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TWO WEEK BOOK
SF
487
COT
W43
1905
THE POULTRY BOOK

RED DORKINGS.
The property of MR. HARRY HAMLIN, EDENBRIDGE, KENT.
Harrison Wein
1900

The Poultry Book
BY MANY EXPERT ÂMERICAN BREEDERS
AND
HARRISON WEIR, F. R. H. S.
Willia
under the editorship of
PROFESSOR WILLIS GRANT JOHNSON
and
GEORGE O. BROWN
ILLUSTRATED FROM DRAWINGS IN COLOR AND BLACK AND WHITE
BY MR. WEIR, AND FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

RUCTU
QUAM
FOLIA
NEW YORK
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
1905
Copyright, 1903, 1904, by
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
Published, September, 1904
5.
nig
Jh-ve
DIRECTORY
FIRST DIVISION
Contents
List of Color Plates
List of Text Illustrations
SECOND DIVISION
Follows page 424
Contents
List of Color Plates
List of Full-page Black-
and-white Plates
List of Text Illustrations
Contents
List of Color Plates
List of Full-page Black-
and-white Plates
THIRD DIVISION
Follows page 856
List of Full-page Black-
and-white Plates
List of Text Illustrations
INDEX, Page 1301
169562
EDITOR'S PREFACE
T has been the constant aim and object of the editor and
the publishers to make this work the most unquestionably
complete and comprehensive monograph on poultry ever
printed. Indeed, it has been our desire to produce an up-to-
date standard guide for professional breeders and, at the
same time, a practical reference work for the amateur and new beginner. It
is with satisfaction, therefore, that we are able to present the views and
ideas of American expert breeders on all varieties of poultry and allied
topics. Embodying, as it does, the personal experiences of many success-
ful fanciers, the work is all the more valuable and useful.

Our first intention was to revise and Americanize the English edition
of Mr. Harrison Weir's work entitled "Our Poultry"; but the book was
prepared so much more for English than for American breeders, that we
have been obliged to cast aside the great bulk of the text, using in most
cases only a part of Mr. Weir's illustrations. Aside from the general
preface, the introductory remarks, and the quotations properly credited,
the present work is original and purely American. However, it will be a
great satisfaction to all lovers of poultry to know that the more valuable
personal observations and most practical experiences of Mr. Weir are here
preserved with his drawings. In very few instances do we find so keen an
observer and so close a student of Nature the possessor of such rare artistic
ability.
The poultry industry in this country has been one of steady and
gradual development. Our peculiar environments, climatic and other-
wise, have called for particular breeds of well-defined habits and character-
istics. Many of these have been secured from other countries, but the
American ideal has been toward something better; consequently, the
development and establishment of such typical and popular American
breeds as the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and others. As a result,
the methods in vogue here differ materially from those followed in England
and elsewhere.
Photographs and drawings representing types of fowls from an Ameri-
EDITOR'S PREFACE-Continued
can point of view have been freely inserted, thus adding to the great
value of the work as one of reference. In fact, it constitutes, in its present
form, a standard for all lovers of poultry. In each instance the name of
the author is printed at the head of the chapter, and he alone is held
responsible for the comments. Where no individual credit is thus
given, the editor is the authority.
Second Edition.
New York City, May 1, 1904.
WILLIS GRANT JOHNSON.

From a photograph
Commercial Poultry
WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK COCK
PREFACE.
"There is nothing among men perpetual nor nothing stable, but all things pass and
repass, even like unto the flowing and ebbing of the sea."-SALLUST.
S A CHILD I was ever happy, contented and amused by
the companionship of animals and birds, particularly fowls.
At the time that my only brother* and myself were
quite "little things," our father would make outline pencil
drawings for us to copy. These, by our desire, were mostly
"cocks and hens." No stories pleased us so much as those
of the wild and tame animal life of the woods, hedgerows and the farm,
and none like those that told of the Kent and Sussex homesteads, with
their cattle, bird and poultry associations.
Early in May, 1829, when scarcely five years old, I traveled with my
mother by coach to Tunbridge Wells, and thence by a hired conveyance
along the Hastings road to Pembury, another mile; then up a long, narrow,
wheel-rutted, sanded lane, whose high and low side-banks and hedges amid
their greenery fairly glowed with the rich and rural colorings of spring,
through a five-barred gateway, past a pond darkened by overhanging
trees, a wider and more open space of the grass-fringed trackway, and we
were at "Fletchers'," the ancient family home of a near relative; an old-
world, primitive, half-stone, brick, timber and weather-tile built house,
*John Jenner Weir, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., etc.
vii


viii
The Poultry Book

thatched out-buildings,
barn, cart-house and
piggeries, with a sur-
rounding of hop
gardens, arable,
meadow and other
cultivated land. The
homestead was some
centuries old, also the
out-buildings; fields
were scattered among
woods, joining other
woods in almost never-
ending variety of forms
and masses, while in front of the leaden casement-windowed house was
the trim and gay flower garden, defended from cattle and other incur-
sions by the whitest of wooden palings. A thrush sang amid the trees of
the blossomy orchard close by, and a chaffinch gave voice from a lilac bush.
All about was old, even the very fruit-trees, and yet to me-so new. To
this day everything I saw and heard is as fresh and as bright in my memory
as though it were but yesterday; the house, the woods, the hedged-in fields,
the birds, the wild and garden flowers, were to me then, as now, a very
wonderment of lovable things and an adorning beauty unadorned.
The day after our arrival I was missed, and by much searching found
in the cowyard with a pencil and paper, endeavoring to draw "the cocks
and hens.' For many years these drawings, with their slight resemblance
to fowls, were treasured and proudly shown by my mother. Here it was
that I first saw the Kent and Sussex white-shanked five-toed black-and-
red poultry, though kept and known at "Fletchers'" and some adjacent
farms beyond time of remembrance. Years afterward I learned that the
whole of the housekeeping expenses were paid out of the profits derived
from the small dairy and the poultry. From this time my love of animal
life so increased that some fowls were got to please my brother and myself.
Three Nankeen Bantams, and then some partridge-colored and "booted,"
were given to our father by Sir John Sebright for "the boys." Then
Aylesbury Ducks, pigeons, rabbits, dogs, Guinea-pigs, piebald rats, fawn-
colored, black and white mice, and a tame but very young squirrel were
99
AT THE OLD FARM
Preface
ix
purchased; and thus it was with my brother and myself no time was more
enjoyable than that spent in attending to the wants and welfare of our
various, somewhat incongruous animal and bird belongings; but the farm-
yard, with its poultry, was ever the first and our most restful pleasure.
Growing older and stronger, we wandered wide in search of variety in this
our chief delight.
Many of our relatives and friends living in Kent and Sussex were
farmers, and that chiefly of their own land or of large holdings; and it may
be said that all, as a rule, kept the best of farm-stock, and the poultry was
not only a profitable adjunct, but things of beauty of the highest excellence,
whether for the table or for the production of eggs.
The farmer and the poultry fancier of to-day has but little or no idea
of the superior and long-tested quality of the then ancient breeds of fowls
nurtured and kept about our southern homesteads, nor how much they
were cared for, appreciated and valued.
Both the cocks and hens were most carefully and thoughtfully selected,
not only for their fineness of flesh, thinness of skin, their form and size, but
also for their uniformity and beauty of color; in this respect districts and
farms were known as having a certain specialty, and the fowls were not,
as many modern writers ignorantly state, unculled or unmatched. In
many cases the housewives were as proud, if not more so, of their poultry
as any cattle-breeder
was or could be of his
cattle. Often would
they take my brother
and myself at the
feeding-time into the
poultry yard, and there
point out the best, and
tell us why they were
the best, and what were
their chief points of
excellence, or their
beauty of color or
markings; and further
tell us how the same
kind and breed had

Meir
OLD KENT AND SUSSEX FIVE-TOED HEN

X
The Poultry Book
been kept and reared on the land for many generations; and also
when some were killed, and plucked for the table for culinary purposes,
we were shown what constituted a first-class fowl as regarded size,
color of flesh, fineness of the fiber, thinness, whiteness and smoothness.
of the skin, the even distribution of the white fat, the squareness
of the body-for none were then in favor of the long breast, as now
advocated, and which latter is a mistake, as it must be generally
wanting in depth; but with the shape then bred an exceeding plump-
ness of breast was obtained. The Partridge was invariably quoted as
"the model form" of what a fowl should be, with rather more leg and
thigh, the shanks being in due proportion; and they one and all were most
particular that the shanks (then called legs) should be white, and fleshy
scaled, with feet five-toed white-even one dark nail was considered a
blemish, and rejected as breeding stock. We were shown where to look
for the hens' eggs, and trained in the feeding and rearing of chickens, and
to note the times of feathering, the hen's pratings, cacklings and callings;
the cock's crowings were talked of as noticeable as varying both in power
and tone, and as indications of health and strength that were not to be
lost sight of when choosing the birds of the year for mating as breeding stock.
Several methods of fattening the chicken were shown to us, and how
to pluck a dead fowl properly, while the carving of one on the table was not
neglected. All of this was well over "sixty years since"; and thus it has
been that almost from very infancy have I grown into the knowledge and
love of our “farm" and "fancy" poultry, and the which to me has been
a source of everlasting pleasure both in thought and reality. Having kept
almost every variety, not only have I studied fowls from a poulterer's
view, but as a naturalist, and, lastly, as an artist, professionally and other-
wise attending poultry shows, from that of 1845 at the Zoological Societies.
Gardens, and elsewhere to the present time, often acting as one of the
judges, and have been also an exhibitor for nearly fifty years.† During
this time I have seen, known and conversed with those fanciers of the
far-off past as to what poultry was, and those breeders of the day as to
what it now is, and thus by theirs and my own long and almost unique
experience have gathered, I hope, a true and certain knowledge of the
varieties of the breeds, both old and new. Such, I believe, should become
* Perhaps the Grouse would be in Scotland.
† Winning first prize for old English Game cocks, Crystal Palace, 1898.
Preface
xi
historical; thus it is that I have endeavored not only to put together such
facts that have come under my own actual observation, but also those made
known to me by others that have been my friends and associates in bygone
times, as well as those truthfully recorded by authentic writers in the
பயம்

Elwe
Anaitar
SKETCH AT THE OLD FARM SIXTY YEARS SINCE
numerous books, mostly in my possession, my idea being to tell of, to
portray or describe our different breeds of fowls as to what they were, and
now what they are. This has been my conceit for more than forty years.
Many long and serious illnesses, and work in other directions, has hindered
much, and made progress slow, but the intention has gained in material,
though in one sense it has unexpectedly lost in another, as I shall presently
show. That I was writing and preparing an illustrated book on poultry
had long been known, and that it would comprehend the past and present
variations of the different breeds, but the full scope of its contents had not
been defined to others, until in a friendly conversation between myself
and the editor of Poultry (the late Mr. Broomhead), May, 1891, in which
I gave him the general outline of what I was and had been doing, upon
which he published the following in Poultry, May 22, 1891:

xii
The Poultry Book
“Mr. Harrison Weir has for a long time been engaged in writing a poultry
book, although illness has again somewhat hindered him. The work,
which will be altogether different from the general run of poultry books, is a
resume of more than fifty years' experience, and will show the variations of
many of the breeds of fowls for a number of years in consequence of poultry
shows, which, as is generally well known, Mr. Harrison Weir has contended
for many years past has been the ruin of the commercial table fowls.
For years past Mr. Weir has been making very carefully delineated draw-
ings, which will accompany his descriptions of the birds. Game-fowls and
Dorkings will occupy a prominent position in the work, a large amount of
valuable and interesting information having been got together respecting
these breeds.
"}
This information having been freely given, I, and also many others,
were somewhat indignantly surprised to find another book published in
1892 of nearly the same construction, and not only that, but using on the
title-page almost the precise words that the editor of Poultry had
written in May, 1891, regarding my book from the information that I
gave him.
I only quote the above fact to clear myself from any imputation of
plagiarism at least on my part, and for no other reason. The above carries
its own comment, therefore any from me is needless.
Upon this, I thought it best to abandon my book, though the work of
many years' research, much thought and a lifelong experience; so for the


TH
ا///
RIT
އފ.ޕހ
Dil
Weis
PARTRIDGES
time at least it was abandoned, and only resumed at the earnest entreaty
of some dear friends, and though from ill-health and various other causes
the work has been slow, and at times almost tedious, it is at last completed,
and I most sincerely trust and hope that as it has been a labor of love,

Preface
xiii
Amaz
Lu
OLD STYLE OF KENT AND SUSSEX FOWL
with all its faults and shortcomings it may prove to be both useful
and interesting; also, being partly historical and biographical, it may be
found instructive.
The antiquarian portion is selected from a mass of notes taken from
old books, Middle Age inventories, records, and from various other sources,
and which I trust will be found acceptable, and at one and the same time
convey to the fanciers, poultry keepers and poultry writers of to-day that,
without doubt, and whatever may have been said to the contrary, for many
centuries at least our poultry was not merely one of the neglected append-
ages of the villa and farm, but was chosen and bred with much care, atten-
xiv
The Poultry Book
tion and discretion, and that not only as a source of profit, but also for
pleasure and even sport; and that before any poultry shows existed there
were fanciers, and the table fowls of Kent were noted in history, and these,
with those of Sussex and Surrey, were truthfully pronounced by competent
judges to be as "table fowls, the very finest and best in the world."
I have only to add that the birds delineated are portraits and not ideals,
and that latterly, to insure as much accuracy as possible, photographs have
been used in every instance where procurable. For many of these I am
lastingly indebted to several of our principal poultry breeders and fanciers,
and their great kindness in having their birds photographed especially for
my use, and for which and other gentle courtesies I tender my most hearty
and sincere thanks.
Aren
کے
L
HARRISON WEIR.

Editor's Preface.
Preface
Introductory Remarks.
The Beginning.
The Varieties to Keep
By George O. Brown
Mating and Breeding By Ï. K. Felch
American Views Expressed.
Effect of Food, Soil, and Shade.
Eggs from a Commercial Point of View
By Miller Purvis
•
•
Foreign Eggs...
Poultry Interests in the United States
in 1900.
Eggs from a General Point of View
By Miller Purvis
•
Structure of an Egg.
Eggs as Characterized by Breeds.
Influence of Feed Upon Eggs.
Eggs of Other Fowls.
Judging Eggs....
Laying Qualities of Breeds.
Influence of Feeds.
Laying Capacity of Breeds.
Winter Egg-Production.
Cost of Egg-Production.
•
tion..
Ration No. 1.
Ration No. 2.
•
•
•
Selling Eggs by Count or Weight..
Comparative Value of Eggs by
Weight and Per Dozen..
Value as Food..
•
Average Composition of Eggs, Egg
Products, and Certain Other Foods
CONTENTS
•
The Preservation of Eggs.
Eggs for Hatching..
Development of the Egg.
Incubators and Chicken-Rearing
By Thomas F. McGrew
Development of the Chick Within the
Egg.
• • •
•
• •
•
•
First Food and Care of the Chick..
The Incubator in England.
General Use of Incubator in America
The Feeding of Poultry
•
·
By James E. Rice
Food and Its Relationship to Produc-
•
Well Balanced.
Too Wide-Too Fat-
•
tening.
Ration No. 3. Too Narrow-Too
Stimulating
Prices of Grain Used in Calculating
Cost of Rations.
Grain Foods...
PAGE
V
vii
I
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27
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∞ ∞
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ΙΟΙ
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132
135
142
149
149
154
155
155
156
157
Grain Foods Arranged in Order of
Total Digestible Protein Content
in 100 Pounds..
Wheat.
Corn.
Oats.
Barley.
Buckwheat.
Rye..
•
•
•
•
By-Products and Hay Arranged in
the Order of Total Digestible
Protein Content Per 100 Pounds..
Wheat Bran.
Middlings.
Gluten Products.
Linseed Meal.
Cottonseed Meal.
Meat Foods Arranged in the Order
of Total Digestible Protein Content
Per 110 Pounds
·
·
•
·
•
•
· ·
•
Meat Foods.
Vegetable Foods Arranged in the
Order of Their Total Digestible
Protein Content in roo Pounds.
Vegetable Foods and Feeding.
Grit and Mineral Matter.
Condimental Foods.
·
•
·
•
Water..
Palatability
Variety..
Cooked vs. Uncooked Food.
How Much and How Often to Feed..
Balancing Their Own Rations.
Whole Grain vs. Ground Feed.
Exercise.
Temperature and Food-Consumption
Feeding According to Age.
Rations for Chicks.
Feeding Pullets .
Feeding Different Breeds.
Feeding Breeding Stock.
Analysis of Eggs from the Two
Rations.
Feeding Sitting Hens.
•
Breaking Up Broody Hens.
Feeding Molting Hens.
Feeding Chickens..
•
•
•
Finishing Fowls for Market
•
•
•
•
•
•
• • •
•
By Miller Purvis
• •
Coop-Fattening.
Preparing for Use or Market.
Conditions in the United States
By H. E. Moss
PAGE
157
157
159
160
161
162
162
165
165
166
166
167
167
167
168
169
169
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173
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H H
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ннн
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HH
190
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201
213
217
Contents—Continued
The Situation in Canada
By Professor A. G. Gilbert
Capons and Caponizing.
Directions for Caponizing..
The Best Time to Caponize.
Killing and Dressing Capons for
Market.
Practical Poultry Houses
By A. F. Hunter
Poultry House Suggestions.
Experiment Station Colony Houses.
Practical Colony Houses..
An Excellent Canadian House.
The Scratching-Shed House.
A Continuous Poultry House.
Hot-Water Pipe Brooder House
Houses for Ducks..
Incubator Houses.
The Brooder House
•
•
•
A Curtained-Front Poultry House
Successful and Practical House.
•
•
•
•
•
•
·
•
+
The Chicken Mite.
A Reliable Remedy
The Jungle-Fowl...
Ancient and Modern Game-Cocks.
Breeding Game-Cocks.
·
•
·
•
The Common Diseases of Poultry
By Dr. Nathan W. Sanborn
Some Common Diseases..
Principal Insects Infesting Poultry
By A. F. Hunter
•
•
•
•
•
•
PAGE
221
225
238
242
243
247
262
265
268
270
273
277
280
288
290
293
297
299
301
303
309
310
312
315
319
333
Facts About Spurs...
An American Collection of Cock-Spurs
By Dr. H. P. Clarke
American Contests..
Across the Atlantic.
The Modern Game-Fowl.
Points of Beauty.
Locating the Range.
Recipes for Making Cock-Bread..
•
The Muffled Game-Fowl.
The Tasseled Game-Cock.
Spanish Game-Fowl.
The Henny or Hen-Feathered Game-
Cock.
Belgian..
French..
Spanish..
D
+
·
•
•
The Azeel-the Indian Game.
The Malay..
The Indian Chittagong.
Australian Game-Fowl..
•
•
•
·
Cornish Indian, Miscalled Game.
Origin of Cornish Indian.
First Appearance of Spurious Indian
Game at Shows..
An American Point of View.
Oriental Game-Fowls
•
·
•
By Dr. H. P. Clarke
General Remarks About Game-Fowls
By Dr. H. P. Clarke
•
•
•
PAGE:
350
355
357
358
359.
363
3 3
363
369
373
374
376
376
377
385
392
395
397
400
403
405.
411
417
418
420
422:
7
Red Dorkings.
**
Silver-Black Laced Polish Fowls
Black-Breasted Black Red Game..
White Leghorns
Embden Geese.
LIST OF COLORED PLATES
•
Buff Shanghai Cock (First Prize)..
Malay Cock and Hens..
First-Prize Blue Game Cock
•
Prize Black-Breasted Derby Red Old English Game.
The True Old-English Pit or Warrior Game...
Ideal Cock Langshan, of "Croad's" Imported Birds. Hen, Mr. C. M. Gurney's
Pure "Croad”.
•
O
. FRONTISPIECE
FACING PAGE
17
59.
88.
Captain Heaton's Champion Modern English Game Stag-Cock.
Azeel Cock and Hen..
Fowls Known as "Fig-Pudding" or "Plum-Pudding" Game-Fowis, but More Properly
"Almond Mottles".
··
119
146.
183
194
247
276
315
359
365
416
LIST OF FULL-PAGE
BLACK-AND-WHITE PLATES
Group of Legs (Shanks) Showing the Variety of Form in Different Breeds.
White Aylesbury Ducks..
Prize White Aylesbury Duck .
•
First Plymouth Rock Imported into England by Mr. James Long.
Mr. Herbert Reeves' Silver-Gray Dorking...
Mr. Herbert Reeves' Silver-Gray Dorking Cockerel.
Henny Cock and Hen ...
Silver-Gray Dorking Cock .
Prize-Winning Plymouth Rock Cockerel
Scotch Gray Fowls.
Prize-Winning White Dorking Cockerel..
•
·
•
•
*
Ordinary Modern Show Houdan..
White Wyandotte Cock.
Australian-Bred Malay Cockerel
Cornish Indian Pullet...
Black Henny Old English Game
Transatlantic Game-Cock
The Rev. H. H. Hutton's Black-Breasted Bright Red Old English Game ..
Champion Modern Game...
•
·
•
PAGE
3
13
13
25
3I
31
63
73
91
103
143
163
229
269
285
339
353
371
409
LIST OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
vii
viii
ix
White Plymouth Rock Cock.
At the Old Farm...
Old Kent and Sussex Five-Toed Hen.
Sketch at the Old Farm Sixty Years
Since.
Partridges.
Old Style of Kent and Sussex Fowl.
Head of White Plymouth Rock Cock..
At Cock Crow.
Cross-Bred
·
•
Pullet
Between Dorking
Hen and Cornish Indian Cock...
Old Kent Fowl..
Group of Prize Geese.
Hen and Three Chicks.
Light Brahma Hen.
Old English Game Cockerel.
Four-Months'-Old Cross-Bred Dorking
and Old English Game Cockerel..
Langshan Cockerel Not Fatted...
Langshan.
•
•
·
•
Old English Game Pullet.
• •
Miss Gubbings' Dorking and Plymouth
Rock Pullet.
First-Prize Silver Wyandotte Hen.
Black-Breasted Brown Leghorn Cock.
Cross-Breed No. 1. Two Months Old
Cross-Breed No. 2, with Feathered Legs
Cross-Breed No. 3, All Black..
Game and Langshan Cornish Indian Hen
Barred Plymouth Rock Cock, Showing
Markings of Wings.
Felch's Breeding-Chart.
White Plymouth Rocks.
The Invalid .
Back From a Forage.
Cochins.
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
Silver-Spangled Hamburgs.
Silver Wyandotte Hen and Eggs.
Fowls Scratching Before the Barn Door
"Early to Bed"
White Wyandotte Cock.
Hamburg Cock's Head.
The Hen's Egg at the Time of Laying
White Leghorn Hen-A Prize-Winner
Old-Style Black Orpington.
First-Prize Silver Wyandotte Cockerel
Langshan Pullet
Langshan Hen.
·
•
•
Black Hamburg Hen.
Shanghai or Cochin Hen.
Splendid Lot of White Wyandottes.
Young Silver Black-Laced Wyandotte
Silver Black-Laced Wyandottes.
White Plymouth Rocks.
Old-Style Dutch Penciled Hamburg..
·
•
xi
xii
xiii
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115
Ovarium, or Egg-Organ..
Embryo Impregnated Egg
Barred Plymouth Rock..
A Capon Sitting on Eggs.
New-Laid Egg With Part of Shell Re-
moved.
•
•
An Egg as It Appears Twelve Hours
After the Beginning of Incubation,
With a Magnified View of the
Embryo Chick.
•
An Egg as It Appears Sixteen Hours
After the Beginning of Incubation,
With a Magnified View of the
Embryo Chick.
•
·
An Egg as It Appears Thirty-six Hours
After the Beginning of Incubation,
With a Magnified View of the
Embryo Chick.
•
•
An Egg Opened Thirty-six Hours After
the Beginning of Incubation, With
a Magnified View of the Embryo
Chick, in Which is Shown the
First Appearance of the Principal
Blood-Vessels.
An Egg Opened Four days After the
Beginning of Incubation, With a
Magnified View of the Chick...
An Egg as It Appears Five Days After
the Beginning of Incubation, With
a Magnified View of the Chick....
An Egg as It Appears Six Days After
the Beginning of Incubation, With
a Magnified View of the Chick....
An Egg as It Appears Seven Days After
the Beginning of Incubation, With
a Magnified View of the Chick....
An Egg as It Appears Eight Days After
the Beginning of Incubation, With
a Magnified View of the Chick...
.
An Egg as It Appears Nine Days After
the Beginning of Incubation, and
the Same Egg Turned More to the
Right.
A. An Egg as It Appears Ten Days
After the Beginning of Incubation.
B. The Embryo Chick Taken From
the Preceding Egg, With the
Amnion and Vesicle Removed..
PAGE
116
116
117
119
I2I
I2I
I 22
123
I24
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
A. An Egg as It Appears Fourteen
Days After the Beginning of Incu-
bation. B. The Same Egg as the
Preceding, With the External Half
of the Vesicle Removed. C. The
Embryo of the Preceding Egg
Opened to Show the Course of the
Principal Blood-Vessels Which Go
to the Vesicle and to the Areolar
Membrane.
A. An Egg as It Appears Eighteen
Days After the Beginning of Incu-
bation. B. The Same Egg as the
Preceding, With Part of the Vesicle
Removed to Show the Embryo
Chick More Clearly. C. The Embryo
Chick Opened to Show the Absorp-
tion of the Yolk Into the Body.
A. An Egg as It Appears Twenty Days
After the Beginning of Incubation,
the Vesicle and Amnion Removed
to Show the Position of the Perfect
Chick. B. Position of the Chick
in the Egg. C. Position of the
Chick in the Egg.
Eggs Fractured by the Included Chicks
Positions of the Shell After the Escape
of the Chick.
List of Text Illustrations-Continued
Egg Left Unturned for Two Months.
Egg Turned Twice Daily.
Hen and Chicks.
Dozing
Azeel Cock.
•
Old Kent Speckled Hen.
Mr. F. G. Ŝ. Rawson's White Embden
Goose.
•
•
Red-Spangled Dorking Cockerel.
Old Kent and Sussex Black-Breasted
Red Barn-Door Cock..
Game and Dorking Cockerel.
Dorking and
•
Wyandotte-Cornish
Indian.
Fat Wild Duck (Mallard)..
A Good but Small Common Goose.
•
Cornish Indian and Langshan.
Prize Faverolle (Ex) Anceauma.
Fat Mongrel Fowl..
Miss Croad's Langshan Prize Pullet.
Malay Pullet.
Cornish Indian Pullet.
•
·
•
•
•
•
►
D
•
•
PAGE
Mr. Matthews' Prize Streaky-Breasted
Brown-Red Old English Game
Cockerel
Red Pile.
Properly Finished Plymouth Rock
Hen.
133
135
137
138
187
189
190
193
195
Miss Waterer's Modern Dorking Cockerel 196
Pekin Ducks on Long Island.
Outdoor Fattening Pens.
Shaping-Board.
197
199
202
203
Shaping-Board With Weights
Interior View of a Poultry - Finishing
Plant, Showing Method of Cram-
ming
139
147
147
151
153
=58
161
166
169
172
175
178
181
фон
со сот
183
186
205
206
208
2 II
Old English Game Hen.
Old English Game, Agricultural Hall,
1897.
Dark-Blue Old English Game Hen..
Black-Breasted Primrose Duckwing Old
English Game Cockerel.
Old English Game Hens.
Market Types of Light Brahma and
Barred Plymouth Rock Cross
Cockerels as Bred at the Central
Experimental Farms in Canada..
White Wyandotte Cockerels as Finished
in Canada for Market at the Central
Experimental Farms.
Old English Game Cock..
Yard of Capons at the New York State
Experiment Station at Geneva....
Capons Dressed for Market at the State
Experiment Station at Geneva,
New York, Showing Manner of
Leaving Feathers.
Method of Holding Fowl Ready for
Caponizing...
Cord Used in Caponizing
Caponizing Canula.
Knife for Making Cut. .
Spring Spreader..
Sharp Hook to Open Film-Like Skin.
Caponizing Probe.
Table Suitable for Caponizing on
Large Scale.
Knife for Killing Poultry.
•
•
•
•
·
A Lean-To Poultry House.
•
Simple Form of Poultry House.
Ground Plan.
•
•
Single-Comb Brown Leghorn Cock.
Plans for Practical Poultry Houses.
Implement House Transformed Into
Poultry House.
•
·
a
Poultry House With Scratching-Shed
Ground Plan...
Construction of Roosts.
Sectional View of Roost, Platform, and
Nests.
Scratching-Room Under Poultry House
Colony Houses at the West Virginia
Experiment Station.
Scratching-Shed House at the Massa-
chusetts Experiment Station..
Ground Plan of Scratching-Shed Houses,
Massachusetts Experiment Station
Houses and Yards, Massachusetts Ex-
periment Station..
Scratching-Shed Houses at the Con-
necticut Experiment Station.
Mr. Duston's Colony House.
The
-
Curtained-Front House at the
Maine Experiment Station.
Dr. Bricault's "New Idea" Poultry
House...
PAGE
212
Front of House, Showing Movable Gates
Down..
215
216
219
220
221
223
224
225
234
239
239
239
240
240
240
241
254
264
265
266
266
267
267
269
271
274
275
Showing Arrangement of Roosts and
Nests in the "New Idea" House 276
241
243
245
248
262
263
263
263
263
263
264
List of Text Illustrations-Continued
Details of Mr. Baldwin's Scratching-
Shed House.
An Orchard Range in the Pouitry Farm
of White and Rice, New York....
The Continuous Scratching-Shed House
Details of Scratching-Shed House...
Colony House and Open Range on
Poultry Farm of White and Rice,
New York..
Scratching-Shed Houses With Double
Runs..
•
Details of Scratching-Shed Houses With
Double Runs.
General View of an Open Range on
Fernwood Farm, Westchester
County, New York.
A Long House at the White Leghorn
Poultry Yards..
Interior of Long House, Showing Parti-
tions Between Pens..
•
Interior of Long House, Looking Toward
the Walk.
•
•
Hot-Water Pipe Brooder House, Lakc-
wood Poultry Farm.
•
Interior of Hot-Water Pipe Brooder
House, Showing Detail of Pen
Partitions, Hovers, etc..
Brooder House Heater, With Walk at
the Rear..
Breeding Houses for Ducks, With Half
the Length of Yards in Water...
The Incubator House and Feather-
Drying Loft..
Brooder House 250 Feet Long.
Interior of Nursery Brooder, Showing
Hovers and Alleyway.
Cold Brooder House 300 Feet Long.
Fattening-Shed and Yards..
Front Elevation of Incubator House..
Ground Plan of Incubator House.
White Leghorns Ranging on Fairview
Poultry Farm.
Different Species of Body Lice.
Forms of the Chicken Mite.
·
•
•
•
·
The Forked-Tail Jungle-Fowl.
Indian Jungle-Fowl..
Gray Jungle-Fowl-Wildest and Hand-
somest of the Species of Jungle-
Fowl
The Red Jungle-Fowl (Gallus Ferrugin-
eus or Bankivus), the Prototype
of all Breeds of Domestic Chickens
Roman Cock-fight.
Himera Coins..
•
• •
•
•
•
Asiatic and Grecian Coins.
Cock's Bones Found in Roman Urn at
Lewes, by Dr. Gideon Mantell, 1814
Old White Game.
Black-Breasted Light Red Prize Cld
English Game.
Black-Breasted Silver Duckwing.
Black - Breasted Ginger - Red Eight
Months' Cockerel..
Undubbed Black-Breasted Ginger-Red
Old Derby.
•
PAGE
278
279
281
282
283
285
286
287
288
289
289
290
291
292
293
294
294
295
296
296
297
298
307
309
311
315
316
317
317
319
320
320
322
324
327
328
331
333
Game...
Black-Breasted Red Game Cock, 1807
Head of Old English Game Cock which
Won a Welsh Main..
Game de Bruges (Shake-Bag).
Captain Hornby's Black-Breasted Light
Red Derby Game-Cock.
Old-Style Game..
Old English Game Hen.
Spurs.
Old Roman Silver Spur.
An American Collection of Spurs.
An American Collection of Spurs.
Game Cocks Tethered on the Lawn.
Captain Hornby's Old English Game
Cockerel, 1858.
•
American Henny Game..
Black-Breasted Derby Old English
Game.
•
American Game Stag.
Mr. Fletcher Mosses' Old English
Game, 1892.
Transatlantic Stag.
Trio of Transatlantic Prize-Winners.
Old English Game Cock, 1856...
Yorkshire Hero, 1823
•
The Old English Game, Birmingham,
1858..
Black-Breasted Black Red Old English
Game, "Crow Alley".
Modern Old English Game Cock.
Old English Game Hen-Prize Partridge.
Birchen Yellow, 1792.
Mr. Astley's Prize and Cup Old English
Game Wheaten Pullet..
Black-Breasted Light-Orange Duck-
wing Old English Game Cockerel...
Custard Duckwing Old English Game,
1853..
Blue-Breasted Dun Old English Cockerel
Old English Blue-Breasted Elue Game
Cockerel..
Cross Between Modern Game and Old
English Game
•
•
·
•
•
•
Modern Game Cockerel.
Game-Fowl Chicks..
•
•
Modern Game Hen..
Game Fowl During the Transition Pe-
riod..
•
• · ·
•
Prize Malay Cockerel..
Old English Black Game Henny Cock..
Cornish Indian Cockerel, 1892.
Black-Breasted Red Transatlantic.
Shamo Japanese Game.
An American Game Cock, With Just a
Trace of Oriental Blood.
•
After His Sixth Battle.
Island of Madagascar Game..
•
Jap-Azeel Cross.
Cornish Indian Cock.
Flemish Gray Stag and Combattant Du
Nord Hen
Gray Three-quarter Transatlantic.
Black Red Transatlantic..
·
·
•
PAGE
334
336
341
343
344
347
349
35I
352
356
357
359
361
362
365
366
368
370
373
375
377
378
381
382
383
385
386
388
391
393
394
396
397
399
401
402
404
407
408
411
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415
416
417
418
419
421
423

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
And it is no less remarkable how well each
and all, by their many naturally valuable properties
and habits, are so thoroughly adapted for domestica-
tion, no other families of birds, with the exception of
the pigeon, lending themselves as readily to an
almost if not an entire domesticity. True it is
that the Turkey with us has comparatively not
long been known as such, nor even now is it
entirely rescued from its wild state; nor is the Guinea-fowl at present
so perfectly under the control of man as the Goose, the Duck, or more
especially the Fowl. Centuries on centuries has the last been the useful
associate of the country villa, the cottage,
the homestead, or the profitable appendage
of the farm. At all hands it has merited and
received peculiar attention. History tells of
it; poets have written in its praise; painters
have pictured it; and on the very lips of
our children its name is a household word.
The cock, as a bird of omen, was held in
reverence, and as such was cherished in the
far-away dim ages of the past. In ancient
as well as in modern times it was either a
COMINGS
Fo
OWLS (Gallus domesticus, Buff.); Guinea-
fowls (Numida meleagris, Lin.); Turkeys
(Meleagris gallopavo, Lin.); Geese (Anser
anser, Lin.); Ducks (Anas boschas, or domestica,
Lin.). These in their varieties represent the chief
if not the whole of our useful domestic birds, and
it is a curious fact that they originate in the four
quarters of the world, the first coming from Asia,
the second from Africa, the third from America,
while the last two are European.
HEAD OF WHITE
PLYMOUTH ROCK COCK
Owned by U. R. Fishel, Indiana.

