; and finally it was declared that no subject who would not conform to the Catholic creed would be tolerated, in consequence of which harsh measure, 30,000 Protestant families left their homes in Bohemia, and took up their abode in the Protestant states of Saxony, Hanover, and Brandenburg. The War on the Rhine—Battles of Wiesloch and Wimpfen.—Ernest von Mansfeld, Duke Christian of Brunswick, and the Margrave George Frederic of Baden-Durlach, took the field in the cause of the outlawed Frederic of the Palati- nate, and of the Protestant religion. Mansfeld plundered Alsace and desolated the Catholic bishoprics and monasteries on the Rhine, and, in conjunction with George Frederic of Baden-Durlach, gained the battle of Wiesloch, in April, 1622, over the Bavarian general, Tilly, who had been sent into the Palatinate of the Rhine, for the purpose of subduing the chief of the Protestant Union; but George Frederic was soon afterward defeated by Tilly, in the battle of Wimpfen (May 8, 1622); and, on the 20th of June of the same year, Christian of Brunswick was also de- feated by Tilly. Mansfeld and Christian then marched into the Netherlands, to procure assistance from England, while Tilly took Manheim and Heidelberg by storm, and committed the most frightful ravages. Duke Maximilian of Bavaria crowned Elector-Palatinate.—In 1623, the Electorship of the Palatinate was bestowed on Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, through the influence of his ally, the Emperor Ferdinand II. This proceeding, and the evident intention of Ferdinand to attempt the suppression of Protestantism, blasted the hopes for a speedy termination of the destructive civil and religious war. DANISH PERIOD OF THE WAR. Foreign Aid to the German Protestants—Rise of Lower Saxony.--Eng land, Holland, and Denmark now lent their assistance to the Protestant cause in Germany; and the Protestant towns of Lower Saxony took up arms in defense of their religion, and formed an alliance with King Christian IV. of Denmark, whom they invested with the chief command of their armies. Those valiant Protestant leaders, Ernest von Mansfeld, Christian of Brunswick, and George Frederic of Baden-Durlach, again appeared in the field. º Albert of Wallenstein.—Thus far the war against the German Protestants had 228 MODERM HISTORY: been carried on almost entirely by the Catholic League; but as the struggle had assumed greater proportions, the League demanded supplies of troops from the Em- peror. Ferdinand himself, who was jealous of the power and influence of Maxi- milian of Bavaria, resolved to raise an army of his own. Albert of Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman, offered to furnish and support an army of 50,000 men, at his own expense, for the Emperor, on condition of being allowed the unlimited com- mand of them. Ferdinand accepted the offer of the daring adventurer, made him governor of Friedland, elevated him to the dignity of an Elector of the German Empire, and afterward created him Duke of Friedland. - Defeats of the Protestants in Northern Germany.—Northern Germany now became the chief theatre of the war, and the army of the Catholic League under Tilly, and that of the Emperor under Wallenstein, soon broke the power of the Protestants in that quarter. Mansfeld, after being defeated by Wallenstein at the bridge of Dessau, marched into Hungary, and died in Bosnia, while attempt- ing to make his way to the Netherlands. (1626.) Christian of Brunswick died the same year; and King Christian IV., of Denmark, having been defeated by Tilly, at the castle of Lutter, near Barenberg, in Hanover, on the 27th of August, 1626, was compelled to retreat into his own dominions; and the Duke of Meck- lenburg was driven from his territories, which were immediately seized by Wallen- stein. Subjugation of Denmark and Northern Germany.—In 1627, Schleswig, Holstein, and the peninsula of Jutland were conquered and frightfully ravaged, by the Catholic armies of Germany under Tilly and Wallenstein; and the King of Denmark was obliged to seek refuge in his slands. The Protestant German States of Pomerania and Brandenburg also submitted to the Catholic power; and the whole North of Germany lay prostrate before the power of the Emperor and the Catholic League. Defense of Stralsund.—The heroic inhabitants of the city of Stralsund, in Pomerania, however, refused to submit, and resolved to resist the imperial army to the last extremity. Wallenstein marched against the city, and swore that he would take it if it were bound to heaven with chains; but all his assaults were gallantly repulsed by the inhabitants; and after a siege of ten weeks, during which he lost 12,000 men, Wallenstein was obliged to relinquish the siege and to retire. - Peace of Lubec.—The failure of Wallenstein to take Stralsund induced the Emperor of Germany to conclude a treaty of peace with the King of Denmark. By the Peace of Lubec, concluded in 1629, Christian IV. recovered the territories which had been conquered from him; but he was required to abandon the cause of Jhe German Protestants. Edict of Restitution.—The Emperor Ferdinand II. and the Catholic party, encouraged by their recent triumph, now resolved upon the suppression of the Protestant religion, and the full reëstablishment of Roman Catholicism throughout ‘germany; and, instigated by the Society of the Jesuits, the Emperor issued an “Edict of Restitution,” which required the Protestants to restore all ecclesiastical property which had been taken from the Catholics since the Peace of Passau. The execu- tion of this edict would deprive many of the Protestant German princes of their wealth, and was therefore violently resisted; and the Emperor found himself *, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 229 obliged to employ military force to carry out his designs, but his army was no longer commanded by Wallenstein. Removal of Wallenstein.-Wallenstein's barbarous conduct in spreading ruin and desolation wherever he appeared, aroused the indignation of both Catholics and Protestants, and the whole body of the German princes, with Duke Maximilian of Bavaria at their head, demanded the removal of Wallenstein from the chief com- mand of the imperial army. The Emperor yielded to the unanimous voice of the princes and people of Germany, and removed Wallenstein and appointed Tilly to the chief command of his army. Wallenstein retired to his Duchy of Friedland, where he lived in the enjoyment of immense wealth, until he should again be called upon to assume the chief command of the imperial army. King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.—The unfortunate Protestants of Germany were now compelled to yield before the superior power of Austria and Bavaria; but they soon found a deliverer in the valiant Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, whom the intriguing and unprincipled French Prime-Minister, Cardinal Richelieu, the enemy of the House of Hapsburg, had induced to assist the German Protestants in their war against their Emperor. SWEDISH PERIOD OF THE WAR. Appearance of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany.—On the 24th of June, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus, with only 6,000 men, landed on the coast of Pomerania. The Swedish soldiers, who assembled around their chaplains twice a day, were not permitted by their pious king to devastate any of the territory through which they marched. Many of the Protestant princes of Germany, fearing the vengeance of their Emperor, and jealous of the foreign monarch who had espoused their cause, at first refused to coöperate with the King of Sweden; but their fear and jealousy were soon overcome, and in their distress they concluded alliances with Gustavus. Destruction of Magdeburg.—On the 16th of May, 1631, the Protestant city of Magdeburg, which had opposed the Edict of Restitution, fell into the hands of the imperial army under Tilly, after a siege of six weeks, during which many fierce assaults had been gallantly repulsed. The devoted city was fearfully punished. The greater part of it was burned to the ground; and 30,000 of its inhabitants were brutally massacred to gratify the victorious Tilly's thirst for revenge. Battle of Breitenfeld and Leipsic.—Aſter the barbarous destruction of Magdeburg, Tilly, with the imperial army, marched against the Elector of Saxony, who, in his distress, concluded an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus. The King of Sweden marched to meet Tilly; and on the 7th of September, 1631, at the vil. lage of Breitenfeld, near Leipsic, was fought a sanguinary battle, in which the united forces of the Swedes and the Saxons gained a most brilliant victory. Victorious March of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany—Death of Tilly. -—After his great victory at Breitenſeld, Gustavus Adolphus marched victoriously to the Rhine; and the whole North and West of Germany were soon in the pos. session of the Swedes and their Protestant German allies. In the spring of 1632, the King of Sweden turned eastward, for the purpose of invading Bavaria, and chas- tising the powerful Elector Maximilian. Tilly, who was at the head of a powerful 23o MoDERN HISTORY. imperial army, had strongly intrenched himself on the river Lech, for the purpose of disputing the passage of that stream by the Swedes. The Swedes stormed the intrenchments of the imperialists, and forced a passage across the river. Tilly was so severely wounded by a cannon ball that he died at Ingolstadt, several weeks afterward. This old war-worn hero directed military affairs until the moment of bus death. Restoration of Wallenstein.—After occupying Augsburg, where the Protest- ant form of worship was again established, Gustavus Adolphus advanced into Bavaria and entered Munich, which had been abandoned by Maximilian, at the approach of the Swedish monarch. In this moment of peril, the Emperor Ferdi- nand II. again nad recourse to the services of Wallenstein, who agreed to raise a new army, on condition of being allowed the unlimited command of it. Blockade of Nuremburg.—Wallenstein was soon at the head of 40,000 men; and after driving the Saxons out of Bohemia, he marched against the victorious Gustavus Adolphus, who had strongly intrenched himself near Nuremburg. Wal- lenstein, at the head of 60,000 imperialists, fortified himself opposite the position of the Swedes, and for several months the two armies were watching each other. During this blockade of Nuremburg, both armies suffered dreadfully from hunger. At length Gustavus Adolphus stormed the camp of Wallenstein, but was repulsed with heavy loss. Battle of Lutzen, and Death of Gustavus Adolphus.--From Nuremburg, the German imperial army under Wallenstein marched into Saxony, whither it was followed by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus. The two armies met at Lutzen, where, on the 16th of November, 1632, a memorable battle was fought. The Swedes gained a glorious victory, but this was dearly purchased with the death of the heroic and valiant Gustavus Adolphus. Pappenheim, the leader of the imperial German cavalry, was also mortally wounded, and Wallenstein fled in dismay into Bohemia, with his defeated and shattered army. The Swedes sent the body of their illustrious king, which was frightfully disfigured by the hoofs of horses, to his native land for interment. Alliance of Heilborn–Destructive Character of the War.—After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the Swedish Chancellor, Axel Oxenstiern, resolved to continue the war in Germany with vigor, and concluded the alliance of Heilborn with the Protestant princes of Germany. After the death of their valiant king, the Swedes committed the most savage devastations, while Wallenstein was frightfully ravaging Bohemia. - Assassination of Wallenstein.—Wallenstein was now accused by his enemies of treason to the Emperor and the Catholic religion. He was charged with the design of forming an alliance with the Swedes and the German Protestants, and of making himself king of Bohemia. When the Emperor had secured the persons of the adherents of the powerful general, and declared his deposition, Wallenstein immediately took up his march to join the Swedes; but before he could unite his forces with the Swedish army, he was murdered by a band of assassins, with the Irishman Butler at their head, sent for that purpose by the Emperor Ferdinand II. Wallenstein's faithful adherents and confederates, Illo, Terska, and Kinsky, were also assassinated. The assassins were rewarded with honors, dignities, and wealth. .S.E VEAVTEEAVTH CEAV7'UR V. 231 Battle of Nordlingen—Peace of Prague—French Interference.—Soon after the assassination of Wallenstein, the German imperial army advanced into Bavaria, and defeated Bernhard of Weimar in the battle of Nordlingen. (Septem- ber, 1634.) In May, the following year (1635), several of the Protestant German princes concluded the Peace of Prague with the Emperor Ferdinand II.; but still the bloody war continued, and Cardinal Richelieu, who at that time wielded the destinies of France, thinking the opportunity favorable for humbling the proud House of Austria, and extending the Eastern frontier of France to the Rhine, now began to take an active part in the struggle, and sent French armies into Germany, to aid Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedes. FRENCH PERIOD OF THE WAR. Death of Ferdinand II.-Accession of Ferdinand III.-Baner, Tors- tenson and Wrangel.—The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, without seeing the end of the civil and religious war in which he had been engaged from the commencement of his reign; and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Ger- many by his son, Ferdinand III. Bernhard of Weimar, after making important conquests on the Rhine, and the Swedish general Baner, after ravaging Bohemia, did not long survive Ferdinand II. On the death of Baner, the command of the Swedish army in Germany was assigned to Torstenson, who gained brilliant vic- tories over the imperial forces at Leipsic and the hill Tabor, and even threatened Vienna with a siege; but, on account of illness from the gout, Torstenson was finally obliged to relinquish his command to Wrangel, an able general. Wrangel and the French general Turenne marched into Bavaria, and compelled the Elector Maximilian to flee from his dominions; but while they were preparing to invade Bohemia, they received intelligence of the Peace of Westphalia; and hostilities were suspended. Peace of Westphalia.-After five years of negotiation at Munster and Osna- burg, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded in October, 1648, to the great joy of the German people, who had long clamored for the termination of the war. By this treaty a part of the German territory on the Rhine was ceded to France; the island of Rugen and a portion of Pomerania were surrendered to Sweden; another portion of Pomerania was given up to the Great Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg; Lusatia was allotted to the Elector of Saxony; the Upper Palatin ate was bestowed on"the Elector of Bavaria; and Switzerland and Holland were acknowledged as independent republics, the former by Germany, and the latter by Spain. The religious treatiès of Passau and Augsburg were confirmed; and the privileges of free religious worship, and equal civil rights with the Catholics, were secured to the Protestants of Germany. Condition of Germany at the Close of the Thirty Years' War.—During the continuance of the Thirty Years' War, two-thirds of the German population perished by the sword, famine, pestilence, and other causes. The resources of Germany were exhausted, and her territory at the close of the war appeared almost like a desert waste. Cities, towns, and villages had been laid in ashes; agriculture, manufactures, and commerce had been neglected; and much of the former pros- perity of Germany had passed away. Peace therefore came none too soon for the unfortunate land. t 232 MODERN HISTORY. Sweden. After the Thirty Years' War.—Gustavus Adolphus was succeeded on the throne of Sweden by his daughter Christina, during whose minority the government was conducted by a senate. Christina, who assumed the government in 1644, surrounded herself with the Society of literary men; and her taste for art and her love for science induced her to abdicate her throne ten years after attaining her majority. She then embraced Roman Catholicism, and passed the remainder of her life in Rome. Christina's successor on the Swedish throne, Charles X. (1654-1660), was a great warrior, and famous for his victories over the Poles and the Danes. Charles XI. (1660-1697) broke the power of the Swedish aristocracy. THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF STUART. REIGN OF JAMES I. (A. D. 16O3–1623). Accession of James I.-Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland. —On the death of Queen Elizabeth, in 1603, James Stuart, King of Scotland, son of the unfortunate Mary, ascended the throne of England. From the time of his mother's fall, he had reigned over Scotland, with the title of James VI., but now he became James I. of England. Thenceforth the crowns of England and Scotland were united, but each kingdom had its own parliament until 1707, when a legisla- tive union took place. During the reign of James I. the English colonies of James- town and Plymouth, in North America, were planted. Vanity and Bigotry of James I.-His Theological Learning.—James I. was a vain, bigoted, and pedantic prince. He was in the possession of much theo- logical learning, and delighted to engage in controversies on religious subjects. He loved to make a display of his wisdom and knowledge in lengthy harangues. James was also ambitious of the reputation of being a great author; and he wrote many Dooks. Peaceful Disposition of James I.-His Lavishness to His Favorites. —James I. lacked the shrewdness and decision essential in a sovereign. He was so extreme a lover of peace as to sacrifice the honor and dignity of his kingdom, for the sake of living on friendly terms with foreign governments. One of the faults of James was his lavishness of favors to unworthy persons. Of these, George Vil- liers, Duke of Buckingham, had the greatest influence. James's Idea of “the Divine Right of Kings?"—James I. was a firm be- liever in “the divine right of kings.” He believed that his authority was directly derived from God, and that his power was unlimited. For this reason he hated the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which made the king only a common member of the congregation; but he was zealously attached to the Episcopal Church of England, in which the monarch was considered the head and origin of all spiritual power; and the great object of James was the suppression of Puritanism in England and Presbyterianism in Scotland, and the full establishment of Episcopacy, as the only form of religion throughout his dominions. - Conspiracy in Favor of Lady Arabella Stuart—Execution of Sir w. Raleigh.--The quiet of King James’ reign was soon disturbed by a conspiracy to SE WEAVTEEAWTH CEAVTUR P. 233 place Lady Arabella Stuart, his first cousin, on the throne of England; but the de- sign of the conspirators was easily frustrated. Sir Walter Raleigh, who was accused of complicity in the plot in favor of Lady Arabella, was held in imprisonment for thirteen years, during which he wrote his “History of the World.” After his re. lease, Raleigh conducted an English gold-searching expedition to South America. Raleigh attacked and captured a small Spanish town, although a state of peace existed between England and Spain. In order to appease the clamors of the Spanish Government, King James resolved to sacrifice Raleigh; and on the 29th of October, 1618, that distinguished personage was beheaded. This cruel act is an indelible stain upon the character of James I.; and at the time made nim exceedingly unpopular. * The Gunpowder Plot.—No sooner was James I. seated on the English throne, tlan he forgot his promises of toleration to the English Roman Catholics, and fol. lowed the example of Queen Elizabeth in making them pay an oppressive capita- tion tax, that he might enrich his favorites, and defray the expenses of his court festivals. This aroused the indignation of the Catholics, some of whom resolved upon a conspiracy to blow up the Parliament House with gunpowder, at a time when the King, the Lords, and the Commons would be assembled there, and thus destroy the whole government of England. At length the plot was discovered, and the leading conspirator, Guy Fawkes, was detected in a cellar in which thirty-six barrels of gunpowder were concealed. Guy Fawkes was seized and executed, and his fellow-conspirators perished in an insurrection which they had excited. This conspiracy took place in 1605, and is known as “The Gunpowder Plot.” In conse- quence of it, the English Catholics were heavily fined, and compelled to take an oath of fidelity to the monarch. & Nuptial Expedition of Prince Charles into Spain.—James I. was anxious that his son Charles, heir to the throne, should marry a daughter of the King of Spain. The English people were opposed to such a marriage; but the Duke of Buckingham warmly advocated it. Buckingham and Prince Charles undertook a romantic journey into Spain to see the princess. When they arrived at Madrid, they were treated with respect by the Spanish king, Philip III.; but Buckingham's insolent conduct offended the haughty Spaniards, and thus prevented the marriage. Prince Charles afterwards married Henrietta Maria, daughter of the murdered Henry IV. of France. Disputes between King James I. and his Parliament.—James I., as we have already said, was a firm believer in the divine right of kings. He was ex- tremely jealous of any encroachments on the royal prerogative. During the reigns of the sovereigns of the House of Tudor, the English Parliament possessed but little liberty, and the monarch wielded almost absolute power. This unlimited power, James I. was resolved to preserve and extend; and he was consequently involved in a continual contest with the Parliament, which was determined to as. sert its own rights, and to uphold the liberties of the English people. Parliaments were repeatedly dissolved, but the next were always sure to be more obstinate than their predecessors. At length, when the king declared that what the Parliament regarded as its rights were but privileges for the enjoyment of which they were in- debted to his majesty's favor, the Commons registered a protest, in which they as: serted that the enactment of laws, the assent to taxes, and the rights and privileges 234 MODERAV HISTORY: »f Parliament, were inherent rights of every Englishman. Exasperated at this bold leclaration, the king tore with his own hand from the record the leaf on which was written the protest, dissolved the Parliament, and ordered the imprisonment of sev- eral of the members; but the Parliament displayed a bolder attitude under his suc- CCSSOT. REIGN OF CHARLES I. (A. D. 1623–16349). Difficulties between King Charles I. and the Parliament.—James I. died in 1625, and was succeeded on the English throne by his son, Charles I. No socnét was Charles I. seated on the throne, than a vehement dispute arose between him and the Parliament, and that body was consequently dissolved during the first and second years of his reign. The assistance given to the Elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate and the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War, and a useless war with France, brought about by the Duke of Buckingham, still Prime-Minister of England, produced heavy expenses; and the king was irritated that the Parlia- ment refused to vote supplies as he freely as he desired. - Petition of Right.—When the war with France resulted unfavorably for the English, the third Parliament summoned by Charles I. was disposed to impeach the Duke of Buckingham. In order to save his favorite minister, Charles found himself obliged to acknowledge the validity of “the Petition of Right,” presented to his majesty by both Houses of Parliament, and consequently to restore to the Parliament its former privileges, and freedom of speech and inviolability of person and property of its members. Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, Prime-Minister.—Soon after the presentation of the Petition of Right, the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated, whereupon the king appointed Thomas Wentworth, one of the leaders of the popular party, to the head of the Ministry, and created him Earl of Strafford and governor of Ireland. From this time forward, Wentworth was an avowed opponent of the principles of liberty which he had formerly advocated; and, with the view of in- creasing the royal power, he advised the king to govern for some time without a Parliament. Illegal Measures of the King to Obtain Money—Ship-money.-For the purpose of obtaining money to defray the expenses of the Government, the king now had recourse to the most arbitrary and unjust expedients. Heavy fines were imposed for the most trifling offenses, and heavy duties were levied upon various articles. Charles I. also imposed a tax called “ship-money,” because it was used for the support of the navy. These illegal measures of the king aroused the indig- - nation of the English people. Arbitrary Measures of Archbishop Laud.—Charles I. also attempted to establish the Episcopal Church on a firmer basis, and to suppress Puritanism in England and Presbyterianism in Scotland, with the view of checking the rapid growth of republican principles among the English people. For the purpose of accomplishing this end, the king appointed the zealous Bishop Laud, of London, Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud caused the Cathedral of St. Paul's, in London, to be sonsecrated anew, and the churches to be supplied with numerous images and ornaments, and imposed upon the Puritans ceremonies and observances hitherto unpracticed by the Church of England. The new Archbishop also removed the SE VEAVTEEAWTH CEAVTUR P. 235 Puritan preachers from their offices, and invested arbitrary tribunals, such as the Courts of the Star Chamber and High Commission, with the authority of pronoun- cing severe punishments against those who manifested any opposition to established institutions. Thus Prynne, a Puritan, was sentenced to lose both his ears, and to be imprisoned for life, for writing a volume against dancing, masks, theatrical plays, and other amusements in which the court delighted. Trial of John Hampden.—The proceedings just mentioned endangered civil and religious liberty in England, and threw the whole kingdom into a ferment, The resolute John Hampden refused to pay any ship-money, and was consequently tried in the Exchequer-Chamber, in the presence of all the Judges of England. The Judges decided in favor of the crown, but Hampden was more than compensated for the loss of his cause by the applause of his countrymen. The Puritan Preachers.-The Puritan preachers who had lost their offices traveled through the country, denouncing the arbitrary measures of Laud as pre- liminary steps to the reëstablishment of popery in England; and by their passionate appeals, they excited the people against the king, the archbishop, and the clergy. The Scotch Covenant—Scotch Rebellion.—While the royal assumptions were thus violently opposed in England, the attempts of the king to establish the Episcopal form of worship in Scotland produced a formidable rebellion in that country, in 1637. The first attempt to worship according to the Episcopal form in the Cathedral of Edinburgh caused a violent tumult. The Episcopal priest was driven from the cathedral, amid the cries of “Pope l’” “Antichrist!” “Stone him t” The Scotch people immediately entered into a solemn league, or “Covenant,” for the protection of their Presbyterian form of worship, drove away the Episcopal bishops, and took up arms. The king, resolving to crush all opposition by force, sent an army against the Scotch insurgents; but his troops were overcome by the zealous Scots, who went forth to battle with prayer. The victorious Scots marched into England, and the king found himself obliged to summon another Parliament, after an interval of eleven years, to solicit aid against the Scotch rebels. The Long Parliament.—The Parliament just summoned, instead of voting supplies against the rebellious Scots, began to attack the unlawful assumptions of the king, and to discuss the grievances of the English people. In a fit of exaspera- tion, Charles I. dissolved this Parliament; but his necessities obliged him to call another. The Parliament which now assembled is known as “The Long Parlia- ment,” on account of the extraordinary length of its existence. Its leading mem- bers were Sir Arthur Haslerig, John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, who were opposed to absolute monarchical power and Episcopal church government, and who were strong advocates of republican principles. Trial and Execution of Strafford—Fate of Archbishop Laud.—Instead of affording the king any assistance against the Scotch insurgents, the Long Parlia- ment formed a secret Jºague with them. The Parliament next impeached the Earl of Straffold for high tearoo. The king vainly endeavored to save his favorite minister. The Commons were reſolved upon his destruction. After a trial of seventy days, and a dignified and cloquent defense, Strafford was declared guilty and condemned to death. In a momert of weakness, the king signed the death-warrant, and the unfortunate Strafford was beheaded. He died with firmness and resoluticn. 236 MODERM HISTORY: Archbishop Laud was also impeached and tried, for endeavoring to destroy the liberities of the people of England. He was declared guilty, imprisoned, and three years afterwards beheaded. The Courts of High Commission and the Star Chamber were now dissolved, and the Episcopal bishops were excluded from their seats in the House of Lords. Ilish Rebellion.—A dangerous rebellion broke out in Ireland in 1641, and the Protestant settlers in that country were massacred by the Catholic Irish. The Par- liament accused the court, and particularly the queen, of instigating the rebellion and the massacre, and declared that the Catholic and Episcopal bishops and the court had entered into a plot for the destruction of religion and liberty in England. Rash Act of the King.—At length, Charles I., exasperated at the increasing demands of the Parliament, ordered five of its boldest speakers, Haslerig, Hollis, Hampden, Pym, and Strode,-to be arrested, and went in person to the hall of the House of Commons to seize them. For this rash act, the king afterwards found himself obliged to apologize in a humiliating message to the Parliament. Parliamentary Encroachments on the Royal Prerogative.—From this time the Parliament encroached more and more on the royal prerogative, until scarcely a vestige of monarchical power remained. The Commons now demanded that the appointment of ministers of state, and of military and naval commanders, should depend upon their approval. The Commons also required that the Tower of London, several of the sea-ports, and the management of the navy, should also be given into their possession. When the Parliament demanded that the king should relinquish the command of the army for a certain period, his majesty angrily re- plied, “No, not for one hour!” This refusal dispelled all hopes for a peaceful settle- ment of difficulties, and both parties resolved upon an appeal to arms. Presbyterians and Independents.-The opponents of the king were divided into several parties. The Independents, who were Puritans in religious belief and republicans in political faith, aimed at the overthrow of the monarchy; while the Presbyterians, or moderate party, merely wished to put an end to the abuses of the royal power, but not to deprive the king of his crown. CIVIL WAR (1642–1649). The King's Withdrawal from London—Commencement of the Civil War.--The breach between King Charles I. and the Parliament continually widened; and in 1642, the king withdrew from London and retired to York, where he declared war against the Parliament. On the 25th of August, 1642, Charles erected the royal standard at Nottingham, but it was soon blown down by the violence of the wind. A civil war of six years now commenced, in which England was drenched with the blood of her own people. “Cavaliers” and “Roundheads.”—On the side of the king were the nobility, the Roman Catholic and Episcopal clergy, and all the advocates of the established Church, and of absolute monarchy. The whole of the king's party were called “Cavaliers.” On the side of the Parliament were the Puritans, all who advocated a reform in Church and State, and all believers in republican principles. All the adherents of the Parliament received from their enemies the nickname of “Round- heads,” because their hair was cropped close to their heads. wº- SE VEAV7'EEAVTA. CAEAV7'UR V. 237 Battle of Edge Hill.—During the first and second years of the war, the king's forces, commanded by his nephew, Prince Rupert of the Palatinate, and the Mar- quis of Newcastle, were victorious in almost every encounter with the undiscip- lined forces of the Parliament, commanded by Lord Fairfax and the Earl of Essex, the latter of whom was the son of Queen Elizabeth's favorite. The first great bat- tle of the civil war was fought at Edge Hill, in Warwickshire, on the 3d of October, 1642. The king's army was commanded by Prince Rupert, and the Parliamentary forces by the Earl of Essex. Both sides lost about 5,000 men killed, and neither gained the victory. Royalist Victories in 1643—Death of John Hampden.—The campaign of 1643 was favorable to the royal cause. The Parliamentary forces were defeated at Stratton Hill, in Cornwall; at Roundway Down; and at Chalgrave Field. Bristol was besieged and taken by the Royalists, who also gained a victory in the battle of Newbury. During the year 1643, the Parliamentary party experienced a severe loss in the death of the brave, illustrious, and upright John Hampden, who was killed in a skirmish with Prince Rupert. The Royalists now secured the aid of some Irish Roman Catholics, while the Parliament entered into a solemn league, or “Covenant,” with the Scotch Presbyterians, who sent an army of 14,000 men into the field against King Charles I. Appearance of Oliver Cromwell.—The tide of success was now turning in favor of the Parliamentary side, whose troops had been greatly benefited by the experience of the first two years of the war. The resolute and enthusiastic Puritan, Oliver Cromwell, now began to take a conspicuous part in the contest. At the head of a hardy and pious squadron of cavalry which he had organized, he took the field in the cause of God and liberty. Battle of Marston Moor.—The first great Parliamentary victory was gained at Marston Moor, about nine miles from York, on the 3d of July, 1644, by Crom- well and his “Ironsides,” as the sturdy squadron of cavalry which he commanded was called. The defeat of the royal army was partly due to the impetuosity of Prince Rupert. The whole of Rupert's artillery fell into the hands of Cromwell's victorious troops. The consequence of the battle of Marston Moor was that the whole North of England fell into the possession of the Parliamentarians. Soon after- ward occurred the second battle of Newbury, in which neither party was victorious. Presbyterians and Independents.-The Puritans now banished the Book of Common Prayer from religious worship, and substituted the Calvinistic form of worship and church government for the Episcopal. They also caused images and or- naments to be taken from the churches, and forbade festivities. But the Puritans were divided into two great parties, the Presbyterians and the Independents, between whom the greatest animosity already prevailed. The Presbyterians, or moderate Puritans, inclined toward the support of monarchical and aristocratic institutions, and longed for the establishment of their Church, to the exclusion of all others, and “pposed toleration. The Independents, or radical Puritans, held democratic or republican views in regard to civil government, and desired toleration for all Christian faiths. The Self-denying Ordinance.—Oliver Cromwell belonged to the Independ- ents; while the Earl of Essex, who held the chief command of the Parliamentary 238 MODERM HISTORY. forces, belonged to the Presbyterians. The Independents caused the enactment, by Parliament, of the Self-denying Ordinance, which allowed no member of Parliament to hold a command in the army. The Earl of Essex was therefore compelled to resign; and Lord Fairfax, an able general, was appointed to the chief command of the army of the Parliament. Cromwell, who had been one of the most enthusiastic supporters of the Self-denying Ordinance, hastened to resign his command; but through the influence of Fairfax, who felt that Cromwell’s services in the army were necessary to insure the overthrow of the Royal party, the Parliament dispensed with the Self-denying Ordinance in Cromwell's case, and he was permitted to retain his position. Renewal of the Civil War—Battle of Naseby.—Some efforts at peace having failed, the civil war again burst forth with all its fury. The army of King Charles I. was completely overthrown, and his cause was utterly ruined, in the desperate battle of Naseby, in Northamptonshire, on the 14th of June, 1645. The Parliamentary forces were commanded by Fairfax, Skippon, Cromwell, and Ireton; and the Royalists by the king, Prince Rupert, Lord Astley, and Sir Marmaduke Langdale. The defeat of the Royal army was caused, in a great measure, by the rashness and impatience of Prince Rupert, who overruled the more prudent judg- ment of the king. Rupert, with the right wing of the Royal cavalry, dashed with the most fiery impetuosity upon the Parliamentary left wing, commanded by Gen- eral Ireton, Cromwell's son-in-law. At the same time Cromwell, with the Parlia- mentary right wing, assailed the Royal left wing; while the centres of the two armies, led respectively by Fairfax and the king, were struggling desperately. The Parliamentary left was thoroughly annihilated, and Ireton was made a prisoner; but Rupert lost precious time in an unnecesary pursuit of Ireton's broken forces, when he should have gone to the aid of the king. In the meantime Cromwell with his “Ironsides” defeated the Royal cavalry, after which he flew to the aid of the Parliamentary centre, which was beginning to give way before the Royalists. Crom- well and his Ironsides, who insured victory wherever they appeared, soon put the king's infantry to a total rout; and Charles I., seeing that the day was lost to his cause, retired with his forces, leaving the field, all his baggage and cannon, and 50,000 prisoners, in the hands of the victorious Parliamentarians. The King in the Hands of the Scots.-By their victory at Naseby, the Par- liamentarians obtained possession of all the strong cities in the kingdom, such as Bristol, Bridgewater, Bath, and Chester. Exeter was besieged and taken by Fair- fax, whereupon the king and his broken hosts retreated to Oxford, which Fairfax and Cromwell were preparing to besiege. Rather than be taken prisoner by his enemies, Charles I. fled into Scotland, hoping to find respect and kind treatment among his Scotch subjects. He went into the camp of an army of Scots that was engaged in the service of the Parliament; but instead of treating him as their king, the Scots placed a guard around him and kept him as a prisoner. The fanatical Scotch preachers, unable to restrain their zeal, insulted him to his face, and, in sermons preached in his presence, bitterly reproached him as a wickcd tyrant. The King in the Power of the Parliament.—When the Parliament was in. formed that the king was in the hands of the Scots, it began to negotiate with them for the possession of his person. The Scots surrendered Charles I. into the hands of commissioners appointed by the Parliament, upon receiving 400,000 pounds ºs * ~~~e ,z^2 **** @, - §ºº, § Nº.72 sº º/ %3 º zº as: º ºv. ºf : º * **. §º. % ºf lº %. § §§ e - º º N | º; g º | ºft º A # ſ N º, a • * § -º-º-º: Rºs §§ § §§ º SN º N Nº. NNSS § §§§ §NSNSSR NSNS $ §§§ WN §§§ ×2 f º %2. . . . . º % º 2"º º Sº N N *NS Wºź CHARLES I, OF ENGLAND. º!/ * . 3. wº º, Sºs Š S § §§ & § §§§ §§ §§ S& §- ºsº # Lºſ = -- ºr º # - - --~. 2. º L ====.º. |ºlſ: mTVIII'lili, | #!" § g- : CROMWELL. .S.A. VEAV7'EAEAVZA/ CEAV7'OA’ Y. 239 sterling. The Scots were ever afterwards ashamed of the reproach of having sold their sovereign to his inveterate foes. Presbyterians and Independents.-As we have already seen, the king's enemies were divided into the Presbyterian and Independent parties. The most inveterate animosity now existed between these two factions. The Presbyterians had a majority in the Parliament, while the Independents had a majority in the Army. The King in the Power of Cromwell.—The Presbyterians, in conjunction with the Royalists, now endeavored to restore to the king his authority; but in this they were opposed by the Independents, the most rigid of Puritans, and republicans In principle. The leader of the Independent party was Oliver Cromwell, who took King Charles I. from the commissioners of the Parliament, and placed him in the charge of the army. The Parliament now proposed to disband the army; but the officers and troops, instigated by Cromwell, resolved to remain together. Aribitrary Proceedings of Cromwell.—Cromwell now marched to London, and subjected the city and the Parliament to his authority. The king in the mean- time escaped to the Isle of Wight. The Parliament now desired an accommodation with the king; but Charles relied upon foreign aid. Cromwell having discovered the insincerity of the king, resolved upon his destruction. The Parliament was thrown into the greatest consternation upon the reception of intelligence that the king had again been seized and placed in the power of the army, by the secret orders of Cromwell. º Colonel Pride's Purge.—The Parliament now endeavored to destroy Crom- well; but, anticipating their design, he resolved to annihilate their power by decisive blow. He therefore sent to London a body of troops under Colonel Pride who surrounded the Parliament-house and excluded all the Presbyterian member from their seats. (December, 1648.) This violent proceeding is known as “Col onel Pride's Purge.” Trial and Execution of Charles I.-Oliver Cromwell was now virtual dicta tor of England, and the Parliament, which now consisted of Independents, and which was called “The Rump Parliament,” was entirely under his control. Crom- well now caused articles of impeachment to be preferred against the king, or Charles Stuart, as he was now called, charging him with high treason, in levying war against his Parliament. A High Court of Justice was organized, and held in Westminster Hall, for the purpose of trying the king; but Charles persistently denied the juris- diction of the court. The trial commenced on the 20th of January, 1649. As the king was on his way to the court-room, he was insulted by the soldiery and the mob, who uttered all sorts of unfeeling cries. After a trial of seven days, Charles I. was declared guilty, and was condemned to death as a traitor and a murderer. On his way from the court-room, he was again insulted by the soldiers and the rab- ble, who cried out, “Justice!” “Executionſ” and some even went so far as to spit in his face. Charles bore all their insolence with patience, saying, “Poor souls, they would treat their generals the same way for a six-pence.” On the 30th of January, 1649, the king was led to the place of execution, in front of the palace ºf Whitehall. He ascended the scaffold with a firm step. Addressing those around him, he declared himself innocent toward his people, and forgave his enemies. 24o - MOZ) EAEAV HISTORY Turning to Bishop Juxon, he said, “I go from a corruptible to an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance can take place.” “You exchange,” said the bishop, “a temporal for an eternal crown; a good exchange.” The king then laid his head upon the block, saying to Bishop Juxon, “Remember.” One of the execution.crs then struck off the king's head; and another, holding it aloft, exclaimed, “This is the head of a traitor!” Many of the spectators wept at the horrid spectacle. THE COMMON WEALTH OF ENGLAND. (FEBRUARY 1, 1649–MAY 29, 1663.O.) Abolition of Monarchy—England a Commonwealth.-A few days after the execution of Charles I., the House of Lords and the monarchical form of gov- ernment were abolished by the Commons; and the “Rump Parliament,” as it was called, upheld by Oliver Cromwell and the army, governed the country. The so- called republic was styled “The Commonwealth of England.” Reduction of the Irish Royalists.-The Royalists were still active in Ireland. After arranging affairs in England, Cromwell and his army passed over into Ireland, where the Royalists, headed by the Duke of Ormond, were still in arms against the republican Parliament. After defeating the Royalists in many encounters, and taking numerous towns, Cromwell reduced Ireland to subjection, treating the van- quished with the greatest severity. Those garrisons which obstinately resisted his assaults were put to the sword, after falling into his hands. After returning to England, Cromwell received the thanks of the Parliament for reducing Ireland to Submission. Rise of the Scotch Covenanters in Favor of Prince Charles.—In the meantime, the Scotch Covenanters, who bitterly repented of their conduct toward their late unfortunate king, took up arms in favor of his son, Prince Charles, whom they acknowledged as king, by the title of Charles II. The terms upon which the Scots agreed to recognize Prince Charles as king, were that he should sign “the Covenant,” enter the Presbyterian Church, and accept a limited royal prerogative. After some hesitation, the prince agreed to these conditions, left Holland, and made his appearance in Scotland. * Battle of Dunbar.—At the head of 16,000 troops, Cromwell marched against the Scotch Covenanters, but many of his troops died from hunger and sickness on the way. At Dunbar, Cromwell, with only 12,000 men, was opposed by 27,000 Scotch Covenanters, who considered victory certain. The Scotch preachers endeav- ored to prove from the Old Testament that the Covenanters would conquer, and urged an attack upon Cromwell's army. When Cromwell saw the Scots advancing, he exclaimed, “The Lord has delivered them into our hands!” A furious battle ensued, on the 3d of September, 1650, and Cromwell gained a glorious victory. The Scotch troops threw down their arms and fled in every direction, after losing 4,000 killed and wounded, and Io,000 prisoners. º Battle of Worcester.—While Cromwell was still in Scotland, Prince Charles, with a body of Scotch troops, marched into England, and was joined by a consider- able number of English Royalists. Cromwell at length advanced against the prince; and, on the 3d of September, 1651, exactly one year after the battle of Dunbar, t SE VEAVTEAZAVZ Hº CEAV7'UA' V. 241 was fought the battle of Worcester, in which Cromwell gained another brilliant victory. The Royal army was hopelessly annihilated. Prince Charles fled from the field, and, after a series of narrow escapes, arrived safely in France. Scotland was soon subdued by General Monk, whom Cromwell had left in command in that couniry. Success of the English in a Naval War with Holland.—In C), toºxar, 1651, the English Parliament passed the famous Navigation Act, which prohioited foreigners from bringing into England in their own ships anything but their ow? productions. This measure operated injuriously against Holland, then the leading commercial nation of the world; and in May, 1652, a furious naval war broke out between England and Holland. The English navy, under the command of the gallant Admiral Blake and General Monk, the latter of whom proved to be as able a commander on sea as on land, gained splendid victories over the Dutch fleets, commanded by Van Tromp and De Ruyter. Peace was made in April, 1654, on terms humiliating to the Dutch. Cromwell's Dissolution of the Long Parliament.—In the meantime, while the war with Holland was raging, a quarrel had arisen between Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament, as to which should have the supreme power. Secure in the attachment of his army, Cromwell resolved upon a decisive blow. He per- suaded the officers of the army to present a petition to the Parliament for the pay- ment of arrears and for a redress of grievances, which he knew would be rejected with scorn. In this petition, the officers, after demanding the payment of arrears, asked the Parliament to consider how long it had sat, and what professions it had once made of establishing liberty on the widest basis. The Parliament was so ex- asperated at this haughty presumption of the army, that it appointed a committee to report an act declaring that all persons presenting such petitions in future should be considered guilty of high treason. This action was followed by a remonstrance of the army officers, to which an angry reply was returned by the Parliament. The quarrel became warmer and warmer; and when Cromwell was informed of the subject upon which the Parliament was deliberating, he left the council of officers, and, appearing very angry, hastened to the Parliament House with 300 soldiers. Leaving the soldiers outside at the door, Cromwell entered the house and sat down. After sitting for some time, he suddenly started up, exclaiming, “This is the time, —I must do it.” and stamping his foot upon the floor as a signal, the house was immediately filled with soldiers. Then addressing the members, he said, “For shame, get you gone. Give plage to honester men,_to men who will more faith- fully discharge their duties. You are no longer a Parliament: I tell you, you are no longer a Parliament. The Lord has done with you.” Sir Henry Vane crying out against this conduct, Cromwell exclaimed, “Sir Henry Vane ! O Sir Henry Vane! the Lord deliver me from Sir Henry Vane!” Cromwell then reproached the members for their vices, and said, “It is you who have forced me to do this. I have sought the Lord, night and day, that he would slay me rather than put me upon this work.” Colonel Harrison then led the speaker from the chair, and the other members rushed out of the door. After the hall had been cleared, Cromwell ordered the doors to be locked, and, putting the keys into his pocket, he returned to Whitehall. Cromwell's dissolution of the Long Parliament occurred on the 20th of April, I653. J 6 242 - MCA) EA’AV HZSTORY “Praise-God” Barebone’s Parliament.—Oliver Cromwell was now virtu- ally sole ruler of England, with more real power than any of the ancient kings. To keep up the appearance of a Commonwealth, he summoned another Parlia- ment, which was composed of the most ignorant religious fanatics. One of the principal orators of this Parliament was the leather-seller, Barebone, and the Par- liament was known as “Barebone's Parliament.” The members of this Parlia. ment, to show their religious zeal, adopted new names, consisting of several words, snd sometimes of whole sentences. Barebone himself was named “Praise-God.” Other ridiculous names adopted were, “Stand-fast-on-high” Stringer, “Fight-the- good-fight-of-faith.” White, “More-fruit” Fowler, “Good-reward” Smart, Bare- bone had a brother who was named, “If-Christ-had-not-died-for-you-you-had-been- damned” Barebone. This being too lengthy to say every time his name was mentioned, he was generally called “I)amned” Barebone. The whole conduct of Barebone's Parliament was most absurd; and at length, in December, 1653, the members agreeing that they had sat long enough, went, with Rouse, their speaker, at their head, to Cromwell, and voluntarily resigned their power into his hands. Cromwell, who was ashamed of their ridiculous proceedings, gladly accepted their resignations; and being told that some of the members had determined to remain, he sent Colonel White with a body of troops to drive them from the house. The colonel, entering the hall, asked the refractory members what they were doing there. One Moyer, whom they had placed in the chair, replied, “We are seeking the Lord.” “Then,” said White, “you may go elsewhere; for, to my certain knowledge, the Lord has not been here these many years.” The members then withdrew from the hall, and Cromwell’s authority was undisputed. Cromwell “Lord-Protector of the Commonwealth of England.”—A new constitution, called “The Instrument of Government,” projected by General Lambert, was now adopted, by which Oliver Cromwell was entrusted with the supreme power, with the title of “Lord-Protector of the Commonwealth of Eng- land, Scotland, and Ireland.” Cromwell shared the government with a Council and a Parliament; but he was in all but in name a monarch. As Lord-Protector, Cromwell governed vigorously and successfully, and made himself respected at home and abroad; and England was never more prosperous than under his firm rule. Royalist Conspiracy—War with Spain—Conquest of Jamaica.-Several subsequent Parliaments were successively dissolved by Cromwell. The Parlia- ment of 1656 offered Cromwell a crown, but he declined the offer. In 1655, a dangerous conspiracy of the Royalists was discovered, and many of the conspira- tors were punished. During the same year, the shrewd Cardinal Mazarin, who then wielded the destinies of France, by flattering Cromwell, induced England to take part with France in a war against Spain. Admiral Blake defeated the Span- ish fleets in the Mediterranean sea, and Admirals Penn and Venables conquered the island of Jamaica, in the West Indies, from the Spaniards. Jamaica has ever ince remained in the possession of England. An English force of 6,000 men joined the French in the Netherlands; and the fortress of Dunkirk, which the French took from the Spaniards, was given to England, as a reward for her assist. ance to France in the war. Conspiracies against Cromwell—His Fear of Assassination—His Death.-Cromwell’s situation was not an enviable one. He was now equally SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. g 243 hated by the Royalists and the Republicans; and many plots were formed against his power and his life. His eldest daughter, Mrs. Fleetwood, was so violent a Republican that she dreaded to see her father invested with supreme power. His favorite daughter, Mrs. Claypole, was a staunch Royalist; and on her death-bed, she reproached her father for overturning the monarchy. His other daughters, Tady Franconberg and Lady Rich, were also zealous Royalists. Conspiracy after conspiracy embittered the last days of Cromwell’s life. The Lord-Protector was in constant fear of assassination. He wore armor under his clothes, and always carried pistols in his pockets. His countenance was gloomy, and he trusted no one. When he traveled out, he was attended by a numerous guard. He never re- turned by the same road which he went; and he did not sleep more than three nights in the same room, Cromwell was delivered from his miserable existence by a slow fever, of which he died on the 3d of September, 1658,-the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester, and a day which he had always regarded as the most fortunate of his life. Thus died the greatest man that Eng- land ever produced, a great general, statesman, and ruler. Richard Cromwell Lord-Protector—His Resignation.—Richard Crom- well, Oliver's son, was proclaimed Lord-Protector of the Commonwealth of Eng- land, upon his father's death; but Richard, who had no executive abilities or firm- ness whatever, and who was of a quiet and unambitious nature, quietly resigned the Lord-Protectorship, after holding it a few months, and retired to private life. Restoration of Monarchy.—After the resignation of Richard Cromwell, Eng- land was virtually without any government, and each party endeavored to obtain the supremacy. The Rump Parliament, which Oliver Cromwell had so violently dissolved in April, 1653, reassembled, and assumed the direction of national af- fairs. But this Parliament did not possess the confidence of any party, and it was dissolved by the army commanded by General Lambert, who then undertook the control of public affaias. It was now the settled conviction of many that nothing but the restoration of monarchy would free England from a state of anarchy. Gen- eral Monk, who commanded the army in Scotland, and who had long hated Gen- eral Lambert, secretly formed the design of restoring the monarchy, in the person of Prince Charles, the eldest son of the late unfortunate monarch; and at once entered into a correspondence with the prince, who was then living in Holland. So well did General Monk conceal his design, that no one knew with which party he was acting, and he was enabled to march unopposed from Scotland to London. Lambert had in the meantime been imprisoned in the Tower, by his own troops, who now joined Monk. On the 1st of May, 1660, Monk threw off the mask, by proposing to a new Parliament, which had just been assembled, the restoration of the monarchy. This proposal was hailed with joy by the English people, who were tired of the condition of anarchy which had prevailed since the death of Oliver Cromwell. The House of Lords hastened to reinstate itself in its former dignity. On the 8th of May (1660), Prince Charles was proclaimed King of Eng- and, Scotland, and Ireland, with the title of Charles II.; and on the 29th of the same month, which was his birthday, he made his triumphal entry into London, and everything was restored to its ancient footing. 244 MO DA2 RAW HZSTORY THE RESTORED HOUSE OF STUART. REIGN OF CHARLES II. (A. D. 1660–1683). . Character of Charles II.-Charles II. was thirty years old when he found himself so unexpectedly seated on the throne of England. He had an agreeable person, a polished address, and a cheerful and engaging demeanor. His whole deportment tended to secure favor and popularity. His excessive indolence and love of pleasure made him hate business, and leave the affairs of government zo others. All that the new sovereign cared for was to live idly and jovially. First Measures and Actions of Charles II.-The first measures of the new monarch gave general satisfaction to the English nation. The Earl of Clarendon, who was highly esteemed for his virtues, was placed at the head of the Ministry; and by his uprightness and prudence, the government was conducted for some time with justice and moderation. A general amnesty was granted to all who had taken sides against the king during the civil wars, excepting those who had been chiefly concerned in procuring the death of Charles I. Of the sixty persons who had been concerned in that act, many were dead, and others had left the country. Of those brought to trial, ten were executed as regicides. Among the number was Sir Henry Vane. They all died with firmness. Oliver Cromwell, though dead, was regarded as a proper object of revenge. His body was torn from the grave and hung on a gibbet. The Protestant Episcopal Church was reëstablished, and the Presbyterian clergy were again deprived of their offices. Marriage of Charles II.--War with Holland—Peace of Breda.-The English people were dissatisfied with the marriage of Charles II., in 1662, with Catharine of Braganza, a daughter of the King of Portugal, and with the sale of Dunkirk to France; but still a greater degree of discontent was manifested when the king, in 1663, involved England in a naval war with Holland. The chief naval commanders of the English in this war were Prince Rupert and General Monk, the latter of whom had been created Duke of Albemarle, as a reward for his services in the restoration of the monarchy. The discontent of the English people and Par- liament, who were opposed to the war, obliged the king to conclude with Holland the Peace of Breda, in August, 1667, by which the Dutch colony of New Nether- land, in North America, was ceded to England, under the name of New York. Great Plague and Fire in London.—In the fall of 1665, a violent plague broke out in London, and about 90,000 persons fell victims to its ravages. In Sep- tember, 1666, a great fire, which raged for three days and three nights, reduced two-thirds of the city to ashes. Eighty-nine churches, and over 13,000 houses were destroyed. These awful calamities had no influence on King Charles II., who had already given himself up to all sorts of luxury, extravagance, and vice. His favor- ites and courtiers were the most profligate and unworthy characters. Disgrace and Banishment of Clarendon—“The Cabal” Ministry.—In 1667, the Earl of Clarendon, whose virtues and integrity had made him hated by the king's licentious favorites, fell into disgrace; and, after a trial on various frivo. lous pretenses, he was declared guilty of neglect of duty, and sentenced to banish- ment. He retired to France, where he spent the remainder of his life in writing his “Iſistory of the Rebellion.” After the disgrace of Clarendon, Charles II., SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 245 whose profligacy and debauchery increased daily, committed a series of tyrannical and violent acts. In 1667, the king entrusted the government to five of the most unprincipled men in the kingdom. These were Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, who were together called “The Cabal,” from the initial letters of their names. “The Cabal” Ministry carried on the government entirely in accordance with the wishes of the king, regardless of the rights and liberties of the people of England. e Another War with Holland—Charles II. a Pensioner of Louis XIV. --In 1672, Charles II., in utter disregard of the wishes of his subjects, began a fresh war against Holland, as an ally of Louis XIV. of France. The English king, whose pleasures were very expensive, was bribed by the French monarch to take part in the war. A secret treaty was concluded between the two sovereigns, by which Charles was to receive a secret pension from Louis. The war was carried on on the sea. The English naval commanders were Prince Rupert, Lord Sandwich, and the Duke of York, the brother of King Charles II. After the Cabal Ministry had been broken up, in 1674, by the death of Clifford and the disgrace of Ashley, men more worthy were placed at the head of affairs in England; and the great opposi- tion of the English people and Parliament forced Charles II. to renounce his alliance with the King of France and to make peace with Holland. Character of the English People During the Reign of Charles II.- Venality and corruption were now honorable among the higher classes in England. The example of the king had a most pernicious influence upon the nation. The people emulated the vices of their sovereign; and the literature of that period which obtained any popularity was contaminated with the same vicious spirit by which English society was corrupted. Under the rigid rule of the Puritans and Cromwell, during the period of the Commonwealth, vice and immorality were checked; but during the reign of Charles II., England was sunk in the lowest depths of dissipation and licentiousness. Contests Between King Charles II. and the Parliament.—King Charles II., unwarned by the fate of his father, strove for absolute power; and from the beginning to the end of his reign, there was a continual contest between the king and the Parliament. The efforts of Charles II. for the establishment of absolute royal power were firmly resisted by the Parliament, which was resolved upon up- holding its own privileges, and the rights and liberties of the people of England. Although Charles II. outwardly conformed to the Episcopal Church, he was believed to be a Roman Catholic at heart; and his brother, James, Duke of York, was an avowed Catholic. The more the Stuarts favored Roman Catholicism, the more firmly did the English people and Parliament adhere to Protestantism. The Test Act.—After a long struggle, the Parliament finally passed “the Test Act,” which required that none but members of the Church of England and con- fessors of the Protestant faith should be admitted to seats in Parliament, or to hold military or civil offices. The Parliament, which had assembled in 1660, was dis- solved by the king in 1668, and a new one summoned; but the new Parliament was no more subservient to the wishes of the king than its predecessor. A new Ministry, headed by the Earl of Shaſtesbury, who had joined the popular party, now came into power. 246 MO DE RAW HISTORY. Habeas Corpus Act.—In 1769, the Parliament passed the celebrated Habeas Corpus Act, which protected freedom of person against arbitrary arrests. According to the provisions of this act, no person could be lawfully detained in prison, unless he were accused of some specified offense for which he was legally subject to pun- ishment; and within three days the prisoner was to be brought before the judge, and reasons were to be shown why he was not set at liberty. The Whigs and the Tories.—During the contests between Charles II, and the Parliament originated two parties, which, with some change of principles, have continued to exist to the present day. These parties were called respectively “Whig” and “Tory,” names which have ever since been borne by the two great political parties in England. The Tories denied the right of resistance to royal authority, under any circumstances whatever; while the Whigs recognized the right to resist any infringement of the liberties of the people on the part of the king. Titus Oates.—Titus Oates, an infamous impostor, pretended to have discovered a plot, formed by the Catholics, to assassinate Charles II., burn London, massacre the Protestants, and place the Duke of York on the throne. Upon the testimony of Oates, and another miscreant named Bedloe, many innocent Catholics were punished with death (1678). “The Rye-House Plot.”—In 1683, a conspiracy called “The Rye-House Plot,” because the conspirators planned their schemes in a rye-house, contrived by some worthless characters, for the assassination of the king and the Duke of York, was taken advantage of by the court for the destruction of the leaders of the Whig party. Lord William Russell and Algernon Sydney, two of the most worthy and respecta- ble men of the age, were falsely charged with being concerned in the plot, and were arrested, tried, and executed. The Earl of Shaftesbury fled to Holland, the Parliament was dissolved, and from that time until his death, two years later (1685), Charles II. was as absolute a monarch as any in Europe. REIGN OF JAMES II. (A. D. 1683–1688). Accession of James II.-Monmouth's Rebellion.—On the death of King Charles II., in 1685, his brother, the Duke of York, ascended the throne of Eng- land, with the title of James II. The new sovereign was a bigoted Roman Catho- lic; and, from the moment of his coronation, he thought of little but the restoration of popery and the establishment of absolute royal power in England. Soon after the accession of James II., the Duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., headed a rebellion against his uncle, with the view of obtaining the crown of Eng- land for himself. The rebellion was speedily quelled, and the unfortunate Mon- mouth was beheaded. The Duke of Argyle, who had attempted an insurrection in Scotland in favor of Monmouth, was executed in Edinburgh. The adherents of Monmouth were also punished with death. The chief judge, Jeffries, passed through the country with a band of executioners, practicing the greatest cruelties. Attempts of James II. for the Restoration of Popery in England.— Having struck terror into the hearts of the English people by the prompt and bloody suppression of Monmouth's rebellion, King James II. fancied the way open for the reëstablishment of popery in England. The cruel Judge Jeffries was made Chan- cellor, and many of the offices were filled with Roman Catholics, in defiance of the Test Act. On one occasion, the tyrannical monarch sent six bishops to the Tower, SE VEAVTEEAVTH CEAVTUR Y. 247 for mildly protesting against his measures. Taxes were levied without the consent of Parliament; and the king, having failed by corrupt means to induce the Parlia- melt to give its approval to an edict of toleration, declared that the crown possessed the right of granting a suspension of the Test Act. By so arbitrary an exercise of power, the king could have set all laws at naught. So blindly and recklessly did James II. pursue his foolish attempts to bring England under the Pope, that his Catholic friends became alarmed. Even the Pope warned the bigoted monarch not ſo do anything rashly. THE FEVOLUTION OF 1688. Prince William of Orange—Flight of James II. to France.—The Eng- lish people for some time bore the conduct of James II. patiently, as he was old, and his two daughters, Anne and Mary, had been educated in the Church of Eng. land and were married to Protestant princes, the former to a Danish prince, and the latter to Prince William of Orange, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic; but when the hopes of the people for a release from the yoke of popery were dis- pelled by the birth of a Prince of Wales, in June, 1688, the people resolved upon the dethronement of James II., and many of the most prominent men in England entered into a negotiation with his son-in-law, the Prince of Orange. James, re- ceiving intimation of an intended invasion from Holland, became alarmed for the safety of his throne, when too late; and granted many concessions. The people of England had already resolved that James II. should no longer reign; and a declaration from the Prince of Orange, that he was coming to England, to defend liberty and Protestantism, was received with joy throughout the kingdom. On the 5th of November, 1688, William of Orange landed in England, at the head of 14,000 Dutch troops, and was everywhere welcomed by the people. The English army soon joined the invaders; the English nobility and the whole nation abandoned James II. and turned their eyes toward the Prince of Orange; and even the courtiers abandoned the king in his distress. When James was informed that the Princess Anne, his own daughter, had declared against him, he burst into tears and exclaimed, “God help me, my own children have forsaken me!” The unhappy monarch now hearkened to the advice of the queen and the priests, and resolved upon leaving the kingdom. After sending his wife and infant son to France, James left London, on the 12th of December, 1688; but he was stopped at Feversham and brought back by the people, much to the dissatisfaction of the Prince of Orange, who had prom- ised his wife that her father should receive no personal injury; and James, by the assistance of William of Orange, was enabled to escape to France. The fugitive king landed in France on the 25th of December, 1688, and proceeded to St. Ger- main, near Paris, where he was honorably received by Louis XIV., King of France, from whom, thenceforth until his death, the exiled monarch received a pensicn. Enthronement of William and Mary—“The Bill of Rights.”—The Par- liament which now assembled declared that the king's flight was abdication, and decreed that the Catholic line of the House of Stuart should be forever excluded from the throne of England. The Prince of Orange and his wife were then plo, claimed joint-sovereigns, with the title of William and Mary. The new sovereigns received the English crown upon certain conditions, which were set forth in a “Bill of Rights,” in which the rights and liberties of the English people and the powers 248 MODERAV HISTORY. of the monarch were defined. The following were the most important provisions of the Bill of Rights: the king can not suspend à law or withhold its execution; he can not levy money without the consent of Parliament; the subjects have a right to petition the king; no standing army can be kept in time of peace without the consent of Parliament; elections and Parliamentary debates must be free; and Parliament must be frequently assembled. The flight and deposition of James II., and the election of William and Mary to the throne of England, is designated “the Glorious Revolution of 1688.” The long struggle for freedom against the en- croachments of the king, was now terminated in the triumph of the cause of the people, and ever since that time England has been essentially a free government. REIGN OF WILLIAM AND MARY (A. D. 1689–17O2). Rise of the Scotch Highlanders in favor of James II.-Massacre of Glencoe.—The English people were almost unanimous in support of William and Mary; but some of the Highland clans of Scotland refused to acknowledge the new sovereigns, and took up arms for the dethroned James II. The Viscount Dundee (Graham of Claverhouse), the leader of the rebellious Highlanders, de- feated the forces of William and Mary in the battle of Killicrankie, in 1689, but he was killed in the moment of victory. The Highlanders, on account of the loss of their chieftain, were soon reduced to submission, and were required to take an oath of allegiance to the new sovereigns. The clan of Macdonald, having failed to take the oath within the specified time, were cruelly massacred at Glencoe, by the . clan of the Campbells, headed by the Earl of Breadalbane. Rise of the Irish in favor of James II.-Battle of the Boyne.-The Catholic Irish also arose against the new King and Queen of England, and drew their swords for the fallen James II. The French monarch, Louis XIV., who had espoused the cause of the deposed James II., sent troops to Ireland to as- - sist the Irish insurgents. James was conveyed to the Irish coast by a French fleet. James unsuccessfully besieged the Protestant town of Londonderry, in the north of Ireland, and was opposed by King William, who came over into Ireland at the head of a large English army. On the IIth of July, 1690, James was completely defeated by William in the decisive battle of the Boyne. After this misfortune, James fled to France, without making another effort to recover his lost crown. The war in Ireland was terminated in 1691, by the defeat and death of the Irish general St. Ruth, in the battle of Aughrim, and the submission of the Irish to the government of William and Mary. War with France—Peace of Ryswick.-The conduct of Louis XIV., in affording assistance to the dethroned James II., led to a war between England and France in 1689. The Peace of Ryswick ended this war in 1697; and since that time England has been the leading commercial and maritime power of the world. Death of Mary and William—Queen Anne–Attempts of the Stuarts. ---Queen Mary died in 1693; and King William III., in 1702, from the effects of a fall from his horse, and was succeeded on the throne of England by Anne, the younger daughter of James II. In 1707, a legislative union took place between England and Scotland, since which time the Parliaments of the two nations have been united. When Queen Anne died, in 1714, the Elector of Hanover ascended \ SE WEAV7'EEAV7'H CEAV7'UR Y. 249 the throne of England, with the title of George I. During the reigns of George I. (1714—1727) and George II. (1727-1760), two futile attempts were made to re- store the Stuarts to the throne. WARS OF LOUIS XIV. FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN, RICHELIEU'S ADMINISTRATION (1624-1642). Louis XIII.-Mary de Medicis.-The murdered Henry IV. was succeeded on the throne of France by his son, Louis XIII., during whose minority the queen- mother, Mary de Medicis, conducted the government as regent. As Mary reposed her confidence in her Italian favorites, who enriched themselves at the expense of the French nation, the French nobility rose in rebellion, and filled the kingdom with confusion and anarchy. Cardinal Richelieu-Civil and Religious Wars—Capture of Rochelle. —When Louis XIII. arrived at majority, he indeed agreed to have the favorites of his mother put to death, and to have his mother removed from court; but he bestowed his favor upon others, who were as unpopular as their predecessors had been, and the French nobles again took up arms. These disturbances were only Huelled when the talented, energetic, and ambitious Cardinal Richelieu was placed at the head of the state as Prime-Minister. This great statesman governed France for eighteen years with the most absolute power. (1624–1642.) For the purpose of extending the French territory to the Rhine, and humbling the proud House of Austria, Richelieu leagued with the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War. He defeated the Huguenots in three wars, and destroyed their fortresses. The most celebrated event of these wars was the siege and capture of Rochelle, the principal stronghold of the Huguenots. The place was obstinately defended until compelled by famine to surrender, when the Huguenots received toleration for their worship, by the Edict of Nismes. Humbling of the French Nobles—Death of Richelieu and Louis XIII. —After the defeat of the Huguenots, the rebellious French nobles were subdued, and forced to lay down their arms. The boldest of them were banished or exe- cuted; and the queen-mother, and her son, the Duke of Orleans, who had attempted to overthrow Richelieu, were obliged to leave the kingdom, and Duke Henry of Montmorenci was executed at Toulouse. The Cinq Mars and De Thou were also put to death for conspiring against Richelieu’s power. The mighty cardinal died in December, 1642; and King Louis XIII., who was not possessed of any great abilities, survived only a few months longer. MAZARIN'S ADMINISTRATION (1643–1661). Accession of Louis XIV.-Anne of Austria—Cardinal Mazarin.— I cuis XIII. was succeeded on the French throne by his son, Louis XIV., under whom France become the most powerful nation in the world. During the minority of Louis XIV., who reigned seventy-two years, the government was conducted by the queen-mother, Anne of Austria, as regent. As Anne reposed her favor on the 25o MODERN HISTORY. Italian Cardinal Mazarin, whose principles and aims were the same as those of Richelieu, and appointed him Prime-Minister, the French nobility violently opposed her, and endeavored to regain their lost power and influence. “The Wars of the Fronde.”—At the head of the discontented party was Cardinal de Retz, who gained the French people to the side of the nobility, and gave occasion to a four-years' civil war, known as “The Wars of the Fronde.” In 1648, the citizens of Paris resisted the execution of the oppressive measures of Mazarin, which was the commencement of this civil strife. Mazarin was obliged to leave the country for awhile; but he governed the French kingdom almost as absolutely from Cologne as he had before done from Paris. After the insurgents, under the great Condé, had been overthrown by the royal army under Marshal Turenne, in the suburb of St. Antoine, in Paris, Mazarin was enabled to return to Paris and to govern with as despotic power as before. Cardinal de Retz, after being liberated from prison, was compelled to leave the country; and Condé lived among the Spaniards for six years, after which he was pardoned by the king, and again received into the royal favor. War with Spain—Treaty of the Pyrenees—Death of Mazarin.—During the period of Mazarin's administration, Franoe was engaged in a war with Spain. The seat of this war was the Spanish Netherlands. The banished Condé, who led the Spanish armies, gained brilliant victories; but he found an able rival in Marshal Turenne, who commanded the French forces. Mazarin induced England, then under the iron rule of Oliver Cromwell, to take part in the war as an ally of France; and Dunkirk, which the French had taken from the Spaniards, was given to Eng- land, as a reward for an English army of 6,000 men which had reinforced the French in the Spanish Netherlands. At length both Spain and France grew tired of the war; and in November, 1659, was concluded the Treaty of the Pyrenees, by which the infanta, Maria. Theresa, daughter of King Philip IV. of Spain, was given in marriage to Louis XIV., who on his part renounced all claims to the Spanish throne for himself and his children, and pardoned Condé and again received him into favor. The despotic rule of Mazarin ended with the death of that great states- man, on the 9th of March, 1661. GOVERNMENT AND WARS OF LOUIS XIV. Lou Is XIV. AND HIS WAR VVITH SPAIN. Louis XIV. and His Generals and Ministers.-Upon Mazarin's death, Louis XIV. appointed no prime-minister, but took the government into his own hands. For fifty-four years this celebrated monarch reigned with the most absolute power, which he wielded in a very despotic manner. His Ministers were but passive instruments for the execution of his will. Louis XIV. was the greatest monarch of his age. His great generals, Condé, Turenne, and Luxembourg, and the engineer Vauban, surpassed in skill the generals of all other countries. His Minister of Finance, Colbert, managed the finances of the kingdom with the greatest skill, and encouraged all kinds of manufactures. It was owing to the economy of Colbert that the building of the Louvre, the Palace of Versailles, the Hotel des Invalides, and the construction c.f the Canal of Languedoc, were commenced. Louvois, Mini- ster of War, also possessed abilities necessary for the direction of great exploits. ,SE WEAVTEEAVTH CEAV7'UR Y. 25 I War with Spain—Triple Alliance—Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.—Louis XIV. was ambitious of military glory, and desirous for the extension of his kingdom. We have seen that, by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in 1659, Louis renounced all claims to any portion of the Spanish dominions. This solemn renunciation he set aside; and on the death of Philp IV. of Spain, he laid claim to the whole of the Spanish Netherlands, as the husband of Philip's daughter. In 1667, a French army was sent into the Spanish Netherlands, which were subdued in two campaigns, The other powers of Europe became alarmed; and England, Holland, and Sweden, entered into a “Triple Alliance,” for the purpose of defending the Spanish mon- archy. Threatened by this formidable coalition, the French monarch found himself obliged to conclude the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which he was required tº restore much of the territory which he had conquered. VVAR WITH HOLLAND (1672–1679). French Invasion of Holland.—Burning with revenge toward Holland, the originator of the Triple Alliance, Louis resolved upon the subjugation of that coun- try. After purchasing the alliance of Charles II. of England and the neutrality of Sweden, Louis XIV. took the field against Holland, at the head of an army of Ioo,000 men, and advanced triumphantly almost to the gates of Amsterdam. Desperate Situation of Holland.—The situation of Holland was now most desperate, and it appeared that the unfortunate republic must lose her independence. Many of the inhabitants prepared to embark on their fleet, and sail to their East India possessions. The republic implored peace, but the haughty French monarch absolutely refused. When the Grand-Pensionary of Holland, Cornelius DeWitt, proposed to surrender his country to the conquering French, he was assassinated in the streets of Amsterdam, by his enraged countrymen, and Prince William of Orange (afterwards King William III. of England) was placed at the head of the Dutch Republic, with the title of Stadtholder. Amsterdam had been secured against the French by opening the dykes, thus laying the surrounding country under water. - Alliance of Spain and Germany with Holland.—Frederic William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, came to the rescue of Holland in her critical situa- tion; and the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany and King Charles II. of Spain joined in the war against France, and sent troops to the aid of the imperiled repub- lic; while Charles II. of England was forced by the clamors of his subjects and his Parliament to make peace with the Dutch. (I674.) The War in the Spanish Netherlands and on the Rhine.—Louis XIV, was now obliged to abandon Holland; but in the Spanish Netherlands, his great generals, Condé and Turenne, fought successively against the allied Dutch, Span- ish, and German armies, under Prince William of Orange and the imperial general Montecuculi. For the purpose of punishing the Elector Palatine, who had joined the enemies of France, the French ravaged the beautiful country of the Palatinate of the Rhine with fire and sword. The Elector Palatine beheld, at one time, from his castle windows at Manheim, two cities and twenty-five villages on fire. , Swedish Invasion of Brandenburg—Battle of Fehrbellin.—For the pur pose of separating the Great Elector, Frederic William, from the German imperial 252 MO.J.ERN HISTORY. army on the Rhine, the French monarch induced the Swedes, his allies, to invade the March of Brandenburg. Frederic William marched against the Swedish inva- ders of his dominions; and on the 28th of June, 1675, he severely defeated them in the battle of Fehrbellin, which laid the foundation of the future kingdom of Prussia. Soon afterward, Marshal Turenne was killed by a cannon ball in the battle of Salzbach. Peace of Nimeguen.—At length all the belligerents, mutually exhausted, became anxious for peace; and in 1678, a treaty of peace was concluded at Nime- guen, In Holland, by which Holland remained in possession of everything she had before the war, but Spain surrendered Franche-Comte and French Flanders to the King of France. Encroachments of Louis XIV.-Bombardment of Algiers and Genoa. —Having dictated the Peace of Nimeguen, and encouraged by his triumph, Louis XIV. committed many acts of violence and aggression, and so aroused the hostility of the greater part of Europe. He seized on many of the neighboring dependen- cies of the German Empire, and even took possession of the free city of Strasburg, in September, 1681. Spain, Austria, and the German Empire, instead of attempt- ing to defend their possessions, concluded the treaty of Regensburg with the inso- lent Louis, by which he was allowed to retain what he had already taken. In 1683, a French fleet bombarded Algiers and compelled the pirates to beg for mercy; and in 1684, Genoa suffered a similar punishment, for refusing to permit the French monarch to establish a depot within its territory. TUF Pºl SH IN VASION OF AUSTRIA. Efforts of Louis XIV. to weaken the House of Austria–Hungarian Rebellion.—Louis XIV. tried in every possible manner to weaken the power of the House of Austria. He induced the Turks to renew their invasions of the Austrian territories, and encouraged and aided the Hungarians in their insurrections against the Austrian power. The tyranny of the Emperor Leopold I. over the Protestants of Hungary produced a formidable rebellion against his authority on the part of the Hungarian people, who were led by Emmerik Tokeli, a patriotic magnate. The Austrian armies were soon driven out of Hungary by the insurgents, who re- ceived effective assistance from the French and the Turks. Turkish Invasion of Austria—Siege of Vienna—John Sobieski.-En- couraged by the Hungarian rebellion, a Turkish army of 300,000 men under Kara Mustapha invaded the Austrian territories, and devastated the country to the walls of Vienna, in 1683. The Emperor Leopold I. fled in consternation to Lintz, and the Ottoman forces laid siege to the Austrian capital. It appeared that Vienna must soon fall, but the inhabitants of the city, assisted by a small force under Rudi. get von Stahremberg, defended the city for two months, when the heroic John Sobieski, King of Poland, who had become famous for his victories over the Turks, hastened with his army, at the earnest solicitations of the Emperor of Germany, to expel the besieging infidels. The German imperial army, under Prince Charles 2f Lorraine, joined the forces of John Sobieski. The united Polish and German troops numbered only 70,000, while the Turks numbered almost 300,000. Terrible Defeat and Rout of the Turks at Vienna by John Sobieski.- SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 253 At five o'clock in the evening of Sunday, the 12th of September, 1683, under the direction of the Polish king, a furious attack was made on the Ottoman lines be- fore Vienna; and in the space of an hour, the whole Turkish host was compelled to flee in the wildest dismay. An eclipse of the moon added to the consternation of the superstitious Turks. The Grand Vizier, observing the eclipse, exclaimed, “Look at the sky! See if God is not against us!” The Moslems in their flight abandoned all their camels, artillery, baggage, and camp equipage to the victorious Poles and Germans. This memorable and decisive victory of civilization and Christianity over barbarism and Mohammedanism marks the era of the decline of .ae Ottoman Empire. The intelligence of this great victory produced unbounded joy throughout Christendom, but to Louis XIV., who had been the cause of this Turkish invasion, it was unwelcome news. The Emperor of Germany, who was envious of the favor and applause with which his subjects everywhere greeted the King of Poland, treated him with the meanest ingratitude. The valiant John Sobieski died in 1696, and with his death ended the glory of Poland. Hungary Made an Hereditary Kingdom.—After the defeat of the Turks at Vienna, the Austrians reconquered Hungary, and compelled Emmerik Tokeli, the insurgent Hungarian chieftain, to flee from the country. The Emperor Leopold I. then caused the Hungarian elective constitution to be abolished, and made Hun- gary one of the hereditary possessions of the House of Hapsburg. Coalition Against the Ottoman Porte—German Victories.—After the siege of Vienna had been raised, Germany, Poland, Russia, and Venice formed an alliance against the Ottoman Porte. Bloody battles were fought between the Ger- man and Ottoman forces, on the Danube, in the vicinity of Belgrade; and the German imperial forces, under those famous generals, Prince Charles of Lorraine, Prince Louis of Baden, and Prince Eugene of Savoy, gained brilliant victories over the Turks. The Austrians gained a great victory at Mohacz, on the 12th of August, 1687; Louis of Baden defeated the Turks at Salankemen, on the 19th of August, 1691; and Prince Eugene, on the IIth of September, 1697, gained the battle of Zenta, in which the Turks lost 30,000 men. Peace of Karlowitz.-Finally, in 1699, the Peace of Karlowitz terminated this war gloriously for Germany and her allies. Hungary and Transylvania were left to Austria; Podolia and the Ukraine were ceded to Poland; Azov was surrendered to Russia; and the Morea, or Southern Greece, was given up to Venice. PERSECUTION OF THE HUGUENOTS. Marriage of Louis XIV. with Madame de Maintenon—“The Dragon- made.”—The first wife of Louis XIV. having died in 1683, that monarch privately married the widow of the poet Scarron, in 1685, and conferred upon her the title of Madame de Maintenon. Colbert, who had protected the Huguenots from persecu- tion, was now dead; and Louis XIV., who was a bigoted Roman Catholic, listened to the counsels of such men as Louvois, and his father, Le Tellier, and commenced a rigorous persecution of the Huguenots. Troops were sent into the districts in. habited by Protestants; and Louvois declared that “it was the desire of the king that all who did not conform to the religion of his majesty should be treated with the greatest severity.” The troops who were sent to enforce this decree being princi- 254 A/OA) EAEAV HTVSTORY. pally cavalry, the persecution was called a “Dragonnade.” The unfortunate Pro- testants were treated in the most cruel manner by the troops quartered amongst them. Many were atrociously massacred; and at length the ports and frontiers of France were closed against the Huguenots, and such as attempted to escape were sent to the galleys. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes—Migration of the Huguenots.— Finally, in 1685, Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of Nantes, by which the good Henry IV. had secured toleration to the Calvinists. The Huguenot churches were destroyed; and orders were given to take Protestant children from their parents, that they might be instructed in the Catholic faith. There was now no safety for the unfortunate victims of persecution, but in flight from their native land. Not- withstanding all the precautions taken to prevent their escape, about half a million Huguenots succeeded in reaching Protestant countries, carrying with them, not only their wealth, but also their skill in manufactures and their habits of industry. The fugitives were welcomed in England, Holland, and Germany, which countries were benefitted by their knowledge of the manufactures which had hitherto been con- fined to France. This cruel measure of Louis XIV. gave a severer blow to the prosperity of France than all his long and expensive wars against the combined powers of Europe. l wAR OF THE LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG (1683-1897). The League of Augsburg.—Through the efforts of Prince William of Orange, the deadly enemy of Lous XIV., an alliance, known as “The League of Augsburg,” was formed by the German Empire, Spain, and Holland, in 1686, to check the ag- gressions of the King of France. Savoy, Denmark, and Sweden, joined the league; and the Revolution in England, in 1688, by which William of Orange ascended the English throne, placed England at the head of the coalition against France. Desolation of the Palatinate.—The French king did not wait to be attacked; but resolving to anticipate the purposes of his enemies, he sent an army of IOO,Ooo men, under his son, the Dauphin, to invade Germany, in 1688. The beautiful dis- trict of the Palatinate of the Rhine suffered a desolation far more terrible than in the Dutch war. More than forty cities, and hundreds of flourishing villages were reduced to ashes; and the unfortunate inhabitants were driven out into the fields in the middle of winter. The important cities of Manheim, Heidelberg, Spire, Worms, and Mayence were partly burned. French Invasions—Battle of the Boyne.—French armies were sentinto Spain, Italy, and the Spanish Netherlands. A French force of 6,000 men was also sent into Ireland, to assist the deposed James II. in his attempts to recover the throne of England; but this force was utterly defeated by King William III., in the decisive battle of the Boyne, on the IIth of July, 1690. - Success of the French Arms—Battle of LaHogue.—The French arms triumphed everywhere on the continent of Europe. In 1692, King William III, at the head of the English and Dutch forces, was defeated in the Spanish Nether. lands, by the French army under Marshal Luxembourg. In consequence of this event, the strongly fortified town of Namur fell into the hands of the French; and in 1693, King William was defeated in the battle of Neerwinden, with the loss of SE WEAV7'EAEAVTH CENTURY. 255 30,000 men. In Italy, the French army under Marshal Catinat defeated the Ger- man imperial forces under Prince Eugene of Savoy. In Spain and Germany also, the French had the advantage; but the French fleet under Admiral Tourville was annihilated by the English navy, off Cape LaHogue, on the 9th of May, 1692. This battle blasted the hopes of James II. being restored to the English throne, and gave to England the future Supremacy of the seas. Peace of Ryswick.-At length all parties grew tired of the war; and in 1697, a treaty of Peace was signed at Ryswick, in Holland. Notwithstanding all the victories of the French arms, the terms of this peace were humiliating to Louis XIV., who was required to restore all his conquests from Spain and Germany except Strasburg, and to acknowledge the title of William III. to the throne of England. The possession of Strasburg extended the French dominions to the Rhine. The reason why Louis consented to so unfavorable a peace, was because he saw the necessity of peace to carry out his designs at the approaching vacancy of the Spanish throne. ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES. VIRGINIA (A. D. 1607-1776). VIRGINIA, UNDER THE LONDON COMPANY (16O7–1624) Sir Walter Raleigh's Unsuccessful Colonization Efforts—Virginia Named.—In 1584, the distinguished Sir Walter Raleigh, one of Queen Eliza- beth's favorites, sent two vessels under Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow to make discoveries in America. They landed on the coast of the present State of North Carolina, but soon returned to England, where they gave a very glowing descrip- tion of the country which they had discovered; and Queen Elizabeth, in considera- tion of her unmarried state, named the territory “Virginia.” In 1585 and 1586, Raleigh made unsuccessful efforts to plant colonies in Virginia. The London and Plymouth Companies—South and North Virginia.- In 1606, King James I. of England granted the territory between the Potomac and Cape Fear rivers, under the name of South Virginia, to an association in London, known as the London Company. At the same time, the king granted the territory now known as New England, under the name of North Virginia, to a company in the West of England, called the Plymouth Company. Settlement of Jamestown.—In 1607, one-hundred and five English emigrants, under Captain Christopher Newport, sailed up the beautiful river which they named “James,” in honor of their king; and on the bank of that stream they began a settle- ment which they named “Jamestown.” This was the first permanent English settlement in America. The settlers suffered greatly from cold, hunger, and the hostilities of the natives, until the famous Captain John Smith assumed the direc- tion of affairs, and, by his skillful management, restored confidence. The Legend of Smith and Pocahontas.-Captain Smith explored the country northward to the interior of the present Pennsylvania. According to a well-known story now generally discredited, Smith was taken prisoner by the Indians, whose emperor, Powhatan, determined to put him to death; but Poca- 256 MODE RAW HISTORY hontas, the daughter of Powhatan, interceded for the prisoner, and saved his life whereupon Smith was released, and permitted to return to Jamestown. The “Starving Time’”—Lord Delaware’s Arrival—Marriage of Poca- bontas.--When Captain Smith returned to England, in 1609, the colony at Jamestown ceased to prosper, and was soon reduced by famine from five-hundred persons to sixty. The winter and spring of 1610 was long known as “The Starving Time.” The remaining settlers were about to leave Virginia, when, in 1611, Lord I elaware, who had been appointed governor of the colony, arrived from England, with emigrants and provisions, and the colonists resolved to remain. In 1613, the Indian maiden, Pocahontas, was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe. She was then taken to England and presented at Court. First Legislative Assembly in America—Introduction of Negro-Sla- very.—In 1619, representative government was established in Virginia; and, on the 28th of June of that year, the first legislative assembly in America convened at Jamestown. In 1620, one-hundred and fifty white women were brought to Jamestown, and sold to the planters for wives, at the cost of their passage. During the same year (1620), a Dutch vessel loaded with negroes, ascended the James river, and sold twenty of them for slaves to the planters at Jamestown. This was the beginning of negro-slavery within the domain of the present United States. Virginia Constitution—House of Burgesses—Indian War of 1622.-- Sir Francis Wyatt, who became governor of the colony in 1621, gave the Virgin-, ians a written constitution which allowed them a popular legislative assembly. This was the beginning of the celebrated Virginia. “House of Burgesses.” The constitution vested the appointment of governor and council in the London Com- pany. In 1622, the Indians, under the leadership of Opechancanough, Powhatan's brother and successor, massacred 350 of the Virginia colonists, and reduced eighty plantations to eight. The whites began a terrible war of revenge against the sav- ages, slaughtered many of them most unmercifully, and drove the remainder into the wilderness. v1RGINIA. A ROYAL PROVINCE (1624–1776). Dissolution of the London Company—Sir William Berkeley—Indian War of 1644.—In 1624, King James I., by an act of high-handed usurpation, dis- solved the London Company, and, taking away its charter, made Virginia a royal province, but he wisely abstained from interference with the House of Burgesses. In 1641, the staunch royalist, Sir William Berkeley, was appointed governor of Virginia, by King Charles I., and during his administration of nearly forty years, the colony rapidly advanced in prosperity. In 1644, another war broke out with the Indians, still governed by Opechancanough; and, after a struggle of two years, the power of the savages was broken, and they ceded large tracts of land to the Virginians. Governor Berkeley’s Tyranny—Bacon's Rebellion—Destruction of Jamestown.—The Virginians, although democratic, sympathized with the king during the civil war in England. When monarchy was restored in England, in 1660, full power was given to Governor Berkeley to restrict the liberties of the Virginians. Berkeley's tyranny produced a popular rebellion, in 1676, headed by w All * * * º º |||| | º * \ O|| \ {}^ll jhi ||f|| \\ * * CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. ~s POCAHONTAS RESCUING CAPTAIN SMITH, SEWAEAV7'EAEAV7'Hº CEAV7'UR W. 257 the staunch republican, Nathaniel Bacon, who assumed command of 500 men without the permission of Berkeley, who proclaimed the popular leader a traitor. Bacon drove Berkeley from Jamestown, and set the place on fire, and the first town founded by the English in America was reduced to ashes. Soon afterward Bacon died, and with his death ended the rebellion. . The rebels were severely punished; and fines, imprisonments, and confiscations of property disgraced the remainder of Berkeley's administration. From the time of the English Revolution of 1688, Vir. ginia was a prosperous and flourishing colony. MASSACHUSETTS (A. D. 162O-1776.) PLYMoUTH colony (1eoz-1692). Bartholomew Gosnold’s Discoveries—Captain John Smith in New England.—In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold, Raleigh's friend, explored the coast of Massachusetts bay, and discovered and named Cape Cod. He also discovered the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and a group which he named the Elizabeth Islands, in honor of his queen. In 1603 and 1606, Martin Pring visited the coast of North Virginia. In 1614, the intrepid Captain John Smith explored the country between Cape Cod and the Penobscot, and named the region “New England.” w The Council of Plymouth—Emigration of English Puritans to Hol— land.—In 1616, the Plymouth Company was dissolved, and a new company was formed, which was called “The Council of Plymouth,” and to which was granted the territory called New England. A few years previous to this, a company of English Puritans, who had suffered persecution in their native land, because they did not conform to the established Anglican Church, settled in Holland. They were led by the Reverend John Robinson. Failing to become reconciled to the customs and habits of the Dutch, these humble Puritans, who felt that they were only pilgrims in this world, resolved to emigrate to the wilds of America, where they might worship God in their own way. The Puritan Settlement of Plymouth in New England.—These Puritans in Holland formed a partnership with some London merchants, who furnished them with capital for their enterprise. They returned to England; and in September, 1620, one-hundred and one of these pious men and women sailed for New England in a vessel called “the Mayflower.” These “Pilgrim Fathers,” as they are called, landed on a rock on the coast of Massachusetts bay, on the 21st of December, 162o. They named the place of landing “Plymouth;” and the town which they founded is the oldest in New England. In the cabin of the Mayflower, just before landing, they had adopted a written constitution of government, and chosen John Carver for their governor. Several months after their landing (March 21, 1621), Governor Carver made a treaty of friendship with Massasoit, the sachem of the Wampanoag Indians. A few days after this treaty, Governor Carver died, and William Brad- ford became governor of the colony. Many of the settlers had died during the winter. Other emigrants came. In 1627, the Plymouth colonists purchased the interests of the London merchants, and became the sole proprietors of the country in which they had established themselves; and in 1634, they abolished their pure democracy, and adopted the more convenient form of representative government. 17 258 MODERAV HISTORY. MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY (1628–1776). Founding of the Puritan Colony of Massachusetts Bay—John Endi- cott.—In 1628, John Endicott and one hundred Puritan emigrants founded Salem. They had been sent from England by a company which the following year (1629) was incorporated “The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New Eng- land.” In the same year the Company assigned the charter and government to the colonists. During 1629, other immigrants arrived, and settled Charlestown. Arrival of John Winthrop—Founding of Boston and other Towns.-- In 1630, a large number of Puritans from England arrived at Salem, with John Winthrop as governor. Some of them made settlements at Dorchester, Roxbury, Watertown, Cambridge, and Lynn; while Winthrop and others settled Boston, which became the capital of the Massachusetts Bay colony and the future metrop- olis of New England. In 1634, representative government was established in the colony of Massachusetts Bay. Puritan Intolerance—Banishment of Roger Williams and Ann Hutch- inson—The Puritans, who had just suffered so much persecution in England for their religious opinions, were no sooner settled in New England than they became persecutors themselves, and allowed no toleration for difference of opinion in reli- gious or civil matters. In 1635, Roger Williams, a Puritan minister of the gospel, was banished from the Massachusetts Bay colony, because he advocated toleration for all religious beliefs. Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island the next year. (1636.) Religious dissensions still disturbed the Massachusetts Bay colony; and in 1637, Mrs. Ann Hutchinson and the Reverend John Wheelwright, supporters of Williams, were banished. “The United Colonies of New England.”—In 1643, the New England colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven, united in a confederacy for mutual protection against the French, the Dutch, and the Indians. This union, called “The United Colonies of New England,” lasted more than forty years, when mutual jealousies caused its dissolution. Persecution of Quakers.-The year 1656 is noted in the history of the Massa chusetts Bay colony for a most cruel persecution of Quakers who sought an asylum in that colony. Some were whipped, others were imprisoned, and many were put to death. Finally a milder spirit prevailed, and persecution ceased. Popular Resistance to Royal Oppression.—The New Englanders, unlike the Virginians, sympathized with the enemies of the king during the civil war in England. When monarchy was restored in the mother country, in 1660, an at- tempt was made to restrict the liberties of the people of New England; and a royal commission was appointed to govern the colony of Massachusetts Bay; but this attempt at usurpation encountered so much popular resistance that it was relin- quished, and republicanism was triumphant. King Philip's War.—In 1675, the Wampanoag prince, Metacomet, commonly known as “King Philip,” the son and successor of the good Massasoit, commerced a war of extermination against the white people of New England. Philip's first attack was made at Swanzey, on Sunday, July 4th, 1675, and many of the whites were massacred. The whites were soon aroused, and seized their arms, while the savages desolated the English settlements on the Connecticut river. King Philip §. SE WEAV7'EAZAWTH CEAV7'UA' P. 259 was repulsed in an attack upon Hatfield, in October, 1675; after which he was sheltered by the Narragansets of Rhode Island. A force of 1,500 New Englanders resented the hostile conduct of the Narragansets by applying the torch to their wig- wams; and hundreds of Indian men, women, and children perished in the flames, and a thousand of their warriors were killed or captured. The following year (1676), the Indians were subjugated, and their great leader, King Philip, was shot by an Indian who was friendly to the whites. New England Charters Annulled—Tyrannical Rule of Sir Edmund Andros.-After James II. became King of England, in 1685, he annulled the charter of the Massachusetts Bay colony, and appointed the infamous Sir Edmund Andros to rule all New England as Governor-General. Andros governed tyran- nically for two years; but when, in 1689, news reached Boston of the Revolution in England which drove King James II. from the throne, the Bostonians seized and imprisoned Andros, and sent him to England on a just charge of maladminis- tration in office; and the New England colonies resumed their charters. “Salem Witchcraft.”—In 1692, the people of Massachusetts Bay were af. flicted with a great delusion, known as “The Salem Witchcraft.” A general belief in sorcery prevailed; many unfortunate persons were accused of practicing witch- craft; and, during a period of six months, about twenty persons were put to death, and many others were imprisoned. This frightful delusion passed away as sud- denly as it had appeared. Union of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay as One Royal Province. —In 1692, King William III. of England united the colonies of Plymouth, Massa- chusetts Bay, and the English settlements in Maine and New Brunswick, as one royal province, under the name of Massachusetts; and appointed Sir William Phipps governor. NEW YORK (A. D. 1623–1776). DUTCH COLONY OF NEW NETHERLAND (1623–1664). Henry Hudson's Discoveries and Explorations.—In 1609, Henry Hudson, an English navigator, then in the service of the Dutch East India Company, ex- plored the American coast from Chesapeake bay to Long Island Sound, and sailed up the beautiful river which bears his name, as far as the site of Albany. On this account, the Dutch claimed the territory drained by this stream. On a subsequent voyage, Hudson discovered the large bay which bears his name, in British America, and, while on his home voyage, his crew became mutinous and sent Hudson and his son in a boat adrift on the ice, and they were no more heard of. The Dutch West-India Company and the New Netherland Grant.— In 1614, the Dutch erected huts on Manhattan Island; and in the same year, the Dutch built a fort near the site of Albany. In 1621, the States-General of Hol- land granted great privileges of colonization to a company of Amsterdam merchants who were incorporated the Dutch West India Company. This company claimed the territory between Cape Henlopen and the Connecticut river; and named it * New Netherland.” Founding of New Amsterdam and Fort Orange—Minuit and Van 26o MODEA&AW HISTOR V. Twiller.—In 1623, permanent Dutch settlements were made at New Amsterdam, on Manhattan Island, and at Fort Orange, on the site of Albany. Immigrants from Holland came over into the colony in large numbers. The first governor of New Netherland was Peter Minuit (1626-1633), and the second was Wouter Van Twil- ler (1633-1638). Turbulent Administration of William Kieft—War with the Indians.— The third governor of New Netherland was the haughty, rapacious, and despotic Sir William Kieft, who vainly tried to suppress the growth of democracy among the New Netherlanders, and whose turbulent spirit soon involved him in trouble with the Swedes on the Delaware, the English on the Connecticut, the Indians all around him, and the colonists at his door. With cruel treachery, Kieft attacked the Indians at Hoboken, and hostilities were carried on with the greatest ferocity for two years, when the Indians were subdued, and their power and spirit was broken. In 1647, the quarrelsome Kieft was recalled; and on his way to Europe, his vessel was wrecked, and the infamous governor perished. Energetic Administration of Peter Stuyvesant—Conquest of New Sweden.—The fourth and last governor of New Netherland was the firm and energetic Peter Stuyvesant, who endeavored, as much as prudence would permit, to check the growing spirit of republicanism among the New Netherland people, who grew bolder by degrees, and who finally denied the right of taxation without representation, and showed an inclination to bear English rule for the sake of enjoying English liberty. In 1655, Governor Stuyvesant conquered the Swedish settlements on the Delaware, and annexed New Sweden to New Netherland. Conquest of New Netherland by the English.-In 1664, King Charles II. of England granted to his brother, James, Duke of York and Albany, all the ter- ritory embraced by the Dutch colony of New Netherland. The Duke sent a small naval force under Colonel Richard Nicolls to take possession of New Netherland, which was done in September of the same year. (1664.) The people of New Amsterdam, tired of Stuyvesant's rigor, and hoping to enjoy greater political free- dom under English rule, made no resistance, and Stuyvesant was obliged to surren- der the place to Nicolls. The name “New York” was given to New Amsterdam, as well as to the province of New Netherland; and Fort Orange was named “Albany.” ENGLISH PROVINCE OF NEW YORK (1664–1776). English Tyranny—Dutch Capture of New York—Its Restoration to the English.-Colonel Nicolls was the first governor of the English province of New York. The Dutch colonists were disappointed in their hopes of enjoying greater political liberty under English rule, as Nicolls, and his successor, Francis ſlovelace, governed most despotically. In 1673, during a war between England and Holland, a Dutch squadron captured the city of New York, but it was restored to the English by a treaty of peace the next year (1674), and Andros became governor. Charter of Liberties—Execution of Leisler and Milborne.—In 1683, the Duke of York granted the people of New York a “Charter of Liberties,” allow- ing them a popular assembly; but when he became King of England, in 1685, with SE WEAVTEAAV7'Hº CEAVTUR V. 261 the title of James II., he revoked the privileges which he had granted, and made the tyrant Andros governor of New York a second time. When news reached New York of the dethronement of James II. in England and the imprisonment of Andros in Boston, Jacob Leisler, a leading merchant, with the sanction of the people of New York, assumed the office of governor, until the arrival of Colonel Henry Slough- ter, the new royal governor, in 1691; when Leisler, and his son-in-law, Milborne, were tried and executed for high-treason. Growth of Republicanism—Vindication of the Freedom of the Press. —From the time of Leisler's death, the people of New York resisted the oppression of the royal governors sent to rule them, and republicanism constantly gained strength. In 1734, William Cosby, then governor of the province, caused John Peter Zenger, the editor of the democratic newspaper in New York, to be arrested on a charge of libel. Zenger was tried and acquitted by a jury, and the magistrates of New York city made a present to his counsel, Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, for his noble vindication of the freedom of the press. NEW HAMPSHIRE (A. D. 1629–1776). The Grant to Gorges and Mason—Founding of Portsmouth, Dover, and Exeter.—In 1622, the territory between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers was granted to Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason, under the name of “Laco- nia.” The proprietors sent out emigrants to settle in Laconia; and as early as 1622, fishing stations were established on the sites of Portsmouth and Dover. In 1629, the Reverend John Wheelwright and others founded the town of Exeter. The New Hampshire Grant—New Hampshire and Massachusetts.- In 1629, John Mason became sole proprietor of Laconia, and named the region “New Hampshire,” after Hampshire county in England. Mason settled at Ports- mouth; and other settlements were made as far as Machias, in Maine. In 1641, New Hampshire was united with the Massachusetts Bay colony, but the two colo- nies were again separated in 1679, when New Hampshire became a royal province. In 1699, New Hampshire was reunited with Massachusetts under the same governor; but a final separation took place in 1741. MARYLAND (A. D. 1634–1776). Lord Baltimore and the Maryland Grant—Settlement of St. Mary’s.- In 1622, William Clayborne erected a trading-house on Kent Island. King Charles I. of England granted the territory on both sides of Chesapeake bay, under the name of “Maryland,” to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, an English Roman Cath- olic nobleman, who desired to find a refuge in America for persecuted Roman Catholics. In 1634, nearly 200 English Roman Catholics, with Leonard Calvert, Cecil’s brother, as their governor, formed a settlement at St. Mary’s, near the mouth of the Potomac river. The assembly met at St. Mary’s, in 1635, and adopted a liberal form of government for the Maryland colony. Clayborne's Two Rebellions.—In 1635, William Clayborne, who refused to recognize Lord Baltimore's authority, commenced a rebellion against the governor of Maryland, but he was defeated and compelled to flee from the province. In 262 MO DE RAW HZSTORY 1645, Clayborne returned and began another rebellion; and for a time the rebels held the reins of power, and Governor Calvert was obliged to flee to Virginia; but the rebellion was suppressed in 1646, and the governor returned to Maryland and resumed his authority. Toleration Act—Influx of Protestants—Disfranchisement of Catholics —Civil War.—In 1649, the Maryland assembly passed “The Toleration Act,” which granted religious freedom for all sects in Maryland; and this induced many Protestants who were persecuted elsewhere to settle in this Roman Catholic province, At length the influx of Protestants was so great that they outnumbered the Catholics; and after obtaining a majority in the assembly, they questioned the rights of the proprietor, and, with the meanest ingratitude, they disfranchised the Catholics and declared them not entitled to the protection of the laws. This outrageous proceed- ing led to a civil war in Maryland between the Catholics and the Protestants, which ended in the defeat of the Catholics and the overthrow of the proprietary govern- ment; but when monarchy was restored in England, in 1660, Lord Baltimore recovered his rights. Maryland a Royal Province—Restoration of Proprietary Government. —The Maryland colony now prospered until 1689, when a Protestant insurrection overthrew the proprietary government; and in 1691, King William III. of Eng- land deprived Lord Baltimore of his rights, made Maryland a royal province, and established the Church of England in the colony; and Roman Catholics were dis. franchised in a province which they had founded. In 1716, Maryland was re- stored to the heirs of Lord Baltimore, and it remained a proprietary province until the Revolution of 1775. CONNECTICUT (A. D. 1635–1776). Discovery of the Connecticut River by Adrian Block—The Connecticut Grant.—In 1614, Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator, discovered the Connecticut river, and sailed up that stream as far as the site of Hartford. In 1630, the Coun- cil of Plymouth granted the soil of Connecticut to the Earl of Warwick, who, the following year, granted it to Lord Say and Seal, Lord Brooke, and others. Founding of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield—Settlement of Saybrook.-In 1633, the Dutch erected a fort at the site of Hartford, and in the same year the English under Captain Holmes established a trading-house at the site of Windsor. In 1635, emigrants from Boston settled Windsor and Wethers- field; and in 1636, other emigrants from the colony of Massachusetts Bay, led by the Reverend Thomas Hooker, founded Hartford. In 1635, John Winthrop, son of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay colony, led a company of emigrants to the mouth of the Connecticut river, where they formed a settlement, which, in honor of Lord Say and Seal and Lord Brooke, they named “Saybrook.” Pequod War—Founding of New Haven.—In 1637, a frightful war broke out between the Connecticut settlers and the Pequod Indians, the Mohegan and Narraganset tribes uniting with the whites; and in a furious battle at the Mystic river, the savages were defeated by Captain John Mason, after their fort had been set on fire, and the tribe of the Pequods was exterminated, and their chief, Sassa- cus, fled to the Mohawks, who put him to death. In 1638, New Haven was .SZ PEAVTEAEAVTH CENTURY. 263 founded by emigrants from England, led by the Reverend John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton; and they resolved to be governed in civil matters according to the rules and principles of the Bible. Connecticut Constitution—Union of Connecticut, Saybrook, and New Haven.—In 1639, the settlers at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield adopted a liberal constitution of government for the Connecticut colony. In 1644, the Say- brook settlement was united with Connecticut; and in 1665, the Connecticut and New Haven colonies were united into one colony, called “Connecticut,” under a charter granted to the colonists by King Charles II., three years before. Resistance to Governor Andros.-In 1675, Sir Edmund Andros, then gov- ernor of New York, attempted to extend his authority over Connecticut; and for this purpose he went to Saybrook with a small naval force; but he was so firmly resisted that he relinquished the attempt. Andros and the Connecticut Charter.—In 1687, Andros, as Governor- General of all New England, succeeded in depriving all the New England colonies, excepting Connecticut, of their charters. He went to Hartford to seize the Con- necticut charter; and while the assembly was in session in the evening, the charter was laid on the table; but just as Andros attempted to take it, the lights were sud- denly extinguished, and Captain Wadsworth carried away the charter and hid it in the hollow of an oak tree, which thenceforth was called “the Charter Oak.” Andros, however, governed Connecticut, until he was imprisoned in Boston, in 1689, when the Connecticut charter was taken from its hiding-place. Governor Fletcher and Captain Wadsworth.-In 1693, Governor Fletcher of New York attempted to bring Connecticut under his jurisdiction, and for that purpose he went to Hartford, where he assembled the Connecticut militia. When Fletcher proceeded to read his commission, Captain Wadsworth, the commander of the militia, commanded the drums to be beaten. “Silence,” shouted Fletcher, whereupon Wadsworth stepped up and said, “Sir! if they are interrupted again, I will make the sun shine through you in a moment ſ” Fletcher returned to New York in great anger. From this time Connecticut was a prosperous colony. RHODE ISLAND (A. D. 1636–1776). Founding of Providence by Roger Williams.-The first settlement in Rhode Island was made on the Pawtucket river, by William Blackstone, a Puritan minister. When Roger Williams was banished from the colony of Massachusetts Bay, in I635, he traveled through the wilderness, in the midst of winter; and in 1636, he founded a settlement on Narraganset bay, which, with pious feelings, he named “Providence.” This was the beginning of the Rhode Island colony, which became an asylum for persecuted Christians of all sects. Settlement of Portsmouth and Newport.—In 1638, William Coddington, a nonconformist minister, and others who were banished from the colony of Mas. sachusetts Bay, founded Portsmouth, on the island which they named Rhode Island; and in the following year (1639), the settlement of Newport was commenced. First Charter of the Providence and Rhode Island Plantations— Religious Freedom.—In 1644, Roger Williams, who had gone to England for 264 MODERAV HAS 7 OAQ Y. that purpose, obtained from the Long Parliament a liberal charter, under which “The Providence and Rhode Island Plantations” were united as one province; and in 1647, a colonial convention, assembled at Portsmouth, adopted a democratic form of government and established the principles of perfect religious freedom in Rhode Island. Second Rhode Island Charter.—In 1663, King Charles II. of England granted to the Rhode Island and Providence Plantations a charter which left the colonists in the full enjoyment of perfect civil and religious freedom. This char. ter was suspended by the tyrant Andros in 1687, but when he was imprisoned in Boston, in 1689, it was resumed, and remained in full force as the instrument of government of the Commonwealth until 1842, when a State constitution was adopted. DELAVWARE (A. D. 1638–1776). Settlement of New Sweden—Swedish Settlements on the Delaware, —Under the auspices of the Swedish West India Company, a company of Swedish emigrants, under Perter Minuit, the first governor of New Netherland, made a set- tlement on Christiana Creek, near the site of Wilmington, in the present State of Delaware, in 1638, and named the territory “New Sweden.” Swedish settlements were also made on the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, in the present Pennsylvania. Conquest of New Sweden by the Dutch—Delaware and Pennsylvania. —The Dutch at New Amsterdam claimed the territory of New Sweden; and in 1655, Governor Stuyvesant of New Netherland conquered the Swedish settlements on the Delaware, and annexed New Sweden to New Netherland. The domain of New Sweden was granted to William Penn in 1682, and it became a part of Pennsylvania. The territory now known as Delaware became a separate province in 1702, with a legislature of its own, but it was united with Pennsylvania under one governor until 1776, when Delaware became an independent State. NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA (A. D. 1663–1776). NORTH CAFOLINA (1663–1776). The Carolina Grant.—Between the years 1640 and 1650, emigrants from Vir- ginia settled near the mouth of the Chowan river. In 1663, King Charles II. of England granted to the Earl of Clarendon and seven associates the extensive region between Virginia and Florida, under the general name of “Carolina.” The Albemarle and Clarendon Colonies.—In 1663, a number of emigrants from Virginia, with William Drummond as governor, founded Edenton, on the Chowan river. This settlement was called “The Albemarle County Colony.” A representative government was adopted; and the first legislative assembly in Caro- lina convened at Edenton, in 1668. In 1665, some planters from the Barbadoes Islands, with Sir John Yeamans as governor, established, on the Cape Fear River, a settlement known as “The Clarendon County Colony.” This colony was broken up several years afterward. The Fundamental Constitutions.—Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, and the philosopher John Locke prepared a constitution of government for the Caroli- .SZ VEAV7'EAEAV ZAZ CAEAV7'UAE V. 265 nas. This instrument, known as “The Fundamental Constitutions,” or “The Grand Model,” was extremely aristocratic in spirit, and utterly repugnant to the wishes of the freedom-loving settlers of the Carolinas. It could never be enforced, as every attempt to do so produced a rebellion; and after a struggle of a quarter of a century, between the colonists and the proprietors, this absurd scheme of govern, ment was finally abandoned by the proprietors, in 1695; and the cause of republi- canism was triumphant in Carolina. Rebellion in North Carolina—Administrations of Seth Sothel and John Archdale.—The attempt to enforce the Fundamental Constitutions in the Albe- marle Colony (North Carolina) produced a rebellion, which resulted in the impri- sonment of the governor, and the temporary subversion of the proprietary government. In 1683, Seth Sothel, one of the proprietors, became governor of North Carolina; but, after a tyrannical and corrupt administration of five years, he was banished from the colony. In 1695, the good Quaker, John Archdale, became governor of both the Carolinas, and under his administration both colonies greatly prospered. Emigration to North Carolina—War with the Tuscarora Indians.— Quakers, Huguenots, and German Protestants settled in North Carolina. In 1711, a frightful war broke out between the North Carolina settlers and the Tuscarora Indians. The Indians massacred many of the German settlers; but the Tuscaroras were finally subdued: 1,200 of them were captured, and the remainder joined the Five Nations in New York thus forming the league of “The Six Nations.” SOUTH CAFO LIN A (167C)-1776) The Carteret Colony—Founding of Charleston—In 1670, a company of emigrants from England, with William Sayle as their governor, settled Old Charles ton, on the Ashley river. This is known as “The Carteret County Colony,” so called in honor of Sir George Carteret, one of the proprietors of the Carolinas. In 1680, the inhabitants of Old Charleston removed to a point between the Ashley and Cooper rivers, where they laid the foundations of the present city of Charleston. A representative government was established; and the first legislative assembly in the Carteret Colony convened at Charleston in 1682. Emigration to South Carolina–Rebellion—Sothel’s and Archdale's Administrations.—Dutch emigrants, Puritans, and Huguenots settled in the Car- teret Colony (South Carolina). An effort to enforce the Fundamental Constitutions led to a rebellion in South Carolina, which resulted in the banishment of the gov- ernor, James Colleton. In 1690, the infamous Seth Sothel came to South Carolina, of which colony he became governor; but, after oppressing and plundering the colonists for two years, he was banished. Under the wise administration of John Archdale prosperity attended the colony. War with the Spaniards of Florida—War with the Yamasee Indians. —In 1702, hostilities commenced between the South Carolinians and the Spaniards of Florida. South Carolina sent an unsuccessful expedition against the Spaniards; but the Apalachian Indians, the allies of the Spaniards, were subjugated; 8oo of the Apalachians being captured, and their country taken possession of. In 1706, a combined French and Spanish fleet failed in an attack upon Charleston. In 1715, the South Carolina colonists became involved in a dangerous war with the Yamasee 266 MOZ) ERAW HISTORY. Indians. Governor Craven with 1,200 men subdued the Yamasees, and drove them into Florida. ./ North and South Carolina, Royal Provinces.—In 1719, the people of South Carolina rebelled against the proprietary government; and in 1729, the pro- prietors, wearied of the perpetual opposition, surrendered their claims to the crown, whereupon North and South Carolina became distinct royal provinces, and so remained until the great Revolution of I775, which swept away feudalism and royalty. t NEW JERSEY (A. D. 1664–1776). The New Jersey Grant—Puritan Settlement of Elizabethtown.—The Dutch established a trading post at Bergen, in 1618, and another at Fort Nassau, below the site of Camden, in 1623. The Swedes and Finns also made settlements on the Delaware. In 1664, when New Netherland was conquered by the Eng- lish, King Charles II. of England granted the territory between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, and named the province “New Jersey;” and in the same year (1664), some English Puritans settled Eliza- bethtown. Philip Carteret, a brother of Sir George, was made governor, and repre- sentative government was established. When, in 1670, the proprietors of New Jersey demanded the payment of quit-rents, the colonists rose in rebellion, and drove the governor from the colony. Division into East and West Jersey—Purchase of New Jersey by Quakers.-In 1674, Lord Berkeley sold his interest in New Jersey to some Quakers, who founded Salem; and in 1676, the province was divided, the Quakers obtaining West Jersey, and Carteret receiving East Jersey. In 1682, William Penn and other Quakers purchased East Jersey from Carteret's heirs, and made Robert Barclay governor. New Jersey a Royal Province—New Jersey and New York.-In 1688, King James II. made the tyrant Andros governor of the Jerseys, from which time great confusion prevailed until 1702, when East and West Jersey were united as one royal province, and placed under the governor of New York, but having its own legislature. In 1738, New Jersey was entirely separated from New York, and Lewis Morris became governor. PENNSYLVANIA (A. D. 1682–1776). William Penn and the Pennsylvania Grant—Settlement of Quakers in Pennsylvania.—In 1643, the Swedes made a settlement on Tinicum Island, below the site of Philadelphia. In 1677, Swedish settlements were made on the Dela- ware and Schuylkill rivers. In 1681, King Charles II. of England granted an immense territory west of the Delaware river to William Penn, a Quaker, who de- sired to secure an asylum for the persecuted sect to which he belonged. The prov- ince was named “Pennsylvania,” which signifies “Penn's woods.” In 1682, the territory of the present State of Delaware was added to Penn's grant. In 1682, a large company of Quakers from England arrived in Pennsylvania, founded the town of Chester, the oldest English settlement in the colony, and organized a liberal form of government. SAE VEAVTEAEAVZ Hº CEAV7'CWR Y. 267 ** William Penn in Pennsylvania—Penn’s Treaty with the Indians.—In the fall of 1682, William Penn arrived in Pennsylvania, and was joyfully received by the Swedes and the English Quakers. He met the Assembly of Pennsylvania at Chester, when he established a permanent government for the colony. Under a large elm tree, on the site of Philadelphia, Penn made a treaty of friendship with the Indians, who were treated with the greatest kindness by the Quakers. The Indians who were present exclaimed, “We will live in peace with William Penn and his children as long as the sun and the moon shall endure!” They were true to their word. Not a drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian. This treaty was never sworn to and never broken. Founding of Philadelphia—Charter of Liberties.—The same year (1682), Penn laid out a capital for his new province between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers; and named the place “Philadelphia,” which means “city of brotherly love.” Within a year, a hundred houses were built. In 1683, the colonial assembly met at Philadelphia, and adopted a “Charter of Liberties.” Penn’s Return to England—His Second Visit to Pennsylvania.-In 1684, William Penn returned to England; and in 1689, he was deprived of his province by King William III., who suspected Penn of being disloyal to his gov- ernment. Penn’s province was restored to him in 1694; and in 1699, he visited Pennsylvania a second time. He granted the colonies greater privileges, and allowed Delaware to have a separate legislature. Both colonies had the same governor until the American Revolution. William Penn died in London in 1718; and in 1776, the Pennsylvanians purchased the claims of his heirs, and the prov- ince became an independent commonwealth. Mason’s and Dixon's Line.—The boundary line between Pennsylvania and Maryland, which had long been a subject of dispute, was settled as at present, in 1761, by George Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, surveyors appointed for the purpose by the King of England; and the line established by them is still called “Mason's and Dixon's Line.” GEORGIA (A. D. 1733-1776). Benevolent Design—Founding of Savannah—Oglethorpe's Treaty with the Indians.—In 1743, King George II. of England granted to the philan- thropic James Edward Oglethorpe, a member of the English Parliament, and other benevolent individuals, “in trust for the poor,” all the territory between the Sa- vannah and Altamaha rivers. Oglethorpe's plan was to offer an asylum in America to virtuous persons imprisoned for debt, and to other poor. Near the close of 1732, one-hundred and twenty of these unfortunate persons sailed from England, with Oglethorpe as their governor; and in February, 1733, they arrived in America, and founded the city of Savannah. Oglethorpe met fifty Indian chiefs, with the Creek sachem, Tomochichi, at their head, and concluded a friendly treaty with them, obtaining a large tract of territory, which was named “Georgia,” in honor of King George II. War with the Spaniards of Florida—Georgia a Royal Province.—In 1739, a war broke out between England and Spain; and in 1740, Oglethorpe, with 2,000 Georgians, invaded the Spanish province of Florida; but after an unsuccessful 268 MOD ERAW HISTOR. W. siege of St. Augustine, he returned to Georgia. In 1742, the Spaniards invaded Georgia; but they were defeated and driven back. Oglethorpe left Georgia forever in 1743; and in 1752, the trustees of the colony, wearied of their troublesome charge, sold their interests to the crown; and Georgia became a royal province, and so continued until 1776, when it became an independent State. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. vºy" AGE OF PETER THE GREAT AND CHARLES VI. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (A. D. 1702-1744) CAUSES AND OFIGIN OF THE VVAR. Will of Charles II. of Spain—Archduke Charles of Austria and Duke Philip of Anjou.-After the Peace of Ryswick, in 1697, the question which chiefly engaged the attention of Europe was whom the childless Charles II. of Spain, the last Spanish king of the House of Hapsburg, and then on the brink of the grave, should appoint as his heir to the vast dominions of Spain. His nearest relatives were King Louis XIV. of France and the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany. Both of these powerful monarchs were the first cousins, and both were the sons-in-law, of the Spanish sovereign; but Louis XIV. had renounced all claims to the crown of Spain by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in 1659. Exasperated at the conduct of the Kings of France and England, in arranging a partition of the Spanish dominions between the sons of the claimants before his death, Charles II. appointed the young Elector of Bavaria as his heir. But this prince soon afterward died, and Kings Louis XIV. and William III. signed a new partition treaty. Greatly irritated at the French monarch, the King of Spain acknowledged the Archduke Charles of Austria, son of the Emperor Leopold I., as his successor; but the Spanish nobles, corrupted by the gold of Louis XIV., induced Charles II. to make a new will, by which Duke Philip of Anjou, grandson of the King of France, was appointed suc- cessor to the Spanish throne. Charles II. died in 17oo; and after some hesitation, I,ouis XIV. adopted the last will. When the Duke of Anjou started for Madrid, to tak: possession of the throne of Spain, with the title of Philip V., Louis said to him, “There are no more Pyrenees.” Coalition of Germany, England, and Holland Against France and Spain.-The Emperor Leopold I. of Germany opposed the last will of Charles II., and gent into Italy a large army under his great general, Prince Eugene of Savoy, a Frenchman by birth, but who had gained great renown in the services of the Emperor, in the wars of the German Empire against the Ottoman Porte. In 1701, Prince Eugene drove the French forces under Marshals Velleroi and Catinat out of AºA GATEENTH CENTURY. 269 Italy. While this petty war between France and Germany was in progress, Louis XIV., by one imprudent act, provoked a powerful combination against himself. On the death of the exiled James II., in 1701, Louis recognzed his son as King of England, with the title of James III., after having promised not to do so. This act of the French king was regarded by England as a national insult, and King William III. found his Parliament and people, who before had been averse to England’s participation in a continental war, ready to second all his views The most earnest preparations for war were now made by England. The death of William III., in 1702, produced no change in this respect, as his successor, Anne, declared her determination to adhere to the policy adopted by her predecessor. An alliance against France was immediately formed by the German Empire, England, and Holland. The Elector of Bavaria entered into an alliance with the King of France. Spain was divided: Aragon siding with the Archduke Charles, and Cas- tile with Philip of Anjou. Thus England, Holland, and the German Empire were united against France and Bavaria. Thus began “The War of the Spanish Succes. sion,” which for twelve years convulsed Southern and Western Europe. In his former wars, Louis XIV. had generally triumphed over his enemies; but during the whole course of “The War of the Spanish Succession” he suffered a continua- tion of the most calamitous defeats. He no longer displayed the vigor and energy for which he had been before noted. EVENTS OF 17O2 AND 17O3. The War in Italy and in the Spanish Netherlands.-In Italy, during the year 1702, a French force under the Duke of Vendome gained the battle of Luzara over the Austrians. At this time, a powerful English army, under John Churchhill, Duke of Marlborough, who proved to be one of England’s greatest generals, appeared in the Spanish Netherlands, and defeated the French forces commanded by the Duke of Burgundy and Marshal Boufflers. Events in Spain and Germany.—During the year 1702, the united fleets of England and Holland were repulsed in attack upon the Spanish port of Cadiz, but they succeeded in destroying, in the harbor of Vigo, a combined French and Spanish fleet laden with the treasures of Spanish America. In the following year (1703), a French army under Marshal Villars passed the Rhine into Germany, and defeated the German imperial army commanded by Prince Louis of Baden, in the battles of Friedlingen and Hochstett. Protestant Insurrection in France—Protestant Rebellion in Hungary. —In 1703, the Protestants in the region of the Cevennes, maddened by religious persecution, rose against their bigoted and tyrannical king, and Louis XIV. sup- pressed the insurrection with great difficulty. The tyranny of the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany produced a rebellion of his Protestant Hungarian subjects, who, led by the valiant Count Ragotzky, resisted the Austrians until 1711, when Hungary was reduced to submission. EVENTS OF 17OA. Capture of Gibraltar.—On the 4th of August, 1704, the strong rocky fortress of Gibraltar, in Southern Spain, was taken by a few English sailors under Sir George Rooke. This achievement was by far the most important to England of any during 27o MODEA&AW HASTORY. the War of the Spanish Succession, as Gibraltar has ever since remained in her possession, and has given her the key to the Mediterranean sea. Battle of Blenheim.—The forces of Austria and the German Empire were at this time hard pressed by the French and the Bavarians. For the purpose of re- lieving them, the Duke of Marlborough, with the English army, forced his way into Bavaria, and succeeded in forming a junction with the Austrians undel Prince Eugene, who had advanced from Italy. The united forces, numbering 80,000 men, won a brilliant victory, on the 13th of August (1704), near the small villages of Hochstett and Blenheim, over 80,000 French and Bavarians, under Marshals Tallard and Marsin and the Elector of Bavaria. The victorious English and Germans lost 13,000 men, while their defeated enemies lost 30,000. Marsin was made a prisoner, and all the French artillery, baggage, and camp-equipage fell into the hands of the victors. The disastrous issue of this battle compelled the French to evacuate Bavaria, and to fall back to the west side of the Rhine. The Elector of Bavaria, thus aban- doned and placed under the ban of the German Empire, was obliged to retire from his dominions, and France was deprived of all aid. Portugal Joins the Allies—An English Army in Spain.—During the year 1704, Portugal joined the coalition against France, and the Archduke Charles, with the assistance of an English army under the Earl of Peterborough, landed in Spain. EVENTS OF 17O3. Operations in Italy and Spain—Joseph I., Emperor of Germany.—In Italy, in 1705, the French, under the skillful Duke of Vendome, gained many advan- tages over the Austrians, and finally inflicted a severe defeat upon Prince Eugene, at Cassano. In Spain, the English under the Earl of Peterborough took Barcelona. During the same year, the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany died, and was suc- ceeded on the imperial throne by his son, Joseph I. FVENTS OF 17O63. .* Battle of Ramillies.—The campaign of 1706 was a glorious one for the Allies, who acquired the supremacy in the Netherlands, in Italy, and in Spain. A French army of 80,000 men under Marshal Villeroi, having advanced into the Spanish Netherlands, was disastrously defeated by the English under the Duke of Marl- borough, in the decisive battle of Ramillies, on the 23d of May, 1706. The con- sequences of this battle were that the French king lost most of his acquisitions in the Spanish Netherlands. * Battle of Turin.-The French, who thus far had been generally victorious in Italy, ſaid siege to Turin; but Prince Eugene, with the German imperial army, advanced to the relief of the city; and on the 7th of September, 1706, he defeated the French so disastrously before the walls of the city that they were obliged to raise the siege and evacuate Italy. Thus the fruits of all former French victories in Italy were lost by the result of a single battle. In Spain, during 1706, the allied English, Dutch, and Portuguese forces, under the command of Lord Galway, took possession of Madrid. A ZGAZ7'EAEAVZ Hº CEAVTUR Y. 271 EVENTS OF 17O7. Battle of Almanza.-The campaign of 1707 in a measure revived the hopes of Louis XIV. In Spain, the allied English, Dutch, and Portuguese armies, com- manded by Lord Galway, were almost annihilated in the battle of Almanza, on the 25th of April (1707,) by the French army under the Duke of Berwick, a natural son of the ill-fated James II. of England. During the same year Prince Eugene made an unsuccessful effort to take Toulon by siege. EVENTS OF 17O8. Battle of Oudenarde.—The Allies still maintained their supremacy in the Spanish Netherlands. On the 11th of July, 1708, the allied English and German armies, under the Duke of Marlborough, and Prince Eugene, severely defeated a large French army under the Dukes of Vendome and Burgundy, at the village of Oudenarde, on the Scheldt. Soon afterward the victors took Lille by siege, and the way to Paris stood open. e. EVENTS OF 17O9. Louis XIV. asks for Peace.—France was now threatened with the horrors of famine. This danger, together with the exhausted state of the French finances, made Louis XIV. anxious for peace. He solicited peace with Holland, but the Dutch, remembering the insults which they had suffered from him, rejected all his proposals with disdain, and Louis found himself to continue the war, or to submit to the most humiliating conditions. Battle of Malplaquet.—The French received another severe blow in the Spanish Netherlands. In the bloody battle of Malplaquet, on the 11th of Septem- ber, 1709, Marlborough and Eugene with their united armies defeated the French army of 80,000 men commanded by Marshals Villars and Boufflers. The French escaped from the field with the loss of Io,000 men, while the victorious English and Germans lost 20,000. EVENTS OF 171C). Haughty and Insulting Demands of the Allies.—In 1710, Louis XIV. again solicited peace, offering to make great concessions to the Allies. He even offered to recognize the Archduke Charles as King of Spain, to furnish no more assistance to his grandson Philip, and even to supply the Allies with money to prosecute the war against him. But the allied powers demanded that Louis him- self should send an army into Spain to assist in driving out his grandson. This insulting demand Louis rejected with scorn, saying, “If I must continue the war, I should rather fight against my enemies than against my own grandson.” The French people, who had clamored for peace, shared the indignation of their mon- arch, and were resolved not to submit to any such degrading conditions. French Victories in Spain.—Louis was somewhat encouraged by the suc. cesses of his arms in Spain during the year 1710. The campaign opened with the victories of the Austrians under Count Stahremberg, in the battles of Saragossa and Almenara; but afterwards the entire English corps under Stanhope was captured by the Duke of Vendome, after a severe battle at Brihuega. On the Ioth of Decem- 272 MO/O EAEAW ANZSTORY ber (1710), Vendome defeated Stahremberg at Villaviciossa, after a bloody battle of two days. EVENTS OF 1711. Consequences of the Death of the Emperor Joseph I. of Germany.— Early in 17 II, an event occurred which changed the situation of all parties. This was the death of the Emperor Joseph I. of Germany and the succession of his brother, the Archduke Charles, the competitor of Philip of Anjou, to the thrones of Austria and the German Empire. The union of the crowns of Spain and Ger. many, in the person of a prince of the House of Hapsburg, was as alarming to the other powers of Europe as the union of the crowns of Spain and France, under a prince of the House of Bourbon. Change in the English Ministry.—A change of opinion with regard to the war had taken place in England, which resulted in the expulsion of the Wigs from office and the accession to power of the Tories, who opposed the war. The Tory Ministry, at the head of which stood Lords Oxford and Bolingbroke, removed the avaricious Marlborough, who had been the most influential of the Whigs, from the chief command of the English army, and appointed in his stead the Duke of Or- mond, who had secret orders not to fight. EVENTS OF 1712, "13, 14. Peace of Utrecht—Peace of Rastadt.—As early as January, 1712, through the influence of England, conferences for peace were opened at Utrecht, in Hol- land; but, owing to the opposition of the Dutch and German ambassadors, negotia- tions progressed very slowly. Finally, on the IIth of April, 1713, a treaty of peace was agreed to by the ambassadors of France and England. Holland and Germany, however, obstinately resolved to continue the war; but the decisive defeat of the German imperial army under Prince Eugene, by the French under Marshal Villars, in the the battle of Denain, on the 24th of July, 1713, alarmed the Dutch so much that they also agreed to a treaty of peace with France. By the Peace of Utrecht, England received Gibraltar from Spain, and Nova Scotia and the Hudson's Bay Territory from France. The succession of Anne to the throne of England was acknowledged by France; while Philip of Anjou was recognized by England as King of Spain, on condition that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united. The war between France and the German Empire continued until the 7th of March, "1714, when the Peace of Rastadt was concluded, by which the House of Austria received the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sicily, which were thus separated from the dominion of Spain; the Emperor of Germany recognized Philip of Anjou as King of Spain; the exiled Elector of Bavaria was to be restored to his dominions; and the new kingdom of Prussia, which had been established in 1701, was recognized. Thus after a war which had een, on the whole, disastrous to Louis XIV., that monarch obtained honorable terms of peace; and the Allied Powers were punished for their former unreasonable and insolent demands. Condition of France—Death of Louis XIV.—Louis XV.-Peace came none too soon for France, whose condition, in consequence of the long and expen- * AAGATEAEAV7'H CENTURY. 273 sive wars occasioned by the ambition of her warlike monarch, was at this time most deplorable. The public debt was enormous, the nation was almost financially ruined, and the resources of the kingdom were almost exhausted; and nothing but a long period of peace would enable the country to recuperate. Louis XIV. sank into his grave in September, 1715, after a reign of seventy-two years, fifty-four from the expiration of the regency. As all the children and grand-children of Louis XIV. had died before him, his great-grandson was invested with the crown of France, with the title of Louis XV. During the minority of Louis XV., the talented but profli- gate Duke of Orleans acted as regent of the French kingdom. The young king was instructed in all sorts of vice; and when he assumed the government, on the expiration of the regency, in 1723, his moral depravity was equal to that of the unworthy regent. THE NORTHERN WAR (A. D. 17OO–1718). Russia Under the House of Romanoff—Peter the Great.—Under the wise, peaceable, and virtuous Michael Romanoff, who ascended the throne of Rus- sia in 1613, that country enjoyed a period of prosperity. During the reign of Michael's son Alexis (1645-1676), the Russian Empire was extended in every direction. In 1689, Peter I., surnamed “the Great,” became sole sovereign of the Russian Empire. Well did this prince deserve the title of “the Great,” as he did more for the civilization and advancement of Russia than all of his predecessors and successors. Before his time Russia was a nation of barbarians, and more of an Asiatic empire than a European one. Peter the Great was one of the very few monarchs who have labored for the welfare of their subjects. Having, by extensive travels through Europe, early seen the practical advantages of civilization, he en- couraged foreign mariners, artisans, and officers to emigrate to Russia. In 1697, Peter left his dominions as a private individual, and went on a travel to other parts of Europe, where he studied such arts as he thought would be useful to his subjects, For the purpose ot better acquiring a knowledge of the art of ship-building, Peter worked as a common ship-carpenter in Holland and in England. Although Peter civilized his subjects, he could not civilize himself, and he remained a cruel barba- rian all his life. He often said that he corrected the faults of the Russian people, but not his own. He had some great vices, and was guilty of some shocking crimes, but still his name stands deservedly among the first of those sovereigns who have labored for the good of their subjects. Alliance of Russia, Poland, and Denmark, against Sweden.—When, in 1697, Charles XII., a youth eighteen years of age, became King of Sweden, the sovereigns of Russia, Poland, and Denmark considered the time favorable for wrest- ing from Sweden the provinces which she had formally conquered. Peter the Great of Russia was desirous of the possession of some of the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic; Frederic Augustus, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, resolved upon seizing Livonia; and King Frederic IV. of Denmark deter. mined to appropriate unto himself Schleswig, which belonged to the Duke of Hol. stein, a brother-in-law of the young King of Sweden. An alliance against Sweden was accordingly concluded between the Czar of Russia and the Kings of Poland and Denmark, for the purpose of obtaining the coveted provinces by force. Almost I8 274 MODERAV HISTOR P. at the same time, in the year 1700, the King of Denmark carried war into the dominions of the Duke of Holstein, the King of Poland marched into Livonia and fell upon Riga, and the Czar of Russia, with 80,000 men, invaded Esthonia, and laid siege to Narva. - Charles XII. of Sweden—Denmark Humbled—Peace of Travendal.— To the astonishment of all Europe, the young King of Sweden suddenly exhibited great military abilities. Indignant at the aggressive conduct of his enemies, and having determined upon carrying the war into Denmark, Charles XII. landed with an army on the island of Zealand, and laid siege to Copenhagen. The inhabitants of the Danish capital saved their city from their horrors of a bombardment by the payment of a large sum of money. Having invaded Holstein, the King of Den. mark was at this time completely hemmed in, and found that nothing but a disad. vantageous peace would save his kingdom from falling into the power of the Swedes, The Peace of Travendal was accordingly concluded between the Kings of Sweden and Denmark, by which Frederic IV. renounced his alliance with Russia and Po- land, and agreed to indemnify the Duke of Holstein. - Battle of Narva.-After humbling the King of Denmark, Charles XII., at the head of 8,000 Swedish troops, marched against the Czar of Russia, who, with 80,000 men, was then besieging Narva. Although the Swedish king had but one-tenth as many men as his antagonist, he did not hesitate to attack the army of Peter the Great. Having broken the Russian intrenchments by a heavy cannonade, Charles, on the 30th of November, 17oo, ordered a bayonet charge, and, under cover of a severe storm of snow which was driving into the faces of the Russians by the wind, he assailed the enemy. The Russians were unable to stand their ground, and, after a terrible battle of three hours, their works were forced on all sides. The Russian loss was 8,000 killed and 3O,OOO made prisoners. Many were drowned in the Neva by the breaking of the bridge. The Russians also lost all their baggage, stores, and cannon. Charles entered Neva as a conqueror, thinking that this great blow had completely broken the power of Peter the Great. The Czar, however, was not dis. couraged. He said, “I knew that the Swedes would beat us; but in time they will teach us to become their conquerors.” After his defeat, Peter evacuated the Swedish provinces, and devoted his attention to disciplining his army. Victories of Charles XII. over the King of Poland.—Instead of following up his victory over Peter the Great, the Swedish king, after wintering at Narva, marched against King Augustus II. of Poland, who had unsuccessfully besieged Riga the previous year. . After defeating the Polish king in the bloody battle of Duna, in July, 1701, and obtaining full possession of the provinces of Livonia and Courland, Charles XII. marched into Poland. The Swedish monarch entered Warsaw on the 14th of May, 1702, and soon afterward declared that he would not grant a peace to Poland, until the Polish Diet had dethroned Augustus II. and elected another king in his place. On the 9th of July, 1702, Augustus was defeated with heavy loss by Charles, in a desperate engagement near Gliessaw, in a large plain between Warsaw and Cracow. The camp, baggage, artillery, and military cnest of Augustus fell into the hands of Charles, who soon afterwards took possessicn of Warsaw. Peter's Conquests on the Baltic–Founding of St. Petersburg.—While Charles XII. of Sweden was conquering in Poland, his most powerful enemy, Peter AºAGHTEEAVTH CEAVTUR V. 275 the Grea of Russia, was reducing the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic, and annexing them to the Russian Empire. Peter took Narva, by storm, built the fortresses of Schlusselburg and Cronstadt, and caused the islands at the mouth of the Neva to be drained by serfs; and there he laid the foundations of a city which he named St. Petersburg, and which he intended should be the capital of the Russian Empire. In 1703, Peter compelled 300,000 people from Moscow and other Russian cities to settle at St. Petersburg. He also encouraged foreigners to emigrate thither. Famine and disease soon carried 200,000 of the settlers of the new city to their graves. Yet Peter was not discouraged, but he persevered in his enterprise, and, by his liberal and enlightened policy, foreign artisans and merchants were induced to emigrate to St. Petersburg. Dethronement of Augustus II. of Poland—Successes of Charles XII. in Poland.—In 1703, Charles XII. again defeated Augustus II. of Poland, and com- pelled him to retreat into Saxony, his hereditary dominions. Through the influence of the King of Sweden, Augustus was dethroned by the Polish Diet, in July, 1704, and Stanislaus Leczinski, voiwode of Posen, a creature of Charles XII., was elected to the throne of Poland, by a Diet surrounded by Swedish soldiers. Resolving to recover the Polish crown, Augustus returned to Poland with an army of Saxons, and took Warsaw, but was at length forced to retire. Augustus afterwards received the assistance of 60,000 Russians, whom Peter the Great had sent to expel the Swedes from Poland; but Charles routed the different Russian divisions in succes- sion, and struck such terror into their ranks, by the rapidity of his movements, that the Russians retired into their own territories. (1706.) Invasion of Saxony by Charles XII.-Peace of Altranstadt.—In the meantime, a victory gained by the Swedes over the forces of Augustus opened to the Swedish monarch the way into Saxony. Accordingly, Charles XII. invaded he Saxon dominions of Augustus, without asking permission from the Emperor of Germany, whose attention was too much engrossed by the War of the Spanish Suc- cession to give any heed to the movements of the King of Sweden. Notwithstand- ing the strict discipline of the Swedes, they frightfully ravaged the Saxon territories. Augustus had now no other alternative than to consent to such terms of peace as the conquering King of Sweden chose to dictate. Under these circumstances, the Peace of Altranstadt was concluded, on the 24th of September, 1706, on terms most humiliating to Augustus, who was required to renounce the crown of Poland for himself and his posterity, to dissolve his alliance with the Czar of Russia, and to sur- render the Livonian Patkul to the Swedish monarch, who put him to a cruel death. Invasion of Russia by Charles XII.-In September, 1707, Charles XII., at tne head of 40,000 troops, reëntered Poland, where Peter the Great had been endeavoring to retrieve the affairs of Augustus. As the King of Sweden advanced, the Czar retired into his own dominions. Charles resolved to march upon Mos- cow; and Peter, becoming alarmed at this bold movement of his antagonist, solicited peace; but Charles, who had determined to completely subdue his great rival, haughtily replied, “I will treat at Moscow.” Charles now advanced into Russia, and directed his course toward Moscow. Peter destroyed the roads and les- olated the country between Poland and Moscow, so that hunger, fatigue, and constant partial actions would so weaken the Swedish army that it could not reach Moscow. Mazeppa, the Cossack Chief—The plan of the Czar succeeded. Charles, 276 MOA) ERAV HISTOA’ Y. whose army was completely exhausted, now resolved to march southward into the Ukraine, whither he had been invited by Mazeppa, chief of the Cossacks, who had resolved to throw off his allegiance to the Czar. Peter discovered the plans of the rebellious hief and thwarted them by the execution of his associates; and Mazeppa appeared in the Swedish camp as a fugitive, rather than as a powerful ally. Swedish Misfortunes.—Charles XII. had ordered a large army from Sweden, under General Lewenhaupt, to reinfore him. While on his march to join Charles, Lewenhaupt was defeated by the Russians in three battles, with the loss of all his artillery, baggage, and provisions; and he only succeeded in reaching the camp of Charles with a small force. The severity of the winter of 1708, 9, reduced the Swedish army to 20,000 men. At one time, 2,000 were frozen to death before the eyes of the hard-hearted Charles. Battle of Pultowa.-Notwithstanding the misfortunes and sufferings of his army, the ambitious King of Sweden was still obstinately resolved upon the con- quest of Russia. At length, Charles laid siege to the strong town of Pultowa, on the frontiers of the Ukraine. When the Czar approached, with 70,000 men, for the relief of the garrison, Charles hastened with the greater portion of his army to give battle to Peter, leaving the remainder to press the siege with vigor. On the 8th of July, 1709, was fought the great battle of Pultowa, which ended forever the splen- did career of Charles XII. of Sweden. In this battle, Peter the Great and his subjects fully proved that they had profited by the lessons of their enemies. The Swedes charged with such impetuosity that the Russian cavalry were forced back, but the Russian infantry held their ground until the cavalry had rallied and again - gone into the fight. In the meantime, the Russiaan artillery had made frightful havoc in the Swedish ranks. Having left his heavy cannon in the morasses, Charles could not contend successfully against his antagonist; and, after a terrible battle of two hours, the Swedish army was hopelessly annihilated. Having been wounded during the siege of Pultowa, Charles was carried about the field in a litter, which was shattered to pieces by a cannon-ball while the battle was raging. The Czar's hat was pierced by a musket-ball, and his favorite general, Menzikoff, had three horses shot under him. Eight-thousand Swedish troops lay dead on the san- guinary field, and 6,000 were made prisoners by the victorious Russians; and after retreating to the Dnieper, 12,000 were compelled to surrender to the pursuing Rus- sians, and the once-splendid army of Charles XII. was totally destroyed. The Swedish soldiers who were made prisoners by the Russians were dispersed over the vast Russian Empire, and not one of them ever returned to his native land. Many perished in the wilds of Siberia. Flight of Charles XII. to Turkey—New Coalition Against Sweden.— The once-conquering Charles XII. now became a helpless fugitive; and, with 300 of his guards. he fled to the Turkish town of Bender, having lost in one day all what he had gained during nine years of war. The dethroned Augustus now rečntered Poland, and wrested the Polish crown from Stanislaus Leczinski; and ()enmark, Poland, and Russia renewed their alliance against Sweden. The King of Prussia laid claim to certain Swedish possessions in Germany, and joined the coalition against Sweden. Peter the Great invaded the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic, the King of Denmark fell upon Schleswig, and the Prus- sians seized upon Swedish Pomerania. AºACHTEAEAVTH CEAVTUAE V. 277 Charles XII. Incites the Turks to a War on Russia—Russo-Turkish Treaty.—The Swedish monarch met with an honorable reception at the hands of the Turks. He lived at Bender in royal splendor as the guest of the Sultan. He did not entertain a single thought of returning to his kingdom without having first conquered Russia. Charles made use of all the means at his command to induce the Turks to make war on Russia, and at length he succeeded. A Turkish -rmy of 200,000 men marched to the Pruth, where it was met by a Russian army under the Czar Peter. After four days of hard fighting, in July, 17 II, Peter and his 'who's army would have been killed or made prisoners had not Peter's wife, Catharize, corrupted the Turks with Russian gold, and thus brought about an honorable peace. Charles could not repress his rage at finding all his hopes for the overthrow of his great rival thus blasted. Resistance of Charles XII. to the Turkish Government.—The obstinate Charles XII. still determined to remain in Turkey, even after the Sultan had ordered him to leave the Ottoman dominions; and the Porte found it necessary to employ forcible means to send him away. Arming his immediate attendants, about 3oo in number, Charles defied a Turkish army of 26,000 men. After a fierce re- sistance, in which many of his attendants were killed, and the house in which he defended himself had been set on fire, Charles was made a prisoner. The Swedish monarch remained a captive in Turkey ten months longer, wasting his time in use- less obstinacy. Swedish Disasters.-In the meantime, the Swedish army under General Steinbock had defeated the Danes and the Saxons at Galesbrusch, in Mecklenburg, and burned the defenseless town of Altona, but were afterwards compelled to surrender as prisoners of war to the Czar of Russia. The Russian arms were making rapid progress in the Swedish province of Finland, and the Russian fleet gained a great victory over the Swedish navy, near the island of Aland, in the Bal- tic Sea. Return of Charles XII. to Sweden.—When Charles XII. learned that the Council which governed Sweden in his absence was about to appoint his sister cegent of the kingdom, and make peace with Russia and Denmark, he resolved to return to Sweden. The Swedish king left the Ottoman territories in October, 1714; and, after having travelled through Hungary and Germany, in the disguise of a peasant, he unexpectedly arrived at Stralsund, in Swedish Pomerania. Siege and Capture of Stralsund.—At length, the allied Danish, Saxon, and Prussian armies laid siege to Stralsund. After a heroic defense on the part of the Swedes for over a year, Stralsund was surrendered to the besieging enemy, in December, 1715, whereupon the whole of Pomerania, and the island of Rugen, were taken possession of by the Prussians. Charles escaped to Sweden in a boat, and still obstinately refused to consent to a peace. Invasion of Norway by Charles XII.-Scheme of Baron Gortz.-In 1716, Charles XII. invaded Norway, for the purpose of humbling the King of Denmark for violating the Peace of Travendal. Charles soon returned to Sweden; and his attention was now occupied with the bold political schemes of his Prime- Minister, Baron von Gortz, who was negotiating with Peter the Creat for an alliance between Russia and Sweden by which these two powers might dictate law to Europe. 278 MODERAV HISTORY. Siege of Fredickshall and Death of Charles XII.-In 1718, the Swedish monarch invaded Norway a second time, and laid siege to the fortress of Freder- ickshall. Here the great warrior-king found his death. While reconnoitering the works, during a terrific fire from the Danish batteries, on the night of the 30th of November, 1718, Charles XII. was killed, whether by the bullet of an assassin, or by a grape-shot from the enemy, is a disputed point in history. Ulrica Eleanora—Peace of Nystadt.—After greatly restricting the royal power, the Swedish Senate placed Ulrica Eleanora, sister to Charles XII., on this throne of Sweden; and, in 1719, Baron von Gortz was barbarously executed. Ir 1721, the Peace of Nystadt was concluded, by which Sweden surrendered most of her foreign possessions, in return for an indemnification in money. The Baltic provinces of Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia were ceded to Russia; the greater part of Pomerania to Prussia; and Schleswig and Holstein to Denmark. Russia after the Northern War.—While Sweden was almost ruined by the mad ambition of Charles XII., Russia, under the illustrious Peter the Great, was taking her place as a leading European power. Agriculture, manufactures, and commerce were encouraged, and many useful reforms were adopted. Learning that his son Alexis intended to restore the old order of things after his father's death, Peter compelled the young prince to renounce his right to the succession to the throne, and threw him into prison, where he died. Peter the Great died in 1725, and was succeeded on the Russian throne by his wife, Catharine I. Russia made rapid strides during the reigns of Catharine I., Peter II., Anna, and Elizabeth. GENERAL AFFAIRS OF EUROPE. England and Scotland—House of Brunswick—Scotch Rebellion of 1715.-Although the crowns of England and Scotland had been united in 1603, each of the two kingdoms had its own Parliament until 1707, when it was agreed that one Parliament for both kingdoms should thenceforth meet in London; and England, Scotland, and Wales have ever since been known by the common desig- nation of “Great Britain.” Queen Anne died in 1714, whereupon, in accordance with “The Act of Succession,” passed by the English Parliament in 1689, the Elector George of Hanover became King of Great Britain, with the title of George I.; and ever since that time, the House of Hanover, or Brunswick, has occupied the British throne. The Tories were antagonistic to the House of Brunswick; and in 1715, some of their number in Scotland, headed by the Earl of Mar, took up arms for the restoration of the deposed House of Stuart to the throne. The Duke of Argyle, who espoused the cause of King George I., defeated the Scotch insurgents in the battle of Sheriff-Muir, near Dumblain, in 1716. The Earl of Derwentwater, Mr. Foster, and Lords Kinmuir and Nithsdale, who had excited a Tory, or Jacobite, insurrection in the north of England, were also defeated and made prisoners. The leaders of this rebellion suffered the penalty of death, with the exception of Lord Nithsdale, who effected his escape from the country in a very romantic manner. The insurrection was soon suppressed both in England and Scotland. King George I, died in 1727, whereupon his son, George II., ascended the British throne. War of Venice and Austria against Turkey—Peace of Passarovitz.- In 1714, the Ottoman Porte began a war against the Republic of Venice, for the AºAGAZTEEAWTH CEAV7'UR Y. 279 purpose of regaining possession of the Morea. In 1716, Austria joined Venice in the war; and the Austrian army, under the great Prince Eugene, defeated the im- mense hosts of the Turks at Peterwardein, in 1716, and at Belgrade, in 1717. By the Peace of Passarovitz, in 1718, the Porte surrendered Belgrade to Austria, but Venice ceded the Morea to the Sultan. War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain.-The intriguing efforts of the able, but unprincipled, Cardinal Alberoni, the Prime-Minister of Philip V. of Spain, for placing the Pretender, son of James II., on the throne of England; for 2btaining the regency and succession to the throne of France for the King of Spain; and for wresting Sicily from the House of Austria, to which that island had been assigned by the treaty of Rastadt, produced, in 1717, a “Quadruple Alliance” of England, France, Holland, and Germany, for the purpose of compelling Spain to observe the stipulations of the treaty of Utrecht. The Spanish fleet in the Mediter- ranean sea was defeated and destroyed by a British squadron under Admiral Byng; the Spanish troops in Sicily were defeated by the Austrians; while a French force invaded Northern Spain and gained some successes. These events alarmed the weak and imbecile monarch of Spain, who consequently dismissed and banished his ambitious Minister and made peace, in 1718. The Mississippi Scheme.—The wars occasioned by the ambition of Louis XIV. had reduced the finances of France to a most deplorable condition, and an effort undertaken to remedy the evil only hastened their entire ruin. (1720.) This remedy was the famous “Mississippi Scheme,” projected by the Scotchman, John Law. The regent adopted the plan proposed by Law, who assured him that it would add enormously to the wealth and prosperity of France; and a commercial association, called “The Mississippi Company,” was organized, the profits of whose extensive trade with the French province of Louisiana, in North America, were to liquidate the whole national debt of France. Measures were taken to depreciate the value of the gold and silver coin, and the success of Law's project at first ex- ceeded all expectations. The people throughout France, with one impulse of avarice, exchanged their gold and silver for paper money; and the notes that were issued Soon arose to eighty per cent. of the value of the current coin. But the bank finally failed; the gold and silver had all disappeared; the worthless paper money only remained; and thousands of families were reduced to poverty. The popular indig- nation finally compelled Law to leave France. The South-Sea Scheme.—A project similar to the Mississippi Scheme was undertaken in England about the same time. (1720.) This project was the cele- brated “South-Sea Scheme,” proposed by Sir George Blount. The plan projected by Blount was the buying-up of the entire national debt of Great Britain by a com- mercial association, styled “The South-Sea Company,” because it had been origi- mally formed to trade to the Pacific Ocean, or South Sea. This debt, which had been contracted chiefly by King William III. in carrying on his wars against France, already amounted to an enormous sum. The Ministry readily adopted the plan projected by Blount, who gave every assurance that it would be to the advantage of the nation, as well as to the South-Sea Company; and the people throughout England, seized with an insatiable avarice, exchanged their entire fortunes for stock in the South-Sea Company. The scheme was at first successful, and the stock of the Company arose to ten times the value for which it was subscribed; but finally 28o MODERAV HISTORY. the bubble burst, and thousands of families were involved in utter financial ruin. A storm of popular indignation manifested itself against the unprincipled contrivers of the scheme, and many of them were justly punished by the Parliament, with the forfeiture of all the wealth and estates which they had so dishonorably acquired. . War of the Polish Succession.—On the death of Augustus II. of Poland, in 1733, the Polish Diet chose the deposed Stanislaus Leczinski to the throne of Poland; but Stanislaus was expelled from the country by the military power of Germany and Russia, and the son of Augustus II. was elevated to the Polish \hrone, with the title of Augustus III. Louis XV. of France, who had married a daughter of Stanislaus, opposed the action of Germany and Russia, and thus brought about “The War of the Polish Succession.” Spain and Sardinia formed alliances with France. In Northern Italy, the combined French and Sardinian armies de- feated the Austrians in two bloody campaigns; while the Spanish troops under Don Carlos expelled the Austrians from the Kingdom of Naples. The German imperial forces, under Prince Eugene, were everywhere defeated on the Rhine, and forced to retire before the advance of the French. In 1735, a treaty of peace was signed, by which Stanislaus renounced his claims to the throne of Poland, and received in lieu the German Dukedom of Lorraine; while Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, son-in-law of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, was to receive the Italian Duchy of Tuscany, on the approaching extinction of the famous House of Medici. On the death of Stanislaus, Lorraine was to be forever united with the French monarchy. Spain obtained the Kingdom of Naples for Don Carlos, and, the leading powers confirmed the Pragmatic Sanction, which the Emperor Charles VI. had framed for the purpose of securing the peacable succession to his here- ditary Austrian estates to his daughter Maria. Theresa. War of Russia and Austria against Turkey—Peace of Belgrade.—In 1736, the Empress Anna of Russia began a war against the Turks. In 1737, Aus- tria took part in the war, as an ally of Russia. The Russians conquered the Crimea from the Turks, but the Austrians were defeated on the Danube, and forced to a disgraceful retreat. In 1739, the Peace of Belgrade put an end to hostilities between Austria and Turkey, Austria surrendering Belgrade to the Turks. Peace was also soon made between Russia and the Porte. - * War between England and Spain.—The general tranquility which Western and Southern Europe had enjoyed since the Peace of Utrecht was owing to the efforts of the Prime-Ministers of England and France, Sir Robert Walpole and Car- dinal Fleury; but commercial difficulties between England and Spain led to a war between those two powers in 1739. An English naval expedition under Admiral Vernon captured the rich Spanish town of Porto Bello, on the northern coast of South America; but in the following year (1740), Vernon's fleet, in conjunction with an English land force under General Wentworth, was repulsed in an attack upon Carthagena, another Spanish American town. At the same time, a British fleet under Commodore Anson sailed to the South American waters, and afterwards crossed the Pacific to China, in search of a rich Spanish galleon, which was finally captured, after which Anson completed his voyage around the globe. This Anglo- Spanish war was soon merged in that general European contest known as the War of the Austrian Succession, and was ended by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in October, 1748. - AºAGAZZTEAEAVZ Hº CEAVZ'UAE V. 281 War between Russia and Sweden—Peace of Abo.—In 1741, Sweden, whose king, Frederic, was controlled by a selfish aristocracy, began a war against the Empress Elizabeth of Russia. After the war had continued two years, and several of the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic had been conquered by the Russians, the Peace of Abo was concluded, on terms not very honorable to Sweden, (1743.) PERSIA AND INDIA. Afghan Invasion of Persia—Reign of Kouli Khan or Nadir Snah — After the death of the Great Shah Abbas, in 1624, Persia rapidly declined in national greatness; and, in 1722, the country was invaded and desolated by the Afghans, who held Persia for seven wretched years, during which they destroyed a million of its population. In 1736, Kouli Khan, who had once been a camel driver, and who had risen rapidly, step by step, usurped the throne of Persia, and assumed the title of Nadir Shah. This monarch was famous for his cruelties, as well as for his vic- tories. He soon reconquered several provinces which Peter the Great of Russia had wrested from Persia, and compelled the Turkish Sultan to cede Armenia and Georgia to him. In 1739, Nadir Shah invaded the Mogul Empire in India, took Delhi, its capital, and caused IOO,OOO of the inhabitants of that city to be brutally massacred. In 1747, this bloody monster and tyrant was assassinated by one of his own guards, after which Persia again declined in importance. Decline and Fall of the Mogul Empire in India—Battle of Panniput.— The Mogul Empire in India, under its great sovereign, Aurungzebe, who held the crown from 1659 to 1707, had attained the zenith of its greatness and power. After the death of Aurungzebe, in 1707, the empire rapidly verged toward its fall, and soon crumbled to pieces. While the Mogul power declined, the Mahratta states were becoming the leading power in Hindoostan, while the Afghans had estab- lished a powerful monarchy west of the Indus. The Afghans at length marched against the Mahrattas, who had advanced into the Mogul territories; and on the 7th of January, 1761, was fought the great battle of Panniput, near Delhi. Each army numbered 200,000 men. The Mahratta army was almost totally destroyed, and the victorious Afghans returned home. The power of the Mogul emperor was now at an end. AGE OF FREDERIC THE GREAT AND CATH ARINE II. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (A. D. 1741-1748), CAUSES AND OFIGIN OF THE VVAR. The New Kingdom of Prussia—Frederic the Great.—The Great Elector of Brandenburg, Frederic William, who reigned from 1640 to 1688, enlarged his dominions on all sides by conquest, freed Prussia from the supremacy of Poland, encouraged agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and laid the foundations of a great kingdom. On the death of the Great Elector, in 1688, his son Frederic suc- ceeded to the electoral throne of Brandenburg; and at Königsburg, in 1701, with 282 MODERAV HISTORY. the consent of the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany, he was crowned the first King . of Prussia, with the title of Frederic I. The new kingdom was recognized by the European powers in the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, in 1713 and 1714. Fred- eric I. died in 1713, whereupon his son, the brutal and tyrannical Frederic William I., received the crown of Prussia. Frederic William I. died in 1740, and was suc- ceeded on the Prussian throne by his son, the illustrious Frederic II., surnamed “the Great,” who, by his abilities as a general and a statesman, raised Prussia to a front lank in the list of nations. Frederic II., on his accession to the throne, re. ceived a well-provided treasury, and a powerful, well-organized, and strictly-disci. plined army. Death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany—The Pragmatic Sanction.—The Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, who had been the competitor of Philip of Anjou for the throne of Spain, died in 1740. Having no male heirs, he had, a short time before his death, obtained, by gréat concessions, among which was the cession of the German Dukedom of Lorraine to France, the agreement of all the leading Européan powers to the famous “Pragmatic Sanction,” by which he left the succession to his hereditary Austrian dominions to his only daughter, Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary, wife of Duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine. Coalition against Maria Theresa.-No sooner had the Emperor Charles VI. descended to his grave, than a host of claimants appeared for various portions of the hereditary Austrian estates, and endeavored to make good their pretensions by force of arms. The Elector of Bavaria, Charles Albert, laid claim to the heredi- tary States of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, as a descendant of the eldest daugh- ter of the Emperor Ferdinand I.; Augustus III., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, raised claims to Moravia; Frederic II., the young King of Prussia, revived some old pretensions of the House of Hohenzollern to Silesia; Spain cast a longing eye on some of the Italian possessions of the House of Austria; and France, regarding the opportunitiy auspicious for the humiliation of the proud House of Hapsburg, readily violated the Pragmatic Sanction, by supporting the claims of the Elector of Bavaria to the Austrian succession. England alone at first espoused the cause of Maria. Theresa, furnishing her with large subsidies, and afterwards offering her military aid; and Holland and Sardinia finally took up arms in her favor. This contest, which convulsed Europe for seven years, is known as “The War of the Austrian Succesion.” .* EVENTS OF ITZ41. First Silesian War—Battle of Molvitz.-Soon after the death of the Em- peror Charles VI., Frederic II. of Prussia made a sudden irruption into Silesia, at the head of 30,000 men. Frederic speedily conquered Silesia, and offered to enter into an alliance with Maria Theresa, if she confirmed him in the possession of his new conquest; but the young Queen of Austria and Hungary declared her deter- mination to uphold the integrity of her hereditary dominions, and thus gave occa- sion to “The First Silesian War.” On the Ioth of April, 1741, hostilities were commenced by the battle of Molvitz, in which the King of Prussia, by the skill and bravery of his two leading generals, Prince Leopold of Dessau and Marshal Schwe- rin, gained a complete victory over the Austrians; and was thus enabled to hold possession of Silesia. ** AºAGHTEEAWTH CEAVTURY. 283 French and Bavarian Invasion of Austria and Bohemia.-France having determined to support the cause of the Elector of Bavaria, a powerful French army under Marshal Belleisle marched into Germany, and, after having been joined by the Bavarians and the Saxons, invaded the Archduchy of Austria, captured Lintz, menaced Vienna, compelled Maria Theresa to flee from her capital, and then marched into Bohemia and took possession of Prague. Charles VII. Emperor of Germany.—The Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria was crowned at Lintz as Archduke of Austria, and at Prague as King of Bohemia; and, through the influence of France and Prussia, the German Electoral Princes, in the Diet at Frankfort-on-the-Main, elected him to the imperial throne of Ger. many, with the title of Charles VII. Maria Theresa and the Hungarians.—With her infant son Joseph in her arms, Maria Theresa appeared in the Diet of the Hungarian nobles at Presburg, and sympathetically appealed to them to aid her in her distressed condition. The hearts of the Hungarians were touched, and they unanimously exclaimed, “Mori- amur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa!” “We will die for our sovereign, Maria Theresa!” EVENTS OF 1742. . Austrian Invasion of Bavaria.-Troops of Croats, Pandours, and Slaves, wild and warlike races of Southeran Hungary, under the conduct of Khevenhuller, and Barenklau, now flocked to the standard of Maria Theresa, and, after driving the French and the Bavarians out of the Austrian territories, entered Bavaria, and took possession of Munich on the very day that the Elector of Bavaria was crowned Emperor at Frankfort. The new Emperor was obliged to live in retirement from his hereditary Bavarian dominions, which were frightfully plundered and devastated by the Austrians and the Hungarians. e Frederic’s Invasion of Bohemia—Battle of Czaslau—Peace of Breslau. —In the rheantime, the King of Prussia had invaded Bohemia with a powerful army; and on the 16th of May, 1742, he was fiercely attacked near Czaslau, by the Austrians under Prince Charles of Lorraine and Field-Marshal Königseg. By the irresistible impetuosity of the Prussian cavalry, under Field-Marshal Buddenbrock, and a dashing charge by the Prussian infantry, headed by Frederic in person, the Austrians were repulsed with heavy loss. This victory gave Frederic full possession of Silesia. On the 28th of July, 1742, Frederic concluded with Maria Theresa the Peace of Breslau, by which he was left in possession of Silesia. Bohemia Recovered from the French—Belleisle's Retreat Through Germany.