AT COCK CROW
I
2
The Poultry Book
bird of sacrifice, worshiped for its valor, or dedicated to both gods and
goddesses. It was used and abused for sport, and morals were drawn
from its high and unconquerable courage. Though the cock was the
emblem of strife, it was also that of nobleness, coupled with gentleness,
dignity and honor. So regular were its habits that by its crowings the
times of the night season were apportioned, and it was ever the wakeful
harbinger of morn.
From the earliest ages its flesh and bones have been in many ways
considered prime factors in the art of healing, and its feathers regarded as
decorative, emblematical or useful.
Collectively with the hen its value increases. The eggs of the latter,
though produced in abundant quantity, are still in an almost incredible
demand, not only as an aliment, but as an absolute necessity in manu-
facturing, beautifying, finishing or purifying innumerable articles, fabrics
and liquids that more or less form a part of our daily wants or supposed
requirements. As a matter of fact, there appears to be scarcely any limit
to the various purposes to which hens' eggs may be put, for the reason that
as yet no real substitute for the albumen which they contain has been
discovered; they remain the one and only substance necessary for the
production of much in commerce, through the progress of civilization,
luxury and invention.
The fact must not, however, be overlooked, that for the major part of
the eggs thus used we are dependent on foreign sources. Our own indus-
tries and traffic have created also a profitable industry for other countries,
even those at considerable distance from our own, which by a careful
organization are enabled, after paying all charges of cost and transit, to
come in competition on our markets, and sell at a lower price than that of
the home produce.
Now, how is this done? Why is Russia able to compete with us on
our markets in our own country successfully? I can only give two reasons:
one is "barter," and the other "organization." In other words, it is a
matter of exchange of goods more than money; so that the profit is
possibly, at least partially, made on the export as well as the import. *
As food the egg is unsurpassed, while the flesh of the fowl commands
and receives an almost universal recognition of a delicate, delicious superi-
ority all its own. Both for the young, the middle-aged, the weak, the
strong, the invalid and the aged there is no difference of opinion as to its
*This is written from the English point of view and does not apply to American conditions.
Introductory Remarks
3

Azeel's Foot and Shank (Cock).
Owned by Author
B
First Joint of Toe Showing
Nail Covering
T
De
Leg of Surrey or Sussex Fowl (Cockerel)
Pure white and white Toe-nails; Fore Toe same length as Shank;
side Toe as long as the Middle Toe, to end joint; Hind Toe just has
the length of Side Toe; Out Toe 4, Middle 3, Inner, 2 joints
Aleir
Leg of Game
Crossed by Game Dorking Hen.
Bred by Author
Bone Showing First Joint of
Toe Without Nail
Covering
2
love
Front View of Tawny Old Kent Hen's Leg.
(Observe the breadth of Toe-nail)
GROUP OF LEGS (SHANKS) SHOWING THE VARIETY OF FORM IN DIFFERENT BREEDS
GMam
:1807
4
The Poultry Book
dietetic, nutritious and appetizing qualities, and that it has ever been
appreciated is amply demonstrated by many of the earliest records.
Though fowls as gallinaceous birds perch and even roost on trees, yet
in their characteristic habits they are birds of the ground; and it is there
they search for food, which especially consists of grains, seeds, roots,
berries, the tender tops and leaves of shrubs and vegetables, not excluding
insects and their larve, worms, and even small mice. Their limbs are
strong and well knit, and capable of much sustained action, the muscles
being well and fully developed. The legs and thighs are of medium length,
and their shanks are covered with protective scales, sometimes concealed
by feathers, while for defense they are occasionally armed in both sexes
with sharp and often lengthy spurs. The three front or anterior toes are
by their strength and formation well adapted for raking, scraping or
scratching, being furnished with strong claws or toc-nails of peculiar form,
with cutting edges, while the arched concave and convex of bone in the
inner centre prevents all chance of bending; the hinder toes (and there are
two or three more in some cases) scarcely more than touch the ground,
and are serviceable for perching, though less so in walking.
They never wash, as many other birds do, but cleanse themselves of
insect life by shuffling in and throwing dust or soil amongst their feathers.
The beak is stout, strong, somewhat hooked at the extremity, and is horn-
covered. The body is very plump, the breast being full and rounded, with
a deep keel to the sternum or breastbone, the more so in those so formed
as to be able to use their wings freely and quickly in flight, while consider-
ably less so in those that are large in the thighs and legs and long in shanks,
which are more adapted for running and walking, the wings in these being
short and concave. The head is generally surmounted by naked vascular
flesh, or what is usually called a comb or crest, which is often deeply
serrated, and in some instances very large, as are the pendulous wattles;
in others these are almost wanting, their place being supplied by feathers
either as beard, muffler or cops. In come cases the comb and beard are
found; in others, large and full topknots of feathers and long pendulous
wattles. With some the cheeks or faces are naked, while with others they
are entirely covered.
M
They seldom if ever build any nest, though there are instances of such
recorded. I had an old English spurred Game hen that actually carried
straws, weeds, etc., in her beak for that purpose into a corner some little
Introductory Remarks
5
height from the ground. According to the breed, they are more or less
abundant layers of pure white, tinted brown or brown-and-spotted eggs.
At what time the domestic fowl was first introduced into England is
unknown, but there is a tradition in Cornwall that it was originally brought
to that part of our coast by the Phenicians when they came to traffic for

Miam
CROSS-BRED PULLET BETWEEN DORKING HEN AND CORNISH INDIAN COCK
Age, 4½ months; Leg, white, stained with brown between the scales; Weight of fowl, 6½ lbs.; Inside fat, 2 lbs.
First Prize, Dairy Show, 1892.
tin and copper with the natives, previous to the Roman invasion; and to
this day, in some parts of the country, it is called the Persian bird, but
why this latter does not appear; and further, it is especially noted by
Cæsar ("De Bello") that the Cock, the Goose and the Hare were among,
if not the whole of, the domestic animals of the ancient Britons, and kept
by them for pleasure only before his invasion of the country, but that soon.
after their scruples in this direction disappeared.
However that may be, it is certain the Romans brought with them the
fighting Cock," both to the south and the west of England; clear proof
of which are the bones, nay, the very metal spurs used in their contests,
6
The Poultry Book

OLD KENT FOWL
old tens
that have been
found both in
Surrey and
Cornwall. One
metal spur was
dug up in South-
wark, and a pair
in an old Roman
wall in the latter
county, besides
others that un-
fortunately were
not preserved or
sufficiently
noted.
From the
time of the
Romans, at
least, until the
present, fowls in
lesser or greater
numbers have
been imported
from Holland,
France, Spain, Germany and Italy, and latterly more especially from India,
China and Japan, and now from America, in variety and crossings almost
bewildering. Yet with all these one curious fact remains, and that is, that
the old English well-known breeds which have been attributed to the Roman
introduction-the five-toed Kent, Sussex and Surrey fowls and the
perfectly formed, valorous and beautiful "fighting Cocks," have up to
within the last few years, if not even now, maintained their high character
and superiority in England as the "best all-round" fowls ever known,
and for table are still unequaled, and as such were universally admitted
so to be before the institution of poultry shows, that have with them even
now in the exhibits the blighting influences of Asiatic crossings.
Fifty years ago it was these breeds pure and simple, from the southern
farmyards of Kent and Sussex, that the principal and justly praised prize

Introductory Remarks
7
winners were chiefly taken, and where they were both in numbers and in
such state of perfection as table fowls as commanded and retained the
admiration of all who saw them. On the advent of the Shanghai, the
Cochin, the Brahma, and some other Asiatic breeds, deterioration began,
and there arose a craze for size; and as a consequence these coarse breeds
were crossed and intercrossed with our old English; the result being our
pure breeds—the outcome of centuries of cultured selection and attention,
the perfected strains "of our forefathers" in past ages-were mongrelized,
in some cases almost past recognition, and to-day scarcely a Kent, Sussex
or Surrey farmyard holds a fowl of any pure breed. This is not merely
assertion, but absolute fact; it is not hearsay, but what I have myself seen
sixty years ago and by inspection lately.
And still the pernicious practice of mongrelizing goes on, the stream of
ignorance or perversity grows wider and more overwhelming, reason is
scoffed at, and conceit with party and individual gain rules for awhile, and
there is but little hope of recovery from this bad state-this crossing so
ruining to everything; for what with amateur lecturers, dealers and
faddists, who have a craze for what they term "fresh blood," the outlook
is gloomy indeed. The farmer has but to go among the southern farm-
yards, where formerly the poultry kept was of the best of marketable fowls,
and note the wide and depreciated difference.
It must be clear to every observant mind that as the craze for mon-
grelizing is rampant and still gains credit with the credulous, that were
it not for our poultry shows, our tried, serviceable, in all ways valuable
pure breeds would very soon cease to exist-these old fowls of ours, the
work of ages, the perfection of table fowls, the abundant layers of good
white eggs, the beautiful, the grand, the stately, well-formed, delicate-
fleshed, easily bred and easily fatted, unsurpassed, long cherished, for all
their profitable uses. I say, emphatically, were it not for the poultry
shows, these, and the like of these, would be things of the past, and to the
lasting disgrace of the poultryman of to-day they would become extinct.
Happily, so far there are some who know the double value of purity of
breed, and it is to these and only these that the country can look for help
to regain what is already comparatively lost the old and enviable position
of having the best and most perfect table fowls in the world.
As regards other poultry, of the Guinea-fowl it may be said that in
flesh it almost, if not quite, equals the very best of fowls, and as such
8
The Poultry Book
commands a good and ready marketable value, while at certain times of
the year it is an abundant layer of delicately tinted palatable eggs. But
its domestication is not even yet, and it is doubtful whether it ever will be,
as perfect as that of the fowl, it being wild and wandering in habit, and
more than somewhat difficult to manage with any degree of certainty and
success.
The Turkey is indeed a noble bird, and ornamentally grand both in
habit and carriage—the stately walk, the bold, imposing, haughty mien,
the general aspect-the shivering quivering of its many-colored sun-
glinting feathers into attractive array. While majestically it poses,
turns and struts simply on its pride of beauty, it is a bird for admiration,
noticeable, and something more than pleasing. In all ways the Turkey
was a great gain and a lasting one. The flesh is delicious, white, delicate,
juicy, and fine in grain; a well-fatted turkey poult is indeed a luxury.
But the Turkey will not thrive on certain soils, and only in favored locali-
ties. The constant attention that the young chicks require until they
feather is urged against it, but after the troublous time is past, and
properly cared for, the little ones almost rear themselves. This being so,
the English Turkey may be grown profitably, having, as it has, a superi-
ority in flesh over the French, Belgian, Italian, Spanish and Hungarian,
by reason of its richness and flavor; and although large quantities are im-
ported, the former generally maintains the best value in the market, as
well as the most ready sale.
Of the Goose at least two varieties are with us historical: the White and
the Gray. These are well supplemented by the African, the Canadian, the
Chinese and the Sebastopol, the last being the most ornamental.
All are
hardy, easily reared, and in every way profitable both to farmer and
poultryman, and it is to a degree surprising that they are not kept in far
greater numbers than they are, more especially about our commons and
other waste lands. To this the almost general answer is, that it does not
pay as it might on account of the foxes, the wearisome nightly housing of
the flocks, where practicable, not being sufficient, for even with this
precaution many are carried off in the broad day, and such casualties are
so numerous that in far too many places well adapted for the feeding and
maintaining large flocks of geese the attempt to keep them has for this
reason been entirely abandoned. And so it is with other varieties of our
poultry; a greater number both of fowls and ducks would be raised were it

Introductory Remarks
9
not for the same cause, one man telling me that in two years he lost nearly
one hundred pounds in value of poultry, and dare not ask for such com-
pensation as, being high-class breeds, they were worth. Another fancier
writes that he has lost just the last few of his Game-fowl hens by foxes.
These can never be replaced, the strain with sixty years' pedigree being
now practically extinct. A friend of mine lost fourteen of his best White
Aylesbury Ducks in one night; on mentioning the fact to the master of
the foxhounds, the owner was told he ought to have taken more care of
them and got them in.
This is by no means an isolated case, and the constant worry, trouble
and anxiety of collecting the stock at night in all weathers is by "The
Hunt" never thought of nor cared for, and, unless in the case of actual loss,
much less paid for, and that not always even in the latter case.
Thus so
it is that far fewer poultry is kept than might or could be, both for amuse-
ment and profit, while the nation has to largely import fowls, turkeys,
geese, ducks, and eggs, by reason of this survival in civilized times of the

Photograph by Thos. Heap, Sowerby
GROUP OF PRIZE GEESE. (The property of F. G. S. Rawson, Esq., Thorpe, Yorkshire.)
IO
The Poultry Book
"sport" of hunting animals, kept at the expense, and with perpetual worry
and anxiety, of a certain inoffensive class of the industrial community.
I cannot forbear giving the above facts, for the reason that not only
have I been a sufferer on one occasion, but that the complaints of loss from
time to time have been so numerous that the wonderment is that the
people, especially the poorer classes, have borne the scourge and suffered
meekly and patiently the gross injustice so long.
،،
As well as Geese, Ducks may be kept to great advantage, the White
Aylesbury being the best for the market, the Rouen following close, while
the somewhat newcomer, the Pekin, gains in the estimation of the
duckers" as it is improved in shape; but even yet there is a large appre-
ciable difference in favor of the Aylesbury, which is also, if not quite, as
prolific a layer, while the Pekin is the prime favorite in America, where
some "duckers" raise as many as fifty or sixty thousand ducklings in a
season, and this exclusive of a considerable number of eggs, that are turned
to profitable account in various ways.
In conclusion, it may be observed that the dead (dressed) poultry shows
will prove of much service in educating the public to the knowledge of
what is really a good Turkey, Goose, Fowl, or Duck, and that of the highest
quality. At present they are simply ignorant so far, and buy a fowl because
it is one, and not so much on account of its superiority and excellence.
Until this training has taken effect, the big-boned, coarse-fleshed, thick-
skinned monstrosities that now do duty for "delicacies" will have a
marketable value, and the cross-breeds and mongrels, advocated by
interested poulterers and poultry dealers, will keep "in evidence." The
horse-breeder, the cattle-breeder, the sheep-breeder, the swine-breeder, the
dog-breeder, one and all know the enormous value of purity of breed, and
this is clearly demonstrated by the high prices realized for such stock; but
then with these there are no faddist lecturers, busybodies and interested
poultry dealers, the last who realize most with mongrel stock cheaply
raised and dearly sold. These, and such as these, have mainly contributed
toward the gradual extinction that is going on of the best, the handsomest
and the purest races of our poultry. Of this I am quite certain, and
this from a long life's experience, that whatever animals or birds are
kept, the best, the handsomest and the purest breed are not only the
cheapest, but in the end will be found the most gratifying as stock, and
far the most enjoyable and profitable in every way.


HEN AND THREE CHICKS
THE BEGINNING
All difficulties are but easy when they are known."-Measure for Measure.
M
OST people have the idea that for poultry keeping, whether
for pleasure or profit, very little, if anything, is required be-
yond common sense, inclination and a sufficient amount of
capital, as though there was nothing to learn, no knowledge
or experience necessary, but simply to take or buy some
ground, build sheds, make runs, and stock them with fowls,
turkeys, geese and ducks, and-"the thing is done." But unfortunately
it is not; excepting so far, that a certain amount of money has been spent
in the hiring or buying of the land and "the poultry," a doubtful responsi-
bility has been incurred, while the profit is by no means so apparent; and
then the tyro begins to realize, if he or she has not done so before,
that the keeping of poultry, like any other business, must have an
especial training, and also an aptitude for the occupation, which may
be safely said is not universal. This latter attribute is one that can
never be acquired, and therefore it is possibly one of the reasons, if
not the chief, of the many failures of attempted "poultry farming,"
even as an important adjunct to the land industry of the making of
money in other ways.
These facts are already so well known, and have been so often and so

II
12
The Poultry Book
thoroughly discussed, that it seems almost superfluous to mention them
again; and it is only for the reason that they are so continually disregarded,
put aside, or disbelieved, that it is needful, and more than needful, indeed,
it is imperative once more to call attention to the uselessness of, without
some practical insight into the business, trying to do that for which they
are thus unfitted regardless of, and utterly neglecting, the ever-increasing
warning daily given by other absolute failures.
In the first place, if the keeping of poultry is decided upon, either for
pleasure or profit, or both, the very best plan is to begin in a small way with
a few fowls, as all knowledge is gained by observation, reflection and
experience; then to add to the stock, if it is found to be a paying invest-
ment as well as a source of pleasure. Another way is that, but it cannot
be so strongly recommended, of joining one already versed in the many
methods, market values and other requirements. Various things besides
inclination and capital have to be considered; and not any, unless they
have tried it, can possibly conceive how many difficulties there are, expected
and otherwise, and how much knowledge there is to acquire and the
numberless things to learn before they or any can hope to accomplish even
a moderate success. While, indeed, with some few all this is as though
they were "to the manner born," and with such failure seems almost
impossible, yet, even with such "gifts," there are other things necessary
to command success besides the mere breeding and rearing of the poultry,
and not the least of these are good, sound, steady business habits, an acute
faculty for buying and selling, and lastly, a steady sale and market for
the produce.
Before commencing, a locality must be chosen, and the soil should be
dry, loamy, and slightly sandy, yet very fertile. The sand in wet weather
prevents the mud adhering to the feet and feathers of the birds. The soil
should naturally be well drained by a gravel or stony subsoil, and, if
possible, have a clear stream intersecting, and toward which the ground
should slope with a southern aspect. If sheltered by trees or evergreen
enclosures from cold, raw winds, it is then indeed favorable; and where
such can be secured, combined with a proper knowledge of poultry life,
almost any variety of fowls may be kept with advantage. But if the land
is heavy, clayey, or retentive of moisture, then it must be artificially
drained, and also must be stocked with a more hardy variety of breed.
all cases where the ground to be occupied is bare it is advisable to plant
In

ele
1900
WHITE AYLESBURY DUCKS
11 months old, 10½ lbs. The property of Capt. Hornby, of Knowsley Cottage, 1852. These were selected as typical Aylesburys for the
"Poultry Book" of 1853. They had pink bills, pink shanks and feet.
#beir
843

PRIZE WHITE AYLESBURY DUCK
The Beginning
15
good varieties of fruit-trees, and of these the cherry is the most rapid-
growing. Plums are especially suitable, as it is claimed the poultry
keep down the ravages of the curculio. Where the yards are exten-
sive, fruit-trees as variety should be the rule. This is the time-
honored custom and a good one, the orchards being for most reasons
the favored spot. Plant trees of vigorous growth-the kinds that
are favorites in market. The trees will in time provide the semishade
so desirable.
G
As to the houses, coops and rearers, they should be cheap and serv-
iceable, fairly roomy, window-lighted, and well ventilated, but without a
draught. Each should have perches, nest-boxes and dusting places, with
scratching-sheds where no trees are available. The shape, height, width
and size of the houses should be such as are suitable to the breeds kept.
For the heavy Asiatic breeds a different kind of house must be provided, for
Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes and the Games or Hamburgs will
require still smaller accommodations. The size of the runs must be deter-
mined according to space at command and the variety of breed for which
they are intended. The run's fencing must be boarded, or have very fine
mesh of strong wire, from the ground upward at least three feet high, so as
to prevent the cocks from fighting. This is to be surmounted by two-inch
mesh wire netting, at least six feet high with the flying breeds, and two or
three feet with the Asiatics.
In most respects glazed earthenware or iron troughs for water are to be
preferred to close fountains, for the reason that the latter are too often
neglected, and not cleansed and refilled every day. Food-troughs should
be used in small runs, the ground getting foul, and therefore clean troughs
are best. In "the open" ground the grain, etc., may be scattered, chang-
ing the spot every day. A suitable building should be erected to keep food
and all necessary accessories when not in actual use, etc.
The perches in the houses must be round and about two inches in
diameter, so that the fowl can grip them with the foot, firmly and yet
easily. Flat perches distort the outer toes, and in some instances cause
lameness. It is a mistake to suppose a flat perch prevents crooked breasts,
which are caused from a want of lime in the bones, and is constitutional.
The leading poultry men of the United States use flat perches, and consider
round perches in a marked degree the cause of crooked breasts. If the
fowls run unconfined, it is well to have a dusting-house, and also a nesting-
16
The Poultry Book
or laying-house, or houses with baskets and boxes properly fitted inside
with several small closable entrances. This is preferable to having them
in the roosting-house.
All the roosting-houses should have either open-wire, paled or latticed
doors during the summer to allow of thorough ventilation; the usual close-
boarded ones should, however, be used in the winter.

LIGHT BRAHMA HEN
Owned by W. R. Long, Illinois.
From a photograph by courtesy of "Commercial Poultry."

Harri, ou wer
2900
SILVER-BLACK LACED POLISH FOWLS.
The property of the late MR. JOSEPH PARTINGTON.
Winners of many prizes.

OLD ENGLISH GAME COCKEREL
Dressed Poultry Show, Agricultural Hall, December 22, 1899.
A superb fowl.
A Wein
4890
Showing the fine form and fully-fatted breast.
THE VARIETIES TO KEEP
GEORGE O. BROWN, MARYLAND
"I would we were all of one mind, and that one mind good."-Cymbeline.
W
HAT variety of poultry to keep depends very much on
locality, whether for table or egg purposes, whether for
fancy or commerce, or both; a wide range over grass or in
confined spaces, for size or quality of flesh, beauty only or
utility, or these combined; whether they should be but
layers and non-sitters, or whether an "all-round" fowl
is desired—that is, one fairly good for the table and reliable for a reasonable
quantity of eggs in winter as well as in summer. All these requirements
must have careful, grave and deep consideration before purchasing the
varieties ultimately selected as in all ways to be the most suitable.
For table purposes probably the best general-purpose breeds are Barred
Plymouth Rocks and White Wyandottes. At almost any age, where the
flock has been properly cared for, these varieties are in excellent table con-
dition. Their plump shape, well-rounded breasts, broad backs and well-
developed thighs make a most desirable combination, and cause them to
present an appearance, when dressed, that is inviting and is a great selling
factor. The Houdan, a French breed, is also an excellent table fowl. It
possesses an abundance of breast meat which is juicy and tender; is small

17
18
The Poultry Book
of bone. Its chief objection is that it is not yellow-skinned. The Créve
Cœur, and La Fléche, also French, are good table fowls. The Houdan,
however, is the favorite in the United States, as it is much hardier.
The Langshans and Light Brahmas are the best of the Asiatics for table
purposes. The first-named lacks the yellow skin that is so popular in
dressed fowls. Orpingtons and Rhode Island Reds, which resemble each

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FOUR-MONTHS'-OLD CROSS-BRED DORKING AND OLD ENGLISH GAME COCKEREL
Exceedingly good breast, quality fine, very thin skin.
other very much in shape, are being "boomed" as wonderful table fowls
and "general purposers.'
"As regards the Black Orpington, a clear-shanked Langshan is better, and
always has been. This last may be kept with great advantage, and I prefer
it to that with the feathered shanks." The above, under quotation marks,
is an English opinion. In the United States a "clean-shanked" Langshan
would not be tolerated. It would be disqualified for the show-room, and
would be classed as a mongrel on account of absence of
absence of breed
requirements.
Besides these, there is that vastly overrated novelty, the "Cornish
Indian." As a utility fowl it is no favorite of mine. It has been boomed
to the very utmost, and by some thoughtlessly and recklessly so, and
assertions made that were scarcely facts. If all that has been said of it
were true, it would be perfection. It has been said that, crossed with the
Dorking, it improves that breed; but it is the other way about-the latter
improves the former. The flesh of the Cornish Indian is dry eating, and,
when served as cold fowl, hard. The breast is always lean, the meat short-
grained, the skin thin, and, including all the fat, mostly yellow, which last
The Varieties to Keep
19
accumulates quickly about the abdomen, back and internally, while the
birds as shown dead and plucked vary very much in form, size and color,
being from buff to a bright orange, this tending to lower its value as a high-
class market fowl, and not so readily realizing a profit. As layers they
cannot be commended, while as chickens they are slow of growth and require
time to ripen. They are large and heavy in bone commensurate with their size.
The late Mr. George Brooke, one of, if not the largest, poultry sales-
men in Leadenhall Market, London, a past master of the Poulters' Company,
and one whose opinion was of real value, being, as it was, unbiassed, said
that the booming of the Cornish Indian as a table fowl and good for a
Dorking cross was unwise, and disastrous to the salable and the better
qualities of our older breeds, and had hardened the flesh and totally ruined
the time-honored whiteness of breast-meat, fat and skin which so long

ཀ ཀ ནི ཛྫི, ;
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dapurtar biasana hamaa,
des ·**--*
܀܀ܝܫܪܘ
LANGSHAN COCKEREL NOT FATTED
Author's-bred from Miss Croad's.
M
and worthily held such a high position and prestige as the par excellence
boiling fowl, the more-than-gold stain rendering them unsalable as such.
“Look," said he, pointing to some rows of dressed poultry on and about
adjoining stalls, "there is not a good 'boiler' amongst them"; and he was
perfectly right. We heedlessly spoil our own, and then cry out for the
better class and more salable French breeds. We shall never learn wisdom
while every mouth is open ready to swallow the wild talk of the commer-
cially interested few, instead of listening to the calmer and often more
20
The Poultry Book
thoughtful experience of the many. Fifty or sixty years ago such fowls
as the Cornish Indian would have found no room in our southern home-
steads; it would not have been tolerated among those of the magnificent
breed of many generations. Then, if these are progressive times, why
should it be so to-day?
As to the breeds when the eggs are to be the source of profit or require-
ment, the Langshan still stands first for beauty and quantity; then the
Brahmas. Dark and Lights have many friends, being highly egg-productive
Ba

དེ་དོང་པོས་མ་
Corak Wis
درست میمیره
سے
Buy
پائے
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یران
LANGSHAN
Agricultural Hall, 1897, Miss Croad's second prize.
Fine
1857
though in a lesser degree than the Langshan, and this is chiefly owing to
their unwieldly size and ridiculous over-feathering of the thighs, legs,
shank and feet, these being often clothed with large falcon hocks. The
American type is far the best-more useful as a fowl and more productive,
and some have had a record of more than three hundred eggs in the year.
If kept, the old style of Brahma is far the best both for early growth,
flesh and general market value.
The reputation of the Plymouth Rock is good in all colors, but the
barred variety for the farm and market has the preference, these coming to
maturity early.
For white eggs in number the Mediterranean breeds are preeminent,
both for size and purity of shell color, though the fowls themselves are but
The Varieties to Keep
21
dry eating, even if fatted. Of the best and first favorite is the Black
Minorca, next the White Leghorn, then those of color. The Whites lay a
little larger egg than the other Leghorns, and they are generally kept on
the large egg farms. All are principally summer layers, and at such
season amply fill the egg-basket; they are also considered profitable
to keep. The common Italian fowl, the black and white spangled of
which is known as the Ancona in the United States, are mostly prolific
egg-layers, while all the varieties of Hamburgs I have found equally
good; though the eggs are small, still the weight is made up by quantity,
and thus have proved in a way profitable. The old white-faced Black
Spanish fowl was at one time a good table fowl and a prolific layer, and
might be again if
rightly selected and
managed, and SO
also the beautiful
old Polish, formerly
called the Ham-
burgh. All these lat-
ter are non-incuba-
tors, which is a great
advantage when the
space for keeping is
but limited. I hope
again to see the
Black Spanish in
the ascendant.

امل
ریت
Wor!!!
16
Ween)
OLD ENGLISH GAME PULLET
Bred by the author. Second prize at the Dairy Show.
Good laying strains of most fowls may be made or ruined entirely by
want of attention, proper supervision and management, the best and most
prolific pullets or hens only being kept and hindered from sitting, and these
mated with cockerels or cocks bred from hens unusually egg productive. As
proof, Mrs. Campbell, of Uley, Gloucestershire, established a strain of non-
incubating Dark Brahmas, their average lay being 170 eggs per annum. Mr.
George Roper, of Woking, has done the same by his old English Game, and
in this direction I have met with similar success, some of my old English
Game hens seldom, and others never, wanting to sit, or, if so, easily put off.
The sum total of it all is, that whatever breeds are selected, have the
best and the truest bred. The first cost is little more, yet for the extra
22
The Poultry Book
expenditure there is the gain not only of the contemplation of the beautiful,
but the inward satisfaction that, should you wish to change what you have,
such can easily be effected, for a good thing will command a price, while the
low and inferior will not find even common acceptance, but utter rejection.

AK PRAS
Firm..
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MISS GUBBINGS' DORKING AND PLYMOUTH ROCK PULLET
Buy from those well known, those respected not only for the excellence of
their stock but also for their tried integrity and upright dealing, and bear
in mind that few sell their best birds excepting at large and almost retaining
prices; so if you wish at the start to be anywhere near perfection, you must
be prepared to pay for it. The most economical plan is either to buy eggs
at a good price from a reliable source, or to purchase culls that have some
minor defect (not disqualification), and others that are without or deficient
in those points which one or the other has in excess. I have thus bred,
and known others to breed, better stock this way than by the mating of
those possessing a great number of points of excellence, provided always
the strain of which they came was old, well cared for, and of noted reputa-
tion. It is often, too, erroneously said that like begets like. Were this
so, variety would be non-existent; and one has but to look around to at
once prove the fallacy of the assertion. What it takes a genius to make, a
fool may easily destroy. The one by piecing builds up and rectifies, the
other by want of knowledge only weakens and spoils. Therefore buy where
the best is kept, and, if possible, pedigree bred, and in all times prospering.

The Varieties to Keep
23
CROSS-BREEDS
I do not advise such to be kept, either for fancy or profit, feeling sure,
from long experience, that pure breeds by careful management and mating
are much more reliable and trustworthy, and far nearer perfection for any
kind of fowl either for show or utility; also, they are more valuable at all
times and seasons than mongrels or cross-breeds, young or old, the latter
being of no value when past their prime, while the true and pure of any
high-class strain will command a certain price, even at that age when their
creative powers are weakened and their eggs few and late.

FIRST PRIZE SILVER WYANDOTTE HEN
Reproduced by courtesy of "Commercial Poultry," Chicago.


Wein
FIRST PLYMOUTH ROCK IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND BY MR. JAMES LONG
18561


Photograph by C. Reid, Wishaw, N. B.
BLACK-BREASTED BROWN LEGHORN COCK
MATING AND BREEDING
I. K. FELCH, MASSACHUSETTS
"Look here upon this picture, and on this;
The counterfeit presentment of two brothers."--Hamlet.

IN THE discussion of this important subject I quote Mr. Weir's
own words in the first few pages and then begin my
comments: As to the mating, the youth, age, purity of race,
influence of sex, and the times, seasons and duration of
strong, healthy fertility, as well as the stain of impregnation
(if any), much may be said, and also how far the blending
of the blood, habits, form and constitution of either or both parents is
to be found in the offspring, apparent or otherwise, perhaps lying dormant,
in some cases, for one or more generations, and afterward unexpectedly
appearing, as is shown by several instances on record.
Although few subjects connected with our poultry have received
so much attention, none are so little understood as the matching, breeding,
One
cross-breeding and pure breeding of the different races of fowls.
man will strengthen and perfect a strain or breed, while another will com-
pletely ruin the good one that he has by wrong selection, treatment and
27
28
The Poultry Book
matching, yet more frequently by the introduction from another stock,
though of the same variety, and for what he calls gaining vigor by adding
fresh blood, when stamina is more surely arrived at by mating the finest,
the most healthy, the strongest, the most matured, with the best constitution
of either sex, and he must also match for age and other differences. If
certain qualities are to be sought for er retained, the cock must be the
youngest; if others, the hens or pullet hens-that is, those of the second
year; but in all cases the birds must be well grown, hearty, strong, of proper
form, well shaped in limbs, lusty, true to their breed, and of the highest
quality both of flesh and feathering.
If large, well-plumed birds are required, then none of the hens should
exceed three years in age. Of course there are, and sometimes must be,
exceptions to this rule, but if either is to be the older, let it be the hen, a
second-year cock or stag generally being at his best, and youth to youth
was and should be the general and most approved practice. In choosing
either, let it be from your own yard and of those you have kept pure—
without crossing-out with any, though of the same breed or race that yours
is made of. What will strongly conduce to the vigor of your stock is the
sending away eggs to a distant part of the country, and having the chickens
entirely reared into full growth on other soil different from that of your
runs or ranges. The plan of varying the locality acts better than any
crossing to obtain stamina; but, for want of this, your cock or hen birds
may be sent to a distant part to molt and regain their strength for the
duties required of them in the spring. And again, the best for choice of
stock are the well-grown March hatched, which has been so long and uni-
versally admitted as to be regarded among poultry tenders of farms and
homesteads as a wise saying. If you cross-out with a bird from another
stock of which you know but little, though it is apparently good, let it be
with a hen and not a cockerel, for then if wrong the whole progeny can
easily be eliminated; but if it is a cock, then all your stock is tainted. In
the choice of the male bird, let him be, if anything, rather lighter made
than your hens. Let both be round and full-breasted, and of true and
right proportion relatively one to the other-one, if anything, having in
excess what the other lacks; this is found to answer better than when all
are of equal forms and dimensions. Each should be alert, active, full
of life and energy, and absolutely free from any injury, either by the loss
of or a twisted toe-such deformity once bred in is difficult to eradicate.
Mating and Breeding
29
Experience has proved this, as is even color or loss of a nail, for reasons
which will be presently shown.
Feeling sure, as I do from long and careful observation, that pure old
breeds are the very best, if properly selected, for all purposes, these will be
first treated of and that they are presumably of your own stock. I am
certain that there is no greater fallacy, and nothing more detrimental to
the well-being of our best poultry, than the modern untutored craze for
crossing-out. No one who understands the true art of breeding and
rearing would even advise, much less practise it.
If you wish to breed healthy and strong birds of any particular strain,
never let the young cocks that you intend breeding from run with any
hens or pullets until the time that you match up in November or December,
according to the breed, and never let your hens or pullets run with any
other breed, cock or cockerel, whether in or out of season. It is best to
keep all the cocks and cockerels, hens and pullets, separated until they
are wanted. A flock of hens may consist of twenty if they agree, but if
one or more is objected to by the others she is best removed at once, other-
wise she will be disfigured, maimed, or killed. If the hens are allowed
to run with another variety of cock or cocks, they, for pure breeding, will
become tainted, and the stain once there is never eradicated, and they
are likely to throw back, as I have known in many instances, though the
late Mr. B. P. Brent, a good authority, says in the Cottage Gardener that
after a hen has been introduced to a cock for three weeks, her progeny
will follow the breed of the cock. This is certainly not so, nor anything
like it. If a pullet has received the attentions of a cock, and then is removed
from him and placed with another, the produce is likely to be of a very
mixed description; this is not always so, but in cases of a decided preference
for the first, as some fowls not unfrequently exhibit. Out of several cases
that have come to my knowledge and in practice, here is one:
I had a
dark buff-colored pullet; she was bred of old English Game for two gen-
erations, but there was one cross-out with a Dorking cock before that;
with this exception, all her antecedents were old English Game. She ran
awhile with my old Game cock, which was in color a black-breasted bright
red, somewhat splashed with white. At the expiration of a week she was
removed and put with a Golden Hamburg cock that had sported to having
white shanks, feet and toe-nails. After being nearly three weeks with
the Hamburg, eleven of her eggs were incubated, with the following sur-
Jung
30
The Poultry Book
prising result: There were four cockerels; three resembled the Game
cock, with much white among the feathers, which were of a red-gold ground
and laced and spangled with black like the Hamburg cock; three had
single combs like the Game cock in shape and fineness, and one a rose-
comb like the Hamburg; two had five toes, thus reverting to the Dorking
cross more than two generations back in the hen. Two of the cockerels
had white earlobes, one partly red, and the fourth entirely so. All had
white shanks and feet. Of the pullets, all had blue shanks and feet with
white toe-nails. In plumage they much resembled the Hamburg cock
in color and markings, but all were more or less splashed with white, though
not to the extent of the cockerels, but one was nearly white, and also
showed a strong resemblance to the Game cock. All had white earlobes,
thus showing the chicks had the racial and other distinctions of two fathers,
which were noticed and remarked not only by myself but all who saw them.
At present I have reserved one cockerel; he is peculiarly handsome, resem-
bling a Laced Golden Hamburg, yet having white in his wings; the shanks,
feet, and toe-nails are very white. One pullet was a perfect Hamburg
in color, with slight white markings, having a rose comb and bright blue
shanks; others as described, some with four, others five toes. Here, it
will be observed, is a curious mixture of natural forces, either of which
could scarcely be supposed to exist, or, if so, were so long latent that it
would be of advantage to know the limit, if any, of such endurance. Here
is another case: Some ten years ago I received from a friend a spur-
shanked partridge-colored Game hen. She was said to be of pure pedigree
breed, and the stock from which she came had been bred most carefully
for years. Mine were in-bred for many years, and were of the same color.
After breeding from her with a cock of my own strain, I bred from her
daughters, and again from their daughters, each time matched to stags
of my strain, and all breeding true, until 1893, when two of the chickens
hatched from the eggs of one of my best partridge hens proved to be almost
black, with slightly gray breast. Knowing how my birds had been bred
for thirty years, I concluded that the new departure was a "reversion'
through the hen I had of my friend. On writing to him I learned that
about twenty years before he mated a high-class Furness hen into his
stock to deepen the color, and that was the only way that the color could
be accounted for. Thus the cross had lain dormant more than twenty years,
when it suddenly appeared in my yard; and not only that, but it still
""

MR. HERBERT REEVES' SILVER-GRAY DORKING
The winner of many prizes.
Photograph by W. Scorer, Havant

Photograph by W. Scorer, havant
MR. HERBERT REEVES' SILVER-GRAY DORKING COCKEREL
The winner of many prizes.
Mating and Breeding
33
*
appears in two or three chickens every year. There was one dark pullet
in the season 1899, and again more in 1900 and 1901; and this year, 1902,*
I have had four dark pullets with brown shanks and feet. This atavism
is yet apparent in the old breed of Derby Reds, which forty-five years
ago
had white or daw eyes, white in the wings and tail; and though during
that time this has often been bred out, still after a generation or two it
reappears, and it is a predominant factor in the composition of the time-
honored old breed. Mr. John Harris, of Liskeard, writes very ably on
this-what is called by the Game-cock breeders "bloodstain." He says:
"Many breeders having a faulty or soft breed cock look out for an extra
good one to cross with, thinking the first cross is 4-8 producer, which
put to the sound bird 6-8 producer, again put to a sound bird and the
said result is all 8; and they are supposed to be as good as they can be
made. But it is a mistake; many will retain the former bad qualities, for,
breed as you will, there is the taint left." By way of example: Fill a
bottle with half ink and half water, then take out half of the liquid and
fill again with water, then take out half the liquid left and once more fill
with water, and so on until it looks clear; then taste it, and you will find
a flavor of the ink still, and so is the blood of a true-bred Game if once
mixed with the dunghill breed.
Theory is much, but practice is more, and experience is most. Rules may
be made by which success should be achieved; lines of thought may converge
and tend to the belief that from such and such conditions certain results must
follow, and this simply from the reason that such is likely, and apparently
more so than not, and yet instead of a prize there is drawn—a blank.
In Nature there are certain not yet understood hidden forces that are
not only beyond human knowledge but also humanity's control. It is
the "Why and the Wherefore" that we have yet to learn, even though
they are deemed as the possible and probable, yet, being beyond our guid-
ance, are truly not so. Nature's laws are not only inscrutable, but are,
whatever may be urged to the contrary, abiding and unalterable. If
we could fit things with an exactness that should show no deviation, whether
we willed it or not, then we might be said to have gained a supreme power
that at present, strive as we may, is simply unattainable.
*July, 1902-I have now bred from the same birds a purely black chick, comb, face,
feathering, shanks and feet being that color, with white toe-nails. The skin is
also dark.
34
The Poultry Book
2
!!!!!
JM
Weins
Jufth
Here is a case: I have
a dark gray old Kent five-
toed hen. She is pure in
color, being only of the two
colors, black and white, with
their variant gray. She is
of the true type in make and
habit, and lays a snow-white
egg of the rounded shape
peculiar to the breed. With
her I mate a Dorking silver-
gray stag. He, like the hen,
has but the black, white
and gray colors, is good in
shape and shank properties,
there being not a tint of
any other color. From these
I set a dozen eggs, out of
which were hatched twelve

dark gray chicks, which
matured exactly as expected
in point of coloring and
form. Then another brood with the same result. Again another,
and these, all but one, quite different from the parents and the former
chickens, the whole number of pullets save one being stained with
a yellowish tint or red on the breast and wings, the combs also being
smaller and with less lap, while two had only four toes and one four and
five. Looking at the two first families, and they besides the third, there
would be no hesitation in saying that they were of a different strain, and
most surely they appeared to be so. But why this difference? It was
thought to be atavism on the part of the cock, the silver-gray Dorkings
having been made by a cross with Lord Hill's white-shanked silver-gray
Game and the old gray Kent and Sussex five-toed fowls. Yes; but why
should all the two first broods be clear grays and black with white breasts
in the pullets, and those of the third brood strongly different, save one?
Why not all the broods? It was argued that possibly the hen, by laying,
was weaker, and the stamina of the cock prevailed. This seemed feasible,
CROSS-BREED NO. 1, TWO MONTHS OLD
Mating and Breeding
35
but then, to what period of time was the reversion confined? The cock
was one of Mr. Herbert Reeves's silver-gray strain. But now comes a
further surprise, if anything can surprise "the experienced." A fourth
brood was hatched later, and every one of these (ten) were of the true
first coloring; not a shade of anything else but black, white and gray. Of
these, five were cockerels and five pullets, and two of the last are so
true that they are a part of my gray breeding stock, and all much
admired. I simply give the facts, and can offer no elucidation of
the mystery. That was in 1901.
was in 1901. The hen was again matched to
the same cock, and thirteen eggs were put under a gray pullet, the
result (January, 1902) being again dark and light gray chickens like the
first hatchings.
some
Again, some of the pullets from the above pair lay a very, very slightly
tinted egg, though those of the mother-hen are of the purest white. This
shows that the blend from
the cock's side still bears the
taint of long-bygone crosses.
A few years ago, having
black-breasted old
English Game with yellow
shanks and feet, I gave a
cockerel to a friend to cross
in with a black-breasted
brown-red Leghorn. At first
cross the Leghorn had the
best of it; next Leghorn cross,
and the produce looked pure-
bred Leghorn; but on breed-
ing these together the old
English Game blood reasserted.
itself to such an extent that
in two generations the Game
appearance far preponderated.
This is by no means a solitary
instance of where cross-
breeding has been resorted to
for the sake of giving stamina,

.އހ ން
ein
CROSS-BREED NO. 2, WITH FEATHERED LEGS
36
The Poultry
Poultry Book
form or color, the preponderance of the older breed crushing, as it were,
the weaker out of existence, as was the case with these so-called Black
Orpingtons and the true Langshan cross, many of these coming with
feathered shanks and Langshan form when least expected to do so, as
also the Brahma and Shanghai cross not unfrequently shows itself in the
modern Dorking.
Mr. Theodore Sternberg, writing in The American Fancier, March
31, 1894, tells of two hatches of chickens running in the same yard, one of
Leghorns, hatched in May, the other Cochins, hatched in January. About
the middle of September he sold all the Leghorns. All the chicks were
raised together, Leghorns and Cochins. But to quote Mr. Theodore
Sternberg: "Now I had several January-hatched Buff Cochin pullets,
which began laying on the 25th of June. After the sale of these Leghorns
none but Cochin cockerels were with the pullets. After my return from
Chicago the pullets continued laying; the clutch laid nine eggs and wanted
to sit. I set her on these nine eggs. Imagine my suprise, the pullet being
set November 3d, at finding her hatch of seven chicks to be plainly a
Leghorn cross. More than six weeks after the removal of the Leghorns
the first egg of the setting was laid, and yet the cross was plain." In this
case Mr. Theodore Sternberg apparently has failed to note whether the
Cochin cock actually mated with the pullet, as it is just possible he did not;
if that were so, it would go far to explain the mystery. I will give a case
that occurred here: I had a black hen, a cross between a cock Cornish
Indian and a Leghorn hen. She was very good in color, with a wonderful
green sheen. She had been running with a black-breasted red Game cock
that had white shanks, from which she was removed and put with a dark-
colored Dorking cock; two days after she was placed with a spangled
Hamburg cock. She was allowed to sit on nine eggs that she had laid
after being put with the Dorking cockerel and the Hamburg. She
hatched out seven chicks, two of which resembled the Game-cock in shape,
and were nearly black in color, but had some white in the tail like that of
the Game cock; both had whitish shanks, and one with a few feathers on
the outer side, but none on the feet. I give an illustration of this bird, a
cockerel. Two were Dorking-like pullets, with whitish shanks and feet
with five toes; the feathers of both were black. I give a drawing of one of
the pullets. The other three were black, with black shanks devoid of
feathering, and had much of the Hamburg appearance; but what is
Mating and Breeding
37
curious, two had white eyes, the iris being clear white or nearly so, similar
to high-bred Azeels. I give a drawing of one of these pullets. Now it will
be observed that these all came from a clutch of eggs that were laid by the
black pullet after she left the Game cock, and were the nine eggs she laid
before she wanted to sit. My opinion is, that if she had not been put to the
Dorking for the two days, and then put with the Hamburg, it is just
possible that she might have hatched out seven chicks all showing the
Game cross; two of them clearly did, even to the white in the tail. Being
a singular case, I made very careful studies of the chicks as shown. All
were used for table purposes. Those like the Game cock were the best.
The Dorkings were longer in body, but not so full-breasted, while in the
Hamburg cross the flesh was rather dark, though good in quality and
quantity. One of these laid an egg; it was white. But to return to
Mr. Theodore Sternberg. He continues: "I know it is taught that ten
days is sufficient to insure purity; but it was not so in this case. One other
fact: this buff pullet had become broody after the removal of the Leghorn,
and the eggs were laid after being broken up-an entirely different clutch
of eggs." This might be thought so, but the sequel proves the contrary.
There are cases on record where a hen has laid again after rearing a brood
of chicks, and that without further contact with a cock, and the eggs have
proved fertile, as was the case with one of the late Mr. Stamps' Game hens.
No Game-cock breeder of the old school would ever consider a hen clean
after she has laid while mated. Mr. Theodore Sternberg continues: "Such
occurrences set us all thinking of the possible effect of the mingling of
chicks of several varieties, and my experience may suggest how many
sports can be accounted for. It may be that occasionally a hen can be
found which if once exposed to a cross never again breeds true." Just so;
this is too often overlooked, and there is but little doubt that a stain is left.
Writing to Mr. Charles Darwin on this subject, I found he was very strong
as to the continuation of blood stain, as it is called by some, as was also
Mr. William Yarrell, V.P.F.Z.S., the author of "British Birds, Fishes, etc."
Mr. Charles Darwin, in a letter to me, quoted a case that was known to both
himself and Mr. William Yarrell, of a woman that had two children when
the husband died. After awhile she married again, and became the mother
of two more children. From an unexpected cause the husband became
reduced in circumstances, and the relatives of the former husband, wishing
to relieve the wife of some of her difficulties, agreed to educate, etc., the
38
The Poultry Book
two first offspring, but
that on going to fetch
them away from the
house of the mother they
saw the last two, and
were so struck with the
extraordinary likeness to
their deceased brother
that they provided for
the four—that is to say,
the entire number, the
two children by the first
husband and the two by
the second.
As I have heretofore
said, all the old Game-
cock breeders would as
soon think of putting one
of their hens up as a
stock hen, that had once
run with a craven"
cock, as though she had
run with a Dorking. In my opinion, a stain is never got rid
of, even out of a carefully bred strain of fowls, much less one.
in the individual. After a very long experience and close observa-
tion, besides having had the advantage of a wide and varied knowledge
and acquaintance with some of the best breeders, both of animals and birds,
I have come to the conclusion that a stain will show itself after many gen-
erations, just the same as an hereditary disease will appear and disappear
for many years, and then show again with renewed vigor. This may be
noticed also in the contour of the face, which sometimes has a peculiar
feature, and which an inspection of the family portrait gallery shows was
in existence as part of the facial development of ancestors perhaps centuries.
before; and it must be borne in mind also that generally there has not been
“in-and-in” alliances, but perfectly independent selections from various
reasons, either natural or those influenced by real present or prospective
benefit, of or for mutual or single interest.