—After the Peace of Breslau with the King of Prussia, the Austrians recovered the greater part of Bohemia from the French. The French army under Marshal Belleisle was besieged in Prague, and at length compelled to evacuate that city and retreat in the midst of winter to Eger, and thence through Germany to the Rhine, after immense losses, only 13,000 men of Belleisle's once-splendid army surviving. EVENTS OF 1749. Alliance of England with Maria Theresa—Battle of Dettingen.—In 1743, England began to take an active part in the war against France, as an ally 284 MODERAV HISTORY. of Maria Theresa. An English army of 40,000 men, under King George II. and the Earl of Stair, having advanced into Germany, was attacked by a French army of 60,000 men, under Marshal de Noailles, at the village of Dettingen, near Aschaf. fenburg. Brought by the excellent arrangements of the French marshal into a perilous position, where advance or retreat was impossible, without being exposed to attack at the greatest disadvantage, the whole English army with the king would have become prisoners to the French but for the impetuosity of one of the French commanders, who attacked the English through a narrow defile, where his troops, becoming entangled, were fiercely assailed by the Earl of Stair, and all the plans of Noailles were disconcerted. A general engagement ensued, and the French were disastrously defeated and compelled to retreat. The English, however, ne- glected to follow up their victory. EVENTS OF 1744. Invasion of the Netherlands by Louis XV.-Austrian Invasion of Alsace.—In 1744; a French army, commanded by King Louis XV. in person, invaded the Austrian Netherlands and captured several towns; but in the midst of his victorious career, the King of France was obliged to return, to defend his own dominions against the Austrians, who, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, crossed the Rhine and conquered the greater portion of Alsace. The Austrians were, however, soon recalled to operate against the King of Prussia, who had again taken up arms against Maria Theresa. Second Silesian War—Frederic's Second Invasion of Bohemia.-Fear- ing that Maria Theresa, encouraged by her successes against the French and the Bavarians, would make an attempt to reconquer Silesia, Frederic II. of Prussia commenced “The Second Silesian War” by invading Bohemia with 70,000 troops. In September (1744), Frederic laid siege to Prague, which was soon compelled to surrender, with its garrison of 18,000 Austrian troops. Frederic was, however, soon compelled to retreat, with the loss of 20,000 men, as the promised diversion of the French on the side of the Rhine was prevented by the illness of Louis XV. at Metz. EVENTS OF 1745, '46, ’47, 48. Death of the Emperor Charles VII.-Francis I. Emperor of Germany. —The Emperor Charles VII. of Germany died on the 20th of January, I745; and his son, Maximilian Joseph, who succeeded him as Elector of Bavaria, made peace with Maria Theresa, renouncing all claims to the Austrian dominions. Maria Theresa's husband, Francis of Lorraine, was elected Emperor of Germany, with the title of Francis I. Although the original cause of the war was now removed, the national hatred which animated England and France prevented the restoration of a general peace. Battles of Hohenfriedberg, Sorr, and Kesselsdorf–Peace of Dresden. --In the meantime, the Austrians, under the able Field-Marshal Traun, had recon- quered Silesia from the Prussians. But the Prussians soon regained the supremacy by some splendid triumphs: on the 3d of June, 1745, Frederic II. won a brilliant victory over the Austrians among the hills of Hohenfriedberg; a Prussian force under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick gained a victory at Sorr; and Prince Leo- f g # { AºAGAZTEAZAVZ H CAEAVTURY. 285 pold of Dessau, with Prussian troops, defeated the Saxons, who were now the allies of the Austrians, in a bloody engagement at Kesselsdorf; and the King of Prussia entered Dresden, the Saxon capital, in triumph. The Second Silesian War was ended by the Peace of Dresden, by which Maria Theresa consented to leave Silesia in the possession of Frederic, who in turn recognized her husband as Emperor. The War in the Austrian Netherlands—Battles of Fontenoy, Raucoux, and Laffeld.—The Austrian Netherlands were now the theatre of Some severe struggles on the part of the French against the united armies of England, Holland, and Austria. On the 30th of April, 1745, was fought the great battle of Fontenoy, in which the combined English, Dutch, and Austrian forces, commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, son of George II. of England, were thoroughly defeated, with the loss of 7,000 men, by the French army, numbering 50,000 men, under the coin- mand of Marshal Saxe, a natural son of Augustus III. of Poland. The French were also victorious in the battle of Raucoux, in 1746, and in the battle of Laffeld, in 1747; and the campaign there terminated with the expulsion of the Austrians, and their Dutch and English allies, from the Austrian Netherlands. Campaign in Italy—Expulsion of the French and the Spaniards.-- While the military events just related were occurring in Germany and in the Austrian Netherlands, bloody conflicts were taking place in Italy, between the armies of France, Spain, and Naples, on the one side, and the forces of Austria and Sardinia on the other. In 1746, the Austrians and Sardinians won the battle of Piacenza over the French and the Spaniards, who, after a bloody campaign the following year, were entirely driven from Italy. Scotch Rebellion of 1745—Battles of Preston-Pans, Falkirk, and Cul- loden Moor.—In 1745, Prince Charles Edward, “The Young Pretender,” grand- son of James II., encouraged by the defeat of the English at Fontenoy, resolved to attempt the restoration of his family to the throne of Great Britain. He sailed from France in a French vessel, and, after landing in Scotland, was joined by some of the Highland clans. The Pretender took possession of Edinburgh, on the 16th of September; and, on the 21st of the same month, he defeated the Government forces under Sir John Cope in the battle of Preston-Pans, and proclaimed his father King of Scotland, with the title of James VIII. Elated by success, the Pretender marched into England, took the town of Carlisle, and advanced to within a hundred miles of London, creating the greatest consternation throughout the kingdom; but he was soon obliged to retreat into Scotland. The Pretender was again victorious over the Royal forces under General Hawley, at Falkirk, on the 13th of January, 1746; but in the memorable battle of Culloden Moor, near Inverness, on the 16th of April, 1746, the Pretender was hopelessly defeated by the Royal army under the Duke of Cumberland, and there his cause and that of the Stuart family received its death-blow. The English tarnished the glory of their victory by acts of cruelty, and by a savage desolation of the country around Culloden. After a series of ro- mantic adventures and narrow escapes, Prince Charles Edward reached France in safety. Many of his adherents were punished with death, and hundreds were banished to America. The War in America—Capture of Louisburg.—The war between England and France extended to America. On the 28th of June, 1745, after a siege of one 286 JMO DEA’AV HISTORY. month, the strong French fortress of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton, was surrendered to a British fleet under Admiral Warren and an English colonial land force under General William Pepperell. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.—The War of the Austrian Succession was closed by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in October, 1748, on the basis of a mutual resti. tution of all conquests made during the war. France recognized the succession of the House of Brunswick to the throne of Great Britain; and Maria Theresa was confirmed in the sovereignty of all the hereditary Austrian territories, except Silesia, which remained with the King of Prussia. THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR (A. D. 1756-1763). CAUSEs AND ORIGIN of THE war. Disputes Between France and England—Colonies in North America. - The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle proved to be nothing more than a hollow truce. Many of the questions at issue between France and England were left unsettled, and thus grounds were furnished for a renewal of hostilities. The limits of the English colony of Nova Scotia, in North America, the right claimed by the French to connect their settlements in Louisiana and Canada by a line of forts in the rear of the English colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America, and the desire of both nations to obtain a political preponderance in India, all led to protracted dis- putes which soon resulted in another war. In 1754, hostilities broke out between the English and French colonists in North America, although the two mother- countries did not formally declare war against each other until May, 1756. In 1755, an English force under General Monckton reduced the French forts in Nova Scotia, but the English general Braddock was defeated and killed in an ex- pedition against Fort DuQuesne, and his army was only saved from total destruction by the valor and prudence of Colonel George Washington, who commanded the English colonial forces. * Relations of Austria and Prussia—The Province of Silesia.-It was very evident that Austria and Prussia could not long remain at peace, as the Empress Maria Theresa, who could not forget the loss of Silesia, was determined to recover that province. She spent the eight years after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in forming alliances with the other courts of Europe against the great Frederic II. of Prussia, for the purpose of realizing her determination. * Coalition against Frederic the Great.—The two causes of dispute already mentioned had no direct connection with each other, yet mutual interests led to the formation of alliances. The strangest feature of all was the alliance of Austria and France, nations that had been enemies for two centuries; and the coalition of Prussia and England, nations that had hitherto appeared extremely jealous of each other. This change of policy on the part of France was brought about by Madame Pompadour, the favorite mistress of the dissolute monarch, Louis XV., who, capti- wated by a flattering letter from the Empress Maria Theresa, and angry at the sai. casm which the King of Prussia had uttered against her, was easily won to the side of the Austrian empress. The profligate empress, Elizabeth of Russia, affronted at the sarcastic manner in which Frederic spoke of her, was easily induced by her prime-minister, Bestucheff, to conclude an alliance with Maria Theresa against FIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 287 Prussia. Augustus III., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, who was also offended at Frederic's sarcasm, formed an alliance with the Austrian empress- queen. Sweden, through the influence of the French court, joined the coalition against file Prussian monarch. Thus Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden were united against Prussia and England. The English carried on a successful war against the French on the ocean, in North America, and in the East and West Indies; but they could give little effective aid to the Prussian king against the powerful ene- m'es who threatened to wrest from him a large portion of his dominions, and reduce him to the condition of an Elector of Brandenburg. But the great military ability of Frederic, and the splendid discipline of the Prussian army, enabled Prussia to come forth from the gigantic struggle powerful and victorious. EVENTS OF 1756. Frederic’s Invasion of Saxony—Battle of Lowositz—Surrender of the Saxons.—The King of Prussia did not wait to be attacked; but, resolving to sur- prise his enemies by an unexpected blow, he was first in the field. In August, 1756, he suddenly burst into Saxony, with an army of 70,000 men, took possession of Leipsic, Wittenberg, and Dresden, and blockaded the Saxon army, which had established a strongly-fortified camp at Pirna, on the Elbe. At the head of only 25,000 men, Frederic the Great, in the battle of Lowositz, defeated 50,000 Austrians under General Brown, who were marching to the relief of the Saxons; after which he compelled the Saxon forces, reduced by hunger to 14,000 men, to surrender themselves prisoners of war, and forced them into the Prussian service. The Elector Augustus III. now abandoned Saxony, and retired into Poland, where he remained until the end of the war. Thus Frederic the Great conquered Saxony in his first campaign in the Seven Years' War. Disasters to the English.-While the Prussians were thus victorious in the campaign of 1756, their allies, the English, were not so fortunate. The island of Minorca, in the Mediterranean sea, was captured by a French force, after a gallant defense on the part of the English; and in North America, the French general Montcalm crossed Lake Ontario from Canada, and captured the English fort and garrison at Oswego. EVENTS OF 1757. The Immense Armies of Frederic's Enemies.—The enemies of Frederic the Great assembled immense armies for the campaign of 1757; a Russian army of 130,000 men entered Prussia on the east; a Swedish forcc of 20,000 men was preparing to march into the Prussian province of Pomerania; 80,000 French troops were advancing from the west; and 180,000 Austrians were in the field. Battle of Prague.—After some maneuvering by which he completely deceived the Austrians, the King of Prussia began the campaign of 1757 by invading Bohe- mia. On the 6th of May, at the head of 70,000 men, Frederic attacked 75,000 Austrians at Prague. The assaults of the Prussians were at first repulsed, and the old Prussian marshal Schwerin fell fighting at the head of his regiment; but the fall of the brave Austrian marshal Brown finally decided the battle, which ended in a glorious victory for the Prussians. Frederic, however, purchased his triumph at a heavy cost, as 12,500 of his brave troops lay dead or wounded on the field of battle. 288 MODERM HISTOR P. Battle of Kolin.-Seeking to follow up his victory at Prague, Frederic the Great, on the 18th of June (1757), attacked the Austrians under Count Daun, who occupied a strong position at Kolin. After a bloody battle, in which the Austrians at first gave way, the Prussian king was so badly defeated that he was obliged to raise the siege of Prague, and evacuate Bohemia as speedily as possible. Desperate Situation of Frederic the Great.—The disastrous result of the battle of Kolin deprived Frederic the Great of the fruits of his former victories, and it seemed as though he must fall before the overwhelming power of his numer- ous enemies, who now threatened him on all sides. His English and Hanoverian allies, under the Duke of Cumberland, after having been defeated by the French at Hastenbach, were compelled, by the disgraceful convention of Closterseven, to lay down their arms, thus leaving the French at liberty to operate against Frederic in Saxony. A Russian army of IOO,OOo men, under Apraxin, invaded Prussia on the east, defeated 24,000 Prussians under Lehwald, and advanced against Frederic; 20,000 Swedish troops entered Pomerania, and advanced toward the Prussian capital; and an Austrian army invaded Silesia and besieged Schweidnitz, while another Austrian force made its way through Lusatia, and laid Berlin under contri- bution. Battle of Rosbach.-In his desperate situation Frederic the Great saw that he must strike a decisive blow in order to save himself from utter ruin. He accord- ingly marched into Saxony, for the purpose of expelling the French from that coun- try. With only 25,000 men, Frederic occupied a height at the little village of Rosbach, where he was soon confronted by 70,000 French and Austrian troops, under the Prince of Soubise, a favorite of Madame Pompadour. The object of the French and their Austrian allies was to see whether the King of Prussia would venture to attack them. They resolved to surround Frederic, take him and his whole army prisoners, and thus put an end to the war at once. At length, at two o'clock in the afternoon of the 5th of November (1757), Frederic gave his orders to attack, and immediately his troops fell so suddenly and irresistibly, and with such rapidity of movement, upon the enemy that in less than half an hour the French and their allies fled from the field in dismay; and Frederic won a glorious victory. Some of the French troops fled into the middle of Germany, while many did not stop in their flight until they had crossed the Rhine. On this memorable field Frederic lost only 515 men in killed and wounded. He took 7,000 prisoners, among whom were eleven generals. He invited the most distinguished of his prisoners to sup with him, and, after expressing his regret at not being able to afford them a better entertainment, he said, “Gentlemen, I did not expect you soon, nor in such large numbers.” Battle of Leuthen.—By his victory at Rosbach, Frederic the Great recovered the whole of Saxony. He next marched into Silesia, which province had been taken possession of by a large Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine. On the 5th of December, 1757, exactly one month after the battle of Rosbach, Frederic, with only 30,000 men, met 90,000 Austrians under Charles of Lorraine, at Leuthen. Frederic immediately took possession of some heights nearby, which masked the movements of his troops; and then deceiving the Austrians by a false attack upon their right wing, he suddenly turned and attacked their left so fiercely AAGAZZZZAV7 H CEAWTURY. 289 that it was routed before the right could render it any assistance; and, after a con- flict of three hours, Frederic won one of the most brilliant victories of modern times. The entire Prussian loss was only 5,000 men, while the Austrian loss was over 28,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. English Assistance to Frederic the Great.—The brilliant achievements of Frederic the Great at Rosbach and Leuthen created the greatest enthusiasm in England for the King of Prussia and his army; and the English Government, then under the direction of the great statesman, the elder William Pitt, agreed to ſtrnish liberal subsidies to Frederic, and to send another army into Germany. While thc war was thus raging fiercely in Europe, the English experienced another misfortune in North America, the French general Montcalm having captured Fort William Henry, in the province of New York. EVENTS OF 1738. Movements of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick.-The campaign of 1758 was commenced by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, who, through the influence of the King of Prussia, was appointed to the command of the English and Hanoverian army. With only 30,000 men, Ferdinand drove the French army of 90,000 men across the Rhine, early in the spring, and routed them at Crefeld with heavy loss. Battle of Zorndorf-Aſter some important movements against the Austrians in Silesia and Moravia, Frederic the Great marched against the Russians, who were perpetrating the most barbarous atrocities in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, sparing neither age nor sex. On the 24th of August (1758), Frederic, at the head of 30,000 men, met 60,000 Russians under Fermor, near the village of Zorndorf, not far from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Here was fought one of the bloodiest battles of the Seven Years' War. It began at nine o’clock in the morning, and ended at ten in the evening, when 19,000 Russians and II,000 Prussians lay dead or wounded on the sanguinary field. Frederic was victorious, and the Russians were obliged to evacuate the Prussian dominions and retreat into Poland. Battle of Hochkirchen.—After the battle of Zorndorf, Frederic the Great marched into Saxony, to the assistance of his brother Henry, who was hard pressed by the Austrians. On the 14th of October, Frederic was surprised and disastrously defeated at Hochkirchen, by the Austrians under Count Daun. In this bloody engagement Frederic lost all his artillery and baggage. Frederic in Silesia and Saxony.—The King of Prussia was not discouraged by his disaster at Hochkirchen. Daun was foiled in all attempts to follow up his victory; and Frederic again expelled the Austrians from Silesia, and then returned to Saxony, and, after compelling Daun to raise the sieges of Dresden and Leipsic, drove him into Bohemia. English Successes in North America.-In 1758, success gleamed upon the English arms in North America, where three important posts were wrested from the French. After a siege of more than a month, the French fortress of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton, surrendered to the English under General Amherst, on the 26th of July; Fort Du Quesne was evacuated by its French garrison, on the approach of an English force under General John Forbes; and Fort Frontenac, at the foot of Lake Ontario, in Canada, was captured by an English force under Colo I9 290 MODERAV HISTORY. nel Bradstreet; but the English general Abercrombie was repulsed in an attack upon the fortress of Ticonderoga, on the western border of Lake Champlain. EVENTS OF 1739. Battle of Kunersdorf–At the commencement of the campaign of 1759, the Austrians overran Saxony and threatened Berlin; the Russians under Soltikoff defeated the Prussian detachments on the Oder, menaced Silesia, and at length effected a junction with the Austrians under Laudon. Frederic the Great was in a most perilous situation. In the midst of these accumulating dangers, he resolved upon striking an effective blow. He at length set his army in motion; and, on the 12th of August, 1759, with only 50,000 men, he attacked the united Austrian and Russian armies under Laudon and Soltikoff, numbering together Ioo,000 men, at Kunersdorf, not far from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Frederic was at first successful, and the enemy were driyen from the field; but the stubborn Russians rallied and renewed the fight; and a terrific charge of the Austrian cavalry, headed by Laudon in person, put the entire Prussian army to rout. This disaster was a grievous blow to Frederic the Great. The Prussian loss was more than 18,000 men, and the total Austrian and Russian loss amounted to almost 16,000 men. Berlin was in danger of falling into the hands of the enemy, and Frederic's cause seemed ruined; but, instead of following up their victory, the Austrian and Russian generals, who were jealous of each other, spent so much time in quarreling that the King of Prussia was enabled to collect another army; and Berlin was again safe. Disasters to Prussian Detachments.-At this unfortunate period of his military career, Frederic the Great was constantly receiving intelligence of defeats sustained by his detachments; and his situation was extremely dangerous. One of the Prussian generals was defeated at Maxen; and another at Meissen; and Dresden fell into the hands of the Austrians. Operations of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick—Battle of Minden.— While Frederic the Great was so unfortunate during the year 1759, his English and Hanoverian allies, under their able commander, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, were conducting a successful campaign against the French. Altough Ferdinand was beaten, on the 13th of April, in the battle of Bergen, near Frankfort-on-the- Main, he defeated the French so badly in a sanguinary battle at Minden, on the Ist of August, that they were obliged to abandon Hanover and Westphalia, and make a hasty retreat across the Rhine. In the battle of Minden the French lost 8,000 I (1611, English Conquests in North America—Capture of Quebec.—While the war was thus raging in Europe in 1759, conquest shone upon the British arms in North America, where the power of the French was irreparably broken. Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, on the western coast of Lake Champlain, were evac- uated by their French garrisons, on the approach of an English force under General Amherst, in July; after a siege of more than a month, Fort Niagara was captured by an English force under General William Johnson; and finally, on the 13th of September, the English under General Wolfe, who had besieged Quebec ſor several months, scaled the Heights of Abraham, near that city, attacked the French army under Montcalm, and, aſter a desperate battle, in which both Wolfe and Montcalm AºAGAZZZZAWTH CEAVTUR Y. 291 were mortally wounded, the French were hopelessly defeated; and on the 18th (September, 1759), the city of Quebec was surrendered to the victorious English. EVENTS OF 1763.O. Prussian Disasters.—The campaign of 1760 opened most disastrously for the King of Prussia. His general, Fouquet, after gallantly maintaining himself for soine time in Silesia against a superior Austrian force under Laudon, was defeated on the 24th of June, at Landshut, with the loss of 8,000 men, either slain or made prisoners. Frederic himself afterwards besieged Dresden, but he was obliged to retire, on the approach of Laudon, with a strong Austrian force, for the relief of the garrison. Laudon, however, failed to wrest Breslau from the Prussians by siege. Battle of Liegnitz.-Frederic now marched into Silesia, to recover that prov- ince from the Austrians. While the Austrians and Russians, in number 180,000, were preparing to surround the King of Prussia, and his complete overthrow ap- peared certain, he suddenly and furiously assailed the astonished Laudon, at the head of the Austrian detachment, at Liegnitz, on the 16th of August. Laudon’s force was terribly defeated, with the loss of Io,000 men in killed and wounded, before the reinforcement under Daun could come to the scene of action. Both Laudon and Daun fled to the Katzbach, and Frederic the Great was again master of Silesia; but Berlin was taken possession of by Austrian and Russian troops, and the hereditary dominions of Frederic were plundered and devastated. Battle of Torgau.-Frederic next marched into Saxony, with the view of expelling the Austrians from that country. On the 3d of November, he fiercely attacked the intrenched position of the Austrians under Daun, at Torgau. After a day of the most frightful carnage, Frederic gained a complete victory, but at the cost of 14,000 of his gallant troops, who lay dead on the field of battle. The con- sequence of this battle was that all of Saxony, except Dresden, was again in the hands of the King of Prussia; and the Austrian, Russian, and Swedish forces were obliged to evacuate the Prussian dominions. The War in North America—Conquest of Canada by the English.- The year 1760 was signalized by the total subversion of French power in North America. In April of that year, the French made an attempt to recover Quebec, and totally defeated the English in the battle of Sillery, near that city, on the 28th of April; but the attempt to recover the city failed; and on the 8th of September (1760), Montreal, the last stronghold of the French in North America, surrendered to the English general Murray, and, with the fall of that post, the conquest of Canada by the English was complete. “Family Compact” of the Bourbons.—Ferdinand VI. of Spain died in I759, and was succeeded by his son, Charles III., who departed from the peaceful policy of his predecessor by signing with the French court the famous “Family Compact,” which bound the two reigning branches of the House of Bourbon to assist each other against the gigantic power of Great Britain. The result of this alliance was to subject Spain to a series of disasters similar to those suffered by France. 292 MOZ) ZACAV HAS 7 OAQ P. EVENTS OF 1761, e2, e3. Campaign of 1761—Peaceful Disposition of England.—The campaign of I761, which was distinguished by no important battle, was disastrous to Frederic the Great. The Austrians under Laudon captured Schweidnitz, and regained pos. session of Silesia, while the Russians overpowered the Prussian detachments in Pomerºnia. While the King of Prussia was struggling against the united power of Austria, France, Russia, and Sweden on the Continent of Europe, his powerful ally, Great Britain, was triumphant over the French and the Spaniards on the ocean, and in the East and West Indies. Belleisle, on the very coast of France, was cap. tured by the British navy; and Pondicherry, the capital of the French possessions in India, Surrendered to the English. Cuba and the Philippine Islands were taken from the Spaniards by powerful British naval armaments. The English people had now grown extremely tired of the war in Germany; and after the accession of George III. to the British throne, in October, I760, the English Government, under the direction of the Earl of Bute, had shown itself ardently anxious for peace, even at the cost of abandoning the cause of the King of Prussia. Death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia—Alliance of Russia and Prussia.--It now appeared that Frederic the Great must fall before the over- whelming power of Austria and Russia; but in January, 1762, the Empress Eliza- beth of Russia, Frederic's implacable enemy, died, and was succeeded by Peter III., who ardently admired the talents and courage of Frederic, and who immediately concluded a treaty of peace and alliance with the Prussian warrior-king, and sent Russian troops to the assistance of the Prussians. Successes of Frederic the Great in 1762–Neutrality of Catharine II. of Russia.--Encouraged by the happy circumstances in which he so suddenly and unexpectedly found himself, the King of Prussia made the Austrians feel the effects of his vengeance by reëntering Silesia, defeating Daun at Buckersdorf, and recap- turing Schweidnitz, which again gave him possession of Silesia. Frederic next invaded Bohemia, destroyed the Austrian magazines at Prague, burned the city of Eger, and terribly ravaged the country. A Spanish army invaded Portugal, the ally of England; but was driven back by an English force which had been sent to the assistance of the Portuguese. The Czar Peter III. had been deposed in January, 1762, by his wicked wife, who then made herself sole sovereign of Russia, with the title of Catharine II. The unfortunate Peter soon afterward died in prison, supposed to have been assassinated at the instigation of Catharine. The new Em- press immediately renounced the alliance with Frederic the Great, declared herself neutral with respect to the war in Germany, and recalled the Russian armies from Prussia. Sweden had already made peace with Prussia. Peace of Paris—Peace of Hubertsburg.—On the Ioth of February, 1763, England, France, Spain, and Portugal concluded treaties of peace at Paris, by which they agreed to observe neutrality with regard to the war between Austria and Prussia. The terms of the Peace of Paris were most humiliating to France. Nova Scotia, Canada, and other French possessions in North America were surrendered to Great Britain. Louisiana was ceded to Spain, in consideration of the losses sus- tained by that power in the war. Spain ceded Florida to England, in exchange for Cuba, which had been captured by the British navy. Austria and Prussia, thus * * * > . . N NN * NN'vº w - § §§ º § N § N sº N º § W \\ s § WN N §§§§ § §§ * x § x º N s § N . º tº § º *. Ç º i s § §N sº i. §º N N sº . Wº sº §N W W º ^. r 3 : N- N º See º: º - - N § N J. gº tº ºss º º S. § º º º \ . . §§ º § Wº ºf %| - - º N *. § N º NNNNN \ § \\ \ º º º | | * \\}} §§§ gº ſºft º º º ſ º - & V. w - ** Łº £ºğ Fºsº" S. Ş.Sz N | º FREDERIC THE GREAT. 294 MODERAV HISTORY. upon the Dissidents formed a league known as “The Confederation of Radovi,” and, with the aid of Russia, they determined to obtain the desired privileges by force. Civil War in Poland.—The Diet of Poland was compelled by Russian troops to concede to the Dissidents the rights which they demanded; whereupon the Polish Catholics formed “The Confederation of Bar,” in opposition to that of Radovi, for the purpose of again depriving the Dissidents of their civil and religious rights, and liberating Poland from Russian supremacy. A bloody civil war cnsued between the two Confederations. With the assistance of a Russian army, the Confederation of Radovi came forth triumphant. Bar and Cracow, the strongholds of the Bar confederates, were carried by assault. The defeated forces fled into the Turkish territories, closely pursued by the victorious Russians. (1768.) War Between Russia and Turkey.—The violation of Turkish territory by the Russians, in the pursuit of the defeated and retreating Poles, caused the Ottoman Porte to declare war against Russia; and for six years (1768-1774), a sanguinary land and naval war raged between the Turks and the Russians. After achieving two great victories, the Russians under Romanzoff conquered the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia; and in 1770, the Turkish town of Bender was taken by storm. Bloody battles were ſought between the Russians and the Turks in the Morea, or Southern Greece, on the coast of which a Turkish fleet was destroyed by fire. (1771). First Partition of Poland.—Convinced of the weakness of Poland, and anxious for an increase of their own respective territories, the neighboring powers resolved to divide a portion of the Polish Republic among themselves. After a personal inter- view between Joseph II. of Austria and Frederic the Great of Prussia, and a visit of Prince Henry of Prussia to St. Petersburg, a treaty of partition was agreed upon by Austria, Prussia, and Russia (August 5, 1772), by which these three powers seized those portions of Poland adjoining their own dominions. The Polish Diet pro- tested before the whole world against this iniquitous scheme, this most audacious violation of the rights of nations. Surrounded and threatened by Russian troops, the Diet at length yielded to force, and consented to the dismemberment of Poland. Thus the Polish provinces watered by the Vistula were taken by Prussia; Galicia was seized by Austria; and the territories of the Dnieper were absorbed by Russia. Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche.—The war between Russia and Turkey was terminated in 1774, by the Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche, by the terms of which the right of passage through the Dardanelles was conceded to Russia, and the Turkish provinces of Moldavia, and Wallachia were placed under Russian protection. Pugatscheff's Rebellion—Migration of the Kalmuck Tartars.-In 1774, a formidable rebellion against the Empress Catharine II., headed by Pugatscheff, a Don Cossack, broke out in the region of the Volga; but the revolt was speedily suppressed, and Pugatscheff was beheaded in Moscow, in 1775. In 1782, the Kal- muck Tartars, 500,000 in number, affronted at the Russian Empress, abandoned their homes in European Russia, and, wandering eastward several thousand miles, settled themselves in the dominions of the Emperor of China. Russian Conquest of the Crimea.—Russian ambition was not satisfied with the defeat of the Turks. In 1783, the Russian ſorces under Potemkin conquered A.ICATEEAWTH CEAV7'UR Y. 295 the Nogai Tartars of the Crimea, and annexed that country, with other territories on the Black Sea, under the name of Tauris, to Russia. war of Russia and Austria against Turkey–The evident design of the Empress Catharine II. of expelling the Turks from Europe, and founding a new Christian empire, with Constantinople ſor its capital, and a member of the imperial House of Romanoff for its prince, and the aggressive conduct of Russia in the region of the Black Sea, alarmed the Ottoman Porte; and another bloody land and naval war broke out between Russia and Turkey in 1787, and lasted five years. Joseph II. of Austria participated in the war, as an ally of the Russian Empress. The Austrian forces under Laudon defeated the Turks on the Danube, and sub- dued portions of Servia and Wallachia; while, at the same time, conquest shone upon the Russian arms. In December, 1788, the Russians under Potemkin took the strong city of Oczakow, after a furious assault, in which many lives were sacri- ficed; and in December, 1790, a Russian army under the cruel Suwarrow carried by storm the fortress of Ismail, and caused 20,000 Turks to be put to the Sword. War between Sweden and Russia.-England and Prussia assumed a me- nacing atttitude toward Russia, in consequence of her aggressive policy, and the success of her arms against the Turks; and in 1788, King Gustavus III. of Sweden formed an alliance with the Sultan, and began a land and naval war against Russia. After sustaining several defeats, the Swedes gained a great naval victory in the Baltic sea; but Catharine II. succeeded in making an equitable peace with Sweden, in 1790. The able Gustavus III. had aroused the discontents of his subjects by his war with Russia; and in 1792, he was assassinated at a masquerade, by Ankar strom, one of his former guard-officers. - Peace of Jassy.—The Empress of Russia closed her second war with the Turks by the Peace of Jassy, in January, 1792, by which the Porte ceded the terri- tories of the Dniester to Russia. Peace had previously been made between Aus- tria and Turkey. New Polish Constitution.—Poland was at this time endeavoring to ſree her- self from Russian domination. With the support of Prussia, the Poles dissolved “The Perpetual Council,” which the Russians had established at Warsaw to rule the Polish Republic. In 1791, a new constitution was adopted, by which Poland was changed from an elective kingdom to an hereditary monarchy with two legis- lative chambers. The Polish king took an oath to observe and defend this con- stitution, which was applauded by all Europe, with the exception of Russia. War of the Poles against Russia—Defeat of Kosciuszko.—A party of Polish nobles, who were dissatisfied with the new constitution, formed “The Con- federation of Targowicz,” for the purpose of restoring the old elective constitution. This party received the aid of the Russian Empress, who immediately sent an army into Poland. Prussia, which had just been in alliance with the Polish Patriots, now sided with Russia in the contest, on the ground that the principles of French republicanism were embodied in the new Polish constitution. The illus- trious Thaddeus Kosciuszko, who had nobly fought for freedom in America, became the chief of the patriot party, and led the Polish army against the Russians, by whom he was defeated at Dubienka, on the 17th of July, 1792. The Polish king, now becoming alarmed, renounced hostilities against Russia, and joined the 296 MODA. RAW HZSTORY. Confederation of Targowicz. The gallant Polish patriots, whose efforts were para. lyzed by the cowardice and irresolution of their king, fled from their country, burn- ing with wrath against their Russian oppressors. w Second Partition of Poland.—In 1793, Russia and Prussia determined upon a second partition of Poland, assigning as a reason that the principles of the French revolutionists were fast gaining ground in that country. The Polish Diet, which resolutely, but vainly, opposed itself to the new treaty of partition, was surrounded by Russian troops, who violently carried off the boldest speakers. A second division of the Polish Republic then followed, between Russia and Prussia. The Eastern Polish provinces of Volhynia, Podolia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Little Poland were taken by Russia: Great Poland and Dantzic went to Prussia. War of the Poles Against Russia and Prussia—Defeat of Kosciuszko. —The stolen provinces were immediately occupied by Russian and Prussian troops. Iglestrom, the Russian ambassador at Warsaw, was the virtual ruler of Poland. A conspiracy was formed, in the spring of 1794, by the Polish patriots, for the purpose of reconquering the lost territories, and restoring the constitutional government. Kosciuszko and the emigrant Poles returned to their country, and placed themselves at the head of the patriot party. Iglestrom's palace at Warsaw was burned to the ground, the Russian troops who occupied Warsaw were made prisoners or put to death, and four of the Polish supporters of Russian supremacy perished on the scaffold. The Prussian forces which had advanced against Warsaw were driven back by the Poles under Kosciuszko, Dombrowski, and Joseph Poniatowski, the king's nephew. The Empress Catharine II. was determined to crush the Polish rising, and a large Russian army under Suwarrow soon appeared in Poland. In a sanguinary engagement at Macziewice, on the Ioth of October, 1794, Kosciuszko was defeated by the Russians, and, falling wounded from his horse, with the excla- mation, “The end of Poland l’’ was made a prisoner. Praga was taken by storm by Suwarrow, on the 4th of November, 1794, and 12,000 defenseless persons were killed, or drowned in the Vistula. Warsaw was forced to surrender to the victorious Russians, and King Stanislaus Poniatowski was compelled to abdicate the throne of Poland. He took up his residence in St. Petersburg, where he was supported by a pension from the Russian government, until his death, which occured in 1798. Third Partition of Poland.—A partition of what remained of the . Republic of Poland, between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, took place in I795. Austria obtained the Southern part of the Republic with Cracow; Prussia took the territory west of the Vistula with Warsaw; and Russia seized the remainder. Thus the once-powerful Poland ceased to exist, as an independent power, a victim to its own internal dissensions, and to the rapacity of its neighbors. Kosciuszko was re- leased by the Emperor Paul, Catharine's successor, and he died in Switzerland in 1817. Iſis remains were conveyed to Cracow. GENERAL AFFAIRS IN EUROPE. Party Contests in England—John Wilkes.—The Seven Years' War left England oppressed with a heavy debt, and consequently burdened the English peo- ple with the most oppressive taxes. Party spirit was extremely violent, and the king- dom, at one time, appeared to be on the verge of civil war. King George II. died F/GATEAEAVTH CZAWTURY. 297 in October, 1760, and was succeeded on the British throne by his grandson, George III., who dismissed the Whigs from office, and placed the government of the British Empire in the hands of the Tories, with the Earl of Bute as Prime-Minis- ter. Heavy duties on certain articles of home manufacture created a universal ferment throughout Great Britain, which resulted in the resignation of the Earl of Bute, and the elevation of George Grenville, also a Tory, to the head of the British Government. But Mr. Grenville was as unpopular as his predecessor had been, and one of the first acts of his administration was the arrest and prosecution of John Wilkes, editor of “The North Briton,” and a member of the House of Commons, for asserting in his journal that the King's speech to the Parliament con- tained a falsehood. The judges of the Court of Common Pleas decided that the commitment of Mr. Wilkes was illegal, and that his privileges as a member of Parliament had been infringed. Wilkes was afterwards outlawed by the House of Commons, for failing to appear to answer the charges against him; but subsequently this sentence of outlawry was reversed, and Wilkes was four times chosen to Par- liament, by the Electors of the County of Middlesex, but the House of Commons as often rejected him. Conquest of Corsica by France.—The island of Corsica, which belonged to the Republic of Genoa, had for many years been engaged in a war for its independ- ence. The insurgent Corsicans, led by the gallant Paschal Paoli, defeated every attempt of the Genoese to reduce them to submission. When the Genoese became convinced that they could not restore their authority in the revolted island they sold Corsica to France. Paoli bravely resisted the French, and, after being forced to yield, he retired to England; and Corsica came into the possession of France in I769. War of the Bavarian Succession.—The attempt of the Emperor Joseph II. of Germany, upon the death of the Elector Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, in 1777, to enlarge the hereditary Austrian dominions by the acquisition of a large portion of Bavaria and the Palatinate, aroused the jealousy of Frederic the Great, who sent an army into Bohemia, and the result was a short contest between Austria and Prussia known as “The War of the Bavarian Succession.” After a few slight skir- mishes, peace was concluded, Joseph II, relinquishing his ambitious designs. (1779.) The Gordon or “No-Popery.” Riots in London.—Several laws passed by the British Parliament in 1780, removing political disabilities on Catholics, produced the most shameful riots in some of the leading cities of Great Britain, particularly in Edinburgh and London. In June, 1780, an immense mob, aroused by the fana- tical Lord George Gordon, assembled in St. George's Fields, London, and held control of the city for several days, during which the greatest outrages were perpe- trated, and Roman Catholic chapels, the prisons of Newgate, the king's bench, and the fleet were burned. The riot was only suppressed when the military were called out, and after 250 of the mob had been killed or wounded. Alliance of German Princes.—After the death of his mother, Maria Theresa, in 1780, Joseph II, made another attempt to acquire Bavaria and the Palatinate; but the King of Prussia frustrated the designs of the Emperor by establishing an “Alliance of German Princes.” Before this princely alliance could produce any important result, Frederic the Great died at Potsdam in May, 1786, and was suc. ceeded by his son, Frederic William II. 298 MOD ERAW HISTORY. Rebellion in Holland.—lm 1784, a democratic insurrection broke out in Hol- land against the Stadtholder's authority. The rebellion continued for several years, and order was only restored in 1787, by an army which had been sent to the Stadtholder's assistance by King Frederic William II. of Prussia, brother to the Stadtholder's wife. Reforms of the Emperor Joseph II.-Joseph II., who upon the death of his father, Francis I., in 1765, became Emperor of Germany, and upon that of his mother, Maria Theresa, in 1780, became sovereign of the hereditary Austrian terri tories, undertook various reforms in ecclesiastical, civil, and political matters. He granted religious toleration, allowing the Protestants the free exercise of their wor ship, and giving them equal civil and political rights with the Catholics. He limited the number of convents, and applied the property of the Church to the improvement of schools and to beneficent purposes. Rebellions in the Austriah Netherlands and Hungary.—The attempts of Joseph II. to introduce his reforms into the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium) produced a formidable rebellion in that country against Austrian authority. The attempted introduction of Joseph’s reforms into Hungary led to a general insurrection in that country also. Grief and irritation at these events hurried the noble-hearted Emperor, whose health had been seriously injured while warring with the Turks in the region of the Danube, to his grave. He died in 1790; and his brother, Leopold II., who then succeeded to the thrones of Austria and Germany, restored quiet in the Austrian Netherlands, and in Hungary, by abolishing most of the ob. noxious reforms of his well-meaning predecessor. Leopold II. died in 1792, and Francis II. succeeded to the sovereignty of the hereditary Austrian territories, and to the imperial throne of Germany. Impeachment and Trial of Warren Hastings.-In 1787, Warren Hast- ings, Governor-General of British India, was impeached by the British House of Commons, for misgovernment and oppression of the people of India. The trial of Mr. Hastings by the House of Lords lasted a period of eight years, and ended in the acquittal of the accused. During this celebrated trial, the great statesmen, Burke, Fox, and Sheridan, distinguished themselves by their oratory. Irish Rebellions—Parliamentary Union of England and Ireland.—In 1798, a rebellion against British power commenced in Ireland. After some battles and frightful massacres by both parties, the authority of the British Government was fully restored. On the 1st of January, 1801, a legislative union took place between England and Ireland. In 1803, an insurrection, headed by a young enthu- siast, Robert Emmett, broke out in Dublin. The insurgents were easily overcome, and Emmett was tried and hanged for treason. CONQUESTS OF THE ENGLISH EAST-INDIA COMPANY. The English East-India Company.—In the year 1600, an association of English merchants received a charter from Queen Elizabeth, and were incorporated the English East-India Company. Under the auspices of this corporation, English trading-posts and settlements were established in Hindoostan during the seventeenth century. In 1639, the important city of Madras was granted to the Company by its native prince; in 1661, Bombay was purchased from the Portuguese; and AºAGATEZAWTH CEAVTUR P. 299 in 1699, an English settlement was made at Calcutta, where Fort William was erected. war with Surajah Dowlah—“The Black Hole of Calcutta.”—From the beginning of the cighteenth century, the English East-India Company had meddled in the disputes and wars between the native princes of Hindoostan, with the view of ultimately establishing its supremacy in that quarter of the globe. In 1756, Surajah Dowlah, a native prince, declared war against the Company, and, after a vigorous siege, took Calcutta, with its garrison of 146 English troops. No scorer had the garrison surrendered, than they were crowded into a narrow prison, eigh- teen feet square, called “The Black Hole of Calcutta,” where all but twenty died before the following morning. Colonel Clive—Battle of Plassey.—Calcutta was recaptured in 1757, by an English force, under Colonel Clive, who had rapidly risen, by the ſorce of his own talents, from the humble position of clerk of the Company, to the position of com. mander-in-chief of its forces. The rich city of Hoogly was captured and plun- dered by an expedition sent by Clive. The power of Surajah Dowlah was thoroughly broken by Colonel Clive, in the celebrated battle of Plassey, ſought on the 23d of June, 1757, and the East-India Company gained the ascendancy in Southern India. First War with Hyder Ali.-In 1767, the East-India Company became in- volved in a war with Hyder Ali, who had raised himself, by his abilities, from an obscure condition, to the throne of Mysore, a powerful kingdom in Southern Hin- doostan, which he had enlarged by conquests in all directions. The Company was obliged to consent to a peace in 1769. Second War with Hyder Ali–Battle of Cuddalore.—In 1780, Hyder Ali renewed hostilities against the East-India Company, and spread desolation through a large portion of their territories. An English force was entirely cut to pieces by Tippoo Saib, the valiant son of Hyder Ali; but afterwards, Hyder Ali, himself, was completely defeated by a body of English troops under Sir Eyre Coote, at Cuddalore. In 1782, Hyder Ali died, and was succeeded on the throne of Mysore, by his son, Tippoo Saib, who continued the war against the Company until 1784, when a treaty of peace was made. War with Tippoo Saib—Capture of Bangalore—Battle at Seringapa- tam.–In 1790, another war broke out between Tippoo Saib and the East-India Company. In 1791, Lord Cornwallis, then Governor-General of British India, laid siege to Bangalore, which he finally took by storm. In 1792, Lord Cornwallis thoroughly defeated Tippoo Saib in front of Seringapatam, the capital of his kingdom. Soon aſterward, a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the East-India Company obtained a large increase of territory. Last War with Tippoo Saib—Fall of Seringapatam and Death of Tip- poo Saib.-In the early part of 1799, Tippoo Saib renewed the war against the Company, for the purpose of expelling the English from India. The English ſorces laid siege to Seringapatam, which they carried by assault, on the 4th of May, 1799, The valiant Tippoo Saib was slain in the conflict, and his kingdom was annexed to the territories of the East-India Company. War with the Mahrattas—Battle of Assaye.—In 1803, the Company was involved in a war with the Mahrattas. The English, under Sir Arthur Wellesley 3oo MODERN HISTORY. afterward the great Duke of Wellington, defeated the Mahrattas in the battle of Assayé. Delhi and Agra were carried by storm, and the war ended in the pros- tration of the Mahratta power before the Supremacy of the English East-India Company. ANGLO-FRENCH COLONIAL WARS. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN NORTH AMERICA. French Explorations in North America—Founding of Acadia by De Monts.-While the English were colonizing the Atlantic coast of North America, from New England to Georgia, the French were exploring and settling the valley of the St. Lawrence, the shores of the Great Lakes, and the valley of the Mississippi. In 1605, the Huguenot De Monts founded the first permanent French settlement in North America, at Port Royal (now Annapolis), in Nova Scotia, giving the territory, now known as Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the name “Acadia.” Founding of Quebec by Samuel Champlain—The Hurons and Al- gonquins.—In 1608, Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, ſounded the city of Quebec, on the St. Lawrence river; and in the following year (1609), he discovered the beautiful lake, between the present States of Vermont and New York, which bears his name. Champlain and his followers allied themselves with the Huron and Algonquin Indians, and defeated their foes, the Five Nations of New York. Thenceforth the Five Nations were the firm friends of the English and the bitter enemies of the French. Explorations of the Mississippi by James Marquette and Louis Joliet —By LaSalle.—In 1679, James Marquette, a French Jesuit, and Louis Joliet, a French Canadian, entered the Mississippi river from the Wisconsin, and, in two birch-bark canoes, sailed down the great river to a point below the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1682, Robert de LaSalle, a French Canadian officer, after exploring the shores of the Great Lakes, entered the Mississippi from the Illinois, and sailed up the mighty stream almost to its source, and then down to its mouth, and naming the entire Mississippi valley, “Louisiana,” in honor of his king, Louis XIV., claimed that extensive region for France. French Settlements in the Mississippi Valley.—In the latter part of the seventeenth century, and in the beginning of the eighteenth, the French made settlements on the banks of the Mississippi river, on the shores of the Great Lakes, and on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Kaskaskia, in the present State of Illinois, was founded in 1683; Detroit, in Michigan, in 1701; and Vincennes, in Indiana, in 1705. In 1699, a company of French colonists, headed by Lemoine d'Iberville, a French Canadian, settled Biloxi, in the present State of Mississippi; and in 1702, most cf the settlers of Biloxi founded the city of Mobile, in the present Alabama. Lotuisiana under Anthony Crozat—Under the Mississippi Company.— in 1712, Louisiana was leased, for a stated period, to Anthony Crozat, a wealthy French merchant, under whose auspices was built Fort Rosalie, the beginning of the present city of Natchez, in Mississippi. In 1717, Crozat relinquished his lease; and Louisiana was for fifteen years under the control of the Mississippi Company, AIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 3or which the Scotchman, John Law, had organized in France. Bienville, the governor sent to Louisiana by this Company, founded New Orleans, in 1718. War with the Natchez Indians—War with the Chickasaws.-In 1729, the Natchez Indians, exasperated at the threatened encroachments of the French, fell upon the French settlement at Fort Rosalie, massacred the men, and carried the women into captivity. In revenge for this outrage, a body of French troops almost exterminated the Natchez, the following year. (1730.) A few years later, the French made two unsuccessful attempts to subjugate the warlike Chickasaws, another powerful Indian tribe. The French built a chain of forts between Mont- real and New Orleans, the most important of which were Detroit, erected in 17OI; Niagara, in 1726; and Crown Point, in 1730. KING WILLIAM'S WAR (A. D. 1689–1697). Both Parties Aided by the Indians.—The war that broke out between Eng- land and France in 1689, extended to the English and French colonies in North America, and is known in American history as “King William's War,” because it occurred during the reign of William III. in England. The Indians of Canada and Acadia aided the French, while the Five Nations, of New York, assisted the English. Attack on Dover—Destruction of Schenectady.—In July, 1690, the town of Dover, in New Hampshire, was attacked by the French and their Indian allies; and in February, 1690, Schenectady, in New York, was burned, and sixty of its inhabitants were massacred, by the French and the Indians. New England Expeditions against the French—Peace of Ryswick.- In May, 1690, the New England colonies sent a naval expedition, under Sir Wil- liam Phipps, which plundered the French colony of Acadia. The same year, a land expedition, under a son of Governor Winthrop, of Connecticut, proceeded to attack Montreal, while a naval force, under Sir William Phipps, was sent against Quebec. Both expeditions were failures. The people of New England suffered terribly from the attacks of the French and their savage allies, until the Peace of Ryswick was concluded between England and France, in 1697. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (A. D. 1702-1743). Desolation of English Settlements—Deerfield Burned.—In 1702, a war broke out between England and France, which extended to the colonies of those nations in North America. This war, called in Europe “The War of the Spanish Succession,” is known in American history as “Queen Anne's War,” so called because it happened during the reign of Queen Anne in England. The French and Indians again spread desolation among the English settlements. Deerfield, in Massachusetts, was burned, and its inhabitants were massacred by the savages and their French allies. Conquest of Acadia—Expeditions against Quebec—Peace of Utrecht. -In 1710, a fleet from England, aided by a land force from New England, cap. tured Port Royal, in Acadia. Port Royal was named Annapolis, and Acadia be- came an English province, under the name of Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. In 3O2 MODEA&AW HZSTORY. 1711, a fleet and army from England, under Sir Hovenden Walker, assisted by New Englanders, the whole expedition consisting of 5,000 men, proceeded against Quebec. The vessels were wrecked at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and 1,000 men perished. The expedition was abandoned, and the Peace of Utrecht was con- cluded between England and France, in 1713. KING GEORGE'S WAR (A. D. 1744–1748). Siege and Capture of Louisburg.—In 1744, another war began between England and France, known in Europe as “The War of the Austrian Succession,” but in American history as “King George's War,” because it took place while George II. was King of Great Britain. The principal event of this war in America was the capture of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. In April, 1745, Gov ernor Shirley, of Massachusetts, sent an army, under General William Pepperell, against this ſortress, on account of its strength called “The Gibraltar of America.” The army, in conjunction with a British fleet under Admiral Warren, laid siege to the fortress late in May, and on the 28th of June (1745), Louisburg and the island of Cape Breton were surrendered to the English. D'Anville's Attempt to Recover Louisburg—Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. —In 1746, the French sent a powerful fleet, under the Duke d'Anville, to retake Louisburg. The greater part of this fleet was destroyed by storms, and the enter- prise was abandoned. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, concluded between England and France in 1748, put an end to the war. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (A. D. 1754-1763). CAUSES AND OFICIN OF THE VVAF. English and French Colonial Possessions in North America.-The three wars between the English and the French in North America, the accounts of which we have just considered, had their origin in the European disputes of France and England. The fourth and last war, and the one which ended in the overthrow of the French power in North America, originated in disputes about the bounda- ries between the French and English colonial possessions. After the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, the French built forts in the rear of the English colonies, for the purpose of confining the English to the country east of the Alleghany mountains. The Ohio Company.—In 1749, the King of Great Britain granted 600,000 acres of land on the south side of the Ohio river to an association of English and Virginia speculators, called “The Ohio Company.” The surveyors and traders sent out by the Company were made prisoners by the French. This aggressive conduct led to open hostilities. Washington's Mission.—The French under St. Pierre built three forts in North-western Pennsylvania: one at Presque Isle, now Erie; another at La Boeuf, now Waterford; and a third at the site of the present town of Franklin. Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, sent George Washington, a young Virginian, twenty-one years of age, with a remonstrance to St. Pierre, the French commander. St. Pierre, who said that he acted under the orders of Du Quesne, Governor of Canada, refused AºAGAZZTEAEAWTH CANTUR P. 3O3 A. to withdraw his troops from the domain of the Ohio Company, as requested by Dinwiddie. EVENTS OF 1734. Battle of the Great Meadows.--When it was known in Virginia that St. Pierre refused to withdraw his troops from the territory granted to the Ohio Company, a body of Virginians under Major George Washington was sent to expel the invaders. Washington moved toward the Ohio, and in the present Fayette county, in Penn. sylvania, he built Fort Necessity. On the 28th of May, 1754, he defeated the lºrench and killed their leader, Jumonville, in the battle of the Great Meadows. This was the first bloodshed in the long and distressing French and Indian War. Capitulation of Fort Necessity.—Already the French had seized a fort which the English had been engaged in building at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, and named it “Fort Du Quesne,” in honor of the Governor of Canada. Washington was at length besieged by the French at Fort Necessity. On the 4th of July, 1754, he surrendered to the French, who allowed him and all his troops to march back to Virginia. Colonial Congress at Albany.—On the day of the capitulation of Fort Necessity (July 4, 1754), a congress composed of delegates from six of the Anglo- American colonies, convened at Albany, in the province of New York, for the purpose of devising measures for protection against the encroachments of the French. A plan of union drawn up by Dr. Benjamin Franklin was rejected both by the home government and the colonial assemblies. Events of 1755. Braddock, Commander-in-Chief—Plan of the Campaign.-In 1755, Edward Braddock, a distinguished Irish officer, was sent to America as commander- in-chief of the English forces there. Three expeditions against the French wer- projected: one was to proceed against the French ſorts in Nova Scotia; anothe under Braddock was to drive the French from Fort Du Quesne; and a third unde Governor Shirley of Massachusetts was to move against Fort Niagara. Capture of French Forts in Nova Scotia.-An English force of 3,000 men, under General Winslow, landed at the head of the Bay of Fundy, in June, 1755, where they were joined by 300 regulars, under Colonel Monckton, who assumed the chief command. The expedition took Fort Beausejour from the French, on the 16th of June, and Fort Gaspereau on the 17th. The English disgraced them- selves by their cruel treatment of the Acadians, many of whom they sent away and iistributed among the English colonists. Defeat and Death of Braddock.-In June, 1755, General Braddock, with 2,000 men, marched against the French at Fort Du Quesne. On the 9th of July, when within twelve miles of Fort Du Quesne, the English were attacked by the French and the Indians. Braddock was killed, and his troops were completely defeated. Of all the mounted officers on the side of the English, Major Washing- ton alone remained unhurt. After the fall of Braddock, Washington assumed the command of the English troops, and conducted them back to Virginia. Thus, the expedition against Fort Du Quesne was a total failure. 3O4 MOD EACAV HISTORY. Failure of Shirley's Expedition.—The expedition under Shirley against Fort Niagara was also a complete failure. The expedition went only as far as Oswego, where Shirley built a new fort; and storms, sickness, and desertions of bus Indian allies, caused him to abandon the object of the expedition. Johnson's Expedition—Battle of Lake George.—In August, 1755, an English army under Sir William Johnson marched against Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which the French had erected on the Western shores of Lake Cham- plain. A part of Johnson's force, under Colonel Williams, was defeated, on the 8th of September, by the French under Baron Dieskau. After this fight, in which Williams was killed, Dieskau moved forward and fought with Johnson the battle of Lake George. In this battle, Dieskau was defeated, wounded, and taken pris. oner. After the battle, Johnson built Fort William Henry, and garrisoned it, as well as Fort Edward, with some of his troops, after which he returned to Albany, and dispersed his army. EVENTS OF 1756. Declaration of War—Lord Loudon Commander-in-chief.-In May, 1756, England declared war against France, and formed an alliance with Frederic the Great of Prussia, in his war with France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony; and thus arose the great “Seven Years' War.” The inefficient Lord Loudon was sent to America to take the chief command of the English forces there. Montcalm’s Capture of Oswego—Battle of Kittanning.—In August, 1756, the Marquis de Montcalm, with a body of French and Indians, crossed Lake Ontario from Canada, and captured the English forts at Oswego, with 1,400 pris- oners. The only thing accomplished by the English in 1756, was the chastisement of the Indians in Western Pennsylvania. On the 8th of September, Colonel John Armstrong ſell upon the Savages at Kittanning, their chief town on the Alleghany river, killed their principal chiefs, and destroyed the village. EVENTS OF 1737. Surrender of Fort William Henry to Montcalm.—In Northern New York, a force of French and Indians, under Montcalm, marched against Fort Wil- liam Henry, in August, 1757. Colonel Monro, who commanded the small English force which garrisoned the fort, called upon General Webb, the English commander at Fort Edward, for assistance. The cowardly Webb refused any aid, and the gal- lant Monro was compelled to surrender, after a brave defense. After their surrender, the English troops were allowed to march out with the honors of war, but no sooner had they left the fort, under a promise of protection, than despite the efforts of Montcalm to prevent it, many of them were massacred by the Indians in the French army. Montcalm expressed great sorrow at this sad occurence. William Pitt, Prime-Minister of England—General Abercrombie.— In the summer of 1757, William Pitt, the ablest stateman in England, was placed at the head of the British Government. Energy and forecast marked every move- ment of Mr. Pitt’s administration, and from this time until its close, the war was favorable to the English, who, aſter a series of brilliant successes, were finally enabled to effect the permanent conquest of the French American possessions. In AºAGAZZ"EAEAVTH CEAVTURY. 305 / 1757, General Abercrombie was sent to America, to take the chief command of the English forces there. EVENTS OF 1738. *\ Siege and Capture of Louisburg.—Early in July, 1758, Generals Amherst and Wolfe, with English troops, and Admiral Boscawen, with a British squadron, taid siege to Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. After a vigorous siege Louisburg, and the island of Cape Breton, were surrendered to the English, on the 26th of July. (1758.) Unsuccessful Attack on Ticonderoga—Capture of Fort Frontena 3.− At the beginning of July, 1758, an English force of 15,000 men, under General Abercrombie, moved against Ticonderoga. On the 6th, a part of this force, under Lord Howe, defeated the French, but Lord Howe was among the slain. Aber- crombie continued his advance, and attacked Ticonderoga on the 8th of July, but met with a disastrous repulse. He then fell back, and abandoned the object of the expedition. On the 27th of August (1758), Fort Frontenac, on the site of the pres- ent city of Kingston, in Canada, was captured by Colonel Bradstreet, at the head of an English force, which had been sent out for that purpose by Abercrombie. Capture of Fort DuQuesne.—In 1758, an English force, under General John Forbes, proceeded against Fort Du Quesne. When within fifty miles of the fort, a council of war decided to abandon the enterprise; but when prisoners, who were brought in at this moment, gave every assurance that the garrison of Fort Du Quesne was weak, it was resolved to move forward. A part of the expedition, under Major Grant, had been defeated by the French and Indians, on the 21st of September. Washington and his Virginians led the advance against Fort Du Quesne. The French evacuated the fort on the approach of the English, and fled down the Ohio in boats; and late in November, the English flag waved over Fort Du Quesne, the name of which was changed to Fort Pitt, in honor of the great English statesman. The flourishing city of Pittsburg now occupies the site of the fort. EVENTS OF 1739. Plan of the Campaign.—The English planned three expeditions for the cam paign of I759: one, under Generals Prideaux and Johnson, was to attempt the capture of Fort Niagara; another, under Lord Amherst, was to take possession of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and a third, under General James Wolfe, was designed for the reduction of Quebec, the strongest French fortress in America. Capture of Fort Niagara.-In July, 1759, the English, under Generals Pri. deaux and Johnson, commenced the siege of Fort Niagara. On the 15th, Prideaux was killed by the bursting of a mortar; and the command of the English army devolved upon Johnson, who continued the siege until the 25th, when the French surrendered the fort. Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point.—On the approach of the Eng lish army under Lord Amherst, in July (1759), Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point were evacuated by their French garrisons, and those strong posts were imme- diately taken possession of by the English. * 2O 306 MOZ) EAEAW ANZSTORY. Wolfe's Expedition—Battle of Quebec—Surrender of Quebec.—In June, 1759, an English force of 8,000 men, under General Wolfe, arrived before Quebec. For two months, the English besieged the city, and destroyed-a large part of it by means of hot shot. On the 31st of July, in the midst of a terrific thunder storm, a portion of the English army, under Colonel Monckton, fought with the French the battle of Montmorenci. At length, a council of war was held by the English offi- cers, and it was resolved to storm the French camp. Accordingly, on the night of the 12th of September (1759), the English army, led by Wolfe in person, scaled he Heights of Abraham, in the rear of Quebec; and on the morning of the 13th, a furious battle ensued. The commanders of both armies, Wolfe and Montcalm, were slain; and in the city of Quebec stands a fine monument to their memory. The French were completely defeated; and on the 18th (September, 1759), Quebec was surrendered to the English. Events of 17eo. Attempt of the French to Recover Quebec—Battle of Sillery.—In the spring of 1760, a French force under M. Levi, Montcalm's successor, attempted to recover Quebec, and defeated the English army commanded by General Murray, in the bloody battle of Sillery, three miles below Quebec, on the 28th of April (1760). The English fell back to Quebec, where they were besieged; but the French, be- coming alarmed at the supposed approach of a large English fleet, hastily abandoned the siege and retired. Surrender of Montreal—Conquest of Canada by the English.-On the 8th of September, 1760, Montreal, the last stronghold of the French in America, surrendered to the English army under General Murray, who had collected 18,000 men for the reduction of the city. With the fall of Montreal, the conquest of Canada by the English was completed. EVENTS OF 1761, '62, '63. Peace of Paris—North America under the Anglo-Saxon Race.—On the 10th of February, 1763, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, between Eng- land, France, and Spain. France surrendered to Great Britain all her possessions in North America east of the Alleghany mountains and north of the latitude of Iberville river. Spain ceded the Floridas to Great Britain. Thus closed a most important war, a war which assigned North American forever to the Anglo-Saxon Iſa CC. War with the Cherokee Indians—Pontiac’s War.—In 1759, the Chero- kee Indians in Georgia began a war against the white people of Georgia and the Carolinas. After a war of two years, the Indians were subdued by Colonel Grant. In 1763, Pontiac, a famous Ottowa chief, secretly formed a confederacy of Indian tribes, to expel the English from the country west of the Alleghany mountains. Within a fortnight, this sagacious chief seized all the English posts west of the Alle. ghanies, except Detroit, Niagara, and Fort Pitt. The Indians were soon subdued and, in 1765, Pontiac was killed, by an Illinois Indian, on the Mississippi river. 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Fall of the Girondists.-For the purpose of putting a stop to the violence of the mob in Paris, and destroying the domination of the capital, the Girondists en deavored to erect France into a federal republic. The Jacobins, seeing that this scheme, carried into effect, would weaken their power, violently opposed the pro. ject, and determined to prevent it by the destruction of the Girondist leaders. The mob were excited to acts of violence against the Girondists; and finally, the great insurrection of the 31st of May and the 1st of June broke out, which had been brought about by Hebert and the leading Jacobin leaders of the National Con- vention, Marat, Danton, and Robespierre, and which deprived the Convention of its freedom. Headed by the infamous Henriot, the mob surrounded the Tuileries, where the Convention was sitting, and demanded, with menaces, the exclusion of the Girondists, and the abolition of the Commission of Twelve, the appointment of which the Girondists had obtained for the detection and punishment of those who had excited the riots. The Girondists made vain efforts to prevent the Convention from complying with the demands of the raging mob. When the majority of the Convention, seeing themselves deprived of the freedom of their deliberations, attempted to retire from the hall, they were forced back by the mob, and compelled to exclude the Girondist deputies. Thirty-four of the Girondists were seized and imprisoned; twenty of them escaped to Normandy and Brittany, where they aroused their supporters to insurrection against the Convention; and the others were afterwards guillotined. Shortly afterwards) the bloodthirsty Marat was assas- sinated by the heroine, Charlotte Corday. Petion, Roland, and other Girondists committed suicide; Madame Roland was brought to the guillotine; and seventy- three partisans of the Girondists were expelled from the Convention, which was then entirely controlled by the sanguinary Jacobins, with Robesiperre and Danton at their head, and nothing was for a time able to withstand their violence. The Reign of Terror.—France now felt the terrible consequences of the victory of the Jacobins. The Committee of Public Safety in Paris, a formidable Revolu- tionary Tribunal, under the control of such bloodhounds as Robespierre, Couthon, St. Just, Collot d’ Herbois, Barrere, and others, filled the country with blood and terror. The law against the suspected was rigorously executed. In consequence of this, and other laws, the prisons were filled with those who were obnoxious to the populace and the Convention, and large parties were daily sent to the guillotine. Wealthy and refined persons were in constant danger of falling victims to the san. guinary fury and madness of the day. The populace of the capital were formed into democratic clubs, which had the power of disposing of the lives of all who were opposed to the Revolution. Agriculture was neglected, public credit was destroyed and famine was added to the horrors from which the unhappy country was suffering. Among the distinguished persons who died on the guillotine were Bailly, Barnave, the queen Marie Antoinette, the infamous Duke of Orleans, and Generals Houchard, Biron, Custine, and Beauharnais. The tombs of the French kings were destroyed, in order that the people might forget every vestige of royalty. 2I 322 MODERAV HISTORY. The churches were plundered, the Sabbath was abandoned, and finally, on the Ioth of November, 1793, the Convention decreed the abolition of the Christian religion in France, and substituted the worship of “Reason” in its stead. The Calendar, d the names of the months, had already been changed, and the year made to com- imence on the 22d of September, the birth-day of the French Republić. The rule of the populace of Paris, and the bloody monsters of the Convention, is known as “The Reign of Terror.” During its continuance more than one million of French. men perished. Insurrection of La Vendee.—While the most shocking excesses were perpe trated by the French Republicans, and while the armies of almost all of the other European nations were on the French frontiers, France was distracted by a bloody civil war. The seat of this war was the beautiful district of La Vendee, in the West of France. The inhabitants of La Vendee, who had always been firmly attached to their king and their landlords, had opposed the Revolution from the beginning. Enraged at the murder of their king and their unsworn priests, the peasants of La Vendee flew to arms against the National Convention, and under such brave leaders as Charette, Stofflet, Cathelineau, Laroche-Jaquelein, and others, they gained several brilliant victories, and drove the Republican armies out of their territory. The Convention again sent 200,000 troops, under such bloodthirsty com- manders as Ronsin, Rossignol, and Westermann, against the rebellious Vendeans. The Republican troops, to their eternal shame, ravaged the fertile district of La Vendeč with fire and sword. The Vendeans fought with the most determined valor to the last, and only submitted when they were perfectly exhausted, and after more than 200,000 of their number had perished in the insurrection. Insurrection in Brittany and Normandy.—The troops of the National Con- vention were also engaged in suppressing other frightful insurrections against the Reign of Terror. The inhabitants of Brittany and Normandy had arisen in support of the unfortunate Girondist leaders, but were soon subdued by the Republicans led by Freron, who filled that beautiful region with slaughter and desolation. Insurrection of Lyons, Marseilles, and Toulon.—When the wealthy peo- ple of Lyons, indignant at the conduct of the Jacobin Chalier, who endeavored to excite the people of that city to acts of violence, caused that demagogue to be exe- cuted, the enraged Convention surrounded Lyons wrth a powerful army. The inhabitants of the city rose in insurrection, and obstinately defended their city to the last extremity. After a vigorous siege of four months, Lyons surrendered to the Republican troops, who destroyed a great part of the city, and put to death and exiled thousands of the rebellious inhabitants. A formidable insurrection which had broken out in Marseilles was also suppressed, and many of the inhabitants of that city fled to Toulon, which had also revolted. The inhabitants of Toulon surrendered their city to an English squadron which they had called upon for assist- ance. The city was soon besieged by the Republican army, whose artillery was directed by the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, who now for the first time exhibited his great military talents. After a spirited resistance, the English set fire to their ships, leaving the unfortunate inhabitants to the mercy of their Republican enemies, who put many of them to death. Success of the French Arms in the Campaign of 1793.−While the French National Convention was engaged in suppressing numerous insurrections against AºAGATEAEAVTH CENTURY. 323 its authority, during the year 1793, the armies of almost all the nations of Europe were in the field against the French Republic. The English, Dutch, Hanoverians, Hessians, Prussians, and Austrians, were on the northern and eastern frontiers of France. The Sardinians were on the south-east, and the Spaniards had passed the Pyrenees on the south-west. In the beginning of the year, the allies gained some successes. TEe English, under the Duke of York, captured Valenciennes, but were afterwards compelled by the French, under General Houchard, to raise the siege of Dunkirk. The Convention caused its generals who were so unfortunate as to be defeated to suffer death in consequence. Thus General Custine, who was com- pelled to retreat from the Rhine by the Austrians and the Prussians, and General Beaubarnais, who failed to prevent the recapture of Mayence by the Prussians, were guillotined. Houchard met with the same fate, for retreating before the supe- rior force of the enemy. Before the end of the year, the French arms were every- where triumphant. The invasion on all sides was defeated, and the numerous insurrections against the Convention were suppressed. The army of the French Republic amounted to more than a million of men, and was inspired with the greatest enthusiasm. EVENTS OF 1794. Fall of the Dantonists.-The atrocities which disgraced the French Republic at length excited the disgust of Danton and Camille Desmoulins, who endeavored to arrest the Reign of Terror, and to stop the unnecessary shedding of blood. Robespierre and his partisans in the National Convention accordingly determined upon the destruction of the whole party of Danton, whom they accused of corrup- tion. On the 11th of March, 1794, eleven of the ultra-revolutionists, among whom were Hebert, Chaumette, Clootz, Momoro, and Ronsin, were led to the guillotine. Danton and Camille Desmoulins, and their partisans in the Convention, were next brought before the Committee of Public Safety. Supported by a frantic mob, Dan- ton and Desmoulins loudly demanded that their accusers should appear before them. For three days, the violent and tumultuous conduct of the mob, and the vehemence of Danton before the Revolutionary Tribunal, prevented the condemna- tion of the accused. At length, the Convention gave the Tribunal the power of condemning, without any further hearing, Danton, Desmoulins, and their partisans, who were trying to overthrow the Revolutionary power by means of an insurrection. Danton, Desmoulins, and their partisans were then brought to the guillotine and beheaded, in the presence of a vast multitude. On being led to death, Danton exclaimed, “Robespierre follows me!” Fall of Robespierre.—After the fall of the Dantonists, the Committee of Public Safety, entirely controlled by Robespierre and his two chief confederates, St. Just and Couthon, ruled with almost unrestrained power, and the revolutionary excesses everywhere increased. In Paris, the aged marshal De Noailles, the venerable Malesherbes and his family, and the Madame Elizabeth, sister to Louis XVI., were guillotined. At length, several of the Jacobins, headed by Tallien, Legendie, Freron, Fouche, Barrere, Collot d’ Herbois, Billaud-Varennes, and others, whom Robespierre had resolved to send to the guillotine, determined to destroy that vile monster, and bring the Reign of Terror to a close. On the 9th of Thermidor (27th of July), when Robespierre entered the hall of the Convention, with the 324 MODERAW HISTORY. purpose of procuring the condemnation of Tallien and his partisans, a stormy scene ensued. Robespierre was not allowed to speak. His words were drowned in the cries of “Down with the tyrant!” and the noise of the president's bell. The en- raged monster, after vainly attempting to make himself heard, cried out, “President of assassins, will you not allow me to speak!” Tallien, denouncing him as a usurper and a tyrant, threatened to thrust a poniard into his heart. Robespierre ran from one seat to another, raving and foaming like a maniac. After a stormy time, Robespierre and his partisans, St. Just, Couthon, and Henriot, were denounced and sent as prisoners to the Luxembourg palace. They were released on the way by a furious mob, and Henriot caused the National Guard to surround the Conven- tion, while Robespierre, St. Just, and Couthon sought refuge in the Hotel de Ville. When the Convention outlawed Henriot, his troops dispersed, and an armed force under Barras rallied to the support of the Convention. Henriot fled to the Hotel de Ville, where the accused were again secured. Robespierre attempted to commit suicide by shooting himself, but only succeeded in breaking his lower jaw, and was taken, horribly disfigured, before the Revolutionary Tribunal, amid the curses of the populace; and on the following day, Ioth Thermidor, he was guillotined, amid the shouts and exultation of the people. St. Just, Couthon, and Henriot shared his fate. On the two following days, seventy-two Jacobins were guillotined, and with their death ended the Reign of Terror. Campaign of I794—Evacuation of Belgium.—The campaign of 1794, like that of 1793, was glorious for the French. On the 26th of June, the French army under Jourdain, in the Austrian Netherlands, gained the battle of Fleurus over the Austrians. The result of this battle was that the French obtained possession of the Austrian Netherlands, from which their enemies were compelled to retire. f EVENTS OF 1795. End of Jacobin Rule.—The assemblies of the people were limited by degrees, and the populace were deprived of their weapons. At the call of Freron, who now became an aristocrat, many of the young men, called from their clothing “the gilded youth,” attacked the Jacobins in the streets, and at their clubs. The cloister of the Jacobins was at length taken, and its doors were closed, aſter a desperate struggle. The National Convention now recalled the expelled members, and such of the Girondists as still remained, rescinded the decrees against the nobles and the priests, restored public worship, and sentenced the remaining Terrorists in the Con- vention, Lebon, Carrier, Fouquier Tinville, and others, to be executed. When four members of the Committee of Public Safety, Barrere, Vadier, Collot d’Herbois, and Billaud-Varennes, were condemned, the Jacobins resolved upon a struggle for their existence, and drove the people of Paris to an insurrection against the Con- vention. The mob surrounded the Convention, and made menacing demands for the release of the accused, and a return to the Reign of Terror. The mob was dispersed by General Pichegru, who had hastened to the aid of the distressed Con- vention. Insurrection of the 1st Prairial.—The formidable insurrection of the 1st Prairial (May 20th), when the mob, numbering 30,000 persons, held the Convention surrounded for about eighteen hours, was also suppressed, with the aid of some battalions of the Sections, and some of the leaders of the tumult, and six Jacobins, AºAGA/TEEAVTH CENTURY. 325 Were condemned to death; and the power of the Jacobins and the Parisian popu- lace terminated. Many of the Jacobins destroyed themselves; others were guillo- timed, imprisoned, or banished. New Constitution.—A new constiiution was now formed, by which the execu- tive power of the French Republic was vested in a Directory of five persons. The legislative power was divided between a Council of Five Hundred, which had the power of originating laws, and a Council of Ancients, which had the power of approving or rejecting these laws. The members of the Councils were appointed by delegates, elected for that purpose, by the French people. The mem- bers of the Directory were to be named by the Council of Five Hundred, and con- firmed by the Council of Ancients. Insurrection of the Sections.—The Republicans of the National Convention, fearing that the reaction in favor of monarchical principles would deprive them of political power, decreed that two-thirds of the members of the Legislative Coun- cils should be chosen from the members of the Convention. The Royalists, after vainly objecting to the decree of the Convention, which limited the freedom of election, brought about “The Insurrection of the Sections,” on the 11th Vende- miaire. (3d of October.) The distressed Convention assembled for its defense a force of 5,000 troops, under General Barras, who intrusted the arrangements for the suppression of the insurrection to his second in command, the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself as an artillery commander at the siege of Toulon. Bonaparte set about energetically in making preparations for the overthrow of the revolt. The armed insurgents of the Sections, 40,000 in number, surrounded the Convention and attacked Bonaparte, who replied by a heavy discharge of cannon loaded with grape-shot. The insurgents were subdued in a few hours, and quiet was again restored in Paris. The suppression of the in- surrection took place on the 13th Vendemiaire; and resulted in giving the suprem- acy to the Republicans of the Convention. Bonaparte, who had just married Josephine, the widow of General Beauharnais, was rewarded, for his success against the insurgents, with the command of the French army in Italy. The Convention now closed its sessions, and the new government was organized. - Holland Erected into the Batavian Republic—Peace of Basle.—Early in the year 1795, a French army under General Pichegru subdued Holland, and com- pelled the hereditary Stadtholder of that republic to flee to England. The con- quered country was then erected into “The Batavian Republic,” in alliance with Trance. On the 5th of April, 1795, Prussia concluded the Peace of Basle with the French Republic. The example of Prussia was followed by Spain and the German States; and England and Austria were the only considerable powers that continued the war against revolutionary France. THE FRENCH REPUBLIC UNDER THE DIRECTORY, (OCTOBER 27, 1795—NOVEMBER 9, 1799.) EveRTs of 1796. French Invasion of Germany—Moreau's Masterly Retreat.—Two French armies, commanded respectively by Moreau and Jourdain, advanced into 326 MO DEAEAW AN/STORY. Germany, in 1796. The Austrians, under the command of the Archduke Charles, an able general, defeated Jourdain at Wurzburg, on the 3d of September; and Moreau only saved his army from total ruin by a masterly retreat, through the Black Forest, and across the Rhine. Bonaparte in Italy—Battles of Montenotte and Milessimo.—While Jourdain and Moreau were so unfortunate in Germany, the French army in Italy, under Bonaparte, was winning imperishable renown. In April, 1796, Napoleon began his victorious career in Italy by defeating the Austrians under Beaulieu, in the battles of Montenotte and Milessimo. The King of Sardinia, now greaty alarmed, agreed to a humiliating peace with the French, who obtained the cession 2f Savoy and Nice, and the right to march armies, at any time, through the Sardinian territories. * Terrible Passage of the Bridge of Lodi.-In May, Bonaparte crossed the Po with his army, and advanced to attack the Austrians. The bridge of Lodi, across the river Adda, was strongly guarded by an Austrian force, which opened a tremendous discharge of grape-shot upon the French troops when they attempted to cross. The advance was checked for a moment, when the French grenadiers rushed forward with irresistible impetuosity, drove back the Austrians, and thus forced a passage over the bridge. This victory, known as the battle of Lodi, oc- curred on the IOth of May, 1796, and it gave the French possession of Milan and the Lombard towns. Passage over the Bridge of Arcola.—Beaulieu was superseded in the com- mand of the Austrian army in Italy by Wurmser, who immediately threw himself into Mantua. An army of 50,000 Hungarians under Alvinzi was sent to reinforce Wurmser, and the French were in danger of being overwhelmed by the superior numerical strength of the Austrians. In November, Bonaparte marched to attack Alvinzi, at the village of Arcola. The narrow causeways leading to the village were closely guarded by the Austrians. The French column that attempted to cross the bridge of Arcola was driven back with terrific slaughter, whereupon Bonaparte, seizing a standard, rushed on the bridge and urged on his grenadiers, but they were repulsed; and Napoleon was in extreme danger of being made a prisoner, when his grenadiers suddenly rushed forward with the cry of “Save the General!” and, with resistless fury, forced a passage over the bridge. This first battle of Arcola occurred on the 15th of November, 1796. The following day, another battle was fought at Arcola, and on the 17th, Alvinzi was again defeated, and obliged to retreat to Montebello. EVENTS OF 1797. The War in Italy—Battles of Rivoli and Lafavorita—Fall of Mantua.- The Austrian army, under Alvinzi, in Italy, was defeated by Bonaparte, in the battle of Rivoli, on the 14th of January, I797. In the following month, Alvinzi was again defeated, at Lafavorita. These events compelled Wurmser to surrender Mantua to Bonaparte, on the 19th of February (1797), after a siege of four months. Pope Pius VI., greatly frightened, concluded with the French the Peace of Tolen- tino, in which he made great sacrifices. Bonaparte's Invasion of Austria–Preliminary Peace of Leoben.—The Archduke Charles was finally placed in command of the Austrian army in Italy, © F/GATEAEAVZ Hº CEAVTUR V. 327 but he was also defeated, and finally compelled to retreat toward Vienna, and was pursued into the hereditary Austrian States by Bonaparte. The Emperor of Aus- tria became alarmed for the safety of his capital, and hastily concluded with the victorious French general the Preliminary Peace of Leoben, on the 18th of April, I797, º Fall of the Venetian Republic.—After the treaty of Leoben, Bonaparte made the Venelians feel the effects of his vengeance, for turning their arms against the Flench. The Venetian Senate, after humbly imploring the clemency of the con, q :=ring general, quietly submitted when the French entered Venice; and, after having lasted for more than a thousand years, the Venetian Republic ceased to exist as an independent power. Definitive Peace of Campo Formio—The Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics.-On the 17th of October, 1797, the Definitive Peace of Campo Formio was concluded between France and Austria. By this peace, a great part of North- ern Italy was formed into “The Cisalpine Republic,” and virtually became a dependency of France. Venice and Dalmatia were bestowed on the House of Austria, in exchange for the Austrian Netherlands, which were ceded to France. A short time afterward, Genoa was erected into “The Ligurian Republic,” and was virtually under the control of France. The Eighteenth Fructidor.—France was at this time distracted by the con- tests of parties. So great a reaction had taken place among the French people that the advocates of monarchy secured the election of their candidates to the Legisla- tive Councils by large majorities, in May, 1797. The Councils immediately de- nounced the policy of the Directory, and manifested a disposition to overthrow the republican constitution and reëstablish monarchy. The Republicans in the Direc- tory became alarmed for the security of their power, and applied for assistance to Bonaparte, who accordingly sent 12,000 troops under Augereau to Paris. On the 18th Fructidor (4th of September), Augereau surrounded the Tuileries with his troops, and gave orders for the arrest of the Royalist members of the Councils; whereupon eleven members of the Council of Ancients, and forty-two of the Coun- cil of Five Hundred, among whom was Pichegru, and two of the Directors, Carnot and Berthelemy, were sentenced to banishment. The Royalist elections were then annulled, the returned Emigrants were banished, and many newspapers were sup- pressed. Thus the expressed will of the French people was set aside by military usurpation. This is known as “The Revolution of the Eighteenth Fructidor.” EVENTS OF 1798. Establishment of the Roman and Parthenopeian Republics.—During the suppression of a Republican riot in Rome by the papal troops, the French gen- eral Duphot was killed. The French Government, seizing upon this as a pretext, sent a force under General Berthier to Rome. The Pope was deprived of his tem- poral power, and a Roman Republic was established, in February, 1798. Ferdi. nand, King of Naples, persuaded by his wife, Caroline, sent an army ender the Austrian general Mack to Rome, and the French were expelled from that city; but a few days afterward, led by General Championnet, they returned, and, after driv- ing the Neapolitan troops out of Rome, they marched into Naples. The frightened 328 MODERAV HISTORY. Ferdinand and his court fled to Sicily; and, in January, 1799, Naples was converted into “The Parthenopeian Republic,” after a three days' slaughter of the lazzaroni, who had resisted the French. Switzerland Converted into the Helvetic Republic.—The French inter- fered in the dissensions in Switzerland, in 1798. The people of Vaud, who had taken up arms for the purpose of liberating themselves from the domination of the Bernese, called upon the French for assistance, whereupon General Brune, with French troops, marched into Berne. Canton after canton was forced to yield to the French; and Switzerland, under the name of “The Helvetic Republic,” was virtually placed under the supremacy of France. Threatened Invasion of England.—In the beginning of 1798, the French Directory threatened an invasion of England, the only country then at war with France. An army of 150,000 men, under the name of “The Army of England,” under the command of Bonaparte, the youthful conqueror of Italy, was assembled along the French side of the English Channel. Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt.—The invasion of England was not at- tempted, but an expedition was fitted out for the conquest of Egypt, a province of the Ottoman Empire, notwithstanding a state of peace existed between France and Turkey. The command of this expedition was given to Bonaparte, who intended to strike at the British possessions in India, after effecting the conquest of Egypt. Bonaparte, with the expedition, consisting of 40,000 land troops and Io,000 seamen, sailed from Toulon on the 19th of May, 1798; and, after taking the island of Malta by treachery from the Knights of St. John, the French landed before Alexandria, on the 1st of July. That city was carried by storm and given up to plunder. Battle of the Pyramids.-On the 6th of July, Bonaparte left Alexandria, and with 30,000 of his troops he advanced toward Cairo, greatly annoyed on the way by the Mameluke horsemen. On the 21st (July, 1798), he arrived before the in- trenched camp of 20,000 Mamelukes under Mourad Bey, near the famous Pyramids. Eight thousand Mameluke horsemen advanced to attack the French troops, when Bonaparte exclaimed, “Soldiers, from yonder Pyramids, forty tenturies look down upon you !” and the conflict commenced. The French, who were formed into squares, easily repulsed the impetuous assaults of the Mamelukes, who rode up to the bayonets of their enemies, and threw their pistols at the heads of the French grenadiers. When the Mameluke cavalry were driven back, the French took by storm the camp of their enemy, with all their baggage and cannon; and the battle of the Pyramids ended in a complete victory for Bonaparte, who had lost less than 200 men in the engagement. Hundreds of the enemy perished in the Nile; Mourad Bey, and a small remnant of his Mamelukes, fled into Upper Egypt; Cairo surren- dered; and the conquest of Lower Egypt was accomplished. Battle of the Nile.—In the meantime, a powerful English fleet, under Admiral Nelson, had been cruising in the Mediterranean Sea, in search of the French fleet, On the 1st of August (1798), Nelson discovered the French fleet, under Admiral Brueyes, anchored in the bay of Aboukir. At about sunset, Nelson attacked the French ships. A fierce battle ensued, which continued until dawn the next morn- ing. The thunders of the explosion of the French ship L'Orient, of 120 guns, which occurred about midnight, shook every vessel in both fleets, and for a moment there Ö A2/GATEAEAV777 CEAV7'UAE V. 329 was a pause in the deadly conflict. The French admiral perished with the explo- sion. The battle of the Nile, as this engagement is called, was one of the most terrific naval engagements on record, and it resulted in a complete victory for the English. Only a few of the French vessels escaped, the rest all being destroyed or taken by the English. By this disaster, Napoleon and his army were cut off from all resources from France. A formidable insurrection in Cairo against the French, on the 21st of October, was suppressed, after 6,000 Mohammedans had lost their lives. Second Coalition against the French Republic.—The French Republic by her victories over her enemies, had established six sister republics. These were the Batavian, Helvetic, Cisalpine, Ligurian, Roman, and Parthenopeian Republics, —all established with forms of government similar to that of France. The aggres- sive conduct of the French in Switzerland, Rome, and Naples, induced Austria and Russia to unite with England in a coalition against the French Republic. Turkey, exasperated at the unprincipled occupation of Egypt, also declared war against France. EVENTS OF 1799. Success of the Austrians in Germany.—The coalition commenced bostil- ities against the French simultaneously, in the spring of I799, in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands. In Germany, fortune was averse to the French. On the 25th of March, the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, defeated the French army at Stockach. On the 28th of April, the French ambassadors, aſter leaving the congress of Rastadt, were attacked and murdered by Austrian hussars. The French Directory took advantage of this barbarous deed to excite the French people to vengeance, and a new French army of 200,000 men was raised. Success of the Austrians and Russians in Italy.—In Italy also, the French were unsuccessful. The Russians, under the veteran marshal Suwarrow, defeated Moreau at Cassano, and Macdonald at Trebia, celebrated as the place of one of Hannibal’s victories. Finally Suwarrow, by the defeat and death of Joubert in the three days’ bloody battle of Novi, effected the conquest of the Cisalpine Republic. The disasters to the French in Northern Italy were followed by the overthrow of the Parthenopeian and Roman Republics. After the French had evacuated Naples, Cardinal Ruffo, at the head of the enraged lazzaroni, took the city by storm; and King Ferdinand and his court returned from Sicily, and resumed their authority in Naples. The Republicans of Naples suffered a frightful punishment. Hundreds were massacred by the lazzaroni, and many were imprisoned. The Roman Republc was also subverted, and Pope Pius VI. was restored to his former power. The Russians in Switzerland—Battle of Zurich.-After completing the conquest of Italy, Suwarrow crossed the Alps, in the midst of almost insurmount- able difficulties, into Switzerland, for the purpose of expelling the French from that country; but, the Austrians failing to properly support their allies, the Russians were dcfeated by the French, under Massena, at Zurich, on the 26th of September, after a bloody battle of two days. Zurich was taken by the French; and Suwar. row, and the remnant of the defeated Russian army, retired across the icy Grisons, and returned to their own country, where the aged marshal soon aſterward died. Defeat of the English in Holland.—The attempt of the English to drive the 33o MODERAV HISTORY. French from Hollaud, and restore to the Stadtholder his authority, resulted in a disastrous failure. The incompetent English general, the Duke of York, having been defeated by the French, under General Brune, at Berghen, concluded with the French a disgraceful convention, by which he was allowed to retire with his army, leaving the Russians alone to oppose the French. The selfish conduct of the English and the Austrians, so exasperated the Emperor Paul of Russia, that he withdrew from the coalition, made peace with France, and became the bitter enemy of Great Britain. Bonaparte's Syrian Expedition.—Although cut off from his resources by the loss of his fleet, Bonaparte still resolved to pursue his conquests in the East. Upper Egypt was conquered by a French division under General Desaix, who marched beyond the ruins of Thebes. Leaving 16,000 men to hold that country in subjugation, Bonaparte, with I4,000 men, in February, 1799, proceeded to Syria, where the Turks were assembling a large army to oppose him. On the 6th of March, Jaffa, the ancient Joppa, was taken by Napoleon, after a furious assault, and 4,000 of its defenders were put to death after they had surrendered. This cruel act is an inerasable stain upon the character of the youthful conqueror of Italy and Egypt. Siege of Acre.—On the 16th of March (1799), Bonaparte appeared before Acre, which was garrisoned by a strong Turkish force, under the Pacha of Syria, who was aided in the defense of the city by an English squadron, under Sir Sydney Smith. After a siege of two months, during which seventeen desperate attempts to take the town by storm were defeated, Bonaparte abandoned the siege, and left the town in the possession of its defenders. Battle of Mount Tabor.—In the meantime, while the siege of Acre was in progress, the Turks were assembling immense hosts for the purpose of overwhelm- ing the French. While General Kleber, with a small French force, was on his march to attack the enemy’s camp on the Jordan, he was met by 30,000 Turks at Mount Tabor. Kleber, who had formed his little band into squares, successfully held out against the overwhelming numbers of the enemy for six hours, and when Bonaparte appeared with his troops for the relief of his subordinate, the Turks fled in dismay, and dispersed, leaving their camp and all their baggage and stores in the hands of the victorious French. Another Turkish force was defeated and dis- persed at Nazareth, by a French force under Junot. Napoleon’s Return to Egypt—Battle of Aboukir.—Napoleon reached Egypt, on his return from Syria, on the 1st of June, 1799. On the IIth of July, a Turkish army of 18,000 men, landed at Aboukir bay, whither it had been conveyed by an English Squadron, commanded by Sir Sydney Smith. Napoleon, on hearing of this, left Cairo, and on the 25th of July, he attacked and completely destroyed the Turkish army, which had already established a strongly-fortified camp at Aboukir. The greater portion of the Turkish troops were killed, wounded, drowned in the bay of Aboukir, or made prisoners. Napoleon’s Return to France.—Shortly after his brilliant victory at Aboukir, Napoleon received intelligence, through some newspapers, of the disasters to the French arms in Italy, and he resolved upon immediately setting out on his return to France. Leaving his army in Egypt under the command of Kleber, he secretly AWAVE 7'EEAWTH CENTURY. 331 embarked for France. After a long voyage, in which he was in constant danger of being captured by British cruisers, Bonaparte arrived at Frejus, on the Southern coast of France, on the 9th of October; and on the 18th, he reached Paris, where he met with a most enthusiastic reception. The Eighteenth Brumaire.-No Sooner had Bonaparte arrived in Paris, than he entered into a scheme with Sieyes, one of the Directors, and others, for the overthrow of the Directory, which had fallen into contempt. He first secured the support of the officers and troops in Paris, and obtained from the Council of Ancients the command of the National Guard and all the troops in Paris, and a decree for the transfer of the sittings of the two Legislative Councils to St. Cloud. The Directors and the Council of Ancients were easily induced to resign their authority. On the 18th Brumaire (9th of November), Napoleon entered the hall of the Coun- cil of Five Hundred, and endeavored to secure the consent of the members of that body to his plans, but finding himself threatened and reproached by the members, who, seeing the grenadiers at the doors with fixed bayonets, cried, “Outlaw him Down with the Dictator!” he retired from the hall, where the greatest tumult was raging. Napoleon and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, who was president of the Council of Five Hundred, harangued the troops; and Joachim Murat, by order of Napoleon, entered the hall with his grenadiers, and compelled the members to flee out of the doors and windows. Thus the constitution was overthrown, and military usurpation triumphant. This is known as “The Revolution of the 18th Brumaire.” Napoleon Bonaparte now took the government of France into his own hands. NINETEENTH CENTURY. GOVERNMENT AND WARS OF NAPOLEON BON APARTE (A. D. 1799–1815). NAPOLEON FIRST CONSUL OF THE FRENCH RE- PUBLIC (DEC. 13, 1799–DEC. 2, 1804). EVENTS OF 18OO. The Consular Constitution.—We have seen that, by the overthrow of the Tirectory, on the 18th Brumaire, Napoleon Bonaparte took the government of France into his own hands. On the 13th of December, 1799, a new constitution was proclaimed for France, by which the executive power was vested in three con- kuls, who were to be elected for ten years. “The First Consul,” as Napoleon was called, possessed all the powers of a monarch. The other two consuls, Lebrun and Cambaceres, were the advisers of the First Consul. Talleyrand was appointed Minister of the Interior, and Fouché Minister of Police. There was a Senate. whose duty was to select persons for the Legislature. The legislative power was 332 MODEAEAV AZSTORY. entrusted to a Tribunate of one hundred members, who were to discuss the pro- posals of the Government, and the Legislative Bodies, which had the right only of approving or rejecting these proposals. Peace Propositions.—Bonaparte, after securing the chief authority in France, proposed peace to England and Austria, the only nations then at war with France. Both powers refused to treat until the Bourbons should be restored to the throne of France, and the most energetic preparations were made on both sides for a vigor- ous prosecution of the war. Events in Germany and Italy.—A French army of 130,000 men, unde, Moreau, advanced into Germany, gained several victories, and compelled the Aus- trians to a hasty retreat. Another French army in Italy, under Massena, was com- pelled to surrender to the Austrians at Genoa. *. Bonaparte’s Passage Over the Great St. Bernard.—On hearing of the surrender of Messena, Bonaparte started for Italy, at the head of 50,000 troops. He crossed the Alps at the difficult pass of Great St. Bernard. Difficulties almost insurmountable presented themselves. Precipices, ravines, and eternal snows, seemed to forbid a passage; but the army followed a narrow path, known to no living creature but the chamois and the hunter. The artillery was taken apart, and the pieces were placed in the hollow trunks of trees, which were drawn across the mountains by the soldiers. The troops were encouraged by the music of the bands, and where the ascent was most difficult the drums beat a charge. The Austrians were completely surprised when Napoleon's army suddenly appeared on the Italian plains. Battles of Montebello and Marengo.—On the 9th of June, 1800, a part of the French army, under General Lannes, defeated the Austrians at Montebello; and on the 14th (June, 1800), Napoleon, at the head of 20,000 men, encountered 30,000 Austrians, under General Melas, at the village of Marengo. The French were at first driven back, but the obstinate resistance of Desaix, who had just arrived from Egypt, and the charge of the brave Kellerman, changed the result, and the battle ended in the complete overthrow of the Austrian army. Among the killed on the side of the French was the heroic General Desaix. The result of the French victory was that hostilities were suspended. Macdonald's Passage of the Splugen.—In November, 1800, Marshal Macdonald, with 15,000 French troops, crossed the Alps into Italy, at the difficult pass of the Splugen, thus increasing the French forces in Italy to IOO,000 men. Battle of Hohenlinden.—When the negotiations for peace between France and Erigland failed, the armistice between France and Austria terminated, and an Austrian army of 80,000 men, under the Archduke John, which had advanced into Bavaria, was defeated by the French army under Moreau, in the celebrated battle of Hohenlinden, on the night of the 3d of December, 1800, and driven toward Vienna. On the 25th, an armistice was concluded. Attempted Assassination of Bonaparte.—Plots for the assassination of Bonaparte were undertaken, both by the Republicans and by the Royalists. On the 25th of December, 1800, while he was crossing a narrow street in Paris, a cask, filled with powder, called “The Infernal Machine,” exploded, and killed several persons, but the First Consul escaped unhurt. AVAWE ZEAEAVZ Hº CAEAV7'UAE V. 333 EVENTS OF 18O1. Peace of Luneville.—The battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden completely broke the power of Austria, so that nothing remained for the Emperor but to accept such terms as France chose to dictate; and on the 9th of February, 1801, a treaty of peace, signed at Luneville, put an end to the war between France and Austria; and England was the only country that remained at war with France. Maritime League against England.—Through the influence of Napoleon, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Prussia, had been induced, late in the year 1800, to enter into a league against the maritime power of England. The Emperor Paul of Russia, the bitter enemy of England, was the head and soul of this league. Paul had already laid an embargo on British vessels in Russian ports, while the Danish Government had ordered its vessels to resist “the right of search” claimed by the English. Battle of Copenhagen.—After unsuccessful attempts at negotiation with the hostile powers which formed the league, the English Government sent a powerful naval expedition, under Lord Nelson and Sir Hyde Parker, to the Baltic. On the 2d of April, 1801, the British fleet appeared before Copenhagen, when it was furi- ously attacked by the Danish fleet. A bloody naval battle of four hours ensued, resulting in the defeat of the Danes, with the loss of 6,000 men, while the English lost only 1,200. In speaking of this battle, Nelson said, “I have been in one hun- dred and one engagements, but the battle of Copenhagen was the most terrible of them all.” Dissolution of the Maritime League.—Nelson was preparing to attack the Russian fleet, when he received intelligence that the Emperor Paul had been assas- sinated at St. Petersburg, on the night of the 24th of March, 1801, by a band of Russian nobles, who had entered into a conspiracy for the purpose. Paul's son, Alexander I., who was immediately proclaimed Emperor, declared himself the friend of Great Britain, and abandoned the hostile league. Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden, followed the example of Russia, and thus the league fell to pieces. Threatened Invasion of England.—Bonaparte now threatened an invasion of England from Boulogne. Large bodies of troops were moved to this point, with the ostensible object of being transported to the English coast. The British Gov- ernment made energetic preparations to resist the threatened invasion. Lord Nelson was sent with a powerful fleet against Boulogne. Bonaparte, convinced of the hopelessness of success, abandoned the enterprise. Expulsion of the French from Egypt.—General Kleber, whom Napoleon had left in command of the French army in Egypt, was assassinated by a fanatical Mohammedan, and his army was defeated, on the 21st of March, 1801, by the Eng. lish force under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who lost his life in the moment of victory. The French surrendered on cóndition of being allowed to return home, and their whole force was conveyed to France in English vessels, EVENTS OF 18O2. Peace of Amiens.—As the French were now driven out of Egypt, and the island of Malta had been recaptured by a British squadron, nothing remained to contend for between England and France; and, to the great joy of both nations, a 334 MODERM HISTORY. treaty of peace was signed at Amiens, on the 27th of March, 1802. By the terms of this treaty, England was required to restore Malta to the Knights of St. John, and the Cape of Good Hope to the Dutch. Bonaparte's Reforms—The Concordat—The Legion of Honor, All Europe now enjoyed a short interval of peace, and Napoleon directed his attention to the establishment of order and the security of his authority in France. On the 18th of September, 1801, he had made a treaty, called “The Concordat,” with the Pope, for the reëstablishment of religion in France. He established a Polytechnic School, for the education of young men in the sciences. He summoned the most eminent lawyers in France to arrange the Code Napoleon. The construction of roads, bridges, and canals, was commenced, and, the Emigrants were invited to return to their native land. In 1802, Napoleon was elected First Consul of the French Republic for life. A new order of nobility, founded on individual merit, and known as “The Legion of Honor,” was instituted. Bonaparte's Conduct toward Holland and Switzerland.—The conduct of Napoleon toward the weaker powers of Europe was extremely arbitrary and unjust. The Batavian and Helvetic Republics were entirely under his control. He effected a political change in the Helvetic Republic, and when the Swiss peo- ple opposed his usurpation, he sent Ney with an army of 20,000 men against them, and all resistance was soon at an end. England vainly remonstrated against this outrage. Revolt of St. Domingo.—The island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, the largest and most important of the French possessions in the West Indies, was in a state of rebellion. The negroes, headed by Toussaint Louverture, had taken up arms against their white masters, massacred many of them, and established the independ- ence of the island. Bonaparte sent his brother-in-law, Leclerc, with an army of 35,000 men, to restore the French authority in the island. Toussaint Louverture was treacherously seized, and carried a prisoner to France, where he died. The insurrection was then quelled, but when the French attempted to reëstablish slavery, the negroes again rebelled, killed nearly all the French troops, and established themselves as an independent nation, adopting a republican form of government. France acknowledged the independence of St. Domingo in 1825. EVENTS OF 18O3. Renewal of the War between England and France.—The Peace of Amiens proved to be nothing more than a mere suspension of arms. The arbitrary conduct of Bonaparte toward Holland, Switzerland, and Italy, aroused the jealousy of the English, who accordingly refused to give up Malta, Egypt, and the Cape of Good Hope, as stipulated by the treaty of Amiens. The violent denunciations of Bonaparte by the English press, and the insulting treatment of Lord Whitworth, the British ambassador at Paris, widened the breach between England and France. In May, 1803, the English cabinet issued letters of marque, and decreed an embargo on all French vessels in British ports. Napoleon retaliated by ordering all British subjects then in France, between the ages of sixteen and sixty years, to be seized and imprisoned. Conquest of Hanover.—A French force under Mortier soon overran and AV/AVE 7TEAEAVZ Hº CEAV7'UR V. 335 conquered Hanover, the hereditary possession of the King of Great Britain; and, in utter disregard of neutral rights, all Northern Germany was occupied by French troops. A French army was also sent against the kingdom of Naples. Threatened Invasion of England.—Napoleon was again making immense preparations for an invasion of England. The French, Dutch, and Spanish fleets were to assist in the project; and large bodies of land troops were again assembled at Boulogne, for the ostensible purpose of making a descent upon the English coast. After considerable boasting, the project entertained was abandoned. EVENTS OF 18O4. Conspiracies against Bonaparte—Execution of the Duke d’ Enghien. —In the early part of 1804, a conspiracy against the authority of Bonaparte, in which Generals Moreau and Pichegru, and George Cadoudal, a Vendean chief, were implicated, was discovered. Moreau was allowed to retire into voluntary exile in America; Pichegru died a violent death in prison; and George Cadoudal was guillotined. Napoleon, suspecting that the young Duke d' Enghien, a kinsman of the late royal family of France, was engaged in a plot for his assassination, caused the young prince, who was then living in the neutral territory of Baden, to be arrested and brought to Vincennes. After a trial by a court-martial, in which all the forms of justice were disregarded, the Duke was sentenced to death in the night, and immediately shot in the ditches of the castle-yard of Vincennes. This horrible crime is the greatest blot upon the character of Bonaparte. War between England and Spain.—The British Government, believing that Spain had secretly united with France, in hostility to England, caused several of the Spanish treasure ships, while on their home voyage from South America, to be seized, in the fall of 1804, without a previous declaration of war. The Spanish Government, upon hearing of this hasty and unjustifiable act, was so exasperated that it immediately declared war against England, and entered into a close alliance with France. (December, 1804.) NAPOLEON, EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH. (DECEMBER 2, 1804—APRIL 6, 1814.) EVENTS OF 18O4. Napoleon, “Emperor of the French.”—On the 18th of May, 1804, the servile French Senate created Napoleon “Emperor of the French;” and on the 2d of December of the same year, he was crowned in the Church of Notre Dame, in Paris, by Pope Pius VII., who had been induced to come to the French capital for that purpose. EVENTS OF 18O3. Napoleon, King of Italy.—On the 26th of May, 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy at Milan. The iron crown of Charlemagne was brought forward for the occasion; and Napoleon, placing it on his head, uttered the words, “God has given it to me; beware of touching it.” Eugene Beauharnais, Napoleon's step-son, was appointed viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy. 336 MOZ) ERAV HISTORY. New Coalition Against France.—The alarm created by the usurpations of Napoleon in Germany, Holland, Italy, and Switzerland, and the influence of Eng- lish gold, induced Austria, Russia, and Sweden, to unite in a coalition with England against France. Capitulation of Ulm.—With the greatest promptitude, Napoleon assembled an army on the Rhine, marched eastward for the purpose of driving the Austrians out of Bavaria, which they had invaded in utter disregard of neutral rights. On the 20th of October (1805), he compelled General Mack and 35,000 Austrian troops, who composed the garrison of Ulm, to lay down their arms. Mack was afterwards court-martialed, and deprived of his command, by order of the Austrian Government. Battle of Trafalgar.—On the day after. Mack's disgraceful capitulation at Ulm (October 21, 1805), a bloody naval battle occurred off Cape Trafalgar, on the South-western coast of Spain, in which the combined French and Spanish fleets, under Villeneuve and Gravina, were annihilated by the English fleet, under Lord Nelson and Admiral Collingwood. Most of the French and Spanish vessels were captured by the English. The victory of the English was dearly purchased, as the heroic Lord Nelson, their greatest naval commander, was slain in the engagement. Battles of Dirnstein and Austerlitz.-Proceeding in his victorious career, Napoleon defeated the Russians, under Kutusoff and Bagration, at Dirnstein, on the 11th of November, and on the 13th he entered Vienna. He then pursued the Austrian forces into the province of Moravia; and on the 2d of December, he defeated the combined Austrian and Russian armies, in the celebrated battle of Austerlitz. This was the most brilliant of all Napoleon's victories. The Austrian and Russian Emperors, who had witnessed the battle from a neighboring eminence, fled in consternation when they saw that their armies were beaten. Peace of Presburg.—Nothing now remained for the Emperor of Austria but to accept such terms of peace as Napoleon chose to dictate; and on the 26th of December, 1805, the Peace of Presburg was signed, by which the war between France and Austria was terminated. The Emperor of Russia immediately retired with his army to his own dominions. Hanover was bestowed on the King of Prussia, as a reward for his neutrality in the war. The failure of the coalition against France produced such effect upon the mind of Mr. Pitt, the English Prime-Minister, as to hurry him to an early grave. EVENTS OF 13 O 63. Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples, and Louis, King of Holland.—In February, 1806, Napoleon sent an army to take possession of Naples, because the Neapolitan king, Ferdinand, and his queen, Caroline, had received a force of Eng- lish and Russians in their capital. Ferdinand and his court fled to Sicily, and Napoleon conferred the crown of Naples on his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Louis Bonaparte, another of Napoleon's brothers, was made King of Holland. The Confederation of the Rhine—End of the German Empire.-Napo- leon formed various territories in Germany into dukedoms, which he bestowed on his leading marshals; and fourteen princes in Southern and Western Germany formed “The Confederation of the Rhine,” and acknowledged Napoleon as their AVIAWE 7'EAZAV7'Hy CEAV7'UAE V. 337 head, with the title of “Protector.” Francis II. now renounced the title of Emperor of Germany, and assumed the title of Emperor of Austria. This was the end of the German Empire, which had existed for Ioof years. War with Prussia.-Causes were now at work which soon ripened into a war between France and Prussia. The Prussian king was exasperated at the violation of Prussian territory by the French during their war with Austria, and was deeply mortified when Napoleon prevented the forming-of a North German Conſederation in opposition to the Confederation of the Rhine. When Napoleon, who was at this time negotiating for peace with Great Britain, proposed to restore Hanover to fle King of that country, the indignation of the Prussian cabinet was aroused to such a degree that war with France was resolved upon immediately. (August, 1806) Battles of Saalfeld, Jena, and Auerstadt.—The Prussians soon poured into Saxony. Napoleon, with his usual promptitude, marched against the Prussians with a gigantic force. The first engagement occurred at Saalfeld, where Prince Louis of Prussia was defeated and killed, on the Ioth of October (1806). On the 14th of the same month (October, 1806), Napoleon, with Ioo,000 men, annihilated 100,000 Prussians in the great battle of Jena. On the same day, a French for se, under Marshal Davoust, wasted a Prussian force in the battle of Auerstadt. In these two battles, the French lost 20,000 men, and the Prussians 40,000. The gallant Duke of Brunswick, the Prussian commander, was mortally wounded at Auerstadt. . Surrender of Prussian Fortresses.—The battles of Jena and Auerstadt placed the Prussian monarchy prostrate before the power of Napoleon. On the 25th of October, 1806, Marshal Davoust, with a portion of the French army, entered Berlin, the Prussian capital, in triumph. The Prussian fortresses quickly fell into the hands of the French. The Prince of Hohenlohe, with 17,000 men, surrendered to the French at Prenzlow. King Frederic William III. fled to Königsburg, whence he vainly endeavored to obtain peace. “The Continental System.”—In November, 1806, Napoleon issued a series of decrees at Berlin, declaring all the ports of the British Islands to be in a state of blockade, and excluding British manufactures from the ports of Continental Europe; thus establishing what was known as “The Continental System.” Movements against the Russians—Battle of Pultusk.-The King of Prussia in his distress solicited the aid of the Emperor Alexander of Russia, who sent a powerful army under Benningsen to unite with the Prussians. The region of the Vistula and Oder was deluged with blood; and the Russians were driven irto Poland by the French, who occupied Warsaw on the 30th of November; but the Russians had the advantage in the battle of Pultusk, on the 26th of December. EVENTS OF 18 OTZ. Battle of Eylau.-On the 8th of February, 1807, a sanguinary, but indecisive battle was fought at Eylau, in East Prussia, between 100,000 French troops under Napoleon, and the same number of Russians under Benningsen. Each army lost 2O,Ooo men, and both were so weakened that military operations were suspended for several months. Fall of Dantzic.—On the 24th of May (1807), the strongly-fortified Prussian 22 338 MODERAV HAS7'O.K. P. town of Dantzic, on the Baltic coast, was surrendered, with its garrison of 17,000 men under Kalkreuth, and 90o cannon, to the French under Marshal Lefebvre, after a vigorous siege. Battles of Hielsberg and Friedland.—At length the campaign between the main armies opened; and on the 5th of June, 30,000 French troops were disas- trously repulsed in an attack upon the strong Russian position at Hielsberg. On the 14th of June, the anniversary of the battle of Marengo, the Russian army under Benningsen was severely defeated by Napoleon, in the great battle of Friedland and compelled to retreat to the banks of the Niemen. Peace of Tilsit.—Hostilities were now suspended, and the French and Russian Emperors met on a raft in the middle of the Niemen, where negotiations were opened, which ended in the Peace of Tilsit, signed on the 7th of July, 1807. Prussia was partitioned: the Eastern portion, which had once formed a part of the kingdom of Poland, was erected into the Grand-Duchy of Warsaw, and bestowed on the Elector of Saxony, who was in alliance with Napoleon; out of the Western portion was formed the Kingdom of Westphalia, which was conferred on Jerome Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother. The King of Prussia was left in possession of scarcely half his dominions, and even these would have been taken from him had it not been for the generous intercession of the Emperor Alexander in his behalf. The Emperor of Russia agreed to aid Napoleon in his designs for the destruction of the com- merce of Great Britain, by the exclusion of British manufactures from the Russian * dominions. The Swedish War.—Although Russia and Prussia concluded peace with France, the eccentric Gustavus IV., King of Sweden, obstinately continued the war, and held fast to his alliance with Great Britain. Russia, which by the Peace of Tilsit became the ally of France, now declared war against Sweden; and a Russian army invaded the Swedish province of Finland, and captured the towns of Helsingſors and Sweaborg, while the French captured Stralsund and the island of Rugen. This war continued for several years. England and Denmark—Bombardment of Copenhagen.—England, alarmed at the united efforts of France and Russia against her commerce, and fear. ing that Napoleon would compel Denmark to aid in shutting up the Baltic against British vessels, sent a powerful fleet under Admiral Lord Gambier, conveying 20,000 land troops, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, to Copenhagen, for the purpose of obtain- ing possession of the Danish fleet as a pledge until the close of the war. As the Danish Government refused to surrender its fleet, a four days' bombardment of Copenhagen by the British army and navy followed (September 2–5, 1807), re- ducing a great part of the town to ashes, when the Danish fleet was surrendered. This outrageous and unprovoked attack of a strong power upon a weaker one ex- cited universal indignation throughout Europe. Denmark, greatly exasperated, formed an alliance with Russia and France, and declared war against England and weden. w Usurpation of the Throne of Portugal.--Napoleon was now determined to ãeprive England of her commerce with Portugal, and, for the accomplishment of this object, he negotiated with the weak and disssolute court of Spain. The ignorant and wicked Godoy, who was the Prime-Minister of Spain, and who had AVZAVE 7TEEAVZ Hº CEAVTUR Y. 339 received the title of “Prince of Peace,” was promised a principality in Portugal, as his reward for his aid in the unprincipled scheme of the French Emperor. When the Prince-Regent of Portugal refused to renounce his alliance with England and close the Portuguese ports against British vessels, Napoleon published a decree declaring that “the House of Braganza had ceased to reign;” and a French army under Junot was sent to take possession of Portugal. The cowardly royal family »f Portugal, instead of offering any resistance to the invaders of their dominions, fled in English vessels to Rio Janiero, the capital of the Portuguese colony of Brazil, in South America. On the 30th of November (1807), three days after the Por- tuguese court had left the shores of their European dominions, the French army occupied Lisbon, the Portuguese capital, without resistance. Events of 1sos. Dethronement of the King of Spain.—The wretched condition of Spain under the weak monarch, Charles IV., and his wicked queen and her unprincipled and ignorant favorite, Godoy, “The Prince of Peace,” had made that kingdom con- temptible in the eyes of all nations. Godoy, as well as the king and the queen, was unpopular with the Spanish people, and when he proposed to remove the royal family to South America, a violent insurrection broke out, which deprived Godoy of his power, and compelled Charles IV. to abdicate his throne in favor of his son Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias, who was immediately hailed as king by the Spanish people. The weak Charles invoked the aid of the French Emperor in his behalf, and declared that his abdication was an involuntary act. By a series of intrigues, Napoleon induced Charles and Ferdinand to refer their disputes to his decision, and enticed them along with Godoy and the queen to Bayonne. Napoleon having the whole royal family of Spain in his power, kept them close prisoners, compelled both Charles and Ferdinand to abdicate, and declared that the dynasty of the Bour- bons should no longer reign in Spain. Napoleon named his brother, Joseph Bona- parte, King of Spain, while Joachim Murat, his brother-in-law, received the crown of the kingdom of Naples. Beginning of the Peninsular War.—The Spanish people arose almost unani- 1 mously against the usurpation of Napoleon, and resolved that none but their lawful sovereign should reign over them. A fierce insurrection against the French broke out in Madrid, and 600 of Murat’s troops were put to death. Murat succeeded in quelling the insurrection, but disgraced his name by a bloody massacre of the insur- gents. Provisional juntas were formed in many of the chief cities of the Spanish 'kingdom, for the purpose of conducting affairs; armies were raised for the defense of the country; and a fierce guerrilla war was commenced against the French invaders. Spanish Successes—Dupont's Capitulation of Baylen.—The Spanish patriots were at first victorious in their struggle against the usurpers of their govern- ment. A French fleet at Cadiz, blockaded by a Brtiish fleet, was compelled to surrender, Marshal Moncey, with 8,000 French troops, was repulsed in an assault upon Valencia; Saragossa was bravely defended by a Spanish force under the gal- lant Palafox; and finally, on the 20th of July (1808), the French general Dupont and 20,000 men were compelled to lay down their arms at Baylen, to the Spaniards under the brave Castanos; and Joseph Bonaparte, who had entered Madrid on that 340 A/OA) ERAV HISTORY. very day, was soon obliged to flee, and the French were driven across the Ebro, into the North-eastern part of the Spanish peninsula. Events in Portugal—Battle of Vimiera—Convention of Cintra.—The Portuguese people also rose in insurrection against the French invaders of their coun- try, and a Provisional Junta was established at Oporto. An English army, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, which had been sent to assist the Portuguese, defeated the French army under Junot at Vimiera, on the 21st of August, 1808. On the follow- ing day (August 22, 1808), the Convention of Cintra was concluded between Junot and the English general Dalrymple, by which the French agreed to evacuate Por. tugal, on condition of being conveyed to France in' English vessels. Napoleon in Spain—Defeats of the Spaniards.-The many reverses of the French arms in the Spanish peninsula induced Napoleon to cross the Pyrenees at the head of 180,000 men, in the early part of November, 1808, to recover what had been lost. The Spanish patriots now suffered several disasters: at Reynosa, the French under Marshal Victor defeated the Spaniards under Blake; at Burgos, Marshal Soult, with French troops, overthrew the Spanish Count de Belvedere; and at Tudela, Marshal Lannes, with another French force, beat the Spaniards under Palafox and Castanos. On the 4th of December, Napoleon entered Madrid in triumph. EVENTS OF 18O3. Battle of Corunna.-A British army, under Sir John Moore, which was march- ing to the aid of the Spaniards, was compelled to make a hasty retreat to Corunna, on the North-eastern coast of Spain, where, while preparing to embark, it was attacked, on the 16th of January, 1809, by the French under Marshal Soult. The French were repulsed and compelled to retreat; but the gallant Sir John Moore fell mortally wounded by a cannon-ball from the enemy while animating his troops. He soon expired, and was buried by torchlight, on the ramparts of Corunna. Fall of Saragossa—Battle of Talavera.-On the 20th of February (1809), the city of Saragossa, almost reduced to a heap of ruins, fell into the hands of the French, and Palafox, the heroic commander of the Spanish force which had garri- soned the city, was conveyed a prisoner to France. At length, the English army under Sir Arthur Wellesley, after driving the French from Portugal, advanced into Spain, and, on the 26th of July, gained a glorious victory over the French, in the battle of Talavera. Seville was taken by the French, but Cadiz, the seat of the Grand National Junta, was successfully defended against every attack. War with Austria—Battles of Eckmuhl and Aspern.—The Emperor of Austria, subsidized by British gold, and encouraged by the military ardor of his subjects, began a war against France in the beginning of April, 1809. Large bodies of Austrian troops, which were marched into Bavaria and Italy, threatened to overwhelm the scattered detachments of Napoleon's army. Napoleon suddenly appeared in Bavaria, on the 17th of April, and assumed the command of the French forces assembled there. On the 22d of April (1809), after four days of sanguinary encounters at Abensberg and Eckmuhl, Napoleon totally annihilated the Austrian army under the Archduke Charles. Napoleon entered Vienna on the 13th of May, but he was repulsed in the battles of Aspern and Eslingen, on the 21st and 22d of of May (1809.) During these two days the French lost 12,000 men in killed and AVIAWE TEEAVZ Hº CEAVZ’UR }. 341 wounded. Among the mortally wounded on the side of the French was the brave ‘Marshal Lannes, who had both legs shot off. Battle of Wagram—Peace of Vienna.-On the 5th of July (1809), Napo- leon gained a victory in the battle of Wagram, not far from Vienna, which placed the Austrian Empire at his mercy. The truce of Znaym soon followed; and on the 14th of October (1809), the Peace of Vienna was concluded, at the palace if S boembrunn, by which Austria was obliged to relinquish territory containing 3,OOO,OOO inhabitants. Tyrolese Revolt.—While the war between the French and the Austrians, of which we have just spoken, was in progress, the brave inhabitants of the mountain- ous country called the Tyrol, rose in insurrection against the King of Bavaria, under whose dominion their country had been placed by the Peace of Presburg, in 1805. The Tyrolese mountaineers, headed by Andreas Hofer, resisted the Bavar. ians successfully; and it was only after two large French armies had been sent against the insurgents that the revolt was suppressed, and the Tyrol again brought under the authority of Bavaria. The gallant Hofer was afterwards shot in Mantua, for attempting to excite a second revolt. & Napoleon's Quarrel with Pope Pius VII.-A quarrel now arose between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. When the Pope reſused to lay an embargo on British vessels in the ports of the States of the Church, and form an alliance with France, Napoleon annexed a part of the papal territory to the French Empire. When, during the last war between France and Austria, the Pope sided with the Austrians, Napo- leon declared the Pope's temporal power at an end. The Holy Father, intensely exasperated, fulminated an excommunication against the French Emperor, where- upon he was seized and carried to France, where he remained a prisoner until the beginning of 1814. Revolution in Sweden.—In the North of Europe, the Swedish war still con- tinued, and the forces of Denmark, France, and Russia, reduced the Swedish king- dom to great distress. The Swedish people were anxious for peace, and as their eccentric king, Gustavus IV., obstinately persisted in his determination to continue the war, he was dethroned by the Swedish Diet, and his uncle, the Duke of Suder- mania, was raised to the Swedish throne, with the title of Charles XIII. The Peace of Frederickshamn was then concluded, by which Sweden ceded the province of Finland to Russia. |EVENTS OF 181C). Napoleon Marries Maria Louisa.-For reasons of state, Napoleon was now to ally himself with one of the oldest and most illustrious of the royal families of Europe. After having, on the 15th of December, 1809, obtained a divorce from Josephine, to whom he was tenderly attached, he married the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis of Austria, early in 1810. The nuptials were celebrated,with great pomp, on the 22d of April, 1810. Napoleon's marriage with Maria Louisa seemed to strengthen his power, but it was really the cause of his fall, as the other powers of Europe feared that, secured by the Austrian alliance, he would attempt to bring all Europe under his sway. Holland Annexed to the French Empire.—When Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, relaxed the severity of the blockade of the ports of his dominions, and 342 MODERAV HISTORY. permitted the importation of English goods, he was deprived of his crown by his brother, the Emperor, and his kingdom, together with the greater part of Northern Germany, was annexed to the French Empire. Bernadotte Elected Crown Prince of Sweden.—The Prince of Augusten- burg, the heir of Charles XIII. of Sweden, suddenly died, whereupon the Swedish Diet chose Charles John Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals, Crown Prince of Sweden, and successor of Charles XIII. to the Swedish throne. Napoleon very reluctantly yielded his consent to this choice. On the death of Charles XIII., in 1818, Bernadotte ascended the throne of Sweden, which he held until his death, in the year 1844. & The War in the Spanish Peninsula—Retreat to Torres Vedras.—The war was still raging in the Spanish peninsula, and Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had just been created Lord Wellington, was in chief command of the English, Spanish, and Portuguese armies. On the Ioth of July, 1810, the Spaniards were compelled to surrender the strong fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo to the French army under Mar- shal Massena; but the English under Wellington repulsed an attack by Massena at Busaco, on the 27th of September (1810). Wellington, acting on the defensive, then retreated to the strong lines of Torres Vedras, which covered Lisbon. Mas- sena, wasting some time in useless assaults upon these impregnable lines, was at length obliged to retrace his steps. (November, 1810.) EVENTS OF 1811. The Peninsular War—Spanish Guerrilla Parties.—The Peninsular War was continued with vigor on both sides throughout the year 1811, and the French forces were greatly harassed by the Spanish guerrilla parties. On the Ioth of March (1811), the strong Spanish fortress of Badajoz surrendered to the French under Marshal Soult; but on the 16th of May, Soult was defeated in the battle of Albuera, by the allied English, Spanish, and Portuguese forces, under the command of Mar- shal Beresford. The future of Napoleon's great empire seemed to be secured by the birth, in March, 1811, of a son, who received the title of “King of Rome.” EVENTS OF 1812. The Peninsular War—Battle of Salamanca—Wellington’s Retreat.— The events in the Spanish peninsula during the year 1812 were generally unfavor- able to the French arms. The last important French victory in the peninsula was the capture of the city of Valencia by Marshal Suchet, on the 9th of January, 1812. The English army under Wellington captured Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, early in the year. At length, on the 22d of June (1812), was fought the important battle of Salamanca, in which the English, commanded by Wellington, gained a brilliant victory over the French army under Marshal Marmont; and Joseph Bonaparte fled from Madrid, which was then occupied by the British army; but when the French forces in the peninsula were concentrated, Wellington again retreated to Portugal, where he remained until the following year. Causes which Led to a War with Russia.--We have already seen that, by the Peace of Tilsit, in 1807, the French and Russian Emperors became friends and allies, and that they united in the maritime war against England. It soon became AVIAWE TEEAVTH CEAV7'UR P. 343 evident that this friendship could not be permanent, and the unconcern which Alexander exhibited in the war against Austria, in 1809, increased the growing coldness between him and Napoleon. From the moment of Napoleon's alliance with the House of Austria, Alexander perceived that it would be impossible to avoid hostilities with Napoleon; and in 1811, the diplomacy between the French and Russian cabinets began to assume a most angry character. The measures of Napoleon for destroying the trade of Great Britain, and the closing of the Russian ports against British vessels, had inflicted great injury upon Russian commerce. The complaints of the Russian merchants induced Alexander to open the ports of his dominions to British vessels upon certain conditions; and a heavy tariff was laid upon French goods. These proceedings provoked the anger of the French Emperor. The aggrandizement of Napoleon in Central Europe, and the annexa- tion of the possessions of the Duke of Oldenburg, a near relative of Alexander. to the French Empire, destroyed the last tie of friendship between the two Emperors. and, in the spring of 1812, both began to prepare earnestly for war. Preparations of Russia.-The Russian Emperor formed alliances with Eng. land and Sweden, and, through the mediation of the British Government, he con- cluded the Peace of Bucharest with the Turks, with whom the Russians had been at war almost constantly since the year 1806. The Russian forces, under Barclay de Tolly, Prince Bagration, and other generals, which were assembled in Poland and the Western Russian provinces, amounted to 300,000 men; but the mighty army which Napoleon assembled for the subjugation of the Russian Empire was almost twice as large. Princely Assemblage at Dresden—Napoleon’s “Grand Army.”—On the 16th of May, 1812, Napoleon held a meeting with the Emperor of Austria, the Kings of Prussia, Naples, Westphalia, and Wurtemburg, and the Princes of the Confederation of the Rhine, at Dresden. After this grand assemblage of princes had lasted ten days, Napoleon went to assume the command of “The Grand Army,” which he had assembled in Poland for the invasion of Russia. Napoleon had concluded a treaty with Austria, by which that power agreed to furnish him with 30,000 men, under the command of Prince Schwartzenberg, and Prussia, by a sim- ilar treaty, agreed to furnish him with 20,000 men. “The Grand Army” now numbered more than 500,000 men, and was composed of French, Austrians, Prus- sians, Germans, Italians, and Poles. Of this immense host, 80,000 were cavalry. The whole number of horses belonging to the army amounted to almost 190,000. Invasion of Russia.-On the 22d of June, 1812, Napoleon issued a declara- tion of war against Russia; and on the 24th, he crossed the Niemen, and invaded the Russian dominions. The Russians, in accordance with the plan of their gen- erals, avoided battles, retreated before the advancing French forces, and laid waste the country through which they passed, so that the French army might find no sub- sistence from it. Napoleon, with the main body of the Grand Army, pursued the retreating Russians, and reached Wilna on the 28th, where he remained until the middle of August, when he continued his advance toward Moscow, in pursuit of the retreating Russians. Already the effects of the destructive policy of the Rus. sians began to be felt in the French army, as 25,000 sick and dying men filled the hospitals, and Io,000 dead horses strewed the road to Wilna, and 125 pieces of artillery had been abandoned. 344 MOJO AERAV AZS 7'OA” Y. Battle of Smolensko.—At Smolensko, on the 17th of August, 30,000 Russians made a stand against the French. Three furious assaults upon this strongly-forti- fied town were repulsed by the Russians; but during the night, the inhabitants set fire to the town, which was soon reduced to ashes, and fled with the army. Barclay de Tolly and Kutusoff.-The Russians continued to retreat toward Moscow, pursued by the French. The mode of warfare pursued by the Russian general, Barclay de Tolly, was not approved by his soldiers, who were anxious for a battle with the invaders of their country. For this reason, the Emperor Alexandel rem oved Barclay de Tolly, and appointed General Kutusoff, who had distinguished himself in the war with Turkey which had Just closed, to the chief command of the Russian army. Battle of Borodino.—On the 7th of September, Kutusoff risked a battle with Napoleon at Borodino, on the Moskwa, in the hope of saving Moscow. In the morning when this sanguinary engagement began, each army numbered 130,000 men. The battle had commenced at six o'clock in the morning, and when night put an end to its horrors, 90,000 men lay dead and wounded on the field. Thé result of the battle was that the Russians were obliged to resume their retreat, and the French were enabled to continue their advance in the direction of Moscow. Napoleon’s Entry into Moscow.—At length, on the 14th of September (1812), the French army came in sight of the great city of Moscow, and beheld its lofty steeples and copper domes glittering in the sun. When the city burst upon his gaze, Napoleon exclaimed, “Behold! yonder is the celebrated city of the Czars!” The French troops rushed forward, and entered Moscow on the same day, but they were astonished to find it deserted by its 300,000 inhabitants. Only a few of the rabble remained in the city. Napoleon took up his residence in the Kremlin, or ancient palace of the Czars. Burning of Moscow.—Before Moscow had been abandoned by its inhabitants, Count Rostopschin, the Russian governor, had taken measures to burn the city after the French should enter. Accordingly, on the night of the 16th (September, 1812), a vast fire was seen to emanate from the eastern part of the city. Fires soon broke out in all quarters of the city; and in a few hours the holy city of the Russians was wrapt in flames. The city had been set on fire by the 20,000 convicts whom Ros- topschin, before leaving the city, had liberated for the purpose. No means were at hand for extinguishing the fire, as the fountains had been destroyed, the fire-engines carried off, and the water-pipes cut, before the inhabitants had left the city. For four days, the fire continued to rage unabated, reducing the greater part of the city to ashes. When the fire had reached the Kremlin, Napoleon abandoned that edifice, and took up his abode in the imperial castle of Petrowski, three miles from the city. He returned on the 19th, and took up his quarters in that part of the Kremlin which had escaped the ravages of the fire. Napoleon's Evacuation of Moscow—Destruction of the Kremlin.— The destruction of Moscow deprived the French army of winter-quarters; the Rus- sian armies, which were now vastly superior to the French, threatened to cut of all communication with France; and the Russian Emperor rejected all Napoleon's proposals for peace. In this critical situation, Napoleon found himself obliged to order a retreat to Poland; and on the 19th of October (1812), Mosrow was evacu- AVAWAE 7/2 EAV7'A' CEAV7'UAE V. 345 * ated by the French army. Napoleon, however, left a division of 8,000 men under Marshal Mortier to superintend the evacuation of the city. For several days, Mor- tier and his brave little band defended themselves in the Kremlin against their Russian assailants, when, on the 22d, they abandoned the city to join Napoleon. Before leaving Moscow, barrels of gunpowder had been placed under various parts of the Kremlin, which were lighted by means of a fuse. No sooner had the Rus- sians entered the Kremlin, than that venerable edifice was blown into the air, and tieces of timber, rocks, broken weapons, pieces of cannon, and mutilated bodies were thrown in every direction. The thunders of the explosion a woke Napoleoz and his troops, thirty miles distant. Mortier and his little band reached the main army in safety. Battle of Malo-Yaraslevetz.-On the 24th of October, a portion of the French army, under Murat, after a succession of stubborn engagements, defeated the Russians at Malo-Yaraslevetz, and remained masters of the town. This was a useless victory for the French, who soon ſound themselves obliged to retreat as rapidly as possible, by the very route which their advance had exhausted. Disastrous Retreat of the French Army.—The horrors of this retreat of the French army exceeded anything recorded in the annals of war. The Russians sent out their Cossacks, under Platoff, who greatly annoyed the French rear, and cut off French straggling parties, while the main divisions of the Russian army pursued the retreating French troops, and forced them to contest every inch of ground. The French army was encumbered with its sick and dying. On the 6th of November, an enemy far more terrible than the bullets of the Russians, or the lances of the Cossacks, made its appearance. This enemy was a Russian winter of unusual severity. The thermometer sank to eighteen degrees below zero, and the cold wind howled furiously over the vast steppes. The French army was becoming weaker and weaker by the casualities of battle, and by fatigue, hunger, and cold. The roads were strewed with dead and dying men and horses. The starving troops fell upon the dead and dying horses, and devoured their flesh like famished dogs; and many who had remained with the dying embers of the bivouac fire, fell asleep to wake no more. All discipline was gone, and all the heavy artillery was abandoned to the pursuing Russians. The Pursuing Russian Armies.—The main Russian army, under Kutusoff, numbering Ioo,000 men, advanced by a route parallel to that of the French army, while another army, under Wittgenstein, pressed upon the French rear, and Platoff’s Cossacks harrassed the retreating troops, and cut off such as were so unfortunate as to stray from their ranks. On the 9th of November, Napoleon and his wearied troops reached Smolensko; where they rested until the 15th, when the disastrous retreat was renewed. The French rear-guard, under Marshal Ney, was alsost totally destroyed. Battles of Krasnoi—Ney’s Passage of the Dnieper.—In the battles of Krasnoi, on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of November, the French lost 30,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Ney's fortunate, but dangerous, passage of the frozen Dnieper, was one of the most daring feats recorded in history. The troops crossed the thin ice in Safety, but the wagons containing the sick and wour ded sank, amid the shrieks of the unfortunate sufferers. 346 MODERAV HISTOR Y. The Terrible Passage of the Beresina.-The most horrible of this series of horrors was the passage of the Beresina. While the French were passing over the bridges, the enemy under Wittgenstein and Platoff appeared, and opened a heavy attack upon them. One of the bridges, unable to bear the weight of the crowd upon it, broke, thus precipitating into the stream thousands, whose dying shrieks were heard loud above the roar of the Russian cannon and the cheers of the Cossacks. Many who attempted to cross over the other bridge were swept off y !he Russian artillery, or thrown over in the confusion by their comiades. The following spring, when the ice melted, 36,000 dead bodies were found in the chan nel of the Beresina. º Destruction of the Grand Army.—The mournful disaster just related com- pleted the destruction of Napoleon's Grand Army. When the remnants of the French army reached the Niemen, the rear guard, under Marshal Ney, was reduced to thirty men. The veteran marshal, bearing a musket, and pointing it at the pur- suing enemy, was the last of the Grand Army that left the Russian territory. Napo- leon had already left the army on the 5th of December, and started in a sledge for Paris, where he arrived on the 18th. In this disastrous campaign, the losses of Napoleon were as follows: 125,000 men killed in battle; 132,000 died from cold, hunger, and fatigue; and 193,000 made prisoners by the Russians. The total loss was 450,000 men. EVENTS OF 1813. The Peninsular War—Battle of Vittoria—Expulsion of the French.— Late in May, 1813, Lord Wellington reëntered Spain, and, on the 21st of June, he annihilated the French forces, under Marshal Jourdain and Joseph Bonaparte, in the decisive battle of Vittoria. The result of this battle was that the French were compelled to evacuate the entire Spanish peninsula, and to retire into their own territories, before the close of the year. After reducing the strong fortresses of St. Sebastian and Pampeluna, Wellington pursued the retreating French across the Pyrenees, into their own territory; and on the Ioth of November (1813), he de- feated the French forces, commanded by Marshal Soult, on the Nivelle. Moral Effect of the Russian Disaster.—The moral effect of the Russian disaster was a far more serious misfortune to Napoleon than the loss of his great army; as it destroyed the belief in his invincibility, and consequently encouraged the subject nations to throw off the supremacy before which they had been com- pelled to bow, and to assert their former dignity and independence. It proved to be, as Talleyrand called it, “The beginning of the end.” War Spirit of Prussia—Alliance of Prussia, Russia, and Sweden.— Prussia was the first of the powers which had suffered from the insolence of the great conqueror, to take advantage of the great misfortune which had befallen him. As early as December, 1812, the Prussian general Yorck, who had commanded under the French marshal Macdonald in the Russian campaign, had entered into an agreement with the Russian marshal Diebitsch to cease from hostilities against Russia. Although the conduct of Yorck was at first disapproved by the Prussian Government, the patriotic war spirit of the Prussian people was every day becoming more manifest. At length, on the 3d of February, 1813, Prussia concluded an alliance with Russia and Sweden, and declared war against the French Emperor" AVIAWE ZEEAVTH CEAV7'UR Y. 347 The greatest enthusiasm pervaded all classes of the Prussian people on this action of their government, and noble and peasant offered their services in the cause of their country's liberation from foreign domination. Invasion of Germany by Napoleon.—In the meantime, Napoleon had raised a new army of 350,000 men, and in the month of April, 1813, he marched this immense force into Germany. Frederic Augustus, King of Saxony, through fear of the French Emperor, held fast to his alliance with France, and Saxony became he theatre of hostilities. Battles of Lutzen and Bautzen.—On the 2d of May, 1813, Napoleon gained a victory over the allied Russian and Prussian armies at Lutzen, after a terrific con- flict, in which the Prussian general Scharnhorst, and the French marshal Bessieres, were slain. After a desperate engagement at Bautzen, on the 20th (May, 1813), Napoleon was again victorious, but the brave French marshal Duroc was killed. Congress at Prague—Austria Joins the Allies.—Through the mediation of Austria, an armistice was soon agreed upon between the belligerent parties, and a Congress composed of ambassadors of the several powers was convened at Prague, to consider terms of peace. As Napoleon absolutely refused to restore the inde- pendence of Germany, the armistice terminated on the IOth of August, when the Emperor of Austria joined the allies, and declared war against his son-in-law. Battle of Dresden.—Hostilities were now resumed with vigor; and on the 26th and 27th of August, Napoleon defeated the combined Austrian, Russian, and Prussian forces in the battle of Dresden. In this battle, General Moreau, who had been called from America by the Emperor of Russia, was mortally wounded. Battles of Katzbach, Culm, Gros-Beeren, and Dennewitz.—The advan- tages which Napoleon might have secured by his victory at Dresden were lost by the defeats sustained by his generals at other points. On the 26th of August, the Prussians under Blucher defeated Macdonald on the Katzbach, in Silesia. On the 3oth of the same month, Vandamme, with Io,000 French troops, finding himself surrounded by the allied Austrian, Russian and Prussian armies, was compelled to surrender at Culm, in North-western Bohemia, after a bloody battle of two days. On the 23d of August, a French division, under General Oudinot, was defeated at Gros-Beeren, near Berlin, by the Prussians and Swedes under the command of the Crown Prince of Sweden. On the 6th of September, Marshal Ney was badly beaten at Dennewitz, not far from Wittenberg, by the Prussian and Swedish forces. Concentration of the Allied Armies.—Bavaria now concluded the Treaty of Ried with Austria, and the princes of the Confederation of the Rhine were begin- ning to join the allies. In the beginning of October, the Russians under Barclay de Tolly and Benningsen, the Prussians under Blucher, the Swedes under Berna. dotte, and the Austrians under Prince Schwartzenberg, were concentrated in the vicinity of Leipsic. The allied armies, thus united, numbered 300,000 men, and were all placed under the command of the Austrian general, Prince Schwartzen- loerg. To oppose this immense host, Napoleon had only 200,000 troops. Battle of Leipsic.—On the 16th, 17th and 18th of October, 1813, was ſought the terrible battle of Leipsic, in which half a million of men were engaged in the work of death. The carnage was frightful. The French troops resisted the assaults of the enemy with great bravery, but the superiority of the allies in numerical strength 348 MOD EACAV HZSZTOA’ V. prevailed, and Napoleon was in the end defeated with heavy loss. Napoleon was obliged to order a retreat; and on the morning of the 19th, the French army aban- doned Leipsic, which was then taken possession of by the allies. The Saxon troops now turned their artillery against the retreating French army, and joined the allies. The order for the destruction of the Elster bridge, over the Elbe, at Leipsic, had been executed so hastily that 30,000 French troops, unable to cross, were compelled to surrender to the enemy. The brave Pole, Poniatowski, who had fought bravely in the French army, was drowned while attempting to cross. Hasty Retreat of the French to the Rhine.—The French now made a hasty retreat toward the Rhine. The Austro-Bavarian army under General Wrede, attempting to intercept the retreat of the French army, met with a defeat at Hanau; but the retreat now became a rapid flight, and it was with great difficulty that Napoleon was enabled to cross the Rhine with his shattered army. Consequences of Napoleon’s Defeat.—The consequences of the battle of Leipsic, and the defeat of Napoleon, were the dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine, the restoration of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, and the Dukes of Bruns- wick and Oldenburg to their governments, and the downfall of the Kingdom of Westphalia, events which followed in rapid succession. Baden and Wurtemburg entered into treaties with Austria, and joined their forces to those of the allies. Holland also revolted against the French Emperor, and reëstablished its independ- ence. The King of Denmark, who had firmly adhered to his alliance with Napo- leon, was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden by the Peace of Kiel, early in January, 1814. ~ Misfortunes to the French in Italy.—Fortune was also averse to the French in Italy, where the viceroy, Eugene Beauharnais, was defeated by the Austrians under General Hiller. Murat, King of Naples, and brother-in-law to Napoleon, entered into a secret alliance with Austria, early in 1814, for the expulsion of the French from Italy. Early in 1814, Pope Pius VII. was restored to his authority in Rome. EVENTS OF 1814. Invasion of France by the Allies. As Napoleon refused to agree to a peace by surrendering any of the countries which he had conquered, and had raised a new army of 300,000 men, the allied monarchs determined upon his dethronement, and with this view they ordered their armies to cross the Rhine. France was now to be invaded on all sides, and the evils and humiliations which she had inflicted upon other nations were to be retaliated upon herself. On the Ist of January, 1814, Blucher, with the Silesian army, consisting of Prussians and Russians, crossed the Rhine, between Manheim and Coblentz; while Prince Schwartzenberg, with the Allied Grand Army of IOO,000 men, composed chiefly of Austrians, advanced into Fiance through Switzerland. Another army, consisting of Prussians under Bulow, and Russians under Winzengerode, invaded France by way of Holland, and soon united with the Silesian army. Wellington, with the English army, after driving the French from the Spanish peninsula, pursued them across the Pyrenees, into thcir own territories, captured Bayonne, and a portion of his forces under Marshal Beres- ford took Bordeaux, where the Bourbons were proclaimed by the people. Battles of Brienne and La Rothiere—Victories of Napoleon.--—Blucher AW/AWE Z'EAZAVZ Hº CEAV7'UA' P. 349 and Schwartzenberg united their armies in Champagne, and, after fighting with Napoleon the indecisive battle of Brienne, on the 27th of January, 1814, gained a victoly in the battle of La Rothiere, on the 1st of February. But the allied armies again separated; and the French Emperor, whose great military talents again shone forth in all their brilliancy, inflicted severe defeats upon Blucher at Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry, and Vauchamps. He then suddenly fell upon and defeated Schwartzenberg at Montereau; and on the night of the 23d of February, the French bombarded Troyes, and compelled, the Allies to evacuate the town Napo eon afterwards unsuccessfully attacked Soissons. Blucher fought with the French the battle of Craonne, on the 7th of March, and the battle of Laon, on the 9th of the same month. Napoleon afterwards attacked Rheims, which he com- pelled the Russians to evacuate. The French were defeated in the battle of Arcis, on the 20th of March. Unsuccessful Negotiations for Peace.--Flushed with his successes, Napo- leon suddenly broke off the negotiations for peace, which had just been opened at Chatillon, and thus hastened his speedy ruin. Had he listened to the reasonable terms offered by the allied powers, he might have remained on the throne of France. Capture of Paris by the Allies.—For the purpose of frightening the allies into a retreat into Germany, Napoleon, by a bold march, placed his army in their rear. The allies, seeing the way to Paris open, marched upon the city and took the heights of Montmartre, which covered the capital. Joseph Bonaparte, to whom Napoleon had entrusted the defense of the capital, retired with the Empress Maria Louisa and the regency to Blois; and on the 31st of March, 1814, Marshals Mor- tier and Marmont, perceiving the folly of any further resistance, surrendered Paris to the enemy; and on the same day, the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia entered that proud capital. A provisional government was now formed, at the head of which was Talleyrand, who had deserted the cause of Napoleon, and who now devoted himself to the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of France. Abdication of Napoleon—Battle of Toulouse.—On the 2d of April, 1814, Napoleon was formally deposed by the French Senate, and, after vainly endeavor. ing to secure the crown of France to his son, he signed, on the 6th of April, 1814, the unconditional abdication of the thrones of France and Italy. On the IOth of April, 1814, a few days after the abdication of Napoleon, the English army, under Wellington, won a brilliant victory at Toulouse, over the French army commanded by Marshal Soult. A few days after the battle, news of the capture of Paris and the fall of Napoleon reached both armies, and hostilities were suspended. Napoleon sent to Elba.-On the IIth of April, 1814, Napoleon agreed to a treaty with the allies at Fontainbleau, by which he received the sovereignty of the little island of Elba, in the Mediterranean sea, and an income of 2,000,000 francs. On the 20th of April (1814), Napoleon ordered the Imperial Guard to be assem- pled in the court-yard of Fontainbleau, and, amid the tears of the gallant veterans, he took leave of them with a sad heart. He then started for Elba, where he arrived on the 4th of May, 1814. Louis XVIII.-First Peace of Paris.-The Count of Provence, brother of Louis XVI., returning from his long exile, entered Paris on the 3d of May, 1814, 35o MO DEAEAV HISTORY and was received with demonstrations of joy by the inhabitants. He was now seated on the throne of France, with the title of Louis XVIII. He was required to govern according to a constitution, called “The Charter,” by which the powers of the king were limited, and the rights of the French people defined and secured. On the 30th of May, 1814, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, between France and the allied powers, by which the boundaries of France were restricted to what they had been in 1792; and the general tranquillity of Europe appeared to be secured. wº THE RESTORED BOURBONS AND THE HUNDRED DAYS (1814-1815). Impolitic Conduct of the Bourbons.—The Bourbons were no sooner restored to the throne of France, than they endeavored to reëstablish the state of things which existed before the Revolution, and their imprudent and impolitic conduct excited the Bonapartists and the Republicans against them. The tri-colored cockade was displaced by the white ensign of the Bourbons, and the memory of the Republic and of the Empire was, as much as possible, obliterated. The stipulated pension which was to be paid to Napoleon was also withheld. These and other causes led to the formation of plots for the restoration of Napoleon to power. The majority of the French people felt deeply the humiliation of living under a king forced upon them by foreign bayonets, and longed for that Emperor under whose banners their armies had so often been led to battle and to victory. Congress at Vienna.-A Congress composed of ambassadors of the allied powers had assembled at Vienna, on the 25th of September, 1814, for the settle- ment of European affairs. Divisions arose in the Congress on the question of the rearrangement of the conquered countries; but when the astounding intelligence that Napoleon had left Elba, and had landed on the southern coast of France, reached the Congress, all divisions were cast aside; and the Congress unanimously agreed to take vigorous measures for the overthrow of the man whose ambition troubled the world. Return of Napoleon.—Encouraged by the discontent of the French people with the rule of the Bourbons, Napoleon left Elba; and on the 1st of March, 1815, he landed at Cannes, near Frejus, on the southern coast of France. He was accom- panied by only 1,000 men; but he trusted that the prestige of his name, and the zealous attachment of the troops whom he had so often led to victory, would restore num to power. The troops that had been sent against him joined his standard with the wildest enthusiasm. The tri-color was again displayed everywhere. The citi- zens of Grenoble opened their gates to him, and Colonel Labedoyere joined him with the garrison of the town. The Count of Artois, brother to King Louis XVIII., vainly endeavored to keep the troops at Lyons firm in their allegiance to their king. They unanimously declared for Napoleon, crying “Vive l’Empereur !” and Marshal Ney, who had been sent against Napoleon, and who had sworn that he would bring the ex-emperor to Paris in chains, joined him with the troops. All the old mar. shals, except Marmont, Macdonald and Augereau, espoused the cause of Napoleon, who entered Paris on the evening of the 20th of March, 1815, Louis XVIII. having left the city on the morning of the same day. Thus, in the course of three weeks, sºvº * * º # š #º Eºs::s-> És: # Sº- gºss & S., SSS º N SS SS * S$ is w S x . rº^^ ^^ …, DUKE OF WELLINGTON, lº º # º rº £4 ſ' |||}| | *. § ſº #! d § º º g º º z % º Af t º º % a% % | |º # |; º West § Nº. || tº #: º - º § ſºlº ſ "...ºft. º fºllº" . | || ſh, tº | a | - | { In , * * * * * * * * º , ,,,. rºws * . A “ºuts...... tº w * Nº. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, AVYME TEEAVTH CEAVTUR V. - 35 I without one drop of bloodshed, Napoleon was again master of all France. Then began the period historically known as “The Hundred Days.” Murat’s Fall.—On the landing of Napoleon at Cannes, Murat broke off his alliance with Austria, and summoned the Italian people to arms against that power. Advancing northward, at the head of the Neapolitan army, Murat was defeated by the Austrians, in the battle of Tolentino, on the 23d of May, 1815. He then fled to France, and his kingdom of Naples reverted to its former sovereign, Ferdinand, Napoleon, indignant because of Murat’s desertion of his cause in 1814, refused to receive him in Paris. After remaining for some time in Southern France, Mura: sailed for Corsica, whence he made a descent on the Italian coast, for the purpose of recovering his lost kingdom, but he was taken prisoner, and shot in “ccordance with the sentence of a military commission. The War Renewed—The Armies in Belgium.—The Congress of Vienna, º when informed of the events which had just transpired in France, declared that “The Emperor Napoleon had placed himself beyond the pale of society, and that, as an enemy and a disturber of the peace of Europe, he had made himself liable to public vengeance.” At the same time, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England, entered into a treaty, by which they agreed to raise an army of 600,000 men, to crush the man whom no treaties could bind. Napoleon raised a new army of 120,000 men. In the meantime, the allies were preparing to invade France from all sides. The English under Wellington, and the Prussians under Blucher, were concentrat- ing in Belgium. The Austrians were advancing through Northern Italy, and the Russians were rapidly hastening to the theatre of action. For the purpose of pre- venting France from again becoming the seat of war, Napoleon, with I2O,OOO men, advanced into Belgium, about the middle of June, 1815, with the view of annihil- ating the armies of Wellington and Blucher. Battles of Ligny, Quatre-Bras, and Waterloo.—On the 15th of June, 1815, Napoleon assaulted Charleroi, and compelled the Prussians, under Ziethen, to evacuate the town. At about noon, on the 16th (June, 1815), Napoleon, at the head of 80,000 men, attacked 60,000 Prussians, under Blucher, at Ligny; while, at the same time, Marshal Ney, with 30,000, assailed the English, under Wellington, at Quatre-Bras. The battle of Ligny was long and bloody, and ended in the defeat of the Prussians, who retired, and left the field in possession of Napoleon. After a desperate engagement at Quatre-Bras, in which the gallant Duke William of Bruns- wick was mortally wounded, the English were victorious, and Napoleon was obliged to retire from the bloody field. Napoleon's victory at Ligny rendered the English victory at Quatre-Bras useless; and on the following day (June 17, 1815), Wellington fell back to the village of Waterloo, about nine miles from Brussels. On the morn- ing of the 18th, Napoleon appeared at Waterloo, with 80,000 men. Wellington had 70,000. The chateau of Hougoumont and the farm-house of La Haye Sainte were strongly garrisoned with English troops. The great battle of Waterloo began at about noon, when the French opened a heavy artillery fire on the British lines, and assaulted Hougoumont, but were repulsed. A concentrated attack on the British right also failed. The French cuirassiers afterwards vainly attempted to break the English centre, but they drove back the English troops who had followed them. La Haye Sainte was captured and lost by the French infantry. The French cuiras- siers next made a furious assault on the British right, only to be disastrously repulsed. 352 MODERAW HISTORY. f Three tremendous assaults had already failed to break the English lines, when, at seven in the evening, Marshal Ney, by direction of Napoleon, led the Imperial Guard in a furious charge upon the English troops, while, in the meantime, the British line was fiercely cannonaded. The Imperial Guards reeled before the heavy musketry fire which the English opened upon them, and Wellington, observing the confusion, ordered a bayonet charge, and the result was the complete route of these favorite veterans of Napoleon. Blucher, with 50,000 Prussians, now came to the assistance of Wellington, who immediately assumed the offensive, and Napoleon, sce- ing that his Empire was lost by the fatal result of the day, left the field, and hastened to Paris, where he arrived on the 20th. The shattered remnants of the French army fled in confusion, and were pursued by the Prussians; the English, fatigued by the long and fierce contest, resting for the night on the field. The English had won a great victory, but at the cost of 15,000 men in killed and wounded. Among the killed was the gallant Sir Thomas Picton. The French had lost 40,000 men and all their cannon. Second Capture of Paris–Louis XVIII. Restored to the Throne.— After some hesitation, Napoleon yielded to the proposal of the Chambers in Paris, and abdicated the throne of France in favor of his son; whereupon a provisional government, under the direction of Fouché, was formed. After the battle of Waterloo, the English and Prussian armies marched upon Paris, which was sur- rendered by Fouché to Wellington and Blucher, on condition that no individual was to be punished for his political opinions. King Louis XVIII. reëntered his capital on the 8th of July, and was again seated on the throne of France. Napoleon made a Prisoner and banished to St. Helena.-In the mean- time, Napoleon had fled to Rochefort with the intention of escaping to America, but he found the harbor closely guarded by English war-vessels. Thus foiled, Napoleon embraced the determination of throwing himself upon the generosity of the English nation; and accordingly, on the 15th of July (1815), he went on board the British frigate Bellerophon, and surrendered himself a prisoner to Captain Maitland, the commander of the vessel, who took him to the coast of England, but refused to allow him to land, or to have any communication with the people on the shore. After some delay, the illustrious prisoner was informed that the allied mon- archs had resolved to banish him to the small rocky island of St. Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean, where he was to be kept a close prisoner for the rest of his life. Napoleon vainly protested; and on the 18th of October, 1815, he arrived at the place of his banishment. Here he lived under the charge of the brutal gov- ernor and jailor, Sir Hudson Lowe. The unhealthy climate and the merciless treatment which he received hastened his death, which occurred on the 5th of May, 1821. In 1840, his remains were brought to Paris and interred in the Hotel des Invalides. Proscription of Napoleon’s Adherents.-A proscription of the family and he adherents of Napoleon followed the second abdication of the Emperor and the second restoration of the Bourbons. All the members of Napoleon’s family, all the marshals and statesmen who had adhered to Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and all the regicides who had voted for the death of Louis XVI., were banished; and, in violation of the terms of the second capitulation of Paris, Marshal Ney and Colonel Labedoyère were condemned and shot for treason, in joining Napoleon AVIAVE TEENTH CENTURY. 353 on his return from Elba with the troops with which they had been sent against hun. Second Peace of Paris.-The battle of Waterloo put an end to the long wars which the French Revolution and the ambition of Napoleon had kindled, and which had convulsed Europe for a period of twenty-three years. On the 20th of November, 1815, the second Peace of Paris was concluded between France and the allied powers, by which the boundaries of France were limited to what they had been in 1790; France was required to pay 700,000,000 francs for the expenses of the war; the works of art and literature which the French had taken from other nations were to be restored to their rightſul owners; and an allied army of I50,000 men was to garrison the frontier fortresses of France for three years, for the purpose of insuring peace by putting down any attempted rising of the French people. The military power of France was thoroughly broken, her pride was lowered, and her humiliation was complete. POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE. conDITION OF EUROPE AFTER BONAPARTE's FALL. THE HOLY ALLIANCE (1813). Object of the Holy Alliance.—On the 25th of September, 1815, the three sovereigns, Alexander I. of Russia, Frederic William III. of Prussia, and Francis I. of Austria, signed, in the city of Paris, the famous compact known as “The Holy Alliance,” by which they swore, “That, in accordance with the principles of XIoly Scripture, they would, as brothers, render each other all the assistance in their * power, on every occasion.” The Holy Alliance an Instrument of Oppression.—The Holy Alliance was at length joined by all the sovereigns of Europe, except the Pope and the Brit- ish monarch. This powerful league of princes was made, as we shall presently see, an instrument for the suppression of all democratic and liberal tendencies, and the strengthening of monarchical power, under the mask of piety and religion. In a few years, popular insurrections that broke out in Italy and Spain were suppressed by the formidable league of crowned heads. Efforts of the People of Europe.—While princes were seeking to establish absolute governments, the people of Europe were striving for constitutional forms. A free government, like that enjoyed by the people of Great Britain, was what seemed most desirable to the oppressed masses of Europe. - THE FOYALIST REACTION IN FRANCE. Contests of Parties in France—Hatred of Bonapartists and Republi- cans.—Aſter the restoration of the Bourbons, in the person of Louis XVIII., France was distracted by the contests of parties. A reaction in ſavor of the Royalists had taken place among the French people. The Royalists manifested the most intense hatred against the Bonapartists and the Republicans, who were charged with the authorship of all the misery which had been brought upon the country by twenty. three years of revolution and war. 23 354 MO DERN HISTORY. Zeal of the Royalists—Massacre of Bonapartists and Republicans.— The zealous Royalists, not satisfied with the moderation of the king, who tried to steer between the two extremes, demanded punishment of the Bonapartists and Republicans; and Louis XVIII., although disposed to be moderate, found himself obliged to banish all those who had caused the execution of his brother, Louis XVI. The Royalists (called White Jacobins), disgraced themselves by the bloody massa- cre of Bonapartists and Republicans in Marseilles, Nismes, Toulon, Toulouse, Avignym, and Lyons. Restriction of the Liberties of the People—Death of Louis XVIII.- 'To gratify the reactionary party, which desired the reëstablishment of the ancient despotism, the king was forced to violate, in many instances, the constitutional charter, which he had sworn to observe. He was urged, against his own will, to place restrictions upon the liberties of the people in various ways, and to increase the royal power. The inſluence of the Royalists prevailed to some extent; and the liberty of the press and other privileges were in a great measure restricted. In 1823, at the command of the Holy Alliance, a French army of Ioo,000 men, under the command of the Duke of Angouleme, was sent into Spain, to crush a revolution there. On the death of Louis XVIII., in 1824, his brother, the Count of Artois, became King of France, with the title of Charles X. THE SOCIAL STRUC Cº LE IN ENGLAND. The Extent, Power, and Glory of the British Empire.—Great Britain emerged ſrom the long contest with France with increased power and national glory. Her empire was greatly extended in all parts of the world; her supremacy on the sea was undisputed; her wealth and commerce were increased; and her people enjoyed more civil and political liberty than any other in Europe. But with all this national prosperity, the lower classes of the English people were sunk in extreme wretchedness and poverty. Causes of Distress among Workingmen.—The long wars with France, and the immense subsidies with which Great Britain had furnished her Continental allies, raised her national debt to an enormous amount, and her people were borne down with the most oppressive taxes. During the European wars, the English manufac- turers were enabled to carry on their business very successfully, because then the people of Continental Europe had been compelled to relinquish all peaceful pur- suits. When peace returned, the people of the Continent were enabled to return to their former occupations, and to compete successfully with the English manuſac- turers. The result was the decline of the prosperity of English manufactures, and the want of employment for the English workingmen, who were in consequence reduced to great distress. Conspiracy for the Overthrow of the Monarchy.—The English people were greatly discontented with the existing state of things; and, in 1817, the Brºtish Government discovered that an extensive conspiracy existed throughout the kingdom for the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of an Erg. lish republic in its stead. The Government thwarted the plot by suspending the writ of habeas corpus, and caused the leading conspirators to be arrested, tried. condemned, and executed. AVZAVE 7TEEAVZ Hº CEAV7'UA' V. 355 Lord Exmouth's Expedition against Algiers—Battle of Algiers.