14
Aren
CROSS-BREED NO. 3, ALL BLACK
((

Mating and Breeding
39
However, one factor should not be entirely overlooked, and that is,
that the family estates or property is generally inherited in direct descent
by the male line; therefore, if there is anything in the assertion that the
contour and general formation of the young partakes mostly of that of the
male, while the female generally supplies the requisites necessary for the
health and vigor of the offspring, so there is just a possibility that the male
continues longer to stamp his individuality on the males as one of the
peculiarities of the breed beyond the power of the female.
From what has already been advanced, as tending to show the extra-
ordinary and mysterious working of natural forces, it is perfectly apparent

O
GAME AND LANGSHAN CORNISH INDIAN HEN
Pearl-eyed.
that too much care cannot be taken to preserve in its purity and integrity
any particular breed or race of either domestic animals or birds. Mostly
the breeding of our poultry is conducted, if at all, in a loose and unscientific
40
The Poultry Book
manner, with too few precautions taken to prevent an admixture of other
variety, and so keep it free from degenerating contamination; while it is
clearly overlooked that no real dependence can be placed on any but those
of positively pure stock. And whereas in such, by critical choice of indi-
vidual birds, proper food and seasonable mating, large size if wanted,
early maturity and liberal produce, as surely to be depended on as
the result, the haphazard
adoption of the use of
impure stock is at the
best insecure, and must
have before it a future
of failure.
If a race is pure,
is in no way tres-
the variety is kept
tact and distinct,
only may it be
the progeny will
progenitors in
respect, having,
continuity of
general appear-
for it is well
these are hered-

that is, if the species
passed upon, and
scrupulously in-
then and then
expected that
resemble the
almost every
as it
form, color,
ance and habits,
known that even
itary.
were,
From a
photograph
race is made up of
instance, the Plymouth
called Black
not
By of
"Commercial Poultry product do
ble their parents,
widely differ both
and from their
If, however, a
mixed blood, as, for
Rock or the so-
the
Orpington,
necessarily resem-
and they often
among themselves
progenitors; and, indeed, so much so, that, were the extremes kept
distinct and perpetuated, other new breeds might be the ultimate
result. Then, again, it might be observed that some of the offspring
of such cross-breeds bear little or no resemblance to their parents,
which is the more so when they are the issue of old birds; while on the other
hand it has been proved that, though there may be close breeding and con-
sanguinity in pure breed, with proper and intelligent supervision and
mating as to age, constitution and healthy robustness, their vigor is not
only maintained, but by judicious management increased, which has been
a
BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK COCK, SHOWING
MARKINGS OF WINGS
Mating and Breeding
41
fully demonstrated by the habitual in-breeding of the Game-cock-a race
that for centuries has shown an indomitable valor, coupled with a mobile
and lasting strength. A pure and ancient race may be “in-bred” with a
degree of impunity, while it would be fatal to a cross-bred, which not
infrequently become almost barren. Wild Nature in-breeds more or less,
as is shown by certain animals or birds forming into groups, flocks or
families; and these keep themselves as such intact by driving away all
intruders, while the strength and vigor of the whole is kept up by the
strong, for at least the time being the masters, in turn. Then again, the
variation of locality is, in my belief, one of the necessities of natural selec-
tion, although birds drive or take away their young from the locality in
which they are hatched. This is done so that by being reared and
upgrown to adolescence on another soil and perhaps food, the actual consti-
tution of the young is thereby varied and strengthened; and on returning
to their native haunts they are often able to kill either one or the other of
their parents (generally the male), and thus form an alliance with the
remaining, if any; if not, then with themselves, as brothers and sisters.
AMERICAN VIEWS EXPREssed
There is such a difference between the English methods in the use of
radical out-crosses or foreign crosses to revivify an old strain and the
American system of preserving the thoroughbred, that in our case it is hard
to reconcile the two methods. The English mode of introducing foreign
blood, then breeding back but twice, is not followed here. Many American
breeders believe that by mating two families of the same breed, and follow ·
ing line-breeding, the same vigor and prepotency can be obtained and far
greater uniformity of shape and purity of color secured.
In these days
of advanced poultry culture it is an easy matter to secure paternal and
maternal blood from strains of the same breed of sufficient strength and,
I believe, better influence as new blood to strengthen the race. Two such,
I believe, can be selected as an original pair to develop a new strain, while
each strain thus mated may be preserved in all its vigor, prepotency, egg-
production and beauty. The art of breeding and mating is to so mate that
while we have the care to preserve shape and pure color we should not
forget the productive merits. While we are careful not to admit foreign
blood, we should be absolutely sure that our matings produced their chicks
with blood of different proportions to the blood we are mating. To illus-
C
C
42
The Poultry Book
trate our system, I present my breeding-chart with explanations how
the mating does present a different proportion, yet showing how we at any
season can, without actual in-and-in breeding, produce half-bred groups
from which to secure revivifying benefits for the two strains represented
in our original or first mating. Coupled with this, we ever keep in mind
that selection is the handmaid of line-breeding.
Health while breeding is essential for the hen. The most active with
face and comb are good points. In fact, the hen in the best health at
the time of laying will, no doubt, give us our best chickens. When we
start with a pair the subsequent generations may be hens of 3-5, 8-12 or
15, as we can select of the type and color of the original dam. It may not
matter how we produce the half-blood specimens, whether by out-cross,
as in the English systems, or by the science of breeding, we are enabled to
secure the half-bloods within one's own flock. I prefer the latter as seen
in 3, 7, 11, 16, of my chart. The strength to our strain will be far more
uniform in its effect than by following the English system. To illustrate,
I had a White Wyandotte hen of prime color and shape that layed perfect,
dark-shelled eggs, weighing 28 ounces per dozen. The second generation
we used eight daughters, setting none but eggs that approximated the
shape, size and color of the original dam. The third season thirty-six of
her granddaughters of uniform color and shape and uniform dark-shell
eggs were secured. Atavism comes in as strongly in this egg production
as it does to control shape and color in the fowls themselves. But the
male must be hatched from eggs of a kindred color or there will be a vast
difference in the shade of color in the egg-product of his progeny.
You may fail to see the meaning of the solid and dotted lines of the
chart. To make it clear, we say, each dotted line represents the female
as having been selected from the upper group, while the solid line shows
the male as having been taken from the indicated upper group. Each
circle represents the progeny. To wit: female No. 1 mated with male.
No. 2 have produced group No. 3, which is ½ the blood of sire and dam.
Females from group No. 3, mated back to their own sire No. 2, have pro-
duced group No. 5, which is 3/4 of the blood of the sire, No. 2, and 14 the
blood of the dam, No. 1. A male from group No. 3, mated back to his
own dam, No. 1, produces group No. 4, which is 3/4 of the blood of the dam,
No. 1, and 14 the blood of the sire, No. 2.
Again we select a cockerel from group 5 and a pullet from group
Mating and Breeding
43
4, or vice versa, which will produce group 7, which is mathematically half
the blood of each of the original pair, No. 1 and No. 2. This is a second
step toward producing a new strain. Females from No. 5 mated back to
the original male, No. 2, produce group 8, that are 7/8 the blood of No. 2,

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and a cockerel from No. 4, mated back to the original dam, No. 1, pro-
duces group No. 6 that is 7/8 the blood of the original dam and only 1% the
blood of the original sire. Again we select a male from No. 8 and females
from No. 6 and for a third time produce chicks (in group No. 11) that are
half the blood of the original pair. This is the third step and the ninth
mating in securing complete breeding of our new strain. In all this we
have not broken the line of sires, for every one has come from a group in
II
44
The Poultry Book
which the preponderance of blood was that of the original sire.
13 and 18 are virtually the blood of No. 2.
We have reached a point where we would establish a male line whose
blood is virtually that of our original dam, and we now select from No. 6
a male which we mate with a female from No. 4 and produce group 9,
which is 13-16 the blood of the original dam No. 1 and 3-16 the blood of
the original sire. Again we select a male from No. 9 and a female of the
new strain, No. 11, and produce group 14, which becomes 21-32 of the
blood of the original dam, thus preserving her strain of blood. A male
from No. 13, which is 13-16 the blood of the original sire No. 2, mated to
females from No. 10, which are 5-16 the blood of the original sire, No. 2,
gives us group 17, which is 9-16 the blood of said sire. While in No. 16
we have the new strain and in No. 18 the strain of our original sire,
No. 2, we have three distinct strains, and by and with this systematic use
we can go on breeding for all time to come. Remember that each dotted
line is a female selection and each solid line the male selection.
Nos. 2, 8,
In mating to secure a certain proportion of male blood in the chicks,
we should at the same time make allowance for the same proportion of
female blood. Thus: 5 mated to 8 gives 13-16 of the male breeding, and
4 mated to 6 gives 13-16 of the original strain, while the progeny produced
by these two matings, 9 and 13, if they were mated for subsequent use,
becomes one-half the blood of each of the original pair. The thing to ever
keep in mind is that this middle mating, or all 3, 7, 11, 16, are the reservoirs
of blood from which each of your two families are being fed, and whose
influence is so strong for good that you will be enabled, so long as you
are thus careful to live within your own yards, to produce unlimited
numbers, and preserve the same likeness, vigor and productiveness
you started with. Then how important is it that we in our first selection
make sure that the female is a phenomenal producer both as to number,
size and shape of her eggs, that she be of good size and as near standard
shape and color as possible. Barring accidents, such should be our selec-
tion. Accidental deformity may not injure the breeding of a male, but
often does that of the female; a perfectly formed egg being quite impor-
tant in our estimation. One of the best season's get of young stock we
ever had in Brahmas was from a cockerel that had a very crooked back
and low hip on one side by accident. But had a pullet been so unfortunate
it would in all probability have caused the eggs she layed to be ill-shaped.
Mating and Breeding
45
Where accidents do not injure the perfect shape of the egg, no harm
will come. Thus, when actual necessity demands it, we may use an
injured fowl with profit, should it recover from such accident strong and
in good health.
All breeders acknowledge that the male controls to a greater degree
the shape and color; while constitution, size and productiveness is the
special function of the dam. Yet I would hesitate to mate a first-class
female with a male I knew
nothing about. He should come
from a first-class producing
female. Mating color in a
general way gives but little
understanding to what it does
where correctly
chronicled in

connection
with
special
breeds.
The
mating
of black
breeds de-
mands special
conditions to secure
specific results. The Langshans, for instance, present the finest con-
ditions of black overlaid with a green sheen. Yet if two specimens
possessing this phenomenal sheen are mated there is apt to come with
it an objectionable bronze bar crossing the feathers. Nothing short of a
deeply shaded walk will prevent it. Open run
Open run will destroy the
purity. But a male with this high condition of sheen mated to females
that are wanting in this respect, having dull shaded black breast, lower
body and tail, will give chickens having little, if any, of this faulty barring.
It would be folly to use a male of this dull black order. Breeders now look
beyond the surface color. The second year's life of a first-class fowl is
considered its best year for breeding. It is folly to breed from unsound
color; the hen must have reached her second year in standard color or
COMINGS
WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS
By courtesy of "Commercial Poultry"
46
The Poultry Book
reasonably so; otherwise we must fall back upon the pullets of standard
color, no matter what the breed.
As an instance of presumable in-breeding, Mr. Weir says that a few
years ago two pairs of House Martins built nests under the eaves of
his house. They were unfortunate, for in consequence of heavy rains
one pair was not able to find insects for its young, which died in the nest,
when the old birds departed, never to return; the other pair, hatching
somewhat later, reared five young ones. All left in due course for other
climes. Next spring the old birds returned with four others, apparently
the young of the former year; the parents occupied their previous year's
nest; the other two pairs built two nests, laid eggs, and hatched and reared
their young, and then all left. One thing noticed was, that if any other
Martins attempted to build near them, they were driven off by the entire
strength of the colony. Next year more returned, and so on until the
colony consisted of ten nests; and from careful observation of their habits,
etc., he says, he has every reason to believe that the whole number of
twenty were the direct descendants of the first pair, and yet were in full
vigor and health, which I attribute to their six-months' (at least) change
of climate, etc. I know from experience that change of locality has a
great effect on Game-fowls; and that, though still maintaining their health
and strength, they have lost their valor, and have become, for pit purposes,
useless cravens. The Pigeon is another bird that breeds naturally in-and-in,
each pair laying but two eggs, and the young are male and female, which
afterward pair; and it is thought that whole flocks are thus blood relations.
Our wild birds generally flock the progeny of vast numbers before
they migrate. Thus they have a wide chance to mate in a suitable manner.
The strongest will be first mated. While this may be a special case of
straight in-and-in breeding, I think it better not be applied as a rule for
breeding fowls. Any hunter will tell you there is quite a difference in
the size of birds of the same species shot from different flocks. To return
to our poultry, Mr. Weir says: Where the variety or race is pure and true,
it may and should be in-bred. If colonies of poultry can be established
in different localities some distance apart, and cocks interchanged, there
need be no fear of deterioration, and it is just possible that the whole
strain may be perfected to any requirement by such an arrangement.
Such pure breeds are, in my opinion, the old five-toed Kent, Sussex
and Surrey fowls, the old English Game, the Black Spanish as representing
Mating and Breeding
47
the Mediterranean breeds, the Malay, the Azeel, the Polish, the Ham-
burgs, the Langshan, and some few others. Take any of these, make
them into a strain, and they will breed like-and-like, and with due care
each will develop to the full their particular attributes and qualities. But
if any or either of them are crossed one with the other, or with any obscure
mongrel, then continual annoyance and disappointment must be the
inevitable result.
A most extraordinary case of impregnation is related by the late
Mr. Richard Stamp, the celebrated Game-cock breeder, etc. He states.
that he had a Game hen that was taken away from the cock the day she
laid her second egg, after which she was kept by herself. She laid nine
eggs and then began "clucking," then sitting and hatching. She remained
in the same place until her chickens were a fortnight old. No cock or any
other poultry had been near her after laying her second egg. "I removed
her and her chicken," says Mr. Richard Stamp, "to where there was
no other variety of poultry, in a plantation walk; they remained there
until she commenced to lay again, I not knowing, until she disappeared
and commenced sitting. When I found her and her nest she had eleven
eggs, and all seemed to have a bird in them. I thought she had mated
to pheasants, but when the chickens were hatched they were all Game,
and they grew up thorough Game. By this it would appear that the hen
had thus carried over a certain amount of impregnation from the first.
sitting." He concludes by saying that he never had a similar experience
with any other hen. Here I would observe that, in all my long and varied
experience, nothing of the kind has ever come under my own immediate
notice. On the contrary, I have found that when the cock has been removed
from the hens six or seven weeks, any eggs afterward or then laid have
generally proved infertile. Many old poultry breeders, however, aver that
any time after three weeks will render them so; but to this shorter period
I do not assent.
The above does not agree with my experience. I have found all incu-
bating breeds that by taking the hen from the company of the male and
isolating her I could never hatch an egg from her beyond the tenth. I
do not think it possible for a hen to lay a fertile egg after having the incu-
bating fever until she has been coupled with the male.
I have even
subjected a hen while having the fever to the services of the male, then
broke her up.
Not an egg was fertile until I put her with the male after
1
48
The Poultry Book
she had recovered from her wanting to set. I found the Leghorns would
carry the impregnation a few days longer. But in all breeds where the
females are changed from one harem to another, and when hens are removed
from one pen to that of another cock's, the fourth egg will usually pro-
duce the progeny of the new male. I have never known this to fail. I
see no other reason than that the new spermatozoa are more active, thus
stronger, and overpower the older and weaker; and that the life of the
spermatozoön in the oviduct is limited to about ten days, when the males
are removed. The fact that chickens in extreme isolated cases in a five-
toed race come with only four toes, and others with the fifth toe very
small and short, cannot be taken as an indication of taint in blood, or the
effect of atavism; for a low state of health causes this lack of full develop-
ment of the Dorking race. Nor can the plea be raised in these days that
a pullet having once mated with a male not of her breed has unfitted her
for pure breeding afterward. That theory of Professor Agassiz has long
been exploded even in mammals. To apply the rule to fowls falls to
the ground. The thinking mind cannot accept the inference that pullets
can thus be contaminated. Were it a fact, there would be exceedingly
few pure strains in America to-day.
Speaking of improvement by crosses with other blood, Mr. Weir says:
Of late years much has been said as to the making of new breeds, and when
doing so there
seems to be no
dearth of
of asser-
tion as to these
mongrels possess-
ing qualities far in
excess of any of the
well-tested and
much-valued true
old sorts. There
is scarcely a prop-
erty that they do
not possess. But
I think I may men-
tion one they do
not hold, namely.

ASTY
THE INVALID
Mating and Breeding
49
that of breeding like and like. Of course, we are told that they do; and
some have gone so far as to say that they breed truer than the old in-bred
or close-bred breeds. My answer is, buy a dozen, and let them be chosen
in the same way as the old Kents were—simply for health, strength and
quality, and after a few generations the variations will be abundantly clear.
At least, this is my own and some of my friends' experience. They are
not a breed, nor do they produce “like” with anything of the certainty as do
those of ancient ancestry; neither is there, according to the mating
to obtain them, generally a reasonable chance of their proving something
“very superior."
Take as an instance the old Kent and Sussex five-toed fowls-fifty
years ago said by all that knew of them or kept them to be the "best fowls
in the world." They have been crossed with the Brahma, the Cochin
and the Malay, all inferior fowls to themselves, and yet they are said to be
improved. How can this be?
How can this be? Adding worse to good.
A mixture of blood is scarcely, if ever, a lasting success, but a certain
pure cross for table or laying purposes may be and often is useful and
profitable to a degree; but these never surpass an old and pure strain bred
to the qualities required, and the less so in the mixed breeds, by the variety
of form and color of individuals in the same breed.
Take as an example the old pure-bred, white-shanked, five-toed table
fowls that in themselves possess all the attributes of a culinary breed of
the very highest class. How is it to be improved, or in what way made
better? It has been unwisely advised to cross it with the Cornish Indian.
Where is the gain? The Cornish Indian, a cross itself, is a yellow-skinned,
yellow-shanked fowl, and does not fatten on the breast like the former; the
fiber of the flesh is short, close, and dry by comparison. Therefore you get
a worse fowl, a yellow-skinned and yellow-fatted fowl, and one that makes
more internal fat. You lose by this cross. Again, matched to a Cochin
or Shanghai, the chick is bigger boned, less breast, and yellower, coarser
flesh. Crossed with the Brahma, more bone, more offal, bigger in size, but
with not so much breast meat, nor so good as the old pure breed, and in
fact a worse result than from the mixture of the Cornish Indian. Even
the wonderful grand-shaped Azeel hardens the flesh and spoils the fatting
propensities of the first. As Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier rightly said, now
nearly fifty years ago, that which was well-known long before then, “You
cannot improve the Dorking." And that is true, for the sized bird; but if
50
The Poultry Book
a less is wanted, then an alliance with the old English white-shanked pit
Game will leave nothing to be desired, both parents being of the highest
class for table purposes. This is good matching, and the former wrong.
Before "matching" for a cross-breed, the first thing to be considered
is, where will be the gain? If you have a perfect breed for its purpose you
only injure instead of benefiting it by crossing, yet some varieties may be
so treated with profit. For instance, a loose-feathered, breastless fowl,
with large legs and thighs and generally feathered shanks, fattens very
readily, mostly so about the neck, forepart of the breast and back. Then
for this, an Azeel cock, with his highly, fully developed, close-grained,
meaty breast would make a most desirable cross, if a new style of fowl is
wished for; but the laying properties possessed by the former may be
seriously damaged-you cannot have both flesh and eggs from the sante
bird. I am perfectly well aware that for commercial purposes the contrary
has been asserted, and has been believed by the thoughtless and credulous,
but never by the experienced, cultured and reflective mind. The old
English white-shanked pit Game may be matched with advantage to the
Cochin, the Langshan and the Brahma, if fowls with larger frames than
ordinary for farmyard purposes are in demand; but here again there is no
absolute gain, for if some of the progeny equal, none will surpass the old
English farmstead five-toed breed pure and simple. In all cases of match-
ing, then, bear in mind, whether it is the stock of the pure breeds or cross-
ings, the full and persistent purpose should be to obtain birds at least as
good as the parents, but better if possible. And very few mixtures of
form, habit and breeds of poultry lend themselves to improve that which
generations of the most carefully organized treatment has rendered certain
breeds unsurpassed for whatever special purpose was considered attainable.
It must be borne in mind that the foregoing is from the English stand-
point, where none but fowls with white or flesh-colored shanks and what is
termed white skins are fully appreciated for poultry meat. To advocate
such for the American market would be disastrous if followed by the
American poultrymen, for the very reason that fowls with yellow shanks
and skin are in absolute demand. We find here in the States that in all
the competitions the progeny of the White Wyandotte male with Brahma
females have won nearly all the first prizes. But when a little larger
carcass was wanted the cross of Indian Game with the Brahma took the
lead. For broiler purposes, fowls of one and one-half pounds to the pair

Mating and Breeding
51
IN
ACK FROM A FORAGE
Array
17你
​dressed, the White Wyandotte stands at the head of the list, with the
Indian cross next. The Brahma chick makes a broiler of four pounds to
the pair in eight weeks, producing that weight four weeks earlier than will
any of the American breeds, thus enabling the trader to produce in his
plant 50 per cent. more pounds during the season. This practical side of
poultry culture, it will be seen, is controlled solely by country and locality,
in the consideration of which the breeder must use his individual judgment.
When the breeder is to sacrifice the advantages of pure breeding for kitchen
uses in both poultry and eggs, as in this case of the Wyandotte with Brahma,
not only does he produce the best broilers or roasters, but a larger number
of eggs per individual than the maternal ancestors, besides preserving in
a wonderful manner the size, shape and color of the Brahma egg. This
has had a good influence on Brahma eggs in the market in some places
over other breeds. Thus, the reader sees, it is impossible to advocate one
52
The Poultry Book
rule to govern all countries in this respect. There is no doubt for egg-
production alone the White Leghorn as a breed, or its male mated to
Brahmas, will produce the largest number of eggs per capita, but the meat
itself is of less value and excellence than those mentioned above. In these
days, when the thoroughbred is so popular, we think it far better to use
the pure breeds and sacrifice the lower half for kitchen uses. It will leave
the other half of superior quality. At the late Boston exhibition, single
males of the Buff Plymouth Rock breed sold for $300, and four females to
make up the pen for $200. Sales in New York have been made within
three years at $225; Light Brahma males $150; eight White Wyandottes
at $500 and single males as high as $125 each; ten Partridge Cochins at
$1,000; $500 refused for ten White Leghorns. With this array of facts it
seems foolish for any breeder to indulge in cross breeding when he can
reach all necessary points of excellence with the pure breeds at hand and
still have a chance to reach results such as quoted above.
EFFECT OF FOOD, SOIL AND SHADE
It behooves the breeder to exert himself in every possible effort to
furnish every condition that will secure a beautifully colored flock. Does
the partridge ever lay her eggs above a stratum of frost, or does she lay
in spring before the earth is warmed so that worms and insects come
to the surface in her feeding haunts? Does she molt after the
harvest is past? Does she seek
Does she seek the thick shades of the woods
during the middle of the day and the open fields along the outskirts of the
wood during the early morning hours? What lesson should we learn
from this other than that meat, vegetables and grains in about the pro-
portion of fifteen per cent. meat, twenty-five per cent. vegetables, and
sixty per cent. grains should be the daily food of our flocks; that the
chicks should be hatched with the early grass blades with tender food for
them; that our flock should be furnished shade where they may retire
in the heat of the day, especially during the molting season. When flocks
secure their adult plumage after the middle of September in New England
latitudes, they retain to the largest degree pure shades of their color.
Let a Plymouth Rock cockerel secure his adult plumage in July and a
brother in October. The former in January may be greatly tarnished,
while the latter remains bluish-gray and preserves his prime color through-
out the entire season. Soil and sun have, in my opinion, far more to do
Mating and Breeding
53
with good or bad color than any other two things. The finest colored
Partridge Cochins I ever saw were raised about an iron foundry, in a locality
heavily charged with iron deposits. These conditions will affect in a like
manner Golden Hamburgs, Golden Wyandottes, and all so-called buff
breeds; while all Whites or Barred Plymouth Rocks would suffer greatly
under such conditions, turning the Whites to a yellow shade and the
Rocks to a bronzed discoloration or cause the bars to become quite black
-all detrimental to their standard demand. The breeder of strictly
thoroughbred fowls will do well to profit by the above lesson from nature.
Give to all breeds ample shade and cool quarters in summer. They can
stand dry cold weather better than severe heat; damp cold weather is a
peculiar hardship for them.
For the game breeders, and those who are fascinated by the mixing
of colors in animated nature, we give below Mr. Weir's own words: Color
is much influenced by climate, food and locality, some places producing
deeper or lighter tones of browns, grays, buffs, etc., though the birds may
be fed in exactly the same way, with the exception of the herbage they
find, the insects, and the soil which is taken into the system in the form
of "grit." And also there are other causes, such as water, etc. A friend
of mine sent me some young dark Dorkings, rich and pure in color, and
white in shanks and feet. The next molt with me they showed much
white in their plumage, while none of his own changed a feather to white;
the third season of molting one hen became quite white. I gave her to a
lady who resides in Sussex, where the soil was impregnated with iron.
At her next change of feathers the hen became nearly her former dark rich
color, with only a few white splashes. Nor is this the only case by many
that has come under my observation. An old Game-fowl fancier, living
in Cornwall, showed me a few years ago a flock of most beautiful black-
breasted blood-reds. I have never seen better.
I have never seen better. He said that they were
the stock of a deceased friend, and had been bred by him for many years in
the state of perfection that I saw them. With the next molt nearly every
one was more or less splashed or ticked with white, which became on his
"walks" so persistent that he changed his breed.
I call attention to these few facts, and could give more, for the purpose
of showing that it is not always food, but the particular soil, etc., on which
the fowls range, that makes a considerable difference. It is so among our
wild birds. The Red Grouse of the Yorkshire moors are brown beside
54
The Poultry Book
the Scotch, while all others that I have seen look dark by comparison
with the bright reds of those on the island of Lewis. The late Sir Frederick
Millbank some years ago sent me three brace to testify to the fact.
But apart from this district variation, there are rules for mating in the
producing of certain tints, coloring and markings; and, as is daily proved
by color photography, nearly all may be got by a combination of three:
namely yellow, blue and red. Of these in "feather" breeding the yellow
is a natural color, sometimes found on animals and birds in a wild state,
as is the red and the blue, which last is the pallid of the black, with the
white or albino also found under similar circumstances. These are merely
differentiations from the normal color, and, therefore, by the fancier's
art are capable of intermixture, thus producing such variations as he may
consider beautiful or interesting. Thus you match a white cock with a
black hen, and if the colors are solid, without a break of any other, the
chances are in favor of the production of the blue. The white with the
light buff will produce a primrose color, with the light red a nankeen, and
if with normal that of a black-breasted red, sometimes a wheaten of light
red in the hens, or it may be a black, for white and black are nearly the
same in breeding color. An East Indian drake with our common white
ducks will often produce blacks; and Mr. Henry Digby informed me that
he got the larger-sized Cayuga ducks from a drake of the breed mated
with the modern Aylesbury duck. The normal color is the strongest and
most assertive, and black the next; while white is the most obtrusive, as
showing a weakness or lacking of color-pigment, coming as it does in old
birds, and yet from the young of these scarcely appearing as permanent
until at least the second molt.
The yellow, light fawn, fawn, or what in natural color is called the
Xanthus, are weak, and, applied to the normal, have the tendency to lighten
yet with the nankeen giving a warmth of hue and tone that is in some
particularly pleasing, while the light gray on blue cools and dulls, as may
be observed in the blue-dun Game-cock (Kentucky blue), which illustrates
a combination of the buff, light red and blue.
In natural or original coloring of the black-breasted red cock all the
long, attenuated, sharply lanceolated feathers, such as the hackles, etc.,
are of the brilliant character, filled with a catching iridescent light that
sparkles, comes, goes, and flashes in the sun; while those rounded, full and
wide are invariably black, with the exception of the primary and secondary
Mating and Breeding
55
on the wing, which are in shape different from the hackles, the breast or
thigh plumage. This being so makes a division thus: black-breasted red,
black-breasted gold, black-breasted yellows, silvers, grays, duns, etc.-
smock, or white-breasted reds, golds, yellows, grays, duns and blacks; in
each of these the spaces occupied by the colors are the same, the only
variants being the hue given to each, and these may be intercrossed with
ever-varying effects and beauty.
These would be to a degree on a par with the two-colored tulip, for
before the other breaks this often ensues. As in breeding white and black
are the same, so either mated with the primitive colors will produce either
birds mottled with white, or darkened with black spots or lacings. The
first is the true spangle, which should have a white tip to the feathers;
and the second, though called spangles, is not rightfully so.
spangled Game is the self or original color, white tipped, similar
to what was called speckles in the old five-toed fowls and other farm-
yard breeds.
The
A black cock allied to a partridge-colored hen will often produce the
superbly brilliant feathering of the black-breasted black reds, but this is
not always so. Birds of such chromatic shades are held in high esteem,
and are said to be possessed of unusual stamina. All the others, such
as turkey, starling, blotched, splashed and grizzle breasts, are the
foul-feathered, not bred for
varieties. The art in color-
breeding is to keep each
brilliant glowing and distinct,
each in its defined and proper
place, with the edge of contact
short, clean and true.

Just a few more words as
to the influence of the male
bird in cross-fertilization.
They are taken from "The
North British Agriculturist,"
of April 19, 1883: "The ex-
periment was that of Mr. Lewis
P. Muirhead, Helensburgh, and
was intended to indicate the
Photograph by C. Keid, Wishaw, N. B.
COCHINS
56
The Poultry Book
time, etc., that it would take to obliterate the characteristics of the
female of another strain. The female chosen was one of two La Flèche
hens with which the late Mr. Dring some years since won many prizes in
England, the type of comb shaped like a pair of horns, white earlobes
(these would be small), and white egg being strongly characteristic. The
males were reared from eggs laid by hens imported from Langshan,
north China, by the late Major Croad, of Worthington-upright serrated
comb, black eyes, black-feathered legs, red earlobes, and pink-buff eyes,
both breeds celebrated for their sheeny black plumage.
“First Cross.-Hen, Hamburg in type, rose comb, white earlobes,
bare legs, amber iris to eye, egg white.
"Second Cross.-Hen, leggy and awkward looking, double comb,
lobes white and patchy, amber of eye rather darker, egg cream color.
"Third Cross.-Hen, Langshan in appearance, comb waxy, eye
darker, egg pale buff.
"Fourth Cross.-Hen, quite Langshan, full-bodied, pink-toed, feather-
legged, dark-eyed, egg buff.
"Fifth Cross.-Hen, perfect Langshan, full-bodied, pink-toed, feather-
legged, black-eyed, upright comb, red earlobes, egg pink-buff; the chicks
were almost black in the first and second cross; light canary color, with the
black velvet jacket of the Langshan in the last three.
"The gradual alteration of the color of the egg from the pure white
of the La Flèche to the curiously characteristic pink-buff of the Langshan
in five generations is worthy of note.
"C
'What I am now coming to is the color of the shanks. The strongest
color in many breeds, and the most difficult to out-breed the stain of, is the
yellow. The blue is greened by it, and the white, as the pure soft-looking
milky white, is sooted and ruined. A cross was some years ago made
between a yellow-shanked Game-cock of wonderful color and two gold-
spangled Hamburg hens to give more brilliancy to their golden ground,
but failed entirely, for the reason that the yellow of the shanks could not
be eliminated. It was so, and is so with what is universally termed Dorking
improvement crosses. The mongrelism does show, and will show from
generation to generation, and a lifetime will not get rid of it. It shows
on the white shank and foot as horny in tint, then sooty more or less, and
often when supposed to be bred out will, when put to a pure old strain,
come out again in all its glory of pure yellow. I know this; I have seen it;
Mating and Breeding
57
and many a good and pure strain of white-shanked birds, both Game
and Dorking, has been ruined by the persistent actions of those ignorant
of the probable results. It is far better, if a cross is necessary with or
for a white-shanked strain, to make one with blue or slate than yellow.
Yellow is the very worst of all; it stains and tints the whole body and
system of the bird, while the first does not; both are difficult to breed out,
but the yellow is the most persistent, and where firm white flesh, fat, skin
and shanks are the points of excellence, it is grossly pernicious, and utterly
to be avoided."
In the above statements of Mr. Weir it is understood that he continu--
ally refers to foreign or crosses out of the breeds named, but climate has a
great influence. It has to be admitted that the yellow skin and scales do
constantly appear in shanks of breeds described as otherwise. So preva-
lent is it in Langshans that the judges in our exhibitions first take a look
at the bottom of the feet to see if the specimen is not disqualified for that
cause. It seems to be the first and strongest ancestral control; and that soil
and feed all tend to introduce this taint to all black- and white-shanked
breeds. Notwithstanding atavism is so strong in nature, yet man can and
does control in a wonderful degree by forcing the matings, and secures
results gratifying to behold. The breeder who knows nothing of the
ancestry of the fowls he mates may fail. But when our stock has been
carefully bred for a succession of years it furnishes the keynote to all science
in breeding. We can do no better than to search out the individual
specimen possessing the traits we covet, breed them in line, thus intensify-
ing their transmission in our flocks. It is thus only that we secure and
raise types recognized as strains. It is the control of these ancestral
influences by man's intelligence that gives us the results so infinitely better
than we see in natural selection and the survival of the fittest. It is not
strange that man works out these higher types of animals. Not even do
our flocks escape the inspiration, and new breeds come to the surface.
"There is a history in all men's lives,
Figuring the nature of the times deceased;
The which observed, a man may prophesy,
With a near aim, of the main chance of things
As yet not come to life; which in their seeds
And weak beginnings lie treasured."-SHAKESPEARE.
SHAKESPEARE.—2 HENRY IV..