--For scveral centuries, the Barbary powers of Northern Africa had committed piracies on people of Christian countries. The commanders of vessels were kept as pris- oners for ransom, and the crews were reduced to slavery. It had long been the custom of Christian nations to pay tribute to the pirates, as a bribe for the safety of their commerce; but the insolence of the corsairs induced the United States Gov- crnment, in 1815, to send a squadron under Commodore Decatur to humble them. Decatur compelled the Dey of Algiers to accept very humiliating conditions. The English Government followed the example of America. In 1816, a British squad- ron under I ord Exmouth was sent against Algiers. Lord Exmouth appeared before the city of Algiers, in May (1816), and demanded the release of all Chris- tians whom the Dey held in slavery. As Lord Exmouth received no answer to his demand, he opened a heavy cannonade upon the city, which was returned by the Algerine batteries; and, aſter several hours' fighting, the Dey's fleet and a great part of the city were destroyed. The following morning, the Dey informed Lord Exmouth that he would set his Christian slaves and captives at liberty, and the firing ceased. Twelve hundred Christians were then released, and allowed to return to their homes. Disturbance at Manchester—Death of George III.-In August, 1819, a meeting of 80,000 persons, assembled at Manchester, to discuss the question of parliamentary reform, was attacked by the military, and many victims fell. On the death of King George III., in January, 1820, his son ascended the British throne, with the title of George IV. EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 182O AND 1821. REVOLUTION IN SPAIN (182O-1823). Tyranny of King Ferdinand VII.-Aſter Lord Wellington's expulsion of the French from Spain, in 1813, Ferdinand VII. came into quiet possession of the Spanish throne. IIe began his reign with the most unrelenting tyranny over his subjects. The Inquisition was reëstablished with all its horrors; the liberal Cortes Constitution of 1812 was suppressed; and thousands who had exposed their lives in the cause of Ferdinand against the French invaders of Spain, were persecuted in the most unrelenting manner. Popular Insurrection—Reestablishment of the Cortes Constitution.— The tyrannical rule of Ferdinand VII. roused the Sprinish Liberals against him; and, on the 1st of January, 182O, a mutiny broke out among the troops at Cadiz, who were to be sent to crush the revolution against Spanish authority in South America; and very soon the whole Spanish kingdom was in insurrection against the tyrannical king. In order to retain his crown, Ferdinand was forced to grant his subjects the Constitution of 1812. The Liberals abused their power by hasty innovations, and by persecutions of the priests and the supporters of the Apostolic party. Overthrow of the Cortes Constitution by a French Army.—lt was re- solved by the members of the Holy Alliance, in a Congress at Verona, to suppress the Spanish Constitution by violence; and in 1823, a French army of Ioo,000 men, s36 MODERAV HISTORY. under the Duke of Angouleme, entered Spain. The French invaders marched through the country to Cadiz, overcame all opposition on the part of the Spanish Lib- erals, and effected the overthrow of the Cortes Constitution, aud the reëstablishment of the absolute power of the king. From this time, until his death, in 1833, Ferdi. 'nand VII. governed despotically. - REVOLUTION IN PORTUGAL (1821-1834). Popular Insurrection—Establishment of a Libéral Constitution.—Por tugal, as well as Spain, was torn by internal commotions. The Portuguese people were dissatisfied because the royal family did not return from Brazil aſter the ter- mination of the Peninsular War; and popular insurrections in Lisbon and Oporto, in August, 1820, resulted in the establishment of a liberal constitution, modeled after that of Spain. In 1822, the Portuguese colony of Brazil became an inde. *pendent Empire. º * Overthrow of the Portuguese Constitution—Donna Maria da Gloria.-- The Portuguese Constitution was overthrown in 1823, by the Apostolic party, which was composed of the clergy and the aristocracy, with the supporters of Don Miguel, the king's brother, at their head. King John VI. died in 1826, and was succeeded on the throne of Portugal by his son, Don Pedro, Emperor of Brazil. Don Pedro, however, soon resigned the crown of Portugal to his infant daughter, Donna Maria da Gloria, appointed his brother, Don Miguel, regent of the kingdom, and granted ...the Portuguese a liberal constitution. Usurpation of Don Miguel—Civil War—Defeat of Don Miguel.-In 1829, Don Miguel, with the support of the Apostolic party, suppressed the Portu- guese Constitution, and caused himself to be proclaimed King of Portugal. In 1832, Don Pedro, who had been compelled, the previous year, to abdicate his crown in Brazil, in favor of his son, Don Pedro II., returned to Portugal, to defend the rights of his daughter. The constitutional party rallied to the support of Don Pedro; and, in 1834, after a bloody civil war of two years, during which Don Pedro was aided by England and France, the usurper, Don Miguel, was forced to renounce his preten- sions, and to leave the kingdom; whereupon the constitution, which had been sup- ;pressed by the usurper, was reëstablished. - REVOLUTION IN NAPLES (182O). Tyranny of King Ferdinand of Naples.—After the fall of Napoleon I. and the expulsion of the French from Italy, Ferdinand, the former King of Naples, was restored to his throne. From the time of his restoration to the Neapolitan throne, Ferdinand exercised a most unmitigated oppression over his subjects. ‘Popular Insurrection in Naples—A Liberal Constitution Granted.—At length, in July, 1820, the Carbonari, an influential political society, excited a popu- lar insurrection in the Kingdom of Naples; . and the tyrannical Ferrizmand was compelled to grant his subjects a constitution similar in its character to the Spanish Cortes Constitution of 1812. : Intervention of the Holy Alliance—Overthrow of the Constitution.— In October of the same year (1820), the three crowned heads who formed the Holy Alliance held a conference at Troppau, in Austrian Silesia, where, at the instiga- AV/AWE TEEAWTH CEAVTOR P. 357. tion of Prince Metternich, the Austrian Prime-Minister, they resolved to suppress the Neapolitan constitution by force of arms. King Ferdinand, of Naples, who, by invitation, met the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, at Laybach, ir January, 1821, agreed to the proposal; and accordingly, an Austrian army of 43,000 men marched into Naples, and, after several insignificant conflicts, dispersed the revolutionary forces; whereupon King Ferdinand abolished the constitution which he had granted, and resumed his former despotic power. REVOLUTION IN PIEDMONT (1821). Insurrection in Piedmont—Abdication of Victor Emmanuel.—In March, 1821, a military and popular insurrection broke out in Piedmont, against the absolute rule of King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia. On the 13th (March, 1821), Victor Emmanuel abdicated the throne of Sardinia, in favor of his brother, Charles Felix; and a liberal constitution was also established in Sardinia. End of the Piedmontese Constitution.—An Austrian army soon entered Piedmont to suppress the constitution. The revolutionists were defeated at Novara, and the Austrian forces occupied the cities of Turin and Alessandria. The Pied- montese constitution was overthronw, and absolute monarchy was reëstablished in the kingdom of Sardinia. e THE GREEK REVOLUTION (1821–1829). EVENTS OF 1821. Proclamation of Alexander Ypsilanti-Greece had been conquered by the Turks in 1481. For three centuries and a half, the tyrannical rule of the Turks had been quietly submitted to by the Greeks; but on the 7th of March, 1821, Alexander Ypsilanti, a Greek, then serving as a general in the Russian army, proclaimed, from Moldavia, the independence of Greece, and, at the same time, assured his coun- trymen of the assistance of Russia, in their approaching struggle for liberty. But the influence of Prince Metternich, who, at the Congress of Laybach, opposed giving countenance to any revolt against legitimate authority, prevented the Czar Alexan- der from giving any support to the Greeks, although he was at heart in sympathy with them. Revolution in the Morea.—Soon aſter the proclamation of Ypsilanti, an insur- rection against Turkish authority broke out in the village of Suda, in the Morea. The movement rapidly spread over the whole peninsula; and the insurgents declared that their purpose was to defend Christianity and civilization against Mohamme. danism and barbarism. Cruelty of the Turks–Murder of the Patriarch of Constantinople.— The rage of the Turks against the insurgent Greeks knew no bounds; and many of the Greek clergy, including the gray-haired Patriarch of Constantinople, the supreme head of the Greek Church, were put to death. Most of the Greek ſamilies in, Constantinople fell victims to the savage rage of the inſuriated Turks, and others were driven into exile. Annihilation of the Sacred Band, and Flight of Alexander Ypsilanti. —The Sacred Band of the Greeks in Wallachia, under the leadership of Alexander 358 A/OAXAZA'AW AN/S 7'OA’ \'. Ypsilanti, was annihilated by the Turks, in the sanguinary battle of Dragaschan, on the 19th of June, 1821. The Greeks, like their ancestors at Thermopylae, ſought with the courage of desperation. Ypsilanti fled into the Austrian dominions, where, he was seized and kept a prisoner for years. Capture of Tripolitza by the Greeks—Cassandra taken by the Turks. —In August, 1821, the Greeks captured Navarino; and in October following, the strong fortress of Tripolitza, where they put 8ooo Turks to the sword. On the 5th and 6th of September (1821), the Greek general Ulysses defeated a large Tulkish force, near the famous pass of Thermopylae. The peninsula of Cassandra was aſter- wards taken by the Turks, who put 3000 Greeks to the sword, and carried many women and children into slavery. EVENTS OF 1822. Greek Congress at Epidaurus—A Provisional Government.—In the beginning of 1822, a Greek Congress assembled at Epidaurus. On the 13th of January, a provisional constitution was proclaimed; and on the 27th of the same nonth, a manifesto was issued, announcing the union of the Greeks under a central government, under the presidency of Alexander Mavrocordato. The Greek leaders often quarreled among themselves, but, notwithstanding this, fortune was, in general, on the side of the struggling patriots, until the summer of 1825. Desolation of Scio by the Turks.-In March, 1822, the inhabitants of the beautiful island of Scio rose in revolt, and put the Turkish garrison to the sword. In April, a force of Asiatic Turks spread over Scio, plundering and massacring the inhabitants, and reducing the beautiful island to a desert. Thirty thousand Sciots were put to the sword; and many women and children were sold into slavery. Soon afterward, 150 Greek villages in Macedonia were destroyed, and many of the inhabitants were put to the Sword. Barbarous Warfare—Success of the Greek Fire-ships.-The war was carried on by both parties in the most barbarous manner. Thousands of Greeks were put to the sword by the enraged Turks, and when the Greeks had the oppor- tunity, they took a bloody revenge on their cruel foes. Many of the Turkish vessels were blown up by the Greek fire-ships. On the 12th of December, 1822, the strong Turkish fortress of Napoli de Romania surrendered to the Greeks, aſter a furious assault. rº. EVENTS OF 1823. Victory and Death of Marco Bozzaris—Lord Byron.—On the 20th of August, 1823, a Turkish army of Ioo,000 men was met and defeated by 500 Greeks, under the heroic Suliot leader, Marco Bozzaris, who was killed in the moment of victory. The last words of this valiant patriot were, “Could a Suliot led 32; die a nobler death?” Popular sympathy ſor the struggling Greeks was strºngly manifested in France, England, and the United States; and nuany private individuals went ſrom those countries to aid the patriots in their struggle ſor frce- dom. Among those who went to Greece from England was the illustrious poet, Lord J35'ron, who died at Missolonghi, on the 19th of April, 1824. MINE TEENTH CEAVTUR P. 359 EVENTS OF 1824, AND 1823. Fall of Ipsara—Desolation of the Morea by Ibrahim Pacha.—During the year 1824, the Turks reduced the strongly-ſortified rocky island of Ipsara; but after 2,000 Turks had entered the last ſort, the Greeks blew it up, and perished with their foes. In 1825, Ibrahim Pacha, son of the celebrated Mehemet Ali, Pacha of Egypt, whom the Sultan had induced to assist in the suppression of the Grecian rebellion, landed in the Morea, with 25,000 Egyptian troops, and spread acsolation throughout the whole peninsula. Ibrahim Pacha captured Navarino; but the Turks were defeated, for the third time, at Missolonghi. EVENTS OF 1826. Siege and Fall of Missolonghi.-In the latter part of 1825, Ibrahim Pacha, with 25,000 men, laid siege to Missolonghi. After many fierce assaults had been gallantly repulsed by the Greeks, Missolonghi fell into the hands of Ibrahim Pacha, on the 22d of April, 1826. The Greek garrison of 1,800 men cut their way through the lines of the besiegers, and fled to Athens. Many of the inhabitants ſled from the city when the victorious foe entered, but some were pursued and captured; and those who remained in the city, about 1,000 in number, mostly old men, women, and children, blew themselves up in the mines, rather than fall into the hands of the enemy. EVENTS OF 1827. Intervention of England, France, and Russia—Battle of Navarino.— The heroic conduct of those Greeks who voluntarily perished at Missolonghi, and the continued devastations of Ibrahim Pacha in the Morea, aroused the European governments from their lethargy; and, at the proposal of the great statesman, Can- ning, who then wielded the destinies of Great Britain, a treaty of alliance was con- cluded, at London, on the 6th of July, 1827, between England, France, and Russia, by which these three powers agreed to secure for the Greeks their liberty. To enforce this treaty, a combined English, French, and Russian fleet, under the com- mand of the English admiral, Sir Edward Codrington, was sent to the Grecian waters. The refusal of Ibrahim Pacha to evacuate the Morea occasioned the battle of Navarino, on the 20th of October, 1827, in which the allied ſleet totally anni. hila'ed the Turko-Egyptian fleet. EVENTS OF 1828. War between Russia and Turkey—Evacuation of the Morea.—The destruction of his fleet enraged more than it alarmed the Sultan, who still obsti- nately refused to give the Greeks their liberty, and who behaved in so insolent a inanner toward the allied powers that Russia declared war against him. In May, 1828, a Russian army of 150,000 men, under Count Wittgenstein, invaded the Otto- man dominions in Europe, and by the enrly part of July, had taken seven strong fortresses, among which were Brahilov, Silistria, and Varna; while in Asiatic Turkey, the Russians under General Paskiewitsch were everywhere victori us. In the meantime, Ibrahim Pacha had been compelled by the French fleet tº evacuate the Morea, and to restore to his Greek prisoners their freedom; and Count John Capo d'Istria was chosen President of the Grecian States. 360 MODERN HISTOR P. EVENTS OF 1829. Declaration of the Allied Powers—Advance of the Russians—Peace of Adrianople.—In January, 1829, the Sultan received a protocol from the three allied powers, declaring that they took Greece under their own protection, and that they would consider another Turkish invasion of Greece as an attack upon themselves. This declaration, together with the rapid progress of the Russian forces, under the command of Field-Marshal Diebitsch, who had forced the passes of the Balkan mountains, and, on the 20th of August, 1829, captured Adrianople, the second city of the Turkish Empire, seriously alarmed the Sultan; and, on the 24th of September, 1829, the Peace of Adrianople was concluded between Russia and Turkey, by which the Ottoman Porte acknowledged the independence of Greece, and agreed to indemnify Russia for her expenses in the war. EVENTS OF 1834-1833. Assassination of Count John Capo d'Istria—Otho, King of Greece.— During the Revolution, the Greek leaders often quarrelled among themselves; and in 1831, the Greek President, Count John Capo d'Istria, who, by his selection of bad advisers, had made himself unpopular, was assassinated, as he was about to enter a church. The three allied powers, England, France, and Russia, having determined to erect Greece into a constitutional monarchy, the crown was bestowed on Otho, a prince of the royal house of Bavaria, who arrived at Nauplia in 1833, and reigned as King of Greece, until he was hurled from the throne by the Revolution of 1862 EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 183O AND 1831. FRENCH FREVOLUTION OF 183O. Charles X-Charles X., on his accession to the throne of France, in 1824, declared his intention of confirming the constitutional charter that had been granted to the French people at the time of the First Bourbon Restoration, in 1814. But Charles, entertaining a bitter hatred against the principles of the Revolution, and under the influence of the most bigoted priests, labored for the establishment of an absolute monarchy, on the principles of the ancient despotism. Of the Bourbons, it was said, that during their long exile, “they had learned nothing and forgotten nothing;” and Charles soon proved that he had not forgotten that his ancestors had exercised absolute power, nor had he learned that such power was dangerous to exercise. Unpopular Ministers were appointed, the freedom of the press was re- stricted, the National Guard was dissolved, and severe measures were adopted for dispersing popular assemblies. Ultr. -Royalist Ministry of Polignac.—In August, 1829, the Liberal Minis- try, which had been forced upon the king by the voice of public opinion, was dis. missed; and an Ultra-Royalist Cabinet, with Prince Jules de Polignac at its head, was appointed. This new Ministry endeavored to strengthen the royal power, and was extremely unpopular with the French people, who accused Polignac and his colleagues of a design for the subversion of popular liberty, and the reëstablishment of the ancient despotism; but Polignac blindly persevered in his arbitrary schemes. The Speech from the Throne, March 2d, 1830—Dissolution of the AVIAWE 7'EEA77 Hº CEAVTURY 361 Chambers.-At the opening of the French Chambers, on the 2d of March, 1830, the speech from the throne clearly announced the king's determination to overcome by ſorce any obstacles that might be thrown in the way of his government, and contained a threat to deprive the French people of the rights granted them by the Charter. There was a large majority against the Ministry in the Chamber of Depu- ties, and that body returned a frank reply to the royal speech, declaring that a con- currence did not exist between the views of the Government and the wishes of the people. The king, declaring his intention to support his Ministers, prorogued the Chambers; and on the 17th of May, a royal ordinance declared them dissolved, and ºrdered elections for a new Chamber. War with Algiers—Capture of Algiers.-In the meantime, thc king and his Ministers, with the view of overcoming their unpopularity by gratifying the pas- sion of the French people for military glory, declared war against Algiers, the Dey having refused to pay long-standing claims of French citizens, and having insulted the honor of France by striking the French Consul. A naval expedition, consisting of ninety-seven vessels, carrying more than 40,000 troops, sailed from Toulon, on the Ioth of May, 1830, and on the 14th reached the African shores. The city of Algiers was captured on the 5th of July (1830), with trifling loss on the part of the French. The Dey fled to Italy, and his treasures fell into the hands of the con- querors. Increase of the Liberal Majority in the Chamber of Deputies.—The news of the capture of Algiers occasioned much rejoicing in France, but did nothing toward gaining popularity for the Ministry, public feeling being too decided to be thus easily affected. The elections for a new Chamber of Deputies resulted in giving the Liberals a much larger majority than they had in the Chamber lately dissolved The Three Royal Ordinances of July 26th, 1830—Disturbances in Paris. —The Ministry now resolved to set the popular will at defiance by measures directly subversive of the constitutional charter; and, on the morning of the 26th of July, 1830, three royal ordinances were issued;—the first dissolving the newly-elected Chamber of Deputies, the second arbitrarily altering the mode of election, and the third suspending the freedom of the press. To all who were acquainted with the popular ſeeling, it was apparent that these arbitrary measures, so subversive of popular rights, could only be executed by force, and yet no preparations had been made for this. So blind and infatuated were the king and his Ministers, that they did not dream of any resistance on the part of the people. The king went on a hunting excursion, and the Prince de Polignac gave a splendid dinner to his col- leagues. In the evening, mobs collected in Paris, lamps were demolished, the windows of Prince de Polignac's hotel were broken, and cries cf “Down with the Ministry!” and “The Charter forever !” were heard. Commencement of the Revolution, July 27th, 1830.-On the morning of the 27th (July, 1830), in defiance of the royal ordinance suspending the liberty of tle press, the conductors of the Liberal journals in Paris printed and distributed tlieir papers as usual; but their types were soon seized and their presses broken by the police. Marshal Marmont, who was placed in chief command of the Govern- ment troops, endeavored to assist the police in preserving order, and the Ministry declared Paris in a state of siege. The streets were kept clear by the guards for the greater part of the day; and Marshal Marmont wrote to the king that quiet was 362 MOJO EA’AV HISTORY. restored; but during the night, the citizens demolished the lamps, procured arms, and barricaded the streets with paving stones torn up for the purpose. Street Fighting on July 28th—Appearance of the Tri-color.—On the morning of July 28th, the streets of Paris were filled with armed citizens, who raised the glorious tri-colored flag in every direction. They carried with triſling loss the detached guard-houses, the arsenal, and the powder magazine. At nine o'clock, be tri color was seeen to wave from the spire of the Church of Notre Dame, and At cleven ſron the central tower of the IIotel de Ville. Carriages aud omnibuses were thrown on the sides of the streets, to obstruct the passage of the troops. The troops were exposed to a severe fire ſrom the windows, barricades, and street cor. ners. Tiles and stones were hurled upon them from the tops of houses; while oil and boiling water were showered upon them from the windows. The king and his Ministers and Marshal Marmont were greatly surprised when they discovered that what they had at first considered merely a riot had assumed the formidable aspect of a revolution. During the night, the pavements were torn up, and the trees in the Boulevards cut down, to raise obstructions for the passage of the troops. July 29th—General Lafayette and the National Guard—Triumph of the People.—The contest was renewed with terrible ſury on the morning of July 29th; and General Lafayette appeared among the insurgents, and assumed the command of the National Guard. At noon, several regiments of the line deserted to the people. Thus reinforced, the mob stormed the Louvre and the Tuileries, from the windows of which they opened a tremendous fire upon the Swiss and royal guards. The brave deſenders of the throne, unable to make any further resistance to the populace, succeeded only with great difficulty in effecting a retreat; and, at three o'clock in the aſternoon, the Paris Revolution of July ended in the complete triumph of the people. The Ministers now resigned their offices, and the king signed an order for the repeal of the obnoxious ordinances; but it was too late. The Parisians had already resolved that Charles X. should no longer reign. The Deputies to the new Chambers in Paris organized a provisional government, and decreed that the National Guard should be reorganized, and placed under the command of that consistent ſriend of rational freedom, the Marquis de Lafayette. Abdication and Flight of Charles X.-On the 31st of July (1830), Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, son of Philip Egalite, accepted the office of Lieutenant- General of the French kingdom. On the 2d of August, Charles X. formally abdi- cated the throne of France, and his son, the Dauphin, resigned his rights in ſavor of the king's inſant grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. No attention was paid to these proceedings. The Paris mob prepared to march in thousands to Rambouillet, to which place Charles had retired; but he did not wait for their coming. Recol- lecting too well the awful period of 1789, when another Paris mob marched to Versailles, he fled to England, and for a time took up his residence in Holyrood palace, near Edinburgh. He afterwards went to Germany, and died at Goritz, in Austria, in November, 1836. Louis Philippe, “King of the French.”—In the meantime, the newly elected French Chambers assembled in Paris, and, aſter some debate, it was determined that the Government of France should remain a limited monarchy; and the crown was conſerred on the Duke of Orleans, who, on the 9th of August, 1830, took the oath to support the constitutional charter, and ascended the throne of France, with AV/AVE TEAEAV7 II CEAVTUR P. 363 the title of “Louis Philippe I., King of the French.” Louis Philippe owed his elevation chiefly to the venerable Lafayette, who, believing the French people still unſit for a republic, preſerred “a throne surrounded with republican institutions.” Presenting the new citizen-king to the people, in ſront of the Chambers, Lafayette exclaimed, “Now we have the best of republics!” THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION (183O). Consequences of the Paris Revolution of July.—The Paris Revolution of July, 1830, occasioned a violent shock throughout Europe, and gave the death- blow to the Holy Alliance. Revolutionary movements occurred in Belgium, Poland, Germany, and Italy, which alarmed absolute monarchs, and threatened consequences fatal to the general tranquillity of Europe. The Union of Holland and Belgium—Dutch Oppression of the Bel- gians.—The effects of the July Revolution of Paris first displayed themselves in Belgium. The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, in utter disregard of diſſerences in language, religion, and interests, had united IHolland and Belgium into one mon- archy, designated “The Kingdom of the Netherlands,” under the government of a prince of the House of Orange or Nassau. From the time of the incorporation of Belgium with II olland, the Belgians suffered the most unmitigated oppression from the Dutch king; and the Hollanders endeavored to force their own language, laws, and religion upon the Belgians. The Protestant courts were entrusted with the supervision of the education of the Catholic youth in Belgium. When the Belgian press denounced the conduct of the Dutch Government, the writers were fined, im- prisoned, or banished ſrom the country. The alliance of the Belgian Liberal party with the Catholic Ultramontane party was designated by the Dutch king, in his speech ſrom the throne, as “infamous.” Insurrection of Brussels — Declaration of Belgian Independence.— Thinking the opportunity favorable, and encouraged by the success of the Paris Revolution of July, the people of Brussels rose in insurrection, on the 25th of August, 1830, and, aſter an obstinate struggle of four days, expelled the Dutch authorities and garrison from the city. The movement spread rapidly, and in a short time, the whole of Belgium was in revolt against the authority of the King of Ilolland. The Dutch were repulsed in an attack upon Brussels, and the Belgian insurgents pro- ceeded against Antwerp, to drive the Dutch from that city. Thereupon the Dutch general Chassé retired into the citadel with his troops, and cannonaded the town for several hours, thus destroying an immense amount of valuable property. Th’s pro- ceeding caused much exasperation in Belgium; and, on the 14th of October (1830), the Belgian National Congress declared the independence of Belgium, and the exclusion of the IIouse of Orange from the Belgian throne. European Conference in London—Separation of Belgium from Ilol- and.—While the war between the Dutch and the Belgians was in progress, the replesentatives of the five great powers—Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia—held a conference in London, where, aſter long diplomatic negotiation, it wasedetermined to separate Belgium from IIolland. ſº Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, “King of the Belgians.”—Prince I eo- pold of Saxe-Coburg, a relative of the English royal family, and who was shortly 364 MODERAW HISTORP. afterwards married to a daughter of Louis Philippe, King of the French, received the crown of Belgium, with the title of “Leopold I., King of the Belgians.” The Ring of IIolland vainly attempted to subdue the Belgians, who were now aided by England and France. On the 24th of December, 1832, the Dutch army which had held possession of Antwerp was compelled to surrender to the French army under Marshal Gerard. Leopold granted his subjects a liberal constitution, and the sepa- ration of the Church from the State. Since her separation from Holland, Relgium has prospereed wonderfully in every branch of industry and social improvement POLISH INSURFECTION OF 183O, 1831. The Kingdom of Poland—The Archduke Constantine—Russian Ty- ranny.—The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, erected Poland into a kingdom, with a Diet and a constitution of its own; but the sovereign power of the kingdom was vested in the Czar of Russia, under the title of “ King of Poland.” The Poles were soon disappointed in the hopes which they had entertained that the Emperor Alex- ander would protect them in the enjoyment of the rights and privileges granted them by the new constitution. Before long, the principal offices in Poland were filled with Russians; the article of the new constitution granting freedom of the press was annulled; and publicity of debate in the Polish Diet was abolished. On the death of the Emperor Alexander I., in 1825, and the accession of his brother Nicholas to the throne of Russia, the nominal administration of affairs in Poland was intrusted to a Pole; but all the real power was invested in the Archduke Con- stantime, the brother of the emperor-king. Constantine was an unscrupulous tyrant. His despotic and cruel course revived the old spirit of Polish ſreedom and nation- ality; and the successful revolutions in France and Belgium, in 1830, urged the Poles to a rebellion against the Russian power. Secret organizations were formed, whose object was to bring about the restoration of Polish independence, and the re- union, under one government, of those portions of Poland which had been absorbed by Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Insurrection at Warsaw.—On the evening of the 29th of November, 1830, the students of the Cadet School, at Warsaw, attempted to seize Constantine, while another party summoned the people to arms. Constantine escaped from Poland, after a severe conflict, in which several hundred of his guards were killed. The insurgents forced the arsenal at Warsaw, and before the close of the day, 40,000 men were in arms. The insurgent Poles established a provisional government, with Adam Czartoryski, General Chlopiki, and others, at its head; and great enthusiasm prevailed in the Polish capital. Russian Invasion of Poland—Polish Successes.—The provisional govern ment at Warsaw appointed Chlopiki dictator, and the Polish Diet, which was hastily assembled, invested Prince Radzivil with absolute power; but the Polish aristocracy, alarmed at the violence of the republican and democratic clubs at Warsaw, opposed every attempt to excite a popular war. The Diet pronounced the deposition of the princely IIouse of IRomanoff in Poland; and, on the 5th of February, 1831, after two months of unsuccessful attempts at negotiation, the Czar Nicholas rejecting all terms but unconditional submission on the part of the Poles, a Russian army of 200,000 men, under the command of Field-Marshal Diebitsch, appeared in Poland. An indecisive action occurred on the 5th (February, 1831); and on the 25ſh, a des. AVINE TEENTH CENTURY. 365 perate engagement occurred between 40,000 Poles, under Prince Radzivil, and IOO,OOO Russians, and when the shades of night closed the combat, the dead bodies of Io,000 Russians covered the sanguinary field. On the night of the 31st of March (1831), the Polish army, under General Skrzynecki, fought and routed 20,000 Rus- sians. The Poles rapidly followed up their advantages, and before the close of April, the Russian forces were driven out of Poland. Battle of Ostrolenka.—Aſter concentrating his forces at Minsk, Skrzynecki crossed the Bug, and advanced to Ostrolenka, where his army, led by General Bem, encountered an army of 60,000 Russians, on the 26th of May. The carnage was frightful. No quarter was given by either party. The Poles were defeated with the loss of 5000 men. The victorious Russians also lost heavily, and three of their generals were among the slain. Dissensions among the Poles.—Owing to the dissensions among the Polish leaders, the insurrection rapidly declined in strength aſter the battle of Ostrolenka. In June, both Field-Marshal-Diebitsch and the Archduke Constantine met with sudden deaths. The populace of Warsaw ascribed the failure of the revolution to treachery on the part of the aristocracy, thirty of whom were sacrificed to the popular fury. The Polish dictator, Czartoryski, the successor of Chlopiki, fled in terror to General Dembinski's camp, whereupon the Polish Diet invested Krukowiecki with the supreme power. Fall of Warsaw.—At length, a Russian army of Ioo,000 men, under the com- mand of General Paskiewitsch, advanced on Warsaw. At Wola, the ancient place of the election of the Polish kings, the attacks of the Russians were repulsed. On the 6th of September, 1831, after two days of ſurious assaults, during which 20,000 Russians and Io,000 Poles laid down their lives, the cowardly dictator, Kruko- wiecki, surrendered Warsaw and Praga to Paskiewitsch. The main body of the Polish army retreated from Warsaw, and soon aſterward dispersed. Submission of Poland—Flight and Exile of Polish Leaders.—The fall of Warsaw was the death-blow to the insurrection, and unfortunate Poland again groaned under the iron heel of Russian despotism. Many of the Polish insurgents retired into voluntary exile in ſoreign lands; and thousands of those who remained and fell into the hands of the Russians, including generals, soldiers, and nobles, were consigned to the dungeons and mines of Siberia. Incorporation of Poland with the Russian Empire.—Poland was deprived of her Constitution, her Diet, and her State Council, by the “Organic Statute,” and Incorporated with the Russian Empire, with a separate government and adminis- tration of justice; and Polish nationality and independence seemed extinguished. INSURFECTIONS IN GERMANY AND ITALY (1831). The Germanic Confederation—Insurrections in Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel.-The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, united the Germanic states into one league entitled “The Germanic Confederation.” The German portions of the great Austrian and Prussian monarchies were embraced in this confederation. The affairs of the confederation were managed by a Diet composed of representa. tives of the states of Germany. In this Diet the representative of Austria presided. The Paris revolution of July also occasioned some revolutionary movements ir 366 MODEA’AV HISTORY. Germany. The insurrections which took place in Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse- Cassel, in 1831, resulted in the establishment of liberal constitutions in those states. In Brunswick, the constitution was improved, after the expulsion of the despotic Duke Charles, and the assumption of the government of the Duchy by his brother. Insurrections in Italy Suppressed by the Austrians—French Coup de Main.—The success of the July Revolution of Paris roused the liberals in Italy to action, but their efforts resulted in defeat. Insurrections which broke out in Bologna, Parma, and Modena, were suppressed by Austrian troops, and the regents who had been expelled from the latter two states were restored to their governments. In the Papal States, the bandits and convicts who were employed in keeping down the revolutionists, conducted themselves in so shameful a manner, that the Austrian troops marched into that section to protect the country against its own soldiers. To prevent the Austrians ſrom establishing their own supremacy in the Papal territory, the French, by a “Coup de Main,” seized upon Ancona, which they held for several years. A band of refugees, under the Polish general Ramorino, made an unsuc- cessful attempt upon Sardinia, from Switzerland, with the view of exciting all Italy to revolution. ENGLISH REFORMS (1828-1832). Reign of George IV.-Abolition of the Test Act—Catholic Emancipa- tion Act.—King George III., who during the last ten years of his life was an imbecile, died in January, 1820, aſter a reign of sixty years, the longest reign in the annals of England,-and left his crown to his profligate son, George IV., who had acted as Prince Regent during his father's imbecility. During the whole of the reign of George IV., the British nation was agitated by the question of reſorm in the representation in Parliament. The then-nominal disabilities imposed upon Non-conformists, were removed by the abolition of the Test Act by Parlia- ment, in 1828. . The Catholic Emancipation Act, which allowed Roman Catholics, to sit in Parliament, was passed in 1829. Accession of William IV.—The Wellington Ministry—The Grey Min- istry.—King George IV. died in June, 1830; and his brother, the Duke of Clarence, succeeded to the throne of Great Britain, with the title of William IV. On the accession of William IV. the British Government was in the hands of the Tory party, with the great Duke of Wellington as Prime-Minister. As public sen- timent in Great Britain was in favor of reform in the constitution of Parliament the Tory Ministry of Lord Wellington was obliged to resign, the same year, and a Whig Ministry, under Lord Grey, came into power, Defeat of Lord John Russell's Reform Bill—Dissolution of Parlia- ment.—On the 1st of March, 1831, Lord John Russell presented a measure of reſorm in Parliament. After some stormy debates, the bill passed the House of Commons on a second reading, but was lost on a third reading. The Ministry then dissolved Parliament, and ordered new elections to better ascertain the sense of the nation. The result of the elections was that the friends ºf reform were returned to seats in Parliament by all the large constituencies. First Rejection of the Reform Bill by the House of Lords—-Great Riots.-The new Parliament was opened on the 14th of June, 1831. 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On tºle reſusal of the king to create a number of peers sufficient to secure the passage cf the mea- sure, the Ministry of Earl Grey resigned. The people formed political unions, refused payment of taxes, and demanded the reinstatement of Earl Grey's Cabinet. The king accordingly reinstated Earl Grey's Ministry, and created enough new peers to insure the passage of the Reform Bill through the IIouse of Lords. Passage of the Reform Bill—Triumph of the Cause of Freedom.—The Lords who were opposed to the Reſorm Bill, leſt their seats in Parliament when the measure was again introduced. The bill was passed through both Houses, and received the royal assent on the 7th of June, 1832. By this bloodless revolution and triumph of the cause of popular freedom, the right of suffrage was extended to half a million additional voters; and the middle classes of English society were invested with supreme political power in the British Empire. In 1833, Parlia- ment passed an act abolishing slavery in the British West-India Islands. Accession of Queen Victoria—England and Hanover—Victoria’s Mar- riage.—In June, 1837, King William IV. died, and was succeeded on the British throne by his niece, Alexandra Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, and grand- daughter of George III. One result of the accession of a female to the throne of Great Britain was the separation of the crowns of England and Hanover, after a union of more than a century. The Salic Law prevailing in IIanover, the Duke of Cumberland, Queen Victoria's uncle, ascended the throne of that German king- dom. In February, 1840, her majesty, Queen Victoria, was married to a German prince, Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Since the accession of Queen Victoria, the British Empire has enjoyed unrivaled prosperity. $ SPANISH CIVIL WAR OF 1833–39. Tyranny of King Ferdinand VII.—Abolition of the Salic Law in Spain.—King Ferdinand VII. of Spain, during whose reign the Spanish-American colonies erected themselves into independent republics, aſter a long and bloody struggle with the mother country, ruled in the most despotic manner, suppressing every germ of constitutional freedom. For the purpose of securing the succession to the Spanish throne to his daughter Isabella, to the exclusion of his younger brother, Don Carlos, Ferdinand VII., abolished the Salic Law, which had prevailed in all Bourbon kingdoms. Civil War in Spain—Restoration of the Cortes Constitution of 1812 – When Ferdinand VII. died, in 1833, and his daughter, Isabella II., succeeded to the throne of Spain, the Carlists, as the adherents of Don Carlos were called, who were numerous in the North of Spain, took up arms, and involved the Spanish king- 368 MODEA’AV HTSTORY dom in civil war. For the purpose of securing the liberal party in Spain to the support of the young queen, the queen-mother, Maria Christina, who acted as regent during her daughter's minority, restored the Cortes Constitution of 1812. Defeat of the Carlists—Capitulation of Moreto and End of the Civil War.—The friends of absolute monarchy sided with Don Carlos. Many bloody battles were fought; and the queen-mother received aid from England anº: France. After the civil war had lasted six years, and about 3OO,Ooo lives had bet r. s.crificed, the Carlists were subdued. In August, 1840, General Espartero compelled the Carlist general Maroto to lay down his arms by capitulation; and thus brought about the general pacification of the Spanish kingdom. Espartcro and the Queen-Mother—Insurrections in Spain.-General Espartero quarrelled with the queen-mother soon after the close of the civil war, and after removing her from the regency, in 1841, he obtained control of the Gov- ernment; but was overthrown in 1843, by General Narvaez, and obliged to seek refuge in England, whereupon the queen-mother recovered her lost authority. In 1853, a rebellion broke out in Spain in consequence of the despotic measures of the Government; and in 1854, an insurrection in Madrid compelled the queen-mother to flee, whereupon a provisional government under Espartero was formed; but Queen Isabella II. afterwards secured control of the Government. DISSENSIONS IN THE TURKO-EGYPTIAN EMPIRE. Mehemet Ali, Pacha of Egypt—Massacre of the Mamelukes–Con- quests of Mehemet Ali.-Mehemet Ali, who became Pacha of Egypt in 1805, and who fully established his power by his treacherous massacre of the Mameluke chiefs in 1811, did much for the advancement and prosperity of Egypt. In 1818, Mehemet Ali subdued the Wahawbees, a Mohammedan sect in Arabia; in 1819 and 1820, he conquered Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and Dongola; and in 1824, he sent his son, Ibrahim Pacha, with an army to aid the Sultan, his master, in suppressing the Greek Revolution. Mehemet Ali’s First Rebellion against the Sultan—Russian Inter- vention.—In 1831, Mehemet Ali rebelled against his master, the Sultan of Turkey; and his son, Ibrahim Pacha, invaded Syria, took Acre by siege, and marched in a rapid course of victories toward Constantinople; and the Ottoman Empire was only saved from destruction by the timely intervention of the Czar Nicholas of Russia in behalf of the Sultan, in 1831. Mehemet Ali’s Second Rebellion—European Aid to the Sultan.—In 1839, Mehemet Ali again took up arms against the Sultan. Ibrahim Pacha again in- vaded Syria and defeated the Ottoman forces; but England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia came to the Sultan's rescue. The British navy bombarded and took Beyrout and Acre; and in 1841, the rebellious Pacha of Egypt was forced to accept a peace ‘which left the province of Syria in the Sultan's possession. GROWTH OF THE ANGLO-INDIAN EMPIRE. England's Opium War with China—Treaty of Nankin.—The seizure and destruction, by the Chinese authorities, of large quantities of opium smuggled into AV/AVE ZEBAWTH CEAVTUR Y. 369 Chinese cities by British merchants, led to a war between England and China, at the close of 1839. The Chinese were thoroughly humbled; their great cities, Amoy, Canton, and Ningpo, were taken; and by the treaty of Nankin, on the 29th of August, 1842, China was required to pay to England twenty-one million pounds stelling for the expenses of the war; to cede the island of Hong-Kong to Great Britain; and to open five of her principal ports to the commerce of Christendom. The Afghanistan War—Disastrous Retreat of the Anglo-Indian Army. --The British Empire in India has been greatly enlarged during the present cen. tury. The English East-India Company acquired additional territories by a suc- cessful war against the Burmese, in 1824 and 1825; and in 1839, under the erroneous impression that Russia intended to attack England’s Indian Empire, an Anglo-Indian army was marched into Afghanistan. The invading army took Can- dahar, entered Cabul, the Afghan capital, deposed Dost Mohammed, the reigning Afghan sovereign, and raised Shah Soojah to the Afghan throne. On the 2d of November, 1841, a fierce rebellion, headed by Akbar Khan, son of the deposed Dost Mohammed, broke out at Cabul. The British ministers and many of the military commanders were put to death. Shah Soojah was dethroned, and Dost Mohammed was raised to the Afghan throne. Finding themselves in the midst of a hostile people, the English made a disastrous retreat. The British troops and camp-followers, women and children, numbering 26,000 persons, were nearly all killed, or made captives. In the following year (1842), an Anglo-Indian army, under General Pollock, marched into Afghanistan, gained some victories, and then retired. "War with the Ameers of Scinde–Battle of Hyderabad—Annexation of Scinde.—The treacherous conduct of the Ameers of Scinde toward the Eng- lish, brought an Anglo-Indian army, under Sir Charles Napier, into their territory. The Ameers were defeated in the bloody battle of Hyderabad; and the result of the short contest was the annexation of their territory, Scinde, to the British Empire in India. Mahratta War—Battles of Maharajpore and Punniar—Annexation of Gwalior.—During the year 1843, the Mahrattas, who had also taken up arms against the English, were defeated in the battles of Maharajpore and Punniar, and their territory, Gwalior, was annexed to the English-Indian territories. First Sikh War—Battle of Moodkee—Battles of Ferozeshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon.—In 1844, the Sikhs in the Punjab began a war against the East- India Company. The English defeated the Sikhs in the bloody battles of Feroz- eshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon. In the battle of Sobraon, the Sikhs lost IO,OOO men in killed and wounded, and the English over 2,000 men. Peace was made in December, 1846. Second Sikh War—Battles of Chenah, Chillianwallah, and Goojerat— Annexation of the Punjab.-Another war broke out between the English and the Sikhs in 1848. The Sikhs were defeated in the battles of Chenah, Chillian- wallah, and Goojerat, in consequence of which their territory, the Punjab, was annexed to the British-Indian Empire, in 1849. 24. 37o MODERAV HISTOR P. EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1848–49. FRIENCH FEVOLUTION OF 1848. Peaceful Reign of Louis Philippe—Attempts of Louis Napoleon Bona- parte.—Under Louis Philippe, the Citizen-King, the French nation prospered, and, with the exception of the seventeen years' war with the Arab tribes of Algiers, remained at peace with all the world. Insurrections which broke out in Paris,and Lyons, in the early part of this reign, were easily suppressed. In October, 1836, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the great Emperor Napoleon I., attempted to raise an insurrection at Strasburg, to overthrow the government of Louis Philippe. In August, 1840, Louis Napoleon landed at Boulogne, and made another attempt to excite an insurrection in France, but he was seized and impris- oned for several years. In 1840, the remains of the great Napoleon were brought from St. Helena to Paris, and placed in the Hotel dés Invalides. By the surrender of the indefatigable Arab chieftain, Abdel-Kader, in 1847, the conquest of Algiers by the French was accomplished. Character of Louis Philippe’s Government.—Louis Philippe received his main support from the bourgeoisie, or middle class, and was opposed by the Ultra- Republicans, and also by the Legitimists, or adherents of the elder branch of the Bourbons. As Louis Philippe grew old, he became ambitious, and set about schemes for the aggrandizement of his family, and the establishment of a dynasty founded upon the principles of the ancient despotism. He practically ignored the constitu- tional charter by corrupting both branches of the French legislature. With won- derful good fortune, Louis Philippe escaped eight attempts at assassination; that by means of the “infernal machine,” contrived by the Corsican Fieschi, resulting in the death of forty-two persons near the king. The Ministry of M. Guizot.—In 1840, the Ministry of M. Thiers gave place to a new Cabinet, at the head of which was M. Guizot. The government of M. Guizot was characterized by pride, tyranny, and a series of encroachments on the liberties of the French people. The efforts of M. Guizot were directed chiefly te the strengthening of the royal prerogative. Guizot persevered in his despotic policy, until the latent fires of popular disaffection broke forth in the Paris Revolution of February, 1848, which cost Louis Philippe his throne. Reform Banquets Forbidden by the Government.—During the latter part of 1847, and in the beginning of 1848, numerous reform banquets were held in different parts of France. Arrangements were made for the holding of one in one of the arrondissements of Paris, on the 22d of February, 1848, Washington's birth-day: but the Ministry issued a proclamation forbidding it, and made preparations to sup- press it by military force if it were attempted. The Chambers of Deputies, then in session, warmly discussed the arbitrary measures of the Government, and the oppo. sition members resolved upon the impeachment of the Ministers. Commencement of the Revolution, February 22d, 1848.-The reform banquet arranged for the 22d of February, 1848, was not held; but, on the morning of that day, large crowds collected in Paris, blocked up the avenues leading to the legislative Chambers, and made offensive demonstrations before the house of M. Guizot. About noon, a large crowd assembled in front of the Church of the Made- AW/AWE TEEAVTH CEAVTOR V. 37I leine, but were easily dispersed by the troops. In the evening, disturbances began in the French capital: gunsmiths' shops were broken open; lamps were extin- guished; barricades were erected; guards were attacked; and the streets were filled with soldiers. In the Chambers, Odillon Barrot moved an impeachment of the Prime-Minister. Street Fighting on February 23d—Dismissal of the Guizot Cabinet.— On the morning of February 23d, the streets of Paris were filled with large crowds of people, barricades were erected, and some fighting occurred between the people and the troops, in which several persons were killed. In obedience to the request of the National Guards, who fraternized with the people, the king dismissed the Ministry of M. Guizot, and called on Count Molé to form a new Cabinet. This action of the king produced a lull; but the wanton discharge of musketry upon a large crowd, by the guards assembled before M. Guizot's hotel, by which fiſty-two persons were killed and wounded, again excited the fury of the populace, who paraded through the streets with a bier covered with dead bodies, crying “To arms!” “Down with the assassins !” “Down with Louis Philippe P’ “Down with the Bourbons !” February 24th–Abdication of Louis Philippe—France a Republic.— On the morning of February 24th, the whole city of Paris was in possession of the people. At the Chateau d'Eau, a large stone building in front of the Palais Royal, a severe fight occurred between the people and the municipal guards, and the chateau was demolished by fire. The mob then marched to the Tuileries, and demanded the abdication of the king. Louis Philippe signed an abdication in favor of his grandson, the young Count of Paris, but the Chambers would not accept the young prince, and Louis Philippe and his family fled to Neuilly, from which place they made their escape to England. The royal furniture was thrown out of the windows of the Tuileries and burned, the wines in the royal cellars were distributed among the multitude, the throne was carried through the streets, and finally burned on the Place de la Bastile, and the royal carriages were burned at the Chateau d’Eau. Overwhelmed by the mob, and amid the greatest confusion and shouts of “Vive la Republique!” the sturdy republican, Dupont de l’Eure, was carried to the chair in the Chamber of Deputies, where a provisional government was proclaimed, consisting of the following persons: M. Lamartine, Emanuel Arago, Ledru Rollin, Garnier Pages, Dupont de l’Eure, Lamoriciere, Cavaignac, and De- coutrias. The Provisional Government was installed at the Hotel de Ville, and proclaimed The Second French Republic. The Chamber of Peers was immedi- ately abolished. The poet, M. Lamartine, was the master-spirit of the new govern- ment. Every citizen of France was made an elector, and twenty-five years of age constituted elegibility for office; the penalty of death for political offences was im- mediately abolished; and all slaves on territory subject to France were declared free. Doings of France’s New Rulers—National Workshops.-On the 4th of March, 1848, the victims of the Revolution of February were solemnly interred, in the presence of nearly half a million of people, at the foot of a monument erected to the memory of the victims of the Revolution of July, 1830. France's new rulers directed their first efforts to the reëstablishment of order; and many grievences of which the people complained were removed. Fetes, parades, and illuminations were given daily for the public amusement. But the spirit of anarchy and restless- 372 MODE RAW HISTORY. ness was low rife for another insurrection. As the Revolution had beel the work of the laboring classes, efforts were now taken by the Provisional Government to better their condition. National workshops were established in Paris, where the idle could find employment. Attempted Revolutionary Risings.-The Moderate and Red Republicans had united to overturn the throne of Louis Philippe, but no sooner had the Repub lic been proclaimed than the animosity between those two parties broke forth anew and when the Reds perceived that the control of public affairs was in the hands of the Moderate party, they began to conspire for another revolution. The first open opposition to the Provisional Government was made on the 16th of April (1848), the object of the movement being the overthrow of the Provisional Government, and the establishment of a Committee of Safety for the direction of public affairs. This movement, and a rising of the various clubs of Paris, were easily suppressed. Bloody riots occurred on the 23d and 24th of April (1848), the days for the election of members for a permanent National Assembly. A French National Assembly.—The elections throughout France resulted in large majorities for the Moderate Republicans; and on the 5th of May (1848), the newly-elected National Assembly met in Paris, and organized with the election of M. Buchez as president. On the following day (May 6, 1848), the members of the Provisional Government submitted their reports to the National Assembly and resigned their powers. On the Ioth, the National Assembly appointed M. Eman- uel Arago, Garnier Pages, M. Marie, M. Lamartine, and Ledru Rollin, an execu- tive colmmittee to act in place of the Provincial Government. Communist Insurrection of May 15th.-On the 15th of May, 1848, an immense mob assembled in the streets of Paris, proceeded to the hall of the National Assembly, drove out the members, and proclaimed Socialism and Communism, the imposition of taxes upon the rich for the benefit of the poor, and the restoration of the guillotine. The mob also declared that France should send an army to Poland to drive the Russian troops from that country, and a heavy tax was levied on the rich to carry on the war for Poland. The mob also appointed an executive government composed of the Communist leaders, M. Barbes, Blanqui, Flocon, Cabet, Albert, Raspail, and Louis Blanc. This movement would doubtless have resulted in the most serious consequences, had not the National Guard declared for the National Assembly, dispersed the mob at the point of the bayonet, and restored order. The Communist leaders, Blanqui, Barbes, Raspail, Sobrier, and Albert, were arrested and imprisoned. The Great Communist Rebellion of June.—The insurrection of May 15th was only a prelude to the great Communist Rebellion of June. Fearing another demonstration on an extensive scale, the Government made the necessary prepara- tions to meet it. Finding the burdens imposed upon the national treasury too heavy to be borne, the Government, in June, resolved upon the discharge of the immense army of workmen, more than IOO,OOO in number, uselessly employed in Paris at she public expense. This alarmed the workmen, who immediately organized for another desperate struggle, for the purpose of bringing about the realization ir practice of the absurd theory of Communism and Socialism,_a community of goods and manners. The party of law and order, which controlled the National Assem- AVIAWE TEEAVTH CEA/7"UR V. 373 bly, were resolved upon the complete annihilation of the Communist faction in the event of another appeal to arms. On the 22d of June (1848), a deputation of five delegates, appointed by the workmen, called on M. Marie, the Prime-Minister of the Republic. After a short conference, the deputation returned to the workmen, assuring them that they had nothing to expect from the Government. This was the signal for riotous demonstrations. Large crowds collected, in the evening, at the Hotel de Ville, the Place de la Bastile, and other important points, crying for the downtill of the Republic, and the elevation of Charles Louis Napoleon Bonapart to the throne of France. On the following morning, June 23d, it was found that the rioters had made considerable progress, and thrown up barricades in various portions of the city. The principal insurgent barricades were in the Rue St. Denis, Rue du Faubourg St. Denis, Rue Villeneuve Bourbon, Rue de Clery, and near the Porte St. Denis and the Porte St. Martin. The Government appointed General Cavaignac, then Minister of War, commander-in-chief of all the troops in Paris. The barricades near the Porte St. Denis were carried at the point of the bayonet. The insurgents there were aided by boys, and even by women, who appeared on the barricades, waving flags and other emblems. On the 24th, the National Assembly declared Paris in a state of siege, and appointed General Cavaignac dictator. A heavy musketry and artillery fire continued during the greater part of the day, and before evening, the rebellion was suppressed on the left bank of the Seine, but a sanguinary struggle took place at the Clos St. Lazarre, on the right bank. The con- fiict raged with great fury during the 25th. The Government troops numbered 300,000 men, and the insurgents 120,000. A terrible struggle raged at the Pantheon, where the rebel barricades were captured, after frightful carnage. In the evening of this day, occurred one of the saddest events in this unhappy civil war. Monseig- neur Affre, Archbishop of Paris, appeared at the Place de la Bastile, for the lauda- ble purpose of bringing about a pacification. On the appearance of the noble prelate, both parties, for a while, ceased firing, but suddenly recommenced, and the venerable Archbishop received a mortal wound, and expired on the morning of the 27th. On the morning of the 26th, the struggle was renewed with terrible fierceness, the principal scenes of action being the Faubourg St. Antoine, the Place Maubert, and the vicinity of the Pantheon. At noon, the insurgents at the Faubourg St. Antoine surrendercd, but the other places were stormed, and the insurgent gar- risons of each were killed or captured. The insurgent barricade at the corner of the Rue de la Roquette was attacked by the Government troops, under General Lamoriciere, after having carried all the rebel barricades in the Faubourg du Tem- ple. From the Place de le Bastile, Lamoriciere's troops bombarded and cannon- aded the insurgent works, when the falling of shells on some of the adjoining houses, several of which were set on fire, so frightened the insurgents that they fled out of the city. Thus ended the great Rebellion of the Paris Communists, in June, 1848 Never before had Paris witnessed such slaughter as during these four sanguinary days. The number of killed and wounded is not definitely known, but 25,OOO is not probably a very high estimate. One-fourth of the city was ruined. Several days were occupied in burying the dead, and in repairing the damage inflicted on the city. On the 29th (June, 1848), General Cavaignac resigned his dictatorship into the lands of the National Assembly, and that body then appointed him Chief- Executive of France. 374 MOD ERAV HISTO & Y. A New Constitution—Louis Napoleon Elected President of France.— On the 4th of November, 1848, the French National Assembly, by a vote of 739 in favor, und 30 in opposition, adopted a Constitution, giving France a republican form of government, with one Legislative Assembly, and vesting the executive power in a President, to be elected by universal suffrage, for a term of four years. The candidates for the Presidency were General Cavaignac, General Changarnier, M. Lamartine, Raspail, Ledru Rollin, Louis Blanc, and Charles Louis Napoleon Boraparte. To the surprise of all, the Presidential election resulted in the choice of Louis Napoleon, by a clear majority of 3,556,400 against all the other candidates combined. The President-elect was sworn into office on the 20th of December, 1848, in the presence of the Assembly, by M. Marrast, President of that body. REVOLUTIONS IN GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND PRUSSIA. # Consequences of the Paris Revolution of February.—The Revolution of February, 1848, in Paris, was the signal for general popular risings in Germany, Italy, and Hungary, which countries had long been disturbed by political and social agitation; and concessions which had been vainly demanded for thirty years by the Liberal party in Germany, were now extorted from every German ruler within three weeks. Popular Movements in Baden, Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony, and Wur- temberg.—On the 29th of February, 1848, deputations from every town in the Grand-Duchy of Baden demanded of the Grand-Duke freedom of the press, trial by jury, the right of the people to bear arms and to meet in public, and a popular legislative assembly for all Germany, by the side of the Federal Diet at Frankfort-on- the-Main. On the 2d of March, the Grand-Duke yielded to all these demands, ap- pointed a Ministry from the Liberal party, and adopted other conciliatory measures. Popular movements of a similar character took place in other parts of Germany. Ring Louis of Bavaria, after being forced to grant to his subjects the reforms which they had demanded, abdicated his throne in favor of the Crown-Prince Maximilian. The Kings of Hanover, Saxony, and Wurtemburg, granted to their subjects the concessions which they had demanded. In Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and other German States, the leaders of the popular party were called to the Ministry, and many beneficent reforms were introduced; but the popular movement assumed such formidable proportions that insurrection and revolution were entered upon in many portions of Germany. In many localities, the peasants drove away the stewards, and destroyed the land and tithe registers, and the seats of the landlords. The Vienna Revolution of March.-When the Diet of Lower Austria was opened at Vienna, on the 13th of March, 1848, a large concourse of people, headed by the students of the University, proceeded to the hall in which the Diet assembled, and demanded a constitution, liberty of the press, a National Guard, trial by jury, and religious liberty. The order for the people to disperse not being obeyed, the Arch- duke Albert ordered the troops to fire into the crowd. A great number were killed and wounded, and the exasperation of the excited populace obliged the Austrian Emperor to order the soldiers to withdraw. The arsenal was opened to the people by the city guards, who declared for the popular cause. The Ministry of Prince Metternich was overthrown, and in a few days the Emperor Ferdinand yielded to all the demands of the people. Lawlessness soon prevailed in the Austrian capital, * AVIAVE TEENTH CEAV7'UR Y. 375 and the result of the liberty of the press was a disgraceful daily literature. Riots and insurrections were of frequent occurrence. On the 18th of May, the Emperor and his court retired to Innspruck, in the Tyrol, but, at the request of the people, he returned to the capital in August, when the students and the democratic clubs ruled Vienna in the most despotic manner. The March Revolution of Berlin.—On the 17th of March, 1848, the King of Prussia granted freedom of the press, but the people of Berlin also demanded the withdrawal of the soldiers from the capital, and the formation of a National Guard Crowds assembled in the streets, in front of the royal palace, where, on the 18th of March, a terrible conflict commenced, and only terminated on the after. noon of the 19th, after having raged for fourteen hours. The barricades which had been erected by the people were removed by the troops, who were then ordered by the king to withdraw. The Ministry was dismissed, a militia and guard for the palace were formed, and an unconditional amnesty was granted by the king, Fred- eric William IV., who now placed himself at the head of the popular movement in Germany. A few weeks later, a constituent National Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, undertook the task of framing a representative constitution for the Prussian kingdom. Aº Revolt of Schleswig-Holstein against Denmark.--When, in consequence of the Paris February Revolution, a powerful movement was communicated to the other European States, the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were under the government of the King of Denmark, resolved to assert their independ- ence by force of arms. The Duchies established a provisional government, and, on the 26th of March, 1848, declared their independence of the King of Denmark. A bloody war ensued between the King of Denmark and the Duchies. The Schles- wig-Holsteiners were aided by Prussian and other German volunteers, and the Danes were driven from Schleswig. The threatening attitude assumed by England and Russia, in consequence of the distressing effect of this war upon the maritime trade of Northern Europe, induced Prussia to conclude the Truce of Malmo with the King of Denmark, and hostilities were for some time suspended. The German Parliament.--In the beginning of April (1848), the German Parliament assembled by its own authority, in the Free City of Frankfort-on-the- Main. This Parliament laid down the principle of popular sovereignty, and pre- pared the way for the convocation of a freely-elected National Assembly, which should be charged with the task of framing a constitution for a free and united Germany. Republican Insurrection in Baden.—A party headed by Hecker, Struve, and others, was striving for a German republic; and a republican insurrection broke out in Baden, but the movement was speedily crushed, and the leaders were obliged to flee. * The German National Assembly.—On the 18th of May, 1848, the German National Assembly, which was chosen to frame a constitution for the German nation, convened in the Church of St. Paul, in Frankfort-on-the-Main. The Assembly immediately set aside the Diet, and established a new central power, and resolved upon the choice of an irresponsible regent, who was to surround himself with a * responsible ministry. 376 MOZ) ERAW HZSTORY. Slavic Insurrection in Prague—Siege and Fall of Prague.—The Bohe- mians, a Slavic race, had applied to the Emperor of Austria for a constitution which would render their relations with the Austrian Empire the same as those of the Hungarians. Representatives from all the Slavic nations of the Empire assembled in a Congress at Prague, in June, 1848. During the session of this Congress, the peeple of Prague demanded of Prince Windischgratz the removal of the troops from the city, and the furnishing of arms to the people; and when this demand was not complied with, the people rose in insurrection. After dreadful fighting in the streets of Prague, for a whole week, during which the city was also bombarded from the neighboring heights, the city surrendered to Prince Windischgratz, on the 17th of June. The Slavic Congress was broken up, and the insurrection was quelled. Archduke John of Austria Chosen Regent of Germany.—On the 29th of June, 1848, the Archduke John of Austria was chosen Regent of Germany, by the National Assembly, at Frankfort-on-the-Main; and, on the IIth of July, he received from the hands of the president of the Federal Diet, the power exercised by that body. .* Republican Insurrection at Frankfort-on-the-Main.—On the 18th of September, 1848, a revolutionary rising occurred at Frankfort-on-the-Main, the object of which was to disperse the German National Assembly, and to bring about the establishment of a German republic. After a bloody street-fight, the insurrec- tion was crushed by the Federal troops; but two members of the National Assem- bly, Auerswald and Lichnowsky, were murdered by the mob in the Bornheimer wood. The October Revolution of Vienna—Siege and Fall of Vienna.-The Croats and other Slavonic races of Hungary had taken up arms against the Mag- yars, and were supported in their revolt by the Austrian Government. The Magyars were highly incensed at the course of the Imperial Government; and, on the 3d of October, 1848, the imperial commissioner, Lamberg, was murdered by an enraged mob, on the bridge of Buda-Pesth. The Austrian troops were im- mediately ordered to march into Hungary; but the democrats of Vienna, who were in sympathy with the Magyars, excited another revolution in the Austrian capital. Count Latour, Minister of War, was murdered by the excited mob, and the Minis- try was overthrown. (October 6, 1848.) The Emperor of Austria fled to Olmutz, in Moravia; and at his command, Prince Windischgratz marched against the rebel- lious capital. After besieging Vienna for three weeks, the imperial army, under Windischgratz, opened a furious assault on the city, on the 29th of October; and, after a heroic defence, the city surrendered on the 31st. The conquered capital was placed under martial law; and several of the revolutionary leaders, among whom was Robert Blum, a member of the German National Assembly, were pun- ished with death. The Imperial Government then adopted a conciliatory course; and, on the 2d of December, 1848, the Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne, and was succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. Dissolution of the Prussian National Assembly.—For some time, the popular unions ruled in Berlin; and noisy rioters, excited by public orators, and by placards on the walls, constantly surrounded the Prussian constituent National AVYME 7TEAEAVZ Hy CEAVTOR V. 377 Assembly, and exercised an influence upon the deliberations of that body by intini- dation. The King of Prussia resolved to put an end to such proceedings, and the new Ministry of Count Brandenburg adjourned the sitting of the Assembly to the town of Brandenburg. Some of the members continued their sittings in Berlin, but were soon driven out by the troops; and when the Assembly declared the levying of taxes illegal it was dissolved. At the same time, the Prussian Government pro- claimed a liberal constitution, which was to be submitted for ratification to a new elective assembly with two chambers. Rejection of the New Imperial Constitution by the King of Prussia.- In March, 1849, the German constituent National Assembly adopted a constitution which united the German States into a confederacy, with an hereditary emperor, and a legislative assembly consisting of two branches, one of which should be com- posed of representatives of the Government, and the other of deputies chosen by the German people. The Assembly, by a large vote, offered the dignity of “Em- peror of Germany” to the King of Prussia, upon condition of his accepting the new imperial constitution in all its details; but Frederic William IV, decisively rejected the new constitution and the imperial dignity. When the Prussian Assem- bly of Estates recommended the acceptance of the constitution and the imperial dignity by the king, as the desire of the German people, the first chamber was pro- rogued, and the second dissolved; and the elective law was so changed that the right of universal suffrage was to give place to an election arranged upon the three tax-paying classes. Revolutionary Risings in Germany.—The consequences of the Prussian king's rejection of the imperial constitution were fresh commotions in various parts of Germany; and formidable insurrections and bloody street-fights occurred in Saxony, Rhenish Bavaria, and Rhenish Prussia. The republican party was gradually gaining power in the German National Assembly; but the revolution- ary movement in Germany was speedily suppressed by the Prussian army. Prussian troops crushed the popular risings in Elberfeld, Dusseldorf, and other places; and, after a barricade street-fight of six days in Dresden, Prussian troops restored the authority of the King of Saxony. Republican Insurrection in Baden.—A mutiny of the garrison in the fortress of Rastadt, and an insurrection at Carlesruhe, compelled the Grand-Duke of Baden to take flight, whereupon the control of public affairs in the Grand-Duchy came into the hands of the democrats and republicans. At the Grand-Duke’s call for assistance, Prussian troops marched into Baden; and, after several engagements, in which the insurgent troops, under the Polish adventurer, Mierolawski, were defeated, the insurrection was thoroughly crushed, and the Grand-Duke's authority was fully restored. Some of the revolutionary leaders were shot, but others saved themselves by fleeing into republican countries. In the meantime, the German National Assembly, which was now entirely controlled by the republicans, the con- servative members having resigned their seats, had removed its sittings to Stuttgart, in the kingdom of Wurtemburg, but the Wurtemburg Government soon forced the members to leave the kingdom. Renewal of the War in Schleswig-Holstein.—Hostilities between the King of Denmark and the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein broke out afresh in 378 MODEACAV AZSZTOR Y. March, 1849. On the 5th of April, the Danish ship-of-the-line, “Christian VIII.,” was sunk by German troops, and the Danish frigate “Gefion” was compelled to surrender. The triumphant Germans soon laid siege to Frederica, but they were afterwards driven back by the Danes. An armistice was concluded in July, 1849, an i in the following year (1850), a treaty of peace was signed by which the sove reignty of the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein remained in tie hands of the King of Denmark. Austrian and Prussian Constitutions.—We have already alluded .o the wodication of the Emperor Ferdinand of Austria, and the accession of his nephew. The new Emperor, Francis Joseph, dissolved the Austrian constituent Diet at Kremsier; and, on the 4th of March, 1849, he proclaimed a constitution for the Austrian Empire. A new constitution went into operation in Prussia, on the 6th of February, 1850, since which time Prussia has been a constitutional monarchy. REVOLUTIONS IN ITALY. Revolt of Sicily Against Naples.—For many years, there had existed in Italy a party seeking to secure to Italy national unity, independence, and a constitutional government; and the Paris February Revolution was the signal for the leaders of this party to attempt to carry out their schemes. In January, 1848, the people of the island of Sicily rose in revolt against their sovereign, Ferdinand, King of Naples, established a provisional government, and asserted their independence. A bloody war ensued between the Sicilians and the Neapolitans. Ferdinand was forced to grant the people of Naples a liberal constitution; but, in consequence of Ferdinand's viola- tion of his liberal promises, an insurrection broke out in the city of Naples, in May, 1848, and the king gave up his capital to be plundered and sacked by the lazzaroni, who brutally massacred many of the inhabitants. Ferdinand vigorously prosecuted the war against the revolted Sicilians. Messina surrendered to the Neapolitans, after a fierce bombardment of two days; the Sicilians were defeated in a furious battle at Catania; and Palermo yielded to the arms of the Neapolitans, after a short resistance. With the fall of Palermo, King Ferdinand of Naples recovered his authority throughout Sicily, after which he overthrew by violence the constitution in Naples, which he had granted in a moment of necessity. Popular Insurrections in Austrian Italy.—For several years, there had been much political agitation in those portions of Italy subject to Austria, namely, Lom- bardy and Venetia. The Paris Revolution of February aroused the Italians, and finally, the Vienna Revolution of March precipitated the climax in Austrian Italy. On the 18th of March, 1848, the people of Milan, on receiving intelligence of the March Revolution of Vienna, flocked to the government-house, and demanded the release of all political prisoners, and the formation of a National Guard. The Austrian troops fired, whereupon the mob raised the cry of “Evviva Italia Pº and rushing forward, overpowered the guard. A discharge of musketry on the people, by the military, occasioned a general rising; and, after a barricade street-fight of five days, the Austrian troops were driven from the city. At the same time, populai risings occurred at Parma and Pavia, and resulted in the expulsion of the Austrian garrisons from those places; and all Lombardy and Venetia was in open rebellion against the Austrian power. /W/AWAZ 7'EAZAVZ Hº CEAV7'UR V. 379 z War Between Austria and Sardinia—An Armistice.—On the 23d of March, 1848, Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, issued a proclamation in favor of Italian nationality, and marched with an army into Lombardy, to assist the insurgents there to drive out the Austrians. The delays of Charles Albert gave the Austrian Field-Marshal, Radetzky, time to concentrate his forces and to receive reinforce- ments. The Sardinian king gained victories over the Austrians at Peschiera and Goito, and captured Rivoli; but, while he was employed in the siege of Mantua, he Austrians, under Radetzky, defeated the Sardinians at La Corona, after a des perate conflict. After defeating the King of Sardinia in a bloody battle at Custozza, on the 25th of July, and in another at Bussolongo, on the 26th, Field-Marshal Radetzky soon reconquered Milan, and reduced the whole of Lombardy to submis- sion. King Charles Albert concluded an armistice with the Austrians, and then retired into his own dominions. Revolution in Rome and Flight of Pope Pius IX.—A Roman Republic. —In June, 1846, Cardinal Mastai was chosen to fill the chair of St. Peter, with the title of Pius IX. The new Pope was at first a zealous political reformer, and the liberal course pursued by him at once aroused a spirit of republicanism and nation- atity throughout the whole of Italy. Pius IX. granted his subjects freedom of the press, improved the administration of justice, and gave the city of Rome a liberal municipal government; but the liberal movement soon became too powerful for the weak Pontiff to control. The Roman people at length outstripped Pius IX. in the matter of reform; and the promise of the Pope to grant a constitutional govern- ment to the Pontifical State did not satisfy his subjects. The appointment of Count Rossi, an avowed antagonist of the liberal movement, to the head of the Ministry, excited the indignation of the Roman people, who thus became convinced that a reaction had taken place in the mind of the Pope. On the 15th of November, 1848, Rossi was assassinated on the steps of the Assembly House. A popular rising en- sued; a mob proceeded to the Pope's palace, and, after a short conflict with the Papal-guards, forced the Pope to appoint a popular Ministry. On the 23d (Novem- ber, 1848), the Pope flad from Rome, and retired to Gaeta, in the kingdom of Naples. On the 9th of February, 1849, a popularly chosen National Assembly declared the Pope's temporal power at an end, and that the form of government for the Roman State should be a pure democracy, with the title of “The Roman Republic.” A Triumvirate was chosen to exercise executive duties; and at the head of the new government was the able, emergetic, and eloquent Joseph Mazzini. The commander of the volunteers was the ardent republican, Joseph Garibaldi. Renewal of the Austro-Sardinian War—Abdication of Charles Albert, —-Urged on by the Italian republicans, King Charles Albert, of Sardinia, declared his armistice with Austria at an end on the 20th of March, 1849, and, on the same day, his kingdom was invaded by the Austrian army under Field-Marshal Radetzky. After a spirited campaign of four days, on the Ticino and near Novara, Sardinia lay prostrate before the power of Austria; and, on the evening of the 23d (March, 1849), Charles Albert abdicated the throne of Sardinia in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, and immediately retired to Portugal, where he shortly afterward died of a broken heart. On the 25th of March (1849), Victor Emmanuel concluded a treaty of peace with Austria, by which Sardinia was required to pay fifteen millions of dollars, as indemnity for the expenses of Austria in the war. 38o x MODERAV HISTORY. Siege and Capture of Rome by a French Army.—After waiting anxiously several months for the Roman people to recall him, Pope Pius IX. appealed to the Roman Catholic powers for assistance to restore his temporal power. In response to this appeal, Republican France sent an army of 4,000 men, under General Oudi- not, against Rome. The Roman republicans made earnest preparations for defense. The Roman National Assembly declared itself permanent, and Mazzini made fiery addresses to the people. When the French troops arrived before Rome, on the 30th pf April, 1849, they found the Roman volunteers, under General Garibaldi, ready to make a determined resistance. The first attack of the French was repulsed, and the Eternal City held out heroically until its resources were exhausted; and, after withstanding many furious assaults, and a regular bombardment, Rome surrendered to the besieging French, on the 3d of July, 1849. General Garibaldi and the popu- lar leaders escaped to England and the United States; and the Pope was restored to his former power, under the protection of foreign bayonets. Thenceforth Pope Pius IX. was a most zealous friend of absolutism, and a 'bitter antagonist to all liberal movements. Siege and Fall of Venice.—While victory shone upon the Austrian arms in Lombardy and Piedmont, an Austrian army was engaged in the siege of Venice, which, in March, 1848, had revolted against Austrian rule, and proclaimed “The Republic of St. Mark.” Under the able republican leader, Manini, Venice main- tained its independence for nearly a year and a half. After a siege of many months, , during which much property had been destroyed, and all her provisions had been exhausted, Venice surrendered to Field-Marshal Radetzky, on the 25th of August, 1849; and, with the fall of that gallant city, the authority of Austria was reëstab- lished throughout Lombardy and Venetia. HUNGARIAN REBELLION OF 1848, '49. The Austrian Emperor's Concessions to the Hungarians.—Just after the Vienna Revolution of March, 1848, a deputation from Hungary, headed by Louis Kossuth, appeared in Vienna, and asked for the Hungarian kingdom the royal assent to a series of acts passsed by the Hungarian Diet, providing for the annual meeting of that body; the union of Transylvania with Hungary; the organization of a Hungarian National Guard; equality of taxation for all classes; religious toler- ation; liberty of the press; and a separate ministry for Hungary. These acts were approved by the Emperor-King, who, on the IIth of April, 1848, personally con- firmed them in the Hungarian Diet, convened at Pesth, the capital of Hungary. These concessions were hailed with joy by the Hungarians. Slavic Revolt Against Hungary.—The Croates and the other Slavic races under the Hungarian government, jealous of the ascendency of the Magyars, and demanding their independence of Hungarian rule, took up arms against the Mag- yars. The Croates were encouraged in their rebellion by the Austrian Government, 2 rud Austrian armies were sent to their assistance. The Servians, a Slavonic race, who had also revolted against the Hungarian government, laid waste the Magyar villages, and committed the greatest atrocities on the defenseless population. The IIungarian war actually opened on the 12th of June, 1848, when the Magyars bombarded Karlowitz, the Servian metropolis. The Servians in the Ottoman territories hastened to the aid of their brethren in the Austrian dominions; and AV/AVE 7'EAAVTH CEAVTUR P. 381 the Magyars were obliged to take refuge in the fortress of Peterwardein. The whole Servian population in the Banat then arose against the Magyars, and hostili- "ies between the contending races raged with great fury. Austria Supports the Slavic Rebellion.—On the 29th of June, 1848, the Imperial Government at Vienna announced Austria's intention to openly support the Slavic races in their revolt against Magyar rule; and it soon appeared that the Emperor Ferdinand, after the suppression of the rebellion against Austrian authority in Northern Italy, was resolved to deprive the Magyars of the privileges which he had recently granted to them. Convinced that the rights of Hungary must be defended by force of arms, the Hungarian Diet resolved to raise an army of 200,000 men. Jellachich’s Invasion of Hungary.—In the meantime, a united Austrian and Croatian force, under the command of Jellachich, the ban or governor of Croatia, had invaded Hungary and advanced toward Pesth; but the Magyars, aroused by the eloquent and patriotic appeals of Louis Kossuth, one of the ablest of their leaders, soon repulsed the invaders, compelled Jellachich to flee, and, on the 5th of October, 1848, captured the Croatian rear-guard, consisting of Io,000 men. Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand and the Accession of Francis Joseph.-Wearied of the contentions in the various parts of his dominions, the Austrian Emperor, Ferdinand, abdicated his throne, on the 2d of December, 1848, and was succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. As the new Emperor did not take the requisite oath to support the constitution, laws, and liberities of Hungary, the Magyars refused to acknowledge him as their sovereign. Hungarian Preparations for the Struggle.—All the efforts of the Magyars for a peaceful settlement of difficulties were unsuccessful, as the Austrian Govern- ment was resolved upon depriving Hungary of her rights. The Magyars therefore made the most vigorous exertions for defense; manufactories of arms and ammuni- tion were established, the peasants of Hungary flew to arms, and the most intense enthusiasm was manifested. Austrian and Croatian Invasion of Hungary—Capture of Pesth.—In December, 1848, the Austrian army, under Windischgratz, entered Hungary from the west; and, on the 5th of January, 1849, Pesth fell into the hands of the Austrian and Croatian forces, under Windischgratz and Jellachich. Kossuth and the Hun- garian Ministry and Diet retired to Debreczin, in the Northern part of Hungary. Fall of Eszeck—Operations in Transylvania.-On the 30th of January 1849, the Magyars lost the strong fortress of Eszeck, in Slavonia, which was sur- rendered to the imperialists, with its garrison of 5000 men. About the same time, General Bem, a Pole, who was at the head of an army of IO,Ooo Magyars, was driven from Transylvania, the Saxons and Wallachs, who inhabit that province, having joined the Austrians; but the warlike Szecklers of Southern Hungary having risen in favor of the Magyars, Bem returned to Transylvania, defeated the Austrians and Russians who opposed him, took Kronstadt and Hermanstadt, and then passed into the Banat, and captured Temeswar, its capital. & Concentration of the Magyar Forces—Battle of Kapolna.-At the begin hing of I'ebruary, 1849, Kossuth appointed General Dembinski, also a Pole, to the chief command of the Magyar forces. Dembinski concentrated the Hungarian 382 MODEA&AW HASTORY. armies in the upper part of the valley of the Theiss, to meet the advancing Austrians under Windischgratz. On the 26th and 27th of February (1849), a bloody battle was fought between 40,000 Magyars and 60,000 Austrians at Kapolna, where, in consequence of the inactivity of the Hungarian general Görgey, the imperialists were victorious. Görgey’s Victories over the Austrians—Siege and Capture of Buda.-- At length, Görgey was entrusted with the chief command of the Hungarian armies, Dembinski having resigned that post a few days after the battle of Kapolna. After fourteen days of terrific hand-to-hand fighting, commencing with the battle of Szol. nok, on the 27th of March, and ending with the capture of Waitzen by Görgey, on the 9th of April, the Magyars recovered Pesth, relieved Komorn, and utterly routed the imperialists. On the 17th of April, the chief command of the Austrian armies was assigned to Baron Welden. On the 18th (April, 1849), Welden was defeated at Szonz; and on the 19th, the Austrian reserve, under Wohlgemuth, was annihil- ated at Nagy Sarlo. The Austrians were severely repulsed in several attempts to carry by storm the strong fortress of Komorn; and Welden was compelled to re- treat toward Vienna. Instead of following up his successes by threatening the Austrian capital, as urged by Kossuth, Görgey laid siege to the strong fortress of Buda, opposite Pesth. Görgey carried Buda by storm, on the 21st of May, but the siege involved a delay fatal to the cause of Hungary, and saved Vienna, and proba- bly the Austrian Empire. The imperial forces were now completely driven out of Hungary, and the first campaign ended in the triumph of the Magyars. An Imperial Constitution—Hungarian Declaration of Independence. —On the 4th of March, 1849, the Emperor Francis Joseph proclaimed a constitu- tion for the Austrian Empire, by which Hungary was to be incorporated with Austria. The Austrian Government also solicited the aid of Russia to crush the Hungarian rebellion. The Hungarian Diet at Debreczin, convinced of the impos- sibility of a reconciliation with Austria, took a decisive step, on the 14th of April, 1849, by declaring the independence of Hungary; and Louis Kossuth was ap- pointed Governor of Hungary, with almost absolute powers. On the 12th of May, the Emperor of Austria issued a proclamation to the Magyars, announcing the inter- vention of Russia, and ordering them to lay down their arms. Russian Aid to Austria—Austrian and Russian Invasion of Hungary. —In response to Austria’s application for Russian assistance in subduing the Mag- yar insurgents, the Czar Nicholas sent an army of 160,000 men, under the command of Prince Paskiewitsch, to invade Hungary on the northeast. At the same time, the Austrians were preparing to reënter Hungary on the west; and by the 1st of June, 400,000 hostile troops were on the Hungarian frontiers. On the 30th of May, the brutal Baron Haynau was invested with the chief command of the Austrian armies. At about the same time, early in June, Haynau, with 5000 Austrians, entered IIun- gary at Presburg; Paskiewitsch, with 90,000 Russians, crossed the Galician frontiers, and invaded Hungary on the northeast; an Austro-Russian army of 25,000 men entered Transylvania; and Jellachich, with his Croats, advanced into the Magyar territory from the south. Successes of the Austrians and Russians—Retreat of Bem and Dem- binski.-Now opened the second campaign in the Hungarian war, the campaign AVZAVAE 7'EAZAV7'H' CEAV7'UR Y. 383 which resulted in the subjugation of the Hungarian insurgents. After a gallant resistance, Bem was driven from Transylvania, by the overwhelming forces of the Russians; Paskiewitsch, with the main Russian army, entered Debreczin on the 7th of July, and Pesth on the 11th, and compelled Dembinski to retreat south- ward into the Banet; and Jellachich, after suffering a severe defeat near Hegyes, marched up the Theiss with his Croats, to form a junction with the Austrians under Haynau, Battle of Komorn—Retreat of Görgey.—Haynau, who had in the meantime aivanced ſrom Presburg with the main Austrian army, was defeated by Görgey, near Komorn, on the IIth of July. From Komorn, Görgey retreated eastward to Tokay, and thence southward to Arad, which place he reached on the 8th of August. On the 19th of July, Haynau entered Pesth, and then went in pursuit of Görgey. The cruelties of Haynau during his whole career in Hungary reflected disgrace upon his memory, and acquired for him the well-merited title of “ Hungary’s Hangman.” Grand Sortie from Komorn—Battle of Temeswar.—While Haynau was marching southward in pursuit of the retreating Görgey, an event occurred far in his rear which created serious alarm among the Austrians. On the 3d of Ausust, the garrison of Komorn, under General Klapka, made a grand sortie from the fortress, utterly routed the Austrians in that vicinity, and opened the road to Vienna. On the 8th (August, 1849), after four days fighting with the Austrians, Dembinski was severely wounded, whereupon the command of his armies devolved on Bem, who, on the following day (August 9, 1849), engaged the Austrian and Croatian forces, under Haynau and Jellachich, at Temeswar, where, after a sanguinary con- flict, in which Benn was covered with wounds, the army which he commanded was thoroughly annihilated, Görgey, although within a short distance of the place where he was fighting, having neglected to come to his assistance. Görgey Made Dictator—His Treacherous Surrender.—The disasters to the Hungarian arms were in a great measure owing to the dissensions and want of concert among the Polish and Magyar generals; and Görgey, with whom the grati- fication of personal ambition was a primary consideration, was striving for absolute power. At the request of Görgey, and at the solicitation of his friends, Kossuth, on the Ioth of August (1849), dissolved the provisional government, and appointed the ambitious general dictator. Görgey had long been suspected of treachery to the cause of Hungary, and he had repeatedly disobeyed the orders of the provisional government. It now appeared that he had for some time been engaged in a trea- sonable correspondence with the enemies of his country, and he immediately made use of his absolute power to ruin the cause of Hungarian independence. On the 13th of August, 1849, Görgey surrendered, without any conditions, his entire army of 35,000 men, to the Russian general Rudiger, at Villagos. Submission of Hungary—Flight of Hungarian Leaders.-The tieacher- ous surrender of Görgey paralyzed all the efforts of the Magyars, the various Hun- garian detachmens laid down their arms, and Hungary lay powerless before the despot power of Austria. Kossuth, Bem, Dembinski, and many others of he patriot leaders, fled into the Ottoman dominions, and the Sultan of Turkey nobly refused to deliver them up, at the demands of the Austrian Government. Bem re- ceived a command in the Turkish army. In 1850, Kossuth left Turkey, and visited 384 MODEA&AW HISTORY. England and the United States, in which countries his noble efforts in the cause of Hungarian freedom excited universal sympathy. Surrender of Komorn—Execution of Hungarian Leaders.-On the 29'll 3f September, 1849, Komorn surrendered to the Austrians on favorable conditions, and, with the fall of that important fortress, all military opposition to Austrian power in Hungary ceased. To the everlasting infamy of the Austrian Government, thir- teen Hungarian generals and staff-officers were executed at Arad, on the 6th ºf October, 1849. Many of the Hungarian civil leaders met the same fate. A large number of the inferior officers were imprisoned in fortresses, some for a term, of years, and others for life; and no less than 70,000 Hungarians who had engaged in the rebellion were compelled to serve in the Austrian army. THE LATEST WARS AND REVOLUTIONS. THE COUP D’ETAT OF LOUIS NAPOLEON (1851). Parties in the French National Assembly.—Upon assuming the office of President of the French Republic, Louis Napoleon publicly avowed the principles of his government to be strictly republican. The different parties in the French National Assembly were the Legitimists, or adherents of the elder branch of the Bourbons; the Orleanists, who desired the placing of the heir of Louis Philippe upon the throne of France; the Bonapartists, or Imperialists, who desired the resto- ration of the French Empire; the Red Republicans, and the Moderate Republicans, or friends of the existing constitution. Disagreement between the President and the National Assembly.— From the beginning, there was a lack of harmony between the executive and legis- lative branches of the Government, the National Assembly having no faith in the republican professions of the President. The Assembly restricted the right of suf- frage and the freedom of the press, and in many other ways encroached upon the rights of the French people. In 1849, a French army, under General Oudinot, was sent to Rome, to overthrow the Republic which had been established there. The French constitution of 1848 provided for its revision by the National Assembly during the last year of the Presidential term, and it also made the President ineligi- ble to reëlection before an interval of four years. Louis Napoleon desired to have it revised and so altered as to render him eligible to reëlection; but the Assembly, by a large vote, in 1851, refused to revise it. The President, in his message, in November, 1851, advised the Assembly to extend the right of suffrage; but the Assembly rejected a proposition for that purpose, and soon afterwards a proposition was offered threatening the President with impeachment if he should seek a reëlec- tion contrary to the provisions of the constitution. The Coup d’Etat.—The breach between the President and the National As- sembly was rapidly widening; and finally, Louis Napoleon determined to crush, at one blow, all opposition to his will, by a bold stroke of state policy. About five o'clock in the morning of the 2d of December, 1851, the principal streets of Paris were occupied by troops; and the leading members of the Assembly, and the chief military leaders, whom Louis Napoleon knew were opposed to his ambitious schemes, ... → •ey & “... R. a "ºº-, > -º * -] e §ſ, “. & Y % # '* 㺠# ºf *e § 2 ºt- sº §§§ºº Sjº º & º Nºş R §: isº tº o Sys º º “ Sºs §§ &sº ſº S ESANSNS" sº * sºs NSS SS s sº Š TZ §N N § W § YN Ś N º N º WN sº a sº NAPOLEON III. Š %%7%%-%f.ſºff ///////%%“,7/-% Š SS [ ſae/4ae ， " .%%%% , ！%$§ ſ|（: "，%§% ſýÄįſſº ſiſts |\\}\\ \ \ \ \\vſ \\\\\\\È \\ \\ \\ \ \\\\\\\\ \}\ſae \\\\№ THIERS. | |}| |}||}| ff"| ſ}}}} %%%% *** • •ørſ ' : „№ž J . . .| . ~ . . . . .' .| 2. № �s...） i** --~ .* . ：:：|（~~g?É /4， … ~ ~ … -- „№éą. 2%，,,，- ---- %%Ź5）: . | | %%%%%Zae;Źź） ： //%%;ź%% ZA //%7 AV/AVE 7'EEAVTH CEAVTURY. 385 were seized in their beds, and shut up in prison. M. Thiers and Generals Cavaig nuc, Changarnier, and Lamoriciere, and other prominent characters, were arrested by d :tachments of police, assisted by the guards, and were imprisoned in the chateau of Vincennes. At the dawn of day, the Parisians were surprised to find the walls every where covered with placards containing the following decree: “In the name of the French people, the President of the Republic decrees: I. The National Assembly is dissolved: 2. Universal suffrage is reëstablished; the law of 31st of May is repealed: 3 The French people, are convoked in their communes, from the 14th to the 31st of December: 4. The state of siege is decreed in the whole of the first military division: 5. The Council of State is dissolved: The Minister of the Interior is charged with the execution of this decree.—Louis Napoleon Bonaparte.” During the day, some of the members of the National Assembly met at the residence of M. Daru, declared the President guilty of treason, and decreed his deposition; but no sooner had they signed the decree, than they were seized by the military, and conducted to prison. None of the journals but those that supported the President were permitted to be printed and distributed. This bold act of usurpation, dignified by the title “ The Coup d’Etat,” was completely successful; the republican constitution was over- thrown, and Louis Napoleon was a monarch in all but in name. Unsuccessful Resistance to the Usurpation.—On the 2d of December, no resistance was made to the President's usurpation; but about ten o’clock on the morning of the 3d, M. Baudin, a representative of the people, appeared at the head of a mob in the Rue St. Antoine, but the arrival of the military restored order, and M. Baudin and two other representatives were punished with death. On the fol- lowing day (December 4, 1851), barricades were erected in many of the streets of Paris; but at noon, large bodies of troops swept the Boulevards, fired upon the buildings, killed many innocent people, and put an end to all resistance before night. The troops gave no quarter to the insurgents, and more than 2000 persons were killed. In the eastern departments of France, the rural population rose in great strength against the usurpation; but the army remaining faithful to the President, the insurrection was suppressed in a few days. Louis Napoleon Elected President for Ten Years.-On Saturduy and Sunday, December 20th and 21st, elections were held throughout France, the question submitted to the nation being whether or not Louis Napoleon should hold the office of President ten years longer, with the power of forming a new constitu- tion for France, on the basis of universal suffrage. No other candidate was allowed to be named. The army voted first, and, as was to be expected, its vote was nearly unanimous in favor of Louis Napoleon; and the entire majority in favor of the lengthened Presidential term was 6,761,659 votes. On New Year's Day, 1852, the result of the election was celebrated in the French capital with all possible mag- nificence: seventy rounds of artillery were fired at the Invalides, at ten o’clock in the forenoon; the Te Deum was sung at noon, in the Church of Notre Dame, the President himself being present; and a splendid banquet was given at the Tuileries, at which 400 persons participated. New Constitution.—Om the 14th of January, 1852, the new constitution pro posed by Louis Napoleon was decreed. The constitution entrusted the executive authority to Louis Napoleon for ten years, and clothed him with almost absolute power. The legislative power was vested in a Senate, composed of the most gifted 25 386 MOZ) EA’AV HISTOR V. men in France; a Council of State, to originate and enact laws; and a Corps Leg- islatif, chosen by universal suffrage, to discuss and enact laws. Louis Napoleon Made “Emperor of the French.”—The great end of all Louis Napoleon's ambition was the restoration of the French Empire. By means of newspaper agents and a mercenary press, the President prepared the minds of the French people to pronounce at the ballot-box in favor of or against the reëstab- lishment of the imperial throne. The election resulted in a majority of 7,61 1,035 votes in ſavor of imperialism; and on the 2d of December, 1852, Louis Napole ºn was fºrmally proclaimed “Emperor of the French,” with the title of Napoleon III. Thus ended the Second French Republic; and thus was established the Second French Empire, under Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the son of Louis Bona- parte and Hortense Beauharnais. A large number of persons who had actively opposed Louis Napoleon's assumption of imperial power were arrested on the charge of treason, and imprisoned or banished to Algeria or Cayenne. *. Marriage of Napoleon III.-The new Emperor's next movement was the consummation of a marriage for the perpetuation of his dynasty; and, as all his proposals to foreign courts for the negotiation of a match were rejected, he selected for his bride, Eugenie de Montijo, Countess of Teba, a Spanish lady, who was not related to any reigning family. On the 2d of January, 1853, the announcement of the approaching nuptials was made to the French Senate. On the 29th of the same month, the civil marriage was celebrated at the Tuileries; and on the 30th, the religious ceremonies were celebrated with great pomp, in the Church of Notre Dame. THE CRIMEAN WAR (A. D. 1853-1856). The Guardianship of the Holy Places—The Czar's Demand.—For long time, a dispute with regard to the Holy Places at Jerusalem had raged at Con- stantinople, between the Greek and Romish Churches, Russia supporting the claims of the Greek, and France those of the Romish Church. Early in 1853, a dispute arose between Russia and Turkey, which threatened to disturb the peace of Europe. The Emperor Nicholas of Russia claimed the right to exercise a protectorate over the Greek Christians in the Ottoman dominions. This demand was justly regarded as incompatible with the dignity of the Sultan as an independent sovereign; and, "by the advice of the English and French ministers at Constantinople, the demands of the Czar were rejected, and his extravagant pretensions denied, but the Sultan, by a “hatti sheriff,” confirmed all the privileges of his Christian subjects. Russian Invasion of Turkey—War Between Russia and Turkey.--Im- mediately after the demand of the Russian autocrat had been rejected by the Ottoman Polte, 60,000 Russian troops invaded the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Sultan demanded the evacuation of his dominions, thicatch- ing, in case of a refusal, a declaration of war. The fleets of France and Engli nd ere ordered to the Dardanelles, while England, France, Austria, and Prussia ainly endeavored to bring about an adjustment of the dispute by negotiatiºn. The arrogance of Russia prevented a peaceful solution of the difficulty; and, on the 5th of October, 1853, the Turkish Government declared war against Russia. On the 14th (October, 1853), the fleets of Great Britain and France, at the request of the Sultan, passed the Dardanelles. l AVINE TEEM 7TH CEAV7'UA' V. 337 Turkish Victories on the Danube—Battle of Sinope.—In the latter part of October, 1853, the Turkish forces crossed the Danube, for the purpose of expel- ling the Russians from the Ottoman territories. Under the command of their skill- ful general, Omar Pacha, the Turks won many splendid victories. On the 13th iſ Novembel (1853), the Turkish fleet at Sinope, on the southern coast of the Black Sea, was suddenly and unexpectedly attacked and destroyed by the Russian ſleet. Leſore the close of the year, the British and French fleets were ordered into be Black Sea, to protect the Turks. Alliance of England, France, and Turkey—Advance of the Russians.-- As the Czar Nicholas still rejected all proposals for an amicable settlement of the dispute, England and France, closely in alliance with Turkey, declared war against Russia, at the close of March, 1854; but Austria and Prussia remained neutral. An allied English and French army of 90,000 men, under Lord Raglan and Mar- shal St. Arnaud, was sent to the assistance of the Turks, and a powerful Anglo- French naval armament, under Sir Charles Napier, was dispatched to the Baltic sea. The Russians, under Prince Gortschakoff, their commander-in-chief, crossed the Danube, the Ottoman forces retreating in good order before the invaders. Bombardment of Odessa—Siege of Silistria—Expulsion of the Rus- sians.—On the 22d of April, 1854, the allied English and French fleets bombarded the Russian commercial town of Odessa, on the Black Sea. During the summer, the Turks, under Mussa Pacha, successfully defended Silistria against 9o,ooo Rus- sians under Prince Paskiewitsch, and finally compelled them to raise the siege, and evacuate the Turkish dominions. Allied Expedition to the Crimea—Battle of Alma—Siege of Sevasto- pol.—In September, 1854, an expedition, composed of English, French, and Turkish troops, landed at Eupatoria, in the peninsula of the Crimea, and, on the 20th of that month, gained a brilliant victory over the Russians at Alma. A few days aſter- ward, Marshal St. Arnaud died, and the command of the French army was assigned to General Canrobert. The siege of Sevastopol commenced on the 17th of October, 1854, when the allies opened their first bombardment on the town. Battle of Balaklava.—The Russians sent large reinforcements to their army in the Crimea, for the purpose of compelling the allies to evacuate the peninsula. On the 25th of October, 1854, occurred the famous battle of Balaklava, in which the English Light Cavalry Brigade of 600 men was almost totally destroyed, in a reckless charge upon the strong Russian position. Battle of Inkermann.—Large bodies of Russian troops continued to pour into the Crimea, for the purpose of relieving the beleaguered fortress of Sevastopol; and on the eth of November, 1854, was fought the bloody battle of Inkermann, in which 8ood English troops held their ground firmly against 50,000 Russians for seven hours, when the appearance of a French force of 6000 men under General I}csquet soon decided the battle against the Russians, who were driven with heavy loss into the fortress of Sevastopol, Death of the Czar Nicholas—Peace Conference—Sardinia Joins the Allies.—On the 2d of March, 1855, the Emperor Nicholas died, and was succeeded on the Russian thione by his son, Alexander II., who declared his resolution of adhering to the policy of his father. A conference composed of representatives ºf 388 MODEAEAV HISTORY. England, France, Turkey, and Russia, was held at Vienna, in the spring of 1855, for the purpose of bringing about a peace; but, as Russia rejected the demand of the allied powers, that the war-vessels of all nations should be excluded from Jhe Black Sea, the efforts for peace ſailed; and Sardinia joined the allied powers in their war against Russia. Siege of Sevastopol.—In the meantime, hostilities were prosecuted with vigor in the Crimean peninsula. On the 17th of February, 1855, the Russians assaulted the intrenched camp of the Turks at Eupatoria, but were repulsed, after a fierce en gagement. A severe battle between the Russians and the French occurred on the 22d of March (1855), in which the Russians lost over 2000 men, and the French 600 men. The second bombardment of Sevastopol commenced on the 9th of April, and continued for several days. The incompetent Canrobert was superseded in the command of the French forces by the able and energetic General Pelissier. The third bombardment of Sevastopol, which commenced on the 6th of June, resulted in giving the French possession of the Mamelon, while the English captured the Round Tower. On the 18th of June (the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo), the French assailed the Malakoff Tower, while the English, at the same time, stormed the Redan. Both attacks were repulsed. On the 28th (June, 1855), Lord Raglan died, and was succeeded in the command of the English forces by General Simp- son. On the 16th of August, 60,000 Russians were repulsed in an assault upon the French and the Sardinians at Tchernaya. Attack on Sweaborg.—While the events just related were occurring in the Crimean peninsula, hostilities were being prosecuted in other quarters. On the 9th of August, 1855, the combined English and French fleet in the Baltic, under Sir Charles Napier, commenced an attack upon Sweaborg, which was continued until the 17th, without effecting any important result. Fall of Sevastopol.—On the 5th of September, 1855, commenced the fourth bombardment of Sevastopol. On the 8th, the French captured the Malakoff, after a furious assault, but, at the same time, the English were repulsed in an attack upon the Redan. The fall of the Malakoff rendered a further defense of the place use- less; and on the 9th (September, 1855), the Russians evacuated the southern side of Sevastopol, and left the town and the harbor in the possession of the allies. Capture of Kinburn–Turkish Victory at the Ingour.—On the 15th of October, 1855, General Bazaine, with 15,000 French and 4000 English troops, from the allied army in the Crimea, landed at Kinburn, and captured that post, after a fierce bombardment. Late in November, the Turks, under Omar Pacha, achieved a glorious victory at the river Ingour, when they forced a passage over the stream, and compelled the Russians to evacuate their position and retreat to Kutais. The War in Asiatic Turkey—Capture of Kars.-Important events occurrcd in Asiatic Turkey. On the 29th of September, 1855, the Turkish forces, under the command of the English general Williams, repulsed an attack of the Russians upon the town of Kars, and the place was defended successfully until the 28th of Novem. ber (1855), when the Turkish garrison was compelled to surrender and the town fell into the hands of the Russians. Peace of Paris.-Early in 1856, an armistice was proclaimed, and soon after- ward, the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, Sardinia, Turkey, and Russia, AVIAVE TEEAVTH CEAV7'UR V. 389 assembled in Paris; and a treaty of peace was agreed upon, on Sunday, March 30th, 1856. By this treaty, the Russian forts and arsenals on the Black Sea were destroyed; Russia was to renounce all interference in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire; the vessels of all nations were to have the right to navigate the Danube; the Christian subjects of the Sultan were to be secured in certain privi- leges; and the Russian fortress of Nicolaieff was to be dismantled. The eagle's qxill mounted with gold and gems, with which the treaty was signed, was presented to the Empress Eugenie of France. Thus closed the Crimean War, in which mcre than one nuillion of men perished. THE SEPOY MUTINY IN BRITISH INDIA (1857–1859). England’s Wars with Persia and China—The Mutiny of the Sepoys.- In less than a year after the termination of her war with Russia, England became involved in wars with Persia and China. The war with Persia lasted only a few months, but the contest with China was not closed before the autumn of 1860. The English and their allies, the French, completely humbled the Chinese, whose chief cities, Canton and Pekin, were taken, and the Chinese Emperor fled in consterna- tion from his capital. By the Treaty of Tien-tsin, in October, 1860, the Chinese were obliged to allow a British minister to reside at Pekin. But a struggle of far greater magnitude than the Persian and Chinese wars employed the military strength of the British Empire—namely, the war produced by the mutiny of the Sepoys, or IHindoos in the military service of the East-India Company. Discontent of the Mohammedans of India—The Bengal Army.—For a long time, the Mohammedans of India had been dissatisfied with their subordinate position. When, in 1849, Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of British India, compelled the titular king of Delhi to exchange the fortress of Delhi for the royal palace of the Kootub, the hatred of the Delhi Mohammedans against the British Government was increased. When the Kingdom of Oude was annexed to the British Indian Empire, many of the Sepoys comprising the Bengal army who were natives of Oude were aroused to the highest pitch of indignation; and they suc- ceeded in uniting all the Mohammedan sects in India, with the view of freeing themselves from British power. The Enfield Rifles and the Greased Cartridges. –Circumstances soon occurred which favored the cause of the Mohammedans of India. It had been rumored among the Hindoos that the British Government had resolved to compel all its subjects to embrace the Christian religion, and abolish the distinctions of caste which prevail among the Hindoos. Early in 1857, the East-India Company armed its Hindoo soldiers with the Enfield rifles, ſor which cartridges greased with pig's and cow's ſat were used. The Hindoos are forbidden by their religion to taste animal food; and, as the ends of the greased cartridges must be bitten off, the Sepoys believed that by using them they would become defiled, lose their caste, and le bound to adopt the religion of their masters. Mohammedan emissaries secretly aloused the dissatisfaction of the Hindoos, for the advancement of their own rebel- lious schemes. Mutiny of the Bengal Army.—During the month of April, 1857, many of the regiments composed of Sepoys in the Bengal army manifested a mutinous spirit 390 A/OA) EA’AV ///STORY. The 19th and 34th regiments, the Oude irregular infantry, and a part of the 3d Light Cavalry at Meerut, were the first to rise in rebellion. Other Sepoy regiments followed their example, and before long, the whole Hindoo portion of the Bengal army, al out 120,000 men, stood in armed opposition to the British Govel nment. The rebellion was purely a mutiny, and not a popular insurrection. * Massacre of Delhi.-O., the 11th of May (1857), a party of mutineers from Meerut fendishly massacred all the English residents at Delhi; but a small Eng- l's] ſorce, under the gallant Lieutenant Willoughby, blew up the arsenal, to p" event i' ſold falling into the hands of the rebels. Massacre of Cawnpore.—At Cawnpore, 3oo English troops under Sir liugh Wheeler, and 500 women and children, were attacked and besieged by a body of mutineers under Nena Sahib, a Mahratta prince. When Nena Sahib ſound that he could not take the place by ſorce, he offered the garrison and the women and children a safe passage to Allahabad, if they would evacuate Cawnpore; but no sooner had they embarked on boats in the river, than they were fired upon by the treacherous mutineers, and many of their number were killed. One-hundred and fifty who had surrendered were put to death, and the women and children were massacred soon afterward. Siege of Lucknow.—At Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, at the head of an English force, defeated a large body of rebel Sepoys, but he was afterwards besieged in the residency at that place, and was mortally wounded in a sally, at the beginning of July. (1857.) Excitement in England—English Troops sent to India.-The greatest excitement prevailed in England on the arrival of intelligence of the mutiny of the hitherto loyal Bengal army and the fiendish atrocities perpetrated by the mutineers. Within four months, 30,000 troops were sent from Great Britain to India, for the suppression of the Sepoy rebellion and the full restoration of British authority in Hindoostan; and Sir Colin Campbell was sent to take the chief command of the JBritish forces in India. General Havelock's Victories over Nena Sahib on the Ganges.— General IIavelock, with British and loyal Hindoo troops, marched to the relief of the English garrison, under Sir Hugh Wheeler, at Cawnpore. He reached that place aſter marching 126 miles and fighting four engagements with the mutineers, and aſter Nena Sahib had treacherously massacred the women and children, as already stated. When Havelock approached Cawnpore, Nena Sahib and his insur- gent band fled; but they were pursued, and defeated eight times, on the banks of the Ganges, by the force under Havelock. The Sepoy regiments at Dimapore mutinied on the 25th of July (1857), and having fled from the station, they were pursued and defeated by Major Eyre, of the Bengal artillery. Siege and Fall of Delhi.-In the latter part of August, 1857, the British force before Delhi, which had quietly watched the insurgents who had held pos- sº sit ºn of that famous city, was reinforced by English and Sikh troops; and on the 25'h (August, 1857), the mutineers were defeated at Nujuffghur with heavy loss, On the 7th of September, the British commenced besieging De'hi with vigor. Tho whole Iłritish force did not exceed 4,000 men. On the 14th of September, Gen- eral Wilson, the British commander, divided his army into four columns. Two ot AVIAWE TEEAWTH CEAVTUR Y. 39 I these columns carried the Cashmere and Water bastions by storm, on the same day. The Cashmere gate was blown up, when the third column joined the other two in the assault; and before the close of the day, the British were masters of a consider- able portion of the city. The fourth column was repulsed in an attack upon the city. On the 15th (September, 1857), the British shelled the palace and battered the magazine; and on the 16th, a British storming party rushed forward, where- npon the insurgent artillerymen fled in dismay, leaving the British in possession of six pieces of cannon. On the 17th and 18th, the British gained several important advantages; and aſter several more assaults, the mutineers entirely evacuated the city of Delhi, which came into the military possession of the English on the 20th of September. (1857.) A great part of the town was laid in ruins and filled with corpses, and numbers of captured mutineers were put to a cruel death. Siege of Lucknow—Battle of Mungarwar—Relief of Lucknow.—Since June, 1857, a large body of English troops and women and children had been besieged in the residency at Lucknow, by 50,000 insurgents. While marching to their relief, General Havelock defeated 40,000 insurgents, in the battle of Mungar- war, on the 21st of September. (1857.) Aſter a ſorced march of four days, Havelock and his troops appeared at Lucknow, on the 25th of September, and relieved the brave garrison. After severe fighting, the rebel Sepoys were repulsed in all their assaults; but they still continued the siege with vigor. On the 12th of November (1857), Sir Colin Campbell arrived at Lucknow, with a strong English force, and took the garrison, along with the women and children, to Cawnpore. Insurgent Attack on Cawnpore—Siege and Capture of Lucknow.—In December, 1857, Cawnpore was attacked by 25,000 rebel Sepoys, but the timely arrival of the British force, under Sir Colin Campbell, saved the place, and obliged the mutineers to retire, after a severe engagement. Soon aſterward, Sir Colin Camp- bell laid siege to Lucknow, which place, after a vigorous siege, ſell into the hands of the British on the 17th of March, 1858. Siege and Capture of Gwalior—Close of the Sepoy Rebellion.—After the fall of Iucknow, Gwalior became the stronghold of the Sepoy rebellion ; but in June, 1858, that strong place was compelled to yield to the British arms; after which the war assumed a guerrilla character, and small bands roamed over various parts of India until the close of 1859, when peace was fully restored, and British authority was completely reëstablished in India. The active power of the rebellion had passed away with the fall of Gwalior, in the summer of 1858; and soon after that event, the Governor-General, Lord Canning, ordered a public thanksgiving for the overthrow of the rebellion, and the restoration of peare to British India. Many of the vanquished rebels were put to death in a most barbarous manner. A very important result of the mutiny was the transfer, in the summer of 1858, of the government of British India ſrom the East India Company to the English CIA WIle THE ITALIAN WAR (1859). Attempted Assassination of Napoleon III.-In January, 1858, while the Emperor Napoleon III. was passing the Italian opera-house in Paris, three hollow projectiles were aimed at his person, killing and wounding a number of persons. 392 MODEA’AV HISTORY. The Italian refugee, Orsini, who made this attempt at regicide, was punished with death. Warlike Threat of Napoleon III.-During the reception of foreign ministers, at his palace, on New Year's Day, 1859, the Emperor Napoleon III., in speaking to the Austrian ambassador to France about the affairs of Italy, made some remarks whiln were regarded by all who heard them as implying a threat of war; and it SOOIl appeared that France was arming on an extensive scale. A marriage was negotiated between Prince Napoleon, the Emperor's cousin, and the Priſ.cess Clotilda, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, who was an avowed opponent of Austria with respect to the question of Italian independence; and events indicated the speedy approach of war. * Demands of Austria for the Disarmament of Sardinia.-The King of Sardinia, supported by France, was now making earnest preparations for war. Austria demanded that Sardinia should immediately disarm. ‘Great Britain and Russia endeavored to avert hostilities by negotiation; but Austria's demand for the immediate disarmament of Sardinia was opposed by the other powers. Austria then proposed that all the powers should disarm. This was agreed to by Russia, Prussia, England, France, and Sardinia; but the proposition that the Italian States should be represented in a congress of the Five Great Powers was opposed by Austria, which still insisted on the immediate disarmament of Sardinia. This demand was still objected to by the other powers; and, as Austria would not recede from the position which she had taken, all hopes for an amicable settlement of the difficulty were dispelled. Sardinia’s Rejection of Austria’s Ultimatum—Austrian Invasion of Sardinia.-In the latter part of April, 1859, Austria sent to Sardinia an ultima- tum, demanding the immediate disbandment of her Italian volunteers, allowing only three days for a reply, and threatening war in case of a rejection of the demand. The King of Sardinia rejected the Austrian ultimatum; and the Chambers, which he immediately summoned, conferred upon him dictatorial powers. On the 26th of April (1859), the Austrian army, in three divisions, numbering together 120,000 men, crossed the Ticino, and invaded Sardinia. French Troops Sent to Italy—Napoleon III. Goes to Italy.—When intelligence of the Austrian invasion of Sardinia reached France, a manifesto pre- pared by the French Emperor was presented in the Corps Legislatif, declaring that France would stand by Sardinia. Large bodies of French troops were now pushed foward into Italy with the utmost haste; and, on the 10th of May, the Emperor Napoleon III., leaving the Government of France in the hands of the Empress Eugenie as regent, left Paris to take command of the French troops in person. On the 12th (May, 1859), he reached Genoa, where he met with a most enthusiastic reception. * Battle of Montebello.—After having exhausted the country which they had invaded, the Austrians fell back slowly toward Lombardy. The first battle of the Italian war was fought on the 20th of May, 1859, at Montebello—the same place where, on the 9th of June, 1800, the French, under General Lannes, defeated the Austrians. After desperate fighting, the Austrians were defeated, with considerable loss. The French, who were commanded by General Forey, lost less than 700 AVIAWE TEEAVTH CEAV7'UR Y. 393 men in killed and wounded. Among the killed on the side of the French was General Beuret. On the following day (May 21, 1859), a slight engagement oc- curred between the Austrians and the left wing of the allied army under General Cialdini. Italian and French Invasion of Lombardy—Defeats of the Austrians. —A body of Italian volunteers, under General Garibaldi, invaded Lombardy and captured Varese, where they repulsed an attack of the Austrians, on the 26th of May. After a fierce conflict on the 27th, the Italians took possession of Como, the Austrians retreating to Camerletta, where they were again defeated, and compelled to continue their retreat. On the 29th of May, the Emperor Francis Joseph, of Austria, left Vienna for the seat of war, and arrived at Verona on the 31st. On the 29th, the Sardinians crossed the Sesia, and forced the Austrian works at Palestro, capturing two pieces of artillery, and some small arms and prisoners. On the 31st, 25,000 Austrians were severely repulsed in an attempt to recover Palestro. On the 1st of June, a French force, under General Niel, expelled the Austrians from Novara, after an insignificant conflict. The Emperor of the French entered Novara at five o'clock in the evening of the same day, meeting with an enthusiastic reception. Battle of Magenta—Proclamations of Napoleon and Victor Emman- uel.—On the 4th of June, 1859, was ſought the great battle of Magenta, in which IOO,OOO French and Sardinians, under General MacMahon, were engaged. The Austrians were defeated, with the loss of 27,000 men in killed, wounded, and pris- oners. Aſter the battle, the Emperor of the French and the King of Sardinia entered Milan, where they were welcomed with the warmest enthusiasm. Napo- leon III. published a proclamation to the Italian people, declaring his intention of securing to Italy nationality and independence; and Victor Emmanuel issued a proclamation to the people of Lombardy, declaring that country united with Sardinia. Battles of Melegnano and Solferino.—On the 8th of June, occurred the battle of Melegnano, which lasted nine hours, and in which 30,000 Austrians were engaged. The Austrians were defeated, with the loss of 3200 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. On the 24th of June (1859), was ſought the famous battle of Solſerino, in which the contending forces on each side numbered about I40,000 men, and in which the Emperor Napoleon III. and King Victor Emmanuel commanded their troops in person. This sanguinary conflict raged from five o'clock in the morning until late in the aſternoon, and resulted in the utter defeat of the Austrians, who were compelled to make a hasty retreat. Peace of Villa Franca.-An armistice was agreed to on the 8th of July, 1859; and on the IIth of the same month, a treaty of peace was signed at Villa Franca, between the Emperors of France and Austria. The treaty was concluded on the following basis: the formation of an Italian Confederation, under the honorary pre- sidency of the Pope; the cession of Lombardy by Austria to France, in trust for Sardinia; and Venetia, although retained by Austria, to constitute an integral part of the Italian Confederation. The King of Sardinia was dissatisfied with this treaty, and his Prime Minister, Count Cavour, immediately resigned. The Emperor Napo- leon III. now left Italy, and arrived at his palace of St. Cloud on the 17th of July. A deſinitive treaty of peace was agreed upon at Zurich, in November, 1859. In a 394 MODERAV HISTOR P. war with Anam (1858–1862), France obtained by conquest a large portion of . Cochin-China. : ITALIAN REVOLUTION OF 1860-1861. Garibaldi's Invasions of Sicily and Naples--Revolution in Naples.— Important events occurred in Italy in 1860—events which resulted in the unificatipn cf Italy. Ceneral Garibaldi, with a band of Italian volunteers, landed in Sicily, and proclaimed himself Dictator for the King of Sardinia. Garibaldi carried Palermo by storm, defeated the forces of Francis II., King of Naples, and then invading the main-land of the Kingdom of Naples, completely overthrew the Neapolitan army, and compelled the King of Naples to flee from his dominions. After the flight of Francis II., Victor Emmanuel entered Naples, and was acknowledged king. Establishment of the Kingdom of Italy—Victor Emmanuel King.— In 1861, all the Italian States, excepting the Austrian province of Venetia, the Re- public of San Marino, and the Papal dominions, were consolidated into one great State, designated “The Kingdom of Italy,” the crown of which was bestowed on Ring Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia. GREEK REVOLUTION OF 1862. Misrule of King Otho.—For a long time, the Greek people had suffered under the misrule of King Otho. Oppression followed oppression. The greater part of the uncultivated lands became the property of the crown. The peasants were re- quired to pay a heavy land-tax, and manufactures were discouraged. The public money was squandered by the extravagant court; and the corrupt Ministry succeeded by bribes in having the Legislative Chambers filled with the supporters of the CrOWI). Tyrannical Measures of King Otho.—The growing discontent of the Greek people compelled King Otho to call on Canaris to form a new Ministry; but when Canaris presented to the king a memorial asking for the dissolution of the fraudu- lently-elected Chambers, the formation of a national guard, and the abolition of the censorship of the press, he was dismissed, and the corrupt Ministry remained in power. Insurrections of Nauplia and Syra—Flight and Abdication of Otho.— Soon aſterward, King Otho caused more than Iooo of the popular party to be im- prisoned, on a charge of plotting against the Government. The result of this out- 1ageous act was the breaking out of a revolt at Nauplia, on the 12th of February, 1862. The city of Nauplia was besieged by the Government troops, and the insur- gents were ſorced to surrender on the 20th of April (1862). An amnesty was granted to all but nineteen of the insurgents; but this annesty was afterwards vio- lated, and many of the insurgents were thrown into prison, Anothel insurrection against the king had in the meantime broken out in the island of Syra. The Syrams were deſcated in the naval battle of Thermia, but still they refused to submit. During the summer, the spirit of opposition to the Government manifested itself throughout Greece, while the tyranny of the king continually increased. Convicts were liberated from the prisons to plunder and keep down the people; and the NINETEENTII CENTURY. 395 press was prohibited from publishing the sentiments of the people. The opposition to King Otho became so great that he was obliged to abdicate his throne, on the 3oth of October, 1862, and to leave Greece a few days afterward. A provisional government, under Demetrius Bulgaris, was immediately installed; and in the ſol- lowing year (1863), Prince George, of Denmark, was raised to the throne of Greece, with the title of George I., King of the IHellenes. POLISH INSURRECTION OF 1862–3–4. Tyrannical Proceedings of the Russians at Warsaw.—The Poles who liaći assembled at Warsaw on the 15th of October, 1861, to celebrate the memory of Rosciuszko, were prevented from doing so by the Russian authorities, who, the day before, had declared the city in a state of siege, and stationed large bodies of troops in the streets. The people nevertheless assembled in the churches peaceably, and when the churches were filled, the soldiers ordered them to disperse. As the Poles refused to obey, the Russian soldiers, by order of their commander, carried more than 2000 of them to the Citadel. These tyrannical proceedings were followed by the arrest, imprisonment, banishment, and condemnation to death of the most promi- nent Poles. Attempted Assassination of the Archduke Constantine.—In the summer of 1862, attempts were made by the Poles in Warsaw to assassinate the Archduke Constantine, Lieutenant of Poland, and brother of the Czar Alexander II. The Archduke and Count Wialopolski were severely wounded, but the assassins were arrested, condemned, and executed. - Military Conscription—Polish Insurrection and Its Suppression.—In November, 1862, the Russian Government determined to put the citizens of the towns in Poland who had manifested any opposition to its authority, into the Russian army as common soldiers, and to send them to perform military service in Siberia. This harsh measure roused the Poles to a spirit of resistance; and a general insur- rection against Russian authority commenced throughout Poland. Small bands of insurgent Poles engaged in numerous conflicts with the Russian tröops without decisive results. The revolt never arose above the character of a guerrilla war. This Polish rebellion at one time threatened complications dangerous to the general peace of Europe. England, France, Austria, and Sweden, sympathized with the Poles, and asked of the Russian Emperor the amelioration of their condition. The insurrection continued for upwards of a year, and it was with great difficulty that the Russian Government was enabled to suppress the rebellion in the summer of 1864. The Czar adopted harsh measures against the unfortunate Poles, many of whom were imprisoned, banished, or executed. RUSSIAN SERF EMANCIPATION (1863). Russian Conquest of Circassia—The Russian Serfs.—Russia enlarged her vast 1 minions by the conquest of Circassia, in 1859, after a sanguinary struggie of thirty years, during which the Circassian tribes, led by the valiant and heroic warrior-prophet, Schamyl, defied all the efforts of the Russians, and ſought bravely for their independence. The attention of the Russian Government was not wholly 396 MoDERN HISTORY. absorbed by schemes of conquest and territorial aggrandizement; and the Czar Alexander II. immortalized his name by the emancipation of all the serfs or slaves in the Russian dominions. Of the thirty-eight millions of serfs in the Russian Empire at that time, sixteen millions were the property of the Russian crown. They were bought and sold with the lands on which they lived, and their condition was in all 1 espects very degraded. - Emancipation of the Serfs.-In February, 1861, the Czar issued a decree, promising the emancipation of the serfs two years after that date. In accordance with this decree, the Russian serfs received their freedom in February, 1863, and measures were taken for their improvement. A THE SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN WAR (1864). The Danish and Schleswig-Holstein Succession.—A,Congress of Euro- pean Powers, assembled at London, in 1852, settled the succession to the throne of Denmark, and to the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, upon Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg. On the death of King Christian VIII. of Denmark, in November, 1863, Prince Christian succeeded to the throne of Denmark and to the sovereignty of the German Duchies of Schles- wig and Holstein; but the succession to the Duchies was claimed by Prince Frederic of Augustenburg, whose rights had been disregarded by the London Con- gress of European Powers. The people of Schleswig and Holstein, mostly Ger- mans, for the most part sided with the Prince of Augustenburg, who also had the sympathies of the whole German nation. - German-Federal, Austrian, and Prussian Armies in Holstein.-In Janu- ary, 1864, the Diet of the Germanic Confederation sent an army into Schleswig and Holstein, to support the claims of Prince Frederic of Augustenburg, and to prevent the incorporation of those German Duchies with the Kingdom of Denmark; while Austria and Prussia, acting independently of the Federal Diet, also sent armies into the Duchies; and a war ensued between Denmark and the German Powers. First Campaign—Capture of Doppel.—On the 4th of February, 1864, hos- tilities between the Danes and the Germans commenced at Missunde. The war was prosecuted with vigor on the part of the Germans, and, after a spirited cam- paign, the Danes were defeated. The most important event of the first campaign was the capture of Doppel by the Prussians, on the 18th of April, 1864. Although her army was defeated, Denmark still refused to accept peace by relinquishing the sovereignty of the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein; and Austria and Prussia undertook a second campaign to force Denmark to terms. - Second Campaign—Capture of Alsen.—The Danish army still gallantly resisted, but in vain. The Austrians and Prussians were again victorious. The island of Alsen was captured by the Prussians, under Prince F rederic Charles, on the 9th of July, 1864, aſter a sanguinary struggle. Active hostilities had lasted five months and Denmark was now obliged to accept peace on such terms as Austria, I'vussia, and the Germanic Confederation chose to dictate. Peace of Vienna.-On the 30th of October, 1864, a treaty of peace was con- cluded at Vienna, between Denmark and the German powers, by which King AVIAWE TEAEAVZ Hº CEAVTU/e Y. 397 Christian VIII. of Denmark relinquished all claims to the sovereignty of the Ger- man Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR (1866) The Schleswig-Holstein Controversy Between Austria and Prussia. -—A dispute between Austria and Prussia concerning the sovereignty of the Duchies »f Schleswig and Holstein, which those two great powers had wrested from Den- imark in 1864, led to a short, but fierce and decisive, war, in the summer of 1866. Austria seemed disposed to support the claims of Prince Frederic of Augustenburg to the sovereignty of the Duchies; but, in October, 1865, Prussia declared that, according to the late treaty with Denmark, the sovereignty of the two Duchies had been yielded to Austria and Prussia jointly. Prussia considered the favor of Austria for Prince Frederic of Augustenburg as indicating antagonism to the joint sover- eignty of Austria and Prussia over the Duchies. - Arming of Austria and Prussia—Alliance of Prussia and Italy.—In the early part of 1866, Austria placed her army on a war-footing; and Prussia, suspect- ‘ing the designs of Austria, began to arm in her defense. Austria pretended that her military preparations were with the view of protecting the Jews in Bohemia from persecution. The smaller German States endeavored to have the difficulty between the two great powers settled by the process of Austragal Judgment, as provided for in the eleventh article of the Federal Pact; but Prussia insisted on a reorganization of the Germanic Conſederation. At length, both Austria and Prussia agreed to disarm; but in the meantime, Prussia had entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with Italy; and both Austria and Prussia continued their arma- ments. ºf Demand of Prussia—Prussian Troops sent into Holstein.—The discus- sions of Prussia's demand for a reorganization &f the Germanic Diet rendered an amicable adjustment of the dispute still more difficult; and at length, Prussia declared that if her demand were not complied with by the Diet, she would seek redress through some other source. The Austrian governor of Holstein had received orders to summon the Estates of the Duchy to consider their political rela- tions. Prussia considered this as a violation of the stipulations of the treaty of 1864; and Count von Bismarck, the Prussian Prime-Minister, dispatched a military force into Holstein, and the Austrians withdrew from the Duchy. Mobilization of the German-Federal Army—Declaration of War.—A motion for the mobilization of the German-Federal army was, through the influence of Austria, adopted by the Federal Diet; whereupon Prussia declared the Diet dis- solved, on account of the violation of the Germanic Constitution, withdrew from the Germanic Conſederation, and called upon the German States to unite with her under a new constitution. On the 18th of June, 1866, Italy and Prussia formally and conjointly declared war against Austria, and immediately set their armies in motion. Flight of the King of Saxony—Surrender of the Hanoverian Army.-- Prussian troops had already occupied Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and Saxony, because those States refused to unite with Prussia in a new confederation. The King of Saxony fled into Bohemia, destroying the bridges and tearing up the railroads 398 fº/O DEA’AV HISTOR P. behind him. Prussia vainly attempted a reconciliation with Hanover. Although successful in an action with the Prussians, the Hanoverian army, not receiving the expected assistance of the Bavarians, was obliged to surrender to the Prussians, whose rambers were continually increasing. Prussian Victories over the Bavarian and Federal-German Armies.— The Bavarians, being several times disastrously defeated by the Prussian:, were obliged to retire behind the Main. The Prussians next defeated the Federa. German army at Aschaffenburg, and forced it to retire beyond the Main, where it effected a junction with the defeated Bavarians. Operations in Italy—Battle of Custozza—Naval Battle of Lissa,— The Italian armies were at this time contending against the Austrians in Northern Italy. On the 24th of June (1866), was fought the battle of Custozza, in which the Italians were defeated and compelled to retreat. In July, the Italian army invaded Venetia, and forced the Austrians to fall back. General Garibaldi, with 12,000 Italians, was in the passes of the Tyrol, to the left of the main Italian army. The Italian right wing compelled the Austrians to retreat beyond Trent, in the Tyrol. The Italian right pursued the Austrians in their retreat through Venetia. While these movements were taking place on land, the Italian navy was defeated off the island of Lissa, by the Austrian fleet under Admiral Tegethoff. - Prussian Invasion of Bohemia.-In the meantime, the Prussians were con- ducting a brilliant campaign against the Austrians in Bohemia. Three large Prus- sian armies, numbering together more than 200,000 men, had been assembled in June, 1866, for the invasion of the Austrian province of Bohemia. The 1st Prus- sian army, under Prince Frederic Charles, the nephew of King William of Prussia, advanced into Bohemia from Saxony; the 3d Prussian army, under General von Bitterſeld, joined the 1st Prussian army in Bohemia, before the close of June; and the two combined forced the Austrians to fall back. In the meantime, the 2d Prus- sian army, under the command of the Crown-Prince Frederic William of Prussia, passed the frontiers of Silesia, and advancing into Bohemia, defeated the Austrians on the 27th of June. (1866.) Battle of Sadowa.-After brilliant maneuvering, and a series of conflicts, in which the Prussians captured 15,000 prisoners and twenty-four pieces of artillery, the 1st and 3d Prussian armies became engaged with 200,000 Austrians, under . Field-Marshal Benedek, at nine o'clock in the morning of the 3d of July, 1866, at the little village of Sadowa, near Königgratz. The Prussians had held their ground firmly against the superior force of the Austrians, when the arrival of the Crown-Prince with the 2d Prussian army, at one o’clock in the afternoon, decided the battle against the Austrians, who, after fighting bravely, were defeated with the loss of 40,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 174 pieces of cannon. The victorious Prussians lost 20,000 men. Peace of Prague.—Aſter the battle of Sadowa, the shattered Austrian forces rctreated to Olmutz, in Moravia, pursued by the Prussians, who gained anothes vic- tory on the 22d of July. (1866.) The Austrian Government, seriously ala::mcd at the rapid advance of the triumphant Prussians, was now anxious for peace; and, through the mediation of France, an armistice was concluded on the 26th of July. On the 23d, of August (1866), a treaty of peace was signed at Prague, by the i; s - º, . . . . ‘. . º % & Q { º § - | - º º . . . . . : . º • . . . % A. W. º º ºtu. '. º w . . . . § Wºº º * = - - º gº jº/Z3 - }% DISRAELI | \§§ \\\ N \ \\ Ņºſ | ！ { № º º: 22 \\ Ņ 2: 222 º &ÈN §ÈŅ §§ 2. 22*. 2* º 2 \\}\\ 4\\}\\}\\Ņ\\ ：¿§È§ ſkºð/}Èè È\\ 322：NÈ ź§§ \S. ```` \\}\\ §\\ 2%%%%%ANÈ ！ººſ，N\} §È? \\\\\\,\!§§\\\\ §§ &\\Ņ\\ ：-RNſae\\\\\\ºſº\\ ،§§\ ÈŘ\N \\&\\\\{ §§§№N ÈÈŅ§§NN -~--~--~````§\\N ×*** - №‘， ‚ ~--~º ºſ * .ſae|،~RÈN Ëā " <*** .¿?%| .|×%S§§È `````` ÈÈ`N № §§ \\ ·Ñ Ņ \ W } } R \\ ¿\\\^\\ GLADSTONE. AVIAWE 7'EEAVTH CENTUAE2 Y. 399 plenipotentiaries of Austria and Prussia. By this treaty, Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and consented to the formation of a new German Confederation, from which she was to be excluded; and the entire sovereignty of the Duchies of Schleswig and IHolstein was surrendered to Prussia. - Prussian Treaties with Other German States—Peace of Vienna.-Prus- sia concluded treaties of peace, on advantageous terms for herself, with Wurtem. berg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt. An armistice had been proclaimed between Austria and Italy; and, on the 3d of October, 1866, a treaty of peace he- tween these two powers was signed at Vienna, Austria surrendering Venetia to Italy. A conſederation of North German States, with Prussia at its head, was established; and Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt became independent sov- ereign states. ENGLISH REFORMS (1867–1869). The Russell Ministry—Rejection of the Reform Bill.—For some time, England had been agitated by the question of a more popular representation in Parliament. A reform bill, brought ſorward by the Ministry of Earl Russell, was, after much discussion, rejected by Parliament, on the 18th of June, 1866. This result produced much excitement and dissatisfaction throughout England. Immense reform demonstrations were made in various parts of the kingdom, and in some of the principal cities serious riots occurred. The Derby Cabinet-–Passage of the Reform Bill—War with Abyssinia. —The Whig Ministry of Earl Russell was succeeded by a Tory Cabinet, at the head of which was Earl Derby. The Derby Ministry proposed very liberal measures of reform, which occupied the attention of Parliament for several months; and a reform bill greatly extending the right of suffrage by diminishing the pro- perty qualification of voters for members of Parliament, was finally passed by both Houses of Parliament, in August, 1867; and on the 15th of that month, it received the royal assent. The chief event connected with the foreign policy of England during Lord Derby's Administration was the advance of an expedition, under General Robert Napier, into Abyssinia, late in 1867; and the Abyssinian king, Theodore, who had refused to release his English captives, was defeated and killed in April, 1868. The Disraeli Administration—Reform Bill for Ireland.—In May, 1868, Earl Derby was succeeded as Prime-Minister of Great Britain by Mr. Disraeli, the chief leader of the Tory party in the House of Commons. A reform bill for Ireland, proposed by Mr. Gladstone, one of the Whig leaders in the House of Commons, was passed. The disestablishment of the Church of England in Ireland was now agitated by the English Liberal party, headed by John Bright and William E. Gladstone. In August, 1868, the Ministry dissolved Parliament and Crdered new elections, in order to test the sense of the nation. The Gladstone Ministry—Disestablishment of the Irish Church-The Parliamentary elections in November, 1868, resulted in overwhelming majorities. for the candidates of the Liberal party, in consequence of which Mr. Disraeli and his colleagues resigned, early in December (1868); and a Whig Ministry, with Mr. Gladstone at its head, came into power. The great measure of Gladstone's 4OO MO DERAV HISTOR P. Administration was the disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland. A disestablishment bill, which encountered the most strenuous opposition on the part of the aristocratic Tories in the House of Lords, was finally passed in August, 1869, and received the royal assent on the 26th of that month. The Irish land. bill, which was designed to better the condition of the tenant population of Ire- land, was also passed and approved by the sovereign. Thus were removed just causes of complaint on the part of the people of Ireland SPANISH REVOLUTION OF 1868. Spain's Wars with Morocco, Peru, and Chili–Tyranny of Queen Is- abella II.-The most prominent events in the recent history of Spain were the successful war against Morocco, in 1859 and 1860; the sending of the allied Eng. lish, French, and Spanish expedition against Mexico, in December, 1861; and the war against Peru and Chili, in 1864 and 1865. The dissolute and tyrannical con- duct of Queen Isabella II. made her detested by her subjects. Unsuccessful insur- rections against her authority occurred at different times, and for several years, Spain was in a disturbed condition. Spanish Revolution of September, 1868—Flight of Queen Isabella II.- Isabella's extravagance and profusion to her favorites produced a growing discontent throughout the Spanish kingdom; and about the middle of September, 1868, while the queen was at San Sebastian, on her way to visit the Emperor Napoleon III., an insurrection, headed by Generals Prim and Serrano, broke out. The revolt soon extended throughout the whole kingdom, and all the important towns declared against the queen. The army and navy joined the insurgents, who soon took pos- session of Madrid. The authority of Queen Isabella II. was now at an end, and she fled to France; and a Central Provisional Junta was formed to conduct public affairs. A bloody insurrection against Spanish authority now broke out in the island of Cuba, and continued several years. A Constituent Cortes—A New Constitution—Serrano, Regent.—In November, 1868, elections for a Constituent Cortes were held in Spain. This Cortes assembled soon afterwards, and, after long deliberation, adopted a new monarchical constitution, on the Ist of June, 1869; and General Serrano was appointed regent of the Spanish kingdom, until a king should be chosen. General Prim was placed at the head of the Ministry. Carlist and Republican Insurrections.—In August, 1869, an insurrection of the Carlists broke out in the north-eastern part of Spain, but it was promptly Sup- pressed by the Government troops. A Republican insurrection in the following month (September, 1869), was also crushed, aſter the cities of Valencia and Sara- gossa, where the Republicans had determined to make a desperate stand, were taken, after furious assaults and sanguinary fighting in the streets. The Duke of Aosta Elected King of Spain.—On the 17th of November, 870, the Spanish Cortes, by a vote of 191 against I2O, elected the Duke of Aosta, son of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, King of Spain, with the title of Amadeus I, In the beginning of January, 1871, the newly-elected king made his entrance into Madrid, and took the oath to support the new constitution of the Spanish nation. AVZAVE 7TEAEAV7 H CEAV7'UA' V. 4OI Assassination of General Prim.—Strong opposition to the new king was manifested by the Spanish Republicans, and also by the Carlists; and General Prim, the ablest of Spanish statesmen, was bitterly hated by the Republicans, many of whom regarded him as the chief obstacle in the way of the establishment of a Span- ish Republic. As General Prim was returning from the Cortes, on the night of the 27th of December, 1870, eight shots were fired at his carriage, by a party cf assas. sins in the streets. The General was wounded in three places, and died on the 31st. The death of Prim produced a profound sensation of grief in Madrid, and through. out Spain; and great popular indignation was manifested against the assassins. The Cortes adopted a resolution in honor of the memory of the great statesman, declaring that the deceased deserved well of his country, and placed his family under the protection of the Spanish nation. THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1870–1874). Candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.—At the beginning of July, 1870, General Prim, the Prime-Minister of Spain, with the con- sent of Serrano, the Regent of that country, invited Prince Leopold, of Hohenzol- lern-Sigmaringen, a German prince, to become a candidate for the vacant throne of Spain. Regarding the candidature of this prince as a menace to France on the part of Spain and Prussia, the French Government violently opposed the project; and the Duke de Gramont, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, immediately informed the Governments of Spain and Prussia that France would not consent to the election of a Prussian prince to the throne of Spain. Diplomatic Note to Prussia—Reply to France.—On the 5th of July, Emile Ollivier, the French Prime-Minister, held a consultation with the Duke de Gramont and Senor Olozaga, the Spanish ambassador at Paris, and the result was a sharp diplomatic note to Baron Werther, the Prussian ambassador to France. Immedi- ately after receiving the note, Baron Werther started for Ems, to meet the King of Prussia. General Prim refused to abandon the candidacy of the Prince of Hohen- zollern antil the Spanish Cortes should have decided on the question; and the Prussian Government, in reply to the diplomatic note from the French Cabinet, stated that Prussia did nothing toward obtaining the offer of the Spanish crown for Prince Leopold, that the consent of the King of Prussia to its acceptance would be given aſter the Spanish Cortes had acted on the question, and that if the Cortes should choose the prince to the vacant throne Prussia would support him. Co irse of Spain and Prussia.-At a Council of Ministers in Madrid, the cCurse of General Prim was unanimously approved, and the candidature of the Prince of Hohenzollern was accepted. It was believed in Paris that Prim and the Count von Bismarck, the shrewd and unprincipled Prime-Minister of Prussia, had for some time been secretly intriguing for the elevation of the Prince of Hohenzollern to the Spanish throne. Spain denied that she was influenced by Prussia in regard to the ~andidacy of the Prince of Hohenzollern; and Prussia declared herself innocent of ali political intrigue, and asserted that she had no right nor inclination to dictate to Spain, or to the Prince of Hohenzollern. England, Austria, and Russia, made vain efforts for the preservation of peace. Military Preparations of France.—France was now making the most earnest 26 4O2 MODERAV HISTORY. military preparations, and the Garde Mobile and the Garde Nationale were put upon a war-footing. The greatest activity prevailed at Toulon, Cherbourg, and other French ports; and troops were being rapidly moved eastward toward the Rhine. The Imperial Guards were placed under the command of Marshal Bazaine; and Marshal MacMahon was ordered home from Algeria, to take command of the French army which was to operate on the Rhine. Marshal Canrobert and Generals Failly and Frossard were also appointed to important commands. Formal Withdrawal of Prince Leopold—Demand of France.—On the 12th of July (1870), Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, declining to be the cause of a European war, formally withdrew as a candidate for the Spanish throne. Not satisfied with the conduct of the King of Prussia in sanctioning the withdrawal of the candidacy of Prince Leopold as head of the Hohenzollern family, the French Government demanded that he should do it as King of Prussia. But King William declined to do this, as he regarded such a step as inconsistent with the dignity to which Prussia was entitled as one of the first class powers of the world. Prussian troops were now also hurried to the Rhine. Dismissal of the French Ambassador—Declaration of War.—On the 14th of July (1870), Count Benedetti, the French ambassador to Prussia, demanded an audience of King William, at Ems, for the purpose of securing the perpetual renunciation of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as a candidate for the throne of Spain; but as the king refused to receive him he started for Paris; and on the following day (July 15th, 1870), the French Corps Legislatif declared war against Prussia. The Prussian Armies.—Both the French and the Prussian people were enthu- siastic in support of their respective governments. All the German States rallied to the aid of Prussia, and the immediate mobilization of the whole Prussian army was ordered. The Crown-Prince Frederic William of Prussia was placed in com- mand of the South German armies, while his cousin, Prince Frederic Charles, was appointed to take command of the forces of North Germany. Although King William of Prussia was the nominal commander-in-chief of the German armies, the direction of the military operations of Germany was in the hands of the skillful general, Count von Moltke. After concentrating between Mayence and Coblentz, the Prussian forces were moved to the French frontier. The French Armies.—After concentrating in the vicinity of Nancy, Metz, and Thionville, the French forces were moved forward to the German ſrontier. In the latter part of July, the Emperor Napoleon III. left Paris for the seat of war, and took the chief command of the French armies. The principal French armies were the Army of the Moselle, under Marshal Bazaine, in the neighborhood of Metz and Thionville, and the Army of the Rhine, under Marshal MacMahon, in the vicinity of Strasburg. There was also a large army of reserves, under Marshal Canrobert, at Chalons-sur-Marne. Numerical Strength of the Belligerent Forces—Skirmish at Saar- brucken,--Toward the end of July, the German troops, 700,000 in number, occu- pied a line along the French frontier, extending from the Moselle to the Rhine. The French troops, 350,000 in number, were assembled at various points along the frontier, directly opposite the Prussian line. 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LEOPOLD. WIME: EAENTH CENTURY. 403 on the 30th of July and on the 1st of August, in which the French were repulsed, but on the 2d of August, the town was captured by the French, after a sharp fight. Battle of Weissenbourg—Advance of the Prussian Line.—On the 4th of August, the frontier town of Weissenbourg was captured by a part of the Prus. sian army under the Crown-Prince Frederic William, after a spirited engagement, in which the French General Douay was killed, and 800 French troops were made prisoners by the Prussians. The Prussian victory at Weissenbourg was followed by a general advance of the whole Prussian line intº France, and the Count von Moltke immediately assumed an offensive attitude. Battle of Woerth—Battle of Forbach.-On the 6th of August was ſought the battle of Woerth or Froschwiller, in which the Crown-Prince of Prussia, with a large force of Prussians and Bavarians, defeated the French under Marshal MacMahon, separated them from the remainder of the French army, and made 4,000 of them prisoners. The total French loss was 11,000 men, and the Prussian loss 3,500. On the very day of the battle of Woerth (August 6, 1870), the Prussian right, under General von Steinmetz, recaptured Saarbrucken, carried the heights of Spicheren aſter a severe struggle, and completely defeated the French under Gen- eral Frossard in the battle of Forbach, and afterwards compelled them to evacuate Forbach, St. Avold, and Thionville, and took 8;ooo of them prisoners. The whole French line fell back on Metz, followed by the Prussians. Consternation and Indignation in Paris.--When intelligence of the defeats of the French arms at Weissenbourg, Woerth, and Forbach reached Paris, the inhabi- tants of that proud capital manifested the most intense indignation, and the greatest excitement and consternation prevailed; and it was feared that a sudden revolution would take place, and result in the overthrow of the Bonaparte dynasty. Advance of the Prussians in France.—The Prussian right and centre, under General von Steinmetz and Prince Frederic Charles, now advanced on Metz, and 60,000 South German troops, under General von Werder, laid siege to Strasburg. At the same time, the Prussian left, under the Crown-Prince, followed the shat tered forces of Marshal MacMahon, in the direction of Nancy. On the 13th of August MacMahon evacuated Nancy, which was immediately taken possession of by the victorious forces of the Crown-Prince, MacMahon retreating to Chalons-sul . Marne. Movements near Metz—Battles of Courcelles, Vionville, and Grave- lotte.—Aſter the 1st and 2d Prussian armies had reached the Moselle, the French army, under Marshal Bazaine, at Metz, attempted to retreat from that strong fortress, ... on the 14th of August, but was met and defeated at Courcelles, by the 1st Prussian army, under General von Steinmetz, and driven back with heavy loss. On the fol- lowing day (August 15, 1870), the 1st Prussian army crossed the Moselle between Mctz and Thionville, to cut off Bazaine's retreat to Paris by the northern road to Verdun, while the 2d Prussian army, which had already passed the Moselle south of Metz, seized the southern road. On the 16th, a fierce and bloody battle was fought at Vionville, between Metz and Verdun, in which the French were defeated by the 2d Prussian army under Prince Frederic Charles. Bazaine's army was now in a perilous situation. On the 17th, the Prussians hurried the remainder of their corps across the Moselle for the final struggle. On the 18th (August, 1870), oc- 4O4. MODERAV HISTORY. curred the sanguinary battle of Gravelotte or Rezonville, west of Metz, which raged for nine hours, and in which Marshal Bazaine's army was again most disastrously defeated. The carnage of both sides was frightful. The battle-field and neighbor- ing villages were strewn with dead. During this week of battles, the French lost 50,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The victorious Prussians also lost heavily. Thus every attempt at retreat which Bazaine made was defeated. He was now blockaded in the vicinity of Metz, with no hope whatever of extricating himself from his perilous position. All communication between him and Paris was severed, and an attempt to move in any direction would result in another disastrous defeat of his army. - Advance of the Crown-Prince of Prussia toward Paris.-While the 1st and 2d Prussian armies, under General von Steinmetz and Prince Frederic Charles, were holding Bazaine fast at Metz, the Crown-Prince of Prussia, with the 3d Prus- sian army, 200,000 strong, having passed Metz on the south, was rapidly advancing toward Paris by way of Chalons-sur-Marne, MacMahon with his defeated and shat- tered forces retreating before him. King William at length removed his head- quarters from the Prussian armies near Metz to Bar-le-Duc, and then accompanied the Crown-Prince on his march toward Paris. In the meantime, a sharp conflict occurred at Verdun, between a French detachment and Io,000 German troops under the command of the Crown-Prince of Saxony; and Vitry-le-Francais was captured by the Prussians, after a spirited engagement. Battles of Beaumont and Sedan.-At length, when MacMahon, after having evacuated Chalons-sur-Marne, on the 23d of August, and after being reinforced, attempted to fly to the relief of Bazaine near Metz, the Prussian Crown-Prince, suddenly relinquishing his march toward the French capital, followed his antagonist northward, toward the frontier of Belgium. MacMahon's army was also threatened by the forces of Prince Frederic Charles. There was heavy skirmishing on the 28th and 29th of August, between the armies of MacMahon and the Crown-Prince. On the 30th (August, 1870), MacMahon made a movement toward Montmedy, but his army was attacked at Beaumont, and, after a tremendous conflict, utterly defeated and driven across the Meuse, toward the Belgian frontier, by the Prussian forces under the Crown-Prince. The Prussians captured twelve cannon and thousands of prisoners. During the night, both the French and Prussian armies received large reinforcements; and on the following day (August 31, 1870), the battle was renewed, and, after the most desperate fighting, the French were again disastrously defeated, and driven to Sedan. At daylight on the 1st of September, 1870, MacMahon's army, which was now reinforced, occupied a strong elevated position around the fortified town of Sedan, near the Belgian frontier. About 5 o'clock in the morning, the Prussians commenced the great battle of Sedan by simultaneous attacks on the French front and left flank. During a great part of the forenoon, the fighting was confined mainly to the artillery of both armies; but at length, the firing of musketry Decame quite lively, About noon, the Prussian infantry made a furious attempt to reak the French centre, but after the most desperate fighting they were repulsed. 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', º * | l'hill | | º º ºff. 15. .Fät | º | | | | | I | ! # ł || | sº º º | º | ; º | | { º | | | | º ###! | | º * ſº º |s. º | |# ſº º ſº |' | º ſº | | | | || | |#|| º | | | ºffſ / ' ', | ! º & | i | | } | | º : * = !'. %3 : | | # | || || |||}/º!' | * \\ * '. , , , i; º | ! | * - \ {.. ." § {{!!}|}}} |# ! }; | f º º º | | iſſ d º i º | Żl % Ø:232 % | || | § # g º: & | * º * º * 2. ãW | º | * | * i.e4 **. 2%. & (i. i § - h #|| ; i. § \ , iſ! §: g º sº * ###|| § ſ" | } | º ſº a \ M. º vº AV/AVE TEEAWTH CEAVTOR Y. 405 three o'clock, the French line, which had thus far gallantly withstood the Prussian assaults, wavered, and soon afterward broke. The battle now became a rout. The victorious Prussians hotly pursued the French troops, who, leaving everything be- hind them, were fleeing in dismay from the field, and throwing away their arms. The pursuing Prussians used the bayonet with terrible effect, as they were deter- mined to cut off the French retreat toward Belgium. Night put an end to the rout and pursuit, and the broken hosts of the French army took refuge in the fortress of Sedan. The Prussians had won a brilliant victory, but at the cost of 30,000 men in killed and wounded. The defeated French army had lost 20,000 men. On the 31st of August and the 1st of September (1870), Marshal Bazaine made another desperate effort to escape from Metz, but he was again defeated by Prince Frederic Charles, and driven back into the fortress. Surrender of MacMahon's Army—Surrender of Napoleon III.-On the 2d of September, 1870, the French army under Marshal MacMahon, then number- ing I2O,OOo men, and being entirely surrounded at Sedan, without any hope of escape whatever, was surrendered prisoners of war to King William of Prussia, by General Wimpffen, instead of Marshal MacMahon, who was severely wounded. The Emperor Napoleon III., who had been with MacMahon at Sedan, but who then held no command in the army, surrendered himself a prisoner to King William. In his letter to the King of Prussia, proposing surrender, the French Emperor said, “As I cannot die at the head of my army, I come to lay my sword at the feet of your majesty.” The King of Prussia treated his imperial captive with great courtesy and generosity, and allotted to him the chateau of Wilhelmshöhe, near Cassel, for a residence during his captivity in Germany. Thus, five weeks after the commence- ment of hostilities at Saarbrucken, the military power of France was thoroughly broken. The imperial career of Napoleon III. had now ended, and the Second French Empire had received its death-blow. The Paris Revolution of September—France Proclaimed a Republic. —When intelligence of the capitulation of MacMahon's army at Sedan and the surrender of the Emperor spread through Paris, the excitement of the people of that city became almost indescribable. The streets were filled with excited crowds, who demanded the dethronement of the Bonaparte dynasty and the establishment of a new I’rench Republic. A stormy scene took place in the Corps Legislatif. On Sunday, September 4th, 1870, the French capital was in revolution. The pop- ular agitation gradually became greater, and at length unparalleled excitement pre- vailed throughout the city. The Place de la Concorde was one mass of human beings, and the Boulevards were impassable, on account of the immense crowds assembled theie. The National Guards, however, succeeded in preserving order. The soldiers and National Guards fraternized with the people, singing the “Mar- seillaise” and wildly shouting “Vive la Republique!” The Corps Legislatif was surrounded by hundreds and thousands of excited Parisians, who demanded the deposition of the Bonapartes and the establishment of a republic. The Senate was suppressed, and the Corps Legislatif dissolved, after proclaiming, by a unani- mous yote, that the Bonaparte dynasty had forfeited the crown of France. The Republican members of the Corps Legislatif then proceeded to the Hotel de Ville, where they proclaimed France a Republic. A Provisional Government, entitled “The Government of National Defense,” was then formed, consisting of eleven 406 MOZ) ERAV HISTORY. persons,—namely, Emanuel Arago, Emanuel Cremieux, Jules Favre, Jules Ferry, Jules Simon, Ileon Gambetta, Garnier Pages, Ernest Picard, Henri Rochefort, Glais - Bizoin, and Eugene I'elletan, all representatives of Paris. The Parisians were wild with joy, at the dethronement of the Emperor, and the inauguration of the new Republic. They embraced each other and wept for joy. The Paris mob, which again ruled Supreme, was destroying in spite and fury. All signs having imperial arms and medals were torn down. The mob invaded the great palace of the Tuil- - tries, tore down the throne, destroyed everything marked with the imperial insignia, and carried away and cast into the river Seine, all the busts, statues, and pictures of the Bonapalte family. On the following day (September 5, 1870), the Provisional Government issued a proclamation, announcing that a Republic had been proclaimed at the Hotel de Ville. The Provisional Government also decreed that the Corps Legislatif was dissolved and the Senate abolished, and accorded full amnesty for all political crimes and offenses against the Empire. This sudden and remarkable revolution was accomplished without the sacrifice of a single life. The greatest enthusiasm prevailed throughout France, and the people of the departments every- where accepted the Republic. The Empress Eugenie had fled from Paris and gone to England. The Government of the Unites States promptly recognized the new French Republic. Advance of the Germans on Paris.—After the surrender of MacMahon's army and of the Emperor Napoleon at Sedan, the Crown Princes of Prussia and Saxony, accompanied by King William, the Count von Moltke, and the Count von Bismarck, marched against Paris, at the head of 400,000 German troops. The foº- tified town of Laon surrendered to the Prussians on the Ioth of September, but the citadel was treacherously blown up, killing several hundred French and German soldiers. The immense German armies, upon their arrival before Paris, about the middle of September, prepared for the prosecution of a vigorous siege of that great capital. Unsuccessful Attempts at Peace.—After the establishment of the Govern- ment of National Defense in Paris, on the 4th of September, energetic efforts on the part of France were made for peace with Germany. The distinguished Jules Favre, the new French Minister of Foreign Affairs, visited Count von Bismarck, and endeavored to procure a cessation of hostilities and the conclusion of a treaty of peace. Favre offered many humiliating concessions to Germany; but Bis- marck's harsh demand that the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine should be ceded to Germany, and the non-existence of a permanent government in France, rendered the efforts at peace abortive; and thus this sanguinary war was left to continue. Siege and Capture of Strasburg.—Soon after the German armies had entered France, 60,000 South German troops, under General von Werder, invested Stras- burg, the chief city of the French province of Alsace, which was garrisoned by about 20,000 French troops, under General Uhrich. Although the city suffered heavily from the fierce bombardments which the besieging Germans opened upon it, being often on fire in different places and a great part of it destroyed, the garri- son held out heroically for two months, refusing repeated demands for surrender, and making many desperate sorties. Finally, on the 27th of September (1870), after the garrison and the inhabitants had suffered from famine, and any further AV/AIAE 7'EAAV7'H CEAV7'UR Y. 4O7 defense being impossible, General Uhrich surrendered the city of Strasburg and its garrison, then consisting of 17,000 men, to General von Werder. The city was immediately occcpied by the conquering Germans, and placed under German rule. Investment and Siege of Paris.-On the 16th of September (1870), the German armies, half a million strong, began the investment of Paris, and, on the same day, the city was declared in a state of siege. The headquarters of King William were established at Ferrieres, of the Crown-Prince of Prussia at Versailles, and of the Crown-Prince of Saxony at Grand Tremblay. The French capital was garrisoned by about 230,000 troops, under the command of General Trochu. The Parisians were determined to defend their city to the last extremity, resolving to emulate Metz and Strasburg. Before the siege had commenced, the city had been supplied with immense stores of provisions. Paris, surrounded by a strong wall (the enciente), and by numerous fortifications, was impregnable to attack, and could only be conquered by starvation. The principal forts defending the city, namely Valerien, d'Issy, Vanvres, Montrouge, Bicetre, Noisy, and Rosny, were strongly garrisoned. Numerous engagements of an unimportant character occurred around Paris, during the latter part of September and throughout October. On the 30th of September, a severe conflict took place between the French troops of the line and the Prussians, resulting in the repulse of the French, who took refuge behind the forts. On the 22d of October, Paris was completely surrounded by the German army of investment, about 300,000 strong, and the German military authorities per- mitted no person whatever to enter or leave the beleaguered capital. All commu- nication between Paris and the outside world was cut off, except by means of bal- loons. Before Paris had been completely surrounded by the besieging Germans, some of the members of the French Provisional Government established themselves at Tours, while the others remained in the besieged capital. Communication between Paris and Tours was kept up by the dangerous service of balloons. German Victories at Orleans.—In the meantime, a new French army of more than IOO,000 men had been formed on the Loire. A portion of this army was defeated by a German force, under General Von Der Tann, near Orleans, on the IOth of October. The French fled in disorder, leaving Io,000 prisoners in the hands of the victorious Germans. On the 12th of October, the French Army of the Loire was defeated at Orleans, after nine hours' fighting. The Prussians took Orleans by storm, and captured Io,000 prisoners. Capture of Soissons.—On the 17th of October, Soissons capitulated to the Germans commanded by the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, after an obstinate contest of four days, and the most sanguinary fighting in the streets, no quarter being shown to the wounded, the women from the houses hurling missiles upon the heads of the Germans, and much of the city being destroyed. Bazaine's Surrender of Metz.-After many unsuccessful sorties, and when famine had begun to threaten the army and citizens of Metz with its horrors, Mar- shal Bazaine surrendered the city of Metz, one of the most strongly-fortified places in the world, together with his army, then consisting of 173,000 men, and all his artillery, Small arms, and ammunition, to Prince Frederic Charles, on the 27th of October. This disgraceful capitulation produced the most intense indignation throughout France. Bazaine, who had never recognized the Republic, was sus- pected of treachery by his countrymen; and the Government of National Defense 408 MOE) ERAW HISTOR V ordered the arrest of the Marshal wherever found in France. King William created the Crown-Prince of Prussia and Prince Frederic Charles Field-Marshals. This was the first instance of any such dignity being conferred upon any prince of the House of Hohenzollern. Failure of Renewed Attempts at Peace.—In the latter part of October and in the beginning of November (1870), in consequence of the fall of Metz, renewed efforts were made on the part of France for peace. Bismarck’s firm refusal to consent to an armistice on any other basis than the cession of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, and his rejection of the proposition for the revictualling of Paris as a condition of the proposed armistice, rendered all efforts at an armistice, as the fore- runner of a treaty of peace, fruitless, and both parties determined upon the con- tinuation of the terrible struggle. Victories of the French Army of the Loire near Orleans.—After the German victories near and at Orleans, in October, the French Army of the Loire was gradually augmenting in numerical strength. On the 9th of November, after a severe battle of two days, the Army of the Loire, 150,000 strong, under the com- mand of General d'Aurelles de Paladines, inflicted a disastrous defeat on the German force commanded by General Von Der Tann, near Orleans, and recap- tured that city. The German loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was 12,000 men. Following up his victory, Paladines again defeated Von Der Tann at Arthe- nay, the next day (November 10, 1870). The defeated and shattered forces of Von Der Tann retreated hastily in the direction of Paris. Operations at Dijon—Capture of Thionville—Battle of Amiens.—On the Ioth of November, the town of Dijon, in Eastern France, which had in the meantime fallen into the hands of the Prussians, was recaptured by the French Army of the East; but on the 16th of the same month (November, 1870), Dijon was reoccupied by the Prussians in heavy force. On the 25th of November, Thion- ville surrendered to the Prussians, after a fierce bombardment, by which a great part of that town was reduced to ashes. Two days later (November 27, 1870), a French force was badly beaten at Amiens, by the Prussians, under General Man- teuffel, and driven toward Arras with severe loss. Defeats of the French Army of the Loire near Orleans.—On the 28th of November, after five days’ fighting, in the vicinity of Orleans, between the French Army of the Loire, and the Germans, under Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, the design of Paladines to advance to the relief of Paris was frustrated. On the 4th of December, after four days' heavy fighting near Orleans, the Army of the Loire suffered a disastrous defeat from the German armies, commanded by Prince Frederic Charles and the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg. The Germans took 10,000 prisoners and reoccupied Orleans, which had been evacuated by the French. The Army of the Loire retreated southward, toward Blois, closely pursued by the vic- torious forces of Prince Frederic Charles. On the Ioth of December, after three days' fighting in the vicinity of Meung, eleven miles south-west of Orleans, the Army of the Loire was defeated by the Germans, under the Grand-Duke of Meck- lenburg. On the 14th of December, after four days' more fighting around Beau- gency, the Army of the Loire retired to Blois and Tours. General d’Aurelles de Paladines now resigned his command, and retired to his estate. The French Pro- visional Government had already left Tours, and been installed at Bordeaux. §§§ Ns N s \s . sº wº §§ . .NN N N º N w §§ §§ WN: N. Nº. - § SS N Ns \\ R. §§ §. N §§ §§ W \ \s g t * A * N º \\ .. \\ § N §§ § SAMºWW. N W § NS, W º \ \ s §§ N | §§§ \ N NR \\ § § \\\\\ NS A. \\ W \\ . . . . \\ º º \ º l \\ \\ \ § \ \ \\ º MARCK. 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On the 2d of December, a French force of 150,000 men, under General Ducrot, having been sent out of Paris by General Trochu on the preceding day, made a desperate attempt to force the German line of investment, and partially suc- ceeded, compelling the Saxons and Wurtembergers, Ioo,000 in number, to fall back, After a sanguinary conflict of seven hours. Several days afterward, Ducrot's force was compelled to retire back into Paris. During the Christmas holidays, the weathe, around Paris was intensely cold, and thousands of French and German soldiers were frozen to death. - Capture of Pfalzburg—Capture of Montmedy-On the 14th of December, the fortress of Pfalzburg, in the Vosges Mountains, surrendered unconditionally to the Germans, who had laid siege to the place soon aſter the battle of Woerth. On the following day (December 15, 1870), Montmedy, near the Belgian ſpontier, also capitulated to a German besieging force. Restoration of the German Empire—King William Emperor.—For sev- eral months, negotiations had been in progress for a union of the South German States—namely, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt—with the North German Confederation. These negotiations were successfully completed in the early part of December, 1870; and, on the 9th of that month, the King of Prussia, with the desire of the German princes and people, accepted the title of Emperor of Germany. On the 19th of January, 1871, in the presence of all the German princes, in the Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles, in France, King William, of Prussia, was formally proclaimed Emperor of Germany. Thus the long aspirations and dreams of the German people for the unity of their Fatherland were finally realized in the restoration of the German Empire, which had been dissolved in 1806, by the action of Napoleon I. - Bombardment of Paris.-Having grown impatient at the lengthy duration of the siege of Paris, the Germans determined to compel the devoted capital to sur- render by assault and bombardment. In the latter part of December, 1870, the besiegers opened a heavy bombardment on Fort Avron, which was in consequence evacuated by its French garrison, and immediately occupied by German troops. (December 30, 1870.) The forts on the east and south sides of Paris were so vig- orously bombarded that some of them—Forts Noisy, Rosny, d'Issy, and Vanvres— were at length silenced, but they again resumed fire, and replied as vigorously to the fire from the German batteries. Both the French and German armies suffered much from the severity of the season. Much damage was done to the suburban villages of Paris by the heavy fire from the German batteries; but the Parisians, although suffering greatly from the inconveniences and miseries of the siege, were as determined as ever upon deſense. Thousands of balls from the German guns fell in the suburbs of Paris, creating havoc in all directions, killing men, women, and children, in the streets and houses, striking ambulances, hospitals, museums, public libraries, churches, school-houses, and dwellings, and setting many portions of the city on fire. The horrors of the bombardment inflamed the Parisians with rage, and made them more resolute than ever in their intention to :esist to the ut- most. On the 9th of January, 1871, a severe action occurred at the village of 4IO MODERAV HISTORY. Clamart, in which the Prussians were victorious. On the 10th of January, General Trochu was repulsed in a sally on the north side of Paris, from St. Denis; and on the 11th, an unsuccessful sortie was made on the south side, between Forts Vanvres and Montrouge. On the 19th of January, a great sortie was made from Fort Vale- rien, by General Trochu, but he was repulsed, with the loss of 3000 men. The Army of the Loire—Battles of Vendome and Le Mans.—The French Army of the Loire, under General Chanzy, assumed the offensive, about the begin- ning of January (1871), and the Germans, under Prince Frederic Charles, were concentrating at Orleans, with the view of preventing Chanzy’s army from advancing to the relief of Paris. A severe engagement occurred near Vendome, on the 6th of January, between the Army of the Loire and the forces under Prince Frederic Charles, which resulted in the defeat of the French, who were in consequence com- pelled to retreat westward, closely pursued by the Germans. After a series of spirited actions, Chanzy’s army was driven to Le Mans, where a general battle was fought on the 11th of January. The German army, under Prince Frederic Charles, attacked the Army of the Loire along the whole line, carried all the French posi- tions, occupied Le Mans, and then went in hot pursuit of the defeated and fleeing hosts of General Chanzy. On the 15th (January, 1871), another battle took place, which ended in another defeat for Chanzy, who then continued his retreat westward to Laval. The loss of the Germans in these battles was only 3500 men, while they made 22,000 prisoners. The Army of the Loire was now thoroughly crippled, and the last hope of the French for the relief of their capital had vanished. The French Army of the North—Battles of Amiens, Bapaume, and St. Quentin.