BLACK-BREASTED BLACK RED GAME.
Halough W
900

EGGS FROM A COMMERCIAL AND GENERAL POINT OF VIEW
MILLER PURVIS, ILLINOIS
Man shall rise at the crow of a cock.”—Jeremiah.
""

GGS no doubt have been an important article of diet from
the earliest ages. The wild jungle-fowl of India (Gallus
bankiva) was domesticated long before history begins, and
the most ancient writings mention it. It is mentioned in
the Institutes of Manu, and Babylonian cylinders have been
found with the impressions of domesticated fowls on them.
Ever since history began poultry has been mentioned by historians, and
none of them has mentioned it as a newly acquired part of the established
order of things.
It is probable that the Aryan invasion of Europe marks the beginning
of poultry culture in the west, and since that time almost constant im-
provement has been made.
Even in the depths of Africa the first explorers were offered or were
able to purchase in the rude market-places of that dark continent both
eggs and poultry.
The Chinese and Japanese have been expert poultry breeders for many
centuries, and the large-sized fowls and ducks of China and the long-tailed
fowls of Japan are examples of the skill of these Oriental people in molding
and shaping the fowls they breed to suit their fancy.
The Black Langshan and the Pekin duck are examples of the skill of
the Chinese in this direction, and these breeds are to-day practically as
they were when first imported from China.
Eggs have had a place in the religious observances of both pagan and
Christian nations for centuries. The heathen offers them as an acceptable
sacrifice to his gods, and the Christian makes them so much a part of his
festival of Easter that the markets of the world feel the effect of the
increased demand at that season.
The Christian festival of Easter is an old Pagan festival engrafted on
the observances of the Christian Church. The early fathers found the
59
60
The Poultry Book
pagans of Europe celebrating a festival at the time of the vernal equinox.
in which eggs were used in quantities. It was not a violent change to
transform this celebration of the return of spring into one in memory of
the Resurrection. The egg was held as the symbol of the return to life of
that which had died; the pagans celebrated the revival of vegetation, and
the Christians changed this into a symbol of a new life for the soul of man.
It may be remarked in passing that there seems to be some connection
between the religious observances of a people and the type of the poultry
bred by that people. The Oriental uses fowls as sacrifices, and breeds his
fowls to large size, as witness the Asiatic breeds. The Christian of Europe
uses eggs in quantity at Eastertide, and his ancestors used them in his vernal
festivities, and the fowls of Europe are noted for their prolificacy. The
Malay delights in cock-fighting, and his fowls are the strongest and most
fierce of all the family, fighting to the last gasp with indomitable courage.
The egg is a good example of how nature adapts itself to environment
and conditions. Lay an egg on a plane surface and it revolves on its own
axis, having a tendency to occupy the same place. This is on account of
its peculiar shape, being pointed at one end and turning around without pro-
gressing. This pointed shape also serves to keep the larger end the highest
when it lies in a bowl-shaped nest, a position that is necessary during the
process of incubation, as the head of the embryo is always toward the
larger end and needs to be kept higher than the remainder of its body.
The shape of eggs is also the one that is best calculated to resist
attacks from without. The shell is composed of a very fragile material,
and it is so shaped that it resists considerable pressure from without,
yet at the same time is easily broken by the chick that, having arrived at
the end of the period of incubation, must break its own way to the outer
world.
Commercially, eggs have become an important factor in the business
of the world. Millions of dollars are invested in the traffic in them, and
immense buildings have been erected in which they are kept in cold
storage from the season of greatest plenty to the season when they are
scarcest. They are of great importance in the arts; and from furnishing
the albumen with which photographic paper is coated, to being used in the
making of fine leathers, hundreds of thousands of dozens are used.
Besides being held in cold storage from one season to another, they
are prepared in various ways for export to far-off countries. Large fac-
The Commercial Egg
61
tories are required to produce desiccated or dried eggs for the export
trade, and thousands of dozens are canned, frozen, and thus transported
to distant lands.
In many parts of the world there is a large trade in the eggs of wild
fowls, and at one time egg-hunting on the Farallone Islands, off the coast
of California, was quite an important industry. On the east coast of

SILVER-SPANGLED HAMBURGS
Photograph by C. Reid, Wishaw, N. B.
Virginia the eggs of gulls are often eaten, and on the coast of Texas a few
years ago there was a considerable trade in heron eggs.
As a rule, however, when we speak of eggs we mean hens' eggs, although
the eggs of ducks are of considerable commercial importance, and those of
geese and turkeys are quite often included as articles of diet-those of
turkeys rarely, as they are considered too valuable for hatching to be eaten.
Eggs of the different breeds of fowls vary considerably in size. The
egg of the diminutive bantam weighs about fourteen ounces to the dozen,
while the eggs of the Langshan hen or the stately and aristocratic Minorca
or Andalusian often weigh in excess of thirty ounces to the dozen. The
62
The Poultry Book
average weight of hens' eggs is twenty-four ounces to the dozen, or eight
to the pound.
It is usual to make no distinction in the market between the small,
the average and the large eggs, which is a manifest injustice to the seller
of large eggs. The only just way to deal in eggs would be by weight.
While this is almost universally conceded to be the case, so strong is the
custom of buying and selling by count that, so far as we know, there is no
market in the world where eggs are sold by weight.
The average hen's egg is 2.27 inches in length and 1.72 inches in diam-
eter at the largest place, and weighs about two ounces. The eggs of pullets
are almost invariably smaller than those of hens more than one year old.
Duck eggs are considerably larger than those of hens and usually
command a higher price. Guinea eggs are very pointed and considerably
smaller than hens' eggs. Goose eggs weigh from 5.5 to 6.7 ounces, or about
five pounds to the dozen.
The average hen's egg is composed of about 11 per cent. of shell, 32
per cent. of yolk and 57 per cent. of white. Some experiments at the New
York State experiment station indicated that the shells of white-shelled
eggs are slightly heavier than those of brown-shelled eggs.
It is because the general public has become convinced of the nutritive
value of eggs that they have assumed their present important position
commercially.
While they have long been considered what is commonly called
strong" food, they have been looked upon as more of a luxury than a
necessity, and the poorer people preferred to buy meats rather than eggs,
as a matter of economy.
((
A curious error exists in some markets concerning the quality of eggs
as indicated by the color of their shells. The people of Boston prefer eggs
with dark shells and will pay the highest price for them, while the people
of New York City prefer white-shelled eggs, and the highest priced eggs
in that city are those having white shells. In Chicago there is no choice
in the matter of the color of the shells, but it has been observed by those
who cater to the high-priced trade that it is advisable to assort the eggs
according to color and sell them in evenly colored lots.
As a matter of fact, it has been demonstrated by a series of careful
analyses that there is no difference in the food value of eggs with different
colored shells.

WSHI
FAIRLY
HENNY COCK AND HEN
The property of Mr. John Harris, of Liskeard,
#
The Commercial Egg
65
Eggs have been articles of trade ever since this country was settled,
but until quite recently they were not considered of great importance.
The production of eggs was left entirely to farmers, and by them the pro-
duction of eggs and poultry was not considered of great importance. As a
rule, every farm supported a flock of mongrel fowls which were allowed to
live by picking up stray grains about the farm and in the hog lots, and by
foraging about the fields for insects, seeds and other food such as they
could find. But little attention was paid to feeding them, and less to
providing a place where they might sleep in comfort through the winter.
Frequently no shelter whatever was provided for the fowls, they being
compelled to seek out their own resting-places in outbuildings or in the
trees about the farmstead.
No attempt was made to stimulate egg production, and such a thing
as feeding for eggs was unheard of. It was the common belief that poultry
did not pay for the damage it did to gardens and field crops; and the farm
flock was allowed to exist as a somewhat necessary nuisance to furnish
material to be used in cakes, puddings and other rural dainties, rather than
with a view to revenue.
As a result of this lack of method and almost absolute neglect, eggs
were not expected in winter, and were always scarce at that time in the
year, while their plentifulness in summer made them so cheap that fre-
quently they could not be sold except in the way of bartering them for
goods at local stores. From three to six cents a dozen was the usual price
in summer, and as there were none to be had at any price in the winter, it
is not surprising that poultry was held in low esteem.
About the middle of the last century, some ships trading with the
East Indies took on some very large fowls as a part of their food stores.
Some of these had not been eaten when the ships arrived in port, and they
were given to relatives of the captains of the ships, and at once created
a sensation on account of their immense size. The fame of the great
fowls from the Orient began to spread, and soon there was considerable
excitement concerning them. Stories were told of fowls so large and tall
that they could eat corn from the head of a flour barrel while they were
standing on the ground, and every one became anxious to secure some of
the large fowls.
This led to the importation of other fowls from the Far East, and the
poultry industry received its first impulse, an impulse that was destined
66
The Poultry Book
to produce great results and effect a revolution in the business of pro-
ducing poultry and eggs.
The first importations from Asiatic countries were tall, loose-jointed,
awkward, ungainly fowls of various colors. Some were reddish yellow,
others were grayish white, and others a mixture of almost every color
known to the gallinaceous family.
They were known by various names, such as Shanghais, Brahma-
Pootras, Chittagongs, etc. A few enthusiasts began to breed these various
fowls with a view to producing a degree of uniformity, and the result was
the evolution of several distinct breeds which are to-day known as Brahmas.
and Cochins, both of which breeds come in more than one variety. Later,
Major Croad, of the British army, sent to England a distinct breed which
he found in northern China, naming them, from the Chinese province
from which they came, Langshans. These were afterward imported to
this country, and since that time other importations of this breed have
been made. The Langshans were practically perfected when first imported,
and are now bred to models based on the original form and color.
This first beginning of the interest in pure-bred poultry was no doubt
the foundation of the present great poultry industry of this country.
Marvelous stories were told of their prolificacy, and the anxiety of
the people to procure specimens caused them to sell for very high prices.
Several years before the first importation of fowls from India and
China, there had been importations from Leghorn, Italy, but these had
not attracted much attention. About this time more Italian fowls were
brought over, and it was claimed for them that the hens would produce
200 eggs per year, and stories were told of specimens which had laid so
many eggs that they died of exhaustion.
The history of the introduction of these foreign fowls is rather hard
to unravel on account of conflict of authority, but the general facts are a
matter of common agreement among those who were living at the time.
Just when it seemed that the whole people were about to become
interested in poultry and the production of eggs, the Civil War began,
and for the next five years the people of the nation were so deeply engrossed
in military affairs that the poultry industry was allowed to sink out of
sight, so far as the general public was concerned, although a few enthusi-
asts maintained an interest in the subject.
Soon after the close of the war poultry breeding again became a matter

The Commercial Egg
67
of general interest, and beginning about 1870 the interest grew apace. The
fowls imported from foreign countries had been selected, mated and bred
until several distinct breeds had been perfected, and American breeders
began to introduce new breeds derived from crossing and intermingling
the blood of several of the older breeds.
Pure-bred fowls were imported and exported, and we began to hear
of "fancy" poultry, as distinguished from the common stock of the
Photograph by Charles Reid, Wishaw, N. B.
SILVER WYANDOTTE HEN AND EGGS
country. Poultry journals were established, and the trade in poultry for
breeding purposes and eggs from pure-bred poultry began to assume
considerable proportions.
From that time down to the present the traffic in eggs has steadily
increased in volume, and now eggs for hatching probably represent as
large a volume of business as the entire trade in them did fifty years ago,
while the transactions in eggs for food and other commercial purposes
represent millions of dollars.
Formerly it was necessary to make some final disposition of eggs
68
The Poultry Book
within a comparatively short time after they were gathered, or they would
become unfit for any use except for a few processes in the arts. This
made it necessary to handle them rapidly and get them into the hands
of consumers as quickly as possible.
Later the lime-water process of preserving or "pickling" them was
discovered, and merchants and speculators bought large numbers of them
when they were cheap and preserved them in great vats, in cellars, until the
time of scarcity, when they were brought out and sold at an advance on
the purchase price.
This method of keeping them was never entirely satisfactory, as the
eggs deteriorated in quality to a marked degree, and pickled eggs were
only used because fresh-laid ones could not be had.
Still later cold storage was devised, and as the processes by which a
low temperature could be maintained for an indefinite period were improved
more and more, eggs were put in storage in the summer when they were
cheap to be held until winter when they were high priced, until now the
business of putting eggs in cold storage is a very large one. Great cold-
storage warehouses are to be found in all the large cities and many smaller
ones in small cities and towns, and the business has assumed such
proportions that it affects the market price of eggs both summer and winter.
In summer the cold-storage speculators bid against each other for stock
to store until their demand increases the price. In winter, as soon as fresh-
laid eggs become scarce and the consumptive demand raises the price, the
cold-storage speculators withdraw their stocks from storage and put them
on the market.
-
Thus it will be seen that the effect of the placing of eggs in cold storage
is to make the price more uniform during the whole year than it was before
such methods were practised.
Eggs are bought in April, usually, for cold storage, and kept in store
until at such a time in winter as the price yields the holder a satisfactory
profit.
It is not always a money-making transaction to store eggs in this
way. Frequently the speculators bid the price for storage stock up to a
figure that makes it impossible to sell at a profit. This is especially true
if the winter should be a mild one and eggs should come in with any degree
of regularity during the cold months.
With the present transportation facilities it is a matter of small
The Commercial Egg
69
moment to transport eggs from the warmer parts of the country to the
colder ones, and if those who live in the southern States would take advan-
tage of the favorable climatic conditions that prevail in those States, and
make a special effort for the production of eggs in large numbers, it would be
a hard blow at the cold storage of eggs in the North.
The processes by which a case of eggs is gathered up in the country,
sent to the city, placed in cold storage and finally disposed of is quite
interesting.
Usually the eggs are gathered on the farms of the country and sold
for cash or bartered for trade at the stores in the nearest town. Here they
are packed in cases holding thirty dozen each and sent to the commission
merchant in the city. The commission merchant sells them to the cold-
storage speculator if a favorable price is offered. If the speculator does
not offer enough for them, they are sold for immediate consumption.
Before going into cold storage they are sorted, as only perfectly good
eggs are stored, and much care must be exercised in sorting, as a single
broken egg if stored may be the means of spoiling several others that lie
next to it in the case.
Candling eggs is a trade by itself, and in the large cities is done by a
well-organized union or guild of experts, who command good wages, as it
takes considerable practice to become an expert candler.
The term "candling" is used from the fact that sorting was formerly
done by the light of a candle. Now electric lights are used, and it is much
easier to select the good eggs than in was when a less brilliant light was used.
The candlers stand in a row facing a long bench or table in a hall that
is perfectly dark, except where a ray of electric light shines through a small
aperture in the opaque shade that covers the bulb. Attendants bring the
eggs to the candlers and take them away after they are candled and
assorted.
A case containing thirty dozen eggs is placed on the table in front of
the candler, convenient to his left hand. From this he picks up six eggs,
three in each hand, and by a peculiar twisting motion of his fingers rapidly
revolves each egg before the aperture in the light-shield, thus bringing the
egg between his eye and the light. The light shining through the egg shows
him at a glance what classification it deserves.
If the light shows evenly in all parts of the egg-shell it is called “fancy”;
if there is a faint tinge anywhere in it it is called "strictly fresh”; a more
70
The
Poultry Book
pronounced discoloration places it in the class of "fresh eggs." Either of
these classes are perfectly sound and wholesome and fit for human con-
sumption, the slight discoloration in "strictly fresh" and "fresh" eggs
being the result of age that allows the yolks to settle to one side slightly.
Any of these three classes may be kept in cold storage for an indefinite
time, under proper conditions.
If the candler sees a decided dark spot through the egg as he examines
it he calls it a “second," and if this spot is quite dark it is called a “spot.”
In a more pronounced condition of decay it becomes a "rot."
Play
Seconds and spots are sold to the cheaper trade, as they have not yet
got so far along as to be detrimental to the health, and a certain kind of
cheap trade disposes of them. Seconds, it is said, are frequently sold to
bakers, a statement that we have never cared to attempt to disprove.
Broken eggs are revealed to the candler as he gently knocks the eggs
together, his quick sense of hearing revealing this condition. As he dis-
covers the condition of the eggs they are placed in different receptacles,
each classification by itself. These candlers work with remarkable rapidity
and make their decisions without hesitation.
A machine has been devised to do this work, but it has never come
into common use. In this machine the lights are under a rolling platform
which carries the eggs along, the candler standing beside the platform and
selecting and assorting the eggs as they pass him. Those that are not
"fancy" or "strictly fresh" are picked off the platform, while those that
are allowed to remain are carried along and deposited in a receptacle at
the end.
After the eggs are assorted, those with the cracked shells are broken
by girls, who separate the whites from the yolks, placing each in tin cans.
When a can is full of either whites or yolks it is taken to the freezing-room
and frozen, to remain in that condition until sold. In some cases the
whole contents of the egg-shell are canned in this way, frozen and shipped
out of the country, large numbers of canned eggs being sent to Alaska
every year since the gold mines were discovered in that territory.
Even the shells of the eggs that are broken for canning are saved and
used for various purposes, such as one of the ingredients of poultry foods.
The eggs that are to be stored are placed in rooms kept cool by various
processes, usually by one similar to the one by which artificial ice is frozen,
and kept at a low temperature, a degree or two above freezing. The
The Commercial Egg
71

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management of a building in which eggs are stored requires nice manipulat-
ing. The temperature must be kept even, and the degree of moisture in
the air regulated to a nicety. If there is too much moisture in the air the
quality of the eggs will be injured, and if there is not enough moisture the
contents of the eggs will be likely to evaporate and injure their selling
quality.
Another way of keeping eggs in condition for use while being trans-
ported to foreign countries is by desiccating them. This method is not
yet in general use, and it is doubtful if it will ever become popular, as dried
eggs are not likely to become a favorite article of diet except where condi-
tions make it necessary to have them reduced in bulk to the smallest
dimensions. These exceptional calls for desiccated eggs are numerous
enough to keep several large establishments busy.
It is impossible to obtain data concerning the commercial transactions
in eggs further back than a few years, as they were not considered of enough
importance to become objects of statistical information. The writer was
one of the first to call attention to neglect in this direction, and some years
72
The Poultry Book
ago spent considerable time in an endeavor to estimate with some degree
of accuracy the number of eggs produced in this country. When these
statistics were first given out they were received with incredulity, and
were the subject of much good-natured raillery. However, when serious
attention was given to the matter it was found that the estimate was
lower than the facts justified.
:
Even yet it is very hard to obtain accurate information on this point,
as the average farmer still. suspects that his hens are not very profitable,
although this error is rapidly being dissipated by the mass of facts that
are being placed before him by the experiment stations, government
statisticians, State and national, and by private individuals who are inter-
ested in giving the facts the widest publicity.
The poultry press of the country has become a great means of dis-
seminating information on this subject, there being now in the United
States about sixty journals devoted especially to the poultry industry,
several of which have a wide circulation, one as many as 100,000 copies
each issue.
For the purpose we have in view it is not necessary to go very far back
into the statistical records, even if it were possible to do so. Except as a
matter of curious information, it is not necessary to know how many eggs
were produced one hundred years ago, nor what they were valued at.
One remarkable phase of the subject is the rapid increase of the egg
production of the country. While the statistics on this subject are no
doubt faulty to the extent that they do not with any degree of accuracy
give the number of eggs produced in this country, being entirely too low,
yet for purposes of comparison, one year with another, they answer very
well in showing the increase of the industry.
While the average farmer knows almost exactly how many bushels of
wheat or how many pounds of wool he produced the year before, he very
rarely knows how many eggs were produced on his farm. The writer
has had occasion to talk on the subject before a great many audiences
composed of farmers, and has many times asked that every one in the audi-
ence who knew exactly how many fowls there were on their farms would
rise to their feet. There never has been a response to a request of this
kind, except on one occasion a farmer arose and said he knew to a certainty
how many hens he had. When asked how many, he triumphantly replied,
"One," and sat down amid a roar of laughter.

SILVER-GREY DORKING COCK
Mr. Arthur C. Major's Crystal Palace (1902) prize winner
The Commercial Egg
73
Because of this general apathy concerning exact statistics relating
to the poultry industry the estimates furnished by various departments
are not at all exact, nor can they compare for accuracy with the statistics
on this subject published by European governments.
According to the census of 1890, the number of eggs produced during
that census year was 820,000,000 dozen, in round numbers. During that
year this country imported 15,000,000 dozen, which were valued at the point.
from which they were imported at $2,000,000. In 1890 this country
exported 381,000 dozen, valued at $59,000. Ten years later but 225,000
dozen were imported, valued at $21,000, and the same year 3,694,000
dozen were exported, valued at $641,000.
In 1901 the importation of eggs had fallen to 126,520 dozen, valued
at $10,515. The same year egg-yolks were imported to the value of $246.
In 1900 we exported 5,920,727 dozen eggs, valued at $984,081, and egg
yolks valued at $883. Thus it will be seen that during ten years there
has been a complete reversal of conditions so far as supplying the domestic
demand is concerned.
The increase in numbers is also very marked. As stated above, the
number of dozen produced in 1890 was 820,000,000, while according to the
census returns of 1900 the production during that census year amounted
to the immense number of 1,293,819,186 dozen. These at twelve cents a
dozen were worth $155,258,302, an immense sum for an industry that
only a few years ago was not considered of enough importance to have
a place in the industrial statistics of the country.
If we consider in this connection the number of eggs produced in
Canada the industry would make a still more impressive showing, as that
country has also been making rapid strides in egg production, and the export
trade has had the careful attention of the experiment stations, which have
encouraged it and have been at considerable expense to educate the farmers
of the Dominion concerning the importance of the industry and the most
economical methods for producing eggs.
Besides the regular commerce in eggs that are gathered up and dis-
tributed in the usual channels of trade, a great volume of business is done
in many parts of the country in the way of supplying eggs to private
families. With the increase of wealth in this country has come a class of
people who are willing to pay extra prices for articles of the finest quality.
Poultrymen, taking advantage of this fact, have begun catering to
74
The Poultry Book
this trade, and around the larger cities are many poultry farms the owners
of which sell eggs to private families at prices much higher than that paid
in the open market. The best hotels, restaurants and clubs also prefer to
buy all their eggs from one farm when they can do so, and are willing to
pay fancy prices for guaranteed stock.
It is customary for these egg-farmers to guarantee every egg they
sell to be perfectly fresh and not over a certain age, some living near their
customers making the outside limit as low as forty-eight hours.
In some cases the egg-farmers live as far as 300 miles from the market
they cater to, this distance allowing quick delivery by express. In New
York State there are a number of egg-farms the owners of which receive
large revenues from their egg trade alone, and all of the large cities are
becoming surrounded by farms of this kind, which are very profitable.
Some of these egg-farmers receive a stated price, say fifty cents a dozen
from November 1 to May 1 and a somewhat lower price for the remaining
months of the year.
Others receive a stated advance on the highest market
price the day the eggs are sent to market. One of these whom we know
receives fifty per cent. above the highest market price and another receives
fourteen cents a dozen above the highest open quotations, whatever they
may be.
This is a branch of the business that is capable of almost indefinite
expansion, as the demand for fancy eggs increases much more rapidly than
the supply.
In the vicinity of Petaluma, California, there is a whole community
that makes the production of eggs almost its only work. These eggs are
sold in San Francisco, and the number shipped from the one small town
is marvelous.
It is estimated that about 100,000 hens are kept in the immediate
vicinity of Petaluma, and the net profit from these is from $1 to as high as
$2.50 each in a year. This town is the most distinctively poultry town in
America, and its trade is constantly increasing. Here it is that we see to
what an extent the trade in eggs may be developed by carefully educating
the people to an appreciation of its possibilities.
With present facilities for cold storage on long voyages there is no
reason why the United States might not develop the trade in eggs until it
would become one of the leading if not the foremost industry in the country.
A considerable branch of the trade in eggs is that of buying and selling
The Commercial Egg
75
eggs for hatching. What this amounts to it is impossible to estimate even
approximately, but that it amounts to a large sum is evident from the
number of poultry breeders who annually advertise eggs for hatching for
sale. Some of the poultry journals have as many as 1,000 advertisements
of eggs for hatching in a single issue during the season when eggs for hatch-

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ing are in demand, and single breeders sell thousands or dollars' worth
every year.
I
Eggs for hatching are rarely sold for less than $1 per dozen and fre-
quently for much more. Breeders of great reputation sell eggs for as high
as $6 for thirteen, and one at least gets $1 each for eggs from his best fowls
and cannot supply the demand at this price.
While the business of buying and selling eggs has grown to be one of
great proportions, it is very generally believed by those who have given
the matter attention that it is yet in its infancy and that it will continue
to grow indefinitely and expand into one of the great branches of the
commerce of the world.
As the country becomes settled and the inhabitants crowd more
closely together the production of beef, pork and mutton must continually
76
The Poultry Book
decrease, as compared with the increase in the population, and this will
very naturally turn the attention of the public in other directions for food
to supply the place now taken by meats.
Poultry can be kept on a very limited area, and the production of eggs
can be carried on in confined quarters, and eggs will largely take the place
of meat.
These conditions, together with the increasing liking of the consumer
for eggs as a regular part of the daily food, lead us to believe that the
commercial egg is destined to become of more and more importance
as time passes.
FOREIGN EGGS
Of foreign eggs the American poultryman of to-day knows but little
from experience. As has been stated, but few eggs are imported into this
country from other countries, and a large per cent. of these are from
Canada, which we have ceased to think of as a foreign country, this being
especially true of poultrymen, who regard their Canadian brethren as
compatriots, and in no sense foreigners.
The duty of five cents a dozen that is collected on all eggs that are
imported into this country makes it unprofitable to bring them across our
borders in large numbers, except at times when they bring exceptionally
high prices, and the bulk of the importations come from that part of Canada
bordering our own country, these being carried over by the producers
and sold in towns and cities that lie on the border, such as Buffalo
and Detroit.
The average price of imported eggs for the five years from 1892 to
1896, both inclusive, was 11.8 cents per dozen, while the average price for
the five years from 1897 to 1901, both inclusive, had fallen to 7.8 cents per
dozen. During this period the price fluctuated from 4.9 cents per dozen
in 1898 to 9.5 cents in 1899.
A considerable number of eggs are received from foreign countries for
hatching, but no statistics concerning this branch of the industry are
available, as eggs for hatching are listed with those imported in a com-
mercial way.
w
The Chinese import a good many eggs which have been prepared for
food in the ways peculiar to that people, one Chinese delicacy being eggs
that have been buried for several years and are then used as appetizers.
It is not at all probable that the import trade in eggs will increase

The Commercial Egg
77
beyond its present limits unless prices should become very much higher
than they are now in this country.
This country is rapidly increasing the number of eggs produced, and
is now able to export large numbers at a profit, while those imported are
made more costly by the duty imposed on them.
The production of eggs in this country will naturally become more
and more a regular business, and the economies that are constantly being
devised, and the improvement in the laying qualities of our hens, which is
becoming more pronounced under the stimulus of good prices and insistent
demand, will make it possible for American poultrymen to compete in the
open markets of the world with the poultry breeders of any other country.
For these reasons the subject of foreign eggs has but little interest for
American poultrymen except as it relates to the methods that obtain in
those countries, and then only as a matter of information that has no
bearing on the financial aspect of the industry.

Photograph by courtesy of "Commercial Poultry"
WHITE WYANDOTTE COCK
Owned by C. J. Larson, of Illinois
78
The Poultry Book
STATES AND TERRITORIES
The United States.
North Atlantic division...
South Atlantic division.
North Central division.
South Central division.
Western division.
Alabama.
Alaska*.
Arizona
Arkansas.
California
Colorado
Connecticut.
Delaware.
Georgia
Hawaii*
U
District of Columbia.
Florida.
Idaho.
Illinois.
Indiana.
►
Indian Territory
Iowa.
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana.
•
· •
Michigan.
Minnesota.
•
·
Maine
Maryland.
Massachusetts.
POULTRY INTERESTS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1900
Number of fowls 3 months old and over.
June 1, 1900.
Number
of
Farms
5,739,657
677,506 605,732
962,225 850,074
2,190,567
2,014,138
1,658,166
1,441,315
242,908 184,021
223,220
I 2
5,809
178,694
72,542
24,700
26,948
9,687
269
40,814
224,691
2,273
17,471
264,151
221,897
Number
of
Farms
Reporting
59,299
46,012
37,715
203,201
154,659
191,383
5
3,304
150,922
55,479
5,096,252 233,598,085 6,599,367 5,676,863
19,281
23,004
9,312
95
34,950
45,505
228,622
173,098
40,575
214,832
155,834
234,667 211,891
115,969
89,695
195,136
907
12,739
247,034
208,652
48,043
42,295
Chickens
including
Guinea-fowls
30,504
185,2.41
136,623
27,952,114 529,932
22,293,912 810,975
123,469,068 3,072,456
50,299,631 1,876,382
9,551,296 304,950
4,737,606
176
165,200
5,393,157
3,947,200
Geese
Turkeys
968,761
1,073,026
628,866
8,004
1,107,816
4,549,144
31,888
516,412
16,600,728
II,103,006
129,326
6,043
140,661
158,356
30,781
7,717
19,045
46
32,869
103,416
4,672
10,211
440,020
345,379
1,960,505
18,907,673
11,966,843
6,849,079 279,749
3,890,563 115,921
92,509
424,306
275,330
1,564,853
6,437
2,113,544 101,782
1,625,269
8,033,531
7,730,940
3,018
191,863
193,143
144,527
908,908
1,899,026
2,589,104
135,103
243,657
840
378,475
28,419
2,576
3,530
6,438
16
36,658
208,997
75
3,850
307,657
271,004
77,216
223,612
97,768
541,576
169,936
4,566
33,389
6,389
73,257
90.975
Ducks
453,580
458,918
2,416,327
1,257,084
199,977
75,947
2,439
180,583
32,293
15,002
14,100
10,933
227
6,877
4,807.358 $85.794,996 $136,891,877 1,293,819,186 | $144,286,158
13,706,762 20,624,439 191,764,000
69,828,121
24,770,049
6,053,738
8,545,899 15,553,805 105,349,996
43,416,629
15,072,938
4,414,365
716,663,710
222,096,860
57,787,867
28,612,489
11,687,293
74,208,117
20,465,926
9,266,716
64,895
21,508
9,536
382,857
230,432
88,069
487,752
216,244
185,064
123,059
Value of
all
Poultry
June 1,
1900
9,708
56,930
46,017
106,399
127,035
1,409,269
166
80,798
1,540,006
1,877,489
393,219
644,050
357,475
3,108
394,557
1,458,055
38,237
203,127
6,415,033
4,222,409
515,384
6,535,464
4,356,997
2,723,221
1,057,889
Value of
Poultry
Raised in
1899
756,153
1,158,020
1,018,119
2,685,829
2,274,649
2,263,346
179
114,884
2,179,634
2,492,067
*Data for Alaska and Hawaii included in totals for United States, but not in those for the five geographical divisions.
587,536
984,207
596,391
5,480
574,703
2,481,610
61,546
282,468
11,307,599
8,172,993
647,844
9,491,819
6,491,183
4,970,063
1,425,116
Dozens of
Eggs
Produced
in 1899
955,468
2,077,490
1,407,681
4,551,945
2,927,717
18,778,960
1,043
819,507
25,694,800
24,443,540
5,704,290
7,959,430
3,571,870
42,580
4,214,186
15,505,330
155,710
2,879,590
86,402,670
70,782,200
6,949,640
99,621,920
73,190,590
35,337,340
12,820,290
Value of
All Eggs
Produced
in 1899
13,304,150
12,511,450
12,928,630
54,318,410
43,208,130
1,825,978
360
163,274
2,328,509
3,864,679
852,978
1,523,319
488,401
6,492
553,534
1,615,538
45,257
405,504
8,942,401
7,441,944
625,418
10,016,707
7,237,111
3,460,607
1,281,713
2,038,225
1,572,682
2,571,341
6,104,462
4,437,148

The Commercial Egg
79
STATES AND TERRITORIES
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire.
New Jersey
New Mexico.
New York.
North Carolina.
North Dakota.
Ohio.
Oklahoma.
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina.
South Dakota.
Tennessee
Texas.
Utah
•
·
Vermont
Virginia.
❤
•
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
•
●
•
•
•
•
•
POULTRY INTERESTS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1900-Continued.
Number of fowls 3 months old and over.
June 1, 1900.
Number
of
Farms
220,803
284,886
1.3,370
121,525
2,184
29,324
34,650
12,311
226,720
224,637
45,332
276,719
62,495
35,837
224,248
5,498
155,355
52,622
223,623
352,100
19,387
33,104
167,886
33,202
92,874
169,795
6,095
Number
of
Farms
Chickens
Reporting including
Guinea-fowls]
187,562
205,203
9,830
108,504
1,690
23,500
30,958
5,556
206,389
196,721
34,464
256,824
51,012
29,997
209,697
4,866
132,401
44,756
207,562
304,713
16,145
28,711
154,123
26,340
85,041
156,171
3,660
5,194,856 189,698
14,903,601
466,665
12,637
118,892
3,618
531,774
7,417,837
100,661
870,461
1,993,594
156,853
8,964,736
3,871,858
1,409,285
14,269,525
2,527,533
1,290,818
10,533,106
500,618
2,664,784
3,028,700
6,184,210
Turkeys Geese
534,842
806,451
4,590,311
1,196,639
2,759,585
8,097,399
142,136
2,386
32,378
3,805
190,879
120,737
39,073
362,924
86,450
36,031
259,824
13,562,302 648,671
10,649
22,689
207,075
4,604
120,140
53,740
193,397
29,155
105,265
155,121
3,664
357,963
428,307
2,629
74,007
880
1,289
10,518
830
45,933
284,424
17,206
179,665
12,934
26,580
60,780
6,335
83,543
33,334
391,698
415,709
2,759
5,187
125,495
64,488
129,948
102,224
1,312
Ducks
95,668
278,140
9,639
201,503
2,379
3,803
40,024
1,527
150,864
102,942
23,816
206,238
71,562
19,774
171,271
8,957
39,852
62,511
202,432
234,664
8,503
8,836
117,989
66,433
58,273
92,800
2,452
Value of
all
Poultry
June 1,
1900.
1,655,319
5,720,359
296,806
2,374,930
55,826
467,104
1,300,853
62,419
4,310,755
1,434,158
477,358
5,085,921
900,743
582,524
4,483,486
305,047
899,953
856,966
2,275,864
3,595,243
186,922
421,195
1,886,768
614,838
963,805
2,410,714
60,397
Value of
Poultry
Raised in
1899
2,387,484
9,525,252
398,487
3,299,044
71,175
610,696
2,265,816
90,152
6,161,429
2,689,970
594,751
8,847,009
1,303,460
826,687
7,151,243
398,790
1,539,755
1,020,382
4,282,740
5,311,362
262,503
689,109
3,744,654
848,291
1,843,752
3,398,427
79,488
Dozens of
Eggs
Produced
in 1899
18,942,090
85,203,290
3,002,890
41,132,140
589,490
7,005,180
11,942,816
839,890
62,096,690
17,704,020
7,438,400
91,766,630
13.724,900
7,709,970
67,038,180
3,217,310
9,007,700
17,349,750
31,807,990
58,040,810
3,387,340
6,271,880
25,550,460
7,473,790
17,242,400
46,294,580
937,570
Value of
All Eggs
Produced
in 1899
1,871,765
8,315,371
631,143
4,068,002
122,522
1,213,703
1,938,304
157,175
8,630,062
1,810,116
782,790
10,280,769
1,284,414
1,162,071
9,080,725
656,845
925,966
1,727,392
3,115,335
4,672,000
424,628
959,965
2,836,899
1,259,225
1,877,675
4,854,020
163,517

Weint
Sel
HAMBURG COCK'S HEAD
EGGS FROM A GENERAL POINT OF VIEW
MILLER PURVIS, ILLINOIS
SIDE from its commercial importance the egg has always
been an article of diet that has been held in high esteem,
even the most ignorant savages understanding its nutritious
qualities. Perhaps no article of diet is more universally
used than eggs. They are esteemed by all nations and
every shade of religious belief except, perhaps, some of the
stricter sects of India. Not only are the eggs of domestic poultry used, but
those of wild birds, turtles and fish are held to be a delicacy by the
different nations, according to the degree of civilization and national
customs. The Eskimos of the Far North seek the eggs of wild fowl,
while the natives of tropical countries dig in the sand for the eggs of
turtles as delicacies to be added to their food-supply. Even in civilized
countries eggs of certain wild birds are sought for food, and the eggs
of wild duck, plover, herons and other wild fowl are freely eaten, and
are, in fact, wholesome and nutritious.
The more civilized people could hardly dispense with it, and its place.
in the dietary rises in importance as cooking becomes more esteemed as
one of the sciences. While the egg has always been highly esteemed as
an article of food, its real value has only recently been demonstrated by
chemical analyses and careful experiments. Many extremely interesting
experiments have been made in testing the quality of eggs as an article of
diet, and some of these have produced surprising results.

81
82
The Poultry Book
STRUCTURE OF AN EGG
An egg is curiously constructed, and it may be interesting to examine
briefly how it is built up. The egg consists of three parts, commonly
recognized. These are the shell, the white and the yolk. The shell is
composed of calcareous crystals so united
that it is very porous, allowing the ingress
of oxygen in the process of incubation and
the egress of carbon dioxid, one of the
poisonous waste products of the processes
of life. Inside the outer shell is a membrane
of a fibrous nature, which is closely attached
to the inner surface of the shell, except at
SV
SH
Si

BA
Z
WA
WC
The Hen's Egg at the time of laying.
BA, plasteiern. SH. egg shell. SM, shell membrane. SV, air chamber.
WA, white or albanen. WC, chalaza, or twisted cord of deuser albumeIL Y, yolk.
Z, vitelline membrane.
[Adapted after Marshall]
the larger end, where it is divided and forms
a disk-shaped cavity which is known as
the air-space or air-bubble (su in the illustration). Inside the inner
membrane is a viscid fluid commonly called "the white," which consists
of 84 per cent. water, 12½ per cent. albumen, 1 per cent. mineral matter
and 2½ per cent. sugar. Suspended in the white is the yolk, a yellowish
spherical mass of matter consisting of 52 per cent. water, 45 per cent.
oil and about 1 per cent. each of coloring matter, albumen and mineral
matter.
The albumen or white is of different degrees of density. The yolk
retains its spherical shape for a considerable time, owing to the fact that it
is enclosed in a transparent membrane called the vitelline membrane. The
yolk, as shown at y, also consists of several layers enclosing a small whitish
ball or sphere, from which extends a canal terminating in a vesicle known as
the germinal vesicle. From opposite sides of the yolk extends twisted fila-
ments, as seen at wc, denser than the white, called the chalaza, which are
attached at the inner and large ends to the vitelline membrane and to the
inner membrane of the shell at the outer ends. The purpose of this is to
hold the yolk in position and at the same time act as a spring to counteract
the effect of sudden shocks.
The germinal vesicle is of such a nature that it invariably keeps the
side of the yolk to which it is attached on the upper side. This
germinal vesicle is the spot where the spermatozoa of the male is
deposited after copulation, and its characteristic of always coming to the
top, no matter how the eggs may be turned, is a natural provision that
Eggs in General
83
always keeps the embryo in such a position that the heat of the incubator
or of the setting hen is next to the embryo chick.
The yolk of the egg is formed in the egg-sac or ovary of the hen or
other female bird, and at the proper time, depending largely on the food
consumed and the time of the year, a yolk is detached from the several that
are to be found in the ovary and passes down the oviduct, the albumen
being deposited in the course of this passage, the inner membrane forming,
and finally the shell, and the perfect egg is expelled. As a rule, it requires
about two days for the yolk to become a perfect egg, but in several breeds
of hens eggs will be produced several days in succession, and in exceptional
cases this will continue for a considerable period, and an egg will be
deposited every day for a number of days.
The process by which the inner membrane is formed is not well under-
stood, but it is known that the shell is formed by the deposit of minute
crystals of lime on the inner membrane. Sometimes eggs will be deposited
without the outer shell, or with such a thin coating of shell material that
it breaks when touched. The inner membrane is usually strong enough
to hold the contents from being lost. These are known as soft-shelled
eggs, and are due to overproduction, or to some abnormal condition of
the organs that causes a suspension of the functions to the extent that
lime is not elaborated in sufficient quantity to supply material for the
shell. It will be seen that an egg is a very complicated structure,
composed of the most fragile materials, yet so put together that
it will withstand considerable rough usage without material damage
being done to it.
If a fresh egg is boiled hard and carefully dissected the different parts
can readily be distinguished and the several layers of the white and yolk
can easily be separated. Naturally eggs are not constructed for any
rougher usage than they would receive by being deposited in a nest and
covered by the female during the course of incubation. When carried
long distances by the ordinary means of transportation the several parts
are very likely to be disassociated to some extent, but if allowed to stand
for a day or two the natural condition will return.
Eggs are of various colors and the shells differ greatly in thickness
and strength. The eggs of most wild birds seem to have been designed
by nature in such colors as will cause them to be inconspicuous when
unprotected in the nest, but there are notable exceptions to this, as the
84
The Poultry Book

light-blue egg of the
robin or the pure white
one of the dove, both in
striking contrast to the
material usually found in
the nests of these birds.
The eggs of domestic
poultry vary greatly in
size, as has been noted in
a previous chapter. The
egg of the bantam will
weigh about fourteen
ounces to the dozen,
while that of the goose
will weigh as much as
five pounds to the dozen.
While not strictly
along the line of this
work, it is interesting to
note that all eggs are not identical in chemical composition. Birds are di-
vided into two distinctive classes. The young of one class are hatched with
a full coat of feathers, and of the other without plumage. The common
domestic hen belongs to the first class, the plumage being represented by
down, and the robin, dove and other birds are among the second class.
It is apparent that the egg that contains the elements which will
furnish a complete bird, including the plumage, must be more nutritious
than one that produces a bird without plumage. The eggs of the first class
are found on analysis to be the most nutritious. While it is commonly
believed that eggs contain all the elements of nutrition, this belief is an
It is true they contain all the elements necessary to the growth of
the young bird, just as milk is the natural and sufficient food for young
mammals, but eggs are not composed of all the elements of nutrition
necessary to mature growth.
error.
WHITE LEGHORN HEN-A PRIZE-WINNER
Owned by Henry Van Dreser, New York
EGGS AS CHARACTERIZED BY BREEDS
The eggs of birds have a wide range of color, as has been noted, but
those of domestic hens are not especially different. The colors range from

Eggs in General
85
pure white, through shades of cream color to yellowish brown or pink with
a purple tinge. The eggs of each breed have a distinct range of colors of
their own that do not vary, although several breeds may produce eggs of
the same general color. It is also true that individual hens often produce
eggs of a distinctive shape, which is easily recognized by the poultry keeper
who pays close attention to his flocks.
It has been determined, after repeated experiments, that the weight
of eggs in different individuals in the same breed of fowls will vary con-
siderably, and it has been noticed that generally the hen producing the
largest number of eggs will produce eggs that are smallest or weigh the
least, although this is not invariably the case.
acknowledged
The Hamburg class, which is
to be among
the most productive of all domestic poultry, produces the smallest
eggs of any breed.
The Leghorn family is probably next to the Hamburgs in egg-
production, and the eggs of hens of this family are rather small, although
recent attempts at producing a strain that will produce large eggs seem
to be meeting with some
success.