—In the meantime, there had been great activity in the movements of the French Army of the North, commanded by General Faidherbe, which was endeavoring to coöperate with the Army of the Loire, in its efforts to raise the siege of Paris. On the 23d of December, 1870, Faidherbe's army, then numbering 60,000 men, was defeated and routed near Amiens, by the Germans under General Man- teuffel. At length, Faidherbe's army met with some successes, which led to the concentration of the German forces in the North of France under General Manteuf- fel. On the 3d of January, 1871, the French Army of the North was repulsed in an attack upon a portion of General Manteuffel's army at Bapaume. After the battle, Faidherbe's army hastily retreated, and was vigorously pursued by the German cav- alry. On the 19th of January (1871), a severe battle was fought at St. Quentin, in which Faidherbc's army was defeated by the Germans, who lost over 3000 men, but captured 4000 prisoners. Faidherbe then retreated northward, and near the close of January he reached Dunkirk. Battles at Belfort—Defeat and Retreat of the French Army of the East. —At the close of December, 1870, a French army of more than Ioo,000 men, under General Bourbaki, moved into Eastern France, to operate against the Germans under General von Werder, in the vicinity of Belfort. The Germans laid siege to Belfort, but were repulsed in an assault upon the fortifications of the town. On the Ioth of January, 1871, General von Werder took Viller Exel by storm, and repulsed the French in their attempts to recapture the place. On the 17th of January, after three days of severe fighting at Belfort, the French Army of the East, under General Bourbaki, met with a disastrous repulse, and, after a loss of 8,000 men, was com- pelled to retrext, closely pursued by the victorious Germans. In a series of skir- º AVINE TEENTH CENTURY. 4II mishcs with the Prussians, Bourbaki's army was successful. General Manteuffel, who was now placed in chief command of the German armies in Eastern France, prepared to bring about the destruction of the French Army of the East. Bour. baki's defeated and shattered army retreated to Besancon, closely pursued by Man- teuffel's victorious forces. These disasters to the French arms had such an effect upon the mind of General Bourbaki that he attempted suicide. Aſter a series of engagements, lasting three days, and ending on the 1st of February, on the Swiss frontier, Manteuffel captured 15,000 prisoners, and compelled Bourbaki's army, 80,000 strong, to retreat into Switzerland. Battle of Dijon—Siege and Capture of Longwy.—On the 22d of January, 1871, the Prussians in large force attacked Dijon, but they were disastrously repulsed, after a severe battle of five hours, and compelled to retreat. By the 20th of January, the town of Longwy, near the Belgian frontier, had been completely invested by a Prussian force. The French garrison made two successful sorties, dislodged the Prussians, and silenced their batteries; but, after a furious assault and bombardment, Longwy, with its garrison of 4,000 French troops, fell into the hands of the Prussians on the 25th of January. Surrender of Paris.--At length, after the French capital had suffered terribly from the fierce bombardment by the Germans, and after famine had wrought its horrors upon the inhabitants of the beleaguered city, the besieged made proposals of surrender to the besiegers; and on the 27th of January, 1871, the articles of capitulation were signed by which the city of Paris was surrendered to the Ger- mans, and its garrison of 185,000 men, under General Trochu, became prisoners of war. The Germans levied a contribution of 53,000,000 francs upon the conquered city; and the forts around the city were immediately occupied by German garri- sons. Measures were taken for the revictualling of the city under German super- vision. For several weeks after the surrender, hundreds of Parisians died daily from starvation. An Armistice—A French National Assembly.—The fall of Paris opened the eyes of the French Government and people to the hopelessness and folly of resistance to the gigantic power of Germany, and made them anxious for the speedy conclusion of peace. An armistice of three weeks was signed at Versailles, on the 28th of January, by Jules Favre on the part of the French Republic, and by Prince Bismarck on the part of the German Empire, in order to allow the French people to elect representatives to a National Assembly, which should convene at Bordeaux, to consider and ratify a treaty of peace with Germany. Each of the different parties in France,—the Legitimists, the Orleanists, the Bonapartists, and the Republicans, —made great efforts for success in the election for deputies to the proposed National Assembly. The elections took place on the 8th of February, and resulted in the choice mostly of Orleanists and Republicans. The National Assembly convened at Bordeaux on the 15th of F ebruary, 1871, and upon its organization unanimously chose Louis Adolphe Thiers, the distinguised historian, orator, and statesman, to the office of President of the French Republic, and took measures for the speedy restoration of peace. Preliminary Peace of Paris.—After much negotiation, the armistice having been in the meantime extended one week, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, on the 25th of February, 1871, by President Thiers and Jules Favre on the 4I 2 MOZ) ERAW tº ISTORY. part of the Frence Republic, and by Prince Bismarck on the part of the German Empire. France was required to cede to Germany nearly the whole of Alsace, in- cluding Strasburg, and one-fifth of Lorraine, including Metz; and pay five milliards of francs (equal to one thousand million dollars), in three years, as indemnity for the losses sustained by Germany in the war: a large portion of the German army was to garrison a number of the French fortresses until the entire indemnity was paid, the expense of supporting this army of occupation to be paid by France; and the Emperor William and a portion of the German army were to enter Paris, and occupy the Champs Elysees. On the 1st of March, 1871, the National Assembly at Bordeaux, by a large majority, ratified these terms of peace, so harsh and humili- ating to France, and the great Franco-German War ended. German Triumphal Entry into Paris—Release of Napoleon.—On the Ist of March, 1871, the Emperor William, of Germany, and 30,000 German troops made their grand triumphal entry into the French capital. Contrary to the expecta- tions of many, no acts of violence were committed toward them, few of the inhabi- tants of the city appearing in the streets. The Germans evacuated Paris two days afterward (March 3, 1871), and on the 14th, the Emperor William started for Berlin, where he arrived on the 17th (March, 1871). The ex-Emperor Napoleon was released from his captivity at Wilhelmshöhe by the German Government, on the 6th of March, whereupon he left Germany, and retired to Chiselhurst, in England, where he died on the 9th of January, 1873. The war just closed was the greatest of modern-times. During the six months that military operations were in progress, . nearly half a million human lives were sacrificed. The successes of Germany in this mighty conflict were among the most remarkable in the annals of war: her armies were victorious in nearly every encounter; three of the most strongly-fortified places in the world yielded to the power of her arms; three of the largest armies ever raised were compelled to lay down their arms; the proudest capital in the world was occupied by her warriors; and the once-proudest monarch in Europe was made a captive. In all, 700,000 French soldiers were made prisoners during the war. The pride of France was thoroughly humbled, and her sword was broken. Definitive Peace of Frankfort-on-the-Main.-On the Ioth of May, 1871, a definitive treaty of peace was signed at Frankfort-on-the-Main, by Jules Favre and Ponyer Quartier on the part of France, and by Prince Bismarck on the part of Ger- many. Bismarck agreed to a reduction of the war indemnity to be paid by France to Germany, from five milliards of francs to four and a half milliards. The French were required to restore all the German ships captured during the war, or to refund their value in cash in cases in which the vessels were sold. According to this treaty, the Germans were only to hold Belfort, Nancy, and Longwy, as hostages until the fulfilment of its conditions. This treaty was speedily ratified by the Gov- ernments of France and Germany, whereupon the greater part of the German Army of Occupation evacuated France, and the French prisoners in Germany were returned to France as speedily as the railroads could transport them. ITALIAN REVOLUTION OF 1870. Garibaldi's Movement on Rome in 1862.-In 1862, General Garibaldi, at the head of a band of Italian volunteers, attempted a descent upon the Papal terri- , NAVE 7'EEAVTH CEAV7'UR Y. 4I3 tories, with the view of uniting Rome with the Kingdom of Italy; but he was met and defeated at Aspromonte, by the troops of King Victor Emmanuel, on the 29th of August, 1862. Garibaldi was kept a prisoner for several months. The Treaty of September, 1864–Garibaldi’s Movement in 1867.-In September, 1864, a treaty was concluded between France and Italy, by which King Victor Emmanuel was bound to prevent any violent attempt on the dominions of tle Pope. In the autumn of 1867, Garibaldi made another movement against Rome, but he was again unsuccessful, and sent as a prisoner to the islanºl of Caprera. The Italian Movement on Rome in September, 1870.--When the Second French Empire had received its death-blow by the catastrophe of Sedan, at the beginning of September, 1870, the King of Italy felt himself freed from all obliga- tions entered into with Napoleon III. At the same time, there was much political agitation in Italy, and fears of a republican rising were entertained by the Italian Government. When intelligence of the Paris Revolution of September 4th, 1870, and the proclamation of the Third French Republic, had reached Florence, King Victor Emmanuel and his Cabinet resolved upon the military occupation of Rome, and the annexation of the Papal territory to the Kingdom of Italy. The King of Italy was compelled to take this step by the ardent wishes of his subjects, and any refusal or delay on his part to cºmply with their wishes would have cost him his crown. The people of the Pontificial States also petitioned the King of Italy to occupy Rome. On the 12th of September, 1870, an Italian army of 4000 men, under General Cadorna, marched into the Papal territory. General Cadorna issued a proclamation to the Roman people, assuring them that he did not bring war to them, but peace and order, and that the independence of the Holy See would not be molested. There was great enthusiasm among the Italian troops and people; and, as the troops advanced toward Rome, the people everywhere fraternized with them, and received them with acclamations. The ultimatum of the Italian Government stripped the Pope of his temporal power, but permitted him to remain in Rome as Head of the Roman Catholic Church. King Victor Emmanuel issued a proclama- tion to the Romans, declaring that peace, order, and self-government, and not war, were brought by the Italians. The Pope protested to the foreign ambassadors in Rome against the Italian occupation of the Papal dominions; but, anxious to avoid bloodshed, he also ordered a cessation of all resistance on the part of the Papal troops. & Surrender of Rome—End of the Pope's Temporal Power.—The siege of Rome, by the Italian army, under General Cadorna, commenced on the 19th of September, 1870; and on the following day, the Papal troops, 9,300 in number, surrendered, and the triumphant Italians entered the city and were welcomed by the Romans as liberators. A plebiscite was taken in Rome a few days afterward, resulting in a unanimous vote in favor of the annexation of the Eternal City to the Kingdom of Italy. All political prisoners in the Papal territories were immediately set free, and a provisionial government was organized by General Cadorna. TI e King of Italy visited Rome in the early part of December, 1870. Rome made the Capital of Italy.—On the 3d of July, 1871, King Victor Emmanuel and his Ministers, and the foreign embassies to the Italian Government, 4I4 MOZ) ERAV HISTORY. . e removed from Florence to Rome, which then became the the capital of a united Italy. THE FRENCH CIVIL WAR OF 1871. The Red Republicans of Paris.-No sooner was a preliminary treaty of peace between France and Germany agreed to, than France began to be distracted by a fierce and bloody civil war, caused by a rebellion of the Red Republicans and Communists of Paris. For some time, the Red Republicans had been quite active, and engaged in revolutionary schemes. Fearing a formidable revolutionary rising, President Thiers and the National Assembly established themselves at Ver- sailles. On the 6th of March, 1871, the revolutionists intrenched themselves in the Montmartre district with a battery of guns, and the Thiers Government brought up troops of the line to resist any attack which the insurgents might make on the capital. The National Guards resisted the action for their disbandment, piled their arms on the Boulevards, and collected in groups, with discontented and angry looks. - Rising of the Paris Red Republicans.—On the 17th of March, the Ver-. sailles Government sent a detachment of troops and gendarmes to occupy the posi- tions of the mob, which had been rioting for several days, at Montmartre. A considerable number of cannon were removed, and the gendarmes took 400 pris- oners. The next morning (March 18, 1871), the National Guards of Belleville and Montmartre, with many unarmed soldiers of the line, arrived on the scene, and released the prisoners. A severe conflict took place in the Rue Royale. Some artillerymen and cuirassiers were surroundered by a frantic mob, who accosted them with shouts of “Go and fight the Prussians.” General Faron's troops, re- maining ſaithful to the Government, cut their way through the mob by which they were surrounded, and escaped, after capturing the insurgent barricades at the point of the bayonet. Generals Lecompte and Thomas were abandoned on the heights of Montmartre, and shot in the Rue de Rosiere, by their troops, who joined the insurgents. Progress of the Paris Rebellion.—The Central Committee of the National Guard placarded two proclamations, defending their course, and issued orders for the election of a Communal Council for Paris. The regular soldiers in Paris fra- ternized with the insurgents, who now virtually ruled the city, and mob-law was completely triumphant. The bourgeoisie, or middle class, displayed perfect apathy, and no resistance was made to the insurgents. By the 20th of March (1871), the insurgents held possession of the Hotel de Ville, the Palais de Justice, the Tuileries, and the Place Vendome. Barricades were erected in some quarters, and Forts d'Issy, Vanvres, and Montrouge were seized and garrisoned by the insurgents, and measures were taken to insure the defense of Paris against any assault from the Government ſorces. On the morning of the 21st (March, 1871), the insurgents at Montmartre and Belleville saluted each other with rounds of artillery, and fresh barricades were erected in the vicinity of Batignolles, in the Rue d’Amsterdam, in the Avenue Clichy, and near the Great Northern Railway Station. The Versailles Government.—The greatest excitement prevailed at Ver- sailles, in consequence of the revolutionary movement in Paris; and the National AW/AWE 7'EEAVTH CENTURY. 4I5 Assembly soon rallied a large army, under General Vinoy, to its support. On the meeting of the Assembly on the 21st of March, all the deputies of the Mountain were absent. Measures were taken by the Thiers Government for the suppression of the rebellion, and Versailles resembled a camp. Contrary to the expectations of the Paris Reds, no successful rising of their partisans in the other large cities of France took place; but the departments rallied to the support of the Versailles Gov- ernment. Establishment of the Paris Commune—A Reign of Terror in Paris.-- The Communal elections in Paris took place on the 26th of March, and resulted in an overwhelming majority for the revolutionists. The Commune was soon organ- ized, holding its first sitting on the 29th of March. A reign of Terror was now inaugurated in Paris, and the outrages of 1793 were repeated. The cry of the Socialists and Red Republicans was, “Death to the priests l’” “Death to the rich!” “Death to the property-owners!” Aristocrats and wealthy persons were in constant danger of being dragged to the guillotine, and more than IOO,OOO of the more respeta- able Parisians fled in consternation from the city. Priests were arrested and thrown into prison, churches were sacked, and religious service was suspended. Journals which supported the Versailles Government were suppressed, and several journalists were sentenced to death. The insurgents boldly avowed their determination to march to Versailles, disperse the National Assembly, overthrow the Thiers Govern- ment, and establish “The Universal Republic.” Temporizing Policy of President Thiers.-The Government and the . National Assembly had already collected a considerable army; but, instead of adopting prompt measures for the suppression of the insurrection, President Thiers lost much precious time by temporizing with the Paris insurgents, with the view of bringing about peace without bloodshed. On the contrary, energy and resolution, but also great inefficiency, were displayed by the Paris Commune. Battle of Courbevoie.—At the close of March, 1871, the military forces of both parties were in motion; and on the 2d of April, a spirited action, favorable to the Government forces, occurred at Courbevoie. The defeated insurgents fled to the bridge of Neuilly, where they were again defeated. More than 200 insurgents were killed, and many were wounded. The insurgents who were made prisoners by the Government troops were immediately shot. Terrible Battle between Paris and Versailles.—On the 3d of April, 100,000 Communists, under General Bergerot and Gustave Flourens, issued from Paris, at the Neuilly gate, and marched against Versailles. They were soon met by the Assembly- ists under General Vinoy, and a furious battle ensued, which resulted in great destruc- tion of life. Contrary to expectations of the insurgents, the garrison in Fort Valerien did not fraternize with them, but, remaining faithful to the Versailles Government, suddenly opened a heavy fire upon them, producing the greatest consternation in their ranks. General Bergerot had just got out of his carriage when the vehicle was smashed to pieces by a bomb-shell. The wildest confusion ensued, and the main body of the Communist army retreated back to Paris, but General Bergerot and 35,000 men were cut off and defeated in an attempt to pass Fort Valerien. Among the killed on the side of the insurgents was the violent political agitator, Gustave Flourens. The Government forces were completely victorious. - 416 MO DERAV HISTORY Government Successes.—A night attack by the insurgents upon the bridge of Sevres was repulsed by a detachment of the Versailles army, on the 5th of April. On the 6th, the insurgent garrisons in Forts d'Issy and Vanvres kept up a resolute fire on the Government troops at Chatillon; and on the 7th, the insurgents were dislodged from the bridge of Sevres, and a fierce cannonade was kept up between Chatillon and Forts d'Issy and Vanvres. Burial of the Insurgent Dead in Paris.-The burial of the insurgent dead in Paris, on the 6th of April, was an extraordinary scene. The most intense grief and indignation were manifested by the Parisians. Hundreds of women were marching along the Boulevards; and the bodies of the slain were interred in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, amid the shrieks of women and the cries of the men for vengeance on “The assassins of Versailles.” Pere la Chaise was thronged with people, who shouted, “Vive la Republique!” “Vive la Commune!” Battle of Neuilly.—On the 7th of April, severe fighting occurred at Porte de Neuilly. The Communists at Courbevoie were dislodged by the guns of Fort Vale- rien, but they rallied up the Avenue de Neuilly, and opened a severe fire on the Versailles troops who appeared on the heights. The Communists were forced , to retire behind the bridge of Neuilly, which they barricaded, but the pursuing Ver- saillists shelled and demolished their barricades. In attempting to hold the bridge, the insurgent National Guards suffered severely, and being finally compelled to retire, were closely pursued by the Government troops; but the insurgent guns swept the Avenue de Neuilly and checked the pursuit. After vainly endeavoring, under protection of their artillery, to throw up barricades across the avenue, the insurgents were entirely driven out of Neuilly, and found themselves obliged to take refuge behind the ramparts. Marshal MacMahon—Outrages and Crimes of the Commune.—On the 8th of April, there were spirited engagements at various points. Fort Valérien and the advanced Government batteries fiercely bombarded Porte Maillot, many of their shells falling in the Champs Elysees. Marshal MacMahon was now invested with the chief command of the Government forces. The Paris Commune was daily growing more desperate, and the most shameful outrages and revolutionary excesses were perpetrated. Additional numbers of priests and nuns were thrown into prison; and at length, a demand was made on the Church for 1,000,000 francs, the insur- gents threatening to kill the Archbishop of Paris, if the sum was not paid. The Archbishop suffered the most shameful treatment from a band of inſuriated Reds. Bombardment of Paris—Measures for Defense.—There was now severe fighting under the very walls of Paris, and shells were constantly falling in the Champs Elysees. The Arc de Triomphe was repeatedly struck and much damaged. The fighting around Paris was very severe on the 15th and 16th of April. Many more of the inhabitants leſt the city. The insurgents erected barricades in the Place Vendome, in the Rue Castiglione, in the vicinity of the Tuileries, at Montmartre, nd at Belleville, in anticipation of an attack from the Government army. The ommune continued the arrests of priests, and scarcely a church in Paris now remained open. Insurgent Victory at Vanvres.—The Government troops attacked the insur- gents at Vanvres on the 15th of April, and a bloody battle ensued. The Commun- AVIAWE 7'EEAVTH CEAVTUR P. 417 ists, completely taken by surprise, were driven back; but they soon rallied, and, after a desperate fight, compelled the Assemblyists to retreat, and regained their lost ground. During the day the conflict was several times renewed, but in the end the insurgents were left masters of their position, and the Versaillists suffered severely from the deadly fire from the insurgent garrison in Fort Vanvres. On the 17th, the insurgents were again victorious, in a furious engagement at Neuilly, in which each side lost about 2500 men. Battle of Asnieres.—On the 18th of April, the insurgents were badly defeated at Asnières. Their large defensive works were fiercely assailed by the Government troops. The Communists fled across the Seine, before the heavy cross-fire from the attacking Government columns. After being reinforced, the insurgents rallied and renewed the battle; but they were again defeated with heavy loss, being a second time driven across the Seine by the Versailles troops. Extraordinary Measures of Defense by the Commune.—The insurgents continued the work of fortifying Paris, and the most desperate resources were being rendered available for the defense of the city against the Government forces. In various quarters, barricades were erected, surrounded by broad deep trenches, be- yond which mines of powder were laid. These measures of the Communists for defense greatly terrified the people of Paris. At the Beaujou Hospital, crowds of women, with streaming hair, were uttering loud shrieks, and demanding their hus- bands, brothers, and children. On the 23d of April, the Government batteries opened a furious cannonade upon Forts d'Issy and Vanvres, and the ramparts at Pont du Jour. - Terrific Bombardment of Paris.-The bombardment of Paris on Sunday night, April 30th, was fearful and apparently utterly reckless as to the amount of damage it inflicted on the city. The Parisians were greatly excited, and large crowds were assembled on the street corners, discussing the alarming condition of affairs. Large bodies of Versailles troops were moved toward Paris, to reinforce the Government Army of Investment. The insurgents at Neuilly kept up the indignation of the people of Paris by throwing petroleum-shells into the city, the Parisians being led to believe that they came from the lines of the Versailles army. e Capture of Clamart and other Government Successes.—On the 1st of May, the Clamart railway station was captured by the Assemblyists at the point of the bayonet, and about 300 insurgents were killed in the action. On the 6th of May, the insurgents were repulsed, with a heavy loss, in a sortie from Fort d'Issy. The Government army continued its approaches to the Bois de Boulogne; and on the 7th of May, the Versailles batteries reopened fire on Pont du Jour and other points. Capture of Fort d'Issy—Investment and Siege of Paris.-After many stubborn conflicts and furious assaults, Fort d'Issy was finally captured and occu. pied by the Government forces, on the 8th of May. On the following day (May 9, 1871), the investment of Paris from Gennevilliers to Fort d'Issy by the Government forces was complete, and preparations were being made for a grand assault on the city. On the 13th of May, 30,000 Versaillists were in the Bois de Boulogne, shel- tered by the trenches of the besieging army. A heavy column of Communist troops 27 418 MODERN HISTOR Y. which attempted a sortie from Port Dauphine was blown to atoms by the bursting of twenty shells which came from the lines of the Versailles army. Capture of Fort Vanvres.—After many desperate struggles and fierce assaults and bombardments, Fort Vanvres fell into the possession of the Government troops, on the 14th of May, the Communist garrison having fled, by a subterranean passage, to Fort Montrouge. The Government troops found sixty cannon and eighteen mortars in the fort. The approaches to the ramparts and fortifications of Paris were now actively pushed forward, under cover of a heavy cannonade, and prepara tions were being made by Marshal MacMahon for a grand attack on the walls, or snciente, of Paris. - Bombardment of the Enciente of Paris-By the 15th of May, the Gov- ernment troops were under the walls of Paris, exchanging shots with the insurgents, who lined the ramparts from Porte de la Meute to Porte d'Issy. Paris was now completely invested and declared in a state of siege. The Parisians were expelled from the trenches between Forts d'Issy and Vamvres. Breaches were made in the enciente of Paris, by the furious cannonade from the Government guns, and the Antiuel gate was now completely destroyed. The Western and South-western arrondissements of Paris were now uninhabitable, on account of the great destruc- " tion of life and property in those portions of the city. On the night of the 15th of May, the Communists were repulsed with heavy loss, in a sortie upon the Govern- ment troops in the Bois de Boulogne; and the Versaillists continued to fire around the ramparts from Pont du Jour to Porte Maillot. Destruction of the Column in the Place Vendome.—At six o'clock in the evening of the 16th of May (1871), the great Column in the Place Vendome, which had been erected there by Napoleon I. to commemorate his great victory at Austerlitz, was levelled with the ground, by order of the Paris Commune. The Column fell at full length in the Rue de la Paix, amid the shouts of “Vive la Repub- ſique !” “Vive la Commune!” from the multitude which had assembled in the Rue de la Paix and the Rue Castiglione, to witness the destruction of this monument of imperial glory. The Government Forces in Paris—Battles in the Rue St. Honore and Rue Royale.—On Sunday night, May 21st, the Government troops effected an entrance into Paris, through the Bois de Boulogne, when the most terrific fighting of the whole civil war commenced; and for a week, Paris was one vast battle-field. On the 22d (May, 1871), the Government troops, under Marshal MacMahon, con- tinued pouring into the city, through the Bois de Boulogne; and very soon three of the principal avenues leading to the Champs Elysees were in the possession of the Government forces. The Communists were now thrown into the greatest confusion, A bloody battle occurred on the same day in the Rue St. Honore, where the insur- gent barricades were captured and recaptured six times. The Government troops charged down the street with fury, and were fired upon from the windows of the tonciergieries. Many of the Communist barricades were captured, and the Champs Elysees were swept by the heavy fire from the Versailles artillery, which were planted near the Arc de Triomphe. Many leaders of the Commune were captured, and some massacres were perpetrated. The head-quarters of Marshal MacMahon were established in the new opera-house. The heaviest fighting occurred in the NIWETEENTH CENTURY: 419 Rte Royale, where the slaughter was terrific. At the Tuileries, 10,000 insurgents were made prisoners by the Government troops under General Clinchart. May 23d—Battle at Montmartre—Murder of the Archbishop of Paris —At daybreak, May 23d, a terrible fire of musketry and cannon commenced in the Montmartre district; and at one o'clock in the afternooon, Montmartre was captured by the Government forces, under Generals Clinchart and L'Admirault. Heavy fighting occurred at the barricades in the Place de la Concorde and the Place de Clichy. The Government troops under General Cissey captured the barricades in the Chaussu du Marne, in the southern part of Paris. Barricades were hastily thrown up, and terrible conflicts occurred in other parts of the city. Many of the lead- ers of the Commune were captured, and shot on the spot; and during the 2attles in various quarters of the city, no quarter was shown by the Government forces. At the close of the day, the Government troops occupied the Place de Clichy, the Palais de l’Industrie, the Chamber of the Corps Legislatif, the Hotel des Invalides, St. Quen, the Tuileries, the Hotel de Ville, and the Place Vendome. The Place de la Concorde was also abandoned by the insurgents. On the evening of this day, Monseigneur Darboy, Archbishop of Paris, and sixty-nine priests, who had been seized and held as hostages, were murdered by the infuriated Communists. May 24th–Vandalism of the Commune—Breaking out of Fires in Paris.-On the 24th (May, 1871), the Communist insurgents, in the madness of desperation and despair, perpetrated acts of vandalism almost unparalleled in the history of the world. With the intention of destroying the city they could no longer rule, the insurgents, from their barricaded positions in various portions of Paris, threw petroleum shells over the city, and fires arose in many quarters. A number of women who were detected in the act of setting fire to buildings were shot on the spot, by the exasperated Government troops. The most famous build- ings set on fire were the Palace of the Tuileries, the Hotel of the Legion of Honor, the Hotel de Ville, and the Louvre. The fighting during the day was of the most desperate character. The streets were strewn with dead bodies, and no quarter was shown by either party. The fighting resulted in immense advantages to the Versaillists, the insurgents being driven from many of their positions. May 25th–Retreat of the Insurgents to Belleville—Additional Fires. —The fighting was continued during the 25th, with additional advantage to the Government army. Driven from Paris proper, the insurgents, mad with rage and fury, took refuge in Belleville, the very centre of the revolutionary movement, and the birth-place of the great Communist rebellion. From Belleville, the Commun- ists continued to throw petroleum shells all over Paris, thus kindling additional fires in the city, and destroying many public and private buildings. The whole city was wrapt in clouds of smoke, and the fires could be seen for many miles around. A great many buildings were destroyed by the explosion of mines. The I axern, bourg, the Palais de la Quai d'Orsay, and the Palais Royal, were now also burning. May 26th—Battle of Belleville—Capture and Death of Communist Deaders.-On the 26th, a furious battle was in progress in Pantin. The captwe of 6,000 insurgents in the Quartier Mouffiard ended the rebellion in that quarter. The Government troops were severely harassed by the fire of musketry from the windows of houses. Many Communists who attempted to escape towards Pantin were hotly 42O MODERAV HISTO R Y. pursued, and slaughtered without mercy, by the exasperated Versaillists. The insurgent position at Belleville was vigorously cannonaded by the Government army. The insurgents were driven into the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, where they were surr unded by the Government forces. The Rue Royale was destroyed by mines, and the Imost terrible fires were still raging in Paris. Women who were detected in pouring petroleum into cellars, were shot by the enraged Versaillists. Many of the insurgent leaders, among whom were Valles, Amoreux, Brunel, Rigault, Bous- quet, and General Dombrowski, were captured and shot. - May 27th—Battles of Belleville and Pere la Chaise.—On the 27th oc 'urred the most terrific fighting of the civil way. Sanguinary battles were fought at Belle- ville, Menilmontant, and in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. No quarter was given to man, woman, or child. After a day of the most frightful carnage, the Govern- ment forces captured the insurgent positions at Belleville and Pere la Chaise, late in the night. The destructive fires were still raging in Paris, but soon after the arrival of the London Fire Brigade, the flames were got under control, and in a few days entirely extinguished. End of the Rebellion—Condition of Paris.-On Sunday morning, May 28th, the last band of insurgents surrendered unconditionally, the whole city was in the undisputed possession of the Government forces, the firing ceased, and Io,000 pris- oners were passing through the Rue Lafayette. The great Rebellion of Paris in 187 I had now ended: one-third of Paris was in ashes, and 50,000 dead bodies were lying in the streets and cellars of the city. Among the slain were many women and boys who had fought in the ranks of the insurgents. The Tuileries, the Louvre, the Hotel of the Legion of Honor, the Luxembourg, the Palais Royal, the Hotel de Ville, and the Palais de la Quai d'Orsay were wholly or partially destroyed. This foolish and causeless rebellion, during the two months of its exist- tence, cost the lives of 60,000 Frenchmen. Many valuable works of art were sacri- ficed to the madness of the infuriated Communists. The outrages of the Commun- ists equaled those of the Jacobins of 1793; and the names of Cluseret, Bergerot, Dombrowski, Delescluse, Assy, Piat, and Rochefort, deserve the same execration as those of Robespierre, Danton, Marat, St. Just, Couthon, Henriot, and Fouquier- Tinville. Paris under Military Law—Wholesale Execution of Communists.- Upon the suppression of the rebellion, President Thiers appointed General Vinoy military governor of Paris, and military law was established in the city. A heavy doom was inflicted on the vanquished rebels, of whom about 40,000 were held as prisoners. Drumhead court-martial was established, from fifty to one hundred ‘nsurgents were shot at a time, and no person was permitted to leave Paris without a pass signed by Marshal MacMahon. The places of execution were the Champ de Mars, the Park de Monceaux, and the Hotel de Ville. Altogether, 18,000 of the Communist rebels were shot after they had surrendered. In a few days after dhe suppression of the insurrection, all restrictions concerning communication with Paris were removcd, and entrance and exit were free to all. The barricades were soon removed, and perfect order again prevailed. Republican Victory in the Supplementary Elections.—The supplemen- tary elections in France for deputies to the National Assembly, at the beginning of AVIAWE 7'EAZAV7ſH CEAV7'UR Y. 42 I July, 1871, resulted in an overwhelming majority for the Moderate Republicans. Out of IoS deputies chosen, there were 86 Moderate Republicans, 13 Radicals, 3 Orleanists, 2 Legitimists, and I Bonapartist. SPANISH REVOLUTION OF 1873 Difficult Position of King Amadeus—Various Opposition Parties.— From the moment of his accession to the throne of Spain, King Amadeus found h is situation to be an unenviable one. The young sovereign was really desirous of the welfare and prosperity of his subjects, but he lacked the abilities necessary for the difficult post of a constitutional monarch. The Spanish nation was divided into numerous parties, the rebellion against Spanish power in the island of Cuba still continued, and the young king found opposition on almost every hand. The most important parties opposed to King Amadeus were the Carlists, or adherents of Don Carlos; the Alphonsists, or partisans of Prince Alphonso, the son of ex-Queen Isabella II.; the Republicans, and the Radicals. The Carlists worked actively for the elevation of Don Carlos to the throne of Spain; and the Republicans, headed by Senor Castelar and Senor Figueras, did not cease their dreams for the establish- ment of a Spanish Republic. The throne of Amadeus was only upheld by the non-agreement of the various opposition parties—the Carlists, the Alphonsists, the Republicans, the Radicals, and others. Carlist and Republican Insurrections—The Cuban Rebellion.—From the moment of the accession of King Amadeus, in January, 1871, the Carlists and the Republicans plotted against his government; and several attempts were made to assassinate the young monarch. In June, 1872, a formidable insurrection of the Carlists broke out in the North of Spain; but, after some spirited actions, in which the Carlists were defeated by the Government troops, the rebellion was suppressed. Armed bands of Carlists and Republicans roamed over the Northern Provinces of Spain, tearing up railways and cutting telegraph wires. A Republican revolt broke out in the town of Ferrol, in October, 1872, but the insurgents dispersed on the approach of Government troops. The Cuban rebellion still continued without any decisive result. Abdication of King Amadeus—Spain Declared a Republic.—In the be- ginning of February, 1872, King Amadeus embraced the resolution of resigning his troublesome throne. The Ministry sought to dissuade the king from his purpose,' but Amadeus persisted in his determination to abdicate the throne. When it be- came known that King Amadeus would certainly resign his crown, groups of people assembled in Madrid, and there were some attempts to create a disturbance; but ‘liese demonstrations were promptly suppressed, and the crowds were dispersed without any conflicts. The Congress, or lower branch of the Cortes, ādopted a proposition that the President of that branch and fifty deputies should constitute a Permanent Committee. The Cortes assembled at a late hour on February 11th, 1873, and the formal message of the king's abdication was read in each chamber separately, but upon the conclusion of the reading the Senate and the Congress met together in one chamber, and constituted themselves the Sovereign Cortes of Spain. Senor Rivero, the President of the Congress, being called to the chair, declared him- self ready to answer for the preservation of order, and for the execution of the decrees 422 JMO DERAV HISTORY. of the supreme power. The abdication of King Amadeus was unanimously accepted by the Cortes, which them, by a vote of 259 in the affirmative, and 32 in the negative, declared Spain a Republic. That night the streets of the Spanish capital were filled with an excited people. The Senate appointed a Permanent Committee of Thirty. Senor Melcampo and Marshal Serrano offered their support to Prime-Minister Zorilla in maintaining order. The Ministry of Senor Zorilla now terminated, and on the following day (February 12, 1873), the Cortes elected a new Ministry, u Provisional Government, of which Estanislao Figueras, the ardent Republican, was chosen President. After the members of the new Government had taken their seat; upon the ministerial benches in the Cortes, President Figueras addressed the Cortes, expressing the hope that the Spanish Republic would be established forever. On the following day (February 13th, 1873), the two Houses of the Cortes met in joint session, and constituted themselves the National Assembly of Spain; and proceeded to effect a permanent organization by electing Senor E. Martos President of the Assembly. The Provisional Government ordered the suppression of the Royal Guard. Ex-King Amadeus had already left Madrid for Lisbon, in Portugal, whence he was to be conveyed to Italy by an Italian squadron. The establishment of the Spanish Republic was celebrated in Madrid, on the night of the 14th (February, 1873), by a general illumination, on which occasion the streets of the Spanish capital were crowded with people, but there was no disorder. Abolition of Slavery in Porto Rico—Dissolution of the National As- sembly.—After several months' deliberation, the National Assembly of Spain, on the 22d of March, 1873, passed, by a unanimous vote, a bill providing for the im- mediate abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, one of the largest of the Spanish West- India Islands, and accorded to the emancipated slaves the full privileges of Spanish citizenship. After passing this important measure, the National Assembly dissolved itself by a unanimous vote, on which occasion the greatest excitement prevailed in the Assembly chamber, and in the streets of the capital. On that and the following day (March 22d and 23d, 1873), there were several unsuccessful revolutionary demonstrations in Madrid. * Carlist Insurrection in the North of Spain.—In the meantime, a formidable insurrection of the Carlists had broken out in the North of Spain. The Carlists, instead of concentrating their forces, roamed over the Basque Provinces, Navarre, , and Catalonia, in small bands, and engaged in tearing up railways, burning railway stations and bridges, cutting telegraph wires, and in every way interrupting com- munication in the Northern Provinces of Spain. Numerous small engagements were fought with various success between the Republican forces, headed by Gen- erals Gonzales, Nouvillas, Cabrinity, and others, and the Carlist bands, led by the Curé of Santa Cruz, and by Generals Seballs, Dorregaray, and Tristany, and Don Alphonso, the brother of Don Carlos. At the close of May, 1873, General Nou- villas, at the head of 12,000 men, was holding the mountain passes of Biscay, and driving the Carlists in that province toward the coast. Insurrection in Madrid.—During the latter part of April, 1873, Madrid was greatly excited. A rising of the Monarchists in that city took place on the 23d of April, beginning with the revolt of several battalions of volunteers, who fired on General Contreras. The agitation increased as night approached, and shots were fired in other portions of the city. During this time, the Permanent Committee of AWAVE TEAEMZA. CEMTUR Y. 423 the National Assembly held a session, to consider the gravity of the situation, and to deliberate upon measures for the public safety. While the Committee was in session, some of the rebellious volunteers entered the hall, and the Committee sought safety in flight. The Ultras demanded the establishment of the Commune in Madrid, and engaged in hunting down the members of the Permanent Committee, several of whom were arrested and imprisoned by the infuriated insurgents, and the greatest excitement prevailed. Early in May, there was a renewal of revolu- tionary demonstrations in Madrid. The city was placarded with numerous procla- m.ations, urging the people to demand the immediate proclamation of the Federal Republic, the abolition of capital punishment, the abolition of the State Council, and the separation of Church and State; and large Federalist meetings were held on the 5th of May (1873). The Elections in Spain—Meeting of the Constituent Cortes.—In the meantime, elections for a Constituent Cortes had been ordered. The elections took place on Saturday and Sunday, May 1oth and 11th, 1873, and resulted in the choice of 3IO Ministerial Federal Republicans, 30 Extreme Radicals, 8 Interna- tionalists, IO Independent Republicans, and 30 Monarchists. The total number of votes cast throughout Spain was 1,200,000. The vote in the capital was light, owing to the apathy of all parties except the Federal Republican. The Constituent Cortes assembled on the 31st of May, 1873. The session was formally opened by Senor Figueras, President of the Spanish Republic, with a speech, in which he maintained the right of the Spanish people to choose their own form of government. The Cortes organized by electing Senor Orense, a Federal Republican, its President. Proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic—Ministerial Crisis. —On the 8th of June, 1873, the Cortes, by a vote of 210 yeas against 2 nays, pro- claimed the establishment of the Federal Democratic Republic in Spain, and then adjourned until evening. The session of the Cortes on the night of the 8th of June was a stormy one. Senor Figueras, President of the Spanish Republic, ten- dered his resignation; but, after great confusion and excitement, a Ministry proposed by Senor Pi y Margall was rejected, and the Cortes went into secrect session. An excited crowd filled the streets in front of the palace, and within the Chamber the greatest agitation prevailed. Through the efforts of Castelar and Figueras, calm was finally restored in the Chamber, as well as among the populace outside. After successive fruitless attempts of Figueras, Castelar, and Pi y Margall to form a new Ministry, Senor Figueras was finally prevailed upon, by the Cortes, to remain in power with his old Cabinet. After a vote of confidence in the Figueras Ministry, the Cortes adjourned. The proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic was celebrated at Barcelona, on the night of the 8th of June, with illuminations and general rejoicings. - Resignation of President Figueras—Senor Pi y Margall, President.— At a Cabinet council on the 11th of June, 1873, President Figueras and his Minis- ters tendered their resignations, in consequence of a disagreement with the Cotes on the currency. In consequence of this ministerial crisis, fears were entertained of a serious ºutbreak in Madrid. The Cortes continued in secret session on the following day, and during their deliberations, a party of armed volunteers surrounded the palace of the Cortes. A large body of armed police and troops were stationed at various points throughout the city, in anticipation of an outbreak. A majority 424 MOZ) ERAV HISTORY. of the Cortes finally chose Senor Pi y Margall to the Presidency of the Republic, and his Ministry was immediately appointed. The excitement which had prevailed in Madrid for several days greatly subsided, and the city appeared quite calm. Senor Nicholas Salmeron was elected President of the Constituent Cortes. Disturbances at Barcelona, Malaga, and Seville.—Disturbances occurred at Barcelona on the 24th of June, 1873. There was firing all that night between the soldiers and the citizens. On the following day, the troops were all removed from the city, and a cordon of police was established between them and the city, to prevent a further collision. On the 25th of June, the populace in Malaga arose against the authorities, and killed the Mayor of the city, but order was restored in the evening. The Extreme Radicals arose in Seville, and barricaded the streets, but the outbreak was soon suppressed. Extraordinary Governmental Powers—A Spanish Republican Consti- tution.—On the 30th of June, 1873, the Cortes, by a large majority, approved a bill granting extraordinary powers to the Government, to enable it to crush the Carlist insurrection. Serious apprehensions were entertained of an outbreak in Madrid against the Government, and troops were placed at strategic points in the city. The Constituent Committee of the Cortes completed the draft of a Federal Republican Constitution for Spain. The Constitution provided for the division of European Spain into eleven States; and Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands were to be constituted Territories of Spain. Madrid was to remain the capital. The Government was to be divided into the Legislative, Executive, and Judiciary Departments. The Cortes was to hold two sessions each year, and the members were to receive salaries. Senators were to be chosen by the States, and Deputies by universal suffrage. Deputies could not act as Ministers. A President was to be elected by universal suffrage, for a single term of four years. * Rising at Alcoy.—On the 12th of July, 1873, the Internationals arose against the authorities at Alcoy, in the Province of Alicante, and assassinated the Mayor of the city, although he was a life-long Republican. His body was dragged through the streets by a mob which kept up a continuous yell. The Collector of Taxes was also assassinated, and his body was treated with the same indignities as that of the Mayor. Several factories were burned by the mob. On the 13th of July, General Velarde entered Alcoy, with a strong column of Government troops. The insurgents had already been reduced to submission by the Alicante miliitia, who took possession of the town, but the leaders of the revolt escaped. Insurrections in Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, and Barcelona.-In anticipation of the adoption, by the Cortes, of contemplated changes in the new Federal Constitution, the Provinces of Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, and Catalonia rose in rebellion against the Government, and proclaimed their independence. Declarations of independence were issued at Seville, Cadiz, and Barcelona. Communist Insurrection at Cartagena.-The Communist insurgents at Cartagena, headed by General Contreras, made themselves masters of the whole city, except the arsenal. The crews of several Spanish men-of-war in the harbor of Cartagena having revolted, the Spanish Government issued a proclamation eclaring them pirates, and authorizing their capture and treatment as such, by any AW/AWETEEAVZ Hº CEAV7'UR P. 425 foreign power, on the sigh seas; and decrees were issued dismissing General Con- treras from the public service, and removing the civil governors of the revolted provinces. The insurgents at Cartagena, after gaining control of the city, seized the Castillo de las Galeras, a strong fort on the west side of the harbor, less than a thousand yards from the entrance, which it commanded completely. This gave them control of the batteries on the shore, at the mouth of the harbor. They hoisted the red flag of the Commune over the fortifications, and summoned the squadron lying in the harbor to surrender. The crews being in sympathy with the insurgents, the vessels fell into their hands without opposition. The insurgents levied a heavy contribution upon the inhabitants of Cartagena. The Communists, or Intransigentes, at Cartagena, established a Provisional Government for the Can- ton of Murcia, at the head of which was General Contreras, as President. Insurgent Attack on Almeria.-Contreras was in command of the insurgent fleet off Almeria. He demanded a heavy contribution from the city, but as the city authorities refused to comply with his demand, he opened a heavy bombardment on the city. After two hours of heavy firing, the Intransigentes attempted to disembark, but were repulsed by the Government forces, and compelled to reémbark; but they afterward renewed their attack upon the city. Resignation of Pi y Margall—Senor Nicholas Salmeron, President.— The numerous internal troubles of Spain caused the Cortes to demand the formation of a vigorous Ministry under Senor Nicholas Salmeron; and accordingly, Senor Piy Margall and his Cabinet resigned, and on the 20th of July, 1873, Senor Nicholas Salmeron was made President of the Spanish Republic, and an able Ministry was formed. While the debate on the Ministry was going on in the Cortes, great excite- ment was produced by the explosion of an Orsini bomb at the door. Senor Emilio Castelar was elected President of the Cortes, on the 26th of August, and on taking the chair, he made a speech exhorting the Republicans to be united. Bombardment of Valencia.-The insurgents at Valencia refused to surrender to the Government troops, who thereupon opened a heavy bombardment upon the city, on the night of the 30th of July. The city was cannonaded at regular inter- vals, musketry firing was frequent, and there was some desperate fighting. The Government troops occupied the village of Mislata, but were dislodged by the in- surgent artillery, and the village was alternately taken and retaken, and set on fire by shells from the garrison in Valencia. A serious conflict took place at the village of Masannasa, near Valencia, between the Government troops and the insurgents, in which 150 men were killed. Already 200 shells had been .hrown into Valencia, and the Government troops had advanced 600 yards. Reduction of Seville.—On the 31st of July, 1873, the insurgents at Seville set fire to that city in four different places, by means of petroleum. The insurrec- tion at Seville was soon suppressed, and the city was occupied by the Government troops. The fires which the insurgents had kindled were extinguished. The Government troops captured twenty cannon at Seville. Fight at Malaga—Revolt at Alhama—Fall of Cadiz. –Early in August, the Government troops defeated the insurgents in a sharp fight at Malaga, and drove them from the field. The town of Alhama, in the Province of Alicante, proclaimed its independence, and a junta was organized, whose first act was to levy a heavy t26 •, MODERN HISTORY. contribution upon the citizens. The insurgents at Cadiz surrendered to the Govern. ment troops, under General Pavia, on the 5th of August. - Mutiny at Barcelona.-On the 8th of August, 1873, the artillerymen belong- ing to the garrison of Barcelona mutinied against their officers, but were quickly disarmed, and imprisoned by the cavalry under the command of the Captain-General of Barcelona. The mutineers were court-martialed, and twelve of the ringleaders were sentenced to death, and thirty to transportation to the penal colonies of Spain. - - Socialistic Rising in Andalusia.-Early in September, 1873, Socialistic troubles broke out in the Province of Andalusia. In the vicinity of the town of Jimena, the farm-laborers banded together, for the purpose of demanding and endeav- oring to enforce a division of property. They burned forty farm-houses belonging to those opposed to them, and committed other excesses. Some of the rioters were arrested. Resignation of Salmeron—Senor Emilio Castelar, President.— The question of military executions engaged the attention of the Cortes, and President Salmeron, who was opposed to capital punishment, tendered his resignation, and his Ministry retired on the 5th of September, 1873. On the 7th, Senor Emilio Castelar was elected President of the Spanish Republic, and he entered on his duties with an able Ministry. The Cortes conferred on President Castelar dicta- torial powers, to enable him to crush the Carlist and Communist insurrections. Senor Nicholas Salmeron was elected President of the Cortes; and several weeks later, the Cortes adjourned. . Disturbances at Ecija, Malaga, and Seville.—On the 16th of September, 1873, there was a serious riot at Ecija, provoked by the Intransigentes, and attended with considerable loss of life. The municipal elections in Malaga, on the same day, were attended with riot and bloodshed. The Intransigentes in Seville attacked a party of Republican recruits, but the latter resisted, and several were killed. Insurgent Bombardment of Alicante.—The insurgent men-of-war from Cartagena effected a landing at Augilas, and pillaged the town and suburbs. The insurgent fleet proceeded to Alicante, in the Province of Alicante; and when a demand for a contribution was rejected, a fierce bombardment was opened on the city, on the 27th of September, 1873, and 500 projectiles, some filled with petroleum, were thrown into the city, and did great damage; but the fleet was seriously disa- bled by a vigorous return fire from the forts, and, after several days, the insurgent fleet withdrew from Alicante. Siege and Bombardment of Cartagena-In the meantime, the siege and bombardment of Cartagena by the Government forces had progressed actively. A column of 2000 insurgents made a desperate sortie from the city, on the 9th of Octo- ber, but were repulsed with heavy loss. The Intransigente fleet was defeated by the National squadron under Admiral Lobos, on the IIth of October, near Carta- gena. On the 19th of October, the insurgent squadron from Cartagena appeared before Valencia, but withdrew several days afterward, with the plunder of ten Spanish merchant-ships. On the 23d of October, the Government fleet arrived off Carta. gena, and was fired upon from the forts, but the insurgent vessels remained inside the harbor. The bombardment of the city continued incessantly. On the 26th of AV/AVE TEEAVTH CEAV7'OR Y. 427 November, the cathedral and hospital were struck by the besiegers' artillery. On the 28th, the Protestant church and the theatre were destroyed, and 200 persons were killed and wounded within the city. The insurgents raised the black flag upon the forts. The bombardment did great damage to the city, and 400 houses were destroyed; but the forts and batteries remained almost intact. The bombard- ment produced distress among non-combatants. The insurgents strengthened their works and armament. The Government forces at length occupied the San Antonio Suburb, and, concentrating their fire upon the forts, suspended their bombardment of the town. The Carlist Rebellion.—The Carlist rebellion in the North of Spain continued during the Administrations of Pi y Margall, Salmeron and Castelar. Don Carlos had entered Spain, on the 16th of July, 1873, from Bayonne, France, accompanied by several attendants, and was received by his adherents with indescribable enthu- siasm. During the whole summer and autumn of 1873, the Basque Provinces, Navarre, and Catalonia, were the theatres of numerous engagements between the Republican forces, commanded by Generals Nouvillas, Cabrinety, Moriones, and others, and the Carlist bands under the leadership of the Curé of Santa Cruz, and Generals Dorregaray, Seballs, Ollo, and Tristany, and Don Alphonso. By the close of the autumn of 1873, there were 40,000 Carlists under arms in the North of Spain, and Don Carlos took up his winter-quarters at Durango, in the Province of Biscay. Coup d’ Etat of General Pavia—Marshal Serrano, President.—The Spanish Cortes reassembled on the 2d of January, 1874; and President Castelar read his message from the Ministerial bench. For a long time, a disagreement had existed between Senor Castelar, President of the Republic, and Senor Salmeron, President of the Cortes, and on this occasion a sharp debate took place between these two Republican leaders and statesmen. On the 3d (January, 1874), the Cor- tes, on two votes, refused to sustain President Castelar, the majority against him being twenty. As soon as the result of the votes was announced, General Pavia, Captain-General of Madrid, who had surrounded the Chamber of the Cortes with soldiers, sent an officer into the Chamber with a letter to Salmeron, demanding the dissolution of the Cortes. Thereupon Senor Castelar resigned the Presidency of the Republic, and his Cabinet retired from office; and immediately some of Gen- eral Pavia’s soldiers entered the hall and expelled the Deputies. General Pavia then summoned the most eminent men of all parties to form a new Government, excluding only Carlists and Intransigentes; but he refused personally to become a member of the Government. Marshal Serrano was made President of the Repub- lic, and an able Ministry was formed. Castelar, Salmeron, and other Republican leaders protested with all their energy against the brutal Coup d’ Etat of General Pavia. Communist Insurrection in Barcelona.-On the 8th of January, 1874, a Communist insurrection broke out in Barcelona, and barricades were erected in the suburbs by the insurgents. Fort Montijoi, on the south side of the city, opened fire on the city; and there was severe fighting in the suburbs. The insurrection continued until the 15th, when the insurgents surrendered, and the authority of the Spanish Government was fully restored in the city. * 428 MOZ) AºA'AW ANZSZOA' P. Bombardment of Cartagena.-Early in January, 1874, after General Pavia's Coup d’Etat, the besiegers of Cartagena redoubled their efforts to reduce the city, but the garrison stubbornly held out and made several desperate sorties. On the 9th of January, a column of the National army besieging Cartagena was repulsed in an assault upon Fort San Julian. A heavy fire was kept up on both sides. The besiegers finally compelled Atalaya Castle to surrender. During the siege and bombardment, powder magazines frequently exploded in the city, causing much destruction of life. Fall of Cartagena—Flight of the Insurgent Leaders.--Cartagena sur. rendered to the Government forces, on the 14th of January, 1874. Upon the capitulation of the city, the members of the Insurgent Junta and the liberated con- victs went on board the frigate Numancia. The Numancia, in escaping, passed five Spanish men-of-war, and arrived safely at Mers-el-Kebir, on the coast of Algeria, with 2,500 refugees on board, among whom were Generals Contreras and Galvez. One of the steamers which attempted to escape was captured with a large number of refugees. Another insurgent vessel, with a large party of refugees, suc- ceeded in reaching the French shores, whither she was pursued by a French man- of-war. The members of the Cartagenian Junta surrendered the Numancia to the French authorities at Mers-el-Kebir. The Numancia was delivered by the French to a Spanish frigate. The insurgent chiefs, Contreras, Ferrez, and Galvez, were sent to the capital of Algeria, and the Cartagenian refugees were interned in the forts and barracks of Oran and Mers-el-Kebir. The Carlist War.—Winter did not suspend operation between the Carlist and Republican forces in the North of Spain; and the Province of Biscay was the prin- cipal theatre of war. During the month of February, 1874, there was severe fight- ing at Bilbao, Tolosa, and Somorrostro, between the opposing forces, with various success. After the fall of Cartagena and the suppression of the Instransigente insurrection, President Serrano assumed the chief command of the Government forces operating against the Carlists, and, with the aid of his chief subordinates, Generals Loma and Manuel de la Concha, he prepared for a vigorous and decisive campaign. Serrano's Campaign against the Carlists—Siege of Bilbao.—By the middle of March, 1874, a Republican army of 34,000 men, under the chief com- mand of President Serrano himself, stood face to face with a Carlist force of 35,000 men, while General Loma, with 8,000 Republican troops, was moving on the Car- list rear. In the meantime, the Carlists had laid siege to Bilbao, which they bom- barded incessantly, throwing 200 shells into the city daily. The Carlists captured an outlying fort with forty prisoners, and they threw incendiary shells into Bilbad with terrible effect. An engagement before the city resulted in the occupation of the Albia suburb by the besiegers. A desperate engagement was fought before Bilbao on the 25th of March, lasting all day, and in the evening, the Republicans encamped on the positions which they had captured from the Royalists. The fight- tng before Bilbao was renewed on the 26th, continuing all day, and closing at night with decided advantages for the Republican forces. Serrano's troops advanced, and drove back the Carlist lines, capturing, at the point of the bayonet, several villages an: several positions which were occupied by the insurgents the day pre- vious. Serrano's losses during these two days were 550 men, and Generals Loma AVIAWETEEAV7'H' CEAV7'UR P. 429 and Primo de Rivera were severely wounded. Serrano made a successful attack on Pedro Abanto, and drove the Carlists beyond Santa Guliana. The fighting at Bil- bao was renewed on the 28th of March, lasting all day; and the Republicans were repulsed in their attacks on the Carlist lines, losing 4,000 men, while the Royalists lost only 1,000. A heavy fire was kept up on the Carlist positions before Bilbao by the Republican artillery. Active operations before Bilbao were resumed on the 3d of April (1874), with the bombardment of Abanto by the Republican forces. Serrano's army kept up a furious cannonade on the Carlist positions before Bilbao, On the 29th of April, fighting was resumed before Bilbao, and continued the next two days; and on the first of May, the Carlists were defeated and routed, and the Republican forces, under President Serrano and General Manuel de la Concha, triumphantly entered Bilbao. During the month of May, there were several skir. mishes around Bilbao, and, at the close of the month, the Carlists invested Hernani. Attack on Estella and Death of Marshall Concha.-On the 25th of June, 1874, General Manuel de la Concha, in the midst of a terrible storm, surprised the Carlist positions near Estella. The engagement lasted an hour, and the Carlist losses were heavy. In a bayonet charge on the Carlist intrenchments at Mura, Mar- shal Concha, who was over eighty years of age, having placed himself at the head of the Republican troops, was instantly killed. The Republican army then fell back to Lerin, eight miles from Estella. The Republican loss was 1,500 men. The command of the Republican army was then given to General Zabala, Spanish Minister of War. Marshal Concha's death produced a profound sensation through- out Spain, and his remains were honored with magnificent funeral obsequies. Capture of Cuenca by the Carlists—Cruelties of the Carlists.-On the I3th of July, 1874, Don Alphonso, with 8,000 Carlists, made an attack upon the Republicans at Cuenca, and, after a most desperate struggle, during which the Republicans repulsed four fierce assaults made upon them by the Carlists, the Roy- alists finally obtained possession of the Citadel, compelling the Republicans to surrender. The victors practiced the greatest cruelties upon the vanquished, many of whom were shot after they had surrendered. # Recognition of the Spanish Republic by European Powers.-In August, 1874, the Spanish Republic was formally recognized by England, France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Holland, and Sweden; but Russia held aloof, fearing that recogni- tion would strengthen the cause of republicanism in Europe, and alleging that Marshal Serrano's government, which had its origin in a coup d’etat, had no legal existence. Progress of the Carlist War—Attacks on Puigcerda—Siege of Irun. —The war between the Republicans and the Carlists continued with various success. In the latter part of August, 1874, the Carlists were repulsed in repeated attacks on Puigcerda. Early in November (1874), the Carlists laid siege to Irun, which they furiously bombarded for nearly a week, but they were eventually com. pelled to raise the siege, and to retreat into Navarre. Prince Alphonso Proclaimed King of Spain by the Armies.—On the 31st of December, 1874, Prince Alphonso, son of ex-Queen Isabella II., was pro- claimed King of Spain, by the Republican armies. Marshal Serrano acquiesced, The Minister of Interior immediately sent dispatches to the Governors of the Provinces, announcing that Alphonso XII. had been proclaimed King by the 43O Mozzzzy HISTORY: nation, the army, and the Ministry. On the 9th of January, 1875, King Alphonso arrived at Barcelona from France, and was received with great demonstrations of enthusiasm. On the 14th (January, 1875), he arrived in Madrid, and met with a grand reception, and in the evening the city was brilliantly illuminated. Alphonso's Proclamation to the Carlists—Desertion of Carlist Gen- erals.-After taking possession of the throne of Spain, King Alphonso issued a proclamation, calling upon the Carlists to lay down their arms, but they refused, and preparations were made to subdue them. In February, 1875, Estella was cap. tured by the Alphonsists, and the Carlists were repulsed in an attack upon Bilbao. In March, General Cabrera deserted the cause of Don Carlos, and issued a procla- mation recognizing Alphonso as King of Spain, and calling upon the Carlists to submit He also concluded a convention with the Alphonsists. In May, Generals Elio and Aguirre also deserted Don Carlos; and Aguirre issued an address to the Carlists, advising them to submit to King Alphonso. Carlist Defeats—Flight of Dorregaray–Siege and Fall of Seo de Urgel. —In July (1875), the Carlists were defeated by the Alphonsists under Generals Jovellar and Martinez Campos, but the Alphonsist general Loma was unsuccessful. Dorregaray fled across the frontier, into France, pursued by the Alphonsists. In August, the Alphonists laid siege to the strong fortress of Seo de Urgel. On the 17th, a body of 6000 Carlists made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the beleag- uered fortress; and on the 27th (August, 1875), Seo de Urgel surrendered to the Alphonsists. The Carlists were also defeated at other points, about this time. Submission of Carlists—Carlist Dissensions.—In September (1875), the Carlists in the provinces of Catalonia, Navarre, and Biscay, gave in their submission to the Government of King Alphonso, and applied for amnesty. The Carlists became more and more distracted by dissensions in their own ranks; and Don Carlos quar- relled with Generals Dorregaray, Seballs, and others, and ordered them to be shot. RECENT AFFAIRS OF EUROPEAN NATIONS. Political Struggles in France—Fall of Thiers—Marshal MacMahon, President.—After the suppression of the rebellion of the Paris Commune in 1871, the question of the future form of government for France engaged the attention of the French Assembly and people. The Legitimists and Orleanists effected a fusion, and labored actively for the elevation of the Count de Chambord, the repre- sentative of the Legitimists, as the chief of the reunited House of Bourbon, to the throne of France as king. The Bonapartists, who were now comparatively weak, intrigued in behalf of the Prince Imperial, son of Napoleon III.; while the Repub- licans of all factions, whose recognized chief was President Thiers, were determined upon the preservation of the Republic. The Radical Republicans, headed by M. Gambetta, demanded the dissolution of the National Assembly which had met in I ebruary, 1871, and the election of a new Assembly. On the opening of the As- sembly, in November, 1872, a violent struggle began between the parties in that body, for the furtherance of their respective schemes. A Committee of Thirty was appointed, to consider the question of the reorganization of the Government of France. M. Thiers recommended the definitive establishment of the Conservative Republic. The struggle between the Republicans and the Monarchists in the AS- §§ %% ſpyſº ,Èšºſ · ºsſº ŅĢĻŅĶ5）:<%：//% • ，i :… * -！ſº.% «*→ .* • ‰ſae/////// ffffffff;-//）, //%%%//)/f. §）， %%%%% %%%%%% %% ////////// %ſ.% ſiſſiſ; ſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſ ſ', VON MOLTKE. |} |||||||||||// ||||||% |ſ.%7 //Ø% º º¿? ZZZ 7%/ 4% º , Z, A 4. º % /// % % Ø% WN/A 33% \ Wº% % % % 2% . * 22% % % º % .2 ‘. . .” s - %2. N\\ N º/º sº ‘y. º % A Ø .” % Ø % - 2. % A. % {\ % * \, \, \, \, . % % sº WW º sº % §§§ % ° 2 º º % . . . . .” .22 N % 2. WN | N N . º L. . - 23.22. 2. N. : : * 2°22' 22 - 22 .* à *% * PRESIDENT McMahon. AWAVE 7TEAEAVTH CEAVTUR Y. 431 sembly continued until the 23d of May, 1873, when the Monarchical majority in the Assembly demanded the organization of a more Conservative Ministry. On that day, a violent scene took place in the Assembly. When President Thiers mounted the tribune to address the Assembly, his voice was drowned by the cries of the Monarchists; and, after vainly endeavoring to make himself heard, the Pre- sident descended the tribune, and, amid the greatest confusion and excitement, the Assembly adjourned. On the following day (May 24, 1873), President Thiers addressed the Assembly, urging the definitive establishment of the Republic. After a violent debate, and the defeat of the Government on several votes in the Assem- bly, the Ministry resigned, and a message from M. Thiers was read in the Assembly, in which he tendered his resignation as President of the Republic, which was ac- cepted by a vote of the Assembly. The Assembly then elected Marshal MacMahon to the Presidency of the Republic. The new President announced a Conservative policy, and formed a Cabinet composed chiefly of Monarchists, with the Duke de Broglie at its head. For more than a year, the Assembly was engaged in the fram- ing of Constitutional bills. The Monarchists were intriguing for the enthronement of the Count de Chambord, while the Republicans carried nearly all the elections to fill vacancies in the Assembly. On the 20th of November, 1873, the Assembly, by a decisive vote, prolonged President MacMahon's powers for seven years. The Broglie Ministry resigned in May, 1874, in consequence of a defeat in the Assem- bly, and a new Ministry, in which the Duke Decazes was the chief member, was formed. Ecclesiastical Struggle in Germany—Attempted Assassination of Prince Bismarck.-During this time, Germany was disturbed by a religious and political dispute, or a struggle between Church and State. The Ultramontanes, or extreme Catholics, held allegiance to the Pope as a higher obligation than allegi- ance to the Emperor of Germany. The German Government, under the energetic direction of Prince Bismarck, was resolved to assert practically the supremacy of the civil over the ecclesiastical power; while the Ultramontane party, encouraged by the Pope and by the reactionary party in France, sought to place the spiritual above the civil power. Bishops were frequently arrested, fined, and imprisoned, by order of the Prussian Government, for their defiant attitude toward the civil authority of the Empire. The Pope addressed a letter to the Emperor William, praying him not to persecute the Church. To this letter the Emperor replied politely, but firmly asserted his determination to defend the imperial authority against the attacks of the Ultramontane party. The most defiant of the clergy were the Bishop of Emerland and Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen. The Prussian Gov- ernment caused the Catholic churches of Berlin and the Province of Posen to be closed, and Archbishop Ledochowski, who maintained an obstinate resistance to the decrees of the Government, was arrested, tried, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment. The Bishop of Treves, the Archbishop of Cologne, and Bishop Vanizewski of Posen, were also arrested for violation of the ecclesiastical laws. The Prussian Government issued an ordinance requiring all Bishops when installed to Swear to maintain the subordination of the Church to the State. The Pope, in December, 1873, issued an allocution denouncing the Governments of Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, for their encroachments on the Church. The journals in Prussia which published the allocution were prosecuted by the Government. On 432 MODERAV HISTOR P. the 14th of July, 1874, while Prince Bismarck was riding out in the country, he was fired at by a young Catholic named Kullman. The Prince narrowly escaped assassination, the ball grazing his wrist. Kullman was promptly arrested, and the people were with difficulty restrained from lynching him. Bismarck received over Ioo telegrams congratulating him upon his escape. * Republicanism in England—War with the Ashantees—Gladstone's Fall.—During this time, England was politically and socially agitated. Largs Republican meetings were held in some of the large cities, and the Republican movement, directed by such men as Charles Bradlaugh and Sir Charles Dilke, made much progress among the workingmen. A Cabinet crisis occurred in March, 1873, but was soon terminated by Mr. Gladstone's Cabinet remaining in office. Ir August, 1873, an English military expedition, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, invaded the negro kingdom of Ashantee, in Upper Guinea, in Western Africa, for the pul- pose of chastising the Ashantees for their depredations on the British possessions on the Gold Coast. After numerous victories over the Ashantees, the British finally stormed and took Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, early in February, 1874, and compelled King Koffee to accept very humiliating conditions of peace. Late in January, 1873, Mr. Gladstone, finding a majority in Parliament opposed to him on some important measures, dissolved Parliament and ordered new elections. The elections resulted in giving the Tories an overwhelming majority in Parliament, whereupon Mr. Gladstone's Whig Ministry resigned, and the Tories, headed by Mr. Disraeli, returned to power. Definitive Establishment of the Republic in France.—In the meantime, the question of the future form of government for France engaged the attention of the French National Assembly. After voting the prolongation of President Mac- Mahon's powers for seven years, the Assembly devoted itself to the framing of Constitutional Bills. Finally, in February, 1875, the Assembly passed Constitu- tional Bills, providing for the establishment of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, which were to be vested with the legislative power, while the executive power was to be entrusted to a President of the Republic, who was to be elected for seven years, by both Chambers of the Assembly in joint convention. The Constitution also provided that the President of the Republic, with the advice and consent of the Senate, could dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. The principle of Ministerial responsibility was established. The Senate was to consist of 300 members, of which 225 were to be elected by the Councils-Generals, the Municipal Councils, and the Arrondissements, and 75 by the Chamber of Deputies; and all Senators were to be irremovable. The Chamber of Deputies was to be elected by universal suffrage. The Senate Bill was passed on February 24th (1875), by 448 yeas to 241 nays. On the same day, the Assembly recognized the Republic, by passing the Public Powers Bill, by a vote of 433 yeas to 262 nays. An Electoral Bill, pre- scribing the conditions of suffrage, was debated for many months, and finally passed in December, 1875. *- Russia's Wars in Central Asia.-During the greater part of the present century, Russia has been engaged in a series of wars with wild Tartar tribes ard petty states of Central Asia. In a war with Bokhara, in 1868, the Russians were victorious; and in 1871, they subdued Soongaria, which had fought itself inde- pendent of Chinese rule in 1864. Early in 1873, a war broke out between AVIAWE TEEAWTH CEAVTUR P. - 433 Russia and Khiva; and a Russian military expedition, under General Kauffmann, was sent against the Khivans. After several engagements, in which the Khwans were defeated, General Kauffmann entered the Khivan capital in triumph, and dic- lated terms of peace to the terrified Khan of Khiva (June, 1873). In the fa)i of 1873, the Russians defeated the Turkomans. In the summer of 1875, hostilities broke out between Russia and Khokand. A Russian army under General Kauff. mann invaded Khokand, defeated 30,000 Khokand troops, captured the Khokand capital, and forced the Khan of Khokand to accept a humiliating peace. (Septem ber, 1875.) Rebellion in the Herzegovina against the Turks.-In July, 1875, the peasants of Herzegovina and Bosnia, provinces in the West of European Turkey, rose in rebellion against the Ottoman Government, to resist the collection of taxes by the officials of the Porte. The insurrection became quite formidable, and fears were entertained that the peace of Europe was jeopardized. The Consuls of the Great European Powers met at Mostar, and endeavored to bring about a pacification, by inducing the Porte to grant needed reforms and reasonable concessions to the Herzegovinians and Bosnians; while, at the same time, they tried to induce the insurgents to submit, but failed. Many engagements of an unimportant character occurred in the autumn of 1875, but no great battle took place; and no advantage was gained by either party. THE SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE CAUSES OF THE SPAINISH AIMEFICAN REVOLUTION. Deplorable Condition of Spanish America—Tupac Amaru's Revolt in Peru (1780).-Mexico, or New Spain, and South America, during the three cen- turies that they were dependencies of Spain, were to a great extent isolated from the rest of the world. The most exclusive policy was pursued by Spain toward her American colonies. No foreigners, except such as desired to make discoveries in natural history, were permitted to travel in Spanish America, and then only with the written consent of the King of Spain. The commerce of the Spanist Ameri- can colonies was crippled by the most severe restrictions, and most of the wealth of the colonies flowed into the mother country. The Spanish Americans were taught to look upon Spain as the mother of nations. The condition of the Creoles and Indians of Spanish America was the most deplorable imaginable. The natives were the victims of the most cruel oppression; being forced to work in the mines, where many of them perished. The influence of priestcraft and Jesuitism contrib- uted to keep the inhabitants of Spanish America in intellectual darkness; and ignorance and superstition enabled Spain to uphold her dominion in Spanish America for three centuries. The condition of the Spanish Americans was fai worse than that of the Anglo-Americans, as in the case of the former the intellect was enslaved. In 1780, the standard of revolt was raised in Peru, by Tupac Amaru, a descendant of the Incas, who endeavored to restore his country's inde- pendence; but, after a bloody struggle of two years, the insurrection was suppressed, 28 434 MOD EA’AV HISTORY. and Tupac Amaru was put to a cruel death, his body being drawn in quarters by horses. Effect of Bonaparte's Dethronement of the Royal Family of Spain in Spanish America.-The immediate cause of the Spanish American Revolution had its origin in Europe. When intelligence of the dethronement of the legitimate royal family of Spain, by the Emperor Napoleon I., reached Spanish America, in 1808, the inhabitants there, who since the first conquest of the country had been loyal to Spain, declared in favor of the patriots of Spain, who had taken up arrns against the French invaders of their country, and in defense of their rightful sover- eign, Ferdinand VII. The Spanish Americans also took up arms for Ferdinand VII., for the purpose of preventing Spanish America from being placed under the dominion of Joseph Bonaparte, the so-called King of Spain; and they prepared to resist the viceroys, who, in order to retain their offices, for the most part sided with the French and acquiesced in the usurpation of Napoleon. But the motives of the Spanish Americans were misunderstood by the Provisional Junta in Spain, which sent out armies for their subjugation, and which by its tyranny soon alienated the Spanish American colonies from the mother country; and the struggle assumed the shape of a war for independence on the part of the Spanish Americans. THE REvolution IN MExIco (1810-1824). Enfranchisement of the Mexican Creoles—Imprisonment of the Vice- roy of New Spain.—In Mexico, or New Spain, all offices were in the possession of the European Spaniards, while the Creoles, or native inhabitants, were deprived of all share in the government. The Viceroy of New Spain allowed the Creoles a share in the government, in order to secure their support to Ferdinand VII., the lawful King of Spain. This measure was opposed by the provincial court of the Audiencia, which, siding with the European Spaniards, seized and imprisoned the Viceroy, and again deprived the Mexican Creoles of their rights and privileges. These arbitrary proceedings increased the bitterness on the part of the Creoles toward the European Spaniards. Commencement of the Mexican Revolution by Hidalgo.—On the 16th of September, 1810, the Revolution in Mexico was begun, in the little town of Dolores, by a priest named Hidalgo. The insurrection spread with wonderful rapidity, and Hidalgo soon had 100,000 men under arms. With this immense force, Hidalgo advanced toward the city of Mexico, gained some victories, but soon made a hasty and unaccountable retreat. Sanguinary Career and Death of Hidalgo—Short Career of Morelos.- Hidalgo gained some victories during the latter part of the same year (1810), out tarnished his glory by his atrocities. The number of Spaniards put to death by his orders amounted to several thousand. After being several times defeated, Hidalgo was taken prisoner, and was shot by order of the Spanish authorities, in July, 181 I. After the death of Hidalgo, Morelos, a warlike priest, who was as generous as brave, gained many brilliant victories over the Spaniards, during the years 1811 and 1812, but he was defeated, captured, and shot in 1813. Declaration of Mexican Independence—Restoration of Spanish Au- thority.—In 1813, a Congress which assembled at Chilpanzingo, declared Mexico AVINE TEENTH CEAVTUR P. 435 an independent nation. Various partisan leaders, such as Victoria, Bravo, Guerrero, Teran, Rayon, and Torres, carried on a guerrilla warfare against the royalists until 1819, when the patriots were defeated, and Spanish authority was temporarily reëstab- lished in Mexico. Revolt of Iturbide—“Plan of Iguala”—Independence of Mexico.— On the 24th of February, 1821, Don Augustin Iturbide, who had previously fought on the side of the Spaniards, proclaimed the celebrated “Plan of Iguala,” which declared Mexico independent of Spain, its government a constitutional monarchy, and its religion Roman Catholic, while all Mexicans who ranged themselves on the side of independence were invested with the rights of citizenship. After a feeble resistance on the part of the Spaniards, Spanish authority was overthrown, and Mexico became an independent nation. Iturbide, Emperor—His Dissolution of the Congress—His Overthow and Death.-On the 24th of September, 1821, the Mexican capital was entered in triumph by Iturbide. A Congress which was assembled in 1822, elevated Itur- bide to the dignity of Emperor of Mexico, with the title of Augustin I. Soon a dispute arose between the Emperor and the Congress. Iturbide ended the dispute by dissolving the Congress, but his arbitrary conduct produced a revolution which resulted in compelling him to abdicate his crown, and to flee from the country. (May, 1823.) He retired to Europe, but returned to Mexico in February, 1824, and, after making a fruitless effort to regain his former power, he was shot by order of the provincial congress of Tamaulipas. The Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824.—After the overthrow and flight of Iturbide, in 1823, a Congress was convened, and a new constitution was estab- lished, by which Mexico became a federal republic. This Federal Constitution, which was somewhat modeled after the Constitution of the United States of America, declared the United States of Mexico a federal republic, and divided the govern- ment into three departments, legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative power was vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives; the Senate to be composed of two members from each State, elected for a term of four years by the legislatures of the States; and the House of Representatives to consist of members elected for a term of two years by the citizens of the several States. The executive power was vested in a President, who, with a Vice-President, was to be elected by the legislatures of the several Mexican States, for a term of four years. The President was to be a Mexican born, and thirty-five years of age. The judicial power was vested in a Supreme Court, consisting of eleven Judges, and one Attorney-General, who were to be elected by the State leg- islatures, and who were not to be removed except in cases specified by law. With many excellent features, this constitution did not. provide for trial by jury; and it declared the religion of Mexico to be perpetually the “Roman Catholic Apostolic,” to the exclusion of all other religious systems. THE REvolution IN COLOMEIA (1soo–1823). Juntas at Quito and Caraccas—Beginning of the Colombian Revolu- tion.—In August, 1809, a junta was established at Quito, by the inhabitants of that city. The junta was suppressed by the viceroy of New Grenada; and, on the 2d 436 AMO DEA’AW HZSZTOR Y. of August, 1810, about 300 of the supporters of the junta were treacherously massa red by the royalist troops. During the same year (1810), a junta was established at Caraccas, where a declaration of independence was promulgated. Caraccas was blockaded by order of the regency of Spain. In their conduct, the colonists were acting in the name of King Ferdinand VII., and in opposition to the various juntas in Spain, and to the French, who had almost subdued the Spanish peninsula. While the war was raging in the Spanish peninsula, Spanish troops were sent to A merica, to reduce the colonists to submission. A sanguinary war of twelve years' duration desolated New Grenada, Ecuador, and Venezuela, which three provinces were soon united, with the title of Colombia. In the course of this war, the mos shocking atrocities were perpetrated by the Spaniards. Declaration of Colombian Independence—Policy of the Bonapartes.— The Colombians, provoked at the tyranny of the mother country, now resolved upo a political separation from Spain, and, on the 5th of July, 1811, a Congress assem bled at Caraccas declared Venezuela independent of Spain. Soon afterward thr provinces composing New Grenada declared their independence, and their example was followed by Mexico, in 1813, and Buenos Ayres, in 1816. Still Spain blindly persisted in her despotic course, until her American colonies were lost to her for ever. Napoleon and Joseph Bonaparte were doing all in their power to promotº the cause of Spanish American independence, with the view of strengthening them. selves in Spain. * Conspiracy in Venezuela—Juntas at Bogota, Popayan, and Carthagena. —A frightful conspiracy in Venezuela, against the provisional government of Vene zuela, was suppressed in 1810. A constitution was adopted in Venezuela in 1812 A junta which had been established in Bogota, in July, 1810, gave place to a con gress, which conducted the affairs of the Revolution. A junta had been formed as Popayan and Santa Martha. A junta had been established at Carthagena in 181o The various provinces, acting separately from their federal governments, and often at war with them, prosecuted the war against the royalists with vigor. The royalist. in Popayan, after defeating the patriots, were themselves defeated. Effects of the Earthquake at Caraccas in 1812.-The earthquake in Venezuela in March, 1812, which destroyed Caraccas, greatly injured the cause of the Revolution, as many of the patriots, believing the earthquake to be a pun- ishment inflicted upon them from Heaven for their rebellious conduct, joined the royal cause, Space will not permit us to give an account of the many cºnflicts between the Colombians and the Spaniards, and the changes of government and civil wars among the Colombians themselves, while struggling for freedom against their common enemy. Suppression of the Revolt, in Venezuela—Renewal of the Revolt by Simon Bolivar.—After the earthquake at Caraccas, that city was taken by the Spaniards, who reëstablished their authority in Venezuela, and who filled the dun- geons of Puerto Cabello with the defeated patriots. The resistance to Spanish power was renewed in Venezuela by the illustrious Simon Bolivar, who soon de. feated the Spaniards, and liberated Venezuela from their yoke. The royalists then armed the slaves against the patriots, and the war was renewed with vigor and ended in the triumph of the patriots, who, under Bolivar, gained the battle of AVZAVE TEEAVZ Hº CEAVZ’UR Y. 437 Carabolo, on the 28th of May, 1814; but soon afterward, Bolívar was defeated at La Puerta, and the royalists recovered Venezuela. Tyrannical Measures of King Ferdinand VII.-Civil War Among the Colombians.—In 1814, the Emperor Napoleon I. was overthrown in Europe by the Allied Powers, and Ferdinand VII. came in undisputed possession of the throne of Spain. The tyrannical measures of Ferdinand toward the rebellious Americans renalered forever impossible all hopes of a reconciliation between Spain and he levolted colonies. The patriots greatly weakened their cause by their internal dis sensions. When the province of Cundinamarca refused to join the Colombian com federacy, the Colombian Congress resorted to military force, and sent General Bolivar with an army to compel Cundinamarca to unite with the other provinces of Colombia. Bolivar compelled the city of Bogota, the capital of Cundinamarca, to surrender, whereupon the rebellious province was obliged to join the confedera- tion. Morillo’s Successes Over the Colombians—His Defeats.-In 1815, a Spanish army, under the brutal Morillo, arrived from Cadiz, and conquered the island of Margarita, on the Colombian coast, and captured the city of Carthagena. General Bolivar again attempted to liberate Venezuela, but he was defeated and compelled to evacuate the province; and the Spaniards, under General Morillo. conquered New Grenada, captured Bogota, and massacred many of the patriots. On the 5th of April, 1817, the city of Barcelona, in Venezuela, was taken by the Spaniards, after a furious assault; but soon afterward, the Colombian army, under Generals Bolivar and Piar, took the town of Angostura, in Guiana, and Morillo made an unsuccessful attack on the island of Margarita, which had again revolted. Defection of General Piar—Individual Foreign Aid to the Patriots.- On the 16th of October, 1817, General Piar, who had fought bravely for freedom in Colombia, having been detected in a conspiracy for obtaining the supreme power, was executed. The patriots now received assistance from enthusiastic individuals from Great Britain, who joined the Colombian armies, and fought heroically for freedom in Colombia. Patriotic persons from the United States also aided the Colombians. Battle of Boyaca—Formation of the Republic of Colombia.-General Bolivar, after marching his army into New Grenada, gained the most brilliant victory of the whole war, in the battle of Boyaca, on the 7th of August, 1819. Soon after- ward, Bolivar entered Bogota, where he established a provisional government for New Grenada, after which he entered Venezuela. On the 17th of December, 1819, the Congress sitting at Angostura, passed the fundamental law, which united New Grenada and Venezuela into one state, with the title of “The Republic of Colom: bia.” General McGregor, with a patriot force, after taking Puerto Cabello, was defeated by the royalists. The army and navy of Colombia captured Rio de la ſiacha, in April, 1820. An armistice was now concluded, and General Morille was succeeded in command of the Spanish army by General Morales. Battle of Carabobo-Capture of Carthagena by the Colombians.--The patriots captured Coro, on the 11th of May, 1821; and on the 24th of June of the same year, Bolivar defeated the Spaniards in the battle of Carabobo. The Congress of New Grenada, which shortly after convened at Cucuta, ratified the union with 438 . MODERN HISTORY. Venezuela. A Spanish flotilla was destroyed, on the 30th of the same month (June, 1821), by the Colombian squadron, under Admiral Biron, who compelled the city of Carthagena to capitulate, on the 23d of September of the same year. (1821.) . Battle of Pinchincha—Capture of Maracaybo by the Colombians.—On the 1st of June, 1822, the Colombians under General Sucre defeated the Spanial ds in the bloody battle of Pinchincha, which liberated Quito, or Ecuador, from Spanish authority. The Colombian squadron destroyed the Spanish flotilla in Lake Mara- caybo, on the 23d of July, 1823, and captured the town of Maracaybo, with the Spanish army under General Morales. Surrender of Puerto Cabello to the Colombians—Liberation of Colom- bia.-Finally, the long war was closed, and the independemee of Colombia secured, by the surrender of Puerto Cabello to the patriots, in the beginning of December, 1823. The United States had already acknowledged the independence of Colom- bia, in 1822. In 1824, Bolivar marched into Peru, and a part of his army, under General Sucre, gained the battle of Ayacucho, which put an end to Spanish power in America. - THE REvolution IN LA PLATA (1810-1821). Insurrection at Buenos Ayres.—The news of the dethronement of the legit- imate King of Spain by Napoleon, and the rise of the Spanish people against the usurpation of the Bonapartes, occasioned popular movements in Buenos Ayres. The Revolution in Buenos Ayres, or the provinces of La Plata, began on the 25th of May, 1810, when the inhabitants of Buenos Ayres established a provisional junta. In March, 1811, a new junta was appointed. The Spaniards of Monte Video were opposed to this proceeding, and sent an army against Buenos Ayres; and war was commenced. Revolt in the Banda Oriental—Dissensions among the Patriots.-The royalists of Buenos Ayres were defeated, and a revolt was inaugurated in the Banda Oriental, of which Monte Video is the capital. The patriots of Buenos Ayres, like those of all other parts of Spanish America, soon quarreled among themselves; and for ten years, while prosecuting the war against the Spaniards in Upper Peru and Chili, Buenos Ayres was distracted by numerous revolutions and civil wars. Wars of the Banda Oriental with Buenos Ayres—Independence of Paraguay.—The Banda Oriental, with Artigas at its head, was often at war with Buenos Ayres, and with the Brazilians, who claimed its territory. The province of Paraguay became independent in 1812, with Dr. Francia as Dictator. Declaration of Argentine Independence—Emancipation of La Plata. —On the 9th of July, 1816, a Congress at Buenos Ayres declared the confederated provinces of the La Plata independent of Spain. Civil war and anarchy continued in the province until 1821, when a period of tranquillity and prosperity returned. In 1829, Spain acknowledged the independence of La Plata, or the Argentine Republic. - i. THE REvolution IN BOLIVIA (1809-1824). Insurrections of La Paz, Cochabamba, and Potosi.-Bolivia, or Upper Peru, as it was called at the time, was the first of the Spanish American colonies to AV/AWE TEEAVTH CEAVTUR Y. 439 rise in rebellion against the despotism of old Spain. On the 25th of March, 1809, the citizens of the wealthy and enterprising city of La Paz established a provisional junta. The city of La Paz was attacked by the royalists from Buenos Ayres, and, after a heroic defense, was forced to surrender, when many of the unfortunate inhabitants suffered death on the scaffold. The people of La Paz revolted a second time, but were again subdued. The neighboring cities of Cochabamba and fotosi, which had also risen in insurrection, were likewise reduced. Liberation of Bolivia—The Bolivian Constitution.—The bloody wal between the patriots and the royalists in Upper Peru continued with various success until the close of 1824, when the memorable battle of Ayacucho put an enºl to Spanish authority in South America, and Upper Peru became an independent republic, and was named Bolivia, in honor of the great Colombian president and dictator, General Simon Bolivar, who framed a constitution for the republic. THE REVOLUTION IN CHILI (1810-1818). Insurrection at Santiago—The Carreras and O'Higgins.—The revolu- tionary movement in Chili began in July, 1810, when the people of Santiago de- posed their Captain-General, and put another in his place. A junta was formed, which assembled a Congress to consider the condition of the country. Disturbances took place in 1811, which resulted in the exile of the opponents of the Revolution. The three ambitious brothers named Carrera soon overthrew the Congress, and took the government of Chili into their own hands. In 1812, a Spanish army invaded Chili from Peru, and, through the dissensions of the Chilian leaders, O'Higgins and the Carreras, the authority of the royalists was reëstablished in Chili. San Martin in Chili—Battles of Chacabaco and Maypu-Emancipation of Chili.-In 1817, the struggling Chilians found a deliverer in the valiant and patriotic San Martin, who, after crossing'the Andes from Buenos Ayres at the head of a patriot army, overthrew the Spaniards in the battle of Chacabaco, which was fought on the 12th of February, 1817, and which gave independence to Chili. The Spaniards reconquered Chili, but their power was hopelessly broken, and the independence of Chili permanently secured, in the decisive battle of Maypu, fought on the 5th of April, 1818. THE FREVOLUTION IN PERU (182O-1824). San Martin in Peru—Declaration of Peruvian, Independence.—Peru, the land of the Incas, was the last of the Spanish American colonies to strike for freedom. The Government of Chili, convinced that Chilian independence was not secure so long as the royalists held Peru, sent an army under San Martin into Peru, in 1820, for the purpose of expelling the Spaniards, and encouraging the Peruvians to throw off the Spanish yoke. A Chilian squadron, under the command of the English admiral, Lord Cochrane, whose standard was joined by many Englishmen and Americans, harassed the royalists on the coast of Peru, capturing many Spanish vessels. On San Martin’s appearance in Peru, the Peruvians rose almost unani- mously; and the independence of Peru was declared. The Chilians everywhere defeated the Spaniards; and San Martin, after nobly proving his disinterestedness by declining the proffered dictatorship, returned to Chili. * 44O MODERAV HISTORY. The Colombian Army in Peru—Battles of Junin and Ayacucho—Eman- cipation of Peru.-The Spaniards soon regained their lost power in Peru, which they held until the Colombian army, under Bolivar, marched to the rescue of the Peruvians. On the 6th of August, 1824, the Colombians, under General Sucre, gained a victory in the battle of Junin; and, on the 9th of December of the same year (1824), Sucre annihilated the Spaniards in the decisive battle of Ayacucho, which secured the independence of Peru, and which swept away forever every vestige of Spanish power on the American continent. In 1826, Callao, the last Stronghold of the Spaniards in South America, surrendered to the Peruvians, and Spanish America became free. SOUTH AMERICA SINCE THE REVOLUTION. The Portuguese Colony of Brazil becomes an Independent Empire.— Brazil peacefully secured a political separation from Portugal in 1822, with Don Pedro I., of the royal House of Braganza, as Emperor. In 1831, the Brazilians, becoming dissatisfied with the government of Don Pedro I., compelled him to ab- dicate his crown in favor of his son, Don Pedro II., who was then only five years old. During the minority of Don Pedro II., the Government of Brazil was con- ducted by a regency. Spanish American Congress at Panama.-General Bolivar cherished the grand design of the formation of a confederation of all the Spanish American Re- publics, with himself at its head as dictator; and, in 1826, a Congress composed of representatives of all the Spanish American Republics convened at Panama, on the Isthmus of Darien. The deliberations of this Congress were not attended with any important result; and the plan of a Spanish American confederacy failed. War between Brazil and La Plata—Formation of the Republic of Uruguay.—For several years, war raged between the Empire of Brazil and the Republic of La Plata, or the Argentine Confederation, respecting the possession of the Banda Oriental, situated between the two countries. Through the mediation of Great Britain, peace was concluded in 1828, by which it was agreed to erect the Banda.Oriental into an independent republic, under the name of Uruguay. The dictator, General Rosas, governed the Argentine Confederation from 1835 to 1855. Both the Argentine Republic and Uruguay have been much disturbed by civil wars. War between Colombia and Peru— Dissolution of the Republic of Colombia.-A war broke out between the Republics of Colombia and Peru in 1829, which resulted in the defeat of the Peruvians. General Bolivar's ambition created for him many enemies, and greatly weakened his popularity with his coun- trymen; and a civil war was only prevented by his death, in 1830. In 1831, the Republic of Colombia was dissolved, and its three great divisions,—New Grenada, Venezuela, and Ecuador, became separate republics. Since their separation, each :f these republics, like all the other Spanish American States, have been distracted ty almost constant revolutions and civil wars. In 1861, the title of New Grenada was changed, and that republic has since been known as “The United States of Colombia.” The Republic of Paraguay under the Dictator, Dr. Francia.-Paraguay Čeclared its independence in 1810; and in 1812, Dr. Francia made himself dic- MIMETEEATH CENTURY. 44I tator, and ruled with almost absolute and despotic power until 1840, when he died. Under the government of Dr. Francia, foreigners were not permitted to travel in Paraguay, and every inhabitant was compelled to learn to read and write. Fran cia's rule, though despotic, was beneficial to Paraguay. Peru-Bolivian Confederation—war between the Confederation and Chili.-In 1836, Peru and Bolivia were united in a league, called “The Peru- Bolivian Confederation,” at the head of which was General Santa Cruz as dictator, In 1836, a war broke out between this Confederation and Chili. The Chilians defeated the Peruvians in the battle of Yungay, on the 11th of July, 1839. Gen. eral Santa Cruz was overthrown and obliged to flee from Peru, whereupon the Peru-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved, and Peru and Bolivia again became separate republics. Both these republics have since been the scenes of revolution and anarchy. War of Peru and Chili against Spain—South American Alliance against Spain.—In 1864 a war broke out between Spain and Peru. The follow- ing year (1865), Chili joined Peru in the war. The towns on the coast of Chili and Peru were bombarded by the Spanish fleets. Valparaiso, in Chili, and Callao, in Peru, withstood these attacks. In January, 1866, the Republics of Venezuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia concluded an alliance with Peru and Chili in the war. Active hostilities closed with the year 1866, but peace was not formally made until the beginning of 1871. War of Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Confederation against Paraguay.—The interference of the Paraguayan dictator, Francisco Lopez, in the domestic affairs of Uruguay, led to a war of Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Confederation against Paraguay, in 1864. Bloody battles were fought on Para- guayan soil with various results. Under the leadership of their able dictator, the Paraguayans fought heroically for the preservation of their national existence, which was threatened by the encroachments of their enemies. But Lopez was driven from one stronghold to another, and, after an enormous expenditure of blood and treasure, this terrible war closed, in the early part of 1870, in the defeat and humiliation of Paraguay. The hard-hearted Lopez, refusing to surrender, was put to death by a Brazilian soldier. The conquerors established a provisional government in Par- aguay. THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNITED STATES OF MEXICO. THE ADMINISTRATION OF GENERAL VICTORIA (1823–1829). Flection and Inauguration of President Guadalupe Victoria.-After the adoption of the Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824, General Guadalupe Victoria was elected President of Mexico, with General Nicholas Bravo as Vice President. Victoria and Bravo were installed into office on the Ist of January, 1825. The Escoces and the Yorkinos.—The Administration of President Victoria was very prosperous, and the Mexican Republic enjoyed a greater degree of prosperity than at any previous or subsequent period. The Mexican nation was, however, divided into two political parties, each of which was controlled by a 442 MODERN HISTORY. Masonic lodge. The Escoces, or aristocratic party, desired a strong central gov- ernment, like the Federalists of the United States, and were accused, by their opponents, of aiming at the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. The York- inos, or democratic party, desired the preservation of the Federal system as opposed to centralism, like the Jefferson Republicans of the United States, and were charged with being anarchists and subverters of public order. Election Corruption and Frauds in 1826.-In the Mexican elections of 1826, bribery, corruption, and all sorts of disreputable means were resorted to by the two great political parties which divided the nation, and many of the elections were declared null and void, in consequence of the illegal proceedings by which they had been effected. In the same year (1826), the Escoces brought about an insurrection against the Government, but the movement was easily suppressed. Presidential Election of 1828—Revolution and Civil War—Flight of Pedraza.-Another Presidential election took place in Mexico in the year 1828. The candidate of the Escoces, or aristocratic party, was General Pedraza, and the nominee of the Yorkinos, or democratic party, was General Guerrero. To the surprise of all, Pedraza was elected by a majority of only two electoral votes over his opponent. The Yorkinos, thus defeated in the election, which they declared to have been accomplished by fraud and bribery, determined to place themselves in power by force of arms. The youthful general, Santa Anna, declared that the election of Pedraza had been secured by corruption and bribery; and, at the head of 500 men, he took possession of the castle of Perote, and proclaimed Guerrero President. During the last day of November and the first three days of December (1828), a sanguinary conflict took place in the Mexican capital, between the Government guard and a large body of insurgents, which ended in the flight of Pedraza, the President-elect, who, rather than involve his country in civil war on his own account, advised his partisans to submit to an unconstitutional President, and left the country. Thus revolutionary force was triumphant over the constitu tion and laws of the Mexican Republic. - ADMINISTRATIONS OF GUERRERO, BUSTAMENTE, AND PEDF AZA (1829–1833) A. Guerrero Declared President—Spanish Invasion of Mexico–Surren- der of the Spaniards.--When the Mexican Congress met, that body declared General Guerrero, the defeated candidate of the Yorkinos, President of Mexico, he having, next to General Pedraza, the highest number of votes. In 1829, a Span- lsh army of 4,000 men landed at Tampico for the invasion of the Mexican Republic; but, after a four months’ occupation, the invading army surrendered to Santa Anna, on the Ioth of September. (1829.) Overthrow of Guerrero and Presidency of Bustamente—Death of Guerrero.—As President Guerrero refused to relinquish the dictatorial powers which had been conferred upon him for the purpose of meeting the Spanish inva- sion, General Bustamente, the Vice-President, headed a revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of Guerrero, and the assumption of the Presidency by Bustamente. Guerrero afterwards attempted to recover his authority, but he was made a prisoner, and shot as a traitor to the established Government of the Mexican Republic. MINE TEENTH CENTURY. 443 Overthrow of Bustamente by Santa Anna and Recall of Pedraza.— In 1832, another revolution occurred in Mexico, headed by Santa Anna, who had declared against the arbitrary encroachments of President Bustamente. After a short contest, the revolution ended in the downfall of Bustamente, who retired to France; whereupon the exiled Pedraza, who had been constitutionally elected in 1828, was recalled to serve out the remaining three months of his unexpired presi. slential term. PFESIDENCY AND DICTATORSHIP OF SANTA AN N A - (1833–1837). THE TEXAN REVOLUTION (1833–1836). Santa Anna Made President of Mexico—Unsuccessful Insurrections. —Early in 1833, Santa Anna himself was raised to the Presidency of Mexico, with Gomez Farias as Vice-President. In less than a fortnight after Santa Anna had entered upon the duties of his office, an insurrection broke out within twenty miles of the Mexican capital, supposed to have been instigated by the President him- self, as the avowed object of the insurgents was to make Santa Anna dictator; but he took the command of a large force against the insurgents, whom he completely defeated. Not long afterwards, Santa Anna left the executive authority in the hands of the Vice-President, Gomez Farias, and retired to his estate, to wait for a more favorable occasion to strike a blow for dictatorial power. Abolition of the Federal Constitution of 1824–Santa Anna, Dictator. —Early in 1834, Santa Anna, placing himself at the head of the military chiefs and the army, dissolved the Congress and summoned another, and, taking into his own hands all the powers of government, he trampled under foot the Constiution which he had sworn to defend. The Mexican States were more or less convulsed by these arbitrary proceedings, but the Centralist party, headed by Santa Anna, after much opposition, succeeded in abolishing the Federal Constitution of 1824, and established a “Strong Central Republic.” The State Legislatures were declared to be abol- ished, and the States were converted into departments, and placed under the charge of military commanders, who were to be responsible to the chief authorities of the Mexican nation. The supreme power was to be centralized in the hands of a single individual whose will was law. At the head of this new Government, republican only in name, was Santa Anna as President. Gomez Farias, who, at the head of the Federalist party, supported the Constitution of 1824, was thrown into prison; and General Barragan, 2, ieading Centralist, was made Vice-President. Several of the Mexican States rose in arms to uphold the Federal Constitution, but all, with the exception of Texas, were speedily reduced by the arms of Santa Anna. Beginning of the Texan Revolution—Santa Anna’s Invasion of Texas —Fall of the Alamo.—The arbitrary and usurping conduct of Santa Anna led to a rebellion of the province of Texas, which was inhabited almost exclusively by emigrants from the United States. These emigrants refused to submit to Santa Anna’s military rule, and began a rebellion for the purpose of achieving their inde. pendence of Mexican authority. The Mexican troops who invaded Texas were repulsed by the Texans at Gonzales, on the 2d of October, 1835. Before the end of the year (1835), the Texans captured the strong fortress of Goliad and the Alamo, 444 MODERM HISTORY. The following year (1836), Santa Anna invaded Texas, with 8000 Mexican troops. For two weeks, 4ooo Mexicans, under Santa Anna, had vainly besieged the Alamo, when at length, on the 6th of March (1836), they assaulted the fortress, which they only entered over the dead bodies of the 150 Texans who had defended it. Texan Declaration of Independence—Battle of San Jacinto—Captiv- ity of Santa Anna.-On the 2d of April, 1836, a convention of delegates assembled a: Washington, on the Colorado, declared Texas independent. In the meantime, a Mexican force, under General Urrea, was committing the most shocking atrocities along the coast of Texas, massacring small bodies of Texans after they had surren. dered. On the 21st of April, 1836, was fought the celebrated battle of San Jancinto, in which 16oo Mexicans, under Santa Anna, were defeated by 783 Texans com- manded by General Samuel Houston, after a fierce struggle of twenty minutes. On the day after the battle, Santa Anna was found in the woods by the victorious Texans, and made a prisoner. On being brought before General Houston, Santa Anna ex- claimed, “You were born to no ordinary destiny: you conquered the Napoleon of the West.” & Santa Anna’s Release—Texas an Independent Republic.—In order to obtain his release, Santa Anna ordered the Mexican army to retire beyond the Rio Grande, and acknowledged the independence of Texas; but the Mexican Congress refused to confirm the agreement which Santa Anna had made with the Texans, and even Santa Anna himself, on his arrival in Mexico, disavowed all treaties which he bad made while a prisoner. Although Mexico refused to acknowledge the independ- ence of Texas, she did not make another vigorous effort to reconquer her lost province. Texas remained an independent republic for nine years, recognized by France, England, and the United States, after which it became a State of the American Union. (1845.) BUSTAMENTE'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1837–1841), Bustamente Made President of Mexico—Retirement of Santa Anna. —After Santa Anna’s departure from Mexico for the invasion of Texas, the execu- tive authority of the Mexican Republic devolved upon the Vice-President, General Barragan; and after the death of the latter, soon afterward, General Bustamente, . who had just returned from France, was invested with the functions of the Presi- dency; Santa Anna, by his failure to subdue the Texans, having lost the confidence and favor of the Mexican people, was obliged to retire to private life, until another revolution in his unhappy country restored him to power. General Mexia's Rebellion and Death—Vera Cruz Attacked by a French Fleet.—A rebellion which broke out in Mexico in 1838, was speedily quelled by Santa Anna, whom President Bustamente had entrusted with the com- mand of the Government army, and General Mexia, the leaders of the rebellion, was shot after he had surrendered. In November of the same year (1838) a French fleet appeared before Vera Cruz, and when the Mexican authorities rejected a demand for the reparation of the losses sustained by French subjects during the domestic convulsions in Mexico, the fleet blockaded the harbor of Vera Cruz, and French troops were landed before that city. During the retreat of the invaders from Vera Cruz, Santa Anna had one of his legs taken off by a cannon-ball. AVYME ZEAEAV7'H CEMTUR V. 445 Insurrection of July, 1840, in the Capital—Secession of Yucatan.—In July, I840, an insurrection of the Federalists, headed by General Urrea and Gomez Farias, broke out in the city of Mexico; and after a bloody contest of twelve days, in the streets of the city, between the opposing factions, a universal amnesty was agreed upon. During the same year (1840), the province of Yucatan seceded from Mexico; but, after a struggle of three years against the Mexican forces, it was again united with Mexico. Mexican Revolution of 1841—Overthrow of Bustamente by Paredes and Santa Anna.-In August, 1841, another revolution broke out in Mexico, headed by General Paredes and Santa Anna. The revolutionary forces bombarded the capital, and, after a struggle of one month, in the streets of the city, the revolu- tion ended in the downfall and flight of President Bustamente. SANTA ANNA’S SECON D PRESIDENCY AND DICTATORSHIP (1841–1845). Santa Anna, President of Mexico—The Mexican Constitution of 1842. —In September, 1841, a convention of military officers at Tacubaya provided for the assembling of a Congress to frame a new constitution; but this Congress, which met in June, 1842, was soon dissolved by Santa Anna, who had acquired the office of provisional president; and in June, 1843, a national junta or council selected by him framed a new constitution, establishing an intricate representative system of government, leaving to the Mexican people but a shadow of power. The Mexican Republic was divided into Departments. The Roman Catholic religion was to be protected to the exclusion of all others. The executive power was vested in a President, to be elected for five years, who was to be assisted by a Council of Gov- ernment, composed of seventeen members selected by the President, and whose tenure of office was to be perpetual. The legislative power was vested in a Con- gress, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. An annual income of two hundred dollars was required for the enjoyment of all the rights of citizenship. Every 500 inhabitants of a Department were to be allowed one elector; twenty of these electors were to choose one member of the electoral college of the Depart- ment; and the electoral college was to elect the members of the Chamber of Depu- ties. One-third of the members of the Senate were to be chosen by the Chamber of Deputies and the President of the Republic, and the remaining two-thirds by the Assemblies of the Departments. Under this complicated representative system, Santa Anna was made President, or, with more propriety, virtual dictator of Mexico, in 1843. Revolution (and Civil War of 1844—Overthrow of Santa Anna by Paredes.—The almost absolute government of Santa Anna produced a wide-spread secret dissatisfaction throughout the Mexican nation. In October, 1844, Santa Anna retired to his farm on private business; and the National Senate appointed he Minister of War, Canalizo, to perform the executive duties in the absence of the President. In November (1844), General Paredes, the adherent of Santa Anna in the revolution of 1841, pronounced against the Dictator, and took the field against him. The National Congress siding with Paredes, that body was dissolved and the members were shut up in prison, by order of Canalizo, the acting President; 446 MoDerw HISTORY but they were soon released by a body of insurgents; and in the capital, the revo- lutionists caused Santa Anna’s amputated leg, which had been buried with military honors, to be carried about the streets and broken in pieces. After a short civil war, Santa Anna was made a prisoner by the revolutionists, in January, 1845, while attempting to escape from the country; and, after an imprisonment of several months, the National Congress decreed his perpetual banishment from the country. ADMINISTRATIONS OF HERRERA, PAREDEs, AND SAN TA ANNA (1843–1848). THE WAR VVITH THE UNITED STATES (1846–1848. General Herrera, President—Rupture between Mexico and the United States.—After the overthrow of Santa Anna, in January, 1845, General Herrera was appointed provisional president of Mexico; and in August of the same year, he was elected President, and, on the 16th of September, he was sworn into office, in the presence of the Mexican Congress. During Herrera's provisional presidency, the Republic of Texas was annexed to the United States of America (July 4, 1845), whereupon General Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washington, demanded his passports; and when intelligence of the annexation reached Mexico, President Herrera issued a proclamation calling upon the Mexican people to defend the integ- rity and unity of their country, which was represented as being seriously threatened by the aggressions of the United States. War between Mexico and the United States broke out in the spring of the following year. (1846.) Overthrow of Herrera by Paredes—General Paredes, President.—When President Herrera, convinced of the inability of Mexico to prosecute a successful war against the United States, manifested a desire for a peaceful settlement of the difficulty between the two Republics, General Paredes, who had the command of the army marching northward to drive the United States forces from Texas, took the occasion to arouse the patriotism of his countrymen, to prevent the dismember- ment of the Mexican Republic, and pronounced against the Administration of Her rera. Upon the approach of Paredes to the capital, the army there declared in favor of the revolution, and Herrera was driven from power and Paredes elevated to the Presidency. - - - Opening of the War between Mexico and the United States.—President Paredes had no sooner entered upon the duties of his office, than he made the most energetic preparations to carry on the war against the United States. The first bloodshed between the military forces of the United States and Mexico occurred on the 24th of April, 1846, when an American reconnoitering party under Captain Thornton was captured by the Mexicans, on the Texas bank of the Rio Grande. The Americans under General Taylor defeated the Mexicans under General Arista, in the battles of Palo Alto, May 8, 1846, and Resaca de la Palma, May 9; and, during the same month, the American and Mexican Governments formally declared war against each other. On the 18th of May, 1846, the American army under General Taylor captured the Mexican city of Matamoras; and, on the 24th of Sep. tember (1846), Monterey, after a defense of four days, also surrendered to Taylor, Overthrow of Paredes—Santa Anna’s Recall and Restoration to the Presidency.—In the midst of her war with the United States, Mexico was not A/wzzzzAvTH CENTURY: 447 free from domestic dissensions. While President Paredes was engaged in prepara- tions to prosecute a vigorous war against the United States, his Administration was cut short; for Santa Anna had been recalled by the revolutionary party, and in December, 1846, he was again raised to the Presidency of the Mexican Republic. Immediately after his elevation to power, Santa Anna, notwithstanding his former professions of a desire for the restoration of peace between the two nations, took the field in person against the invading forces of the United States. Occupation of Mexico by the United States Army—Peace of Guada- loupe Hidalgo.—Disasters befell the Mexican arms in rapid succession. The Americans conquered New Mexico and Upper or New California; while General Taylor, with 5000 Americans, defeated 22,000 Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in the famous battle of Buena Vista, on the 23d of February, 1847. General Scott, with an American army of Io,000 men, captured Vera Cruz, March 18; defeated 30,000 Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in the battles of Cerro Gordo, April 25; San Anto- nio, Contreras, and Churubusco, August 20; Molino del Rey, September 8; and Chapultepec, September 13; and, on the 14th of September (1847), he entered the Mexican capital in triumph, and Santa Anna fled from the country. On the 2d of February, 1848, a treaty of peace was concluded at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, by which Mexico ceded New Mexico and Upper California to the United States. ADMINISTRATIONS OF HERRERA, ARISTA, SANTA ANNA, ALVAREZ, COMON FORT, AND ZULOAGA (1848-1860). Administrations of Herrera and Arista—Overthrow of Arista—Santa Anna, President.—In the autumn of 1848, General Herrera again became Presi. dent of Mexico, and remained in office until January, 1851, when he was succeedeo by General Arista. In January, 1853, Mexico again became disturbed by a domestic revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of President Arista's Administration by Santa Anna, who had just returned to Mexico. Santa Anna, President—Revolution of 1854 and Overthrow of Santa Anna by Alvarez.-After the overthrow of Arista, Santa Anna was again made President of Mexico, but adversity had not curbed his ambition; and, soon after his restoration to the Presidency, he was accused of a design to assume imperial power, and the consequence was another revolution in his unhappy country. The leader of this revolution was General Alvarez, “The Panther of the Pacific.” After tº short civil war, Santa Anna was hurled from power, and his public career was ended forever. - Administrations of Alvarez and Comonfort—New Constitution—Civil War of 1858.-After the overthrow of Santa Anna in 1855, General Alvarez, his antagonist, was invested with the office of President, but Alvarez was soon succeeded by General Comonfort. On the 11th of March, 1857, a new constitution was promul- gated by the Mexican Congress; but President Comonfort, supported by the army, violently opposed this constitution, because it greatly restricted the Presidential power; and, in January, 1858, Mexico again became a prey to the horrors of revo. lution and civil war. Resignation of Comonfort—General Zuloaga, President—Defeat of Juarez.-In 1858, President Comonfort resigned, whereupon General Zuloaga 448 MOZ) EAEAW ANZSTORY. made himself President, in utter disregard of the constitutional rights of Benito Juarez, who, as President of the Supreme Court of Justice, was the legitimate suo- cessor of Comonfort. Civil war continued to distract the unhappy country; and Juarez being defeated, retired from the country, but he afterward returned, and asserted his constitutional rights to the Presidency of the Mexican Republic. THE ADMINISTRATION OF BENITO JUAREz (1863O-1872), THE FREN CH IN VASION AND THE EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN (1861–1867). The Civil War between the Liberals and the Conservatives—Benito Juarez, President.—The civil war in Mexico, between the Liberals, headed by Benito Juarez, and the Conservatives, headed by Comonfort, Miramon, Marquez, Almonte, and others, continued throughout 1860; but Juarez finally triumphed over his enemies, and secured possession of the office of President, to which he had a legitimate right, but the defeat of his unprincipled antagonists did not restore peace to his distracted country. Allied English, French, and Spanish Expedition to Mexico—Occupa- tion of Vera Cruz.-During the civil war between the Liberals and the Conser- vatives, both parties seized on the property of foreigners in Mexico; and the Mexican Congress passed an act suspending for two years the payment of certain foreign obligations of debt. In consequence of this action of the Mexican Congress, the Governments of England, France, and Spain concluded, at London, a Triple Alli- ance, with the view of forcing Mexico to fulfil her foreign obligations; and, in December, 1861, a combined English, French, and Spanish expedition arrived at Vera Cruz. The allied troops occupied Vera Cruz without resistance, that city having been previously evacuated by the Mexican forces. The troops of the expe- dition suffered severely from the excessive heat of the climate; and negotiations were soon opened for a peaceful settlement of difficulties, and the invading army, with the concurrence of the Mexican authorities, occupied more salubrious and healthful quarters in Cordova, Orizaba, and Tehuacan, with the understanding that if hostilities should be renewed the allied expeditionary troops should first retire to the positions which they had occupied before the commencement of negotiations. Withdrawal of the English and Spanish Troops from Mexico.—At a meeting of the representatives of the three allied nations in Mexico, just previous to the opening of the peace negotiatons, the French Minister to Mexico presented the enormous Jecker claim. This surprised the English Minister and General Prim, the Spanish commander; and the presentation of this claim, with other disclosures made to them, leading to the belief that the Emperor Napoleon III. intended to interfere in the domestic affairs of the Mexican nation, caused the British ambassador and the Spanish commander, on the 9th of April, 1862, to declare the Convention of London transgressed, and to withdraw the English and Spanish troops from Mexico; from which time the invasion and military occupation of Mexicc was con tinued by the French alone. Siege and Capture of Puebla by the French.-After the withdrawal of the English and Spanish troops, hostilities were renewed by the French and the Mexi. cans; but the French did not return to their original positions, as agreed upon MIME TEENTH CENTURY: 449 with the Mexican authorities, but retained possession of Orizaba. On the 24th of February, 1863, the French marched from Orizaba to Puebla, to which they laid siege on the 18th of March. Finally, on the 18th of May, 1863, aſter a vigorous sicge and a heroic defense of two months, during which the garrison repulsed many of the assaults of the besiegers, Puebla and its garrison of 17,000 men, under General Ortega, were surrendered to the French. - Occupation of the City of Mexico by the French—Action of General Forey's Junta.-On the Ioth of June, 1863, the French, under General Forey, entered the city of Mexico, after it had been evacuated by the Republican forces under President Juarez, who retired to San Luis Potosi, afterwards to Monterey, and still later to Chihuahua. Soon aſter the capture of the Mexican capital by the French, General Forey established a junta of thirty-five Mexicans, which junta selected an “Assembly of Notables,” which assembly, by a vote of 231 to 19, declared that the ſuture government of Mexico should be a limited hereditary monarchy, with a Roman Catholic prince for sovereign, to bear the title of Emperor, and the crown to be offered first to the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, of the imperial IIouse of Hapsburgh. The Archduke Maximilian of Austria Proclaimed Emperor of Mexico.— The French were now firmly established in the heart of Mexico, but the Juarists were still dominant in the Southern and Western portions of the country; and the contest between the Juarists and the Imperialists continued with various success until the early part of 1864, when the Archduke Maximilian of Austria arrived in the Mexican capi- tal, and was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico. Maximilian had been placed on the Mexican throne through the instrumentality of the Emperor Napoleon III. of France, and his throne was upheld by the French expeditionary troops and their Austrian auxiliaries, and by the Mexican Imperialists; but the Juarists, or Mexican Republicans, kept the field in defense of their free institutions, and waged a san- guinary guerrilla warfare against their foreign and domestic foes, having with them the sympathy of the friends of republican government everywhere. The war was carried on with great barbarity by both parties, the shooting of prisoners being of frequent occurrence. Capture of Matamoras by the French and Surrender of Cortina’s Army. —The year 1864 was an eventſul one in the history of Mexico. The French cap- tured the city of Matamoras; and the whole Mexican army under General Cortina were ſorced to surrender themselves prisoners of war. This misfortune to the Lib- eral cause, together with disasters to the arms of the Juarists in other quarters, seemed to leave the cause of the Mexican Republic hopeless; and Maximilian's ‘Empire appeared to be on a fair way to become secure. Decline of the Imperial Cause—Evacuation of Chihuahua by the Imperialists.-With the downſall of the Great Rebellion in the United States, the vitality of Maximilian's Empire decayed; and President Juarez, who had been in the meantime driven into the extreme north-western limits of Mexico, gathered new strength, and by the autumn of 1865, he had recovered a large amount of territory from the Mexican Imperialists, and their French and Austrian allies. In November, 1865, the Imperialists evacuated Chihuahua, which was soon taken possession of by the Juarists. 29 450 MODERAV HISTORY. Position of the United States Government—Withdrawal of the French Forces.—The progress of events in Mexico was watched with interest by the Government and people of the United States, as the conduct of the Emperor of the French, in attempting the establishment of a Latin Empire on the American conti- nent, was in defiance of “The Monroe Doctrine,” proclaimed by the President of lie United States at the time of the emancipation of Spanish America from the yoke of Spain. But the United States Government, engaged in a gigantic struggle against domestic foes for its own preservation, was not in a position to oppose the unprincipled schemes of the French Emperor from the beginning; but after having crushed the Great Rebellion against its own authority, the United States Governs ment resolved upon the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine, and demanded of the Emperor Napoleon III. the withdrawal of the French expeditionary forces from Mexican territory. After some negotiation, Napoleon III. agreed to abandon the cause of his dupe, Maximilian, and the French troops, about 26,000 in number, were gradually withdrawn from Mexican soil. Early in 1867, Marshal Bazaine, with the last French contingent, evacuated Mexico, thus leaving Maximilian and the Mexican Imperialists alone to contend against the Juarists. - Capture of Queretaro by the Juarists.--Capture and Execution of Maximilian.—Aſter the departure of the French forces from Mexico, Maximilian's Empire rapidly tottered to its fall. Vera Cruz, Puebla, and the capital were be- sieged by the Liberals; and the Imperialists were gradually hemmed in at Quere- taro, which city the Republican forces entered on the i5th of May, 1867, making prisoners of Maximilian, his staff, and the small remnant of his army. On the 19th of June, 1867, Maximilian was shot at Queretaro by the triumphant Juarists. The two Mexican Imperial generals, Miramon and Mejia, were also shot. On the I5th of July (1867), President Juarez returned to the capital, amid popular rejoicings, and issued a memorable and eloquent address to his countrymen. Re-election of Juarez—Revolutionary Movements.-On the 6th of Octo- ber, 1867, Benito Juarez was reëlected President of Mexico, over the opposing candidate, General Porfirio Diaz; and in December of the same year, the Mexican Congress was again assembled for the first time in three years. After Mexico's triumph over her enemies, the nation rapidly recuperated under the wise adminis- tration of Juarez, but this prosperity of the Republic was continually disturbed by revolutionary movements of more or less importance. A strong combination was formed against Juarez in May, 1868, when Rivero pronounced against the President, but the revolutionists frittered away their strength, and the movement failed. Re-election of Juarez—Rebellion of 1871-72.—In the spring of 1871, another Presidential election took place in Mexico. There were three rival candidates in the field,—namely, President Benito Juarez, General Porfirio Diaz, and Lerdo de Tejada. Bribery, corruption, and all sorts of ſrauds, were resorted to by each party. to secure the election of its favorite candidate; but, as none of the three candidates had received a majority of votes, the duty of choosing the President devolved upon the National Congress, which reëlected President Juarez, who was installed on the 1st of October, 1871. On that day, a sanguinary insurrection burst forth in the capital; but the revolt was quelled by General Rocha, who attacked and captured the citadel, aſter a severe conflict; and about 250 insurgents were shot after their surrender. The partisans of the unsuccessful candidates throughout the country MIMETEENTH CENTURY. 45I arose 'n arms, and involved the Republic in the horrors of another civil war. Mili- tary chiefs in various States pronounced against Juarez, and took the field at the head of revolutionary bands; and many of the Mexican States pronounced in favor of the revolution. The National Congress granted dictatorial powers to Juarez, to enable him to quell the rebellion. In December, 1871, the city of Oaxaca was taken by the Government forces under General Rocha, after a stubborn resistance on the part of the insurgents. The city of Zacatecas was reduced by the rebels under General Guerra, on the 13th of January, 1872. A battle was fought at San Luis Potosi, and Matamoras was captured by the revolutionists. The revolutionary general Trevino defeated the Juarist general Cevalles at Monterey. Death of President Juarez–Lerdo de Tejada, President—End of the Rebellion.—On the 18th of June, 1872, President Juarez died of apoplexy; and Lerdo de Tejada, as President of the Supreme Court of Justice, became President of the Mexican Republic. From the time of the death of Juarez, the rebellion de- clined; the revolutionary chiefs gradually laid down their arms; and in a few months, the whole country was quiet, and Mexico was once more relieved from anarchy and restored to peace. In the autumn of 1872, Lerdo de Tejada was almost unanimously elected President; and December 16th, he entered upon his regular term. / COAT OF ARMS OF EACH STATE IN THE AMERICAN ºf - ------ % lº t º ñālāś,\ Georgia. zºv** § - - , sº Maryland. - Missouri. º s: º º §§ - - Y - . . - ... 'º' ºr ." ? - —- – **_ºtº s * . . 2.2 *- : ;: zºº. sº ,, Zºaſ ( //, . " sº .. -- iff sº º i º? & º §§ - ; i. l gº º 㺠ſº VJ. :) º-3 T. ººzºº tºº/Aſºº ºs- tºº º S-23: * *S. -: ***. Sºº-sº-sºº --~...lºssessessºrs Rhode Island. ſº ºfficu Li. ... 'rº º >~~ ºv sº § > “ºy. T * ~ * Y; :SS-- « *** *- Virginia. Wisconsin, fi ſ Hº º West Virginia. THE HISTORY OF THE FIRST ONE HUNDRED YEARS AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, AN ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (A. D. 1775- 1789). CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. Growth of Democratic Ideas in the Anglo-American Colonies.—Demo. cratic ideas had a slow and steady, but solid growth, in England’s North American colonies, from the time of the establishment of those colonies. Those who left their homes in Europe to settle in the New World, were animated with a desire for the enjoyment of pure civil, political, and religious freedom. The republican spirit of of the English American colonists was manifested in popular resistance to obnoxious acts of the British Parliament, and to the tyranny of the royal governors sent from England to America to administer the government of the colonies. The claim of the English Parliament to legislate for the colonies was boldly denied by the colo- nists, who finally rebelled against the mother country, and, after a war of seven years, achieved their political independence, and established a democratic republic, under the name of “The United States of America.” Wants of the British Treasury.—The long wars against France oppressed England with an enormous debt and exhausted the British treasury, and the Impe- rial Government resolved to procure money from the North American colonies by either direct or indirect taxation. The colonists denied the right of the Imperial Parliament to tax them, as they were not allow >i any representation in that body, and maintained that “Taxation without representation is tyranny.” Writs of Assistance—Opposition of the Colonists—James Otis.-The British Government first attempted to exercise the asserted right to tax the colonies by issuing search-warrants to persons appointed by the king to enforce the revenue laws. These warrants, called “Writs of Assistance,” authorized the Government officials in the colonies to search for suspected goods which had been imported into the colonies, and on which the duty had not been paid. The colonists firmly resisted this encroachment on their liberties. The legality of the writs was boldly denied by the Americans; and in February, 1761, the matter was brought before the Gen- cral Court in Boston, where James Otis, then Advocate-General of the colonies, and an able lawyer, appeared on the side of the American people, and denied the right of the Imperial Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent. Passage of the Stamp Act—Opposition to It in the Colonies—Patrick Henry.—In February, 1765, George Grenville, who was then at the head of the British Ministry, introduced into Parliament a bill requiring the Anglo-American colonists to purchase for specified sums, and place on all written documents, stamps furnished by the British Imperial Government. This was a measure which no former British Ministry had the courage to attempt. The passage of this bill, known as “The Stamp Act,” in 1765, produced universal indignation in America. Most of the colonial legislatures passed resolutions denouncing the measure, and James Otis in Massachusetts and Patrick Henry in Virginia thundered forth eloquent denunciations of the act. * Boldness of Patrick Henry in the Virginia Assembly—“Sons of Liberty.”—While speaking in the Virginia Assembly, at Richmond, of the ſate of tº 455 456 CEAVTEAVAWAZ AZSTORY. tyrants of former periods, Patrick Henry exclaimed, “Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and George III.”—Here the speaker was interrupted by cries of “Treason treason 1’’ from some of the members, and Mr. Henry, aſter pausing a moment, said, “May profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it.” A part of some bold resolutions which Henry had introduced, were adopted; and the colonists were aroused to a firm stand to defend their rights; and the deter- mination was made to resist the execution cf the odious Stamp Act. Associations, called “Sons of Liberty,” were formed, and the stamps were seized on their arrival in the colonies, and secreted or burned. The officers, called “Stamp Distributors,” who had been appointed to sell the stamps, were so much despised and insulted that they soon relinquished their business; and on the day appointed for the Stamp Act to go into effect, there was not an officer who had the courage to attempt the enforcement of the law. Stamp Act Congress—Indignation of the American People.—A conven- tion of delegates, known as “The Stamp Act Congress,” assembled in New York City, on the 7th of October, 1765. This convention, or congress, which was in session fourteen days, drew up a “Declaration of Rights,” which denied the right of Parliament to tax the colonies, and adopted a petition to the king, and mem- orials to Parliament. On the Ist of November, 1765, the appointed day for the Stamp Act to go into effect, universal silence prevailed in English America: all business was suspended; the courts were closed; the bells were muffled and tolled; and the vessels in the harbors displayed their flags at half-mast. Suddenly the Anglo-Americans manifested their indignation in an open disregard of the law. The houses of British officials in American cities were assailed by mobs, and loy- alists were burned in effigy. The colonists agreed to import no more goods from the mother country, until the obnoxious law should be repealed. Repeal of the Stamp Act—The Declaratory Act.—The determination of American merchants not to import British goods into America, alarmed the British merchants so much, that they united with the colonists in petitioning Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act. The British Ministry ſound that it must either compel the colonists to submission, or have the odious act repealed. After long and angry debates in Parliament, the act was repealed, on the 6th of March, 1766. The repeal was hailed with maniſestations of joy, in both England and America. The colonists testified their gratitude to William Pitt and Edmund Burke, the great friends and champions of the Americans in Parliament. The fires of discord were soon kindled anew. For the purpose of securing the repeal of the Stamp Act, Pitt had accompanied the repeal with a “Declaratory Act,” which asserted that the Parliament had “the right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.” New Measures of Oppression.—Under the sanction of the Declaratory Act, the British Parliament passed new acts, as obnoxious in principle to the Anglo- Americans as the Stamp Act had been. To intimidate the colonists, British troops were sent (c America, in June, 1766, and the Parliament passed a “Mutiny Act,” requiring the colonists to furnish food and shelter to these royal troops. In June, 1767, a tax was imposed on several articles imported into the colonies. In July of the same year, an act was passed, creating a board of trade and commissioners of customs in the colonies, independent of the colonial assemblies' and another act was passed which suspended the legislative power of the assembly of New York, OAVYZZZ) S7.4 7E.S. * 457 because that body had refused to supply the royal troops in that colony with food or quarters. These tyrannical measures highly exasperated the Americans. Non-Importation Leagues—Boldness of the Massachusetts Assem- bly.—New non-importation leagues were now formed in the colonies; and pamphlets and newspapers instigated the American people to oppose the oppressive measures of the British Ministry and Parliament. In February, 1768, the Massachusetts Assembly issued a “Circular Letter” to the assemblies of the other Anglo-Ameri- can colonies, soliciting their coöperation in endeavors to procure a redress of griev- ances; and before the close of the year, almost every colonial assembly had asserted that the Imperial Parliament had no right to legislate for the colonies. The British Ministry, highly exasperated at this boldness, ordered the Massachusetts assembly, in the name of the king, to rescind the Circular Letter; but the Assembly, by an almost unanimous vote, refused to rescind. Commissioners of Customs—A Mob.—The new commissioners of customs, who arrived in Boston, in May, 1768, were detested by the colonists. In June, 1768, the commissioners seized a sloop belonging to John Hancock, because that individual had reſused to pay the duty on the cargo on the arrival of the vessel When the seizure had become known, the commissioners were assailed by a mob and compelled to flee for refuge to Castle William (now Fort Independence), in Boston harbor. * Royal Troops in Boston.—At the call of Bernard, the royal governor of Massachusetts, 700 royal troops, under General Thomas Gage, were brought to Boston, for the purpose of frightening the people into submission. On a quiet Sun- day, in September, 1768, these troops entered the city, with charged muskets and ſixed bayonets, with drums beating and flags flying, and with all the insolence of a conquering army taking possession of a captured city. As the indignant Bostonians refused to ſurnish the troops who had been sent among them as instruments of slavery, with provisions or quarters, Governor Bernard caused some of them to be quartered in the State House, some in Faneuil Hall, and others in tents on the city common. Early in 1769, the British Parliament revived an old law of the time of Henry VIII., which required the governor of Massachusetts to send the leaders of the late disturbances in Boston to England, for trial on a charge of treason. Riot in Boston—“The Boston Massacre.”—The exasperated people of Boston could with difficulty be restrained from committing acts of violence. The soldiers and citizens quarreled almost daily; and on the 2d of March, 1770, sev- eral citizens were beaten by some of the troops. This created great excitement among the inhabitants, and on the evening of the 5th (March, 1770), several hundred collected in the streets, for the avowed purpose of driving the troops from the city. A fight ensued, in which three of the citizens were killed, and two badly wounded. The mob retired before the troops. The city bells rang an alarum, and very soon several thousand of the citizens assembled under arms. Governor Hutchinson made his appearance, and appeased the excited people by promising that justice should be rendered in the morning. At the demand of the Bostonians, the soldiers were removed from the city; and Captain Preston and eight of the troops, who had fired on the mob, were tried for murder. The captain and six of the troops were acquitted. The other two were found guilty of manslaughter. Those Bostonians who were killed in the riot were considered martyrs to liberty; and “The Boston 458 cÉwTENNIAL HISTORY. Massacre,” as the affray was called, was for many years kept alive by anniversary orations in Boston and its vicinity. The English East-India Company and the Duty on Tea.--The disturb- ances in America, and the complaints of the British merchants, whose interests were injured by the operation of the American non-importation leagues, induced the British Ministry to propose, on the very day of the Boston Massacre, the repeal of all the obnoxious tax laws, except the duty on tea. The tax on tea was retained for the double purpose of aiding the English East-India Company, and maintaining the right of the Imperial Parliament to tax the colonies. Lord North, who was then Prime-Minister of Great Britain, not comprehending the fact that the colonists were contending for a great principle, and that they considered the imposition, by the British Parliament, of a tax on a single article as a stroke at their liberties just as much as if a hundred articles were taxed, believed that they would not complain of a small duty on one article of luxury. The Anglo-Americans therefore continued their non-importation leagues against the purchase and use of tea. The Regulators of North Carolina—Destruction of the Gaspé.-In I771, the exactions of British Government officials produced rebellion in the inte- rior of North Carolina. The insurgents, whose object was to redress the grievances of the people, called themselves “Regulators.” In a bloody skirmish on the Ala mance Creek, on the 16th of May, 1771, the Regulators were conquered by Gov. ernor Tryon, and six of their number were hanged for treason; but the spirit of opposition among the people was not crushed, and was frequently manifested in popular outbreaks. On the 9th of June, I772, a party of sixty-four armed men from Providence, Rhode Island, burned the British schooner “ Gaspé,” which had run aground while cruising in Narraganset bay for the purpose of enforcing the revenue laws. ...” Tea-ships Sent to America—Destruction of Tea in Boston Harbor, . As the Americans refused to use or purchase tea so long as a duty remained on that article, Lord North, who was still unwilling to relinquish the right of Par- liament to tax the colonies, agreed to permit the East-India Company to send over their tea on terms that would make it cheaper in America than in England. This attempt to bribe the colonists into submission by means of cheap tea only aroused their indignation so much the more, and they refused to receive a cargo of tea. Governor Hutchinson of Massachusetts, in defiance of the popular will, ordered the landing of several cargoes which arrived at Boston in December, 1773. The peo- ple of Boston held meetings in Fanueil Hall, and resolved that no tea should be landed; and on the night of the 16th of December, 1773, a party of about sixty men, disguised as Indians, went on board of the tea-ships, and broke open three hundred and forty-two chests of tea, and emptied their contents into the waters of the harbor. * The Boston Port Bill and other Retaliatory Measures.—So highly exas. perated at the destruction of tea in Boston harbor was the British Ministry that they resolved upon retaliatory measures. On the 7th of March, 1774, Parlia- ment passed an act called the Boston Port Bill, which ordered the port of Bostcn to be closed against all commerce, and removed the seat of the colonial government of Massachusetts to Salem. Another act was passed on the 28th (March, 1774), JWZTED STATES. 459 which virtually subverted the colonial charter of Massachusetts. This was followed by another act on the 21st of April, providing for the trial in England of any person charged with murder in the colonies in support of the Imperial Government. A fourth act authorized the quartering of royal troops in the colonies; and a fifth conceded great privileges to the Roman Catholics in the newly-acquired province of Canada. These tyrannical measures aroused the most intense indignation in America, which was increased when General Thomas Gage, who had just been appointed Governor of Massachusetts, went to Boston with troops, to enforce the obnoxious acts of Parliament. Under his direction, the port of Boston was closed on the Ist of June, 1774. Committees of Correspondence—Whigs and Tories.—Committees of Cor- respondence had been formed in some of the colonies in 1773. These commit. tees were diligent in their work of uniting the colonies by an interchange of views and intelligence. The Anglo-American colonists were now divided into two par- ties. The few who sustained the British Government were called “Tories;” and the great body of the American people, who opposed the despotic measures of the Government, were called “Whigs.” The First Continental Congress.-Soon after the closing of the port of Bos- ton, the Assembly of Massachusetts met at Salem, and issued an invitation to the other Anglo-American colonies to elect delegates, who should meet in a Continental Congress in Philadelphia, in September following. This invitation was accepted; and the First Continental Congress convened in Carpenter's Hall, in Philadelphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. All the colonies, with the exception of Georgia, were represented. The Congress chose for its president, Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, and for its secretary, Charles Thomson, of Pennsylvania. The Congress approved the conduct of Massachusetts, in her opposition to the oppressive meas- ures of the British Ministry and Parliament; agreed upon a “Declaration of Rights;” recommended non-intercourse with Great Britain so long as the ob- noxious laws of Parliament remained unrepealed; and voted a petition to the king, and an address to the people of Great Britain and Canada; after which they adjourned, to meet on the ensuing Ioth of May (1775), unless the British Govern- ment should, in the meantime, redress the grievances complained of by the colo- nists. Spirit of the New England People.—During the summer of 1774, the people of English America, and particularly those of Massachusetts, were earnestly preparing for the inevitable struggle with the mother country. They engaged daily in military exercises, chose leaders, and held themselves ready to fly to arms at a moment's warming. On this account, they were called “Minute-men.” Mar- tial exercises continued throughout the ensuing autumn and winter; and public speakers everywhere encouraged the colonists to resist the tyrannical measures of the British Parliament. General Gage, Governor of Massachusetts, and British commander-in-chief in America, becoming alarmed, fortified Boston Neck, and seized great quantities of ammunition, found in the New England colonies. A false rumor, which spread over New England in September (1774), that British war-ships were cannonading Boston, produced such excitement that within two days 30,000 armed men were on their way to that city. In October, the Assembly 46o CENTENNIAL HISTORY. .* of Massachusetts convened at Cambridge, and resolved itself into a Provincial Con- gress, with John Hancock as president, and made provisions for raising an army. New Oppressive Measures of Parliament.—As the British Parliament, early in 1775, rejected a conciliatory measure, proposed by Mr. Pitt, and passed an act prohibiting the colonists from fishing on the banks of Newſoundland, thus strik- ing a severe blow at the prosperity of New England, the colonists saw that they must either defend their rights and liberties by force of arms, or slavishly submit to the oppressive acts of Parliament. They chose the former alternative; and, rely- ing upon the justice of their cause and the aid of an All-Ruling Providence, they resoved to bid defiance to the military and naval power of Great Britain. THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE (A. D. 1775–1783). EVENTS OF 1773. British Troops in Boston—Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord—Its Effects.-On the 1st of April, 1775, there were 3,000 British troops in Boston; and on the night of the 18th, General Gage sent 800 troops, under Lieutenant- Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy the stores of ammunition which the colonists had gathered at Concord, about sixteen miles north-west ſrom Boston. Although this movement was made secretly, the people were aroused by the vigil- ant Dr. Joseph Warren and Paul Revere, who had obtained a knowledge of the designs of Gage; and when, on the morning of the 19th (April, 1775), Pitcairn approached the village of Lexington, six miles from Concord, he found eighty armed Minute-men ready to oppose him. Pitcairn, riding forward, exclaimed, “Disperse you rebels lay down your arms and disperse!” and when they refused obedience, his troops, according to his orders, fired upon the patriots, killing eight of them. This was the first bloodshed in the great American Revolution. After the short skirmish at Lexington, the British immediately proceeded to Concord, killed several more Minute-men in a skirmish there, and destroyed the stores of ammunition. The king's troops then hastily retreated to Boston, fired upon along the whole route of their retreat by the people, from behind trees, stone-ſences, and buildings; and by the time they reached Boston, in the afternoon of the same day (April 19, 1775), they had lost in killed and wounded 273 men, while the American loss was only Io9 men. The intelligence of the bloodshed at Lexington and Con- cord produced the greatest excitement throughout the Anglo-American colonies, and everywhere aroused the colonists to action. Before the close of April, a patriot army of 20,000 men was surrounding the British troops in Boston; and beſore the close of summer, the power of every royal governor, from Massachusetts to Geor- gia, was at an end. Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point—Committee of Safety.—On the Ioth of May, 1775, some New Hampshire Militia, under Colonel Ethan Allen, seized Fort Ticonderoga. Two days later (May 12, 1775), Colonel Benedict Arnold, with Connecticut militia, took possession of Crown Point. With the capture of these two ſortresses, the Americans obtained forty pieces of artillery, and secured the command of Lake Champlain, thus opening the way for an invasion of Canada. A Committee of Safety, appointed by the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, UAVZZAZZO STA 7TES. 461 held its sittings in Cambridge, regulated military operations, and appointed General Artemas Ward commander-in-chief of the provincial forces, and Richard Gridley chief engineer. British Reinforcements.-On the 25th of May, 1775, large reinforcements for General Gage arrived from England, under the command of Generals William IIowe, Hory Clinton, and John Burgoyne. The British army in Boston, thus in- creased to 12,000 men, prepared to drive the rebellious provincials from the vicinity of the city. Gage issued a proclamation, declaring all Americans in arms to be rebels and traitors, and offering an amnesty to all who would submit to British authority, except Samuel Adams and John Hancock, whom he intended to seize and send to England to be hanged. Fortification of Breed's Hill—Battle of Bunker's Hill.—On the night of the 16th of June, 1775, General Artemas Ward sent 1,000 provincial troops, under Colonel William Prescott, to take possession of, and fortify Bunker’s Hill, in Charlestown. By mistake, in the darkness of the night, Prescott and his troops as- cended Breed's Hill, on which they erected a strong redoubt before morning. When the astonished British commanders saw this redoubt, on the morning of the 17th (June, 1775), they opened upon it, from Copp's Hill, in Boston, and from the ships-of-war in the harbor, a fierce cannonade, which continued until noon with little effect. The Americans had received a reinforcement of 500 troops during the forenoon, thus increasing their force in the redoubt to 1,500 men. About noon, 3,000 British troops, under Generals Howe and Pigot, crossed the Charles river from Boston, and marched up the hill to attack the redoubt, firing cannon as they ascended. When the British column had approached within ten rods of the redoubt, Colonel Prescott gave the order to fire, which his troops executed with such terrible effect, that the advancing enemy were driven back with heavy loss. The British again advanced and assailed the redoubt, but met with a second disas- trous repulse. They ascended the hill a third time, and the battle raged fiercely, until the Americans, having exhausted all their ammunition, were driven from the redoubt, and compelled to retreat across Charlestown Neck. As the Americans re- treated, one of their number, the heroic General Joseph Warren, was shot dead. The British took possession of, and ſortified Bunker’s Hill, while the Americans intrenched themselves on Prospect Hill. The Americans lost 450 men in killed, wounded, and missing, while the British lost 1,054. During the battle, Charles- town was set on fire by order of General Gage, and 500 houses were destroyed. Although fought on Breed's Hill, this memorable engagement, which was the first real battle of the War of the American Revolution, is known as “The Battle of Bunker's Hill.” The Revolution in Virginia and North Carolina.-In the meantime, while the events just related were occurring in New England, the Revolution was pro- gressing rapidly in the Southern colonies. In the Virginia Assembly, at Richmond, Patrick IIenry concluded a masterly speech with the words, “Give me Liberiy, or give me Death !” When Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, seized a quantity of powder belonging to the colony, the patriot Henry demanded and obtained full indemnity, and Dunmore was forced to seek refuge on a British man- of-war, in Norfolk harbor. In May, 177 5, a convention of delegates, sitting at Char- lotte, Mecklenburg county, North Carolina, declared their constituents absolved 462 CEAV ZAZAWAVIAL HISTORY. from all allegiance to the British crown. This is known as “The Mecklenburg Declaration.” - Second Continental Congress—Washington, Commander-in-Chief— In the meantime, while English America was in one blaze of excitement over the the events at Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia, on the Ioth of May, 1775. Although expressing its desire for a reconcilation with the mother country, the Congress voted to raise an army of 20,000 men; and on the 15th of June, 1775, that body elected George Washington, a dele- gate from Virginia, commander-in-chief of all the forces raised, or to be raised, for the defense of American liberty. On the 3d of July (1775), Washington took com- mand of the American army at Cambridge. With this force, numbering I4,000 men, Washington began a siege of Boston, which was still occupied by the British army under General William Howe. Invasion of Canada—Capture of St. Johns, Chambly, and Montreal. ' —During the summer of 1775, some New England and New York troops, under General Philip Schuyler, went down Lake Champlain. Owing to illness, Schuyler was obliged to relinquish the command of his troops to General Richard Montgom. ery, who, on the 3d of November, captured St. Johns, on the Sorel or Richelieu river, after a siege of more than a month. While the siege of St. Johns was pro- gressing, Colonel Ethan Allen, who, with eighty men, had attacked Montreal on the 25th of September, was made a prisoner and carried to England in irons. Colonel Bedell, with some American troops, captured Chambly; and, on the 13th of November, Montgomery took possession of Montreal. Siege of Quebec—Defeat of the Americans.—At Point au Trembles, twenty miles above Montreal, Montgomery was joined by 750 Americans under Colonel Benedict Arnold, who had left Cambridge, Massachusetts, in September, 1775, and marched along the Kennebec and Chaudiere rivers to the St. Lawrence, suffering almost incredible hardships on the way. On the 5th of December, the American forces, under Montgomery and Arnold, laid siege to Quebec. For three weeks the Americans had besieged Quebec, when, on the 31st of December (1775), they at- tempted to take the city by assault. Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded, and their troops were repulsed with great loss. In the month of June, 1776, the American invaders were entirely driven out of Canada. The War in Virginia—Defeat of Governor Dunmore.—While the Americans were suffering misfortunes in Canada, the Virginians were prosecuting the Revolution with zeal and success. Governor Dunmore, at the head of a force, of Tories and negroes, ravaged South-eastern Virginia, but was repulsed in an attack upon Hampton, on the 24th of October (1775); and, after proclaiming open war, he was defeated by the Virginia militia, in a severe battle near the Dismal Swamp, twelve miles from Norfolk. For the purpose of revenging himself upon the rebel- lious Virginians, Dunmore burned the city of Norfolk, on the 1st of January, 1776; but after committing other atrocities on the sea-board, he was finally driven away and went to England. EVENTS OF 1776. Siege and Evacuation of Boston.—As the British Government, early in 1776, made extensive arrangements to crush the rebellion against its authority in iſſil tº tiſſilluminº º Nº Nº||Nº|N º º º illumintinuum: §§ |Nº!" -- º: ºl GL 's * * * * |NDEPENDENCF HALL // // | / f %% * % |} |} ： ： , '|Z % % . . " Zº{2. - 2 ， ！. *'^2% Ź | , ، ، ، || ||'.|·„… ¿?，.* º , y ¿ºZØ/////>^2, |×, , ºz）º-?： ſº ' º ~），2 ~/ ZZZZ�// ∞-ae’ PATRICK HENRY, THOMAS JEFFERSON. UAVYZZZO STATES, 463 North America, the Continental Congress urged General Washington to attack the the British army under General Howe in Boston. On the evening of the 2d of March, 1776, Washington, having 14,000 men under his command, opened a heavy cannonade upon the British works around that city; and, on the night of the 4th, a portion of Washington's army, under General John Thomas, intrenched itself upon Dorchester Heights, now South Boston. The siege continued until the 17th, when IIowe and his troops were allowed to evacuate the city. The British army sailed to Halifax, in Nova Scotia, with the families of 1,500 Tories, and Washing- ton's army immediately took possession of the city, to the great joy of its delivered inhabitants. - Lee and Washington in New York.-During the winter, General Charles Lee had been sent by Washington to take command of troops for the defense of New York against any attack which might be made upon that city by Sir Henry Clinton, who had left Boston in January, with a part of Howe's army. After the evacuation of Boston, Washington proceeded to the Hudson, and fortified the passes of the Highlands. - The War in South Carolina—British Repulse at Fort Moultrie.—In the meantime, Sir Henry Clinton, with British land troops, in conjunction with a fleet from England under Sir Peter Parker, was on his way to attack Charleston, South Carolina. The South Carolinians made ample preparations to defend their chief city against any attack of the enemy. On Sullivan's Island, near the city, a fort was built of palmetto logs, and garrisoned by 500 Americans under the gallant Colonel William Moultrie; and before the British were prepared to attack the city, General Charles Lee arrived in Charleston, and took the chief command of the American troops there. The English fleet under Parker, and the land troops under Clinton, opened a furious assault upon Fort Moultrie, on the 28th of June (1776). After a stubborn conflict of ten hours, the British army was repulsed with heavy loss, and sailed away for New York, leaving the Southern colonies free from the turmoil of war for more than two years. General Clinton joined Howe's army at New York, on the Ist of August. Declaration of Independence.—A few days after the repulse of the enemy at Charleston, the Continental Congress, sitting in the old State House, in Phila- delphia, immortalized itself by a glorious act. The Congress had been for some time discussing the question of proclaiming the independence of the Anglo-Amer- ican colonies. All hopes for a reconciliation with the mother country had passed away. The British Parliament had not repealed its obnoxious acts. The British Ministry had sent large armies to America to force the colonists to submit; and hired 17,ooo Hessians from Germany to assist in crushing liberty in America. These proceedings widened irreparably the breach between England and her North American colonies; and sentiments of independence filled the hearts of the Anglo- Americans. On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered the following resolution of independence, in the Continental Congress:—“Resolved, That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indeper dent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.” This resolution was warmly debated in the Congress, many of the delegates opposing it as premature, and others as treasonable; and a com- * 464 CAEAV7'EAVAVZAZ ANZSZTO AE Y. mittee of five, consisting of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massa- chusetts, Dr. Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston of New York, were appointed to draft a declaration of independence, in accordance with Lee's resolution. The declaration was written by Jefferson, the chairman of the committee, and was reported on the 2d of July, on which day Lee's resolution was passed; and on the 4th (July, 1776), the Con- gress adopted the great Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed the Anglo- American colonies ſree and independent States, under the name of “The United States of America,” and which also defined the rights of all mankind. This action of the Congress was approved everywhere throughout English America; and the 4th of July, 1776, has ever since been remembered by the American people as their country's birth-day, and the annual recurrence of the day has been always celebrated with every demonstration of public enthusiasm. British Forces near New York–Peace Propositions.—A few days before the Declaration of Independence, General Howe appeared on Staten Island, with a powerful British force. There, on the 12th of July, he was joined by his brother, Admiral Lord Howe, with a large fleet from England; and, on the 1st of August, by Sir Henry Clinton and his land forces from Charleston. In August, 30,000 British troops stood opposed to the American army of 17,000 men. Admiral and General Howe were jointly commissioned to treat for peace; but only on the condition that the Americans should lay down their arms and submit to the authority of the British Government; and, as the Americans refused to agree to such a peace, the British officers prepared to crush the rebellious colonists at one blow. º Battle of Long Island—Escape of the Americans.—On the 22d of August, 1776, a British force of Io,000 men landed on Long Island, near Brooklyn; and on the 27th (August, 1776), a bloody battle was ſought between the British com- manded by Generals Grant, Cornwallis, Clinton, and De Heister, and several thousand Americans under the chief command of General Israel Putnam. The Americans were disastrously defeated, with the loss of 1,600 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among the Americans who were made prisoners were General Sul- livan and Lord Stirling. Several days after the battle, General Putnam was joined by Washington, with the main body of the American army, from New York City; but on the 30th (August, 1776), the whole American army recrossed from Brooklyn to New York. Washington's Retreat up the Hudson—Skirmish on Harlem Plains. —On the 15th of September (1776), Washington's army evacuated New York City, and retreated up the Hudson, for the purpose of seizing and fortifying Harlem Heights, twenty-two miles above the city. The British pursued, and on the same day a severe skirmish occurred on Harlem Plains, in which the Americans were victorious, but at the cost of the lives of Colonel Knowlton, of Connecticut, and Major Leitch, of Virginia. Battle of White Plains—Capture of Fort Washington.—On the 28th cf October (1776), Howe defeated Washington in the battle of White Plains; after which Washington retreated further northward; and, on the 4th of November, he crossed the Hudson river into New Jersey, for the purpose of saving Philadelphia, where the Congress was sitting. On the 16th of November (1776), Fort Washing- ton was captured by the Hessian general Knyphausen, after a furious assault, in UAVIZED STATES. - 465 which he lost 1,000 men. The 2,000 American troops under Colonel Magaw, who had garrisoned the ſort, became prisoners to the victorious Hessians. Flight of Washington's Army across New Jersey.—Two days after the fall of Fort Washington (November 18, 1776), Lord Cornwallis, with 6,000 British troops, crossed the Hudson into New Jersey, in pursuit of Washington's shattered army. For three weeks, Washington, with only 3,000 men under his command, retreated before the pursuing hosts of Cornwallis, until he reached the Delaware, on the 8th of December, and crossed that stream into Pennsylvania. Howe ordered Cornwallis to wait until the river was frozen over, and then cross on the ice. Battle of Trenton—Its Effects.--Taking advantage of the delay of the ene- my, and having increased his army to 5,000 men, Washington secretely recrossed the Delaware into New Jersey, on Christmas night, and on the following morning (December 26, 1776), he attacked and captured 1,000 Hessians at Trenton. The Hessian commander, Colonel Rahl, fell mortally wounded in the streets of the city. This sudden victory raised the spirits of the desponding patriots, and alarmed Gen- eral Howe, who had supposed that the rebellion was at an end. Howe immediately sent Cornwallis with a considerable force to capture Washington's army. EVENTS OF 1777. Battle of Princeton—Guerrilla Warfare.—On the evening of the 2d of Jan- uary, 1777, Lord Cornwallis appeared at Trenton, with a strong British force, and encamped close to Washington's army, which he expected to capture on the follow- ing morning. Washington, however, escaped secretly during the night, and the next morning (January 3, 1777), he defeated a British detachment, under Colonel Maw- hood, at Princeton. Among the Americans who were killed was the heroic General Hugh Mercer. After the battle of Princeton, Washington marched to the hills of North-eastern New Jersey, and established his camp at Morristown. He sent out detachments, which, by a system of guerrilla warfare, so annoyed the British that they soon leſt New Jersey. British Dépredations in Connecticut.—About the middle of April, 1777, Governor Tryon, at the head of 2,000 British and Tories, invaded Connecticut, and devastated the southern part of that State. The Connecticut militia, under Generals Wooster, Silliman, and Arnold, attacked Tryon's force at Ridgefield, on the 27th of April (1777). Wooster was killed in the engagement, but the enemy were compelled to retreat hastily to New York. Foreign Officers in America.--During the year 1777, the young Marquis de Lafayette, a wealthy French nobleman, nineteen years of age; the Baron DeKalb, also a Frenchman; and the two brave Poles, Count Pulaski and Thaddeus Kos- ciuszko, arrived in America, to serve the cause of freedom. In the following year, the Baron de Steuben, a skillful Prussian military officer, arrived, and brought effi. ciency to the American army. Movements of Howe and Washington.—The main armies of the British and the Americans commenced active operations in June. In the latter part of that month, Howe's army left New Jersey, and was conveyed by the British fleet down the Atlantic, to the mouth of the Chesapeake bay, and up that bay to its head, where it disembarked; after which it marched eastward, in the direction of Philadelphia. 3O 466 - CAEAWTEMAWIAA, HZSTORY. Washington, in the meantime, had crossed the Delaware river, and advanced west- ward to meet Howe. Battle of Brandywine—Massacre of Paoli.-On the banks of the Brandy- wine creek, in Chester county, Pennsylvania, a bloody battle was fought, on the IIth of September, 1777, between the armies of Washington and Howe. Wash. ington was defeated, with the loss of 1,200 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, while Howe lost only 800 men. The next day, the shattered American army re. treated to Philadelphia. In this battle, the young Marquis de Lafayette was severely wounded. On the might of the 20th (September, 1777), General Anthony Wayne, with 1,500 American troops, was attacked at Paoli, by a British force under General Grey. Wayne lost 300 men. This is known as “The Massacre of Paoli.” Howe's Army in Philadelphia.-After the battle of Brandywine, Washing- ton made no stand for the defense of Philadelphia against Howe's advancing forces. The Congress left the city, and went first to Lancaster, and then to York, where it assembled on the 30th of September (1777), and where it remained in session until the following summer. General Howe took military possession of Philadelphia on the 26th of September, 1777; and the British army established its winter-quarters in the Quaker City. Battle of Germantown—Whitemarsh and Valley Forge.—On the 4th of October (1777), a severe battle was fought at Germantown, near Philadelphia, be- tween the armies of Washington and Howe. The Americans were defeated, with the loss of 1,200 men, while the British lost only half that number. The campaign between the main armies closed with the battle of Germantown, and Washington went into winter-quarters at Whitemarsh; but he afterwards removed to Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill river, twenty miles north-west from Philadelphia, which city was occupied by the enemy until the following June. British Fleet in the Delaware—Assault on Forts Mifflin and Mercer. —While the events just related were occurring on land, the British fleet sailed round to Delaware bay, which it afterwards ascended, on its way to Philadelphia; but its passage was obstructed by Fort Mifflin, on the Pennsylvania shore of the Delaware river, Fort Mercer, on the New Jersey shore, and heavy chevaux-de-frise, in the channel of the river. The forts were unsuccessfully assailed by land troops sent by General Howe to coöperate with the fleet. . Fort Mifflin, which was defended by a small American force under Colonel Christopher Greene, repulsed an attack of 2,OOO Hessians under Count Donop, who was mortally wounded during the attack. Fort Mercer, garrisoned by a body of American troops under Lieutenant-Colonel Smith, also repulsed the assaults of the enemy; but about the middle of November (1777), both forts were evacuated by their garrisons, and the British fleet sailed up to Phil- adelphia. Burgoyne's Invasion of New York—Schuyler's Retreat to the Mohawk —While the Americans met with misfortunes in Pennsylvania, General Burgoyne, with Io,ooo British troops, was marching southward from Canada, along the Westeir coast of Lake Champlain, toward Albany. Burgoyne took possession of Ticonde roga, on the 2d of July, the American troops under General Arthur St. Clair, who had garrisoned the ſortress, having fled, on the invader's approach, to Fort Edward, which was then held by 3,000 American troops under General Philip Schuyler. OAV/7′ED STA 7'ES. 467 St. Clair's rear division was defeated by the enemy at Hubbardton, in the present State of Vermont. The shattered forces of St. Clair joined General Schuyler at Fort Edward, on the 12th of July (1777); and the whole American army of the North, then under the command of Schuyler, retreated to the Mohawk river, and established a fortified camp in the vicinity of the Cohoes Falls. g Battle of Bennington—Burgoyne, after reaching Fort Edward, on the 3d of July, sent out a body of Hessians, under Colonel Baum, to seize provisions and cattle which the Americans had collected at Bennington, in the present State of Vermont. Baum's Hessians were defeated, on the 16th of August, 1777, by the Green Mountain Boys, under Colonel John Stark, about five miles from Benning- ton. On the same day, another British detachment was defeated by a small Amer. ican force under Colonel Seth Warner. Invasion of the Mohawk Valley—Siege of Fort Schuyler—Battle of Oriskany.—While Burgoyne was advancing from the North, a strong force of Canadians, Tories, and Indians, under Colonel St. Leger, John Johnson, John Butler, and Joseph Brandt, the famous Mohawk chieftain, invaded the Mohawk Valley, and besieged Fort Schuyler (now Rome), on the 3d of August. General Herkimer, while hastening, with a body of New York militia, to the relief of Fort Schuyler, was defeated and killed in the battle of Oriskany. When Colonel Bene- dict Arnold approached Fort Schuyler, with an American relief force, the besiegers were driven away and dispersed. Battles of Bemis’s Heights and Saratoga—Surrender of Burgoyne.—In the meantime, General Horatio Gates superseded General Schuyler in the command of the American army of the North, which had been increased, by a heavy rein- forcement of New England militia under General Benjamin Lincoln, to 13,000 men. On the 19th of September, 1777, a bloody, but indecisive, engagement was fought at Bemis's Heights, near Saratoga, between the armies of Gates and Burgoyne. Jn the 7th of October (1777), another sanguinary battle took place between the same armies, at Saratoga. Ten days afterward (October 17, 1777), Burgoyne surrendered his whole army of 6,000 men to the American general. This great victory pro duced the liveliest joy in America, and fell like a bombshell into the midst of the war party in the British Parliament. It strengthened the peace party in England, and greatly influenced the French Court in favor of the struggling Americans. Clinton on the Hudson—Capture of Forts Clinton and Montgomery.— In the meantime, a strong British force, under Sir Henry Clinton, was marching up the Hudson river, to coöperate with Burgoyne. Clinton captured Forts Clinton and Montgomery, at the passes of the Highlands, but when he heard of Burgoyne's surrender, he hastily retreated down the Hudson to New York. Articles of Confederation.—In November, 1777, the American Congress, ſt York, in Pennsylvania, agreed to an instrument of union, known as “The Articles sf Confederation.” By these articles, the American States were united into a con- federacy for common defense, and the power of deckıring and carrying on war, and also the right of concluding treaties, were delegated to the Congress. Under this form of government, the United States continued until the adoption of the present National Constitution in 1789,-a period of nearly twelve years. 468 CEAVTEAVAWIAA. HISTORY. Events of 1778. Encampment of Washington's Army at Valley Forge.—During the severe winter of 1777, '78, Washington's army was encamped at Valley Forge, on the banks of the Schuylkill river, twenty miles north-west from Philadelphia. Many of the troops were without shoes, and left bloody footprints in the snow. But having faith in the justice of their cause, the patriots patiently endured all their handships, and were resolved to sacrifice everything for the liberties of their country. An un- su:cessful attempt was made by some American officers, with General Conway at their head, to transfer the chief command of the American armies from Washingtor. to general Charles Lee. - Franco-American Alliance—Peace Propositions.—The surrender of Bur- goyne convinced the French Court and Government that the Americans were able. to defend their liberties, and accordingly that Government concluded a treaty of alliance with, and recognized the independence of, the United States of America. This act of the French Government led to a war between France and England. The English Cabinet was now anxious for a reconciliation with the rebellious Americans, and sent commissioners to America, to induce the Americans to consent to a peace on the condition that they should return to their allegiance to the British Government, and that Parliament in return should repeal all its obnoxious acts, and surrender its pretensions to legislate ſor the Americans. But the Americans, now refused to treat for peace, unless Great Britain should withdraw her ſleets. and armies, and unconditionally acknowledge the independence of the United States; and so the war continued. - British Evacuation of Philadelphia—Battle of Monmouth.-When it was known that a powerſul French fleet under the Count D'Estaing was on its way to the Delaware, the British army, under Sir Henry Clinton, who had in the mean- time succeeded General Howe as British commander-in-chief, evacuated Philadel- phia, on the 18th of June, 1778, and fled into New Jersey, toward New York. Washington pursued Clinton with 12,000 men; and at Monmouth Court House, on a hot Sabbath day, June 28th, 1778, a sanguinary, but indecisive, battle was. fought. The battle had continued nearly the entire day; and after midnight, Clinton and his army fled to New York. Washington crossed the Hudson into. New York, and encamped at White Plains until late in autumn, when he again passed into New Jersey, and went into winter-quarters at Middlebrook, on the Raritan river. '. Events in Rhode Island—Battle of Quaker Hill.—The French fleet under the Count D'Estaing appeared in the Delaware early in July; but the British fleet under Lord Howe having sailed to New York, D'Estaing sailed to Rhode Island, to coöperate with the American army under General John Sullivan, in an attempt to expel the British from that State. On the 9th of August, Sullivan landed with. a strong force on the island of Rhode Island, and Howe's fleet appeared off the island on the same day. D'Estaing intended to attack Howe; but both fleets being, disabled by a terrible storm, they were obliged to seek port for repairs. D'Estai ng appeared at Newport on the 20th, when Sullivan was near there; but the Tiench. admiral refused to give any aid to the American general; whereupon Sullivan re- treated northward, and was pursued by the British, who attacked him at Quaker Hill, on the 29th of August (1778). Sullivan repulsed the attacks of the enemy, OWITEŽ) STATES. 469 but he was obliged to evacuate the island, as the British had just been reinforced by 4,000 troops under General Clinton. Tory and Indian Raids—Massacre of Wyoming—Cherry Valley.— 1)uring the year 1778, the Mohawk, Schoharie, and Cherry Valleys, in New York, and the Wyoming Valley, in Pennsylvania, were the scenes of the most shocking cruelties, perpetrated by the Indians under Joseph Brandt, and the Tories under Colonels John Johnson and John Butler. At the beginning of July, 1,100 Indians and Tories, under John Butler, entered the lovely valley of Wyoming, over which they spread desolation, setting fire to dwellings, and massacring several hundred men, women, and children. The few soldiers and settlers who had sought refuge in a fort were forced to surrender; and about 300 of the inhabitants of the valley, who had fled to the neighboring mountains, were hunted by the savages and their white alies, and massacred in cold blood. This horrible tragedy is known as “The Wassacle of Wyoming.” In November (1778), Cherry Valley, in New York, was wisited by a band of Tories and Indians, under Butler and Brandt, and many of the Anhabitants were killed, or carried into captivity. Campbell's Invasion of Georgia and Capture of Savannah. —In Novem- ber, 1778, Sir Henry Clinton sent 2,000 of his troops, under Colonel Campbell, to invade Georgia, thus transferring the seat of actual war to the Southern States. On the 29th of December (1778), Campbell entered Savannah, the American troops, under Colonel Robert Howe, having evacuated the town, on the approach of the British, and fled up the Savannah river. Royal authority was now temporarily reestablished in Georgia, and that State remained under the power of the British until near the end of the war. - EVENTS OF 1779. Movements in Georgia—Battle of Brier Creek—Battle of Stono Ferry. —On the 9th of January, 1779, the British army, under General Prevost, captured Sunbury, in Georgia. On the 14th of February (1779), a band of Tories, under colonel Boyd, was annihilated by a Whig ſorce, under Colonel Andrew Pickens, in the battle of Brier Creek. The British, under Colonel Campbell, who had just marched up the Georgia side of the Savannah river, then fled toward the sea-coast, pursued by 2,000 American troops, under General James Ashe. At Brier Creek, Ashe was defeated, on the 3d of March, 1779, by the British under General Prevost. Aſter the battle of Brier Creek, Prevost invaded South Carolina, and marched against Charleston. An American force, under General Benjamin Lincoln, hastened to the relief of Charleston, whereupon Prevost retreated with great haste toward Savannah. On the 20th of June (1779), a severe battle took place at Stono Ferry, betweer detachments of the two armies, which resulted in the repulse of the Americans. . British Depredations in Virginia, New York, and Connecticut.---Am expedition, composed of 1,500 British and Hessian troops, under Governor Tryon, made a destructive raid into Connecticut, in April, 1779. After defeating the Americans, under General Putman, at Greenwich, Tryon retreated westward to New York, pursued by Putnam, who retook some of the enemy's plunder. In May (1779), Sir George Collier, with a small British squadron, and General Mat- thews, with an English land ſorce, ravaged the country around Norfolk, in Virginia, On the 31st of May, Stony Point, on the west side of the Hudson river, was 470 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. taken by the British, under Sir Henry Clinton, who, on the following day (June 1, 1779), also captured Verplanck's Point, on the opposite side of the river. In the beginning of July, Tryon, with 2,OOO British troops, made another destructive in- vasion of Connecticut, laying the beautiful towns of East Haven, Fairfield, and Norwalk in ashes. Wayne's Capture of Stony Point and Lee's Capture of Paulus Hook. —About midnight, July 16th, 1779, General Anthony Wayne, with a small Ameri- can force, recaptured Stony Point, after a short but desperate fight, and made the British garrison, commanded by Colonel Johnson, prisoners of war. The loss of the English in killed, wounded, and captured was about 600 men. On the 19th of the same month (July, 1779), Major Henry Lee, at the head of a small body of Americans, captured Paulus Hook (now Jersey City), opposite New York City, after killing, wounding, and capturing 200 of the enemy. In August, a British fleet de- stroyed an American flotilla off Castine, on the coast of the present State of Maine. The War in the West—Daniel Boone—Kaskaskia and Vincennes.— During 1778 and 1779, important events were occurring in the vast wilderness west of the Alleghany mountains. For several years, Daniel Boone, the great pioneer, had struggled with the Indians in the present State of Kentucky. Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, and Vincennes, on the Wabash, were wrested from the British, by the Americans, under Major George Rogers Clarke, of Virginia. Vincennes was recaptured by the enemy, but Clarke again obtained possession of that post in Feb- ruary (1779). - Sullivan's Expedition Against the Indians in New York.-In the sum- mer of 1779, the Americans sent an expedition, under General John Sullivan, to punish the New York Indians for their raids and massacres in the Wyoming and Cherry Valleys in the previous year. At the head of nearly 5,000 men, Sullivan invaded the country of the Six Nations, in Western New York, where, in the space of three weeks, he destroyed the crops of the Indians and forty of their villages. Siege of Savannah.-The American army, under General Lincoln, aided by the French fleet, under the Count D'Estaing, commenced to besiege the English at Savannah, on the 23d of September, 1779. A heavy assault upon the British works, on the 9th of October, was repulsed, after five hours of fighting, in which the Americans and French lost 1,000 men; the brave Pole, Count Pulaski, being among the slain. D'Estaing sailed with his fleet to the West Indies, and Lincoln was obliged to raise the siege and retreat to Charleston. - John Paul Jones' Great Naval Victory off the Coast of England.—On the 23d of September, 1779, the Bonhomme Richard, an American vessel, com-, manded by John Paul Jones, gained a brilliant victory off Flamborough Head, on the eastern coast of England, over the English vessel Serapis, after a bloody fight of several hours. The Serapis surrendered; and the Bonhomme Richard was so . much injured that she sunk sixteen hours after the engagement. War between England and Spain.—Another power was now added to the enemies of England. With the hope of recovering the rock of Gibraltar, Spain declared war against Great Britain, in June, 1779. A combined French and Span- isli armament attempted an invasion of England, in August, and a united Flench ani Spanish naval foice laid siege to Gibraltar. UAVITED STATES. . 47 I EVENTS OF 178C). Clinton's Expedition against Charleston—Siege and Fall of Charleston. —At the close of 1779, Sir Henry Clinton sailed, with 5,000 troops, in Admiral Arbuthnot's fleet, from New York, for Charleston, South Carolina, which deity was then garrisoned by the American army under General Lincoln. On the 9th of April, 1780, Arbuthnot, with the British fleet, passed up Charleston harbor, and both he and Clinton, who landed troops on the islands below Charleston, laid siege to the city. On the 14th of April, a party of Americans, under Colonel Huger, was iefeated by the British cavalry, under Colonel Tarleton, at Monk’s Corner, some distance north from the city. After the siege had lasted a month, and after the city had suffered heavy bombardments and been on fire in many places, Lincoln Sur- rendered Charleston, together with his army and many citizens, 6,000 in number, and 400 pieces of cannon, to Clinton, on the 12th of May, 1780. Early in the following month, Clinton sailed with the greater part of the British army for New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis with a small force to complete the subjugation of the Southern States. British Occupation of South Carolina—Guerrilla Warfare.—Already Cornwallis had marched up the Santee to Camden; Lieutenant-Colonel Cruger, with a small British force, marched to, and garrisoned, Fort Ninety-Six; and Lieu- tenant-Colonel Smith, with another British detachment, marched to, and garrisoned, the town of Augusta, in Georgia. At the Waxaw Creek, the British cavalry, under Colonel Tarleton, captured and massacred a small force of American infantry, under Colonel Buford. All of South Carolina was now at the mercy of the British; and Cornwallis prepared for the reëstablishment of royal authority in that State. Soon, however, when it was known that General Horatio Gates was advancing south- ward with an American army, for the aid of the patriots of the Carolinas, guerrilla leaders, like Thomas Sumter, Francis Marion, Andrew Pickens, and George Rogers Clarke, appeared in the field, at the head of small detachments, falling upon and annoying bands of British and Tories. Sumter was repulsed at Rocky Mount, on the 30th of July; but he afterwards almost annihilated Tarleton's cavalry at Hanging Rock. Gates in South Carolina—Battle of Sanders’ Creek—Sumter's Defeat —In August, 1780, the American army under General Gates entered South Caro- . lina from the North. On the 16th of that month, Gates's army was thoroughly defeated and dispersed by the British forces under Lords Cornwallis and Rawdon, in the battle of Sanders' Creek, near Camden. The Americans lost I,000 men, the brave Baron De Kalb being among the slain; and General Gates fled to Char- lotte, North Carolina. Two days after the defeat of Gates, Colonel Sumter's force was almost broken up by the British cavalry under Colonel Tarleton, on Fishing Creek. These American misfortunes again prostrated South Carolina at the feet of the enemy. Tyranny of Lord Cornwallis—Battle of King’s Mountain.--Cornwallis attempted to restore British authority in South Carolina by harsh measures; but his tyranny prevented a reconciliation, and inflamed the patriots with deadly hatred of English rule. On the 7th of October (1780), a body of 1,500 Tory militia, under Major Patrick Ferguson, was completely defeated by backwoods ‘patriots, under 472 CEAVZ EAWAV/AI, HISTORY. Colonels Campbell, Shelby, Cleveland, Sevier, Winston, McDowell, and Williams, on King's Mountain, in the north-western part of South Carolina, the patriots taking 800 prisoners and 1,500 stand of arms, and Major Ferguson being among the slain. The activity of the guerrilla leaders, Colonels Sumter, Marion, Pickens, and Clarke, alarmed Cornwallis, and caused him to retire from North Carolina, which State he had just invaded, and to return to Scuth Carolina. - Invasion of New Jersey—Arrival of a French Fleet and Army.—-In June, 1780, a British force of 5,000 men, under General Matthews, invaded New Jersey, from New York city. After being defeated in a skirmish at Springfield, Ly the Americans under General Nathaniel Greene, the invaders again retired from New Jersey, and returned to New York. At the close of 178o, a French fleet, under Admiral de Ternay, carrying 6,000 French land troops, under the Count de Rochambeau, landed at Newport, Rhode Island. Treason of Benedict Arnold–Capture and Execution of Major Andre. —While General Washington was in New England, conferring with the French officers, General Benedict Arnold was bargaining with Sir Henry Clinton, for the surrender of the important post of West Point, on the Hudson river, into the hands of the enemy. Arnold, who had incurred vast debts by his extravagance, had been charged by the Congress with fraudulent transactions while military governor in Philadelphia. As a punishment, the Congress sentenced him to a reprimand from Washington. Arnold determined to have revenge by plotting treason against his country and aiding its enemies. His correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton was carried on through the young and accomplished Major John Andre, Clinton's adju- tant-general. The treasonable correspondence between Arnold and Clinton had been carried on for more than a year, when, in September, 1780, Arnold and Andre met personally for the first time, at Haverstraw, on the West side of the Hudson river. When their bargain was closed, Major Andre prepared to return to Clinton's headquarters, at New York. On his way, Andre was stopped and made a prisoner by three young American militia-men; and on the 2d of October (1780), he was hanged as a spy by the Americans. Arnold succeeded in making his escape to the enemy; and he received a commission of brigadier-general in the British army, and 50,000 dollars as a reward for his treason to his country. War between England and Holland—“Armed Neutrality.”—When it became known to the British Ministry that a secret commercial treaty had been concluded between Holland and the United States, the British Parliament declared war against Holland, on the 20th of December, 1780. Thus England had now to contend, without any assistance, against France, Spain, Holland, and her rebellious colonies in North America. At about the same time, the Empress Catharine II. of Russia induced the Governments of Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Germany, and Portugal, to unite with her in a maritime alliance, called “The Armed Neutrality.” The alleged object of this powerful league was the Čefense of the neutral powers against the right of search claimed by England; but its real object was to deprive reat Britain of her maritime superiority. IEVENTS OF 1781. Mutiny of Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops.-On the 1st of January. 1781, about 1,300 Pennsylvania troops left Washington's camp at Morristown, New &W/7ZZO STATES, 473 Jersey and marched toward Philadelphia, for the purpose of compelling the Con- gress to provide he soldiers with pay and clothing, which duty had long been neglected. When the mutineers arrived at Princeton, British emissaries sent by General Clinton tried to bribe them to enter the king's service; but the mutineers, indignant at the implied doubt of their patriotism and devotion to the cause of ſree- dom, handed the emissaries over to General Wayne for punishment as spies. At Princeton, the mutineers were also met by a committee from the Congress, promis- ing that that body would provide for their necessities as soon as they returned to duty. The Pennsylvania mutineers accepted the promise and returned to camp. On the 18th of the same month (January, 1781,) some of the New Jersey troops at Pompton, in the same State, also mutinied; but this disorder was suppressed by military force, and six of the ringleaders were hanged as a punishment for their mutiny. Arnold's Invasion of Virginia.-Early in January, 1781, Arnold the traitor, with 1,600 English and Tories, invaded Virginia, went up the James river, and destroyed much property at Richmond. In March, General Lafayettte was sent, with 1,200 Americans, to oppose Arnold's further advance in Virginia; but the traitor was soon reinforced by 2,000 English troops under General Phillips, when he went up the James river on another marauding expedition. Soon afterward, Arnold leſt Virginia, and Phillips died at Petersburg. General Greene in South Carolina—Battle of Cowpens—Greene's Retreat.--The Southern States were the chief theatre of war in 1781. General Nathaniel Greene was entrusted with the command of the American armies in the South, at the close of 1780. On the 17th of January, 1781, a part of Greene's army, under General Daniel Morgan, defeated Tarleton's cavalry, in the battle of the Cowpens, in the north-western part of South Carolina, on which occasion Colonels William A. Washington, of Virginia, and John Eager Howard, of Maryland, be- haved very gallantly. After the battle, Morgan retreated toward Virginia with his 500 prisoners, and was pursued by the British army under Lord Cornwallis. Greene soon joined Morgan, and the whole American army made a safe retreat across North Carolina, into Virginia. After the Americans had crossed the Dan river, Cornwallis, greatly dispirited, gave up the pursuit, and took post at Hillsborough, in North Carolina. Battle of Guilford Court-House—Battle of Hobkirk's Hill.—Aſter a short rest in Virginia, Greene marched into North Carolina, to oppose Cornwallis. A bloody battle was fought at Guilford Court-House, near Hillsborough, on the 15th of March, 1781. Greene was driven from the field, but the army of Cornwallis suffered severely, and aſter the battle, it retired to Wilmington, on the Cape Fear river. Aſter the battle of Guilford Court-House, Greene advanced into South Carolina, to oppose the British under Lord Rawdon. On the 19th of April, Greene was deſeated by Rawdon, in the battle of Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden. About the middle of May (1781), four important military posts in South Carolina ſell into the hands of the Americans. Siege of Fort Ninety-Six—Siege and Capture of Augusta.- On the 22d of May (1781), Greene laid siege to Fort Ninety-Six. Aſter vainly attempting for nearly a month to take the fort, Greene relinquished the siege and retired from the place, on the 19th of June, and marched to the High Hills of Santee. American 474 CENTEAVWIAA, HZSTOR P. troops, under Colonels Pickens, Clarke, and Henry Lee, captured Augusta, in Georgia, on the 5th of June, 1781, after a siege of twelve days. High Hills of Santee—Battle of Eutaw Springs—British Posts.- During the summer of 1781, Greene encamped on the High Hills of Santee. On the 8th of September, he fought with the English under Colonel Stuart, the battle of Eutaw Springs. Greene was driven from his position, but during the night, the British fled to Charleston, and the American army reoccupied the battle-field. The Ainerican guerrilla parties, under Colonels Marion, Sumter, and Henry Lee, con. ſincel the enemy to the sea-board; so that at the close of 1781, Charleston and Savannah were the only posts held by the British south of New York. Lord Cornwallis in Virginia—Fortification of Yorktown.—Lord Corn- wallis left Wilmington, North Carolina, on the 25th of April, 1781, and arrived at Petersburg, Virginia, on the 20th of May, where he took command of the troops of the deceased General Phillips. Cornwallis moved beyond Richmond, destroying a vast amount of property, but he was compelled to retire before the Americans under General Wayne, Lafayette, and Baron Steuben. Soon afterward, Cornwallis retired to the sea-coast and fortified Yorktown, on the York river, near its mouth. The Allied Armies—Arnold in Connecticut—Washington’s March for Virginia.-Early in July, 1781, Washington's army was reinforced by French troops under the Count de Rochambeau; and an attempt was about to be made to expel the English army, under Sir Henry Clinton, from New York city; but when Clinton was reinforced by 3,000 fresh troops from England, Washington resolved to march into Virginia, for the purpose of driving the British under Cornwallis from that State. Aſter Washington had marched through New Jersey, Clinton sent the traitor Arnold on a plundering expedition into Connecticut, for the purpose of in- ducing Washington to turn back. Although Arnold burned New London, and massacred the American garrison under Colonel Ledyard, at Fort Griswold, Wash- ington continued his march for Virginia. * Siege of Yorktown—Surrender of Cornwallis—Clinton’s Movements.- On the 28th of September, 1781, the allied American and French armies, under Gen- eral Washington and the Count de Rochambeau, appeared before Yorktown. The Count de Grasse, with a powerſul French fleet, arrived in the mouth of the York river, from the West Indies. A vigorous siege of the English works was soon commenced. The besiegers opened a heavy cannonade upon the British works on the 9th of October, and two of the British redoubts were captured by American and French storming parties under Laſayette. Reduced to great extremities, Corn- wallis atten: pted to escape, on the 16th, with his army, and join Clinton at New York, but was prevented from so doing by a terrific storm; and three days after- ward (October 19, 1781), he surrendered Yorktown and his entire army of 7,000 men to General Washington, and his shipping to the Count de Grasse. A few days after the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, Sir Henry Clinton appeared at the mouth of the Chesapeake bay, with 7,000 English troops, to assist Cornwallis; but, being too late, he soon returned to New York, astonished and chagrined. Washington's army returned to the Hudson, while the French troops passed the winter in Vir- ginia. The capture of Cornwallis was hailed by the Americans as a harbinger of peace. OWYZEEZ) STATES. 475 EVENTS OF 1782 AND 1783. The Peace Party in England—End of Lord North's Administration.— Intelligence of the surrender of Cornwallis struck terror and amazement into the hearts of Lord North and his supporters in the British Parliament. The English people were now fully convinced of the utter impossibility of restoring England's colonial empire in North America. Lord North and his Cabinet were obliged to resign, and a new Ministry, headed by the Marquis of Rockingham, came into power, and took measures for the restoration of peace. On the 4th of March, 1782, the British House of Commons resolved to end the war in America, and orders were sent to the British commanders to cease from hostilities against the Americans. Preliminary Peace of Paris—Definitive Peace of Paris.—On the 30th of November, 1782, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, by English and American commissioners; and on the 20th of January, 1783, French and English commissioners also signed a preliminary treaty. A definitive treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, on the 3d of September, 1783, by British and Amer- ican commissioners, by which Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United States, to which all the country south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi, as far south as the Spanish possessions on the Gulf of Mexico, was ceded. On the same day, definitive treaties of peace were concluded between England, France, Spain, and Holland; and the United States took its place as an acknowledged power among the nations of the earth. British Evacuation of America—American Army Disbanded—Wash- ington's Resignation.—The British evacuated Savannah on the 11th of July, I782, Charleston on the 14th of December of the same year, and New York, on the 25th of November, 1783. On the 3d of November, 1783, the American army was disbanded, and the American soldiers returned to their homes, to enjoy the freedom which their valor had won, and to receive the grateful benedictions of their country- men. After an affectionate parting with his officers in New York City, on the 4th of December, Washington proceeded to Annapolis, in Maryland, where the Con- gress was in session; and on the 23d of December (1783), he resigned, into the hands of that body, his commission of commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States; after which he returned to his farm at Mount Vernon, on the banks of the Potomac, carrying with him the esteem and gratitude of his countrymen, and , the admiration of the world. Thus Washington, like Cincinnatus, after delivering his country from its enemies, returned to private life. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. Weakness of the General Government of the United States after the War.—When the War of American Independence was ended, and external dan- gers had passed away, the Americans perceived that the Articles of Confederation allowed the exercise of too much sovereign and independent power by the States, and too little by the Congress, thus preventing a Union of States sufficiently strong to entitle the American people to the character or rank of a nation. The Congress had no power to dispose of the immense foreign and domestic debt with which the 476 - CENTENNIAL HISTORY. country was burdened; and the States, all financially exhausted by the war, found it extremely difficult to provide means for the payment of the soldiers of the Revo- lution. The Constitutional Convention—Framing of the National Constitu- tion.—In May, 1787, delegates from all the United States, except Rhode Island, assembled in convention, in the State House, in Philadelphia, with General Wash- ington as president, for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation, so as to give greater powers to the General Government. Convinced of the utter lefects of the Articles of Confederation, the Convention abandoned its former pur- pose of amending them, and applied itself to the task of framing an entirely new instrument. The Convention was impressed with the conviction that a centraliza- tion of greater power in the General Government was essential to the public wel- fare; and, in September, 1787, after four months secret deliberation and much con- tention, many conflicting opinions and interests having to be reconciled, and the Convention at one time seeming about to dissolve without accomplishing its grand object, the National Constitution, under which the United States has ever since been governed, was framed, and the Convention submitted the instrument to the States for ratification. THE constitution. Three-fold Powers of Government.—The National Constitution invests the Government of the United States with three-fold powers, legislative, executive, and judicial,—each of which is independent in its own sphere, and each is a coör- dinate branch of the General Government. The legislative power is to enact laws; the executive power to execute them; and the judicial power to interpret them. The Legislative Power—The Senate and House of Representatives.— The Constitution vests the legislative power in a Congress of the United States, which consists of two branches, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The House of Representatives, or Lower House, consists of members chosen for two years by the people of the several States, the Representatives to be apportioned according to the population, which is ascertained every ten years. The Senate, or Upper House, consists of two members from each State, chosen for six years, by the Legislatures of the States. The States retained the power of domestic legislation; but the Congress is invested with the power to declare war; to raise and support armies; to levy and collect taxes, duties, imports, and excises; to coin money; to establish post-offices and post-roads; to provide and maintain a navy; to call out the militia for the purpose of suppressing insurrection and repelling invasion; to admit new States into the Union; and to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regu- lations respecting the territory and other public property of the United States. All bills for raising the revenue originate in the House of Representatives, and fhat branch of the Congress has the sole power of impeachment; but the Senate has the sole power to try all impeachments, and to confirm all treaties and all executive appointments. The Executive Power—The President and Vice-President.—The Con- stitution vests the executive power in a President of the United States, who, with the Vice-President, is chosen for a term of four years, by Electors, equal in number for each State to all its Senators and Representatives in the National Congress. No (JAW/TED STATES. - 477. bill passed by the Congress can become a law without the President's signature, unless repassed by a vote of two-thirds of each branch of that body. The President. is also commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. He must be a native-born citizen; and, before he can enter upon the duties of his office, he mºist solemnly swear, or affirm, that he will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of his ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. The President has the power, by and with the advice arºd consent of the Senate, to make treaties, and to appoint ambassadors and other public ministers and consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and other officers of *e United States. The duty of the Vice-President is to preside over the Senate of the United States, but he is allowed no vote unless the Senate is equally divided, in which case he must give the casting vote; and in case of the death, resignation, or removal of the President, the Vice-President must perform the duties of President of the United States. The Judicial Power—The Supreme Court and Inferior Courts.-The Constitution vests the judicial power in a Supreme Court of the United States, con- sisting of a Chief-Justice and several Associate-Justices, and in such inferior courts. as the Congress may establish. The judges of both the supreme and inferior courts. nold their offices during good behavior. The judicial power of the United States extends to all cases arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, and treaties made with ſoreign powers; to all cases of maratime jurisdiction; to all controversies to which the United States is a party; to all controversies between States; between citizens of different States; between a State and citizens of another State; between a State, or its citizens, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. Various Provisions of the Constitution.—The Constitution defines treason against the United States to consist in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies; and it provides for the removal of the President and all other civil officers of the United States, on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, and other misdemeanors. Provision is also made for the amendment of the Con- stitution; and for guaranteeing to every State of the Union a republican form of government, and for the protection of each against invasion or domestic violence, The Constitution is the Supreme Law of the Land, and all civil officers of the United States, and of the several States, are bound thereby. ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. Opposition to the Constitution.—The National Constitution was to go into effect as the Organic Law of the Republic upon its ratification by conventions of the people in nine States. The new instrument met with violent opposition from a large portion of the American people, and two parties were quickly formed upon the question of its adoption or rejection. Those in favor of its adoption were called Federalists, and those opposed to such action were designated Anti-Federalists. Some of the States very reluctantly yielded their assent to the new instrument, and some of the greatest men in America, such as Thomas Jefferson and Satrick Henry, of Virginia, were strenuously opposed to its adoption, because it deprived the States. of too many of their former rights, and centralized too much power in the National Government; but the articles in “The Federalist” in favor of its adoption, written by Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, of New York, and James Madison, of Virginia, had a powerful effect upon the public mind. 478 CEAVTEAVAWIAA, HZSTORY. Ratification and Adoption of the Constitution—Expiration of the Con- tinental Congress.-After much opposition, the Constitution was finally ratified in 1788, by the conventions in eleven States, whereupon it became the Supreme Law of the American Republic; and on the 4th of March, 1789, the old Continental Congress expired, and the new National Government went into full operation. Then the Republic of the United States of America commenced its glorious career, THE GROWING AMERICAN UNION. wASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (APRIL 30, 1789– MARCH 4, 1797). Organization of the Government under the National Constitution.— After the National Constitution, by receiving the approval of the people of the requi- site number of States, had become the Supreme Law of the land, George Washing- ton was chosen, by the unanimous vote of the Electors, the first President of the United States, and John Adams, of Massachusetts, was elected Vice-President. The inauguration of Washington took place, on the 30th of April, 1789, in New York City, in the presence of an immense body of spectators. The First Congress under the new Constitution established three Executive Departments, War, Treasury, and Foreign Affairs, the heads of which were to be styled Secretaries, instead of Ministers, as in other countries, and who were to constitute the President's Cabinet, and could be appointed and dismissed at his pleasure. A national judiciary was established, consisting of a Supreme Court, having a Chief Justice and several Associate Justices; also Circuit and District Courts, which had jurisdiction over certain specified cases. Henry Knox was appointed Secretary of War; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; and Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Foreign Affairs. John Jay was appointed Chief Justice. Financial Measures—National Bank and Mint.—During the second ses- sion of the First Congress, early in 1790, on the recommendation of Mr. Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, the National Government assumed the public debt con- tracted during the War of the Revolution; also the debts which the several States had incurred during the same period. Congress, during this session, passed an act to remove the seat of the National Government from New York to Philadelphia, where it should continue until the expiration of ten years from that date, when it should be removed to a suitable place on the Potomac. Agreeably to the recom- mendation of Mr. Hamilton, Congress, during its third session, in 1791, authorized the establishment of a national bank and a mint for coinage, both of which were located at Philadelphia. Admission of Vermont and Kentucky—Settlements in the West.— Already Rhode Island and North Carolina had become members of the Union, by adopting the National Constitution; and the number of States was further increased by the admission of Vermont, in February, 1791, and Kentucky, in June, 1792, intc the Union. The vast wilderness west of the Alleghany mountains, which was embraced in the North-west Territory and the Territory South-west of the Ohio, was already becoming peopled. OAVZ 7'EAD STA TES. 479 Indian War in the West.—In the summer of 1790, the Indians north-west of the Ohio, encouraged by British emissaries, began a war against the United States. Aſter vainly attempting to secure peace, the President sent General Iſarmer with a considerable force against the Indians. In October, 1790, Harmer was severely defeated by the Indians, in two battles, near the present town of Fort Wayne, in Indiana. A year later, General St. Clair, Governor of the North-west Territory, marched against the Indians, but was defeated on the 4th of November, 1791, and driven back with the loss of 600 men. General Wayne, who succeeded St. Clair, defeated the Indians so badly, on the 20th of August, 1794, near the present Maumee City, Ohio, that they humbly sued for peace. In August, I795, a treaty was concluded at Greenville, by which the Indians ceded to the United States a vast extent of territory. From this time until the commencement of the war of 1812 with Great Britain, the North-western Indians lived at peace with the United States. Federalists and Republicans—Washington Re-elected.—Before the second Presidental election took place, in the fall of 1792, two political parties had been organized. The one, called the Republican or Democratic party, headed by Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Sate, advocated the distribution of power among the States and the people. The other, called the Federalist party, headed by Alex- ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, advocated the concentration of great power in the National Government. In the election of 1792, Washington was again the unanimous choice of the Electors for the office of President of the Repub- lic, and John Adams was reëlected Vice-President. Troubles with the French Minister.—The Republican party sympathized with the Revolutionary party in France, which had executed King Louis XVI., abolished monarchy, and established the political equality of all classes in that country. The French Republic sent as its minister to the United States, M. Genet, who, soon after his arrival in America, fitted out privateers in American ports to prey upon the commerce of England, Spain, and Holland, against which countries, Republican France had declared war. When Washington, anxious to keep the United States free from the complications of European politics, issued a proclama- tion of neutrality, declaring it to be the duty and the interest of the people of the United States to observe a perfectly neutral attitude in regard to the European struggle, Genet tried to arouse the American people against their Government; but, at the request of Washington, the French Republic recalled its imprudent minister, and sent M. Fouchet in his place. Whisky Insurrection.—In 1791, Congress passed an act imposing heavy duties upon liquors distilled in the United States. This measure was very unpop- ular, and, in 1794, the people of Western Pennsylvania rose in arms, resisted the Government officers sent to collect the tax, robbed mails, and committed many other outrages. After issuing two proclamations ordering the insurgents to lay down their arms and obey the laws, the President sent General Henry Lee, of Virginia, with a military force sufficient to quell the insurrection. The insurgents immediately submitted, and quiet was restored. This rebelhon is known in history as “The Whisky Insurrection.” Difficulties with Great Britain—Jay's Treaty.—Unfriendly relations be- tween the United States and Great Britain threatened to end in war, in 1794. The 48o CEAV7'EAVAWIAA, H/STORY, United States accused Great Britain of violating the treaty of 1783, by retaining possession of military posts in the North-West Territory, and by withholding in- demnification for negroes carried away at the close of the Revolution; and com. plaint was also made that British emissaries had excited the Indians of the North- West to hostilities against the American people, that to retaliate on France American vessels had been seized by British cruisers, and that American seamen had been impressed into the British naval serviee. Great Britain complained that the United States did not comply with treaty stipulations respecting the property of Tories, and also in relation to the recovery of debts contracted in England before the Revolution. To settle these difficulties, John Jay was appointed a special envoy 'to Great Britain. He negotiated a treaty which was violently opposed in the United States, but it was finally ratified by the United States Senate, on the 24th. of June, 1794. Algerine Pirates.—For several years, American commerce in the Mediterra- nean sea had suffered from the depredations of Algerine pirates, who seized the merchandise, and held the seamen as slaves, for the purpose of obtaining ransom money. To put a stop to these outrages, Congress, in 1794, made appropriations: for the organization of a navy. In 1795, the United States was obliged to make a treaty of peace with the Dey of Algiers, by which an annual tribute was to be paid for the liberation of captive American seamen. Admission of Tennessee—Election of John Adams.-In June, 1796, Ten- nessee was admitted into the Union of States. The Presidential campaign of 1796 was an exciting one. The candidate of the Federalists was John Adams, and the nominee of the Republicans was Thomas Jefferson. Adams was elected President and Jefferson was chosen Vice-President. JOHN ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1797– MARCH 4, 1801). Adams' Inauguration—Difficulties with France.—Mr. Adams was inaugu: rated on the 4th of March, 1797, as second President of the United States. On account of the unfriendly character of the relations between the United States and France, the President summoned Congress to meet in extra session on the 15th of May following. In July (1797), Congress appointed Charles Cotesworth Pinck- ney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry envoys to France for the adjustment of all difficulties. The French Government refused to receive them until they should. pay a large sum of money into the French treasury. This insolent demand was refused with indignation; and two of the envoys, Messrs Pinckney and Marshall, who were Federalists, were ordered to leave France, while Mr. Gerry, who was a Republican, was permitted to remain. Preparations for War with France.—The year 1798 was signalized by pre- parations, on the part of the United States, for war with the French Republic. In May of that year, a large provisional army was authorized; and Washington was: appointed commander-in-chief. A small naval armament was raised, and hostilities : were begun on the ocean. The American schooner Retaliation was captured by: the French frigate Insurgente, but the latter was afterwards captured by the Ameri- can frigate Constellation, commanded by Commodore Truxtun. 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A hºl º º 42 tº ...; ſ * * wº- ... . *::: ſº tºvº tºil sº- º, º g º W t l Fºº- ºt hi * | | * º | l º g =|ºlº tº hºll: ſlº } |}}{ * — ...: liſts §: , W | | ſº t º } | º ſ º OM/TED STA TES. 481 pursued by the United States Government, caused the French Directory to propose a settlement of all difficulties between the two nations. The President sent three envoys, who, late in 1799, concluded a treaty of peace with Napoleon Bonaparte, who had a short time previous overthrown the Directory, and made himself ruler of France, with the title of First Consul. Alien and Sedition Laws—Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions.—The Federalist party was greatly weakened by the passage of two extremely unpopulaſ icts by Congress, and their approval by President Adams. These were the Alien 2nd Sedition Laws. The Alien Law authorized the President to expel from the United States any alien whose presence he might deem dangerous to the Republic, The Sedition Law authorized the suppression of publications which tended to weaken the authority of the National Government. The Legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky asserted the dangerous doctrine of State Rights, by passing, in opposition to the Alien and Sedition Laws, resolutions in which they declared the rights of the States to judge how far the National Government had a right to go. Death of Washington—Seat of Government at washington City.— . At the close of 1799, the Nation was called upon to mourn the loss of the illustrious Washington, who died at Mt. Vernon, on the 14th of December, 1799. In the summer of 18oo, the seat of the Government of the United States was removed from Philadelphia to the new city of Washington, in the District of Columbia. Election of Jefferson.—In 1800, the Federalists nominated John Adams and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for the Presidency, while the Republicans nominated Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. This time the Republican party was success- ful; but, as Jefferson and Burr had each the same number of votes, the election was carried to the House of Representatives, when, after thirty-five ballotings, Jefferson was chosen President, and Burr was declared to be elected Vice President. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1801– MARCH 4, 1809). Inauguration of Jefferson—Admission of Ohio–Purchase of Louisiana. —Mr. Jefferson was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1801; and he commenced the administration of affairs with great vigor and ability. In 1802, Ohio was ad- mitted into the family of States; and in 1803, the United States purchased from France, for fifteen millions of dollars, the immense territory of Louisiana, then ex- tending from the Mississippi river to the Rocky Mountains, and from the British possessions to the Gulf of Mexico. War with Tripoli—Decatur’s Bold Exploit—Eaton and Hamet’s Ex- pedition.—The insolent conduct of the piratical Barbary States of Northern Africa caused the United States to stop paying tribute to them in 1801, whereupon the Bashaw, or ruler of Tripoli, declared war against the United States. The American frigate George Washington, under the command of Captain William Bainbridge, was sent to the Mediterranean sea, to protect American commerce; and, in 1803, a small American squadron, under Commodore Preble, appeared before Tripoli, where one of his vessels, the Philadelphia, commanded by Captain William Bainbridge, grounded, and was captured by the Tripolitans. In February, 1804, seventy-six Americans, with Lieutenant Stephen Decatur at their head, went into the harbor 3I 482 CEAVTENNAL EASYOR P. of Tripoli, boarded the Philadelphia, drove the pirates from her deck, and then, under a heavy cannonade from the shore, set the vessel on fire. Decatur did not lose a single man in this bold exploit. A severe naval battle was fought on the 3d of August (1804), which resulted in an American victory; and the city of Tripoli suffered heavy bombardments from the American squadron. The Bashaw of Tripoli, alarmed at the rapid progress of the victors, made peace with Mr. Lear, the Ameri- can consul-general on the Mediterranean. (June 4, 1805.) Reelection of Jefferson—Aaron Burr's Trial for Treason and Acquittal —In the autumn of 1804, Jefferson was reëlected President, and George Clinton, of New York, was chosen Vice President. The great South-west was rapidly be- coming peopled. In 1806, Aaron Burr, who, by killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, in July, 1804, had come to be detested by a majority of the people of the United States, secretly organized a military expedition in the Ohio region, with the professed object of establishing an independent empire in Northern Mexico, with himself as Emperor. Being suspected of the design of separating the country west of the Alleghany mountains from the Union, he was arrested and brought to trial on a charge of treason, at Richmond, Virginia, in 1807; but, his guilt not being proven, he was acquitted. * Robert Fulton and Steam Navigation.—The experiments of Robert Fulton, a Pennsylvania, in the application of steam to purposes of navigation, resulted in success, in a voyage from New York to Albany, in August, 1807. Condition of Europe—Napoleon, Emperor.—Europe was still convulsed by the wars resulting from the French Revolution; and at this time the greater part of Continental Europe was under the control of the powerful and victorious Napoleon Bonaparte, who had been created “Emperor of the French,” in 1804. While France was triumphant on land, Great Britain, which was engaged in a long and fierce war with her old enemy, was undisputed master of the seas. American Commerce Injured by France and England.—The measures of the two belligerent powers for each other's destruction produced great injury to the commerce of the United States. For the purpose of destroying the commerce of France, Great Britain, by an order-in-council, declared the coast of Continental Europe from the mouth of the Elbe, in Germany, to Brest, in France, to be in a state of blockade. Napoleon retaliated by issuing a decree at Berlin, in November, 1806, declaring the blockade of the ports of the British Islands. American vessels were seized by both English and French cruisers, and American commerce was swept from the ocean. In January, 1807, England, by an order-in-council, pro- hibited the coast trade with France. The American merchants, whose interests were injured by the measures of the two belligerent powers, demanded redress and protection; and great excitement prevailed in the United States. France and Eng- land still continued their desperate commercial game, regardless of the rights of neutral powers. On the 11th of November, 1807, Great Britain, by an order-in- council, forbade neutral nations from trading with France or her colonies, unless U.ey first paid tribute to England. In retaliation, Napoleon, by a decree issued at Milan, on the 17th of December, 1807, forbade trade with England or her colo- nies, and authorized the confiscation of any vessel that had submitted to English search or paid English tribute. •;： ſp // | // |- ‘‘.· ‘;" | * |4 iș | } ſae |× } · ROBERT FULTON. ...” \ N × 4： ،$ \}， \\ SAMUEL F. B. MORSE. OM/TED STA 7TES. 483 Search and Impressment—The Chesapeake and the Leopard.—Great Britain, denying that any of her subjects could become citizens or subjects of any other nation, claimed the right to search American vessels, and take from them her native born subjects for her navy. This right was denied by the United States. On the 22d of June, 1807, an event occurred which increased the excitement in the United States, and created intense indignation against Great Britain. Four men on board the American frigate Chesapeake, being claimed as deserters from the British armed ship Melampus, and Commodore Barron of the Chesapeake refusing to sur. render them, the Chesapeake was attacked by the British frigate Leopard, off the coast of Virginia. Taken completely by surprise, the Chesapeake surrendered after having lost eighteen men killed and wounded. The four men were taken on board the Leopard, and the Chesapeake returned to Hampton. The matter was investi- gated, when it was proven that three of the seamen were native Americans, and that the fourth, after being impressed into the British service, had deserted. Embargo and Non-intercourse.—In July, 1807, the President issued a proclamation, ordering all British armed vessels to leave the waters of the United States, and forbidding any to enter until Great Britain should render full satisfac- tion for the outrage upon the Chesapeake; and, on the 22d of December (1807), the National Congress decreed an embargo, which prevented both American and foreign vessels from leaving American ports. Because the embargo was very un- popular in the United States, especially with the merchants, to whose interests it was very injurious, and because it failed to obtain justice from France and England, it was repealed on the 1st of March, when all commercial intercourse with those countries was forbidden, until they should either modify or rescind their injurious IYleaSliTCS. Election of Madison.—The Presidential election of 1808 resulted in the choice of the Republican candidate, James Madison, of Virginia, for President, and the reëlection of George Clinton as Vice-President. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1809– MARCH 4, 1817). Inauguration of Madison.—Mr. Madison entered upon the duties of President of the United States, on the 4th of March, 1809, when the relations of the Repub- lic with England and France were of the most unfriendly character. On account of the unfavorable aspect of affairs, Congress, at the summons of the President, was assembled in extra session on the 22d of May. Erskine’s Assurances of Peace Fail.—Soon after his inauguration, President Madison was assured by Mr. Erskine, the British ambassador at Washington, that a special envoy from Great Britain would soon make his appearance in the United States, to negotiate for a settlement of all the subjects of dispute between the two Governments. Relying upon this assurance, the President proclaimed a renewal of commercial intercourse with England, but the British Government disavowed Erskine's act, and the President again proclaimed non-intercourse. Continued Injury to American Commerce.—Both France and England continued their desperate commercial game for the ruin of each other, regardless of the interests of other nations. Great Britain refused to rescind her obnoxious 484 CEAVTEAVAVIA L HISTORY. orders-in-council, and Bonaparte firmly adhered to his Berlin and Milan decrees, so injurious to American commerce; and American vessels continued to be seized by both English and French cruisers. In 1811, Great Britain went so far as to send armed vessels to the coast of the United States, to seize American merchant vessels, and take them to England as lawful prizes. The President and the Little Belt.—On the 16th of May, 1811, an event occurred which increased the bitter feeling in the United States against England. The British sloop-of-war Little Belt, Captain Bingham, was met and hailed by the American frigate President, Captain Rodgers, off the coast of Virginia. The Zit. tle Belt immediately answered by a cannon-shot. A short engagement ensued; and when the Little Belt had thirty-two men killed and wounded, her commander gave Captain Rodgers a satisfactory answer. Both Governments approved the acts of their respective officers. Indian Hostilities—Battle of Tippecanoe.-During the spring of 1811, the Indians of the North-West, led by Tecumseh, a famous Shawnoese chief, and in- stigated by British emissaries, began a war against the United States, for the purpose of expelling the white people from the country north of the Ohio river. In the autumn of the same year, General William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory, led about 2,000 troops up the Wabash river, to the mouth of Tippecanoe creek, where the Prophet, a brother of Tecumseh, had assembled many Indian warriors. The Prophet proposed a conference for peace; but Harrison, suspecting treachery, caused his troops to sleep on their arms that night. (November 6, 1811.) Before daylight the next morning, the Indians attacked Harrison's camp, but, after a desperate conflict, which lasted until dawn, they were repulsed. This engage- ment is known as the battle of Tippecanoe, and it occurred on the 7th of Novem- ber, 181 I. VV AR VVITH GREAT BRITAIN–EVENTS OF 1812. Declaration of War against Great Britain—Doings of Congress.--All efforts made by the United States Government for a peaceful settlement of the difficulties with England having failed, the President of the United States, by authority of Congress, issued a proclamation, on the 19th of June, 1812, declaring war against Great Britain. The contest which then began is known as “The War of 1812.” Congress made appropriations for carrying on the war, and authorized the President to enlist 25,000 men, to accept the services of 50,000 volunteers, and to call out Ioo,ooo militia for the defense of the sea-coast and the frontiers. Gen- eral Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was appointed commander-in-chief. The other leading generals were James Wilkinson, Wade Hampton, William Hull, and Joseph Bloomfield. These officers had all served in the War of the Revolution. Invasion of Canada—Hull’s Surrender at Detroit.—The war cºmmenced with an invasion of Canada, from Detroit, in Michigan Territory, in July, 1812, hy about 2,000 American troops under the command of General William Hull, Gov. ernor of Michigan Territory. When informed that Fort Mackinaw, a strong American post in the North-west, had been surprised and captured by a party of British and Indians, on the 17th of July, and that a small American force under Major Van Horne had been defeated on the River Raisin, on the 5th of August, Hull hastily returned to Detroit. Sir Isaac Brock, at the head of 1,300 British and OWZZTEZO STATES. 485 Indians, pursued Hull, and, appearing before Detroit, demanded the surrender of that post and Hull's army, threatening in case of a refusal to allow the Indians the unrestrained exercise of their barbarous system of warfare. Hull, greatly alarmed. complied with the demand of the British general; and his army, and the fort at Detroit and the Michigan Territory, fell into the hands of the enemy. Movements on the Niagara Frontier—Battle of Queenstown.—After Hull's surrender at Detroit, the Americans made an attempt to invade Canada or the Niagara frontier. On the 13th of October (1812), a party of Americans crossed the Niaga, a river into Canada, to attack the British at Queenstown. The invaders captured a battery and made themselves masters of Queenstown Heights; bit when the enemy were reinforced by 600 men under Sir Isaac Brock, the Britis, commander-in-chief, and when many of the American militia refused to go to the relief of their countrymen, the Americans were defeated with the loss of 1,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among those who were taken prisoners by the enemy were Colonel Winfield Scott and Captain John Ellis Wool, who had distin- tinguished themselves by their gallantry. Among the killed on the side of the British was Sir Isaac Brock, their able and heroic commander-in-chief. Victories of the American Navy.—The Americans, though defeated on land, were successful on the sea. On the 13th of August, 1812, the American frigate Essex, Captain David Porter, defeated and captured the British sloop-of-war Alert. On the 19th of the same month (August, 1812), the United States frigate Constitu- tion, Captain Isaac Hull, defeated, captured, and burned the British frigate Guer- riere, off the Gulf of St. Lawrence. On the 18th of October (1812), the United States sloop-of-war Wasp, Captain Jacob Jones, compelled the British brig Frolic to surrender, after a severe conflict, off the coast of North Carolina; but, in the after- noon of the same day, both the Wasp and the Frolic were taken by the British ship Poitiers. On the 25th of October, the American frigate United States, Captain Stephen Decatur, was captured by the British frigate Macedonin, off the Azores Islands. On the 29th of December, the American frigate Constitution, Captain William Bainbridge, compelled the British frigate Java to strike her colors, after a desperate fight of three hours, off the coast of Brazil. Federalist Opposition to the War—Re-election of Madison.—The Fed- eralists were violently opposed to the war; but they failed in their endeavors to make it unpopular, as the war spirit of the great majority of the people of the United States was fully demonstrated, in the autumn of 1812, by the reëlection of Madison as President, with Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, as Vice President. EVENTS OF 1813. The American Armies.—The Americans had organized three armies on the Canada frontier, for the campaign of 1813. “The Army of the West,” under Gen. eral William Henry Harrison, was near the Western end of Lake Erie; “The Army of the Centre,” under General Henry Dearborn, the commander-in-chief, was on the Niagara frontier; and “The Army of the North,” under General Wade Hampton, was near Lake Champlain. Massacre of Frenchtown.—The people of the West were resolved to recover Michigan Territory; and so many volunteers from Ohio and Kentucky offered their 486 CENTENAWYAL ANZSTORY. services that General Harrison found himself obliged to issue an order against further enlistments On the Ioth of January, 1813, General Winchester, with 8oo Ken- tuckians, reached the Maumee Rapids, and, after a portion of this force had driven the British from Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, in Michigan, on the 18th of January, Winchester arrived with the remainder of the troops on the 20th (January, 1813). General Proctor, with 1500 British and Indians, attacked the Americans at } renchtown, on the 22d of January, and Winchester surrendered, on condition that b.is troops should be protected from the Indians; but Proctor, in disregard of his promise, marched away, leaving the sick and wounded Americans to be massacred by the Indians. From that time the war-cry of the Kentuckians was, “Remember the River Raisin!” Fort Meigs Twice Besieged.—In February, 1813, General Harrison built Fort Meigs, at the Maumee Rapids, where he was besieged at the beginning of May, 1813, by 2000 British and Indians, under Proctor and Tecumseh, who were finally driven away on the 5th of May, when Harrison was reinforced by a body of Kentuckians, under General Green Clay. On the 21st of July, 1813, about 4000 British and Indians, under Proctor and Tecumseh, again besieged Fort Meigs, but the garrison, then under the command of General Clay, repulsed the enemy and compelled them to retire. Attack on Fort Stephenson Repulsed.—After their second repulse before Fort Meigs, Proctor and Tecumseh marched against Fort Stephenson, at Lower Sandusky, which they attacked on the 2d of August, but the garrison of 150 men, under Major Croghan, a gallant officer only twenty-one years of age, bravely resisted the assaults of the enemy, who were at last obliged to flee in confusion. Perry's Victory on Lake Erie.—During the summer, the Americans con- structed, at Erie, in Pennsylvania, a squadron of nine vessels, carrying fifty-five guns, which they placed under the command of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry. The British had prepared a squadron of six vessels, carrying sixty-three guns, commanded by Commodore Barclay. A terrible battle was fought between these two squadrons near the West end of Lake Erie, on the Ioth of September, 1813. Each squadron had about 500 men. During the battle, which began about noon, Perry was obliged to abandon his flag-ship, the Lawrence, and to transfer his flag to another ship, in the midst of a severe fire from the enemy. Such terrible broad- sides were poured upon the enemy's fleet, that at four o'clock in the afternoon, every British vessel had surrendered to Perry. Perry's dispatch to General Harrison was, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.” Canada again Invaded—Battle of the Thames—End of the War in the West.—After the victory on Lake Erie, Perry's fleet conveyed General Harrison and his army across the Lake to Canada. Harrison advanced upon Fort Malden, which he found deserted. He pursued and overtook the fleeing British and Indi ańs, under Proctor and Tecumseh, and, at the Moravian Town, on the Thames, he anrihilated the whole force of the enemy, on the 5th of October (1813). Tecumseh, was among the killed. The consequences of this brilliant victory were the recovery of Michigan and the termination of the war in the North-west. * Capture of York or Toronto.—On the 27th of April (1813), General 1)ear- born, after being conveyed across Lake Ontario in Commodore Chauncey's fleet. (WWITED STATES. 487 ſanded with 1700 troops at York, now Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, and an important depot of British supplies. The place was immediately abandoned by the enemy, who blew up their magazine, thus killing 200 Americans, among whom was the gallant General Zebulon N. Pike, who led the troops against the town. Capture of Fort George—Battle of Stony Creek.-On the 27th of May, the army under Dearborn and the fleet under Chauncey attacked the British at Fort George, in Canada, at the mouth of the Niagara river, and drove them westward for many miles. On the night of the 6th of June, the enemy were repulsed in a sud 32n attack upon the pursuing Americans, at Stony Creek; but Generals Chandle: and Winder, the American commanders, were taken prisoners. Battle of Sackett's Harbor—Battle of Chrysler's Field.—On the 29th of May, 1813, Sir George Prevost, with IOoo British soldiers, landed at Sackett's Harbor, but they were repulsed in an attack upon the town, by the American militia, under General Jacob Brown, and compelled to return hastily to their ships. In August, Dearborn was succeeded in command by General James Wilkinson, who, with 7ooo troops, went down the St. Lawrence in boats, early in November, for the purpose of attacking Montreal. Wilkinson landed troops near Williamsburg, on the Canada shore of the St. Lawrence, a little below Ogdensburg, when an indecisive action, known as “The Battle of Chrysler's Field,” was fought with the enemy, on the 11th of November (1813). Wilkinson proceeded farther down the river; but when General Wade Hampton refused to coöperate with him, he relinquished his inten- tion of attacking Montreal, and went into winter-quarters at French Mills. Desolation of the Niagara Frontier.—General George McClure, who then ' commanded American troops on the Niagara frontier, was so hard pressed by the enemy that he destroyed Fort George, and the neighboring village of Newark, on the Ioth of December, 1813; and on the 12th, he fled to Fort Niagara, on the New York side of the Niagara river. The British and Indians crossed the river, cap- tured Fort Niagara on the 29th of December, and laid six towns, including Buffalo, in ashes. War with the Creek Indians—Subjugation of the Indians.—In the meantime, trouble had arisen in the South, where the Creek Indians, instigated by Tecumseh, had commenced a fierce war against the white people. On the 30th of August, 1813, the Creeks surprised and destroyed Fort Mimms, on the Alabama river, and put to death 400 men, women, and children, who had sought refuge within its walls, This atrocious deed aroused the indignation of the white people; and General Andrew Jackson marched into the Creek country, at the head of 2000 men, chiefly Tennesseeans, and, in a series of conflicts, beginning in the early part of November, 1813, and ending with the battle of Tohopeka, or Great Horse Shoe, at the close of March, 1814, the Creeks were so thoroughly defeated, and their power was so completely broken, that they were compelled to accept a humiliating peace. The War on the Ocean.—The ocean was the theatre of desperate engage onents in 1813. On the 24th of February, the American sloop-of-war //ornet, Captain James Lawrence, captuled the British brig Peacock, off the coast of Jamaica after a sharp action of fifteen minutes. The Peacock sunk soon after the fight, carrying with her to the bottom of the sea nine British and three American seamen. 488 CEAVTEAVAWIAA, HISTORY. Captain Lawrence, soon after his return to the United States, was promoted to the command of the frigate Chesapeake; and on the Ist of June, he was defeated and killed, after a bloody struggle of fifteen minutes with the British frigate Shannon, off Boston harbor. Forty-eight of the officers and crew of the Chesapeake were killed, and ninety-eight wounded. As the heroic Lawrence was carried below, he exclaimed, “Don’t give up the ship!” The American brig Argus, Captain Allen, after capturing many British vessels off the English coast, was herself captured, on the 14th of August, 1813, by the British brig Pelican. On the 5th of September, 1813, the American brig Enterprise, Lieutenant Burrows, captured the British brig Aoxer, off Portland, Maine. The commanders of both vessels were killed, and their remains were interred, with military honors, in one grave, in Portland. Cockburn's Depredations on the Atlantic Coast.—During the spring and summer of 1813, Lewistown, on Delaware bay, and Havre de Grace, Frenchtown, Fredericktown, and Georgetown, on Chesapeake bay, were plundered and burned by a British squadron, under the command of the infamous Admiral Cockburn. After being repulsed in attacks upon Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia, in June, 1813, and after committing great outrages at Hampton, Cockburn carried many negroes away from the Carolina coasts, and sold them in the West-Indies. EVENTS OF 1814, AND 1815. Battles at Oswego.—On the 5th of May, 1814, the town of Oswego, in New York, on Lake Ontario, after a fierce engagement, was captured by the British, who, however, withdrew from the town two days afterward. (May 7, 1814.) Battle of Chippewa.-On the 3d of July, 1814, the American army under General Jacob Brown, on the Western frontier of New York, crossed the Niagara, with General Winfield Scott and General Ripley, and captured Fort Erie on the same day. Brown advanced northward, along the west bank of the Niagara river, and, on the 5th (July, 1814), he gained a brilliant victory at Chippewa, over the British army, under General Riall. g Battle of Lundy’s Lane. —The British army, under the command of Lieu- tenant-General Drummond, advanced toward the Niagara, and, at sunset on the 25th of July, 1814, met the American army, under General Brown, at Lundy's Lane, near the thundering cataract of Niagara, where a sangunary battle ensued, which ended at midnight, without a decisive result. Each party had lost over 800 men. Generals Brown and Scott, the American commanders, were both wounded. On the 26th (July, 1814), the American army retired to Fort Erie. Siege of Fort Erie.—On the 15th of August, the British army under Drum- mond attempted to take Fort Erie by assault, but was repulsed with the loss of 1,000 men. After the British had besieged the fort for more than a month, they were driven from their intrenchments, on the 17th of September, by a party of Americans who sallied from the fort. The enemy then retreated to Chippewa; and in November, the Americans destroyed Fort Erie, and recrossed to the New York side of the Niagara river. Invasion of New York—Battles at Plattsburg.—When informed that General Izard, the American commander at Plattsburg, in New York, on Lake Champlain, had gone to the Niagara frontier with 5,000 of his troops to reinforce OM/TED STA TES. 489 General Brown, leaving only 1,500 under General Macomb at Plattsburg, Sir George Prevost, who commanded 14,000 veteran troops on the St. Lawrence, ad- toward Plattsburg, before which place he appeared on the 6th of September, Each party had, during the summer, constructed a small squadron on Lake Cham- plain. On Sunday morning, September 11th, 1814, the British squadron, under Commodore Downie, attacked the American squadron, under Commodore Mac donough, off Plattsburg; and after a fierce engagement of several hours, every British vessel surrendered to Macdonough. On the same day, the British land force of 12,000 men under Prevost, which had attacked the little American army under Macomb, at Plattsburg, was defeated and compelled to retreat hastily toward Canada. Bombardment of Stonington.—In the meantime, the British had blockaded the whole New England coast, and had taken possession of Eastport, Machias, and Belfast, in Maine. A British squadron under Commodore Hardy had bombarded and cannonaded Stonington, in Connecticut, for four days, when the enemy finally withdrew on the 14th of August. Property on the New England coast was de- stroyed by British marauding parties. Invasion of Maryland—Capture of Washington.—About the middle of August, 1814, a British fleet under Admiral Cochrane sailed up the Patuxent, and landed 5,000 troops under General Ross, who defeated the Americans under General Winder, at Bladensburg, on the 24th of August, and, entering Washing- ton City on the same day, burned the Capitol, the President's House, and other public and private buildings, and then quickly returned to their shipping. Attack on Baltimore Repulsed.—Encouraged by their success at Washing- ton, the enemy threatened Baltimore with an attack. With about 8,000 British troops, Ross landed at North Point, on the 12th of September, 1814, and, after a desperate engagement, seven miles from Baltimore, on the same day, in which Ross was killed, the Americans, under General Stricker, were compelled to fall back behind the defenses of Baltimore. The British squadron which had ineffect- ually bombarded Fort McHenry, garrisoned by a few Americans, under Major Armistead, a few miles below Baltimoue, finally withdrew with the land troops, on the morning of the 14th (September, 1814), and the attempt to take Baltimore was abandoned. Jackson's Invasion of Florida and Capture of Pensacola.-The subjuga- tion of the Creek Indians by General Jackson did not put an end to the war in the South. The Spaniards of Florida permitted the British to make the town of Pensacola a base of operations. From this point, a force of British troops and fugi- tive Creek warriors marched into Alabama, and attacked Fort Bowyer (now Fort Morgan), below Mobile, on the 15th of September, 1814, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Failing to obtain satisfaction from the Spanish Governor of Florida tor sheltering the enemies of the United States, Jackson marched from Mobile, with 2,000 Tennesseans, against Pensacola, which he seized on the 7th of Novem- ber, after driving the British to their shipping, Invasion of Louisiana—Battles near New Orleans.—After returning to Mobile, Jackson was called to New Orleans, to defend that city against an expected attack from the British army and navy. On the 14th of December, 1814, a British 490 CEAVTEAVAVXAZ HYSTOA’. Y. fleet captured an American flotilla in Lake Borgne. A British army of 12,000 men, under General Pakenham, landed, in Louisiana, and soon appeared below New Or- leans. After being repulsed in an attack upon the British camp, on the night of the 23d of December, 1814, Jackson placed his little army of 3000 men, mostly Tennessee militia, behind strong intrenchments, three miles below New Orleans, and extending from the Mississippi river to an impenetrable cypress swamp, where he was soon reinforced by about 3OOO Kentucky militia, increasing his army to 6000 men. The British opened a cannonade on the American works on the 28th of December, 1814, and again on New Year's day, in 1815. At length, on the 8th of January, 1815, the whole British army, 12,000 strong, with Pakenham at its head, advanced to open a grand attack upon the Americans, who opened a deadly musketry and artillery fire on the advancing enemy. The British troops at length wavered and began to flee, and, while endeavoring to rally them, General Paken- ham was killed. The whole British army retreated to their ships, and this sanguin- ary battle ended in a glorious victory for the Americans. The British lost 2000 killed and wounded, while the Americans lost only seven killed and six wounded. This victory produced the liveliest joy in the United States. The War on the Ocean.—The war was still continued with vigor on the ocean, during the years 1814 and 1815. On the 28th of March, 1814, the American frigate Essex, Captain Porter, was captured off the port of Valparaiso, on the coast of Chili, in South America, by the British frigate Phoebe and sloop-of-war Cherub. On the 29th of April, 1814, the American sloop-of-war Peacock, Captain Warring- ton, captured the British brig Epervier, off the coast of Florida. The American sloop-of-war Wasp, Captain Blakeley, was lost at sea, after capturing thirteen British vessels, among which were the Reindeer, taken on the 28th of June, and the Avon, on the 1st of September, 1814. On the 16th of January, 1815, the American frigate Aresident, Commodore Decatur, was captured off Long Island, by a British squadron. On the 20th of February, 1815, the American frigate Constitution, Commodore Stewart, captured the British sloops-of-war Cyane and Levant, off Lisbon, in Portu- gal, after a spirited engagement. On the 23d of March, 1815, the American sloop- of-war Hornet, Captain Biddle, captured the British brig Penguin, in the South Atlantic Ocean. Hartford Convention—Peace of Ghent.—The Federalists had all along been strenuously opposed to the war, and had thrown every obstacle in the way of its prosecution by the Administration. At length, in December, 1814, a convention composed of delegates from all of the New England States, and called on the recom- mendation of the Legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut, assembled at Hart- ford, Connecticut, to consider the grievances of the people caused by the war, and to adopt measures to bring about its speedy termination. The proceedings of this convention, which were secret, were regarded by many as treasonable. Soon after the adjournment of the convention, the Legislatures of Massachusetts and Connec- ticut passed several laws which were in direct opposition to the laws of the United States; and a feared collision between the governments of the States and the National Government was only prevented by the arrival of intelligence that a treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, in Belgium, on the 24th of December, 1814, by American and British commissioners. The President proclaimed peace on the 18th of February, 1815. The treaty left unsettled all the issues which had led to the war. OWATED STATES. 49 I War with Algiers—Commodore Decatur Humbles Algiers.-No sooner was the war with England terminated, than the United States was obliged to engage in a short war with the piratical Barbary State of Algiers, in Northern Africa. Under the impression that the navy of the United States had been almost destroyed by that of Great Britain, the Algerines had become extremely insolent, and coin- mitted depredations upon American commerce in the Mediterrranean sea. Com- modore Decatur, who was immediately sent to the Mediterranean with a United States squadron, captured two Algerine vessels on the 17th of June, 1815; and, on the 28th (June, 1815), he appeared before the city of Algiers, and demanded that all Americans held as prisoners should be set at liberty, that all destroyed American property should be indemnified, and that all claims to tribute from the United States in future should be relinquished. Two days afterward (June 30, 1815), the Dey, or ruler of Algiers, greatly alarmed, assènted to Decatur’s conditions, and a treaty of peace was signed. Decatur also obtained satisfaction from the rulers of Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco; and thenceforth American commerce was not disturbed in the Mediterranean sea. The United States was the first power that made any determined efforts to stop the piratical proceedings of the Barbary States. Admission of Louisiana and Indiana—Election of Monroe.—Two new States were admitted into the Union during the Administration of Mr. Madison; —Louisiana, in April, 1812, and Indiana, in December, 1816. In the autumn of 1816, the Republican, candidate for President, James Monroe, of Virginia, was elected by a large majority, with Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, as Vice- President. MONROE's ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1817– MARCH 4, 1825). Inauguration of Monroe.—Mr. Monroe was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1817. He selected a Cabinet of able men; and entered upon the duties of his office with vigor, at a time when the Republic was recovering from the effects of the late war with England, when American commerce and manufactures were re- viving, and when the nation was starting on a new and glorious career of prosperity, wealth, power, and greatness. Emigration to the West.—During the war with England, the prices of various commodities had become so high that the numerous manufacturing estab- lishments in the United States had enjoyed a great degree of prosperity; but when, cn the return of peace, British goods flooded the country at low prices, these estab- lishments ceased to flourish, and thousands were compelled to seek other occupa- tions. This sudden change in the pecuniary condition of so many thousands, led to so large and rapid an emigration to the vast region west of the Alleghanies, which awaited the industry of the agriculturist, that in less than ten years, four new and prosperous States had grown up in the recent vast wilderness. Indian War in the South—Cession of Florida.-In the latter part of 1817, the Seminole and Creek Indians began a series of murderous attacks upon the white settlers of Southern Georgia. General Jackson, with some Tennessee troops, marched against the hostile Indians. With the belief that the Creeks were pro- tected by the Spanish authorities of Florida, Jackson marched into that country, 492 CEAVTEAVAVIAA, H/STORY. captured the post of St. Mark's, sent the Spanish authorities to Pensacola, and afterwards to Havana, in Cuba, and hanged Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert C. Ambrister, British subjects, who were known to have excited the Indians to war. These proceedings led to a treaty, by which Spain ceded all of the Floridas to the U aited States; and, in February, 1821, that country was organized as a Telratory. I: 1818, a treaty with Great Britain fixed the boundary line between the United States and British America at forty-nine degrees north latitude, from the Lake of tle Woods to the Rocky Mountains. - Admission of Five New States—“Missouri Compromise.”-—Five new States were admitted into the Union during Monroe’s Administration: Mississippi, in 1817; Illinois, in 1818; Alabama, in 1819; Maine, in 1820; and Missouri, in 1821. When the proposition for the admission of Missouri was brought forward in Congress, in 1819, angry debates arose as to whether it should be admitted as a Free or a Slave State. This was the first great contest for supremacy in the Repub- lic, between the friends and the opponents of slavery. It was finally agreed, in 1820, by a compromise, that Missouri should be admitted as a Slave State, and that slavery should be allowed in all territory south of its southern boundary, thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes north latitude, and prohibited in all territory north and west of these limits. This is known as “The Missouri Compromise.” Under this compromise, Missouri became a State on the 21st of August, 1821. - Re-election of Monroe—“The Monroe Doctrine.”—In the autumn of 1820, Monroe and Tompkins were reëlected President and Vice-President, by an almost unanimous Electoral vote. The old Federalist party was almost extinct, and the Administration was very popular. Among the important events of the Admin- istration of Monroe, was the recognition of the independence of Mexico and the South American Republics by the United States, when the President declared, as a principle, “that the American continents are not henceforth to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power.” This is known as “The Monroe Doctrine.” . - Visit of Lafayette to the United States.—In August, 1824, the beloved Lafayette arrived in the United States, as the guest of the nation for whose inde- pendence he had fought so valiantly nearly half a century before. During a period of eleven months, he visited twenty States of the Union, being everywhere received with demonstrations of gratitude. When he was ready to leave the Amer- ican shores, the frigate Brandywine, in compliment to him, conveyed him back to his delightful France. - Election of John Quincy Adams.-In the Autumn of 1824, there were four candidates in the field for the Presidency. As not one of them had received a majority of the Electoral vote, the election was carried to the House of Represen- tatives, when John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, son of President Jonn Adams, was chosen President, and John Cadwell Calhoun, of South Carolina, was elected Vice-President. UNITED STATES. 493 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1825–MARCH 4, 1829). Inauguration of John Quincy Adams—The Georgia controversy.— \ohn Quincy Adams was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1825, when the United States was at peace with all the world. In the earlier part of his Administra. tion, there was a controversy between the National Government and the State of Georgia, concerning the removal of the Indians within the borders of that State. The National Government had agreed to remove the Indians to the region west of the Mississippi river, when it could be done peaceably. The Governor of Georgia, assuming State supremacy, threatened to remove them immediately; the National Government interfered in behalf of the Indians, and the difficulty would perhaps have ended in civil war, had not the Indians, in consideration of a large annuity which was to be paid to them from the National treasury, agreed to remove peace. fully to the country west of the Mississippi. Erie Canal—First Railroad in the United States.—John Quincy Adams's Admimistration is celebrated for various internal improvements. The great Erie Canal, which connects the Hudson river with Lake Erie, in the State of New York, was completed in 1825, through the exertions of the distinguished De Witt Clinton. The first railroad in the United States was finished in Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1827. - - - A Strange Coincidence.—The fiftieth anniversary of American Independence, or the 4th of July, 1826, was made memorable by a strange coincidence, which made a profound impression throughout the United States. On that day, John Adams died at Quincy, Massachusetts, and Thomas Jefferson, at Monticello, Vir. ginia. These two statesmen had been the most earnest advocates of independence, each had signed the great Declaration, each had been a member of the Congress, afterwards Vice-President, and lastly President of the United States. The American System.—It was during the Administration of John Quincy Adams, that the principle of encouraging home manufactures by imposing duties on foreign articles of the same kind, became a settled national policy in the United States, and was called “The American System.” That policy was very popular with the manufacturers of the Northern section of the Union; but the planters of the cotton-growing States, who found a ready market for their cotton in England, opposed it. A tariff enacted in 1828, was made to appear very unjust to the Southern planters, by John C. Calhoun and other Southern politicians, who taught the doc- trines of “State Rights” and “Nullification.” - - Election of Jackson.—ln the Presidential election of 1828, General Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, was chosen President of the United States, and John C. Cal- houn, of South Carolina, was reëlected Vice-President. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1829– MARCH 4, 1837). Inauguration of Jackson—His Collision with the Supreme Court.— General Jackson was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1829, seventh President of the United States. He formed a Cabinet from his political friends; and entered 494 CENTEAVAWIAA, H/STORY. upon the duties of his exalted station with a determined will, and with incorruptible integrity. In 1832, President Jackson came into collision with the Supreme Court of the United States, respecting the removal of the Creek and Cherokee Indians from Georgia. The authorities of Georgia threatened to remove them by force; and when the Supreme Court decided against the claims of that State, the President sided with the authorities of Georgia, and procured the removal of the Indians beyond the Mississippi river. - The United States Bank—Removal of the Public Money.—In his first annual message to Congress, in December, 1829, President Jackson expressed him. self strongly against a renewal of the charter of the United States Bank, which would expire in 1836; and, although Congress refused to authorize the removal of the public funds from the United States Bank, as recommended by the President, he caused the Secretary of the Treasury to remove them, in 1833. The result of this measure was great excitement and a terrible financial and business convulsion throughout the country. Black Hawk War.—In the spring of 1832, the Sac, Fox, and Winnebago In- dians, in Wisconsin Territory, led by the famous chief, Black Hawk, commenced a destructive war on the frontier settlements of Northern Illinois. The Indians were completely subdued in August of the same year (1832), by United States troops under General Scott and Illinois militia under General Atkinson. Black Hawk was made prisoner, and taken to the principal Eastern cities, in order that he might be impressed with the number and power of the white people. Trouble with France—Re-election of Jackson.—At the close of Jackson's first term, a serious difficulty between the United States and France threatened to end in a war between the two nations. The French Government did not promptly comply with the agreement to indemnify the United States for French spoliations on American commerce during the wars of Napoleon. But the resolute stand taken by President Jackson caused France to pay the claims justly demanded by the United States; and the difficulty ended. In the autumn of 1832, Jackson was , reëlected President, with Martin Van Buren, of New York, as Vice-President. Rebellion in South Carolina—Compromise Tariff.-The tariff-law of 1828 was still a source of bitter complaint in the Southern States; and in November, 1832, South Carolina, through a State convention assembled at Charleston, declared the tariff-laws to be unconstitutional, null and void. Assuming that the enforce- ment of those laws would be a sufficient cause for South Carolina to separate herself from the Union, that State prepared to resist the collection of duties in the port of Charleston by force of arms. At this crisis, President Jackson issued a proclama- tion against the South Carolina nullifiers, with John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne at their head, declaring that he would enforce the laws of the United States by military power, if necessary. The threatened civil war was prevented by a compromise prepared by Henry Clay, of Kentucky, the author of the Missouri Com- promise, and one of the warmest friends of the tariff system; and, on the 3d of March, 1833, a law went into operation which greatly reduced the duties so obnox. ious to the Southern planters. War with the Seminole Indians in Florida—“Specie Circular.”— When, in December, 1835, the United States Government attempted to remove the ，ÈN |， .|（ •N`S º ：§ .* … ''（№. ！∞ √∞ W | R*N\\· № Ņ Ñ ،N`RN\\ x º. \ \ * § ANDREW JACKSON ſº gº * „Z , , ， , , ! º|277，7% CALHOUN. JOHN C. UNITED STATEs. ** 495 Seminole Indians from Florida to the Territories west of the Mississippi, in accord- aſ:ce with a treaty which had been concluded with a few chiefs, that fierce tribe began a war against the United States. On the 28th of December, 1835, a band of Seminoles, with their famous chief, Osceola, at their head, killed General Thomp. son and five of his friends, near Fort King. On the same day, another party of Seminoles attacked Ioo men under Major Dade, and killed all but four of them, On the 30th of December, 1835, General Clinch defeated the Seminoles on the banks of the Withlacoochee; and on the 29th of February, 1836, General Gaines defeated them near the same place. On the IIth of July, 1836, a circular was issued from the Treasury Department, requiring collectors of the public revenue to receive only gold and silver in payment. This circular, known as “The Specie Circular,” created much bitter feeling against President Jackson. Admission of Arkansas and Michigan—Election of Van Buren.—Two new states were admitted into the Union during the Administration of General Jackson;–Arkansas, in June, 1836, and Michigan, in January, 1837. In the autumn of 1836, Martin Van Buren, of New York, the Democratic candidate for the office of President of the United States, was elected. As the people had failed to elect a Vice-President, Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, was chosen as such by the United States Senate. VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1837– MARCH 4, 1841). Inauguration of Van Buren—Financial Convulsion.—Mr. Van Buren was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1837, at a time when the country was on the brink of a terrible financial and business convulsion. During March and April of that year (1837), there were mercantile failures in the city of New York to the amount of over one hundred millions of dollars. The effects of these failures were felt throughout the whole country, and credit and confidence were destroyed. The banks suspended specie payment. The National Government could not call in its deposits, or collect its duties in specie; and the National treasury was empty. The State of Mississippi and the Territory of Florida repudiated their debts. The Seminole War.—The Seminole war in Florida still continued. In March, 1837, some of the Seminole chiefs made a treaty of peace with General Jessup, but it was soon broken by the treacherous Osceola, who was in consequence seized by stratagem, in October, 1837, and imprisoned in Fort Moultrie, where he died. On Christmas day, 1837, Colonel Zachary Taylor defeated the Seminoles near Lake Okechobee. This destructive war ended in 1842, after a continuance of seven years. Rebellion in Canada.-The peaceful relations between the Governments of the United States and Great Britain were disturbed in 1837, by a rebellion in Canada, which had for its object the establishment of the independence of that country. The leaders of the revolt were Louis Joseph Papineau, in Canada East, and William Lyon Mackenzie, in Canada West. Great Britain was offended because hundreds of citizens of the United States crossed the borders of New York into Canada, to aid the rebellious Canadians. The danger of war was averted by the prompt action of the President of the United States and of the Governor of 496 CEM TEAVAVIAL HIS2COA: Y. New York, who issued proclamations declaring that all who crossed the border to aid the insurgents, would forfeit all claims to the protection of the Government of the United States. The Maine Boundary Dispute.—The peace between the United States and Great Britain was also threatened by a dispute about the boundary between the State of Maine and the British Province of New Brunswick. The inhabitants of Maine and New Brunswick were only prevented from settling the dispute by an appeal to arms, by the conciliatory course of General Scott, who had been sent to the border by the United States Government to preserve peace. The boundary line was finally settled by a treaty, negotiated at Washington, in 1842, by Daniel Weister on the part of the United States, and Lord Ashburton on the part of Great Britain. Election of Harrison.—The financial convulsions of this and the preceding Administration produced such a change in the minds of the people of the United States, that the Whig candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, in 1840, Gen. eral William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, was elected by an overwhelming majority, with John Tyler, of Virginia, as Vice-President. HARRISON'S AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1841—MARCH 4, 1845). Harrison's Inauguration and Death.-General Harrison took the oath of office on the 4th of March, 1841, as ninth President of the United States. On the 17th of March (1841), the new President issued a proclamation calling an extra session of Congress, to begin on the 31st of May, of that year. The hopes of the people of the United States that a new career of prosperity was about to dawn upon the Nation by a change of policy, were soon dispelled by the death of President Harrison, which occurred on the 4th of April, 1841, just one month after his in- auguration. Tyler Made President—His Rupture with his Party.—In accordance with the requirements of the National Constitution, the Vice-President, John Tyler, was immediately inaugurated President of the United States. The extra session of Congress called by Harrison, commenced on the 31st of May, and ended on the 13th of September. (1841.) Two bills which had been passed for the re-charter of the United States bank were vetoed by President Tyler. All the members of the Cabinet, with the exception of Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, dissatisfied with the action of the President in respect to the bank, charging him with violating the pledges which he had made to the party which had elected him to the Vice- Presidency, immediately resigned their offices. Troubles in Rhode Island.—The year 1842 is noted for domestic troubles in Rhode Island, which threatened to involve that State in civil war. The difficulty was about the exchange of the old charter, granted by King Charles II. in 1663, for a new State constitution. The people of the State were all in favor of the adoption of a new constitution; but with regard to the mode of adoption there were two parties, known respectively as the Law and Order party and the Suffrage party. The Law and Order party chose Samuel W. King for Governor, while the Suffrage party elected Thomas W. Dorr. Each of these claimed to be the legal Governo , (WWZTED STA TES. 497 and bloodshed was only prevented by United States troops who had been sent there to preserve order. A new constitution was adopted the same year (1842), and went in:to operation in 1843. The Texas Question—Election of Polk.—The question of the admission, as a State of the Union, of the independent Republic of Texas, which had achieved its independence of Mexico in the battle of San Jacinto, in April, 1836, after a bloody war, was warmly discussed in the United States during the last year of Tyler's Administration. The annexation of this Republic, in which slavery existed, was violently opposed in the Northern States, because it would increase the tern. torial extent und political power of slavery; while it was advocated in the Southern States for that very reason. In the autumn of 1844, James Knox Polk, of Tennessee, who was in favor of the arnexation of Texas, was elected President of the United States, with George Mifflin Dallas, of Pennsylvania, as Vice-President. Electro-Magnetic Telegraph—Admission of Florida and Iowa.-The first use ever made of the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph, the invention of Professor Samuel Finley Breese Morse, was in 1844, in sending to Washington the account of the proceedings of the Democratic National Convention at Baltimore, which nominated Mr. Polk as a candidate for the Presidency. On the 3d of March, 1845, the day before he retired from the Presidency, Mr. Tyler signed a bill for the admission of Florida and Iowa into the Union of States. POLK's ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1845– MARCH 4, 1849). Inauguration of Polk—Oregon Boundary Dispute.—Mr. Polk was inaugu- rated on the 4th of March, 1845, at a period when the United States had a serious dispute with Great Britain in regard to the possession of the Territory of Oregon, on the Pacific coast. The territory was claimed by both Great Britain and the United States; but the difficulty, which at one time threatened to end in war, was settled in 1846, by a division of the territory, giving to Great Britain all that portion north of ſorty-nine degrees north latitude, and to the United States all that portion south of these limits. Admission of Texas—Rupture with Mexico.—On the 4th of July, 1845, the Government of Texas formally approved of the joint-resolution of the Congress of the United States for annexation, and that Republic became a State of the American Union. Mexico, which had never acknowledged the independence of Texas, and which still regarded that country as a part of her territory, immediately prepared for war with the United States, and recalled her minister, General Almonte, from Washington. General Taylor in Texas.-President Polk now ordered General Zachary Taylor to advance into Texas with 1500 troops, to protect that State from invasion, ud to take post near the Rio Grande, as an army of observation. In March, 1840, Taylor left his camp at Corpus Christi, and, having established a depot of supplics at Point Isabel, advanced to the mouth of the Rio Grande, opposite the Mexican City cf Matamoras, where he erected Fort Brown. 32 498 CEAVZTEAVAW/A/, AZSTORY. VVAR VVITH MEXICO (1846–1848). First Bloodshed in the War with Mexico.—Being informed that be Mexi. cºns were crossing the Rio Grande above Fort Brown, Taylor sent sixty fragoons, under Captain Thornton, to reconnoitre. These were surprised, on ‘le 26th of April, 1846, by the Mexicans, and, after losing sixteen men, were made prisoners, Captain Thornton alone escaping by a leap of his horse. This was the first blood tled in the war between the United States and Mexico. Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma.-Leaving a small garrison in Fort Brown, Taylor marched back to Point Isabel, which was threatened by the Mexicans. While on his return to Fort Brown, Taylor, at the head of 2000 men, met 6000 Mexicans under Arista, at a prairie called Palo Alto, on the 8th of May; and, after a desperate battle of five hours, during which he lost only fifty-three men, Taylor gained a glorious victory. On the following day (May 9, 1846), Taylor again defeated the Mexicans with a loss of Iooo men, at Resaca de la Palma. By these two battles the Mexican army was virtually annihilated. Declaration of War against Mexico—Plan of a Campaign.—On the 11th of May, 1846, the Congress of the United States declared that “war existed by the act of the Republic of Mexico,” and appropriated ten millions of dollars to carry on the war, and authorized the President to call out 50,000 volunteers. The Sec- retary of War and General Scott planned the military operations. A fleet was to sail around Cape Horn and attack the Pacific coast of Mexico; an “Army of the West,” under General Stephen W. Kearney, was assembled at Fort Leavenworth, to invade New Mexico, and to coöperate with the Pacific fleet; an “Army of the Centre,” under General John Ellis Wool, was collected at San Antonio de Bexar, in Texas, to invade Mexico from that point; and “The Army of Occupation,” under General Taylor, was largely reinforced by the new volunteers. Invasion of Mexico—Capture of Matamoras and Monterey.—On the 18th of May, 1846, General Taylor crossed the Rio Grande into Mexico, and took possession of the city of Matamoras. In August (1846), Taylor, at the head of 6,000 men, marched against the city of Monterey, which, after a siege and assault of four days, he captured, on the 24th of September, with its garrison of 9,000 Mexi- can troops under General Ampudia. After this triumph, Taylor advanced farther into Mexico; and, after being joined by General Wool, he took possession of Vic- toria, the Capital of the State of Tamaulipas, on the 29th of December. Battle of Buena Vista.-Early in 1847, a large part of Taylor's army was sent to assist General Scott in the siege of Vera Cruz, so that Taylor was left in command of only 5,000 men, to oppose 20,000 Mexicans gathering at San Luis Potosi, under General Santa Anna. On the 23d of February, a fierce battle was fought between the armies of Taylor and Santa Anna, at a plantation called Buena Vista, eleven miles from Saltillo. The Mexicans, although four times as numerous as the Americans, were badly defeated, and compelled to flee during the night and leave their dead and wounded on the field of battle. The Americans were now masters of all Northern Mexico; and in September, 1847, Taylor left his army in command of General Wool, and returned to the United States. . * The Conquest of New Mexico and California.-The Army of the West &nder General Kearney took formal possession of New Mexico, at Santa Fe, its * , •'） %%« WINF|ELD SCOTT. |× ！ | ///////), ±（−/ − ！\， ， %-¿?%% Î//} //////// ！ || ſv | || ZACHARY TAYLOR, OAWATED STA TES. 499 capital, on the 18th of August, 1846. Leaving the greater part of his force with Colonel Doniphan at Santa Fe, Kearney, at the head of 100 men, hastened to take possession of the Mexican province of California, on the Pacific coast. While on his way to California, Kearney learned, by a messenger, that the conquest of that country had already been accomplished by Colonel John Charles Fremont, with a few United States troops, assisted by the United States navy, under Commodores Sloat and Stockton. On the 18th of February, 1847, Kearney proclaimed the an. nexation of California to flhe United States. Doniphan's Exploits in Mexico—The Conquest of Northern Mexico, —ln accordance with the orders of General Kearney, Colonel Doniphan, with 1,000 Misscuri volunteers, forced the Navajo Indians to make a treaty of peace with the United States, on the 22d of March, 1846, and then proceeded to join General Wool. Doniphan defeated the Mexicans, under General Ponce de Leon, at Bracito, on Christmas day, 1846; and at Sacramento, on the 28th of February, 1847, he gained a victory which gave him possession of Chihuahua, a city of 40,000 inhab- itants, and the capital of the State of the same name. After a march of 5,000 miles, Doniphan joined General Wool at Saltillo, on the 22d of March, 1847. The con- quest of Northern Mexico and California was now complete; and General Winfield Scott had just commenced, at Vera Cruz, a campaign which ended in the reduction of the Mexican capital and the military occupation of the heart of the Mexican Republic. Siege and Capture of Vera Cruz.-On the 9th of March, 1847, a United States army of 12,000 men under General Scott, and a squadron under Commodore Conner, appeared before Vera Cruz, and soon completely invested the city. After a vigor- ous siege and bombardment, the city of Vera Cruz and the neighboring castle of San Juan de Ulloa, together with 5,000 Mexican troops aud 500 cannon, were sur- rendered to Scott, on the 26th of March. (1847.) Battle of Cerro Gordo.—Aſter the capture of Vera Cruz, Scott's army marched toward the city of Mexico. At Cerro Gordo, a difficult mountain pass, Scott de- feated Santa Anna, who was at the head of 12,000 troops strongly intrenched. The Mexicans lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and 3,000 were made prisoners by the Americans. The Mexican army was completely broken up, and Santa Anna fled on a mule. The March toward the Mexican Capital—Rest at Puebla.-After their victory at Cerro Gordo, the Americans continued their advance toward the capital of the Mexican Republic, took possession of Perote, the strongest fortress in Mex- ico, on the 22d of April, 1847, and on the 5th of May entered Puebla, a city of 80,000 inhabitants, where they rested until August, after a series of victories almost unparalleled in the annals of war. The March toward the Capital Resumed.—After having received rein. ſorcements, Scott left Puebla, on the 7th of August, 1847, and resumed his march toward the Mexican capital; and on the Ioth (August, 1847), the American troops saw the extensive valley of Mexico before them. Lakes, plains, cities, and cloud. capped mountains burst upon their gaze. Away in the distance was seen the great city of the Montezumas, with its lofty domes and towers. But between that city and the American army, were strong fortifications, and a Mexican army of 30,000 men, under Santa Anna, to be overcome. 5oo CENTENNIAL HISTORY: Battles of Contreras, San Antonio, and Churubusco.—On the 20th of Atº- gust, 1847, the American army, after a bloody struggle, carried the Mexican camp of Contreras by assault. On the same day, the Americans took the strong ſortress of San Antonio, and gained a brilliant victory over the Mexicans at Churubusco. Santa Arna's army, virtually annihilated, fled to the capital. During this bloody day, the Mexicans lost 4,000 men killed and wounded, and 3,000 were made prisoners *y the victorious Americans. An Armistice—Treachery of Santa Anna.-Scott now offered the Mexicans peace. Santa Anna asked for an armistice, which Scott granted; but, when in. furmed tual the treacherous Mexican general was improving the time by strength- ening the defenses of the capital, the American commander declared the armistice at an end, on the 7th of September. (1847.) Capture of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec-Fall of the Capital.— The victorious Americans took by storm the strong position of Molino del Rey, on the 8th of September, and the loſty fortified hill of Chapultepec, on the 13th of the same month; and, on the 14th (September, 1847), Scott entered the Mexican capi- tal in triumph, and by his orders the Stars and Stripes were placed on the National Palace. Order was soon restored in the city. Santa Anna and the authorities of the Mexican Republic had fled. Peace of Guadaloupe Hidalgo.—A treaty of peace between the Governments of the United States and Mexico was concluded at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, on the 2d of February, 1848; and President Polk proclaimed peace on the 4th of July of the same year. By the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, New Mexico and California became Territories of the United States, while the United States Government agreed to pay to Mexico fifteen millions of dollars for the ceded territory, and to assume the debts due by the Mexican Government to American citizens. Admission of Wisconsin–General Taylor Elected President.—In May, 1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Union as a State. In the autumn of the same year, General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, whose great military achievements in Mexico had made him a popular favorite, was elected President of the United States, with Millard Fillmore, of New York, as Vice-President. SLAVERY AGITATION AND THE CIVIL WAR. TAYLOR'S AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATICNS (MARCH 4, 1849—MARCH 4, 1853). Inauguration of Taylor—Slavery Agitation.—As the 4th of March, 1849, fell on the Sabbath, the inauguration of President Taylor did not take place until the 5th. The agitation of the slavery question was revived during the first year of Taylor's Administration, by the action of the people of California, who, in a con- vention held at San Francisco, framed a State constitution by which slavery should be excluded from California forever after its admission as a State. Threatened Dissolution of the Union—A Compromise.—When, in Feb. ruary, 1850, the representatives of California petitioned Congress to admit their Territory into the Union as a State, the friends of slavery, in Congress violently op. * . , „ZººZ ae^ ^^^º Lzº?ø , ， ， .%@！ -24}）;ź22 ENRY CLAY. H DANIEL WEBSTER ** --> **<--…）: ~~~~--.__I（t） ----------- N Ņ *~）;~ ;--> №ssſsss！！№. : --~~~~.== №s |||||||||||||||ſ'* ）?/g, # OW/TED STATES. 5.of posed her admission as a Free State, and boldly declared that such a proceeding would be a valid reason for the Slave States to secede from the Union. The bold threats of the members of Congress from the Slave States alarmed the friends of the Union so much that they became ready to acquiesce in any measure, and II enry Clay brought forward a plan of compromise in the United States Senate. A committee of thirteen, composed of six Senators from the Free States and six from the Slave States, with Mr. Clay as chairman, was appointed to consider the plan of compromise; and, on the 8th of May, 1850, Mr. Clay reported a comprºmise tºll. Death of President Taylor—Fillmore Inaugurated President.—While tle slavery question was absorbing the attention of Congress and the Nation, Presi- dent Taylor was attacked by a sudden illness, of which he died on the 9th of July, 1850. In accordance with the provisions of the National Constitution, the Vice- President, Millard Fillmore, took the oath of office on the following day, and immediately assumed the duties of President of the United States. The Compromise Act—Admission of California.-Aſter four months' discussion, Mr. Clay's compromise measures were passed by both Houses of Con- gress, and, aſter receiving the signature of President Fillmore, on the 9th of Sep- tember, 1850, became a law of the Republic; and California entered the Union as a Free State. The Compromise Act, as it was called, provided, 1st. For the admission of California as a Free State; 2d. For the erection of the Mormon settle- ments into a Territory called Utah, without mention of slavery; 3d. For the erection of New Mexico into a Territory without mention of slavery, and the payment of ten millions of dollars to Texas in purchase of her claims to a large portion of New Mexico; 4th. For the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia; and 5th. For the arrest and return to their masters of all fugitive slaves who should escape to the Free States. The last measure met with much opposition in the Free States, and the execution and violation of the law in several instances led to serious results. Election of Pierce.—The Presidential election of 1853 was a remarkably quiet one, and resulted in the choice of the Democratic nominees, Franklin Pierce, of 'New Hampshire, for President, and William Rufus King, of Alabama, for Vice- I’resident. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1853– MARCH 4, 1857). Inauguration of Pierce—Dispute with Mexico.—Mr. Pierce was inaug a rated on the 4th of March, 1853. For a time, during the earlier part of his Admin- istration, another war between the United States and Mexico seemed inevitable The fertile Mesilla Valley was claimed by both the Territory of New Mexico and the Mexican State of Chihuahua; and Santa Anna, who had again become Presi dent of Mexico early in 1854, caused Chihauhua to take armed possession of the disputed territory. The dispute was settled in 1854; and the Mesifla Valley came, by purchase, into the possession of the United States. Exploring Expeditions—Commercial Treaty with Japan.—During Pierce's Administration, naval expeditions were sent by the United States Government to 5O2 CAEAVTEAVAWIAA, H/STOR }. explore the North Pacific Ocean, between the Pacific shores of America and Asia. Land expeditions were sent across the continent, to ascertain the most practicable route for a railroad to the Pacific Ocean. In the summer of 1854, a treaty of commerce and friendship was made with the Emperor of Japan, by Commodore Matthew C. Perry on the part of the Government of the United States. Agitation of the Slavery Question—The Kansas-Nebraska Act.—The igitation of the slavery question was suddenly revived in the beginning of 1854, by a bill reported in the United States Senate by Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, Chainnan of the Senate Committee on Territories, proposing the organization of the vast region between the Missouri river and the Rocky mountains into two Ter. ritories, one to be named Kansas and the other Nebraska, and leaving the people of those Territories to decide whether or not they would have slavery within their borders. The passage of this bill would, in effect, annul the Missouri Compromise, and for this reason it was violently opposed in the Free States, where the greatest excitement prevailed, and where public meetings were held by men of all parties, to protest against the measure. The bill was, however, passed, in March, 1854, and thus the Missouri Compromise was virtually repealed. The most bitter sectional feeling was beginning to be felt between the North and the South. Civil War in Kansas.-The pro-slavery men of the Slave States now deter- mined to make Kansas slave territory by colonizing it with emigrants from their section of the Union, while the anti-slavery men of the Free States resolved to secure the Territory to freedom by peopling it with settlers holding their views. A heavy emigration to Kansas at once set in from both the Free and the Slave States, and, as a natural consequence, there was civil war in the Territory for several years. Formation of the Republican Party—Election of Buchanan.—The repeal of the Missouri Compromise, and the encroachments of the slave power, led to the formation of a new political organization, called “The Republican Party,” whose leading principle was opposition to the extension of slavery into the Territories of the Republic. This party, which had its entire strength in the Free States, nomi- nated Colonel Johr. Charles Fremont, of California, for the Presidency, in 1856. The Democratic party, which had its chief strength in the Slave States, nominated James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. The American or Know-Nothing party, which was opposed to foreign influence in American affairs, nominated ex-President Millard Fillmore, of New York. The result of the election was the choice of James Buchanan for President, and John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, for Vice-President. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1857– MARCH 4 1861). Inauguration of Buchanan—The Dred Scott Decision.—James Buchanan was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1857, fiſteenth President of the United States. Two days after his inauguration, Chief-Justice Taney gave a decision in the Supreme Court of the United States, that no freed negro-slave, nor the descend- ant of a slave, could become a citizen of the United States, and that “the negro had no rights which the white man was bound to respect.” This was called “The Dred Scott Decision,” because it was rendered in the case of Dred Scott, who UAV/7 ED STATES. 503 had once been a slave in Missouri, but who now claimed to be free, on account of having been taken by his master into a Free State. Threatened Rebellion of the Mormons in Utah.-Early in 1857, the Mor mons in the Territory of Utah threatened to rebel against the National Government, because Congress refused to admit their Territory as a State of the Union. The President sent a body of troops, under Colonel Joseph E. Johnston, to enforge the laws of the United States, and to suppress any attempt at rebellion in Utah. The iifficulty was settled, however, without bloodshed. The Political Contest in Kansas—Admission of Kansas, Minnesota, and Oregon.—The Dred Scott decision aroused the agitation of the slavery question in all its intensity, and the greatest excitement prevailed in the Free States, In 1857, measures were taken for the admission of Kansas into the Union as a State. A State constitution which excluded slavery from Kansas was framed at Topeka by the anti-slavery party; while the pro-slavery party framed a constitution at Lecompton tolerating slavery within the Territory. Although the people of Kansas rejected the pro-slavery constitution, in January, 1858, by ten thousand majority, the President, in a message to Congress, recommended its acceptance by that body. Congress, however, Justly decided that it should be left to a vote of the people of the Territory, who again rejected it by ten thousand majority; and, on the 29th of January, 1861, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a Free State. Two other States were admitted into the Union during Buchanan’s Administration; —namely, Minnesota, in 1858, and Oregon, in 1859. The Personal Liberty Laws—Reopening of the African Slave-Trade. —The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was still obnoxious to the great body of the people of the Free States; and, to guard against any abuses of the law, the Legis- latures of New York, Ohio, Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Michigan, and Wis- consin passed what were called “Personal Liberty Laws.” During the Adminis- tration of Buchanan, efforts were made by influential individuals in the Slave States to reopen the African slave-trade. Native Africans were landed on the coasts of the Southern States, in defiance of the laws. In Louisiana attemps were made to legalize the trade, under what was called “The African Apprentice System;” and the Grand Jury of Savannah openly protested against the laws when obliged to find bills against some persons engaged in the illegal slave-trade. These proceedings increased the slavery agitation, and strengthened the Republican party, which was opposed to the extension of slavery into the Territories of the United States. John Brown's Insurrection in Virginia—Execution of Brown.—In the autumn of 1859, great excitement was produced in the Slave States by the foolism attempt of the enthusiastic John Brown, who had been a leading anti-slavery man in Kansas, to liberate the slaves of Virginia. On the night of October 16th (1859), at the head of a few followers, Brown seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, intend- ing to arm such slaves as approached. Brown did not succeed, however, in exciting a slave insurrection; and, being overpowered and made prisoner by Virginia mili. tia and United States troops under Colonel Robert Edmund Lee, he was tried on the charges of treason, murder, and exciting slaves to insurrection, and was hanged on the 2d of December, 1859, under the laws of Virginia. It was thought by the people of the Slave States that Brown was only the agent of a large party in the 504 CAEAV7% AWAV/A/, AZSZTOR }. Free States who had formed a plot to free all the slaves; and, during the next session of Congress, a committee, with Mr. Mason, of Virginia, the author of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, as chairman, was appointed in the United States Senate to investigate the matter, when it was proven that Brown had no other accomplices than his immediate followers, fifteen or sixteen in number. Election of Lincoln.—There were four candidates for the Presidency in 1860, The portion of the Democratic party from the Free States nominated Stephen A. I}ouglas, of Illinois, while the portion from the Slave States nominated John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky. A new party, called “The Constitutional Union Party,” nominated John Bell, of Tennessee. The Republican or anti-slavery party nomin. ated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois. The election was decided in ſavor of Abraham Lincoln ſor President, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice-President, Conspiracy of Southern Politicians.—No sooner was the election of Mr. Lincoln known throughout the United States, than the politicians of the Slave States began to carry out plans, which they had long prepared, for the dismemberment of the Union, and the establishment, in their section, of an independent confederacy of Slave States. Secession of South Carolina and other Slave States.—As in 1832, South Carolina took the lead in rebellion against the National Government. A State con- vention, which had assembled at Charleston, declared, on the 20th of December, 1860, that State to be separated from the Union forever. Within little more than a month from the secession of South Carolina, the example of that State was ſol- lowed by six other Slave States, namely, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Formation of a Southern Confederacy.—On the 4th of February, 1861, delegates from the seceded States met in a Congress at Montgomery, in Alabama, and formed a Southèrn Confederacy, with the title of “The Confederate States of America.” On the 9th of the same month, this Confederate Congress elected Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, President of the Conſederacy, with Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, as Vice-President. Seizure of National Property by the Conspirators.--Most of the property of the National Government in the seceded States, such as forts, arsenals, mints, ships, and custom houses, were seized by the conspirators, who raised armies to up- hold their treason and to subvert the Republic. In February, 1861, General Twiggs, who commanded the United States troops in Texas, surrendered his whole force to the authorities of that State. Fortress Monroe, in South-eastern Virginia, and the ſorts on the Dry Tortugas, off the southern coast of Florida, remained in the posses- sion of the National Government; and Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Florida, was saved from falling into the hands of the conspirators by the gallant conduct of its commander, Lieutenant Adam J. Siemmer. Fort Sumter, at Charleston, South Carolina, was held by Major Robert Anderson. On the 9th of January, 1861, the Government steamer Star of the West was fired upon by South Carolinians, while bringing reinforcements to Fort Sumter. Conduct of the Administration—Treason of Cabinet-Officers.—President Buchanan made no effort to check the conspirators in their treasonable work. Several of his Cabinet-Officers who were among the conspirators, were doing all in JEFFERSON DAVIS. | // ±// … ? % …：→ −∞ .º ,{ ſzą§→*///'. %ſ', '/// ^ ‰4 | 4 //// // 4 ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. OW/7′ED STA TES. 595 their power to deprive the National Government of all means for its protection against armed treason. John B. Floyd, of Virginia, Secretary of War, transferred most of the arms from the ſorts and arsenals in the Free States to those in the Slave States; and Howell Cobb, of Georgia, Secretary of the Treasury, tried to injure thc public credit and bankrupt the National treasury. The Peace Convention—The Crittenden Compromise.—On the 4th of February, 1861, an assemblage, known as “The Peace Convention,” met at Wash. ingtor, for the professed purpose of preserving peace and saving the Union. Every just aſ dreasonable concession for the sake of peace was rejected by the conspirators, and it was evident that they did not desire a reconciliation, from their rejection of the plan known as “The Crittenden Compromise,” proposed by John J. Crittenden of Kentucky. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4 1861– APRIL 15, 1864). THE CIVIL VV AF—EVENTS OF 1861. Inauguration of Lincoln—Bombardment of Fort Sumter.—On the 4th of March, 1861, Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated sixteenth President of the United States. The conspirators at Montgomery, having determined upon war, sent several thousand troops, under the command of Pierre G. T. Beauregard, to Charleston, South Carolina, for the purpose of seizing Fort Sumter. Beauregard demanded the surrender of the fort. Its commander, Major Robert Anderson, refused to com- ply with this demand; and, on the 12th of April, 1861, Beauregard opened a heavy bombardment on the fort, which continued the ſollowing day, and, on the 14th (April, 1861), Anderson and his men evacuated the fort, which was immediately taken possession of and garrisoned by the insurgents, and sailed for New York. News of this event spread through the loyal States like lightning; and, like the attendant thunder-peal, it aroused every loyal heart. Troops Called to Suppress the Rebellion.—On the day aſter the evacua- tion of Fort Sumter (April 15, 1861), the President called for 75,000 militia to serve for three months in suppressing the rebellion. The loyal people warmly re- sponded to this call. Within a short time, 200,000 men had offered their services to the National Government; and forty million dollars had been contributed to carry on the war. Secession of Virginia—Seizure of the Armory at Harper's Ferry.—On the 17th of April, 1861, Virginia seceded from the Union, and became a member of the Southern Confederacy. On the following day (April 18, 1861), the United States armory at Harper's Ferry was seized by the Virginia insurgents. On the 17th of April (1861), Jefferson Davis, the President of the so-called Conſederate States of America, issued letters-of-marque and reprisal, to all who would prey upon American commerce. Two days aſterward (April 18, 1861), President Lincoln ºloclaimed the blockade of the Southern ports. Massachusetts Troops Attacked in Baltimore.—On the 19th of April, 1861, the sixth Massachusetts regiment, while passing through Baltimore, on its way to Washington, was attacked by a mob of Io,000 men. A fight ensued. 506 CEAVTEAWAV/AI. HZSTOR V. Several of the troops were killed and wounded; and nine of the mob were killed, and many others wounded. More Troops Called For—Secession of Other States.—As armed Confed- erates were continually pouring into Virginia for the purpose of seizing the National capital, the President, on the 3d of May, called for 64,000 more men for the Na. tional army, and 18,000 men for the navy. Before the middle of June (186: , Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee had withdrawn from the Union and joined the Southern Confederacy. Meeting of Congress—Its Doings.-The President, on the 15th of April, 1861, summoned Congress to meet on the 4th of July. When it assenbled, there were about 300,000 troops in the field to defend the old flag and to preserve the integrity of the Union. Congress authorized the raising of 500,000 men, and appropriated five hundred million dollars to defray the expenses of the war. Confederate Troops—Richmond Made the Confederate Capital.—More than IOO,Ooo Confederate troops were stationed at various points in Virginia, from Harper's Ferry to Norfolk. The chief force of the insurgents was at Manassas Junction, about thirty miles from the National capital. On the 20th of July, 1861, the seat of the so-called Confederate Government was removed from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia. Invasion of Virginia—Events in Missouri.-The first invasion of the re- bellious States took place on the 24th of May, 1861, when National troops crossed the Potomac river from Washington, and took possession of Alexandria and Arling- ton Heights, on the opposite side of the river. Before this invasion (May 10, 1861), Captain Nathaniel Lyon saved Missouri to the Union by the capture of an insurgent camp at St. Louis. * Battles of Philippi, Big Bethel, Romney, and Rich Mountain.—The first regular battle of the Civil War occurred at Philippi, in Western Virginia, where, on the 3d of June, 1861, General Benjamin F. Kelly, with a few National troops, routed 500 Confederates. On the IOth of the same month, a severe engage- ment took place at Big Bethel, in South-eastern Virginia, between the National troops under General Pierce and a considerable force of Confederates. In this action the National troops were repulsed with the loss of two brave officers, Lieutenant John T. Greble and Major Theodore Winthrop. On the day after the National’ disaster at Big Bethel (June 11, 1861), a few National troops, under General Lewis Wallace, dispersed 500 Confederates at Romney, in Western Virginia. One month later (July 11, I861), 3,000 Confederate troops, under Colonel Pegram, were defeated at Rich Mountain, in Western Virginia, aſter a spirited action with the National troops under General Willian S. Rosecrans. Battle of Bull's Run–Its Effects.-On the 18th of July, 1861, the National army of 50,000 men, in Virginia, under General Irwin McDowell, left Fairfax Court-House, to attack the Confederates under General Beauregard, at Manassas Junction, about thirty miles from Washington. A stubborn contest was fought at Blackburn's Ford, near Centreville, on the same day. Three days afterward (July 21, 1861), a sanguinary and memorable battle was fought at Bull's Run, near Man- assas Junction. At the moment that the Confederates were about to lose the field, they received reinforcements from the Shenandoah Valley, under General Joseph UWITED STATES. 507 E. Johnston. The result was that the Confederates gained a complete victory; and the National army fled toward Washington in the greatest consternation. For his gallant cºnduct in this battle, the Confederate General Thomas Jefferson Jackson received the name of “Stonewall Jackson.” The intelligence of the National misfortune at Bull's Run struck the people of the loyal States with dismay; but, instead of discouraging them, it caused them to exert themselves more vigorously for the great struggle. Large numbers of volunteers joined the army. On the day after the battle of Bull's Run, General George B. McClellan was placed in com- mand of “The Army of the Potomac,” as the forces around the National capital were named. - The War in Missouri—Battles of Carthage, Dug Spring, and Wilson’s Creek.-In the meantime, the war raged violently in Missouri. On the 5th of July, 1861, the National troops, under Colonel Franz Sigel, defeated the Confederates, under Clayborne F. Jackson, the disloyal Governor of Missouri, at Carthage. On the 2d of August, a National force under General Nathaniel Lyon defeated the Confederates commanded by General Ben McCullough, the famous Texas Ranger, at Dug Spring, near the border of Arkansas. On the Ioth of the same month (August, 1861), Lyon, at the head of 5,000 National troops, fought with 20,000 Confederates, under Generals Stirling Price and Ben McCullough, the battle of Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, Missouri. In this battle, Lyon was killed while gallantly fighting at the head of his troops. The slaughter on both sides was ter- rific. The result of the battle was that the National troops were obliged to fall back. - Capture of Hatteras Inlet.—On the 26th of August, 1861, Forts Clarke and Hatteras, on Hatteras Inlet, on the coast of North Carolina, were captured by the National army and navy, under General Benjamin F. Butler and Commodore String- ham. This victory gave the National troops a foothold in North Carolina which they never lost. Loyalty of the People of West Virginia.-The people of West Virginia had from the beginning of the Civil War been opposed to secession, and they per- sisted in refusing to place themselves under the rule of the Confedate Government and the rebel State Government of Virginia. Representatives from about forty of the western counties of Virginia met in a convention at Wheeling, on the 11th of June, 1861; and, on the 17th, they declared West Virginia independent of the rest of the State, and elected Frank Pierpont for their Governor. Confederate Invasion of West Virginia—Battle of Carnifax Ferry.— The Confederates of Virginia, having resolved to compel the loyal people of West Virginia to submit to their authority and that of the Confederate Government, sent large bodies of troops into that region, under the command of Robert Edmund Lee, late a colonel in the United States army, Henry A. Wise, ex-Governor of Virginia, and John B. Floyd, ex-Secretary of War. Floyd was defeated by the National troops under General William S. Rosecrans, on the 12th of September, 1861, at Carnifax Ferry, on the Gauley river, in West Virginia, after a fight of three days. Capture of Lexington, Missouri—Battle of Ball's Bluff.—About the middle of September, 1861, the town of Lexington, in Missouri, with its garrison of National troops under Colonel Mulligan, was captured by the Confederates. On 5oS CENTENAWIAA, HZSTORY. the 16th of October (1861), Lexington was retaken by a National cavalry force under Major White. On the 21st of October, 1861, a severe action occurred at Ball's Bluff, on use Potomac, above Washington, between the National force under Gen- eral Stone and a large body of insurgents under General Evans. The National troops were thoroughly defeated and routed, with the loss of many brave men, among whom was the gallant Colonel Edward D. Baker, late a Unitell States Senator from Oregon. Battle of Belmont—Capture of Port Royal.-On the 7th of November, 1861, a force of National troops, under General Ulysses Simpson Grant, was defeated at Belmont, in South-eastern Missouri, on the Mississippi river, by the Confederates under General Cheatham. On the day of the battle of Belmont (November 7, 1861), Forts Walker and Beauregard, at Port Royal Entrance, on the coast of South Caro- lina, below Charleston, were captured by a National naval force under Commodore Dupont. The capture of Port Royal gave the National ſorces possession of the Sea Islands of South Carolina, so celebrated for the production of fine cotton. McClellan, Commander-in-Chief—Extent of the Civil War—Foreign Relations.—On the Ist of November, 1861, General McClellan was made com- mander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, General Winfield Scott having resigned that post in October. Only the most important military events have been related. There were thousands of conflicts in the reſractory States. The relations of the National Government with England and France were not of the most pleasant character. Both of these nations, as well as Spain, had recognized the insurgent Çonfederates as a belligerent power, in the beginning of the great contest. Russia was the only European power that sympathized with the National Government in its struggle for life. * FVENTS OF 1862. Battle of Mill Spring.—On the 19th of January, 1862, a National force, under General George H. Thomas, defeated a Confederate army under General George D. Crittenden, at Mill Spring, near Somerset, Kentucky. The Conſederate General Felix Zollicoffer was killed. Capture of Roanoke Island.—On the 8th of February, 1862, aſter a hot con- ſlict, Roanoke Island, on the North-eastern coast of North Carolina, was taken pos- session of by the National army and navy, under General Ambrose E. Burnside and Commodore Louis M. Goldsborough. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson.—On the 6th of February (1862), Fort Henry, on the Tennesºse river, in Tennessee, was captured by the National army and navy, under General Ulysses S. Grant and Commodore Andrew H. Foote. On the 16th of February, aſter a siege and assault of three days, Fort Donelson, on the Cum berland river, in the same State, was surrendered, with its garrison of 13,000 Con- federate troops, to the National army of 40,000 men under General Grant. The Confederate troops that had garrisoned the fort were commanded by General Simon Bolivar Buckner. Before the surrender, 5,000 Confederatos, under Generals Pillow and Floyd, made their escape. Battle of Pea Ridge.—On the 6th, 7th, and 8th of March, 1862, the National army under General Samuel R. Curtis fought a severe battle with the Conſederate troops under Generals Earl Van Dorn, Stirling Price, and Ben McCullough, at Pea OAVITED STATES. 509 Ridge, in North-western, Arkansas. The Confederates were defeated; anºl among their killed was General McCullough. Fight Between the Merrimac and Monitor.—On the day of the IWational victory at Pea Ridge (March 8, 1862), the Conſederate iron-clad ram Merrimae scak the National frigates Cumberland and Congress, at the mouth of the James r wer. On the following day (March 9, 1862), a newly-invented floating battery, called the Monitor, attacked the Merrimac, disabled her after a severe action, and cºmpelled her to return to Norfolk. Capture of Newbern—Battle of Winchester.—On the 14th of March, 1862, aſter a severe fight with the Confederates, General Burnside, with 12,000 National troops, captured Newbern, in Eastern North Carolina. A National force under General Shields defeated the Confederates under “Stonewall Jackson,” near Winchester, Virginia, on the 23d of March. Battle of Shiloh.-On the 6th of April, 1862, the National army commanded by General Grant was attacked at Shiloh church, near Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee river, in Tennessee, by the Confederates under Generals Beauregard and Albert Sydney Johnston. The Conſederates were victorious on that day; but on the following morning (March 7, 1862), Grant was reinforced by a strong force under General Don Carlos Buell, and the Confederates were deſeated and compelled to flee toward Corinth, in North-eastern Mississippi. The defeat of the Confeder- ates is to be attributed chiefly to the assistance which the National gunboats in the Tennessee river rendered to Grant's army. Among the Confederate killed was General Albert Sydney Johnston. º Siege and Capture of Island No. Io.—On the day of Grant's victory at Shiloh (April 7, 1862), the strong post of Island No. 10, in the Mississippi river, was surrendered to Commodore Foote, whose flotilla had bombarded the place for three weeks. Capture of Fort Pulaski–Capture of Huntsville—Capture of Fort Macon.—On the 11th of April (1862), Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah river, in Georgia, aſter withstanding a heavy bombardment, surrendered to the National troops under Captain Quincy Adams Gillmore. On the same day, Gen- eral Ormsby McKnight Mitchell, after a remarkable forced march through Kentucky and Tennessee, captured Huntsville, in Northern Alabama. On the 25th of April, Fort Macon, on the coast of North Carolina, was surrendered to the National troops, after a severe bombardment. Bombardment of Forts Jackson and St. Philip—Capture of New Or- leans.—In the South-west, an expedition had been organized for the capture of New Orleans. The expedition consisted of a gunboat and mortar fleet, under Commodores David G. Farragut and David D. Porter, and a land ſorce under General Benjamin F. Butler. After bombarding Forts Jackson and St. Philip, below New Orleans, for six days, Farragut and Porter passed up the river with their icets, and appeared before New Orleans on the 25th of April. The Conſed. erate treops, 20,000 strong, under General Mansfield Lovell, who had garrisoned the city, fled, and, on the 28th (April, 1862), General Butler, with the National army, took possession of the city. The capture of New Orleans was the severes blow thus ſar inflicted upon the Rebellion. 5 Io CEAVTEAVAWAZ HYSTORY. Movements on the Virginia Peninsula—Evacuation of Yorktown.— After compelling the Confederates to retreat from Manassas toward Richmond, the Army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, prepared to approach the Confed- erate capital by way of the peninsula formed by the York and James rivers. On the 4th of April, 1862, McClellan commenced his march up the peninsula, from Fortress Monroe. After enduring a short siege, Yorktown was evacuated by the Confederates, who fled toward Richmond. (May 3, 1862.) Battle of Williamsburg—Fall of Norfolk.-Two days after the evacuation if Yorktown by the Confederate army (May 5, 1862), was fought the terrible ba; tle of Williamsburg, which resulted in a National victory. The Confederates then resumed their retreat, and were again pursued by the National forces. On the Ioth of May, 1862, five days after the battle of Williamsburg, Norfolk was evacuated by the Confederates, after they had destroyed the Merrimac, and the town was entered on the same day by National troops under the command of General John Ellis Wool. Capture of Hanover Court-House—Battle of Fair Oaks,—On the 29th of May, Hanover Court-House was captured by a portion of the National army, under General Fitz-John Porter, after a spirited conflict. The National army still continued its advance toward Richmond. On the 31st of May and the 1st of June (1862), a memorable engagement occurred at a place called Fair Oaks, in which neither party was victorious. Capture of Natchez—Capture of Corinth—Capture of Memphis.-On the 12th of May, the National fleet under Admiral Farragut captured Natchez, in Mississippi, on the Mississippi river. On the 29th of the same month (May, 1862), Corinth, in the north-eastern part of the same State, after having suffered a heavy bombardment, was evacuated by the Confederates and taken possession of by the National army under General Henry W. Halleck. On the 6th of June, 1862, the important town of Memphis, in Tennessee, on the Mississippi river, fell into the hands of the National forces, after a severe naval engagement, in which all but two vessels of the Confederate fléet were either captured or destroyed by the National squadron under the command of Flag-Officer Davis. Operations in the Shenandoah Valley—Battles of Cross-Keys and Port Republic.—In the meantime, a National force of 4000 men, under General Na- thaniel P. Banks, in the Shenandoah Valley, in Virginia, after being defeated near Winchester, on the 25th of May, was driven down the valley, and compelled to cross the Potomac into Maryland, by 15,000 Confederates under Stonewall Jackson, who hastily retreated up the valley. On the 7th of June, General John C. Fremont, with National troops, fought with the Confederates an indecisive battle at Cross. Keys; and, on the following day, General Shields was beaten by Stonewall Jackson, in a battle at Port Republic. The Seven Days' Battles near Richmond—Battle of Malvern Hill.— Three weeks aſter the battle of Fair-Oaks, McClellan prepared to advance upºn Richmond. At the same time, he changed the base of his supplies from the York to the James river. These movements led to a series of sanguinary batties near Richmond, during seven days, commencing on the 25th of June, and ending with the repulse of the Confederates at Malvern Hill on the 1st of July. The most UAVZZZZ) S7.4 ZTE.S. 5 II important engagements were the battle of Oak Grove, June 25; the battle of Mechanicsville, June 26; the battle of Gaines' Mill, June 27; the battles of Peach Orchard Station and Savage Station, June 29; the battle of White-Oak Swamp, June 30; and the battle of Malvern Hill, July 1. Each army numbered about IOO,Ooo men. The National army lost 16,000 men, and the insurgents about 20,000; and McClellan's movement on Richmond failed. General Halleck, Commander-in-Chief.-On the 1st of July, the President of the United States called for 300,000 more men for the army; and, on the 11th of the same month, General Henry W. Halleck was appointed commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States. Battle of Baton Rouge.—On the 5th of August, 1862, the Confederates, under General John C. Breckinridge, attacked a small National force under General Thomas Williams at Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The National troops were victorious, and the Confederate ram Arkansas was sunk, but the gallant General Williams was killed in the moment of triumph. Formation of the Army of Virginia—Battle of Cedar Mountain.-The forces under Generals Banks, Fremont, and McDowell, were united on the 25th of June (1862), into one army named “The Army of Virginia,” the command of which was given to General John Pope. This army soon found sufficient employ- ment, as the insurgents, flushed with their successes over McClellan’s army near Richmond, marched northward for the purpose of taking Washington. On the 9th of August, a spirited but indecisive action was fought at Cedar Mountain, in Cul- peper county, Virginia, between that portion of the Army of Virginia under General Banks and a large body of insurgents under Stonewall Jackson. Terrible Defeats and Retreat of the Army of Virginia.-At length, the Confederates flanked the Army of Virginia, and a succession of bloody battles were fought, beginning on the 24th of August, and ending on the 1st of September. The most important of this series of engagements were the battle of Kettle Run, August 27; the battle of Groveton, August 29; the second battle of Bull's Run, August 3o; and the battle of Chantilly, September 1. In the last named conflict, Generals Stevens and Kearney were among the killed on the National side. The Con- federate loss in this series of battles was 15,000 men, while the National loss was 20,000 men. Pope's army was so badly defeated that, to escape total destruction, it was compelled to seek safety behind the fortifications of Washington. Lee's Invasion of Maryland.—Early in September, the Armies of Virginia and the Potomac were consolidated, and were thereafter known as “The Army of the Potomac,” the command of which was entrusted to General McClellan, for the defense of Washington. The Confederates, under the command of Robert Edmund Lee, their commander-in-chief, now crossed the Potomac into Maryland. McClellan followed on their right flank, to cover Washington and Baltimore. Battle of South Mountain—Surrender of Harper's Ferry.—On the 14th of September, 1862, a heavy battle was fought at South Mountain, in Maryland, in which the National army was victorious, but one of its gallant commanders, General Reno, was killed. The next day (September 15, 1862), after a bloody conflict, Harper's Ferry, with its garrison of 12,000 National troops, was surrendered to the Confederates. 5 I:2 CEAVTEAWAVIAL HISTORY. Battle of Antietam—Lee in Virginia.-On the 17th of September (1862), a great battle was fought near Antietam Creek, in Maryland, between the armies of McClellan and Lee, each numbering about 100,000 men. The Confederates were defeated with the loss of 20,000 men. The National loss was about 15,000 men. Among the killed on the National side were the heroic Generals Mansfield, Rich- ardson, and Rodman. Immediately after the battle, Lee's army ſell back to the Potomac, which it crossed, and retreated in the direction of Richmond, without being pursued by the National army. Confederate Invasion of Kentucky—Battle of Richmond—Battle of Perryville.—In the latter part of August, 1862, a large body of Confederate troops, under General E. Kirby Smith, invaded Eastern Kentucky. On the 29th and 30th of August, they defeated a part of the National army commanded by General Nel- son, near Richmond, Kentucky. At the same time, another Confederate army, under General Braxton Bragg, invaded the more western portion of Kentucky, and advanced in the direction of Louisville; but, aſter suffering a defeat at Perryville, from the National forces, under Generals Rousseau and McCook, Bragg was com- pelled to abandon Kentucky with his army. Smith and his army also evacuated the State about the same time. (October, 1862.) Battles of Iuka, Corinth, and Hatchie.—In the autumn of 1862, events of great importance were transpiring in North-eastern Mississippi. On the 19th of September, the Confederates under Generals Van Dorn and Price were deſeated at Iuka, by the National troops commanded by General Rosecrans. On the 3d and 4th of Cctobel, the Confederates met with another severe defeat at Corinth. The Confederates were pursued, and defeated on the 5th of October (1862), in “the battle of the Hatchie,” by the National troops under Generals Ord and Hurlburt. Confederate Cavalry Raid—McClellan Relieved of Command.—About three weeks after the battle of Antietam, a Confederate cavalry force, under General Stuart, made a destructive raid as far as Chambersburg, in Pennsylvania. In the latter part of October, the Army of the Potomac crossed the Potomac into Virginia. On the 5th of November (1862), McClellan was relieved of the command of the army, and General Ambrose E. Burnside was appointed to take his place. . Battle of Prairie Grove.—The war was again raging in Arkansas. On the 7th of December, 1862, the National troops, under Generals Herron and Blunt, gained an important victory over a Confederate army under General Hindman, at Prairie Grove, near Fayetteville, in North-western Arkansas. Battle of Fredericksburg.—Toward the close of 1862, another great battle was fought in Virginia. The Army of the Potomac, then under the command of General l;urnside, attacked the Conſederates at Fredericksburg, on the 13th of December (1862). After hard fighting, the National troops were repulsed, with the loss of 8,000 of their number. The Army of the Potomac then recrossed to the north side of the Rappahannock river, where it remained until May of the next year. Sherman's Unsuccessful Attack on Vicksburg.—In the latter part cº December, 1862, a large National ſorce, under General William Tecumseh Sherman, made an attack on the city of Vicksburg, in Mississippi, on the Mississippi river: but was repulsed aſter severe fighting. Sherman was then superseded in his com- mand by General John A. McClermand. ROBERT E. LEE. ! № \} į }} } Ņſ. § ）; № STONEWALL JACKSON, {WAWITED STATES. 513 Battle of Murfreesboro’.-At Murfreesboro’, in Tennessee, a sanguinary battle, between the National army under General Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General Bragg, commenced on the 29th of December, 1862, and ended on the 4th of January, 1863. The National army gained the victory, but lost 12,000 men. This engagement is also known as “the battle of Stone River.” War with the Sioux Indians in Minnesota. –During the summer of 1862, the Sioux Indians in Minnesota, led by Little Crow and other chiefs, began a mir- derous war on the white people of that State, by an attack upon the town of N ºw Ulm. Many atrocious massacres were perpetrated by the savages; and about 25,000 white people were driven from their homes. At length, General Henry H. Silley defeated the Indians and drove them into Dakota. The following year the savages renewed the war, but they were soon subdued, and their chief, Little Crow, was killed. Doings of Congress.--While the war was raging on sea and land during the year 1862, the National Government was devising measures for the suppression of the rebellion. Early in April, Congress passed an act providing for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia. The bill received the signature of the Pre- sident and became a law on the 16th of June. On the 20th of the same month (June, 1862), the President signed a bill passed by Congress for the prohibition of slavery in the Territories of the United States. Congress also authorized the President to proclaim the freedom of the slaves; and, on the 22d of September (1862), he issued a proclamation warning the insurgents that he would proclaim the emancipation of every slave in the revolted States within a hundred days, if they refused to lay down their arms and return to their allegiance within that period. Gloomy Prospect.—Never during the whole period of the Civil War did the cause of the Union appear more gloomy than at the close of 1862. The Rebellion was as formidable as ever, and very little had been accomplished in the way of its suppression. There were about 7oo,ooo National troops in the field, while the Confederate army was larger than at any previous or subsequent period. EVENTS OF 1863. Emancipation Proclamation.—As the Confederates paid no attention to the proclamation issued by the President on the 22d of September, 1862, he issued another proclamation on the 1st of January, 1863, declaring forever free all the slaves in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas, excepting West Virginia and such portions of the rebellious States as were in the hands of the National troops at that time. It was evident that the time had arrived for this decisive step; and it received the unanimous approval of the supporters of the Administration, and destroyed the last hope of foreign aid to the insurgents. Capture of Arkansas Post.—After his unsuccessful attempt to take Vicks. burg. at the close of 1862, Sherman was succeeded in his command by General John A. McClernand, who went up the Arkansas river, and, in conjunction with Admiral Porter, captured Arkansas Post, with its garrison of 5,000 Confederate troops, after a severe engagement, on the 11th of January, 1863. Operations in North Carolina—Siege of Suffolk.-In Eastern Nortly Calo- 33 5 I4 CEAVTEAVAVZAZ. H/STOR V. lina, during the spring of 1863, the National forces, under the command of General John G. Foster, repelled the assaults of the Confederates, under General D. H. Hill and others, and foiled their attempts to obtain the entire control of that region. Early in May, 1863, the Confederates, under Generals Longstreet and D. H. Hill, were repulsed in an attempt to take by siege the town of Suffolk, in South-eastern Virginia, by 14,000 National troops under General Peck. Success of Banks in Louisiana.--During the winter and spring of 1863, General Banks, with a National force, overran Louisiana, from New Orleans to the Red River, defeated the Confederates in a number of actions, and captured many prisoners, some artillery, and much public property. Banks returned to New Or. leans; and during the summer, he sent an expedition by water to Texas. Battle of Chancellorsville.—On the 27th of April, 1863, General Burnside was relieved of the command of the Army of the Potomac and succeeded by Gen- eral Joseph Hooker. Hooker crossed the Rappahannock river, and, on the 2d, 3d, and 4th of May, his army engaged in a severe battle with Lee's army at a place called Chancellorsville. In this battle, the famous Confederate general, “Stonewall Jackson,” lost his life. The result of the battle was that the National army was defeated, and compelled to retire across the Rappahannock on the 5th (May, 1863). Grant's Victories in Mississippi.--The defeat of the Army of the Potomac in Virginia was fully atoned for by a series of brilliant victories gained by the Na- tional army under General Grant in Mississippi. In the latter part of April (1863), Grant defeated the insurgents in two battles near Port Gibson. The Confederates were also defeated in the battle of Raymond, May 12; the battle of Jackson, May 14; the battle of Champion Hills, May 16; and the battle of Big Black River Bridge, May 17; after which Grant prepared to carry on the siege of Vicksburg with vigor. Invasion of Maryland and Pennsylvania by Lee’s Army.—After the battle of Chancellorsville, Lee's army began to march northward, for the purpose of carrying the war into the loyal States. Hooker followed with his army, on the right flank of the Confederates, in order to save Washington and Baltimore from capture. At length, on the 28th of June, General George Gordon Meade was appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac, Hooker having resigned. Battle of Gettysburg—The Armies in Virginia.-Lee advanced into Penn- sylvania, followed by Meade. At length, the two armies confronted each other at Gettysburg, where a sanguinary engagement occurred on the Ist, 2d, and 3d of July, 1863. The Confederates were thoroughly defeated, with the loss of about 30,000 men, while the loss of the National army was more than 20,000 men. General John F. Reynolds, of the National army, and General Barksdale, of the Confederate army, were killed. 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On the 8th of July (1863), Port Hudson, with its garrison of 5,000 Confederate troops under General Gardner, was surrendered to Banks; and thus the last obstruction to tht: navigation of the Mississippi river was overcome. - Morgan’s Raid in Indiana and Ohio.—About the time of Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania, a large body of Confederate guerrillas, under General John Morgan, suddenly crossed the Ohio river into Indiana, and advanced eastward into Ohio, plundering as they went. After many of the raiders had been killed or captured, Morgan surrendered with the remainder, numbering about 8oo men, to General Shackleford, in Morgan County, Ohio. Siege of Charleston—Bombardment of Fort Sumter.—During the spring and summer of 1863, the National forces were vigorously besieging Charleston, in South Carolina. An unsuccessful attempt was made, on the 7th of April (1863), by the National navy, under Admiral Dupont, to take Fort Sumter. In July, a National land force, under General Q. A. Gillmore, landed on Morris Island, and commenced besieging the works which defended Charleston harbor. After a fright- ful bombardment of seven days, Fort Sumter was reported by Gillmore as being reduced to “a shapeless and harmless mass of ruins.” It was not harmless, how- ever, as it still successfully bid defiance to the guns of the besieging forces. Fort Wagner was evacuated by its Confederate garrison in September (1863), after which it was taken possession of by the National troops. The siege of Charleston was continued for a year and a half longer. Capture of Fort Smith and Little Rock.-On the 1st of September, 1863, Fort Smith, in Western Arkansas, was captured by a National force under General Blunt. On the Ioth of the same month (September, 1863), General Frederic Steele, with National troops, completely broke the power of the insurgents in Arkansas by the capture of Little Rock, the capital of that State. The Army of the Cumberland.—In the latter part of June, 1863, the great Army of the Cumberland, under General Rosecrans, began a decisive campaign in Tennessee. After a series of conflicts, the Confederate army under General Bragg was compelled to retreat to Chattanooga, in the South-eastern part of that State. The insurgents erected strong fortifications at Chattanooga, but when Rosecrans approached, in August, the Confederate army evacuated the city, which was taker possession of by a portion of Rosecrans' army on the 9th of September. Battle of Chickamauga.--Rosecrans again pursued Bragg, who was now rein- forced by General James Longstreet and his corps, from Lee's army, in Virginia The Confederate army, thus strengthened, suddenly attacked the pursuing army of Rosecrans at the Chickamauga creek, where a bloody battle was fought on the 19th and 20th of September, 1863. The insurgents were victorious; and the National army was obliged to fall back, and seek refuge behind the fortifications of Chatta- nooga. - 516 CEAVTEAVW/A/. HISTORY. Skirmishes between the Great Armies in Virginia.-In October, 1863, Lee's army drove the Army of the Potomac back upon Manassas, but was in turn compelled to retreat, after some skirmishing. On the 7th of November, a severe skirmish at Kelly's Ford resulted in the capture of 2,000 Confederates, by a portion of the National army, under Generals John Sedgewick and W. H. French. Battle of Chattanooga.-After his defeat in the battle of Chickamauga, Rose. trans was in a perilous situation. General Grant, who had just been entrusted with the command of all the National armies in the West, east of the Mississippi hastened to his relief. After being joined by Sherman from Vicksburg and Hooker from the Army of the Potomac, Grant attacked Bragg's army at Chattanooga, on the 23d of November; and, after a sanguinary conflict of three days, known as “the battle of Chattanooga,” in which the insurgents were driven from their strong positions on Orchard Knob by General Thomas (November 23), from Lookout Mountain by General Hooker, after a fierce struggle known as “the battle above the clouds” (November 24), and from Missionary Ridge, after the most obstinate resistance (November 25), the siege of Chattanooga was raised, and the National army gained a brilliant victory. Bragg's defeated and shattered army retreated into Georgia; and the whole of Tennessee fell into the possession of the National forces. Siege of Knoxville.—About the middle of November, 1863, General Burnside, with 5,000 National troops, was besieged in Knoxville, in East Tennessee, by General Longstreet, who had left Bragg's army with his corps, for the purpose of expelling the National forces from that quarter. When General Sherman came with National troops for the relief of Burnside's beleaguered force, Longstreet fled eastward, and rejoined Lee's army in Virginia. Progress of the National Arms during the Year.—The progress of the National arms during the year 1863 had been very great. Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, large portions of Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and the control of the Rio Grande and Mississippi rivers, had been lost to the insurgents; and the Rebellion was on its decline. Doings of Congress—Riot in New York—West Virginia a State.—On the 4th of March, 1863, the Thirty-seventh Congress closed its last session, after having adopted measures for the efficiency of the army. Steps were taken for the enlistment and organization of colored troops; and, on the 3d of March (1863), a conscription act became a law. In May, the President ordered a draft of 300,000 men. Much opposition was manifested against the draft, especially in the city of New York, where a terrible riot of three days occurred (July 13, 14, and 15, 1863), in which one hundred lives were lost, and property to the value of two million dol- lars was destroyed. On the 20th of June, 1863, West Virginia was admitted into the Union as a State, by authority of an act passed by Congress on the 31st of December, 1862. r EVENTS OF 18634. Bright Prospect.—The year 1864 opened with many bright and promising hopes for the National cause. The National armies were strong and well discip- lined, while the finances of the Republic were in a good condition. The loyal Ö/NITED STATES. 51.7 people were more united in the support of the Administration and in the deter. mination to prosecute the war until the suppression of the rebellion should be accomplished. Averill's Raid in Virginia—Kilpatrick's Bold Attempt.—About the middle. of January, 1864, a body of National cavalry, under General William W. Averill, destroyed thirty miles of the Virginia and Tennessee railway track west of Lynch- burg. In the latter part of February, a bold exploit was performed by General ſudson Kilpatrick, who, with a small force of National cavalry, entered the outer defenses of Richmond. Sherman's Invasion of Mississippi.-On the 3d of February, 1864, General William T. Sherman, with a considerable National force, commenced a destructive invasion of Mississippi. Starting from Vicksburg, Sherman's force advanced east- ward, almost to the borders of Alabama, seizing or destroying much property, and liberating about Io,000 slaves. Seymour's Invasion of Florida—Battle of Olustee.—On the 5th of Febru- ary, 1864, General Seymour, with a National force, left Port Royal, in South Carolina, and invaded North-eastern Florida. Seymour defeated the Confederates at Jack- sonville, and moved westward; but, on the 20th (February, 1864), his army was defeated and almost ruined, in a bloody battle at Olustee, on the Florida Central railroad. Seymour abandoned his project and returned to Jacksonville. Red River Expedition—Its Unfortunate End.—On the Ioth of March, 1864, General Andrew J. Smith leſt Vicksburg, with a heavy National force, for the in- vasion of Louisiana. A fleet under Admiral Porter, and an army under General Banks from New Orleans, coöperated with Smith's expedition. Smith captured Fort De Russey from the Confederates under General Richard Taylor, on the 13th of March, and, continuing his advance toward Shreveport, was joined by Banks at Alexandria. The National troops were defeated by the Confederates at Sabine Cross-Roads, on the 8th of April, and were compelled to retreat toward New Or. leans. On their retreat, they defeated the Confederates at Pleasant Hill, and at Cane River. Porter's fleet, which had gone to Shreveport, was enabled to return to New Orleans by damming up the river. Forrest's Raid in Tennessee and Kentucky—Massacre of Fort Pillow. —In March, 1864, a Confederate cavalry force, under General Napoleon Bona- parte Forrest, made a destructive raid into Tennessee and Kentucky. Forrest captured Union City, Tennessee, on the 24th of March, and the next day some of his troops almost destroyed Paducah, in Kentucky, on the Ohio river. On the 12th of April, Forrest captured Fort Pillow, in Tennessee, on the Mississippi river, and caused most of the garrison, which was composed of negro troops, to be massacred after they had surrendered. Grant a Lieutenant-General—The Army of the Potomac.—In February, 1864, General Grant was placed in chief command of the armies of the Republic, with the title of Lieutenant-General. He established his head-quarters in the field with the Army of the Potomac. On the 3d of May, he issued an order for the Army of the Potomac under General Meade, and three Western armies under Gen- eral W. T. Sherman, in Northern Georgia, to commence operations against the Confederate armies opposed to them. - 518 CEMTEAVAWIAA, HZSTORY. Battes of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania—Advance on Richmond. —On tie 5th of May, 1864, the Army of the Potomac, under the immediate com- mand of General Meade, and by the direction of Lieutenant-General Grant, whose head-quarters were with that army, crossed the Rapid Anna, and attacked General Lee's army in the “Wilderness,” in Orange County, Virginia, where a sanguinary batſe ensued, on the 5th, 6th, and 7th of May. (1864.) Lee retreated to Spotsyl- vania Court-House, where another series of bloody struggles followed; and, at the end of a week’s conflict, the National army was successful, and Lee's army was in full retreat toward Richmond. In these battles, Generals John Sedgewick and James Wadsworth, of the National army, were killed. Grant pursued Lee's retreat- ing army, fought several bloody actions with the enemy, the most important of which was at Cold Harbor, outflanked Lee, and thus compelled him to fall back to the defenses of Richmond, in the early part of June. Cavalry Raids—Movements of the Army of the James.—Grant sent out cavalry expeditions in various directions to destroy railroads, and to cut off all com- munication with the Confederate capital. In the meantime, a large National force named “The Army of the James,” which had been placed under the command of General Butler, had gone up the James river, from Fortress Monroe, and fortified Bermuda Hundred, on the south side of the river. Butler was repulsed in an attack upon Fort Darling, but he afterwards repulsed several attacks by the insurgents under Beauregard upon Bermuda Hundred. Siege of Petersburg.—Butler's movements enabled Grant to place the Army of the Potomac on the south side of the James river, and to lay siege to Petersburg, an important city on the Appomattox river, twenty miles south of Richmond. The Confederates had strongly fortified Petersburg, as they considered the defense of that town essential to the safety of Richmond. Lee with the greater part of his army took a position to defend Petersburg. Sherman's Successes in Georgia—Siege of Atlanta.--While the Army of the Potomac had been thus successful in Virginia, the Armies of the Cumber- land, the Tennessee, and the Ohio, which had been united in Northern Georgia, and placed under the command of General W. T. Sherman, were fully as victorious. At the beginning of May, 1864, Sherman compelled the Confederates, under General Joseph E. Johnston, to evacuate Dalton. For several months there was almost constant fighting between Sherman's and Johnston's armies. Johnston was always defeated and compelled to retreat. The most important of these battles were those of Resaca, Dallas, Allatoona Pass, and Kenesaw Mountain. In July, Johnston was removed from the command of the Confederate army in Northern Georgia, and his place was supplied by General John B. Hood. Sherman defeated Hood in three great battles before Atlanta (July 20, 22, and 28, 1864), after which he laid siege to that important town and railway centre. In the battle fought on the 22d of July, General James B. McPherson; of the National army, was killed. Battle of Guntown.—While the great events just related were occurring in Virginia and in Georgia, events of minor importance were transpiring in other quarters. On the IOth of June, 1864, a National force in Northern Mississippi, under the command of General Sturgis, was defeated in the battle of Guntown, by * Confederate force under General Forrest, and compelled to retreat about seventy- // ± º. ØŹ| .zº， 22：ſº/， o 2 vº|-ø）.$2 ·（~~~~ ~~ S -， ， ， , ， . > •·， ， ， ， , ， , ， . . --§N* ;” – i T~~№ NNNNNN *-∞x （.*）© ）SSSSS ×----ſae• ſ^º// ± -~~ ~~~~---- - ---- --- -*-±è ----¿?--EE ſae;º|?º ºĒ, , ） -----~--~- - - ----+==~：=ä~ §* :）ºſº:：：-a：： º ,--> -…º.º ULYSSES S, GRANT. L. aeg ！# |//%zºzº！%2， \ ,ſ',ſ',№!% ', #ff.%22%% 2% }}\，%º%% ?·：| !|}}-2） Zºº |}→ ►~ ||||| WILLIAM T. SHERMAN, ||||||};"/“/%, 4% º „w/% |º/|×№,%Aº , Šiſ }| & OWAVYZZZ) S747"E.S. 519 five iniles. Soon after this disaster, Sturgis was superseded in his command by General Andrew J. Smith, who soon defeated the Confederates and restored the supremacy of the National arms in that quarter of the Southern Confederacy. Fight between the Kearsarge and the Alabama.-After the beginning of the Civil War, several large vessels were built for the Confederates at Liverpool, in England, by Laird, a ship-builder at that place, and a member of the British Parliament. One of these vessels, named Alabama, and manned chiefly by Eng- lishmen, but bearing a Confederate flag, and commanded by Captain Raphael Semmes was defeated and sunk, on the 15th of June, 1864, in the English Chan nel, neal the French port of Cherbourg, by the Kearsarge, a National vessel, com- manded by Captain John A. Winslow. The crew of the Alabama were saved by an English vessel and carried to England. Early's Invasion of Maryland—Battle of Monocacy.—At the beginning of July, 1864, about 15,000 Confederate troops, under General Jubal Early, crossed the Potomac, from the Shenandoah Valley, into Maryland. They moved toward Baltimore, and, on the 9th (July, 1864), they defeated a few National troops, under General Lewis Wallace, on the Monocacy river, near Frederick. Soon afterward, the Confederates recrossed the Potomac into Virginia, carrying with them a large amount of plunder. Battle at Winchester—Burning of Chambersburg.—When Early's troops retired into Virginia, they were pursued by National troops, who defeated them at Winchester, on the 20th of July. In the latter part of July, a small Confederate force crossed the Potomac, and marched northward to Chambersburg, in Pennsyl- vania. They reduced the greater part of that town to ashes, on the 30th (July, 1864), after which they again retired into Virginia, pursued by a National force. Explosion of a Mine at Petersburg—Seizure of the Weldon Railroad. —During the latter part of June, and throughout July and August, 1864, Grant prosecuted the siege of Petersburg with vigor. On the 30th of July, a mine which had been dug under one of the strongest of the Confederate works, was exploded with terrific effect; but the assault on Petersburg which immediately followed, was disastrously repulsed. In August, Grant seized the railroad leading from Peters- burg to Weldon, in North Carolina. Four desperate attempts made by the insur- gents to retake this important road were defeated. (August 19, 20, 21, and 25, 1864.) Siege and Capture of Atlanta.-During the latter part of July and throughout August, 1864, Sherman was vigorously besieging Atlanta, while the Confederate army which defended the place was gradually becoming weaker. Cavalry expe- ditions had cut the railways leading to Atlanta. At length, on the 2d of Sep- tember (1864), Sherman defeated and severed Hood's army, compelled it to evac. uate Atlanta, and immediately took possession of the city. Farragut's Victory in Mobile Bay—Capture of Forts Gaines and Mor- gan.—While the sieges of Petersburg and Atlanta were progressing, importani events were occurring near Mobile. On the 5th of August, the National fleet, under Admiral Farragut, defeated the Confederate fleet at the entrance to Mobile bay, capturing many vessels. The Confederate admiral, Franklin Buchanan, lost a leg during the engagement. Farragut acted in conjunction with a National army under 52O CEAVZ.EAVAVAZ HISTORY. General Gordon Granger. Fort Gaines, after a furious assault, was captured by Farragut on the 8th of August. Farragut and Granger opened a heavy assault on Fort Morgan, which they compelled to surrender on the 23d of August (1864). Sheridan's Victories in the Shenandoah Valley.—On the 19th of Septem- ber, 1864, the National army in the Shenandoah Valley, under General Philip H. Sheridan, gained a brilliant victory over the Confederates under General Eally, not far from Winchester. Sheridan gained another victory at Fisher's Hill, on the 22d (September, 1864). Early was driven farther up the valley. On the 19th of Octo her, Sheridan almost annihilated Early's army, in the battle of Cedar Creek. After this, the valley was under the complete control of the National troops. Hood's Invasion of Tennessee—Destruction of Hood's Army.—After the fall of Atlanta, Hood, with his Confederate army, moved northward, for the pur- pose of invading Tennessee and cutting off Sherman's communications with the loyal States. Sherman followed Hood and drove him into Alabama. At length, Sher- man left General George H. Thomas with a part of his army in Tennessee to watch Hood, and with the remainder he began his great march through Georgia. Hood invaded Tennessee with about 40,000 men. On his approach, Thomas retreated to Nashville, the capital of Tennessee. Hood pursued, fought an indecisive battle with a part of Thomas's army under General Schofield, at Franklin, on the 30th of November, and then laid siege to Nashville. On the 15th of December (1864), Thomas marched out of the city, and in a bloody battle he completely destroyed Hood's army. Nearly the whole of Hood's artillery was captured by the victori- ous National troops, and Hood, with a small remnant of his army, fled south into Alabama. Sherman's March Through Georgia—Capture of Savannah.- After having gone in pursuit of Hood, Sherman divided his army, retaining 50,000 men wnder his own command, and leaving the remainder under General Thomas to oppose Hood's army in Tennessee. On the 14th of November, Sherman finally abandoned Atlanta, and commenced a grand march through Georgia for the Atlantic coast. No opposition was made to his progress. He captured Milledgeville, the capital of that State, on the 29th of November; and, on the 21st of December, he took military possession of Savannah, which, on his approach, had been evac- uated by 15,000 Confederate troops, under General Hardee, who fled toward Charleston. Admission of Nevada—Re-election of Lincoln.—On the 31st of October, 1864, Nevada was admitted into the Union as a State. On the 8th of November, the people of the loyal States pronounced in favor of a vigorous prosecution of the war, by reëlecting Abraham Lincoln President of the United States, over his oppo- ment, General George Brinton McClellan. Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, was elected Vice-President. EVENTS OF 1865. Abolition of Slavery.—In the early part of 1865, Congress passed an amend- ment of the National Constitution abolishing slavery forever within the limits of the Republic. Within a few months, three-fourths of the States had ratified the amendment. UAVY 7'ED STA 7TE.S. 521 Capture of Fort Fisher and Wilmington.—On the 15th cf January, 1865, Fort Fisher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, in North Carolina, having been furiously bombarded for two days by 8,000 National troops under General Alfred H. Terry, assisted by Admiral Porter's fleet, was surrendered, with its garrison of 2,000 Confederate troops. Terry moved up the river, and, on the 22d of February, he captured Wilmington, the possession of which had long been desired, as it had been the only seaport in the power of the insurgents for a long time. Sherman’s March in South Carolina—Evacuation of Charleston.--- About the middle of January, 1865, Sherman left Savannah and invaded Soutg Carolina. He was soon joined by General John G. Foster with a strong force of National troops. Sherman marched northward, and entered Columbia, the capital of the State, on the 17th of February. This caused the Confederates to evacuate Charleston on the same day, and on the following day (February 18, 1865), that city was taken possession of by National colored troops. Sherman’s Invasion of North Carolina—Junction of Armies.—Sherman advanced into North Carolina, and defeated the insurgents, under Hardee and John- ston, at Averysboro’, March 16th, and at Bentonville, March 19th. On the 22d of March (1865), Sherman was reinforced at Goldsboro’, by the army under Terry from Wilmington, and that under Schofield from Newbern, while Johnston with his Confederate army retired to Raleigh, the capital of North Carolina, which was occupied by Sherman on the 13th of April. Sheridan's Movements.-In the meantime, Sheridan had gone up the Shenan- doah Valley, with a force of Io,000 cavalry; and, on the 2d of March, he almost annihilated the Confederate force under Early, near Charlottesville. After destroying railways and canals, Sheridan joined the Army of the James under General Ord. Evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond—Surrender of Lee.—During the entire autumn of 1864 and the ensuing winter, nothing of importance occurred at Petersburg, except a severe conflict at Hatcher's Run, in February, 1865. On the 25th of March, 1865, Fort Steadman was captured by the insurgents, but it was recaptured by the National troops on the same day. On the 29th of March (1865), a terrific struggle of three days began between the two great armies before Peters- burg. After three days’ fighting, Lee's army was compelled to evacuate Peters- burg and Richmond, and flee westward toward Lynchburg. A hot pursuit on the part of the National army followed, and many of the Confederate troops were cap tured on the way. The retreat of Lee's army had been intercepted by Sheridan, and, at Deatonsville, the Confederate General Ewell and his entire corps were made prisoners, after a sharp fight. At length, on the 9th of April, finding escape impossible, Lee surrendered what remained of his army, about 26,000 men, t General Grant, at Appomattox Court-House. End of the Confederate Government.—By the surrender of Lee's army, the Rebellion had received its death-blow. Richmond had been entered on the 3d of April, by colored troops under General Godfrey Weitzel, who received the sur- rendel of the city from the mayor. “The President,” “The Cabinet.” and “The Congress” of the Confederacy had fled, thus putting an end to “The Confederate Government.” On the 4th of April (1865), President Lincoln, who had been at the head-quarters of Grant for more than a week, made his appearance in Rich. 522 CEAVTEAVAWIAA, H/STORY. mond, and, in the mansion of Jefferson Davis, the fugitive President of the Southern Confederacy, he publicly received many army officers and citizens. Capture of Mobile—Cavalry Raids.-Operations near Mobile had been suspended during the winter, but in March, 1865, they were resumed by General Canby and Rear-Admiral Thatcher; and, after a defense of more than a month the city of Mobile and its defenses were surrendered to the National forces, on the 12th of April General J. H. Wilson, with a large force of National cavalry, made a destructive raid through Western Georgia and Eastern Alabama; and (3eneral George Stoneman, at the head of another cavalry force, swept through South-western Virginia, to Salisbury, in North Carolina, destroying railways and bridges. Assassination of President Lincoln.—While the American people were rejoicing, because of the suppression of the rebellion and the return of peace, they suddenly became a nation of mourners, when the news spread over the country that President Lincoln had been assassinated in a theatre in Washington. On the night of the 14th of April (Good Friday), 1865, John Wilkes Booth, who had at one time been an actor in that theatre, stole up behind the President, and shot him through the head. Mr. Lincoln died the next morning. The assassin, immediately after committing his tragical deed, leaped upon the stage, and, brandishing a large knife, exclaimed, in the motto of Virginia, “Sic semper tyrannis P’ “May this ever be the fate of tyrants!” and made his escape. He was afterwards found in a barn, in Virginia, and, refusing to surrender himself, he was shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett. Booth's accomplices in the assassination were tried, and, upon conviction, four were hanged, and the rest were imprisoned for life, with the exception of one, who was only imprisoned for six years. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (APRIL 15, 1865– MARCH 4, 1869). Andrew Johnson Inaugurated President.—At about noon on the day that Mr. Lincoln died (April 15, 1865), Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, was sworn in, as President of the United States, by Chief-Justice Chase. Surrender of Johnston's Army—End of the Rebellion.—On the 26th of April, 1865, the insurgent army in North Carolina, numbering then about 31,OOO men, under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston, surrendered to General Sherman. The other Confederate armies and guerrilla bands soon afterward laid down their arms; and, by the middle of May, all armed opposition to the National Government had ended; and the National armies were disbanded, and the Nation’s defenders were returning to their homes. Flight and Capture of Jefferson Davis.-In the meantime, Jefferson Davis, the late so-called Confederate President, and the chief of the foiled conspirators, was fleeing toward the sea-coast, with a large amount of specie, for the purpose of sscaping from the country. He was captured near Irwinsville, Georgia, by a part of the 4th Michigan cavalry, under the command of Colonel B. D. Pritchard; and was brought to Fortress Monroe, where he was kept a close prisoner for two years, after which he was finally set at liberty. (May, 1867.) /* ØZºſ， 1 , /, //Z ſº „Ž% ſ. // | , ， , ， ， ， ABRAHAM LINCOLN. º 7 % sº % º 2. A % %. // \ ,\\\ ``SJ , ！· \- - *· * *}} \!\,w：Nº º· * * -, ';ſ ſ *N§§< º. º.， s∞ :S * . ：:````s, `N§§~~） . s ≡ - • ！ /. \, （JNAN ¿N WILLIAM H. SEWARD. ONZTED STATES. 523 Purification and Perpetuity of the Republic.—Thus closed the mòst terrible civil war ever known. A few restless and ambitious men, who had lost the power which they had wielded over the Nation for many years, had conspired against the life of the Republic, and inaugurated a gigantic rebellion, for the purpose of dis- membering the Union, and establishing an independent empire, with slavery as its Sorner-stone. In that fierce struggle perished the schemes of these conspirators, and the barbarous institution which they had desired to perpetuate. The Republic was purified and strengthened by the fiery ordeal through which it had passed, Reconstruction—Readmission of Tennessee.—Cn the assembling of Cor. gress, in December, 1865, it became evident that a disagreement existed between that body and the President, respecting the restoration of the lately-rebellious States to their former relations with the Union. The President demanded their immediate restoration, while Congress contended that they should first comply with certain conditions imposed upon them in the shape of a Constitutional amendment. In June, 1866, Tennessee, having ratified the proposed amendment, was restored to its former place in the Union. Atlantic Telegraph Cable.—In the summer of 1866, telegraphic communica- tion between America and Europe was established by means of the Atlantic Tele- graph Cable, which was laid from Valentia, in Ireland, to Heart's Content, in New- foundland. The accomplishment of this vast undertaking is owing to Cyrus W. Field, of New York. The Queen of Great Britain immediately sent a congratula- tory dispatch to the President of the United States, and received a reply from him on the same day. Military Reconstruction Bill.—The Thirty-ninth Congress, before the close of its last session, in March, 1867, passed, over the President's veto, a bill placing the States lately in rebellion under the military authority of the Republic until their full restoration as States of the Union should be effected. Admission of Nebraska—Purchase of Alaska.-During the last session of the Thirty-ninth Congress, in 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a State. In the spring of 1867, Russia sold all her territorial possessions in North America to the United States, for 7,200,000 dollars. The purchased territory was named Alaska. Impeachment, Trial, and Acquittal of President Johnson.—In the latter part of February, 1868, the National House of Representatives preferred articles of impeachment against President Johnson, for a violation of what was called the Tenure-of-Office Act, in an attempt to forcibly remove Edwin M. Stanton, Secre- tary of War, from the Cabinet, and for other misdemeanors. On the 16th of May, 1868, the National Senate, sitting, in accordance with the provisions of the Con- stitution, as a High Court of Impeachment for the trial of the Chief Magistrate, acquitted the President of all the charges brought against him. General Grant Elected President of the United States.—In May, 1868, the Republican party, which had sustained the National Government in its prose cution of the war for the suppression of the rebellion, nominated General Ulysses Simpson Grant, of Illinois, for President of the United States, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, for Vice-President. The Democratic nominees were Horatio Seymour, of New York, for President, and Francis P. Blair, Jr., of Missouri, for Vice-President. 524 CEAVTEAVAWAAA. HXSTORY. On the 3d of November, General Grant and Mr. Colfax were elected by an over. whelming majority over the opposing candidates. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1869–1877). Inauguration of Grant—Pacific Railroad.—On the 4th of March, 1869, General Grant took the oath of office as eighteenth President of the United States In May following, the railroad from Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento City, Cali fornia, was completed. This great National highway across the continent to the 1'acific, is known as the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific Railroads. Enfranchisement of the Colored Population of the United States.— All political distinctions on account of race or color in the United States, were finally removed by the ratification and adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment of the Na- tional Constitution. This amendment, which was declared adopted in March, 1870, secured the rights of citizenship to all races within the borders of the Republic; and several hundred thousand poor colored men, who ten years before were held as chattels, now enjoyed the glorious privileges of American citizens, and were placed on a political equality with their late masters. War with Corea.