The Minorcas produce
very large eggs and a great
number of them. They are
a much larger breed than
the Hamburgs and con-
siderably larger than the
Leghorns, but not enough
SO to account for the
difference in the size of
the eggs produced by them.
The eggs of the Asiatic
family, which includes the
several varieties of Cochins
and Brahmas, are of good
size, but this class is not
included among the prolific
layers. It would not be
fair, however, to leave the
From a photograph
OLD-STYLE BLACK ORPINGTON
86
The Poultry Book
impression that all Cochins and Brahmas are poor layers, for there are
records of very notable exceptions to such a rule. Light Brahma hens
have been known to produce as many as 233 eggs in a year, and no doubt
proper attention to food and care would place this class in a higher position
than it now holds in this respect.
For the last twenty-five years poultrymen have been paying more
attention to perfecting the shape and color of the various breeds of poultry
than to the production of eggs, and this has beyond dispute led to a falling
off in egg-production. The establishing of egg farms in various parts of the
country has led to the more careful selection of hens with great productive
capacity. Several of the experiment stations have introduced the trap-
nest, by which hens may be identified with the eggs laid by them, and by
this means flocks of great egg-producing capacity are being built up and
strains are being established which will lead to a much greater average
production per annum than is now the case.
INFLUENCE OF FEED UPON EGGS
The public is largely in error concerning the nutritive qualities of eggs.
It is quite generally believed that an egg with a deep yellow yolk is more
nutritious than one with a yolk of a lighter color. It is also commonly
believed in some communities that an egg with a dark shell is more
nutritious than one with a pure white shell. Careful analyses fail
to uphold these opinions, which have no foundation on any well-
considered theory.
It has been found by repeated analyses that the color of the yolk or the
color of the shell makes no difference in the nutritive value of the eggs.
Eggs may vary slightly in nutritive value, but the analyses indicate that
the variation happens as often between eggs from hens of the same breed
as between those of different colors or shades of yolk or shell.
In the matter of flavor there is a very wide difference in eggs. While
no breed can be said to furnish eggs of a distinctive quality, the eggs from
one breed of hens being exactly similar in flavor to those of another, yet
the difference between the eggs of two flocks of the same breed, kept under
different conditions, may be very marked.
Fowls that are fed on clean, wholesome feed are superior in flavor to
those fed on inferior or tainted feed of any kind. Even musty or molded
grain, which fowls will eat readily, may impart to eggs a flavor that at
Eggs in General
87
once marks them as lacking in that delicious one that belongs to eggs of the
highest class.
Fowls fed on clean, sweet feed, sound grains, untainted animal
feed and sound vegetables furnish the highest quality of eggs. It is
not necessary that this
should be such food as
human beings would eat
to make the egg perfectly
good and of fine flavor.
A hen roaming the fields
may pick up many insects
and much food material
that would not be con-
sidered fit for human use
but which is essentially
free from decay or other
unwholesome qualities.
Such substances may in
the laboratory of the egg
organs of the hen be trans-
formed into eggs that could
not be distinguished from
those produced by the most
careful attention to feeding.
When hens are allowed per-
fect liberty and select their
feed from manure piles and decaying animal or vegetable matter, the eggs
take on a flavor that is at once detected by any one who attempts to eat
them after being accustomed to eggs produced from clean and wholesome
food-stuffs.

FIRST PRIZE SILVER WYANDOTTE COCKEREL
Owned by James Arthur, Canada
Experiments at the North Carolina Experiment Station showed con-
clusively that hens fed on strong-flavored feeds produced eggs with a
flavor characteristic of the feeds provided for them. When hens were
given onions freely the eggs were so strongly flavored with onions that they
were unfit for food, and several days elapsed before this flavor disappeared.
The New York Experiment Station made an exhaustive study of the
effect of the feed eaten by hens on the eggs produced by them, and these
88
The Poultry Book
experiments led to the conclusion that hens fed on highly nitrogenous feeds
produced eggs that were inferior in flavor to those produced by a carbon-
aceous ration. They had a disagreeable flavor and odor, the eggs and
yolks were smaller and the keeping qualities not so good.
At the Hatch Experiment Station, in Massachusetts, cabbage and
clover were fed to different lots of hens, and it was found that the
eggs from
hens fed cabbage, while heavier and containing a larger percentage of
dry matter, were inferior in flavor and cooking qualities to those from hens
fed clover.
It is logical to conclude from these several experiments, all of which
were very carefully conducted by those with experience in experimental
work, that the quality of eggs depends in a great measure on the quality
of the feed the hens consume.
To sum up the whole matter, it is perfectly safe to say that color of
shell, color of yolk or breed has nothing to do with the nutritive value or
flavor of eggs, but that feed is the sole factor that influences for good or
bad in this respect.
EGGS OF OTHER FOWLS
The eggs of turkeys are so seldom used for human food that it is not
worth while to consider them in this connection. Those of ducks are con-
sidered “rank" and of an undesirable flavor for human food, although a
goodly number are used for this purpose. They are so much larger than
hens' eggs that they command a premium of a few cents a dozen in most
places, and for this reason farmers usually sell them, reserving hens' eggs
for their own use. Bakers and confectioners are partial to the eggs of
ducks, as they are said to be superior to hens' eggs for their uses.
Goose eggs are also of more pronounced flavor than hens' eggs. They
are often sold in the markets at about twice the price of hens' eggs, and,
like duck eggs, go generally to bakers and confectioners.
The eggs of the Guinea-fowl are quite small and are not greatly esteemed
on this account, although the flavor is not at all disagreeable, the Guinea
being rather dainty in its selection of feed, searching diligently for worms,
insects and seeds. The number produced is inconsiderable and probably
is not increasing.
JUDGING EGGS
There is really no standard by which eggs are judged in this country.
It is so seldom that a prize is offered for eggs that no serious consideration

Not
WHITE LEGHORNS.
The property of MRS. LISTER KAY. Winners of many prizes.
Eggs in General
89
has been given to the subject, except in cases where some one who has been
called upon to act as judge has formulated a standard for his own use.
Some years ago the New York Poultry Bulletin published the following scale
of points, but it has never been generally adopted:
Eggs
1. Weight..
2. Freshness.
•
3. Color of Yolk.
4. Flavor...
5. Consistence of Albumen
6. Even Color of Shell
7. Thickness of Shell . .
8. Perfection of Outline.
9.
Freedom from Ridges.
10. Cleanliness .
•
露
​•
Points
20
15
ΙΟ
ΙΟ
IO
IO
спел сл
5
5
IO
100
At the Boston Poultry Show, January, 1903, Mr. George V. Fletcher,
who judged the eggs, used a standard of his own devising, as follows:
Perfection Cuts
30
Shape-Large and oval and showing a similarity in size.
Color-Very dark brown for brown eggs and very white for white eggs over all
the shell.
Weight-The heaviest standard and others to be cut one-half point for every
ounce under the heaviest .
Condition-Fresh laid and perfectly clean.
Total.
·
40
15
15
100
Disqualifications-Double yolk, unsound and cracked eggs.
Commenting on this, The New York Produce Review says:
“Of course in formulating a score-card on the point system, the effort
should be to allot more or less points to each element of quality according
to its relative importance in affecting value. There might be some
difference in a proper apportionment of the points according to the use to be
made of the scoring. If the score-card were designed for judging fancy
hennery eggs sent to a poultry show (when freshness might be taken more
or less for granted), it might be proper to lay relatively greater importance
on size and color, but even for such use it appears absurd to allot forty points
of the 100 to color and only fifteen to freshness; then it would seem absurd
to give shape twice as many points as weight.
"I suppose it will be a long time before eggs are scored on the point
system for regular market grading (if, in fact, they will ever be so graded),
but the above attempt suggests the possibility, nevertheless, and it may be
90
The Poultry Book
interesting to consider what kind of a scoring basis would be practical. Of
the elements of quality we should say that the essentials, placed in the order
of their importance in affecting value, would be: First, freshness; second,
size; third, cleanness; fourth, packing; and the relative importance of these
elements of quality represented in points might be, for freshness fifty points,
for size and cleanness twenty points each, for packing ten points.
In our opinion, either of these standards could be very much improved.
Inasmuch as it is impossible to test an egg for flavor without destroying it,
and no one egg can be taken as representing the flavor of any other, it seems
to us that size, color and shape should be the three factors chiefly considered.
Minor points would be condition, relating to cleanliness and freshness,
and manner of packing—this on the supposition that no one would exhibit
a stale egg.
If the judging were for market qualities, condition would be
counted as fully of as much value as size. However, the matter is yet of
very little importance, and is only referred to in this connection that it may
suggest some concerted action that will lead to the establishing of a recog-
nized standard by which eggs may be judged uniformly wherever exhibited.
59
M
LAYING QUALITIES OF BReeds
The laying qualities of some of the breeds of fowls kept in this country
have been already referred to. When we begin the discussion of this point
we are well aware that we are on dangerous ground for two reasons:
Each breed and variety has its champions among the many poultry breeders
of the country, and no champion is willing to acknowledge that his breed
can be beaten by any other. 2. There has been so little done in the way
of keeping accurate account of the actual production of eggs by the different
breeds that it is not possible to give exact figures except in a few cases.
The experiment stations of the country have not been greatly inter-
ested in this phase of the subject and have given but little attention to it.
A good many reports have been made by poultry keepers, but most of these
lack in some respect and cannot be put forward as tests that have been so
carefully made as to be accorded a place as records on which to base positive
statements. We hear about flocks that will average 200 eggs per year for
each hen in them, but we have abundant reasons for thinking these are
more in the nature of guesses than actual accounts carefully kept.
I.
It is usually believed that the Hamburgs are the most persistent
layers of any breed commonly kept, but as far as we have been able to learn


GILL ENG - NY.
PRIZE-WINNING PLYMOUTH ROCK COCKEREL
Owned by E. M. Gill, New York
(Second at New York Poultry Show in 1903)
Eggs in General
93
there is not a single record upon which to base a belief of this kind. The
Hamburgs are no doubt good layers, but they do not lay in cold weather,
and it is probable that their persistent laying during the summer, when the
larger breeds are inclined to sit, gave them their reputation for prolificacy.
The Hamburgs were never very popular in this country, and it is probable
that fewer of them are now bred than was the case a few years ago.
The Mediterranean class is highly esteemed for its laying qualities and
is steadily becoming more popular with those who make the production of
eggs a special feature. This class includes the several varieties of Leghorns,
the Minorcas, the Anconas and the Black Spanish. All of these are good
layers, and the laying qualities of the breeds are steadily being improved
through the careful attention of egg-farmers. The White Leghorn is the
most popular variety in this entire class, and a large number of the great
egg-farms of this country are stocked with White Leghorns exclusively.
This is especially true of the great egg-farms of New York and those around
Petaluma, California, where there are very few flocks of any other variety.
Next to the Mediterranean class comes the American class, which
includes the Plymouth Rocks, the Wyandottes in all their varieties, the
Javas and the American Dominiques. These are usually called general-
purpose fowls, but recent attempts at improving their egg-producing
qualities have succeeded to such an extent that the Wyandottes promise
to become known as a very prolific breed.
The Orpingtons have not been bred long enough in this country to
establish their qualities, but from reports that come from breeders they
seem to be a promising breed for the production of eggs. As they are a
new breed, in which there is a Hamburg cross, it is probable that they will
prove to be among our best layers and possibly take first place among the
larger breeds.
Among the Asiatic breeds, which include Brahmas, Cochins and
Langshans, the latter are generally most highly esteemed as egg-producers,
the Light Brahmas coming next and the Cochins considerably below
these.
The Dorkings, the French and Polish breeds are not highly esteemed,
although the Houdans are fairly prolific, laying a large white egg. How-
ever, they are not classed among the most popular fowls in this country.
The Andalusians and the Minorcas are both fairly good layers, and some
strains of each breed are among the best, and great pains are being
94
The Poultry Book
Min
Tur
taken to improve them in
this respect. Statements
are frequently found in the
newspapers ostensibly giv-
ing the number of eggs
produced per annum by
the different breeds, but,
as we have said, these are
simply guesses, and in
almost every instance
where careful records have
been kept it has been
found that exceptionally
good layers and very poor
ones may be found in the
same breed.

Light Brahma hens
have been known to lay
more than 230 eggs in a
year, and where good care
and proper attention to
kind and quality of feed is given this breed is no doubt a very good one
for the production of eggs. The writer has known a flock of Single Comb
Brown Leghorns to lay an average of 179 eggs each in a year, but this
flock was given every attention.
LANGSHAN PULLET
Bred by Harrison Weir-Third generation from imported birds
At the Maine Experiment Station 126 Plymouth Rock hens were tested
for one year, after they first began laying. Of these, 24 produced from
160 to 206 eggs, but three making a record above 200. Of the same flock
there were 22 hens that failed to lay as many as 100 eggs during the first year
after beginning to lay. Some of this flock made a record as low as 36 eggs
during the year.
At the same time 56 White Wyandottes were tested and 9 were found
that laid from 165 to 208 eggs in a year, 3 laying 200 or more. Of this flock
7 laid fewer than 100 eggs, the lowest record being 59. Of 56 Light Brah-
mas tested in connection with the two flocks above referred to, 6 laid from
179 to 194 eggs in a year, 5 laid fewer than 100, ranging from 55 to 87, and
45 from 100 to 160 each.

Eggs in General
95
The Farmers' Sentinel for February 12, 1903, gives an account of a
flock of White Leghorns numbering 900 that averaged 197 eggs each
during one year, but gives no information as to how the record of this flock
was kept.
It is conceded that if the best hens in any flock were selected year after
year and used for perpetuating the flock there wou'd be a rapid and marked
improvement in the yield of the flocks of the country.
INFLUENCE OF FEEDS
Some experiments at the West Virginia Experiment Station proved
that the feed provided for laying hens makes a great difference in their pro-
duction of eggs. These experiments showed that a nitrogenous ration
promoted egg-production to a remarkable degree. The fowls used were as
nearly identical in age as possible, and all the conditions were exactly the
same in caring for the two lots except in the quality of the feed provided
for them.
Both lots were fed in the morning with ground feed mixed either with
boiled potatoes or
steamed clover hay. The
carbonaceous lot were
fed principally on corn in
the shape of meal, while
the nitrogenous lot were
fed a mixture of brown
middlings, oil meal and
ground oats and corn-
meal in varying propor-
tions, for their grain
ration. At noon the
nitrogenous lot received
a feed of ground fresh
meat at the rate of from
five to eight pounds to
the 100 birds. At night
the fowls in both flocks
were fed all the whole
grain they would eat up

Avery
LANGSHAN HEN
Bred by Harrison Weir-Third generation from imported birds
96
The Poultry Book
clean, consisting of corn, oats and wheat screenings, corn predominating
for the carbonaceous lot.
At the beginning of the experiment the fowls were weighed. The
experiment continued for seven consecutive months, and during that time
the nitrogenous fowls gained in weight about one pound four ounces each,
while the gain in weight for the carbonaceous lot was only about one-
tenth of a pound each.
In this experiment one pen each of Light Brahmas, White Leghorns and
Rhode Island Reds were used for each kind of feed. At the end of the seven
months the nitrogenous-fed fowls had produced eggs as follows: White Leg-
horns, 72.03 each; Light Brahmas, 40.41 each; Rhode Island Reds, 62.15 each.
The carbonaceous-fed fowls had produced eggs as follows: White Leghorns,
33.92 each; Light Brahmas, 22.74 each; Rhode Island Reds, 40.42 each.
During the seven months the nitrogenous-fed pens, calculating 100
hens to the pen, laid 17,459 eggs, and the carbonaceous-fed pens 9,708 eggs.
Thus it will be seen that the nitrogenous feed not only added to the weight
of the hens, but stimulated them to produce nearly twice as many eggs as
were produced by the carbonaceous-fed hens. The value of the eggs pro-
duced was as $194.84 to $119.06 in favor of nitrogenous feed.
Allowing market price for added weight and eggs produced, the three
pens fed on nitrogenous feed yielded a profit above cost of feed, during the
seven months, of $97.90, while the profit from those fed on carbonaceous
feed was but $20.59. As the experiment began in October and was con-
tinued through the winter, the egg-production was very good.
In every case the eggs from nitrogenous-fed hens were heavier than those
from the hens fed on a carbonaceous ration, the difference averaging a little
over one pound to 100 eggs. Incubation tests showed that the nitrogenous-
fed hens produced better eggs for hatching than the carbonaceous-fed lots.
Of two lots of eggs, one from hens fed on each kind of feed, the nitrogenous-
fed eggs showed 65 infertile, the carbonaceous-fed 129. Of the nitrogenous
lot 260 hatched, and of the carbonaceous lot but 146. Sixty-six per cent.
of the nitrogenous eggs hatched and but 47 per cent. of the carbonaceous lot.
It was found that eggs from nitrogenous-fed hens hatched about twelve
hours the sooner and that the chicks were stronger than those from eggs laid
by carbonaceous-fed hens. These experiments were repeated the next year
with almost identical results, showing the importance of proper feed in the
production of eggs in numbers and in their quality when used for hatching.
V

Eggs in General
97
One curious result of the different kinds of feed was noticed. The
shells of the Light Brahmas fed on nitrogenous feed were pinkish in color,
while those fed on carbonaceous feed were of various shades of brown.
LAYING CAPACITY OF BREEDS
In Bulletin 29, United States Department of Agriculture, Mr. T. F.
McGrew gives the following as the average egg-production in the breeds
named under the
agement: Barred
Rocks, 150 per
mouth Rocks,
Comb Brown
Single Comb
160; Silver Wy-
very best man-
Plymouth
year; Buff Ply-
150; Single
Leghorns, 160;
Buff Leghorns,
andottes, White
and
Rhode
Wyandottes
Island Reds,
In The Busi-
150.
Publishing Com-
1892, page 57,
a well-known
poultry subjects,
a flock of White
bering 600 which
erage of 168 eggs
As he gives
this is probably
correct for that
writer visited
in 1902 and found descendants of the fowls Mr. Chapman described
ten years before, and was led to believe the flock had been improved
since that time.
ness Hen, Rural
pany, New York,
C. E. Chapman,
writer on
says he visited
Leghorns num-
produced an av-
each in one year.
quite full details,
approximately
flock. The
the same flock

BLACK HAMBURG HEN
James Long's first prize
We may safely take it for granted that it would not be a hard matter
to breed a flock of fowls of any of the popular breeds that would average
150 eggs per year, and by careful selection and the use of trapnests this
yield could without doubt be increased one-third.
Taking the census returns, which show an average of about
five dozen eggs per hen, it is readily seen that there is abundant
98
The Poultry Book
room for improvement in the matter of egg-production in the flocks of
this country.
It is noticeable that in every contest that has been held, and in
every experiment public or private, it has been pure-bred hens that have
excelled as layers. The ordinary mongrel stock of the country does not
make large egg records. In fact, it is altogether probable that the average
"native" or cross-bred hen is kept at a very small profit at the best, and
often at a positive loss.
The importance of keeping pure-bred fowls is becoming better under-
stood all the time, and the proportion of mongrels is growing smaller con-
stantly. This is shown when we compare the census reports of 1890 with
those of 1900, the average production of eggs per hen during that time.
having increased about 100 per cent.
-
It has repeatedly been shown that the most profitable year of a hen's
life is the year after she first begins to lay. There has been considerable
speculation as to the number of eggs it is possible for a hen to produce
during her lifetime, and some investigators have placed the number as
high as 600, estimating that these would be produced during nine years.
The modern poultryman cares nothing about the possible number of
eggs a hen can produce. What he cares most for is the profitable number,
and the general rule of egg-farmers now is to sell the hens at the end of the
first year after they begin laying, say at about the age of eighteen
months, having pullets coming forward to take their places. Where this
rule is practiced every effort is made to promote early maturity, strong,
vigorous growth and the greatest possible egg-production.
As older hens produce the best eggs for hatching, it is common to
reserve enough stock to furnish eggs for hatching from birds two years old,
but this will require a comparatively small number, and the rule of keep-
ing only pullets for egg-laying holds good. No doubt the low average pro-
duction shown by the census reports is due in some measure to the fact
that many farmers keep their hens year after year until many of them have
ceased to lay more than a few eggs each season.
The natural time in the year for a hen to lay is during the spring and
summer. The original Jungle Fowl laid twenty or thirty eggs, hatched her
brood and reared them, and her work for the year was done. Under the
influence of domestication the laying period has been extended to nine or
ten months of the year, the average hen laying some eggs during every
Eggs in General
99
month in the year except during the molting period, or while incubating
and brooding her young.
It is usual for hens to fail to produce eggs during the period of molting,
although good layers will produce an egg occasionally even while taking
on a new suit of plumage. Usually it requires about three months for a
hen to molt and resume laying regularly. This leaves about nine
months in the year as the period of possible egg-production. In the
case of the Wyandotte hens we have referred to which produced 200 eggs
in a year, it will be seen that in the space of nine months they produced
eggs to the extent of about four times their own weight, as the American
Standard of Perfection fixes the weight of a Wyandotte hen at six and one-
half pounds, and when in full laying condition they rarely reach this
weight.
WINTER EGG-PRODUCTION
It makes considerable difference to the poultryman whether his hens
produce eggs freely in winter or not. During the winter eggs are usually
three or four times the price they can be sold for during the summer, and
it follows that the winter-laying hen is the most profitable one to keep.
Therefore, during the last few years much attention has been given to
promoting egg-production in the winter months. The Langshans, the
Plymouth Rocks, the Light Brahmas and the Wyandottes are more
inclined to lay in winter than any other breeds, and will produce a few eggs
during this season without having extra care.
The noted laying breeds, such as the Leghorns, Minorcas, Andalusians
and Hamburgs, are naturally somewhat sensitive to cold, and to induce them
to lay during the winter they must be given the best care and properly
prepared rations.
It is now very well understood that in order to promote the production
of eggs beyond the normal number hens must be fed such feeds as contain
the elements of which eggs are composed. The large percentage of
albumen in the composition of an egg indicates the necessity of a ration
rich in nitrogenous elements, while for the fats in the yolks the need of
carbonaceous feeds is indicated.
Animal feed of any kind is rich in the albuminoids, and the leguminous
plants are also among the nitrogenous feeds. This led to careful experi-
ments in feeding fresh bone, ground fine, butchers' scraps from which the
fat had been removed, and finally to dried and ground beef scraps so
100
The Poultry Book
prepared that but little fat was left in them. These are now sold almost
everywhere, so prepared that they will remain fresh and sweet for an
indefinite time if kept dry.
Peas, beans, clover-hay cut in very short lengths or ground into a meal are
also used—the cut or ground clover in very large quantities, large factories
being operated to supply the demand for it, and several large factories are en-
gaged in making dried and ground beef scraps for poultry feed. Dried blood
is also esteemed as an exceptionally good egg-food. Green vegetables, such as
cabbages and any of the root crops, are used to furnish vegetable feed of a
succulent nature, which has been found to promote the production of eggs.
By providing warm houses, well lighted and kept in a sanitary condi-
tion, and feeding these special feeds in addition to the ordinary grains grown
on the farm, it is now quite possible to stimulate the hens and furnish
conditions so nearly natural to the normal period of laying that many
flocks produce eggs freely during the severest weather of the year.
At the West Virginia Experiment Station two flocks identical in every
respect were fed the same kind of feed and given the same care except that
one flock was kept in a cold house and the other in a house that was per-
fectly warm and comfortable. The flock kept in the cold house laid 4,136
eggs, while the flock kept in the warm house laid 5,239, a difference in favor
of the warm house of 1,103 eggs, worth at the time the experiment was
made $22.06. This is only one of many experiments that have been made
along the same line, and in every case the results have agreed with those
obtained in this one.
COST OF EGG-PRODUCTION
Some interesting experiments have been made to determine the cost of
producing eggs. Unfortunately, in all these experiments the items of
interest on investment, depreciation of plant and cost of labor was not
considered. Therefore the results have shown only the feed-cost. The
writer kept careful account with a flock of Single Comb Brown Leghorns
for one year and found the feed-cost of the eggs produced by this flock was
almost exactly 5.25 cents per dozen.
In a prize competition made under the auspices of the Ohio Farmer
several years ago the writer was selected to award the prizes. Seventy-two
flocks were in the competition, and this lasted from May 1st to November
Ist. The cost of the eggs produced by these flocks during the period of the
tests was almost exactly six cents a dozen.
Muou

Eggs in General
IOI
The Canadian Department of Agriculture asked of a large number of
poultry breeders the cost of eggs to them, and the replies indicated that
between five and six cents a dozen was the average feed-cost in the
Dominion of Canada. From December 1, 1901, to March 29, 1902, a period
of seventeen weeks, the New York Experiment Station at Ithaca, in that
State, conducted an experiment in which ten of the best-known poultrymen
of New York kept account with their flocks, each feeding in his own way.
There were 12 flocks on the 10 farms, ranging in number from 25 to 600,
the aggregate being 2,133 hens. The average feed-cost of a dozen eggs
during this time was 16.3 cents, the lowest being 8.7 cents for a flock of
White Leghorns and the highest being 33.9 cents for a flock of Black
Minorcas. It should be remembered that this test was made during the
most unfavorable time in the year.
SELLING EGGS BY COUNT OR WEIGHT
The universal custom of selling eggs by count cannot be explained on
any logical ground. It is a remarkable example of the persistence of an old
custom, inaugu-
rated when
the eggs of the
country varied
very slightly in
size and weight.
In buying any
other com-
modity the price
is regulated by
some fixed
standard, and a
certain weight
or measure is
used by which
the cost is fixed
and made uni-
form. Eggs,
whether large
or small, are

SHANGHAI OR COCHIN HEN
Middle Period type
Ahea
102
The Poultry Book
sold by count, and the only unit by which the cost is fixed is the
dozen or, in England, the score. Whether the eggs are from Hamburgs
and weigh twenty-one ounces to the dozen, or from Minorcas and weigh
thirty ounces to the dozen, the price is the same if the two varieties are
offered in the same market at the same time. It is manifestly unjust
that this custom should prevail, for the breeder of Minorcas furnishes
50 per cent. more food when he sells a dozen eggs from his fowls than is
the case with the breeder of Hamburgs.
The North Carolina Experiment Station took this matter up and has
published some interesting notes concerning it. The eggs of a number of
breeds of hens and pullets and of Pekin Ducks were carefully weighed and
their comparative value computed. As a rule, the eggs of hens were larger
than the eggs of pullets of the same breed. The eggs of Pekin Ducks were
considerably larger than the eggs of any breed of hens. These duck eggs
averaged, taking those from old and young ducks together, 35.6 ounces
per dozen. The largest eggs of any breed of hens were those of the Light
Brahma, these weighing 28 ounces to the dozen. Eggs laid by Barred
Plymouth Rocks and Black Langshans weighed a trifle more than
26 ounces per dozen; Brown Leghorn, late hatched Plymouth Rock,
White Wyandotte and Buff Cochin eggs weighed from 21.7 to 23.7
ounces per
per dozen.
The heaviest pullet eggs were those of Black
Minorcas, which weighed 26.5 ounces per dozen. The lightest pullet
eggs were laid by Single Comb Brown Leghorn and Silver Wyandotte
pullets, these weighing 17.5 and 22.1 ounces per dozen respectively.
The eggs of Barred Plymouth Rock, White Plymouth Rock, White
Wyandotte, Black Langshan and Buff Cochin pullets weighed not far
from 24 ounces per dozen.
All these eggs were worth in the local market, at the time the matter
was being investigated, 13½ cents a dozen. Taking the eggs of the Single
Comb Brown Leghorn pullets, which were the lightest, as the basis of com-
parison, we can easily compute the value of those of heavier weight. The
Brown Leghorn eggs weighed 17.5 ounces per dozen, and at 13½ cents per
dozen were worth almost exactly 12 cents a pound. This would make the
eggs from Brown Leghorn hens, weighing 21.7 ounces per dozen, worth
16.3 cents per dozen, and those from Light Brahma hens worth 20.7 cents
per dozen, or about 60 per cent. more than the price the market afforded
for them.


SCOTCH GREY FOWLS
Eggs in General
103
The following tables from Farm - Poultry, January I, 1900,
give the
the breeds investigated, the number of
of eggs weighed, the
weight per dozen and the comparative value per dozen, all arranged
to show at a glance the injustice done to some breeds by selling
eggs by the count.
COMPARATIVE VALUE OF EGGS BY WEIGHT AND PER DOZEN
Weight
No. of
eggs
laid
per
doz. oz.
26.3
402
Barred P. Rock hens..
Barred P. Rock hens (late
hatched)..
Barred P. Rock pullets.
White P. Rock pullets.
White Wyandotte hens.
White Wyandotte pullets... 689
232
613
535
S. L. Wyandotte pullets. .
S. C. Brown Leghorn hens...
S. C. Br. Leghorn pullets.
Black Minorca pullets.
623
•
•
·
•
•
·
•
• •
Black Langshan hens
Black Langshan pullets..
Buff Cochin hens. .
Buff Cochin pullets.
Light Brahma hens.
412
Light Brahma pullets .
Pekin ducks, old and young 448
•
•
554
506
478
•
354
463
827
518
83
118
23.5
24.2
23.6
23.5
23.6
22. I
21.7
17.5
26.5
26.5
24. I
23.7
23.4
28
23.4
35.6
Cents
S. C. Br. Leghorn pullets. 13.5
S. C. Br. Leghorn hens 16.3
S. L. Wyandotte pullets.. 16.6
Light Brahma pullets.... 17.54
Barred P. Rock Hens
(late hatched)
White Wyandotte hens.
17.6
17.6
White Wyandotte pullets. 17.7
White P. Rock pullets. 17.7
Buff Cochin hens..
17.8
Light Brahma hens
Pekin ducks.
•
·
·
• •
•
•
Black Langshan pullets..
17.8
Barred P. Rock pullets .. 18.2
Barred P. Rock hens.
19.7
19.9
Buff Cochin pullets.
Black Langshan pullets.. 19.9
Black Minorca pullets
19.9
20.44
Black Langshan hens . .
21 6
26.7
•
-
•
·
•
•
•
•
Percentage
above mar-
ket value
20.7
23
30
30.4
30.4
30.4
31. I
31.8
31.8
34.8
46
47.2
47.2
47.2
51.4
60
97.8
Until it becomes customary to sell eggs by weight there will be no
incentive for the poultryman to undertake to increase the size of eggs.
Indeed, it is to his advantage under the present custom to produce small
eggs, for they can be produced at less cost. At the Maine Station it was
found that increasing the number of eggs laid by a flock of hens reduced the
size of them to a marked degree.
VALUE AS FOOD
A discussion of this subject would not be complete if we were to
omit reference to the value of eggs as an article of diet and showing
how they compare with other common articles of food. The following table
shows the average composition of eggs, egg products, and other common
articles of food. It was prepared by Doctor C. F. Langworthy for the
United States Department of Agriculture:
104
The Poultry Book
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF EGGS, EGG PRODUCTS, AND CERTAIN OTHER FOODS
Hen:
Whole egg as purchased.
Whole egg, edible portion.
White..
Yolk
Whole egg boiled, edible portion .
White-shelled eggs as purchased.
Brown-shelled eggs as purchased
·
Duck:
Whole egg as purchased.
Whole egg, edible portion.
White..
Yolk
Goose:
•
•
Whole egg as purchased..
Whole egg, edible portion.
White...
·
Yolk
Turkey:
Whole egg as purchased. .
·
Whole egg, edible portion.
White.
Yolk
Guinea-fowl:
Whole egg as purchased . .
Whole egg, edible portion
White..
Yolk
Plover:
Whole egg as purchased a .
Whole egg, edible portion a
Evaporated hens' eggs..
Egg substitute.
•
•
•
Pudding (custard) powder a
Cheese as purchased ..
Sirloin steak as purchased..
Sirloin steak, edible portion.
Milk...
•
•
Oysters in shell as purchased.
Oysters, edible portion. .
Wheat flour...
Potatoes as purchased.
Potatoes, edible portion.
a European Analyses
•
*
Carbo-
Fuel value
Refuse Water Protein Fat hydrates Ash per pound
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Calories
II. 2 65.5
II.9
9.3
73.7 13.4
10.5
86.2
12.3
.9
.2
10.7
10.9
13.7 60.8
70.5
87.0
45.8
14.2
13.8
16.9
12.8
49.5
73.3
65.6
64.8
SI.4
20
59.7
69.5
86.3
44. I
63.5
73.7
$6.7
48.3
60.5
72.8
86.6
49.7
13
34.2
15.7 33.3
13.2
I 2
11.8
10.8
II.9
II.2
I 2 I
13.3
II.I
16.8
I 2.0
62.6
78.3
•
12.9
13
13.8
11.6
17.3
I 2.2
13.4
11.5
17.4
II.9
13.5
II.6
16.7
25.9
16.5
54
61.9 18.9
87
16.1
86.9
3.3
I.2
6.2
12.5
14.5
II.4
1.8
2.2
36.2
12.3
14.4
.03
36.2
9.6 67.3 9.7 10.6
74.4 10.7
6.4
46.9
73.9
II.7
36
II.4
2. I
9.7
II.2
I 2
32.9
02
.03
9.9
I
31.8
.03
I
.3
3.4
33.7
16.1
18.5
4
•
·
2
2
I
I
7. I
5.3
80.9
2.4
10
·
5
.7
3.7
75.1
14.7
IS.4
I.O
.6
I. I
.8
.6
.8
I.O
.8
•
I
I 2
•
7
•
.8
1.3
I
.8
.9
.S
I.2
2
.9
.8
.9
.S
I.2
I
I
3.6
9. I
.6
3.8
.9
.9
.4
. 5
со ел
.8
635
720
250
1,705
765
675
695
750
860
210
1,840
760
865
215
1,850
635
720
215
1,710
640
755
215
1,655
625
695
2.525
1,480
1,690
1,950
985
1,130
325
45
235
1,650
310
385
The above reports of analyses show that eggs consist chiefly of two
nutrients—protein and fat—in addition to water and mineral matters rep-
resented by the ash contents as given in the table. Usually it is stated that
Eggs in General
105
eggs are entirely deficient in carbohydrates, but strictly speaking this is not
true. They contain a trace of carbohydrates, but so small is the quantity
that it is negligible for all practical purposes.
The protein is that element which builds up the muscles, skin, hair,
nerves, brain, viscera, bones and tissues generally. The fat is useful in

F
Photograph furnished by Miller Purvis
SPLENDID LOT OF WHITE WYANDOTTES
furnish-
ing energy, that power which keeps the vital
spark burning and enables us to live and move. Some energy is also
derived from protein, and in case carbohydrates or fat is lacking protein
supplies all of the energy.
As eggs are deficient in fat, it will be seen that the common custom
of combining eggs with bacon or ham is an effort to balance the food,
unconsciously though it may be made. The potential energy of fat is about
2.4 that of carbohydrates, and the use of bacon with eggs makes a very
fairly balanced food.
In composition eggs resemble such foods as meat, milk and cheese much
more than they do any of the vegetables. In nutritive value eggs stand
between cheese and milk or oysters. They very closely resemble average
meat in composition. From the chemical composition they are shown to
belong to the same class as other animal foods, and may take the place of
them.
106
The Poultry Book
Elaborate experiments both in this country and Europe have demon-
strated that eggs are equally digestible with other foods of their class and
that they are more thoroughly digested than most foods of similar com-
position. In conducting dietary studies it has been found that eggs at
12 cents a dozen were a cheap food, at 16 cents they were fairly expensive,
and at 25 cents they were considered very expensive.
It is frequently said that eggs at 25 cents a dozen are cheaper than
beef. This is true in one respect. For a family of five it would require
at least one and one-fourth pounds of beef, costing 25 cents, while in most
families five eggs costing approximately 10 cents would satisfy the appetite
as well and serve exactly the same purpose. Even if the family would
eat two eggs apiece, the saving would be 20 per cent.
During a dietary study at Lake Erie College made by Miss Bevier,
now of the Illinois College of Agriculture, and Miss Sprague, it was found
in boarding a club of young ladies that eggs costing $2.50, when selling at
162 cents per dozen, took the place of beefsteak costing $6.12, the beef-
steak costing 17 cents per pound: that is, ten dozen eggs would take the
place of thirty-six pounds of beefsteak. However, it is not to be under-
stood in this case that the eggs were a perfect and complete substitute for
the beefsteak as far as nutritive value was concerned, for no account was
made of the nutrients in the other foods consumed at the same meals.
The eggs merely supplied and satisfied the appetite as far as animal food
was needed much more cheaply than this could have been done if beef-
steak had been used in their place.
Palatability has much to do with the value of foods, although why this
is so is not well understood. Eggs are relished by almost every one, old
and young, while meats are rejected by a good many people. For this
reason eggs may sometimes be used when meats would not be available.
Occasionally a person will be found who is made ill by eating eggs. Such
cases are no doubt due to some individual predisposition or idiosyncrasy,
as it is not rare to find those who cannot eat certain articles of diet in
common use.
Medical literature contains very few cases of poisoning from eating
eggs, so the danger from this source is very remote. Commonly such cases
are due to ptomaine poisoning induced by eating eggs that are stale. In
these days of sanitary precautions common prudence would point out the
necessity of providing clean nests and clean runs and houses for laying hens.
Eggs in General
107
THE PRESERVATION OF EGGS
Much time has been expended and many different processes tried in
efforts to discover some method of preserving eggs for an indefinite time.
Although it is generally conceded that no process is yet in use that will
preserve eggs for a very long time, keeping them in perfect condition, yet
we constantly see in the public press announcements of the discovery of
some wonderful preparation by which eggs can be preserved for a term of
years, remaining perfectly good in every respect.
As a matter of fact, those who have given this matter the most atten-
tion are quite generally agreed that the preserving of eggs for an indefinite
time is beyond the range of possibilities. They argue that any process that
would preserve the eggs from gradual deterioration, if not actual decay,
would necessarily render them unfit for food, and that to undertake to
preserve eggs fresh and sound is impossible.
So far, cold storage in specially prepared buildings is the best means of
preserving eggs in even tolerable condition for as long as a year. Usually
eggs are not stored more than a few months at the longest. It is a well-
known fact that eggs kept in cold storage lose flavor and deteriorate to
such a marked degree that one accustomed to eating perfectly fresh eggs
will detect them at once when put before him on the table.
Many times eggs that have been kept in cold storage take on
a peculiar musty taste that makes them unpalatable to those who have
been accustomed to fresh eggs, and the best of cold-storage eggs lose that
appetizing flavor found in new-laid eggs. For culinary purposes,
such as making cakes and other made dishes, cold-storage eggs are fre-
quently almost as good as new-laid ones, but after they have been stored
from April, the usual time for putting them in storage, until December or
later, they lose much of their palatability when cooked alone.
The keeping of eggs in cold storage has been treated in the chapter
devoted to "Commercial Eggs" (see Part I), and need not again be
taken up in this connection. Many solutions have been tried as egg-
preservatives, and many of them have proved fairly efficacious when
the eggs were to be kept only a few months.
When it is desired to preserve a small number of eggs for family use,
or even to supply a limited local demand, there are several solutions that
will answer quite well for this purpose. These do not require expensive
apparatus or special buildings, and are adapted to the use of those who
108
The Poultry Book

Photograph by C. Reid, Wishaw, N. B.
YOUNG SILVER BLACK-LACED WYANDOTTE
want to preserve eggs from the
time when they are plentiful
until the time when they
become scarce.
Before considering solu-
tions it might be well to note
the most favorable conditions
under which eggs can be pre-
served. They should be from
hens that have no males run-
ning with them, as an infertile
egg keeps longer, even without
the use of a preservative, than
does a fertile one. The reason
for this is that an infertile egg
does not contain the life prin-
ciple. It is merely an inert
and dead combination of sub-
stances provided by nature
for the support of the embryo
chick during the process of
incubation.
When an egg has become fertilized it contains a minute germ which
is alive and under proper conditions is capable of growing into a perfect
chick. This cell or germ is alive as long as the egg remains fit for food,
for when it dies the process of disintegration that sets in in the germ com-
municates the elements of decay to the remainder of the egg.
It should be remembered that the contents of the egg-shell are not to
be confounded with the chick that may be hatched from the egg. In fact,
the embryo, the microscopic speck of protoplasm in which the life principle
resides and is preserved, in a fertile egg, bears exactly the same relation to
the other contents of the egg-shell that the loaf of bread in a baker's window
bears to the man who purchases and eats it. The contents of the egg-shell
are the food on which the embryo grows and matures into a perfect chick.
The processes by which this cell grows into a perfect chick may
not properly be taken up in this chapter, but it is an exceedingly
complicated and interesting one, and one who studies it comes as near
Eggs in General
109
to seeing the beginning of life as he could in studying any other phase
of animate existence.
If this life principle is not present in an egg the tendency to decay
and the disassociation of the elements contained in it are considerably
retarded. This is proved in the case of infertile eggs placed in an incu-
bator. At the end of three weeks there is no change in them that can be
observed, either as to condition or flavor. Except for the natural prejudice
that exists against such a course, an infertile egg that has been in an incu-
bator for three weeks is exactly as good as it would have been if it had been
left on the outside. But if there has been a life germ in the egg, no matter
how weak it may have been, even if it should have lived but a day after
incubation had begun, the egg containing it decays and the contents
become very offensive in appearance and smell.
For this reason infertile eggs should be selected when they are to be
preserved. These eggs should be perfectly fresh, also, for it has been found
that unless fresh eggs are
used the deterioration
is marked, and if an egg
in which decay has set in
is placed in the same
vessel with others it is
likely to injuriously affect
all the surrounding ones.