—On the 1st of June, 1871, the United States fleet under Admiral Rodgers, while in the waters of Corea, in Eastern Asia, was fired upon from the Corean forts, but repulsed the attack; and, on the Ioth and 11th of the same month (June, 1871), the Americans defeated the Coreans, and captured their forts, after some spirited fighting. The Alabama Controversy with England.—The conduct of England, in allowing the construction, in her ports, and the escape therefrom, of the Alabama and other Anglo-Confederate pirate-ships, had produced a bitter feeling in the United States, against the British Government. A treaty signed by Lord Clarendom on the part of Great Britain, and by Reverdy Johnson on the part of the United States, on the 15th of January, 1869, was almost unanimously rejected by the United States Senate; and the controversy threatened to end in a war between the two nations, in the early part of General Grant’s Administration. Joint High Commission and Treaty of Washington—A Court of Arbi- tration.—In February, 1871, commissioners appointed by the American and British Governments met in Washington City, as “The Joint High Commission;” and, on the Ioth of May, 1871, the commissioners agreed upon “The Treaty bf Washing- ton,” which was speedily ratified by the two Governments. The Treaty of Wash ington provided for the settlement of the Alabama dispute by a Court of Arbitration, consisting of five Arbitrators, to be appointed respectively by the President of the United States, the Queen of Great Britain, the Emperor of Brazil, the King of Italy, and the President of Switzerland. The ‘lndirect Claims” Controversy.—When the Court of Arbitration met, at Geneva, in Switzerland, in February, 1872, American claims for indirect or con, sequential damages were presented; but the British Arbitrator, Sir Alexander Cock- burn, violently objected to the consideration of such claims, and his course was approved and sustained by the British Government and people. Intense excitement and bitter feeling against the United States was manifested in Great Britain, and it \\ \\ \\ \\}\\} \\ \\| ，\\） ŹŹŃN* （ ` （ ） ¿Nś - >\ \\ \ SN N `N`N § ， ， § S`` , ， ， SALMON P. CHASE. （ ' º ，,º /* … º ^, * CHARLES SUMNER, UNITED STATES. 525 was feared that the Arbitration would signally fail. The United States Government for some time obstinately persisted in its preposterous claims for consequential damages, and the British Government as persistently denied the justice of such claims; but, after several months' negotiation between the two Governments, the Tribunal of Arbitration, upon reassembling, in June, 1872, settled the question by rejecting the consideration of the claims of the United States for indirect damages. Decision of the Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal at Geneva.—The Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal at Geneva finally concluded its work on the 6th of September, 1872. The Court expressed in mild terms England's want of due diligence in preventing the escape of the Anglo-Confederate cruisers. The amount of damages awarded the United States by the Court was fifteen and one- half million dollars. Thus was settled amicably a dispute which had threatened to involve in war two nations kindred in race, language, institutions, and religion: —presenting to the whole civilized world a most commendable spectacle. Presidential Campaign of 1872, and Re-election of President Grant.— A portion of the Republican party, known as Liberal Republicans, dissatisfied with General Grant's Administration, held a National Convention at Cincinnati, early in May, 1872, and nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, for President, and Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown, of Missouri, for Vice-President. Early in June, the regular Republican National Convention, at Philadelphia, renominated President Grant, with Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, for Vice-President. Early in July, the Democrats, in their National Convention at Baltimore, instead of nominating a candidate from their own party, adopted the Liberal Republican nominations. On the 5th of November, President Grant was reëlected by a majority far greater than in 1868; and, on the 29th of the same month, Mr. Greeley died, mourned by the whole American nation. Domestic Difficulty in Louisiana.-Near the close of 1872, a serious domestic difficulty arose in Louisiana, concerning the election in that State. Both parties claimed to have carried the elections, and each endeavored to have its candidates installed. On the night of the 6th of December, 1872, in accordance with an order issued by Judge Durell, of the United States District Court of Louisiana, United States troops seized the State House in New Orleans, and held it for the Kellogg or Administration faction, which was supported by the National Administration; but the opposite faction refused to recognize William Pitt Kellogg as Governor of the State, and acknowledged John McEnery as chief magistrate of Louisiana; and for some time Louisiana had two governors and two legislatures. On the 5th of March, 1873, the partisans of Governor McEnery made an armed attack upon the Kellogg party in New Orleans, but the disturbance was quickly quelled by United States troops. On the 13th of April (1873), a bloody conflict took place at Colfax, in Grant parish, which resulted in the horrible massacre of 150 negroes who sup- ported the Kellogg Government. On the 7th of May (1873), an armed insurrec- tion against the authority of Governor Kellogg broke out at St. Martinsville; hut, after sonne spirited skirmishing, and upon the appearance of National troops, the insurgents submitted, and quiet was restored, but the great body of the white popu, lation of Louisiana was very restive under the authority of the Kellogg Government. War with the Modoc Indians in Oregon.—In November, 1872, the National Government attempted to remove the Modoc Indians, of Northern Cali. 526 CEM TEAVAWIAA. HISTOR V. fornia, to a reservation in Southern Oregon. The Modocs, numbering no more than sixty warriors, headed by their principal Sachem, Captain Jack, and by their other chiefs, Shack-Nasty Jim, Schonchin, Bogus Charlie, Roston Charlie, and Scar-faced Charlie, resisted, and defeated the United States troops sent to remove them. In January, 1873, Captain Jack again defeated the troops sent against him. On the IIth of April (Good Friday), 1873, General Canby and Commissioner Thomas were treacherously assassinated by Captain Jack and Boston Charlie, at a peace conference. This event produced the most intense indignation throughout the United States, and public sentiment was for a time strongly in favor of the extermination of the whole tribe of the Modocs. General Schofield, who com. manded the United States forces in the Pacific Department, sent troops after the Modocs, who fled to the Lava Beds, in Southern Oregon. During the months of April and May, 1873, the Modocs frequently repulsed the attacks of the United States troops; but finally, on the 1st of June (1873), Captain Jack surrendered with his bands, and the famous “Modoc War” ended. On the 3d of October, 1873, Captain Jack, and the other Modoc leaders who had murdered General Canby and Commissioner Thomas, were hanged, in accordance with the sentence of a court- martial; and the surviving Modocs were settled among other Indian tribes. Great Financial Crisis.-In September, 1873, a terrible financial crisis swept over the country. In that month, many of the leading banking houses of New York City failed; and the consequences of these failures were felt to the remotest borders of the Union. The banking houses of other large cities of the United States immediately failed. These failures affected every industrial and manufac- turing interest in the land, and caused much distress among the laboring population in the large cities. These failures were caused in a great measure by too heavy investments in North Pacific Railroad bonds. The condition of the finances received the attention of the National Congress, which, in April, 1874, passed a bill to inflate the country with more paper money, but this bill was vetoed by the President, thus failing to become a law; but a bill providing for the more equal distribution of the paper currency among the different sections of the Union, and for a resumption of specie payments, received his signature, in June. (1874.) The Virginius Difficulty with Spain.-On the 31st of October, 1873, the steamer Virginius, flying the American flag, manned by Americans and Cubans, and commanded by Captain Fry, was seized by the Spanish war vessel Zornado, off the coast of Jamaica, on the ground that she was a filibustering vessel and was carrying war material to the Cuban insurgents; and, in the course of a few days, fifty-three of the crew and passengers were shot, by order of the Spanish military authorities at Santiago de Cuba. These wholesale executions produced the wildest excitement and the most intense indignation in the United States, and the most angry and warlike feeling against Spain was manifested. Immense public meet- ings were held in New York and other large cities, which were addressed by noisy orators and blatant demagogues; and large offers of volunteers were made to the National Government. In the midst of this war fever, the Governments of the United States and Spain were busily engaged in the task of settling the matter by negotiation. The United States demanded reparation for the outrage upon the American flag. The Castelar Government in Spain finally acceded to the demands of the United States; and, on the 29th of November, 1873, a protocol was signed wizza STATES. $º 527 at Washington, by the American Secretary of State and the Spanish Minister at Washington, by which Spain was required to restore the Virginius and the survi vors of her passengers and crew. On the 16th of December, 1873, the Virginius was delivered to the United States navy, by the Spanish naval authorities, at Bahia Honda, on the Cuban coast, west of Havana; and, on the 18th, the survivors of the Virginius crew and passengers were released at Santiago de Cuba, and on the 28th they arrived at New York, in the United States sloop of war juniata. The Virginius, which commenced leaking badly soon after her departure from Bahia Honda, was finally abandoned by her crew; and she sunk to the depths of the ocean, off the coast of North Carolina, on the 26th of December, 1873. Civil War in Arkansas.-The State of Arkansas, as well as Louisiana, was beset with domestic troubles. The candidates for Governor in 1872 were Elisha Baxter and Joseph Brooks. On account of alleged frauds, the votes of several counties, were thrown out, thus leaving Baxter a majority in the State, and he was accordingly inaugurated. In June, 1873, Brooks began proceedings, in the circuit court of Pulaski County, for the office of Governor, charging Baxter with being a usurper. On the 15th of April, 1874, the court decided in favor of Brooks’s claims; and Baxter was ousted, and Brooks took possession of the Gubernatorial chair, while his adherents seized the State House. For several weeks, Little Rock resembled a vast camp, Brooks and Baxter each having collected a small army; and the greatest excitement prevailed in the city. Baxter appealed to the Presi- dent of the United States for aid, but the National Chief Magistrate declined to in- terfere, except to preserve the peace; and United States troops proceeded to Little Rock to prevent bloodshed. On the 21st of April (1874), a slight conflict occurred between the contending factions in Little Rock, but it was soon terminated by the appearance of National troops. On the 30th of April, a party of Baxter's men were captured by Brooks's men, near Little Rock; and, on the same day, a party of Baxter's men attacked a party of Brooks's men near Pine Bluff, killing and wound- ing thirty, and capturing the remainder. On the night of the 7th of May (1874), a party of Baxter's men, on board the steamer Sallie, were attacked by Brooks's men, and captured. On the 9th, there was some fighting in Little Rock, but Na- tional troops soon restored order. On the 11th, there was a spirited skirmish at Baring Cross, near Little Rock, in which seven of Brooks's men were killed, but the fight was terminated by United States troops. The State Legislature met at Baxter's call, and decided in favor of his claims; and, on the 15th of May, Presi- dent Grant issued a proclamation recognizing Baxter and ordering Brooks to submit. On the 19th, Brooks's party surrendered the State House to Baxter. The opposing forces then dispersed, and quiet was restored. Revolution in Louisiana.-Early in September, 1874, the Kellogg police in New Orleans seized several cases of arms belonging to private individuals. On the 14th (September, 1874), the citizens of New Orleans held a large mass meeting on Canal street, to protest against the seizure of arms as an outrage. The speakers at this meeting advised the people to overthrow the Kellogg Government by violence; and a committee of citizens requested Governor Kellogg to resign; but the Governor replied through a deputy, refusing to receive any communication from the commit. tee. D. B. Penn, Lieutenant-Governor with Governor McEnery, thereupon issued a proclamation to the people of Louisiana, calling upon them to arm and drive the 528 $4. cEwz'EWMAſ. AZSTORY. Yisurper Kellogg from power, and also a proclamation to the colored people of the State, assuring them that no harm was meant toward their race. The people of New Orleans responded with alacrity to the advice to arm; and, on the afternoon of the same day (September 14, 1874), armed men held undisputed possession of Canal street. About four o'clock, 500 Metropolitan police, with cavalry and artil- lery, appeared at the head of Canal street, and General Longstreet, who commanded them, ordered the armed citizens to disperse. The insurgents refusing to comply, a fight occurred between them and the Metropolitan police, and eighty men were killed and wounded on both sides. The Metropolitans broke at the first fire, and the citizens captured all their artillery. The citizens then built barricades on all he streets leading from Canal street. Most of the barricades were made with street railroad cars. Governor Kellogg, General Longstreet, and others, fled for refuge to the Custom House, where they were sheltered by United States troops. There was considerable firing in the streets of the city during the night, and New Orleans presented a decidedly warlike appearance. On the following morning, at seven o'clock (September 15, 1874), the State House was surrendered by the Kellogg party, to Lieutenant-Governor Penn's militia, which now numbered Io,000 men. All the State and city property, police stations, arsenals, and police and fire-alarm telegraphs, were in the possession of the McEnery party. At nine o’clock, the en- tire force of Metropolitan police and Kellogg's militia surrendered to Penn’s militia. Lieutenant-Governor Penn took the reins of government, and prepared to install all those who had been voted for on the same ticket with McEnery in 1872. The bar- ricades were torn down, and the street cars resumed their trips. In response to application from Governor Kellogg, President Grant issued a proclamation ordering the McEnery insurgents to disperse and return to their homes within five days. On the 17th (September, 1874), the McEnery Government submitted to the Presi- dent's orders. The State Capitol, and the other State buildings in New Orleans, were formally surrendered by Governor McEnery, to the United States military authorities at New Orleans. The Kellogg Administration was once more in pos session of the State Government, and perfect quiet again prevailed. Centennial Celebrations of Revolutionary Events.-The Nation was now completing the first century of its existence, and the centennials of Revolutionary events were observed with appropriate ceremonies. The one hundredth anniversary of the destruction of tea in Boston harbor was appropriately celebrated at Boston and other places, on the 16th of December, 1873; as was also the centennial anni- versary of the meeting of the First Continental Congress, on the 5th of September, 1874, at Philadelphia. A magnificent celebration of the one hundredth anniversary of the skirmishes at Lexington and Concord was held at those places, on the 19th of April, 1875, about 100,000 people having assembled on the occasion, to witness the ceremonies and hear the addresses. The centennial of the capture of Ticcinde- roga by Ethan Allen was also duly celebrated by the inhabitants of that village, on the Ioth of May, of the same year; as was also the centennial of the Mecklenburg Declaration, by the people of Charlotte, North Carolina, on the 20th. But the grandest of the celebrations of the year 1875, was the centennial of the Battle of Bunker's Hill, on the 17th of June, at Boston and Charlestown, people from different parts of the Union participating, and a procession twelve miles in length marched to the spot consecrated to Freedom. UAVY 7'E/O STA 7"E.S. - 529 THE NEW STATES. Settlement of the West.—Since the final organization of the Union in 1789, twenty-five newſ States have arisen, in what was a century ago one vast wilderness, inhabited by the red children of the forest; and thousands of new cities, towns, and villages dot the country where, one-hundred years ago, the red man hunted and fished. In addition to these twenty-five new States, flourishing Territories have arisen, so that in the course of less than another century the country between the Mississippi and Pacific slope may be erected into an additional number of pros- perous States; and the whole continent between the Atlantic and the Pacific may be covered with flourishing cities, towns, and villages, and beautiful farms 2nd the miserable savage will disappear before the busy wheels of civilization. The Thirteen Original States.—The thirteen original States, whose early history, as English colonies, we have have already considered, were as follows: Virginia, settled in 1607; Massachusetts, in 1620; New York, in 1623; New Hampshire, in 1629; Maryland, in 1634; Rhode Island, in 1636; Connecticut, in 1635; Delaware, in 1638; North Carolina, in 1663; New Jersey, in 1664; South Carolina, in 1670; Pennsylvania, in I682; and Georgia, in 1733. The New States.—The twenty-five new States which were founded since the Union was ſormed, were admitted into the Union in the following order: Vermont, in 1791 ; Kentucky, in 1792; Tennessee, in 1796; Ohio, in 1802; Louisiana, in 1812; Indiana, in 1816; Mississippi, in 1817; Illinois, in 1818; Alabama, in 1819, Maine, in 1820; Missouri, in 1821; Arkansas, in 1836; Michigan, in 1837; Florida, in 1845; Texas, in 1845; Iowa, in 1846; Wisconsin, in 1848; California, in 1850; Minnesota, in 1858; Oregon, in 1859; Kansas, in 1861; West Virginia, in 1863; Nevada, in 1864; Nebraska, in 1867; and Colorado, in 1875. Vermont.—The first of the new States, Vermont, was admitted into the Union on the 18th of February, 1791. Its territory had previously been claimed by both New Hampshire and New York. The first settlement in the State had been made by the English, at Brattleboro’, in 1724. Kentucky.—The first Western State admitted into the Union was Kentucky. The first settlement within its borders was made at Boonesboro’, in 1775, by the celebrated pioneer, Daniel Boone, of North Carolina. Its territory originally formed a part of Virginia. It became a State on the 1st of June, 1792. Tennessee.—Four years after the admission of Kentucky, June 1st, 1792, Tennessee, whose territory originally formed a part of North Carolina, was admitled into the Union as a separate State. The first permanent settlement within its borders was made at Fort Loudon, in 1757, by emigrants from North Carolina. Ohio.—In the year 1802, Ohio became a member of the American Union. It was formed from a part of the great North-West Territory, which had been ceded to the United States by Virginia and Connecticut; and the first settlement within its limits was made at Marietta, in 1788, by emigrants from New England. Louisiana.-In the year 1803, as we have already seen, the vast territory of Louisiana was purchased from France by the United States for fiſteen million dol 34 539 - CENTENAWIAA. HISTORY lars. This immense region embraced all the territory between the Mississippi river on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the west, and between l8ritish America on the north, and Texas and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. The Southeastern portion of this immense territory was admitted into the Union as a State on the 8th of April, 1812. Louisiana was first settled in 1699. - Indiana.-The second State formed out of the North-West Territory, was Indi- ana, which was admitted into the family of States on the 11th of December, 1816 It had been settled at Vincennes, in 1705, by a party of French Canadians. Mississippi.-The limits of Georgia and South Carolina originally extended westward to the Mississippi river. The western portion of the territories of the two States having been ceded to the United States and erected into the Missis- sippi Territory, the western half became a State of the Union on the Ioth of De- cember, 1817. The first settlement within its territory was made at Natchez, by the French, in 1716. Illinois.-The third State formed out of the North-West Territory was Illinois, which became a State, on the 3d of December, 1818. It was settled by the JFrench, in 1682, at Kaskaskia, the oldest European settlement in the Mississippi Valley. - s Alabama.-The eastern half of the Mississippi Territory was admitted into the Union as a separate State, on the 14th of December, 1819. The first settlement in its territory had been made at Mobile, in 1702, by French emigrants from Louisiana. Maine.—On the 15th of March, 1820, Maine, whose territory originally was under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, became a separate State. The first settlements, in this State were made by the English in the first half of the seventeeth century. Missouri.-The second State formed out of the magnificent domain of Louisiana was Missouri, which was admitted into the Union on the 21st of August, 1821. The oldest town in this State is St. Genevieve, which was founded by the French, in I755. - Arkansas.—The third State carved out of the vast region of Louisiana was Arkansas, the date of whose admission into the Union was the 15th of June, 1836. Its first settlement was made at Arkansas Post, by the French, in 1685. Michigan,—On the 26th of January, 1837, Michigan, whose domain had at one time formed a part of the North-West Territory, became a State of the American Union. Detroit, its first settlement, was ſounded by the French in 1701. Florida.-The province of Florida, which was settled by the Spaniards, at St. Augustine, in 1565, was ceded by Spain to the United States in 1819, erected into a Territory in 1821, and finally admitted into the Union as a State on the 3d of March, 1845. - . Texas.-The province of Texas originally formed a part of Mexico, and was settled by the Spaniards at San Antonio de Bexar, in 1692. It was sparsely settled until after Mexico had become independent of Spain, when a stream of emigration flowed into its territory from the United States. These American emigrants, dis- satisfied with Mexican military rule, rebelled, and after a bloody war secured the independence of Texas, which then became an independent republic, and so remained for nine years, after which it was annexed to the United States; and it hecame a State of the American Union on the 19th of December, 1845. OMXZTED STATES. 53I Iowa.-On the 28th of December, 1846, Iowa, which had originally formed a part of the Louisiana purchase, and afterwards a portion of the Wisconsin Territory, was admitted in the Union as a State. It was first settled at Burlington and Dubuque, in 1833, by emigrants from Illinois. Wisconsin.—The eastern portion of the Wisconsin Territory was admitted into the Union as a State, by the name of Wisconsin, on the 29th of May, 1848. It was settled by the French at Green Bay, in 1745. California.-By the war with Mexico in 1846, all of the Mexican provinces of Upper California and New Mexico became Territories of the United States by con quest and purchase. The first settlement in California was made at San Diego, by the Spaniards, in 1769. The discovery of gold in the valley of the Sacramento river in 1848, caused this region, which had hitherto been thinly peopled, to become suddenly densely populated. Immigration set in to California from all parts of America and from Europe; and in 1849; application was made for the admission of California into the Union of States, and it was accordingly admitted as a State on the 9th of September, 1850, being the first State formed west of the Rocky Mountains. Minnesota.-Eight years after the admission of California, Minnesota was ad- mitted into the Union as a State. The date of its admission was the 11th of May, 1858. The first permanent settlement in Minnesota was made at St. Paul, in 1846, by emigrants from the Eastern States. Oregon.—The vast territory of Oregon, west of the Rocky Mountains, and north of California, which was for a long time claimed by both Great Britain and the United States, was finally divided in 1846, giving to Great Britain all that portion of the territory north of forty-nine degrees north latitude, and to the United States, all that portion south of these limits. The valley of the Columbia river and its tributaries was explored in 1804, by Lieutenants Lewis and Clarke, of the United States army. Astoria, named in honor of the wealthy John Jacob Astor, of New York, was founded in 1811. On the I4th of February, 1859, the South- western part of this Territory was admitted as a State by the name of Oregon— being the second State formed on the Pacific slope. The northern portion of Oregon Territory had been formed into a separate Territory in 1853, named Wash- ington. Kansas.-On the 29th of January, 1861, Kansas was admitted into the Union as the thirty-fourth State. It had been for several years the theatre of lawless vio- lence, growing out of the adverse views of its settlers on the slavery question. Its first settlement was made at Leavenworth, by emigrants from Missouri. West Virginia.-The Civil War produced a new State by the division of Virginia. The inhabitants of the Western counties of Virginia being opposed to secession, applied to the National Congress for the admission of their section as a separate State. Congress granted their request; and accordingly, West Virginia became an independent commonwealth on the 20th of June, 1863. Nevada.-On the 31st of October, 1864, Nevada was admitted into the family of States, being the third State west of the Rocky Mountains. Its first settlement was made at Carson City, by emigrants from the older States. Nebraska.-On the 15th of January, 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the 532 CEAVZTEAVAVIAJ. HZSTORY Union as the thirty-seventh State. Its first settlement was made at Omaha, by emigrants from the older States. Its population increased rapidly. Colorado.—The thirty-eighth State was Colorado, which was admitted as such, on the 4th of March, 1875. Its first settlements were made at Denver and Colo- rado city. Owing to the large deposits of gold, its population rapidly increased. The Territories of the United States.—There are now ten Territories belonging to the United States;—namely, Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Washington, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, the Indian Territory, and Alaska, the last of which comprises the extensive, but almost valueless domain, purchased from Russia in 1867, for $7,200,000. A HISTORICAL RETROSPECT. Progress of the Nation.—We have now traced the history of the United States of America to the close of the first century of their existence as a nation, and we cannot more fittingly conclude than by a brief resumé of their material, intellect. ual, moral and political progress. The Republic is a marvel in history, outstrip- ping anything ever before recorded in connection with national vigor and growth. England dates back to the Heptarchy—more than a thousand years. France counts an existence from the time of Charlemagne, though, to go no further back than Hugh Capet, who made Paris her permanent capital, she is nearly nine hundred years old. The Republic of the United States has scarcely outrun the lives of her founders. One hundred years is but a little space in the chronology of nations, yet one hundred years have served to see the modern and model republic of the world grow from three to forty-three millions of people. True, she has not bred them all; but such is the beauty of her institutions that she has won them from other nations, and such their vigor that she has indoctrinated them and made them as much her own children as if they had been “to the manner born.” Unity, Power and Commercial Growth.-Prior to the Declaration of Inde- pendence, England's hope of further supremacy lay in colonial segregation, sparse settlement and commercial feebleness. But the unity which sprang from a common danger proved the germ of a power which defied the wit of statecraft and set at naught the forceful guardianship of monarchy. Not only was that power sufficiently magical to transform discordant colonies into an harmonious organization, but it proved capable of speedily endowing them with all those elements of potentiality, without which infancy would have been sickly, and maturity long delayed and lean, Wisdom might have framed a beautiful autonomy, stubborn will might have main- tained independence, but without that spirit which impels to enterprise, which shapes industry and creates wealth, the Nation must have dragged along the road to successful empire, even as Mexico drags, richly endowed as she is by nature. Among the embryonic possibilities of the new nation, we shall not say among her earliest necessities, was a commerce of her own. How these possil ilities have developed, let a word suffice. In the beginning, a few fishing smacks and insig- nificant coasters constituted the commercial wealth of the Republic. Now her merchant marine has swelled to 32,576 vessels of all classes, with an aggregate UWITED STATES. 533 tonnage of 4,725,346 tons. Then her exports were next to nothing, and her imports consisted of the few articles upon which the mother country sought to levy a tax for her own enrichment. Now her exports have swelled to the magnificent sum of $643,094,767, while her imports have reached $553,906, I53. Her ships are found In every harbor of the world, and the products of every clime are brought to her ports, Commensurate with the growth of her commerce has been that of her Consular system, by which this commerce is stimulated and protected. The Gov- ernment's official agents are accredited to every nation having a seaboard, for the purpose of supervising the varied interests of seamen and merchants, and preserving the dignity of our flag in the maritime marts. Growth in Manufactures.—While commerce is the Nation's badge of acquain- tance and confidence abroad, and one of the most significant evidences of its enter- prise and growth, its domestic manufactures are even more accurate representatives of its genius and thrift. The Republic may be more impressive by reason of its commerce, but it is more healthful, happy and stable by reason of its manufacturing industries. The history of our growth in this respect reads like a tale of enchant- ment. A primitive grist or saw-mill upon some eligible stream, an occasional fur- nace, the inevitable hand-loom and spinning-wheel in the house—these constituted the simple beginnings of a manufacturing interest which, in the short lapse of a century, has reached colossal proportions. The manufacturing establishments now existing number 260,000, employing 1,300,000 horse-power and 2,250,000 hands. The capital embarked is $2,250,000,000; the annual wages paid is $800,000,000; the annual products are valued at $4,300,000,000. There is scarcely a commodity used for the convenience or comfort of man that is not manufactured in our midst, and by machinery of our own invention. Our hardware finds a ready sale in the favorite markets of the world. Our textile ſabrics have been quite recently intro- duced in Liverpool and Manchester, where they compete successfully in price and quality with the boasted manufactures of those industrial centres. Agricultural Growth.-The pride of every nation is its husbandmen. The United States fortunately embraces the great grain belts of the continent. Climate conspires with soil to make it the most productive land in the world. The colo- mists knew but little of the immense agricultural resources of the country; they eked out subsistence on the comparatively barren slopes of the Atlantic, never dreaming of the immeasurable wealth that was to spring from the, to them, inaccessible prairies of the interior. It cannot be said that they laid the foundation of our now majestic agricultural system, except in so far as they contributed to pioneer force of character and the Îove of acquired acres. The present system was the growth of a time, after that civilization had pierced the Alleghanies and levied tribute on - the boundless West. In all that appertains to agricultural development, history must make record of the same wonderful growth that has characterized the Nation in other respects. Her agriculture has been a conquest as full of grand results as her manufactures and commerce. It has brought her plenty, wealth, independence. We feed ourselves, and that is more than Germany, England or France can say. We sell to the needy nations abroad more of the cereal products than any othe, country in the world. The improved farm land of the country equals 200,000,000 acres, while the annual redemption of land from wilderness and subjection to agri- cultural purposes averages 4,000,000 acres. The cash value of the farms is in 534 CENTEAWAV/A/C HISTORY. excess of $10,000,000,000, and the annual value of all farm products approximates $3,000,000,000. The Colonies were dependent. Now we raise 8oo,000,ooo bushels of corn and 200,000,000 of wheat, while the aggregate value of our cereal products foots up $1,250,000,000. Europe now gets more grain from us in a year than was raised in the entire thirteen States at the time the Constitution was formed. Improvements in agricultural appliances have kept even pace with this enormous growth of products. The farms of the United States are the best furnished in the world. In farm machinery there has been a complete revolution. Genius for inventing labor-saving appliances seems to have sprung from the ground along with the luxuriant crops. The agricultural sciences have been pushed with energy. Farm education is looked upon as a desirable acquisition, and farming as an accom- plishment. These are achievements which make the century more glorious, than if Alexanders had paraded the world in boots and spurs, or Pharaohs had been mummified in magnificent monuments built to their own folly. Growth of Mining Industries.—The charm of early discovery on the West- ern Continent was intensified by stories of El Dorados and Golcondas told by the natives to credulous adventurers. These were in some instances verified by the discovery of vast treasure houses, as in the case of the Incas of South America and the Montezumas of Mexico. Spanish cupidity subordinated every consideration.of solid comfort and substantial progress to the wealth that flowed from the mine. As a consequence, the mineral development of the Spanish possessions began early, and the new countries were made to contribute largely to the riches of the old. The names of Peru and Mexico became synonymous with bullion, and bars of gold and silver. Little did the hardy colonists of the North dream that, ere their child- ren passed away, the less inviting hills of their own country would unfold a wealth richer and more exhaustless than any Southern land could boast. The application of steam to machinery had hardly passed beyond the limit of experiment, till science unearthed the magnificent coal fields of the Appalachian range and re- vealed a treasure far more indispensable than any precious metal. Study of geolog- ical structures, the drift and tendency of rock formations, the result of manual experiment—these, crowning a desire that intensified as it marched westward with our civilization, established the fact that nature had not only been everywhere prodigal of her mineral wealth, but that she had so arranged the different varieties as to make them most useful to man. Coal may not always be found where iron ore exists, but it is found most where iron exists most, thus proving the providential distribution of the baser treasures of earth. How this happy arrangement has affected our industries can be learned by referring to those localities where the smoke of the furnace and the forge forms perpetual clouds around the summits of the moun- tains whose inward treasures are being wrought into use. Long before our pioneers . were checked by the ranges of the Western coast, the country could safely make the boast of being the richest in mineral wealth in the world. But with 1848 and the gold discoveries in California, and afterwards with the discovery of silver in Nevada, Monana and Colorado, there came a time when the nations wondered at the marvelous richness of our mineral deposits, and the most extravagant ſables of the wealth of the Sierras were eclipsed by convincing reality. 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L sēļeļS pēļļun eųL s UNITED STATES. 535 metals. A nation grew up as if by magic among the Cordilleras, and our empire waved her wand over the Pacific seas. In less than thirty years, we find great and populous States literally carved out of the wilderness, vying with those of the East in population and wealth, and contributing of their industry and resources a large share to the general wealth. From 1848 to 1868, the gold and silver areas of the West yielded $1,210,000,000, and the yield for every year since is set down at an average of $60,000,000. In 1857, another discovery of underground wealth was made, which has proven a boon to the world. We allude to the petroleum deposits of Pennsylvania, Ohio and Virginia—but especially to those of Pennsylvania. This discovery was as if the fiat of Genesis had been repeated, sit lux / “let there be light!” Coal oil has become indispensable in the American home, and a staple article of commerce, being carried to every country. Nearly 1,000,000,000 gallons have been sent abroad since 1857, yielding over $250,000,000. Internal Improvements.--It would be a pardonable hyperbole to say that a country without railroads, telegraphs, and canals, is a thousand years behind the age. Yet when the old thirteen States became one, no such conveniences existed. Our entire and vast system of inland communication is the result of less than a century of enterprise. In the application of power to inland commerce, in the perfection of appliances for intercommunication, in thesexpenditure of money and the elaboration of plans for abridging our immense distances, this country is almost phenomenal. In 1830 the first 23 miles of railroad were opened for use. Now not less than 70,000 miles occupy the country like a network, put down at a cost of $3,500,000,000. This mileage exceeds that of all the countries of Europe com- bined. Twenty-five years ago, Prof. Morse asked of Congress an appropriation to aid him in experimenting with electricity, with a possible view of making it avail- able in commerce. He was hooted at as a crazy enthusiast, and his scheme was compared to that of the lunatic who projected a railway to the moon. There are now in the country 80,000 miles of telegraph, and no natural force has ever been bridled that has proved so cheap, convenient, and indispensable, nor any that is more potent as a civilizer. Canal improvements, which were so much in favor in the early part of the century, have not kept pace with the railways. They are too expensive to build, and too sluggish in operation to be competitive and profitable, except where they serve as short links to river, lake or ocean transit. The country has not realized from them the promises at first held out. Educational Advancement.—The glory of the Republic is its system of col- leges and schools. Our fathers sought intellectual, as well as personal, liberty in the Western wilds. The former, left to itself, has proved abundantly able to care for , its own welfare. Twenty years after the landing of the Pilgrims, and ere the suc- cess of colonization in a strange land had by any means been proved, Harvard College was founded, and the foundation of a common school system was laid. In I637 a school was provided in the Massachusetts Colony for every neighborhood of fifty families, and a school of a higher grade for every neighborhood of one hundred families. These schools were to be maintained by taxes. This system, called the New England System, has been adopted, with but slight modification, by every State in the Union. Its growth has kept even pace with our civilization, of which it is a distinguished concomitant. No man can measure its importance. Its effects are visible everywhere in our characteristic enlightenment, our high morals, 536 CEAVTEAVAWAZ HYSTOA” Y. our wonderful enterprise. It has contributed, more than any other single factor, to national progress and perpetuity, and to that individual heroism and good sense which has made the title of “Yankee,” both proverbial and respectable. Between the colleges and common schools has sprung up a system designed to provide aca- demic training for those who propose engaging in special service. Perhaps the most notable' class of this system is the Normals, whose province it is to prepare cominon school teachers. Another distinguished class is the agricultural colleges, aver sixty of which exist, designed to train farmers for a scientific understanding of their profession. Nearly all the leading colleges have, in obedience to a demand for special instruction, connected with their literary curriculums. special courses upon the physical sciences, in which the instruction is given a practical and every. day turn. In all that concerns education, the Republic is fully abreast of the age, and in many respects she is a model for governments far older and more pretentious. Her systems meet the approval of countries like England, France and Germany, where literature and art have high antiquity, and where institutions of learning always invite the best talent and the most respectable surroundings. The common schools of the Nation approximate 130,000 in number, with 150,000 teachers and an average attendance of over 3,000,ooo scholars. The system of the country is sustained at an annual outlay of $75,000,090. Of the higher institutions of learning there were, in 1871, 372 colleges, 56 agricultural colleges and scientific schools, I I7 theological seminaries, 40 law schools, 94 medical and dental schools, I 36 female colleges, and 84 commercial schools. As a part of the educational system,and as contributing a pro rata share to the standard of literary and scientific excellence, mention must be made of the wonderful growth of the country in libraries. The frequency of these, both private and public, and their extent, stamp the Americans as a nation of readers. There exist at present over 165,000 libraries in the Republic, containing 46,000,000 volumes. Of these, about two-fifths are public, and three-fifths private. These fig- ures are semi-official, and they only approximate the truth. It is safe to calculate that the volumes in libraries exceed 60,000,000. Coincident also with the educa- tional growth of the country is that of the press—an adjunct to information, more immediate in its effects than books, and further of reach than even the school-house. At the beginning of the century, the newspaper was an exceptional thing. Now nearly every county has its paper, and the town that does not support a periodical of some kind cannot safely lay claim to intellectual precedence. The cities are centres of news information, and there flows out from them a constant and rapidly swelling stream of daily, weekly and monthly publications. In 1870 there were 5,871 news- papers printed in the Republic, with a daily circulation of 20,842,475 copies, and an annual circulation of I,508,548,250 copies. They are devoted to nearly every subject, whether of trade, industry, science, profession or politics. Religious and Moral Growth.-A wise proviso in the Constitution leaves the sub, *t of religion and church government entirely free from State interference. But so deeply rooted has Christianity become in the hearts of the American people :hat it is as much of a common law unto them as if its tenets were enjoined by Congressional or legislative enactment, or established by usages running far beyond the memory of man. Its growth is even with that of other affairs, and as truly congratulatory and wonderful. Measured by general standards, the country occupies the lighest position in religious advancement and sound morals. Church munifi- cence ranks in extent with the older countries. The denominations vie with each º UAVZ 7'ED STATES. . 537 other in peaceful and persuasive propagandism. The consequence is growth every- where, and what is more important, good everywhere. In free America, this cen- tury has proved the possibility of religious teaching and creed propagation, without the cruelties of the inquisitorial period, without the bitterness of the last century, with something of that comity and love which characterized the work of Him who made the cause of the respective denominations a single and crowning cause. Political Perpetuity and Growth.-The nation was born in spirit at the time of the Declaration, but not in fact till the adoption of the Constitution. This com- pact Instrument crystallized the States then claiming to be independent sovereignties, and begat of them a national entirety, whose authority became supreme for all purposes for which empires are created. However compelling the necessities which surrounded the inception of the Republic, and however auspicious its beginnings, it was not to escape the trials which history proves to be inseparable from national growth. Governments are apt to be their own worst enemies; at least their greatest proofs of strength are found in their ability to live and to deserve existence. Colon ial solidarity meant a comparatively easy triumph over the English forces sent to crush us. So unity assured an early victory in 1814 and in 1848. But could the Republic conquer and rule itself? Could it reduce to subjection the thousand and one forces which its very growth, importance and beauty, generated and fostered? This test of national greatness is crucial. It has not failed us thus far; God grant it may never fail us. Possibly the most subtle force to reduce was that which we will denominate the immigrative. The country invited millions from abroad. They came with different motives and tastes, and with different feelings of respect for our institutions. They were food in a raw state. Could the country digest and assimilate them? Had our institutions sufficient vitality to breathe into them an Americanized life, and reduce them to the condition of willingly supporting integers of population? Thus far the digestive process has been complete. The strength of our freedom and the wholesomeness of our laws have ever conduced to respect for the Republic, and no matter what the nationality of the immigrant, he has always been found willing to share with the native born the glorious name and privileges of an American citizen. Another matter of concern was the reduction of territory to the form and consistency of States. Were our institutions adapted to a Union of numerous States, with diversified climates, products and wants? Could they stand the test of repeated annexations of territory and introductions of new governing factors? They have stood this test without strain or impairment, but with an additional sense of their superiority and fitness. From thirteen States, occupying the narrow Eastern slopes of the Alleghanies, the Republic has grown to include thirty-eight States, while the outlying Territories contribute as much of their sympathy and power to the central government as if they were active participants in its highest honors and more delicate affairs. But again, could our institutions stand the ordeal of internal strife engendered by causes of a politico-moral nature, which were left as a legacy by the fathers and founders, only because their early removal would have prevented the formation and adoption of the Constitution? They have proven equal to this task also. However sorely taxed by the madness which pre- ceded the rebellion, however tried in the seven times hotter fires of civil war, there was never a moment in which they bent to the crushing storm, but all through the cruel ordeal they grew brighter, stronger, purer, and more worthy of respect. With 538 CEAV7'EAVAWIAL ///STOA V. the gradual obliteration of the scars left by civil war, with the the era of reconcilia- tion in ſull tide, with a more perfect freedom than ever before, there is no hope of additional prosperity which cannot be realized, no promise of future perpetuity which cannot be fulfilled, no lustre for our institutions which they will not deserve, THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. The Centenary Epoch—Preliminary Events.--A desire, very generally felt by the people of the United States, that the Centennial anniversary of their National Independence should be celebrated in a manner worthy of the event, found forcible expression through the writings of eminent men, soon after the close of the Civil War. The most notable of these writings were prepared by Mr. John Bigelow of New York, Gen'l Chas. B. Norton, U.S. Commissioner to the Paris Exposition, and Prof. J. C. Campbell, of Wabash College, Ind., who presented his views in the form of an address to Hon. Morton McMichael, then Mayor of Philadelphia. The press of the country cordially seconded the sentiments thus enunciated, and it soon became plain that a popular and responsive chord had been touched. But the practical and fruitful inception of the enterprise was in a communication from the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia to the Commissioners of Fairmount Park, asking for authority to use the Park grounds for the purpose of a grand expo- sition of American products, in which all the nations of the world were to be asked to compete. A Committee of the City Councils was created, which brought the project to the notice of the Legislature of Pennsylvania. This latter body brought the matter before Congress, in the shape of a memorial, dated June 16th, 1870. The Selection of a Site.—On the 9th of March, 1870, Mr. Morrell introduced a bill in the National House of Representatives, which became the basis of future action in the matter. As soon as it was known that Congress was likely to hearken to the sentiment of the country, several of the leading cities laid claim to the honor of a celebration so memorable as this bade fair to be. Much jealousy was mani- fested by the claimants. A clangor concerning the merits of respective places was kept up in the newspapers. Congress wrangled and hesitated. But as discus- sion proceeded, the claims of Philadelphia, as being the scene of the promulgation of the Declaration of Independence, as possessing within her limits Independence Hall, and as offering the most majestic spaces and the best accommodations, began to have general recognition. A Committee of the House of Representatives visited that city, with the view of selecting a site. Their judgment was favorable. On March 3d, 1871, a bill was passed providing “for a National Celebration of the one hundredth anniversary of the Independence of the United States, by the holding of an International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures and Products of the Soil and Mine, in the city of Philadelphia, in the year 1876.” The bill also authorized the creation of a Centennial Commission, composed of one member from each State, with alternates, whose duty was to organize the Celebration. The jealousy respect. ing the selection of a site now nearly disappeared, but its effect was painfully mami fest in the creative bill, which contained the parsimonious proviso that the Goverti- ment should bear no part of the expense of the Celebration. But while the rroject was thus shorn of the truly national features at first designed for it, it was given fresh impetus by the organization of the Commission on March 4th, 1872. OMX 7 EZ) STATES. 539 Further Organization and Work.-A subsequent act of Congress (June 1st, 1872,) authorized the creation of a Centennial Board of Finance, with a capital stock not to exceed $10,000,000, to be secured by subscriptions, each share of stock to be ten dollars. This Board organized on May 1oth, 1873, and immediately began the work of raising money and applying the same to the elaboration of plans and the erection of buildings. By July 3d, 1873, the plans were sufficiently devel- oped to warrant a proclamation by the President of the United States, in accord- ance with the act of March 3d, 1871, in which he said, “I do hereby declare and proclaim that there will be held, at the city of Philadelphia, in the State of I'enn. sylvania, an International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures and Products of the Soil and Mine, to be opened on the 19th of April, 1876, (afterwards changed to May Ioth,) and to be closed on the 19th of October, (afterwards changed to Nov. Ioth,) in the same year.” By the same act, the President was requested, in the name of the United States, to extend to all foreign governments a respectful and cordial invitation to be repre- sented and take part in the International Exhibition. Such invitation was extended, through the Department of State, on July 5th, 1873, and afterwards, on a better understanding of the relations of the Government to the Exhibition. The Com- mission invited the several States and Territories to form Advisory Boards or Com- mittees, to assist in securing a complete representation of the industries of their respective districts. The following States and Territories have at this writing (Feb. 3d, 1876,) formed official Committees of representation: Alabama, Iºansas, New Mexico, Arizona, Louisiana, New York, Arkansas, Maine, Ohio, California, Massachusetts, Oregon, Colorado, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Mississippi, Rhode Island, Dakota, Missouri, Tennessee, Delaware, Minnesota, Texas, Florida, Montana, Vermont, Georgia, Nebraska, Virginia, Illinois, Nevada, Washington T., Indiana, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Iowa, New Jersey, Wyoming. In other States the work has been undertaken by duly qualified Boards, which are likely to make as creditable displays as those officially endowed. Participation by Foreign Governments.-The foreign Governments which have accepted the invitation to participitate and have appointed commissions to superintend the exhibition of their products, are: Argentine Confeder- ation, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Chili, China, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, France and Algeria, Germany, Great Britian, with Aus- tralia and Canada. Guatemala and Salvador, Hawaii, - IHayti, Honduras, Japan, Liberia, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Norway, Orange River Free State, Persia, Peru, Portugal, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Tunis, Turkey, U. S. of Colombia, Venezuela. 54o CENTEAVAWIAA, HZSTOA V. Appropriations and Subscriptions.—The absolute appropriations thus far are those made by Pennsylvania, . e tº º o º º . $1,000,000. Philadelphia, o º e o e Q © I,500,000. $2,500,000. The following States and cities have subscribed to the stock: New Jersey, c © e o e & º . $IOO,OOO. Delaware, g © te e e º s tº º IO,OOO. Connecticut, º e º © g tº º tº IO,OOO. New Hampshire, . o Q G º e © tº IO,OOO. Wilmington, (Del.) e º º O º o º 5,OOO. — $135,000. The amount of stock subscriptions of an individual character , thus far is . e e e º e © e . $2,222,750. Donations, o º o e e e º o 35,000. Amount realized from concessions, e º tº gº 33O,OOO. —-— $2,587,750. Making a grand total thus far raised of e e tº º . $5,222,750. The total estimated expense of the buildings and grounds is . . $6,724,350. During the month of February, 1876, an appropriation of $1,500,000 was made by the United States Government. Several States have appropriated money, to be expended by their respective Boards for securing an exhibition of their products, and for the erection of State buildings for the accommodation of their citizens. The General Government has likewise appropriated half a million dollars for a building, and to secure an exhibi- tion of the products which come under its especial care. The Buildings.-On July 4th, 1874, ground was broken for the first of the structures, Memorial Hall. Now there is enclosed for the Exhibition a space equal to two hundred and thirty acres, in which have been erected the Main Exposition building, Memorial Hall (the Art Gallery), Machinery Hall, Horticultural Hall, the Agricultural Building, the Women's Pavilion, buildings to represent the various trades, and the different State and National buildings. The actual flooring for exhibition purposes covers an area of sixty acres. The total number of buildings within the enclosure will aggregate one hundred and fifty. The Main Building.—This is a parallelogram, running East and West 1876 feet in length, and North and South 464 feet in width. The larger portion is one story high, the interior height being 70 feet, and the cornice outside 48 feet from the ground. At the centre of the longer sides are projections 416 feet in length. At either end are projections 216 feet in length. In these projections are the main entrances, with arcades on the ground floor, and façades 90 feet high. At each corner of thc building are towers 75 feet high. In the centre, the roof, for a space of 184 feet square, has been raised above the surrounding portion, and at each corner of this elevation are towers 48 feet square and 120 feet high. The ground plan shows a central avenue 120 feet wide and 1832 feet long, which is the longest avenue of that width ever introduced into an exhibition building. On either side of this is an avenue 100 feet wide, and of equal length. Between the central and OAVZZ'ED STA 7TES." 541 side avenues are aisles 48 feet wide, and on the outer sides of the building are aisles 24 feet wide. The square feet of surface in the floor are 936,008, or nearly 21% acres. The Superstructureissupported by wrought iron columns, on piers of mas- onry. These are placed 24 feet apart, and there are 672 of them in the building, the shortest being 25, and the longest 125 feet in length. Their aggregate weight is 2,200,000 lbs. The roof trusses and girders weigh 5,000,000 lbs. There underlie the building two miles of drainage pipe, the water supply and drainage being complete. The design of the building is such that all exhibitors will have an equally fair opportunity of exhibiting their goods to advantage. The Art Gallery.—The most imposing and ornate of all the structures is Memorial Hall, built at a cost of $1,500,000 by the State of Pennsylvania and the city of Philadelphia. It is designed to be a permanent edifice for the exhibition of industrial and art collections, similar to the famous South Kensington Museum, at London; but has been placed at the disposal of the Centennial Commission, to be used during the Exposition as an Art Gallery. It stands upon a terrace 122 feet above the Schuylkill. Nothing combustible has been used in its construction. The design is modern Renaissance. It is 365 feet long, 2Io wide and 59 high, and covers an acre and a half. A dome, 150 feet high, surmounts the centre, capped by a colossal ball, on which is a figure of Columbia. The entrance, on the South side, is 70 feet wide. In it are three doorways, each 15 feet wide and 40 feet high. Between the arches of the doorways are clusters of columns terminating in emblematic designs illustrative of Science and Art. The doors are of iron, relieved by bronze panels, displaying the coats of arms of all the States and Terri- tories. The United States coat of arms is in the centre of the main frieze. The dome is of glass and iron. Colossal figures stand at each corner of the base of the dome, typifying the ſour quarters of the globe. The inside of this building is arranged so as to make the most effective display of works of art—paintings, statuary, or of whatever kind. All the galleries and the central hall are lighted from above; the pavilions and studios from the sides. There are 75,000 square feet of wall for the exhibition of paintings, and 20,000 square feet of floor space for statuary. All the skylights are double, the upper being of clear glass, and the under of ground glass. Machinery Building.—This structure stands in a line, East and West, with the Main Building, and, though 550 feet westward, is practically a continuation of it, the two together making a frontage of 5824 feet. It consists of a main hall I402 feet long and 360 feet wide, with annexes, one of which is 208 feet by 2IO feet. It covers an area of 558,440 square feet, or nearly 13 acres, with a floor space in all equal to 14 acres. The chief portions are one story in height, the cor- nices being 40 feet from the ground. The ground plan shows two main avenues, 90 feet wide, with aisles between and on either side 60 feet wide, their length being 1360 feet. The walls are chiefly of glazed sash between the columns. Every conceivable arrangement for the propulsion is provided for. A Corliss steam engine of 14oo horse power will furnish free power to exhibitors. The Agricultural Building.—This building embraces a novel combinatio ct Wood, glass and iron. It consists of a nave or centre 820 feet long, by 125 wide and 75 high. This centre is crossed by three transepts, the middle one being roo feet wide and 75 high, and the two ends over 80 feet wide and 75 high. In the interior it resembles a great cathedral, and the vista, looking from transept to 3. 542 CEAV7'EAVAWAZ HYSTORY. transept, is very imposing. The ground plan is a parallelogram, covering 10% acres. Steam power is introduced for propelling agricultural machinery. In con- nection with this building are extensive stock yards for the exhibition of horses. cattle, poultry, etc., and also a race-course. Horticultural Building.—This building owes its existence to the liberality of the city of Philadelphia. It is extremely commodious and ornate, and is designed to be a permanent ornament to Fairmount Park. Its design is Moresque of the 12'h century, and its chief materials are iron and glass, supported by bases of marble and brick. It is 383 feet long, 193 wide and 75 high. The main floor is occupied by the central conservatory, 230 feet by 80 feet, and 55 feet high, sur- mounted by a lantern I70 feet long, 20 feet wide and 14 feet high. It contains four forcing houses, each IOO by 30 feet. Ornamental stairways lead from spacious vestibules to the interior galleries of the conservatory, and to four exterior galleries, each IOO by Io feet. The building is heated throughout. Surrounding it are 35 acres of ground, devoted to horticultural purposes. - Miscellaneous Buildings.-On every side, giving to the grounds the appear- ance of a city, are buildings for special purposes. There are structures for execu- tive officers, for customs purposes, post office, police, telegraph, judges, juries, etc. The Women's Pavilion is a tasteful and commodious structure erected at a cost of $30,000. The building of the National Government is also beautiful and com- manding. The numerous structures erected by foreign governments and by sev- eral of the States, evince taste and special adaptation. The buildings representa- tive of the different trades are ornate and convenient. The Great Exhibitions of the World:— \ Space covered by buildings. Cost. London, 1851, º o © o • 2C alCreS. $1,464,000. New York, 1853, o e e © 5% “ 500,000. Paris, 1855, . o e o º . 3O &&. 4,OOO,OOO. London, 1862, . . . o º © 24 £6 2,300,000. Paris, 1867, . © te º º . 40% “ 4,596,000. Vienna, 1873, . © o º o 5O 66 9,850,000. Philadelphia, 1876, e * > © . 6o &é 6,724,350. Opening of the Centennial Exhibition, May 1oth, 1876.-The great Exhibition, commemorative of the one hundredth anniversary of American Inde- pendence, opened auspiciously, Wednesday, May 1oth, 1876. The day was pleasant, and over 186,000 people were present at the Exhibition. The day being a legal holiday, all the places of business in Philadelphia were closed, and flags were displayed in profusion on all the thoroughfares. The gates opened at 9 a.m., and at all the entrances there was soon an immense jam. The foreign Commis- sioners and other distinguished guests effected an entrance through the Main Exhibition Building, and took seats on the platform without confusion. At 10:30 a.m., the Emperor of Brazil arrived, and was escorted to his seat by General Hawley, President of the Centennial Commission. Between Io.45 and II a.m., a number of distinguished characters, including President Grant and his Cabinet, Senators and Representatives in Congress, Judges of the Supreme Court, Governors of States, army officers, and the members of the foreign legations at Washington, OAVZZTEA) S 7.4 ZTAE.S. 543 passed over from the Main Building to the stand in front of the Art Gallery, and were greeted with applause by the multitude, which now filled the space between the Main Building and the Art Gallery. The number of American and foreign dignitaries present amounted to about 4,000. The total number of invited guests was about 20,000. During these proceedings a variety of National Airs were performed by the orchestra under Theodore Thomas, one of the most eminent of American musicians. The most noted of these were “Hail Columbia,” “God Save The Queen,” and “The Marseillaise.” At 11.05, the Wagner Centennial Inail- guration March was performed by the orchestra under the direction of Mr. Thomas. At the conclusion, Bishop Simpson offered a devout prayer, during which a large portion of the vast assemblage stood with uncovered heads. At the close of the prayer the Centennial Hymn, by John G. Whittier, was sung by the grand chorus. At 11.26 a.m., Mr. John Welsh, President of the Centennial Board of Finance, presented the buildings to the United States Centennial Commission, being fre- quently applauded while speaking. General Hawley then arose, and in an ap- propriate address accepted the great trust confided by the Board of Finance. At II.35 a.m., the Cantata, by Sidney Lanier, of Georgia, the music of which was composed by Dudley Buck, of Connecticut, was rendered with great effect by the orchestra; and the solo, which was sung by Myron N. Whitney, of Boston, was distinctly audible for a considerable distance. The vast multitude main- tained excellent order during the singing of the basso solo, and loudly applauded Mr. Whitney, who acknowledged the compliment by repeating a portion of the solo. At the close of the singing, Mr. Buck, the composer of the music, was called for, and bowed in acknowledgment of the compliment. At 11.48 a.m., General Hawley began the presentation address, turning the buildings over to the President of the United States. At 11.55 a.m., President Grant, amid great applause, arose, and in a short address accepted the trust confided to him by the Centennial authorities, and declared the Centennial International Exhibition open. The President was loudly cheered by the immense assemblage, the Emperor of Brazil joining in the demonstration by waving his hat. At 12 o'clock, at a signal from General Hawley, the American flag was unfurled from the Main Building, and the orchestra and organs rendered the Hallelujah Chorus, while the chimes of the bells on the buildings and the salute of Ioo guns from George's Hill added vastly to the impressiveness of the occasion. During the ringing of the chimes, the foreign Commissioners left the platform and passed over to their respective departments in the Main Building; after which President Grant, accompanied by Director-General Goshorn, followed by the guests and the multitude, passed into the Main Building, and thence to Machinery Hall, where at 1.20 p.m. the Presi- dent and the Brazilian Emperor started the great Corliss engines, which set in motion fourteen acres of machinery, comprising 8,000 different machines, thus closing the formal ceremonies of the day. After the closing of the ceremonies, the immense multitudes dispersed over the grounds, visiting the different buildings. Since the opening day, there have been from 25,000 to 50,000 visitors to the Exhi. bition daily. The Various Nations Represented and their Industries.—The four leading nations of the world—the United States, England, France, and Germany— have the most advantageous positions in the Main Exhibition Building. These 544 CEAVTEAVAV/A/. H/STOR V. four nations have equal portions of the loſty central pavilion, and each poſsesses one of the four towers. The proximity of these great competitors for the world's trade will have a tendency to incite rivalry, and thus contribute largely toward making the Exhibition a grand success. The most costly and beautiful articles are exhibited here, and this is the great centre of attraction of the entire E tlhibition. More than one-fourth of the entire ſloor-space is assigned to the United States. England, France, and Germany have, since the first allotment, made upplication for additional space, and each of these great nations is exerting itself ty its xtmost to make the finest exhibit. Great Britain exhibits a full representation ºf her textile fabrics and her iron and steel products. Germany makes a full (isplay of her various industries, and her mining department doubtless excels that of any other nation of the Old World. France surpasses all other nations in the display of rich and beautiful objects; and various articles of jewelry and silk manufactures fully assert the superiority of the French in matters of taste. Austria exhibits a great variety of her industries, such as glassware, iron, manufactures, cloth, leather, and fancy goods. Belgium makes a fair exhibit of the finest and most useful manu- factures, such as Brussels laces and curious iron products, for which that little but busy country is so famous. Holland makes some show in the department of manuſactures, and the curious and delicate fabrics of her East India possessions are on exhibition. Italy is also represented, and the Italian manufactures have a portion of the reserved space. Switzerland surpasses other nations in watches and various instruments. Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Greece, Spain, and Portugal also make a display of their manufactures, which are not so extensive, but which, from the fact that they are so little seen in the markets of the world, form an inter- esting feature of the Exhibition. Turkey and Egypt make a fair display of Oriental costumes, arms, furniture, and equipages. China and Japan exhibit the curious wares in the manufacture of which they are so remarkably ingenious. Canada and Cuba also fill a large space in the Main Building, and the mineral products of Mexico and Peru are exhibited, but in general the countries of the New World, with the exception of the United States, do not have much to exhibit. Centennial Visitations.—Close of the Centennial Exposition, Nov. Ioth, 1876.-During the months of September, October and November, there were over IOO,Ooo visitors at the Exposition daily. Excursions came from all parts of the country. In September and October, there were a number of “State Days.” The most prominent of these were “New York Day,” September 21st, at which over 120,000 people were present; “Pennsylvania Day,” September 28th, at which 260,000 persons were present; and “Ohio Day,” October 26th, at which about 140,000 people were present. The Centennial International Exposi- tion closed on the Ioth of November, 1876, over 150,000 people being present. Owing to the inclemency of the weather, the ceremonies were held in the “Judges' Hall,” and thus were witnessed by very few persons. Addresses were made by President Grant, General Hawley, and Director-General Goshorn. In all, there were about eight million paying visitors at the Exposition during the six months it was open. CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, OR THE GREAT EVENTS THE WORLD'S HISTORY IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. ANCIENT TIMES. B. C. 4OO4. The Creation, e e tº e 2348 The Deluge, º e º e ſº 2247 The Confusion of Tongues, .. iº * * 2240 Founding of China, • ‘e 2217 Founding of Babylon by Nimrod, Founding of Nineveh, iº º & 2188 Founding of Egypt by Misraim or Menes, I92I Abraham settles in the Promised Land, * te I856 Argos, in Greece, founded by Inachus, sº Ç 17O6 Jacob and his family settle in the Land of Goshen, . I556 Athens, in Greece, founded by Cecrops, I52O Sparta, or Lacedaemon, founded by Lelex, . “ Corinth founded, tº o © I494 Thebes, in Greece, founded by Cadmus, I491 Moses leads the Israelites out of Egypt, tº fºr The Israelites led by joshua settle in the Promised Land, . I263 The Argonautic Expedition, . © I245 Overthrow of the Midianites by Gideon, II94. The Trojan War begun, tº • I IO4 Return of the Heraclidae, . . e tº º Io95, Saul anointed first King of Israel, & Ioč8 Death of Codrus, the last King of Athens, . to55 David annointed King over Israel, e te IoI5 Solomon becomes King of the Israelites, roo4 Solomon builds the Temple, 975 Revolt of the Ten Tribes, º ſº 888 Fall of the First Assyrian Empire, • tº 384 Lycurgus establishes his code in Sparta, . º 88o Carthage founded, & tº ſº o © 753 Rome founded by Romulus, º * e 721. The Israelites carried into the Assyrian Captivity, e 716 Death of Romulus, * * 708 The Kingdom of Media founded, & 606 Nineveh destroyed by the Medes and Chaldeans, 35 (545) 27, 546 CH/ROAVO COGICAL /AVZ) EX. 594 588 560 559 546 538 530 525 52I 5io 539 495 494 490 & & 6 & 48o 43 I 429 358 35O 343 342 Abolition of the Office of Decemvir, Solon frames a code for Athens, © wº The Jews carried into the Babylonian Captivity, Usurpation of Pisistratus in Athens, . e e Cyrus the Great founds the Persian Empire, º Cyrus the Great conquers Croesus, King of Lydia, Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great, Edict of Cyrus permitting the return of the Jews to Palestine, Cyrus the Great defeated and killed by the Scythians, Cambyses, King of Persia, conquers Egypt, . e Darius Hystaspes becomes King of Persia, . e A Republic established in Athens, e c Tarquin the Proud expelled from Rome, . e Rome becomes a Republic, o o e Revolt of the Greek cities of Asia Minor against Persia, Plebeian insurrection at Rome, . © Q © Tribunes chosen at Rome, . © © e Banishment of Coriolanus from Rome, © e Commencement of the Persian War against Greece, Persian invasion of Greece, & tº Battle of Marathon, º e e º Invasion of Greece by Xerxes, King of Persia, O Battle of Thermopylae, e e e © Athens burned by the Persians, e & e Battle of Salamis, Battle of Plataea, Greek victories over the Persians, Battle of Mycalé, Themistocles banished from Athens, . * © Battle of Eurymedon, e © o e Earthquake at Sparta, © Rebellion of the Spartan Helots and the Messenians, Ezra and Nehemiah rebuild Jerusalem, Dictatorship of Cincinnatus, Decemvirs chosen in Rome, . e Peace made between Greece and Persia, . Commencement of the Peloponnesian War, Plague at Athens and death of Pericles, Peace of Nicias, e e & Athenian Expedition against Syracuse, . Battle of AEgospotamus, . o Surrender of Athens to the Spartans, . The Thirty Tyrants rule in Athens, O © The Council of Ten in Athens, c Democracy restored in Athens, º º Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks from Persia, Death of Socrates, . º o e tº Conquest of Veii by the Romans under Camillus, J. Peace of Antalcidas, e o o Italy invaded by the Gauls under Brennus, o o Battle on the Allia, the Romans defeated by the Gauls, Rome taken and burned by the Gauls, . e º Commencement of the Theban War, º Battle of Leuctra, © tº tº te Adoption of the Laws of Caius Licinius Stolo, º Battle of Mantinea, e p - Beginning of the Sacred War in Greece, . Q Destruction of Sidon, . e e e First war between the Romans and Samnites begun, War between the Romans and the Latins, • T CHA’OAVO/ OG/CA/, /AWOAZX. 338 Battle of Vesuvius, Patriotic devotion of Decius, . “ Battle of Chaeronea and end of Greek independence, 336 Assassination of Philip of Macedon, g e 335 Thebes, Greece, destroyed by Alexander the Great, 334 Alexander's invasion of the Persian Empire, “ Battle of the Granicus, 333 Battle of the Issus, 332 Tyre taken and destroyed by Alexander the Great, “ Siege and capture of Gaza by Alexander the Great, 33 I Founding of Alexandria in Egypt, º tº “ Battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, . g e 330 Assassination of Darius Codomannus, King of Persia, 328 Conquest of Scythia by Alexander the Great, 327 Alexander's invasion of India and defeat of Porus, 324 Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon, . 322 Demosthenes destroys himself by poison, § 321 The Romans defeated by the Samnites and obliged to pass under the yoke, 74 3OI Battle of Ipsus and dismemberment of Alexander's empire, 290 Subjugation of the Samnites by the Romans, e 281 Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, engages in a war with Rome, 28o Invasion of Macedon and Greece by the Gauls under Brennus, 279 Defeat of the Gauls at Thermopylae, 275 Defeat of Pyrrhus by the Romans, 272 Death of Pyrrhus at Argos, * * & “ Conquest of Tarentum by the Romans, © ſº 263 Commencement of the First Punic War, e 255 Defeat of the Romans and captivity of Regulus, . 250 Battle of Panormus—Defeat of the Carthaginians, “ Rise of the Achaian League under Aratus of Sicyon, “ The Parthian Empire founded, tº º 24o End of the First Punic War, e © e 238 Sicily made a Roman province, tº g 228 Conquest of the Illyrians by the Romans, . 222 Conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls by the Romans, 221 Death of Cleomenes III. and capture of Sparta by the M 219 Capture of Saguntum, in Spain, by the Carthaginians, 218 Beginning of the Second Punic War, iº e 217 Hannibal’s passage of the Alps and invasion of Italy, “ Battle of the Ticinus, “ Battle of the Trebia, “ Battle of Placentia, “ Battle of Trasimenus, 216 Battle of Cannae, J 215 Building of the Great Wall in China, . tº 212 Syracuse taken and destroyed by the Romans, Victories of Hannibal, . 207 Battle of the Metaurus, Hasdrubal defeated by the Romans, . “ Sparta subdued by Philopoemen, the successor of Aratus, - 2O2 Battle of Zama and end of the Second Punic War, I97 Battle of Cynoscephalae, . e e * I91 Battle of Magnesia, º tº e * I83 Death of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus, . ſº * e } Victories of Alexander the Great, g * 168 Battle of Pydna and conquest of Macedon by the Romans, I49 Beginning of the Third Punic War, e ſº 146 Carthage taken and destroyed by Scipio AEmilianus, Destruction of Corinth and conquest of Greece by the Romans, 133 Numantia, in Spain, taken and destroyed by Scipio AEmilianus, acedonians, 63, 82 . 6o 63, 82 132 Tiberius Gracchus endeavors to secure the enforcement of the agrariar law, but is defeated and slain, . w 12I Caius Gracchus attempts to secure the enforcement of the agrarian law, but is killed in a tumult, o e © 548 CHROAVO Z OGMCA/, //WD EX. IO6 | OI 90 88 86 84 8 I 78 7o 67 66 65 63 6o 6O 58 55 54 52 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 3 I 3O A. D. 9 I4 5 I 64 68 7o 79 96 226 3O5 312 325 336 357 361 363 364 396 4O6 4 IO Jugurtha, King of Numidia, defeated and captured by the Romans, The Cimbri and Teutones annihilated by the Romans, • o The Social War in Italy begun.-Kt lasted two years, . e First war between Rome and Mithridates, King of Pontus, º The civil war between Marius and Sylla begun, e e Dictatorship and death of Marius, . © r º o Sylla defeats Mithridates, g e g C º Sylla assumes the Dictatorship, º º & º g Resignation and death of Sylla, º e e The rebellion of Sertorius in Spain suppressed, e e - * The rebellious slaves in Italy under Spartacus subdued by Crassus, The Cilician pirates subdued by Pompey, . e º gº Pompey's victory over Mithridates, - e º Pompey overthrows the Syrian Empire of the Seleucidae, . Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Pompey, o e º Mithridates terminates his life by poison, Catiline's conspiracy at Rome, . º tº º & The First Triumvirate at Rome, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, . Defeat and death of Crassus in Parthia, e s º Julius Caesar made governor of Gaul, º tº © o Caesar's first invasion of Britain, º g ſº © Caesar’s second invasion of Britain, * 3. Final conquest of Gaul by Cæsar, * . e © © The civil war between Pompey and Caesar commenced, . Caesar's crosses the Rubicon and marches to Rome, e º Battle of Pharsalia and assassination of Pompey, . o e Caesar overthrows Ptolemy in Egypt, . g e º Caesar's triumph over Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, . e Battle of Thapsus, the Roman republicans defeated by Caesar, Battle of Munda, Pompey's sons defeated by Caesar, Dictatorship of Caesar, . o º º Assassination of Caesar, e o © & º o The Second Triumvirate at Rome, Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus, Battle of Philippi and suicide of Brutus and Cassius, e Battle of Actium and suicide of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, . Egypt becomes a Roman province, © e o o Octavius becomes Emperor, with the title of Augustus, . © Defeat of the Roman legions under Varus by the Germans, Death of the Emperor Augustus, . e e Caractacus, the British chief, carried a captive to Rome, Burning of Rome by order of the Emperor Nero, & Defeat of the British queen, Boadicea, by Suetonius Paulinus, . Overthrow and death of Nero, e Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus, º © Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii, . & © & Final conquest of Britain by the Romans under Julius Agricola, Beginning of the Persian Empire of the Sassanidae, º ſº Abdication of the Emperor Diocletian, . e * Constantine the Great becomes sole Emperor of Rome, Constantine the Great embraces Christianity, . e e Constantine makes Constantinople the capital of his empire, e Death of Constantine the Great at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor, . Julian the Apostate becomes Emperor of Rome, . º g Julian's unfortunate expedition against the New Persians, t The Roman Empire divided between Valentinian and Valens, º Stilicho, the general of Honorius, defeats the Goths in Greece, The Romans under Stilicho defeat the barbarians, . e Q Rome taken and pillaged by Alaric, King of the Goths, o III CHROMOA. O.GICAL //VDA.X. 549 451 Attila, King of the Huns, defeated at Chalons by the Romans, 452 Attila's retreat into Pannonia, 472 Rome taken and plundered by Čenseric, King of the Vandals, tº 476 Downfall of the Roman Empire of the West, . - * THE MIDDLE AGES. A D. 486 Clovis, King of the Franks, conquers Gaul, º . 196 Clovis defeats the Alemanni in the battle of Tolbiac and embraces Christianity, tº wº tº {e e 507 Clovis puts to death the other chiefs of the Franks, 527 Justinian becomes Emperor of the East, º 535 Belisarius overthrows the Vandal kingdom in Africa, 537 Belisarius defends Rome against the attacks of the Goths, . 554 Tejas, the last Gothic king, slain in battle with Narses, 565 Death of the Emperor Justinian, . * * * 568 The Lombard kingdom in Italy founded by Alboin, 622 The Hegira, or Mohammed's flight from Mecca, 632 Death of Mohammed, . . . & tº 638 Conquest of Syria by the Saracens, . 640 Conquest of Egypt by the Saracens, 651 Conquest of Persia by the Saracens, tº 660 Accession of the Ommiyades, . tº tº 712 Invasion and conquest of Spain by the Saracens, 732 Defeat of the Saracens near Tours by Charles Martel, 752 The dynasty of Ommiyades overthrown by the Abbasides, . “ Beginning of the Pope's temporal power, i.e. 768 Death of Pepin the Little and division of the Frank kingdom, ſº 771 Charlemagne becomes sole monarch of the Franks, 772 Charlemagne forces the Saxons to a peace, g 775 Charlemagne overthrows the Lombard kingdom in Italy, 778 Charlemagne's rear-guard cut to pieces in the pass of Roncesvalles, 8oo Charlemagne crowned at Rome Emperor of the West, 804 Final subjugation of the Saxons by Charlemagne, 814 Death of Charlemagne, & * g 827 Founding of the Kingdom of England by Egbert, 841 Battle of Fontenaille, . * g e 843 Partition Treaty of Verdun, ſº e tº 871 Alfred the Great becomes King of England, . te 875 The Kingdom of Norway founded by Harald Fairhair and Denmark by Gorm the Old, * te * 898 Charles the Simple becomes King of France, º te 900 The Ynglians found the kingdom of Sweden, 901 Death of Alfred the Great, . * 911 Germany becomes an elective empire, . * 933 Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Germany, defeats the Magyars at Merse. berg, © 973 Otho the Great, Emperor of Germany, defeats the Hungarians at Lech: feld, & ſº tº ſº 981 Greenland discovered by an Icelander, 987 Hugh Capet ascends the throne of France, 909 Death of Hugh Capet, e p ë {e e to, o Stephen the Pious assumes the dignity of King of Hungary, * Vladimir the Great becomes sovereign of Russia, . e 1002 Greeland colonized by Icelanders, “ Massacre of the Danes in England, * IoI6 Canute the Great of Denmark becomes King of England, Io25 Conversion of Canute the Great to Christianity, . Io31 Dissolution of the Saracen Caliphate of Cordova, PAGE. I I 2 • II 2 II 2 . I I 3 I 2 I ... I 2 I I 22 . I23 I 22 . I23 I24 . I24 I24 . I26 I26 . I26 127 I27 I28 I28 . I29 I2O, I7 I . I29 I29 I7 I 185 I46 . I85 I72 I59 I6o . I6c I3O . I46 I47 I88 . I 30 172 . I72 172 55o CHA’OAWOLOG/CA/, /MDEX. 1060 Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke, conquers Southern Italy, Ioé6 PAGE. Battle of Hastings and conquest of England by Duke William of Nor- 145 mandy, who then becomes King of England, * wº ... I72 Ioſ'ſ Henry IV. of Germany humiliated by Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), 161 Io81. The Emperor Henry IV. leads an expedition against Hildebrand, . 161 1081 Hildebrand deposed and Clement III. made Pope, © © I61 Io85 Pope Urban II., at the Council of Clermont, preaches the First Crusade, 135 Io96 The First Crusade undertaken, e e g & I35, I.47 Io97 The Christian army under Godfrey of Bouillon arrives in Palestine, . 135 “ The Crusaders besiege and take Antioch, . & • 136 Io99 Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, . © g e . 136 1130 Roger II. founds the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, º I45 II.47 St. Bernard of Clairvaux originates the Second Crusade, . I 37 II52 Frederic Barbarossa becomes Emperor of Germany, º e I62 II54 Henry Plantagenet ascends the throne of England, . . I 74 1170 Assassination of Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, I74 1172 Ireland conquered by King Henry II. of England, o e . I 74. I 176 Battles of Lignano, Frederic Barbarossa defeated by the Milanese, 142, 163 I 179 Henry the Lion deprived of his territories by Frederic Barbarossa, . I63 I 180 Philip Augustus ascends the throne of France, te I49 II.87 Sultan Saladim of Egypt wrests Jerusalem from the Christians, . . I 37 1189 Death of Henry II. of England and accession of Richard the Lion- hearted, ſº g & g & & & . I 74 1 190 The Third Crusade begun, Death of Frederic Barbarossa, I37, I63 I 191 Defeat of Saladin by Richard the Lion-hearted, * wº . I 38 I 192 Richard the Lion-hearted imprisoned in Germany, . . I 38, 174 I 199 Death of Richard the Lion-hearted and accession of John, . I I5 1204 Fourth Crusade and temporary subversion of the Greek Empire, 138, 149 1205 The Pope causes the Cross to be preached against the Albigenses, . I4. I 1213 The Child's Crusade, {- g § • ‘ o ſº I39 1215 King John of England forced to sign Magna Charta, . * . I75 1218 Frederic II. becomes Emperor of Germany, © te tº I64 1226 Louis IX., or St. Louis, becomes King of France, & gº . I5O 1227 Zingis-Khan, chief of the Moguls, begins his career of conquest, . I90 1228 The Emperor Frederic II., undertakes the Fifth Crusade, tº I39, 165 1234 King Andrew II. of Hungary grants the Golden Privilege, tº 189 1237 Russia made tributary to the Khan of the Golden Horde, g . . I 88 1244. Defeat of the Christians at Gaza by the Corasmins, • e I39 125o Death of the Emperor Frederic II. of Germany, tº e . 165 “ The Sixth Crusade,-Captivity of St. Louis, o ſº I39, I5O 1258 The Moguls overthrow the Caliphate of Bagdad, g tº . I90 1266 The foundations of the English House of Commons laid, . tºl 176 1270 The Seventh Crusade,-Death of St. Louis, . ë º I40, 150 1273 Count Rodolph of Hapsburgh elected Emperor of Germany, c 166 1282 The Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, . e e . I 50 1285 Philip the Fair becomes King of France, . tº i.e. º I5o 1291. Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Palestine, taken by the Turks, . 140 1296 Battle of Dunbar, John Baliol defeated by Edward I. of England, 176 “ Battle of Stirling, the English defeated by William Wallace, . . I77 1298 Battle of Falkirk, William Wallace defeated by Edward I., * 177 1305 Martyrdom of William Wallace, the Scottish patriot, . {} . I77 “ Avignon, in France, becomes the seat of the papacy, • º 169 1314 Battle of Bannockburn,-defeat of Edward II. of England, . . 177 1315 Battle of Morgarten, the Austrians defeated by the Swiss, e 167 1328 Philip of Valois ascends the throne of France, . * i . I 52 1346 Battle of Crecy, Edward III. of England defeats the French, 152, 178 “ Battle of Nevil's Cross, David Bruce taken prisoner, . © . 178 1347 Calais surrendered to Edward III. of England after a long siege, 150, 178 “ Cola di Rienzi becomes the head of a new Roman Republic, . . I42 CHROAVO / OG/CA/, //VDEX. 55 I - FAGE. 1354 Assassination of Cola di Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes, . I42 1356 Battle of Poitiers, King John of France taken prisoner, g I53, 178 1364 Death of John the Good of France, e © o I53, I?9 1376 Death of the Black Prince, g ſº © sº gº • I79 1377 Death of Edward III. of England, ſº g e 4- I79 1381 Wat Tyler's Insurrection in England, . g gº tº . I 79 1386 Battle of Sempach,-Patriotic devotion of Arnold Winkelried, g I68 1397 Union of Calmar, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway united, . I86 1399 Dethronement of Richard II. of England by Henry of Lancaster, . 18o 1402 Battle of Angora,_Sultan Bajazet taken prisoner by Tamerlane, • IQI 1403 Battle of Shrewsbury, Henry IV. of England defeats the barons, 180 1414. The Council of Constance assembles, * tº e gº 169 1415 Battle of Azincourt, Henry V. of England defeats the French, I54, 181 1417 Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, © * . I69 1419 Beginning of the Hussite War, which lasts seventeen years, º I69 1422 Treaty of Troyes.—Accession of Henry VI. of England, . I54, 181 1429 Joan of Arc compels the English to raise the siege of Orleans, I55, 181 1431 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, perished at the stake, . I55, 181 1453 The English driven out of France, wº g g • 156, 181 “ Sultan Mohammed II. captures Constantinople and puts an end to the Byzantine or Greek Empire, te tº e I91 1455 Commencement of the Wars of the Roses in England, . * . I82 1461 Edward IV. becomes King of England and Louis XI. of France, 183, 156 1471 Battles of Barnet and Tewksbury, the Lancastrians overthrown, . I83 1476 Battles of Granson and Murten,_defeats of Charles the Bold, © I56 1477 Battle of Nancy and death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, . . I56 1479 Union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella, gº I59 1483 Death of Edward IV. of England and Louis XI. of France, . . I 83 1485 Battle of Bosworth Field and death of Richard III., tº tº I84 1486 Bartholomew Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope, g • IQ3 1492 The Moorish Kingdom of Granada conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella, e g tº {º o I25, I59 “ Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, tº º • I94. 1493 Founding of St. Domingo by Columbus, ſº e ſe I94 1497 Vasco de Gama’s voyage to India round the Cape of Good Hope, . I 93 “ Discovery of North America by Sebastian Cabot, º g I95 1498 Discovery of South America by Columbus, * * * . I94 1499 The Emperor Maximilian I. of Germany acknowledges the independ- ence of Switzerland, wº e * * > tº . I7 I SIXTEENTH CENTURY. A. D. 1501 Discovery of Central America by Columbus, , . tº tº • I94 1504 Ferdinand of Spain obtains possession of Naples, . tº o I45 1505 Death of Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of Moscow, tº º . I88 1506 Death of Christopher Columbus at Valladolid, in Spain, . C I94 1507 The city of Ormuz, in Persia, conquered by Albuquerque, . I93 1508 League of Cambray against Venice, * e e I44, 158 1569 Death of Henry VII. of England and accession of Henry VIII., 185, 209 1510 Albuquerque conquers Goa, which becomes the capital of Portu- guese Asia, . ſº tº e tº tº * • I93 1512 John Ponce de Leon discovers Florida, tº ſº © te 194 1512 Conquest of Navarre by Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, e . I 59 1513 Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean, tº & tº I94 “ John de *:::::: becomes Pope with the title of Leo X., º . I 99 “ Battle of the Spurs, France, I58, 20 “ Battle of Flodden Field, England, } September oth, . sº tº 1515 Death of Louis XII. of France and accession of Francis I., . I58, 202 “ Battle of Marignano, or Battle of the Giants, Italy, e I43, 202 552 CHRONO LOGICAL VAWDEX. 1517 1519 I 52O 6& & 4 $6 º 1533 1534 1535 1536 1538 I54O I54. I I542 I543 1544 I 545 1546 1547 I552 The League of Schmalkald formed by the German Protestants, e Religious war in Switzerland,-Battle of Kappel and death of Zwingle, Death of Cardinal Wolsey, November 29th, . & e PAGE, Commencement of the Religious Reformation by Martin Luther, . I99 Conquest of Egypt by the Turks, . º i & o I92 Discovery of Mexico by Cordova, e g .* o • 2 I4. Death of the Emperor Maximilian I. and accession of Charles V., 2O2 Luther excommunicated by the Pope and his writings condemned, • 200 Luther burns the papal bull of condemnation, e tº 2OO Luther appears before the Diet of Worms, g g e • 2CO Commencement of the first war between Charles V. and Francis I., 2O2 The Field of the Cloth of Gold, e * © . 202, 209 Massacre of Stockholm, G * e g & 186, 213 Solyman the Magnificent becomes Sultan of Turkey, . tº . I92 Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe, © & I95 Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards under Fernando Cortez, . . • 2 I4 Henry VIII. of England writes a volume against the Reformation, 209 Death of the Chevalier Bayard, g iº e * . . 203 Gustavus Vasa liberates Sweden from the Danish yoke, e • 2 I3 John Verrazzani explores the Atlantic coast of North America, . I95 Battle of Pavia, Francis I. defeated and made prisoner, tº . 203 Establishment of the Mogul Empire in India by Baber, c tº 2I 5 Peace of Madrid and release of Francis I., g ſº Ç . 203 Battle of Mohacz and fall of Louis II. of Hungary, c I90, 204 Discovery of the La Plata river by Sebastian Cabot, . gº tº . I95 The Holy League formed against Charles V., gº e (e 2O3 Second war between Charles V. and Francis I., & º . 203 Rome taken and pillaged by the Germans and Spaniards, . . g 2O4. Andria Doria frees Genoa from French supremacy, tº . I44, 204 Ladies' Peace of Cambray between Charles V. and Francis I., * 2O4. Siege of Vienna by Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, tº . I92, 204 The Protestation of the German Reformers at the Diet of Spire, . 2OI Discovery of Peru by Francisco Pizarro, e ſº tº • 2 I4. Diet of Augsburg,_The Augsburg Confession, 2O I 2O6 2OI • 2 IO Conquest of Peru by the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro, tº 2I4. Henry VIII. divorces Catharine of Aragon and marries Anne Boleyn, 209 Accession of Ivan the Terrible, Czar of Russia, & i.e. iº I88 Henry VIII. created Head of the Church in England, © • 2 IO . James Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence river, e • e I95 Cartier's second voyage up the St. Lawrence, º tº . . I95 First expedition of Charles V. to Africa, gº ... e tº 2O4. Henry VIII. causes Anne Boleyn to be beheaded, and marries Jane Seymour, © º e © º g tº 2IO Third war between Charles V. and Francis I., e gº . 205 The Ten Years' Truce of Nice between Charles W. and Francis I., 2O5 The Order of Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola, e * • 2 I 3 Discovery of the Mississippi river by Ferdinand De Soto, . • I95 Second African expedition of Charles V., * º . . . 205 Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., e te sº 2O5 War between England and Scotland,-Battle of Solway Moss, • 2 II Bombardment of Nice by the French and Turkish fleets, . o 2O5 Battle of Cerisoles, tº tº g & º . 205 Peace of Crepy between Charles V. and Francis I., o º 2O5 Opening of the Council of Trent, © ſº o g , 2O7 Death of Dr. Martin Luther, February 18th, Q tº ſº 2O7 Beginning of the religious war in Germany, . * © . 207 Death of Henry VIII. and accession of Edward VI., tº 2O6, 2II Death of Francis I. of France and accession of Henry II., 206, 218 English invasion of Scotland.—Battle of Pinkie, . º . . 2 II Dike Maurice of Saxony makes war on the Emperor Charles V., 208 CHROMOA. OGICA/, /AVDA.X. 553 PAGE. 1552 Henry II. of France seizes the fortresses in Lorraine, . . 206, 218 “ Religious Peace of Passau, º e º º º 208 1553 Death of Edward VI. of England and accession of Mary © 2 I 2 1554. Unsuccessful siege of Metz by the Emperor Charles V., & 2O6 “ Religious Peace of Augsburg, . g º º O 208 1556 Abdication and retirement of the Emperor Charles V., º º 2O3 “ Philip II., King of Spain, and Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany, 208 1557 War of England and Spain against France, º º 212, 218 “ Battle of St. Quentin, the French defeat the English and Span- iards, e º . o g º . 212, 218 1558 The French recover Calais from the English, e e 212, 218 “ Death of Queen Mary of England and accession of Elizabeth, . 212, 222 “ Death of Charles V., º º © s e e 2O9 1559 Peace of Chateau-Cambresis between France and Spain, . 206, 218 “ Death of Henry II. of France and accession of Francis II., . 218 1560 Death of Francis II. of France and accession of Charles IX., e 218 1562 The first religious war in France, o e º e • 2 I9 1563 Peace of Amboise between the French Catholics and Huguenots, 2I9 “ Hungary comes under the House of Hapsburgh, º • . I 90 1564 Death of the Emperor Ferdinand I. and accession of Maximilian II., 225 1565 The Catholic nobles in the Netherlands petition for toleration, . 216 “ Mary, Queen of Scots, marries Lord Darnley, e e * 222 1566 Murder of Mary’s favorite, David Rizzio, © © © • 222 “ Death of Sultan Solyman the Magnificent of Turkey, e O I92 1567 The second religious war in France, . º º & . 2 IQ “ Philip II. appoints the Duke of Alva Governor of the Netherlands, 216 “ Murder of Lord Darnley, the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, • 222 “ Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, o © º 222 1568 The Peace of St. Germain closes the second religious war in France, 219 “ Queen Mary of Scots flees to England, where she is kept a prisoner, 223 1571 Battle of Lepanto, the Turkish navy annihilated, . º I92, 2I 5 1572 Massacre of St. Bartholoſhew, . º s e º 2I9 “ The revolted States of the Netherlands choose William of Orange for their Stadtholder, tº . 216 1574 Death of King Charles IX. of France and accession of Henry III., 22O 1576 The Pacification of Ghent, º ſº & º tº . 2 I 7 “ Death of the Emperor Maximilian II. of Germany and accession of Rodolph II. & e tº º º & • 225 1579 The Union of Utrecht, º & e e º e 217 158o Portugal united with Spain, e e e © © . 216 1581 Assassination of William of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, g 217 1587 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, by order of Elizabeth, © • 223 1588 The Spanish Armada sent against England.—Destroyed by storms, 224 “ . Rebellion in Paris against King Henry III., . e o • 22O “ Death of the Czar, Ivan the Terrible of Russia, o tº e I88 1589 Henry III. besieges Paris. - º e º • 22 I “ Assassination of Henry III. and accession of Henry IV., . Q 22 I 1590 Siege of Paris by King Henry IV., e º • º • 22 I 1593 Henry IV. becomes a Catholic and thus brings about a peace, wº 22 I :598 Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV., tolerating Protestantism, • 22I “ Death of Philip II. of Spain and accession of Philip III., . º 2I 5 “ The Earl of Tyrone heads a Catholic rebellion in Ireland, tº • 225 16oo The English East-India Company chartered by Queen Elizabeth, . 298 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, A D. 1601 Execution of the Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favorite, & • 225 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold explores the New England coast, . dº 257 1603 Death of Queen Elizabeth of England and accession of James I., • 225 554 CHROMO LOGICAL INDEX. gº 1603 Martin Pring explores the New England coast, º PAGE. 1605 The French colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia) founded by De Monts, 257 OO “ The Gunpowder Plot in London, . * tº º © 3. 1606 Martin Pring's second visit to the New England coast, • . 257 1607 The first permanent English settlement in America at Jamestown, 255 1608 Quebec, in Canatia, founded by Samuel Champlain, . & . 3OO 1609 Samuel Champlain discovers Lake Champlain, e tº e 3OO “ Henry Hudson discovers and explores the Hudson river, • 259 “ Holland becomes independent of Spain, & e & 217, 23.I 16Io Assassination of Henry IV. of France and accession of Louis XIII., 221 “ Expulsion of 600,000 Moors from Spain, e e o • 215 “ The Starving Time in Virginia, tº tº tº tº 256 1612 Death of the Emperor Rodolph II. and accession of Matthias, . . 226 “ Capture of Moscow by the Poles. 1613 Michael Romanoff becomes Czar of Russia, ſº ſº wº ... 273 1614 Captain John Smith explores and names New England, . º 257 1618 Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh, g ſº º e , - 232 “ Beginning of the Thirty Years' War by the Bohemian revolt, o 226 I619 Death of the Emperor Matthias and accession of Ferdinand II., 226 “ The first legislative assembly in America met at Jamestown, June 28, 256 “ The Dutch colony of Batavia, in Java, founded, wº & 218 162o Slavery introduced into Virginia, . * ſº ſº © 256 “ The Puritan settlement of Plymouth, in New England, December 21, .. 257 1621. The Virginia House of Burgesses established, * e e 256 “ Death of Philip III. of Spain and accession of Philip IV. 1622 Ormuz wrested from the Portuguese by Shah Abbas of Persia, g 215 “ The first Indian war and massacre in Virginia, . * ge . 256 1623 The Dutch colony of New Netherland established, g wº 259 1624 Cardinal Richdlieu becomes Prime-Minister of France, & • 249 “ King James I. of England makes Virginia a royal Province, gº 256 1625 Death of James I. of England and accession of Charles I., * • 234 “ Frederic, King of Bohemia, defeated by the Emperor Ferdinand II., 227 1625 King Christian IV. of Denmark aids the German Pretestants, o 227 1626 Defeat of Christian IV. at Lutter by Tilly, the imperial general, . 228 1628 Validity of the Petition of Right acknowledged by Charles I., º 234 “ Richelieu humbles the Huguenots by the capture of Rochelle, . • 249 “ Salem, Massachusetts, founded by John Endicott, . t o 258 1629 Peace of Lubec between the King of Denmark and the Emperor of Germany, . . º g tº e * © . 228 “ The Edict of Restitution published by the Emperor Ferdinand II., 228 “ Charles I. of England dissolves his Parliament, which is not again convened for eleven years, . te e º o • 234 1630 Boston, Massachusetts, founded by John Winthrop, º & 258 “ King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden aids the German Protestants, • 229 1631 Magdeburg taken and destroyed by Tilly, . tº s • 229 “ Battle of Breitenfeld and Leipsic, Tilly defeated by Gustavus, . 229 1632 Battle of Lutzen,_victory and death of Gustavus Adolphus, © 23O 1633 Alliance of Heilborn between the Swedes and the Germans, . 23O 1634 Assassination of Wallenstein by order of the Emperor Ferdinand II., 230 “ Battle of Nordlingen, . g e ſº g e • 23 I “ Settlement of Maryland by English Roman Catholics, . e 261 1635 Clayborne's first rebellion in Maryland, , . & te © . 261 * Peace of Prague between the German Princes and the Emperor, . 23 I “ Roger Williams banished from Massachusetts, . o . 258, 263 1636 Founding of Providence, Rhode Island, by Roger Williams, 263 * Settlement of Hartford, Connecticut, by Rev. Thomas Hooker, . 262 1637 Extermination of the Pequod Indians by the Connecticut settlers, 262 * Death of the Emperor Ferdinand II. and accession of Ferdinand III., . 231 “ Presbyterian rebellion in Scotland, . & ſº º º 235 CHRO/WO/ OG/CA/, /AWDAE.X. 555 PAGE. 1637 Founding of Harvard College at Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1638 Founding of New Haven, Connecticut, by Rev. John Davenport. . 262 “ Settlement of Newport, Rhode Island, by William Coddington, . 263 “ Settlement of New Sweden (now Delaware), e © º 264 “ Sultan Amurath IV. of Turkey causes a massacre of the inhabitatants of Bagdad. 1640 Portugal recovers her independence, e wº º e 216 “ Frederic William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, begins his reign, 281 1641 Catholic rebellion in Ireland, . e º º e 236 1642 Commencement of the civil war in England between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads, © e º, o o 236 “ Battle of Edge Hill, England, October 3d, e º e 237 “ Death of Cardinal Richelieu, December, & 249 1643 Death of Louis XIII. of France and accession of Louis XIV, º º 249 “ Battle of Rocroi,-the Spaniards defeated by the French. * “ Battle of Newbury, England, o e 237 “ Union of the New England colonies, . e • • 258 1644 Battle of Marston Moor, Lord Fairfax defeats the royalists, July 9th 237 “ Second Indian war in Virginia, º º º º , 256 “ Union of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, e o 263 “ The Mantchoo-Tartar dynasty ascends the throne of China. 1645 Clayborne's second rebellion in Maryland, º tº e 26 I “ Battle of Naseby, Charles I. overthrown, June 14th, . © . 238 1648 Peace of Westphalia terminates the Thirty Years' War, © © 23 I “ The Civil Wars of the Fronde commence in France, . º . 250 “ Colonel Pride's Purge,_81 Presbyterians expelled from Parliament, 239 I649 Execution of King Charles I. of England, January 30th, e . 239 “ The Commonwealth of England established, e e º 24O “ The Toleration Act passed by the Maryland Assembly, e . 262 1650 Battle of Dunbar, the Scots defeated by Cromwell, September 3d, 24O 1651 Battle of Worcester, the English royalists defeated by Cromwell, September 3rd, - º tº º e º . 24O “ The Navigation Act passed by the English Parliament, . e 24I 1652 Commencement of a naval war between England and Holland, . 24. I 1653 Cromwell dissolves the Long Parliament, April, . e º 24I “ Praise-God Barebone's Parliament, April to December, © . 242 “ Oliver Cromwell created Lord Protector of England, December, . 242 1654 Abdication of Queen Christina of Sweden, º & º . 232 “ Peace between England and Holland, e º e © 24I 1655 War between England and Spain, e º º º , 242 “ Conquest of the island of Jamaica by the English Admiral Penn, . 242. “ Civil war in Maryland between the Catholics and Protestants, . . 262 “ Conquest of New Sweden by Governor Stuyvesant of New Nether- land, e º e d & s e 26o. 264 1656 Persecution of Quakers in Boston, Massachusetts, . º º 258 “ Three days' battle of Warsaw, the Swedes defeat the Poles. 1657 Death of the Emperor Ferdinand III. and accession of Leopold I. 1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell, September 3rd, tº º º 242 “ Richard Cromwell becomes Lord Protector, but soon resigns, . , 243 1659 Aurungzebe ascends the Mogul throne in India, . ſº 215, 281 &é The Treaty of the Pyrenees between France and Spain, - . 250 1660 Restoration of Monarchy in England,-Charles II., King, May 29th, 243 1661. Death of Cardinal Mazarin, Prime-Minister of France, . o , 25O 1663 Naval war between England and Holland, e & e 244 * Charter granted to Rhode Island by King Charles II. of England, . 264 * Settlement of North Carolina by emigrants from Virginia, e 264 1664 Conquest of New Netherland by the English, e e º 26o “ Settlement of Elizabethtown, New Jersey, by English Puritans, . 266 1665 Connecticut and New Haven united under one charter granted by Charles II., . e e g e e © , 263 556 CHROMOM, OGICAL VAWD EX. 1665 I666 1667 “ i. 1668 6 & & 4 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 I674 1675 1676 1678 1679 I68O I68I I682 1683 1684 1685 I686 1687 1688 1689 1695 1696 PAGE. Great plague in London, . e e e e e 244 Great fire in London, . * ſº tº . . . • 244 Peace of Breda between England and Holland, . & e 244 Louis XIV. of France makes conquests in the Spanish Netherlands, 25 I Triple Alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden against France, 251 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle,_Louis XIV. restores his conquests, . . 25 I Peace between Spain and Portugal after 26 years of war. Conquest of Candia (Crete) by the Turks. - Settlement of South Carolina by English emigrants, * t 265 Emmerik Tokeli’s insurrection in Hungary, . . & . 252 Louis XIV. invades Holland with a powerful army, & 25 I Louis Joliet and James Marquette explore the Mississippi river, . 3OO John Sobieski, King of Poland, defeats 200,000 Turks at Kotzim. New York taken by a Dutch fleet, tº g , 260 New York restored to the English, . tº tº 26o Spain and Germany join Holland in the war against France, . 25 I Battle of Fehrbellin,_the Swedes defeated by the Great Elector, 25 I Beginning of King Philip's War in New England, July 4th, g . 258 Subjugation of the New England Indians and death of King Philip, 258 Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia, e º c tº e 256 Peace of Nimeguen between France and the Allies, o . 252 The Habeas Corpus Act passed by the English Parliament, e 246 Eleven days' battle at Tangier between the English and the Moors. Charleston, South Carolina, founded, © g tº ſº 265 Louis XIV. wrests the free city of Strasburg from the German Empire, . 252 Philadelphia and Pennsylvania founded by William Penn, . 266, 267 Robert de La Salle explores the Mississippi river, g o . 3OO John Sobieski, King of Poland, drives the Turks from Vienna, 252 Rye House Plot in England.—Execution of Russell and Sydney, . 246 Bombardment of Algiers by a French fleet, . º tº 252 Genoa bombarded by the French navy, & e . 252 Death of Charles II. of England and accession of James II., 246 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and persecution of the Huguenots, . 254 League of Augsburg,_Germany, Spain, Holland, and Sweden against France, e * g g {} e . 254 The Connecticut charter concealed from Sir Edmund Andros, 263 Death of Frederic William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, . . 281 Desolation of the Palatinate by the French, {} e 254 Revolution in England and flight of James II., gº tº . 24.7 The Bill of Rights passed by the English Parliament, 247 William and Mary created joint sovereigns of England, , 247 Sir Edmund Andros deposed and imprisoned in Boston, 259 England joins the Allies in the war against Louis XIV., tº . 254 Rebellion of the Scotch Highlanders against William and Mary, 248 Battle of Killicrankie and death of Lord Dundee, tº o . 248 Catholic rebellion in Ireland in favor of James II., tº 248 Peter the Great becomes sole Czar of Russia, . e e . 273 Dover, New Hampshire, burned by the French and Indians, * 3OI Schenectady, New York, destroyed by the French and Indians, . 3OI Battle of the Boyne, Ireland,-James II. defeated by William III., 248, 254 Battle of Aughrim, Ireland, and death of the Irish General St. Ruth, , 248 Massacre of Glencoe, Scotland, tº © © ſº f 248 Acadia seized and plundered by Sir William Phipps, . 3OI Massachusetts made a royal province, ge e tº 259 Salem Witchcraft, e wº g e & e • 259 Naval battle off Cape La Hogue.—Beginning of England’s naval superiority, . º Q e e g te • 254 Battle of Neerwinden,_William III. defeated by the French, tº 254 War of Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice against Turkey, . • 253 Death of John Sobieski, King of Poland, . e G e 253 CHROMOA. O.GICAL VAWDAE.X. 557 PAGE. 1697 Peace of Ryswick between France and the Allies, º 248, 255, 301 “ Battle of Zenta, Prince Eugene defeats the Turks, tº º 253 “ Charles XII. ascends the throne of Sweden, . se © • 273 “ Governor Fletcher of New York defied at Hartford by Captain Wadsworth, & ſº gº tº & gº . 263 1699 Peace of Karlowitz between Turkey and the Allies, e & 253 “ The English erect Fort William at Calcutta, Hindoostan, º . 298 1700 Death of Charles II. of Spain and accession of Philip of Anjou, . 268 “ Charles XII. of Sweden compels the King of Denmark to make peace, 274 “ Battle of Narva,-Charles XII. defeats the Czar Peter the Great, , 274 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. A. D. 1701 Founding of the Kingdom of Prussia, º e o . 281 “ Founding of Yale College in Connecticut. 1702 Founding of Mobile in the present Alabama, © º e 3OO “ Death of William III. of England and accession of Queen Anne, . 248 “ Commencement of the War of the Spanish Succession, {- º 268 “ Charles XII. of Sweden enters Warsaw in triumph, . e . 274 “ Deerfield, Massachusetts, burned by the French and Indians, e 3OI 1703 St. Petersburg founded by the Czar Peter the Great, . g . 274 “ Charles XII. of Sweden deposes Augustus II. of Poland,. . º 275 “ Protestant insurrection in France, & & © tº . 269 “ Protestant insurrection in Hungary, º e Q e 269 1704 Stanislaus Leczinski elected King of Poland, . • e . 275 “ Capture of Gibraltar by Sir George Rooke, te º e 269 “ Battle of Blenheim, August 13th, e & * e . 27O 1705 Death of the Emperor Leopold I. and accession of Joseph I., º 27o 1706 Battle of Ramillies, May 23d, . e º e º . 27O “ Battle of Turin, September 6th, º o tº & & 270 “ Peace of Altranstadt between Charles XII. and the Elector of Saxony, 275 “. A Franco-Spanish fleet attacks Charleston, South Carolina, & . 265 I707 Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland, º e 248, 278 “ Battle of Almanza, Spain, April 25th, . •. e e . 27 I “ Death of Aurungzebe, the great Mogul Emperor of India, . º 28I 1708 Battle of Oudenarde, July 11th, s º e e . 27 I “ Charles XII. of Sweden invades Russia, . º . & 275 1709 Battle of Pultowa, July 8th, . º e o º . 276 “ Battle of Malplaquet, September 11th, o º Q e 27I 1710 The French colony of Acadia conquered by the English, e . 3OI “ Charles XII. of Sweden seeks refuge in Turkey, . e © 276 1711 Unfortunate expedition of Sir Hovenden Walker against Canada, . 3OI “ The Tuscarora Indians make war on the North Carolina settlers, . 265 “ Death of the Emperor Joseph II. and accession of Charles VI., . 272 “ The Hungarian insurrection of Count Ragotzky suppressed, © 269 1713 Peace of Utrecht, & º e º º G . 272 1714 Peace of Rastadt, . º © e º & e 272 “ Death of Queen Anne of England and accession of George I., 249, 278 I715 The Yamasee Indians make war on the South Carolinians, o . 265 “ Charles XII. returns to Sweden, . & g wº º 277 “ Death of Louis XIV. of France and accession of Louis XV., . . 272 “ Rebellion in Scotland against the House of Brunswick, e º 278 1716 Battle of Sheriff Muir, Scotland, g º e t . 278 “ Austria joins Venice in a war against the Ottoman Porte, . © 278 “ Charles XII. of Sweden invades Norway, © © © . 277 “ Prince Eugene defeats the Turks near Peterwardein, ſº º 278 1717 Prince Eugene annihilates an army of 200,000 Turks at Belgrade, . 278 1718 War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain, e º © 279 “ Peace of Passarovitz between Austria and Turkey, º & . 278 *- 558 CHROWOLOGICAL INDEX. . PAGE. 1718 Siege of Frederickshall and death of Charles XII. of Sweden, . 278 “ Yale College removed from Saybrook to New Haven. “ Founding of New Orleans, Louisiana, g & • º 3OO 1721 Peace of Nystadt between Russia and Sweden, e g . 278 1722 Persia overrun and 'subdued by the Afghans, 3. tº & 28I 1725 Death of Peter the Great of Russia and accession of Catharine I., . 278 1727 Death of Catharine I. of Russia and accession of Peter II., º 278 “ Death of George I. of England and accession of George II., . 249, 278 “ Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards. - “ Conquest of Thibet by the Chinese. i.729 North and South Carolina become separate royal provinces, º 266 “ The Natchez Indians massacre the French settlers at Fort Rosalie, . 3OI I730 The Empress Anne ascends the throne of Russia, . © tº 278 1732 Birth of George Washington, February 22d. 1733 Savannah, Georgia founded by James Edward Oglethorpe, tº 267 “ War of the Polish Succession begins, . . . iº & . 28o 1734 Battle of Parma, Italy, between the Sardinians and Austrians. I735 Peace between France and Germany, . wº tº © . 28o 1736 Kouli Khan ascends the throne of Persia with the title of Nadir Shah, 281 1737 Austria joins Russia in a war against the Ottoman Porte, . e 28o 1738 Battle of Krotzky, July 21st,--the Turks defeat the Austrians. “ France agrees to the Pragmatic Sanction, . e e ſº 282 1739 Peace of Belgrade between Austria and Turkey, & wº . 28o “ Nadir Shah of Persia invades India and causes IOO,OOO of the inhabi- tants of Delhi to be massacred, tº e e tº . 281 “ Colonial and maritime war between England and Spain, . * 28o “ Porto Bello, South America, taken by Admiral Vernon's fleet, . 28o 1740 Admiral Vernon and General Wentworth repulsed in an attack upon Carthagena, South America, . ſº * & e . 28o “ Death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, . ſº 282 “ Frederic the Great becomes King of Prussia, . & © . 281 “ Coalition against Maria Theresa and War of the Austrian Succession, 282 “ Frederic the Great begins the First Silesian War, - e . 282 1741 Battle of Molvitz,-defeat of the Austrians by the Prussians, © 282 “ A French army under Marshal Belleisle marches into Bohemia, . 283 “ Charles VII. elected Emperor of Germany, tº tº g 283 “ Accession of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, . ſº gº . 278 “ War between Sweden and Russia, . tº tº tº e 28I “ Supposed Negro Plot in New York City. 1742 Peace of Breslau between Austria and Prussia, g ſº Q 283 “ Marshal Belleisle's retreat through Germany to the Rhine, Ç . 283 1743 England's alliance with Maria. Theresa, . e “ tº gº 283 “ Battle of Dettingen,_George II. of England defeats the French, . 283 “ Peace of Abo between Sweden and Russia, & e gº 281 1744 The Second Sllesian War and Frederic's capture of Prague, . 284 (745 Death of Charles VII. of Germany and election of Francis I., e 284 “ Battle of Hohenfriedberg, e tº e e e . 284 “ Battle of Sorr, tº e © e º • e 284 “ Battle of Kesselsdorf, . & wº e º tº . 284 “ Peace of Dresden between Frederic and Maria Theresa, . 284 “ Battle of Fontenoy, º © g e ſº © . 285 “ Capture of Louisburg, Acadia, by Admiral Warren and General Pepperell, * { } * tº e e 285, 302 “ Scotch Rebellion, & ſº & º o tº . 285 “ Battle of Preston Pans, Scotland, . © e • e 285 t?46 Battle of Falkirk, Scotland, g g c © e . 285 “ Battle of Culloden Moor, Scotland, . sº * sº t 285 1747 Assassination of Nadir Shah of Persia, . o e 281 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, . º e ſº * 286, 302 I749 The Ohio Company obtains a land-grant from King George II., . 3O2 CHA’OAVO/ OG/CA/, //MDEX. 559 o PAGE. Washington's mission to the French, º º o e 3O2 Washington's expedition against Fort Du Quesne, o º • 3O3 Battle of the Great Meadows, g e º º e 3O3 Washington's capitulation at Fort Necessity, July 4th, . ge • 3O3 Colonial Congress at Albany, New York, . & * e 3O3 Capture of French forts in Acadia by Colonel Monckton, June, • 3O3 Acadia plundered and desolated by the English, June, O e 3O3 Battle of the Monongahela and death of Braddock, July 9th, • 3O3 13attle of Lake George, Colonel Williams defeated by Dieskau, 3O4 Great earthquake at Lisbon, Portugal, destroys 30,000 houses. Coalition against Frederic the Great and beginning of the Seven Years' War, . º º º º © , 286 Sudden invasion of Saxony by Frederic the Great, . 287 Battle of Lowositz, Bohemia, . G º © . 287 Surrender of the Saxon army, tº º tº & \, 287 The French wrest the island of Minorca from the English, . 287 The Marquis de Montcalm captures the English garrison at Oswego, & e e e e - . 287, 304 Battle of Kittanning, Colonel John Armstrong defeats the Indians, 3O4 Surajah Dowlah confines 146 Englishmen in the Black Hole of Calcutta, . º º e © º º ę 299 Battle of Plassey, India,- * e o º & . 299 Battle of Prague, Bohemia, May 6th, e º © e 287 Battle of Kolin, Bohemia, June 18th, . e © º . 288 Battle of Rosbach, Saxony, November 5th, º e e 288 Battle of Leuthen, Silesia, December 5th, º e o . 288 Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm, te e 289, 304 William Pitt the Elder becomes Prime Minister of England, . 289, 304 Battle of Zorndorſ, Brandenburg, August 24th, º gº e 289 . 289 Battle of Hochkirchen, Saxony, October 14th, . Capture of Louisburg, Acadia, by Generals Amherst and Wolfe, 289, 305 Capture of Fort Frontenac, Canada, by Colonel Bradstreet, . 289, 305 Capture of Fort Du Quesne by General John Forbes, e e 305 Battle of Minden, Havover, August 1st, e º * . 29O Battle of Kunersdorf, Silesia, August 14th, . º º 290 Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point by General Amherst, • 305 Capture of Fort Niagara by General William Johnson, g e 3O5 Defeat of the French at Quebec and death of Wolfe and Montcalm, September 13th, & e º o e . 290, 306 Quebec surrendered to General Murray, September 18th, º 290, 306 The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay. Battle of Liegnitz, August 13th, º e . 29 I Battle of Torgou, November 3d, & e e tº e 29 I Battle of Sillery, Canada, April 28th, . & e . 291, 306 Surrender of Montreal to General Murray, September 8th, . 29I, 306 Death of George II. of England and accession of George III., 292, 297, 455 Battle of Panniput, India, January 7th, º e o 281 Family Compact between France and Spain, . * e . 991 Defeat of the Cherokee Indians in Georgia by Colonel Grant, e 306 Mason's and Dixon's Line established, * • & ſº , 267 Writs of Assistance tried in the Anglo-American colonies, . 455 Capture of Havana, Cuba, by the British navy, e e . 292 Death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, º e e 292 Murder of the Czar Peter III. of Russia and accession of Catha- rine II., tº e & tº e º e , 292 Peace of Paris between England and France, February Ioth, 292, 306 Peace of Hubertsburg between Austria and Prussia, º º 292 Pontiac's War against the English in North America, . e . 306 Death of Augustus III. of Poland and election of Stanislaus Ponia- towski, e e e • e tº © • 293 56o CHA’OAWOL OG/CA/, /AWDEX. 1765 66 66 1766 1767 1768 1769 1770 1771 1772 6 & 1773 1774 **. , I AGE. The Stamp Act passed by the British Parliament, . • ſº 455 The Stamp Act Congress in New York City, October, tº . 456 Death of the Emperor Francis I. and election of Joseph II., e 298 Repeal of the Stamp Act, March 6th, . e ſº tº . 456 Parliament levies duties on articles imported into America, & 456 Civil war in Poland, . * tº g e ſº • 294 IIyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore, begins a war against the English, . 299 War between Russia and Turkey, o e ſº g 294 British troops under General Gage sent to Boston, . de e 457 Acquisition of Corsica by the French, . ge g o . 297 Bender stormed and taken by the Russians, © tº • 294 The Boston Riot and Massacre, March 5th, * e. e . 457 Deſeat of the Regulators in North Carolina, May 16th, ſº g 458 Gustavus III. ascends the throne of Sweden. ' Gustavus III. breaks the power of the Swedish aristocracy. Destruction of the Gaspé, & e ſº © º . 458 First Partition of Poland, . & g e o º 294 Committees of Correspondence in the Anglo-American colonies, • 459 Tea-ships sent to America, . e º ſº e wº 458 Destruction of tea in Boston harbor, December 16th, . gº . 458 Pugatscheff’s rebellion in Russia, . * * e • 294 Passage of the Boston Port Bill by the British Parliament, e . 458 The port of Boston closed against all commerce, June 1st, . o 458 The First Continental Congress assembles in Philadelphia, Sept, 5th, 459 Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche between Russia and Turkey, © 294 Death of Louis XV. of France and accession of Louis XVI., . . 3 IO Pugatscheff, the Don Cossack, beheaded in Moscow, © tº 294 American Revolution begins by the skirmishes at Lexington and and Concord, April 19th, & e Q & 307, 460 The Second Continental Congress assembles at Philadelphia, May 1oth, . . & • • . e . 462 Capture of Ticonderoga by Colonel Ethan Allen, May 1oth, 307, 460 Capture of Crown Point by Colonel Seth Warner, May 12th, . . 460 Mecklenberg Declaration of Independence, May 20th, º 461 Washington chosen Commander-in-chief, June 15th, . * . 462 Battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17th, g wº tº 307, 461 American invasion of Canada, September, © tº º 307, 462 Defeat of Governor Dunmore in Virginia, . tº e º 462 Capture of Montreal by General Montgomery, November 13th, 307, 462 Defeat of the Americans at Quebec and death of Montgomery, December 31st, ſº º e • . e . 307, 462 Lord Dunmore burns Norfolk, Virginia, January 1st, © e 462 Washington begins the siege of Boston, March 2d, e . 462 Evacuation of Boston by General Howe, March 17th, & º 462 The British repulsed at Charleston, South Carolina, June 28th, • 463. Declaration of American Independence, July 4th, . e 307, 463 Battle of Long Island, August 27th, © © e tº . 464 Battle of White Plains, New York, October 28th, . e © 464 Capture of Fort Washington by the British, November 16th, . . 464 Washington's retreat across New Jersey, December, te tº 465 Battle of Trenton, New Jersey, 1,000 Hessians captured, Decem- ber 26th, . tº e & tº e " .. e. & 465 Battle of Princeton, New Jersey, January 3d, . e e . 465 Skirmish at Ridgefield, Connecticut, April 27th, . ſº e 465 Siege of Fort Schuyler, New York, August, . gº e . 467 Battle of Oriskany, New York, August 6th, © º , º 467 Battle of Bennington, Vermont, August 16th, . e tº . 467 Battle of Brandywine, Pennsylvania, September 11th, e e 466 Battle of Bemis's Heights, New York, September 19th, o 467 Massacre of Paoli, Pennsylvania, September 20tn, . Q o 466 CHROAVO LOGICAL VAWDA.X. 561 1777 PAGE. Battle of Germantown, Pennsylvania, October 4th, o g . 466 Battle of Saratoga, New York, October 7th, º º º 467 Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17th, . º o sº . 467 Adoption of the Articles of Confederation, November, º 467 Washington encamps at Valley Forge, December, e º . 466 Franco-American Alliance.—War between England and France, 308, 468 Death of the elder William Pitt. - Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey, June 28th, . º 468 Massacre of Wyoming, Pennsylvania, July 3d, 4th, and 5th, . 469 Battle of Quaker Hill, Rhode Island, August 29th, e º 468 Massacre of Cherry Valley, New York, November 11th, e . 469 The British under Colonel Campbell invade Georgia and captur Savannah, December 29th, . © o º º . 469 War of the Bavarian Succession, . e g º ſº 297 Discovery of the Sandwich Islands by Captain Cook. Capture of Sunbury, Georgia, by the British, January 9th, . 469 Battle of Kettle Creek, Georgia, February 14th, e . 469 Battle of Brier Creek, Georgia, March 3d, . e º º 469 Battle of Stono Ferry, South Carolina, June 20th, & o . 469 Spain declares war against England, June, . º º 3O8, 470 Siege of Gibraltar commenced by the Spaniards, tº . 3O8, 470 Capture of Stony Point by General Anthony Wayne, July 16th, . 47O Capture of Paulus Hook by Major Henry Lee, July 19th, . . . 470 General Sullivan's chastisement of the Indians in New York, August, . 470 John Paul Jones's great naval victory off Flamborough Head, Sept. 23d, 470 Siege of Savannah begun by the French and Americans, Sept. 23d, . 470 Unsuccessful assault on the British at Savannah, October 9th, & 470 Sir Henry Clinton lays siege to Charleston, South Carolina, April 9th, . 47 I Surrender of Charleston to the British, May 12th, e º 47 I The Gordon or “No Popery Riots” in London, June, . 2 . 297 Skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey, June 23d, & * 472 Battle of Sander's Creek, South Carolina, August 16th, . & . 47 I Battle of Fishing Creek, South Carolina, August 18th, e º 47 I Arnold's treason discovered, September 22d, e e . 472 Execution of Major André, October 2d, . º º º 472 Battle of King's Mountain, South Carolina, October 7th, º . 47 I Death of the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, . º e 298 Hyder Ali defeated in India by Sir Eyre Coote, º e . 299 Beginning of Tupac Amaru's insurrection in Peru, . o º 433 Armed Neutrality against England, . º º . 3O8, 472 England declares war against Holland, December 20th, . 308, 472 Mutiny of Pennsylvania troops at Morristown, New Jersey, Jan. Ist, 472 Battle of the Cowpens, South Carolina, January 17th, . º . 473 Mutiny of New Jersey troops at Pompton, New Jersey, January 18th, 472 Battle of Guilford Court House, North Carolina, March 15th, . 473 Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, South Carolina, April 25th, e º 473 Siege of Fort Ninety-Six, South Carolina, by General Greene, May, . 473 Capture of Augusta, Georgia, by the Americans, June 5th, . º 473 Battle between the English and Dutch fleets on the Dogger Bank, June, .. 309 Massacre of Fort Griswold, Connecticut, September 6th, . º 474 Battle of Eutaw Springs, South Carolina, September 8th, e . 474 Siege of Yorktown commenced by Washington, September 28th, 47 4 Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, October 19th, & . 474 End of Lord North's Administration, March, º & o 475 The British House of Commons resolves to end the American war, March 4th, . e te & & e tº . 475 . Admiral Rodney defeats Count de Grasse in the West Indies, April 12th, e e © © e e . 3O9 Grand attack of the French and Spaniards on Gibraltar, Sept. 13th, 309 36 562 CHROMO LOGICAL VAWD EX. - PAGE. 1782 Preliminary Peace of Paris between England and the United States, November 30th, o e © o e o . 475 “ The younger William Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England. “ Migration of the Kalmuck Tartars from Russia, G e • 294 66 6 & 1784 1786 1787 Tupac Amaru conquered and put to a cruel death, . Death of Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore, and accession of Tirpoo Saib, • 299 Preliminary Peace of Paris between England and France, Jan. 20th, 475 Definitive Peace of Paris.-American independence acknowledged, September 3d, e ſº º e & º . 475 Evacuation of New York City by the British army, November 25th, 475 Washington resigns his commission, December 4th, o G 475 Conquest of the Crimea by the Russians under Potemkin, Q • 294 Great earthquake at Messana, Italy. Democratic insurrection in Holland, . º e Q . 298 Shay’s insurrection in Massachusetts. Death of Frederic the Great at Potsdam, August 17th, . © . 297 An Assembly of Notables convened in France, February, . e 3 I2 Assembling of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, May, . 476 The Constitution of the United States framed, September, . º 476 War of Austria and Russia against Turkey, © e e • 295 King Frederic William II. of Prussia restores order in Holland, . 298 Rebellions in the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary, o . 298 Impéachment of Warren Hastings by the House of Commons, e 298 Gustavus III. of Sweden makes war on Russia, & º . 295 Ratification and adoption of the Constitution of the United States, 478 General Washington elected President of the United States, . 478 Capture of Oczakow by the Russians under Potemkin, December 22d, 295 The Constitution of the United States goes into operation, March 4th, . 478 Inauguration of President Washington, April 30th, o 478 Assembling of the States General at Versailles, May 5th, © . . 3 I2 The States General declares itself a National Assembly, June 17th, 3I2 The French Revolution begun by the storming of the Bastile, July 14th, .. 314 The Paris mob forces Louis XVI. to remove from Versailles to Paris, October 5th, e © º e e o o 315 Admission of North Carolina into the American Union, Nov. 29th, . 478 Death of Joseph II. of Germany and accession of Leopold II., February, 298 Rhode Island admitted into the American Union, May 29th, . 478 The Ceremony of Federation in Paris, June 17th, e e 3I 5 Peace between Gustavus III. of Sweden and Catharine II. of Russia, . 295 Tippoo Saib renews the war against the East-India Company, 299 'General Harmer defeated by the Indians in Ohio, November 4th, • 479 Ismail stormed and taken by the Russians under Suwarrow. Dec. 17th, 295 Vermont admitted as a State of the American Union, February 18th, . 478 Death of Count Mirabeau, April 2d, • © º 316 A new monarchical constitution adopted in Poland, May 3d, . 295 Siege and capture of Bangalore, India, by Lord Cornwallis, 299 Unsuccessful attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from France, June, . 316 Peace between Austria and Turkey, e º e e 295 The French Legislative Assembly convenes in Paris, October 1st, . 316 General St. Clair defeated by the Indians in Ohio, November 4th . 479 Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey, January, e . 295 Death of Leopold II. of Germany and accession of Francis II., . 298 Lord Cornwallis defeats Tippoo Saib at Seringapatam, India, . . 299 Assassination of King Gustavus III. of Sweden, March 29th, & 295 France declares war against Austria and Prussia, April 20th, . . 317 Poland invaded by Russian troops, May, . e tº 295 Kentucky admitted into the American Union, June Ist, © . 478 Insurrection in Paris, June, . º • $º o º 317 Defeat of Kosciuszko at Dubienka by the Russians, July 17th, . . 295 Austro-Prussian invasion of France, July, . e e e 3.18 CHRONOLOGICAA. INDEX. 563 1792 66. '66 “º 6 ($6 I794 66 66 & & £6 & & gº 1795 G& 1797 • PAGE. Insurrection and massacre in Paris, August 1oth, ſº e . 318 Flight of General Lafayette to the Austrians, tº † ſº 318 Massacre of the Prisons in Paris, September 2d–5th, . tº • 3 I9 Battle of Valmy, France, September 20th, . gº † º 3I9 The French National Convention assembles in Paris and declares France a Republic, September 22d, g gº e e 319 Dattle of Jemappes, Belgium, November 6th, . ſº g . 3 I9 Execution of King Louis XVI. of France, January 27th, . e 32O France declares war against England, Spain, and Holland, February, .. 32O Battle of Neerwinden, Belgium, March 18th, e tº e 320 I)umourier seeks refuge among the Austrians, March, . • 32I, 323 Second Partition of Poland, April, . tº g ſe ſº 296 Insurrection of the Jacobins in Paris, May 31st and June 1st, . . 32.I The Reign of Terror in France, . $º gº c e 32I The insurrection of La Vendee, g © ſe ſº . 322 Insurrection of Lyons, o º wº e º o 322 Insurrection of Marseilles, º * º tº º . 322 Insurrection of Toulon, tº te 322 Siege and reduction of Toulon-Appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte, . 322 Insurrections in Brittany and Normandy, © * tº 322 Trial and execution of Marie Antoinette, October 16th, wº . 321 Execution of the Girondist leaders, October 31st, . © ſe 32I The French National Convention abolishes the Christian religion, November Ioth, g º * e te o . 322 Execution of Danton and Camille Desmoulins, April, g º 323 Rise of the Poles under Kosciuszko against the Russians, April, • 294 Execution of Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon, and Henriot, July 28th, 323 General Wayne defeats the Indians in Ohio, August 20th, ſº . 479 Defeat of Kosciuszko by the Russians at Macziewice, October Ioth, 296 Jay's Treaty between the the United States and Great Britain, . - 479 The Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania, . gº : g 479 Third Partition of Poland, January, tº º tº . 296 Holland erected into the Batavian Republic, January, e © 325 The French National Convention surrounded by a mob, March 31st, April 1st, te (e. o iº e º e • 324 Peace of Basle between France and Prussia, April 5th, C. tº 325 The Insurrection of the 1st Prairial in Paris, May 20th, tº • 324 The Austrians take Heidelberg and Manheim by storm, September. Insurrection of the Sections in Paris, October 3d-5th, , . º . 325 Establishment of the Directory in France, October 27th, . tº 325 Battles of Montenotte and Mellessimo, Italy, April, e dº . 326 Battle of Lodi, Italy, May 1oth, . e & tº g 326 Tennessee admitted into the American Union, June 1st, dº . 480 Death of Catharine II. of Russia and accession of Paul, . te 296 Moreau's masterly retreat through the Black Forest, September, . 325 Spain declares war against England, October 2d. Battles of Arcola, Italy, November 15th, 16th, and 17th, o & John Adams inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 48o Treliminary Treaty of Leoben between France and Austria, April 18th, .. 326 The Venetian Republic subverted by Bonaparte, e & The Royalist deputies imprisoned and banished from France, Sept., . 327 Peace of Campo Formio between France and Austria, October 17th, 327 The Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics established in Italy, e . 327 A European Congress assembles at Rastadt, Baden, December. A new Roman Republic established, February, º ſº , 327 Switzerland converted into the Helvetic Republic, . c • 328 Rebellion in Ireland against British authority, . * iº . 298 Bonaparte invades Egypt, July 1st, . gº º © © 328 Capture of Alexandria, Egypt, by Bonaparte, July 1st, . tº . 328 Battle of the Pyramids, Egypt, July 21st, s * te o 328 ! 5 64 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 1798 Battle of the Nile,_Lord Nelson defeats the French fleet, August Ist, Alien and Sedition Laws passed by the United States Congress, . 66 66 £6 1799 & 6& .4% {{ 6& 66 A. D. 18OI 6& << &G &&. The Parthenopeian Republic overthrown, June 13th, Battle of Novi, Italy,–Suwarrow defeats the French, August 5th, Battle of Marengo, Italy, June 14th, te º e Washington City becomes the Capital of the United States, e The Virginia and Kentucky States Rights Resolutions, . © Coalition of Austria, Russia, England, and Turkey against France, The Parthenopeian Republic established in Naples, January, . Bonaparte's invasion of Syria, February, . º e e Siege of Acre; Syria, by Bonaparte, March and April, . . . Battle of Mount Tabor, Syria, March, g . . .” Fall of Seringapatam and death of Tippoo Saib, May 4th, o Battles of Cassano and Trebia, Italy,–French defeats, June, & Battle of Aboukir, Egypt, July 25th, e Battle of Zurich, Switzerland,-Russians defeated by the French, September 25, 26, • º º º © . Bonaparte-overthrows the Directory in France, November 9th, . IDeath of General Washington at Mount Vernon, December 14th, . Napoleon created First Consul of the French Republic, January, Napoleon's passage over the Alps, May and June, . e tº Battle of Montebello, Italy, June 9th, Macdonald’s passage over the Splugen, November, . te e Battle of Hohenlinden, Bavaria, December 3d, . º º Maratime League formed against Great Britain, December 16th, . Attempted assassination of Bonaparte, December 24th, . º NINETEENTH CENTURY. Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland, January 1st, . Peace of Luneville between France and Austria, February 9th, © Battle of Copenhagen,_Lord Nelson defeats the Danes, March 2d, Inauguration of President Thomas Jefferson, March 4th, . e Battles of Canopus, Egypt, and death of Sir Ralph Abercrombie, March 21st, e º G o e g Assassination of the Czar Paul and accession of Alexander I., March 24th, . ſº e te o e • War between the United States and Tripoli, o • º War between Spain and Portugal. Peace of Badajoz between Spain and Portugal. - Peace of Amiens between England and France, March 27th, . Ohio becomes a State of the American Union, & o º Bonaparte elected First Consul of France for life, e e Revolt of St. Domingo against the French, . e e e Renewal of the war between England and France, , . * French invasion and conquest of Hanover, . © º e Robert Emmett's insurrection in Dublin, Ireland, º º Purchase of Louisiana from France by the United States, . e War between Russia and Persia. - War between the English and the Mahrattas of India, º e Battle of Assayé, India, Sir Arthur Wellesley defeats the Mahrattas, Conspiracy against Bonaparte, Q tº . tº o & ºxecution of the Duke d' Enghien, May 21st, . g º War between Great Britain and Spain, December, . . . º Napoleon crowned “Emperor of the French,” December 2d, . Napoleon crowned “Ring of Northern Italy,” May 26th, . Mehemet Ali becomes Pacha of Egypt, . Coalition of England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden against Napoleon, The Austrian general Mack surrenders Ulm to Napoleon, Oct. 20th, PAGE. .328 481 48I 329 • 327 330 33O 33O 299 329 329 33O • 329 329 33 I 481 33 I 332 332 332 481 332 332 333 ,332 298 333 333 481 • 333 333 481 333 481 • 334 334 334 334 298 481 299 299 335 335 335 335 335 . .368 336 . .336 CHROZVO Z, OGICA/, //VDAX. 565 1805 Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13th, Battle of Trafalgar, victory and death of Lord Nelson, Oct. 21st, Battle of Dirnstein, Austria, November 11th, . º g Napoleon enters Vienna, the Austrian capital, November 13th, . Battle of Austerlitz, Austria, December 2d, º e Peace of Presburg between France and Austria, December 26th, End of the German Empire and formation of the Confederation of the Dupont's capitulation of Baylen, tº Napoleon's meeting with the Czar Alexander I. at Erfurt, Prussia, July. The Portuguese resist the French and are aided by the English, August, 34o Dattle of Rolica, Portugal, August 19th, . © - e. e Battle of Vimiera, Portugal, August 21st, © tº º Convention of Cintra,-French evacuation of Portugal, e & Napoleon enters Madrid, the capital of Spain, December 4th, . Battle of Corunna, Spain,_victory and death of Sir John Moore, January 16th, © g te e º e ſº Surrender of Saragossa to the French aſter a long siege, Feb. 20th, James Madison inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, King Gustavus IV. of Sweden deposed by the Swedish Senate, March 13th, . 4 & e o tº º º Sweden cedes Finland to Russia by the Peace of Frederickshamn, War breaks out between France and Austria, April, º © Battles of Abensberg and Eckmuhl, Bavaria, April 19th–22d, tº Battles of Asperm and Eslingen, Austria, May 21st, 22d, . © Eugene Beauharnais defeats the Austrians at Raab, May. - PAGE. 336 336 . 336 336 Rhine, • • © o º e e . 336 Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples and Louis King of Holland, 336 Death of William Pitt the Younger and Charles James Fox, . . 336 The English conquer the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch. Capture of Buenos Ayres, South America, by Sir Home Popham. War breaks out between France and Prussia, August, e º 337 Battle of Saalfeld,—Prince Louis of Prussia defeated and killed, October 10th, . e º tº . . . e • 337 Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, Prussia, October 14th, º © 337 Napoleon enters Berlin, the capital of Prussia, October 25th, • 337 Napoleon's Berlin Decree establishing the Continental System, November 21st, © tº º º º • 337, 482 Battle of Pultusk, Poland,-the French repulsed, December 26th, 337 Battle of Eylau, Prussia, February 8th, º O © • 337 Dantzic, Prussia, surrendered to the French, May 24th, e º 337 Battle of Hielsberg, Prussia, June 5th, . º e . 338 Battle of Friedland, Prussia, June 14th, . tº e e 338 Attack of the Leopard on the Chesapeake, June 22d, . e . 483 Peace of Tilsit between France, Russia, and Prussia, July 7th, e 338 Jerome Bonaparte becomes King of Westphalia, e e . 338 War begun between Russia and Turkey, . tº . ~ º 343 A British fleet under Admiral Duckworth repulsed at Constantinople. The English under General Frazer take Alexandria in Egypt. Buenos Ayres recovered from the English by its inhabitants. Robert Fulton’s steam navigation experiments crowned with success, 482 Bombardment of Copenhagen by the British navy, September 2d–5th, .. 338 Aaron Burr's trial for treason and acquittal, November, e 482 War of Prussia, France, and Denmark against Sweden, . e . 338 The royal family of Portugal sails for Rio Janeiro, in Brazil, Nov. 27th, 339 The French occupy Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, November 30th, .. 339 Napoleon's Milan decree forbidding neutrals trading with England, December 17th. 482 Intrigues of Bayonne,—Dethronement of the Bourbons in Spain, 339 Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain, . e e • 339 Beginning of the Peninsular War, . e e º e 339 339 • 34O 34O 34O 340 • 34O 483 34 I 34 I • 34O 34O , 34O 340 566 CHRONOI. OGICAL VAWDEX. 1809 6'g 4& & & & 4 1812 / PAGE, Revolt of the Tyrolese against the Bavarian Government, . g 34:1; Unfortunate expedition of the English to the island of Walcheran, Pope Pius VII. imprisoned in France, July, e e º 34I Battle of Wagram, Austria, July 5th and 6th, . . º º • 34I Battle of Talavera, Spain, July 28th, º • c º ſº 340 Beginning of the Revolution in Colombia, August, * o • 435 Peace of Schoenbrunn between France and Austria, October 14th, 34I Napoleon's divorce from Josephine, e & e • 341 Napoleon's marriage with the Archduchess Maria Louisa of Atsºa. January, e • * e - e e. . 341 General Charles John Bernadotte elected Crown Pri::ce of Sweden, 343 Holland annexed to the French Empire, º & e • 34I Deginning of the Revolution in Chili, July, * e 439 Hidalgo begins the Revolution in Mexico, September 16th, . • 434 Battle of Busaca, Spain, September 27th, . © o e 342 Wellington's retreat to Torres Vedras, October and November, . • 342 Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, causes a massacre of the Mamelukes, 368 Attack of the Little Belt on the President, March 16th, . o . 484 Battle of Albuera, Spain, May 16th, º e © tº 342 Colombian Declaration of Independence, July 5th, º ºt . 436 Hidalgo, the Mexican insurgent chief, shot, July 27th, e e 434 Battle of Tippecanoe, Indiana, November 7th, . sº e . 484 Earthquake at Caraccas, South America, e º G 436 Louisiana admitted as a State of the American Union, . © • 49 I Peace of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey, . e e 343 The United States declares war against England, June 19th, . . 484 Napoleon declares war against Russia, June 22d, . º e 343 Napoleon crosses the Niemen and invades Russia, June 24th, . • 343 Battle of Salamanca, Spain, July 22d, e e © e 342 Hull's surrender of Detroit, Michigan, August 16th, ". o . 484 Battle of Smolensko, Russia, August 17th, . º º tº 344 Battle of Borodino, Russia, September 7th, º º te • 344 Napoleon enters Moscow, September 15th, . º e s 344 Conflagration of Moscow, September 16th–19th, e º 344 Battle of Queenstown, Canada, October 13th, º e o 485 Napoleon begins his retreat from Moscow, October 19th, e ‘ 344 Dattles of Krasnoi, Russia, November 16th, 17th, and 18th, tº 345 Terrible passage of the Beresina, December, . º o . 346 Massacre of Frenchtown, Michigan, January 22d, . º tº 85 Prussia joins Russia and Sweden in the war against Napoleon, Feb. 3d, 346 Battle of Lutzen, Germany, May 20, e . . . e 347 First siege of Fort Meigs, Ohio, May 5th–9th, . e e 486 Battle of Bautzen, Germany, May 20th, e º © o 347 Capture of York or Toronto, Canada, by the Americans, April 27th, 486 Battle of Vittoria, Spain, June 21st, . º, e sº tº 346 European Congress at Prague, Bohemia, July 4th, © o . 347 Second siege of Fort Meigs, Ohio, July 21st, o º * 486 Attack on Fort Stephenson, Ohio, August 2d, º te . 486 Austria joins the allies in the war against Napoleon, August 1oth, . 347 Battle of Gros-Beeren, Prussia, August 23d, . o & , 347 Battle of Katzbach, Prussia, August 26th, . g * º 347 Battle of Dresden, Saxony, August 26th, 27th, . º Q , 347 Battles of Culm and Nollendorf, Bohemia, August 29th 30th, 347 Battle of Dennewitz, Prussia, September 6th, . & & 347 Perry's victory on Lake Erie, Sept. 10th, . º © & A86 Battle of the Thames, Canada, October 5th, . º © . 486 Battle of Leipsic, Saxony, October 16th, 17th, and 18th, . º 347 Napoleon begins his retreat from Leipsic, October 19th, & . 348 War with the Creek Indians in Alabama, November, e e 487 . 487 Battle of Chrysler's Field, Canada, November 11th, . e CHROMO/ OG/CA/, //V/XAZX. 567 ... -- * PAGE. 1813 Mexican Declaration of Independence, November 13th, . * 434 1814 Invasion of France by the allied armies, January Ist, . . . . 348 “ Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden by the Peace of Kiel, January, 348 “ Pope Pius VII. restored to his authority in Rome, January, tº . 348 “ Battle of Brienne, France, January 27th, . tº e gº 349 “ Batſle of La Rothieré, France, February 1st, . & º • 349 “ Napoleon's victory at Montereau, February 18th, . ſº , ºr 349 “ Battle of Tohopeka, or Great Horse Shoe, Alabama, March 27th, . 487 “ First capitulation of Paris to the allies, March 31st, * i.e. 349 * Treaty of Fontainbleau, Napoleon's abdication, April 11th, . , 349 Battle of Toulouse, France,—Wellington defeats Soult, April 11th, 349 * Napoleon arrives in Elba, May 4th, . e & & • 349 “ Louis XVIII. placed on the throne of France, May 20th, . tº 350 “ First Peace of Paris between France and the allies, May 30th, . . 35Q “ Battle of Chippewa, Canada, July 5th, & de g * 488 “ Battle of Lundy’s Lane, Canada, July 25th, . & iſ . 488 “ Battle of Bladensburg, Maryland, August 24th, º • s 489 “ Washington City captured and burned by the British, August 24th, . 489 “ Battle of Plattsburg, New York, September 11th, tº { } 488 “ Battle of North Point, Maryland, September 12th, o g . 489 “ British bombardment of Fort McHenry, Maryland, Sept. 12th–14th, 489 “ A Congress of European Powers meets at Vienna, September 25th, . 350 “ Jackson's invasion of Florida and capture of Pensacola, November, 489 “ Battle below New Orleans, Louisiana, December 23d, . § . 489 “ Peace of Ghent between Great Britain and the United States, Dec. 24th, 490 1815 Battle of New Orleans, Louisiana, January 8th, . e & ... 489 “ Napoleon returns to France and recovers his throne, March, * 35C “ England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia combine against Napoleon, • 35 I “ Napoleon compels the Prussians to evacuate Charleroi, Belgium, June 15th, tº & º g ſº & * . 35I* “ Battles of Ligny and Quatre-Bras, Belgium, June 16th, e sº 35 I “ Battle of Waterloo, Belgium, June 18th, tº tº 351 “ Commodore Decatur humbles Algiers, June 30th, . g e 49 I “ Second abdication of Napoleon, July 2d, & g * . . .352 “ Second capitulation of Paris, July 7th, & * • g 352 “ Louis XVIII. restored to the throne of France, July 8th, e • 352 “ Napoleon banished to St. Helena, where he arrives October 2d, . 352 “ The Holy Alliance formed, September 25th, . e ſº • 353 “ The Germanic Confederation established, . & g tº 365 “ Second Peace of Paris between France and the allies, November 20th, 353 1816 Argentine Declaration of Independence, July 9th, º © . 438 “ Lord Exmouth humbles Algiers, August 27th, ſº © tº 355 “ Indiana admitted as a State of the American Union, December, • 49 I 1817 J3attle of Chacabaco, Chili, the Spaniards defeated, tº ſº 439 “ President James Monroe's inauguration, March 4th, . ge . 491 “ Admission of Mississippi into the American Union, . * º 492 “ Raids of the Seminole and Creek Indians in Georgia, . tº . 49 I “ Republican conspiracy in England, . tº . & tº g 354 1818 Battle of Maypu and emancipation of Chili, April 5th, . * • 439 “ The Wahawbees of Arabia subdued by Mehemet Ali, { } * 368 “ General Jackson's second invasion of Florida and seizure of Pensacola, 491 “ Admission of Illinois as a State of the American Union, ſº , 492 1819 Spain cedes Florida to the United States, . wº e * 491 “ Popular demonstration at Manchester, England, * o • 355 “ European Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle. “ Alabama admitted into the American Union, tº • . 492 1820 Death of George III. of England and accession of George IV., 8 January, e s e , a & © . 355, 366 “ Conquest of Nubia and Kordofan by the Pacha of Egypt, . 368 “ Revolution in Spain and reëstablishment of the Cortes Constitution, 355 * t 568 CHRO MOJ OGMCA / IWD EX. PAGE, 1820 Revolution in Portugal and establishment of a liberal constitution, . 356 “ Revolution in Naples and establishment of a liberal constitution, . 356 “ The Holy Alliance restores absolute monarchy in Naples, e • 356 “ Maine admitted into the American Union, . o tº º 492 “ The Missouri Compromise agreed to, . e º sº • 492 1821 Death of Napoleon Bonaparte at St. Helena, May 5th, º º 352 “ Revolution in Piedmont crushed by Austrian power, . ſº • 357 “ Adm'ssion of Missouri as a State of the American Union, August 21st, 492 “ Alexander Ypsilanti’s proclamation to the Greeks, º ſº \ , 357 * Commencement of the Greek War for Independence, o g 357 “ Mexico becomes independent of Spain, . e wº * • 435 “ San Marlin rouses the Peruvians to revolution, tº g g 439 “ War between Turkey and Persia. 1822 Don Augustin Iturbide created Emperor of Mexico, tº * 435 “ Brazil declared an independent empire, . e º . 356, 440 “ Desolation of Scio by the Turks, e g e { } 358 I823 A French army restores absolutism in Spain, . e . . . 355 “ Surrender of Puerto Cabello to the Colombians, . tº & 438 “ Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, overthrown, © g tº • 435 1824 Death of Lord Byron at Missolonghi, Greece, April 19th, . º 358 “ Death of Louis XVIII. of France and accession of Charles X., • 354 “ General Lafayette's visit to the United States, tº tº * 492 “ The East-India Company involved in a war with the Burmese, . . 369 “ A Federal Constitution adopted in Mexico, . d 435 “ Battle of Junin, Peru, August 6th, the Spaniards defeated, . • 44O “ Battle of Auyacucho and emancipation of Peru, December 9th, 438, 439, 440 1825 General Guadalupe Victoria inaugurated President of Mexico, Jan. Ist, 441 “ John Quincy Adams inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 493 “ War between Russia and Persia. * “ Death of the Czar Alexander I. and accession of Nicholas, . Ç 364 “ France acknowledges the independence of Hayti, e o . 334 1826 Bloody destruction of the Janissaries at Constantinople. “ Surrender of Callao, Peru, to the Peruvians, . º e • 44O : “ Spanish American Congress at Panama, . tº tº o 44O “ Capture of Missolonghi, Greece, by the Turks, August, º • 359 “ Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, July 4th, g g 493 1827 Intervention of England, France, and Russia in favor of Greece, 359 “ Battle of Navarino and annihilation of the Turko-Egyptian fleet, Oct. 20th, 359 “ First Railroad in the United States built, . e e tº 493 1828 Revolution in Mexico and flight of General Pedraza, November, • 442 “ War between Russia and Turkey, . e e Q. c 359 “ Abolition of the Test Act by the British Parliament, g . 366 “ Establishment of the American System, º is s & 493 1829 General Andrew Jackson inaugurated President, March 4th, . - 493 “ Catholic Emancipation Act passed by Parliament, . º ſº 366 “ Peace of Adrianople between Russia and Turkey, * tº . 360 1830 Death of George IV. of England and accession of William IV., June, 366 “ The city of Algiers taken by a French fleet, July 4th, te . 361 “ Revolution in Paris and dethronement of Charles X., July, . tº 360 “ Louis Phillippe created “King of the French,” August 9th, . . 362 “ Belgium becomes an independent kingdom, s © tº 363 “ Rebellion in Poland against Russian authority, November, e . 364 1831 Popular movements in Germany and Italy, . g © g 365 “ Battle of Ostrolenka, Poland, May 20th, ſº * º , 365 “ Fall of Warsaw and end of the Polish insurrection, September, º 365 “ Assassination of John Capo d’Istria, the Greek President, * . 360 “ Abdication of Don Pedro I. of Brazil and accession of Don Pedro II., 356 “ Mehemet Ali's first rebellion against the Ottoman Porte, tº . 368 “ Dissolution of the Republic of Colombia, . o tº º 44O 1832 Siege and capture of Acre, Syria, by the Egyptians, . © . 368 CHA’OAVO ZOG/CAZ, ZAVNOAX. 569 PAGE. 1832 Battle of Homs, Syria, July 8th, the Egyptians defeat the Turks. “ The Russians take the Circassian post of Himry, October 8th. “ President Bustamente overthrown in Mexico, tº { } e 443 “ Santa Anna chosen President of Mexico, e e e • 443 “ Civil war in Portugal between Don Pedro and Don Miguel, º 356 * Passage of the First Reform Bill by the British Parliament, © . 367 “ Iłlack Hawk War in Illinois and Wisconsin, º e º “ President Jackson's collision with the U. S. Supreme Court, . - 493 “ Nullification in South Carolina, November, º te o 494 1833 Removal of deposits from the United States Bank, . º . 494 “ King Otho ſ. ascends the throne of Greece, March, g e 36C “ The Sultan of Turkey cedes Syria to the Pacha of Egypt, º , 368 “ The British Parliament abolishes slavery in the British West Indies, 367 “ Death of King Ferdinand VII. of Spain and accession of Isabella II., . 367 “ Civil war begins in Spain between the Christinos and Carlists, e 367 1835 Beginning of the Texam War for independence, October, © • 443 “ Capture of the Alamo by the Mexicans, December 2d, tº © 443 “ Commencement of the Seminole War in Florida, December 29th, • 494 1836 Battle of San Jacinto, Texas, April 21st,--Santa Anna captured, . 444 “ Texas becomes an independent republic, º º º • 444 “ Arkansas admitted into the American Union, O g º 495 1837 Michigan becomes a State of the American Union, º º . 495 “ Martin Van Buren inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 495 “ Death of William IV. of England and accession of Victoria, June, . 367 “ Rebellion in Canada against British authority, º & º 495 “ Osceola, the Seminole chief, treacherously made a prisoner, October, . 495 1838 General Mexia’s rebellion in Mexico, e º Q o 444 “ Vera Cruz, Mexico, attacked by a French fleet, November, . . • 444 1839 Revolution in Peru and overthrow of General Santa Cruz, . º 44. I “ Mehemet Ali's second rebellion against the Sultan of Turkey, . . 368 “ Battle of Nisib, Syria—the Egyptians.defeat the Turks, June 24th. “ England's opium war with China begins, e º º . 368 “ Anglo-Indian invasion of Afghanistan, º º e e 369 1840 Acre and Beyreut, Syria, bombarded and taken by the British navy, .. 368 & 4 The remains of the Emperor Napoleon I. brought to Paris, . 352, 37O “ Sanguinary insurrection in the city of Mexico, . º (- . 445 1841 Disastrous retreat of the British from Cabul, Afghanistan, . © 369 & 4 Canton; China, captured by the British and ransomed by the Chinese, .. 369 “ Revolution in Mexico and downfall of Bustamente, . º e 445 “ General William Henry Harrison inaugurated President, March 4th, . 496 “ Death of President Harrison, April 4th. e © º e 496 “ John Tyler's inauguration, April 6th, . e º e . 496 1842 Domestic difficulties in Rhode Island, e º g e 496 “ The Treaty of Washington settles the Maine boundary dispute, . 496 “ Treaty of Nankin between Great Britain and China, August 29th, . 368 1843 Battles of Hyderabad, Maharajpore, and Pumniar, India, . 369 “ Annexation of Scinde and Gwalior to British India, e e 369 “ The Russians take the Circassian fortress of Akulgo by storm. 1844 First experiment with the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph, e º 497 “ The towns of Tangier and Mogadore, Morocco, bombarded by a French - fleet. “ Revolution in Mexico and overthrow and banishment of Santa Anna, 445 1845 Florida admitted into the American Union, March 3d, . © • 497 “ Inauguration of President James Knox Polk, March 4th, . e 497 “ Annexation of Texas to the United States, July 4th, . e s 497 “ Battle of Moodkee between the English and the Sikhs, December 6th, § 1846 Battles of Ferozeshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon, and end of the First Sikh War, 369 “ The British Parliament repeals the Corn Laws. “ Commencement of hostilities between the Americans and Mexicans, April 26, & º e º e e e . 498 57o CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 1846 & 4 1848 Peace of Guadaloupe Hidalgo between Mexico and the United States, Battle of Palo Alto, Texas, May 8th, º o º º Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Texas, May 9th, . ſº ę The United States declare war against Mexico, May IIth, . • Capture of Matamoras, Mexico, by General Taylor, May 18th, . Revolution in Mexico and Santa Anna's restoration to power, e Capture of Monterey, Mexico, by General Taylor, September 24th, Conquest of California by Colonel Fremont, º Battle of Bracito, Mexico, the Mexicans defeated by Colonel Doni- phan, December 25th, e º º º e Iowa admitted into the American Union, December, o . Battle of Buena Vista, Mexico, February 23d, . e e Battle of Sacramento, Mexico, February 28th, º º © Siege and capture of Vera Cruz by General Scott, March, º Battle of Cerro Gordo, Mexico, April 18th, . tº tº © Battles of San Antonio, Contreras, and Churubusco, August 20th, Battle of Molino del Rey, Mexico, September 8th, e º Battle of Chapultepec, Mexico, September 13th, tº e General Scott enters the city of Mexico, September 14th, e The French conquest of Algiers completed by the surrender of Abdel-Kader, Civil war in Switzerland between the Catholics and Protestants. February 23, . & tº © • o O Revolution in Paris and abdication and flight of Louis Philippe, Feb., Establishment of the Second French Republic, February, . e Topular movements in the German States, March, e º The First Revolution in Vienna, March,' te º * Revolution in Milan, Italy, and expulsion of the Austrians, March, Revolution in Berlin, March, e * o Sicily's revolt against the King of Naples, & e e Revolt of Schleswig-Holstein against the King of Denmark, º First Communist rising in Paris, May 15th, e & . The German National Assembly meets at Frankfort, May 18th, . Archduke John of Austria chosen Regent of Germany, . wo Wisconsin admitted into the American Union, May, © º Slavic insurrection in Prague, Bohemia, June, . Great Communist insurrection in Paris, June, e º º The old Austrian field-marshal Radetzky defeats the Sardinians, July, Second Revolution in Vienna, October, Siege and fall of Vienna, October, Dissolution of the Prussian National Assembly, Hungarian rebellion against the Austrian emperor, e Revolution in Rome and flight of Pope Pius IX., November, o Establishment of a new Roman Republic, November, e © e º º º - G • PAGE. e 498 500 370 5OO 37 I 37 I 374 374 378 374 378 375 372 375 . 376 5OO 376 372 ... 379 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte inaugurated President of France, Dec. 20th, Abdication of Ferdinand of Austria and accession of Francis Joseph, 376, The Austrians under Prince Windischgratz enter Pesth, Hungary, January 5th, The Magyars lose the strong ſortress of Eszeck, in Slavonia, Jan. 30th, Battle of Kapolna, Hungary, February 26th and 27th, . & The Emperor Francis Joseph proclaims a constitution for Austria, March 4th, e e º º & ſº General Zachary Taylor inaugurated President of the United States, March 5th, . & e º º º e Renewal of the Schleswig-Holstein revolt against Denmark, March, Defeat of the Sardinians by Marshal Radetzky and abdication of Charles Albert, e º e Terrific hand-to-hand fighting in Hungary, April, . º º Hungarian Declaration of Independence, April 14th, . º Louis Kossuth created Governor of Hungary, April 14th, . º 378, 376 376 38o 379, 374 381 381 381 381 500 377 379 382 382 382 CHROMOA. O.GICAL VAZDAEX. 57.1 1849 £6 66 66 . 64 66 6& 66 44 $t &4 46 46 &6 1854 The Magyars under Görgey carry Buda by storm, May 21st, . The Austrian armies expelled from Hungary, May, . & Invasion of Hungary by the Austrian and Russian armies, June, The Magyars under Bem driven from Transylvania, Surrender of Rome to a French army after a spirited siege, Pope Pius IX. restored to his authority in Rome, Republican insurrection in Baden, Battle of Komorn, Hungary, July 11th, General Klapka's grand sortie from Komorn, August 3d, Terrific fighting in the Banat, Hungary, August 5th–8th, Battle of Temeswar, defeat of the Magyars under Bem, August 9th, Governor Kossuth appoints Görgey Dictator of Hungary, August Ioth, July 3d, PAGE. . 382 382 382 . 38th 38o 383 383 . 383 383 Görgey’s treacherous surrender to the Russians at Villagos, August 13th, 383 The Austrians under Radetzky reduce Venice after a long siege, August 25th, tº º Surrender of Komorn to the Austrians, September 29th, Thirteen Magyar generals and staff-officers executed at Arad, O The Punjab annexed to the Anglo-Indian Empire, Prussia becomes a constitutional monarchy, February 6th, . Death of President Taylor, July 9th, Inauguration of Millard Fillmore, July ioth, Slavery agitation in the United States, . The Compromise Act passed by the United States Con Admission of California into the American Union, . Louis Kossuth's visit to the United States. War between France and Morocco. The Coup d’ Etat of Louis Napoleon, December 2d., . The Rebellion of Tae-ping-wang in China begins. Second war between the English and the Burmese. Louis Napoleon proclaimed “Emperor of the French,” December 2d, Subjugation of the Caffirs of South Africa by the English. Marriage of the Emperor Napoleon III. with Eugenie de Montijo, Franklin Pierce inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, Nankin, China, captured by the Tae-ping rebels. Santa Anna overthrows Arista's Administration in Mexico, . War breaks out between Russia and Turkey, October, . Russian invasion of Turkey, o e Turkish victories on the Danube, Siege of Silistria by the Russians, . e Alliance of England, France, and Turkey ag ainst Russia, e Bombardment of Odessa by the allied fleets, April 22d, Allied expedition to the Crimea, º Battle of Alma, September 20th, Siege of Sevastopol commenced, October 17 Battle of Balaklava, October 25th, . Battle of Inkermann, November 5th, th. . Insurrection in Madrid and flight of the queen-mother, Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act by the United States Congress, Revolution in Mexico and final overthrow of Santa Anna, . Death of the Czar Nicholas of Russia and accession of Alexander II., . 387 Sardinia joins the allies in the Crimean War, Sir Charles Napier's attack on Sweaborg, August 9th Fall of Sevastopol, September 9th, . Capture of Kinburn by General Bazaine, October, Omar Pacha's victory over the Russians at the Ingour, Novemb Surrender of Kars, in Asiatic Turkey, to the Russians, Nov. 28th, Civil war in Kansas, e -I4th, g Peace of Paris between Russia and the allies, March 30th, War between England and Persia, . War of England and France against China, e e er, gress, September, 5ol 38o 384 ct. 6th, 38. . 369 378 . 50 I 50I 5OO 501 . 384 . 502 . 387 12 CHROM/O J. O'GICAL VAWOAZX. - PAGE. 1856 Bombardment and capture of Canton by the English, & e 389 1857 James Buchanan inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 502 “ . The Dred Scott Decision of the United States Supreme Court, March 6th, 502 “ Mormon rebellion in Utah, g g te {º e . 503 “ Beginning of the Sepoy Mutiny in British India, April, . º 389 “ Massacre of Delhi, India, tº & * tº tº • 390 “ Massacre of Cawnpore, India, tº º e ſº e 390 “ Siege of Lucknow, India, © e g © • 390, 39 I * General Havelock’s victories over Nena Sahib on the Ganges, . . 390 “ Battle of Mungarwar, India, September 21st, * . º 39 I “ Siege and fall of Delhi, India, September, tº © ' s • 39C “ Cawnpore attacked by 25,000 rebel Sepoys, December, e o 39 I 1858 Capture of Lucknow by Sir Colin Campbell, after a siege, March 17th, , 391 “ Reduction of Gwalior, the last stronghold of the Sepoys, June, * 39 I “ War of France and Spain against Anam, . e - e g • 394 “ Civil war in Mexico between the Liberals and Conservatives, tº 448 1859 War breaks out between Austria and Sardinia, April, . © • 392 “ France joins Sardinia against Austria in the Italian War, May, º 392 “ Battle of Montebello, Italy, May 20th, . e te tº • 392 “ Battle of Magenta, Italy, June 4th, . º gº e tº 393 “ Battle of Melegnano, Italy, June 8th, . 1 & sº g • 393 “ Battle of Solferino, Italy, June 24th, e ſº e Q 393 “ Peace of Villa Franca between France and Austria, July 11th, . • 393 “ Capture of Schamyl, the Circassian chief, by the Russians, August. ; “ War breaks out between Spain and Morocco, October, . e . 4OO “ John Brown's insurrection in Virginia, October 19th, tº * @ SO3 “ Execution of John Brown by the authorities of Virginia, Dec. 2d. . 503 1860 The Spaniards under General Prim defeat 40,000 Moors, Jan. 2d. r “ Peace between Spain and Morocco, April, g * & . 4OO “ Capture of Pekin, China, by the English and French, & tº 389 “ Treaty of Tien-tsin, between England, France, and China, October, . 389 “ Abraham Lincoln elected President of the United States, November, 5O4. “ Rebellious movements in the Slave States, tº ſº . 5O4. “ Secession of South Carolina from the American Union, Dec. 20th, 5O4. “ General Garibaldi overthrows King Francis II. of Naples, e . 394 1861 Attack on the United States Government steamer “Star of the West,” -- January 9th, & . e tº º * tº . 5O4 “ Secession of Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, * . * . tº & º ſe ſº . 5O4. “ President Lincoln's first inauguration, March 4th, . ſº 505 “ Fall of Fort Sumter and beginning of the American Civil War, April 14th, . e e g g º e iº “ President Lincoln calls for 75,000 militia, April 15th, g ę 505 “ Secession of Virginia from the American Union, April 17th, . . . 505 “ Massachusetts troops attacked in Baltimore, April 19th, . e 505 “ Secession of North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee, º . 596 “ Battle of Big Bethel, Virginia, June 10th, . sº e iſ 506 “ Battle of Carthage, Missouri, July 5th, . & e tº . . 5O7 “ Battle of Bull's Run, Virginia, July 21, o e e tº 506 “ Battle of Wilson's Creek, Missouri, August 1oth, e e . 507 “ Capture of Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, August 29th, . gº 507 “ Capture of Lexington, Missouri, by the Confederates, September, . 5O7 “ Battle of Ball's Bluff, Virginia, October 21st, e tº gº 507 * Battle of Belmont, Missouri, November 7th, . e o8 º - 5 * Capture of Port Royal, South Carolina, by Admiral Dupont, Nov. 7th, 508 “ The Czar Alexander II. of Russia promises serf-emancipation, February, 395 “ Renewal of the Circassian war against the Russians, July, “ King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia created King of Italy, . wº 394 “ Allied English, French, and Spanish expedition against Mexico, December, . . . . e tº & 4oo, 448 CHRONOI. OG/CAZ ANDAEX. - 573 i862 PAGE. Battle of Mill Spring, Kentucky, January 19th, . o tº . So& Capture of Roanoke Island, North Carolina, February 8th, © 508 Capture of Fort Donelson, Tennessee, by General Grant, Feb. 16th, .. 508 Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 6th, 7th, and 8th, . © 508 Victory of the Monitor over the Merrimac, March 8th, . wº , SO9 Capture of Newbern, North Carolina, by Burnside, March 14th, . 509 Battle of Winchester, Virginia, March 23d, º de & . 509 Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee, April 6th and 7th, ſº º & 509 Capture of Island No. Io, Mississippi river, April 7th, . tº . 509 Capture of Fort Pulaski, Georgia, by Captain Gillmore, April 11th, 509 Capture of Huntsville, Alabama, by General Mitchell, April IIth, . 509 Capture of Fort Macon, North Carolina, April 25th, & & 509 Capture of New Orleans by General Butler and Admiral Farragut, April 28th, . {} . 509 • Evacuation of Yorktown, Virginia, by the Confederates, May 3d, © 5IO Battle of Williamsburg, Virginia, May 5th, e * e . 5 IO Capture of Natchez, Mississippi, by Admiral Farragut, May 12th, . 5 IO Capture of Vera Cruz, Mexico, by the Spaniards, e * . 448 Capture of Corinth, Mississippi, by General Halleck, May 29th, . 5 IO Dattle of Fair Oaks, Virginia, May 31st and June Ist, . g . 5 IO Capture of Memphis, Tennessee, June 6th, . & & o 5 IO The Seven Days' Battles near Richmond, Virginia, June 25th, July 1st, 5 Io Battle of Malvern Hill, near Richmond, Virginia, July 1st, * . 5 IO Defeat of General Pope's army between Manassas and Washington, August 23d—31st, e * sº g * ſº . 5 II Battle of Richmond, Kentucky, August 29th and 30th, ". te 5 I2 Garibaldi’s defeat at Aspromonte, Italy, August 29th, , -s . • 4 I2 Battle of South Mountain, Maryland, September 14th, * gº 5 II Surrender of Harper's Ferry, Virginia, September 15th, º . 5 II Battle of Antietam, Maryland, September 17th, e sº e 5I2 Battle of Iuka, Mississippi, September 19th, . ſº te . SI2 Battles near Corinth, Mississippi, October 3d, 4th, 5th, tº e 512 Battle of Perryville, Kentucky, October 8th, . tº e . 512 Revolution in Greece and flight of King Otho, October, . e 394 Insurrection in Poland against Russian authority, ſº e • 395 War between the whites and the Sioux Indians in Minnesota, º 5I 3 Battle of Prairie Grove, Arkansas, December 7th, e ſº . 512 Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, December 13th, tº e 5I2 Battle of Murſreesborough, Tennessee, Dec. 29th—Jan. 4th, 1863, . 513 Sherman's unsuccessful attack on Vicksburg, December 29th, e 5I2 President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, January 1st, • 5 I 3 Emancipation of the Russian serfs, February 1st, . & * 396 Prince George of Denmark becomes King of Greece, . e • 395 Battle of Port Gibson, Mississippi, April 29th, tº sº º 5 I4. Battle of Chancellorsville, Virginia, May 2d, 3d, and 4th, • . • 5 I4 Battle of Raymond, Mississippi, May. I2th, . gº g © 5 I4 Battle of Jackson, Mississippi, May 14th, te e • 5 I4 IBattle of Champion Hills, Mississippi, May 16th, . * ſº 5 I4. Battle of Big Black River Bridge, Mississippi, May 17th, tº • 5 I4. Capture of Puebla, Mexico, by the French, after a spirited siege, May 18th, tº * ſº * • . . «» 448 West Virginia becomes a State of the American Union, June 1st, . 516 Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, July 1st, 2d, and 3d, . 5 I4 Surrender of Vicksburg, Mississippi, to General Grant, July 4th, • 5 I4 Union victory at Helena, Arkansas, July 4th, * & e 5I 5 Capture of Port Hudson, Louisiana, by General Banks, July 8th, • 515 The draft riots in New York City, July 13th, 14th, and 15th, e 516 Capture of the City of Mexico by General Forey, June, . . * • 449 Siege of Charleston, South Carolina, by General Gillmore, . te SIS Capture of Little Rock, Arkansas, by General Steele, September 10th, .. 515 Battle of Chickamauga, Tennessee, September 19th and 20th, de 515 574 CHRONOLOGICAL HWDEX. 1863 1864 1865 66 & & &g & & £6 & 4 & & &g 66 {{ & & (866 PAGE. Battle of Chattanooga, Tennessee, November 23d, 24th, and 25th, . 516 Siege of Knoxville, Tennessee, by General Longstreet, November, 516 War of Prussia and Austria against Denmark, February, º . 396 Grant made a Lieutenant-General, February, tº º e 5 I7 Battle of Olustee, Florida, February 20th, º º © . 517 Massacre of Fort Pillow, Tennessee, April 12th, , º . . 517 General Banks's Red River Expedition, Louisiana, g © . 5 I 7 The Archduke Maximilian of Austria, Emperor of Mexico, sº 449 Capture of Doppel, Holstein, by the Prussians, April 18th, Q . 396 Battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania, Virginia, May 5th–13th, 518 Battle of Cold Harbor, Virginia, June 1st, g º º . 518 Battle of Allatoona Pass, Georgia, June, . e o e 518 Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia, June, . o & . 518 Siege of Petersburg and Richmond, Virginia, June, © © 518 Fight between the Kearsarge and the Alabama, June 15th, º . 5 IQ Battle of Monocacy, Maryland, July 9th, . o tº & 519 Capture of the island of Alsen by the Prussians, July 9th, © . 396 War of Brazil and the Argentine Confederation against Paraguay, . 44. I War between Spain and Peru, © o º • 400, 44] War of England, France, and Holland in Japan. Russia suppresses the Polish insurrection, º º © . 395 Peace of Vienna between Austria, Prussia, and Denmark, October, . 396 Siege of Atlanta, Georgia, commenced by General Sherman, July 20th, 519 Burning of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, July 30th, . e . 5 IQ Farragut's victories in Mobile bay, August, . º tº º 5.I.9 Capture of Atlanta, Georgia, by Sherman, September 2d, º . 5 IQ Sheridan's victory at Cedar Creek, Virginia, September 22d, o 52O Sheridan's victory at Fisher's Hill, Virginia, October 19th, . . 52O Nevada admitted into the American Union, October 31st, . tº 52O Rećlection of President Lincoln, November 8th, º Q . 52O Sherman's grand march through Georgia, November and December, 52O Hood's army annihilated at Nashville, Tennessee, December 15th, .. 520 Capture of Savannah, Georgia, by General Sherman, December 21st, 52O Capture of Fort Fisher, North Carolina, by General Terry, Jan. I5th, .. 521 Capture of Wilmington, North Carolina, by Terry, February 22d, . 52I Charleston, South Carolina, evacuated by the Confederates, Feb. 18th, .. 521 Lee's evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond, April 3d, . º 52I Surrender of Lee's army at Appomattox, Virginia, April 9th, . . 52 I Capture of Mobile, Alabama, by General Canby, April 12th, . . 522 Assassination of President Lincoln, April 14, . º o . 522 Andrew Johnson inaugurated President of the United States, April 15th, 522 Surrender of Johnston's army in North Carolina, April 26th, º 522 Capture of Jefferson Davis near Irwinsville, Georgia, May 1oth, . 522 Close of the Rebellion in the United States, May, e e 522. Adoption of the 13th Amendment of the United States Constitution abolishing slavery, . e tº o • º . 52O War between Spain and Chili, & ſº e e 4OO, 44 I. Russian conquests in Turkestan. Alliance of Peru, Chili, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela against Spain, January, e e º º º e • 44I Readmission of Tennessee into the American Union, June, º 523 Tae Seven Weeks’ War of Prussia and Italy against Austria begins, June 14th, . & º º tº e • 397 IBattle of Custozza, Italy, June 24th, de º o & 398 Dattle of Sadowa, Bohemia, July 3d, . o o º . 398 Naval battle off the island of Lissa,—Austrian victory, • e 398 The Atlantic Telegraph Cable successfully laid, June, . o . . $23 Peace of Prague between Austria and Prussia, August 23d, f 398 The North German Confederation established, . g º • 399 Peace of Vienna between Austria and Italy, October 3d, . º 399 CHRONOLOGICAZ ZwpFX. 575 - PAGE, 1866 Insurrection in the island of Candia against the Turks. “ The French forces under Marshal Bazaine evacuate Mexico, December, 450 1867 The Dominion of Canada established by the British Parliament, Feb. “ Passage of the Military Reconstructiion Bill by the United States Congress, March, • . o o e tº º , 523 “ Nebraska admitted as a State of the American Union, January 15th, 523 “ Purchase of Alaska from Russia by the United States, March, . • 523 “ Siege of Vera Cruz and Mexico by the Liberals of Mexico, . º 453 * Capture and execution of the Emperor Maximilian at Queretaro, June 19th, . o º e o e e 451 “ Passage of the Second Reform Bill by the British Parliament, August, 399 “ Garibaldi’s movement on Rome, September, . • * • 413 “ War between Great Britain and Abyssinia, November, g e 399 1868 Impeachment of President Johnson, February, . e e . 523 “. King Theodore of Abyssinia defeated and killed by the English, April, 399 “ Acquittal of President Johnson after a trial of several weeks, May 16th, 523 “ Revolution in Spain and flight of Queen Isabella II., September, . 4OO “ General U. S. Grant elected President of the United States, Nov. 3d, 523 “ Insurrection in Cuba against Spanish authority, November, . 4OO, 42 I 1869 Inauguration of President Grant, March 4th, . e © • 424 “ Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad, May, . . tº o 424. “ Disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland, August, . • 399 “ Carlist insurrection in Spain, August, ſº tº º © 4OO “ Republican insurrection in Spain, September, . º . 4OO 1870 President Lopez of Parāguay defeated and killed by the Brazilians, 44. I “ Adoption of the 15th Amendment of the United States Constitution, . 424 “ Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern a candidate for the crown of Spain, 401 “ France declares war against Prussia, July 15th, te o : 4O2 “ Prussian invasion of France, July 30th, o © e & 4O2 “ Skirmish at Saarbrucken, August 2d, . e wº C . 402 “ Battle of Weissenburg, August 4th, tº º tº o 4O3 “ Battles of Woerth and Forbach, August 6th, . o & • 403 “ Great battles near Metz, August 14th–18th, & e e 4O3 “ Battle of Gravelotte, France, August 18th, º e e • 4C3 “ Battle of Beaumont, France, August 30th and 31st, e º 4O4. “ Battle of Sedan, France, September 1st, e . 404 “ Surrender of McMahon's army and of Napoleon III., September 2d, 4O5 “ Revolution in Paris and establishment of the Third French Republic, September 4th, º © g tº º º . 405 “ Siege of Strasburg by the Germans, August and September, e 405 “ Investment and siege of Paris by the Germans, September 16th, . 4O7 “ Italian military occupation of Rome, September 20th, tº o 4I3 “ Surrender of Strasburg to the Germans, September 27th, o 4O6 “ Bazaine's surrender of Metz, October 27th, . º º e 4O7 “ French victories near Orleans, November 9th and Ioth, e . 408 “ The Duke of Aosta elected King of Spain with title of Amadeus I., November 17th, e º g e © e . 4OO 1871 Bombardment of Paris by the Germans, January, . º © 4O9 “ Battle of St. Quentin, France, January, e e e . 4IO “ Battle of Vendome, France, January 6th, . . . e º 4 IQ “. Battle of Le Mans, France, January 11th, º * e º . 4IO “ Battle of Belfort, France, January, . e º tº e 4 IO “ King William of Prussia proclaimed Empepor of Germany, Jan. 19th, 409 “ Capitulation of Paris to the Germans, January 27th, . e • 4 Il “ The French National Assembly meets at Bordeaux, February 14th, 4 IJ “ Peace of Paris between France and Germany, March 2d, e . 4 II “ Red Republican insurrection breaks out in Paris, March 17th, º 4I4. “ Battle of Courbevoie, near Paris, April 3d, e . 4I5 “ Siege and bombardment of Paris by the Versaillists, April and - May, e ge - º tº e O Q 416, 4I7, 418 576 - CHROMO/ OGICAL //VDEX. + PAGE. “ Terrible fighting in Paris, May 21st–27th, ſº o 418, 419, 420 “ Battle of Pere la Chaise, Paris, May 27th, e tº & • 42O “ End of the Paris rebellion, May 28th, U} . e e e 42O “ Treaty of Washington between the United States and England, May, .. 524 “ Victories of the United States navy over the Coreans, June 10th–11th, 524 “ Revolution and civil war in Mexico, October, º º e 450 1872 Carlist insurrection in Spain, June, º e - • 42 I “ Death of President Juarez of Mexico, June 18th, . • * * 45I “ Close of the Mexican civil war and presidency of Lerdo de Tejada, . 451 “ The Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal, . -. º tº 525 “ General Grant reëlected President of the United States, Nov. 5th, - 525 “ Death of Horace Greeley, November 29th, º º e 525 1873 Death of the Ex-Emperor Napoleon III., January 9th, . e . 412, “ Abdication of King Amadeus of Spain and establishment of a Spanish Republic, February 11th, º © e © º . 421 “ Second inauguration of President Grant, March 4th, * º 525 “. Abolition of slavary in the Spanish island of Porto Rico and dissolution of the Spanish National Assembly, March 22d, © tº • 422 “ Carlist insurrection in Spain, e o º • - 422 “ War between Russia and Khiva, e º tº * e • 432 “ Domestic difficulties in Louisiana, . º e e e 525 “ War with the Modoc Indians in Oregon, e e iº - 525 “ Resignation of President Thiers and election of Marshal McMahon as President of France, May 24th, Q e º de • 43O “ War between the British and the Ashantees, e e e 432 “ Communist insurrection in Spain, º e º sº • 424 “ War between the Dutch and the Atcheenese of Sumatra. * “ The Virginius dispute between Spain and the United States, . . 526 “ Bombardment of Cartagena, Spain, by the Government forces, e 426 1874 Coup d’etat of General Pavia in Spain, January 2d, . • • 427 “ Passage of a military bill by the German Parliament. “ Fall of Cartagena, Spain, January 15th, 428 “ Capture of Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, by the British, February, © 432 “ Fall of Gladstone's Ministry in England, February, º e • 432 “ Egyptian victories in Darfur. “ Siege of Bilbao, Spain, by the Carlists, March and April, * . 428 “ Relief of Bilbao by Marshal Serrano's army, May 1st, & wº 429 “ Civil war in Arkansas, April and May, . e . 527 “ Veto of the currency-inflation bill by President Grant, April, • º 526 “ Republican defeat at Estella, Spain, and death of Marshal Concha, June 25th, º e . .429 “ Capture of Cuenca, Spain, by the Carlists, July 13th, º º 429 “ Attempted assassination of Prince Bismarck, July 14th, . c. • 43 I “ Iceland’s millenium, August. - - “ Insurrection in Louisiana, September, . . © & . 527 “ Prince Alphonso proclaimed King of Spain, December 31st, º .429 1875 Admission of Colorado as a State of the American Union, March 4th, 528 “ Centennial Celebration of Lexington and Concord, April 19th, . 528 “ Centennial Celebration of the capture of Ticonderoga, May IOth, ... 528 “ Centennial Celebration of the Mecklenburg Declaration, May 20th, 528 “ Centennial Celebration of the Battle of Bunker’s Hill, June 17th, .. 528 “ Insurrection in the Herzegovina against the Turks, July, . º 433 “ Capture of Seo de Urgel, Spain, by the Alphonists, August, . . . 4.3O “ War between Russia and Khokand, September, . • • 432 “. General Kauffmann deſeats 30,000 Khokand troops, September 4th, . 433 “ Khokand occupied by General Kauffmann, September 16th, ... • 433 “ War between Egypt and Abyssinia. “ War between the English and the Malays of Malacca, November. “ French Constitution completed, December, . & º . . 432 1876 The United States Centennial Celebration, May 10th–Nov. Ioth, . 538 ALPHABETICAL INDEX AND PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF P R O PER N A M E S. A. Aaron (Aſ-ron), t e Ab-bas (Ab-basſ), . & Abbasides (Ab'-bas-ides), , . Abdel Kader (Ab’-del Ka’-der), Abdelrahman (Ab-del-rah'-man), Abderrahman (Ab-der-rah'-man, Abel (A'-bel), . Abensberg (Áºbens-berg), . Abercrombie (Ab’-er-crom'-bie), . Abo (A/-bo), . Q Aboukir (A-boo-kur’), . Abraham (A’-bra-ham), . Absalom (Abſ-sa-lom), . Abubekir (A’-bu-ba'-ker), . Abyssinia (Ab-ys-sun'-l-a), Abyssinian (Ab-ys-sin'-i-an), Abyssinians (Ab-ys-sin'-i-ans). Acadia , A-ca'-di-a) . e Acadians (A-ca'-di-ans), . Acarnania (A-car-nan'-i-a), Achala (A-ka/-a) . Achaian (A-ka’-an) . Achilles (A-kil’-lees), e Acre (A’ker), . e Acropolis (A-krop'-O-lis) . Actium (Ak'-she-um), . AJam (Ad’-am) * e Adams (Ad’-ams), e Adams, John (Jon Adº-ams), o º e PAGE. e • 28 o I24 e • I24 o 370 e º I24 º I24 e • 2I e 34o 3O4, 305; 333 º . 281 . 328 339 e • 27, 28 º • 35 35, 61, 62, 63 61, 62, 63 º 38, 5 138, 14o, 330 te • 44 º 93 • 2I 464, 479, 481 • 464, 478, 48o Adams, John Quincy (Jon Quin-cy Adº-ams) Adams, Samuel (Sam-yel Adams) e Adda (Ad’-da). . * Adherbal (Ad-her'-bal), o Adige (Ad’-ij), . e Adolph (A’-dolf), e iº Adrian (A'-dri-an), © Adrianople (Aſ-dri-an-o-pel). Adriatic (A-dri-at'-ic) e AEgean (E-je'-an), AEgospotamos (E/'gos-pota’ mus.) . E-mi-i-us), AEmilianus (F-mil’-i-an-us) AEmilius, Paulus (Pawl-us neas (E-ne'-as) 37 • 492, 493 • 461 e 326 e . 85 tº 335 º . 166 • 99 IOO . Io9s 360 º 89, 143 38, 40, 45 5o • IO4 63, 79 65 (;7 PAGE. AEolian (E-o'-le-an) . e & • 37 AEquians (E'-qui-ans), . e º 71 AEtolia (E-to'-le-a). e º • 35 AEtolian (E-to'-le-an), . º g 62 AEtoleans (E-to'-le-ans) e e • 63 Affra (Af’-fra), .. º © Q 375 Africa (Af’-re-ca), . 22, 26, 27, 35, 9o, 54 African (Af'-re-can), . e º 94 Africans (Af' re-cans), © tº . 118 Africanus, Scipio (Sip'-e-o Af'-re-can-us) 81 Afghan (Af’-gan) e e º . 369 Afghanistan (Af-gan-is-tan') . • 35, 36 Afghans (Af’-gans), . º e . 281 Agag (A/-gag), . * e ſº 3o Agamemnon (Ag-a-memº-non), º . 38 Agesilaus (A-jes-e-la'-us), º tº 52 Agis (A'-jis), . & º e 59, 62 Agra (Ag’ra). e & e • 300 Agricola, Julius (Juſ-le-us Ag-re’-co-la) . 98 Agrigentum (Ag—re-jen’-tum), . º 5 Agrippa, Menenius (Me-nen'-e-us A-grip'-pa) 7o Agrippina (Ag-re-pl’-na), e e 95 Augilas (Au-ge’-las), e e . 426 Ahab (A-hab), . e e © 3I Ahriman (Ah-re-man'), e e • 35 Aix la Chapelle (Akes-la-Sha-pel'), 129, 251,286 e e • 302 Akbar (Ak'-bar), sº e 2I5 Alabama (Al-a-bam’-a), . • 489, 519 525 Alamance (Al-a-mance’), & . 458 Alamo (Al’-a-mo), e • 443, 444 Aland (A'-land), © © • 277 Alans (A'-lans) . e º & III Alaska (A-las’-ka), . © e • 523 Allatoona Pass (Ki-a-too-na Pass), . 518 Alba (Awl'-ba) º e º 65 66 Alban (Aw!’-ban), tº © . 65. 67 Albania (Al-ba'-ne-a), tº o • 36 Albans (Aw!’-bans), . º & 68 Albany (Aw!’-ba-ne), . e . 260, 303 Albemarle (Albe-marl'), . e 244 Alberoni (Al-ba-ro'-ne), . e º 27o Albuquerque (Al-boo-ker’-ka), © I93 Albert (Al’-bert), e e º 372 7) 578 A LAAHA BE / YCA/, /MDEX. Albi (Ai’-be), . º g . I5O Albigenses (Al-be-jen’-sees), - - ... 