The eggs that are to
be preserved should be
clean, as filth of any
kind clinging to the shells
is likely to taint the pre-
serving solution and thus
taint the eggs in it.
No cracked eggs
should be placed with
sound ones, and great
care should be taken not
to crack them when put-
ting them in the solution.
Eggs that are in a
Ph tograph by C. Reid, Wishaw, N. B.
SILVER BLACK-LACED WYANDOTTES
IIO
The Poultry Book
preservative solution should be kept in a moderately cool room, a dry,
clean cellar preferably, as the temperature should be kept as nearly
constant as possible with ordinary good care.
It has been found that identical solutions did not act in the same
manner in different places, and it may be said they showed different results
at times in each experiment made. For instance, the same processes used in
Montana, Ottawa, Canada, and Berlin, Germany, gave different degrees of
satisfaction. The Canadian experiments, continued through several years,
did not exactly agree with a very careful series of experiments made at the
Montana Experiment Station.
As many processes are recommended and advertised for sale, it might
be well to recount some of the failures as well as the successes.
Montana experiments two solutions were used, as follows:
In the
1. Lime, 3 pounds; salt, 4 pounds; water, 8 gallons.
2. Water-glass, I part; water, 18 parts.
About sixty dozen eggs were put in each solution and the experiment
was continued for six months. When examined the water-glass was found
to be the best pickle, although the lime solution served its purpose very
well. The whites of the eggs preserved in the lime-and-salt solution were
found to be much more watery than was the case with those kept in the
water-glass solution.
Those kept in the water-glass were difficult to distinguish from per-
fectly fresh eggs, as the white was quite firm and the yolk stood up upon it
just as it does in a fresh egg.
Another advantage of the water-glass solution is that it does not affect
the shell, as is the case where the lime solution is used. Eggs from the
lime-and-salt solution were found to be very liable to crack either from
handling or when cooking.
Water-glass or soluble glass is sodium silicate or potassium silicate,
the commercial article frequently containing both. It is not necessary to
use the chemically pure product, the ordinary commercial water-glass being
sufficiently pure, unless it is adulterated. Sometimes it is strongly alka-
line, and this should not be used. It can be bought of almost any drug-
gist. In Montana it costs about 75 cents a gallon. Usually the price runs
from 134 cents a pound in carboys to 10 cents a pound in small lots. It
comes either as a smooth, slippery, sirupy liquid or in powders. The liquid
form is preferable. Only pure water should be used in making the mixture,
-
Eggs in General
III
and it is best to boil it and let it cool before using. Earthen jars are
recommended to hold the solution, and these should be perfectly clean. If
kegs or other wooden vessels are used they should be very thoroughly
scalded and cleaned before being used. Sometimes the specific gravity of
the solution is greater than that of the eggs. When they float to the top
from this cause they should be weighted down to keep them entirely
immersed.
At the Central Experiment Farms, Ottawa, Canada, Frank T. Shutt,
M. A., conducted a long series of experiments in preserving eggs, with the
following results, the eggs having been kept in the different preservatives
from May 14th to December 14th, a period of seven months. When
examined, the eggs kept in saturated lime-water showed the white
somewhat more limpid than in a fresh egg and faintly tinged with yellow.
Yolk globular, but in one or two cases attached to the shell. No
offensive odor, and appearance, both externally and internally, good.
Discoloration of white somewhat more pronounced on poaching, with
development of very faint musty odor. Though not equal to a fresh egg,
they were quite usable and in no sense offensive.
Where saturated lime-water, with the addition of 1 per cent. of salt,
was used, the appearance was very good both externally and internally.
White very slightly tinged with yellow and somewhat more limpid than in
saturated lime-water alone. Yolk, globular; air space, normal. Faint
odor, somewhat more marked on poaching. Nothing disagreeable in eggs
uncooked or cooked; egg quite usable, but lacking the flavor of a fresh egg.
Compared with eggs kept in saturated lime-water alone they were on
the whole slightly superior. In eggs kept in saturated lime-water with
a 2 per cent. addition of salt the yolk was quite limpid and slightly
brownish. They were fairly well preserved, but not equal to either of
the foregoing.
Common salt solutions, 1 and 2 per cent. respectively, did not give good
results. Eggs smeared in vaseline and then kept in lime-water showed
markedly colored white and a decidedly musty odor. Eggs covered with
paraffine and kept in lime-water were decidedly inferior. Eggs kept in a
5 per cent. solution of sodium aluminate were fairly good in appearance,
but had a musty odor.
Eggs kept in a 2 per cent. solution of water-glass had a marked soapy
odor, and, on being poached, a stale flavor.
112
The Poultry Book
Mr. Shutt concluded that the saturated solution of lime-water gave
the best results and was the cheapest and pleasantest to handle of all the
processes experimented with.
This does not agree with the Montana
experiments, nor with a series made
in Rhode Island, where a 10 per cent.
solution of water-glass kept eggs
in good condition from May 20th
to April 4th following, or a period of
eleven months. From 120 eggs
preserved in this solution not one
was bad, and the water-glass
solution was pronounced the nearest

Comidas
WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS
D. E. & A. J. Blick, Illinois
talestinTA
to a per-
fect egg
preser-
vative
that had
yet been
found.
In this
experiment every other process failed
in every case. Further experiments showed
that a 3 per cent. solution of water-glass was as effective as the one
containing 10 per cent. The cost of preserving eggs with this solution
Eggs in General
113
6.
is placed at two-thirds of a cent per dozen, this including the cost of the
vessel they were stored in.
An elaborate series of experiments in Germany did not agree with the
Canadian experiments, but partially agreed with the Montana and Rhode
Island experiments in regard to the value of water-glass in preserving eggs.
Usually preserved eggs do not beat up well and are of little use for
making cakes and other similar purposes where they must be whipped.
Where they are preserved in water-glass they have been found to beat up
or whip as well as fresh eggs.
In view of all the evidence we have been able to get we are inclined to
say that the water-glass solution is the best one that has yet been tried.
EGGS FOR HATCHING
The production of eggs for hatching has become of great importance
since the advent of pure-bred poultry, and the high value of the eggs makes
it necessary to take pains to have them of strong vitality in order to secure
good hatches, and to handle them carefully to prevent the destruction of
the life principle.
It has been found that eggs from hens that have been stimulated to
induce egg-production during the winter do not hatch well, as a rule. No
doubt this is due to the low vitality of the hens, they having been
exhausted by the long period of production.
Eggs from hens that are too fat or too poor do not hatch well, and it
is necessary to provide some means to induce the hens to take exercise in
order to have fertile eggs strong in vitality.
Very often a portion of the hens in a breeding flock will not allow the
attentions of a male placed with them. To guard against this it is best to
have two males with each pen, using each on alternate days.
If the male is active, vigorous and full of life he usually pays more
attention to the hens, being too gallant to eat until they are satisfied and
no longer hungry, by which time there is nothing left for him, and it is not
unusual for a male of this kind to become very thin in flesh, when the hens
will no longer produce fertile eggs. This is another argument in favor of
isolating the male every other day, as during the rest-day he will eat freely.
Eggs that are to be used for hatching should be gathered several times
a day if the weather is at all cold. Eggs have been known to hatch well
when left overnight with the temperature down almost to the freezing
114
The Poultry Book
point, but it is generally believed that a temperature of 45 degrees F. is
as low as is safe for best results.
It is best to set eggs immediately after they are laid. It has been found
that eggs set the day they are laid hatch from twenty to thirty hours sooner
than those two weeks old when set.
It is not possible always to set eggs immediately, and often they must
be kept for several days before they are set. Good hatches are frequently
got from such eggs, but it is best to give them good attention from the
time they are laid until they are set. They should be kept in an even
temperature between 45 and 60 degrees F., if possible, and should be turned
over every day. Some poultrymen use a specially designed rack in which
the eggs are each held separately with the pointed end down, and at least
one such egg rack is so constructed that the shelves on which the eggs are
held may be turned so as to turn the eggs as frequently as desired.
Eggs are sent from England to America, and from America to England,
Germany and even to Australia and hatched, but the percentage of chicks
hatched is variable. We have known twelve eggs sent from England to
America to produce ten chicks, all of which lived, and we have known fifty
eggs to produce but three chicks, two of which died in a few days after
emerging from the shell.
Eggs are frequently shipped thousands of miles and a good hatch is
had from them. When the eggs are strongly fertile it is not unusual to
have every egg in a clutch hatch, even after they have been sent hundreds
of miles. Once in a great while there is found a hen the natural tempera-
ture of which is not the proper hatching temperature, and in such cases the
best eggs will not hatch.
There are several specially designed egg baskets and boxes on the
market, made for sending eggs for hatching long distances. Where these
can be procured it is best to use them, as they cost but a few cents each.
Where it is impossible to get these, a light basket may be used. The writer
always wraps each egg separately in paper and packs them closely in the
basket or box, first placing a layer of excelsior or cut straw in the bottom.
The same material is placed between the eggs and another layer on top of
them. The top is then put on, leaving the eggs so closely packed that they
cannot move from their position. The elastic material serves as a cushion
to take up sudden jars and the jolting of railway trains. The small end
is always placed lowest. Packed in this way we have shipped eggs that
Eggs in General
115
went thousands of miles by rail and then were carried a long distance by
stage and yet hatched well.
After eggs for hatching have been received from any considerable
distance they should be allowed to stand for twenty-four hours before being
put under a hen or into an incubator. The constant jarring received on a
journey disorganizes
them in a measure,
and if they are
allowed to stand
quietly for a day
they will return to
the natural condi-
tion and the various
elements resume
their normal rela-
tions to each other,
and a better hatch
will be got from
them.

A Man
There is no
known means of
distinguishing what
the sex of a chick
hatched from any
particular egg will
be. This matter has been so thoroughly tested that there remains no
room for doubt. Neither is there any method of mating fowls that will
govern the sexes. It was at one time thought that mating a cockerel
with old hens would produce a preponderance of pullets, but this has
failed too many times for us to put any reliance in it.
A rather extended experience leads us to believe that males prepon-
derate in hatching. Of course there are exceptions to this rule, but in the
main we believe it will hold good. Double-yolked eggs quite frequently
hatch, but they usually produce monstrosities. There are cases where two
perfect chicks have been produced from one shell, but these are exceedingly
rare. We have never heard of a case where one of these monstrosities
has lived more than a few hours.
OLD-STYLE DUTCH PENCILED HAMBURG
116
The Poultry Book
It is not a very rare thing for a chick to be hatched with some abnormal
peculiarity, such as four legs or a double head.
These probably are only
freaks of nature such as are occasion-
ally found in all animal life, being
more frequently found in fowls on
account of the large number kept.
On three separate occasions we
have known eggs laid by Guinea-
hens which had mated with a
common cock, to hatch, the cross-
bred mongrel resembling both
parents in some ways. The shape
of the three we have seen was dis-
tinctly that of the Guinea, and the
plumage had the distinctive spot of
the plumage of the Guinea-fowl on
many of the feathers, but the color
was more that of the male parent.
Eggs from old hens produce
more vigorous and stronger chicks.
than those from pullets. For this
reason eggs for hatching should be
taken from hens in their second year rather than from those in their first
year. Old hens produce few eggs in winter and fewer at any time in the
year. This no doubt accounts for the better quality of the chicks hatched
from their eggs.

""
EMBRYO IMPREGNATED
EGG
perillette
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG
Order is heaven's first law."-POPE'S Essay on Man.
The following notes on this important subject are taken from Swainson's
Work on "The Domestic Habits of Birds," London. To render this curious
milla
OVARIUM, OR EGG-ORGAN
، ،
but difficult subject as plain as possible to those but
little acquainted with physiology, we shall trace the
egg from its appearance in the ovarium, or egg-
organ" (as we may call it), of the hen, till the final
exclusion of the chick in the process of hatching. This
subject has been investigated with much care and
skill by some of the most distinguished observers and

<<
Eggs in General
117
experimentalists in consequence of the light it was expected to throw
upon obscure points in the early history of other animals whose develop-
ment was of more difficult if not of impossible observation. We have
endeavored to condense the chief facts ascertained into a brief but explicit
sketch.
"The egg of a bird appears in the egg-organ (ovarium) under the form
of a small yellow globe or sphere, frequently smaller than mustard seed, but
gradually increasing in size
till it drops from its slender
fastening and falls into
the egg-tube (oviductus).
The egg-organ contains
all the eggs which are
to be laid for several
years, each egg
rest in size as well
differing from the
and color. The
as in composition
which are destined
largest of them,
to be first laid,
are yellowish,
while the rest
gradually de-
crease in size and
are less and less
been attempted
analogy between
of the egg and
ripe fruit from a
we cannot deny
the circumstances,
an analogy, as M.
will not stand the test
the increasing weight
may, by stretching the
pedicle, so attenuate
yellow. It has
to establish
this detachment
the dropping of
tree; but though
the resemblance of
we believe that such
Dutrochet remarks,
of observation. That
of the egg, however,
slender attaching
the blood-vessels that supply it with nourishment as to greatly weaken
and ultimately to break it, we may with some probability suppose.
Before dropping into the egg-tube there is no white nor shell, both of
which are formed there by the addition of the glutinous substance called
albumen and of the calcareous substance constituting the shell. From
ill-health or accidents eggs are sometimes excluded from the egg-tube
before the shell has begun to be formed, and in this state they are
provincially termed 'oon' eggs."

14
an
BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK
American bred

Harris & Wein
1902-
EMBDEN GEESE.
The property of MR. F. G. RAWSON.

From a drawing by Harrison Weir
A CAPON SITTING ON EGGS
INCUBATORS AND CHICKEN REARING
THOMAS F. MCGREW, NEW YORK
"The wise are always learning."-FITZHERBERT.
we have gained from experience a better understanding of
the natural requirements for safe incubation of eggs,
whether in the natural way under hens or within machines,
we are more able to lend our aid in the better construction
of both nests and incubators to be used for the purpose
intended. It is quite usual for the hen that hides her nest
to either select some secluded spot on the ground or to go into the haymow
or strawstack. Seldom, if ever, will she select an unprotected spot that
must be exposed to the changes of the weather. When preparing the
nest for the broody hen, have it so constructed as to protect the eggs from
the under side. Do not have it so shallow as to furnish no protection to
the eggs from below, nor so narrow as to have it possible for a cold chill to
cast its bad influence on the eggs from the side or end. Have the nest-box
large enough to fully protect the eggs on all sides and below from
sudden changes in temperature.

A good practice is to cut a piece of sod the size of the box and place it
in the bottom of the nest-box as a protection. Some hold to the opinion
that the presence of the sod lends aid in furnishing moisture to the eggs;
119
120
The Poultry Book
but whether this is true or not, it protects them from sudden changes,
On top of the sod fill in with plenty of soft hay or straw below and on
all sides of the eggs. A nest so constructed aids the hen in her continuous
task of incubation by holding about the eggs the heat transmitted to them
from her body. On the other hand, poorly constructed nests allow of
possible injury to the eggs by permitting hurtful influences to gain ready
access to the eggs and take from the accumulated heat.
Having prepared the nest-box, put the broody hen in it. Under her
place a few eggs of no value, as dummies, to keep her quiet upon the nest.
Some hens give trouble at first, and it is just as well to have them well
settled prior to giving them a nest of eggs to incubate. At times it may be
necessary to shut the hen on the nest for several days, allowing her to come
off, and watching her return to prevent the possibility of her neglecting
her duty. It is always best to have fresh-laid eggs for incubating, and a
selection made so that all the eggs under each hen will be of the same size, or
nearly so, and all of one breed, if possible. It is most satisfactory to set.
three or four hens the same day. When hatching-time comes, usually
two hens can care for all the chicks that come from the four nests
of eggs. The other two may be continued on their nests for another
term of incubation or returned to the runs to recruit and prepare for
laying.
It is not unusual to see a room prepared for hatching eggs by having a
double row of nests along the wall, with slat doors, in which broody hens
are confined with eggs under them. The person in charge must see to it
that each hen comes off every day and returns to her nest. As many as
fifty hens are set in one room in this way. The floor should be covered
deep with dry earth or fine sand to serve as a wallow. Another feature of
vital importance is to rid the hens of all manner of pests, such as mites or
lice, by the use of insect powder. Dalmatian or Persian insect powder
is good. Rub plenty of it into the feathers of the hen when she goes to
the nest and repeat the dusting after she has been on her eggs for two
weeks. This, with her dust-bath during incubation, will almost insure
against lice.
With so vast an expanse of country as we have in America, the time
for hatching must be governed by climatic conditions. For exhibition
fowls, the chicks should be hatched early enough to gain their full
growth and plumage prior to the time they are to be shown. For winter-
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
121
laying pullets, April hatched chicks are the best. If hatched in March
they do quite as well. In some parts of our country it is quite difficult
to care for young chicks in March, the weather being so severe. Another
fact worthy of consideration is that the chick grows best when the young
grass begins to sprout and they can feed upon it. May-hatched chicks
often do as well as those hatched earlier, especially if special care and
feeding be given them. Chicks hatched later than May seldom make



New-laid egg with part of shell
removed
་་་
WOKTRISCH
An egg as it appears twelve hours after the beginning of in uba ion, with a magnified
view of the embryo chick
profitable winter-laying pullets. The late-hatched chicks make good
market poultry. Market poultry, for broilers or small roasters, may be
hatched at any time and marketed as soon as of suitable size.
An odd number of eggs is in favor when placed under a hen for incu-
bation. Not, as some suppose, because there is "luck in odd numbers,"
but because nine, eleven or thirteen round up better in a nest than would
an even number. The number of eggs "nested" for hatching should be
regulated to accord to time, place, season and size of the eggs, or
whether placed under hens or pullets. No hen should be given more
eggs to nest than she can cover nicely. If she has too many she cannot
properly cover them and poor results will follow.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHICK WITHIN THE EGG
In the development of the chick we can do no better than give Mr.
Weir's own words. He says that for many years the henwife has divided
122
The Poultry Book
eggs into three classes. If an egg is without a germ it is called "clear,"
for it does not cloud after incubation. When an egg begins to hatch and
gets chilled, or its growth otherwise arrested before the chick is formed,
then the egg is "addled," becoming rotten, and if broken it has a most
offensive smell; this is the
"addled" egg. Thirdly, when
the chick is well formed in the
egg it is called a "dead-chick"
egg, and is never used in
the sportive way that the
66
addled" one is. The knowl-
edge of the progress of the
development of the chick in
the egg is of great use to the
poultry trade, as, on examina-
tion of the eggs unhatched
much is learned as to the
cause and time of failure. I
have therefore given the whole
of Mr. Swainson's notes and diagrams from his "Habits of Birds," he in
turn having borrowed them from Sir E. Homes's "Comparative Anatomy”;
therefore they can certainly be relied on as being correct.
"In about twelve hours from the time the mother begins to sit the com-
mencement of life is perceptible in the germ (cicatricula). What seems to
be the head of the chick appears joined to the body and swims in the sur-
rounding fluid; and toward the close of the first day this apparent head is
seen bent back by its enlargement. So says Haller; but Blumenbach thinks
this a deceptive appearance, produced only by the destined abode of the
future chick, no trace of which, he says, is perceptible before the second day,
when it assumes an incurvated form resembling a thread of jelly enlarged
at the extremities, very closely surrounded by fluid, from which it is scarcely
distinguishable. The first appearance of red blood is perceptible on the
yolk-bag toward the end of the second day, a series of points being observed
which form the grooves; these closing constitute vessels, the trunks of which
become attached to the chick. Haller says we can now perceive traces of
the backbone (vertrebra), like small globules, disposed on two sides of the
middle of the spine, the wings and the blood-vessels of the navel, distin-


D
An egg as it appears sixteen hours after the beginning of incubation, with
a magnified view of the embryo chick
-
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
123
guished by their dull color, also beginning to appear. The neck and breast
are unfolded, the head is enlarged, the outlines of the eyes and their three
surrounding coats now become perceptible, and the heart is seen pulsating
and the blood circulating.
"Blumenbach does not mention his having seen the heart before the
commencement of the third day, when it resembles a tortuous canal, and
consists of three dilatations lying close together and arranged in a triangle,
one part of which is properly the right auricle, forming at this period a
common auricle, and another is the only ventricle, which afterward be-
comes the left ventricle; the third part (bulbus aorta) is considerably bulged
out.
It is remarkable that the heart at this period projects beyond the
breast, and beats in triplets; first, on receiving into the auricle the blood
from the veins; secondly, on discharging this blood into the arteries; and
thirdly, on forcing it into the vessels of the navel-motions which will con-
tinue for twenty-four hours if the embryo be taken out of the egg. The
veins and arteries may now also be seen branching over the surface of the
brain, and the spinal marrow beginning to extend along the back; or rather,
as has been beautifully shown by Marcel de Serres,* Tiedeman,† and Carus, ‡
the spinal marrow itself,
becoming enlarged, forms the
brain. At this period the
fluid surrounding the fetus
becomes more consistent and
less transparent. About the
same time also the spine,
which was at first extended
in a straight line, becomes
bent, and the joints of the
bone (vertebra) become
distinct. The eyes are
distinguished by their black
pigment and comparatively
large size, as they afterward
are in consequence of a peculiar slit in the lower part of the iris, a

4TH
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What
Millitatema.
jipu ·-···
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A
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An egg as it appears thirty-six hours after the beginning of incubation, with a
magnified view of the embryo chick
* "Du Cerveau," Paris, 1826; and "Sur le Cervelet," Paris, 1823.
† "Geschichte des Gehirns des Fetus. 4to. Leipzig.
Gore's "Comparative Anatomy."
MENUT
ABU:
124
The Poultry Book
circumstance also observable in the nimble lizard (Lacerta agilis) and other
animals which have no pupillary membrane.
“On the fourth day the pupil of the eye can be distinguished as well as
the aqueous and vitreous humors. In the head are perceived five vesicles,
filled with a fluid; and these
as they enlarge approach each
other, coalesce, and form the
brain, invested with its
membranes. The wings also
grow, the thighs begin to
appear, and the body extends
to one-third of an inch in
length. Several other im-
portant organs now become
visible, as the stomach, the
intestines and the liver. A
vascular membrane begins to
form about the navel, and

An egg opened thirty-six hours after the beginning of incubation, with a
magnified view of the embryo chick, in which is shown the first appearance of
the principal blood-vessels
grows during the succeeding
days so rapidly that it covers almost the whole inner surface of the shell, appar-
ently performing the office of lungs in carrying on the process of respiration.
"On the fifth day the lungs begin to be formed, but cannot, of course,
perform their functions, on account of the circumambient fluid. The vessels
of the navel rise out of the abdomen; the heart is confined in a very thin
membrane that covers the chest; and the muscles appear over the body in
the form of an unctuous envelope.
"On the sixth day the gall-bladder is first perceptible, and the first indi-
cation of voluntary motion may be remarked. The spinal marrow, divided
into two parts, is extended along the trunk; the liver, previously whitish,
becomes of a darker, dusky color. It is now seven lines* in length.
"On the seventh day it is easy to distinguish the bill; and the skin,
with the germs of the feathers, becomes obvious.
"On the eighth day the brain, the wings, thighs and legs have taken
nearly their ultimate form; but, according to Scarpa, are still soft, flexible,
and pellucid. The two ventricles of the heart also appear like two bubbles,
A line is the twelfth part of a French, or rather less than the eleventh of an English, inch.
De Penit's "Ossium Structura Comment." 4to. Lips., 1799.
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
125
contiguous and joined above to the substance of the auricles; while two suc-
cessive motions are observed now in them, as well as in the auricles, which
resemble two separate hearts.
"On the ninth day the bones begin to be formed, appearing in the form
of hard bony joints, the middle of the thigh- and leg-bones, according to
Scarpa, becoming yellowish. These form the rudiments of the bony ring
of the sclerotic, resembling a circular row of the most delicate pearls. At
the same period the marks of the beautiful yellow vessels on the yolk-bag
begin to be visible.
"On the tenth day the muscles of the wings are seen completely formed,
and the germs of the feathers appear enlarging. Scarpa up to this period
could observe nothing hard, but a yellow wrinkling of beautiful net-
work.*
"On the eleventh day the arteries begin to be distinct, those which
were previously at a distance from the heart now joining and cohering to it.
It was now that Scarpa first observed the wrinkles in the leg- and thigh-
bones to become rough and hard, and red spots to appear.
"On the twelfth or thirteenth day, if the membrane (chorion) envelop-
ing the white of the egg be
examined very cautiously by
opening the shell, it will
present, Blumenbach says,
without any artificial injec-
tion, one of the most splendid
spectacles that occurs in the
whole organic creation-the
most simple yet the most
perfect substitute for the
lungs. It exhibits a surface
covered with countless blood
vessels, venous and arterial,
branching through its texture.
The veins are of bright scarl
color, carrying oxygenated blood to the chick; while the arteries, on the
other hand, are of a deep crimson or livid red, bringing the carbonated
blood from the body embryo. The functions of the two are thus the
* Zoological Journal, ii., 433.


AND
An egg opened four days after the beginning of incubation, with a magnified
view of the chick
126
The Poultry Book
reverse of those they perform after the chick respires. From the trunks of
these arteries being connected with the iliac vessels, and on account of the
thinness of their coats, they furnish the best objects for demonstrating the
circulation of the blood in a warm-blooded animal. According to Scarpa,
DOC
An egg as it appears five days after the beginning of incubation, with a magnified.
view of the chick
* Zoological Journal, ii., 433-
+ "Oiseaux Domestiques," Mém. tom. vi.
the thigh-bones, when
dried, now preserve their
shape.

"On the fourteenth
day the feathers appear,
well developed; and if
the embryo be taken out
of the egg it can open its
beak for the purpose of
breathing.
"During the remain-
ing part of the process
the yolk becomes gradu-
ally thinner and paler
by the texture of the
inner white; while an immense number of fringe-like vessels, with flaky
terminations of a singularly peculiar structure, are formed on the inner
surface of the yolk-bag, and hang into the yolk, evidently for the purpose of
absorbing it and conveying it to the veins, where it is assimilated to the blood
and applied to the nutrition of the chick. Blumenbach persuaded himself
of the actual passage of the yolk from the floating vessel of the inner sur-
face of the bag into the blood-vessels which go to the chicken; at least, he
could distinguish yellow streaks in the red blood contained in the veins.*
“On the nineteenth day the embryo can utter sounds, and may be
heard doing so through the shell. It breaks and escapes from the shell
usually on the twenty-first day, but sometimes as early as the eighteenth
and at other times not till the twenty-seventh.
"The exit of the chick from the shell appears to us to be one of the
most interesting processes of animated nature ever investigated by natural-
ists. We are indebted to Réaumur for a most minutely accurate account
of this process† ; and recently Mr. Yarrell has given a brief detail of his own
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
127
observation upon several species of birds. It is the popular opinion that the
mother-bird breaks the shell of the egg to free the chick from imprisonment
-an opinion which must have originated from the circumstance that pieces
of the shell are often broken and driven off to some distance while the mem-
brane within remains unruptured, which it is supposed could not happen if
the fracture were made on the inside by the chick. But it might, on the
same principle, be argued that a wine-glass covered with parchment could
not be broken by the stroke of a hammer without rupturing the parchment;
for the membrane of the egg is elastic and yielding, while the shell is not.
That the chicken, however, and not the mother, performs this office, has
been proven by direct observations which may be readily verified. It is
worthy of remark, that the fact was correctly stated so long ago as the
thirteenth century, by Albertus Magnus, the great naturalist of the dark
ages.*
"It might be supposed that this task was much above the strength of
the yet feeble chick, did we not reflect that the anxiety it must feel to escape
must add greatly to its energy, which is further aided both by its peculiar
structure and by the position it assumes. The bill is still soft, indeed, and
to a careless observer
would seem ill fitted for
breaking the shell; but,
superadded to the bill,
'upon the curved part of
the upper mandible,' to
use the words of Mr.
Yarrell, just above the
point there will be seen
a small horny scale,
nearly circular, having at
its centre a hard and
sharp projecting point,
and by the particular
position of the head this
sharp point is brought into constant contact with the inner surface of the
shell.' It is worthy of remark that the only use of this horny point seems
to be to break through the shell, from which the chick escapes, and the
*
Apud Aldrovand's "Ornith,” iii., 184, ed. Francofurti.

egg as it appears six days after the beginning of incubation, with a magnified
view of the chick
128
The Poultry Book
beak hardens by exposure to the air, it soon falls off, and on the second or
third day only a light-colored mark is observable on the spot which it
had occupied. It may, indeed, be easily separated by the thumb-nail
when the chick comes forth. In pigeons, and probably in other birds which
do not run about and feed the
instant they are hatched, the
bill-scale does not fall off for
more than a week. Mr. Yarrell
thinks the hardness of the bill-
scale may be proportioned to
the thickness of the shell, from
its being very prominent, hard
and sharp in a preserved chick
of the Egyptian goose (Anser
gambensis).

"The position of the chick
in the egg appears no less un-
favorable to its breaking
through the shell than the
softness of the bill; for it is rolled up almost like a ball, the neck sloping
toward the belly, with the head in the middle, and the bill thrust under
the right wing, as in birds when asleep. The feet also are bent up under
the belly, as chickens and pigeons sometimes are when trussed for the spit,
the claws being so bent back that their convex part almost touches the
head. The forepart of the chick, as Réaumur observed, is toward the
biggest end; and Doctor Prout adds that it "is so situated in the egg as,
by its superior weight on one side, to assume such a position that the beak
shall be uppermost."* It is surrounded by a thick, strong membrane,
which retains it in the attitude just described, and is apparently unfavor-
able to its requisite movements. But closer inspection shows that all
these circumstances tend to facilitate rather than retard its operations on
the shell, which it must break before it can escape.
An egg as it appears seven days after the beginning of incubation, with
a magnified view of the chick
"The bill, indeed, though placed under the wing, as in the case of a
sleeping bird, is thrust so far as to project beyond it toward the back, and
the head, by moving backward and forward alternately, causes the bill
to strike upon the shell, the action being partly guided by the wing and
* Phil. Trans. for 1822.
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
129
the body. It is to be remarked that the head, compared with the bulk of
the body, is very heavy; and it makes, together with the neck, a load
which the chick, even for several days after its exclusion, can with diffi-
culty support. But in the egg, let the position be what it may, the head is
supported either by the body or by the wing, or by both together; and the
greater the size of the head the more efficient, of course, are the blows of
the bill. The length of the neck causes it to be bent at this time, though
after the first fourteen days it becomes nearly straight; but what seems to
be done out of necessity to procure room, is here, as in many other opera-
tions of Nature, the best thing that could possibly have been done out of
choice.
By watching at the proper time, Réaumur frequently heard chicks
hammering upon the shell with their beaks; and in the more advanced
stages of the operation he could actually see them at work, through the
translucent membrane. The result of the first strokes is a small crack,
commonly situated nearer the larger than the smaller end of the egg. When
this crack is perceptible the egg is said to be chipped. The membrane is
seldom ruptured in the first instance, even when the hard part of the
shell over it is detached; but in
one instance, while Réaumur was
observing the operations of a
chick by candle-light, it was hard
at work pecking at the membrane
divested of the shell. It did not
strike, however, but seemed as if
endeavoring to wear it out, and
make it thinner by continued
friction.
((


"The continued blows extend
the first cracks, and new pieces
of shell are driven off almost in
the same circle, the blows run-
ning round nearly the whole
circumference of a circle which
never cuts the egg obliquely, but always directly across; yet the
bill all the while remains under the wing and always in the same
position. In order to accomplish this, it is indispensable for the chick
An egg as it appears eight days after the beginning of incubation,
with a magnified view of the chick
130
The Poultry Book
to turn gradually round till it has completed an entire revolution;
though this circumstance cannot, in consequence of the opacity of the
shell, be actually observed. The demonstration of the inference,
however, is com-
pleted by the
several places at
which the point
of the bill ap-
pears, whilst the
head is kept con-
stantly under the
same wing—a
position so strictly
preserved that it
is persisted in
even for some
time after the
separation of the
shell into two portions leaves the chick a door almost as large as the
dimensions of his prison. The revolution which the chick thus makes on
its own body is invariably from left to right, and it is probably performed
by means of the feet; for the claws, on pressing the shell through
the membrane that separates them from it, must find in that shell the
resistance necessary to effect the required circular motion. This
notion is corroborated by the circumstance of the feet alone enabling the
chick to effect its exit; for the wings and other members, with the exception
of the neck and bill, are incapable of any action so long as the chick is in
the shell.


An egg as it appears nine days after the beginning
of incubation
→
The same egg turned more to the right
"The fracture may be observed to be broader in some eggs and nar-
rower in others, and even of different breadths in the same egg; while only
a few pieces are broken off in some and a great number in others, the latter
case exhibiting all the regularities of a glass bottle broken by the repeated
gentle blows of a hammer. The effect required to be produced is the entire
separation of the two portions, first of the hard shell, and then of the mem-
brane, which is torn by repeatedly pecking it with the bill. All chicks do
not succeed in producing this result in the same period of time, some being
able to perform the task within an hour, others taking two or three hours,
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
131
while half a day is most usually employed, and some require twenty-four
hours. 'I have seen chicks,' says Réaumur, 'continue at work for two
days together. Some, again, work incessantly, others rest at intervals
according to their physical strength. I have observed some, in conse-
quence of their impatience to see the light, begin to break the shell a great
deal too soon; for they ought, before they make their exit, to have within
them provision enough to serve for twenty-four hours without taking food,
and for this purpose the unconsumed portion of the yolk enters through the
navel. The chick, indeed, which comes out of the shell before taking up
all the yolk, is certain to droop and die a few days after it is hatched. The
help which I have occasionally tried to give to several of them toward their
deliverance has afforded me an opportunity of observing those which had
begun to break their shells before this was accomplished; and I have opened
many eggs much fractured, in each of which the chick had as yet much of
the yolk not absorbed. Besides, some chicks have greater obstacles to
overcome than others, since all shells are not of an equal thickness, nor of an
equal consistence; and I think it probable that the same inequality takes
place in the lining
membrane.
"It is the
practice in
in some
countries to dip the
eggs into warm
water at the time
they are expected
to chip, on the
supposition that
the shell is thereby
rendered more
fragile and the
labor of the chick
lightened.
But
even boiling water
does not render the shell more fragile; and though the water should
soften it, upon drying in the air it would become as hard as at first.'*
It is well remarked by Mr. Yarrell that the shell is rendered more brittle by
* Réaumur, as before.