141, 149, 15o Albinus, Clodius (Klo'-di-us Al-bi'-mus), IOI Alboin (Al/-bo-in), . wº © II9 Albuera (Al-boo-a'-ra), . º e 342 Alcibiades (Al-ci-biſ-a-dees), . º 49, 5o Aleoy (Al-ko'-e), . te e o 424. Alcuin (Al’-ku-in), . e © . I28 Allemanni (Al-le-man'-mi), o Io9, I25 Aleppo (A-lep'-po), . tº º • I22 Alert (A-lert'), . e tº . 485 Alessandria (Al-es-san'-dri-a), e • 357 Alexander (Al-ex-an-der), . 26, 27, 3. 54, 55 50, 57, 5 Alexander Castriotto (Cas-tre-otſ-ta), . 190 Alexander Farnese (Far'-nese), © . 217 Alexander Severus (Sev'-e-rus), . © IQ2 AlexandraVictoria (Al-ex-an/-draVic-to'-ri-a), Alexandria (Al-ex-an/-dri-a),. 307 - º 27, 56, 57, 64 Alexandrian (Al-ex-an/-dri-an), . e 6o Alexis (A-lex'-is) . te º • 273 Alexius (A-lex'-i-us), e ſº . I38 Alfred (Al/-fred), o e º I71, I72 Algarve (Al-garve), e e . I58 Algeria (Al’-je-re-a), . e 80, 402,428 Algerine (Al’-je-reen), . © e Algerines (Al’-je-reens), g e • 491 Algidus, Mount (Mount Al’-je-dus). 71 Algiers (Al-jeers), .205, 252,355, 361,48o, 491 Algonquin (Al-gon’-quin), e . 480, 491 Alhama (Al-haſ-ma), . e º • 425 Ali (Al’-ee), & tº e • I2I; I23 Ali, Hyder (Hy-der Al-ee), . • 299 Ali Mehemet (Me-hem’-et Al’-ee) • 359, 368 Aliwal (Al’-e-wal), . e e • 3 Alicante (Al-e-kan'-ta), . • 424, 425, 426 Alien Law (Ail’-yen Law) . º • 481 Alleghanies (Al-le-ga'-nees), . o 49 I Alleghany (Al-le-ga'-my), . º 470, 478 Allen (Al’-len), . e o . 460, 462 Allia (Al’-li-a), . e ſº º • 72 Alma (Al’-ma), . & o e 387 Ahmagro (Al-ma’-gro), Q º • 2I4 Al Mansur (Al Man'-soor), º • 124 -Alinanza (Al-man'-za), e © • 27I Almeida (Al-ma’-e-da). . e º I93 Almenara (Al-ma-mah’-ra), . o • 27I Almeria (Al-maſ-re-a), . e e 425 Almonte (Al’-mont), . o . 446, 488 Alphonsists (º), * • 42 ſ; 43O Alphonso (Al-fon’-so), I58, 165,421,429, 430 Alps (Alps), ſº © 79; 31.5, 3I7, 319 Alsace (Al’-Sase,), . © 2ö4; 4oD, 4 I2 Alsen (Awl’-sen), . o e & 39 Altona (Al-too-na), . e e • 277 Altranstadt (Al’-tran-stot), º º 275 Alva (Al’-va), & e º • 207 Alvarez (Al-var’-ez), © e © 447 Alvinzi (Al-vin'-zi), . g • . 326 Amadeus (A-maſ-de-us), . • 400, 421; 422 Amaru Tupac (Am'-a-ru Tu'-pac),. 433, 434 Amboise (Am-boi'-se), . e e 219 Ambracia (Am-bra'-She-a), . . . • 93 Ambrister (Am-bris-ter), º s 492 Ameers (A'-meers), . º º • 369 Amelekites (A-mel'-e-kites), . e 3O America (A-mer'-i-ca), • I93; 3OO, 3 f 43455 American (A-mer-i-can), 460, 462, 465, 468 Americals (A-mer-i-cans), 455, 460, 462, 463, 464 Amerigo Vespucci, (A-mer-e'-go Ves-pootſ- she), e © e • I93 Amherst º • 289; 290, 305 Amidas (Ame’-e-das • 255 3. Amiens A-me-ongſ), • I35, 333, 334,408, 41 o Ammon, Jupiter (Ju'-pi-ter Amſ-mon), .. 56 Ammonites (Am'-mon-ites), . e 29 Amoreaux (A-mo-ro'), & º • 42O Amorites (A'-mor-ites), . e º 29 Amos (A'-mos), º o e ' s Amoy (A'-moy), . e © e 369 Amphictyon (Amphiºty-on), º • 39 Amphictyonic (Am-phic'-ty-on-ic), • 39, 53 Ampudia (Am-poo'-di-a), . º • 49 Amru (Am’-ru), . e w • I:22, 123 Amsterdam (Amſ-ster-dam), . e • 25E Amulius (A-mu’-li-us), . p e 66 Amurath (Am’-u-rath), º © • I91 Anabaptists (An-a-bap'-tists) . º 207 Anam (An’-am), © º • 394 Ancona (An-co'-na) º e 366 Ancus Martius (AH' cus Mar'-she-us), . 68 Anderson, Robert (Rob'-ert An’der-son), 505 Andes (An-dees'), º º 439 Andre, John (Jon An' dre), º e 472 Andreas Doria (An'-dre-as Do'-ri-a), 144, 204 Andreas Hofer (An'-dre-as Hof-er), . 34I Andrew (An’-droo), . e e . 189 Andros, Sir Edmund (An’-dros), º 259 Angele-land (An'-gle-land), . . I2O, I7I Angelo, St. (Saint An'-je-lo), . © 2O4 Angles (An'-gles), . tº º • I2O Anglia, East (East An'-gli-a), . e I2O Anglican Church (An'-gli-can), • 2 II, 222 Anglo-Saxons (An'-glo-Sax'-ons), e I2O. Angora (An-go'-ra), . º • I9 I Angostura (An-gos-too-ra), . e 437 Angouleme (An-gou-leme'), . 202,354, 356 Anjou (An-joo'), . 145, 150, 165, 173, 174, 182, 220, 268,269,272 Ankarstrom (An’-kar-strom), o . 296 Anna (An’-na), . e e e 278 Annapolis (An-nap'-O-lis), . • 3OO, 475 Anne (Ann), & © . 248,269,278 Anne Boleyn ( Bo'-len), º 209, 2Io, 222 Ansgar (Ans'-gar), º e º I86 Anson (An’-son), º e º . 287 Antalcidas (An-tal’-ce-das), . o 52 Antediluvian (An-te-de-lu'-ve-an), . • 2I Antediluvians (An-te-de-lu'-ve-ans), . 2I Anthemius (An-the-me-us), . © • II2 Antichrist (An'-te-krist), º • 235 Antietam (An-tee'-tam), º • 512 Antigonus (An-tig'-O-nus), e 60, 61, 62 Antioch (An'-te-ok), . & 64, 122, 136 Antiochus (An-te-ok'-us), e . 63, 64 Antiochus Epiphanes (An-ti-ok'-us E-pif'-a- 6 nees), . e º e e 4. Antipater (An-tip'-a-ter'), . º 54, 59 Antoinette, Marie (Mar’-e An-toi-net'). 3Io Antoninus Pius (An-to-ni'-mus Pi-us) • IOO Antonio (An-to'-me-o), 216 Antonio de Levya (An-to'-me-o de Lev-yaſ), 203 Antonio, San (San An-to'-ne-o), 4?7, 447,500 Antonius (An-to'-ne-us), . e e 133 Antony, Mark (Mark An'-to-ny), 89.91, 92, 93 Antwerp (Ant'-werp), . . 156, 363. 364 Anville, Duke d’ (Duke de An’-vil),. 3O2 Aosta, juke of (A-os'-ta), ſº © 400 Apis (A'-pis), º * © . 56 Apollo (A-pol’-lo), © 36,39, 53, 61 Appalachian (Ap-pa-la'-chi-an), • 265 Appius Claudius (Ap'-pi-us Clau'-di-us,) 71, 72 Appomattox (Ap-po-mat'-tox), . 518, 521 Apraxin (A-prax'-in), . . • 65, 79, 145 Apulia (A-pul’-e-a), wº º º Aquae Sextiae (A-que-Sex-she'-a), . • 35 Aquitaine §º e e 126, 148 Aquitania (A-que-tan'-e-a), . e • 94 Aquitanians (A que-tan'-e-ans), . e : I2 Arab ºś ſe © g º Arabella Stuart (A-ra-bel'-la Stu'-art), 232, 233 Arabia (A-ra'-bi-a), . 25, 28, 121, 122, 3 Arabian (A-ra'-bi-an), 58, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125 Arabians (A-ra'-bi-ans), . . I2 I, I22, 123 Arabs (Ar’-abs), . 28, 120, 123, 124, 125 Arad (Ar’-ad), º o . 383, 384 Arago, Emanuel (E-man'-yel Ar’-a-go), 371, 406 Aragon (Ar’-a-gon), 225, 146, 150, 158, 159 202,269 AZAAAAA’ ZYCA/, /AWDAE.X. 579 Ararat (Ar’-a-rat), . º e • 21 Aratus §: 3. e e . 61, 62 Arbela (Ar-bel’-a), . º e 56, 57 Arbogastes (Ar-bo-gas'-tees), . e I IO Arbuthnot (Ar’-buth-not), . • 471; 492 Arc, 3. of (Jo'-an of Arc), . I55, 181 Arcadia (Ar-caſ-de-a), tº e • 35 Arcadius (Ar-ca'-di-us), . º º I IO Arc de Triomphe (Ark de Tre-omphe'), 416, 418 Archidamus º:} º e 349 Archimedes (Ar-ke-Ine'-dees), e . 8o Arcis (Ar’-se), . e e e 49 Arcola (Ar-ko'-la), . º • . 326 Ardea (Ar’-de-a), . * & . 68 Areopagus (Ar-e-op'-a-gus) . e • 43 Argentine (Ar’-jen-teen), . . 438, 440, 441 Argive (Ar’-give), . º e . 61 Argo (Ar’-go), tº e º e 38 Argolis (Ar’-go-lis), . e e 35, 38 Argos (Ar’-gos), . tº © 35, 37,61 Argonautic (Ar’-go-nautſ-ik), e . 38 Argus (Ar’-gus), . © º º 488 Argyle, Duke of (Ar-gileſ), . . 246, 278 Arian (A-rean), e º e e I IO Ariana (A-re-an/-a), . º e • 57 Arista (A-rees'—ta), tº 446, 447, 498 Aristides (A-ris-ti'-dees), . • 46, 47, 48 Aristobulus (Ar-is-tob’-u-lus), . º 88 Aristodemus (Ar-is-to-de'-mus), e 42 Aristogiton (Ar-is-to-gitſ-ton), . º 44 Aristomenes (Ar-is-tom'-e-nees), . • 42 Aristotle (Ar-is-tot’-el), . © & 54 Arius (Aſ-re-us); º e º . Io? Arkansas (Ar-kan'-sas), 495, 506, 507, 509, 512, 513, 515, 527 Arkansas Post (Ar-kan'-sas Post), . • 5 Arlington Heights (Ar’-ling-ton Hights), Armada (Ar-ma'-da), º - 2 Armand Marrast (Ar’-mong Mar-rah'), Armenia (Ar-me'-ne-a), . º 2I, 281 Arminians Ar-min'-e-ans), . e . 218 Armistead (Arm-is-ted'), . e e 489 Armstrong ČArmſ strong), te * 3O4. Arnaud, St. (Saint Ar’-no), 8 ) e • 387 Arnold, Benedict (Ben'-e-dict Ar’-nold), 460, º 462.437,472, 478, 474. Arnold Winkelried (Ar’-nold Win'-kel-ried), 168 Arnolph (Ar’-nolf), . e & . I 59 Arpad (Ar’-pad), . e - I29, 189 Arras (Ar’-ras), º e . I56, 408 Arrondissements (Ar-ron'-dis-ments), 370, 418 Artaphernas (Ar-ta-fer'-nas), . º 45 Artaxerxes Longimanus (Lon'-jim-an’-us), 34 Artaxerxes Mnemon (Ar-ta-zerkſ-zees Neº- mon), . º - e • 5.I Artemisium (Ar-te-me-se-um), e . 46 Arthenay (Ar-te-nay'), . º º 408 Arthur Ar’-ther), º º e • I49 Artois Ar-twah'), . º º • 3ro, 354 Aruns (A'-runs), º & º 68, 69 Ascalon (AS/-ca-lon), Q - 138 Aschaffenburg (As-chaf-fen-burg), . 284,398 Ashantee (Ash-an-tee'),... º e 432 Ashantees (Ash-an-tees'), . e 432 Ashburton (Ashºburtoſ), e e 496 Ashley (Ash'-ley), . de © • 245 Ashley Cooper (Coop'-er), º e 264 Ashur (Ash’-er), e & tº • 24 Asia (A'-she-a), . * 22, 26, 27, 35 Asia Minor (A'-shea Mi-nor), 22; 40, 44, 45 Asiatic (A-she-at'-ik), . © 37, 58,388 Asmonians (As-mo'-ne-ans), . e . 64 Asnieres (Asſ-miers), e º º 4I7 Aspern As'-perm), . º e • 34O Aspromonte (As-pro-mont') º • 4 I 3 Assassins (As-Sas'-sins) o • I4T, I42 Assaye (As-Sa'-ya), * º • 299, 300 Assemblyists (As-sem'-bly-ists), . 415,417 Assisi, Francis of (As-se'-se), . e I33 Assy (As'-se), . © º • 204 Assyria (As-syr'-e-a), . & • 24; 27 Assyrian (As-syr'-e-an), e º 24, 32 Astracan (AS'-tra-kan), . o 188 Austragal Judgment (Aus-tra'-gal), . . 897 Asturias (As-tu"-re-as), . º • I 35, 339 Astyages (As-ty-aſ-gees), e © • 33 Atalayga Castle (At-a-ly'-a), . . . 428 Athena (Ath-e'-na), . • 33 Athenian (Ath-e'-ne-an), . & 42, 433 44 Athenians, . s * . 45, 48, 49 Athens (Ath':ens), e 35, 37, 42, 43,46 Atkinson (At'-kin-son), º º - 494 Atlanta (At-lan'-ta), e . 518, 519,520 Atlantic (At-lan'-tic),. • 37, 94, 1944 195 Attalus (At'-ta-lus), e gº * 84 Attica (At'-te-ka), . e e • 35 Attila (At-til’-a). . e e ge I 12 Auerstadt (Ou'-er-stot), tº & • 337 Augereau (O-zhe-ro') e º • 327, 35o Aughrim (Auſ-grim), . e * . 248 Augsburg (Ougs'-burg), . • 201, 207,254 Augusta (Au-gus'-ta), . c 471, 473; 474 Augustenburg (Au-gus'-ten-burg), • 396, 793 Augustine (Au’-gus-teen), . º • I2O Augustine, St. (Saint Au’-gus-teen), I33 Augustinian (Au-gus-tin'-e-an), I33, IQ9 Augustulus, Romulus (Rom/-u-lus Au-gus'-tu- lus), tº e º tº • II9 Augustus (Au-gus'-tus . e • 93, 94 Augustus, Philip (Fil’-ip Au-gus'-tus), 149,136. Aulus Plautius (Au’-lus Plau'-te-us), • 95 Aurellan (Au-re’-le-an), . º e loS Aurelius, Marcus (Mar’-kus Au-re'-le-us), . Too Aurungzebe (Au-rung-zebe'), . • 215, 281 Aruns (A'-runs), e © Austrasia (Aus-tra'-she-a), © e 126 Austria (Aus'-tre-a), . 138, #66, 167, 168, 398 Austrian (Aus'-tre-an), . I67, 168,341, 398 Austrians (Aus'-tre-ans), & 282, 284, 288 Auxerrois, St. Germaine l’ (Sang Zher'-men- lo-zer-waw'), ſº * Avars ğı". e º . 219 I28, 129, 159 Äventine Hiii (Avº-en-tin' Hill), 68, 84 Averill, William W (Avº-er-il), . e 547 Averysborough (Av'-er-is-bur'-o), . • 52I Avignon (A-vin'-yon), . 142, 15o, 169 e • II 2 Avitus (A-vi'-tus), . º Avon (Aſ-von), . e & 490 Avron (Av'-ron), ‘. tº - • 409 Axel Oxenstiern (Ax'-el Ox-en-steern'), 23O Ayacucho (I-a-coo'-cho), 438, 439, 44% Ayesha (I'-sha), . º • I2I Azincourt (A-zhin-koor), . I54, 155, 181 Azores (A-zores'). e e e I93 Azov (Aſ-zov), e e º • 253 Aztec (Az'-tek . e e e 2I4 Aztecs, G ſº º © • 214 B. ſº Baal (Baſ-al), . te tº tº 24, 2 Baalbec (Ba'-al-bek), e º º I22 Babel (Baſ-bel), e º -> 2I, 22 Baber (Ba'-ber), . e © ge 2r 5 Babylon (Bab'-e-lon), . e o 24, 25 Babylonia (Bab-e-lo-ne-a), • º 24 Babylonian, * e • 24, 25, 27 35 Babylonians, . g e e • 32 Bacchus (Bak'-kus), e g º 3 Bacon, Nathaniel (Na-thanſ-yel Baſ-kon), . 257 Bactrian (Bac'-tre-an), . e tº 57 Bactriana (Bac-tre-an/-a), . g • 57 #:gº © º tº 342 aden (Bad’-en • £70; 207, 374, 375 377 Baden Durlach (Bad-en-Düß. ok}, º 227 Bagdad (Bag'-dad), , . © I24; I25, I91 Bagratian (Ba-gra'-shan), º • 336,343 Bailly (Bal’-ye), º º 3I2; 313, 32T Bainbridge (Bain'-bridge), e e 48r Bajazet (Baj'-a-zet) • I91 fake Edwardi (Ba-ker), . . . . .3 58o ALPAA BETICAL INDEX. Balaklava (Bal-a-kla'-va), . e Balbinus (Bal-bi'-nus), Balboa (Bal-bo'-a), . • . Baldwin of Flanders (Bald-win), • 387 IO3 • I94 • 138, 139 Baliol, John (Jon Bal/-e-ol), . e 176, 177 Balkan (Bawl’-kan), & § † 369 Ball's Bluff (Ball's Bluff), . g 507, 508 Baltic (Bawl'-tic),. e 2 g tº 7 Baltimore (Bawl’-te-more), . 261,262, 489, 5os Banat º • g tº . 381,383 Banda Oriental (Ban’-da O-re-en'-tal), • 44O Baner (Ban’-er), . º & {} 231 Bangalore (Ban-ga-lore'), . g • 299 Banks, Nathaniel P. e 5IO, 51 I, 514, - 515, 516 Bannockburn (Ban-nok-burn'), . & 177 Bapaume (Ba-paum'), te º • 4 IO Bar Bar), • g {} g e 294 Barak (Bar'-ak), * > ſº e • 29 Barbadoes (Bar'-ba-does), 264 Barbarossa, Frederic (Bār-ba-rosſ-sa), #37. I49; 162, 163, 194 Barbarossa, Hayraddin (Hay-rad'-din), . 204 Barbaroux (Bar-bar-roo'), & 317,321 Barbary (Bar'-ba-ry), e tº • 355 Barca (Bar’-ka), . wº g * 4O Barcas, Hamilcar (Ha-mil/-kar (Bar-kas),77, 78 13arcelona (Bar-se-lo'-na), . 270,424, 426,427 Barclay (Bar'-klay), e º wº 486 Barclay, Robert, g º * . 266 Barclay de Tolly (Bar'-klay de Tol’-ly), 343, 344, 347 Barebone (Bare'-bone), . e * 242 Baremberg (Ba'-ren-berg), . e . 228 Barenklau (Ba-renk'-low), o e 283 Barksdale (Barks'-dale), gº ſº • 51.4 Barlow, Arthur (Ar’-thur Bar’-lo), 255 barnave (Bar-nav"), . § tº • 32 I Barnet (Bar'-net), * e e 183 Barnveldt, Van Olden), (Van Ol’-den Barn'- velt), . e & & 2 I Barragan (Bar/-ra-gan), ge tº • 444 Barras (Bar'-ras), e g 324, 325 Barrere (Bar-rare’) . tº º . 32 I Barrot, Odillon (O-deel’-yong Bar-ro'), 37 I Bartholomew, St. (Saint Bar-thol’-o-mew), 219, 22O Hashaw (Ba-shaw'), * o . 481, 482 Basle (Ba'-sel), . . 166, 170, 171, 325 Basque Provinces (Bask), . 422, 427 Bassantello (Bas-San-tel’-lo), * . 16o Bastile (Bas-teel'), * & • 31 4, 31.5 Batavia (Ba-ta'-ve a), g . 218 Batavian, . • Bath (Bath), • 325, 329, 334 © 238 Batignolles (Bat-ig-noles'), e ſº 4 I4 Baton Rouge (Bat-on Roozh'), . 5II, 51.5 Baudin (Bo'-din), tº te º . 385 Baum (Boum). . e & fe 467 Bautzen (Boutz'-en), . Bavaria (Ba-va'-re-a), e & • 347 128, 159, 167, 336 Bavarian, . gº ſº . 167, 297 Bavarians, . © g te 27o, 403 Bayard, Chevalier (Chev-a-leer' By’-ard), . 203 Bayonne (Ba-one'), tº 339, 348, 427 Baylen (Bi’-len), & * & • 339 Bazaine (Ba-zang'), . 388,402, 403, 404, 405, 4O7. 450 Bearn (Ba-arn'), . . . g & . 219 Beaugency (Bo'-zhen-sy), * {* 408 Beauharnais, General (Bo-har'-na), 321,323, 325 Beauharnais, Eugene (U-geen'), . 335, 348 Beauharnais : Horlense (Or-tangs'), . 386 Beaujou (Bo-joo'); . gº tº • 4 I 7 Beaulieu (Bo-loo') te tº e 326 Beauregard, Pierre G. F. (Bo'-re-gard), .. 505, - 506, 509, 518 Beausejour (Bo-se-jour’), tº tº 393 Becket, Thomas à (Tom-as ā Beck'-et) . 174 Bedell (Be-dell’). . . . . 462 Bedford (Bed-ford), . o 155, 156, 182 te 246 Bedloe (Bed'-lo), . * Belfast (Bel/-fast), . * * > • 489 Belfort §:} • sº • 419, 412 Belgian (Bel’-je-an), . • 363, 404, 405, 411 Belgians, . • 303, 304 Belgiurn (Belºje-um), º 317, 298. 351, 363, 364, 404, 406 Belgrade (Bel-grade'), . 135, 190, 192, 279, 280 Belisarius (Bel-e-Sa'-re-us), . . . II 7, 118 Bell, John (Bell), . g & ſº 504 Belleisle (Bell-ile'), . * e • 283 Bellerophon (Bel-ler'-o-fon), © • 352. Belleville (Bell’-vil), . • 4I4; 475; 419, 420 Belmont (Bei mont), e ºn tº “. 508 Beloochistan (Be-loo-chis-tan') . • 35 Belshazzar (Bel-shaz'-zar), © ſº • 25, 33 Belus (Bel’-us), . . . . tº 24 Belvedere (Bel-ve-deer’), . e • 340 Bem, * . ſº & . 365, 38.1, 383 Bemis’s Heights (Bem'-is's Hights), . 467 Bender (Ben’-der), * e • 276, 294 Benedek (Ben'-e-dek), tº o • 398 Benedetti (Ben-e-det'-te), tº * • 402 Benedict of Nursia (Ben'-e-dict of Nur'-she-a), Benedictine (Ben-e-dic'-teen), Benevento (Ben-e-ven'-to), e Bengal (Ben-gawl'), o wº • 389, 390 Benito Juarez (Ben'-e-to Whaw-ar'-ez), 447, 448, - 449, 450, 45I I33 133, 186 . 165 Benjamin (Ben'-ja-min), iº g 3O, 3I Benningsen (Ben’-ning-sen), . • 337, 338 Bennington (Ben'-ning-ton), e • 467 Bentonville (Ben'-ton-vil), & ge 52I Berber (Ber’-ber) º tº • • 124 Beresford (Ber’-ez-ford), . * © 342 Beresina (Ber-e-ze'-na), & e • 346 Berg (Berg), * te e ſº 226 Bergen (Berg'-en), . º tº 266, 290 Bergerot (Ber-jer-o'), . e e 4I5 Berghen (Ber’-jen), . & • 33O Berkeley (Berk'-le), . * 256, 257,266 Berlin (Ber-lin'), . . . 288,291, 337, 412 Bermuda Hundred (Ber-mu'-da Hundred), 518 Bernadotte (Ber’-na-dot),. • , 342, 347 Bernard (Ber’-nard), . © © • 457 Bernard, St. (Saint Ber-nard), . & 332 Berme (Bern), e & . 167,328 Bernese (Bern'-ese), , . * * 328 Bernhard (Bern'-hard tº sº • 231 Bernhard of Weimar Wi-mar), o 231 Berri, Duke of (Ber’-re), “e º e Bertha (Ber’-tha 5 e e e I47 Berthelemy (Ber-thel'-e-me), * 327 Berthier (Ber-te-a'), & ſº © 327 Berthold Schwartz (Bert'-old Schwartz), 192 Berwick (Ber’-wick), . & e . 271 Besancon (Be-zong'-soang), g © 4II Bessieres (Bes-se-er'), * tº • 347 Bessus (Bes'-sus), . & e © 57 Bethlehem (Beth'-le-hem), . * • 94 Beuret (Boo-ra'), . g g e 393 Beyreut (Ba-root'), . e e . 368 Big Bethel (Big Beth'-el), s ſº 506 Big Black River Bridge, tº e a 514 Bicetre (Be-set-ra'), , . Ç sº 4O7 Bicocco (Be-kok'-ko), e tº 2O2 Biddle (Bid’-del), tº e © 490 Bienville (Be-ang'-veel), ſº 30 I Biloxi (Be-lok'-se), © e 300 Billaud Varennes (Bil’-lo Va-ren'), 323, 324 Bingham (Bing'-am), . g - 484 Biron (Bi’-ron), 321, 433 Bismarck (Bisºmark), 397, 401; 466, 408, 4 II, - & 4I2, 431, 433 Bithynia (Bith-in'-e-a) tº * 6o, 81 Bittenfeld (Bit-tenfeld), . tº . 398 Bizoin, Glais (Glai Bizh-oin'), tº 406 Blackburn's Ford (Black'-burn's), g 506 AZAAAAA TICAL AV/OFX. 581 #: gº © . º. tº . . . 326 lack Sea, . . 34, 38, 40, 51, 295, 387, 388, 389 #lackstone (Bladºstone), º º, sº 263 Bladensburg (Blad’-ens-burg), . o 489 Blair, Francis P., . º • 523 ake, & e -> g o 24I Blakeley (Blake'-le), . e • 490 Blanc, Louis (Looſ-e Blong), . 372, 374 Blanche (Blanch), . • e . I 5o Blanqui (Blon-kee'), & o tº 372 Blenheim (Blen/-hime), e • 27O Block, Adrian (A/-dri-an Block), º 262 B; ois (BI waw), . º ... 136, 173,408 Bloomfield, Joseph (Bloom’-field), . . 484 Blount, Sir George, Blucher (Blookſ-er), e g º 279 347, 348, 349, 351, 352 Blum, Robert, º º * **, *:: • 37 Blunt, e © e • 512, 515 Boadicea (Bo-a-de'-she-a), . º . 96 Bocchus (Bok-kus), º º 85 Boeff, La (La Buf'), . e e • 3O2 Boeotia (Be-o'-she-a), . º • 35, 37 Bogota (Bo-go-taw/), e • 436, 437 Bohemia (Bo-he'-me-a), 166, 169,226, 283, 289 Bohemian, . ſº e g 169, 228 Bohemians, . º e . 226, 227 Bohemond (Bo'-he-mond), º º 136 Bois de Boulogne (Boi de Boo-lone’), 417, 418 Bokhara (Bo-ka/-ra), º e I90, 432 Boleslaus (Boies'-laus), te e . 186 Boleyn, Anne (Ann Bo'-len), 209, 2Io Bolingbroke (Bo'-ling-broke), . 180, 272 Bolivar, Simon (Si'-mon Bo-le'-war), 436, 437, 438, 440 Bolivia (Bo-lee'-ve-a), . Bologna (Bo-lone'-ya), e Bombay (Bom'-bay), . º b 208 Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon (Bo'- na-part), . º •, 370, 37I, 372 Bonaparte, Jerome (Jer-ome'), . e 338 Bonaparte, Joseph . . . ; 336,339, 346, 438 Bonaparte, Louis (Loo'-e), . • 336, 341 Bonaparte, Lucien (Lu'-she-en), . • 33I Bonaparte, Napoleon (Na-po'-le-on), .. 322, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330,331 Bonapartes, . © e • . 436 Bonapartists (Bo-na-part'-ists),350, 384,411, 430 Bonhomme Richard łºś. e • 47C) • 438, 439, 441 e º 366 Boniface (Bonſ-e-face), , , & .126, 151 Boone, Daniel (Dan'-yel Boon), . • 47o Booth, John Wilkes, * e º 522 Bora, Catharine of (Bo'-ra), . o I • 2C Bordeaux (Bor-do'), . 179, 348, 362, 411, 412 Borgne (Born), e • 490 Bornheimer (Born-hiſ-mer), . & 376 Borodino (Bor-o-de'-no), e e • 344 Boscawen (Bos-caw'-en), * o 3O5 Bosnia (Bos'-ne-a), . e • 228, 433 Bosquet (Bos-kā’), 8 * Q e º 3 7 Boston (Bos’-ton), 258, 259, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463 Bostonians (Bos-to'-ne-ans), . 259, 457 Bosworth Field (Boz'-worth), © • 184 Bothmia (Both'-ne-a), . e e I3o Bothwell (Both’-well), º e Boufflers (Boof'-flers), . e • 271 Bouillon (Bool-yong’), • . e 135, 136 Boulevards (Bool-vards’), 385, 405, 414 Boulogne (Boo-lone'), . 2O5, 2II, 333, 335 222, 223 Bousquet (Boos-ka'), e e 42O Bourbak Boor-ba'-ke), . • 4IO, 4II Bourcen Boor'-bon), e • , 156, 221 Bourbons, • . w 291, 332, 348, 35o Bourgeoisie (Bour-jeoi-see), • , 370, 414 Bouvines (Boo-veen'), . e . 149 Bowyer, Fort (Bow’-yer), . e • 489 Boxer (Box"-er), . e º © 488 Boyaca (Boy-ak'-ka), e º • 437 Boyne (Boin), º º 248, 254 Bozrah (Boz'-rah), . G º • I22 Bozzaris (Bot-zar'-is), . •. 358 Bracito (Bra-seſ-to), . º • 499 Braddock, Edward (Brad'-dock), 286, 303 Bradford, William (Brad'-ford), . , 257 Bradstreet (Brad'-street), º , 29C, 3OS Braganza (Bra-gan'-za), g 216 339, 442 Bragg, Braxton (Brax'-ton Bragg), 512, 515, 515 Brahma (Bramſ-a), e e º 23 Brahminical (Bram-in/-ic-al), e • 23 Brahmins (Bram'-ins), . e º 23 Brahilov (Bra-e'-lov), º o • 35.9 Brandenburg (Bran'-den-burg), 128, 169, 207, 208, 226, 251, 252,281, 287 Brandt, Joseph (Brant), e • 467, 469 Brandywine (Bran'-de-wine), . © 466 Braunau (Brouſ-nou), & & . 226 ravo (Bra'-vo), . e e • 435, 441 Brazil (Bra'-zeel), 193, 339, 356, 440, 441 Brazilian (Bra-zeel'-yan), e º 44I Brazilians, . º º Breadalbane (Bre-ad-alº-bane) e 438, 44o º 248 Breckinridge, John C. (Brek'-in-rij), 5O2 504, 5II Breda (Bra'-da), & e o • 244 Breed's Hill, tº e e o 461 Breitenfeld (Briſ-ten-feld) . w • 229 Brennus (Bren’-nus), . e 61, 72, 73 Bremen (Brem’-en), . e º . 165 Breslau (Bres-lou), º º . 190, 283 Brest, . º e º . 318, 482 Bretagne (Breſ-tam), º I46, 149, 156, 157 Bretons (Bre’-tons) . e e . I57 Bridgewater (Brij'-wau-ter), e º 238 Brienne (Bre-en'), • º • 348, 349 Brienne, Lomoine de (Lo-mo-ne’ de), • 31 I Bright, John (Brite), e º o 399 Brahuega (Brah'-we-ga), . e . 27.I Brissot (Brees’-so), ge e º 317 Bristol (Bris'-tol), o sº 195, 238, 367 Britain (Brit'-tn), . . 89, 95, 96, Ioë, 120 Britain, Great. 278, 306, 308, 460, 463,475, 484 Britannicus (Brit-an/-me-kus), . - 5 British (Brit'-ish), 307, 308,309,328,331,455, 504 Britons (Brit’-ons), • 89, 95, 96, 9 Brittany (Brit'-ta-ne), e . 157, 158 Brock, Sir Isaac , º e 484, 485 Broglie (Brole’-ye), . e e • 431 Broglio (Brole'-yo), tº e º 313 Brown, Jacob º e . 487, 488 Brown, Benjamin Gratz . e º 525 Bruce, Robert © e • 176, 177 Brueyes (Brays), . e & e 328 Bruges (Bru'-jez), © º e . I56 Brumaire (Bru'-mer), e e º 33 I Brundusium (Brun-du'-ze-um), e • 92 Brune e e • * 33O Bruneſ ( Bru-nel' ), º , a tº e • 42O Brunswick (Bruns'-wick), 163, 227, 228, 278, 289 290, 318, 337, 351 Brussels (Brus'-sels), s 9. 216, 351, 363 Brutus (Bru'-tus), . . 68,69, 91, 92, 456 Brutium (Bru'-te-um), . e º 65 Bucharest (Boo-ka-rest'), . © • 343 Bucephala (Bu-sef’-a-la), . e o 58 Bucephalus (Bu-sef’-a-lus), . O . 58 Buchanan, Franklin (Buk-an/-an), ſº 5I9 Buchanan, James . © 5O2, 503) 504 Buchez (Boo-shez'), ſº e 372 Buckersdorf (Buck’-ers-dorf), º 292 Buckner, Simon Bolivar (Buck'-ner), . 508 Buena Vista (Bwa'-na Vees'-ta), . 447, 498 Buenos Ayres (Bo'-nos Airz), 438, 439 Buda (Boo'-da), e e • 376, 382 Buddha (Bood’-da), º 23 Budenbrock (Boo'-den-brock), 83 Buell, Don Carlos (Don Car’-los B.1'-el), 509 Buffalo (Bufº-fa-lo), . e g • 487 Buford (Buſ-ford), ſº e te 47x Bug (Boog), . º e • 365 Bulgaria (Bul-ga'-re-a), . º I35 582 AZAAAA.Ş. ZYCA/C ZVZXAZY. Cambaceres (Kam-ba-ser'), . e • 33X. Cambray (Kam-bra'), . • 144, 158, 206 Cambresis, Chateau (Shato' Kong, bra-ze’), 206, 218 Cambridge (Kame-brij), . • 258, 460 Cambyses (Kam-bi'-seez), Camden (Kam’-den), e Camerletta (Kam-er-letſ-ta), , & 393 Camille Desmoulins (Ka-meel' Da-mo-long’), 313, 317, 318, 323 º 34 266, 471, 473 Camillus (Ka-mil’-lus), º 72, 73 Campania (Kam-pan'-e-a), © • 65, 74 Campbell (Kam’-el), e e 469, 47a Campbell, Sir Colin (Ko'-lin), . 390, 391 Campbells, º © * tº o 288 Campo Formio (Kam’-po For'-me-o), 327 Canaan (Ka'-man), tº 28, 29 Canaanites (Kaºſan-ites), º o • 29 Canada (Kan'-a-da), 301, 302, 304, 305, 306, 307 Canadian (Ka-na’-de-an), º e 3OO Canalizo (Ka-nal/-e-zo), tº e • 445 Canby (Kan'-be), . e e 522, 526 Candahar (Kan-da-har') tº (e. • 369 Cane River, e o G º 517 Cannae (Kan-ne'), . • . e • 79 Cannes (Kan), . & º 35o Canning (Kan’-ning), & º • 359 Canrobert (Kanſ-rob-ert), e 387, 402 Canterbury (Kan'-ter-ber-re), 120, 174, 179, 2Io, 234 Canton (Kan-ton'), e g º 369 Canute (Ka-nute'), . g º • I 72 Cape Cod, . e G © -> 257 Cape Fear River, . & • 195, 264 Capet (Kah-pa’), . º e 146, 152 Capet, Hugh ſº * e • 146, 147 Capitol (Cap'-e-tol), . . . º 73, 489 Capitoline Hill (Ka-pitſ-o-line), e 66, 67 Capitolinus (Kap-it-o-li-mus), . Capo d'Istria (Ka'-po Dees'-tre-a), . 118 Bulgarians, . º º e (De-me'-tre-us Bool- Bulgaris, Demetrius gar'-is), & e º 395 Bull’s Run, . e e 506, 507, 5 II Bulow (Boo'-lo), . e • 348 Bunker’s Hill Bunk-er's), e • 307, 461 Burgesses (Bur'-ges-ses), ſº © 256 Burgos (Boor'-goce), . o tº • 34O Burgoyne (Bur-goin'), 461, 466, 467, 468 Burgundians, (Bur-gun'-de-ans), . • I Il Burgundy (Bur'-gun-de), 126, 129, 146, 154, 155, 156, 157, 16o Burke, Edmund, & º • 298, 456 Burleigh (Bur'-le), _ _ . - 223, 224 Burnside, Ambrose E. (Burn'-side), 508, 509, 512. 514, 516 Burr, Aaron, e e © 481, 482 Burrhus (Bur'-rus), . e e . 96 Burrows (Bur'-rose), º º tº 488 Busaco (Boo-sak’-ko), e * @ • 342 Bussolongo (Boos-So-lone'-go), . e 379 Bustamente (Boos-ta-men'-ta), 442,443, 444, 445 Bute, Earl of, . e º o • 292 Butler (Butº-ler), º & te 23o Butler, Benjamin F., © 507, 509, 518 Butler, John, © e : 467, 469 Byng, . e º º • 279 Byron (By’-ron), . 358 Byzantine (Be-zan'-tin), #13, riz, 118, #9, I22, I235 I39, 191, 192 Byzantium (Be-zan'-she-um), • 40, 47, IO7 40 Byzas (By’-zas), . e e wº Cabal (Kaſ-bal), º e • 244, 245 Cabet (Ka-ba'), . e º 372 Cabot, John (Ka'-bot), º º • I95 Cabot, Sebastian (Se-bas'-che-an), . I95 Cabral (śa-bral), e lº e • 193 Cabrera (Ka-bra'-ra), . º e 43O Cabrinity (Ka-brin'-e-te), . • 422, 427 Cabul (Ka'-bool), e o © 369 Cade, Jack, . º º º . 182 Cadesiah (Ka-de-shea) © º º I22 Cadiz (Ka'diz), © º º 27, 37 Cadmea (Kad'-me-a), . o º 37 Cadmus (Kad'-mus), o º • 37 Cadorna (Ka-dor'-na), . e © 4I3 Cadoudal, George (Ka-doo'-dal), . • 335 Caernarvon (Kar-nar'-von), . e 176 Caesar, Julius (Ju'-le-us Se'-zer), 88, 89, 9o, 91 Caesar. Octavius (Ok-ta/-ve-us), . 925 93 Qaesars, . º e e 93 alm, . g e e º • 2 I Cairo (Ki’-ro), . - e • 123, 328 Caius Gracchus (Ka'-e-us Grak'-us), ... 8 Caius Marius (Ma'-re-us), º o 85 Calabria (Ka-la/-bre-a), º º 65, 145 Calais (Kal'-la), 152, 156, 178, 182, 202, 209, 212, 213, 218 Caledonia, (Kal-e-do'-ne-a), - º • I2O Caledonians, wº º © o 99 a Calcutta (Kal-cut'-ta), º - • 299 Calhoun, John C. (Kal-hoon'), . 492, 493, 494 Calicut (Kal’-e-kut), IC) . e e & 93 California (Kal-e-for-ne-a), 447, 498, 499, 5oo, 5OI, 524 ‘Cºligula (Ka-lig'-u-la), . ſº • 94, 95 Çaliph (Ka'-lif), e • I21, 122, 123, 124 ſaliphate (Ka-lif-ate), . • I23; I24, 125 Caliphs, e & © g • I 25 Salixtunes (Ka-lix'-tins),. e 17o Callao (Kal-la/-o), . * • 440, 44 I. Calmar, Union of (Kal'-mar), . 18 Calomne (Ka-lon'), . º º • 31. I Calvary (Kal’-va-re), . º g 94 Calvert, Cecil (Sis-il Kol’-vert), . . 261 Calvin, John (Kal’-vin). Calvinism (Kal’-vin-ism), . • 217, 222 Calvinists (Kalº-vin-ists), . 218, 219 º 73 359, 360 Cappadocia (Kap-pa-do'-she-a), º 95 IoS Capreae (Ka-pre’-e), . e e • '94 Capua (Kap'-u-a), ) e º • 74, 8o Capuan, - º e ſe e O Carabobo (Kar-a-bo'-bo), c © 437 Caracalla (Kar-a-kal'-la), . • IOI, IO2 Caraccas (Ka-rak'-kas), . se 435, 436 Caractacus (Ka-rak'-ta-kus), . º • 95 Carbonari (Kar-bo-naſ-re), e e 356 Carinthia (Ka-rinth'-e-a), . . 208, 226 Corasmin (Ko-rasſ-min), . e º I90 Corasmins, . º • • • I39 Carinus (Ka-ri'-mus), Q & e IOS Carlisle º arl'-ile), . e º • I77 Carlist (Karl'—ist), 368, 4oo, 422, 424, 427, 428, 429, 430 366, 367, 4oo, 422, 427, 428,429, 430 Carloman (Kar'-lo-man), . * 126, 127 Carlos, Don (Don £arºos), 215, 280, 367, 368, * . . 421, 422, 427, 439 Carlovingian (Kar-lo-vin'-je-an), 126, 129, 146, Carlists, . I5 Carlovingians, © º e º : Carlsruhe (Karls'-ru), . º º 377 Carlstadt (Karl’-stot), e © • 2CO Carmania (Kar-man'-e-a), º ſº 58 Carnifax Ferry (Kar'-ne-fax Fer'-re), • 507 Carniola (Kar-ne-o'-la), . e º 166 Carnot (Kar'-no), . ge de • 327 Carolina (Kar-o-li'-na), . e 264 Carolinas, • * . e . 264 Caroline (Kar'-o-line), . & 327, 336 Carolinians (Kar-o-li'-ne-ans), 265, 46; 504 Carpenter’s Hall, & º • 459 Carrera (Kar-ra-ra), e e º 439 Carreras e ſº • 439 Carrier (Kar-re-a') º e e 324 Cartagena (Kar-ta-je’-na), . 424, 425, 426,428 Cartagenian (Kar-ta-ge'-ne-an),. º 428 Carteret Sir George (Kar'-ter-et), . . 266 ALPAAAA. TXCA.J. ZAVOAZX. 583 Carteret Philip (Fil/-ip). º tº 266 Carthage (Kar'-thage) 27, 62, 63, 66, 77, 78, 8o, I, 82, 83, 123 Carthagena (Kar'tha-je-na), . 78, 280,436, 437 Carthaginian (Kar-tha-jin'-e-an), 76, 77,78, 79, I, 82, 83 Carthaginians, 62, 76, 77, 78, 79, 8o, 81, 82, 83 Carth.isians (Kar-thu'-she-ans), o • (33 Carticr; James (Kar-te-a'), tº e I95 Carus (Kaſ-rus), e e e • IO5 Carver, John (Kar'-ver), º g 257 Cashmere (Kash'-meer), * e • 37I Casimir (Kas'-e-mer), . º & 187 Casimir the Great, . ſº º . 187 Casino, Mount (Kas-e'-no) e e I33 Caspian Sea (Kasſ-pe-an), . * • 33, 34 Cassander (Kas-san'-der) o & 6o Cassandra (Kas-san'-dra) . e • 358 Cassano (Kas-Sah'-no), . © º 329 Cassavo (Kas-sa/-vo). e e I91 Cassel (Kasſ-sel), . º e e 4O5 Cassius (Kash’-e-us) . 89, 91, 92 Castamos (Kasſ-ta-noce'). º • 339; 340 Castelar (Kas-te-lar’) 421, 422, 423, 425, 426,427 Castiglione (Kas-teel-yo'-na) . . . . 418 Castile (Kasſ-teel), 125, 158, 159, 165, 194, 269 Castilian (Kas-teel'-yan) I 58 Castillo de las Galerus (Kas-teel-yo-da-las Gal-a'-rus) . º • 425 Castor (Kasſ-ter), e e º 38 Catalonia (Kat-a-lo'-ne-a), 158,422,422, 427, 430 Catana (Ka-tan/-a) . & e e Catania (Ka-tan’-ea) . e g 378 Catharine I. (Kath’-a-rin), . e . 278 Catharine II., 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 308, 472 Catharine de Medicis (Med’-e-che) .318, 319 Catharine Howard (How'-ará), . • 2 IO Catharine Parr, . e & p 2 IO Catharine of Aragon (Ar’-a-gon), . 209, 2Io Catharine of Braganza (Bra-gan'-za), • 244 Cathelineau (Kath'e-lin-o'), te 322 Catholic (Kath'-O-lik), . ve te 2O6 Catholicism (Ka-thol/-e-sism) e e Catholics, & tº © ſº | Catiline, Sergius (Ser'-je-us Kat'-e-line) . 88 ( atinat (Kah'-te-nah) . º . 255, 268 Cato the Elder (Ka'-to) . º . 82 Cato the Younger, e e • * 90 Catulus (Ka-tul'-us). e e 85, 86 Caucasus (Kau'-kas-us) © . . 188 Caudime Forks (Kaw-dine), & • 74, 75 Cavaignac (Kav’-en-yak), . 371, 372, 373, 374 Cavaliers (Kav-a-leers’), e Q 236 Cavour (Kav'-oor), . º e . 393 Cawnpore (Kawn'-pore). º 390, 391 Cayenne | i’-en), . o º . 386 Cecil (Sis'-il), º © º 224 Cecrops (Se’-krops), . o & • 37 Cedar Creek (Seſ-der), . e 52O Cedar Mountain, e º e • SII Centreville (Sen'-ter-vil). & © 506 Ceraunus, Ptolemy (Tol’-e-me Se-raw'-nus), 61 Ceres (Se’-rees), & º s • 3 Cerisoles (Se-ris'-o-lees), * e 2O5 Cerro Gordo (Seer'-o Gor'-do), • 447, 499 Cevalles (Se-vals’), º o e 45I Cevennes (Sa-ven'), . e & . 269 Ceylon (Se-lon') . ſº tº e I93 Chacabaco (Cha-ka-ba'-ko), . e • 439 Chaeronea (Ker-o-ne'-a), e ſº 53 Clialdea (Kal-de'-a'), . º e 23, 99 l'haldean, e -> te e 27 Ç: aldeans, . e e e • 24 Chalgrave Field (Shal’-grave), . º 237 Chalier (Shal-e-a') . . º © • 322 º II 2 Chaloms º e º Chalons-sur-Marne (-Soor-Marn), 402, 403, 404 Chambersburg (Cham’-bers-burg), . 539 Chambly (Sham’ ble), e e • 462 Champagne (Sham’-pane), 146, 147, 148, 349 Champ de Mars (Shong ier Mar), I5, 42O Champion Hill Gº. ) º 3 . : Championnet (Sham-pe-o'-na), . º 327 Champaubert §...} º • 349 Champlain, Lake (Sham-plain'), . . 300 Champlain, Samuel, 300, 304, 460, 462, 466. 485 88, 489, 4öö, Champs Elysees (Shong-E-lees'-e) 412, 416, 418 Chancellorsville §::::::::. vº 5I4 Chandler (Chand’-ler) . º e 487 Changarnier (Shan-gar'-ne-a), o • 374 Chantilly (Chan'-til-le), . & c 5II Chanzy (Shon'-ze), , º o • 41 O Chaos (Kaſ-os), . g e e 36 Chapultepec (Cha-pool'-te-pek) • 447, 5oC Charette (Shar-et'), e tº e 322 Charlemagne (Shar'-le-mane), 119, 126, 127, 128 - I29 Charleroi (Shar-ler-waw'), ſº º 35E Charles, 126, 129, 145, 146, 150, 151, 154, 155, 157, I58, 159, 165, 168, 171, 200, 201 Charles Felix §jº º 3 * / → ; * ~ * • 35 Charles Martel (Mar-tel'), e • I24, : Charles the Courteous, e . I57, 158 Charles the Fair, . º º • I5I, I52 Charles the Fat, e e • I29, 159 Charles the Simple, e e { } I46 Charles the Wise, . e 'e • I54 Charles the Victorious, . I55, 156, 181, 182 Charles I., of England, 234, 235, 236, 237,238, 239; 24O Charles II., of England, . 243, 244, 245, 246 Charles II., of Spain, º © . 268 Charles III., of Spain, . e e 29I Charles IV., of Germany, . º . I68 Charles IV., of Spain, . g e 339 Charles V., of Germany, 171, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205. 206, 207, 208, 209 Charles VI., of France, e . I 54, I55 Charles VI., of Germany, e . 272,282 Charles VII., of Germany, . • 283, 284 Charles IX., of France, . e . 219, 22O Charles IX., of Sweden, e e • 2 I2 Charles X., of France, . 354, 360, 361, 363 Charles X., of Sweden, © e • 232 Charles XI., of Sweden, . e e 232 Charles XII., of Sweden, 273, 274, 275,276, % 27 Charles XIII., of Sweden, .. © • 34I Charleston (Charles'-ton), 265, 463,469, 470, 471 474, 475, 494. 504, 5oS, 515, 520, 521 Charlestown (Charlesſ-town), . . 258, 461 Charlotte (Shar'-lot) e . 461, 471, 528 Charlotte Corday (Kor’-da) . & • 32I Charlottesville (Shar'-lots-vil) . º 5 II Charolois (Shar-o-lwaw'). . o . I56 Chartres (Shar'-ter), . t º 22 I Chasse e º º • 522 363 4I9 º e Chasse (Shas-Sa'), tº tº e Chasu du Marne (Shas'-su du Marn), º Chateau (Shah-to'), * g º 405 Chateau Cambresis (Kong-bra-zee'), 206, 218 Chateau d’Eau (Shat'-o-do'), e • 37I Chateau Thierry (Ta-er'-re), . e 349 Chateaux (Shah-to'), e © • 3I4. Chatillon (Shah-teel-yoang'), . 349, 416 Chattanooga (Chat-ta-noo"-ga), .. 515, 516 Chaudiere (Sho-de-air'), . tº e 462 Chaumette ; • º • 323 Chauncey { Shaun'-se), 486, 487 Cheatham (Cheet'-ham), . º 5 Chenah (Che-nah'), . tº g 3 Cheops (Ke'-ops),. . e • 26 Cherbourg (Sher'-burg), tº e 519 º her-o-kee'), * . 306, 494 Cherry Valley, , . tº º e 469 Cherub (Cher'-ub), . e Chesapeake (Ches-a-peek'), . Chester (Ches'-ter) e 238, 266, 267, 466 Chevaux-de-frise (Šhe-vo-de-frise), e 466 e º 490 465, 483, 488 584 AZ FÅA BE TVCAL INVDAE.X. Chickamauga (Chick-a-maw’-ga), . Chickasaw's (Chick'-a-saws), . º Chi-hoang-ti (She-wong'-ti), e Chihuahau (She-wah'-wah), . Childeric (Shil’-der-ik), º © Chili (Chil’-le), . e • 400, 439, 44I Chilian (Chil’-e-an), . º tº • 439 Chilians, & º º e º Chillianwallah (Chil-yan-wal'-lah), . • 369 5x5, 516 3OI 22, 23 449, 499 I26 Chilpanzinco (Chil-pan-zin'-go), º 434 China (Chi(-na), 22, 23, 119, 190, 368, 369, 389 Chinese (Chi'-nese), º 22, 368, 369, 389 Chippewa (Chip'-pe-waw), . º .488 Chisselhurst (Chis’-sel-hurst), . • 412 Chivalry (Shiv'-al-re), º • I31, 132 Chlopiki (Klo-pe'-ke), . tº 64, 365 Chlorus, Constantius (Con-stan'-shus Kº: rus), e o o e . Iof Christian I. (Krist'-yan), º e I86 Christian II.. . e © . 186, 213 Christian iii., º e e 4. 213 Christian IV. e © • 227, 228 Christian VIII., . o • e 396 Christiana (Krist-e-an’-a), . o 264 Christina (Kris-ti'-na), . e • 232 Christinos (Kris'-ti-noes), __. º . 368 Christopher Columbus (Krisſ-to-fer Ko- lum'-bus), . o o • I94? IQ5 Chowan (Sho-won'),... & e • 264 Churchill (Church'-ill), , . tº º 269 Churubusco (Choo-roo-boos'-ko), . 447, 5oo Cialdini (Si-al-din'-i), . o © 393 Cicero (Sls'-e-ro), . . . 88, 92 Čilići, Šilisiºa), . . . 53, 87, §§ 32 Cilician, e Q º o . . 87 Cilicians, . e º c tº 87 Cimbrians (Sim'-bre-ans), . & 85, 86 Cimon (Si'-mon), º e 45, 47, 48 Cincinnati (Sin-sin-at'-e), . e • 525 Cincinnatus (Sin-sin-at-us), . º 71 Cineas (Sin'-e-as), . e º • 79 Cinq Mars Sang 'Mars), e º 249 Cintra (Sinº-tra), e º o • 34O Circassia (Ser-kash’-ya), e e 395 Circassian e g © © • 395 Cisalpine Gauſsis-alºpine Gawl), 65, 72, 78,89 Cisalpine Republlc, º e • 327, 329 Cissey (Sis'-see), e e º • 419 Cistercians. (Sis-ter'-shans), Q * . I 33 Clair, St., Arthur (Saint Klare), . 466, 467 Clairvaux (Klair-vo'), . * e I37 Clamart (Kla-mar'), • • 4 IO, 417 Clarence (Klar'-ence), . º 183, 336 Clarendon (Klar'-en-don 174, 244, 264, 524 Clarke, George Rogers (Klark), tº 470 Clarke, Fort . e º e • 507 Claudius (Klauſ-de-us), . º º 95 Claudius, Appius (Ap'-pe-us), e 7I, 72 Claudius Marcellus (Mar-selſ-lus), . 78 Claudius Nero (Neº-ro), © . . . 8o Claverhouse, Graham of (Klav'-er-house), 248 Clay, Green (Kla) ſº º e 486 Člay. Henry, * • 494, 5or Clayborne (Klay'-born) © 261, 262 Claypole, Mrs Kia pole), ... • • 243 Clement (Klem'-ent), , , . º © I61 Cleombrotus º). e • 52 Cleomenes (Kle-om'-e-nees), . o 62 Cleopatra (Kle-o-pa'-tra), . • 9o, 925 93 Clermont"(Kler-mont'), . C * I35 Allery (Kler'-e), º º º e 373 Cleveland (Kleev'-land)? & e 472 Cleves (Kleevs). o © • 210, 226 Clichy (Klish’-e), e e • 4143 419 Clifford (Kliff-ford), . º © • 245 Clinchart ( *śy tº .* 419 Clinton, De Witt (De Witt' Klin'-ton), 493 Clinton, George, 482, 483 Clintºn, Henry, 461, 463,464, 467, 468, 469, 470, 47L) 472, 473, 474 Clissons, Oliver (Klees-son e • I5 Clitus (Kli'-tus), . e g'), o 54, 55, ; Clive (Klive), e e e • 29I Clodius Albinus (Klo'-de-us Al-bi'-nus), Io 7 Clootz (Kloots), & e º • 323 Clos St. Lazare (Klos Sang La-zhar') . 373 Clostergrab (Klos'-ter-grab), e . 226 Closterseven (Klos'-ter-sev-en), . e 288 Clotilda (Klo-til'-da), . e e • 392 Cloud, St. (Sang Kloo'), © • 33I; 393 Clovis (Klo'-vis), º O • I25, I2O Cluseret (Kloo-ser-a'), . © e 426 Clusian (Kloo'-se-an), . º • 69, 72 Clusians, º e o te e 72 Clusium ºum) º * @ • 69, 72 Clyde (Klide), º • • • IOI Clypea (Kly-pe'-a) & e * º 77 Cnaeus Pompey (Ne-us Pom/-pe), 87, 88,89, 90 º 90 Cneius Pompey (Neſ-us e Cobb, Howell (How'-el Kob), g • 505 Cobham (Kob'-ham), . º e 181 Coblentz (Kob'-lentz), e • 348, 402 Coburg, Prince of (Ko'-burg), . © 32O Cochabamba (Ko-cha-bam’-ba) . ... • 439 Cochin China (Ko'-chin Chi’-na), º 394 Cochrane (Kok'-rane), º • 439, 489 Cockburn (Ko'-burn), . º - Cocles, Horatius (Ho-ra'-she-us Ko'-klees), 69 Cod, Cape, º e e e 257 Coddington, William (Kod’-ding-ton), . 263 Codomanus, Darius (Da-ri-us Kod-o-man'- S); g º º 54, 55, 56, Codrington, Sir Edward (Kodºrinº; s sº Codrus (Ko'-drus), Cohoes Falls (Ko'-hose), e *::: Cola di Rienzi (Ko-la de Re-ain'-ze), • I42 Colbert (Koalſ-bair), º e 25O, 253 Colchis (Kol’-kis), . • e . 38 Cold Harbor, e ſº te © 518 Colfax, Schuyler (Ski'-ler Kol’-fax), 523, 524 Coligni (Ko-leen'-ye), e • 218, 219 Coliseum (Kol-e-se'-um), . e 97 Collatinus (Kol-lat'-in-us), e . 68, 69 Colleton (Kol’-ton), . º c . 265 Collier, Sir George, (Kol’-yer), . te 469 Collingwood (Kol’-ling-wood), - . • 336 Collot d’. Herbois (Ko-lo-der-bwaw'), Cologne (Kºlone'), • c . 207 Colombia (Ko-lom'-be-a), 435, 436, 437, 438,446 Colonna (Ko-lon'-na), º e I42 Columbia (Ko-lum'-be-a), 52I Columbus, Christopher ( ris-to-ferko-lum. U1S o - e I93, 194; IQ5 Commodus Kom'-mo-dus), . x £33, IOI Commune (Kom'-mune), 314, 415, 416, 417,418, 4I9 Communism (Kom'-mu-nism), . e 2 Communist (Komº-mu-mist), 372, 373, 415, 418, º 4I9, 42O Communists, 373,414, 415, 416,417,418, 419,420 Como (Ko'-mo) 3. - º g • 202 Comonfort (Kom-on-fort), & • 447, : Compeigne (Kom-peen'-ye), . . • I55 Concord (Kong'-kord) ... © • 460, 528 Concordat (Kon-kor'-dah), . • 162, 334 Conde' (Kon'-da) . 218, 2Io. 25o. 251. 31 Čondorcet (Kong-dorsa!)".’ 9, s ; 25 . # Confucius (Kon-fu'-shus), * e • 22, 23 Connecticut (Kon-net'-e-kut, 258, 262, 268, 460, 464, 465, 469, 470, 474, 439, 496 Conner (Kon'-ner), . e e • 499 Conon (Koº-non), e º º 52 Conrad I. (Kon'-rad), e . I59, 160 Conrad II., e º . I60, 161 Conrad III., © • I*7. I48. 162. 16 Conrad IV., e & 37; I4 . $ : Conradine (Kon-ra-dine'), . e . 165 Constance (Kon'-Stans), . • 147, 363, 165 Constans, (Kon’-stans) e © ... ro8 Constantine the Great (Konſ-stan-tine), loé, "; R IQ A/CAEAEAAA' 7/CA/. 585 ZAVOAX. Constantine Paleologus (Pa-le-ol'-o-gus, . 191 Constantinople (Kon-stan'-te-no'-pel) . Io.7 Constantius (Kon-stan'-shus), ſº • Io8 Constantius Chlorus (Kloſ-rus), e Ioé Constellation, . º e gº . 480 Constitution e º º . 485, 490 Contreras (Kon-tra-ras), 422, 424, 425, 428, 447, 5oo Conway (Kon’-way), . ". o 468 Coomassie ...º: º o • 432 Cooper, Ashley (Ash'-le Koop'-er), . 264,265 Coote, Sir Eyre É. Koot), tº • 299 Cope, Sir John ( ...} © º º 285 Copenhagen (Ko-pen-haſ-gen), 274, 333;338 Copps’ Hill (Kops Hill) . tº 461 Copts (Kopts),. º © . Ioff, 122 Corasmin (Ko-rasſ-min). e º I90 Corasmins, . e e e • I39 Corbett, Boston (Bosſ-ton Kor'-bet), . 522 Corbulo (Kor-boo'-lo), O gº . 96 Corcyra (Kor-siſ-ra), . & º 49 Corday, Charlotte (Shar'-lot Kor'-da) • 32I Cordova, (Kor'-do-va), . • I24; I25, 2I4 Cordova, Gonsalvo de (Gon-sal'-vo da) . 157 Corea (Ko'-re-a), . º © º 524 Corean, e º o º • 524 Soreans, ... , , , . º o º 524 Corinth (Kor'-inth), 37, 38, 44, 48, 49, 54, 62, 63, 82, 51o, 512 Corinthian (Kor-inth'-e-an), • 46, 49, 52 Corinthians, e e e e 49 Coriolanus (Ko-re-o-la/-nus), © • 7 I Cornelia (Kor-neel'-ya), . e e 84 Cornelian Law, e e º . 87 Cornelius De Witt (Kor-neel'-yus De Wit), 251 Cornelius Scipio (Sip'-e-o), e 80, 81, 82 Cornelius Sylla (Sil'-la), . . 85, 86, 87 Cornwall (Korn'-wall), . • 27, I2O, 237 Cornwallis (Korn-wal’-lis), .299, 308, 464, 465, 47I; 472, 473; 474, 475 Coro (Ko'-ro), o e & • 437 Coronaea (Kor-o-ne'-a'), . e º 52 Corps Legislatif (Kore Lej-is-la/-tif), 386, 392, e 4O2, 405 Corpus Christi (Kor'-pus Kris'-te), . 497 Corsica (Kor'-se-ka), . º • 77, 297 Corsican, . e © g 322, 325 Corsicans, • tº & & • 297 Cortes (Kor'-tes), .. 355, 356, 368, 4oo, 401, 421 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427 Cortez, Fernando (Fer-man'-do Kor'-tez), . 214 Cortina (Kor-tin'-a), - ; t- 449 Corunna (Ko-run'-na), • e • 34O Corvinus, Matthias (Ma-thi’-us Kor-vin'-us), 190 Cosby (Kosſ-by), º e º . 261 Cosmo de Medici (Koz'-mo de Med’-e-che), 145 Cossacks (Kosſ-saks), . 275, 276, 345, 346 Cossacks, Don, . º e - 294 Coup d'Etat (Koo-der-tah'), e 384, 385 Coup de Main (Koo-der-mang'),. e 366 Courbevoie (Koor-be-voi"), . * • 4 I5 Courland (Koor'-land), . e º 186 Cour-pleniere (Koor-pla-ne-aire') . • 312 Couthon (Koo-tong') • 317, 32T, 323, 324 Covenant, . © º e 235, 237 Covenanters, . º º Cowpens (Kow'-pens), . e º 473 Cracow NKra'-ko), . 187 190, 274, 294, 296 Cranmer, Thomas (Tornº-as Kranſ-mer), 21 o, tº • 2 IO 2II, 212 Crassus (Kras'-sus), º e 87, 88, 89. (Xraonne (Krah-yon’) º º • 349 Craterlis (Kra-te-rus), . & tº 6o gº §sº, {- e * : . 266 rec resº-se), º I52, 156, 178, 184 ë. (Kreek), c © º 267, 487,494 Creeks, . e º tº e 487 Crefeld (Kra’-feld), , e e . 289 Cremieux (Kre-moo j, . e Q 406 Creoles (Kre-oles), . & e • 434 Crepy (Crep'-e), . te 205 Crete (Kreet), º • • 40, 42, 43 Cretan, (Kre-tan). e Crimea (Kri-me'-a'), . Crimean e º e 4O • * : 387, 388 e º º 3 Crispus (Kris'-pus , 387, 388 wº © e . IO/ Crittenden, John J., (Kritº-ten-den), . 505 Crittenden, George B., * . . . 508 Croatia (Kro-a'-She-a), . G. 381 Croatian e tº º . 381, 382 Croats (kro'-ats), º . 283, 38o, 382, 383 Croesus (Kre'-sus), e º º 33 Croghan (Kro'-han), . e e . 486 Cromwell, Oliver (Ol'-iv-er Krom'-well), 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 24r, 242, 243, 244, 245 Cromwell, 'Ričará {Rich 3 **t → y → •ro 3 - ++? '-ard), . • 243 Cromwell, Thomas (Tom’-as), . © 2 IO Cronstadt (Kroan-stot), o g • 275 Cross Keys, e º º © 5IO Crown Point, e • 290, 304, 305, 460 Crozat, Anthony (An'-tho-ne Kro-zah'), .. 3oo Cruger (Kruſ-ger), . e º • 47I Crusade (Kruſ-sade), 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, I39; I4O, I4I Crusader (Kruſ-sa-der), • 135, 136, 137, 139 Crusaders, . o 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 Crusades, - e o I34; I40; I4I Ctesiphon (Tesſ-e-fon) © • 89, 99, Ior Cuba (Kuº-ba), . º • 292, 4oo, 421 Cuban, . G e º ſº • 42 I Cucuta (Koo-koo'-tah), . º tº 437 Cuenca (Koo-ain'-kah), © © • 429 Cuddalore (Kud-da-lore'), © º 299 Ciudad Rodrigo (Kwe-oo-dad Ro-dre'-go), 342 Cuirassiers (Kwir-as-seers'), . • 35I; 494 Culloden Moor (Kul-lo'-den), e . 285 Culm (Kulm), . e 347 Culpeper (Kul'-pep-er) e e • 511 Cumberland, Duke of (Kumºber-land), 285, 288 Cundinamarca (Koon-de-nah-mar'-kah), . 437 Cunaxa (Ku-max-ah'), . © ſº 5I Curatii (Ku-re-a'-shea-a) - es 67, 68 Curius Dentatus (Ku’-re-us Den-ta'-tus), .. 76 Curtis, Samuel R. (Kur’-tis), . º 508 Custine (Kus-teen'), . o • 319; 323 Custozza (Koo-stot'-sa). e . 379, 398 Cyane (Si-an') e O º • 49 Cynocephalae (Sin-o-sef’-a-lee). 62, 63, 81 Cyphus (Si’-prus), . º 4o. 47, 52. 56 Cyrenaica (Si-re-na-i(-ca) e º 34 yrene (Si-re'-ne), . e & • 40 Cyrus (Siſ-rus), . e 25, 27, 33, 34, 51. Cysicus (Sis'-e-kus), . © * • SO Czar (Zar), 188,273, 274, 275, 276, 277,292, 357, 364, 368, 382, 386, 3. 396 Czartoriski (Zar-to-ris'-ke), . 364, 365 Czaslau (Tsas'-lou) wº e gº 283 D. Dacia (Da'-she-a), . e e • 99 Dacian, .. º e e º 99 Dacians, o o e g • 99 Dade, º º º e e 495 Dakota (Da-ko'-ta) . © e 5.I.5, 53.I Dalecarlia (Dal-e-kar'-le-a) e ſº 213 Dalhousie (Dal-hou’-se), º e • 389 Dallas (Dal'-las), e ... • e 518 Dallas, George Mifflin (Mif-flin), . • 497 Dalmatia (Dal-ma'-She-a), . Ioff, 138, 327 Dalmatius (Dal-ma’-she-us), o ... Io9. Dalrymple (Dal-rim’-ple), e º 34C Dalton (Dawl’-ton), . o e , 518 Darnascus (Da-mas'-kus), 31, 55, 122, 123, 19x Damietta (Dam-e-et/-ta), . • I4O, I5o Dan, e to & º o 473 Danaus (Da-na’-us), º g • 37 Dandola (Dan'-do-lo), . e 138 Danes, ... 139, 171, #72, 185, 333, 375, 378,396 I anish (Daim-ish), 171, 172, 186, 213, 227, 274, 278, 333, 338, 378, 396 586 • AZPHABETICAL INDEX. 317, 318, 321, 323 323 Danton (Dan'-ton), º Dantonists, . © O te Dantzic (Dant'-sik), tº 296, 337, 338 Danube (Dan'-ube), 94, 99, ‘. 129, 189,253, - 28o, 295, 298, 387 D'Anville (Dan'-vil), e º • 302 Darboy (Dar'-boy), º º e 419 Dardanelles (Dar-da-nelz), .. 58, 40, 191, 386 Darien (Da'-re-en), º e • IQ4, 440 Darius (Da-ri'-us), . g e • 35 Darius Codomannus (Ko-Öo-man'-nus) 54, 55, - 56, 57, 122 Darius Hystaspes (His-tas'-pees), 34, 35, 45, 46 Darius Noth-tis (No -thus), . e 5.I Darling, Fort (Dar'-ling), º º 518 Darnley, Lord (Darn’-le) . º • 222 Daru §:}; º e º e 385 Datis (Da'-tis), e 45 Daun (Doum), . g 288, 289, 291, 292 Dauphin (Daw'fin), 152, 153, 155, 156, 181, 212, 222, 362 Dauphiny (Daw'-fin-ne) I52, 156. De Soto, Ferdinand (Fer’-de-nand De so. to y º e * tº I w Dessau (Dest-sou), . . . 228, 282, : D'Estaing (Des-tang'), . e 468, 470 Le Thou (Der-Too"), e • . 249 Detroit (Dé-troit'), - 3oo, 306, 484, 485 Dettingen (Detſ-ting-en), . . . . 283, 284 DeWitt, Cornelius (Kor-neel'-yus De Witt), 251 Dey (Da), , . e • 355, 361, 48o, 491 Diana (Di-a'-na), tº & e 36 Diaz, Bartholomew (Bar-thol’-o-mu Di'-aa. 193 Diaz, Porfirio (Por-firſ-e-o), .. • , 45C Didius, Julianus (Did’-e-us Ju-le-an/-us), . Iol Dido Ǻ © º wº e 2} D'Iberville, Lemoine (Lem-won' Deb-are- veel'), * e • e • 3OO Duebitsch (De'-bitsh), . 346, 360, 364, 365 Dieskau (De-es'-ko), & © • 3O4 Dijon (De-zhong') º tº 408, 4ir Dioclea (iji ºić' a), ſº e . IOG Diocletian (Di-o-kie’-she-an), . Io5, Io9 Dlnwiddie (Din-wid’-de), . • 3O2 2 . . e. º e D’Aurelles de Paladines (Do-rels'-der Pa- Directory (De-rek'-to-ry), 325, 327, 331, 481 lah'-dong), º e º º 408 || Dirnstein (Dirnſ-stine), e . 336 David (Da'-vid), º e º 30, 31 | Dismal Swamp, . e tº e 462 Davis, Jefferson, (Jef-fer-son Da'-vis), 504, 505, Disraeli (Dis-ra'-le), ... • • 399, 432 522 | Dissidents (Dis'-se-dents), e 293, 294 Davison (Da'-ve-son), e & • 224 | D'Issy (Disſ-se), 407,409, 414, 416, 417, 418 Davoust (Dah-voo'), . © tº 337 | Dixon (Dix'-on), . º * º 267 Dearborn, Henry (Deer'-born), 484, 484,486,487 | Dnieper (Neep'-er), . Io9, 188, 276, 294, 345 Deatonsville ...} º & 521 Dniester (Nees'-ter), . * º Io9 Debonnaire, Louis the (Deb-on-yare') . 129 || Doge (Doje), . º © . 138, 143 Deborah (Deb'orrah) º º . 29 | Dogger Bank (Dog'-ger), g e 309 Debreczin (De-bretſ-sin), . 381, 382, 383 || Dolores (Do-lor’-es), e • 434 Decatur, Stephen (Ste’-fen De-ka'-ter), 481,482, Dombrowski (Dom-brous'-ke), . 296, 420 485, 490, 491 | Domingo, St. (Saint Do-min'-go), . 194, 334 Decazes (Da'-ka/-za), º e . 431 | Dominican (Do-min'-e-kan), g g I33 Deccan (Dek'-kan) tº e o 23 Dominicans, . º © • I33; 134 Decemvir (De-sem’-ver), . © . 71 Dominicus (Do-min'-e-kus), . º I33 Decemvirs, © © . 71, 72 Domitia (Do-mish’-e-a), . * • 99 Decius (De'-she-us), e . 74, 103, Ioa Domitian (Do-mish'-e-an), c • 98, 99 Decoutrias (De-koo'-tre-ah), . te 371 Dom Remy (Dome Remſ-e), . 755, 181 Deerfield (Deer'-field o e . 3or Don Augustin Iturbide (Au-gus'-tin E-toor'. De Grasse ſº § e -- • 309, 474 be-da), . e & e • 435 De Heister (De Hise'-ter), . e . 464 Don Carlos (Don Karſ-los), 215, 28o, 367, 368, Deitzman (Ditze'-man), . e º I66 2I, 422, 427, 430 Dejoces (Dej'-O-cees), e e • 33 De Kalb (Da-Kalb'), . de Delaunay (De-lo'-ma) e º • 314 Delaware (Del’-a-wer), 264, 266, 267, 465, 466, - 4 Delescluse (De-lesſ-klu-Sa), e elit, . • Delhi º º Delphi (Del’-fe), o e De Marigny (Da Ma-reen’-ye), º 5 Dembinski (Dem-bins'-ke) 365, 38.1, 382, 383 Demetrius Bulgaris (De-me'-tre-us Bool- gar'-is), º * & & • 395 Demetrius Phalereus (Fºlºre-us); 60 Demetrius Poliorcetes (Po-le or-seſ-tees), . 6o - e º . 217 215, 281, 3oo, 389, 390, 391 36, 39, 53, 61 I tº I Demosthemes (De-mosſ-the-nees) º 59 De Monts (Da-Mawng'), . . . . 3OO Demain (Da-nang') º to º 272 D'Enghein (Dan-ge-aing'), . º • 335 Denis. St. º: IDen’-is), 219, 221, 373, 4 Io Denmark (Den’-mark), . © tº 2O6 Dennewitz (Pen-ne-witz), e º . . 76 Derby (Der’-be),. . 367, 399 ) * º DeRétz, Cardinal, (Der Rets), e • 25o Dermot Macmorrough (Der'-mot Mac-mur'- ro), o g e e - I74 De Russey, Fort (De Rus'-se), . . . 517 De Ruyter (De-Ri'-ter 3. e & 24I Derwent water, Earl of (beºwer wave). 278 T)esaix (De'-za), . ſº e 33O, 332 Deseze (De-saze'),. . * º • 32O Desiderius (Des-e-de-re-us) 127 Desmoulins, Camille (Kºmee' Daimo- long'), . 313, 317, 318, 323 º & 4. Don Cossacks (Don Kosſ-sacks), . • 294 Donelson (Don’-el-son), . tº s : Dongola (Don-go'-la), º tº . 368 Doniphan (Don'-e-fan), . º e 499 Don Juan (Don Ju'an), • 215, 217 Don Miguel (Don Me'-gel), . e 356 Don Pedro (Don Ped'-ro) e. 356, 44o Donna Maria de Gloria (Don'-na Ma-ri’-à Da Glo're-a), e - e -e 356 Donop (Don'-op), © * > e 466 Doppel (Dop'-pel), . º . 396 Dorchester (Pºiº tº 258, 463 Doria Andrea (An'-dre-a Do'-re-a), I44, 204 Dorians (Do'-re-ans), . 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 Doris (Do'-ris), & e e 35, 38 Dorr, Thomas W. (Dore), º e 49 Dort, Synod of, e º . 216, 218 Dorylaeum (Dor-e-le'-um) º e 136 Dost Mohammed (Dost Mo-ham'-med), .369 Douglas (Dug-las), © ſº tº 18o Douglas, Stephen A., © • SO2, 504 Dover (Do'-ver), . o o • 261, 3ol. Dowlah, Surajah (Sur-aj'-ah Dow-lah'), . 299 Downie (Dow'-ne), - Q • . 489 Draco (Dra’-ko), º & • 42 Dragaschan (Drah-ga-shan'), . * 358 Dragonnade (Drag-on-nade'), • 253, 254 Dresden (Dresſ-den), 284, 285, 287, 289,291, - 4. Dreux (Dru), . o º 3 3.37. 3. Drouet (Dru-a'), . cº © . 316 Drummond (Drum'-mond), . e 488 Drummond, William, o . . . 264 Dry Tortugas (Tor-tu’-gas), . e 504 A ZAAAA; ETYCA/, //VD.E.X. 587 Dubienka (Du-be-en-ka), . G • 295 Dublin £º e & te 298 Ducrot (Du-kro'), . & gº • 409 Dudley (Dudº-le) s º e 2I2 Du Guesclin (Du Gwek'-lin), © • I54 Dumblain (Dum'-blain), e tº 178 Dumourier (Du-moo'-re-a), 317, 319, 320, 321 É. º, ) ſº 176. , • 274 unbar (Lun'-par), e I70, I?7, 24O, 243 - Dundalk (Dun'-dawk), e 9 ti 7; . 177 Dundee (Dum-dee"), º º t 242 Dunkirk (Dun'-kirk), 242, 244, 250, 323, 41o Dunmore, Lord (Dun'-more), e . 462 Duphot (Du--fo'), º sº e 327 Dupont (Du-pont), . e 339, 508, 515 Dupont de l’Eure (Du-poang' Del-ure'), . 371 Du Quesne (Du Kane'), 286, 289, 302, 302, 303, - 305 Durango (Du-ran'-go), e ſº • 427 Durazzo (Du-rat'-so), . e & I45 Durham (Dur'-ham), e & . 178 Durlach, Baden (Bad’-en Dur’-lok), . 227 Duroc (Du-rok'), & ſº • 347 Dusseldorf) Dus'-sel-dorf), t 226, 377 Dutch, 218, 225, 24r, 244, 247, 251, 259, 26o, 26o, 262, 264, 272, 285, 308, 309, 323, 363, 364 E. Early, Jubal (Ju'-bal Er'-le), . East Haven (Ha!-ven), º & • 417 East Indies (In’-dees), . • 287, 308, 309 Eastport (East'-port), e & • 489 Eaton, Theophilus (The-of-e-lus E/-ton), 263 Ebro (Eb'-ro), . . e • 78, 127, 34o Ecbatana (Ek-batſ-a-na), . 333 35, 57, 59 Ecija (A-the-hah), e o sº 426 É.º.º. * & g • 340 cuador (Ek’-wa-dor), . 436, 438, 440, 441 Eden, Garden of (E'-den), . 3 º 1 44 º 4; Edenton (E'-den-ton), . e e 264 Edge Hill, e © e º • 237 Edinburgh (Ed'-in-bor-o), • 222, 235, 297 Edmund Ironside (Edſ-mund I'-ron-side) 519, 52O I 172 Edward (Ed’-ward), e e º I4O Edward the Confessor, e . I 72 Edward I., º © & . I76, 177 Edward II., e I s e e 77 Edward III., . • I52, I52, I77, 178, 179 Edward IV. & o • I56, 183, 184 Edward V. o e :* --> 184 Edward VI., . 2 II, 212 Edward the Black Prince I52 iss I45, 178, 179 Effingham (Éfingham)" -- ~~~ *::: Egalite, Philip (A-gal-e-ta"), . • 320, 362 Egbert ( Eg'-bert), . tº: e . I 7I Eger (Eg'-er,) . e º • 283, 292 Egeria)B-je-re-a), . g e . 67 Egmont (Eg'mont), e º 216 gypt (E/-jipt), 25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 46, 56, 60, 64, 90, 92,93, rod, 122, 123, 137, 139, 140, 150, 192, * * 328, 329, 330, 333, 359, 368 Egyptian (E-jip'-she-an), 25, 26, 28, 34, 37, 368 Egyptians, & e • 25, 26, 34, 56 2 Ehud (Ude) e e e & * 9 Eisleben (Ise-lee'-ben), . te • I99, 207 Elatea (El-a-te'-a') . º e • 53 Elba (Elſ-ba), . e e • 349, 350 Elbe (Elb), . g x99, 287, 348 Elberfeld (E1'-ber-feld), . e 377 Elbing (E1'-bing), . © e • I 4T Eleancr (El-a-nor') e º • I4o, I48 Eli (E’-li), e e e º e 3O Elijah ſºlº) e e g 32 Elio (El-e-o'),. º g º • 43O Elis (E!'-is) º e º 5, 37, 3 £isha (Eiſ' sha), . e as sº Elizabeth (E-liz'-a-beth) º e 185 Elizabeth of England, 213, 222, 223, 224, 225, - - 232, 255, 257 Elizabeth of Russia, o . 278, 287, 292 Elizabethtown, º gº gº . 266 Elliot (E1'-e-ot), . º º tº 309 Elster (El’-ster, e º . 161, 348 Emanuel Arago (E-man'-u-el Ar’-a-go) 371, %; 4. Emessa (E-mesſ-sa), ſº te I22 Emile Oillvier (A-meel' Ol-leſ-ve-a) • 401 Emilio Castelar (A-meel’-e-o Kas-te-lar’) 421, 423, 425, 426, 427 Emmanuel the Great, (Em-man'-u-el), I93 Emmanuel, Victor (Vic'-tor), 357, 379, 392, 393, 394, 4oo, 413 Emmerick Tokeli (Em’-er-ik To-ke-li), 252, 253 Emmett, Robert (Em'-met). º . 298 II].S. g & 4- e 4OI 402 Enciente (Ong'-se-anº-ta), . . 407, 418 Endicott, John (En’-de-cot), º º 258 Enfield (En’-field), . 389 Enghein, Duke d’ (Dong-ge-aing'), º 335 England (Ingº-gland), 120, 130, 136, 137, 140, 147, 148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 155, 163, 165, #71, I72, I?3, I74, I?5 English (Ing'-glish), 138, 146, 149, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 169, 171, 172, 173, #: Enterprise, . • * • 488 Enzio (Ain'-ze-o), & º e 1.65 Epaminondas (E-pam-e-non'-das), . 52, 53 Epervier (E-per'-ve-a), . º 499 Ephesus (Ef-e-sus), . e 36, 55, 81 Ephori (Ef'-o'-ri), e e e 4I Ephraim (E-fra-im), º is • 31 Epidaurus (Ep-e-daw'-rus), º e 358 Epirus (E-pi'-rus), . 36, 6o, 61, 75, 76, 93 & 232 Episcopacy (E-pisſ-ko-pa-Sy), . Episcopal (E-pisſ-ko-pal), • 232; 235 209 Erasmus (E-raz'-mus), . º e Eresburg (E’-res-burg), © { } • I27 Eretria (E-re'-tre-a), e e s 45 Eric the Pious (Er'-ik), e º . 186 Eric XIV., e & * © 213 Erie (E^-re), . e * . 302, 486 #: º: © e e © § rie, Fort e º e o • 4 3. e º 485, 486 Erie, Lake, e Ernest (Er'-nest), g gº te • I Ernest Picard (Pe-karſ), e Ernest von Mansfeld) (Mahns'-feld), te 406 227, 228 Erskine (Ers'-kin), ſº 483 Esau (E’-saw), º e & . 28 Escoses (Es-ko'-sees), . e 44I, 442 Eslingen (Esſ-ling-en), & gº • 34O Espartero (Es-par-ta'-ro), te g 368 Essex (Es’-sex),... , 120, 179,224, 225, 237, 238 Estaing, Count d', (Des-tang'), . . . 468, 470 Estanislao Figueras (Es-tan-is-la/-o Fig-oo- a'-ras), . de e . 42.I, 422, 423 Estella (Es-tel/-la), . º 2 Esthonia (Es-tho'-ne-a), . a • 429 . 186, 274, 278 Eszeck (Esſ-zek), e • 381 Ethelred (Eth-el-red'), , . º º 172 Ethiopia (E-the-o'-pe-a), . e 25, 34 Etna (Et'-na), . © & 36 Etruria (Et-ru'-re-a) e 65, 78, 88 Etruscan (Et-rus'-kan), . ſº 68, 69, 72 Etruscans, . © 65, 68, 69, 75 Euboea (U'-be-a) o e e 35 Eudoxia (U-dox'-e-a), • © 1 I 2 Eugene (U-jeen'), 253, 268, 270, 27# 27°. *. Eugene Beauharnais (Bo-har'-na), .. 335, 348. Eugene Pelletan (Pel-le-tong' ), . !, 406 Eugenie de Montijo (U-je'-ne da Mon’-te- © 386, 389, 4có 56, 58, yO y © e © Eºis. (U-je'-me-us), . I Io, I70 Eunus (U'-nus), & e tº * Eupatoria (U-pa-to'-reta), º 387, 388 Euphrates (U-fra'-teez), 21, 24, 27, 33, 59, 94 Eure, Dupont de 'l (Du-poang Del-ure'), . 377 588 A/AAAAA. Z.ZCA/, //VDAE.X. Europe (U'-rope), 22, 34, Ioa, 119, 124, 130, 131, 133, 134, 137, 199, 269, 280, 293, 323, 353 European (U-ro-pe'-an), º • 130, 192 Eurybiades (U-re-bi'-a-deez), . ge 6 Eurymedon (U-re-me'-don), ë • 47 Eustace St. Pierre (Yoos'-tase Sang Pe-aire'), 8 - 152, I7 Eutaw Springs (U’-taw) e e • 474 Euxine Sea (Yôog-zeerſ' y tº © 34. Evans (E/-vans), . tº e . 508 3 e © g e te 2I. Evesham (Eves'-ham), * e . 176 Ewell (U’-el), © * * © 52 f Exarch (Ex’-ark), . e • II.8 Exchequer (Ex-chek'-er), tº e 237 Exeter (Ex'-e-ter), . e . 238, 261 £ºnºuſh, Lord (Exº-muth), . Ç 355 Eylau (I'-lou), & © • 337 Eyre (Aire), e g wº 390 Eyre Coote (Koot), . de . • 299 Ezra (Ez'-ra), . ſº e © 33 F. Fabius Maximus (Fa'-be-us Max'-e-mus), 79, 80 Fabricius (Fa-bre'-she-us), © . 75, 76 Faidherbe (Faid-her'-be), . e • 4 IO Failly (Fail/-ye), e g * 4O2 Fair Oaks, . º Q ſº • 5 IO Fairfax, Lord (Fair'-fax), tº e 238 Fairfax Court House, º tº . 506 Fairfield (Fair'-field), . e tº 470 Fanueil Hall (Fan'-il), 457 458 Farias, Gomez (Go'-meth Fa'-re-as), Farnese Alexander (Far-neez’), . Faron (Fa-roang'), § e e 4T 4 Farragut, David G. (Far'-ra-gut), 509, 510, 519, • 443, 445 • 217 - 52O Faubourg du Temple (Fo'-boorg du Tem'- ple ſº • . g tº º 373 Faubourg St. Antoine (Fo-boorg Sang Ang- twa'-na), . tº * • 373 Faust (Foust), . © * * 192 Fausta (Fausſ-ta), , . wº © • IO7 Faust-recht (Foust'-rekt), & tº 168 Favre, Jules (Jule Fav-ra'), 406, 411, 412 Fawkes, Guy (Gy Fawks), sº tº 233 Fayette (Fa-et'), e * ge • 303 Fayetteville, e & • 512 Fear, Cape, tº º rg5, 264, 473 Federalist (Fed'-er-al-ist), 443,478,481,485, 492 Federalists, • 445, 479, 48o, 485, 490 Fehrbellin (Fair-be-leen' ), 25I, 252 Feodor (Fe'-o-dor), te • s I88 Ferdinand the Catholic (Fer'-de-mand), 157, 158 I59, 202 Ferdinand De Soto (Da So'-to), . • Igo Ferdinand I. of Germany, * 206, 225 Ferdinand II., tº 226, 227, 228, 229, 230 Ferdinand III., . e ſº te 23o Ferdinand VI of Spain, . e • 29J. Ferdinand of Austria, . * • 374, 376 Ferguson, Patrick (Pat-rick Fer'-gu-son), 471, 472 Fermor (IFer'-mor) . ſº e . 289 Ferhando Cortes (Fer-man'-do Cor'-tes), 214 Ferozeshah (Fe-roze'-shah) . tº 369 Ferrez (Fer'-reth), . t © .#428 Ferrieres (Fer-re-a'), e • tº 4O7 Ferrol (Fer'-role), . º g • 42 I Ferry, Harper's (Har'-per's), .. 503, 505, 51. Ferry, Jules (Jule Fer'-re), . tº . 406 Ferry Stono (Sto'-mo) . © 4 Feuda'ism (Fu'-dal-ism) {e e . 185 Feudal System (Fùaſ), • T30, 171, I73 Feversham (Fe-ver-sham), . g • 247 Field, Cyrus W., º tº e 523 Fieschi (Fe-es'-ke), . º & • 370 Figueras, Estanislao, (Es-tan-is-la/-o Fig- oo-a'-ras), (e • 42 Is 422, 423 Fillmore, Millard (Mil/-lard Fill'-more), 5oo, Finland, (Fin'-land 5O1, 502 inland, (Fin'-land) e © • 338, 341 Finlanders. . . e o 3 º : Finns, ſº {} * Q tº 266 Fisher, Fort (Fish/-er), e e • 521 Fisher's Hill, • * © 520 Fishing Creek • 471 Flamborough Head (Flam-bur'-o) ſº 479 Flaminius, Quintus (Quin'-tus Fla-min'-e- us), e ë * gº . . 63, 81 Flanders (Flan'-ders), 136, 138, 139, 146, 147, º I49, I59, 157, 252 Flavio Gioja (Flaſ-ve-o J. : e I93 Flavius Claudius (Flaſ-ve-us Klaw'-de-us), Io4, IO5 Fleetwood (Fleet'-wood), . • 243 Flemings (Flem'-ings), . • I5o, I5I, IS4 Flemish (Flem'-ish), . © . . 154, 185 Fletcher (Fletch'-er), . tº o 263 Fleurus g luſ-rus), . º { } • 324 Fleury (Flu'-re), . º e e 28o Flocom (;}.} , , e. e • 372 Flodden Field (Flod’-den) * sº 209 Florence (Flor’-ence), Iro, III, 143, 144, 145, 414 Florentine (Flor’-en-time) . • I94, 195 Florian (Flo'-re-an), tº & te IOS Florida (Flor'-e-da), 194, 264, 265, 266, 292, 489, & 491, 494, 495, 497, 504, 517 Floridas, º * *. . 306, 492 Florus (Flo'-rus), e & ſº 9. Flourens, Gustave (Gus'-tav Floo-raign'), . 415 Floyd, John B., e iº 505, 507, 508 Fontainbleau (Fon-tain-blo'), . Fontenaille (Fon-te-mel'), . e © : Fontenoy (Fon-te-noy'), . gº ge 285 Foote, Andrew H. (Foot), . • 508, 509 Forbach (For’-bok), & ſº tº 4O3 Forbes, John (Forbs), iº e • 305 Forey, General (Fo'-re), o • 392, 449 Fornova (For-no'-va), * I º tº 5 Forest, Napoleon Bonaparte (For’-rest), 517 Forth, e g te * i. IOI Fortress Monroe (Mon-ro') 504, 510, 518, 522 Fort Smith, . e © wº • 515 Fort Wayne (Wain) . g e 479 Foster (Fos'-ter), . * > * . 278 Foster, John G., . tº º tº 514 Fouche (Foo-sha'), . ſe 323, 33 I, 352 Fouquet (Foo-ka/), tº * e 29I Fouquier Tinville (Foo-ke-a! Tang-veel'), 324, 420 Fowler (Fow'-ler), sº e . 160 OX, , t g o . . . . 298 France (Frans), 124, 129, 146, 147, 148 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 178, 181 Franche Comte (Fransh Kong-ta'), . 217, 252 Francha, Dr. (Fran'-se-ah), . • 44O, 441 Francis I., of France (Fran'-sis), 158, 195, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206 Francis I., of Germany, e . 284, 298 Francis II., of France, . • 212, 219, 222 . Francis II., of Germany, . 298, 337 Francis, of Austria, de 337, 341, 353 Francis Joseph, 3 Jºrº y 376, 38.1, 282 Francis of Assisi (As-se'-si), . * I33 Francis of Guise (Geez). tº 206, 212, 219 Franciscan (Fran-sis'-kan) * • I33, I34 Franciscans, . ef e iº . I33 Francisco Pizarro (Fran-sis/-ko Piz-ar/-ro), 214 Francisco Sforza (Sfor-tsa'), . ſº I43 Francisco, Sam, tº tº e • 500 Franconberg (Fran'-kom-berg), . (e 243 Franconia (Fran-ko'-ne-a) . • I59, .# Frank, gº * 125, 126, 127, 128, 129 Frankfort (Frankſ-fort), . 283, 290, 375, 376 Frankish (Frankſ-ish), . . 126, 127, 128 Franklin (Frankſ-lin), . e tº 52O Franklin, Benjamin, * 303, 464 Franks, . e e II9, 124, 125, 12? AZA'HABETYCA/, /M/) EX. 589 . 282 Frederic I., of Prussia, . * • 139, 164, 165 Frederic II., of Germany, Frederic III., of Denmark. * • 2I3 Frederic III., of Germany, e • I7o, 171 Frederic IV., of Denmark, • 273, 274 Frederic Charles, 396, 398, 402, 403, 404, 407, 408, 410 Frederic the Great, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287,288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, . * tº tº 2852 Frederic William I., Frederic William II., g • 297, 298 Frederic William III., . e 337, 353 Frederic William IV., tº • 375, 377 Frederic William, the Great Elector, 251, 252, - 281 Frederic Barbarossa (Bar-bar-osſ-sa), 137, 149, 162, 163. . 519 512 Frederick, . * † * Fredericksburg (Fred'-er-iks-burg), . Frederickshall (Fred'-er-ik-shawl), . . 278 Fredericksham (Fred'-er-ik-sham), e 34). Fredericktown (Fred'-er-ik-town), . . . 488 Frejus (Fra/-zhus) • 33I, 350 Fremont, John Charles (Fre-mont'), 499, 502, 51o, 51 I French, 146, 147, 748, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 178, 181 French Mills, tº . e d 487 Frenchtown, tº e * 485, 486 Freron (Fra-roang'), . & • 322; 324 Friedland (Freed'-land), ... 228, 229, 338 Friedlingen (Freed-ling'-en), ſº . 269 Frolic, * • & • ge & 485 Fronde (Frond), g . 250 Frontenac (Fron'-te-nak) 289, 305 Froschwiller (froshºwińer), . . • 403 Frossard (Fros-sard'), . iº • 402, 403 Fruction (Fruc-te-dor'), . e • 327 Fulda (Ful'-da), . ſº Ç g 128 Fulton, Robert (Full-ton), . ſº . 482 Fundy (Fun’-de) e tº g 3O3 Fulvia (Ful-ve.), & e Q. • 92 G. Gauls, º wº tº . 61, 72 8 Gaveston (Gaves/-ton), * º 72, ºf; Gaza (Gaſ-za), . * ſº 56, 139 Gebel-al Tarik (Geb-el-ail Tah'-rik), . 124 Gedrosia (Ge-dro'-she-a), tº º 58 Gefion (Gef'-e-on),. . © tº • 378 Geisa (Gi-sa), . wº * ſº 189 Gelimer (Jel/-e-mer), e * • II8 Genesis (Jen’-e-sis), gº º tº 2I Genet (Zhe-na"), tº ſº dº e 479 Geneva (Je-neº-va), e g 524; 525 Gennevilliers (Zhen-ne-veel/-le-a), . • 417 Genoa (Jen'-o-a), 141, 143, 144, 202, 204, 252, 297, 327, 332, 392 Genoese (Jen’-o-ese), . I44; IS3, 204, 29.7 Genseric º: & • - e II 2 Geoffrey. Plantagenet (Jef’-fre Plan-taj'-e- net), º & s • I 73 George I. of England (Jorj'), . 249, 278 George I. of Greece, . * & • 395 George II. of England, . 249, 278, 284, 296, 362 Georgo III., . tº • 292, 296, 355, 366 George IV., § e ſº & 366 George Cadoudal (Ka-doo'-dal), . • 335 Georgetown, º º & © 488 Georgia (Jor’-je-a), 267, 268, 306, 459, 469, 471, . 472, 493, 494, 504, 509, 518, 519, 522 Georgians, te e tº te 267 Gepidae (Jep-e-dee"), . * ge • II9 Gerard (Zher-ard'), tº 364 Gerhard of Franch-Comte (Zha-rar of Fransh-Kong'-ta), e tº tº 217 Germain, St. (Sang Zher-mang'), . 219, 247 German (Jer’-man), 94, 112, 113, 115, 126, 129, 141, 159, 16o, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 Germanic (Jer-man'-ik), tº 8: Germanicus (jerºmanº-kus) 94. § ermans, g iº e 94, IoS Germantown, 466 Germany (jer-man-ne), 89, 126, 129, 37, I395 Gades (Gaſ-dees),. . . g g 27, Gage, Thomas (Gaje), . 457, 459, 460, 461 Gaines, General (Gaines), . tº 49 Gaines' Mill, . ſº e e • 5 II Galatia (Ga-la”-she-a), . sº te 61 Galba (Gal’-ba), g e e ‘. 96 Galerus (Ga-la/-rus), . ge ſº 425 Galerius (Ga-le'-re-us), * . Ioff, Io'ſ Galesbrusch (Gales'-brush), . e 277 Galicia (Ga-lish’-e-a), e * • 294 Galician, . 82 - * & e e 3 - Gallia Cispadana (Gal'-le-a Sis-pad'-a-na), . 65 Gallia Traspadana (Trans-pad’-a-na), . 65 Gallic (Gal’-lik), tº & e 61, 733 78 Q IO4 Gallienus (Gal-le-e'-nus), tº Gallus (Gal'-lus), tº e = º • IQ4 Galvez (Gal'-veth), * c e 428 GalwayW.º. & e ſº . 270 Gama, Vasco de (Vas'-ko da Ga’-ma), I93 Gambetta, Leon (Le-oang'Gam-bet'-ta), 406, 439 Gambier, Admiral Lord (Gam-beer'), . 38 Ganges (Ganſ-jees), . te e Garde Mobile (Gard Mo-beel'),. e Garde Nationale (Gard Na-shun-ale'), Gardner (Gard'-mer), tº e s Garibaldi (Gar-e-bawl'-dah), 379, 380, 393, 394, 98, 4x2, 413 Garnier Pages (Gar-ne-a’ Pa-zha'), 371, 372, : * • I & I 58, 390 Gascoigne (Gas-koin'), e Gascony ić.3. • º * 146 Gaspe (Gas-pa'), dº & © . 458 Gaspereau (Gas-pe-ro'), . e e 303 Gath, te & g o • 3O Gaugamela (Gaw-ga-me'-la), . . 56, 57 Gaul (Gawl), 72, 78, 89, Ior, IoS, IIo, 112, 125 Gauley (Čaw-lé), ...” “. … 507 I42, I43, *::: º: 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, I67, 168, 169, I70, 171, 199, 206, 226, 251 Gerry, Elbridge (Ger’-re), . 993 º, --, 485 Geryon (Ger’-yon), de º e 37 Gesler (Ges'-ler), . Q e . 167 Geta (Ge'-ta), . & tº o IOI Gettysburg (Getſ-tis-burg), . * • 51.4 Ghent (Gent), . * - 156, 217,490 Ghibelline (Gib'-el-line), . . . 162, 167 Ghibellines,... 142, 143, 144, 145, 162, 164, 165 Gibraltar Ö ibrawl''teºrº, '26". 70, 308,303, 470 Gideon (Gid'-e-on), te & tº 29 Gilboa (Gil-bo'-a), .. * § • 3O Gillmore, Quincy Adams (Gill’-more), 509, 515 Gioja, Flavio (Fla'-ye-o Jo'-e-a), . • 193. Gironde (Zhe-roand/ } :-." e 3Iy Girondist (Zhe-roand'-ist), . 317, 318, 322 Girondists, & 316, 317, 320, 321, 324 Gladiator (Glad-e-aſ-tor), . e & Gladiators, tº º . . 87, IoI, IoS, Gladstone, William E. (Glad'-stone), 399, 432 Glais Bizoin (Zhla Be-zwawn'), . . 406 248 18o Glencoe (Glen'-ko), e tº * Glendower, Owen (O’-wen Glenſ-dow-er), Gliessaw (Glees’-S5u), & • 274 Gloucester (Glos'-ter), . . 180, 183, 184 Glucksburg (Glooks'-burg), . * • 39 Glycerius (Glis-e'-re-us), © II2, II3 Goa (Go'-a), . * is g • I93 Godfrey of Bouillon (God’-fre of Bool-yoong'), - I35, 136, 143, Godoy (Go-doy' • tº o 338, 33 Goldsborough ( oulds-bur'-3), Sv) ; Goliad (Go-le-ad'), . & 443 Goliath (Go-li'-ath), . . . e Gomez Farias (Go'-meth Far’-e-as), 443, 445 Gonsalvo de Cordova (Gon-sal’-vo da Kor’. do-va), e * <> . I57 Gonzales (Gon-thah'-leth), jº 422, 443 590 AZA' HABETYCA/, //VDAX. Good Hope, Cape of, º º 193, 334 || Guelphs, 142,143, #44, 145, 162, 164, 165, 167 Goojerat (Gooj-er-at'), . º e 3 Guerra (Ger-ra'), ! --S e • e • 45I Gorgey º o º © 382, 383 || Guerrero (Ger-ra º) º º º 442 Goritz (Go-ritz'), , * e tº 362 Guerriere (Ger-e-aire ), & º • 485 Gormarists (Gor'-mar-ists), . Q . 218 Guiana (Ge-an/-a). e e e Gorm the Old. . se e • 35 | Quiñºnºgiºn'), . • • I53, [79 Gortschakoff (Gort-sha-kof), ſº . 387 Guilford (Gill-ford), º ve º 473 §: *::::: }. • e º 277, *:: gº, (Gilºlo-tin), º o • 32I 3 oshen (Uro'-Shen), . º º • 2 ulnea (Uran'-ne), © e e 432 Gosnold, Bartholomew (Bar-thol-o-mu Gosſ- Guiscard, Robert (Rob'-ert Gees'-kar), r35, 161 nold), e º © º . 257 Guise, Duke of (Geez), 206, 212, 218, 219, 220, Goth, e . iº & ... IIo, III 22J Gotha, Saxe Cobourg (Sax Ko-burg Go'- Guises,..., . • , º . 219, 22O, 22I tha), . . . . . . . . e & e 367 Guizot (Ge-zo'), e e . . .370, 371 Gothic (Goth’-ik), . º . Io9, 111 || Gustave Flourens (Gus-tav .# • 4IS Goths e ro3, 104, IoS, Io9, 11o, 111, 112 || Gustavus Adolphus (Gus-ta/-vus A-dol’-fus), 213, Gracchi (Grak'-i), º ſº tº 84 t 229, 230, 232 Gracchus, Caſ-us Grak'-us), . º . 84 || Gustavus III., . © © e 295 Gracchus, Tiberias (Ti-be-re-us Grak'-us), 84 || Gustavus IV., & & . 338, 341 Graham of Claverhouse (Gra'-ham of Klav'- Gustavus Vasa (Gustavus Vasſ-a), 186, 213 er-house) • e e e 248 || Guthrum (Guth'-rum), • e • I7I Gramont, fuke de (Gra-mont'), . . 401 || Guttenberg, John (Gutſ-ten-berg,), . I92 Granada (Gra-nah'-da), . º . 125, 159 || Guy Fawkes (Gi Fawks), . e • 233 Granada, New, e . 435, 436, 437, 446 || Gwalior (Gwal'-e-or), e e 369, 391 Grand Tremblay (Grang Traing-bla), • 407 H Granger, Gordon (Gor'-don Grain'-jer), 52O • Granicus (Gran'-e-kus), º © 54, 55 | Habeas Corpus (Ha'-be-as Cor'-pus), 246, 354 Granson (Gran'-son), . º e 157 || Hagar (Ha!-gar). e tº e . 28 Grant, Ulysses Simpson (U-lisſ-sees Sim'- Halicarnassus (Hal-e-car-mas'-sus), . 55 son Grant), 508, 509, 514, 516, 517, 518, 519, Halidon Hill (Hal'-e-don Hill), . 177, 178 521, 523, 524, 525 Halifax (Hal'-e-fax), º tº tº 463 Granvella (Gram-vel’-ya), º º 216 Halleck, Henry W. (Hal’-lek), .. 510, 511 Grasse, Count de (der Gras'), • 309, 474 | Ham, º e - e 22, 24, 25 Gratian º tº ſº e IIo Hainburg (Ham'-burg), * o . I65 Gravelotte (Grav'-lot), º • 403, 404 || Hamilcar Barcas (Ha-mil/-kar Bar'-kas), 77 ravina (Gra-ve/-na), 6 e e wº 336 || Hamilton, Alexander (Ham'-il-ton), 478, 479, Great Britain (Brit'-en), 278, 292, 302, 306, 307, 482 308, 309, 348, 460, 463,475, 484 || Hamilton, Andrew, o e º 261 Great Horse Shoe, . º e . 487 || Hamlin, Hannibal (Han'-ne-bal Ham'-lin), 504 Great St. Bernard (Saint Ber’-nard), . 332 | Hampden, John (Ham'-den), . . . 235, 236, 237 Greble, John T. (Greb'-el), . e . 596 || Hampshire, New (Nu Ham'-shir), 261, 301, Grecia, Magna (Magſ-na Gree'-she-a), 40, 65 - 460, 5or Grecian (Greſ-she-an), 38, 39, 45, 46, 46, 48, Hampton (Hamſ-ton), ſº e 462, 488 51, 52, 53, 54, 62, 81 | Hampton, Wade, º • 484, 485, 487 Grecians, º & Hanau (Ha'-now), º º 39, 47 e e e • 3 Greece (Grees), 34, 36, 37, 40, 43,44, 45,46, 47, Hancock, John (Han'-kok), . 457, 460, 461 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59, 6o, 61, 63, 81, 82,357, Hanging Rock, * ſº e • 47I 360, 394, 395 || Hannibal (Hanſ-ne-bal), 78, 79, 80, 81, 82 Greek, .. 33, 34, 38, 40, 45, 47, 55, 357, 358, 359, Hannibalianus (Han-ne-bal-e-an/-us), . Io9 360, 394 | Hanno (Han’-no), © e º 77 Greeks, 38, 39, 44, 45,46, {{: 357,358, 359, 369 Hanover (Han'-o-ver), 248,273,292, 334, 335, €62’-16: • S2 p Greeley, Horace (Hor’—as Gr > 525 337, 365, 366, 367, 374, 3 Greene, § (Na-than'-yel Green), 472, Hanover Court House, * 3 º º º : 473, 474 || Hanoverian (Han-o'-ver-e-an), 288, 289, 290, Greenland (Green'-land), © º • I3o - 397, 398 Greenville (Greenſ-vill), . & e 479 || Hanoverians, . e e e • 323 Greenwich (Green’-wich), . º . 469 || Hanseatic League (Hahn-se-at'-ik), . 165 Gregory VII. (Greg'-o-ry), e . 132, 161 | Hans Holbein (Hahns Hol'-bine), . • 2 IO Gregory IX., & º e 164, 165 Hans Muller (Hahns Millſ-er), . g 2OO Gregory XIII., . e e º 220 | Hapsburg (Haps'-burg), 166, 170, 206, 229, 272 Grenadiers (Gren'-a-deers), e 326,331 || Hardee (Har-dee'), e º º 52O Grenoble (Gren-o'-bel), . tº g 370 | Hardicanute (Har-de-ca-nuteſ), . ... I'72 Grenville, George (Gren-vill), o . 297 || Hardy (Har'-de), º º º 489 Grey (Gray), e e & & 466 || Harfleur (Har'-floor), e e I54, 181 Grey, Lord, . e © o . 184 || Harlem Heights (Har'-lem), . Q 464 Grey, Lady Elizabeth, . tº e 183 || Harlem Plains, e e o • 464 Grey, Lady Jane, . & e . 212 || Harmer (Har'-mer), º º º 479 Gridley, Richard (Grid'-le), . © 461 | Harmodius (Har-mo'-de-us), © • 44 Grisons (Gre-zoang'), © e . 329 || Harold (Har'-old), e © • I72; 173 Griswold, Fort (Grisſ-wold), , . o 474 || Harold Bluetooth, . o o , 186 Gros Beeren (Groce Beer’-en) © . 347 | Harold Fairhair, º º º 185 Grotius, Hugo (Hu'-go Groºshe us), e 218 || Harold Harefoot, . e e . I72 Groveton (Grove’-ton), º e . 511 || Haroun-al Raschid (Ha-roonſ-al-Rash’-id), 125 Guadaloupe Hidalgo (Gaw-dah-lupe He- Harper's Ferry (Har'-per's), .. 503, 505, 511 dal'-go), . © o . 447, 5oo | Harrison º e tº . 24.I Guadaloupe Victoria (Vik-to'-re-a), 435,441 || Harrison, William Henry, . 485, 486, 496 Guadalquiver (Gaw-dal-kee'-ver), . . 124 || Hartford (Hart’-ford), ſe 262, 263, 490 Guanahani (Gaw-na-haw'-na), . © 194 || Hasdrubal (Hasſ-dru-bal), e . 80, 83 Guelph (Gelf), e gº • . 162 | Hase (Hah-za'), . I28 Guelphic (Gelf-ik), . º 165, 167 | Haslerig, Sir Arthur (Hasler-ig), . 23s. 236 AZAAAAA; ZTVCA/, /M/XAX. 591 Hassan (Hasſ-san), . º e Hastenbach (Hasſ-ten-bok), . º Hastings, Battle of (Haist'-ings), . • I4I 288 I72, I?3 184 Hastings, Lord, . & & Hastings, Warren, . e e . 298 Hatcher's Run (Hatch’-er's), . º 52I Hatchie (Hatch’-ee), e º • 512 Hatfield (Hat'-field), . wº * 259 Hatteras. Fort (Hat'-ter-as), © • 507 Hatteras Inlet, . . . . º C. 507 Havana (Ha-vanſ-a), de • 194; 492 Havelock (Hav'-lock), . º 390, 39 I Haven, East (Ha!-ven), e e • 47O Haven, New . º º . 262, 263 Haverstraw (Hav'-er-straw), • • 472 Havre de Grace (Hav'-er-de-grass), . . 488 Hawley (Haw’-le), _. e º . . 285 Hayne, Robert Y. º, º e 494 Hayraddin Barbarossa (Ha-rad'-din Bar- ba-rosſ-sa), . e o • 204 Hayti (Ha'-te), e e e • I94 Heart’s Content, . • . . . . & 523 Hebert (Ha'-baire), . © e 32I, 323 Hebrew (He'-broo), . o 28, 29, 30 Hebrews (He'-broos), © . 27, 28, 29 Hebron (Heb'-ron), © © © . 30 Hecker (Heck'-er), . e de • 375 Hector (Hec'-tor), o e • 38, 56 Hegyes (Heg'-yes), . • - . 383 Heidelberg (Hiſ-del-burg), º 227, 254 Heilborn (Hile-born), • te • 23O Hegira (He-ji'-ra), º e º I2][ Helen (Hel’en), tº e © 37, 38 Helena (He-leſ-na), º º tº 515 Helena, St. (Saint He-le'-na), e • 352 Heliogabalus (He-le-o-gab'-a-lus), e IO2 Heliopolis ºpºlº), º © • I22 Hellas (Hel’-las), tº ſe e 35 • Helle (Hel’-le), e e º . 38 Hellenes (Hel-lee'-neez), º e 37 Hellenic (Hel-len'-ik), tº & 39, 61 Hellespont (Helſ-les-pont), .. 38, 40, 54, 191 Helos (Hel’-os), º e e - 41 Helots (Hel’-ots), º º - 41, 48 Helsingfors (Hel’-sing-fors), e . 338 Helvetia (Hel-ve'-she-a), • tº I66 Helvetic (Hel-vetſ-ik), o 328, 329, 334 Hengist (Henſ-gist), ſº º e I2O Henlopem, Cape (Hen-lo'-pen), e - 259 Henrietta Maria (Hen-re-et/-ta Ma-ri'-a), 233 Henriot (Hangſ-re-o), e 32I, 324, 42O Henri Rochefort (Hen’-re Roash’-foar), 406, 420 Henry I. of England (Hen’-re), e Henry I. of France, © º * I47 Henry I. of Germany, e º . 16o Henry II. of England, . * . 148, 174 Henry II. of France, e . 206, 218 Henry II. of Germany, . Q º 16o Henry III. of England, tº 150, 175, 176 Henry III. of France, . º • 22O, 22I Henry III. of Germany, . e . 161 Henry IV. of England, . e . I&o, 181 Henry IV. of France, e 221, 222, 249 Henry IV. of Germany, tº . 161, 162 Henry V. of England, e Henry V. of Germany, . Henry VI. of England, tº Henry VI, of Germany, Henry VII. of England, . o 185, 209 Henry VII, of Germany, e e . 167 Henry VIII. of England, 185, 199, 202, 205, 209, 2Io, 2II, 2I2, 222 Henry, Patrick (Pat'-rik Hen’-re), 455, 456, 461, 477 165 154, 181, 183 o ſº 162 155, 181, 182, 183 - . 163, 164 Henry Raspe’ (Ras-pa'), º & Hephæstion (He-fesſ-te-on), e • 59 Heptanomis (Hep-tan'-O-mis), . º 25 Heraclidae (Her’-a-kli’-da), . e 38, 4o Heraclius (He-rak'-le-uz), º & II9 Herbois, Collot d’ (Ko-lo' Der-owaw'), 321, 323, 324 Herculaneum (Her-cu-la/-ne-um), º 8 Hercules (Her’-ku-leez), o • 27, 37, 38 Herista!, Pepin d’ (Pep'-in Der'-is-tal), . 126 Herkimer (Her’-ke-mer), º º 267 Hermanstadt (Herº-man-staht), . . 381 Hernani (Her-nanº-e), . e © 429 Herrera (Her-ra-ra), 446,447 Herron (Herº-ron), & • e 512 Heruli (Her-u-li'), . e º II.3, II? Hesse (Hes), . 126, 128, 200, 201, 206, 207, 208 Hesse-Cassel (Kasſ-sel), 348, 365, 366, 374, 397 Hesse-Darmstadt (fakin' taht). • * º 399 Hessian (Hesh'-an), tº 464, 465 essians. . . 307, 323, 463, 465, 466, 467 Hezekiah (Hez-e-ki-āhī, º ºn tº 32 Hidalgo (He-dal'-go), . º º 434 Hidalgo, Guadaloupe (Gawd’-a-lupe He-dal'- go); . º º o • 447, 5oo Hielsberg (Heels'-berg), º º 338 Hiempsal (Hi-emp'-sal), . e • 85 Hiero (Hiſ-e-ro 76 ), º & Highlands (Hi'-lands) e • 463,467 Highlanders. Hiſ landlers), . .”; #ebrand (Hildebrand), • I32, 161 l 3. © e º º º Hiller (Hil’-ler), º º e • 348 Hillsborough (Hils'-bur-o), º • 473 Hindman (Hinde’-man), . o • 512 Hindoo (Hin'-doo), e • 23, 389, 390 Hindoos, º º ©. • 23, 27, 389 Hindoostan (Hin-doos-tan'), 23, 190,215, 298, º - 299, 390 Hipparchus. (Hip-par’-kus), o e 44 Hippias (Hip'-pe-as), . - . 44, 45 Hiram (Hi’-ram), . e * • 31 Hobkirk’s Hill (Hob-kirk's), o • 473 Hoboken (Ho-bo'-ken), . º e 26o Hochkirchen (Ho'-kirk-en), . * . 289 Hochstett (Hoakſ-stet), . * 269, 270 Hofer, Andreas (Ahn'-dre-as Hof-er), • 34I Hogoumont (Ho'-goo-mont), . e 35I Hogue, La (La Hoge'), % 254, 25 - s 2 Hohenfriedberg (Ho-en-freed'-berg), . ; Hohenlinden (Ho-en-lin'-den), . • 332 Hohenlohe (Ho-en-lo'-he), . e . 337 Hohenstauffen (Ho-en-stouf'-fen), 162, 163, 164, 165 Hohenstauffens, - - . 162 Hohenzollern (Ho-en-tsol’-lern), 282, 408 Hohenzollern Sigmaringen (Sig-ma-ring'- en), tº º • - 4OI, 402 Holbein, Hans (Hahns Hol'-bine), 2IO Holland (Hol-land), 165, 216, 217, 218, 231, 241, 244, 245, 247, 25I, 252, 254, 255, 26o, 268, 269, 282, 285, 298, 308, 309, 321, 325, 334,336, 34+, 348, 363, 364 t 363 Hollanders, º º Hollis (Hol’-lis), º . 236 Holmes (Homes), e 262 Holstein (Hol’-stine), 120, 186, Holyrood (Ho'-ly-rood), 274, 375, 377, 378, 396, 397 º . 362 Homer º: - e p 28 Homildon Hill (Hom'-il-don), . 18C Hong Kong, º * © o 369 Honorius (Ho-no'-re-us), . º IIo, III Hood, John B., - 518, 519, 520 Hoogly (Hoogſ-le ** **: ), . º Hooker, Joseph (Hook'-er), • 514, .# Hooker, Thomas, - , 262 Hooper (Hoop'-er), , . e 212 Horatia (Ho-ra'-She-a), -> , 68 Horatii (Ho-ra'-she-i), , . © * 67 Horatius (Ho-ra'-she-us), . t 67, 68 Horatius Cocles (Ko'-kleez), . e 69 Horn, Cape, . º © º • 498 Hornet, . e o & e 487 Horsa (Hor'-sa), . e o • I2O 592 AZPHABETICAL INDEx. Hortense Beauharnais (Or-tangs' Bo-har'- na), .__ . e º e . 386 Hosea (Ho-se'-a'), e ſº e 32 Hoshea (Ho-she'-a'), . & e • 32 Hospitallers, º tº © e 136 Hotel des Invalides (Ho-tel' de Inſ-va-leeds), - - ..., 250, 352, 370 Hotel de Ville (Ho-tel' der Wil"), 324, 362,371, 373, 405, 406, 414, 419, 420 Hottentots (Hot-ten-tº), * º º 7 º I93 Houchard (Hoo-shard'), e • 32I, 323 Houston, Samuel (Hews'-ton), . 444 Howe, Lord (How), . © sº 305 Howe, Admiral, o º • 464, 468 Howe, Robert, . º 6 e e 4. owe, William, 461, 463,464, 465,466, : Howard, John Eager (É-ge: How'-ard), . 473 Hubbardton (Hub'-bard-ton), . e 467 Hubertsburg (Hoo' berts-burg), . 292, 293 Hudson, Henry (Hud’-son), . & 259 Hudson, Lowe (Lo'), . e e • 352 Hudson River, . 463, 464, 467, 468, 469, 472 Huger (Hu'-ger), . * º • 47I Hugh (Hu), º e e o 146 Hugh Capet (Kah-paſ), e e . 146 Hugh Spenser (Spen'-ser), o º 177 Huguenots (Hu-ge'-nots), 218, 219, 220, 221, 249, 253, 254, 265 Hull, Isaac, . tº & e . 485 Hull, William, . e tº 484, 485 Humayan (Hoo-maſ-yan), . . . . 215 Hungarian (Hung-gaſ-re-an), 189, 190, 252, º, t- 282, 38o, 381, 382, 383,384 Hungarians, . 129, 159, 160, 189,252,283, 38o Hungary (Hungſ-ga-re), 129, 139, 189, 190, 192, 204, 252, 253, 269, 282, 298,376, 38o, 3.3; • , ºr º 383,384 Hunnic (Hun'-nik), & © • I I2 Hunniyades (Hun-mi'-a-deez), • I90, I92 Huns, º wº g • Io9, II2 Huntsville (Hunts’-vil), . ſº tº 509 Hurlbut (Hurl'—but), o © • 512 Huron (Hu-ron"), e º e 3oo Huss, John, . e e e . 169 Hussite (Huss'-ite), o e º 169 Hussites, e g & e . 169 Hutin (Hu-tang'), e º º I5I Hutchinson (Hutch'-in-son), º . 458 Hutchinson, Ann, º & tº 258 Hydaspes (Hi-das'-peez), . e . 58 Hyderabad (Hi-der-ah-bad'), . e 369 Hyder Ali (Hiſ-der Al’-e), . • • 299 Hyphasis (Hif'-a-sis), . º º 58 Hyrcanus, John (Hir-kaſ-nus) 88 Hystaspes, Darius (Da-ri'-us His-tas'-peez), * 34, 35, 45, 46 I. Iberian (I-be’-re-an), . º tº Iberville (Ib'-er-vil), . e © • 30 Iberville, Lemoine de (Lem-won’ Der-bare- 158 Incas. . tº º • 2I4, 43 incitatus (In-se-ta'-tus), ---, : Independents, 236, 237, 239 India (In’-de-a), 23, 24, 34, 58, 123, 193,215, e 281, 369, 389, 399, 391 Indian, e e º . 250, 259 Indiana (In-de-an’-a), 484, 491, 515, 523 Indians, 23, 256, 257,258,259, 260,262, 265,300, 3ox, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 469, 470, 479, . 485, 437, 489, 491, 493, 494, 49s. 513 525 Indies, East (In’-deez), . 287, 292, 308, 309 Indies, West, º * 287, 292, 308, 309 lndus (Inſ-dus), º © e 58, 59 Ingolstadt (Ing’-gol-staht), © 2Oo, 230 Ingour (In-goor'), . º & . 388 Ingria (In’-gre-a), º * . 278 Inkermann gº-karman), . 387 Innocent III., e º e I75 Innocent IV., e ... e. . 165 Innspruck º e 208, 375 Inquisition (In-que-sish’-on), 159, 215, 216 Inquisitor (In-quis'-e-tor), tº e 216 Insurgente, L' (Lang-soor-zhong'-ta), . 48o Intransigentes (In-tranſ-se-jents), 425, 426, 428 g & ... 2 Inverness (In-ver-ness'), 85 Ionian (I-o'-ne-an), e s 4O Ionians, e e º º 37 Iowa (I'-o-wah), e º e 497 Ipsara (Ip-sa/-ra), . º sº 359 Ipsus (Ip-sus), 6c 174, 177, 225, 236, 237, 24o, 248, 298, 399, 4oo Ireland (Ire'-land), 174, 177, 225,236, 240,242, - 248, 254, 298, 399, 4oo Ireton (Ire'-ton), - - s . 238 Ironside, Edmund (Ed'-mund I'-ron-side), 172 Ironsides, * 237, 283 Irun (I'-run), s irish (fre’ish), . © g - 429 - Irwinsville (Ir-wins-vil), . & . 522 Isaac (I'-zak), . - tº & 28 Isaac Angelus (An'-je-lus), . . 138 Isabella ſºlº), I59, #93, I94, 202 Isabella II., . - & 367, 368, 400 Isabel, Point (Is'-a-bel), º - 497 Ishbosheth (Ish'-bo-sheth), . . 3O Ishmael (Ish'-ma-el), . e . 28, 120 Islam (Isſ-lam), -> e . I2I, I22 Island No. 1 o, . tº º º 509 Ismael (Is'-ma-el), . º e • 2I5 Ismail (Is-ma-eel'), e & 295 Ispahan (Is’-pa-hahn'), e Israel (Isſ-ra-el), . º Israelites (Isſ-ra-el-ites), e 24, 27, 28, 3o Issus (Is'-sus), . º e . 55, IOI Issy, Fort d’ (Dis'-se), 407, 409, 414, 416, 417 Isthmian (Ist'-me-an), g . . 63, 81 Italian (It-al’-yan), . 65, 142, 143, 378,391, 412 Italians, e º e 65, 393, 3; Italica (I-tal’-e-ka), © e • . Italy (It'-a-le), j 61, 65, 87, 117, 204, 326, s: o 3 tº • 215 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 | Ithaca (Ith'-a-ka), tº º veel), e • e e . 3oo Ithome (I-tho'-me), . e . . . 48 Ibrahim Pacha (Ib'-rah-im Pa-shaw'), 359, 368 || Iturbide, Don Augustin (Don Au-gus-teen Iceland (Ice'-land), . e º • I3O E-toor'-be-da), • e º • 485 Iceni (I-sen-i'), . ... • © e 96 || Iuka (I-yu'-ka), . º º º 5I2 Iconium (I-ko'-me-um), • O º . 137 Ivan the Great ºvar) ... tº • . 188 Iglestrom (Ig'-el-strom), • e 296 || Ivan the Terrible, e º & I88 Ignatius Loyola (Ig-na-she-us Loy-o'-la), .213, Izard (I'-zard). º ſº º . 488 2I4 Iguala (Ig-whah'-la), . e e • 435 J. Iliad (Il’-e-ad), . e º e 38 || Jabin (Ja'-bin), © e • • 29 Ilium (Il’-e-um), e º . 38 || Jacinto, Sam (San Ja-sin'-to), . e ::: Iö2 Illinois (Il-le-nois'), 3oo, 306, 492 494 5O4, 523 Illo §§ g g * º, ". ' 233 } e º Illyria (Il-lir’-e-a), . e e • 94 Illyrian, . e e © e 78 Illyrians, * ſº º º 54, 78 Imperator (Im-per-a'-tor), © e 93 Ináchus (In’-a-kus), . • o • 37 Inca. (In’-kah), . o o • 2I4 Jack Cade º: Kade), º e e Jackson (Jakº-son), - e º 5 I4 Jackson, Andrew, .487, 489, 490, 491, 493- *: * 49 Jackson, Clayborne F., © º • 507 Jackson, Thomas Jefferson, 507, 51o, 511, 514 Jacksonville, º º º {º e 517 Jacob (Jaſ-kob), . © * e 28 AZAAAAA' TVCA AE WAVZ) EX. 593 Jacobin (Jakº-o-bin), . • 315, 317, 322; 324 Jacobins, ... 316, 320, 321, 323, 324, 325 Jacobites (Jak'-o-bites), e º . 27 Jacºuerie (Jak-kaſ-ree),.. e • , 153 Jacques Bonhomme (Jak-a' Bo-nom'), • I53 Jºel (Jale), e e º e 29 Jaffa, (Jaf’-fa), e g © • 33O | agello (Ya-gel’-lo), º º e 187 Jagelios, º º © e . 187 Jamaica (Ja-ma’-ka), . e º 242 }: I. of England, e 232, 233,234 ames I. of Scotland, . e 180, 181 James II. of England, 246, 247, 248,254, 269 ames IV. of Scotland, © º • 209 ames V. of Scotland, . º e 2 I I ames River, . e . 255, 473, 5 Io, 518 amestown, º º 232, 255, 256, 257 aniculum, Mt. (Ja-nik'-u-lum), . . 68 anissaries (Zhah-nees-sah'-reez), & I91 amus (Ja'-nus), º e e . 67 Japan (Ja-pan'), . • • • 50 I, 502 apheth (Jaf’-eth), . & © • 22 aquelein, Laroche (La-roash' Zhah-lang'), 322 assy (Yah'-se), º º • 2 ava (Jav'-ah), . e e - §: John (Ja), º º Jebus (Jeb'-us), . Q © ebusites (Jeb'-us-ites) sº e }: J e-koº-heigh), e • 32 Jefferson, Thomas (Jef’-fer-son), 464, 478,479, 48o, 481, 482, 493 effries (Jef-frees), & © . & 246 Jehanghir (Jef’-hang-yer), . e Jehoahez (Je-ho'-a-hez), Jellachich (Yel’-la-kik), Jemappes (Shmap), - e Jena (Jen’-a), e © º Jephthah (Jef’-thah), . º e Jeroboam (Jer-o-bo'-am), . © 3I; 32 Jerome Bonaparte (Jer-ome' Bo'-na-part), 338 Jerome of Prague (Praig), e o 169 Jersey, New (Jer’-se), 266, 464, 465,466, 468, 472 }. City º e º - 470 Jerusalem (Jer-ruſ-sa-lem), 24, 31, 32, 33, 34, 56, 95 218, 485 478,479, 48o tº 3I • 3I. • 2 I5 e tº 32 376, 381, 382, 383 º 3I9 • 337 30 64, 88, 97, 98, 122, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, c 147, 164 essup (Jesſ-sup), & º e • 495 esuit (Jes’-u-it), . e e 2I4, 300 esuits, º º & o 2I3, 2I4 ews, © . . 24, 33, 34, 64, 97, 98, 176 imena (He-ma’-na), e º . 426 31 O3. º - - e e oachim Murat (Jo'-a-kim Mu-rah'), 331, 339, Juarez, Benito (Ben'-e-to Joubert (Zhoo-bare’), , . º 329 Jourdain (Zhoor-dang'), e 324, 326, 346 Jovian (Jo'-ve-an) e e tº Io9 Juan, Don (Don Ju'-an), . • , 215, 217 Whaw-ar'-eth), 448, 449, 45C, 45 I Juarists (Whaw-ar'-ists), . º • 449 Judah (Ju'-dah), . e e • 31, 32 Judaism (Ju'-da-ism), º . I2O. Judea (Ju-de'-a'), . e & 33, 64, 88 Jugurtha (Ju-gur’-tha), * e . 85 Jugurthine (Ju-gur'-thin), e & 85 Jules Favre (Jule Fav'-er), . 406, 41 I, 412 Jules Ferry (Jule Fer'-re) o º 406 Jules Simon (Jule Šiºmo.), º e . 406 Julia (Ju'-le-a), . tº • 2 is 92 Julian the Apostate (Ju'-le-an),... ... Io9, 169 ſulianus, Didius (Did’-e-us Ju-le-an/-us), . Ior ſulius Agricola (Ju'-le-us Ag-re-ko'-lah), 98 ſulius Caesar (Se’-ser), 87, 88, 89, 9o, 91 OI - º sº sº ſulius Vindex (Vin'-dex), de e I Jumonville (Zhu-moang-veel'), © • 3O3 Junin (Whoon'-in), o - º 44O Junius Brutus (Ju'-ne-us Bru'-tus), *68, 69 Juno (Ju'-no), & e 36, 37, 73 Junot (Zhu-no'), . g 330, 339, 340 Junta (Jun'-ta), . & 340, 435, 436, 449 Juntas, e e e e 339, 435 Jupiter (Ju'-pe-ter), º e • 36, 95 Jupiter, Ammon (Am'-mon), 34, 56 Justinian (Jus-tin'-e-an), • II7, II8, 119 Jutland (Jut'-land), . & º . 228 Juxon (Jux'-on), e e o 240 Kalb, De (De Kalb), sº . . 465, 471 Kaled (Kah'-led), e ſº • I2 I, I22 Kalkreuth (Kahl’-kroit), . ſº . 338 Kalmuck Tartars (Kalº-muk Tar'-tars), 2.94. Kansas (Kan'-zes), º e • 502, 503 Kappel (Kap'-pel), . e e • 2CI Kapolna (Ka-pol’-na), . . º . 381, 382 Kapstehak (Kahpt'-shok), . e . 188 Kara Mustapha (Ka-rah! Mus-taf’-a), . 254 Karlowitz (Kar'-lo-witz), . e 253, 380 arS, e e & e & 388 Kasan (Ka'-zan), º g tº . 188 Kaskaskia (Kas-kas'-ke-a), • 3OO, 470, 53O Katzbach (Kahtz'-bok), e • 29I, 347 Kearney (Ker’-ne), º o • 5II Kearney, Stephen W., e • 498, 499 Kearsarge (Ke-ar'-sarj), º e 519 Kellerman §: '-ler-man), . • 319; 332 Kelly, Benjamin F. (Kel’-le), . sº §6 - - 348, 35t Joan of Arc (Jo'-an of Ark), . . I55, 181 John of Bohemia, . . o & I52, 178 ſohn of England, te © . I49; I 75 John the Good of France, . 153, 154, 178, 179 John Frederic of Saxony, º . 207, 208 John XXII., - ſº © e © 167 John XXIII., . e • . º 169 John de Medici (Jon de Med'-e-che), . 199 John, St., . e © o • 462 Johnson (Jon’-son), . e º • 47O Johnson, Albert Sydney (Al’-bert Sid'-ne), 509 Johnson, Andrew, . º 520, 522, 523 Johnson, John, • e e e 467, 469 Johnson, (Rev'-er-de), e * 524 Johnson, Richard M., . º º 495 Johnson, William, . o • 3O4, 305 Johnston, Joseph E., 503, 506, 507, 518, 52,522 Joliet, Louis (Loo'-e Zho-le-a'), . • 300 Jonah (Jo'-nah), . º Q © 32 Jonathan (Jon'-a-than), e e • 3O. Jones, John Paul, º • o 47o Joppa (Jop'-pa), . f • I37; 33O Jordan (Jor’-dan), o º • 29, 33O Joseph (Jo'-sef), © e o . 28 Josephine (Jo'-seſ-in), e 525; 34I Joshua (Josh'-u-a), . e º • 29 º - - 5 Kesselsdorf (Kes’-sels-dorf), . Kelly's Ford, tº c º . 516 Kenesaw Mountain (Ken’-e-saw), e 518 Kennebec (Ken'-ne-bek), . e • 462 Kent, - e º 120, 182, 367 Kentuckians (Ken-tuk'-e-ans), 486, 490 Kentucky (Ken-tuk'-e), 479,478,481, 495, 502, is . o4, 505, 508, 512, 517 • 284, 285 Kettle Creek, . & e e • 469 Kettle Run, & e e e 5II Kevenhuller (Kev'-en-hul-ler), & . 283 Khan, e e e º 188, 433 Khiva (Kee'-vah), . gº º - 433 Khivan, . e º e e 433 Khivans, e e e e • 433 Khokand (Ko'-kand), . e © 433 Khosrou the Great (kos' roo), e . I 18 Khosrou II., º e e º II9 Kieft, Sir William (Keeft), . e . 260 Kiel (Keel), º º © e 348 Kiev (Keev), . e © • 188, 190 Killicrankie (Kil-le-krank’-ee), 8 e º 24 Kilpatrick, Judson (Jud’-son Kil'-pat'-rik), 517 Kinburn (Kin'-burn), . e & 388 Kinmuir (Kin'-moor), e o King, Samuel W., © o o . 278 496 38 594 AZAAAAA. TXCA/, /AVDAX. King, William Rufus, . e & • SOI King's Mºntain, tº e • 47I; 472 Kingston (Kings'-ton), e e • 305 Kinsky (Kins’-ke), º e e 230 Kittanning (Kit-tan'-ming), . e • 3O4 Klapka (Klap'-ka), - o e 383 Kleber (Kia-baire’), . * • 339; 333 Knights Errant (Nites Er'-ant), tº I32 Knights of St. John, . e . 136,14o Knights Templars, º © 136, 140 Knowlton (Nole'-ton), . o o 464 Knox, Henry (Nox), e º . 478 Knox, John, e tº & 222 Knoxville (N Sz'-vil), . e ſº 516 Knyphausen (Kne-fou'-sen) • 464, 471 Kolin (Ko'-lin), . O º e 288 Komcrn (Ko'-thorn), a Koniggratz (Ken'-ig-grets) e Konigsburg (Ken'-igs-burg), Konigseg (Ken'-ig-seg), Kootub (Koo'-toob), . º e 389 Koran (Ko'-ran), º • I2I, I22, 123, IQI Kordofan (Kor-dof'-an), . . º e 368 Koreish (Ko'-reesh), . . . ſº • I2X Koreishites (Ko-ree-shi'-tees), . e l 2 I Kosciuszko, Thaddeus (Thad’-de-us Kos-se- • 383,384 g 398 141, 281, 337 & 283 uz'-ko © & g 295, 296, 465 Kossuth, 'Louis (Loo'-e Kos-shoot'), 386, '33. 382, 383 Kouli Khan, (Koo'-le Khan) e . 281 Krasnoi (Kras-noiſ), º º • 345 Kremlin (Krem’-lin), . • 188, 344, 345 Kremsier (Krem’-seer), º e . 378 Kronstadt (Krone'-staht), © e 381 Krukowiscki (Kru-kow-eek'-e), e • 365 Kudschuck Kainardche (Kood'-chook Ka- nards'-ke), e º º o 295 Kullman (Kool’-man), e º • 434 Kumersdorf (Koo'-ners-dorf), . • 290 Kutais (Ku-tais'), º º tº 382 Kutusoff (Kuº-tu-soff), © 336, 344, 34o Labedoyere (La-be-dwah-yer'), • 350, 352 La Boeuf (La Buf), o e º 302 Labrador (Lab'-ra-dore), . ſº • I95 Labyrinth (Lab-e-rinth), e º 25 Lacedaemon (Las-e-de'-mon), 35, 37, 41, 44, 48, 52, 53, 59, 62 Lacedaemonian (Las-e-de-mo'-ne-an), 41, 49, 50, 59 Lacedaemonians, . 42, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53 Leclerc (Le-klare'), . tº 334 Laconia (La-ko'-ne-a), • 35, 37, 41, 42 La Corona (La Ko-ro'-na) . e • 379 L'Admirault (Lad-me-ro') º º 4IO Laevinus (Le-vi'-nus), tº © • 75 Lafavorita (La Fa-vor-itſ-a), . • 326 Lafayette (Lah-fa-et'), Laffeld (Laf’-feld), . 307, 3I4, 315, 318 465, 466, 473, 474, 492 e e 285 e Landshut (Land'-shoot), º º • 291 Langdale, Sir Marmaduke (Mar'-ma-duke Lang'-dale), - ge e . 238 Langside (Lang'-side), . © e 223 Languedoc (Lang'-ge-dok), . e • 250 Lannes (Lanz), . e • 332, 34I 1 392 Laon (La-oang') Q º • 349, 4:25 La Paz (La #3%), g ſº • 439 44O La Plata (La Plat'-a), o 195, 438 #4o La Puerta (La Pwair-ta), e e 437 Laroche-Jaquelein (La-roash Zhak-lang'), 322 La Rothiere (La Ro-te-aire'), • 348 349 La Salle, Robert de (Rob'-ert de La Sal'), 366 Latimer (Lat’-e-mer), e e 2 II 2 ; 2. Latin (Lat'-in), . e e 74 atims, ſº & . 65, 66, 68, 7.4, 86 Latinus (Lat/-e-nus), º • e 65 Latium (Lat/-e-um), . e e . 65 Latour (La-toor'), tº o e 376 Laud ( º e e 234, 235, 236 Lauderdale (Law'-der-dale), º • 245 Laudon (Lou'-don), º 290, 29I, 292, 295 Lauenburg (Lºu'-en-burg), . . ..' .33 Laval (Lah-wahl'), * • o 4Io La Vendee (La Von'-dee), . o • 322 Lavinium (La-vin'-e-um), • e 65 Law, John, .. • 279, 301 Lawrence (Law'-rence), ſº . 487, 438 Lawrence, St. (Saint Law’-rence), 195, 3oo, 302 462, 487 Laybach (Li'-bok), º º 357 azzaroni (Laz-za-ro'-ne), . 328, 329, 378 Lear ğ. 82 Leavenworth (Ley-en-worth), g • 498 Lebanon (Leb'-a-non), . ſº o 26 Lebon (Le-boang'), . e e • 324 Lebrun (Le-brung'), e º º 331 Lech (Lek), e & tº © • 236 Lechfeld (Lek'-feld), e º © 16o Lecompte (Le-kong'-ta), º tº • 414 Lecompton (Le-com’-ton), & e 503 Leczinski, Stanislaus (Stan-is-la/-us Lek- zins'-ke), º * • 275, 276, 28o Ledochowski (Le-do-chows’.ke), . • 4?I 43 Ledru Rollin (Le'-dru Rol’-lin 37I, 372, Ledyard (Led’-yard), we ), 3. • 37 e #: Lee, Charles, & e e 463, 468 Lee, Henry, . © e • 470, 474 Lee, Richard Henry, . e - 463 Lee, Robert Edmund, 503, 507, 511, 512, 514, 516, 518, 52x Lefebvre (Le-fe'-ber), . © º 338 Legendre (Le-jen’-der), . º 3I7, 323 Leger, St. (Saint Led’-jer), º e 467 Legitimists (Le-git'-e-mists), 370, 384,411, 421 - 42O Lehwald (Laºwald), " . . ; Leicester (Les'-ter), o 176, 217, 224 Leipsic (Lipe'-sik), 200, 207, 229, 231, 289, 347, 348 Leisler, Jacob (Lees'-ler), º 26o, 261 Lelex (Le’-lex), º º tº • 37 Le Mans (Le Mong), . & e 4IO Lemoine d’ Iberville (Lem-won. Deb-are-veel') (\{ . La Givonne (La Ge-vone'), © 4O4 La Haye Sainte (La Ha Sante'), . • 35I La Hogue (La Hoag'), . º • 254; 255 Lainez (Li'-nets), . e tº • 2 I 4 aird, & º o © o 519 Lamachus (Lam-ak'-us), tº º 49, 5o Zamartine (Lam'-ar-tim), • 37I; 372; 374 Lamballe (Lam'-bal), ſº e • 319 Lamberg (Lam'-berg), . e ſe 376 Lambert (Lam'-bert), tº º • 243 Iambert Sinnel (Lam'-bert Sim'-nel), 185 Lamia (Lam' e-s), . tº tº • 59 Lamian, . º º º e 59 1-amoriciere (La mo-re'-se-a), . 371, 373, 466 dancaster (Liunk'-as-ter), . 177, 180, 182, 184, 185, 466 Lancastrian (Lan-kas'-tre-an), . 183 Uancastrians, . - w e 183 Hand-friede (Lahnd-free'-da), - • I 71 Lepidus (Lep'-e-dus), de e e *:: Leo (Le’-o), e tº • I99, 202, 209 Leoben (Là-o'-ben), o • 326, 327 Leon (Le-on'), . e o º 125 Leon Gambetta (Le-oang' Gam-bet'-ta), 406, 43d Leonidas (Le-on'-e-das) te ſº 46 51 Leopold I., of Belgium (Le'o-pold), • 363, 364 Leopold I., of Germany, 251, 252,253, 208,270 Leopold II., e & tº d 20:8 Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen, 4or 4oz Lcosthenes (Le-os'-the-nees), ſº ... • 49 Lepanto (Le-pan'-to), . . . IO2, 215, 217 Lerdo de Tejada (Lair'-dode Te-zha'-da), 451 Lerna, Hydra of (Ler'-na), e o 37 Le Tellier (Le Tel’-le-a), . e • 255 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 595 Letters of Marque (Let'-ters of Mark), 505 Lettres de Cachet (Let'-ter de Ka-sha'), 3Io Leuctra (Luc'-tra), . º • 52 Leuthen (Loi'-ten), º tº 288, 289 Levant (Le-vant'), . º º • 490 ILevi (I.e'-vi), . o {_* e 306 Levites (Le’-vites), . e g • 29 Lewenbawpt (Lu'-en-houpt), . tº 276 Lewes (I,use), gº © • 176 Lewistown (£u'-is-town, tº tº 488 Lexington (Lex'-ing-ton), . , 307, 460, 507 Leyden (Li'-den), 2 ſº e * 17 Leyva, Antonio de (An-to-ne-o' de Le’-va), 203 Lichowski (Lik-nows'-ke), _. e 376 Licinian Law (Li-sin'-e-an Law), • 74, 84 Licinius (Li-sin'-e-us), º e • Io'7 Licinius Stolo (Li-sin'-e-us Sto'-lo), .. 74, 84 Liege (Leej), . e s . . 156, 162 Liegnitz (Leeg'-nits), . e • I90, 291 Lignano(Leen-yan'-o) e º • 163 Ligny (Leen’-ye), e ſe e 35I Liguria (Li-ju'-re-a), . º • 64, 79 Ligurian Republic, tº e • 327; 329 Lille ſº * e e e . 271 Lincoln, Abraham, (Lin'-kon), 504, 505, 520, 52 I, 522 Lincoln, Benjamin, † 467, 469, 470, 471 L'Insurgente (Lang'-zur-zhong'), . . • 48o Lintz (Lints), . e e • 252, 283 Lisbon (Lis'-bon), 193, 339, 342, 356, 3. Lissa (Lis'-sa), {º g • 39 Leitch (Litch), e tº e Ç 464 lithuania (Lith-u-an’-eta), . ū . 187 Little Belt, e e e 484 Little Crow, . ſº cº e • 513 Little Rock, e * º 515, 527 Livius (Liv’-e-us), . • • . 8o Livingston (Liv'-ings-ton), • º 464 Livonia (Liv-o'-ne-a), © 186, 273, 274, 278 Livonian (Liv-o'-ne-an), . . © 275 Llewellyn (Lu-el/-lin), . º ſº 176 Lobos (Lo'-bo), g e * • 426 Lochleven (Lok-le'-ven), * & 223 Lock, John (Lok), . e ſe . 264 Locrians (Lo'-kre-ans), . g tº 53 Locris (Lo'-kris), . © ſº 35, 62 Lodi (Lo'-de), * tº e 163, 326 Loire (Lwar), º • 126, 407, 408, 41o Lollards (Lol'-lards), - “...", is: Loma (Hºma); e tº ſº . 428 Lombard (Lom'-bard), 119, 127, 142, x63, 165, 326 Lombards • ? * • 119, 127, 163, 164, 165 Lombardy (Lom'-bar-de), 119, 142, 143, 16o, 163 - 378,379, 38o, 392, 393 London (Lon'-don), 96, 153, 172, 173, 177, 179, 182, 183, 2 Io, 234, 236, 239, 243, 244, 297 London, New, * © • 474 Londonderry (Ilon-don-der'-re), e 248 Longimanus, Artaxerxes (Ar-ta-zerk'-sees Lon-ji m-an’-us), º * e • 34 Long Island (Long I'-land), * cº 464 Long Island Sound, . e' e • 259 Longoliards (Long'-go-bards), . * II9 Longstreet, James (Long'-street), . • 514 Longwy (Long'-we), . & tº 4II Lookout Mountain, . 516 Lopez, Francisco (Fran-sis'-ko Lo-pa’), 44I Lorenzo de Medici (Lo-ren'-zo de Med'-e- che), . © e * I45 [." Orient (Lo-re-ong”), e wº . 328 Lorraine (Lor-rain’), 135, 155, 159, 181, 205, 206, 212, 218, 252,253, 280, 282,284, 318, 406, 408, 412 Lot © {} wº e tº • 2 I iothaire Lo-taire') e ſº tº 3O4 Loudon (Lou'-don), . e ſº * 3O4 Louis Adolphe Thiers (Loo'-e A'-dolf Tee'- a) ge tº 370, 385, 417, 415, 420 Louis Blanc (Loo'e Blong), . • *, *, 37. 374 Louis Bonaparte (Loo'-e Bo'-na-part), 336,341 Louis Kossuth, (Looſ-e Kos-shoot), 38o, 381, tº 382, 383 Louis Moro (Loo'-e Mo-ro'). e • I43 Louis Napoleon (Loo'º. Na-pole'-yon) 37o, 373, g tº 374, 384, 385, 38 Louis of Zuniga (Loo'-e of Zu-me'-ga), . 217 Louis Philippe (Looſ-e Fil’-leep), 362. 363, 364, Louis the Bavarian, e tº . 167, 168 Louis the Debonnaire (Deb-on-yairc"), . 129 Louis the German, g * > º I29 Louis IV., . e i.e iº I59 Louis V., . {º º g © 146 Louis VI., & º c ſº º x48 Louis VII. g g • 137, 148, 149 ious viii., . iº tº Louis IX., or St. Louis, gº Louis X., wº & cº '• 3.4 I, ISO I39, £40, 150 I51 Louis XI. * g g #36 157 184 Louis xii., * p dº cº 2 ;á, 2O2 Louis XIII., g * tº * 249 Louis XIV., 245, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, * 253, 254, 255, 268,269, 271, 273, 30.o Louis XV., . 273, 28o, 284, 286, 309, 3ro Louis XVI.; . . 310, 313, 316, 317, 320 Louis XVIII., . . .3to, 349, 350, 352, 353,354 Louis St. (Saint Loo'-e), ve o • 5c6 Louisa (Loo-e'-sa), º * g 2O3 Louisa, Maria (Ma-ri'-a Loo-e'-sa), 34: , 349 Louisburg (Loo’-is-burg), . 285, 286, 302, 305 Louisiana (Loo-is-e-an/-a), 3oo, 301, 481, 489, 490, 491, 503, 504, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 525, 527 Louisville (Loo'-e-vil), e & 512 Louverture, Toussaint (Too-sang' Loo- | ver-ture'), * e Kº • 334 Louvois (Loo-ywaw'), . © * 250 Louvre (Loo'-ver), • 149, 250, 362, 419, 420 Lovelace, Francis, (Fran-cis Love'-lase), . 260 Lovell, Mansfield (Mans'-field Lov’-ell), .. 509 Lowe, Sir Hudson (Hud’-son Lo), e 352 Lowositz (Lou'-o-sits), & tº • 2 Loyola, Ignatius (Ig-na'-she-us Loy-o'-la), 2I 3, 2I4 Lubec (Lu’-bek), º e 163, 165,228 Lucan (Lu'-kan), • * > e 96 Lucania (Lu-kan'-e-a), . 65 Lucerne (Lu-sern”), © iº tº 167 Lucien Bonaparte (Lu'-she-en Bo'-na-part), 33r Lucius Sextius Lateranus (Lu'-she-us Sek'- she-us. Lat-er-an’-us), tº e • 74 Lucius Junius Brutus (Lu'-she-us Ju'-ne-us Bru'-tus), . ge * g . 68 Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus (Quin'-tus Sin- sin-at-us), . g e & • 7I I.ucius Verus (Lu’-she-us We'-rus), . Too Flucknow (Luk'-no), tº e 390, 391 Lucretia (Lu-kre'-she-a), & º 68 Lucullus (Lu-kul’-lus), ſº e . 88 Lundy's Lane (Lun'-dy's Lane), e 488 Luneville §.” tº wº • 333 #. Feast of (Lu-per-kal'-e-a), . 91 usatia (Lu-sa'-she-a), ë . 231, 288 Lusitanians (Lu-se-tan'-e-ans), . e 83 Luther, Martin (Mar'-tin Looth’-er), 199, 200, º, 2OI, 2 of Lutheran (Looth’-er-an), tº * • 213 Lutheranism (Looth'-er-an-ism), o 2IB Lutter (Lut'-ter), * © ū • 228 Lutzen (Lutz'-en), tº tº 23.9, 347 Luxembourg (Lux’-em-boorg), 25o, 254, 324, - 419, 42d Luxemburg (Lux’-em-burg), tº 167, 168 Luzara (Lu-za'-ra), º ſº 2 Lycurgus (Li-kur'-gus), tº 40, 4 I, 42? : Lydia (Lid'-e-a), tº & re • 33, 45 Lynchburg (Linch-burg), . & • 517 Lynn (Liu), . $ e o 25 Lyon, Athaniel (Na-than'-yel Ly’-on), 506, 5o 596 ALA’HA BAE TYCA/, /MDAE.X. Lyons (Lyſ-ons), e tº e • IOI Lysander (Li-san'-der), . . e • 50, 5 I Lysimachus (Li-se-mak’-us), Q . 6o M. Maccabeus, Jonathan (Jon’-a-than Mak-ka- be'-us), º * c o . 64 Maccabeus, Judas (Ju'-das), e tº 64 Maccabeus, Simon (Si'-mon), º • 64 Maccabees (Mak'-ka-bees 64 º * º Macdonald (Mak-don'-ald), .. 329, 332, 346, 35o Macdonough (Mak-don'-o), º . . 489 Macedon (Mas'-e-don), 34, 35, 53, 54, 55, 55, 57, o, 61, 62, 63, 81 Macedonia (Mas-e-do'-ne-a), 61,82, 92, 1 to, º 35 J. Macedonian (Mas-e-do'-ne-an), .. 53, 54, 55, 56, - 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 81, 82 Macedonians, . © 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 Machias (Ma-ki'-as), e . 261, 489 ack, º e º e 327, 336 TMackenzie, William Lyon (Mak-ken’-zee), 495 Mackinaw (Mak'-e-naw) • 484 Macmorrogh, Dermot (Der-mot Mac- mor'-o), g º e * * • I 74 Macomb (Ma-kome'), . tº o 489 'Macon (Ma'-kon), . e e • 509 Macrinus (Mak-re'-nus), o º IO2 Macziewice (Mak'-ze-wis), . e . 296 Madeira (Ma-de'-ra), . º º I93 |Madeleine (Mad’-e-lin), e • 37O, 37 I TMadison, James (Mad’-e-son), Madras (Mad’-ras), ſº © Madrid (Ma-drid'), 203, 270, 339, 340, 342, 368, 4OO, 4O1, 422, 423; 424, 430 Magaw (Ma-gaw'), º º º 465 Magdeburg (Mag'-de-burg) 208, 229, 319 Magellan, Ferdinand (Ferºde-nand Ma-jelſ- 483, 485, 491 - 298 lan), . © © º I95 Magenta (Ma-jen'-ta), º tº • 394 Magi (Ma'-ji), . º º 35 agna Charta (Magſ-na Kar'-ta), . • I75 Magna Grecia (Mag'-na Gre'-she-a), 40, 65 Magnesia (Mag-ne'-she-a), º . 63, 81 Magyar (Mad’-yar), . . 381, :::::: agyars, . 129, 159, 160, 189, 381, 382, 383 Mahārājāore (Mahºº! pore), sº- 369 Mahomet (Ma-homº-et), . • I2 I Mahratta (Mah-rat'-ta), e . 281, 3oo Mahrattas, . e • 281, 299, 3oo, 398 AMain, .... . . . º . 290, 375, 376 TMaine (Main), 149, 221, 261, 470, 489, 492, 496, Manlius, Marcus (Mar'-kus Man'-le-us), 73 Manlius, Titus (Ti'-tus Man'-le-us), • 74 Mansfeld, Ernest von (Er'-nest von Mans'- feld), e º e 227, 228 Mansfield (Mans'-field), . e * 512 Manteuffel (Mahn-toi-fel), . • 4IO, 4II Mantinea (Man-te-ne'-a'), e • 52, 53 Mantua (Man'-tu-a), . º • 326, 379 Mar, Earl of, e g o © 278 Maracaybo (Mar-a-ki'-bo), . º • 438 Marat (Mah-rah'), , . 315, 317, 318, 321 Marathon (Mar'-a-thon), º º 45 Marburg (Mar'-burg), º e 2 OI arcel (Mar-sel’), e & . I53 Marcellus (Mar-sel’-lus), . º 78, 80. Marchfeld (March’-feld), e º I66 arco Botzaris (Mar'-ko Bot-zar'-is), . 358 Marcomanni (Mar. ko-man'-ni), IOC Marcus Aurelius (Mar/-kus Au-re'-le-us), . Too Marcus Crassus (Kras'-sus), . 7, 88, Marcus Junius Brutus (Ju'-me-us Bru'-tus), 91, 92 Marcus Manlius º º • 73 Marcus Tullius Cicero (Tul'-le-us Sis'-e-ro), 88, 92 Mardonius (Mar-do'-ne-us), . • 45, 47 Marengo (Ma-reng'-go), - º • 332 Margall, Pi_y (Pe'e Mar'-gawl), .. 423,424, 425 Margaret of Anjou (Mar'-ga-ret of An-joo'), 182. 8 504 Maintenon (Main-te-nong'), . º 253 Maitland (Mait'-land), tº e • 352 Majorca (Major'-ca), . tº O 158 Malacca (Mal-lac'-ca), º 9 Malaga (Mal'-a-ga), e o * I 3 424, 425, 426 Malakoff (Mal’-a-koff), º & . 388 §º (Mal’-korn), . º º I73 alden (Mawl'-den), Q ſº . 486 Malesherbes (Mal-zerb'), * • 32O, 323. Malmo (Mal’-mo), . e e • 375 Malo Yaraslavetz (Ma'-lo Ya-ras-la/-vets), 345 Malplaquet (Mal-pla-ka'), . e . 271 Malta (Mawl'-ta) 140, 328, 334 d º e e Malvern Hill (Malº-vern Hill), • 5 Lo, 5 II Mamel on (Mam’-e-lon), . g e 3$8 Mameluke (Mam'-e-luke), . © . 328 Mamelukes, e © 140, 192,328, 368 Mamertines (Mam’-er-tines), . © 6 Manassas Junction (Ma-mas'-sas Junk'- shun), e e e . 506, 516 Manchester (Man'-ches-ter), . º 355 Manfred (Man'-fred), e . . 145, 165 Manhattan (Man-hat'-tan), . 259, 260 Manheim (Man'-hime), e 227, 25I, 254 Manini (Ma-mi'-ni), tº º . 38o Manlius (Man'-le-us), º e • 74 Iö3 Margareta of Denmark (Mar-ga-ret'-a), . 186 Margarita (Mar-gah-re'-tah), . tº 437 Maria Christina (Ma-ri'-a Kris'-te-na), .. 368 Maria da Gloria, Donna (Don'-na Ma-ri'-a da Glo'-re-a), • , a e . 356 Maria Louisa (Lou-e'-sa), e 34I , 349 Maria Theresa (Te-reſ-sa), 28o, 282, 283, 284, r 285, 286, 297, 298,311 Marie (Mar'-re) * @ * • 372, 373 Marie Antoinette (Mar’-re Ang-twaw-net'), 3ro, - ſe 3I9, 32.I Marignano (Ma-rig-nan'-o), & I43, 202 Marion, Francis (Fran-sis Mar’-e-on), 471, 474 Marius (Ma'-re-us), e e . 85, 86 Mark Antony (Mark An'-to-ne), 89,91, 92,93 Mark, St. (Saint Mark), e J43, 38o Marlborough (Maributº-o), 269, 270, 271, 272 Marmont (Mar'-mont), . * - / >} • y +? 342, 35o, 361, 362 Marmora (Mar-mo'-ra), e * • 323 Marquette, James (Mar-ket’), . • 300 Marquez (Mar-kaze’), e º . 448 Marrast (Mah-rah'), . tº º 374 Mars (Marz), e º 36, 66, 67, 91 Marseilles (Mar-sails'), . 90, 203, 322, 354 Marsellaise (Mar-sail-aise'), . © 405 Marshall, John (Mar'-shal), o . 48o Marsians (Mar'-se-ans), e º 86 Marsin (Mar-sang'), . º . . . 27 Marston Moor (Mars'-ton), . º 237 Martel, Charles (Mar-tel') 124, 126 Martha’s Vineyard (Marºtha's Vinº-yard), 257 Martin (Marſ-tin), , e © • IO Martinitz (Mar-tin'-its), . º º 226 Martos (Martoce'), . e • 422 Mary of Burgundy (Bur'-gun-de), • I57, 202 Mary of England, g 212, 213, 222 Mary of Scotland, 218, 219, 222, 223, 224, 232 Maryland (Ma'-re-land), 261,262, 473, 475, 489, - 5io, 5 II, 512, 514, 51.9, 529 Mary's, St, . & * © . 26r Massachusetts (Mas-sa-chu'-sets), 257, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 307, 455, 457, 458, 459, 460, 462, ! - 478, 484, 485, 490, 491, 503, 505 Massasoit (Mas-sa-soit'), . 257, 258 Massena (Mas-sen'-na), e 329, 332, 342 Massinissa (Masse-nis"-sa), . . 80, 85 Mastai (Mas-ta-i'), g º • 379 Matamoras (Mat-a-mo'-ras), . 446, 449, 451 Matilda (Ma-tilt-da), . e º • 473 Matthews (Math’-use), . º º 473 AZAHA BAE TYCAA. INDEX. -> Maypu (Ma'-poo), Mathias gº º © . 226 Mathias Corvinus | or-viſ-nus), e I90 Maubert, Place (Plas Mo-baire'), • 373 Maumee City (Maw'-mee), e º 479 Maurice of Orange (Maw'-ris), . 217, 218 Maurice of Saxony, º . 207, 208 Mauritania (Maw-re-tan'-e-a) . 85 Mavrocordato (Mavrºkorºa'-to), e 358 Mawhood (Maw'-hood), . & • 465 Maxen (Max'-en), e 290 Maxentius (Maxºn’she us º º • IO7 Maximilian I. (Max-e-mil/-yan), 144, 157, 158 I71, 200, 202 àſaximilian II., Q & © . 225 Maximilian Joseph, te º º 297 Maxmilian of Austria, e - 449, 450 Maxmilian of Bavaria, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231 Maxmilian, King of Bavaria, • 374 Maximian (Max-im'-e-an), . ... Ioff, Io'7 Maximin (Max'-e-min), . - e. IO2, Io9 Maximinus (Max-e-min'-us), . e I IO Maximus (Max'-e-mus), º © • II2 Mayence (Ments), 166, 170, 192, 254, 319, 323, 4O2 wº • 43 Mazarin (Maz-a-reen'), . • 242, 249, : Mazeppa (Ma-zep'-pa), • • 275,276 Mazzini (Maz-ze'-ne), . . . . . . 379, 38o McClellan, George B. (Mak-Klel'-lan), 507, 508, - 5IO, 511, 512 McClernand (Mak-Kler'-nand), . 5I2; 513 McClure (Mak-Klure') - - . 487 McCook (Mak-Kook') . e e 5 I2 McCullough, Ben (Mak-Kul’-lo), 507, 508, 509 McDowell (Mak-Dou'-el), e te 472 McDowell, Irwin (Ir'-win), . & . 596 McGregor (Mak-Gre'-gor), © 437 McHenry, Fort (Mak-Hen’-re), . . 489 MacMahon (Mak-Mahn'), 393, 402, 403. 404, 405 McPherson, James B. (Mak-Fer’-son) 518 Meade, George Gordon (Gor'-don Meed), 514, - 517, 518 Mecca (Mek'-a), * º º • I 2 I Mechanicsville (Me-kan'-iks-vil), tº 5II Mecklenberg, (Mek'-len-burg), 186,408,461, 462 Mecklenburg Schwerin (Schwair'-in), . 4O7 Medes, (Meeds) . º e 24, 35 Media (Me'-de-a), . e e • 33 *::::::::::::) e . I45, 199, 28o Medici, Cosmo de (Kos'-mo de), ſº I45 Medici, Lorenzo de (Lo-ren'-zo), . • I45 Medicis, Catharine de (Kath’-a-rine de . Med’-e-she), e © º 218, 219 Medicis, Mary de, . º e • 249 Medina (Me-de'-na), e º & I 2 I Medina Sidonia (Me-de'-na Si-do'-ne-a), . 224 Mediterranean (Med-it-er-ra-ne-an), 26, 27, 37, 87, 144, 158, 349, 480, 481, 491 Meerut (Mee'-rut), o 390 . Mexico (Mex'-e-ko), 2:4, Menes (Me'-neez), . º * • 25. Menilmontant (Men-il-man-tong'), . 420 Menno (Men'-no), . e e • 207 Mennonites (Men'-no-nites), 2O7 Menzikoff (Mentz'-ze-koff). . e . 276 Mercer, Hugh (Hu Merſ-ser), . & 465 Mercia (Mer’-she-a), º & : I2O. Mercury (Mer’-ku-re), . o g 36 Merida (Merſ-e-dah), . © o , iſ 24 Meroveus (Me-ro'-ve-us), e º 126 Merovingian (Me-ro-vin'-je-an), . . I26 erovingians, . tº º . 125, i26 Merrimac (Mer’-re-mak), . º • 509 Merseberg (Mer’-se-burg), e 16o Mersel-Kebir (Mers’-el-Keº-ber), . . 428 Messilla Valley (Mes-silº-la), . • 5OI Mesopotamia, (Mes-o-po-ta-me-a), 21, 29, 103, IO Messalina (Mes-sa-li'-na), . © e ; Messana (Mes-san'-a), . • 40, 42, 76 Messene (Mes-se'-ne), e º 63 Messenia (Mes-se'-ne-a), e º • 35 Messenian, . e • º º 42 Messenians, . o tº e 42, 48 Messina (Mes-se'-ma), . º • 378 Metacomet (Met-a-kom’-et), 4 . 258 Metaurus (Me-taw'-rus), . e º 8o Metellus (Me-tel’-lus), te e 85 Metternich (Met'-ter-nik), & • 357, 374 Metz (Mets), 170, 206, 309, 402, 403, 404, 405, 407, 408 • 2CO Metzler, George (Mets'-ler), . º Meung (Me-oong'), te e e 408 Meuse (Muze), o º e • 404 Mexia (Ma-he'-a'), º tº 444 Mexican (Mex'-e-kan), 434, 435, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451 435, 444, 446, 447, 449 4343 435, 441 442, 444, * 445, 446, 448, 449, 450, 451 Mexico, New, e e - º 44 Michael de la Pole (Mi'-kel de la Pole), . #. Mexicans Michael Paleologus (Pa-le-ol’-o-gus), . I39 Michael, Romanoff (Ro-man-ov'), . • 273 Michigan (Mish'-e-gan), 3oo, 484, 485, 486, 495, Megalopolis (Meg-a-lop'-O-lis), e • 60. Mehemet Ali (Me-hem’-et Al’-e), . 359, 360 Meigs, Fort (Meegs), • - & . 486 Meissen (Mi'-sen), & g 290 Mejia (Ma-he'-a'), . Melampus (Me-lam'-pus) & e • 45O 3. e & 483 Melanchthon, Philip (Fil’-ip Me-lank'-thon),201, - 2O7 Melas (Ma'-las), º e * e • 332 Melcampo (Mel-kam’-po), e te 422 Melegnano (Me-leg-man'-o), . • 393 Melek. Kamel (Mel’-ek Kam’-el) 139 y e Memn ºn the Rhodian (Mam’-non the Ro'- de-an), . * tº tº " • 54, 55 Memphis (Mem’-fis), . . 25, 56, 122, 5 Io Menehould, St. (Sang Ma-noo"), & 316 Menelaus (Men-e-la/-us), e - . 38 Menenius Agrippa (Me-nen'-e-us A-grip'- pa 2 º º te te e 7o - 5o3, 522 Micislaus (Mis-is-la/-us), . º 160, 186 Micipsa (Mi-kip’-sa), e º . 85 Middlebrook (Mid’-del-brook), . wº 468 Middesex (Mid’-del-sex), . º • 297 Midianites *...) o º 29 Mierolawski (Me-ro-lous'-ke), © • 377 Mifflin (Mif-flin), º º te 466 Miguel, Don (Don Me'-gel), tº • 356 Milan (Mil-an'), io9, 11o, 142, 143, 158, 16o, 163 202. 223, 204, 205, 272, 335, 378, 379, 393 Milanese (Mil-an-eez'), . te • I43, IO3 Milbourne (Mil’-born), © e 26o, 261 Milessimo (Mil-la'-se-mo), º º 326 Miletus (Me-le'-tus), e $º 44, 55 Milledgeville (Mil/-lej-vil), e 52O Mill Spring, . o -- . 508 Miltiades (Mil-ti'-a-deez), i. • 45, 46 Milvian Bridge (Mil’-ve-an), tº . IO/ Mimms, Fort, . º o 487 Minden (Min-'den), e º 290 Minerva (Min-nel’-va), {-} 37 Minnesota (Min-ne-so'-ta), . Minorca (Min-or'-ka), º 503, 5 I 3, 531 . I58, 287, 309 Minos (Mi'-nos), e o • 40 Minsk, . e o tº º 365 Minuit, Peter (Pe'-ter Min'-u-it), 259, 26o, 264 Mirabeau (Me-ra-bo'), º 312, 3 I 3, 31 Miramon (Mir'-a-mon), . º 448, 450 Misraum (Mis'-ram), . º e . 25 Missionary Ridge, º 516 Mississippi (Missis-sip-pe), 19s, 279, 300, 475, 481,492, 493, 494, 504, 508, 509, 510, 512, 513, - 9. A * * * 514,515, 516, 517, 518, 530 Missolonghi (Mis-so-long'-ge), . • 358, 359 598 ALPAA BETICAL VAWDEX. Missouri (MI 3-soo'-re), 492, 499, 506, 507, 508, Missunde (Misſ-soond), , , . e . 396 Mitchell, Ormsby McKnight (Orms'-be Mak- nite' (Mit'-chel), . e • 509 Mithridates (Mith-re-da’-teez), . 86, 87, 88 Mithridatic (Mith-re-da'-tik), º 86, 87 Mitylene (Mit-e-le'-ne), . e & 4 Mnemon, Artaxerxes (Ar-ta-zerk'-seez Neº- 523, 5251 53O In On), © e e e 51, 52 Moab (Mo'-ab), . © e º 29 Moawiyah (Mo-a wi'-ah), . e • I23 Mobile (Mlo-beel'), • 3oo, 489, 519, 520, 539 Modena (Mo-de'-ma), . • º 366 Moeris (Me'-ris), o º º . 26 Moesia (Me"-she-a), Q • © IO3 Mogul (Mo'-gul), . • 190, 191, 215, 281 Moguls, º e e e . 190 Mohacz (Mo'-hak), º • I92, 204, 253 Mohammed ſºam-mº). I2O, I21, I:23, 124. Mohammed II., . © º e 191 Mohammedan, º e I22, I23, 125 Mohammedanism, º e 253, 357 Mohammedans, g o º • I 2 I Mohammed, Dost, º e & 369 Mohawk (Mo'-hawk), © • 467, 469 ohawks, & º 262 Mohegan (Mo-he’-gan), © , 262 Moldavia ºldºvº, • 294, 357, 386 Mole (Mo-la'), e e e • 37 I Molino del Rey (Mol-lee'-no del Ra') 447, 5oo Moloch Mo'-lok), e e * e e 26 Moltke (Mult'-ke), º e . 402, 406 Molucca (Mo-luk’-ka), º {º} • 193 Molvitz (Mol’-vits), o • o 282 Momoro (Mo-mo-ro'), º e • 323 Monachism (Mon’-a-kism), . • I33, I 34 Monasticism (Mo-nas'-ti-sism), e • I 33 Moncey (MIoang-se'), . e º 339 Monckton (Monk'-ton), © e • 3O3 Monitor, . tº e o - 509 Monk, º • • 34I, 243, 244 Monk's Corner, . tºo e - 47 I Monmouth, Duke of (Mon’-muth), . . 246 Monmouth Court House, e © 468 Monocacy (Mo-mok'-a-se), , . º * 519 Monongahela (Mo-non’-ga-he'-la), & 3O3 Monro (Mon-ro') - e e • 3O4 Monroe, James (Mon-ro), e • 49 I, 492 Monseigneur (Mong-seen'-yure), . 373, 419 Montana (Mon-tan’-a), e • 532, 534 Montcalm º 287, 289, 290, 304, 306 Montebello (Mon-te-bel’-lo), . • 332: 392 Monticello,(Mon-te-sel’-lo), . & - 493 Montecuculi (Mon-ta-koo'-koo-le), º 25 I Montenotte (Mont-not'), e º . 326 Montereau (Mon-te-ro 349 r Monte Video ºº:: Widºso). tº . 438 Montezuma (Mon-te-zu'-ma), . º 2 I 4 Montfort, Simon de (S1'-mon de Mont’-ſort), 175, 176 Montgomery, Fort (Mont-gom'-e-re), • 467 Montgomery, Richard, . º e 462 Montijo, Eugenie de (Eu-je'-ne da Mon'-te- O), º º © 386, 389, 406 Mc1rtijol (Mon-te-yoy’), . e - 427 Montmartre (Mont-mar'-ter), 349, 414, 416, 419 Montmedy (Mont-me'-de), . Q 4O4, 4.9 Montmirail (Mong-me-rail'), . * 349 Montmorenci (Mont-mo-ren'-se), 205, 219, 249, 3- AIontreal (Mont-re-awl’) 195, 301, 306, 307, 462, 487 Montrouge (Mon-troozh'), 407,410, 416, 418 Moodkee (Mood'-kee), e e . 369 Moore, Sir John (More), 34O Moorish, (Moor'-ish), e º • 124, 159 Oors, . . Io9, 14o, 158, 204, 215, 216 Morales (Mo-rales') © º • 437, 438 Moravia (Mo-ra'-ve-a), 166, 277, 282, 289, 336, t 6 376, 398 Moravian, . º º e : 17o Moraviantown, , . & 486 35, 192, 253, 294. 357, 359 325, 326, 329, 332, 335, 347 e • 434 Morea (Mo-re'-a'), Moreau (Mo-ro'), Morelos (Mo-ra'-los), º Morgan, Daniel, (Mor’-gan), - Morgan, John, º -> º {} Morgarten (Mor-gar'-ten), e 167 Morillo (Mo-ril’-lo), .. tº 43 Moriones (Mo-re-on’-es), º 427 Mormons (Mor'-mons), e 503. Morocco (Mo-rok'-o), , • 85.4oo, 491 Moro, Louis (Loo', e Mo-ro'), sº • I43 Morris, Lewis (Lu'. is Mor'-ris), e 266 Morristown, . e © & 465, 473 Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (Fin'-Je Brees Mors), . e • 497. Mortier (Mor'-te-a), * º º 345 Mortimer, Edmund (Ed'-mund Mor'-te-mer), 186 Mortimer, Roger (Roj’-er), & 177, 178 Moscow (Mosºko), 38, :30, 275, 294, 33.3%, 345 • o º Moselle (Mo-zel'), º º 4O2, 403 Moses (Mo'-ses), º º • 28, 29, 33 Meskwa (Moaskº-va), . e e 344 Moslem (Mos'-lem), . . . º • I22 Moslems, . º e © º I24 Moultrie, Fort (Moal’-tre), . • 463,495 Moult, ie, William, º e & 463 Mount Algidus (Al'-je-dus), . e • 7I Mount Ararat (Ar’-a-rat), e º 2 I Mount Casino ( Kas'-se-no), . º • I.33 Mount Nebo (Ne'-bo), . º o 29 Mount Olympus (O-lim'-pus), e . 36 Mount Sinai §º & e º 28 Mount Tabor (Ta'-bor), , . º • 33O Mount Vernon (Ver'-mon), e 475, 481 Mount Zion (Zi'-on), º e • 3r Mourad Bey (Moo'-rad Bay), . tº 328 Mowbray, Thomas (Mow'-bray), . . 180 Moyer (Moy’-er), º & O 242 Siºberg), º º . 207 Muhldorf (Mooi-dorf), . e º 167 Muller, Hans (Hahns Mil’-ler), . • 200 Mulligan (Mul'-le-gan), . e de 507 Mummius (Mum'-me-us), . e 63, 82 Munda (Mun'-da), g e - e. 90 Mungarwar (Mung-ar-war'), Munich (Mu'-nik), gº © Munster (Muns'-ter), º Munzer, Thomas (Moontz'-er), . Mura (Moo'-rah), me e e • 429 Murat, Joachim (Jo'-a-kim Mu-rah'), 331, 339, e e 39 I 163, 168, 283 • 207, 23.I. 2CO - 345, 35I Murcia (Mur'-she-a), º • 158, 424, 425 Murfreesborough (Mur'-frees-bur'-o), • 513 Murray, Earl of (Mur'-re), e & 223 Murray, General, . º e 291, 306 Murten (Mur'-ten), tº e tº 157 Muscovite (Mus'-co-vite), . I88 Mussa Pacha (Moos'-sah Pa-shaw'), . Mussulman (Mus'-sul-man). . t • I24 Mustapha, Kara (Ka-rah! Mus-taf-ah), Mutius Scaevola (Mu'-she-us Sev'-o-laj, . 69 Mycale (Mi-ka-le') e º e 47 Mysore (Mi-sore'), . e e .# Mystic (Mis'-tik), º e 262 N. 281 Nadir Shah (Naſ-der Shah), Nagy Sarlo (Na'-ge Sar'-lo), . º 382 Namur (Na'-mur), , º e • 254 Nancy (Nan'-se), • . . I 57, 403, 412 Nankin (Nan'-kin), . tº 368, 369 Nantes (Nants), de 22 I 254 Nantucket (Nan-tuk'-et), . e 257 Napier, Sir Charles (Na'-pe-er), 369, 387, 388 AZPHABETICAL INDEX. 599 Napier, Robert, . © - sº 399 Naples (Na'-pels), 94, 1oo, 145, 146, 157, 158, 165, 202, 272, 28o, 285, 327, 328, 329 3. 356, - 357, 378, 394 Napoleon (Na-po'-le-on), 322,325, #3, #7, #8, 329,339, 331, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337 Napoli de Romania (N ãºlé 㺠£ian'. €-a. º e º º º 358 Narraganset Bay (Nar-ra-gan'-set), . 263 arragansets, . ſº º g 259 Narses (Nar'-seez), . e e . I 18 Narva (Nar'-vah), e e e 274 Narºraez (Narºvah'-eth), . Q . 368 Naseby (Naze'-be), e º g 238 Nashville (Nash’-vil), & º • 52O Nassau (Nas'-sou), tº . 166, 266,363 Natchez (Natch’-ez), • 300, 3O1, 5 Io, 53O Naupactus (Nau-pak'-tus), e tº 48 Navajo (Nav'-a-ho), . º º • 499 Navaretta (Nav-a-ret'-tah), . e I54 Navarino (Nav-a-re'-no), . e • 359 Navarre (Na-var'), 159, 202, 219, 22c, 221,427, 43O Naxus (Nax'-us), . o º . 65 Nazareth (Naz’-a-reth), º º 33o Neapolitan (Ne-a-pol’-e-tan), 336, 351, 356, 357 * - - 394 Neapolitans, . e e º • 378 Nearchus (Ne-ar'-kus), . © & 58 Nebo, Mount (Neº-bo), e e 26 Nebraska (Ne-bras'-ka), • SO2, 523, 53I Nebuchadnezzar (Neb-u-kad-nez'-ar), 24, 27, 32 New Scotland (Nu Skotº-land), • 301. ew Spain, º e & • 214, 434 New Ulm, 513 New York, 244, 260,261,263, 266, 301, 303, 456, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 469, 470, 471, 472. 474, 475, 478, 482, 487, 488, 491, 495, 496, 503. 516, 529 Ney (Na), . 334, 345, 346, 350, 351, 352 . Niagara (Ni-ag-a-ra), 290, 303, 304, 305, 306, 485, 487, 488 Nicaea (Ni’-se-a), . e - . 58 Nice (Nees), º º º Nicholas (Nikº-o-las), Nicias (Nish'-e-as) Io?, 205, 326 . 364, 382, 386, 387 Nicolaieſ. (Nekºlºſ) * & • 389 Nicolls, Richard (Nik'-ols), . * 26o Nicomedia (Nik-o-me'-de-a), º . Io? Nicopolis (Nik-opſ-o-lis), º g I91 Niel (Neel), . - & - Niemen (Nee'-men), . 141, 338, 343, 356 ile, ſº º 25, 26, 9o, 94,328, 329 Niger, Pescennius (Pes-sen'-ne-us Ni’-jer), Ior \* 393 Nimeguen (Nim'-e-gen), o . 252 imrod (Nim'-rod), e e 24 Ninety Six, Fort, . º • 473 Nineveh (Nin'-e-va), . º e 24 Ningpo (Ning'-po) . º & 369 Ninus (Niſ-nus), e & te 24. Nismes (Neem), º * , 249, 354 Nithsdale, Lord (Niths'-dale), . * 278 Niville (Nee'-veel), . e º 346 Noah (No'-ah), . e º • 2 I 3 22 Noailles (No-al’-ye), . e . 284, 323 Nogai Tartars (No'-ga-i Tar'-tars), & 295 Noisy (Nwaw'-se), . 4O7, 409 Nordlingen (Nord-ling'-en), . e 231. Norfolk (Nor’-folk), 18O, 211, 223, 462, 469, 488, 506, 51o Noricum (Nor’-e-kun), e . 85 Norman (Nor'-man), • 136, 145, 173, 188 Normandy (Nor'-man-de), 130, 135, 136, 146, 147, 148, 149, 172, 173, 175 Normans, e • 130, 145, 146, 159, 185 North, Lord, . e e . 458, 475 North America (A-mer'-e-ka) 195, 232, 3oo, 306 Northampton, (North-amº-ton) e . 182 Northamptonshire (North-am’-ton-shire), 238 North Carolina (North Kar-o-li'-na), 264, 265, 266, 458, 461, 471, 473.478, 506, 507, 508, 509, 513, 514, 521, 522 Northmen (North'-men), . & . I3O North Point, º º tº e 489 North Sea, I30, 309 Northumberland (North-um' ber-land), º, Necessity, Fort, - te • 3O3 Necho, Pharaoh (Fa'-ro Nek'-o), . 26, 27 Necker (Nek’-er), e 3II, 3I2, 313, 31.4 Neerwinden (Neer-win'-den), • 254, 32O Nehemiah (Ne-he-mi'-ah), - º 33 Nelson, Admiral Lord (Nel’-son), 328,333, 336 Nena Sahib (Na'-na Sah'-ib), o . 390 Nepos (Neº-pos), • © & Neptune (Nep'-tune), o e Nero (Neº-ro), . . º a Nerva (Ner’-va), - º º • 99 Netherlands (Neth’-er-lands), 202, 216, 217, 251, 254, 269, 270, 271, 272, 285, 298 Netherland, New; tº 244, 259, 26o, 264 II.3 . 36 80, 95, 96 Netherlanders, tº e . 216, 217 Neuberg (Noi'-berg), . º 225 Neuilly (Nu-eel'-ye), * 371, 416, 417 Neustria (Nuse'-tre-a), . ~ & º 126 Nevil (Nev'-il), º e e . 182 Nevil's Cross, . e º º 178 Neva (Ne'-va), & º • 275 Nevada (Nevah'-dah), tº • 52O, 53I New Amsterdam (Nu Amº-ster-dam), 259, 260 Newark (Nu'-ark), , . º vº . 487 Newbern (Nu'-bern), . e e 509 New Brunswick (Nu Bruns’-wik), • 3OO Newbury (Nu-berº-re), . * * 237 Newcastle (Nu-kas'-sel) > Q - º º 237 land), 257,258, 259, 459, 460, 461, 489, 490 . 258, 302 I95, 523 I95 New England (Nu Img'- New Englanders, e t Newfoundland (Nu'-fund-land), . New France (Nu Frans), • & Newgate (Nu'-gate), . * e . 297 New Granada (Nu &ra-mahºdah), 435,436, 437, O 44 New Hampsh’re (Nu Ham'-shir), 261, 301, 460, 529 New Haven (Nu Ha'-ven), . 258, 262, 263 New Jersey (Nu Jer’-se), 266, 464, 465,466,468, - 470; 472, 474, 529 N:w London (Nu Lon'-don), ſº wº 474 New Mexico (Nu Mex'-e-ko), . 447, 5oo, 532 New Netherlands (Nu Neth'-er-lands), 244, 259, 200, 204 New Orleans (Nu Or'-le-ans), 301,489, 490, 509, - 514, 517, 525, 527, 528 Newport (Nu'-port), . e • 263, 468 2I2 Norwalk (Nor'-wawk), . © º 47o Norway (Nor'-way), 176, 185, 186, 213, 277, e - 278, 348 Nothus, Darius (Da-ri'-us No'-thus) • 51. Notre Dame, Church of (Not’-er Dahm), 335, - 362,385, 386 Nottingham (Not'-ting-ham), . 236, 367 Nouvillas, (Nu-veel'-yah), . • 422, 437 Novara (No-vah'-rah), . • 357, 379; 393 Nova Scotia (No'-vah Sko'-she-ah), 272, 286, 3oo, 3or, 30.3, 463 - • I Novgorod (Nov'-go-rod); º e e 329 Novi (No'-vi), . Noyons (Noy'-oang), N. ia (Nu'-be-a), - * • 26, 368 Nujuffghur (Nu-juf'-gur), , . • 390 Numancia (Nu-man'-She-a), . 428 Numantia (Nu-man'-She-a), . º . 83 Numantians, º e G & 83 Numa Pompilius (Nu'-ma Pom-pil’-e-us), . 67 Numean Lion (Nu-me'-an), . & 3 Numerian (Nu-meer'-e-an), . tº • IO5 Numidia (Nu-mid-e-a), * . 80, 85 Numidian º & © º • 84 Numitor (Nu'-me-tor), © & e 66 ÖOO AZAAAAAETICAL INDEX. Nuremberg (Nu’-rem-burg), . • 206, 23o Nursia (Nur'-she-a), & º º I33 Nystadt (Ne’-staht) . º • 278 O. Oak Grove, º e © II Oates, Titus, (Ti’-tus Oats) e e #: Qaxaca (Wah-hah'-kah), ū º 45I Octavia (Oc-ta/-ve-a), e • 93, 96 Octavius (Ok-ta/-ve-us) . 84, 92, 93, 94 Qczakow (Otch-a-koo') e e • 295 Odenatus (Od-e-na'-tus), º • IO4 Qder (()'-der), & º 186, 289, 290, 337 Odessa (O-des’-sah), º 90, §% - º - 3 Qdillon Barrot (O-deel'-yoang Bar'-ro), . 37; Odin (O’-din), . ----- ! #6 Odoacer (Od'-o-a'-ser) º II.3, II 7 QEnotrians (En’-o-tre-ans), . º Ogdensburg (Og'-dens-burg) ... • . 487 Oglethorpe, James Edward (O'-gel-thorpe), 267, 268 O'Higgins (O'Hig’-gins), º © 439 Ohio (O-hi'-o), 286, 302,303, 305, 471, 481, 484, 496, 503, 515, 529 65 Okechobee (O-kee-cho'-bee), . e 495 Olaf Skotkonung (O'-laf Skot'-ko-nung), . 186 Olaf the Saint, . © sº º I86 Oldenburg, (Ol'-den-burg), , 186, 348 Oliver Clissons (Ol'-e-ver Klees-soang), • I 54 Oliver Cromwell (Kromº-well), 235, 237, 238, Ollo (Ol’-yo) e e o Olmutz ôºuts), tº º & e - . . . 239, 24O, 24I , 242, 243 Ollivier, Emile (A-meel' Ol-le-ve'-a), • 40 I • 427 319, 376, 398 º 4OI Olozaga (Ol-o-za!-gah), . e Olustee (O-lus'-tee), e . 517 Olybrius (Q-lib'-re-us), . {º II2, I I3 Olympia (O-lim'-pe-a), tº o • 39 Olympiad (Olim'-pi-ad), º º 39 Olympias (O-lim'-pe-as), . & . 6o Olympic Festival (O-lim'-pik), . • 39, 40 Olympic Games, - e o 40, 96 Olympius (O-limſ-pe-us), e e I. I. I Olympus (O-lim'-pus), . º • 36 Olynthian (O-lin'-the-an), e tº 52 Olynthus (O-lin'-thus), sº © • 52 Omaha (O'-ma-haw), . {º} • 524, 532 Omar (O'-mar), o o º I22, 123 Omar Pacha (Pa-shaw'), tº . 387, 388 Ommiyades (Om-mi'-a-deez), e I23, 124 Ontario (On-ta/-re-o), . 287; 289, 304, 486, 488 Opechancanough (Op-e-kan'-ka-no), . 256 Ophir (O’-fir), e e tº e 3I Opimius (º), e º . 84 Oporto (O-por’-to), º e 340,356 Oran (O'-ran), º o º • 42 Orange (Or'-anj), . 216, 217, 218, 247, 251, 254, 259, 265, 363 Orchard Knob, g o º . 516 Ord, * o º g 512, 52 I Qregon (Or'-e-gon), 497, 503, 508, 525, 526, 531 Orense (O-ren’-sa), & e º 423 Orient L' (Lo-re-ong'), e o . 328 Orinoco (O-re-mo'-ko), . • º I94 Oriskany (O-ris'-ka-ne), e • . 467 Orizaba (Or-e-Sah'-bah), & 448, 449 Orleanist (Or'-le-an-ists), . tº 384, 410 Orleans (Or'-le-anz), 155, 156, 158, 181, 182,219, 249, 273, 313, 317, 32d, 321, 362, 407,408 Orleans, New, 301, 489, 490, 509, 514, 517, 525, 527, 528 Örmond (Or'-mond), . e 24o, 272 ©rmuz (Or-muz), © * • 193; 215 Ormuzd (Or'-muzd), ſe & 35 Orsini (Or-se'-ne), . e • I42, 392 Ortega (Or-ta/-gah), . e * 4:49 Osceola (Os-e-o'-lah), tº e • 495 Osnaburg (Os'-na-burg), s º 231 Ostia § e e e . 68 Ostrogoth (Os’-fro-goth), † e 117 Paderborn (Pad’-er-born), . º Padus (Paſ-dus), Ostrogothic, . e © • II7, 118 Ostrogoths, . e • Io9, II2, Ir'8 Ostrolenka (Os-tro-lenkº-ka), º • 305 Oswego (Os-we’-go), e 287, 304, 488 Othman (Oth’-man), . & I23, 191 Othniel (Oth'-ne-el), . ºn & 29 Qtho the Great of Germany (O'-tho), . 16o Otho II., º • º º º 16o Otho III., e e o • 16o 3. º; • º º • 164 tho of Greece, . º e 60, 3: ""- . Otho of Rome, º & 3 *::::: Qtis, James (O'-tis), . e e 453 Ottocar (Ot’-to-kar) . tº g . 166 Ottoman (Ot'-to-man), 190, 191, 192. 253, 294, - 295, 328,359, 360, 368, 386, 387 389 Ottowa (Ot’-to-waw), º º • 30 Oude (Ood), e e e 389, 390 Oudenarde (Ood’-nard), º . 27I Oudinot (Oo-de-no'), e • 347, 38o, 384 Qwen Glendower (O'-wen Glen’-dow-er), . 186 Oxenstiern, Axel (Ax'-el Ox-en-steern'), 230 Oxford (Ox’-ford), & 171,269,238, 272 Pacha (Pa-shaw'), . 330, 356, 368 Pachomius (Paikº-me-us), sº '#33 Pacific Ocean (Pa-sif'-ik), 194, 195, 28o, 497, 498, 502, 524, 526, 531 . I27 Paducah (Pa-du'-kah), . • & 517 - e º e 65, 85 Pages, Garmier (Gar-me-a’ Pa-zha'), 371, 372 O 406 Pakenhan (Pak’-en-ham), . e • 490 Paladines, D'Aurelles (Do-rels' Der Pa-lah- dang') . - e º º 403 Palaeologus (Pa-le-ol’-o-gus), e • I39 Palafox (Pal’-a-fox), tº º • 339, 34Q Palais Royal (Pah-la’ Rwaw'-yawl), 313, 371, - . . 419, 420 Palais de Justice (Pah-la/-der Jus'-tis), 4I4 Palais de la Quai d'Orsay (Pah-la/-der la- Ka Dor'-sa), s - º 4I9, 42O Palais d l’Industrie (Pah-la' der Leen-dus- tree'), . e º - º 419 Palatinate (Pa-lat'-e-nate), 168, 226, 227, 251, 254, 297 Palatine Hill, (Palſ-a-tin), 66, 67, 73, 227, 237, 2 5.I Palermo (Pa-lare'-mo), e . 77, 150, 378 Palestine (Pal/-es teen) . º 33, 34 Palestro (Pal’-es-tro), tº º • 393 Pallas (Pal’-las); . º • • 36 Palmyra (Pal-mi'-ra), © . IO4, IoS, I22 Palo Alto (Pah-lo' Ahl'-to), e . 446, 498 Palos (Paſ-los), º - e • I94 Pampeluna (Pam-pe-lu'-na). . . • 127, 346 Panama (Pan'-a-mah), . " . 194,440 Pandects (Pan'-dects) . º II9. Pandours (Pan-dures'), * º . 283 Panniput (Pan'-ne-put) e © 281 Pannonia (Pan-no'-ne-a e 94, IoS, II9 Pannonian, • e º * Io9 Panormus (Pa-nor'-mus), . e 77 Pantheon (Pan-the-on). & te 373 Pantin (Pan-tang') . . tº e • 419 Paoli, Massacre of (Paº-le), º . . 466 Paoli, Paschal (Pasſ-kal), . e . 297 Papineau, Louis Joseph (Pa-pe-no'), • 495 Papirius Carbo (Pa-pir'-e-us Kar'-bo), 85 Papirius, Marcus (Mar'-kus Pa-pir-e-us), .. 73 Pappenheim (Pap'-pen-hime), . ſº 230 Paraguay (Par'-a-gwi), º º 44O, 4:41 Paraguayan (Par-a-gwi'-an), . º 441 Paraguayans, . º * e • 44I' Parades (Pa-ra'-des), . 45, 446 Paris, (Par'-is), 38, 125, 146, 149, 381,229, 271, 292, 306, 309, 313, 317; 329, 323, 333, 38', 37. 405, 407, 409, 4 A4. 419, 429 AZAHAAA, 7./CA/, /MDAX. 6or Parisian (Par-ish'-e-an), I53, 313, 319 Parisians, . 362,385, 405, 4có, 407,415 Park de Monceaux (Park der Mon-ko") . 420 Parker, Sir Peter (Pe'-ter Par’-ker), 308, 309, 234, 235, 236, 237, 241, 242, 245, 455, 460, 461, -- - 462, 463,464 Parliament (Par’-le-ment), . . 175, 176 Parliamentarian (Par-le-men-ta'-re-an), . 238 Parliamentary (Par-le-men'-ta-re), . 238 Parma (Par'-ma), . º . 366, 378 Parmenio (Par-men'-e-o), º © 54 Paros (Paſ-ros), ſº e «» 45 Parr, Catharine (Kath'-a-rin Par), 2Io, 2II Parth-nop ian Republic (Par-the-no-pe'- san), º . 327, 328, 329 Parthia (I ar'-the-a), © 5-1, 8%, 99 Parthian, e o • 64, 89, Ioo, IoS Parthians, . º . . . .89, 99, roo, Ior Paschal Paoli (Pasſ-kal Pa-o'-le), e 297 Paskiewitsch (Pas-ka/-vitsh), 359, 365, 382,383, 7 Pasquas de Flores (Pas-koo'-ah da Flo'-res), #54 Passau (Pasſ-sou), ſº • 208, 225, 231 Passarovitz (Pas-sa/-ro-vits), • 278, 279 Patkul (Pat'-kul), & º e 275 Patriarchs (Paſ-tre-arks), . & • 27 Patuxent (Pa-tux’-ent), . e e 489 Paul, . e e • 296, 330, 333 Paulinus, Suetonius (Su-ton'-e-us Pau-li'- mus), . & e e e 96 Paulus AEmilius (Paul'-us E-mil’-e-us), 63, 82 Paulus Hook, . tº © º 470 Pausanius (Pau-Sa'-me-us), . & • 47 Pavia (Pa'-ve-a), . . I 19, 127, 203, 378, 426, 427 Pawtucket (Paw-tuk'-et), . e . 263 Peach Orchard Station, e • 5 II Peacock, e © o tº • 490 Pea Ridge, º o e 508, 509 Peck, . o • e e • 5 I4 Pedraza (Pa-drah'-zah), º • 442, 443 Pedro, Don (Don Ped'-ro), . • 356, 440 Pedro Abanto (Ped'-ro A-ban'-to), . 429 Pegram (Pe’-gram), . & tº . 506 Pekin (Pe’-kin), . º º e 389 Pelasgians (Pe-las'-je-anz), . º 37, 65 Pelican, . º º e º 488 Pelissier (Pel-is-se'-a'), e e 388 Pelletan, Eugene (U-jeen' Pel-le-tong'), 406 Pelopidas (Pel-op'-e-das), e e 52 Peloponnesian (Pel-op-on-ne'-she-an), 48, 49, 5o Peloponnesus (Pel-op-on-ne'-sus), .35, 37,38, 40, 49, 92, IQ2 Pelops (Pel’-ops), tº e e • 37 Pelusium (Pe-lu'-zhe-um), & • 26, 34 Pemberton (Pem'-ber-ton), . e • 514 Pembroke (Pem'-broke), . e e I 74 Penguin, & * e * - 490 Penn, Admiral, . º e º 242 Penn, William, 266, 267 Pennsylvania (Pen-sil-va'-ne-a), 266, 267, 302, 323, 3o4, 464, 465, 466, 469, 472, 479, 486, 497, 5O2, 514, 515, 519, 529 Pennsylvanian, g º e . 482 Pennsylvanians, . º • e 267 Pensacola (Pen-sa-ko'-la) . 489, 492, 504 Pepin d'Héristal (Pep'-in Der'-is-tal) . 126 £º. º W; Rep-pé ll) t 86 126 'eppere illiam, (Pep'-per-e . 280, 302 Pequod (Peſquod), g * . . 262 Pequods, . º º º e 262 Percy (Per'-se), e ge º . 18o Perdiccas (Per-dik'-kas), . to 59, 60 Pere Duchesne (Pa-ra' Du-shain'), . 315 Père la Chaise (Pa-ra’ la Shaise') . 416, 420 Pergåmus (Per'-ga-mus),. e º 84 Pericles (Per'-e-kleez), ſº ſº 48, 49 Perkin Warbeck (Per’-kin War'-bek), . 185 Peronne (Per-on' © e e 156 Perote (Pa-ro'-ta), . º 442, 499 Perry, Matthew C. (Per'-re), . º 5O2 Perry, Oliver Hazard, © & . 486 Perryville, º & e e 512 Persepolis (Per-sep/-o-lis), , º 57, 58 Perseus (Per’-se-us), & e • 63, 82 Persia (Per-she-a), 25, 26, 27, 33, 34, 35, 45,46, 47, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, IoA, IoS, io9, 117, 122, I9 191,215, 281 Persian, 25, 26, 27, 33, 34, 35, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52. 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, IoS, IoA, Io9, I 18, 122, 21: Persians, 25, 26, 33, 34, 35, 45, 46,47, 51, 54. 55, 56, 57, 58, 103, IoA, IoS, 117, 118, 122, 13 Pertinax (Per'-te-max), tº e • IOI Peru (Pe-ru’), © 2I4; 4oo, 439, 440, 441 Peruvians (Pe-ruſ-ve-ans), e 2I4; 439 Pescennius Niger (Pes-sen'-me-us Ni'-jer), 191 Peschiera (Pesh-e-aſ-ra), . - • 370 38o, 381, 382, 383. Pesth (Pest), -> © Peter II. of Russia, . tº º . 278 Peter III. of Aragon, . & 158 Peter III. of Russia (Roosh'-yah), . • 292 Peter the Cruel of Aragon, º e I5O Peter the Great, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278 Peter the Hermit, © & . 135, 147 Peterborough (Pe'-ter-bur-o), Petersburg (Pe'-ters-burg), . 27O, 293, 333 473, 518, 539, 521 Petersburg, St., . e º . 274, 275 Peterwardein (Pe-ter-war'-deen), . . 279 Petion (Pa-te-oang'), . e e 32I Petrowski (Pe-trous'-ke), . © • 344 Pfalzburg (Pfahls'-burg), g e Phalereus, Demetrius. (De-me'-tre-us Fa- 4O9 le'-re-us), & © e e 6o Pharaoh (Fa’-ro), . º º 25, 28 Pharaoh Necho (Nek'-o), e • 27, 32 Pharaohs, º º e º 25, 26 Pharnaces (Far-na’-seez), e e 90 Pharsalia (Far-sa'-le-a), & tº e • 9o Philadelphia (Fil-a-del-fe-a), 267, 459, 462, 463, 466, 468, 473,476, 478,481 Pºlphus, Ptolemy Čr Sºfía deſ. us), - • e e • 64, 9o Philip I. of France (Filſ-ip), . • 147, 148 Philip I. of Macedon, . º • 53, 54. Philip II. of Macedon, e . 62, 63, 81 Philip II. of Spain, 206, 208, 212, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 224 Philip III, of Spain, º e e 2I Philip IV. of Spain, . º º • 25O Philip, Emperor of Rome, & e IO3 Philip of Valois, e º I52, 153, 178 Philip the Fair, . º & I5O, I5I Philip the Hardy, . e e . I5o Philip the Tall, . º e tº I5I Philip Augustus (Au-gus'-tus), 137, 138, 149, 150, 163, 174, 175 Philip Egalite (A-gal-e-ta'), . . 343, 362 Philippa (Fil-ipº-pa), . & . I52, 178 Philippe, Louis (Loo'-e Fil-leep'), 362,363,364, 370, 37J 372, 384 Philippi (Fil-ip-pi), & 92, 5o Philippine (Fil'-ip-peen), . . 292 Philistines (Fe-lis'-teenz), 29, 30, 3.I Phillips (Fil’-ips), . o • 473 Philopoemen (Fil-o-pe -men), . 62, 63, 82 Phipps, Sir William (Fips), • 259, 30I Phocians (Fo'-she-ans), . tº © 53 Phocion (Fo'-she-on), e - • 59 Phocis (Fo'-sis), . º e • 35, 53 Phoebe (Fe'-be), , , . * º • 490 Phoenicia (Fo-nish’-e-a), • 26, 27, 34, 55 Phoenician, . dº © • 26, 27, 37 Phoenicians, - e e 25, 27, 76 Phraortes (Fra-or' teez), . º c 33 Phrygia (Frij'-c-a), º e sº 37 Phryxus (Frix'-us), . & º . 38 Piacenza (Pe-a-chent'-sa), e e 2.85 Piar (Pe-ar'),. º © & • 437 Piast (Pe'-ast), . e • . 186, 187 Piasts, e e © . 186 Piat (Pe-ah'), . © e ſº 420 602 A/AAAAA. TICA/C ZAVOAX. Picard Ernest (Er'-nest Pe-kar'), . Picernum (Pik'-er-num), e º Pichegru (Peesh-gru’), & 324, 325, 335 Pickens, Andrew (Pik’-ens), . 469, 471, 474 . 406 65 Picton, Sir Thomas (Pik-ton), . • 352 Picts, º e º & Io9, I2O Piedmont (Peed'-mont), & º 2O5, 357 Piedmontese (Peed-mont-eez), . © 357 Pierce, Franklin (Peerce), . º • 5CI Pierce, General, . º tº - 506 Pierpont, Frank (Peer'-pont), e • 507 Pierre, St. (Sang Pe-aire'), e e 3O2 Pigot (Pig"-ot), - º º 461 Pike, Zebulon N. (Zeb'-u-lon N. Pike), 487 Pilate, Pontius (Pon'-she-us Pi'-lat), • 94 Pillow, Fort (Pil’-lo), . º º 508 Pillow, General, e º º • 5 I? Pinarus (Pin-a'-rus), - º º 55 Pinchincha (Pin-chin'-cha), . e . 438 Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth (Kotes'- worth Pink'-ne), , e • 48o, 481 Pindar (Pin'-der), o tº º 54 Pinkie (Pink'-e), º e º • 2 II Piraeus (Pi-re’-us), º º e 47 Periander (Per-e-an’-der), . • *... • 44 Pirna (Pir’-na), . e 287 Pisa (Pe’-sa), º • I41, 144, 145, 167 Pisistratus (Pi-sis'-tra-tus), te • 43, 44 Pitcairn, Major (Pit’-kairn), e . 460 Pitt, William, the Elder, • 289, 304, 456 Pitt, William, the Younger, . 320, 336 Pittacus (Pit'-ta-kus), . e º 44 Pittsburg (Pitts'-burg), • 305 Pittsburg Landing, & & º 509 Pius VI. (Pi'-us), . e . 326, 329 JPius VII., e º • 335, 341, 348 Pius IX., o & e • 379, 38o Pi y Margall (Pe'e Mar'-gawl), 423, 424, 425 Pizarro, Francisco (Fran-sis'-ko Piz-zar'-o), 214 Place de Clichy (Plas de Klish’-e), 414; 419 Place de la Bastile (Plas de la Bas-teel'), 371, 373 Place de la Concord (Plas de la Kong'- kord), & © • 405, 419 Place Maubert (Plas Mo-baire'), 373 Placentia (Pla-sen'-she-a), . * • 79 Place Vendome (Plas Ven-dome'), 414, 416, º 418, 419 Plantagenet (Plan-taj'-e-net), º 174 Plantagenet, Geoffrey (Jef’-fre), º I73 Plantagenet, Henry, e • 148, 174 Plantagenets, º º e e I74 Plassey (Plas'-se), . e º • 299 Plataea (Pla-te'-a'), © • • 47, 49 Platoff (Pla'-toff), © 345,346 Plattsburg (Pattº-burg), ſe Plautius, Aulus (Au’-lus Plau'-she-us), . 95 Pleasant Hill, . e e º 517 Plessis (Plesſ-se), e © º • I57 Pluto (Plu'-to), . e e 36 Eymouth (Plim'-uth), . 255, 257, 258, 259 O; º e - e • O5, 85 Pocahontas (Po-ka-hon'-tas), • 255, 256 Podolia (Po-do'-le-a), . e • 2S3, 296 Point Au Trembles (Point O Traing'-ble), 462 Point Isabel (Is'-a-bel), © º • 497 Point, Crown, . º • 299, 395,465 Point, Stony, º wº o . 470 Point, Verplanck's (Ver'-planks), G 47o Point, West, 2 e e e e 47 Poitiers (Pwa -te-a), 124, 153, 154, 156, 178, 179, - 184, 185 Poland (Po'-land), 160, 186, 187,213, 273, 274, 275, 280, 287, 293,294, 295, 296, 337, 343, 395 Pole, o tº © º . 381,470 Poles, . 186, 187,295, 296, 364, 365, 395,465 Polignac, Jules de (Jule der Poleen-yak'), 360, 361 Peliorcetes, Demetrius (De-me'-tre-us Po- le-or-se'-teez), & º . 60 Polish (Po-lish), . 186, 187, 274, 280, 293, 294, 295, 296,364, 365, 395 º 497 Polk, James Knox, © e Pollentia (Pol-len'-she-a), . o • I IO Pollock (Pol’-lok), e º e 369 Pollux (Pol’-lux), . º º • 38 Polydectes (Pol-e-dek'-teez), .. & 40 Polysperchon (Pol-e-sper'-kon), . 6o Pomerania (Pom-er-an’-e-a), 186, 228, 329, 23r, 277,287, 288 Pompadour, Madame (Pom-pa-dune’), 236, 3ro Pompeii (Pom-pe’-e-i), . g • 9 Pompey, Cnaeus (Ne'-us #. 37, 88, 89 go Pompey, Cneius (Ne-us Pom'-pe), tº 93 Pompey, Sextus (Sex'-tus), . & SO 92 Pompton (Pom’-ton), . º 473 Ponce de Leon (Pon'-tha da Le-on'), • 499 Ponce de Leon, John, . º e I94 Pondicherry (Pon-de-sher’-re), . 292, 308 Pont du Jour (Pont du Zhoor'), . 417, 418 Pontiac (Pon'-te-ak), . © e 306 Pontic (Pon'-tik), ". e e , 88 Pontius (Pon'-she-us), . - e Pontius Pilate (Pon-she’—us Pi'-lat), • 9.4 Pontus (Pon'-tus), . e º , 88 Ponyer ºrder (Poang'-yer Ker’-te-a), .412 Pope, John, º gº º ſº 5 II Poppaea (Pop-pe'-a'), . © g . 96 Popayan (Po-pi-ahn'), . e e 436 Porsenna (Por-sen'-na), • 69 Porte Dauphine (Port Do-feen'), º e 4.18 Porte de la Meute (Port de la Mute'), . 418 Porte Maillot § & . 416, 418 Porte St. Denis (Sang Der-ne’), e 373 Porte St. Martin (Sang Mar’-tin), . • 373 Porter, David (Por’-ter), º . 485, 490 Porter, David D., . º 509, 51.3, 52 I Porter, Fitz John, e e o 5To Port Gibson (Gib'-son), e ge • 514 Port Hudson (Hud'-son), º º 5.I.5 Port Republic, & © • 5 IO Port Royal, º e Porto Bello (Porſ-to Bel-lo), Porto Rico (Por’-to Re"-ko), . e 422 Portsmouth (Ports'-muth), . 261, 263, 264 Portugal (Por’-tu-gal), . 125, 158, 193,215, 244, 27o, 292, 338, 339, 340, 356, 440 Portuguese (Porſ-tu-geez), . 193,216, 270, 292, 334, 339, 342, 356, § e • 51 3oo, 3ol. 508 e . 28o Porus (Po'-rus), e e Posen (Po'-zen), . e º 275, 43r Potemkin (Po-tem’-kin), . e • 295 Potidaea §. * º lº 49 Potomac (Po-to'-mak), 261, 475, 478, 507, 508, 5 to, 511, 512, 514, 516, 517, 518 Potosi (Po-to-se'), . e • 438,439 Potosi, San Luis (San Lu-is Po-to-se), . 498 Potsdam (Pots'-dam), e e 297 Powhatan (Pow-a-tan'), º . 255, 257 Praetor §§.} e © . 74, 87 Praetorian Guards (Pre-to'-re-an), . 94, 96, 1or, - IO2, Io9 Praga (Prah'-gah), . º . 296, 365 Pragmatic Sanction (Prag-mat'-ik), 28o, 282 Prague (Praig), 168, 169, 170, 226, 227, 284, 287, 288 347, 376, 398 gº • 324 Prairial (Pra-re-yal'), & Prairie Grove (Pra'-re), . º u 512 Preble (Preb'-el), * * © e e 481 Preimonstrants (Pre-mon'-Strants), e I33 Prentiss (Pren'-tis), . e e SI 5 Premzlow (Prents'-lou), . º tº 337 Presburg (Presſ-burg), e." e 336, 382 Presbyterian (Pres-be-te'-re-an), * 232 Presbyterianism, ſº e º • 232 Presbyterians, . e 218, 236 237,239 Prescott. William (Presſ-kot), º . 461 President, . º w º 484, 490 Presque Isle (Presk Ile'), . o • 302 AZPHABETICAL INDEx. 603 Preston (Presſ-ton), e e e 457 Preston Pans, & { } tº • 285 Prevost (Pre'-vost), gº * > o 469 Prevost, Sir George, g ſº . 489 Priam (Pri'-am), . . . . ſe e 38 Price, Stirling (Stir’-ling Price), 507, 508, 512 Pride, Colonel, gº º e • 239 Prideaux (Pre-do'), º { } º 305 Prim, . * {} e 4oo, 4or, 448 Primo de Rivera (Pre-mo da Re'-ver-ah), 429 Princeton (Prince’-ton), tº ſº • 465 Pring, Martin, . ſº © e 257 Pritchard (Pritch'-ard), g • S22 Probus (Pro-bus), ſº sº ro5 Procas (Pro'-kas), * © . 66 Proctor (Prok'-ter), * ſº 486 Propontis (Pro-pon'-tis], . 4. • 4o Prospect Hill, . iº & 61 Protestant (Protº-est-ant), 206, 207, 208, 211, 212, 216, 222, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 236 Protestanism, . ge º g 227 Protestants, 201, 206, 207, 208, 214, 216, 218, 225, 226, 228, 231 Provence (Prov-once',) tº I47, 31o, 349 Providence (Prov'-e-dense), . 263, 264, 458 Prussia (Proosh-yah), .252, 272, 278,281,285, . 286, 292, 294, 337, 346, 374, 396, 397,421 Prussian, 283, 285, 287, 289,296,291,337,346, 390, 397, 4oo, 402, 405 Prussians, 141, 277,284, 285,287,288,337,346, - 396, 397, 4oo, 402, 405 Pruth (Prooth), & sº g . 277 Prynne (Prin), . * & e 235 Psammenitus (Sam-men’-e-tus), . 26, 34 Psammeticus (Sam-met'-e-kus), . 26 Ptolemies (Tol’-e-meez), . 6o, 64 Ptolemy, (Tol’-e-me), . • 54, 61, 64, 99 Ptolemy Ceraunus (Se-rau’-nus), º . 6o Ptolemy Epiphanes (E-pif'-a-neez), º Ptolemy Philadelphus (Fil-a-del’-fus), Ptolemy Soter (So'-ter), e & 64 64, 9o • 64 Puebla (Pweb'-lah), 448, 449, 499 Puerto Cabello (Pwair'-to Ka-bel’-yo), 436,437, - 4.38 Pugatscheff (Poo-gat'-shef), . . g 2.94 Puigcerda (Pweeg-sair'-dah), e • 429 Pulaski, Count (Pul-as'-ke), e 465, 479 Pulaski, Fort, . º * © • 509 Pultowa (Pul-to'-wah), . * º 276 Pultusk (Pool’-toosk), Punic (Pu'-nik), sº tº • 337 e e ſº 76, 77,78, 81, 82, 83 Punjab (Pun-jaub'), . º • 58, 3 Punnier (Pun-ne-ar'), * > © . 369 Pupienus (Pu-pe'-nus), . e g Io9 Puritan (Pu'-re-tan), • 235, 257, 258, 263 Puritanism, 232, 234 Puritans, 218, 234, 236, 237,245, 257, 258, 265 Putnam, Israel (Put'-nam), . • 464, 469 Pym, John, (Pim), . ſº de 235, 236 Pyramids (Pir'-a-mids), . 25, 328 Pyrenees (Pir-e-neez'), 78,80, 124, 126, 127, , , 159, 250, 251, 268, 323,340, 346 Pyrrhus (Pir'-rus), wº 61, 75, 76 uaker (Qua'-ker), . tº 265, 266, 267 uaker Hill, g º º . . 468 uakers, e * . 258, 265, 266, 267 Juatre Bras (Kah'-ter Brah), © • 35 I uartier Mouſfiard (Kar-te-a’ Moof-e-ar'), 419 Lebec (Que-bek’), 290, 291, 3oo, 301, 302, 305, - 306, 307, 462 1eenstown (Queens'-town), . & 485 uentin, St. (Sang Kain-tang'), 212, 218, 410 uerlier, Ponyer (Poang-yare' Kair-te-a'), 412 Quesne, Fort Du (Du Kane), 286, 289, 302, 303, e . . . 3O5 uincy (Quin'-se), * & e 493 uintilius (Quin-til'-e-us), . e • IO5 Quintus Cassius (Quin -tus Kash’-us), 89, 91, 92 Quintus Flaminius (Fla-min'-e-us), '' . 8E Quirinus (Que-ri'-nus), tº º . 67 Quito (Kee-to), . e º 435, 438 R. Rabbah (Rab'-bah), e tº f • 31 Rachael (Raſ-chel), & * © 28 Radagaisus (Ra-da-ga-i’-sus), tº • III Radetzky (Ra-dets'-ke), & 3/9, 38o Radovi (Ra-do'-ve), . tº & , 29 Radzivil (Rad-ze-veel), . e 364,365 Raglan (Rag'-lan), . © - 387, 388 Ragotzky (Ra-gots'-ke), • - 2 ahl, . g g e & . 465 Raisin, . & g e * 486 Raleigh (Raw'-le), . e . 52 I Raleigh, Sir Walter, º • 232; 233, 255 Rambouillet (Ram-bool’-ya), sº J 3. 23: Ramillies (Ram-il-eez’), * tº 27o Ramorino (Ram-o-re'-no), . & . 366 Randolph, Peyton (Paſton Ran’-dolſ), . 459 apid Anna, . ſº g º . 518 Rappahannock (Rap-pa-han’-nok), . 5I4. Raritan (Rar'-e-tan), & g . 468 Raspail (Ras-pail'), tº g * 372 Rastadt (Raw'-staht), & tº . 272 Raucoux (Ro-koo'), & we * 285 Ravaillac (Ra-val-yah"), . g • 22 I Ravenna (Ra-ven’-na), . 89, 117, 118, 126 158 Rawden (Raw'-den), . * . . $7 I; 472 Raymond of Toulouse (Ra'-mond of . oo- tooz"), e ſº * 13ſ. I41, 149 Rayon (Ra'-on), . © º - 435 Rebecca (Re-bek'-a), º o . 28 Redan (Re-dan'), & º & 388 Red River, . º º • 514, 517 Red Sea, . * § wº º 28 Regensburg (Ra'-gens-burg), • 200, 252 Regulators (Reg-u-la/-tors), . * 458 Rugulus (Reg’-u-lus), g * • 77 Rehoboam (Re-ho-bo'-am), . • 3T, 32 Reindeer, º • * * g • 490 Remus (Re'-mus), © e º 66 Reno (Re'-no), tº q • 5 II Resaca (Ra-sah'-kah , ſº © g 518 Resaca de la Palma (Ra-sah'-kah da ſa Pah'- mah), © i. ſº • 446, 498 48o Retaliation, g tº wº * Retz, Cardinal de . e o • 25O Revere, Paul (Re-vere'), & † 46o Reynolds, John F. (Ren’-olz), º . 514 Reynosa (Ri-no'-sa), . * te 349 Rhaetia (Re"-she-a), . e º . 85 Rheims (Reemz), e ... 146, 155, 349 Rhenish Bavaria (Ren-ish Ba-va’-re-a), 377 Rhenish Prussia (Proosh'-yah), . e 377 Rhine (Rine), . 89, 94, 125, 126, 165, 166, 227, 231, 251, 254, 269, 270, 28o, 283, 284, 288, 319, 323, 326, 336, 348, 402 Rhode Island (Rode I'-land), 258, 263, 264,458, 468, 478, 496 Rhodes (Rodes), e 55, 56, 123, 1 to, 192 , Rhodian (Ro'-de-an), . * & 54 Rhone (Rone), ſº e e 78, 205 Riall (Ri’-al), . te e º 488 Rialto (Re-awl’-to), . • * • I43 Rich, wº e e e t 243 Richard the Lion-hearted, . 137, 138, :49, 163, I74; t?5 Richard II., e e © . I 79, 18C, Richard III., gº e e wº tº 184 Richardson (Rich'-ard-son), . º 512 Richelieu (Rish'-e-lu), e 229, 231, 249 Richmond (Rich'-mond), 184,473, Soó, 510, 51.x, - 512, 518, 52T |Rich Mountain, e e e • .5 Ricimer (Ris'-e-mer), . ſe e II2 Ridley (Rid'-le), & e tº • 23.I2 604 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. V Ridgeficid ºf-field, & e • 465 Ried (Reed), . e tº & • 347 Riga (Re'-ga), . ſº & tº 274 Rigault (Re'-go), * e & • 4 Rio de la Hacha (Re"-o da la Hatch'-ah), Rio de la Plata (Reſ-o da la Plat'-a), • I95 Rio Grande (Re"-o Gran'-da), , 444, 446, 497, - 498, 516 Rio Janiero (Reſ-o Jan-e'-ro), º • 339 Ripley (Rip'-le), . g wº * 488 fiveral Primo de (Pre'-mo da Re'-ver-ah), 429 Riverc Revº), • * & 42 I, 450 Ri,ers, Lord (Riv'-ers), * g . 184 Riveli (Riv-o'-le), g © 326, 379 Rizzio, David, (Reet'-se-o), e • 222 Toanoke (Ro-a-noke') tº 508 Robert of France (Róbert), * • I 47 Robert of Normandy, º • 136, 147, 173 Robert Guiscard (Gees'-kar), gº 145, 161 Robespierre (Ro-bes-pe-aire'), .. 317, 318, 321, * 323, 324 Robinson Rev. John (Rob'-in-son), . 257 Rocha (Ro'-cha), . ſº . 450, 451 Rochambeau, Count de (Ro-sham-bo'), 472, 474 Rochefort (Roash’-foar), . • 352 Rochefort, Henri, gº g 406, 420 Rochelle, La (La Ro-shel’). tº - 249 Rochester (Roch'-es-ter), tº * 2 IO Rockingham, Marquis of (Rok'-ing-ham), 475 Rocky Mount, © C. 71 Rocky Mountains, 195, 481, 53 I Rudiger (Ru’-de-jer), º e • 383 Rudiger von Stahremberg (Stah'-rem-berg), 252 Rudolph (Ru'-dolſ), ..., * g • IOI Rue Castiglione (Kas-teel-yo'-na), 416, 418 Rue d' Amsterdam (d’Amº-ster-dam). . 414 Rue de Clery (der Kler’-e), . & 373 Rue de la Paix (der la Pa'), tº , 418 Rue de la Roquette (der la Ro-ket’), . 373 Rue de Rosiere (der Ro-se-aire'), . • 4I4 Rue du Faubourg St. Denis (du Fo'-bocrg Sang Der'-ne), g © © 373 Rue Lafayette (Lah-fa-et'), gº & 42d Rue Royale (Rwaw'-ale), . 4I4, 419, 42O Rue St. Denis (Sang Der'-ne), . 373 Rue St. Honore (Sang Ho'-nore), . . 418 Rue Villeneuve Bourbon (Vil’-le-nuve Boor- O Il º - ſº e e e o 373 Ruffo (Rufº-fo), e © Q 329 Rugen (Ru'-jen), e * Runnymede (Run'-ne-meed), Rupert, Emperor of Germany 231, 277, 338 * e ‘I 75 (Ru’-pert), 168, I6 Rupert of the Palatinate, . 237,238, 244, : Ruric (Ru’-rik), . * tº . 130, 188 Russell, Lord John (Rus'-sel), 366, 367, 399 Russell, Lord William, e gº . 246 Russia (Roosh'-yah), 188,273, 275,277,278, 280, 286, 292, 294, 295, 296, 329, 336, 342, 364, 386 Russian, . 188,273, 276, 278,290, 295, 296, 329, e 336, 345, 365, 386, 387, 388, 395,396 Russians, 130, 188,274, 275, 28o, 289,294, 295, e 492; 53O, Roderick (Rod’-er-ik), tº º . I24 Rodgers (Roj'-ers), e s 484, 524 odman (Rod'-man), º • 512 Rodney, Admiral, (Rod'-ne), . 308,309 Rodolph of Hapsburg, ſº © . 166 Rodolph II., tº º e 225, 226 Roger I. (Roj'-er), . & gº • I 45 Roger II., * ę ſe 'e I45 Roland (Ro'-land), . • 127, 317, 318, 321 Roland, Madame, ſº te 317, 32 I. Rolſe, John (Rolf), . * . 256 Rollin, Ledru (Le'-dru Rol’-lin), • 37 I, 372. Rollo (Rol’-lo), & g I30, 146 Roman (Ro'-man), 65, 66, 69, 73,77, 80, 86, 89, IOI, Io9'ſ II.3, 327, 379, 413 Romanoff (Ro-man-ov'), . . 364; 373 Romans, . 62, 63, 66, 67, 72, 77, 81, 87, 95, Ioo, IIo, I42, 204, 413 Romanzoff (Ro-man-zov), ſº & 294 Rome, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 71, 76, 84, 85, IoS, III, 112, 128, 142, 204, 379, 38o, 412, 413, 414 Romish Church (Roam’-ish), 200, 201, 207, 386 omney (Rom'-ne), º * 506 { . 66, 67, 113 Romulus (Rom'-u-lus), e Romulus Augustulus (Au-gus'-tu-lus), II2, 113 Roncesvalles (Ron-se-vals'), º . I27 Ronsin (Roang-sang'), . ſe * 322 Rooke, Sir George (Rook), ** . 269 Rosalie, Fort, (Ro-sa-le'), º tº 3oo Rosamunda (Ro-sa-mun'-dah), gº • I 19 Rosas (Ro'-sas), . * e wº 44O Rosbach º © º 288 Rosbecque (Rosſ-bek), . e & I54 Rosecrans (Rosſ-e-kranz), .. 506, 507, 512, 513, . 515, 516 Rosny (Ros'-ne), {º º • 407, 409 OSS, e © & e . 489 Tº ºssi (Rosſ-se), . & * , gº 379 Rossignol (Ros-seen-yoal'), . & • 322 Rostopschin (Ros-top-shin'), . º 344 Rcthiere, La (La Ro-le-aire'), • 348, 349 Rºtterdam (Rot'-ter-dam), . ſº 209 Rcuen (Roo’-en), 148, 156, 182 Round way Down (Round'-way Down), . 237 Rouse (Rous), . © © º 242 Rousseau (Roos’-so), ſe • 31 in 512 Roxana (Rox-a'-na), . ſº • 57, 3o Roxbury (Rox-ber'-re), tº g . 258 Rubicon (Ru-be'-kon), . & 2 89 296, 329, 336, 345, 365, 386, 387, 395 Ryswick (Ríº. º 3 e 248, 35% 3OI - S. Saabaism (Sa'-ab-ism), • e • I2O. Saalfeld (Sahl'-feld), * • e 337 Saarbrucken (Sahr'-brook-en), • 402, 405 Sabine (Sa'-bine), º tº . 66, 67 Sabine Cross Roads (Sa-been"), . . . . 517 Sabines, . e Ç 66, 67 Sac (Sak), tº e © * º 494 Sachem (Sa'-kem), tº & 257, 526 Sackett's Harbor (Sak’-et's), & . 487 Sacramento (Sak-ra-men'-to), . 499 Sacramento City, e o º 524. Sadowa (Sah'-do-wa), . * 3. 398 Saguntum (Sa-gun'-tum), . e . 78 Sahib, Nena §. Sah'-ib), . tº 390 Saib Tippoo (Tip'-poo Sah'-ib), e • 299 Saladin (Sal’-a-din), . ſº 137, 138 Salamanca (Sal-a-man'-ka), . tº • 342 Salamis (Sal’-a-mis), e ſº * 46 Salankemen (Sa-lan'-ke-men), 5 tº . 253 258, 259, 266 151, 152, 178, 367 & . I5I Salem (Sa'-lem), e º Salic Law (Sa’-lik), . Salien Franks (Sal'-yan), . Salisbury (Sals'-ber-re), g Salle, Robert de La (der La Sahl'). Salmeron, Nicholas (Nikº-o-las Sal'-me- 424, 425, 426,427 • 4 522 • 300 sº sºlº altillo (Sahl-teel'-yo), * 8, 4 ś 㺠e ſº 9ö, ; Samarcand (Sam-ar-kand'), . º • IQO Samaria (Sa-maſ-re-a), . •º 31, 32 Samnite (Sam'-nite), e o 74, 75 Samnites, tº & e 74; 75 Samnium (Sam'-ne-um), . de 65, 75 Samson (Sam'-son), & tº • 29, 30 Samuel (Sam'-yel), . ſº e • 3O San Antonio (San An-to'-ne-o), . 427 447, 5oo San Antonio de Bexar (Ba-har'), . - 493 Sander's Creek (Sanſ-dels), . & 477. Sandusky (Sanſ-dus-ke), . º . 486 Sandwich (Sandſ-witch) • ' . 245 San Francisco (San Fran-sis'-ko), . • 5oo San Jacinto (San Ja-sin'-to), .. e 444 San Juan de Ulloa (San Wahn da Qo-loo'-a), 499 . San Julian (San Ju'-le-an), * tº 428 A ZAAAAA; 7./CA/, /M/DEX. 605 San Luis Potosi (San Lu'-is Po-to-se), . 498 San Marino (San Ma-re'-no), . e 394 San Martin (San Marſ-tin), . º • 373 San Salvador (San Sal’-va-dore), © I94 Sanscrit (San'-skrit), º & • 23 San Sebastian (San Se-basſ-che-an), .346, 4oo Santa Anna (San'-ta An'-na), 442, 443, 444,445, - 446, 447, 498,499, 5oo, 5or Santa Cruz (San'-ta Krooz). w” ---, 44 I. Santa Fe (San'-ta Fa) w * > Santa Guliana (San'-ta Gu-le-an/-a), Santa Martha (San'-ta Marſ-tha), e 436 Santee (San'-tee) . . g g • 474 Santerre (San-taire'), , . e . 317, 320 Šantiago (San-te-a'-go), º o • 439 Sapor (Saſ-por), . e e e IO4 Şaracen (Sar'-a-sen), . 120, 122, 123, 124, 125 Saracens . 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 134, 160 Saragossa (Sar-a-gos'-sa), 127, 271, 339, 346, 4oo Sarah (Sa-rah), e & º • 2 Saratoga (Sar-a-to'-ga), . tº Sardanapalus (Sar-dan-a-pa"-lus), . • 24 Sardinia (Sar-din'-e-a), 65, 77, 92, 158,282, 285, 326, 357, 379, 387, 388, 392, 393, 394 º 467 Sardinian, © e © 379 Sardinians, . . . 285, 323, 379, 388, 393 Sardis (Sar'-dis), . º 33, 45, 52, 55, 6o . IO5 Sarmatians (Sar-maſ-she-ans), º Sassacus (Sas’-sa-kus), . e e 262 Sassanidae (Sas-san'-e-de), . • Io9, I22 Saturn (Sat'-urn), e o © 36 aul, . • e º º • 3O Savage Station, 5II Savannah (Savanº-nah), 267, 4%, 47O, 475, 5C3, 509, 530 Savona (Sa-vo'-nah), . e º , 2O3 §ºy') 203, 205, 253, 255, 268, 326 Saxe (Sax), º e º 285 Saxe-Coburg (Sax-Ko'-burg), 363, 364, 367 Saxon (Saxº-on), 120, 127, 128, 159, 16o, 161, 162, IT Is I?2 Saxon-Heptarchy (Hep-tark'e), 120, .#"; 287, 348 Saxons, . . Io9, 120, 127, 128, 189,229, 275 Saxony (Sax-on'-ne), 159, 160, 161, 200, 206, 207, 208, 227, 229, 231, 273, 275, 282,237, 337, 374, - 377, 379 Say and Seale (Sa and Seel), º . 262 Saybrook |...} º & . 262, 263 Sayle, William (Sale), © & . 265 Scaevola, Mutius (Mu'-she-us Sev'-o'-la), Scandinavia (Skan-de-naſ-ve-a), . 146, 186 Scandinavian, . Io9, 130, 171, 185, 186, 213 Scandinavians, & º • . 184 Scarron, Madame (Skar'-on), . º 253 Schamyl (Sham'-mil), e tº • 395 Scharnhorst (Sharnº-horst), o e 347 Scheldt (Shelt), e º • 27I Schenectady (Ške-nek-ta-de), º 3OI Schleswig (Shles'-wig), 120, 228, 273, 375, 377, - 378, 396, 397, 399 Schlusselburg (Schlusſ-sel-burg), . • 275 Schmalkald (Shmah!’-kold), . 206, 207, 208 Schoeffer (Shef’-fer), e º . I92 Schoenbrun (Shain'-brum), d b 34 I Schofield (Sko’-feeld), º Schoharie Valley (Sko-haſ-re), Schuyler, Philip (Ski'-ler), . Schuyler, º e 407 . 266, 267, 466, 468 • 520, 52 I © 4. 462, 467 ort, . © Schuylkill (Skool'-kill), Schwartz, Berthold (Bert’-old Shwarts) . 792 Schwartzenberg (Shwarts'-en-berg), 347, 348, {Schweidnitz (Shwide'-nits), . 288, 292 Schwerin (Shwair'-in), e 186, 282, 287 Schwytz (Shwites), . º º . 167 Scinde (Sind), . o ſº © 369 Scio (Si'-o), e © tº tº & 358 Sciots (Si’-ots), . • Q º 358 Scipio §: • . o -> • 79 Scipio AEmilianus (E-mil-e-an’-us), . 83 Scipio Africanus (Af-re-kan'-us), . .8o, 81, 82 Scipio Nasica (Na'-se-ka), * g. 84 Scone (Skone), º tº e . 177 Scots (Skots), . Tor, Io9, 176, 177, 211, 222 Scotch (Skotsh), 176, 178,211, 222, 223, 235, 285 Scotland (Skot'-land), 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 180, 2co, 235, 278 Scott, Dred, º e tº º 502 Scott, Winfield (Winſ-feeld Skot), 485, 488, 494, 49%. 498,499, sº • I Scrope (Skrope), . e º Scythia (Sith’-e-á), • • 34, 57 Scythian, e © e e • 34 Scythians, ſº * • 34, IO4; 12d Sea Islands. . º e e . 508 Seballs (Še baſis), i- • 422; 427, 432 Sebastian Cabot (Se-bas'-che-an Kaſ-bot), . 195 Sebastian, St., . º 346, 4oo Seckenheim (Sek’-en-hime), Sedan (Se-dong'), . * Sedgwick (Sej'-wick), . Sedition Law, º & º 17o 404, 405, 406, 413 e 516, 518 . 481 Seine (Saine), , . º . I25, 373, 406 Sejanus (Se-jan'-us), . • º • 94 Seleucia §...} © © 64, 89, Ior Seleucidae (Se-lu'-se-da), . 6o, 64, 88 Seleucus, (Se-lu'- kus), . © • 60, 64 Selim I. of Turkey (Se’-lim), º • I92 Selim II., . © e º & 192 Seljuk (Sel'-jook), , . & * • I34 Seminole (Sem'-e-nole), . • 49 I: 494, 495 Seminoles, . © º e • 49 Semiramis (Se-mir'-a-mis), - . 24, 186 Semmes, Raphael (Raf’-a-el Sems), • 519 Sempach, (Sem'-pok), . © e I68 Sempronius (Sem-pron’-e-us), e • 79 Seneca (Sen’-e-ka, g º • 95, 96 Sennacherib (Sen-na-ke'-rib), e • 24 Sens, e º e º & IoS Sepoy (Se-poy'), º e 389, 390, 391 Sepoys, . • t • 389, 399, 391 Septimius (Sep-tim'-e-us), . e • QO Septimius Severus (Sev'-e-rus), . e IOI Serapis (Se-rap'-is), . - e • 47O Sergius Catiline (Ser'-je-us Kat'-e-line),. 88 Seringapatam (Se-ring-ga-pa-tam'), • 299 Serrano (Ser-ran'-o), 4oo, 4or, 422, 427, 428,429 Sertorius (Ser-to'-re-us), . • e 87 Servia (Ser’-ve-a), . & . I91 Servian, . e © ( ) • 380, 381 Servians, tº © * e • 38o Servius Tullius (Ser’-ve-us Tul'-le-us), . 68 Sesia (Sesia (Se’-se-a), º e • 393 Sesostris (Se-sos'-tris), . e tº 26 Sevastopol (Sev-as-to'-pol), . . 387, 388 Severus (Sev'-e-rus), . . . º e I O2 Severus, Alexander (Al-ex-an’-der), I O2 Severus, Septimius (Sep-tim'-e-us), • IO I Sevier (Sev-eer'), . 472 2 Seville (Sev'-il), © Sevres (Sev'-er), . © & © Sextius Lateranus (Sek'-she-us La-ter-an’-us), 78 Seymour (Seº-more), . e • 2 I2 Seymour, General, e - ſº 517 Seymour, Horatio, (Ho-ra'-she-o) * 523 Seymour, Jane, º & • 2 Ho, 2 II Sforza, Francisco (Fran-sis'-ko Sfor’-tsa), . 143 Shackleford (Shak’-el-ford), . . . & SIS Shaftesbury, Earl of (Shafis'-ber-re), 245, *::: 2 **, *, *, *s, *:: I Shah Abbas, Shah Ab-bas), . . 215, 281 Shah, Nadir (Na'-dir Shah), e . 281 Shah'Soojah (Shah Soo'-jah), . c 365 Shalmanesar (Shal-man-e'-ser), e • 24 Shannon (Shan'-non), . e 488 Shawnoese (Shaw-no-ese'), . & . 484 Sheba (She'-ba), . e e Q 3r Shechem (She'-kem), º e • 31. Shelby (Shel'-be), ſº e 472 Shem, º e e o • 22, 24 606 AZAAAAA. TMCA C / WDAE.X. Shenandoah Valley (Shen-an-do'-ah), 506, 510, 519, 52O, : Sheridan (Sher'-e-dan), e * • 29 Sheridan, Philip H., . . . º • 52O, 52 I Sheriff Muir (Sher'-if Moor), º . 278 Sherman, Roger (Roj'-er Sher'-man), . 4O4 Sherman, William Tecumseh (Te-kum'-sa) 512, 513, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 529 Shields (Sheeids), . & • 502 Shiites (Shi'-ites), tº e tº I23 Shiloh (Shi'-lo), s e © te 509 Shinar, Land of (Shi'-nar), b • 21, 22 Shirley (Shir' le), . º 3O2; 3O3, 3O4 Shishak (Shi'-shak), º e º 32 Shreveport (Shreve'-port), . e . 617 Shrewsbury (Shruse-ber’-re), . e 18o Siberia (Si-be’-re-a), . 188,276, 365, 395 Sibley, Henry H. (Sib'-le), © © 513 Sicilian (Sis-il'-e-an), . © • I5O Sicilians, . º º º e 378 Sicilian Vespers, º g • I45, I5O Sicily (Sis'-e-le), 40, 42,49, 50, 65, 76, 77,78, 8o, 3, 145, 146, 165, 272, 279, 378, 3: J. Siculi (Sik'-u-li), e ſº tº Sicyon (Sish’-e-on), © e . 61, 62 Sidon (Si'-don), º º • 27, 55, I37 Sidonians (Si-do'-ne-ans), e 27 Sierra Morena (Se-a/-ra Mo-ra'-na), . 158 Sieyes (Se’-es), , . e e • 312, 331 Sigel, Franz (Se’-gel), e - . 507 Sigismund, of Germany (Sid'-jis-mund), 169, 17o Sigismund I. of Poland, e º • 187 Sigismund II. of Poland, © º 187 Sigmaringen (Sig-ma-ring’-en), . 4oz, 4oz Sikh (Seek), e º º 369, 390 ikhs, . º o º - . 369 Silesia (Se-lee'-she-a), . . 190, 282, 285 Silesian, te º e 282, 284, 285 Silistria (Silis'-tre-a), . e • 359, 387 Sillery (Sil’-ler-re), . º • 291, 306 Silliman, (Sil’-le-man), 6 º e © 405 Simnel, Lambert (Lam'-bert Sim'-nel), . 185 Simon de Montfort (Si'-mon de Montſ-fort), 175, I 76 Simon, Jules (Jule Si'-mon), e Simon, Maccabeus (Mak-kaſ-be-us), . 64 Simpson (Sinn'-son), . º º ... 388 Sinai, Mount (Si'-na), . e º 28 Sinope (Sin'-o-pee), . e e • 387 Sioux (Soo), e e & e 513 Sirmium (Sir'-me-um), e º • IOS Sisera (Sis'-e-ra), . o e © 29 Siva (Si'-va), • º tº © • 23 Siwah (Se-wah"), - e e 34 Skippon (Skip'-pon), . o © 238 Skrzynecki (Skshe-nets'-ke), . © 365 Slaves (Slaves), © e • I29 Slavic (Sla'-vik), . e e 376, 38o Slavonia (Sla-vo'-ne-a), e e . 381 Slavonians, . . II.8, 129, 159, 16o, 186 Slavonic “...º. g e • 186 Slemmer, Adam J. (Slem'-mer), o 504 Sloat (Sloat), . º o º • 499 Sloughter, Henry (Slout’-er), . • 26r Smart, . º e º o • 242 Smith, Andrew J., - º • 519 Smith, E. Kirby (E. Kir'-be Smith), • 512 Smith, John º * 255, 256, 257 Šmith, Šydney (Sidºne Smith), ..." 33% Smolensko (Smo-lens'-ko), e © 344 Sobieski, John (So-be-es’-ke), • 252, 253 Sobraom (So-bra’-on), . o & 369 Sobrier (So-bre-a'), e º e 372 Socialism, e º tº o • 372 Socrates (Sok'-ra-teez), . o e 5.I Sogdiana (Sog-de-an’-a), . © • 57 Soissons (Swos-Soang'), . © I25, 349 Solferino (Sol-ſer-e'-no), e © • 393 Solomon (Sol’-o-mon), . e e 3 I Solon (So'-lon), o º • 42, 43, 44 Soltikoff (Sol’-te-kof), . o © 290 Solway Frith (Sol’-way), . cº • 99 Solway Moss, . e © • 2 II Solyman (Sol'-e-man), e • I 92, 204 Somerset (Som’-er-set), .. • 2 II, 212, 508 Somorrostro (So-mor-rosſ-tro), . . 428 Sonderburg Glucksburg,' (Soon’-der-burg Glooks'-burg), . e º s 396 Sophia St. (Saint So-fe'-a'), • II.9) [91 Sorel, (Sor’-el), © º © 462 orr, & Q e © & 284 Sothel (Soth’-el), , . e º , 265 Soubise (Soo-beez'), . e . . 288 Soult (Soolt), . º . .349, 342, 346, 449 South America (South A-mer'-e-ka), . I94 South Carolina (South Kar-o-li'-na), 264, 265, 463, 471, 473, 494, 504, 505, 508, 515, 521 South Mountain, º e e . 511 Spain, 27, 37, 78, 80, 83, 87, 9o, 96, III, 124, 127, . .4%, 156, 1943,215, 242, 269, 335, 339, 355 Spaniard (Span’-yard), . © • I94, 2I4 Spaniards, - 143, 145,242, 265, 268, 34o Spanish (Span'-ish), 194, 195, 213, 268, 339, 342, 367, 4oo, 421 Sparta (Spar'-ta), 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 48, 51, %; 53, O2 Spartacus (Spar'-ta-kus), . s 3. 87 Spartan (Spar'-tan), 40, 41, 42, 46, 49, 5o, %; 2 2 Spartans, . 4,42, 46,49, so, 32, 8, Spenser, Hugh (Hu Spen'-ser), & • 177 Spicheren (Spik’-er-en), . © & 403 Spice Islands, tº e tº • I Spire, e 161, 166, 201, 254 Splugen (Splu'jeh) º e © • 33 Spotsylvania Coutt House (Spot-sil-va'- Ile-a º º º • gº Springfield (Spring'-feeld), . & - 472, 507 St. Albans (Saint Awlſ-bans), . * 184 St. Angelo (Saint An'-je-lo), º • 204 St. Antoine (Saint An-twaw'-na), • 250, 373 St. Arnaud (Sang Ar’-no), . º . 387 St. Aubin (Sang O'-been), e I57 St. Augustine (Saint Au’-gus-teen), . . 268 St. Avold (Saint Av'-old), • , º 403 St. Bartholomew (St. Bar-thol’-o-mew), 219, 220 St. Bernard (Saint Ber-nard'), tº • I37 St. Clair (Saint § 466, 467, 479 St. Cloud (Sang Clooſ), e • 33 I 1 393 St. Denis (Sang Der'-ne), 2I9, 22I, 373, 41o St. Domingo (Saint Do-ming'-o), . 134, 334 St. Germain (Sang Zher'-men), __. 219, 247 St. Germain l'Auxerrois (Sang Zher'-men Lo-zher-waw') º © o • 219 St. Helena (Saint He-le'-na), . g 352 St. Honore (Sang Ho-nore'), & . 418 St. John . 156, 140, 192 • 20 St. Just (Saint ust), • e St. Lawrence (Saint Law'-rence), 195,309, 302, 306, 462, 487 467 St. Leger (Saint º e © © St. Louis (Sang Loo'-e I39, 14o, I5o 2 * St. Mark (Saint Mark), . © & I43 St. Mark's (Saint Mark’s), . o • 492 St. Mary's (Saint Ma'-ry’s), . . . e 26r St. Menehould (Sang Ma'-noo), -> . 316 St. Paul (Saint Paul), . e º St. Peter (Saint Pe'-ter), , . I99, 200, 379 St. Petersburg (Saint Pe'-ters-burg), 274,275, 293, 333 St. Philip, Fort (Saint Fil-ip), . " : St. Pierre (Sang Pe-aire'), © º 302 St. Pierre, Eustace (Use'-tas), © St. Quen (Sang Kain), . o º 419 St. Quentin (Sang Kain-tang'), 212, 218, 4ro St. Ruth, & ſº tº o . 248 St. Salvador (Sal’-va-dore), . © I94 St. Sophia (So-fe'-a) II9, 191 Stadtholder (Štahºhold-er), 216, art, 218, 247, 251, 298 AZPHABETICAL INDEX. 607 Stair, e e tº g ſº 284 Stanhope (Stan'-hope), ſº © . 271 Stanislaus Leczinski (Stan-is-la/-us Lek- zins'-ke), . * g 275, 276, 28o Stanislaus Poniatowski (Po-ne-a-tous'-ke), 293 Stanley (Stan’-le), . sº . 184 štauton, Edwin M. (Stan'-ton), 523 ** Stahremberg, Rudiger von (Ku-de-jer VOrl Stah'-rem-burg), cº . 252, 27.I., 272 Stark, John, . ) jº º ---, .’aé7 Staten Island (Sta'-ten), © e 464 Stalira (Sta-ti-ra), . * e . 58 Steadman, Fort (Sted'-man), . tº 521 Steele, Frederic (Steel), ſº & • 51.5 Steinbock (Stine'-bok), . © iº 277 Steinmetz (Stine'-mets), º • 4o3, 4O4 Stephen of England (Ste’-ven), . I73, 174 Stephen of Hungary, e tº . I89 Stephens, Alexander H. (Ste’-vens), . 5O4 Stephenson, Fort (Ste’-ven-son), . , 486 Steuben (Stu’-ben), º iº gº 465 Stevens (Ste’-vens), . e tº • 5 II Stewart (Stu'-art), o © g 490 Stilicho (Stil'-e-ko), . * • IIo, Il I Stirling (Stir’-ling), e wº • I77 Stirling, Lord ſº & ſº • 464 Stockach (Štok-ak), e gº tº 329 Stockholm (Stok'-holm), . . 186, 213 Stockton (Stok'-ton), . º º 499 Stofflet (Stof-fla'), . e tº • 322 Stone, . © c tº & 508 Stoneman (Stone'-man), . e • 522 Stone River, de & e tº 513 Stono Ferry (Sto'-no), tº & • 469 Stony Point, e tº tº Strafford (Straf’-ford), • 234, 235 Stralsund (Strahl'-soond), 165, 228, 277, 338 Strasburg (Stras'-burg), IoS, 252, 370, 402, 403, 406, 497, 412 Stratton Hill (Strat'-ton), . • 237 Strelitzes (Strel'-its-es), . ſº © 188 Stricker (Strick'-er), . * e . 489 Stringer (String'-er), * e e 242 Stringham (String'-am), iº c • 507 Strode, . ſº º © sº 23 Strongbow (Strong'-bo), tº e . I 74 Struve (Stru’-va), 375 Stuart (Stu'-art), . te 222, 232, 24, 474, 512 Sturgis (Stur'-jis), tº e e 518 Stuttgart (Stutº-gart), e e • 377 Stuyvesant (Sti-vesſ-sant), ſº tº 26o Styria (Stir’-e-a), wº e tº . 166 Suchet (Su-sha'), e e 342 Sucre (Su-kra'), º © e • 44O Suda (Su’-da), . & * tº 357 Sudermania (Su-der-maſ-ne-a), t 213, 34 I Suetonius Paulinus (Su-ton'-e-us Pau-li'-nus), 96 Sueve (Sweev), * g & • I I2 Sueves, . e tº © {* III Suffee (Suf-fee') tº o © • 2 I 5 Suffeean (Suſ-fee'-an), . e tº 215 Suffolk (Suf'-folk), . © • 513, 5 I 4 Suliot (Su’-le-ot), . & § 358 Sullivan, John (Sul’-le-van), 464, 468, 47.o Sullivan's Island, . © te . 463 Sully (Sul'-le), , . ſº & . . 22 I Sultan (Sul'-tam), 137, 138, 191, 192, 204,359,386 Sumter, Fort (Sum'-ter), . 504, 505, 515 Sumter, Thomas, . te • 471, 472, 474 Sunbury (Sun'-ber-re), e ğı • 469 Sunnites (Sun'-nites), , . e e 123 Surajah Dowlah (Su-ra'-jah Dow'-lah), 299 Surney, Earl of (Sur'-re), . • 209, 2 II Susa (Su'-sa), º tº e 35, 57, 59 Susiana (Su-se-an'-a), & e . 57 §: ..º.º. '-o) tº e e I2O uwarrow (Su-wahrſ-o tº 295, 296, 32 Swabia (Swaw'-be-a), . Q : ; ; Swabian league, º tº e • I 7O Swanzy (Swan'-ze), * o . 258 Sweaborg (Swe'-borg), tº • 338, 388 Swedes (Sweeds), e 229, 230, 252, 295 Sweden (Swe'-den), 185, 186, 213, 229, 273, 275, re 277,278,281, 295, 333, 338, 341, 342 Swedish (Sweed'-ish), . 213, 229, 251, 274,276, s 277, 278, 281, 338, 347 Sweyn (Swain), e & e . I 72 * I57, 166, 167, 168, 171, 334 SWISS, . & Switzerland (Swits'-er-land), 167, 171, 201, 328, g 334; 41. I Syagrius (Se-a'-gre-us), © º • a 25 Sydney, Algernon (Al’-ger-non. Sid'-ne), 246 Sydney Smith, e e tº • 330 Sylvia (Sil’-ve-ah), tº & e 66 Syra (Sir'-ah), & e gº • 394 Syrams (Sir'-ans), & º & §. &aº, gº e tº *: Syracuse (Sir-a-kuze’), 40, 50, 65, 76, 8o Syria (Sir'-e-a), 33, 34, 55, 60, 63, 64, 81, 88, 89, t 99, IoI, 122, 134, 339, 368 Syrian, . tº de 31,63, 64, 88,330 Syrians, e tº * & . 64 Szecklers (Zek'-lers), . g º 381 Szigeth (Zig’-eth), . º i.e. • I92 Szolnok (Zol’-nok), tº * > g 382 Szonz (Zonts), c e * . 382 T. Tabor Hill (Ta’-b & e • 231. Tabor, #. qf), tº º dº : Taborites (Ta’-bor-ites) g tº • I70 Tacitus (Tas'-e-tus), e * * * IoS Tacubaya (Ta-koo-bi'-ya), . * • 445 Talavera (Tal-a-va'-ra), . wº º 34O Tallard (Tal-lar'), . º * - 27o Talleyrand (Tal’-le-rand), 319, 331, 346, 349 Tallien (Tal-le-ong'), . † 323, 324 Tamasp (Tam-asp’), tº • 215 Tamaulipas (Ta-mow'-le-pas), . • 435, 498 Tamerlane (Tamſ-er-lane), . tº • I'91 Taney (Taw'-ne), e - tº gº 502 Tarentines (Ta-ren’-tins), . e • 75 Tarentius Varro (Ta-ren’-she-us Var'-ro), 79 Tarentum (Ta-ren'-tum), . 65, 75, 76, 8o Targowicz (Tar-go-vits'), . . 295, 296 Tarik (Ta’-rik), . & ſº , I24 Tarleton (Tarl'-ton), e e 47ſ, 473 Tarpeia (Tar-pe'-a), . tº e 66 Tarpeian Rock 73 Targuin the Elder (Tar-quin), . . . . §§ Tarquin the Proud, . e tº 68, 69 Tºnius Priscus (Tar-quin'-e-us Pris'- cus), tº Tarquinius Superbus (Su-per'-bus), 68, 69 Tarsus (Tar'-sus), . e º 55, 92 Tartar (Tar'-tar), e gº & 190 Tartaric (Tar-tar'-ik), in . 189 Tartars, . iº {} & tº I29 Tartary (Tar'-ta-re), g * 57, 123 Tauris (Tau'-ris), tº tº e 295 Taylor, Richard § e e. • 517 Taylor, Zachary (Zak'-a-re), 495, 497, 498, 5oo, 5or Tchernaya (Cher-na’-ya), . { } . 388 Teba §§ * . . 3. Tecumseh (Te-kum’-sa), . * 48 in 486 Tegethoff (Tej'-et-hof), & ſº 398 Tehuacan (Ta-wah-kan), . º . 448 Tejada, Lerdo de (Laiºdo de Te-ha'-da), 450, 45I Tejas (Te’-jas), º e tº 118 Tell, William, e e e 167 Temeswar, (Tem-esh-var'), e 381 383 Tennessee (Ten-nes-see'), . 4So, 490, 491 493, 497, 504, 506, 508, 509, 5 ro, 515, 516, 517, 520, 523 Tennesseeans,(Ten-nes-see'-ans), . • 489 Tennis Court (Ten'-nis), º 313, 317 Teran (Ta-ran'), tº e º • 435 Ternay (Ter-ma'), e wº o 472 608 AZPHABAE TICAL INDEX. Terska (Ters'-ka), , . º e • 230 Teutones (Tu’-tones), . e • . 85 Tewksbury (Tukes'-ber-re), . e . 183 Texan (Tex'-an), º e • 443, 444 Texans, o e º º • 444 Texas (Tex'-as), . 443, 446, 497, 498, 5or, 504, 513, 516 Thaddeus Kosciuszko (Thad'-de-us Kos-se, uz'- o), © e 295, 296, 395, 465 Thales (Tha'-leez), tº & º 44 © 175, 486 Thames (Temz), * o Thapsus º O º º 99 Thassilo (Thas-sil’-lo), º º . 128 Thatcher (Thatch'-er), . º te 522 Thebais (Theſ-bais), e º • 25 Theban (Theſ-ban), . º e 48 Thebans, e • . 52, 53, 54 Thebes, Egypt (Theebs), © - *:: Thebes, Greece, . 35, 37, 48, 52, 53, 54 Theiss (Tice), ... º 129, 189, 382, 383 Themistocles (The-misſ-to-kleez), 46, 47, 48 Theodore (The'-o-dore), - º 399 Theodoric the Ostrogoth (The-od'-o-rik), 112, II Theodosius the Great (The-o-do'-she-us), . Theophilus Eaton (The-of-e-lus E/-ton), Theresa, Maria (Ma-ri'-a Te-re'-sa), 250, 280, 382, 283, 284, 285, 286, 297, 298, 311 Thermia (Ther'-me-a), - © • 394 Thermidor (Ther'-me-dor), , . • 323, 324 Thermopylae (Ther-mop'-e-le), • 46, 61, 358 I IO 363 Theseus (Theſ-soos), . º e 37 Thespians (Thes-pi'-ans), . º • 46 Thessalians (Thes-sa/-le-ans), . º 53 Thessaly (Thesſ-sa-le), o • 36, 9o Thibault (Te'-bo), tº © e I48 Thiers, Louis Adolphe (Loo-e A/-dolf Te'-a'), 370, 385, 4rt, 414, 415, 420, 430, 431 Thionville (Te-oang-veel'), º “s, 402,421, 408 Thomas (Tom’-as), tº tº 4 I4 Thomas, George H., e 508, 516, 520 Thomas, John, . . .463 Thomson, Charles (Tom’son), º • 459 Thompson (Tom'-son), . e • 495 Thomyris (Thom'-e-ris), º © • 34 Thornton (Thorn'-ton), . 446, 498 Thrace (Thra'-se) . 40, 45, 6o, Io9, 112 Thracian (Thra'-she-an), . , --, 9 IO2 Thracians, . o e • • II.7 Thrasybulus (Thras-ib'-u-lus), . g 5.I Thuringia (Thu-rin'-je-a), . o . I 59 Thuringian, e e tº I66 Thurn, Count von (Toorn), . e . 226 Thymbra (Thimº-bra), . e e 33 Tiber (Ti'-ber), º . 68, 69, 97, IoI, Io2 Tiberias, Lake (Ti-be’-re-as), . e I37 Tiberius (Ti-bº'-re-us), . © 94, 95 Tiberius Gracchus Čakº-kus), e 2 84 Ticino (Tis'-e-no), . e • 379, 392 Ticinus (Tis i'-nus), o 7 Ticondeloga (Tikóh-der-o'-ga), 290, 30s, 307, On 4 Tien-tsin (Teen-tsin), º . 389 Tigris (Ti' gris), . o • 24, 56, 59, 99 Tilly (Teel'-ye), e . 227, 228, 229, 230 Tilsit (Til’-sit), . e e e 338 Timour the Lame (Te-moor'), & • I91 Tinicum lsland (Tin'-e-kum), . ſº 266 Tinville, Fouquir (Foo-ke-a! Tang-veel'), 324, 42O Tippecanoe (ºp.º.º. e • 484 Tippoo Saib (Tip'-po Sah'-lb), . © 299 Tissaphernes (Tis-sa-fer'-mes), & • 52 Titans (Ti'-tans), ſº o o 36 Titus º `i’-tus), e o o 97, 98 Titus Manlius (Ti’-tus Man'-le-us), . 74 Titus Oates (Oats), . º º • 246 Titus Tatius (Ta'-she-us), º g 67 Tohopeka (To-ho-pe'-ka), . • . 487 Tokay (To-ka'), . © º o 383 Tokeli, Emmerick (Em’-er-ik To-ke'-le), 252, 253 Tolbiac (Tol’-be-ak), o o . I25 Tolentino (To-len-te’-no), o 326, 351 Tolosa (To-lo'-sa), . © . 158,428 Tompkins, Daniel D. (Dan'-yel D. Tom'- kins), . e - e 491, 492 Tomochichi (To-mo-ke'-ke), . . 267 Topeka (Tope'-ka), . e 503 Torgau (Tor'-gou), . .291 Tories (To'-rees), Toronto (To-ron-to), Torres (T or'-res), © e Torres Vedras (Tor’-res Va’-dras), . Torstenson (Tors'-ten-son), Tory (To'-re), & . 246, 272, 297,400, 432 e & J 486 ºf 435 • 343 º & 231 246, 297, 366,399 e . 172 Tostig (Tosſ-tig e ſº Totila § © e & 118 Toul (Tool), . º 206, 208 Toulon (Too-lon'), , , 27, 322, 325, 361, 402 Toulouse (Too-looz'), 136, 141,146, 149, 249,349 i.e. I Touraine (Too-raine'), e tº Tourenne (Too-ren'), . º º 206 Tournay (Toor-ma'), o . I58, 209 Tours (Toors), . • . I24; 407 Tourville (Toor’-veel), º - . 255 Toussaint Louverture (Too-sang' Loo-ver. ture'), e e e * • & 334 Trafalgar, (Traf-al-gar'), & g 336 Trajan (Tra’-jan)' . . o tº • 99 Transylvania (Tran-sil-waſ-ne-a), 189, 192, 253, y 380, 381, 382, 383 Transylvanian, . e ge • 192 Trasimenus (Tras-im'-e-nus), . & 79 Traun (Troum), º e o . 284 Travendal (Trav’-en-dal), º º 274 Trebia (Tre’-be-a), o & • 79 Trent (Trent), e º 207, 208, 398 Trenton (Tren-ton), o e • 465 Trevino (Tra-ve'-no), º º • 451 Tribonian (Tre-bo'-ne-an), & e II 9 Tribunate (Trib'-u-nat), º & • 332 Tribune (Trib'-une), . e e 84 Tribunes, º & 70, 71, 72, 89, 142 Tristany (Tris'-ta-ne), º • 422, 427 Trifels (Tre’-fels), e º 138 Tripoli (Trip-'o-le), ... • 192, 481, 482 Tripolitans (Tre-pol’-e-tans), e . 481 Tripolitza (Trip-o-lit'-sa), º e 358 Triumvirate (Tri-um'-ver-ate), . 88, 92 Triumvirs (Tri-um'-vers), e . 88, 92 Trochu (Tro'-koo), . . 407, 409, 4 ro, 4 It Trojan (Tro'-jan), º © 38, 65 rojans. & tº e * > . 38 Tromp, Van (Van Tromp), e • . 24.I. Tronchet (Tron-sha'), º o • 32O Troppau (Trop'-pou), º e . 356 Troy, e e e º e 38 Troyes (Troy'-e), . Io9, 154, 155, 181, 349 Truxton (Trux-ton), 8o e gº 4. Tryon (Try'-on), , , . • 458, 465,469, 470 ºl), e • • 34Q Tudor (Too'-der), , e . 184 185 Tuilelles (Tweel-ree'), 315, 318, 321, 327, 362, 371, 385, 406, 419,439 Tullia (Too'-le-a), . º º . 68 Tullus Hostilius (Tul'-lus Hos-til/-e-us), 76 Tunes (Too'-nes), e e º 7 Tunis (Too'-nis), . • 14o, I50, 702, 204 Tupac Amaru (Too'-pawk Am’-a-ru), 433,434 Turenne (Too-ren') © 231, 250, 251, 252 Turgot (Tur’-go'), . e © • 31 I Turin §: tº © • 270, 35? Turkestam (Turk-es-tan'), . 35, 5 Turkey (Turk'-e), 35, 204, 276,278,289,294, # 359, 386, 387, 38 Turkish (Turk'-ish), 136, 191, 192, 205, 206, 252, - 276, 294, 360, 383 | Turks, 134, 135, 136, 191,192, 206, 2:5, 252, 277; 294, 387, 388 AZAHABETYCAA IM/DAX. 609 Tuscany (Tus'-ka-ne), . so • 144, 280 Tuscarora (Tus-ka-ro'-ra), . º . 265 Tuscaroras, © Tº e ſº 265 Twiggs, te e º • 504 Tyler, John (Ti’-ler), , , e - 496, 497 Tyler, Wat (Wot Ti'-ler), . e • I79 Tyndarus (Tin-da'-rus), o o 38 Tyne (Tin), . o • e 99, I72 Tyre, ... : & e . 27, 31, 55, 56 Tyrian (Tir'-e-an), © o e 56 lyrians, ſº e de º . 56 Tyrrhenians (Tir-re'-ne-ans), . * 65 Tyrol (Tir'-ol) . . 207, 208, 341, 375, 398 Tyrolese (Tirºl-ese') .--,-,-, ;3/9, 34 I Tyrone (Ty-rome'), . s G • 225 Tyrtaeus (Tir-te'-us), . º e 42 TJ. Uhrich (Oo'-rik), e . 406, 407 TJkraine (UV-krane), o º 353, 276, 296 Ulloa, San Juan de (San Whaun' da Oo-loo'- a), g tº e 499 Ulm, . e e . 165, 336 Ulm, New, • e o º 513 Ulric (Oolº-reek), tº gº e • I70 Ulrica, Eleanora (Ool-re'-ka El-e-no'-ra), 278 Ulric Zwingle (Ool'-reek Zwin'-gle), • 20 I Ultramontane (Ul-tra-mon-tane'), 363, 431 Ultramontanes, e * tº • 437 Ulysses (U-lis'-sees), . - º 38 Umbria (Um'-bre-a), . e o . 65 Umbrians, e Q º e 75 Union City, . * e © . . 517 United States, 455, 463, 475, 478, 484, 490, 496, 498, 5oo, 504, 524 Unstruth, (Oons'-troot), . e º I61 Unterwalden (Oon'-ter-wol-dem), . 167, 168 Upsala (Up-sa/-la), º º 213 Ural (U’-ral), . • * º & • I29 Uranus (U’-ran-us), ſº º © 36 Urban (Ur'-ban), te º e • I35 Uri (Oo'-re), p © e - 167 Uria §: e g e • 31 Urrea (Oo-ra'-ah), º © • 444; 445 Uruguay (Oo'-roo-gwi), e • 44O9 441 Utah (U’-tah), . º e • 503, 532 Utica (U'-te-ka) © † sº • 90 Utopia (U-to'-pe-a), º º & 2 IO Utrecht (U’-trekt), . e 272, 280, 302 Vadier (Va.-de-a/), e 324 Valencia (Va.-len'-she-a), I58, 339, 342, 4oo, 424, 425, 426 Valenciennes (Va.-long-se-en'), e • 323 Valens (Va’-lens), e e • Io9, IIo Valentinian I. (Val-en-tin'-e-an), . Io9, IIo Valentinian II., . ſº © tº IIO Valentinian III., ſº sº • III, II2 Valer'an (Va.-le-re-an), . º • IO4 Valerien, Fort (Wa-lar-re-aing') 407, 410; 415 Valladolid (Val-la-do-lid'), . © • I94 Valles (Vals), e º º 42O Walley Forge, e e . 466, 468 Valmy (Val’-me), º e o 319 Valparaiso (Val-pa-ri'-so) . 441, 490 Valois (Val-waw') . 152, 178, 187, 206, 221 Van Artveldt (Van Art/-velt), º • I54 Van Buren, Martin (Van Bu’-ren), .494, 495 Vandal (Van'-dal), . e II2, II 7, II e º 4 I Wandalism, º - Vandals, º e Ioa, II2, II 7, II8 Vandamme (Van-dam'), . wº & 347 Van Dorn, Earl, - e . 508, 512 Vane, Sir Henry, , * e º 24I Van Horne, . te e & . 484 Van Olden Barnveldt (Van Ol’-den Barn' veldt), . e © e º 218 Van Tromp, e º º e e 24I Van Twiller (Van Twil’-ler), . o 26o Vanvres (Van'-ver), 407,409, 410, 414, 416, º; I Varangian (Wa-ranſ-je-an), . & Varennes (Va.-ren') tº º e 3I Varennes. Billaud (Beel’yo Va-ren'), 323,324 Varese W a-rese'), e & tº • 393 Varna (Var'-na), © º • T91, 359 Varus (Vaſ-rus), e º e • 94 ustavus (Gus-ta/-vus Vas'-a), 186, 213 4 130, 188 6 Vasa, Vasco de Gama (Wasſ-ko da Gaſ-ma), , 193 Vassy (Vas'-se), . g & & 2I9 Vauban (Vo-bong') . º e 25o Vauchamps (Wo-shong'), º º 349 Vaud (Vo), . º T. Q . 228 Vedas (Ve’-das), . º º e 23 Veii (Ve’-e-i), - º e • 72 Velarde (Va.-lar'-da), e & º 424 Venables (Ven’-a-bles), & º • 242 Vendean (Von-de'-an), . e e 335 Vendeans, º e & 322 Vendee, La (La Von'-da), tº & 322 Vendemiaire (Vong-de-me-aire'), • * 325 Vendome (Ven-dome'), 270, 271, 272, 41o, 414, 416, 418 Veneti (Ven’-e-ti), . Venetia (Ve-ne'-she-a), . Venetian, e." º e Venetians, º e Venezia (Ve-ne'-ze-a), º - . I 43 Venezuela (Ven-e-zu-e'-la), 436, 437, 438, 440, 441 º e. º I43 65, 38o, 393, 399 - I43; J 44; 327 138, 143, 144, 327 Venice (Ven’-is), 112, 138, 141, 143, 144, 158, 192, 195, 253, 278, 279, 327, 38o Venus (Ve’-nus), º, s' 2. -- 36 Vera Cruz (Va'-rah Krooz), 444, 447, 448, 450, 4 Vercellae (Ver-selſ-le), . o º § Verd, Cape de, º e o • I93 Verdun (Ver-dun'), 129, 159, 206, 208, 319, 403, 4O4 Vergniaud (Varn'-yo), - • 317, 318 Vermandois (Ver-man-dwaw/), . º I35 Vermont (Ver-mont'), . 3oo, 467, 478, 528 e 28o Vernon W.º.), & e ernon, Mount, e -> e 475, 481 Verona, (Ve-ro'-na), . IO3; 393 Verplanck’s Point (Ver-plank's), & Verrazzani. John º, • I95 Versailles ( er-sails'), .. 250, 293,312, 313, 315, ... . 497, 409,411,414, 415, 416, 417, 418 Versaillists (Ver-sail/-ists), 477, 418, 419, 420 Verus, Lucius (Lu'-she-us Ver'-us), . IOO Vespasian (Ves-pa'-she-an), e 97, 98 Vespucci, Amerigo (A-mer-e'-go Ves-poot'. 47O Sne), ſº º e e • I94 Vesta (Vesſ-ta), , . e e © 36 Vesuvius (Ve-su'-ve-us), º º • 74 Veturia (Ve-tu'-re-a), . e e 71 Vicksburg (Vicks'-burg), . 5T2, 57.4 Victor Emmanuel I. (Vik'-tor Emºmanºu. el), & * * º 357 Victor Emmanuel II., 379, 392, 393, 394, 4oo, is • - 4×3 Victoria, Alexandra (Al-ex-an/-dra Wik-toº- re-a), e - Q * º 367 Victoria, General, ſº wº 435, 441 Vienna (Ve-en’-na), Too, 192, 204, 231, 252,253, 336, 340, 341, 350, 374, 376, 378, 382, 383, 393, 396, 399 Vigo (Ve’-go) de o e º 269 Villagos (Veel' a-goash), . º • 383 Villars (Vil-yar') e . 269 271, 272 Villa Franca (viſ-la Fran’-ka), . 393 Villaviciosa (Vil-le-ve-se-osſ-sa), . 272 Viller Exel (Vil’-ler Ex'-el), . 4Io Villeroi (Vil-yer-wav"), e e 268, 270 Williers, George (Vil-ye-aire'), . º 232 Vimiera (Vim-e-a'-ra), • • 340 Vincennes (Vin-senz e 300 335 47O; S30 Windex, Julius (juºle is Vin'-dex), . 7o, 96 39 6 Io A LAHA BAE TVCAL INDEX. Windya (Vind’-ya), º º • 23 Vinoy (Ve-noy’), . * ſº 4I.5, 42O Virginia (Vir-jin'-e-a), 71,72, 255, 256, 257,264, 302, 303, 455, 459, 461, 462, 463, 464, 469, 473, 474, 477, 481, 483, 488, 497, 493, 496, 503, 505, & © tº 506, 507, 512, 514, 516, 517, 521 Virginian, . º O2 Virginians, e ſº & 3 te • 256, 258, 303, 305, 462 Virgin.us (Vir-jin'-e-us), * ~ *; 72, 526, 527 Viriathus Vir-e-a'-thus), . tº . 83 Viridomarus (Vir-e-do-ma’-rus), . © 78 Wisconti (Vis-kon'-te), © º • I43 Wiscount (Vi'-kount), . e © 248 Vishnu (Vish'-nu), . te te • 23 Visigothic (Vis-e-goth'-ik), e • III, II2 Visigoths (Vis'-e-goths), . G • I2 Vistula (Vis-tu"-la), 141, 186, 188, 294, 296, 337 Vitellius (Vi-tel’-le-us), . * 97 Vitiges (Vit'-e-jees), . e tº . I 18 Vittoria (Vit-to-re-a), . º º 346 Vitry (Vit'-re), o e tº . I48 Vitry la Francais (Vit'-re la Fron-sais'), 408 Vizier (Ve-zeer'), . e ſe e 253 Vladimir (Lad’-e-mer), & g . I88 Vladislaus (Lad-is-la/-us), tº 187 Voivode (Voi'-woole), g . 187, 275 Volga, (Vol’--ga), gº º • Io9, 264 Volhynia §º & e • 29 Volscians (Vol’-se-ans), . tº Volumnia (Vo-lum'-ne-a), Von Der Tann (Fon Der Tahn'), 407, 408 Vosges (Voazh), . & wº ſe 409 Vulcan (Vul'-kan), . º * > • 36 W. Wabash (Waw'-bash), . * © 284 Wadsworth (Wods'-worth), . * 263 Wadsworth, General, . ſº 518 Wagner, Fort (Wag'-ner), . º • 5 IS Wagram (Wawg'-ram), . e e 34I wańawbees (wº-haw/bees), Q . 368 Waibling i’-bling), . & © 162 Waitzen (Wite'sen), . e {e 382 Wakefield (Wakeſ-feeld), . o 182 Waldemar (Wol’-de-mar), . tº . 186 Wales, º ë & I20, 176, 18o Walker, Fort (Waw'-ker), . g . 508 Walker, Sir Hovenden (Ho'-ven-den), 3O2 Wallace, Lewis (Loo'-is Wol’-les), , 506, 518 Wallace, Sir William, ſº ë . I 77 Wallachia (Wol-lok'-e-a), • , 294, 357, 386 Wallachs (Wolf-loks). . . . . 381 Wallenstein (Wolf-len-stine), 227, 228, 229, 230, 23U Walpole, Sir Robert (Rob'-ert Wol'-pole) 28o Walter the Penniless, (Waw!’-ter), ... I35, I.47 Walworth, Sir William (Wil/-yam Wol'. worth ), . & e tº tº I79 Wampanoag (Wawm-pa-no'-ag), .. 257, 258 Warbeck, Perkin (Per'-kin War'-bek), . 185 Ward, Artemas (Arº-te-mas Ward), . 47: Warner, Seth (Seth War'-mer), g . 367 Warren, Joseph (Jo'-sef War/-ren), . 460, 461. Warrington (War'-ring-ton), º • 490 Warsaw (War'-saw), 296, 337,338, 364, 365, 295 Wartburg (Wart’-burg), e g • 200 Warwick, (War'-wick), . . 182, 183,262 Warwickshire (War'-wik-shir), . . • 237 Washington (Wash'-ing-ton, 481,489, 496, 505, 506, 507, 508, 511, 514, 522, 524 Washington, Fort, e § . 464, 465 Washington, George, 286, 302, 303, 305, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 468, 472, 474, 475, 476, 478, 479, 48o, 481 Washington, William A., g & 473 asp, & & tº * º 490 Waterford (Waw'-ter-ford), ę e 3O2 aterloo (Waw'-ter-loo), . . . .351, 352 Watertown (Waw'-ter-town) . g 258 Wat Tyler (Wot Tiſ-ler), . e Waxaw (Wax'-aw), . § • 471 Wayne, Anthony (An'-tho-ne Wain), 466, 470, ſe 473, 474, 479 Wayne, Fort (Fort Wain), . • 471 Wºrsfield (Weth’-ers-feeld), . 262, 263 . 176 ebb, . tº º & tº • 3O4 Webster Daniel, (Web’-ster), . e 496 Weimar (Wiſ-mar), , . & o • 23.I Weinsberg (Wines'—berg) & * 162 Weissenberg (Wi’-sen-berg), tº . 227 Weissembourg (Wi-sen-boorg), . e 4O3 Weitzel, Godfrey (God'-fra Witze’-el), 52 I Welden (Wel’-den), & & 382 Weldon, (Wel'-don), . I62 Wellesley, Sir Arthur (Welles' le), 299, 338, tº e e 340, 342 Wellington, Duke of (Wel/-ling-ton), 3oo, 342, 346, 348, 349, 35+, 352, 366 Welsh, g g * 176, 18o Wenceslaus (Wen-ses-la/-us), . 168, 169 Wentworth, General (Wentſ-worth), . 280 Wentworth, Thomas, . * tº 234 Werder, General von (Wair'-der), 403, 406, 4ro Werther, Baron (Wair'-ter,) & , 401 Wessex (Wesſ-sex), ū Westermann (Wes'-ter-man), e West Indies (In’-deez), 194, 508, 509, 334, Westminister (West-min/-ster) * Westmoreland (West-more'-land), tº Westphalia (West-fa'-le-a), 217, 231, 338, 3. 34 West Point, . we wº • 472 West Virginia, (Vir-jin'-e-a), . . 507, 516 Wheeler, Sir Hugh (Hu Wheel'er), . 390 Wheeling (Wheel/-ing), e tº . 5o: Wheelright, Rev. John (Wheel'-rite), . 258 Whig, g & . 246, 366, 399, 432 Whigs, . & * • 246, 272, 459 White, Colonel, © º * • 242 White, Major, . wº * g 508 Whitehall (White'-hawl), . tº • 241 Whitemarsh (White'-marsh), . 466 White Oak Swamp, . e • 5 II White Plains, . & 464, 468 Whitworth (Whit'-worth) . . • 334 Wialopolski (Wi-al-o-pols'-ke), . º 395 Wickliffe, John (Wikſ-lif), . 169, 181 Wiesloch, (Wees'-lok), . * * 227 Wight, Isle of (Wite), e o • 239, ilderness, tº tº tº . 28, 518 Wilhelmshohe (Wilſ-helms-haa), . 405, 412 Wilkes, John (Wilks), . e 296,297 Wilkinson, James (Wil’-kin-son), . 484, 487 William I. of Germany (Wil-yam), 398, 402,404, e * * 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 412 William III. of England, 247, 248, 254, 255, 259, - 68 208, 209 William IV. of England, o 366, 367 William the Conqueror, . 136, 147, 172, 173 William Rufus (Ruſ-fus), { } tº I73 Williams, e gº o . 3O4, 388 Williams, Roger (Roj’-er), . . 258, 263 Williams, Thomas, . ge we • 51. I Williamsburg, . gº © . 487, 51o Willoughby (Wilſ-lo-be), , . º 390 Wilmington §§on), 264, 473, 474, 521 Wilna (Wil/-na), e & • 343 Wilson (Wil’-son), ſº tº e 390 Wilson, Henry, g & • 525 Wilson, J. H. c º o 522 Wilson’s Creek, g e , 5Cſ) Wimpfen (Wim’-fem), . ſº 227 Wimpffen (Wim’-fen), * e . 405 Winchester (Win'-ches-ter), 486, 539, 51o, 519, 520 Winder (Wine'-der), . tº © . 489 Windischgratz (Win'-dish-grots). 376 381, 382 Windsor (Win'-zer), . tº 175, 262, 263 AZA'HAAEA 7'YCA/, /M/OAX. 6II Winfried (Winſ-freed), , . g 126 Winkelried, Arnold (Ar’-nold Winklel- reed), g & & & . I68 Winnebago (Win-ne-ba'-go), & ſº 494 Winslow (Winſ-slo), . * * • 3O3 Winslow, John A., g ge º 519 Winston (Wins'-ton), * tº • 472 Winthrop, John (Win'-throp),.. § 258 Winthrop, Theodore (The'-o-dore), . 506 Winzingerode (Winſ-zin-jer-rode), 348 Wisconsin (Wis-kon'-sin), . 500, 503, 531 Wise, Henry A., º * g . 507 Withlacooche (With-la-koo'-chee), . 495 Witikind (Wit/-e-kind) * 127, 128 Wittelsbach Wiś * . 163, 164 Wittenberg (Wit-ten-berg'), 199, 200, 287 Wittgenstein (Wit'-gen-stine), . Woerth (Worth), . . {º Wohlgemuth (Wol’-ge-mute), . Wola (Wo'-la), e ſº º • 365 Wolesley, Sir Garnet (Gar'-net Wol’-es-le), 432 Wolfe, jº (Woolf), g 290, 305, 306 Wolsey, Thomas (Tom'-as Wool’-se), 202, 209, 2 IO Wool, John Ellis (El’-lis Wool), 485, 498, 499, 5IO Wooster (Woos'-ter), & tº Worcester (Woos'-ter), • 240, 24I, 243 Worms (Werms), 162, 165, 166, 171, 200, 254 Wouter Van Twiller (Wou'-ter Van Twil’- ler), . e º e . 26o Wrangel (Ranſ-gel), © tº Wrede (Vra'-da), . g e Wurmser (Wermſ-ser), te e . 326 Wurtemberg (Wir'-tem-berg), 170,348,374, 377, 99 345, 346, 359 tº 4O3, 4O9 ſe 382 • 465 Wurtembergers (Wir’-tem-berg'-ers), • 409 Wurzburg (Wurts'-burg), tº e 326 Wyatt, Sir Thomas (Tom'-as Wiſ-at), .. 256 Wyoming, Massacre of (Wy-o'-ming), 469, 470 Wyoming Territory, . jº tº • 532 X. Xantippus (Zan-tip'-pus), . tº • 77 Xenophon (Zen’-o-fon), . * • 5 I 52 Xeres dela Frontera (Ha-ras' de la Fron-ta/- ra), º ë ſe e • I24 Xerzes (Zerk'-seez), . e . 46, 47 Y. Yamasee (Yam-a-see') e { } . 265 Yamasees, & tº ſº º 266 Yeamans, Sir John (Ye'-mans), . 264 Yermouk (Yer-mook'), . e tº I22 Yesdijird (Yaze'-de-zherd), . g • I22 Ynglians (Ing'-gle-ans), . † 185 Yorck (Yor'-rik), * º e - 346 York, Io?, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 246, 466 York, New, 244, 259, 26o, 261,263, 3oo, 301,456, 462,463,464, 466, 468, 469, 474, 475, 516 Yorkinos (York'-e-noes), e • 44I, 442 Yorkists (York'-ists), . * e . I d2 Yorktown (York’-town), & . 308, 474 Ypsalanti, Alexander (Ip-sa-lan'-ti), 357, 358 Yucatan (Yu-ka-tan'), e o • 445 Yungay (Yoon'-gi) gº e º 4.41: Z. Zabala (Za-bal’-a), . ſº * • 429 Zacatecas (Zak-a-ta'-kas), o tº 45I Zama (Za'-ma), † e º ... 81 Zanagra (Zan'-a-gra), . * e 48 Zara (Za'-ra), . © wº tº . 138 Zealand (Zee'-land), g g Ç 274 Zedekiah (Zed-e-ki’-ah), e © 323 33 Zend Avesta (Zend A-vesſ-ta), . * 35 Zenger, John Peter (Zeng'-er), © . 261 Zenobia (Ze-no'-be-a), . tº • IO4, IO5 Zenta (Zen'-ta), & ſº te • 253 Zerubbabel (Ze-rub'-ba-bel), . e 33 Ziethen (Tse'-ten), . e e • 35I Zingis Khan (Zin'-jis Khan), . • I90, IQI Zion, Mount (Mount Zi'-on), * • 31 Ziska, John (Zis'-ka), . { } 169 Znaym (Znah'-im), . ſº . . . 34I Zollicoffer, Felix (Fe’-lix Zol’-le-kof’-er), 508 Zorilla (Zo-ril'-la), * g Zorndorf (Tsorn'-dorf), & e • 289 Zoroaster (Zo-ro-asſ-ter), e • 35, i2O Zoutman (Zout'-man), Q • 309 Zug (Tsoog'), . e º tº 167 Zuloaga (Zoo-lo'-a-ga), & * 447 Zuniga (Zu-ne'-ga), de e ſº 217 Zurich (Tsuſ-reek),... e I67, 329, 393 Zwingle, Ulric (óði'-reek Zwing-glé. 33% 218 Zwinglians (Zwin'-gle-ans), . e , 2 or Nimrod, SOWEREIGNS AND RULERS ASSYRIAN KINGS. Semiramis, . º º e Ninus, Ninias, Arius, Chedorlaomer, © º e Araleus, Baleus I • 9 Q * > © tº Armanites, e º Belochus I., . & e © Baleus II., . o o Altades, Mamitus y o tº * - º Manchaleus, . e tº © Spherus, Mamilus, e © © G Sparetus, Ascatades, . o wº Ö Amyntas, . * > * > tº Belochus II., ſº o tº Bellepares, e º © Lamprides, . & g Sosares, Panyas, Sosarmus, . ſo © © Derceto, Mithraeus, . tº Tentamus, . tº g Divamukha, gº e Teutaeus, tº g Phimaeus, Mardokempa Eupaples, . Laosthenes, . º Adrammelech I., tº tº Pyriatides, * & Amaku-Merodach, . Ophrataeus, . & © Ephecheres, . tº º Divanuber, * Q tº Adrammelech II., . te Baldasi, te * o º Sardanapalus, . g * Tiglath Pileser, . & e Shahmanezar, . ſe tº Sennacherib, . tº o º Esarhaddon, . O e 1298 d-Messessimordacus, B. C. 2217 2O4O 2009 1765 I927 I9I2 1897 1857 1827 1796 I754 1702 1670 I64O I6Io I590 I56o I52O I48O I435 I4 IQ 1380 I348 I253 I25O- I234 I2O7 I2OO II65 II 35 IO49 IOI4 Iooé. IOOO 961 96o 93I IO 75 840 8oo 771 747 728 712 709 BABYLONIAN KINGS. Nabonassar, . º Asordanus, & e Aramels, tº Q Esarhaddon, Axerdis, & © Soosduchinus, . e Asurukhbal, . © Chyniladan, . © Nabuchodonosor, . Sarac, ſº * e Nabopolasar, o Nebuchadnezzar, e Evilmerodach, © Neridglissar, . tº Belshazzar, - o B. C. 747 691 687 687 67o 668 663 648 648 628 626 605 561 560 555 PHARAOHS OR KINGS OF EGYPT. Menes, . e The Shepherd Kings, o Horus, & * Rameses Miamum, Acencheres, Achoris, Cenchres, . Cherres, dº e Menophis, s © Sethos, © Rameses, . Menophtah and Sethos II., Ammanephthes, Ammenemes, Sesostris, Thuoris, Rhampsinitus, Cheops, Shishak, Nephercheres, { } Amenophthis, . e Osochor, & e Osorthon I., o tº Taccollothis, Petubastes, º te Osorthon II., tº Psammes, . ſº e Bocchoris . o 2I88 I900 1587 I577 I549 I537 1528 I5O4 I4I6 1376 I32 I I305 I255 I2 I5 I2OO II89 II 24 Io82 978 - 937 933 924 853 838 825 825 791 781 (613) 614 JO VERE/GAVS AMD RUZAZRS. B. C. Senechos, . o o Q 721 Stephinales, . e o o 687 Nechepsos, © e © . 663 Necho, • • Q º 639 Apries, . tº ſº © 594 Amasis, º º º © 572 Psammenitus, . o 525 RINGS OF MEDIA. Dejoces, . o o 710–656 Phraortes, . o e . 656–635 Cyaxares, . o º . 635–595 Astyages, . . . . 595-559 KINGS OF PERSIA. Cyrus the Great, . º . 559–529 Cambyses, e © 529–52I Smerdis, © º º . 52 I Darius Hystaspes, 52I–485 Xerxes the Great, . . 485–464 Artabanus, e ſº • 464 Artaxerxes Longimanus, • 464–425 Xerxes II., e e • 425-424 Sogdianus, . º e • 424–423 Darius Nothus, . º • 423–404. Artaxerxes Mnemon, . . 4O4–358 Artaxerxes Ochus, . • 358–337 Arses, e © Q . 337–336 Darius Codomannus, . 336–330 HEBREW KINGS. Saul, © o º . Io95—IO55 David, . º g . IO55–IOI 5 Solomon, o o IOI 5–975 KINGS OF JUDAH. Rehoboam, te . 975–958 Abijah, . o º . 958–955 Asa, º º e o 955–904 Jehoshaphat, o . . 904–889 Jehoram, . tº e 889–878 Joash, . © e e . 878–839 Amaziah, . o º 839–809 Uzziah, . . . . 809–759 Jotham, . o o 759–742 Ahaz, . e o º . 742–726 Hezekiah, º e º 726–697 Manassah, . tº © . 697—642 Amon, . º e 642–64I Osiah, º e © . 641–609 º, º e º e 609 Jehoiakin, . e G . 609–598 Jehoiachim, º º . 598–596 Zedekiah, . o e . 596–588 RINGS OF ISRAEL Jeroboam, . o e e 975-954 t B. C. Nadab, ... . © • 954–953, Baasha, © ſº C . 953–93O Elah, . o e • 93O-929 Zimri, . & º © • 929 Omri, e º o . 929–918 Ahab, . º º e . 918–897 Ahaziah, . & e . 897–896 Jehoram, . o e . 896-894 Jehu, º c © . 894–856 Jehoahez, . º e . 856–840 Jehoash, . o o . 840–825 Jeroboam II., e . 825–784 An Interregnum, e . 784–772 Zachariah, . © o . 772–77 I Shallum, . º o . 77 I Menahem, . & & . 771–761 Pekaiah, . o e . 761–759, Pekah, . © º e . 759–739 Hosea, . e o . 739-72 I KINGS OF ROME. Romulus, . o º . 753—715 Numa Pompilius, . e . 715–672 Tullus Hostilius, & . 672–640 . Ancus Martius, . e . 640–616 Tarquin the Elder, . . 616–578 Servius Tullius, . e . 578-534 Tarquin the Proud, . • 534–509 RINGS OF MACEDON. Caranus, . º 795 Coenus, e o º . Thurymas, o º © Perdiccas I., . o º o Argaeus, . e e © U Philip I., . . . . . * AEropus, . º o c tri Aleetas, & . e º (ſ) Amyntas I., º e e C; Alexander I., o sº ... }. Z Perdiccas II., . G e X Archelaus, . Q tº Z Orestes, . ſº º e O Pausanius, . e º o 3 Amyntas II., . º e Z Alexander II., º º e Ptolemy, . º º g Perdiccas III., º e * - Philip the Great, © . 360–336 Alexander the Great, . . 336-324 Philip Aridaeus, º • 324, 317 Cassander, . º o . 31.7–298 Philip IV., e º 298–297 Alexander and Antippus 297–294 Demetrius I., . e 294–288 Lysimachus of Thrace, . . 288–282 Ptolemy Ceraunus, . . 282-280 Meleager, . tº • . 28o SO VAERAE/GAVS 615 AAWD RUZAZR.S. Sosthenes, º Antigonus Gonatas, Demetrius II., . Antigonus Doson, Philip V., . 3. Perseus, e º B. C. 280–278 278–242 242–232 . 232–22O 220–178 . 173–163 THE SELEUCIDAE OF SYRIA. . 3OI–283 Seleucus Nicator, . Antiochus Soter, Antiochus Theos, . Seleucus Callinicus, Seleucus III., Antiochus the Great, . Seleucus Philopater, Antiochus Epiphanes, Demetrius I., Alexander I., . Demetrius II., o Antiochus VII., Alexander II., Antiochus VIII., Antiochus IX., Antiochus X., Antiochus XI., Antiochus XII., Tigranes, Antiochus XIII., 283—261 ſº . 261–246 THE PTOLEMIES OF Ptolemy Lagus, Ptolemy Philadelphus, . Ptolemy Evergetes, Ptolemy Philopater, Ptolémy Epiphanes, Ptolemy Philometer, Ptolemy Physcon, Ptolemy Lathyrus, Ptolemy Alexander I., Cleopatra I., . Ptolemy Alexander II., tº Ptolemy Auletes, Berenice, . © 246–226 . 226–223 223–185 . I 85–I75 I75–162 . I62–150 e I50–146 I46–130 I30–127 I27–123 I23–II2 II2–95 95–92 92–87 87–83 83–69 69–65 EGYPT. 3OI-284 e . 284–246 246–22 I . 22I–2O4. 2O4–18O . I80–145 I45–1 I? Ptolemy and Cleopatra II, © Cleopatra II., IOO–81 81–8o 80–65 65 65–55 55-45. 45–3O THE ARSACIDAE OF PARTHIA. Arsaces, e Arsaces Artabainis, Mithridates I., . Orodes, I., . Phraortes, . tº Phaaticus, . e Orodes II., º Vonones I., . o Artabanus III., . Tiridatus, 256–217 . 217–156 I56 58-37 E. c. 37-A, p. 3 A. D. I3-I4. I4–15 I5–18 I8–35 35–45 Vardanus, C Gotarzes, e o Vologeses I., . Pacorus, . e Parthanaspates, . Vologeses II., Vologeses III., . Commodus, Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus, Caracalla, Macrinus, . Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus, Maximin, . Vonones II., e Artabanus IV., . Khosroe I., . o Artabanus V., Q Pertimax, © & A. D. 45 45–50 50–60 60–81 81–90 90—IO6 . Iob–II.7 II7—I34 I34–189 I89–212 . 2I2–223 THE MACCABEES OF JUDEA. B. C. Judas Maccabeas, . . I65–160 Jonathan Maccabeas, . I6O-I43 Simon Maccabeas, . I43–I35 John Hyrcanus I., I35—IO6 Aristobulus I., Ioé–70 John Hyrcanus II., 70–67 Aristobulus II., 67–40 Antigonus, o º . 4O–37 Herod the Great, B. C. 37—A. D. 2 A. D. Archelaus, Ethnarch, . 2–6 ROMAN EMPERORS. The Casars. Augustus, . . B. C. 3O-A. D. I.4 A. D. Tiberius, e º I4–37 Caligula, . © • 37–4. I Claudius, . 4 I-54 Nero, . 54—68 Galba, . e 68–69. Otho, tº . 69 Vitellius, 69–70 Vespasian, © . 70–79 Titus, . º e 79–81 Domitian, . © . 81–96 The Five Good Emperors, Nerva, e 96 Trajan, . º 96–II'7 Adrian, e º II 7–138 Titus Antoninus Pius, . . I 38–16I Marcus Aruelius Antoninus, I61–18O The Period of Military Despotism. I80–193 • I 93 I93 2 I 2–2 I7 . 217–218 218–222 . 222–235 235–238 6I6 SOVERAE/GAWS AAWD RUZAZAºS. A. D. - A. D. Pupienus and Balbinus, . . 238 Sapor I., . e g . 235–272 Gordian, . e e • 238–244 || Hormisdas I., © gº . 272 Philip, . o g * 244–249 || Varames I., º Q . 272-276 Decius, . º º . 249–251 | Varames II., . o o . 276–294 Gallus, . . . . . 251-254 Narses, . . . . 294–309 AEmilianus, g e 254 Sapor II., . tº o . 309-384 Valerian, tº º ſº . 254–261 | Sapor III., º g . 384-389 Gallienus, . . . . 261–268 || Varanes III., . . . 389-400 Flavius Claudius, . ſº . 268–270 || Indigertes I., . tº * 4O9–42O Aurelian, . & sº . 270–275 | Varanes IV., * tº . 42O-44 I Tacitus, o Q e . 275–276 || Indigertes II., or Varanes V., 441–482 Florian, . © tº . 276–277 Obalus, . © e * . 482-490 Probus, . tº tº º . 277–282 | Cabades, . tº g g 490–532 Carus, te wº G © 282-283 | Chosroes the Great, & . 532–59 I Carinus and Numerian, . . 283—284 || Chosroes II., . tº . 591-627 Diocletian and Maximian, . 284–305 || Siroes, . e & e 627–632 Constantius and Galerius, .. 305–306 || Hormisdas II., c . 632–64I Constantine the Great, . 306–336 || Yesdejird, . º e . 641–656 Constantius II., . g . 336–361 Julian the Apostate, . . 361-363 Jovian, . e e tº . 363-364 e Emperors of Different Races. Roman Emperors of the West. Valens 364–379 5 { } ſº g e - Valentinian I. . e • 364–375 | Theodosius the Great, • 379–395 Gratian, . © & • 375–383 Arcadius, g © . 395–408 Maximinus, te º © . 383 Theodosius II., ſº tº 408–450 Valentinian II., º sº 383–388 Marcian, a Thracian, . . 450–457 Eugenius, tº tº e . 388-394 | Leo the Thracian, . 457–476 Theodosius the Great, • 394–395 || Zeno, * e gº . 476–491 Honorius, . o & • 395-423 Anastasius I., . wº . 491-500 GREEK EMPERORS. Valentinian III., º • 423–455 |Justin I., e o . 500–527 Maximus, . . . . 455 Justinian I., 527–565 #yitus. . . . . 455-457 |justin II., . 565–578 Marjorian, . . . . .457-461 | Tiberius,’. . 578–582 Severus, . tº © • '491–467 || Mauritius, . 582–602 Anthemius, . {} o . 467–472 Phocas, 602–61o Olybrius, . Q @ • 472-473 | Heraclius I., g wº . 610—64I Glycerus, . Q tº . 473 Heraclius II., . * . 64I Nepos, º g ſº g 473–475 | Heracleonas, g e . 641–642 Romulus Augustulus, . • 475-476 | Constantine IV., e . 642–685 Justinian II., . . . 685–695 ROMAN GOVERNORS OF JUDEA. |fleontius, ...” . . . . . . 65-663 Copinicus, . g g ... 6 Apsimarus Tiberius, . . 698–7II Ambivinus, e o Philipicus Bardanes, . * > 7II–713 Valerius Flaccus, . ſº e Anastasius II., . tº . 7 I3–7I 5 Pontius Pilate, . . . Theodosius III., . . 715–716 Herod Agrippa, . . . 37 & - Cuspius Fadus, . © © Asauric Race. Tiberius Alexander, e gº Leo the Isarian, . g . 716–741 Ventidius Cumanus, e e Constantine Copronymus, . 741–775 Claudius Felix, o º Leo the Iconoclast tº . 775–781 Portius Festus, . e o Constantine V., . 2 º g 781.788 Albinus, º fº Q Irene, Empress, g & . 788–802 Gessius Florus, . e © Nicephorus, © c {{ 802–81 I * Michael Curopalates, . , 81 I–81 Artaxerxes, e G º 223–226 Michael the Stammerer, . 820–829 Sassan, . e º tº . 226-235 | Theophilus I., . & . 829–842 SO VEREIGAVS AMD RUZAZRS. 617 • A. D. LOMBARD KINGS OF NORTHERN Michael the Drunkard, . . 842—867 ITALY. Basil I., . * & . 867–886 A. D. Macedonezazz Acace. Alboin, . 568-573 Leo the Philosopher, . . 886–91 I º: 573-575 Constantine VI., and Alexan- **um, © §: der, ſº wº 9II–919 j i. e { } 5 †: Romanus I., . ge tº . 919 -942 ºš. #. g 3. Constantine VII. restored, . 942-959 |X la . d uS, ; : Romanus II., * > te . 959-963 f. uS, g §: Nicephorus Phocas, 963–969 f OthariS, . 30–052 * Rodoaldus, . 652–653 John Zenrisces, . g 969–976 || Aliberius i 652–660 Basil II., . . . 976–1625 |{..., § 3. Constantine VIII., * Io25—IO28 ë. epertus, . OOO–OO2 rimoaldus, 662–671 Romanus III., . Io28–1034 || Pertharit 67 I-686 Michael IV.,. 1034–104 |3. . 67 I- e ert, . 686–701 Michael V., 1941-1942 | Ragimbertus Constantine IX., IO42—IO54 Å; . . 7OI Theodora, Empress, . IOS4–IO56 Amspranius," ;” Michael VI., C. tº IOS6—IO57 Luitprandus, 7I2–744 The Comneni. Hildebrandus, • 744 Rachisius - Isaac Comnenus, . IOR'Z–IO 5 744–749 Constantine X., ::::::::: 㺠. 749–756 Romanus Diogenes, Ioé8–Io'7 I eS1Clerius, 756–774 Michael VII., . Io'71–Io'78 Nicephorus III., ::::::::: MONARCHS OF THE FRANKS. Alexius I., Comnenus, Io81–III.8 The Merovingians. John I., Comnenus, tº III.8–II43 sº Manuel Comnenus, . . I I43–II8O Pharamond, 420–428 Alexius II. Comnenus, . 1133–1783 |Sº, . 428–448 Andronicus I., . I 183—I 185 Meroveus. . 448–458 Isaac Angleus, . tº II85–I2O3 Childeric I., . . 458–486 Alexius III., . e . I2O3–I2O4 㺠e Thierry Člodomir 486–5 II Aºrench or Zafin Dynasty. and Clothaire I., * . 5 II-562 Baldwin I., of Flanders, 1204-1206 | Charibert, Grothan, Chilperic Henry, . . . . 1206–1216 || I., and Sigebert, . . 562–584 Peter de Courtenay, . 1216–1228 Childebert II. and Clothaire Baldwin II., . . . 1228-126 |p º t I. . . . . . . 584–628 ſº agobert I., . º . 628–638 ſº The Paleologi. Clºisii. and Dagobert II., . 638-66; Michael VIII., Paleologus, I261–1282 | Clothaire II., . e . 665–673 Andronicus II., Paleologus, 1282–1328 || Thierry II., . 673–69 I Andronicus the Younger, . I328–134I | Clovis III., g 69 I-7II John V., Paleologus, . I34I–I355 Dagobert III., © . 7 I I-7I5 John VI., . • • I355–1391 | Chilperic II., 7I 5–72O Emanuel II., e I391–1424 || Thierry IV., . sº . 720–747 {. VII., XII. Paleol . I424–1448 || Childeric III., 747–75 I OnStantine • ? - eologus, I448–1453 The Carlovingians. GOTHIC KINGS OF ITALY. Pepin the Little, e 751–768 Theodoric, . 493–526 Charlemagne, or Charles the Athalaric, . . $26–534 Great, , , , . . . . . 768–$14 Theodatus, . §34–36|Louis le Debonnaire, . 814–840 Vitiges, . ve 536–540 Heldibadus, . . 54O-54. I THE POPES. Eraric, . . . 54 I Gregory the Great, 590–604 Totila, . © . 541-553 | Sabinianus, . e e . 6O4–606 6I8 .SO VAEARÆ/GÀVS AÂVD Æ UÆ Â®S. Poniface III., Boniface IV., Honorius I., Servius, 0 John IV., . Theodore, . Martin I., . Eugeniius I., . Vitalianus, Adeodatus, . Donus I., . Agatho, ę Eenedict II., John V., • Canon, « » Sergius, ę John VI., John VII., . Sissimius, . Gregory II., . Gregory III., Zachary, ¢ Stephen II., Paul I., • Stephen III., Adrian I., . Leo III., . Stephen IV., Pascal I., . Eugenius II., Valentine, Gregory IV., Sergius II., Leo IV., � Benedict III., Nicholas I., . Adrian II., ohm VIII., . artin II., Adrian III., . Stephem VI., Formosus, . Stephen VII., £; IX., . enedict IV., Leo V., � Sergius III., Anastasius III. «• Landon, John X., . Leo VI., Stephen VIIÍ, «• John XI., Leo VII., . Stephem IX., Martim III., Agapetus II., Ε XII., eo VIII., , A. D. 6Qb—6o7 6o7—625 625—64o . 64o 640—642 642—649 649—655 655—657 657—672 672—676 676—678 . 678—683 683—685 . 685—686 686—687 687—7oI 7oI—7o5 7o5—7O7 707—7 I 5 7I 5—73I 73 I—74I 74I—75o 750—757 . 757—767 767—772 . 772—795 795—8I6 816—817 817—824 . 824—827 827 . 827—844 844—847 . 847—855 855—858 . 858—867 867—872 . 872—882 882—884 «- . 884 884—89I 891—896 896—897 . 897 897—903 . 9o3—9O4 9O4—9 I 2 ' . 5i2 3i3 . 9I3—9I4 914-928 . 928—929 929-93 I 93 I—936 936—939 939-942 942—946 946—955 955—964 • 964 Eenedict V., John XIII., . Eenedict VI., Donus II., Benedict VII., John XIV., John XV., Gregory V., . Sylvester II., John XVI., . John XVII., John XVIII., John XIX., Benedict IX., Gregory VI., Clement II., Eenedict X., Damascus, Leo IX., Victor II., Stephen IX., Nicholas II., Alexander II., . Gregory VII. (HiJdeb Victor III., Urban II., Pascal II., Gelasius II., . Calixtus II., Honorius II., Innocent II., Celestine II., Lucius II., Eugenius III., Anastasius IV., Adrian IV., . Alexander III., Lucius III., . Urban III., Gregory VIII., Clement III., Celestine III., Innocent III., Honorius III., Gregory IX., Celestine IV., Imnocent IV., Alexander IV., Urban IV., Clement IV., Gregory X., Innocent V., Adrian V., John XX., . Nicholas III., Martim IV., . Honorius IV., Nicholas IV., Celestine V., * • „• randj, A. D. 964—965 . 965-972 972—974 • 974-975 975—983 . 983—985 985-Iooo IOOO Iooo-Ioo3 Ioo3 IOO3-IOO4 IOO4—IOO9 IOO9—Io33 IO33-IO44 IO44—IO46 IO46—IO47 IO47 IO47—IO48 IO48-Io54 IO54—IO57 Io57—Io58 Io58—Io6I Io6I—Io73 IO73—Io86 Io86—Io88 Io88—Io99 Io99—I I I8 I I I8—I I I9 I I I9-I I24 I I 24—I I3O I I3O-I I43 II 43-I I44. II 44-I l 45 I I45-I I 53 I I 53-I I 54 I I 54-I I 59 I I 59—I I8o I r8o—I 185 I 185—I I87 I 187 I 187—I I9I I I9 I—I I94 I 194—1226 I 226—1227 I 227-I24I I24 I-I243 I 243-I254 I 254—I 361 I 261—1265 I 265—127 I I27 I—I 276 I 276 I276 1276—1277 I 277—1281 1281—1285 I 285— 1288 1288—1294 I294 SO VERAXGAVIS AAWD RUZAZR.S. 619 Boniface VIII., Benedict XI., Clement V., . John XXII., Benedict XII., Clement VI., Innocent VI., Urban V., Gregory XI., Urban VI., Boniface IX., Innocent VII., Gregory XII., Alexander V., John XXIII., Martin V., . Eugenius IV., Nicholas V., . Calixtus III., Pius II., º Paul II., . Sextus IV., . p º Innocent VIII., . Alexander VI., Pius III., . Julius II., o Leo X., . Adrian VI., . Clement VII., Paul III., e {. III., arcellus, . Paul IV., . Pius IV., & Pius V., Gregory XIII, & Sextus V., . Urban VII., Gregory XIV., Innocent IX., . Clement VIII., Leo XI., Paul V., . Gregory XV., Urban VIII., Innocent X., . Alexander VII., . e Clement IX., Innocent XI., Clement X., Alexander VIII., Innocent XII., Clement XI., Innocent XIII., Benedict XIII., . Clement XII., Benedict XIV., , Clement XIII., A. D. I294–I3O3 I3O3–1305 1305–1316 I316–1334 I334-I342 I342–1352 1352–1362 I362–1370 .. 1370–1378 I378–1389 . I 389–1404 1404–1406 . I4O6–I4O9 I4O9–I4IO . I4IO-I4I 7 I4I'7–I43 I . I43 I-I447 I447–1455 . I455-I458 I458–1464 . I464–147 I I471–1484 . I484–1492 I492–1503 . I5O3 I503–15 I3 . I5I3–1521 I52I–I523 I523–1534 I 534–1549 . I 549–I 555 I555 . I 555–1559 I559–1565 I565–1572 1572–1585 . I585–1590 I590 . I 590–1591 I59 I 1591–1605 1605 1605–1621 1621–1623 . I623–1644 1644–1655 . 1655–1667 1667–1676 . 1676–1679 1679–1689 © . 1689–1691 e o 1691–17OO 1700–1721 1721–1724 I724—1730 I730–1740 1740–1758 1758–1769 Clement XIV., . º º Pius VI., g º ſº Pius VII., . º º Leo XII., e c e Pius VIII., e º Gregory XVI., o Pius IX., . e ſº Leo XIII., . º © tº A. D. 1769–1775 I775–18oo . 1800–1823 1823–1829 I829–1831 1831–1846 1846–1878 1878 SARACEN CALIPHS. Aace of Mohammed. Mohammed, © . 627–632 Abubekir, . © © . 632–634 Omar, e º . 634-644 Othman, º e fe . 644–655 Ali, © ſº . 655–660 The Ommiyades. Moawiyah, . te e . 660–679 Yezid I., e º 679–683 Abdullah, © tº º 683–684 Merwan I., te º . 684—689 Ab-al-Malib, . e º . 689–704 Walid I., . º G 7O4–714 Solyman, º º º . 7 I4–7 I7 Omar II., . e o . 717–719 Yezid II., . o o . 719–723 Heshman, . e º . 723–743 Wall II., . º º • 743-744 Yezid III., tº © • 744 Merwan II., . º º . 744–75C The Abbasides. Abul-Abbas, . . 750-754 Al-Mansur, . 754–779 Al-Modi, © e . 779–784 Musa’l-Hadi, . o . 784–785 Haroun-al-Raschid, e . 785–807 Al-Amin, . e º 807–813 Al-Mamun, . º e . 813–833 Al-Motasem, . & . 833–84I Al-Wathek, . ſº tº . 841–846 Al-Motawakkel, º . 846–861 Al-Montaser, . º © . 861–862 Al-Mostaim, . º 862–865 Al-Motaz, © e . 865–868 Al-Mohtadi, . º . 868–869 Al-Motamed, o tº . 869–892 Al-Motaded, . © . 892–90I Al-Moktasi, . º C. . 901–907 Al-Moktador, . º 907–932 Al-Kaher, . © e . 932–933 Al-Radi, . o º e 933–939 Al-Moktaki, . º o • 939–943 Al-Mosktacsi, . o • 943-944 Al-Moti, . . . . 944-973 Al-Tay, . o (...) . 973–99.I Al-Kader, . o e 991—IO3I Al-Kaymen, . Q . Io91—IO55 62o SO VERAE/GAWS AAWD RULERS. SARACEN CALIPHS OF SPAIN. A. D. Abderrahman I., 755–787 Hashem I., . e º . 787–822 Abderrahman II., . 822–852 Mohammed, . o e . 852–889 Abdalla, e e . 889–912 Abderrahman III., o . 912–961 Alhakem, . º * . 961–976 Hixem I., . e tº . 976– IIixem II., e e o IIixem III., . o º . —IO3O RINGS AND QUEENS OF ENG- LAND. A nglo-Saxon Aïngs. Egbert, . º º o . 827–838 Ethelwolf, o o . 838–857 Ethelbald, º º e o 857–860 Ethelbert, . e Q o 860–866 Ethelred I., . o o . 866–871 Alfred the Great, & 871–901 Edward the Elder, e . 9o I–925 Athelstan, . tº ſº • 925-940 Edmund I., . e e . 940–946 Edred, . . . . 946–955 Edwy, º © e e º 955–959 Edgar, . e º 959–975 Edward the Martyr, 975–IOI4 Manish Kings. Sweyn, . e º g IOI4—IOI7 Canute the Great, IOI7—IO36 Harold Harefoot, . IO36–IO39 Hardicanute, . IO39–IO4I Saxon Kings. ~ Edward the Confessor, IO4I–IoG6 Harold, o o e Ioô6 Morman Kings. William the Conqueror, . 1066–1087 William Rufus, . Io87–IIoo Henry I., . e o I IOO–II35 Stephen, . e e . II 35-II 54 The Plantagenets. Henry II., e º . I I54–II89 Richard the Lion-hearted, . I 189–1 199 John, . e e . I I99–1216 Henry III., e . I216–1272 Edward I., . e . I272–1307 |Edward II., e º I3O7–I327 Edward III., . o . I327–1377 Richard II., . I377–I.399 Aouse of Lancaster. Henry IV., . o . I 399–I4I3 Henry V., . e tº . I4I 3-I422 Henry VI., . e . I422–1461 Aouse of Vorë. A. D. Edward IV., º © . I461–1483 Edward V., . º . I483 Richard III., . e . I483–1485 Aouse of Tudor. Henry VII., . e . I485–1509 Henry VIII., . o . I 509–1547 Edward VI., . o . I 547— I 553 Mary, © e O I553- 1553 Elizabeth, . © . I558–1603 Aouse of Stuart. James I., . o e . 1603–1625 Charles I., . o . I625–1649 The Commonwealth. . . I649–1660 Charles II., . o e 1660–1685 James II., . º ". . I685–1689 William III., º 1689–1702 Anne, e º e . I702—I 714 Aouse of Brunswick. George I., e © . I714—1727 George II., . © o 1727–1760 George III., . e 1760–1820 George IV., . º o 1820–1830 William IV., . º . I830–1837 Victoria, º Q º 1837 KINGS AND QUEENS OF SCOT. LAND. Aouse of Kenneth. Kenneth II., . e e . 843–859 Donald V., º © . 859–865 Constantine II., . e . 865–878 Ethus, º © . 878–88o Gregory the Great, o . 880—892 Donald VI., . © . 892–903 Constantine III., . o . 903–943 Malcolm I., e º . 943–958 Indulf, . e º º . 958–968 Duff, º º º . 968–972 Culen, . º ſº ſº . 972–977 Kenneth III., . e . 977—IOO3 Constantine IV., . o IOO3 Renneth the Grim, . IOO3—IOO4 Malcolm II., º e IOO4–IO34 Duncan I., º o . IO34–IO4O Macbeth, . º © IO4O—IO57 Malcolm III., . © . IO57–IO93 Donald the Bane, . Io93—IIo8 Edgar, . e e . I Io8–III.7 Alexander I., º tº III.7–II24 David the Saint, o • II 24-II 53 Malcolm IV., º e II53–II65 William the Lion, . . I I65–12 I4 Alexander II., . e I2I4–I249 Alexander III., o . 1249–1285 .SO VERAE ZGAVS AAWD RUZAZR.S. 62I Aouses of Baliol and Bruce. A. D. John Baliol, . . I285–1306 Robert Bruce, gº tº I306–1329 David Bruce, . g . I329–I332 Edward Baliol, I332–1342 David Bruce restored, I342–1370 Aouse of Stuart. Robert II., . . . I370–1390 Robert III., . e tº I390–1406 An Interregnum, tº . I4O6–1424 James I., © º tº I424–1437 James II., * > º . I437–1460 James III., . * © I460–1487 James IV., ſº e . I487–1513 James V., . gº I5I3–I 542 Mary, * © G I542–1567 James VI., . gº tº I567–1603 RINGS AND EMPERORS OF FRANCE. Carlovingian Kings. Charles the Bald, . te . 843–877 Louis II., . o e . 877–879 Louis III. and Carloman, . 879–884 Charles the Fat, º . 884–888 Count Eudes, tº e . 888–898 Charles the Simple, . . 898–922 Raoul, . º º e . 922–936 Louis IV., g g 936–954 Lothaire, º tº tº . 954—986 Louis V., . © e e 986–987 House of Capet. Hugh Capet, . g 987–996 Robert, s g ſº 996–IO3 I Henry I, . º . IO3 I—IO60 Philip I., . © º IO60—I Io8 Louis the Fat, . ſº . I IOS-II37 Louis VII., . * & II37–118O Philip Augustus, tº . I 180–1223 Louis VIII., © e I223–1226 Louis IX. or St. Louis, . I226–1270 Philip the Bald, . Q 1270–1285 Philip the Fair, . e . I285–1314 Louis X., . tº © 1314–13 I6 Philip the Hardy, . . I316–1321 Charles the Fair, . * I32I–I328 Bouse of Valois. Philip of Valois, . . 1328–1350 John the Good, e . I350–1364 Charles the Wise, . O I364–138o Charles VI., . * . I380–1422 Charles the Victorious, . I422–1461 Louis XI., ſº º I461–1483 Charles VIII., . ſº I483–1498 Louis XII. . . . I498–1515 A. D. Francis I., . ſº ſº I515–1547 Henry II., ſº ū I547–1559 Francis II., . o g I559–1560 Charles IX., . 4, I560–1574 Henry III., . 1574–1589 Aouse of Æourbon. Henry IV., . g 1589–1610 Louis XIII., . ſº J610–1643 Louis XIV., . g tº I643–1715 Louis XV., º o . I7I 5–1774 Louis XVI., . I774–1793 The First French Republic, I793–1804 The First French Empire. Napoleon I., 1804–1814 Aouse of Bourbon. Louis XVIII., Charles X., g tº Aouse of Orleans. Louis Philippe, . 1830–1848 The Second French Republic, 1848–1852 The Second French Empire. Napoleon III., . tº 1852–1870 The Third French Republic, 1870— 1814–1824 I824–1830 EMPERORS OF GERMANY. Carlovingian Emperors. Louis the German and Loth- aire, fº te ſº tº Louis II., . © * > © Charles the Fat, g o Arnolph, s * * © tº Louis the Child, © tº Aouse of Franconia. Conrad I., . • , a © Aouse of Saxony. Henry the Fowler, Otho the Great, Otho II., . ſº e Otho III., . g * Henry the Saint, o 843–855 855–875 875–887 887–898 898–91 I 9II–919 919–936 . 936–973 973–983 983—IOO2 • IOO2—IO24 Aozase of Franconia. Conrad II., . e ſe IO24-IO39 Henry III., . & . IO39–IO56 Henry IV., . tº c IOS6—IIoô Henry V., IIo6–II25 Aouse of Saxony. Iothaire II., . g O II25–II38 622 SO VERAE/GAVIS AAWD Aº U/CAERS, The Hohenstauffens. A. D. II38–II52 II52–II90 II90—II97 Conrad III., . e Frederic Barbarossa, Henry VI., Otho IV. and Philip of Swabia, e * 1197–1218 Frederic II., . g . I218–1250 An Interregnum, . I250–1273 Aouse of Hapsburg. Rodolph of Hapsburg, . I273–I29I Aouse of Massau. I291–1298 Aouse of Austria. . I298–1308 Adolph, Albert, Aouse of Luxemburg. Henry VII., . I3O8–1313 Aouse of Bavaria. Louis V., . e I313–I347 Aozase of Zuxemburg. Charles IV., . wº I347–1378 Wenceslaus, . º I378–1400 House of the Palatinate. Rupert, . tº e I4OO-I4I4. Aozase of Zzczemāzºg. I4I4-I438 Aouse of Hapsburg. Sigismund, Albert II., . g * I438–1440 Frederic III., . º • I44O-I493 Maximilian I., . ſº I493–15 IQ Charles V., o o I519–1556 Ferdinand I., ſº © I556–1564 Maximilian II., gº I564–1576 Rodolph II., . * > o I576–1612 Matthias, . G c I612–1619 Ferdinand II., . I619–1637 Ferdinand III., e 1637–1657 Leopold I., . gº wº 1657–1705 Joseph I., g te I705–17 II Charles VI., . e tº I7II—I'74I Aouse of Bavaria. Charles VII., I74I–IZ45 Æouse of Zorraine. Francis I., . © * I745–1765 }. II., e tº I765–1790 eopold II., o I790–1792 Francis II., © e . I792–1806 The Confederation of the Rhine, 1806–1815 A. D. The Germanic Confederation, 1815–1866 The North German Confederation, 1866–1871 Aouse of Hohenzollern. William the Victorious, . 1871- KINGS OF POLAND. Bouse of Piast. Boleslaus I., . ſº Miceslaus II., tº o Casimir I., g * Boleslaus II., Ladislaus the Careless, Boleslaus III., º t Ladislaus II., . º e Boleslaus IV., e º Miceslaus III., . ſº & Casimir the Just, . dº Lesko I., . e o ſº Conrad of Masovia, . Boleslaus V., . e tº Lesko the Black, . e Przemislaus, . e tº Wenceslaus of Bohemia, Ladislaus IV., ſº Casimir the Great, © Louis the Great, of Hungary, Ladislaus V., tº © The Jagellos. Jagello, * tº de Ladislaus VI., . Casimir IV., e & John Albert, . º ſº Alexander, . tº g Sigismund the Great, Sigismund II., . * An Interregnum, Henry of Valois, * º An Interregnum, . o Stephen, . e tº * Sigismund III., . tº Ladislaus VII.,. ſº ſº John Casimir, . . e Michael Wisniowiecski, . John Sobieski, . tº Frederic Augustus I., of Sax- Ony, . ſº ſº Stanislaus Leczinski, Frederick Augustus I. re- stored, . * > * Frederick Augustus II.,. Stanislaus Augustus Poniat- owski, . tº o tº Aouse of Valois. IOOO–IO25 IO25–IO41 IO4I–IO58 IO58–IO79 IO79–I IO2 I IO2–II39 II39–II46 II46–II73 I 173—I 178 I 178—I2O2 I2O2–1226 1226–1227 I227–1279 I279–1295 I295–1300 I3OO–1305 I305–1333 I333–1370 1370–1386 I386–1400 I4OO-I434 I434-I447 I447–1492 1492–15OI I5OI-1506 1506–1548 I548–1572 I572–1573 I573–I574 I574–I575 1575–1587 I587–1632 1632–1648 1648–1669 I669–1674 I674-1697 1697–1704 I7O4–I709 I709–1733 I733–1764 1764–1795 SOWEREIGNS AAWD RULERS. 623 KINGS AND QUEEN OF DEN- MARK. Dynasty of Sééold. A. D. Sweyn I., . IOOO–IoI6 Canute the Great, IoI6–1036 Canute III., . IO36–IO45 Magnus the Good, Way, . º IO45—IO74 FIarold VII., . IO74—IO76 Su, Canute, Io'76–Io87 Olaus II., . IO87–Io95 Eric III., IO95—I IO2 Nicholas, . I IO2–II35 Eric IV., II 35–II.39 . Eric V., II39–II48 Sweyn II., II48 Canute V., II48–II57 Waldemar the Great, II57–II82 Canute VI., . . I 182—I2O2 Waldemar the Conqueror, I2O2–1224 Eric VI., . gº I224–I25O Abel, . I250–1252 Christopher I I252–1259 Eric VII., I259–1286 Eric VIII., Q I286–1319 Christopher II., I319–1340 Waldemar III., . I340–1376 Olaus III., 1376–1387 Margareta, I387–1412 Eric XIII., . I4I2–I439 Christopher III., I439–1448 Aouse of Oldenburg. Christian I., . I448–1481 John, ſº I481–1513 Christian II., I513–1523 Frederic I., I523–1533 Christian III., I533–I559 Frederic II., I559–1588 Christian IV., 1588–1648 Frederic III., I648–1670 Christian V., . 1670–1699 Frederic IV., 1699–1730 Christian VI., 1730–1746 Frederic V., 1746–1766 Christian VII., 1766–1808 Frederic VI., . 1808–1839 Christian VIII., 1839–1848 Frederic VII., . 1848–1863 Christian IX, 1863– RINGS OF ARAGON. Ramiriz I., Sancho Ramiriz, Peter I., Alphonso the W Ramiriz the Monk, Protronilla, Io95—IO65 IO65–Io94 IO94—I IO4 I IO4–II 24 II 24–II37 1137–II62 Alphonso II., . º tº Peter II., . . . * James I., . * Peter III., . † tº Alphonso the Beneficent, James II., . & Alphonso the Meek, . Peter the Ceremonious, . John I., Martin, Ferdinand I., tº tº Alphonso the Magnanimous, John II., . * * & Ferdinand the Catholic, . A. D. II62–1196 II96–1213 I213–1276 1276–1285 I285–1291 I291–1327 I327–1336 I336–1387 1387–1395 I395–14 I2 I412–1416 1416–1458 1458–1467 I467–1492 KINGS AND QUEEN OF CASTILE. Ferdinand I., tº tº Alphonso VII., . e º Urraca, ſº º Alphonso VIII., º Sancho II., . sº & Alphonso IX., . e Henry I., . tº Ferdinand the Saint, . Alphonso the Wise, Sancho the Brave, . Ferdinand IV., . * Alphonso XI., . Peter the Cruel, Henry of Trastamara, . John I., Henry the 'Sick y, John II., . * Henry IV., isabeña, , . . . . . . IO35—IO72 IO72—I IOg IIo9–II26 II26–II57 II57–1158 II58–1214 I2I4–12 I7 1217-1252 1252–1284 I284-1295 I295—I312 I312–1350 I350–1368 I368–1379 I379–1390 I390–1406 I4O6–1454 I454–1464 I464–1492 KINGS AND QUEENS OF |PORTUGAL. Aouse of Burgundº Henry I., . © o {º Sancho II., . * Alphonso II., . g Sancho III., . ſº ſº Alphonso III., . Dennis, e * & Alphonso IV., .. tº g Pedro the Cruel, Ferdinand, John the Great, Edward, . * Alphonso V., * > John the Perfect, Emmanuel the Great, John III., . tº © Sebastian, . © Henry II., * > º * Cnited with Spain II39–II.85 II85–I2O2 I2O2–1233 I233–1247 I 247–1272 I272–1325 I325–1357 I357–1367 I367–1385 I385–1433 1433–1438 1438–1481 1481–1485 I485–1521 I52I–I 557 1557–1578 1578–1580 3. 1580–1540 624 SO VERAE/GAWS AAWD RUZAZA&S. Aouse of Braganza. b A. D. John IV., . º 1640–1656 Alphonso VI., 1656–1683 Pedro II., . 1683–1706 John V., º I7O6–1750 Joseph Emmanuel, 1750–1777 Pedro III. and Maria I., 1777–1786 Maria I., . tº e . 1786–1816 John VI., . e º I816–1826 Pedro IV., I826 Maria II., . º º 1826–1853 Pedro V., . º • * 1853–1861 Louis II., . e © I861 KINGS AND QUEENS OF SWEDEN. Adolphus, . º . I212–1250 Waldemar, . ſº I250–1279 Magnus II, . º . I279–1290 Berger II., & • I290–132O Magnus III., e º I320–1363 Albert of Mecklenburg, I363–1397 United with Denmark, I397–1523 House of Vasa. Gustavus Vasa, . . I523–1556 Eric XIV., I556–1569 John III., I569–1592 Sigismund, . I592–16OO Charles IX., . o I6OO–16II Gustavus Adolphus, 1611–1632 Christina, . º º . 1632–1654 Charles X., . 1654–1660 Charles XI., 1660–1697 Charles XII., 1697–1718 Ulrica Eleanora, 1718–1721 Frederic I., . e 1721–1751 Adolphus Frederic, 1751–1771 Gustavus III., 1771–1792 Gustavus IV., . 1792–1809 Charles XIII., 1809–1818 House of Bernadotte. Charles XIV., 1818–1844 Oscar I., . º ſº 1844–1859 Charles XV., G º: 1859–1872 Oscar II., . º o 1872– DUKES OF BURGUNDY. Philip the Bold, I363–14O4 John the Fearless, I4O4–I4 IQ Philip the Good, 1419–1467 Charles the Bold, 1467–1477 SULTANS OF TURREY. Othman I., º tº . I299–1326 Orchan, • e I326–1360 *- A. D. Amurath I., . º . 1360–1389 Bajazet I., . te tº I589–1412 Mohammed I., . º . I4 I2–1421 Amurath II., º sº I42I–145 I Mohammed II., e . I451–1481 Bajazet II., e e I481–1512 Selim I., . º e . I512–152O Solyman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 Selim II., . º © . I566–1574 Amurath III., e I 574–1595 Mohammed III., e I595–1603 Achmet I., e 1603–1617 Mustapha I., . © 1617–1618 Othman II., . º o I618–1622 Mustapha I. restored, . I622–1623 . Amurath IV., º 1623–1640 Ibrahim, . e e . I640–1649 Mohammed IV., . Q I649–1687 Solyman II., . o . 1687–1691 Achmet II., . e e I691–1695 Mustapha II., . º . I695–1703 Achmet III., te º I703–1730 Mohammed V., e I73O-I754 Othman III., 1754–1757 Mustapha III., . e I757–1774 Achmet IV., º e 1774–1789 Selim III., º . 1789–1807 Mustapha IV., . tº 1807–1898 Mohmoud II., . & . 1808–1839 Abdul Medjid, . 1839–1861 Abdul Aziz, 1861–1876 Amurath V., e 1876 Abdul Hamid. º . 1876 SOWEREIGNS OF RUSSIA. Aouse of Ruric. Ivan the Great, I462–1505 Vasily IV., . e I505–1533 Ivan the Terrible, I533–1588 Feodor I., 1588–1600 Boris Godonoff, 1600–1604 Demetrius, 1604–1606 Zuiski, & I6O6 An Interregnum, . 1606–1613 Aouse of Romanoff. Michael Romanoff, e 1613–1645 &\lexis, . © e . 1645–1676 Feodor II., . e Q 1676–1682 Ivan V. and Peter, . . 1682–1689 Peter the Great, . e 1689–1725 Catharine I., . o . I725–1727 Peter II., . g º I727–1730 Anna, e Q & . I730–1740 Ivan VI., . º o I74O—I74I Elizabeth, º e . I 741–1762 Peter III., . © © 1762 Catharine II., . º . 1762–1796 Paul, . © e o 1796–1801 SO VERE/GAVS AAWD RUZAZA'.S. 625 A. D. Alexander I., 1801–1825 Nicholas, . e g 1825–1855 Alexander II., . e 1855– KINGS AND QUEENS OF SPAIN. Bouse of Trastamara. Ferdinand V. and Isabella I., 1479–1517 Aouse of Hapsburg. Charles I., . g I517–1556 Philip II., * e I556–1598 Philip III., . & I598–1621 Philip IV., e . I621–1666 Charles II., . 1666–17oo Aouse of Bourbon. Philip V., of Anjou, . I7OO–1745 Ferdinand VI., . tº I745–1759 Charles III., . 1759–1788 Charles IV., 1788–1808 & A. D. Jehanghir, . ſº * > 1605–1627 Shah Jehan I., . 1627–1659 Aurungzebe, . 1659–1707 Bahadur Shah, . I707–1712 Farokhsir, . e I712–1719 Mohammed Shah, I719–1748 Ahmed Shah, e I748–1754 Alamgir, . tº © I754–1756 Shah Jehan II., . © I756–1761 Shah Alum, º 1761 MANTCHOO EMPERORS OF CHINA. Bouse of Bonaparte. Joseph Bonaparte, 1808–1813 Aouse of Bourbon. Ferdinand VII., 1813–1833 Isabella II., . 1833–1868 An Interregnum, 1868–1871 House of Savoy. Amadeo, g iº 1871–1873 The Spanish Republic, 1873–1875 House of Bourbon. Alphonso XII., . 1875– SHAHS OF PERSIA. Suffeean Dynasty. Ismael, e tº I5O1–1519 Tamasp, te ſº I5 I9–1577 Mohammed the Pious, . 1577–1586 Shah Abbas the Great, I586–1643 Abbas II., . * tº 1643–1666 Solyman, . © o 1666–1694 Hussien, I694–1722 Mahmoud, º tº 1722–1725 Asharf, tº & © I725–1732 Abbas III., e o 1732–1736 Nadir Shah, . © * 1736–1747 Anarchy, 1747–18oo Radjar Dynasty. Futteh Ali Shah, 1800–1835 Mohammed Shah, 1835–1848 Nasr-ul-Deen, 1848– MOGUL EMPERORS OF INDIA. Baber, . º © I525–I 530 Humayan, . e I530–1556 Akbar, . gº I556–1605 Shun-che, . tº © I644–1662 Kang-hy, . tº ſº . I662–1722 Yong-tching, 1722–1735 Kien-long, tº iº I735–1795 Kea-king, © I795–1820 Taou-kwang, . & 1820–1850 Hien-ſung, 1850–1862 Tsai-chun, * 1862–1875 Kuang-Su, . © c 1875 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. House of Hohenzollern. Frederic I., . gº Q 1701–1713 Frederic William I., . I7 I3–1740 Frederic the Great, 1740–1786 Frederic William II., 1786–1797 Frederic William III., . I797–1840 Frederic William IV., . 1840–1861 William I., e tº 1861– BRITISH GOVERNORS OF INDIA. Warren Hastings, . 1773–1786 Lord Cornwallis, 1786–1792 Sir John Shore, . I792–1797 Marquis Wellesley, I797–1804 Lord Cornwallis, . 1804–1805 Lord Minto, . i. 1805–1813 Marquis of Hastings, 1813–1823 Lord Amherst, . º 1823–1827 Lord William Bentnick, 1827–1835 Lord Auckland, * 1835–1842 Lord Ellenborough, 1842–1843 Sir IIenry IIardinge, . . I843–1847 Lord Dalhousie, . 1847–1856 Lord Canning, . e 1856-1858 Lord Elgin, . 1858-1863 Lord Mayo, 1863–1872 Lord Northbrook, . 1872–1876 Lord Lytton, . 1876– PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. George Washington, . 1789–1797 John Adams, g º 1797–1801 4O 626 SO VERE/GAVS AND RULERS. * A. D. Thomas Jefferson, . . 1801–1809 ames Madison, . o 1809–1817 ames Monroe, . & . 1817–1825 John Quincy Adams, 1825–1829 Andrew Jackson, 1829–1837 Martin Van Buren, 1837–1841 William Henry Harrison, . 1841 John Tyler, . gº o 1841–1845 James Knox Polk, . 1845–1849 Zachary Taylor, . º 1849–1850 Millard Fillmore, . . 1850–1853 Franklin Pierce, . º 1853–1857 James Buchanan, . 1857–1861 Abraham Lincoln, . 1861–1865 Andrew Johnson, . 1865–1869 Ulysses S. Grant, . tº 1869–1877 Rutherford B. Hayes, . 1877– PACHAS OF EGYPT. Mehemet Ali, . º . 1805–1848 Ibrahim Pacha, 1848–1849 Abbas Pacha, . g . I849– EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. Aouse of Lorraine-Hapsburg. Francis I., 1806–1835 Ferdinand, º tº 1835–1848 Francis Joseph, . © 1848– KINGS OF HOLLANID. Aouse of Massau. William I., º © e William II., . e William III., . o º 1814–1840 1840–1649 1849– EMPERORS AND PRESIDENTS OF MEXICO. Amperor. Don Augustin Iturbide, . 1822–1823 Presidents. Guadalupe Victoria, . Guerrera, . º e e Bustamente, . o o 1825–1823 1829–1830 1830–1832 A. D. Pedraza, º o . 1832–1833 Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, © e e Bustamente, . e e Santa Anna, . e Herrera, º Paredes, © º e Santa Anna, . º tº Herrera, º & sº Arista, . º o • Santa Anna, . º e Alvarez, o º o Comonfort, o © Zuloaga, º ë e Benito Juarez, . o © 1833 -1837 1837–1841 1841–1845 1845—1846 1846 1846–1848 1848–1851 1851–1853 1853–1854 1854–1856 1856–1858 1858–1860 1860–1864 Æmperor and Presidents. Maximilian of Austria, Em- peror, o º e Benito Juarez, President, . Lerdo de Tejada, . Porfirio Diaz, 1864–1867 1864–1872 1872–1877 1877– EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. Bouse of Braganza. Don Pedro I., 1822-1831 Don Pedro II., . 1831– KINGS OF BELGIUM. JHouse of Saxe-Coburg. Leopold I., . e º 1830–1864 Leopold II., . 1864– ICINGS OF GREECE. House of Bavaria. Otho, e • e . 1833–1863 Bouse of Denmark. George, 1863– KING OF ITALY. Aouse of Savoy. Victor Emmanuel, . . 1861–1878 Humbert, 1878– APPENDIX. BRITISH AFFAIRS. Queen Victoria, “Empress of India.”—Disraeli, Earl of Beacons- field.—In the fall of 1875, the Prince of Wales paid a visit to India. The ex- penses of this visit, which were paid by the British Government, were enormous. At the same time British influence was increased in Egypt, by the purchase by the British Government of the Suez Canal shares of the Viceroy of Egypt. In April, 1876, the British Parliament passed an act conferring upon Queen Victoria the title of “Empress of India.” The new title was very unpopular with the British press and people. In August, 1876, Mr. Disraeli, who was still Prime Minister, was raised to the House of Lords, with the title of Earl of Beaconsfield. On the 1st of January, 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed with great pomp, at Delhi, “Empress of India.” The ceremonies were conducted under the auspices of the Governor-General, Lord Lytton, in the presence of a vast concourse of people from various parts of India. THE EASTERN QUESTION. Rebellion in Herzegovina and Bosnia Against the Turks.-In July, 1875, the peasants of Herzegovina and Bosnia, provinces in the west of European Turkey, fose in rebellion against the Ottoman Government to resist the collection of taxes by the officials of the Porte. The insurrection became quite formidable, and fears were entertained that the peace of Europe was jeopardized. The Consuls of the Great European Powers met at Mostar, in September, 1875, and endeavored to bring about a pacification by inducing the Porte to grant needed reforms and rea- sonable concessions to the Herzegovinians and Bosnians; while, at the same time, they tried to induce the insurgents to submit, but ſailed. Many engagements of an unimportant character occurred during the summer and autumn of 1875, and the following winter and spring, but no advantage was gained by either party. Cettinge, Trebinge, and Nicsic were the scenes of stubborn conflicts and close sieges by the insurgents, but the result of the struggle continued indecisive. Tre- binge and Nicsic were both relieved by the Turks, the former in January and the laſter in March, 1876. The Bosnian insurgents committed frightful atrocities, and bloody actions were ſought between them and the Turks. The Andrassy Note.—Its Rejection by the Insurgents.-Count An- diassy, the Austro-Hungarian Prime-Minister, drew up a note relative to reforms in Turkey, which received the approval of Russia, and was dispatched to the guar- anteeing Powers. This note proposed the equality of all religious denominations, and the introduction of provisional and communal self-government, and that the first result of these changes in the insurgent provinces should be the imposition of taxation by the provinces themselves and the abolition of serfdom. The Austro- (627) 628 A / PEAWD/X. Hungarian Ambassador at Constantinople communicated Count Andrassy’s note to the Grand Vizier, who, in reply, rejected the idea of foreign mediation, and said that the Sublime Porte would give the people of the Turkish provinces all necessary guarantees for reform. Italy, France, Germany, and England, with certain reser- vations, supported the Andrassy note concerning reforms in Turkey. The Grand Vizicr at length intimated to the ambassadors of the Great European Powers that the Sultan was willing to accept Count Andrassy's recommendations, but not to permit any foreign interference or control in the execution of the reforms. On the 31st of January, 1876, the Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and German Ambassadors communicated Count Andrassy's note verbally to the Porte. The ambassadors of the other Powers supported the note. The Porte, in reply to the note, promised to apply in the insurgent districts five leading points of Andrassy’s scheme—religious liberty, the modification of the system of collecting tithes, the granting of facilities to agriculturists, the application of a portion of the revenues of the insurgent pro- vinces to local improvements, and the appointment of a mixed commission of Mus- sulmans and Christians to watch the execution of these reforms. The Porte also took note of the promise of the Great Powers to lend their moral support to the pacification of the revolted districts. The Sultan then ordered the execution of the reforms. The insurgents, however, rejected the reforms, because they were not consulted in the arrangement. Toward the close of March, 1876, an armistice was concluded between the contending parties. Riot at Salonica.—Murder of the French and German Consuls —On the 6th of May, 1876, a serious riot occurred at Salonica, in European Turkey, be- tween the Christians and the Mohammedans. The trouble arose from the fact that a Christian girl wished to become a Mohammedan. She was forcibly taken from her Turkish friends by the Greeks. Fighting between the Christians and the Turks ensued. During the riot, the French and German Consuls went to the Mosque, and were assassinated by the exasperated Moslem populace, but the mob was dispersed. As soon as intelligence of the outrage reached Constantinople, the French and German ambassadors to Turkey demanded redress, and were promised satisfaction by the Porte. French and German war vessels immediately proceeded to Salonica to protect the lives and interests of French and German citizens. The two Powers jointly demanded the execution of the murderers, indemnification of the families of the victims, a solemn salute to the French and German flags by the Turkish authorities, and guarantees against similar atrocities in the future. The Ottoman Government acceded to these demands, and the murderers of the Consuls were executed. The funeral of the murdered Consuls took place on the 19th of May, at Salonica, with great ceremonies. The Berlin Conference and the Gortschakoff Memorandum.—On the 11th of May, 1876, a conference of the three Imperial Chancellors, Prince Gort- schakoff of Russia, Prince Bismarck of Germany, and Count Andrassy of Austro- Hungary, was opened at the residence of Prince Bismarck in Berlin. Count Audrassy’s note formed the basis of their conference. The three Chancellors agreed to abstain from all military intervention in the Turkish troubles. The memorandum agreed to by the three Chancellors was communicated to the guar- anteeing Powers. While maintaining Count Andrassy's note as a basis, the memo. randum drawn up by Prince Gortschakoff conceded the consideration of the reforms demanded by the insurgent leaders. The French and Italian Ambassadors A PPEAWDZX. 629 at Berlin gave their official notification of the complete concurrence of their respec- tive governments in the results of the conference; but England raised a succession of objections to the measures of the conference, and the text of her reply declin- ing to agree to the programme of the Russian, German, and Austro-Hungarian Chancellors, was communicated to the foreign ambassadors in London. The point to which Great Britain objected was the decision of the three Imperial Powers that in case their friendly intervention should fail to effect a pacification, the six Creat Powers should take joint action and adopt more efficient measures. The Blitish Cabinet regarded this as a threat of armed intervention and a menace to the inde- pendence of Turkey. The Herzegovinians and Bosnians rejected the proposition of the Berlin Conference, and were satisfied with nothing less than complete inde- pendence of Turkish rule; and the Porte asked for a modification of the Berlin memorandum, before giving its acceptance to the measures therein proposed. Thus the plan of the three Imperial Chancellors failed in its objects, and the memorandum was withdrawn. Dethronement and Suicide of Sultan Abdul Aziz.-On the 29th of May, 1876, the Turkish Ministry assembled at the residence of the Grand Vizier, and discussed the state of public affairs. They concluded that unless some radical measures were adopted, general rebellion and the downfall of the Ottoman Em- pire would soon follow. A resolution was accordingly passed embodying these views, and a petition to the Sultan, Abdul Aziz, was drawn up entreating him to abdicate his throne in order to save the country from utter ruin. The Sultan re- ceived the petition with seeming composure, saying he would consider the matter. The Ministers were sustained by a decree of the Sheik-ul-Islam, the spiritual head of the Mohammedan Church. On the following day there was an immense popu- lar demonstration in the streets of Constantinople. The trade guilds, headed by the Soſtas, marched to the Seraglio, the Sultan's palace, unopposed by the mili- tary, who were apparently disaffected. The multitude cheered for Amurath, the Sultan's nephew, and demanded the overthrow of Abdul Aziz. In the mean- time, Amurath having been released from his own house, to which he had been confined by the Sultan, was conducted to the mosque, and proclaimed Sultan with the title of Amurath V. Soon after this, Sulieman Pacha, accompanied by officers and soldiers, informed Abdul Aziz that the people had dethroned him, and that he should surrender the palace to his successor. Perceiving that resistance was use- less, Abdul Aziz complied; and accordingly, he, with his family, household, and fifty-three boats filled with women, left the building, and were conveyed under escort to the Tcheragan Palace. Aſter his deposition, Abdul Aziz had several violent fits of insanity, and on the 4th of June (1876), he committed suicide by opening the veins and arteries of his arms with scissors, and bleeding to death. His funeral was honored with great pomp, and all the ministers and high officials, civil and military, were present; and his remains were placed in the mausoleum of Sultan Mahmoud. Assassination of Turkish Ministers.-On the 15th of June, 1876, FIassan Bey, a t >ircassian officer of the rank of adjutant-major in the Turkish service, who had been assigned to duty at Bagdad, and imprisoned for his refusal to leave Con- stantinople, and who was just released on his promise to obey orders, proceeded to the residence of Midhat Pacha, the Grand Vizier, who was in council with his Ministers, and being admitted into the council chamber by mistake, d.ew a revolver 63o APPEAWD/X. and instantly shot and killed Hussein Avni Pacha, Minister of War. In endeavoring to escape arrest, he shot and killed Reshid Pacha, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and seriously wounded the Minister of Marine. A soldier and a servant were also killed, and another wounded. The assassin was hanged on the 20th (June, 1876) and the vacant offices were immediately filled. The Turko-Servian War—Alliance of Servia and Montenegro.—From the time of the outbreak of the Herzegovinian insurrection, the Principality of Ser- via, a state in the north of European Turkey, tributary to the Porte, had main- tained a warlike attitude toward the Ottoman Government, and shown a disposition to espouse the cause of the insurgents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Turkish Government had in the meantime anticipated the warlike designs of Servia by sending troops to the Servian frontier; and both parties were ready for hostilities. At the beginning of July, 1876, Prince Milan, of Servia, declared war against the Turkish Government, alleging as his reason the threatening attitude of the Porte toward Servia, and its failure to Satisfy the demands of Bosnia. At the same time, Prince Nicholas, of Montenegro, a small tributary state in the west of European Turkey, entered the field against the Porte, in support of the cause of Herzegovina. There were now four Turkish provinces in open rebellion against the Porte— Herzegovina, Bosnia, Montenegro, and Servia. The war which now opened was most sanguinary in its character. During the whole of July, August, and Septem- ber, 1876, the struggle raged fiercely; and battles between the Turks and the Servians were of almost daily occurrence. The valleys of the Drina, the Morava, and the Timok, were drenched with blood; and Izvor, Derbent, Saitschar, Gur- gosovatz, Paratchin, Pandirola, Podgoritza, Alexinatz, and Deligrad were repeat- edly the scenes of sanguinary conflicts. The Servian armies, commanded by Generals Tchermayeff, Leschjanin, Antitch, Olympics, Horvatovich, Paulovich, and others, resisted with great bravery; but the Turkish forces, under the com- mand of Osman Pacha, Dervish Pacha, Hafiz Pacha, Suleiman Pacha, Kerim Pacha, Mehemet Ali Pacha, and others, were successful in nearly every encounter; but in Montenegro and Herzegovina, the Ottoman troops, under Mukhtar Pacha and Selim Pacha, suffered a series of calamitous defeats. Finally in September (1876), the Servians were reduced to such straits that the Servian Government became anxious for peace. Turkish Atrocities in Bulgaria.-Indignation in England.—A rebellion having broke out in Bulgaria in May (1876), the Porte sent Circassians and Bashi- Bazouks, irregular troops, to subdue the revolt. These troops committed the most fiendish atrocities upon the Bulgarians after the suppression of the insurrection, massacring, without discrimination, men, women, and children, in the most cruel manner. According to the reports of English newspaper correspondents, and the American Consul, Mr. Schuyler, 12,000 Bulgarians fell victims to the savage fury of the Circassians and Bashi-Bazouks, and sixty villages were reduced to ashes. These atrocities aroused the most intense indignation in England. Immense public meetings were held in every part of the kingdom to denounce the outrages, and in London several monster demonstrations were held. The British press loudly called for the interference of the Government to compel the Turks to respect the usages of civilized warfare; and the British Government, under the pressure of public sentiment, instituted measures to secure an investigation of the Bulgarian outrages. An animated debate occurred in the British House of Commons, and the Ministry A PPEAVO/X. 631 was severely condemned for its indifference. Mr. Baring, the Secretary of the British Embassy at Constantinople, in his report, estimated the number massacred in and around Philippopolis at 12,000. The British Government called upon the Porte to punish the perpetrators of the outrages, and received promises that justice should be done, but the Ottoman Government was slow in fulfilling its promises. Dethronement of Sultan Amurath V. and Accession of Abdul Hamid. —From the time of his accession to the throne of Turkey, Sultan Amurath V. was an imbecile, and preparations were made for his dethronement. Finally, on the 31st of August, 1876, a Council of Ministers and great dignitaries of the Ottoman Empire, in conformity with a decree of the Sheik-ul-Islam, proclaimed the deposi- tion of Amurath V., and declared his brother Abdul Hamid Sultan of Turkey. Prince Milan Proclaimed King of Servia-On the 15th of September, 1876, General Tchernayeff’s army proclaimed Prince Milan King of Servia, and conferred upon him dictatorial powers. This act of the Servian army was disap- proved by Russia, and Austro-Hungary refused to recognize Milan's title. Overtures for Peace.—An Armistice of Eighteen Days.--In consequence of the Turkish victories, the Princes of Servia and Montenegro made overtures for peace, and their demand was sustained by England. Sir Henry George Elliot, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, presented to the Porte a demand for an armistice of one month, to be followed by negotiations for peace. The demand of England was sustained by the other foreign ambassadors at the Turkish capital. The Ottoman Government decidedly refused to grant an armistice, but expressed its willingness to treat for peace. This refusal threatened fresh complications in the East, as Russia seemed disposed to insist on the demand for an armistice. Finally, about the middle of September (1876), both Turkey and Servia agreed upon a suspension of hostilities for ten days, afterward prolonged eight days, and negotiations for peace were opened; but the conditions of Turkey were rejected by both Servia and Montenegro, and thus the negotiations failed. New Peace Negotiations.—Relations of Russia and Turkey.—Terms of peace proposed by the Great European Powers were rejected by Turkey; and the relations between Russia and Turkey were every day becoming more precarious. The Russian Government was unable to restrain the warlike ardor of its subjects, who were in hearty sympathy with the Servians. England was jealous of Russian interference in Turkish affairs, and her interests demanded the upholding of the Ottoman Empire; but the English people, whose indignation had been aroused by the Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria, opposed the Eastern policy of the Earls of Beaconsfield and Derby. Germany seemed disposed to support Russia's position, but Austro-Hungary and Italy opposed it. The Powers made continuous efforts for an armistice. Servia, as well as Turkey, rejected the peace proposals of the European Powers. Russia proposed a joint intervention on the part of the Great Powers in Turkish affairs, but France, England, and Austro-Hungary declined the proposi- tion. Russia now seemed disposed to openly support Servia, and a war between Russia and Turkey appeared imminent. The Porte proposed a six months' armis- tice, but this was opposed by Russia, which demanded instead a six weeks' armis- tice. Russia’s Menace Against Turkey.—Warlike Preparations.—On the 12th of October, 1876, the Ottoman Porte rejected the peace propositions of the 632 - AAPPAEAVOXX. European Powers. Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Prime Minister, issued a cir- cular note to the other European Powers, opposing the six months' armistice, and demanding instead a six weeks' armistice. Russia threatend to invade Turkey in case of a refusal of a short armistice. War between Russia and Turkey appeared inevitable, and great uneasiness prevailed in all the great European capitals. War risks were required in London, and Lloyds were called upon to have steamers ready to transport troops. England was making warlike preparations, and the British fleets in the Mediterranean were under sailing orders. Much bitter hatred against Russia was manifested in England, the recent excitement against the Turks, on account of the Bulgarian atrocities, having died away. Russian troops were concentrating at Bender and at Tiflis, preparatory to invading both European and Asiatic Turkey, while the Ottoman Porte was concentrating two large armies, one in European and the other in Asiatic Turkey, to resist Russian invasion. Russia's Ultimatum.—An Armistice.—Proposed Peace Conference.— The French and German ambassadors at Constantinople received instructions from their respective governments to support the proposal for a six weeks' armistice. On the 30th of October, 1876, General Ignatieff, the Russian Am- bassador at Constantinople, presented an ultimatum to the Porte, demanding the acceptance of a two months' armistice and a suspension of hostilities within forty- eight hours, threatening, in case of a refusal, to break off diplomatic relations and to leave Constantinople with the whole Russian Embassy. The Porte consented to the Russian demands, and the armistice was signed on the 1st of November, 1876; and hostilities between the Turks and Servians were suspended. Montene- gro also accepted the armistice. Upon the conclusion of the armistice, the Great Powers agreed upon holding a peace conference at Constantinople to settle the Eastern question. The conference was summoned on the basis of the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire. The Czar's Speech at Moscow.—Russia's Warlike Demonstrations.— On the Ioth of November, 1876, the Czar Alexander II. of Russia delivered an important speech at Moscow, in reply to an address from the citizens, declaring that he would demand guarantees from the Porte, and threatening, in case of a refusal, a declaration of war. The speech was received with enthusi- astic cheers. The Czar's speech was everywhere applauded throughout the Russian Empire. In the midst of the preparations for the peace conference, the most warlike demonstrations were going on in Russia. Great Britain was ex- cited by distrust of Russia, and war risks were taken in London. Great activity prevailed at the Woolwich arsenal; and in the dock-yards the iron-clads were pre- pared for immediate service, and all soldiers on furlough in Ireland were ordered to join their regiments. Russian troops were concentrating in Southwestern Russia, and in the Caucasus, ready to invade both European and Asiatic Turkey; while the Porte was concentrating two large armies to resist Russian invasion. The Czar, in an address to the generals and officers of the Russian army, at a military review in St. Petersburg, on November 15th (1876), said, “Gentlemen, let us wish the best success to the commanders of our armies.” The Czar's words were received with enthusiastic cheering. All freight traffic was stopped on the railways in Southwestern Russia. A Russian army was rapidly concentrating at Odessa. A Russian war loan of Ioo,000,ooo roubles in bank notes was issued by the State Bank of St. Petersburg, by authority of an imperial ukase, to be received º 2 < * 'S N wº º gº fºx gº º º gº-- t > *ºffſ º c. º º ºš asº º %2. e % f ſ | S-E- $=SE2. #ES *- #º := g- º º § & . . . . Bºsſº § §) ºsº -- Sº N \ ºfflº Ø - tºº cºaf sº mº-E-cº * * * ſ ſ sºy. º Súñ º | | | § º | -> . . |º ºffſ . $ºš - | | |. ſ º ſ Sº * F U S S I A N TY PE S. **--º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: ºxº-º-º-º: \\\\\\\\\\\\ºw NY \ §§§ºiſ. º - º §§ § §% N N §§ º "/ š º º | N | iñº w ºf ººº ..% |º,ſ: |-: fiW§º 1.: ºº!º º-º :: | | ** § : | A. } 1—Woman of Norgorod. 2—Girl of Norgorod. 3–Girl of Pskor. 4—Woman of Pskor. 5—A Norgorodian. 6—Man of Norgorod. 7–0 irl of Pskor. $—Girl of Pskor. 9–Woman of Trer. 10—Woman of Torjok. 11—Woman of Kalouga. j i. # º 2'º. --- | | † I. §§º sº. | | º | º *śssssſſſſ | § º | J. 12—A townsman, or resident of the city. 13—A townsman, or resident of the city. 14—Woman of Smolensk. 15—Woman of Smolensk. 16—Woman of Trogobouge. 17–Girl of Drogobouge. 18—Girl of Viazma. 19—Woman of Orel. 20–Girl of Orel. 21—Boy of Orel. 22—Woman of Riazan. 23–Girl of Riazan. 24—Girl of the settlement of Sarator. 25—Woman of the settlement of Sarator, 26—Man of Kolomnia. 27—Woman of Kolomnia. 28–Girl of Išoursk. 29—Woman of Koursk. 30–Girl of Igor. 31—Man of Koursk. 33—Woman of the settlement of Sarator. 32—Young man of the settlement of Sarator. 34—Girl of the settlement of Sarator. 35—Girl of Toula. 36—Woman of Toula. 37—Woman of Toula—another dress. 38—Mechanic of Toula. 39—Mechanic of Toula. 40–Girl of Dankoxenriazan. 41–Girl of Ranenbourg in Riazan. 42–Girl of Kozlorentambor. 43—Man of Koursk. 44—Man of Koursk. 45—Girl of Lgor in Koursk. A PPA2AWD/X. 633 in subscriptions, bearing interest at Io per cent. The Czar, in an interview with Lord Loftus, the British Ambassador at St. Petersburg on November 2d, 1876, gave assurances that Russia would not seize Constantinople, or attempt to conquer India. New Turkish Constitution.—In the meantime, the Turkish Government had appointed a commission to frame a constitution for the Ottoman Empire. The commission concluded its labors in the latter part of November, 1876, and a draft of the document was sent to the Grand Vizier. The text of the constitution was communicated to the Great European Powers. The new constitution was officially promulgated with great solemnity on the 23d of December, 1876. The constitu- tion declared the Ottoman Empire to be one and indivisible, and provided for a legislative assembly comprising two branches, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The principle of ministerial responsibility was established. On November 23d, 1876, the Sultan issued a decree abolishing slavery within the Turkish dominions. The Peace Conference at Constantinople.—Unanimity of the Great Powers.-In the meantime, while Turkey and Russia were making warlike dem- onstrations, preparations for the peace conference at Constantinople were being rapidly pushed. The British plenipotentiary, Lord Salisbury, while on his way to Constantinople, had an interview with Prince Bismarck at Berlin. Lord Salisbury also stopped at Vienna. Popular sentiment in England had compelled Lord Beaconsfield to reverse his policy on the Eastern question, and England was now in full accord with Russia on the guarantees to be required of the Ottoman Porte. France, Germany, Italy, and Austro-Hungary also supported the Russian de- mands. An interview between Lord Salisbury and General Ignatieff showed a complete agreement between them on the points to be demanded of the Porte. At a preliminary meeting of the Conference on December 11th, 1876, under the presidency of the Russian Ambassador, the result showed a unanimity among the plenipotentiaries of the Great European Powers. General Ignatieff appeared very conciliatory, and at his suggestion, the Conference proposed that Belgium or Switzer- land might occupy Bulgaria with troops, but both these Small states rejected the proposition. The Conference began its regular sessions on December 23d, 1876. The Turkish plenipotentiary, Safvet Pacha, presided, and in his opening address, declared that the Porte was ready to grant reſorms to all its subjects. In all the proceedings of the Conference, the Great Powers were unanimous. Russia be- came more conciliatory and Turkey more defiant. All the proposals of the Euro- pean Powers were rejected by the Turkish Government, which met every proposi- tion with a counter-proposal. It gradually became apparent that Midhat Pacha, the Grand Vizier, had outwitted the diplomatists of Europe. Lord Salisbury, in an interview with Midhat Pacha, urged him to accept the European proposals, but without success. At a subsequent interview between Lord Salisbury and the Sul- tan, the latter objected to the European demands, whereupon Lord Salisbury directed the British fleet to leave Turkish waters, in order to show the Turks that England would not support them in resisting the united will of Europe. On the 30th of December, 1876, the armistice was prolonged to March 1st, 1877. The Powers at length agreed to consider the Turkish counter-proposals. Russia re- ceded from her original position; while the Turks appeared more defiant, and refused to discuss the European propositions. An angry interview occurred be- tween Lord Salisbury and Midhat Pacha on January 2d, 1877. The Conference, 634 A PAEEAVO /X. on the 6th of January, 1877, refused to make any further concessions, while the Turks remained inflexible. The English, German, and Russian plenipotentiaries, unsuccessfully urged the Grand Vizier to accept the proposals of the European Powers. On January 12th, 1877, Baron von Werther, the German plenipotentiary, declared that the Great Powers would make no further concessions to Turkey. On January 15th (1877), the European Powers relinquished many of the contested points, but Lord Salisbury, the British plenipotentiary, and Sir Henry George Elliott, the British Ambassador at the Turkish capital, announced that they had orders to leave Constantinople if the Porte rejected the modified demands of the Powers. All the other European plenipotentiaries made similar declarations. Safvet Pacha, the Turkish plenipotentiary, replied that the conditions of the Pow- ers would have to be submitted to the Porte, before a final answer could be given. On the 18th (January, 1877), the Grand Council of the Turkish Empire, among whom were sixty Christians, unanimously rejected the proposals of the European Powers, and declared that the Turkish counter-proposals were the only subject which would further be considered. The Council disregarded Midhat Pacha’s appeal for peace, and replied with loud shouts of “War rather than foreign inter- ference P’ “Death before dishonor P. The result of the Turkish Grand Council's action was that Lord Salisbury and General Ignatieff refused to have anything further to do with the negotiations; and the ambassadors of the six Great Euro- pean Powers accordingly withdrew from Constantinople, and thus the Conference failed. . . Peace between Turkey, and Servia and Montenegro.—In the latter part of January, 1877, the Porte opened negotiations for peace with Servia and Mon- tenegro. Both Russia and England advised Prince Milan, of Servia, to make peace. Midhat Pacha offered conciliatory terms to the Servians, who had for some time been anxious for peace. The negotiations progressed slowly, but were successfully completed in the early part of March, 1877. - Dismissal and Banishment of Midhat Pacha.-On the 5th of February (1877), Midhat Pacha was dismissed from office and banished from Constantino- ple by order of the Sultan; and Edhem Pacha was made Grand Vizier. The causes of the fall of Midhat Pacha were his progressive policy and his desire for peace, which were very obnoxious to the reactionary party in Turkey. Prince Gortschakoff’s Circular.—On the 4th of February (1877), Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Prime Minister, issued a circular note to the Russian Am- bassadors at the courts of the other Great Powers, declaring the Ottoman Empire a menace to Europe and to the sentiments of humanity and Christianity, and endeavoring to ascertain what course the other Governments of Europe intended to pursue in consequence of the Porte's defiant attitude. - Position of England on the Eastern Question.—In the meantime, the public mind in England was greatly excited on the Eastern question. Mr. Glad- stone made important speeches at Taunton and Frome, denouncing the course of Lord Beaconsfield and Lord Derby in not taking vigorous measures to act in con- cert with Russia in putting a stop to the horrible atrocities of the Turks toward the Christian inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire. Parliament opened on the 8th of February, 1877, and the Queen's speech alluded in guarded terms to the Eastern question, and expressed a hope for a satisfactory solution of the vexed problem. On the 16th (February, 1877), Mr. Gladstone and others made speeches criticising A PPEAVOXX. 635 Lord Beaconsfield and his Ministry severely. The Government avowed its neutrality on the Eastern question. On the 20th (February, 1877), an animated debate occurred in the House of Lords. The Duke of Argyll attacked the policy of the Ministry, but the Earl of Derby defended the Government's action. On a test vote, the House of Lords sustained the course of Lord Beaconsfield's Cabinet. General Ignatieff’s Mission.—During March, 1877, General Ignatieff, the Russian Ambassador at Constantinople, visited the capitals of the Great Powers on a mission from the Czar. The result of this mission was the signing of a protocol consenting to Russia's intervention in Turkish affairs. In the early part of March, Lord Derby, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, suggested to Russia the pro- priety of allowing Turkey a year's time to prove her sincerity in the matter of reform. Russia did not seem disposed to adopt this plan. Warlike Preparations of Russia and Turkey.—In the meantime, both Russia and Turkey continued their warlike preparations. Russia was hurrying troops forward to the Pruth, and Turkish troops were moving toward the Danube. The Russians were still mobilizing an additional number of army corps on the frontiers, and by the close of February (1877) there were 200,000 Russian troops ready to enter Turkish territory. The Turks had concentrated an army of about 75,000 men on the Danube to resist Russian invasion. Both Russia and Turkey were buying arms and munitions of war in the United States. On the 3d of March, 1877, an imperial ukase was issued at St. Petersburg, directing the organi- zation of nine additional army corps. About the middle of March, Russia was preparing to put one million of men into the field. THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION OF 1876. Beginning of the Revolution.—Late in January, 1876, a revolutionary movement against President Lerdo de Tejada broke out in the Northern and Cen- tral States of Mexico. The leader of the rebellion was General Porfirio Diaz. General Herrera pronounced for the revolution, and surprised the authorities at Parras. There was severe fighting at Oaxaca, in March, 1876. Jalapa was cap- tured by the revolutionists, March 12th, and Vera Cruz was declared in a state of siege on the 13th. On the 2d of April (1876), the revolutionists under Diaz cap- tured Matamoras, the Government troops making little resistance. New Laredo was captured by the revolutionists, April 11th. General Alatorre was defeated by the rebels in an attempt to retake Oaxaca. The State of Chiapas was declared in a state of siege. The Mexican Congress, before adjourning, granted the President extraordinary powers to meet the rebellion. Generals Escobedo, Alatorre, and others, were operating vigorously against the insurgents. General Porfirio Diaz issued a manifesto assigning his reasons for opposing President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. General Escobedo, with 3,000 Government troops, and Generals Tuero and Querago with 2,000 men, advanced on Matamoras, of which they took possession on the 10th of May, the revolutionists under General Gonzalez retiring. The rebellion was now rapidly waning, the insurgents having met with reverses everywhere. General Alatorre gained a great victory on May 24, at Oaxaca, over the revolutionists, who lost 4,000 men in killed and wounded, and many being taken prisoners. The Government army lost 600 men in killed and wounded. The Government troops also gained a victory in Tlaxco on the 28th of May. The rebels, under Generals Figuerora, Cortina, and Martinez, were completely defeated 636 APPEAVD/X. at Queretaro, on May 31st, with a loss of 500 men. The revolutionary army un- der Generals Rivas and Palacio was surprised and defeated by Colonel Adolfo Valle in the interior of Mexico. On July 15th, General Alatorre defeated and captured the revolutionary General Hemandez with 600 of his troops near Orizaba. The Government troops re-occupied Jalapa. The revolutionary general Trevinc was captured in the North of Mexico. In the beginning of August a formidable revolt broke out in the interior of Mexico. The insurgents defeated 16,ooo Gov- ernment troops. The revolutionary General Cortina besieged Matamoras in September (1876). President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada Re-elected.—His Overthrow by Porfirio Diaz.-In the Presidential election in Mexico, in July, 1876, there were five candidates in the field,—namely, President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, Chief Justice Iglesias, and General Mejia, by the Government party; and Generals Por- firio Diaz and Gomez Palacio by the revolutionary party. Lerdo de Tejada was re-elected by an overwhelming majority. The opposition declared the election ille- gal on account of prevailing lawlessness in many parts of the country, but the Mex- ican Congress sustained the election as valid, whereupon Chief Justice Iglesia's pro- nounced against Lerdo de Tejada, and declared himself Provisional President, establishing himself at Leon, in the State of Guanajuato. On November 16th, 1876, General Porfirio Diaz annihilated the Government army under Generals Alatorre and Gonzalez, near Huamantla, about Ioo miles from the city of Mexico. Lerdo de Tejada fled from the capital on November 21st (1876), with his cabinet, accompanied by about 1,000 men, the greater part of whom afterward deserted. Diaz entered the capital amid the greatest demonstrations. Puebla, Vera Cruz, and other cities, declared for Diaz, who proclaimed himself Provisional President, November 30th, 1876. The Presidential succession was now disputed between Diaz and Iglesias, but the followers of Iglesias deserted to Diaz, who soon had 50,000 men under arms. Both Lerdo de Tejada and Iglesias escaped to the United States. In February, 1877, under an order from Diaz, a new election was held in Mexico, and Diaz was elected President by an overwhelming majority. THE UNITED STATES IN 1876, '77. Visit of Dom Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil.—In April, 1876, Dom Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, arrived in New York, on a visit to the United States, During a period of three months, Dom Pedro visited many portions of the country, crossing the continent to California, and endeavoring to learn something of the in dustries and resources of our people. He was present at the opening ceremonies of the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia on the Ioth of May, and also at the cere. monies in Independence Square on the 4th of July. In July, he set sail for Europe. The Centennial Fourth of July.—The 4th of July, 1876, the Iooth anniver- sary of American Independence, was observed throughout the United States with fitting and impressive ceremonies. The most magnificent celebration was held in Philadelphia, the birth-place of the nation. Several hundred thousand people spent the day in this city, so classic in Revolutionary history. On the night of the 3d, and the morning of the 4th, a magnificent procession, nearly seven miles in length, paraded on Broad and Chestnut streets, and was witnessed by hundreds of thousands of spectators. In this procession were Governors of States, army and, navy officers, the Emperor of Brazil, Prince Oscar of Sweden, the Count de A PAPEAVO/X. 637 Rochambeau, grandson of the Count de Rochambeau who aided Washington in the siege of Yorktown, Sir Edward Thornton, British Ambassador at Washington, the various foreign commissions at the Exhibition, and the various trades and clubs of the city. On the approach of the procession to Independence Hall at 12 o'clock at night, the new liberty bell in the spire of Independence Hall opened the clang- ing chorus, which was taken up by steeple after steeple throughout the city. Amid the brazen din came the shrieks of steam whistles, report of artillery and small arms, and the racket of fire-crackers let off by impatient Young America, who could not wait until daylight to begin his share of the celebration. On the morn- ing of the 4th there was a grand military parade on Broad and Chestnut streets, in which the “Centennial Legion,” composed of select companies from the “Old Thirteen States,” made an imposing appearance. At Io:30 a.m., the ceremonies began on Independence Square in the presence of about 15,000 people. Addresses were made by General Hawley, President of the Centennial Commis- sion, and United States Senator Ferry, of Michigan, acting Vice-President of the United States; after which the Declaration of Independence was read from the original document by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, grandson of the Richard Henry Lee who offered the resolution of Independence in the Continental Con- gress in 1776. An inspiring poem, composed by Bayard Taylor, was recited by its author, and a grand oration was delivered by the Hon. William Maxwell Evarts, of New York, a grandson of Roger Sherman. A hymn appropriate to the occasion, composed by Oliver Wendell Holmes, was performed by the orchestra and chorus. The ceremonies closed amidst the wildest enthusiasm, at I:30 p.m. Among the distinguished guests present on the ‘occasion were the Emperor of Brazil, Sir Edward Thornton, British Ambassador at Washington, Generals Sher- man, Sheridan, Hooker, and McDowell, and a number of Governors of States. In the evening there was a brilliant display of fireworks in East Park, at which about 50,000 persons were present. The day was also appropriately celebrated in every portion of the country. Admission of Colorado.—On the 4th of March, 1875, Congress passed an act for the admission of Colorado into the Union as the thirty-eighth State. Col- orado having at length complied with the enabling act of Congress, and formed a State Constitution, President Grant issued a proclamation in July, 1876, declaring Colorado a State of the American Union. - War with the Sioux Indians in Montana.-In the summer of 1873 gold seekers flocked to the Black Hills, in the territory of Montana, but the United States Government interfered to prevent this intrusion on the lands which had been assigned to the Sioux Indians by treaty in 1868. The continual intrusion of the wnites on the Indian domains led to serious troubles with the Sioux, the Chey- ennes, and other Indian tribes; and in the summer of 1875, a number of chiefs visited Washington to arrange a treaty with the United States Government for the disposition of their lands. The Government offered them $25,000; but the Indians demanded $150,000, and having failed in their demand, they returned to their vari- ous tribes dissatisfied. Repeated troubles occurred with the Sioux thereaſter; and under their chiefs, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Red Fox, Red Dog, Rocky Bear, Living Bear, Bearskin, Bear-Stand-Up, and Black Moon, they determined to defend their lands. In 1872, Sitting Bull was repulsed in two attacks upon United States troops under General Custer. In 1873, Sitting Bull made a night 638 AA’AºAAWDZX. attack upon Colonel Baker, but was repulsed and pursued. In 1874, he drove the Crow Indians from their reservation and agency, and made war on all peaceable Indians. In June, 1876, an expedition under Generals Crook and Custer took the field against the Sioux. Crook defeated the Sioux on the Rosebud river on the 17th of June. On the 25th of June, General Custer fell into an ambush of the Sioux on the Little Big Horn river. The Indians led by Sitting Bull numbered 4,000, while Custer's men only numbered 307. General Custer and his entire command were killed. On the same day, Major Reno attacked the Indians, and the fight was resumed the next day, on the evening of which General Terry arrived, and the Indians retired. During the months of July, August, and Septem- ber, Gel:erals Crook, Terry, and Merritt conducted the war against the Sioux. On Septembe, 9th, General Crook captured a Sioux camp, and had a day’s skirmish with the Indians, which ended in the oomplete defeat of the savages. This defeat brought the Sioux to terms, and on the 22d of September a treaty of peace was concluded by which the Indians relinquished a portion of the Black Hills. Presidential Campaign of 1876—A Disputed Election.—On the 16th of June, 1876, the Republican National Convention at Cincinnati nominated Gover- nor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President of the United States, and Hon. Wm. A. Wheeler, of New York, for Vice-President. On the 28th of the same month (June, 1876), the Democratic National Convention at St. Louis nominated Governor Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for President, and Governor Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for Vice-President. The election, which was held on the 7th of November (1876), was indecisive, as both parties claimed it. Three States—Louisiana, Florida and South Carolina—were in dispute, and prominent leaders of both parties went to Louisiana to watch the counting of the votes by the State Returning Board. The Returning Boards of the three disputed States de- clared their States to have gone for the Republican State and National tickets, but the claim was denied by the Democrats. In Florida, a recount of the votes resulted in favor of the Democratic State ticket and the Republican Presidential ticket. In South Carolina and Louisiana two State Governments were organized. In Oregon, where the Republican Electors were chosen, a difficulty arose concern- ing the eligibility of one of the Electors, and the Governor gave a certificate of election to one of the Democratic Electoral candidates. This action added to the embarrassment of the situation. Electoral Commission.—Hayes Declared President.—His Inaugura- tion.—When Congress assembled in December, 1876, committees were appointed by both Houses to proceed to the three disputed States to investigate the affairs of the election. In January, 1877, a joint committee of the two Houses of Congress agreed upon a bill for counting the Electoral vote. This bill provided for the de- cision of the cases of the disputed States by an “Electoral Commission,” or Arbi- tration Tribunal, composed of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Supreme Court Judges. This bill was speedily passed by overwhelming majorities of both Houses of Congress, and received the President's signature on the 30th (January, 1877). The members of the Commission were immediately chosen, and entered upon their duties on the 1st of February (1877), when both Houses of Congress met in joint conventions to count the Electoral votes. The Commission, which was composed of eight Republicans and seven Democrats, decided, by a strict party vote, not to take evidence concerning the popular vote in the disputed States. APPENDIX. 639 The Commission alsc decided, by a strict party vote, to give the Electoral votes' of all the disputed States to Messrs. Hayes and Wheeler. The decisions of the Commission caused intense dissatisfaction among the Democrats, and a considera. ble number of Democratic Representatives in Congress made desperate efforts to prevent the completion of the count of the Electoral votes by the joint convention of the two Houses of Congress. During the last days of February and the Ist of March, the House of Representatives was a scene of the greatest excitement and disorder ever known in Congress. A large number of Democrats made repeated efforts to obstruct the Electoral count by dilatory motions and other methods of filibustering; but the remaining Democrats united with the Republicans in voting for the completion of the count, and the filibusters were defeated at every point. The count was completed at 4 o’clock on the morning of March 2d, 1877, and Hayes and Wheeler were declared elected. Governor Hayes was sworn into office as President, by Chief-Justice Waite, on the 3d of March, the 4th coming on Sun- day. The other inauguration ceremonies were performed on the 5th, when Mr. Wheeler took the oath of office as Vice-President. THE EASTERN WAR OF 1877. The Turkish Parliament—The Turkish Parliament met on the 19th of March, 1877, and was opened by Sultan Abdul Hamid in person. The speech from the throne was read by the First Secretary of the Sultan. A considerable number of Senators and Deputies were present. The Sultan's speech recapitulated º the events of the Eastern crisis, and indulged in a profusion of promises. - The Protocol and its Rejection by the Ottoman Porte.—We have already alluded to General Ignatieff’s mission to the great European capitals. Austro- Hungary, Germany, Italy, and France readily signed the Russian protocol; while England at first refused, but, aſter much diplomatic negotiation, the efforts of Gen- eral Ignatieff and Count Schouvaloff, the Russian Ambassador at London, were successful; and Great Britain, on the 31st of March, 1877, signified her acceptance of the protocol. Russia then presented the protocol to the Ottoman Government for its approval, but the Porte rejected its provisions as inconsistent with the dignity and independence of the Ottoman Empire. The Czar's Manifesto.—Prince Gortschakoff's Circular.-Upon the re- jection of the protocol by the Ottoman Porte, the Czar Alexander II. of Russia, who arrived at the Russian head-quarters at Kischeneff, on April 22d, issued a man- ifesto, reciting the grievances of the Christians in Turkey, arraigning the Turkish Government for obstimacy in resisting the European demands, and declaring his purpose of espousing the cause of the oppressed Christians in Turkey; while at the same time, Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Prime-Minister, published a cir. cular, notifying the Great Powers that, as Turkey had rejected every demand of Europe for the amelioration of the Christians in Turkey, Russia was now obligéd to undertake the amelioration of the Porte's Christian subjects. Reply of the Porte.—Russian Invasion of Turkey.—On the 25th of April, the Porte replied to the Czar's manifesto, charging Russia with the design of at- tacking the independence of Turkey, and calling upon the other Great Powers to enforce the stipulations of the Paris Treaty of 1856; while the Sultan issued a 64o AAEPEAWDZX. patriotic address to his army, exhorting it to uphold the independence of the Osmanli, and to defend the land won by their ancestors. Immediately after the rejection of the protocol by the Sublime Porte, the Russian armies advanced into Turkish territory, both in Europe and Asia. The Russian Army of the Danube, 325,000 strong, under the command of the Grand Duke Nicholas, advanced from Kischeneſſ, in Southwestern Russia, into the Turkish Principality of Roumania, a semi-independent State, comprising the old Principalities of Moldavia and Wal. lachia, which was friendly to Russia. At the same time, the Russian Army of the Caucasus, 175,000 strong, under the Grand Duke Michael and General Melikoff, advanced from Alexandropol, in Georgia, into the Turkish province of Armenia. A large portion of the Armenian population, being Christians, were friendly to Russia. - First Battle of Batoum—Bombardments of Russian Ports.-The first battle between the Russians and the Turks in the war of 1877, was fought in Asia- atic Turkey. On the 25th of April (1877), the Russians, under the Grand-Duke Michael, were defeated by the Turks at Tchurukson, near Batoum, on the south- eastern coast of the Black Sea, near the Russian frontier, with the loss of 800 men. On the 27th, the Russians were again repulsed at Batoum. The Turkish navy bombarded Poti, Chefketil, and Fort Nicholas, in Russian territory, on the eastern coast of the Black Sea. - - Attacks on Kars—Capture of Bayazid.—In the meantime, a heavy Russian column had advanced against the strongly-ſortified town of Kars, to the southeast of Batoum. On the 29th of April, 40,000 Russians, under General Melikoff, attacked the Turks, under Mukhtar Pacha, at Kars; and, after desperate fighting, the Turks lost several strong positions. On the following day (April 30, 1877), 60,000 Turks attempted to recover their lost ground, but were repulsed and routed with heavy loss. On the 1st of May, the Russians captured Bayazid, at the foot of Mount Ararat, the Turkish garrison, 1,700 in number, having evacuated the fortress on the approach of the Russians. Second Battle of Batoum.—On the 11th of May (1877), there was a renewal of fighting around Batoum. The Russians in large force attacked the Turks, who were strongly intrenched on the heights of Batoum. Both sides fought desperately, and the Russians, after eight hours' fighting, were repulsed with the loss of 4,000 men in killed and wounded. The Turkish loss was exceedingly small. The Turkish victory was won by the extraordinary valor of the Bashi-Bazouks. Russian Advance on Erzeroum.—The operations of the Russians in Asiatic Turkey were directed against Erzeroum, the capital of Armenia. Erzeroum is a strongly-ſortified city, surrounded with walls, and containing 50,000 inhabitants. The city was strongly garrisoned, and its defense was essential to the safety of Asia Minor. A heavy Russian force, under General Melikoff, advanced against Erze- roum. Mukhtar Pacha, with a Turkish force of 30,000 men, retreated before Melikoff’s advance, for the purpose of defending Erzeroum. Capture of Ardahan.—On the 17th of May, the town of Ardahan, its fortifica- tions, citadel, sixty guns, immense stores of provisions and ammunition, and the Turkish camp, fell into the hands of the Russians, after a fierce bombardment of three hours, the Turkish garrison having evacuated their positions and fled, leaving AAEA'AºAVOAX. 641 their dead and wounded behind them. Ardahan was then abandoned by the Russians, and afterwards re-occupied by the Turks. Siege of 'Kars.-On the 8th of May, the Russians twice attacked Kars, but met with a disastrous repulse each time. On the 17th (May, 1877), the Turks attacked the Russian irregular cavalry at Kars, but were repulsed after a stubborn fight. The Russians again bombarded Kars, but the garrison replied briskly, and the Russians were obliged to retire. On the 20th (May, 1877), the Russians opened a furious cannonade on the Turkish outworks at Kars, but the Turkish batteries replied vigorously, and the Turks made a sortie on the assailants, and, after a desperate engagement, the Russians were repulsed with the loss of 300 men. On the 22d, the Russians drove the Turks from their positions at Karadrhouran, a village near Kars. On the 23d, the Russians again made two unsuccessful as- Saults on the outworks of Kars. The Russians, at intervals, continued to bombard Forts Karadagh and Tahmaz, outworks of Kars, but the Turkish batteries replied briskly. On the night of May 31st, 4,000 Circassian cavalry, commanded by Mussa Pacha, while proceeding toward Kars, were surprised and slaughtered at the village of Bekli-Ahmed. The Circassians fought desperately, and gave no quarter. Kars was now completely invested by the Russians. Attacks on Batoum.—On the 23d of May, 1877, the Russians, after receiving a reinforcement of 2,000 men, opened a furious cannonade on Batoum, but the Turkish batteries replied vigorously. On the 25th, the Russiarts attempted to throw a bridge over the river Tchuruk, at Batoum, but were fired upon and driven back by the Turks. On May 28th, the Russians occupied several of the heights near Batoum with trifling loss. Circassian Revolt against the Russians.—While the Turks and the Rus- sians were contending for the mastery in Armenia, the Circassian tribes in the Caucasus rose in revolt against the Russians. The Russians were victorious over the Circassians near Sukum-Kaleh and other points, but the Circassians resisted with valor. Sukum Kaleh was attacked by the Turkish fleet and by the Circas- sians without any result. On June 5th (1877), 1,000 Circassians were surprised and cut to pieces by the Russians. Operations on the Danube.—Roumania's Independence.—While the war was thus progressing vigorously in Armenia, theie was little of importance on the Danube. The Roumanians had joined the Russians, and there were slight skirmishes between them and the Turks. There was also some skirmishing be- tween small bodies of Cossacks and Bashi-Bazouks. The Turks bombarded JBrahilov and Kalaſat; slight collisions occurred at Remi, Ghiacet, Turtukai, Ol- tenitza, and other points on the Danube; Rustchuk and Nicopolis were bombarded by the Russians; and several Turkish monitors were sunk by torpedoes. By the close of May, the Russians occupied the north side of the Danube from Kalafat on the west to Galatz on the east, but their heaviest force was at Giurgevo, opposite Rustchuk. The Turkish forces south of the Danube numbered 200,000 men, and were under the command of Abdul Kerim Pacha. Their main force was at Shumla, near the Balkan Mountains, but they occupied the south side of the Danube from Widdin, opposite Kalafat, on the west, to Ghiacet, opposite Galatz, on the east; and strong Turkish garrisons were placed in the four great fortresses on the south 4 I 642 A PPEAVO IX. side of the Danube—Widdin, Nicopolis, Rustchuk, and Silistria;-while the other two strong fortresses—Shumla, near the Balkan Mountains, and Varna, on the Black Sea coast of European Turkey—were also strongly garrisoned. From the beginning of the struggle, the Principality of Roumania had sided with Russia; and, on the 15th of May, the Roumanian Senate and Chamber of Deputies pro- claimed Roumania completely independent of Turkey, and declared war against the Porte. The Turko-Montenegrin War.—While the Russians were struggling with the Turks on the Danube and in Armenia, the valiant Montenegrins were still heroically resisting the Turks under Suleiman Pacha. During the early part of June, 1877, the Montenegrins repulsed the Turks at Maljat, but they were defeated by the Turks at the Duga Pass, and Suleiman Pacha's forces were preparing to relieve Nicsic, which was closely besieged by the Montenegrins. Condition of the Ottoman Empire.—Commotion in Constantinople.— The condition of the Ottoman Empire was extremely critical at this period. The treasury was exhausted; public credit was destroyed; the armies were wretchedly organized and disciplined; the various Christian provinces were on the verge of rebellion; Roumania and Montenegro were at open war with the Porte; the Rus- sian armies were in Roumania and Armenia; Servia and Greece were ready to join Russia in the war; the Porte was without a single ally; the Moslem popula- tion of the capital was turbulent; and the Tunkish Ministry was at variance with the Turkish Parliament. A popular outbreak was feared at Constantinople at the close of May. The turbulent Softas threatened an insurrection, but the Gov. ernment took precautionary measures to prevent it. The Softas were expelled from the capital, and the city was declared in a state of siege. A dispute arose between the Ministry and Parliament, and neither party seemed disposed to yield. The Sheik-ul-Islam proclaimed a “Holy War” against Russia. Position of the Great Powers.--Debate in the British Parliament.— The other Great European Powers stood aloof from the Eastern war. France, Italy, Germany, Austro-Hungary and Great Britain declared their neutrality; but the latter two powers were preparing for future contingencies. On the 7th of May, Lord Derby's note in reply to Prince Gortschakoff’s circular was published, accusing Russia of bad faith in regard to treaties. On the same day, an animated debate began in the British House of Commons on Mr. Gladstone's resolutions denying Turkey’s right to moral or material support. Fiery speeches were made on both sides, but, on the 14th of May, the resolutions were rejected by a vote of 354 against 223. Several large public demonstrations were held in London on the night of May 7th, in support of Mr. Gladstone's resolutions. Lord Beaconsfield's Cabinet was divided on the policy to be pursued by Great Britain on the Eastern question. The Government was, however, resolved to defend British interests—to protect the Suez Canal, to guard Egypt, and to maintain the freedom of the Bosphorus. Military preparations were pushed forward, and an army was ready to embarlt, A great popular anti-Turkish demonstration was held at Birmingham, on May 31st, and the meeting was addressed by Mr. Gladstone, who denounced the Turkish Government for its oppression of its Christian subjects. Business was suspended, and 30,000 persons were present. At the close of the speech, a A PAEA2AV/O ZX. 643 , resolution was passed in favor of a policy to compel Turkey to govern her Chris- tian subjects properly. i Prince Gortschakoff’s Note to Lord Derby.—On the 7th of June, 1877, Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Chancellor, in a note to Lord Derby, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, promised that Russia would not menace British inter- ests in the East, and would not therefore seize Egypt, the Suez Canal, Constanti- nople, the Bosphorus, or the Persian Gulf. Relations of England and Russia.-Count Schouvaloff’s Assurances. -—Count Schouvaloff, the Russian Ambassador at London, took with him to St. Petersburg a specification of British interests as contained in Mr. Cross's speech in the British House of Commons. Count Schouvaloff's instructions, on his return to London, empowered him to declare that Russia had no designs against the Suez Canal or Egypt. Russia showed a disposition to respect the neutrality of the Suez Canal and Egypt. Russia promised England not to exercise belligerent rights in the Suez Canal; but Turkey refused to give a similar promise, and returned a haughty answer to England's demand not to make the canal a scene of hostilities. Count Schouvaloff's assurances were considered perfectly satisfactory by the British Cabinet. The British Government, however, dispatched a fleet to Besika Bay to be ready for eventualities. The Turko-Montenegrin War—The Montenegrins Overpowered.—On June 6th, the Montenegrins were defeated in an attack on Spuz. On June 12th, after fifty-five hours' fighting, near Kistaz, the Montenegrins retired to Banjani. The Montenegrins were also routed in an engagement in the Kolaschin district. On June 16th, 10,000 Turks were defeated and routed by 3,000 Montenegrins, at Rasnoglavika, the Turks leaving 2,000 dead on the field. The Turks were also defeated by the Montenegrins at Danilograd, but Mehemet Ali Pacha defeated the Montenegrins at Kolaschin, June 15th. On the following day, Mehemet Ali Pacha defeated the Montenegrins near Ritchima; but Mehemet Ali Pacha was defeated near the river Jalonka. On June 20th, the Montenegrins defeated the Turks at Martinitzi, after a desperate struggle of five hours. The Turks were now enclosing Montenegro with three armies, 70,000 strong in the aggregate; and the position of the Montenegrins was becoming extremely critical. On June 25th, a Turkish de- tachment was defeated and routed by the Montenegrins near the Moratcha, but the Montenegrins were again defeated by the Turks. In consequence of the Turkish successes, the Montenegrins were at the mercy of the Porte; and the Turkish army, under Suleiman Pacha, left Montenegrin territory, and marched toward the Danube, to aid Abdul Kerim Pacha and Osman Pacha in resisting the advance of the Russians in European Turkey. The Bosnian Insurrection.-The Turkish Parliament Prorogued.—The insurrection against the Turks in Bosnia still continued, and the insurgents were defeated in several conflicts. The Turkish Parliament was prorogued by the Sul- tan, on June 28th, 1877, to be reassembled on the 1st of October, 1877. The Siege of Kars.—The siege of Kars was progressing vigorously throughout the month of June, 1877; and the Turks attempted to form counter approaches, and were constantly making sorties, but were frustrated in all their attempts by the Russian batteries. On June 8th, 9th, Ioth and IIth, there was heavy fighting be- 644 APA’EAVO IX. fore Kars; but all the attacks of the Russians upon Forts Tahmaz and Karadagh were repulsed with heavy loss. On June 8th, the Russians made three attacks upon Fort Tahmaz, but were repulsed. On the following day (June 9, 1877), the Russians made a desperate effort to take possession of some of the heights, when the garrison of Kars made a sortie in force, with field artillery, and repulsed the Russians with heavy loss. On the IOth, the Russians again assailed Forts Tahmaz and Karadagh, but were disastrously repulsed. On the IIth, the Russians renewed their attacks, but were again repulsed with great slaughter. The Russians, who advanced against Erzeroum, fell back in order to aid in the siege of Kars. The artillery engagements between the besiegers and the garrison of Kars continued during the middle and latter part of June. Battle of Saidachan,—On the 15th of June, 10,000 Turks, under Mehemet Pacha, advanced from Delibaba to attack 12,000 Russians, under General Tergu- kassoff, at Saidachan, twelve miles from Toprak-Kaleh, and an artillery duel fol- lowed, which lasted all day. On the following day (June 16, 1877), the Russian infantry advanced, under cover of a heavy artillery fire, and a stubborn engagement ensued. The Turks fought with great heroism, but their lines were raked by the Russian artillery fire; and after five hours' fighting, the Russians were completely victorious, the Turks losing immensely, and Mehemet Pacha being among the killed. Battles of Delibaba and Zewin.—After their disastrous defeat at Saidachan, the Turks fell back on Delibaba, while the Russians seized and fortified Delibaba Pass. Mukhtar Pacha, whose head-quarters were at Zewin, advanced with 14,000 Turks against the Russians, 12,OOO in number, in the Delibaba Pass. There were several skirmishes on June 20th; and on the morning of the 21st, Mukhtar Pacha attacked the Russian position in the pass, and, after a terrible battle which lasted until night, the Russians were driven from their positions with heavy loss, by the effective artillery fire from the Turks. On the 22d, fighting was renewed, and the Russians were routed, after desperate fighting. The whole of this two days' fighting lasted thirty-three hours. The Turkish loss was more than 2,000 men, and the Russian loss almost 3,000 men. Mukhtar Pacha still had his head-quarters at Zewin. On June 29th, the Russians attacked the Turkish position at Zewin, but were repulsed, despite repeated assaults, with a loss of 1,000 killed. Russian Repulses at Batoum.—Operations at Van and Bayazid.—On June 21st, the Turks at Batoum repulsed the attacks of the Russians, who lost about 1,500 killed and wounded. On June 29th, a Turkish column attacked the Russians near Batoum, and compelled them to take refuge behind their old in- trenchments. In the meantime, 1,000 Russians were defeated near Van by a Turkish detachment. The Russian garrison in Bayazid citadel was relieved by General Tergukassoff, who completely defeated the Turkish investing force cf 13,000 men, but the town of Bayazid was destroyed. Retreat of the Russians in Armenia.-The Siege of Kars Raised.— On June 30th, the Turks made a grand sortie from Kars, and reopened com. munication with Mukhtar Pacha’s army; and the Russian bombardment materially slackened. The disasters to the Russian arms in Armenia caused a retreat of the whole Russian line toward the frontier, and the siege of Kars was consequently AA’A’AºAV/O/X. 645 raised. The Russian left wing was almost annihilated; the Russian centre was in full retreat; and the Russian right at Batoum was completely defeated. The Muscovites retreated with such precipitancy that they buried or concealed their artillery, and destroyed immense quantities of provisions and baggage; and the roads were strewn with Russian dead. The Russians, however, maintained their position in a battle at Ipek, July 4th (1877); but the garrison of Kars was rein- forced, and a Russian detachment was routed in several engagements near the frontier. Thus the first campaign in Asiatic Turkey, in the great war of 1877, ended in favor of the Ottoman arms. Russians Beaten at Sukum-Kaleh.-Bombardment of Russian Ports. —A Turkish force having landed at Tchamdjari, near Sukum-Kaleh, on the Cir- cassian coast, was defeated, on June 27th (1877), by 15,000 Russians. Both sides were subsequently reinforced, and the Turks routed the Muscovites with a loss of 6,000 killed and wounded; while the Ottoman loss was comparatively small. Early in July, two Turkish frigates bombarded the Russian town of Cheſketil, on the Eastern coast of the Black Sea, and landed a force which defeated the garri- son and compelled them to abandon the town, after which the frigates reëmbarked the Turkish troops. Several days afterward, a Turkish frigate bombarded the Russian town of Simferopol, in the Crimea. The War on the Danube.—Immense Russian Forces in Roumania.- In the meantime, while the war had been thus raging in Asiatic Turkey, and on the Black Sea coast of Russia, the Russians opened an active campaign on the Danube, after an inactivity of nearly two months. Rustchuk, on the south of the Danube, had been bombarded by the Muscovites; while Giurgevo, on the opposite side of the river, was bombarded by the Ottoman troops at Rustchuk. About the middle of June, the Russians massed their forces at several points on the Danube, with the view of crossing the river, the principal movements being at Galatz, Hirsova, Sistova and Nicopolis. There were now over 400,000 Russians in Roumania. During the latter part of June, there was heavy cannonading between Rustchuk and Giurgevo, and also between Widdin and Kalafat. The Turks flooded the Kustendje and Tchernavoda railroad, as a measure of defense. Russian Crossing of the Danube at Galatz.-Capture of Matchin.—On June 22d, 1877, a Russian detachment of 6,000 men, under General Zimmermann, crossed the Danube, from Galatz, into the swampy region of the Dobrudja; and on the same day they gained possession of the heights around Matchin, after an ob- stinate engagement with a force of Bashi-Bazouks. On the next day, the Russians entered Matchin, which had been abandoned by the Ottoman troops. The Musco- vites, 28,000 in number, also crossed the Danube at Brahilov, while the Turks de- stroyed the railway between Tchernavoda, and Matchin, and a few days later evacuated the Dobrudja. Russian Bombardments.-Battles at Turtukai, Sistova, and Fla- munda.-Simultaneously with the Russian crossing of the Danube at Galatz, there was a general movement along the whole Russian line; and the various towns on the south side of the Danube were bombarded by the Russians. On June 25th, 18,000 Russians crossed the Danube at Hirsova, and joined the detach- ment at Matchin. On June 26th, the Russians were repulsed in an attack upon 646 A PPAEAVO IX, the Ottoman troops at Turtukai, on the Danube, above Silistria. On June 27th, the Grand-Duke Nicholas, of Russia, crossed the Danube near Sistova, with the 8th Russian army corps; and the Turks were driven from their positions at Sistova, after dreadful fighting, and Sistova was occupied by the Muscovites. During the bombardment, Nicopolis was partly burned. On June 28th, the Czar Alexander II. issued a proclamation to the Bulgarians, promising protection to Christians and Mussulmans alike. On June 29th, a Russian division crossed the Danube at Flamunda, near Turnu-Maguerelli, after desperate fighting with the Turks, the Czar of Russia being present. Russian Bombardment of Rustchuk.-Turkish Bombardment of Giur- gevo.—During the latter part of June (1877), the bombardment of Rustchuk by the Russians at Giurgevo, opposite the river, was terrible; and the greater part of the town was laid in ruins. During the bombardment, Russian shells struck the English, French, German, and Austro-Hungarian Consulates; hundreds of non- combatants were killed in the streets; and many of the inhabitants of the city fled in terror to the neighboring villages. At the same time, the Turkish garrison at Rustchuk bombarded Guirgevo, and destroyed a great part of that town, a number of shells striking the Capitol. Advance of the Russians.—Battle of Biela.-Capture of Nicopolis.- The Russians also crossed the Danube at Turnu-Maguerelli, and joined the force of the Grand-Duke Nicholas, at Sistova. After crossing the Danube, the Russians advanced in several detachments southward, through Bulgaria, toward the Balkan Mountains. On July 5th (1877), a battle was fought at Biela, lasting twelve hours, and ending in the repulse of the Russians with considerable loss, and their retirement toward Sistova. On July 16th, the Russians captured Nicopolis, with its garrison of 6000 Turks. Battles at Plevna and Monastir.—The Russians across the Balkans.— On July 13th, the Russians were attacked simultaneously at Plevna by Osman Pacha, and at Monastir by Ahmed Eyoub Pacha ; and the fighting was renewed the next day, the Turks getting the advantage. The advanced guard of the Rus- sian army, under General Gourko, crossed the Balkan Mountains, on the evening of July 13th, without firing a shot. The next day, General Gourko surprised 3oo Turkish soldiers, who fled to Kanari. On the 15th, a force of Cossacks and Rus- sian dragoons and artillery, under General Gourko, routed the Turks in a slight engagement. Turkish Preparations.—Russian Capture of Jeni-Saghra, Kazanlik, and Shipka Pass.-The bold dash of General Gourko across the Balkans created alarm and consternation at Constantinople, and vigorous preparations were made to check the Russian advance. Abdul Kerim Pacha was removed from the chief command of the Turkish armies; and Mehemet Ali Pacha, a Prussian by the name of Schultz, was appointed in his stead. There were four Turkish armies in Euro- pean Turkey ready to oppose the Russian invaders;–namely, the army of Osman Pacha, at Widdin, and that of Mehemet Ali Pacha, at Shumla, both north of the Balkans; and the armies under Suleiman Pacha and Raouf Pacha, south of the Balkans. The Cossacks burned four villages near Philippopolis, about the middle of July. The Russians, after a brilliant victory at Jeni-Saghra, occupied that A PAE’AºAVZ)/X. 647 place. On July 17th, General Gourko occupied Kazanlik, after an obstinate en- gagement. On the 18th, Shipka Pass fell into the hands of the Russians. First Russian Defeat at Plevna.-On July 19th (1877), a desperate engage- ment of ten hours was fought at Pleyna, in which the Russians, under General Schillder, were utterly defeated and driven from their positions, by the Ottoman force under Osman Pacha, with the loss of 2,000 men. The Muscovites fled, leaving their dead and wounded behind them. In view of this defeat, the Rus- sians removed their headquarters from Tirnova to Biela. England's Activity.—Position of Austro-Hungary.—In the meantime, Ingland, in view of the Russian advance toward Constantinople, had been taking vigorous precautionary measures. The British fleet at Besika Bay was reinforced, and British troops were sent to reinforce the garrisons of Gibraltar and Malta. The greatest activity prevailed in the dockyards of Great Britain; and orders were received at the Woolwich arsenal to have field guns of the reserve class and some larger ordnance equipped for service. Public feeling was intensely excited in Austro-Hungary, the Hungarians, who sympathized with the Turks, being greatly alarmed at the Russian invasian of Bulgaria; and the Austro-Hungarian Cabinet contemplated the mobilization of the Austro-Hungarian army. Russia was intensely exasperated at England's course, and the Russian press manifested a hos- tile tone toward Great Britain. At the prorogation of the British Parliament. on August 14th, 1877, the Queen's speech, in alluding to the Eastern question, contained these significant words, “If, in the course of the contest, the rights of my empire should be assailed or endangered, I should confidently rely on your help to vindicate and maintain them.” Russian Naval Victory in the Black Sea.—On July 26th, an old Russian merchant ship, the Vesta, had an engagement of five hours with a Turkish moni- tor in the Black Sea, off Kustendje, in Bulgaria. The Vesta was victorious, the Turkish monitor fleeing after the action, much damaged by Russian shells, one of which burst in her turret. The Vesta had her rudder injured, and went to Sevas- topol for repairs. The Russian loss in killed and wounded was seventeen. Fight at Silistria.-Siege and Bombardment of Rustchuk.-On July 24th, there was sharp fighting at Silistria, which the Russians had completely in- vested. During the whole of July, Rustchuk was closely invested by the Russians, and the siege was prosecuted with vigor. The town was fiercely bombarded, and people were daily killed in the streets from its effects. The garrison, however, held out heroically. Battles of Eski-Saghra, Karabunar, and Jeni-Saghra.-In the mean- time, heavy fighting occurred south of the Balkans. On July 26th and 27th, there was severe fighting at Eski-Saghra between the Russians and a Turkish force under Raouf Pacha, with results favorable to the Turks, who occupied Eski- Saghra. On July 26th, the Turks, under Suleiman Pacha, were defeated at Kara- bumar, and compelled to retreat toward Adrianople. On August 4th, the Rus. sians were defeated by the Turks under Suleiman Pacha, at Jeni-Saghra, with considerable loss. The Muscovites hastily fled, pursued by the victorious Ottomans. Second Russian Defeat at Plevna.-On July 30th and 31st, 1877, the Russians, 40,000 in number, under Prince Schackosky and General Krudener, 648 APA’AºAVO IX. attacked 50,000 Turks under Osman Pacha, in a strong position at Plevna. The Russians were at first successful, capturing the Turkish positions; but the effective fire of the Turkish artillery mowed down the Russians by hundreds, and, at the close of the day, the Ottoman troops recaptured all their lost positions, and the Muscovites were disastrously defeated. The battle was renewed the next day (July 31, 1877), and was equally disastrous to the Russians, who were finally routed with immense losses. During these two days, the Russians lost 8,000 killed and 16,OOO wounded. After the Russians had retired, the Bashi-Bazouks took possession of the battle-field, and slew the Russian wounded. The Turkish loss was comparatively small. This disastrous Russian defeat put the Russians South of the Balkans in a critical position, and the Russian plans were thwarted. The War on the Russian Coast.—Herzegovinian Defeat.—On July 30th, the Turkish frigate Maumaudich bombarded the Russian batteries at Tchamt- chira, near Sukum-Kaleh, on the Russian coast of the Black Sea, silencing every Russian gun. The Maumaudich was considerably damaged, and several of the crew were killed and wounded. The 6,000 Turks who had been in a critical po- sition at Tchamtchira, were then embarked in the fleet of Hobart Pacha, an Eng- lishman in the Turkish service. On August 4th (1877), a Turkish force of 8,000 men defeated 4,000 Herzegovinian insurgents, under General Despotovich, with great loss. General Despotovich and 3oo of his followers crossed the Austrian frontier, where they were disarmed and interned. Battles at Plevna, Lovatz, Jaslar, and Yaillak.-Bulgarian Defeat.— On August 6th, 5,000 Ottoman cavalry attacked the Russians at the village of Lascom, near Plevna, but were repulsed without difficulty. On August 7th, the Muscovites were repulsed by the Turks at Lovatz, after two days’ fighting, with the loss of 90o killed and wounded. On the same day (August 7, 1877), the Russians were repulsed in two attacks on the Turks at Jaslar, south of Rasgrad, after sanguinary fighting. On August 9th, a Russian infantry and cavalry force at- tacked the Turks at Yaillak, but were repulsed with the loss of 180 men killed and wounded. On August IIth and 12th, the Turks under Rassam Pacha retook Kartova from the Bulgarians and captured Kalofer, the Bulgarians fleeing into the Balkans, after losing 500 killed. Atrocities on Both Sides.—Revolt in Crete against the Turks.-In the meantime there had been mutual charges of cruelty on both sides. The Turks were charged with the most brutal massacres of defenceless men, women and children, among the Christian population of European Turkey. These charges were sustained by European newspaper correspondents. On the other hand, the Russians and the Bulgarians were accused, by the Turks, of killing women and children among the Mohammedan Turks; and the accusations were also partially sustained by foreign newspaper correspondents. The excuses of the Bulgarians for these brutal massacres of innocent Turkish women and children, were the Turkish outrages in Bulgaria in the spring and summer of 1876. The Greeks in the island of Candia, or Crete, maddened by Turkish tyranny and cruelty, rose in revolt, compelling the Turks to seek refuge in the fortresses of the island. Russian Defeats in Armenia.-Toward the close of July, 1877, operations were resumed in Armenia, the Russians having been heavily reinforced. Fighting AAPA’AºAVZ)/X. 649 was renewed near Kars; and, on August 4th, a Turkish cavalry force of 1,000 men was defeated by a Russian detachment near Ardahan. On August 5th, the Turks assuming the offensive in Armenia, skirmishing ensued beween the two armies on the fiontier, and the Russian outposts were driven in by Kurds and Bashi-Bazouks; but the Ottoman troops were repulsed in an attack on the Russians at Khalfalut. On August 8th, the Muscovites were repulsed in two attacks upon the Turks at Kaduklar. On August I Ith, several hundred Russians were killed in ambuscade near Koule. On August 12th, the Russians outposts near Ani were defeated with a loss of Ioo killed. On August 13th, there was an artillery duel at Batoum. Siege and Bombardment of Rustchuk.-Turkish Bombardment of Kus- tendje.-In the meantime, the siege of Rustchuk had been pressed with vigor by the Russians, and the town was fiercely. bombarded; while the Turks fuliously bombarded Giurgevo, opposite the river. About the middle of August, the Turks bombarded Kustenjde, and compelled the Muscovites to evacuate the town, but Kus- tendje was reoccupied by the Russians a few days afterward. On August 13th, the Ottomans defeated and routed the Russians at Tokoi, capturing five cannon. On August 17th, a Russian reconnoitering party were repulsed near the river Lom. On August 20th, detachments of Russian cavalry were repulsed by Ottoman troops, at Nereinsk, not far from Plevna. The War in Armenia.-Battles of Yanilar, Kiziltepe, and Kurukdara. —In the meantime, the Russians had suffered a series of calamitous defeats in Ar- menia. On August 18th, 40,000 Russians attacked Mukhtar Pacha’s army along the whole line, near Yanilar, but were repulsed and routed with the loss of 1,500 killed, while, the Turks lost nearly 500 killed and wounded. On the night of August 24th, Mukhtar Pacha’s troops carried the heights of Kiziltepe, and re- pulsed three attempts of the Russians to retake them. The fighting was continued the whole of the next day (August 25, 1877), and, in the evening, the Russians were routed along the whole line, with a loss of 4,000 killed and wounded; but the Ottomans were disastrously repulsed in an attempt to retake Kurukdara, losing 3,000 men, while the Muscovites lost less than 1,000 men. On August 24th, the Turks captured a redoubt near Batoum. At the beginning of September (1877), General Loris Melikoff was removed from the command of the Russian army in Armenia, and succeeded by the Grand-Duke Michael. - General Gourko’s Retreat.—Defeats of the Turks at the Shipka Pass.-In the first part of August (1877), General Gourko’s army, in consequence of its disastrous defeat by the Turks at Eski-Saghra, at the close of July, was obliged to retreat northward toward the Balkans, pursued by Suleiman Pacha’s army. On August 21st, Suleiman Pacha’s army, 30,000 strong, attacked the Russians under General Radetzky, at the Shipka Pass, in the Balkans, for the purpose of forcing the pass, but was repulsed with heavy loss. On the following day (August 22, 1877), Suleiman Pacha renewed his attacks, but was again repulsed, after desperate fight- ing. The terrible struggle was renewed on the 23d, but the Turks were still un- able to force the pass; but the Russians evacuated the town of Shipka, which the Turks then occupied. On the 24th, the Turks renewed their attacks on the Rus- sian position in the Shipka Pass, but were again repulsed with tremendous loss. On the 25th, the Ottoman troops made another desperate effort to ſorce the Shipka 65o A PPAEAVO IX. Pass, but were again unsuccessful. On the 26th and 27th, the Turks were again repulsed in all their attempts to force the pass. The fighting on the 28th was as disastrous to the Turks as all the previous struggles. . There was now a lull in the conflict, the Russians remaining in possession of the Shipka Pass. On Sep- tember Ist, cannonading was renewed at the Shipka Pass, and continued on the 2d (September, 1877). Turkish Repulses at Tirnova and Selvi.—Battle of Eski-Djuma.-- On August 22d, the Turks attacked the Muscovites at Tirnova, but were re- pilsed. The fighting was renewed the next day, and the Ottoman troops were again repulsed. On August 22d, Osman Pacha’s troops attacked the Rus- sians at Selvi, but were repulsed. On August 22d, the Turkish army under Me- hemet Ali Pacha gained a great victory over the Russians near Eski-Djuma, in Bulgaria, capturing several cannon, and inflicting great loss upon the Muscovites; but the Russians retook Jaslar, which the Ottomans had captured; and, on the fol- lowing day, repulsed three attacks of the Turks, but the arrival of Turkish rein- forcements compelled the Russians to retire, leaving the Turks in possession of the place. Battle of Karahassankoi.-On August 30th, 20,000 Ottomans from Mehemet Ali Pacha’s army attacked the Muscovites near the village of Karahassankoi; and after desperate fighting, the village being taken and retaken, the Russians were defeated, and compelled to retreat in disorder, losing 4,000 killed and wounded, and a cannon, and 2,000 stand of small arms. Battle of Pelistat.—On the 1st of September, 1877, a portion of Osman Pacha’s army made a reconnoissance against the Russian fortified positions at Pelistat, five miles east from Plevna; and, after a desperate engagement, in which all the attacks of the Ottoman troops were repulsed, the Russians, who numbered 20,000, were victorious; the Turks being compelled to make a hasty retreat, with the loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, while the Muscovite loss was only 500. Battle of Lovatz.--On September 3d, the Turks at Lovatz, alarmed at the great increase of the Russian forces before the town, attacked them fiercely, and a desperate battle ensued, during which the Russians, 20,000 strong, under the com- mand of Prince Meretinsky and General Skobeleff, overcame all opposition, and finally drove the Turks into the town, which they entered with them. The strug- gle continued in the streets of Lovatz, until the Ottoman troops were driven out of the town in great disorder, followed by the Russian cavalry; and, after twelve hours' fighting, Lovatz was in the undisputed possession of the Muscovites. Battle of Kadikoi.-Battle of Kazelova.--On September 4th, the Turks, under Ahmed Eyoub Pacha, occupied Kadikoi, near Rustchuk, but were subse- quently driven out with great loss, by a force of Russian infantry and Cossacks. On September 5th, the Turks, under Ahmed Eyoub Pacha, attacked the Russians at Kazelova, near. Rustchuk; and, after a desperate battle of five hours, the Mus covites abandoned their fortified positions near Kazelova, and recrossed the Lom in disorder, with the loss of 3,000 men, the Ottoman loss being about 1,000 men. Bombardment of Rustchuk.-Suleiman Pacha’s Movements.—On September 5th, after an engagement near Rustchuk, the Russians opened a fierce f - APA’AºAVZ) VX. 651 bombardment upon the city from Slobosia, which was replied to by the Turks. This continued for several days. In the mean time, after the battles at the Shipka Pass, Suleiman Pacha’s army was quiet for several weeks, but at length moved to the Russian rear. Third Russian Defeat at Plevna.-On September 7th, a heavy artillery duel began between the two great armies before Plevna, and was continued on the 8th, on the evening of which the Russians gained possession of the heights south of Plevna. The cannonade was continued during the night and the next day (September 9, 1877). On September Ioth, the Russians made some progress, and on the IIth they captured the Grivitza redoubt and other positions, after a desperate struggle; but on the 12th, the tide pf battle was again turning in favor of the Turks, who recaptured all their lost redoubts except Grivitza, but only after the Rus- sians under General Skobeleff had repulsed six Turkish assaults. The Russians continued the bombardment of the Turkish fortifications. The Russian loss dur- ing this fighting was about 7,000 men in killed and wounded. POLITICAL CRISIS IN FRANCE. (1877.) The Ministry of Jules Simon.—In March, 1876, a new Ministry under M. Dufaure came into power in France; but in December of the same year (1876), a Cabinet crisis occurred, and the result was the organization of a Republican Minis- try under Jules Simon, one of the Moderate Republican leaders. This produced quiet for a time, and affairs seemed to work smoothly until May, 1877, when Pres- ident Mac-Mahon, who was in sympathy with the Monarchist faction, determined to check the advancing spirit of Republicanism. Resignation of Jules Simon’s Cabinet.—On the 8th of May, 1877, the French Chamber of Deputies had a tumultuous session. Jules Simon was attacked by the Bonapartists, and angry debates ensued. On the 15th (May, 1877), the Chamber of Deputies voted to repeal the Press Law of 1875, whereupon President MacMahon wrote to Jules Simon, opposing the repeal of the law. In consequence of this letter, Jules Simon and his Cabinet tendered their resignations. In a gen- eral meeting of the Republican Deputies, in the Grand Hotel in Paris, a resolution was passed declaring the Chamber's want of confidence in a Monarchist Cabinet. On leaving the meeting, M. Gambetta, the talented young Republican leader, was loudly cheered by the populace. He addressed them, recommending calmness and moderation, and declaring his confidence in the final triumph of Republicanism. The multitude responded with shouts of “Vive Gambetta!” “Vive la Republique!” The Republican Union afterward met and confirmed the action of the meeting. The first intelligence of the crisis produced dismay throughout Paris, and fears were entertained for the peace of the French Republic. In the Chamber of Deputies, on the 17th (May, 1877), a resolution declaring the Chamber's lack of confidence in a Ministry not governing in accordance with Republican principles, was adopted by a vote of 355 against I54. M. Gambetta made a speech expressing Frence's wish for a definitive Republic. The speech was loudly cheered, amid he greatest excitement. The Duke dé Broglie's Ministry.—President MacMahon proceeded to the formation of a Ministry composed of Monarchists, with the Duke de Broglie at its 652 AA’AAEAVOAX. head. The new Ministry proceeded to the removal of the Republican Prefects from the Departments, and the appointment of Monarchists in their stead. On the 8th (May, 1877), President MacMahon sent a message to the Chambers pro- roguing both Chambers for one month. There was great excitement and confusion in both Chambers. The Republicans of both Chambers issued spirited addresses to the French people. The crisis was regarded as a serious one for France. Dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies.—In the Chamber of Deputies, on the 16th of June, 1877, M. de Fourton, the new French Minister of the In- terior, read a declaration announcing that President MacMahon had sent a mes- Sage to the Senate informing that body of his intention to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, by virtue of the power conferred upon him by the Fifth Article of the Constitution, and demanding the concurrence of the Senate. A violent dis. cussion ensued, and was continued for several days, the Republicans severely cen- suring, and the Monarchists sustaining, the President's action. M. Gambetta re- marked that the Republican majority in the Chamber will go to the country number- ing 363, and return 400 strong, and that the triumph of the Monarchists would lead to civil war. At the close of his speech, M. Gambetta fainted. Jules Simon made a scathing attack on the Government. The Chamber refused to vote direct taxes, but unanimously voted supplementary grants for the conduct of the public service. In the Chamber of Deputies, on June 25th, M. Grevy, the President of the Chamber, read the decree formally dissolving the Chamber, and intimat- ing that the elections would be held within an interval of three months. The Republican Senators issued a declaration, saying that the re-election of the 363 Republicans of the Chamber of Deputies was a duty incumbent upon the country, as a solemn affirmation of its intention to maintain Republican principles at home and peace abroad. It was decided to hold the elections on September 16th, and to convene the new Chamber on October 8th. Persecution of Republicans.—Prosecution of Gambetta.-Death of Thiers.-The Ministry endeavored to carry the elections by a wholesale per secution of Republicans. Republican officials were removed, and the press was muzzled. On August 28th, 1877, the Public Prosecutor issued a summons upon M. Gambetta, ordering him to appear to answer for certain remarks in a speech at Lille; and several weeks aſterward he was sentenced to three weeks’ im- prisonment, and to pay a fine of 2,000 francs. The Republicans now suffered an irreparable loss, their trusted leader, M. Thiers, suddenly dying of apoplexy, at St. Germain, September 2d, 1877, and being mourned by the friends of liberty in France and throughout the world. HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. Settlement of the Domestic Troubles in Louisiana and South Caro- lina.-After the inauguration of Hayes and Wheeler (March 5, 1877), the question which engaged the attention of the new Administration was the settlement of the domestic troubles in Louisiana and South Carolina, in each of which two States two State Governments had been organized. The question was settled within less than two months by President Hayes's action in withdrawing the United States troops from the capitals of the two States, whereupon the Republican State Governments ceased to exist, and the authority of the Democratic Governors was undisputed. AAEAEAEAVIDAX. " 653 War with the Nez Perces Indians in Idaho.—About the middle of June, 1877, the Nez Perces, a powerful Indian tribe in Idaho Territory, led by their chief, Joseph, and exasperated at the violation of a treaty by the whites, commenced a fierce war against the white settlers on the Salmon River, by a bloody massacre of men, women and children, at Mount Idaho. The Indians attacked and de- feated the United States troops sent against them, with a loss of twenty-seven killed. On July 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th, General Howard's troops had a series of battles with the Indians on the Cottonwood, but the Indians finally escaped. On July 13th, General Howard defeated the Nez Perces at the mouth of the Cotton- wood, and Chief Joseph's band were shelled from their position and put to fight. On August 9th, General Gibbon fought the Nez Perces at the Big Hole River, but the Indians escaped, after losing 100 killed and wounded, while 7O of Gibbon's troops were killed and wounded. General Howard went in pursuit of Joseph's band, and overtook them; but in an indecisive engagement the Indians seized Gen. eral Howard's horses and made a rapid flight. On September 13th and 14th, the Nez Perces were defeated, in a running fight of over 100 miles, by General Sturgis. On September 30th, the Nez Perces were defeated by General Miles. A few days later, Joseph surrendered, and the war ended. Great Railroad and Labor Riots.--About the middle of July, 1877, many of the employees of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad resisted a reduction of their wages; and at Martinsburg, West Virginia, the affair assumed such serious dimen- sions that the State authorities were unable to deal with it, and the Governor of West Virginia was obliged to call upon the National Government for aid in sup- pressing domestic violence; whereupon President Hayes issued a proclamation calling upon the rioters to disperse, and sent United States troops to restore quiet. The employees on all the grand trunk lines in the Northern States resisted the re- duction of wages, and allowed no freight trains to move for several weeks; and large portions of the laboring classes, sympathizing with the Railroad strikers, in- augurated great riots in many of the leading cities of the Northern States. On July 20th and 21st, there was a serious riot in Baltimore, and the 6th Maryland regiment and a small body of United States troops were stoned by a furious mob; but the disturbance was quelled after a number of lives had been lost, the Presi- dent having sent United States troops at the call of the Governor of Maryland. On July 21st and 22d, the most serious of all the rioting occurred at Pittsburg, where an inſuriated mob attacked the Philadelphia militia who had been sent to preserve order, and were fired upon, many being killed and wounded on each side. The round-house, to which the Philadelphia troops had retreated, was besieged by the mob, and finally set on fire by burning cars which the mob had pushed against the building; and the troops were finally dislodged and driven from the city. The Pittsburg mob destroyed about 125 locomotives, many of them costing $20,000 each, and burned from 800 to 1,000 cars; and the total loss sustained by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company was estimated at seven million dollars. The Governors of Pennsylvania and Ohio called upon the President for military aid. Bloody riots also occurred at Reading, Buffalo, Columbus, Chicago, St. Louis, San Francisco, and other cities; while the peace was only preserved in New York and Philadelphia by the vigilance and energy of the civil authorities. 654 - APPENDIX. THE EASTERN WAR OF 1877 CONTINUED. Second Battle of Biela—Turkish Repulses.—On September 21st (1877), the Turks under Mehemet Ali Pacha attacked the Russians under the Czarewitch at Biela; but all the Turkish assaults were repulsed, the loss being heavy on both sides; and Mehemet Ali Pacha afterward retreated to his former positions on the Lom. On September 22d, Hifsi Pacha defeated fifteen Russian battalions near Dubnik, and a few days later entered Plevna with fresh supplies of provisions and ammunition. On September 20th, the Russians under Count Stackelberg dis- persed three Turkish squadrons of cavalry near Raschita, but withdrew on the approach of Turkish infantry. On September 21st, Colonel Totalmin routed a Turkish cavalry force, and held in check a Turkish force of ten battalions with artillery, and two regiments of cavalry near Temin, by opening an artillery fire upon them, but afterward withdrew his troops to a post of observation. Montenegrin Successes.—On September 20th, the Montenegrins captured the Zlostup and Nosdre forts, and thus became undisputed masters of the Duga Pass. On September 26th, Goransko, with its garrison of 300 Turkish regulars, and three cannon and 500 rifles; fell into the hands of the Montenegrins. The Montenegrins also occupied Piva, captured Fort Cravica, burned Bilek, and sur- rounding villages. Early in October (1877), a force of Bashi-Bazouks and 2,000 Turkish cavalry arrived at Mostar, where Io,000 Turks were concentrating to recover the territory conquered by the Montenegrins. On October Ist, a force of Bashi-Bazouks were repulsed by the Montenegrins after several hours of sanguin- ary fighting. - Destruction of Rustchuk—Change of Turkish Commanders—Hunga- rian Raid. By the beginning of October (1877), Rustchuk was in ruins, only a few houses remaining, so incessant and destructive had been the Russian bom- bardment. Early in October, Raouf Pacha was appointed to the command of the Turkish Army of the Balkans, and Suleiman Pacha to the command of the Turk. ish Army of the Lom in place of Mehemet Ali Pacha, who was removed. On October 7th, a Turkish force defeated a Russian detachment near Orchanie. On October 11th, 1,500 Hungarians invaded Roumania, to aid the Turks, but the next day they recrossed the frontier. On October 12th, 13th, and 14th, Russian batteries bombarded Sulina, at the mouth of the Danube, and destroyed part of the town, but were eventually driven off. Revolt against the Russians in Daghestan.—In September, 1877, an in- surrection broke out against the Tºussians, in the Russian province of Daghestan, on the west side of the Caspian Sea. The insurgents were defeated by Russian troops, on September 23d and 24th. On September 30th and October 3d, the Russians inflicted crushing defeats upon the insurgents, but the revolt continued for several months. - The War in Armenia—Victory and Defeat of Mukhtar Pacha.-On Oc- tober 2d, 1877, the Russians, under General Loris Melikoff, acting under the orders of the Grand-Duke Michael, attacked and captured Mukhtar Pacha’s posi- tion at Great Yanilar, on the Armenian frontier, twelve miles east of Kars; but the Russians were repulsed in their assaults on Kizil-Tepe and Little Yºnilar, The Turks captured Kuruk-Dara, and carried Glade-Dagh by storm, after five AA’AAEAVZ) VX. 655 hours' fighting, and routed the Russians, who lost 3,000 killed and wounded, the Turkish loss being about the same. The Russian assaults on the following day (October 3, 1877), were all repulsed along the whole line by the Turks, who remained in possession of the battle-field. On the 4th, fighting was renewed, the Ottoman troops having reoccupied Great Yanilar, which the Muscovites had evacuated during the night of the 3d; but, after desperate fighting, all of Mukhtº r Pacha’s assaults were repulsed with heavy loss, the Russians having opened a crushing artillery fire on the assailing Turkish columns. The losses on each side were about 2,500 in killed and wounded. First Battle of Aladja-Dagh.-On the night of October 8th (1877), in con- sequence of the Russian advance, the Turks abandoned Kizil-Tepe, Sarbatan, and their other positions, which were then occupied by the Muscovites, the Otto- man army retiring to the summit of Aladja-Dagh. On October 9th, a great bat- tle was fought at Aladja-Dagh, lasting from noon until night, the losses being heavy on both sides, and the Russians being finally repulsed and forced to with- draw. * Mukhtar Pacha’s Disastrous Defeat at Aladja-Dagh.-On October 14th (1877), a Russian division under General Lazaroff moved south of Aladja-Dagh, drove the Turks from Orlok upon Vezinskoi and Kars, and occupied Orlok, thus completely turning Mukhtar Pacha’s right. On the following morning (October 15, 1877), a heavy cannonade was directed against Olya-Tepe, the chief of the Turkish positions. In the afternoon, General Heymann, with about 10,000 Rus- sian infantry, carried Olya-Tepe by assault, cutting the Turkish army in two. The Ottoman centre and left wing, under Mukhtar Pacha himself, retreated upon Kars, pursued by General Heymann, and harassed on the flank by General Laza- roff. Mukhtar Pacha succeeded in gaining the fortifications of Kars, after a ter- rible rout, during which he lost a large number in killed and wounded, several thousand prisoners, and four cannon. The Turkish right, comprising three divis- ions, numbering 18,000 men, had in the meantime been surrounded and attacked, and, after being driven from their fortified camp with heavy loss, were compelled to surrender with forty cannon. Moussa Pacha and a son of Schamyl, the famous Circassian chief, were among the killed on the Turkish side. Thus, in a single day, all the advantages gained by the Turks during the summer had disappeared. Russian March on Erzeroum—Investment and Siege of Kars.-In consequence of their brilliant victory over Mukhtar Pacha’s army, the Russians under General Heymann marched against Erzeroum, the Armenian capital, and another Russian force, under General Lazaroff, marched against the Turkish army under Ismail Pacha; while a large Russian detachment invested Kars, which now withstood another siege. On October 16th, the Russians attacked Fort Ahenz, before Kars, but were repulsed. Kars was again bombarded by the Rus- sians, and part of the city was set on fire. Near the close of October, Ismail Pacha's force eſſected a juncture with Mukhtar Pacha’s army. Mukhtar Pacha was hastily falling back on Erzeroum, before the advancing Russian army under General Heymann. Erzeroum was preparing for a siege. The Russian forces under Generals Heymann and Tergukassoff effected a junction near Hassan-Kaleh, near which place Mukhtar and Ismail Pachas occupied a strong position. After 656 AA’AEAVZ)/X. occupying Koprikoi on the 28th of October, when Mukhtar and Ismail Pacha's rear-guard hastily retreated to Hassan-Kaleh, the Russian cavalry continued the pursuit, and, two hours after midnight, attacked the Turkish bivouac, cut down a hundred men, and compelled the others to take flight. The Russian pursuit con- tinued over three miles. Siege of Plevna.-In the meantime, the Russians were besieging Osman Pacha's army at Plevna. Siege operations were in progress during the latter half of September, and throughout October and November. The Russian batteries fired in concentrated salvos, directed simultaneously at one point. The fire had considerable effect on the Turkish positions, the bombardment being carried on with great violence. Osman Pacha's army in Plevna numbered 130,000 men. On October 19th, the Roumanians captured the second Grivitza redoubt, after be- ing twice repulsed, but the redoubt was recaptured by the Turks during the night, after a sanguinary struggle. The Turks now constructed a new interior line of formidable defenses. Osman Pacha ordered all Circassian irregulars, Bulgarians, and non-combatant Mohammedans to quit Plevna. Russian Capture of Dubnik.-On October 24th, after a desperate engage- ment of ten hours' duration, the Russian detachment under General Gourko, coöp- erating with the Russian Imperial Guards, captured the Turkish positions at Dubnik, near Plevna, with 3,000 Turkish infantry and an entire regiment of cavalry, four cannon, and a quantity of ammunition. The Turks lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and 7,000 prisoners, among whom were two Pachas. Chefket Pacha fled with twelve battalions. The Russian loss was 3,000 killed and wounded. Movements on the Lom.—Towards the close of October (1877), the Turk- ish Army of the Lom, under Suleiman Pacha, retreated to Rasgrad, and leaving a detachment at Kadikoi, intrenched itself so as to cover Rustchuk, and to with- stand any attack of the Russian army under the Czarewitch. The Czarewitch pushed forward toward Rasgrad, leaving one corps to operate against Rustchuk. On October 26th, twelve Russian battalions, with cavalry and artillery, attacked the defenses of Rustchuk. The Turks made a sortie, and forced the Russians to retire into their intrenchments, with a loss of 450 killed and wounded. Four Russian divisions attacked the Turkish line on the Lom, but were repulsed with a loss of 800 killed and some prisoners, the Turkish loss being about 200 men. Conspiracy at Constantinople—Prominent Bulgarians Exiled.—Early in November (1877), a conspiracy was discovered in Constantinople to depose Sultan Abdul Hamid, and restore his deposed brother, Ex-Sultan Amurath V., to the Turkish throne; and forty-eight persons were arrested in consequence, forty of whom were strangled. About the same time, four hundred prominent Bulgari- ans, including the Messrs. Geshoff, wealthy merchants, were sentenced to exile in Asia Minor. They started in chains, under a strong escort, on November 9th. Lord Beaconsfield on the War.—At the banquet of the newly-inaugurated Lord Mayor of London,at the Guildhall, on November 9th, 1877, Lord Beaconsfield, replying to a toast, as Her Majesty's Minister, declared in strong terms that the British Government unswervingly adhered to the declaration they made at the commencement of the Eastern war, that British neutrality must cease if British interests were assailed or menaced. A PPA2AVZ)/X. 657 Fighting at the Shipka Pass.-Near the end of October (1877), the Turks recommenced a vigorous bombardment of the Russian positions in the Shipka Pass, and silenced one Russian battery. On November Ioth, Russian detachments lost 500 men, in passing within range of the Turks at the Shipka Pass. Siege of Plevna, The Russians established a strong force west of Plevna, near the close of October, and prepared to submit Plevna to a regular siege. A portion of the Russian Imperial Guards crossed the Vid, between Nicopolis and Plevna, passing around Osman Pacha’s left. General Gourko’s cavalry crossed the Upper Vid, west of Lovatz, swept the Orchanie road, got in communication with -the force coming from the north, and made a successful attack on the Turks under Hifsi Pacha. Simultaneously with this attack, a heavy cannonade was opened along the entire line on the east of Plevna. The Turks had in the meantime con- veyed large quantities of provisions into Plevna. The Russian Imperial Guards took up positions on the Russian left, thus gradually extending the line of invest- ment across the Lovatz road to the Sophia Road. The Russians were continually receiving reinforcements. On October 28th, a Russian detachment carried the Turkish position at Teliche, west of Plevna, capturing a Pacha, several officers, several companies of Turkish troops, and three cannon. On October 31st, the Turks evacuated Gorny Dubnik, which the Russians then occupied without fighting. By the early part of November, Plevna was completely invested by the Russian army. Capture of Dae Tetewen.—Chefket Pacha Routed.—On November 1st (1877), the Russians, under General Kanzeff, captured Dae Tetewen, northeast of Orchanie, where there were seven large and thirty small positions. The Turks left upward of Ioo dead upon the field. The Russians seized a large quantity of provisions, tools for intrenchments, cartridges, and a herd of cattle. The Russians were also intrenching in new positions toward Orchanie, and Chefket Pacha retired fighting toward Orchanie. On October 31st, the Turks under Chefket Pacha advanced to retake Teliche, but were defeated, after several hours' hard fighting, by the Russians, at Radomirze, and fled in the greatest disorder. The War in Armenia.-Battle of Deve-Boyun.--While the siege of Plevna was in progress, the Russians were vigorously prosecuting the war in Armenia, the great defeat of Mukhtar Pacha's army at Aladja-Dagh, on October 15th, having broken the power of the Turks in Asia. The Russian forces, under Generals Heymann and Tergukassoff, were concentrated at Deve-Boyun, near Erzeroum, where Mukhtar and Ismail Pachas' united armies were encamped. On November 5th (1877), the Russians made a severe attack on the Turkish positions at Deve- Boyun. There was fighting along the whole line. After an engagement of ten hours, the Turkish centre was driven in, and the Ottoman troops were compelled to fall back, abandoning their camp, artillery, arms and provisions. The Turkish loss was 25oo killed, wounded, and prisoners. Siege of Kars.-On October 28th (1877), Manni Pacha, the Turkish com- mandant at Kars, received a summons from General Loris Melikoſſ to surren der the fortress within twenty-four hours. A council of Turkish officers imme- diately rejected the demand for surrender, and resolved to defend the place to the last extremity. On November 5th, the Russians under General Loris Meli- koff occupied a position in front of the southeastern forts of Kars, for the purpose 42 658 * A PPAEAVO IX. * of erecting siege batteries. The Turks attacked the Russians, supported by a fire from the ſorts; but the Muscovites beat the Ottomans back in disorder, and pur. sued them into Fort Hafiz Pacha at the point of the bayonet, inflicted great loss, spiked the guns, captured ten officers and forty men, and then retired with small loss. The Russians were repulsed near Kars, on November 14th, after prolonged fighting. Russian Repulses near Erzeroum.—On November 9th (1877), the Russian columns under General Heymann attacked the Turkish redoubts southeast of Erze- roum, and a battle commenced which lasted eleven hours. The Russians captured Fort Azizie, which they were finally compelled to abandon. The Russians were eventually repulsed, and compelled to retreat toward Deve-Boyun, pursued by the Turks. The Russians rallied, and drove back the Turks; but the Muscovitcs were again forced to fall back on Deve-Boyun, before a superior Ottoman force. The Russians lost over 600 killed and wounded, besides a large quantity of arms and ammunition, but they carried off 559 prisoners. On November 14th, the Russians recaptured Fort Azizie, but were immediately expelled. The inhabitants of Erze- roum participated in the conflicts just mentioned. The united Russian armies of Generals Heymann and Tergukassoff, now before Erzeroum, numbered about 25,000 men. Siege of Plevna.—On November 4th, the Russians under General Skobeleff pushed on to Brestovec, south of Plevna, threw up batteries there, and, after a vio- lent cannonade, attacked the Turkish position, but were unsuccessful. A Russian detachment captured Vratza, between Plevna and Sophia, on November 9th, with several thousand wagons and a large quantity of stores. On November 11th and 12th, the Turks attempted to surprise General Skobeleff's positions, but were re- pulsed. Osman Pacha's losses were from 200 to 300 men daily, from concen. trated salvos of the Russian artillery. Osman Pacha was busily engaged in con- structing fresh fortifications. On November 16th, the Russians were repulsed in attacks on the Turkish positions near Orchanie. On November 17th, a detachment of Russian infantry and Cossacks drove the Turks out of Rosalie Pass, by turning their ſortified positions on Moragai Dagh. The Turkish camp there was captured. On the nights of November 16th and 17th, General Skobeleff was wounded by fragments of shells. The Russian fire against the Turkish positions was constantly maintained. The Turko-Montenegrin Campaign.—The Prince of Montenegro ordered all Montenegrins to take up arms, on November 9th. On November Ioth, the Montenegrins opened a heavy bombardment on Podgoritza. On November 12th, the Montenegrins captured a fort commanding the town of Antivari, with its garri- son, two guns, and a quantity of ammunition and provisions. The Montenegrins also took four block-houses near Scutari. A Montenegrin force was vigorously bombarding Spuz and its fortifications. On November 19th, the Montenegrins stormed the citadel of Spitza. The Sultan's desire for Peace.—On November 16th, a council, over which the Sultan presided, was held at Constantinople. The general feeling expressed by all present, and by none more strongly than by the Sultan himself, was in favor of peace. Though great distrust was manifested at Russia's declarations, and al- AAA’AºAVZ)/X. 659 though a desire was expressed for the termination of the war, the necessity of prep- arations for a vigorous resistance was fully recognized by all the members of the council. Capture of Kars.-The Russians, under General Loris Melikoff and the Grand Duke Michael, carried Kars by storm on Sunday morning, November 18th, 1877, aſter a desperate battle of twelve hours. On the evening of the 17th, 15,000 Russians climbed the steep rocks, ramparts, and walls, and attacked an equal num- ber of Turks, who fought desperately. The Kanli-Tabia, the citadel, the three towers, and Forts Hafiz Pacha, Kara-Dagh, and Suiwarri, were all carried by as- sault in the morning, after a bloody struggle during the whole night. The garri- sons of the Arab-Tabia and the Tchamak-Tabia resisted until morning, when they evacuated the forts, and fled toward Erzeroum, but were overtaken by Russian dragoons and Cossacks, and brought back as prisoners. The city and fortress of Rars, with 300 cannon, stores, and ammunition, were now in Russian hands. The Turks lost 5,000 killed and wounded, Io,000 prisoners, and many flags. The Russian loss was about 2,500 men. Among the Russian killed were Count Grabbe, General Belinsky, and Lieutenant-Colonel Melikoff. General Loris Melikoff, entered the city at eleven o’clock in the morning (Sunday, November 18th, 1877). General Loris Melikoff immediately started, with 15,000 men, for Erzeroum, and Mukhtar Pacha was summoned to surrender that place, but reſused. Turkish Success near Rustchuk.-There was heavy fighting on the Lom, near Rustchuk, on November 19th, between portions of the armies of the Czare- witch and Mehemet Ali Pacha. A Turkish force, making a reconnoissance, car- ried the Russian positions on the Metchka Heights, at Pirgos, near Rustchuk, and near Jovanchiſtlich, destroying at Pirgos seventy caissons filled with ammunition and provisions. The Russians lost 1,400 men. A Russian attack on Kadikoi was repulsed. Capture of Rahova by the Roumanians.—The Roumanians captured Ra- hova, a small town northwest of Plevna, on the morning of November 21st, after a three days’ engagement. The Turks fled toward Lom-Palanka and Widdin, pursued by the Roumanians. Simultaneously with the capture of Rahova, a Rou- manian division crossed the Danube opposite that town. THE FRENCH POLITICAL CRISIS CONTINUED. Funeral of Ex-President Thiers.-The remains of Ex-President Thiers were honored with the most magnificent funeral obsequies in Paris, the people lining the streets as the funeral procession passed; but the French Government caused the streets to be lined with soldiers, to prevent any extensive Republican demonstrations in honor of the great statesman and champion of liberty. Republican Address to the French People.—Gambetta's Conviction Confirmed.—On September 21st, an address was issued to the French people, signed by a number of Parisian and Provincial Deputies, representing all shades of French Republicanism, and reminding the people of the duty of returning the 363 Republican Deputies. At the second trial of M. Gambetta, on September 22d, on appeal from his previous sentence of three months' imprisonment and 2000 francs fine, his counsel argued that the tribunal was incompetent. The court rejected the plea, and confirmed the sentence at the first trial. 66o APPENDIX. Violent Measures of the Government.—Elections for Deputies Or- dered.—The Bien Public was seized on October 23d, for reporting M. Gambetta's trial. The Official journal published a circular of the Minister of Justice, giving instructions that all electoral addresses be carefully read, in order to prevent out- rages against the President, violent measures, or falsehoods. The Official journal also published a decree ordering elections for Deputies on October 14th, and the summoning of the extra session of the Chamber of Deputies on November 7th. Republican Proceedings.-M. Thiers's Posthumous Address. --The Republican committee of the Ninth Arrondissement of Paris, of which Victor Hugo was honorary, and M. Gambetta acting president, formally nominated M. Jules Grevy to the place filled by M. Thiers, as head of the French Democratic party and leader of the 363 Republican Deputies. On October 2d., M. Gambetta ſor- mally lodged an appeal against the sentence passed upon him by the Correctional Tribunal. A manifesto to the French nation, found among M. Thiers's papers after his death, was published by the Republicans. The Royalists denied the authentic- ity of the document, and the Government telegraphed instructions to the Prefects of the Departments, interdicting the colportage or placarding of M. Thiers's post- humous address. The feeling between the Monarchical and Republican parties in the remote provincial districts of France was as bitter as that of two hostile nations ready to come to blows. The “Official Candidates.”—The Government placed in nomination an “official list” of candidates for election to the Chamber of Deputies, and placards were issued by the Prefects of the Departments, for posting in the various arrondisse- ments. The placards were headed “Candidate of the Government of Marshal MacMahon, President of the Republic.” The Government’s candidates were divided into 131 Legitimists, 83 Orleanists, and 298 Bonapartists, about twenty arrondissements being without any “official candidates.” Gambetta’s Manifesto—Second Prosecution of Gambetta.-On Novem- ber 7th (1877), M. Gambetta issued a manifesto to the electors of the Twentieth Arrondissement of Paris, in which he enumerated the despotic acts and violent measures of the Government to carry the elections in favor of the Monarchical party. The manifesto censured the licensed violence of the reactionary press, and the muzzling of the Republican press; and advised the utmost discretion on the part of the Republicans. M. Gambetta was prosecuted for placarding his manifesto to the electors of the Twentieth Arrondissement of Paris, on the streets; and the printer of the manifesto was summoned before the Correctional Tribunal. At a Re- publican meeting on October 9th, M. Gambetta made a speech, urging upon the French people the necessity of returning the Republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies. MacMahon's Manifesto.—Republican Counter-Manifesto.—On October IIth, President MacMahon issued a manifesto, appealing to the French people to support the Government candidates, in the interest of social order, which he rep- resented as seriously threatened by the prevalence of radical ideas, and denying that the Government contemplated the subversion of the Constitution of the Re- public, or that peace with foreign powers was in danger from the success of the Government candidates. The President's manifesto concluded as follows: “I an- APPEAVO/X. 661 swer for order and peace.” The Bureau of the Republican Senators issued a counter-manifesto, asking the French people to disbelieve those who asserted that Republican institutions were not in danger, and that the Government was not acting under the influence of the priests. The Republican counter-manifesto de- clared the “official candidates” enemies to the Republic. Great Republican Victory in the Elections.—The elections in France for Deputies were held on Sunday, October 14th, 1877, and resulted in a great Repub- lican victory, though the former Republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies was considerably reduced. In the former Chamber there were 363 Republicans and 17O Monarchists, the Republicans having a majority of 193. The new election resulted in the choice of 320 Republicans and 213 Monarchists, leaving a Repub- lican majority of Ioy. The result of the election did not produce quiet, as both parties appeared very uncompromising. The Republicans threatened to annul all of those elections which resulted in the success of the Government candidates through Government pressure, while the Monarchists threatened another dissolution in case the Republicans attempted to execute their threat. The Government journals declared that the Ministry would neither submit to the popular verdict as expressed in the elections, nor resign; and the Republicans threatened to refuse to vote the budget, in case a Republican Cabinet was not appointed. The crisis appeared serious, and civil war was threatened. The idea, however, of invali- dating the elections of the Government candidates by wholesale was abandoned by the Republicans, and it was determined to annul only those elections which were palpably vitiated. In a speech at Chateau-Chinon, Department of Nierve, M. Gambetta violently denounced the Government electoral maneuvers, declaring that but for fraud and robbery, 4oo Republicans would have been returned to the Chamber of Deputies. He made a bitter attack on the Bonapartists, and declared that the Republicans desired order with progress, but that they had no subversive aims. The Elections for Councils-General.—In the election for Councils-General, on November 4th, 1877, the Republicans made immense gains; and when the second ballots were completed, the Republicans had the majority in forty-nine, and the Monarchists in thirty-seven Departments. In an interview with a delega- tion of Monarchical Deputies on November 6th, President MacMahon fully inti- mated that he was resolved not to resign. The Duke de Broglie's Ministry several times tendered their resignations, but remained at the President's request. Meeting of the Chambers.—Debate in the Chamber of Deputies.— The French Senate and Chamber of Deputies met on November 7th, 1877, and M. Jules Grevy, the Republican leader, was elected President of the Chamber of Dep- uties, by a vote of 290 against I70. There was intense excitement in Paris, and both parties seemed uncompromising. The Monarchists appeared determined to rule, in spite of the expressed will of the French people. The Legitimists ard Orleanists, alarmed at the increasing strength and boldness of the Bonapartists, seemed disposed to break away from the Monarchical coalition. The Bonapartists and Legitimists, however, threatened, if their elections were invalidated by whole- sale, to resign in a body, and thus furnish the Senate with a pretext for a fresh dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies; but the Orleanist members of the Senate 662 A PAEAEAVO IX. refused to sanction another dissolution, and thus the Duke de Broglie and M. de Fourtou were baffled in their reactionary schemes. In the Chamber of Deputies, on November 12th, the Republican Deputy, M. Albert Grevy, brother to M. Jules Grevy, the President of the Chamber, introduced a resolution of inquiry into elec- toral abuses. The resolution produced a violent debate, which continued for sev- eral days, M. Gambetta and M. Jules Ferry sustaining the motion for inquiry, and M. de Fourtou, Minister of the Interior, opposing the motion, and deſending the course of the Government during the electoral contest. M. Albert Grevy's resolu- tion was passed, and a committee of inquiry was appointed. º Resignation of the Duke de Broglie's Ministry.—A New Cabinet.— The Duke de Broglie's Ministry resigned on November 16th, 1877, the Orleanist Senators having refused to sustain it any longer. Thirty Orleanist Senators waited upon the President of the Republic on November 15th, and assured him of their devotion, but declared they could not support the Cabinet in a policy of resistance to the national will. The Orleanist Senators, in a preliminary meeting of the Senate, on November 16th, declared that the salvation of the country was at Stake, and refused to sanction another dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, President MacMahon accepted the resignation of the Duke de Broglie and his colleagues, and set about the formation of a new Cabinet, composed of Legitimists and Bona- partists, who, however, promised to govern in accordance with Republican princi- ples. Debate in the Senate.—In the Senate, on November 19th (1877), M. Arago, Republican, moved the previous question in regard to M. de Kerdrel's interpella. tion as to how the Ministers had instructed officials to act with regard to the elect- oral inquiry voted for by the Chamber of Deputies, on the ground that it was unconstitutional and an encroachment on the rights of the Chamber of Deputies. M. Arago's motion was rejected by a vote of 155 to 130. M. de Kerdrel and the Duke de Broglie, on the Royalist side, sustained the interpellation, while M. Laboulaye and M. Dufaure, on the Republican side, opposed it, as an encroach- ment on the rights of the Chamber of Deputies. Despite M. Dufaure's appeal. an attempt of the Republicans to shelve the discussion by proposing an order of the day pure and simple, was defeated by a vote of 153 to 136, and the order of the day proposed by the Monarchists was passed by a vote of 151 to 129. Gambetta's Course.—In Paris, the Republique Francaise, Gambetta's organ, declared that in view of the Senate's pretensions and the President's refusal to change his policy, it became the clear duty of the Chamber of Deputies to refuse to vote the budget. The Budget Committee of the Chamber of Deputies, on November 21st, elected M. Gambetta president. In a speech on the occasion, M. Gambetta reminded the committee that they were armed with the sanction of the national sovereignty, for which it was their duty to secure a triumph. Attitude of the Chamber of Deputies.—A Republican Ministry.—The refusal of President MacMahon to select a Republican Ministry prolonged the political crisis in France. The Republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies refused to vote the direct taxes so long as the President retained a Ministry in which the Chambers had no confidence. The Republican majority, however, con- sented to vote the indirect taxes, but only by installments. The Ministry recently formed, not possessing the confidence of the country and the Chamber of Deputies, APA’EAVOAX. 663 resigned on December 7th ; and, after several ineffectual attempts to form a com- promise Ministry, M. Dufaure undertook the formation of a Republican Ministry. EASTERN WAR OF 1877 CONTINUED. Russian Disaster at Nevesich.-Turkish Disasters.-A Russian detach- ment consisting of one infantry and one cavalry regiment was annihilated by the Turks, at Nevesich, on November 22d, the entire Russian cavalry regiment except six men being destroyed, and two pieces of cannon and a number of prisoners being taken by the Turks. The Roumanians took the strong position of Provitz, on November 23d, after two days’ fighting. The Turks evacuated Orchanie on November 25th ; and, on the same day, the Russians captured the ſortified town of Etropoli, about twenty miles north of the Balkans, the Turks fleeing in the greatest disorder. On November 26th, the Turks attacked the Twelfth Russian Army Corps at Terstenik and Metchka; but, after six hours' fighting, the Ottomans were repulsed with heavy loss, the Russian loss being about 300. Simultaneous demonstrations by the Turks against Polomarka and Kazelova were repulsed by the Russians after insignificant fighting. Capture of Elena by the Turks.--Other Turkish Successes.—On De- cember 4th (1877), the Turkish army under Suleiman Pacha attacked the Russians under Prince Mirsky, near Elena, a town nineteen miles southwest of Tirnova; and, after a stubborn fight, the Russians were defeated, with the loss of 3ooo killed and wounded. The Turks captured Elena, with eleven cannon, twenty ammuni- tion wagons, and 300 prisoners. Fighting was renewed the next day without any important result. On December 3d, a Turkish detachment defeated a Russian detachment at Armedli, on the road to Tirnova; and a few days later, a Turkish division crossed the Lom and captured Popkoi. Great Britain and Russia.-Turkey Anxious for Peace.—On November 28th (1877), Lord Derby, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, received a depu- tation representing several political societies, headed by Lord Stratheden Campbell, who presented a memorial urging active intervention in favor of Turkey. Lord Derby replied that the British Government saw no reason to depart from its neutrality. He did not think Constantinople or the Suez Canal in danger. When the British Government, he said, saw a reasonable opportunity, it would do what it could to bring about peace. Lord Derby's speech made a good impression in Russia. Turkey was now anxious for peace, and endeavored to secure media- tion through Austro-Hungary, but without success. The greatest despondency pre- vailed at the Turkish capital. Great excitement prevailed at Constantinople, when the Porte called out the reserves to maintain order in the provinces and the capital. Capture of Plevna.-On Sunday, December 9th, 1877, Osman Pacha made a sortie from Plevna, in order to break through the Russian line of investment, in the direction of Widdin; but, after a severe engagement, Osman Pacha, who was severely wounded, surrendered unconditionally to the Russians. The number of prisoners taken by the Russians at Plevna was estimated at 40,000, exclusive of 20,000 sick and wounded. The Czar of Russia, after the surrender of Plevna, placed his own carriage and escort at the disposal of Osman Pacha. The Russian and Roumanian armies made a grand triumphal entry into Plevna at 3:30 in the afternoon of the following day (December Ioth, 1877). 664 APPEAWDZX. The Turkish Circular.—Foreign Mediation Refused.—Intelligence of the fall of Plevna caused great rejoicings in St. Petersburg, and dismay in Con- stantinople; and the Porte issued a circular to the European Powers, intimating its readiness-to treat for peace on the basis of the proposals of the Constantinople Conference; but all the Powers refused to mediate. Russia insisted upon Turkey treating directly with her, and intimated that mediation would only make the terms harder. Great discontent prevailed among the populace of the Turkish capital, and seditious placards were frequently found. The Turkish Parliament reassembled on December 13th, and the Sultan, in his speech from the throne, alluded at some length to the reforms lately granted to his subjects by the new constitution. Servia Declares War against Turkey.—Servian Successes.—The fall of Plevna encouraged Servia to declare war against Turkey on December 14th, 1877; and, on the following day, Prince Milan issued a proclamation at Belgrade, recounting the Turkish atrocities and violations of faith since the treaty of peace signed between Turkey and Servia in February, 1877, and calling upon the Ser- vian army to move forward in the name of Servian independence. Prince Milan immediately started for Alexinatz, and the Servian army crossed the Turkish frontier at Pirot, and marched on Kassova. On December 21st, the Servians de- stroyed the Shetchina bridge, after a stubborn engagement. On December 22d, the Porte issued a proclamation deposing Prince Milan. On December 24th, after eight hours of severe fighting, the Servians captured Ak-Palanka, together with three Krupp guns and a large quantity of ammunition and provisions; and 30,000 Servians, with 120 guns, were investing Nissa; while the Servian forces, under Generals Leschjanin and Benitzki occupied Leskovatz and Kurschumlje, capturing a quantity of cattle and provisions. The Servians cannonaded Pirot and Novi-Bazar, but were repulsed; but they finally captured Pirot on the 28th of December (1877). Montenegrin Victory.—Capture of a Turkish Transport.—On Decem- ber 26th, 1877, the Montenegrins defeated a body of Turks occupying intrenched positions near Dulcigno, the Turks losing many prisoners, three flags, and a quan- tity of provisions. Near the close of December (1877), the Russian steamer Æussland, commanded by Adjutant Baramoff, returned to Sevastopol, from a cruise in the Bosphorus, bringing as a prize the Turkish transport Messina, with 7oo Turkish troops on board as prisoners. t General Gourko’s Victory over the Turks and Capture of Sophia.- On the 31st of December, 1877, the Russians, under General Gourko, defeated the Turks at Taskeseu, twenty-five miles from Sophia, capturing the Turkish in- trenchments, the Russians losing 7oo killed and wounded. The Turks retreated at nightfall toward Sophia, pursued by the Russian cavalry. After a halt for rest and reorganization, General Gourko resumed the advance upon Sophia, which was entered by the Russians on January 3d, 1878. - * Russian Victory at Bogrow.—The Russians across the Balkans.— On the 2d of January, 1878, the Russians, under General Gourko, defeated the Turks in a severe engagement at Bogrov, the Turks leaving 1,000 dead upon the field, and the Russians losing only 200 men. A few days later, the Russians, A PPAEAVO IX. 665 & under General Radetzky, crossed the Balkans, through the Shipka Pass, the Turks having previously abandoned their position, because of the severe cold. Capture of a Turkish Army at Shipka Pass.-March on Adrianople. —On January 9th, 1878, the Russian forces, under Generals Radetzky and Sko- beleff, after desperate fighting, captured the whole Turkish army of 12,000 men defending the Shipka Pass. At the same time, the Russians drove the Turks from their positions in the Trojan Pass, in the Balkans, after a feeble resistance. The Muscovites now advanced on Adrianople, the second city of the Ottoman Empire. Wholesale Flight of the Mussulman Population.—Occupation of Adrianople.—The rapid progress of the Russians spread consternation among the Mussulman population of Bulgaria and Roumelia, and panic-stricken fugitives crowded into Constantinople by thousands, mostly women and children, many of them perishing from hunger and cold, 15,000 being in the snow at Chorlon. Altogether, about 150,000 refugees crowded into the Turkish capital. On January 20th, the Russians entered Adrianople, the Ottoman troops having evacuated the city, after exploding the powder-magazines and ammunition-depots. Suleiman Pacha's Defeat at Philippopolis.-Advance on Constanti- nople.—On January 18th (1878), after four days of severe fighting, at Philippop- olis, the Russians, under General Gourko, defeated Suleiman Pacha’s army, 40,000 strong, which was driven into the Rhodope Mountains, with the loss of 4,000 killed, and 3,000 prisoners, and ninety-seven guns, while the Russian loss was over 2,000 in killed and wounded. The Russians now rapidly advanced toward Constantinople, where the greatest consternation prevailed. England and Austro- Hungary became alarmed at the rapid approach of the Muscovites to the Otto- man capital, and showed warlike signs. Servian Defeats.-On January 7th, 1878, the Turks, under Hafiz Pacha, re- occupied Kurschumlje, thirty-five miles northwest of Nissa, after two days of san- guinary fighting, the Servian loss being considerable. Another Turkish force, under Eyoub Pacha, defeated the Servians at Novi-Bazar, pursuing them to the frontier, and burning six of their military stations, and destroying their intrench- ments. capture of Nissa by the Servians.—Other Servian Victories.—Siege of Widdin.—On January IIth, 1878, Nissa surrendered to the Servians, in con- sequence of the capture of Goritza and Venick, and all the other heights com- manding the town, on the 9th and Ioth, after five days of fierce fighting, the Servian loss being considerable. The Servian forces also captured Vranja; and, on the 20th, they captured Pristina. They also reoccupied Kurschumlje, aſter an engagement, in which the Turks lost over 800 in killed, wounded and prisoners. The Servians effected a junction with the Roumanians in the investment and siege of the strong fortress of Widdin, on the Danube. By January 20th (1878), the Roumanians occupied Florentin, thus completing the investment of Widdin. The Roumanian bombardment set fire to Fort Belgradscik, in Widdin. On January 28th, after a battle of four days, 40,000 Servians defeated the Turks near Rat- scharnik, with heavy loss. 666 A PPEAVO IX. o Montenegrin Victories.—Two Crimean Towns Destroyed by the Turks.—On January 10th, 1878, Antivari surrendered unconditionally to the Montenegrins, after a vigorous siege. On January 26th, the Montenegrins cap-. tured three fortified islands in Lake Scutari, after a violent bombardment. About the middle of January (1878), a Turkish fleet bombarded and destroyed the ports of Eupatoria and Yatta, in the Crimea. Warlike Attitude of Greece Toward Turkey.—Excitement in Athens. —In the meantime, Greece assumed a warlike attitude toward Turkey. The peace Ministry at Athens was succeeded by a war Cabinet, about the middle of January, 1878, which called to arms the National Guard of all the towns in Greece, and considerable anxiety prevailed among the Greek land and sea forces. A Greek force of 600 men immediately entered Turkish territory, and a Greek insurrection against the Turks immediately broke out in Thessaly, Epirus and Macedonia. The cessation of hostilities between Russia and Turkey caused great excitement and consternation in Athens, where, on January 26th, a furious mob attacked the houses of the Cabinet Ministers, broke the windows, and killed and wounded several persons, but the mob was finally dispersed by the troops. On the following day, warlike demonstrations were renewed, crowds of people parad- ing the streets and shouting outside of the residences of the Ministers. A turbu- lent mob of 2,000 persons from the Piraeus was dispersed by the troops, after several rioters had been wounded. Warlike Action of Greece.—Greek Invasion of Turkish Territory.— On February 1st, 1878, the Greek Premier declared, in the Chamber of Deputies at Athens, that he intended to send troops into Thessaly and Epirus, and the whole Greek population was ordered to enroll in the National Guard. Great enthusiasm prevailed. The Greek Government ordered 12,000 men to cross the frontier into the Greek provinces of Turkey—namely, Epirus, Thessaly and Macedonia—and the Greek Chamber of Deputies voted a war supply of ten million drachmas, to be raised by a loan. On February 24, 12,000 Greek troops crossed the frontier. An insurrection broke out against the Turks in the island of Candia, or Crete, and the Greek insurgents declared the island annexed to Greece. Admiral Hobart Pacha's fleet was sent by the Porte to the Piraeus. On February 3d, the Greeks in Thessaly captured Domocco from the Turks, at the point, of the bayonet, losing 150 killed. A few days later, an armistice was concluded between the Greeks and the Turks, but the Greek insurgents in Thessaly and Crete continued in arms, and some fierce conflicts occurred between them and the Ottoman troops. Movements Toward Peace.—In the meantime, Turkey had become ex- tremely anxious for peace, and early in January, 1878, asked for an armistice through England. Great Britain sounded Russia as to the terms on which she would grant peace to the Porte, and Russia replied that Turkey would have to treat directly with Russia for peace. Mr. Layard, the British Ambassador at Con- stantinople, handed to the Porte the Russian reply to England's note. Lord Derby, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, informed Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Chancellor, that Great Britain must be allowed to participate in any peace conditions which might follow an armistice. Russia claimed the right to negoti- ate with Turkey alone, but recognized the right of the European Powers to show APPEAVD/X. 667 their appreciation of the peace conditions between the belligerents. The Russian Government maintained the strictest secrecy as to the terms it would exact from • the Porte. The British Cabinet held numerous councils, and maintained constant telegraphic communication with St. Petersburg. The Porte now informed Eng- land of its readiness to treat directly with Russia. £º. Steps Toward an Armistice.—On January 9th, 1878, the Turkish Com- mander-in-Chief notified the Russian head-quarters at Lovatz that he was em- powered to arrange the basis of an armistice. The Grand Duke Nicholas, the Russian Commander-in-Chief, after referring the matter to St. Petersburg, replied that negotiations could only be conducted with himself directly, and that there could be no question of an armistice without bases for peace. On January 13th, the Grand-Duke Nicholas also telegraphed to Constantinople that he was ready to receive an Ottoman delegate to discuss armistice conditions, whereupon the Porte appointed Server and Namyk Pachas to go to Kazanlik, to negotiate with the Grand-Duke Nicholas. The British Fleet Ordered to Move.—Liberal Opposition in Eng- land.—In the meantime, Great Britain continued distrustful of Russia, and tele- graphic orders were sent from London to Malta, instructing Vice-Admiral Hornby to move with his fleet to Turkish waters, for the protection of British interests. While the British Cabinet was thus hostile to Russia, the Liberal party in Eng- land showed its opposition to a war policy; and John Bright made a great speech at Birmingham, in favor of non-intervention; while speeches against England's going to war with Russia were made by Mr. Gladstone at Oxford, Mr. Mundella at Sheffield, and Sir William Vernon Harcourt at Bradford. England, Austro-Hungary, and Russia.-Russia declared her readiness to discuss with the British Cabinet the special points which might affect British interests. This declaration caused frequent Cabinet councils in London. Both Great Britain and Austro-Hungary declared their determination to be consulted on the peace conditions. Russia, in defining her course, expressed her good will toward England and Austro-Hungary, disclaimed any intention of interfering with the Suez Canal, or the route to India, and denied that she contemplated the acquisition of Constantinople. When the British Parliament assembled, on Janu- ary 17th, 1878, the Queen, in her speech from the throne, alluded to the Eastern question in a pacific tone, but recommended precautionary measures. England now proposed a conference of the Great European Powers, to settle the European questions growing out of the Russo-Turkish war. Great Debates in the British Parliament.—In the meantime, England continued to be greatly excited. On January 29th (1878), Sir Stafford Northcote, Chancellor of the Exchequer, informed the House of Commons that he would move for a supplementary grant for the military and naval service. This an- nouncement of the Chancellor's intention precipitated a debate, which lasted for several days, the Liberals opposing the policy of the Ministry. In the House of Lords, Lord Beaconsfield spoke in the same strain as did Sir Stafford Northcote in the House of Commons, declaring that England was not going to be dictated to by any other Power. Lord Derby, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, and Lord Caer- narvon, Colonial Secretary, disapproving the policy of Lord Beaconsfield, tendered 668 APPEAWDAX. their resignations. Lord Derby, however, soon withdrew his resignation, but Lord Caernarvon retired, and was succeeded by Viscount Sandon. The Liberal leaders held a meeting, at which it was decided to sustain the supplementary credit vote, if it were not a war vote. In the House of Commons, on January 28th, Sir Stafford Northcote, in moving for a supplementary credit of six million pounds sterling, made a great speech, in which he declared that the supplement- ary credit vote would be construed by the Government as a vote of confidence. He expressed great distrust of Russia, and explained the circumstances under which the British fleet had been sent to Besika Bay, declaring that European con- cert was necessary. The speech of Sir Stafford Northcote precipitated another great debate, which continued several days, Mr. Forster, John Bright, and Sir Wilſrid Lawson censuring the Government's action. Mr. Cross replied, express- ing great distrust of Russia. A large anti-Russian meeting was held in London. Movements of the British Fleet in the Mediterranean.—Toward the close of January, 1878, the British fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, under Vice- Admiral Hornby, approached Gallipoli, on the Dardanelles, and the guns of the fleet fired a salute, as the fleet approached; but the order to the fleet to advance was countermanded by the British Ministry, and Admiral Hornby returned to Besika Bay. An Armistice.—On January 31st, 1878, an armistice was signed at Adrian- ople, by the Grand-Duke Nicholas on the part of Russia, and by Server and Namyk Pachas on the part of the Porte. This armistice was signed on the fol- lowing basis: Ist, the erection of Bulgaria into a principality; 2d, a war indem- nity, or territory compensation; 3d, the independence of Roumania, Servia and Montenegro, with increase of territory for each; 4th, reforms in Bosnia and Herze- govina; 5th, an ulterior understanding between the Sultan and the Czar regard- ing the Dardanelles; and 6th, the evacuation of the Danubian fortresses and Erzeroum. The conclusion of the armistice caused great rejoicings in St. Peters- burg. The Czar issued an address to his troops, declaring that they were “still far from the end,” and should hold themselves prepared until a durable peace was secured. Thanksgiving services were held in all the churches in the Russian capital, salvos of artillery were fired, flags were flying, and in the evening the city was brilliantly illuminated. Evacuation of Turkish Fortresses.—New Turkish Ministry.—In ac- cordance with the armistice conditions, the Turks evacuated the fortresses of Widdin, Rustchuk, Silistria, Belgradschik, and Erzeroum, which were thén occu- pied by the Russians; and, on the approach of the Muscovite forces toward Constantinople, the Ottoman troops retired from the Buyuk-Chekmejek lines, which comprised the fortifications of the Turkish capital. The office of Grand- Vizier was now abolished; and a new Turkish Ministry, under Ahmed Vefik Effendi, was formed. Count Andrassy’s Proposal for a European conference.—Count An- drassy, the Austro-Hungarian Chancellor, proposed a conference of the Great European Powers, to settle the European questions growing out of the Eastern war. Count Andrassy’s proposal was accepted by Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain, and Russia; but Russia strenuously objected to holding the conference in APPEAVD/X. 669 Vienna, or any other great capital, and preferred some small town in one of the minor states. Supplementary Credit Voted by the British Parliament.—Excite- ment in London.—After an animated debate, the supplementary credit of six million pounds Sterling was voted by the British House of Commons, amid deaf- ening cheers; and Sir Stafford Northcote, Chancellor of the Exchequer, an- nounced that five British war vessels had been ordered to Constantinople, to pro- tect the lives and property of British subjects. There was tremendous excitement outside of Parliament. Crowds thronged the streets, singing “God save the Queen,” and making demonstrations in favor of the Government. A rumor that the British fleet had again been ordered to the Dardanelles, caused intense excite- ment. The windows of Mr. Gladstone's house, and of The Daily News office, were broken by excited mobs. Prince Gortschakoff’s Declaration.—Movements of the British Fleet. —The relations of Russia and England were now extremely critical. Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Chancellor, informed the Powers that Russia contem- plated sending troops into Constantinople, because England and other nations had determined to send war vessels there for the protection of their subjects. Austro- Hungary followed England's example, so far as to ask leave for her fleet to enter the Dardanelles. The Sultan, however, refused so far as to authorize the British fleet to advance to his capital, on the ground that Russian troops might occupy the city if he did so. The British Government, however, instructed Admiral Hornby to pass the Dardanelles, with or without leave. Admiral Hornby accord- ingly passed the Dardanelles, with the five iron-clads, on February 13th, and entered the Sea of Marmora, taking a position off Prince's Islands, thirteen miles south of Constantinople. The Russians thereupon threatened to enter the Turkish capital. The Sultan endeavored to stop the advance of the British fleet and the entry of the Russian troops, by personal appeals to Queen Victoria and the Czar, but his efforts were ineffectual. The British fleet advanced, and the Russian troops occupied the suburbs of Constantinople. Excitement in England and Austro-Hungary.—A report that the Rus- sians had entered Constantinople and that the British fleet had arrived there, caused intense excitement in London. In the British House of Commons, on February 14th (1878), Sir Stafford Northcote, Chancellor of the Exchequer, stated that Admiral Hornby's fleet had orders to pass the Dardanelles, with or without leave, and that the ships were prepared for action. This announcement was re- ceived with loud cheers. Lord Derby made a similar statement in the House of Lords, and read a dispatch from Prince Gortschakoff, informing him of the Russian occupation of Constantinople. There was also great excitement in Austro-Hun- gary. Count Andrassy, the Austro-Hungarian Chancellor, had a long conference with the Emperor Francis Joseph; and the Emperor sent for the Archduke Al- brecht, the Field-Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-Hungarian army, for the purpose of concerting important military measures. The excitement in Vienna and Pesth was extreme, and the Hungarian press was bitterly hostile to Russia. Great Britain and Austro-Hungary were acting in full accord, and an alliance between these two Powers was imminent. 67o AAEAEENDIX. Lord Derby's Protest and Russia's Reply.—Withdrawal of the British Fleet.—The danger of war between England and Russia was increasing hourly. Lord Derby protested against the Russian occupation of Constantinople, and inti- mated to the Russian Government that any attempt to seize Gallipoli, or menace the communications of the British fleet, might lead to serious consequences. This intimation was disregarded by Russia, as Russian troops occupied part of the Con- stantinople line of defences on February 15th. There was great excitement in St. Petersburg, Russia addressed a conciliatory note to England in regard to Gallipoli, and the document was considered at an informal meeting of the British Cabinet. The British fleet now withdrew from Prince's Islands to Mundania Bay, forty-two miles south of Constantinople. The Czar asked permission of the Sultan for the entry of a portion of the Russian army into Constantinople, but the Sultan refused the request. Germany's Friendly Intervention.—The Czar appealed to the Emperor of Germany to use his efforts for the preservation of peace. Austro-Hungary appealed to Germany to intervene, by persuading Russia from occupying Constan- tinople; and Prince Bismarck, the German Chancellor, at Count Andrassy's solic- itation, and in compliance with a request from St. Petersburg to make German influence felt, intimated to Prince Gortschakoff that he was straining the situation beyond reasonable bounds. Russia accepted Prince Bismarck's friendly offices, and issued a circular informing the Powers that she had renounced the occupation of Constantinople, at the request of the Emperor William. There was great dis- appointment at St. Petersburg, because the Russian people had expected the moral support of Germany, whereas they now heard the Emperor of Germany, in his speech from the throne, referring to the programme of the Constantinople Confer- ence as the basis for a settlement. Thus ſriendly relations were restored between Russia and Austro-Hungary. Prince Bismarck's Speech.—Prince Auersperg's Dissatisfaction.—In the German Reichstag, on February 19th, 1878, in response to an interpellation by Herr Benningsen, Prince Bismarck made a speech, in which he said that Ger- many had no rivalry with England except a friendly one in trade, and that he would not advise the Emperor to go to war unless German interests were endan- gered, and that those interests were not then in peril. On the same day, in reply to a question of the Lower House of the Austrian Reichsrath, Prince Auersperg, the Austrian Premier, expressed dissatisfaction with some of the peace stipulations, but expected that the European Conference would make matters all right. Austro-Hungary’s Precautionary Measures.—On February 24th, 1878, a joint council of the Ministers of Austria and Hungary was held at Vienna, and lasted five hours. The Emperor Francis Joseph presided. Count Andrassy stated that he desired a vote of confidence and a vote of credit for military purposes, to support Austro-Hungary's views at the European Conference, as some of Russia's conditions were inadmissible. The Ministers empowered Count Andrassy to ask the Delegations for a credit not exceeding sixty million florins. Both Count Andrassy and the Emperor assured the council that they earnestly desired peace. Hostile Meetings in London.—On February 24th, 1878, the supporters of Lord Beaconsfield assembled in great force near the Marble Arch, in London, for AAPAEAVO/X. 671 the purpose of voting down the peace resolutions, and protesting against any attempt to embarrass the Government, and against a Russian occupation of Constanti- nople. After passing enthusiastic resolutions in favor of the Government, the crowd attacked and temporarily broke up the peace meeting which was in progress in Hyde Park. After some time, Charles Bradlaugh moved the resolutions in favor of peace, but he was frequently obliged to change his position. Several fights occurred, and the mob sang “Rule Britannia.” After Mr. Bradlaugh's departure there was some heated discussion and more fighting. It was estimated that there were from 80,000 to IOO,000 people around the park, of whom Io,000 actually participated in the proceedings. The assemblage dispersed gradually, but a large and excited mob went to hoot before Mr. Gladstone's residence, and was only prevented from doing any damage by a strong force of police. Russia’s Disagreement with Servia and Roumania.-In the meantime, Russia’s relations with Servia and Roumania had become extremely awkward. Servia claimed part of Old Servia, which Russia desired to annex to Bulgaria. Late in February, 1878, the Russians occupied Pirot and Ak-Palanka, the Servians withdrawing to Nissa, and Prince Milan protesting against the Russian occupation. The Russians continued to advance, but Prince Milan remained at Nissa with a strong force, and refused to evacuate the place. Russia, however, reassured Servia relative to Nissa. Roumania was dissatisfied because Russia was deter- mined to seize Roumanian Bessarabia, and to give in exchange the Dobrudscha. Prince Charles of Roumania threatened to abdicate if Russia persisted, but Russia showed no sign of relinquishing its design upon Bessarabia. Preliminary Peace of San Stefano.—After long negotiations, the prelimi- nary treaty of peace, known as the Peace of Constantinople, was signed on March 2d, 1878, at San Stefano, a small village ten miles from Constantinople, by the Grand-Duke Nicholas, on the part of Russia, and by Server and Namyk Pachas, on the part of Turkey. The Grand-Duke Nicholas held a grand review on the following day (Sunday, March 3, 1878), and formally announced the event to his troops. The news of peace produced unbounded enthusiasm at St. Petersburg, and an immense multitude assembled before the palace, shouting and singing “God save the Czar.” The principal conditions of the treaty were the following: 1st. Batoum, Kars, Ardahan, and the district of Bayazid to be ceded to Russia; 2d. The question of the Straits to be reserved for further consideration; 3d. The question of the navigation of the Danube to remain in status quo; 4th. A zone to be leſt between Montenegro and Servia, so as to enable the Porte to main- tain communication with Bosnia and Herzegovina; 5th. The new Principality of Bulgaria to include Bourgas, Varna, and Kustendje, but not Salonica or Adri- anople; 6th. Russia to have power to cede the Dobrudscha to Roumania, in exchange for Roumanian Bessarabia; 7th. The money indemnity to be twelve million pounds sterling, in addition to the territorial cession. 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