An egg as it appears ten days after
the beginning of incubation
ww
The embryo chick taken from the preceding
egg, with the amnion and vesicle removed
132
The Poultry Book
the process of hatching, during which the egg of the common fowl loses on
an average eight grains a day, the moisture being partly evaporated and
partly absorbed, and the lining membrane at the same time becoming
partially separated.”*
FIRST FOOD AND CARE OF THE CHICK
There is considerable controversy at present as to the time that should
intervene between the coming of the chick from the shell and its first
supply of food. Some tell us that the chicks will do better if no food is
given them until they are seventy-two hours old; while others say they
should be offered food any time after twelve hours from the shell. The
fact is, Nature provides the natural food for the young chick through the
yolk of the egg when first it comes into life. This will provide their
sustenance of life for at least twenty-four hours; during this period the
chicks should be left to the hen or incubator to mother quietly. After
twenty-four hours, the hen, with chicks, should be placed in a properly
constructed coop that will furnish comfortable, warm quarters for them all.
Clean, dry quarters and surroundings are absolutely necessary for the
successful growing of chicks. To do well they must have a dry footing at
all times. No matter how wet or damp it may be, if the chick has a
sheltered, dry runway it will prosper. Filth and dampness are most
destructive to young chicks—and too much coddling is not good for them.
Good, reasonable care is all they need for best results where they are
properly cooped and guarded from filth and the wet and chilly effects
of damp, cold weather. Clear, cold weather is not so bad for them as
the chilly wet or damp weather.
The proper method of feeding is to provide for the chick as soon as it
comes from the nest or the machine; give them the opportunity to eat if
they will, and trust to them to eat when food is needed. For the first meal
bread-crumbs are good; hard-boiled eggs, shell and all, mashed fine and
mixed with an equal amount of bread-crumbs, are much valued for the first
day. Too much of the egg and bread is not good for them. After the first
day, small oatmeal and bread-crumbs are good. Follow this with oatmeal
or rolled oats; small broken wheat, and bits of broken corn no larger
than the small oatmeal, and a little millet seed make a good mixture.
Do not feed too much millet seed, as this is not good for them. There are a
*Zoological Journal, ii., 436.
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
133
number of chick foods made of an assortment of small broken grains and
seeds that are valuable because of the well-selected foods they contain.
Grit is an
absolute neces-
sity. It is the
digestive mate-
rial for the chick.
Small-broken
egg-shell will do
at first.
Follow
this with coarse
sand or small
If


chick-grit.
there is plenty
of grass growing
where the chicks
can help them-
selves, this will
furnish a full green-food supply;
must be furnished, grass, vege-
lettuce cut into small bits will do.
can run about for bugs and
animal food need be given them;
are not permitted to forage,
or meat meal should be sup-
chicks should be fed the first
often as every two hours from
dark. For the first day or two
is not too often.
too often. After
After two
mus
An egg as it appears fourteen days after tl:c
'beginning of incubation
often will do. Warm milk makes
for them. If they can be kept
the milk over their down or
The same egg as the preceding, with the external
half of the vesicle removed

but when this
table tops and
If the chicks
worms,
but when they
no
cut green bone
plied. Young
two weeks as
early dawn 'till
feed every hour
weeks old less
a good drink
from smearing
feathers it is
when they
well to use it in this way, but The embryo of the preceding egg opened to
show the course of the principal blood-vessels
which go to the vesicle and to the areolar
membrane
use.
smear themselves with it they
injure them-
selves more than they gain in its
Fresh,
pure, clean water should always be kept where they can help themselves.
The old English method, as given by Mr. Weir, was as follows:
A
134
The Poultry Book
"The first food generally given is stale bread-crumbs, cheese-curds,
boiled ground rice, broken rice, oatmeal moistened with milk, some scalded
rape seed, a little mustard seed, and, in two or three days, more ground oats
and milk and some of the winnowings of wheat, oats or other farm seeds.
The coops may be put into the kitchen gardens (but not for long) while the
chickens are young, cauliflowers and cabbages being very favorite foods of
poultry. If the chickens are of a small breed and of delicate habits, they
may be fed on a kind of thick custard made of flour (two parts) and oatmeal
(one part) mixed with two or three eggs and new milk, all stirred together
in a dish or pan and put into a slack oven until it sets somewhat firmly;
after cooling, it will crumble and prove excellent food for the first few days,
if thought necessary; chopped boiled eggs were seldom or never given.
"The newly hatched chickens must be fed as early in the morning as
possible, at first regularly every hour, and then two hours during the day,
and a less number of times as they grow and feather. When taken from the
hen they may be fed on one-third oatmeal or ground oats, with one-third
boiled potatoes and one-third 'sharps,' all scalded and well mixed; at night,
half-boiled wheat, barley or some other grain. If running with the adult
fowls, a pan of food should be put under a wire or wooden cage with the bars
placed sufficiently wide apart to allow the chicks to squeeze through and
feed when so inclined, which they will do very frequently; this plan
prevents the old birds getting the chickens' food. Clean water in clean
pans should be given twice a day.
"If there is convenience for the purpose, the sexes should be divided
as soon as they have feathered; and, if divided into flocks, they should be
sized, and not numbered more than twenty in each, as otherwise the
strong are very apt, in their endeavor to obtain warmth, to smother the
weaker birds."
For many reasons, the early hatched chicks are the best. April- and
May-hatched chicks make better winter-laying pullets than do those that
come later. For exhibition, they may be hatched any time after the first
of the year for the exhibitions of the following winter. The rearing of
poultry for household purposes is a very old custom and has been a source
of income and profit, more particularly from the sale of eggs and chickens to
“higglers,” for the purpose of fattening for market. The latter were
raised under hens and turkeys, though in some instances artificial means
were used for incubation.
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
135
THE INCUBATOR IN ENGLAND
The incubator is by no means a novelty in England. Mr. Weir says
that in 1610 One Cornelous Drebel, then residing at Eltham, among descrip-
tions of other wonderful inventions, declared that "By this peculiar
ingenuity he
could at all
times of the
year, even in
the
midst
of winter,
hatch chick-
ens
and

ducklings
without the
aid of hens
or ducks"
("Notes and
Queries," ist
Series, ii., 7).
While later, in his "System
J. W. (John Worlidge), 1681,
Edition (1697), gives espe-
to the keeping of poultry,
"they are kept to a very
tage in the back sides and at
of great farms; and, as I have
informed, a good farm hath
stockt with poultry, spend-
crop upon them, and keep-
attend them; and that it
to a very considerable im-
(Here is a poultry farm pay-
"In Egypt and China
eggs in great quantities in
made for that purpose. In
in this country also one
the brood of two or three
ܕ
MA
An egg as it appears eighteen days after the
beginning of incubation
The same egg as the preceding, with part of the vesicle
removed to show the embryo chick more clearly

The embryo chick opened to show the absorption
of the yolk into the body
ܕ
of Agriculture,'
and in the 4th
cial importance
for he says that
great advan-
the barn doors
certainly been
been wholly
ing the whole
ing several to
hathredounded
provement."
ing its way.)
they yet hatch
open ovens
several places
hen will lead
hens, so that
136
The Poultry Book
they be hatched near about the same time; therefore you may with much
facility hatch three or four dozen of eggs in a lamp-furnace made of a few
boards, only by the heat of a candle or a lamp, so that you order them
that they may hatch about the same time as the hen hatches her eggs
that you intend shall lead them; by which means one hen may in a
warm room lead many chickens and raise them up with little charge
and without the loss of time of other hens."
Thus it appears that artificial incubators were in ordinary use in Eng-
land in 1681-97. No allusion is made to "rearers," though this method
had not been neglected in France, and it is not until 1815 that I find the
following mention of such appliances in the new "Family Receipt Book" of
that date, under the heading of "A New Method of Rearing Poultry to
Advantage; communicated by Mrs. D'Oyley to the Society of Arts, etc.”
"I keep a large stock of poultry, which are regularly fed in the morning
upon steamed potatoes chopped small, and at noon they have barley; they
are in high condition, tractable, and lay a very great quantity of eggs. In
the poultry yard is a small building, similar to a pigeon cote, for the hens to
lay in, with frames covered with net to slide before each nest; the house
is dry (this is essential), light and well ventilated, kept free from dirt by
having the nest places and walls whitewashed two or three times a year, and
the floor covered once a week with fresh ashes. When I wish to procure
chickens, I take the opportunity of setting many hens together, confining
each to its respective nest; a boy attends morning and evening to let off any
that appear restless and to see that they return to their proper places.
When they hatch, the chickens are taken away and a second lot of eggs
allowed them to sit again, by which means they produce as numerous a
brood as before. I put the chickens into long wicker cages, placed against
a hot wall at the back of the kitchen fire, and within an artificial mother
for the chickens to run under; they are made of boards ten inches broad and
fifteen inches long, supported by two feet in the front four inches in height,
and by a board at the back two inches in height; the roof and back are
lined with lambs' skins dressed with wool upon them; the roof is thickly
perforated with holes for the heat to escape; they are formed without
bottoms, and have a flannel curtain in front and at the ends for the chickens
to run under, which they do apparently by instinct." (See also Réaumur's
"The Art of Hatching and Bringing up Domestick Fowls of all Kinds,"
1750, pages 249-304.) "The cages are kept perfectly dry and clean with
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
137
sand or moss. The above is the proper size for fifty or sixty new-hatched
chickens, but as they increase in size they of course require a larger mother.
When they are a week old the boy carries them and their artificial mother
to the grass-plot,
nourishes


them,
and keeps them
warm by placing
a long, narrow tin
vessel filled with
hot water at the
back of the arti-
ficial mother,
which will retain
the heat for three
hours and is then
renewed from the
steamer. In the
evening they are.
driven into the
cages, and resume their station
walls, till they are nearly three
and able to go into a small
priated for that purpose. The
nished with frames similar to
mother, placed round the floor,
perches conveniently arranged
roost upon." Mrs. D'Oyley
numbers of chickens from suffo-
roofs of the artificial mothers
sufficiently ventilated. This
then the food proved un-
found that coarse barley meal
it was quite soft, mixed with
potatoes, better; with this they were fed alternately, and as a variant
pellets of coarse wheat flour given occasionally.
room appro-
room is fur-
the artificial
and with
for them to
lost large
cation, the
not being
was remedied;
suitable. She
steamed until
minced boiled
A few years ago Mr. Lawther, of Tonbridge Wells, a well-known
fancier of Japanese frizzled Bantams, had his only hen of the breed die sud-
Willia
Inn
WWVA
THIT
An egg as it appears twenty days after the begin-
ning of incubation, the vesicle and amnion re-
moved to show the position of the perfect chick
Position of the chick in the egg

Position of the chick in the egg
at the hot
weeks old,
-
138
The Poultry Book
denly while sitting on fifteen of her own eggs. He could not get another
broody hen, so improvised an incubator. He got a small frame-the lower
part of a chair—putting a somewhat small iron tea-board on the top, and on
this a wicker basket nearly filled with
cotton wool, which was hollowed for
the reception of the eggs, which were
then covered over with more cotton
wool. Under the tea-board was placed
a small oil or paraffin lamp--the
eggs were turned and aired twice a
day -and with this contrivance
Mr. Lawther managed to hatch and
afterward to rear thirteen out of the fifteen eggs, and thus renewed his
strain of bantams which would have been otherwise lost.

00
Eggs fractured by the included chicks

Of late years many kinds of incubators have been invented and offered
for sale, all more or less useful, and varying in price, and the number of eggs
that can be placed in each machine varying from 50 to 200. Of these I have
found "Hearsons" very successful. On one occasion from 100 hens' eggs
92 chickens were hatched, and from 80 to 85-7 was not uncommon. Of
course almost everything depended on the vitality of the eggs inserted. The
temperature used was 102-3° Fahr., but I am inclined to think that a degree
or two more would have been as well if not better. If an incubator is found
to be a “necessary" adjunct to the poultry yard, it is best to place it in a
ventilated room without draught, and entirely under the management of one
person, and to have it attended to at certain times with the utmost punctu-
ality. In mine the eggs were turned and aired for fifteen minutes every
morning at 9 A.M., and again for ten minutes at 6 P.M., and the lamp "seen to."
The eggs should be dated on one side with black, and on the other with
red; thus during the day the red will be uppermost, and at night the black,
by which means, by a single glance, the poultryman can tell whether all the
eggs have been properly turned; and also by always having the date upper-
most the time for hatching may be watched to some advantage. It might
be an improvement to put on the egg, besides the date of insertion, that of
the expected exclusion. As to the other rules, etc., it is best to follow
exclusively those given by the makers at the time of the purchase of the
incubators and artificial mothers.
As regards my own experience, I have never used the ordinary artificial
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
139
mothers until lately. Previously, on the chicks being hatched and "dried
off," they were taken to one of my vineries, where grapes were being "forced"
by a boiler and heated pipes. Boxes, with two holes for ventilation, lined
and padded with flannel, and having portions cut out at the ends to allow
the pipes to pass through, were placed over the lower hot-water pipe.
Over the pipe was hung flannel with cuts or slips, which nearly touched the
ground—so, whether under, about or clustered within, the chicks were warm
and the temperature even. In front of the boxes were two holes for ingress
and egress from the floor of the vinery, which being a low one, they ran about
at considerable liberty. A hole in the wall of the vinery could be opened
when thought necessary, and the weather fine and dry, so as to allow of
exercise in the outside air. With regard to food, the chicks were fed in the
usual way, with the addition of chopped lettuce, cabbage, watercress,
onions or chickweed, but of all green food they mostly preferred the tender
spring cabbage. After a fortnight, or rather more, according to breed and
growth, the chicks (flocks of fifteen to twenty) were put into cucumber
frames with perches about four or six inches high put across the deepest
part. This plan kept them off the damp ground and also prevented suffo-
cation from crowding. The upper part of the glass of the frame was covered
either with a Russia mat or boards, which was a shade by day and warmth at
night. A hole was cut in the front part of the frame and a tin slide made
to fit, so that the chicks could be shut in when needful. These frames
were set out on the grass, and moved every two or three days at the least.
With this method I had two advantages—that of early grape-growing, which
proved profitable, and the easy and healthy rearing of my chickens. The
sexes were divided, and as a consequence there was less fighting among the old
English game chicks. They
were kept under the frames
at night, and in wet weather
by day, until six to eight
weeks old; after that they
were, if the nights were
sufficiently warm, allowed to
roost out in the hedges or
apple trees, if they were so inclined, and which they generally preferred
doing; with this treatment the birds were most healthy and strong, and
there were very few deaths, and more seldom any disease. If there was

Positions of the shell after the escape of the chick
Mu
Cumhu
140
The Poultry Book
not room for all the chicks incubated hens were used, and they were
cooped out in the ordinary way.
The rearing of chickens is still largely practised in Kent, Sussex
and Surrey, and by some more profitably than others, for the reason that
the latter rear too long, continuing far into the time when they are almost
a drug in the market,* instead of only "working" at and for the scarce and
high-priced time--that being the end of winter and early spring.
Here is an instance of the latter: A young farmer, having much grass
land about his house, with also a barn, oast-house, sheds, etc., asked me if
it would pay to rear chickens for the market, he having such good shelter
and runs. My advice was this: "Get three or four incubators holding
from 150 to 200 eggs. Have a couple of hundred hens of the best kind,
such as the white-shanked Kent, Sussex and Dorkings and some of the
properly proportioned Langshans, of these last at least half. In addition,
buy up all the eggs in the neighborhood from those cottagers and others
who keep good table-fowls, thus saving the expense of keeping the hens
when you do not want the eggs-i. e., the cheap time, etc. Raise some
thousands of early chickens by hatching the bought eggs and those from
your own hens, either by incubators or by sitting hens. Leave the eggs laid
in the nests to get the hens to sit early. Have artificial mothers placed
in your meadows and let the chicks run about them; this will help your
grass and manure it for the haytime. Rear all your chicks so as to have
them all sold to the higglers by at least the first week in May, so that your
grass will be then not only well manured, but left clear to grow into a fitness
for cutting and making hay. After the chickens are all sold cull off the
worst layers of the hens, which will be about half, and sell your incubator
if you can get a good price, and buy fresh for another year," etc., etc.
Mr. Guest followed my advice and reared more than 3,000 chickens, all
of which were off the land before the second week in May, after which the
grass grew strongly, and his hay crop and feeding good; and he told me that,
raising and selling at the dearest time, the early spring only, he had realized
fifty pounds a thousand, which about paid his rent. Had he gone on hatch-
ing and rearing he would have got into the low-priced time, lost his grass,
feed and hay, and not gained on the latter produce.
When good-bodied, well-bred early chicks are bred in any quantity,
there has never been, nor is now, any difficulty of selling, the higglers being
* This could be obviated by cold storage.
Incubators and Chicken Rearing
141
only too glad to buy at fair and generally very remunerative prices; but it is
useless to try to "market" ill-bred, ill-shaped, neglected and badly reared
and fed chickens; for the best of almost everything there is mostly the
"ready sale." For my own old five-toed white-shanked old Kent chicks
the higglers would give me a shilling each more than for nearly all those of
other breeders, excepting Mr. Guest (before mentioned).
I do not believe that it pays to rear middle-season chickens, nor to
keep hens to lay "summer eggs "*—the time when they are so abundant
that the market is glutted and the prices accordingly low. It is only
winter eggs and the very late and very early birds that are really profitable.
Others may be raised for the household, and for such purpose summer layers
kept, but for commerce I do not think it is desirable, unless cold storage can
be utilized, when, if so, the summer eggs will prove almost as advantageous
and lucrative as those of the winter.
Now that incubators are found reliable, both in England and America,
poultry farms are established, where the hatching and rearing, fattening and
marketing, of both ducklings and chickens has become a business of very
considerable importance. Of course this can only be done by good manage-
ment, fertile stock, the requisite capital and perfect organization; and such
can only be arrived at with any degree of certainty by small beginnings,
keen observation, and careful attention to every detail, however apparently
small or insignificant. Evidently it is a growing industry, and will presently
become a highly successful one.
There is another phase of chicken rearing, and I think a useful one,
but as yet untried and neglected. It is this: there are a number of fanciers
of high-class poultry that have no room or convenience for hatching the
eggs of their stock. What is wanted, then, is a reliable person to whom
the eggs may be sent, hatched, the chicks fed and tended until
they are two or three weeks or even a month old, as required, at a fixed
payment of so much per dozen. This would be a boon to the fancier
class of the community, and a helpful source of income, perhaps, to
ladies living in a suitable country. In Egypt and America incubation
of this kind is carried on to a wonderful extent. Here is an excerpt
from The Times, November 22, 1890: it conveys my meaning, and is
worthy of consideration:
1
Though this might prove lucrative if district cold-storage depots were provided either by
County Councils or private enterprise.
*
142
The Poultry Book
“Artificial Hatching in Egypt. The United States Consul-General
in Egypt, in a report recently published, describes the system of hatching
eggs by artificial heat pursued in that country from time immemorial, and
still in active operation. One establishment visited by the Consul-General
was wholly constructed of sun-dried bricks, mortar and earth.
It was
70 feet long, 60 feet wide and 16 feet high, and was provided with twelve
compartments or incubators, each capable of hatching 7,500 eggs, or alto-
gether 90,000 at one time. The season begins in March and lasts until
May, and three batches of eggs are hatched in this time, each taking an
average of three weeks. The fourth week is given to removing the chickens
and preparing the incubators for a new batch of eggs. The number of eggs
treated at this establishment in a single season was therefore 270,000, from
which 234,000 chickens are usually obtained. The percentage of chickens
would be greater, but the eggs are in some instances procured from long
distances and in large quantities, and are therefore liable to damage. The
price of eggs is 2½ d. per dozen, and chickens just issued from the shell are
sold at 7½d. per dozen. The loss of chickens after incubation is compara-
tively small. The whole staff of the place is a man and a boy, who
keep up the temperature to a level of not less than 98° Fahr., arrange
the eggs, move them four or five times in the twenty-four hours, look
after the chickens, and hand them over to the buyers. The number of
chickens hatched in this manner throughout Egypt is estimated at 75,000,000,
and would, under ordinary circumstances, require 1,500,000 mothers."
.
GENERAL USE OF INCUBATOR IN AMERICA
Artificial incubating and brooding has come into general use in America.
It is quite usual to see the small grower make use of both incubators and
brooders for all their hatching and brooding. The fact that the chicks can
be grown without any danger from the insect pests by the use of the artifi-
cial methods has had an influence in its favor. Then, again, with incu-
bators and brooders one may hatch and grow as many fowls as they wish
of the non-sitting varieties without having other fowls to brood their chicks;
and one need not delay the hatching season for the lack of broody hens so
long as they can have ready at hand an incubator of modern make and a
well-constructed brooder, in which to grow chicks.
Thousands of chicks and ducklings are hatched each year for
broilers. At Allentown, Oxford and Harrisburg, Pa., there are


JA
PRIZE-WINNING WHITE DORKING COCKEREL

Incubators and Chicken Rearing
145
located three very large farms that grow fully 100,000 ducklings during
the year.
At Sidney, Ohio, is a plant that turns out many thousand
broilers per year. These are only samples of the many plants of this kind
throughout the country. All such plants hatch their chicks and ducklings
with incubators and grow them in brooder-houses built for the purpose.
These houses are heated with hot-water pipes that go from a water-heating
stove located in a cellar or pit in the centre of the house. From this the
pipes run to the right and left to heat the hovers of the brooder-house.
These houses are warmed, without the hovers, in the same way in cold
weather, so that the temperature may not be chilling for the small chick.
There are two systems for heating incubators—one the hot-air system,
in which the air is heated and carried into the machine over the eggs and
distributed through the egg-chamber and carried out through ventilators;
the other is known as the hot-water system. In this the water-tank is
placed above the egg-chamber and the water heated from a lamp, the same
as the air is heated for the hot-air system. The hot-air machine responds
more quickly to the effects of both heat and cold, and is more generally
used than is the hot-water system; at the same time, the hot-water system
has its enthusiastic followers who will not listen to any other method of
heating. When properly constructed, both will do good and satisfactory
work; but, to be successful, the machine must be of correct construction,
properly and well built, and properly cared for.
The incubator, when in operation, should be placed where there will be
a regular and even temperature not lower than 50° nor above 70° Fahr.
For this reason incubator cellars properly constructed are best, or the
incubators may be placed in the cellar of the house if the cellar maintains
these degrees of heat. When placed either in the house, cellar, barn or
buildings it is best to have a permit from the insurance agent to run it
therein. A damp atmosphere without is by far better than a dry heated
air. When the air without is too dry, the floor about the incubator may
be moistened to advantage. An even temperature both within and
without the machine is conducive to best results. The most desirable
temperature within the machine ranges between 102° and 104°, according
to the location of the thermometer, which should be placed in each
machine as directed by the makers.
The turning and airing of the eggs during the three weeks of incubation
is of vital importance. The turning or moving of the eggs during incuba-
146
The Poultry Book
tion is to prevent the "blastoderm," or germ skin, from coming in contact
with the inner membrane of the shell. If all the eggs are moved once
or twice a day with the hands, this will suffice. They are usually turned
completely over from one tray to another. They must be so moved
each day as to completely change their position, and should be left
out of the machine to air from twenty to thirty minutes, providing the
temperature of the room is not below 65°. When lower than this, ten or
fifteen minutes will do. The inclination is not to air the eggs as much as
the hen will during her time of incubation. When it is cold she will stay
away a short time only, but when warmer the time is prolonged. The
desideratum is to turn and air the eggs and not to chill them.
The eggs may be tested for fertility from the fifth to the seventh day,
according to the ability of the one in charge to select the clear from the
fertile eggs.
The clear or non-fertile eggs may be removed. They are
just as good for cooking as eggs that have been kept for a week
during warm weather either in the house or in the store. Being in an
incubator for a week will not injure a clear egg as much as will the
keeping of it in the house a week in summer. These clear eggs from
the incubator are usually cooked and fed to the young chicks, or sold
as incubator eggs to the manufacturing trade. Proper ventilation and
moisture is of vital importance. This is, or should be, fully provided in
all machines.
The system of artificial brooding covers the ground from the small
individual indoor or outdoor brooder for forty chicks to the brooder-house
for thousands. The principle is the same. When the chicks go from
the nursery of the incubator to the hover of the brooder the temperature
within or under it should be 90°. The outer room of the brooder,
where the chick goes to eat and run about, should be 70° at the start. As
the heat under the hover is lowered, as it should be from week to week,
the temperature of the outer runway should be lowered to correspond.
All brooders, whether of the indoor or outdoor pattern, will do best when
placed under shelter during early spring while the weather is cool. Too
much heat or dampness is most destructive to the young chicks.
The brooding of chicks in coops with hens may be governed or success-
fully accomplished through following the simple rule of cleanliness,
proper feeding and protection from dampness. Cleanliness includes clean,
warm coops or boxes for the hens and chicks. These coops must be so
AND INDIA IN

PRIZE BLACK-BREASTED DERBY RED OLD ENGLISH GAME.
The property of MR. HARRISON WEIR.


Incubators and Chicken Rearing
147
constructed as to protect the hen and chicks from wet, damp and cold, as
these are the worst enemies of the chick. More losses come from the result
of exposure to dampness and filth than from all other causes. If thorough
sanitary methods are observed there will be little chance for the vermin
which at times work such awful destruction. When properly protected
there should be little or no trouble in the growing of the brood, if
they are carefully fed and watered.


1
Egg left unturned for two months
"
From drawings by Harrison Weir
Egg turned twice daily
THE FEEDING OF POULTRY
JAMES E. RICE, NEW YORK
UCCESSFUL feeding of poultry is both a science and an art.
The science is knowing the reason why. The art is having
the skill to do. The former must be learned by careful
study and observation. The latter can only be acquired
by actual experience—handling fowls.
Poultry feeding is not an exact science. There is
much that we do not know; and much that we think we know-
sometimes, unfortunately-is not so. But each year adds more to our
store of knowledge; each year by comparing experiences we are coming
to agree upon certain methods and practices, and from facts thus obtained
we can lay down rules. But rules are not always safe conditions so
often vary. It is to discuss these rules and facts that this series of articles
is written, with the hope that from them some principles of feeding poultry
may be sifted which any one can apply to varying conditions. It is
prepared after a good many years of study and experience in the rearing
and handling of fowls on the part of those who contribute. What is
here said, however, is not given as infallible, nor is it intended to lay
down fixed methods of procedure. But it is desired to stimulate those
who read it to think for themselves to compare it with their own
experience and observation and to thereby arrive at safer conclusions
and firmer convictions.

S
FOOD AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO PRODUCTION
The relationship between food and animal nutrition is largely a
question of cause and effect. The food is the cause, and the growth
or the production is the effect. And there is a beautiful harmony
between them, which is, that the character of the food determines the
kind of growth. If the food is deficient in any nutrient, the growth
also will be deficient in the same respect.
In order to make this relationship clear, let us examine the finished
149
150
The Poultry Book
product—i. e., the fully developed fowl or egg. The following analyses*
of the hen, pullet and capon include the entire fowl-bones, feathers,
blood, viscera, etc. The analysis of the egg is that of a fresh egg,
including the shell.
Hen..
Pullet
Capon..
Fresh Egg..
Corn..
Peas.
Mangels.
Clover Hay
Sunflower Seed.
Water
I I
·
IO
89
15
Ash
8.6
10.7
The ash, or mineral matter, as it is sometimes called, was found most
largely in the bones and the shell of the egg. The protein is a general term
for substances containing nitrogen in the form of albumin-casein, etc.,
and is represented by the lean meat and the white of the egg and a portion
of the yolk. The fat and water we all recognize by name and by sight.
It will be interesting now to compare the analysis of some of
our common poultry foods and note their close relationship to the
substances found in the bodies of the fowls and in the egg-which is
simply an unorganized chicken.
1.5
2.6
I. I
6.2
2.6
Water
55.8
55.4
41.6
65.7
4. I
Ash
3.8
3.4
3.7
I2.2
Protein
7.9
16.8
I. I
6.8
Protein
21.6
21.2
19.4
II.4
Fat
12. I
66.2
17
18
5.4
35.8
20.8
.3
1.7
29
13.7
Meat Scraps.
It will be seen that we find all four compounds represented in the raw
materials—the foods that we found in the finished product—the meat
and egg—and also one in addition, which is called carbohydrate—a term
used to represent a class of food nutrients some of which are starch, sugar
and gums. They have the same functions in the body as fat or oil-
i. e., to make heat and form energy and also to make fat, but not being as
valuable as fat for these purposes they are given separately. However,
they can be grouped together by first multiplying the fat by two and one-
quarter and adding it to the carbohydrates. The reason for multiplying
by two and one-quarter is that the fat is considered to be two and one-
quarter times as valuable for fuel as the carbohydrates. By this multi-
plying and adding they are united on equal terms, and when so grouped a
clearer comparison can be made between the protein (the muscle-maker)
on the one hand and the carbohydrate (or heat, energy, fat-formers) on the
* Professor Wheeler, Geneva, N. Y., Experiment Station.
33.9
8.9
Carbohydrates Fat
66.7
4.3
.7
51.8
I
·

The Feeding of Poultry
151
other hand. A still clearer idea of the proportional relationship between
these two great classes of food nutrients is obtained by reducing them to
lower terms-expressed by the number of pounds of carbohydrates in a
food for each one pound of protein that it contains. This relationship is
found by simply dividing the total carbohydrates by the protein, and is
expressed as one pound of protein to whatever number of pounds of carbo-
hydrates are shown in the dividend. This is called the nutritive ratio, or,
MA
A
баров
S
HEN AND CHICKS
From a sketch by Harrison Weir
to express it in another way, the nutritive relationship of the protein (the
muscle-makers) to the carbohydrates (the fat, heat, energy-formers); or,
for example, one pound protein to 9.7 pounds of carbohydrates, which is the
nutritive ratio of corn. To save time, part of the formula is left off,
because it is generally understood, and the nutritive ratio is then expressed,
for corn: 17.9. In a food or a ration where the relative amount of carbo-
hydrates to protein is small it is said to have a narrow nutritive ratio; where
the relative amount of carbohydrates to protein is large it is said to have a
wide nutritive ratio.

152
The Poultry Book
From what has been said it must be clear that there is a close relationship
between the food an animal eats and the growth the animal can make or the
product it can produce. That such is the case not only has been proven by
careful experimentation, but it is recognized by common observation.
By noting the wide variation in the foods given in the tables it will be
seen that in corn there is only 7.9 pounds protein, while in meat scraps there
is 66 per cent.; that in sunflower seed there is 20.8 per cent. carbohydrates
and 29 per cent. fat, while in corn there is 66.7 per cent. carbohydrates and
only 4.3 per cent. fat. In the matter of ash there is also wide difference,
as, for example, 6.2 per cent. ash in clover hay, 19.5 per cent. in meat meal,
and only 1.5 per cent. in corn. Is it not apparent, then, that a laying hen
requiring 12.2 per cent. of mineral matter to make an egg, and having
3.8 per cent. in her body, which must be maintained, if fed upon corn
alone must eventually have weak bones and soft-shelled eggs? Would it
not be reasonable to expect a pullet, whose body contains 21.2 per cent.
protein and whose egg contains 11.4 per cent. protein, to make slow growth
and lay few eggs or no eggs at all-when fed upon corn, which contains
only 7.9 per cent. protein. To be sure, she might eat enough food low
in protein to get sufficient nutrient to supply her daily needs. But the
nutritive ratio of corn is one pound protein to 7.9 pounds carbohydrates.
What will the pullet do with the excessive amount of carbohydrates?
There are but two things she can do. She will use what she needs for heat
and energy, the rest will either be stored up as fat or pass undigested. If
this exclusive corn-feeding should continue, she would get exceedingly fat,
the supply of blood would become deficient, and if this feeding should still
continue, the inability of the fowl to renew broken-down muscular tissue
because of lack of protein would weaken the body, growth would cease, and
loss in weight would soon follow, which most likely would result in death.
It may seem almost impossible to believe that such results could follow
from exclusive feeding of a food so good and so universally used as corn.
This statement, however, is not guesswork, but is based not only upon
personal observation and experience, but also upon careful experiment.
The same result can be, and frequently is, brought about by feeding several
kinds of food all of which, like corn, are too fattening. Did you ever find
a condition where many hens in a flock would be found dead without any
apparent cause except that the body would be filled almost solid with fat?
That is one evidence of feeding too-fattening foods.

The Feeding of Poultry
153
With chickens the result is not surplus fat, except for a very short
time, because they are active and have not yet built their framework. But
eventually it results in dwarfed, pinched-up growth. What is here said
is not intended to be
an argument against
corn, or potatoes, or
sunflower seed, or
any other fattening
food, but it is a plea
for a ration that not
only contains these
foods, but also pro-
tein foods like peas,
oats, wheat, bran,
middlings, clover,
meat, milk, and
the like.
How to put
these foods together
so as to supply the
protein and carbo-
hydrates in the
proper proportion
for the purpose in-
tended is called
ballancing the ration. As near as we know now, the best general
results with laying hens should be had by feeding a balanced ration
containing one pound protein to five or six pounds carbohydrates. This
will differ somewhat with conditions-such as breed, age, temperature,
exercise, etc.
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
OLD KENT SPECKLED HEN
It may be well to note right here that while evil results will surely follow
any radically wrong feeding if long continued, nevertheless the hen, like all
other animals, has a wonderful power of adaptability. If the food should
be deficient in carbohydrates, which often occurs where much peas, meat,
oil meal, etc., are fed, she apparently has the power of using the protein for
fuel, or possibly even to make fat. We find hens getting too fat when fed
on a very narrow ration if it happens to be rich, easy of digestion and

154
The Poultry Book
abundantly fed. The hen's power of substitution-i. e., of using
protein to take the place of carbohydrates-does not work both ways.
She does not have the power of using carbohydrates to take the
place of protein. That is why hens usually suffer less when fed a
too narrow ration than they do when fed a too wide ration. That
is why an animal will starve to death when fed abundantly and exclu-
sively on sugar, starch and fat. But evil results will follow both
extremes. If too much protein is consumed, the blood will become
overcharged, resulting in a plethoric condition which, if persisted in,
would overtax the kidney to throw off the surplus materials, and would
result in debility.
In order to illustrate the difference between properly balanced and
improperly balanced rations, several combinations are here given. The
reader can easily make up others, according to the foods he may have or
can purchase, by consulting the feeding tables.
It has been found by Professor Wheeler, of the Geneva, N. Y., Experi-
ment Station, that the ration required per day for each 500 pounds live
weight of hens in full laying, each hen weighing three to five pounds, would
be approximately 27.5 pounds dry matter, 1.5 pounds ash, 5 pounds protein,
18.75 pounds carbohydrates and 1.75 pounds fat, having a nutritive
ratio of 1 : 4.6. This would be an exceedingly stimulating ration. If we
assume that this quantity and proportion of nutrients is correct, we can
then compare it with the rations that follow. To do this it will be neces-
sary to multiply the fat by two and one-quarter and add it to the
carbohydrates, which would give 22.7 pounds total carbohydrates required
each day.
Two Pounds Corn Meal ...
Two Pounds Ground Oats.
Two Pounds Wheat Bran..
Two Pounds Wheat Middlings.
Two Pounds Meat Scraps.
Eight Pounds Corn.
Eight Pounds Wheat.
Six Pounds Oats.
Four Pounds Peas.
Fifteen Pounds Mangel Beets.
Fifty-one Pounds.
•
RATION No. 1.
•
·
WELL BALANCED
-
Carbo- Nutritive Manurial
hydrates Ratio Value
Dry
Matter
Cost
Ash Protein
.02500 1.78 .030 .158
.03700 1.78 .обо .184
1.76 .116
.244
.02500 1.76 .076
.04400 1.78 .082
.09600 7.12
.02400
1.528 1:9.8 .00652
1.136 1:6.2
.00756
.906 1:3.7 .01236
.256 1.214 1:4.7 .00942
1.324
.622 1:0.5
.03500
.632 6.112 1:9.7 .02608
.12240
7.20
.144 .816 5.840 I:7.2
.10500 5.34 .180
.552 3.408 1:6.2
.05200 3.60 .104 .672 2.136
.I20
.03408
.02268
.03750 1.95. .165 .165 1.560
.56790 34.07 10.77 5.003 24.462
1:3.2
1:5. I
1:4.9
.02192
.00765
.18327
The Feeding of
of Poultry
155
Kind of Grain
Two Pounds Corn Meal..
Two Pounds Ground Barley..
Two Pounds Wheat Middlings.
Two Pounds Animal Meal.
Two Pounds Hominy Chops
Eight Pounds Corn.
Eight Pounds Wheat.
Six Pounds Barley.
Four Pounds Buckwheat..
Fifteen Pounds Potatoes
Fifty-one Pounds.
•
•
•
•
•
RATION No. 2. TOO WIDE-TOO FATTENING
•
·
Two Pounds Buckwheat Mids...
Two Pounds Ground Peas..
Two Pounds Wheat Bran.
One Pound Gluten Meal.
One Pound Oil Meal. .
One Pound Meat Scraps
Eight Pounds Peas .
Eight Rounds Oats
Ten Pounds Wheat
Fifteen Pounds Mangels.
Fifty Pounds..
•
•
RATION NO. 3.
·
• •
•
•
•
·
•
•
I-
It would take 67.3 pounds of Ration No. 2 to give the same amount
of protein as 51 pounds of Ration No. 1-i. e., 6.3 more food. If the
fowls should eat this 67 pounds of Ration No. 2 they would consume
35.24 pounds carbohydrates, which would be 11.07 pounds more carbo-
hydrates than they would consume in eating Ration No. 1.
Value
Carbo- Nutritive Manurial
Cost
Ash Protein hydrates Ratio
.02500 1.78 .030 .158
1.528 1:9.7
.03000 1.78
.048
.174 1.384
.02500 1.76 .076 .256
1.214
.03800
7.9
1:4.7
1.85
• 390
.640
.460
1:0.7
.02300
1.78
.050
1:9.4
.09600
7.12
.120
6.112 I:9.7
5.840 1:7.2
.03408
4.152 1:7.9
.01728
2.132 1:6.9 .00988
12240 7.20
.08280
•
Dry
Matter
•
.144
144
.080
•
3.34
.04400 3.48
.06000 3.15 .150 .135 2.475 1:18.3 .01125
.54620 33.24 12.32 3.791 26.707 1:7.0 .15159
·
Cost
Ash
02000 1.74 .096
.02900
1.80
.052
.02400 1.76 .116
.008
.01300
.01450
02200
.92
.91
.89
.150 I.410
.632
.816
Too NARROW-TOO STIMULATING
Dry
Matter
.522
.308
.053
.041
.208
.240
.180
Carbo-
Protein hydrates
.440
.912
· 336 1.068
.244
.258
.293
.622
.10400
7.20
14000
7.12
.15300 9.00
I.020
.03750 1.95 .165
.165
·55600 33.29 1.159 5.458
I 2. I
1:3.2
.906 1:3.7
.656 1:2.5
.485
1:1.7
.31I 1:0.5
I.344 4.272 1:3.2
736 4.544 1:6.2
I:7.2
1:5. I
.00652
.00576
.00942
.00250
.00632
.02608
Nutritive Manurial
Ratio Value
.00512
.01096
.01236
7.300
1.560
.00774
.00960
.01750
.04384
03024
.04260
.00765
22.014 1:4.3 .18761
•
If the hens should eat all of Ration No. 3 they would consume 1.2
pounds more protein than would be needed, and at the same time would have
1.84 pounds less carbohydrates than they would require. The result would
be that the protein would be burned up for fuel or transformed into fat, or
would be assimilated, causing a plethoric condition.
Assuming that Ration No. 1 furnished protein and carbohydrates
in the right quantity and proper proportion for the best egg-production,
then we see that the extra 11.07 pounds of carbohydrates would either be
used to make unnecessary fat or be wasted undigested. That is why it is
156
The Poultry Book
wasteful to feed too much fattening food, unless it happens to be enough
cheaper as a source of protein to afford to let extra carbohydrates be wasted,
which sometimes may be the case. But the feeder takes desperate chances
of getting his stock too fat.
Wheat
Corn..
Oats.
Barley
Buckwheat
•
▸
Peas.
Wheat Bran.
Wheat Middlings.
•
•
Oil Meal..
Corn Meal.
Gluten Meal..
Hominy Chop
Ground Barley
•
•
•
+
Buckwheat Middlings.
Pea Meal
PRICES OF GRAIN USED IN CALCULATING COST OF RATIONS
Per Pound
Per 100
1.53
I. 20
Ground Oats.
Meat Scraps.
Animal Meal…..
Potatoes.
Beets
•
•
.01530
.01200
.01750
.01380
.OIIOO
.01300
.OI 200
.01250
.01450
.01250
.00300
.01150
.01500
. 01000
.01400
.01850
.02200
.01900
.00400
.00250
1.75
1.38
I. IO
1.30
I.20
1.25
1.45
1.25
1.30
1.15
1.50
I.00
I.40
1.85
2.20
I.90
.40
.25
Per Ton
30.60
24.00
35.00
27.60
22.00
26.00
24.00
25.00
29.00
25.00
26.00
23.00
30.00
20.00
28.00
37.00
44.00
38.00
8.00
5.00
It will be seen that the two rations that are richest in protein—i. e.,
No. 1 and No. 3-are the most expensive to buy. From the standpoint of
economy it does not pay to feed rations so deficient in carbohydrates that
protein must be used for fuel. Ration No. 3 would have been much
more expensive than Ration No. 1 if cheaper protein-rich by-products had
not been used, which leads us to the importance at all times of figuring both
the price and the composition of each food when making a ration.
I
Often many dollars may be saved by watching the market fluctuations.
Sometimes corn is one of the most expensive foods, at other times oats are
too dear to buy except in limited quantities for the sake of variety. The
same may be said of wheat, buckwheat and other grains. All this time
the composition of these grains remains practically constant. There-
fore the careful feeder must not only know what food will give him
the best results, but he must be ready at any time to take advantage
of fluctuations in the price of grain and substitute an expensive source
of food nutrients for a less expensive one.
The Feeding of Poultry
157
The manurial value of foods should be considered. True, it is a
secondary consideration, but if the poultry manure is carefully saved in the
houses by the use of absorbents, and if forage crops are grown in the yards,
so as to make good use of the droppings, considerable income will be
derived, which may be used to offset a portion of the cost of the ration.
For example, in the rations given the manurial value has been determined
by allowing 15 cents per pound for the nitrogen, 5 cents per pound for the
phosphoric acid and 4½ cents per pound for the potash. A portion of
this value would of necessity be lost, because poultry manure loses its
nitrogen very readily in the form of ammonia, and also by leaching.
GRAIN FOODS
While fowls require both animal and vegetable foods in order to do
their best, they are also grain eaters to a much greater extent. Their
digestive tract is more especially adapted to the grinding and digesting of
cereals, which they relish almost without exception, from the rich oil-bearing
sunflower seed to the starch-grain corn and the protein-rich pea.
GRAIN FOODS ARRANGED IN Order of TOTAL DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN CONTENT IN 100 POUNDS
Manurial
Value
in 100
Pounds
Flaxseed...
Peas
Sunflower Seed...
Wheat.
Rye.
Wheat Screenings.
Oats..
Millet.
Barley.
Corn.
Buckwheat.
·
2
•
·
•
•
•
Kaffir Corn.
Broom Corn.
Sorghum Seed.
Rice.
·
•
•
•
Dry
Matter
90.8
90
92.5
90
88
88.4
89
86
со со со оо со
89
89
87
84.8
85.9
87.2
87.6
Ash, or
Mineral
Matter
4.3
2.6
2.6
1.80
I.9
.2.9
3
3.3
2.4
I.5
2
1.5
3.4
2. I
•
4
Protein
or Muscle-
Maker
20.6
16.8
12.1
10.2
9.9
9.8
9.2
8.9
8.7
7.9
7.7
7.8
7.4
7
4.8
Total
Carbo-
hydrates. Nutritive
Fat-
Ratio.
Formers Prot.-Carb.
82.3
53.4
85.8
73
70
55.9
56.8
52.2
69.2
76.4
53.3
63.2
54.8
59.1
72.9
1:4
1:3.2
1:7. I
1:7.2
1:7. I
1:5.6
1:6.2
1:5.8
1:7.9
1:9.7
1:6.9
1:8.1
1:7.4
1:8.4
1:15.2
.657.
·548
.428
.426
.329
.462
·378
.365
.288
.326
.247
.2445
.2814
.1750
WHEAT
It may be safely said that there is no better all-round grain for poultry
than wheat. It has all the qualities of attractiveness of size, color, shape
and freedom from undesirable covering or shuck. While it is a rich food,
158
The Poultry Book
its nutrients are quite well balanced-though perhaps a little more inclined
to be a fattening food than one for the production of the greatest
growth of muscle. While it contains more protein and more starch than
corn, it contains less oil, and on the whole is not considered to be quite
so valuable for fattening, but better for growth.
Wheat seems to give a lighter color to the yolk of eggs and to fat, and,
according to meat packers in Chicago,* also gives redder color to the lean
meat, than does corn. The by-products of wheat-the bran and middlings-
are more valuable, pound for pound, than is the whole grain. There-
fore it may be wise many times to sell wheat and buy bran and middlings.

MR F. G. S. RAWSON'S WHITE EMEDEN GOOSE
(One of two) First prize and cup at Birmingham. Bred by Mr. Harrison Weir
From a photograph

The great demand for the best grades of wheat for flour usually makes it
too expensive to feed extensively to poultry, but there are grades of
wheat that are perfectly sound and wholesome which, because they are
*Henry's feeding.
The Feeding of Poultry
159
mixed with other grain, or because the kernels are shrunken, can not be
used to make the best grades of flour, and therefore can be purchased at
a reasonable price-so low, in fact, that it is often a more profitable food
to buy than corn or oats.
Wheat screenings, if they are a good grade, can frequently be purchased
and fed to good advantage. A good sample should contain more protein
than oats, barley, corn or buckwheat, and about the same amount of
carbohydrates as oats, peas or buckwheat. Of course there is always the
objection of introducing weed-seed on the farm, but a large number of
the seeds are eaten with a relish by the hens.
Burnt wheat" should nearly always be shunned as one would a
pestilence. The same is true of any other kind of musty or damaged
grain. "Burnt wheat" is only a trade name for damaged, bunted grain,
and is not, as might be inferred, simply charred by fire. Moreover, the
difference in price between so called "burnt wheat" and good grades of
uninjured "chicken wheat" is so slight that one should not hesitate an
instant in making the choice for the latter.
((
CORN
Corn is the best relished by poultry of all the grains. It possesses
four qualities that make it attractive to fowls: it has a bright color; its
shape, size and texture are such that it can be easily swallowed; it is free
from woody husk or integument; it contains a large amount of oil and
sugar, which add attractiveness to flavor and ease of digestion. Moreover,
it appears to satisfy the cravings of appetite and fulfil the bodily require-
ments, at least for the time. However, if fed alone or in large part it is
too fattening in its nature to be the most desirable food for egg-production or
for the growth of lean meat. Nevertheless, it should form a good part of
all poultry rations, whether for young or adult, male or female, layers or
sitters. This is especially true in the United States, where corn is "king"
not only because of its goodness but because of its cheapness. From the
analysis it will be seen that corn is actually the richest in the carbohydrate
nutrients of any of our grains except sunflower seed and flaxseed, that
it is a little weak in protein, and decidedly low in the mineral nutrients.
Therefore it is most valuable when fed to mature animals for fattening
purposes. And, conversely, it should be combined with foods rich in
protein and ash when fed to animals producing muscle or eggs.
160
The Poultry Book
There is not much difference in actual feeding value between the dent
and flint corns, as will be seen by the analysis. This is also true as
between white and yellow corn.
It is not wise to feed corn and cob meal to poultry. The cob is very
indigestible and contains about the same feeding value as oat straw. A
better way to give bulk to the ration is by feeding something more
nutritious, like wheat bran or cut clover hay.
One of the most pronounced and very valuable characteristics of corn
is its power to impart to body-fat and the "olk of eggs a rich deep-yellow
color.
In his experience in feeding poultry, George O. Brown, of Maryland,
has found hominy chop very satisfactory. Regarding it he says: "It
is especially suitable for laying hens and admirable for growing chickens.
I would not undertake to keep chickens without it. In Baltimore it is
known as hominy chop, and is sometimes called hominy meal.
It comes
from hominy, used as human food. The hard part of kiln-dried white
corn forms the hominy, while the hulls, germ, a portion of the gluten,
and starch, constitute 'hominy chop.' Recent analyses show hominy
chop contains several per cent. less water than corn meal, fully two per
cent. more protein, at least ten per cent. greater feeding value, and four
per cent. more fat. Hominy chop usually sells for less than corn meal.
It can be understood how valuable it is as a component ration for poultry
where mixed food or mashes are used."
OATS
Good oats are good food for poultry. Light oats, that are often found
on the market, are very undesirable. This difference is due to the varying
proportions of hull and kernel in heavy and light oats. There is no grain
so variable in weight per bushel as oats. Richardson is quoted by Henry
as saying that the proportion of hull to kernel varies from twenty to forty
per cent. of the total weight, and averages about thirty per cent. In the
warm lower country, oats are light, with a large proportion of shuck; while
in northern sections or on high altitudes they are solid and meaty. It will
pay to get only the best, as will be found by noting the composition
of oat shucks and the comparative proportion in heavy and light oats.
It will be found that oat shucks have about the same feeding value as oat
straw, and therefore contain such a large proportion of indigestible fiber
The Feeding of Poultry
161
that it is a great tax upon the digestion of the fowls to handle it. Hens
know this instinctively, and will refuse to eat light oats or the hulls if they
can avoid it. It will be seen that oats contain less protein than wheat,
sunflower seed or
peas, but more
than barley, corn
or buckwheat;
more carbo-
hydrates than
peas or buck-
wheat, and less
than barley, rye,
wheat or corn, and
also more oil and
twice as much
mineral matter.
They should
usually form a
part of the daily
ration where the
price will warrant.

"DOZING"
Opy
Practical feeders believe that the oat contains a stimulating virtue
greater than other grains which cannot be accounted for in its protein or
carbohydrate content. On this point authorities are divided. Some
chemists claim that an alkaloid called avenin is found in oats; others dispute
that such a thing exists. While they are discussing the question it will be
well to go right on feeding good oats liberally, both ground and unground.
Owing to the extensive adulteration of ground oats by incorporating large
quantities of oat hulls and light oats, it will be far more satisfactory to pur-
chase the heavy oats and have them ground. Where hulled oats can be
procured at a reasonable price they should prove a most satisfactory food,
especially for the chickens that can not handle the shuck to good advantage.
BARLEY
Barley stands intermediate between oats and peas as a growing food
and corn as a fattening food. It contains a little more protein than buck-
wheat and corn and a little less than oats, wheat or rye. But as it contains
162
The Poultry Book
more of the carbohydrates than either oats, peas or buckwheat it becomes
one of the richest and best of our grains for poultry. The shuck and beard
are a little against it, the shuck being estimated at about fifteen per cent.
of the total weight of the grain. The great demand for the best grades of
barley for brewing tends to keep it out of the market for stock food by
forcing the price a little high. Sound but discolored grain frequently can be
purchased at a reasonable price. Avoid "ground barley" as it is sold upon
the market. It is apt to be adulterated with various cheap fibers, ground
corn-cob and the like, so that its feeding value often is less than one-half
what good ground barley should be. Hens relish barley, and it can be
fed liberally.
BUCKWHEAT
Owing to the demand for buckwheat flower for human food, the
price of buckwheat for stock food is usually too high to warrant buying it,
except possibly in small quantities for sake of variety. Compared with
other grains, it cannot be considered a rich food. It contains less protein
and less carbohydrates than any of the common grains, and it is also low
in mineral matter, containing about the same as corn, rye and wheat. The
shuck, which envelops the kernel, is very tough and almost worthless as
food. Buckwheat contains very little coloring matter, a fact very notice-
able in the white flesh and light-colored yolks produced when buckwheat is
largely fed. Hens like it when they once become accustomed to it, and
inasmuch as it can be grown quickly as a second crop after grass or on poor
land following a short fallow, it will often pay to raise and feed it, rather
than to go to the expense and trouble of exchanging it for a richer grain.
It has a nutritive ratio of one pound protein to 6.9 of carbohydrates,
which is right between two of our best poultry grains-oats, with a
nutritive ratio of 1 to 6.2, and wheat, I to 7.2. It may be considered a
fattening food rather than one well adapted to produce growth.
RYE
Rye is not a success as a poultry food. Why, no one seems able to
satisfactorily explain. Surely it cannot be accounted for in its composi-
tion. Rye is richer in protein than oats, barley, corn or buckwheat, and
richer in carbohydrates than barley, oats, peas or buckwheat. It does not
contain any objectionable hull, like oats, barley and buckwheat, but still
hens do not seem to like it. While it is deficient in ash, it is no more so
than wheat or corn, both of which fowls relish. It is possible that it con-

ish
ORDINARY MODERN SHOW HOUDAN
[
пом
Thiel
The Feeding of Poultry
165
tains some objectionable flavor or medicinal property. Perhaps it is only a
whim. However that may be, it will be just as well to let the hens have
their way, and raise or buy grains that they like better than rye.
BY-PRODUCTS AND HAY ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF TOTAL DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN CONTENT
PER 100 POUNDS
O. P. Oil Meal ..
Gluten Meal.
Buckwheat Middlings.
Gluten Feed. .
Wheat Middlings.
Wheat Bran.
Alfalfa Hay.
Hominy Chops.
Corn Bran.
•
·
•
·
•
Red-Clover Hay.
Oat Hulls.
•
Dry
Matter
91.
92.
87.
92.
88.
88.
92.
89.
90.9
85.
90.6
Ash,or Bone-
and Shell-
Maker
5.3
.8
4.8
I. I
3.8
5.8
7.4
2.5
I.3
6.2
6.7
Protein,
or
Muscle-
Maker
29.3
25.8
22.
19.4
12.8
12.2
11.
7.5
7.4
6.8
1.3
Total
Carbo- Nutritive
hydrates. Ratio.
Fat-Formers Prot.-Carb.
II.7
48.5
65.6
1:2.5
45.6
I:2. I
63.3
60.7
45.3
1:3.7
42.3
1:3.8
70.5
1:9.4
70.1
1:9.4
69.6
1:5.8
41.5 1:31.8
1:3.3
I:4.7
Manurial
Value
in 100
Pounds
.960
.774
.256
.47 I
.618
.431
.316
.335
.329
.113
WHEAT BRAN
Wheat bran, it is safe to say, is the safest, best and most universal
all-round natural by-product food which we have. It is not as rich in protein,
to be sure, as gluten feed, gluten meal, oil meal or the best grades of wheat
or buckwheat middlings, but it contains more mineral matter than any of
the named foods, and is the best food to add bulk to the ration
so that the stomach juices can act readily upon it. Good bran is
richer in protein than oats, but does not contain as much starch
or oil. On the whole, good ground oats are worth a little more,
pound for pound, for general feeding, than good bran. There is
a great difference in the quality of bran, owing to the grades of wheat and
milling process. In the centre of the wheat is the flour, which is largely
starch. The outside shell, the bran, contains a large amount of protein,
mineral matter and fiber. Between the flour and the bran is a layer of
gluten—a form of protein--some of which gets in with the good bran; a
little goes along with the flour, but more is found with the middlings, which,
as its name implies, is from the middle-i. e., between the bran and flour.
The difference in quality of bran, then, largely depends upon how thin the
outside shuck is taken off and how much of the gluten is retained.
The best way to learn to judge bran is to secure a number of samples and
prices from a wholesale dealer and compare them. A good test is to chew
166
The Poultry Book
a handful, and if it is fine and dry and refuses to gather, but remains
dry and loose, look out for it. If it chews up into a nice "cud," it indi-
cates gluten. That is the kind which makes eggs.
MIDDLINGS
The great value of the various kinds of middlings lies in the large
amount of protein, largely in the form of gluten, which they contain, and
to the fact that when they are mixed with such dry, crumbly foods as corn
meal, gluten
meal, wheat
bran and the
like, an adhe-
sive, sticky
principle is
added which
when mixed
with other
grains makes
them more
attractive to
fowls. There is

J MN
ست
#Weir
AZEEL COCK
Owned by Mr. Harrison Weir
ih
a wide varia-
tion in the
quality of middlings. Some kinds apparently are nothing more than ground
bran and floor sweepings; other grades are mostly flour. Middlings contain
very little crude fiber-in which respect they are very like corn meal and
gluten meal. Wheat middlings is the kind most largely used, but buck-
wheat middlings is far richer, and in sections where buckwheat mills
are found the latter is usually the more profitable kind to buy.
GLUTEN PRODUCTS
There are many kinds of gluten products. They are all by-products
from the corn-starch factories, and they vary widely in composition and
price. It is never safe to buy them except upon a guaranteed analysis.
Gluten feed is the whole of the corn by-product. It contains all the corn
except the starch, which has been removed. Gluten meal is the same as
gluten feed less the hull and germ, and therefore is more concentrated.
Corn bran simply consists of corn hulls - the outside shuck from the
The Feeding of Poultry
167
kernel of corn-and therefore is very bulky and not very rich. Corn germ
is concentrated and exceedingly rich in protein and oil.. With all
gluten products, as with all other by-products, they should
they should only be
fed in limited quantities and in connection with natural grains. Their
cheapness often makes their use desirable.
LINSEED MEAL
Linseed meal is a product of the manufacture of oil from flaxseed.
While it is extensively heralded as the best food to feed to hens during the
molting period, and while we know that it is the most important ingredient
in most of the condimental foods and condition powders, it should be fed
only in limited quantity, because, first, hens do not like it; and, second, it
contains an excessively large amount of mucilaginous material, making the
ration exceedingly sticky, which causes the food to wad up in the crop; and,
third, it is such a rich, concentrated protein food that there will be danger
of over-feeding. It contains more protein than any other grain food
except cottonseed meal. One hundred pounds of oil meal contains about
as much protein as 287 pounds of wheat, 318 pounds of oats, 370 pounds
of corn, 380 pounds of buckwheat or 610 pounds of rice. It is rich also in
mineral matter, containing nearly as much ash as wheat bran or clover hay
and about two or three times as much as most of the grains. It is a laxative
food, and if fed too liberally will cause bowel trouble. Generally it will not
be necessary or wise to feed more than one-fifteenth by weight of the total
ration fed per day.
CottonseeD MEAL
While this is one of the richest and cheapest of all stock foods, it is not
a safe one to feed to poultry in large quantity. We do not feed it at all.
Hens do not take to it kindly. It is constipating in its nature.
MEAT FOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF TOTAL DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN CONTENT PER
110 POUNDS
Meat Scraps
Meat Scraps *
·
Dried Blood.
•
Dried Fish .
Animal Meal.
•
•
Ash, or Bone-
and Shell-
Maker
4.I
Dry
Matter
89.3
94.6
91.5
89.2
1.5
4.7
39.2
19.5
II.5
Protein
or
Muscle-
Maker
66.2
53.
52.3
44.1
.7
.7
32.
18.
Total
Carbohy- Nutritive
drates. Fat- Ratio.
Former Prot.-Carb.
31.1
1:0.5
68.
II.3
IO. I
5.6
23.2
23.
43.
92.7
Fresh-cut Bone.
65.8
Buttermilk
9.9
3.9
6.5
Skim Milk. .
9.4
2.9
5.9
*Both analyses are given to show how variable meat products really are.
1:0.5
1:0.7
1:5.3
1:3.7
1:4.5
Manurial
Value
in 100
Pounds
1.75
2.128
1.772
.088
.103
168
The Poultry Book
MEAT FOODS
Hens are meat eaters. They are natural scavengers-worm and insect
hunters. It has long been commonly believed that hens would lay better
and that chickens would grow faster and with greater profit when fed meat
in some form. That has now been quite satisfactorily proven by Professor
Wheeler, of the Geneva, N. Y., Experiment Station. From his experi-
ments it would seem that we are justified in thinking that protein in meat
is more valuable than protein in any other form of food, and that for
fowls meat is a necessity. In fact, I believe that meat in some form is the
most important one food that can be fed to stimulate the ovaries into
activity and to increase the secretion of albumen. And because of this
fact it must be fed judiciously, particularly to young pullets that we do
not care to force into premature laying, or to hens in which for any reason
we desire to retard egg production. The amount of meat that it is safe
to feed will depend entirely upon its kind and composition. The accom-
panying tables show how the various meat products vary in this respect.
The prepared meat products in the market should never be bought except
upon a guaranteed analysis. They vary in their protein content from
twenty-five per cent. to sixty-five per cent., and some brands of meat
scraps and dried blood are even richer in protein.
There is also a great difference in the amount of fat which they contain.
And the same may be said as to the mineral elements. Generally it may be
said that the meals have less protein and less fat but more mineral matter
than the meat scraps. It should be remembered that while the mineral
matter which represents bone is valuable as a source of lime for the egg-
shell and to make bone, it might be purchased for much less in cracked
oyster shell at $10 per ton than in the meat meals at $40 to $50 per ton; and
that fat, while having a fuel and fattening value, can be bought for less
money in other forms. The protein is the element that we are particularly
after when we buy meat in any form, and upon its protein content we
should for the most part base its value. Fat and mineral matter we usually
get in sufficient quantity in most foods as we buy them.
If we compare meat scraps that contain sixty per cent. protein at $45
per ton with meat meal containing thirty per cent. protein, and green cut
bone with fourteen per cent. protein, and skim milk containing 3.5 per
cent. protein, then the meat meal would be worth $22.50 per ton, green
cut bone $15 per ton, and skim milk $2.60 per ton. In this reckoning we
The Feeding of
of Poultry
169
should take into account the palatability of the various forms of meat. It
would seem that in this respect the skim milk and green cut bone would
have the advantage over the prepared meals and scraps, provided the latter
were fresh and
wholesome, which
is not always the
case, particularly
during hot weather.
It must also be said
that frequently the
meat meal and
scraps are tainted
and absolutely un-
fit to feed. The
same brand varies
in this respect.
Meat foods must
be kept dry. If they get wet they heat and ferment. Sometimes it would
seem that the trouble is caused by the use of undesirable slaughter-house
refuse. Any meal that hens will not eat with a relish when they once
become accustomed to it should not be fed. A good way to test the
wholesomeness of any food is to pour boiling water upon it. If the
odor arising immediately therefrom is musty or putrid, shun it.

Red Clover, Green.
Cabbage.
Rape
Mangel Beets.
•
Turnips.
Potatoes.
•
VEGETABLE FOODS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR TOTAL DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN CONTENT
IN 100 POUNDS
•
•
•
•
•
RED-SPANGLED DORKING
COCKEREL
6½ months old. Weight (ready for cooking), 534 lbs. Bred by Mr. Harrison Weir
•
•
Dry
Matter
29.
15.
14.
13.
9.5
21.
Ash,or Protein,
Bone- and or Muscle-
Shell-Maker Makers
2.9
1.8
1.5
1.1
1.
.9
2 I
•
I.4
2.
I. I
.8
I.
سمالا
Fowls are vegetable eaters.
the same extent as ducks and geese.
the part that good pasture plays in the
Greater attention should be paid to it.
#wein
Total Carbo- Nutritive Manurial
hydrates, or Ratio. Value in
Fat-Formers Prot.-Carb. 100 Pounds
16.4
1:5.6
9.1
1:5.1
8.6
1:5.4
10.4
1:5.1
1:7.7
1:18.3
7.65
16.5
VEGETABLE FOODS AND FEEDING
.107
.082
.092
.051
.050
.075
They are natural grazers, though not to
We surely do not fully appreciate
feeding and good health of poultry.
At present, most flocks that do not
170
The Poultry Book
have the freedom of the farm are kept in yards much too small and which
in many instances are devoid of all forms of vegetation. Not only is this
wrong from the standpoint of economy, but it is dangerous from the
hygienic point of view.
Poultry yards should be made to pay a revenue in the green forage that
they grow, which will at the same time purify the soil by transforming what
would have become filth and dangerous impurity into wholesome food
product. This may be brought about in two ways. The runs may be
utilized to grow forage crops, or they may be seeded down to permanent
pasture. The former has the advantage of aerating the soil and letting in
the sunlight to purify it. The permanent pasture has the disadvantage that
it will "run out." This is particularly true in spots near the buildings.
Most kinds of poultry graze too close on portions of pasture, and let the
other parts go to seed, where the runs are large.
Rye is a good crop for very late fall and early spring forage, because it
will germinate and grow in very cold weather and will live through the
winter. Its weakness is that it gets tough very quickly when warm
weather comes.
Oats and peas sown together very thinly, with a liberal seeding of
red clover and a very little rape, make a good combination. The oats and
peas furnish a rapid growth of green food, a good deal of which will get
tramped down and some will go to seed, but it will serve to protect the
clover and rape, which will make good food for late summer and fall pas-
turage. Three pecks of oats, two pecks of peas, one pint of rape seed and
five quarts of red clover seed will be a good proportion for seeding. The
oats and peas should first be harrowed in deeply, then the clover and rape
seed should be mixed and sown, then lightly scratched in with a weeder.
This system can best be employed by having double yards, one of
which can furnish forage while the other is getting started. With a single
range, if it is large, a good stand should be obtained except near the houses.
But the hens should not be turned on until after the grain has come up.
Green food is equally important for winter feeding. It should be fed both
raw and cooked. The best vegetable for feeding raw, so far as our experi-
ence goes, is the mangel beet. It is sweet, tender, juicy and nutritious, and
does not impart any objectionable flavor or odor to the eggs or flesh as some
other vegetables, like onions and cabbage, are apt to do if fed in too large
quantity. Cabbage is very much relished, and may be fed for variety..
The Feeding of Poultry
171
Turnips are perhaps the most satisfactory as cooked vegetables. The
objectionable flavor is largely driven off by the cooking and the fowls have
an especial fondness for them. They are apt to be a little tough and strong
when fed raw. Other factors in their favor is that they can be grown so
cheaply. We sow them as a catch crop after early potatoes, or in the corn
at the last cultivation. Clover is sown with the turnip to seed the ground,
so that about all the turnips cost is the labor of harvesting.
Little potatoes can be used to good advantage. Like turnips, they are
much improved by boiling. The two go well together. Even a very few
onions will be found valuable to add variety and palatability to the ration.
The onion has splendid medicinal qualities, and can be fed quite liberally to
young chickens with excellent results. The table shows the comparative
value of the most important green foods. It will be seen that when arranged
in the order of richness in protein they will be red clover (green), cabbage,
rape, mangels, turnips, potatoes. But when arranged in the order of their
richness in carbohydrates they will be potatoes, red clover (green), mangels,
cabbage, rape, turnips. And when arranged in order of richness in mineral
nutrients they will be red clover (green), rape, cabbage, mangels, potatoes,
turnips. From these comparisons it will be noted that, so far as protein
and mineral nutrients are concerned, red clover (green), rape, cabbage and
mangels head the list, and that for carbohydrates, potatoes, red clover
and mangels are in the lead.
GRIT AND MINERAL MATTER
Grit is to the fowl what teeth are to the ruminating animal-a necessity.
They must have it if rapid and perfect digestion is to take place. It is
reasonable to believe that fowls will get more value out of food when they
are provided with grinding material. Therefore it will be economy to pro-
vide it. Hard, irregular grit is best, because the action of the gizzard in
grinding is a crushing process. When the particles of grit become round
and smooth they are expelled and other grit is eaten to take its place. To
make sure that fowls have enough grit it should be kept where they can
help themselves at will. An incidental value of grit, though a very impor-
tant one, is the mineral nutrients which it contains. The various forms of
grit on the market vary largely in this respect, according to the nature of
the rock from which they are made. It will be seen that the cracked
oyster shell or clean sea shells are particularly valuable in this respect.
172
The Poultry Book

из
From a sketch by Harrison Weir
OLD KENT AND SUSSEX BLACK-BREASTED RED BARN-DOOR COCK
They are rich in carbonate of lime, and are so easily broken up by
the action of the gizzard that the mineral matter seems to be almost
immediately available. They will have an effect on the hardness of the
egg-shells within a few days. The reason for this quick transformation
will be apparent by noting the great similarity in composition between
egg-shells and oyster shells.
The most potent cause of hens eating their eggs is a lack of the mineral
elements in their system to make the egg-shell. When their bodies lack
this element they naturally crave it, and are ravenously hungry for it.
Their instinct tells them that the egg-shell contains the material to satisfy
this craving; they therefore eat it. After learning what is inside the egg,
The Feeding of Poultry
173
they know a good thing when they see it, and may then develop the egg-
eating habit. Several times I have seen whole flocks of hens, where nearly
all of them seemed to be eating their eggs, cured by simply providing
sufficient mineral matter in the form of cracked oyster shells, mortar,
or the like.
When hens lay but few eggs, the grain, meat and vegetables will usually
furnish sufficient mineral matter. But for hens that lay almost continu-
ously for long periods additional mineral matter must be provided.
The various kinds of sea shells not only contain the mineral foods, but
they apparently have a salty flavor which the fowls relish. This, together
with hunger for grinding material, will cause fowls that have been long
deprived of grit to eat it as freely and as ravenously as they would grain.
This need of mineral matter of the right kind and proper proportion undoubt-
edly has much to do with the bad results with growing chickens, or hens
kept too long away from the soil. In the sod soil in which they delight
it is possible that they find the one thing which the system craves and
which our foods lack. This lack of mineral constituents is manifestly one
of the dangers of too liberal feeding of some of the grain by-products
which in their manufacture have had much of the ash removed.
CONDIMENTAL FOODS
Salt assists in the digestion of foods, particularly those that are exces-
sively rich in protein. Nearly every food in its natural condition contains
some salt-enough, usually, for the needs of the fowls. When fowls are
being fed a forcing ration it is well to feed a little salt to season it and
make it palatable. It will be safe to feed one-half pound of salt to
one hundred pounds of food.
It was found by Professor Wheeler that a much larger amount of
salt could be fed without injury, but it does not follow that it would be
advisable to feed that amount. Whether or not evil results will follow
the eating of salt will depend upon the kind of salt and how it is fed.
When eaten in too large quantities it acts as a poison and will cause
death. Fowls that have died from eating salt have usually mistaken
coarse salt for grit and in that way have eaten too much.
Charcoal has a great absorbtive power for gases, impurities and acids.
It acts as a corrective when the stomach is sour and digestion has been
impaired—and is not a food. Sometimes fowls eat it freely, at other times
174
The Poultry Book
they will not touch it. Let the fowls be the judge; they seem to under-
stand when it is required. Keep it where they can help themselves.
Red pepper is a stimulant. It acts as a tonic. It surely warms up
and tones up the system. Like all other stimulants, it should be fed rarely
and moderately or evil results will follow. To fowls having colds or
roup, or for stimulating hens into egg-production, a little red pepper
is desirable.
ADRI
WATER
Water is as necessary to digestion as food itself. Many foods contain
enough water for their own digestion. This is true of vegetables. But
with the grains and dry meat products, particularly those that are exces-
sively rich in protein, much additional water will be required for perfect
digestion. Water is needed in the blood to float the solids and in the
muscles and bones to carry on nutrition and growth.
It is the common carrier of the body, and is largely used in all the
secretions. The egg, which is a combination of three separate and
distinct secretions, contains a large amount of water, as will be seen from
the analyses.
Professor Wheeler has estimated that one dozen eggs contain one pint
of water. It must be apparent from either a practical or a theoretical point
of view that hens must have water other than that found in their food in
order to keep in perfect health.
Many a flock of fowls that are otherwise quite well cared for go about
with dark combs and dull feathers because they do not have enough water
to carry on digestion and supply their bodily wants. Common observation
proves this to be true. A flock of fifty hens in good laying will require four to
six quarts of water a day. This should be kept where they can help them-
selves whenever they desire it. They can not fill up, like a cow or horse,
and go all day. They have no place to carry water in quantity. They
take a little water at a time, whenever they need it to moisten the food in
their crop so that it may soften up and pass on freely to the gizzard to be
ground. Hens usually drink before going to roost and the first thing in
the morning. The only way to make sure that they always have enough
water is to supply it in a receptacle so large that it will never be empty.
It would naturally follow that pure water is of as much importance as
wholesome food. Disease or disorder is frequently the direct result of
fowls drinking dirty, stagnant water, particularly if it is their own filth that
The Feeding of Poultry
175
is the source of contamination. Unfortunately, the hen is not the most
cleanly bird, which makes it doubly important to take special care to
keep things clean.
During very cold weather it is a good plan to provide warm water in
the morning. It helps to warm the fowls, and does not act as an emetic, as
it does with most animals, because they drink so little at a time. If fowls
are allowed to become abnormally thirsty they may drink too freely, which
is apt to result quickly in looseness of bowels, which is another reason why
water should be kept always on hand.
PALATABILITY
Aside from their actual composition, foods have a value due to their
flavor and medicinal qualities, which act beneficially or injuriously upon
animals.
This perhaps accounts for the fact that hens prefer some foods to others
of similar composition even to the extent of refusing to eat certain kinds
of grain. And strange to say, the foods they like the best may not always
be the ones that will give the best results in egg-production. For example:
they like corn perhaps better than other grains, but if allowed to eat
it too freely will become too fat to lay well, and in the end will suffer
in health.
They do not
like rye and
they do like
wheat, yet
the two are
quite similar
in composi-
tion and
appearance.
A pref-
erence for

only
GAME AND DORKING COCKEREL
Weight, 7%½ lbs.; trussed, 5%½ lbs.
certain
grains is
often a matter of habit. If fowls have been accustomed to certain kinds
of grain, they do not take kindly at first to other kinds. Hens that have
never eaten peas or buckwheat will be pretty sure to refuse them at first.
176
The Poultry Book
:
The same is true of corn and all other grains. However, they gradually
become accustomed to a new food, and if it agrees with them will soon learn
to eat it with avidity.
It is important to feed only those foods that fowls really like when they
once become familiar with them. Palatability has much to do with diges-
tion. Experiments with other animals have proven that when they have
been forced to eat that which was unattractive or distasteful to them it was
digested improperly. If the food pleased the palate the fact was instantly
communicated to the digestive glands of the mouth and stomach, which
stimulate the secretions even before the food reaches them. Foods not
palatable did not cause this secretion, hence improper digestion followed.
VARIETY
Variety in diet helps to increase palatability. It is therefore better to
feed a mixture of grains all of which fowls like than it is to feed any one
kind of grain, no matter how good it may be. The reason is twofold.
Not only will the fowl have a better chance to get a ration best suited to
her particular needs, thus in a measure balancing her own ration, but she
will also have a variety from day to day to break the monotony of sameness
that always comes from eating any single food. The main organ of
taste, the palate, the watch dog of the stomach, becomes deadened by
constant tasting of the same food, just as the sense of smell becomes
dulled when compelled to inhale the same odors for any great length of
time. Distaste for food is Nature's way of indicating that the system has
enough of that particular thing. That is one reason why we prefer to
feed a mixture of grain at one feeding rather than to feed a single grain
for a time and then change to another.
If the grains are similar in composition, such change from time to
time will prove beneficial, but any radical change in diet may derange
digestion and retard egg-production.
COOKED VS. UNCOOKED FOOD
It may be said in a general way that cooking food for poultry does not
pay. However, with some foods cooking does pay. This is particularly
true of some vegetables, such as potatoes and turnips, both of which, in
the raw state, are not particularly attractive to hens (unless they can steal
them). When they are boiled they are much relished. This may be due to
The Feeding of Poultry
177
the fact that starchy foods are rendered more digestible by virtue of the
cracking of the starch grains, or it may be because they are made more palat-
able, or both. Fowls seem to prefer cooked meat to the raw article, which
is rather surprising in view of the fact that hens in nature get their animal
food raw, and also in face of the general belief that cooking albumin coagu-
lates it, which renders it less digestible. It would seem that hens, like
people, have civilized tastes, and that palatability plays a more important
part with lower animals than is generally supposed.
Even if cooking poultry foods rendered them more digestible in all
cases, the question of labor and expense would still have to be considered.
In fact, it is this item perhaps more than any other which makes it
undesirable to cook the ground food for the hot mash.
Scalding the ground food answers the purpose of giving something hot
and apparently improves its flavor, but it should be mixed quickly and fed
immediately or be kept closely covered, so that the natural, attractive
aroma may not escape. The instant that scalding or boiling takes place the
characteristic odors and flavors that render most foods attractive are driven
off. If this occurs and the food is allowed to stand, much of the charm of
attractiveness is lost.
Our plan is to boil a kettleful of mixed vegetables and bones from the
butcher's with the kettle closely covered. When thoroughly cooked, this is
put into a mixing-tub and thoroughly mashed. Then ground grain is added
until the mixture becomes dry and crumbly, when it is fed immediately.
Experience will very quickly indicate the proportion of vegetables and grain,
and also how much of the mixture will be needed for a feeding. No rule
can be given, so much depends upon the nature of the grain mixture and
the kind of vegetables used, and upon the appetites of the fowls.
HOW MUCH AND HOW OFTEN TO FEED
How much to feed is more important than how often; but the time and
method of feeding has much to do with success.
This is true whether we
are feeding for eggs or for growth or for fat. In their natural state fowls
rustle and hunt for most of their food. It is gathered a little at a time and
held in the crop until a convenient opportunity for grinding, digesting and
assimilating. It is much the same as a cow foraging until her paunch is
filled, when she quietly rests and chews her cud. It is probable that some
grinding and digesting is done while the hen is foraging, but it seems
¿
178
The Poultry Book
quite evident that the larger part of the digestive and assimilative process
takes place when the body is quiet, particularly at night. The gizzard
works by the involuntary muscles, as do the heart and lungs, whether the
fowls are asleep or awake. A hen does not lie awake to grind her food.
In fact, it is probable that the grinding and digesting process takes place
most rapidly and most completely during sleep, as is the case with other
animals. From this it will be seen that the fowl can adjust herself readily
to the slow accumulation of food or to a rapid filling of the crop, because
this organ is intended to regulate the rapidity of digestion. The crop is the
hopper or the
supply sack to
carry the sur-
plus. It works
both by volun-
tary and in-
voluntary
muscles, and is
wholly under
the control of
the fowl. When
the system

Ex
701)
For:
גני
337
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
CORNISH INDIAN
DORKING AND WYANDOTTE
Skin thin and flesh white and of good texture
craves more
nourishment
the fowl lets
more food pass from the crop through a small stomach where the
gastric juice is secreted. The food then passes to the gizzard, where
it is crushed into a fine semiliquid condition, and is forced on into
the intestines, where digestion continues and assimilation and absorp-
tion takes place. With this explanation, it will be easy to see that
the hen can adjust herself to varied conditions. Nevertheless, it pays
to be regular in habits of feeding. Where fowls are confined to houses
or small yards this is more important than where they have free range
and can forage for part of their living, because while at liberty if the
regular feeding should fail the appetite could easily be appeased by foraging.
From the standpoint of exercise and happiness on the part of the hen, fre-
quent feeding is better than heavy feeding once or twice a day. Little and
often is a good rule, particularly with the heavier breeds, where exercise
The Feeding of Poultry
179
is of great importance to keep them from becoming too fat and to avoid
overfeeding. However, the element of labor always enters in, and we find
that for most purposes feeding three times a day is the most satisfactory.
The hen is an early riser and likes to begin work as soon as she can see.
The first meal should be fine grain. We want the hens to work. They
are usually more inclined to do this in the morning than at any other time
of the day. This is because the crop has been emptied during the night and
the food most likely digested and assimilated. They will then have both
an empty crop and a good sharp appetite as an incentive to work. It is
important, also, that they exercise in the morning, because that is usually
the coldest part of the day, and the activity will keep the body warm and
will stimulate a good appetite for dinner, particularly if the morning feed
has been a little light, which should always be the case.
If the soft food were to be fed in the morning, as used to be the almost
universal custom, the fowls would fill up quickly, and the food, not having
to wait to be ground, would pass on quickly to be digested and thus to
satisfy hunger. This would satisfy the appetite and destroy the incentive
to forage. The hens would most likely stand around on one foot or squat
down and rest perfectly contented. Hens will not work just to keep warm.
Exercise must be impelled by appetite. If the hens have been properly
fed in the morning with only a light feeding, they will come hungry for
dinner, which should be fed early.
At noon is the time to give them all they will eat up clean within fifteen
to twenty minutes. If less is given, it is possible that some timid or slow-
eating fowls will not get enough. If so much is fed that they are all the
afternoon eating it, they may get too much of the rich, easily digested con-
centrated food and be overstimulated, or have their digestion overtaxed,
which would surely result in less eggs. There is not as much danger of
this if the soft food contains considerable bulky material, as it should, such
as cut clover hay, wheat bran or ground oats. Moreover, where soft mash
stands very long it loses flavor, and in winter becomes cold and in summer
quickly sours. This is apt to cause trouble.
At night, hens should be given all the whole grain that they can eat.
It is better to have a little left over than not to have enough. This feeding
should be done early enough so that the hens will have time before dark
to find the grain in the straw litter. This grain feeding will usually be all
ground up by the digestive organs before morning.
180
The Poultry Book
If the soft food should be fed at night, it would pass too quickly into
circulation, and the gizzard would not have its natural amount of work
to do during the night.
BALANCING THEIR OWN RATIONS
If a variety of grains, including all the principal ones commonly used
for poultry, are thrown where fowls can have their choice, they will usually
eat the corn first.
If the sense of taste, which indicates the fowls' likes and dislikes, were
a correct and safe criterion by which to judge food best suited to the fowls'
needs, surely corn would be the universal poultry food. But this is not
so. The appetite is simply the signboard to digestion, and it does not hang
out its danger signal until there has been an accident and there is occasion
for it. Digestion learns by experience. The warning may come too late,
so far as health and profitable production are concerned. The fowls'
estimate of a good food is the kind that tastes good, digests easily and
permits a little surplus energy (fat) to be accumulated. That, with a
fowl, is contentment.
Let this lazy contentment continue and there comes a time when the
body is overstocked with fat, a derangement of digestion takes place and
the appetite rebels against the food that once it craved. The same phe-
nomena takes place where an animal, spurred on by an unusual appetite,
eats more of any kind of food than it can digest. The system becomes
overcharged with the particular nutrient with which the food abounds
and that food becomes repulsive.
One experience like this may never be forgotten, and as a result that
food may never again be relished. The chief difficulty, then, of giving fowls
unlimited access to food, is that the danger is reached before the warning
comes. Another is, that one of the best incentives to good health, which is
exercise, is lost or at least impaired. Still another reason is that food which
an animal sees and smells continuously loses much of its attractiveness.
The senses of sight and smell also have much to do with perfect diges-
tion, as has been proven by a recent experiment in which a dog was
allowed to see and smell food which it liked but was not allowed to eat.
Examination of the digestive tract showed that great quantities of diges-
tive juices had been secreted preparatory to digestion which had been antici-
pated. When the nerve had been cut which had connected the digestive
glands with the senses of sight, smell and taste no secretion of digestive fluid

The Feeding of Poultry
181
took place. Therefore we can readily understand why seeing and smelling
things which are very much relished aids digestion and makes the "mouth
water." Constant excitation of the senses deadens them and thus
impairs their
effectiveness.

Less danger
will occur
where fowls
have constant
access to
whole grain or
very bulky
food than
where much
rich stimu-
lating soft
ground food
is supplied,
for the ap-
parent reason
that with the
hard
coarse,
food much
more time will be required to soften and grind it, and therefore the amount
that can be eaten will be limited. Even then fowls are almost certain to
become too fat. This is particularly true of hens not in laying.
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
FAT WILD DUCK (MALLARD)
Bred by Mr. Harrison Weir
WHOLE GRAIN US. GROUND FEED
Where we desire to push the hens to the largest possible egg-production,
regardless of fertility or vigor of the germ, about or nearly one-half of the
grain food should be fed ground. This is because the hens cannot grind the
whole grain fast enough to make eggs as rapidly as they would if part of the
grain were ground for them. It will pay to do this grinding. Engine
power is cheaper than hand power. It
It may be said also in favor of feeding
ground food that the hen requires food to grind food. Anything that
requires effort-motion-whether it is inside or outside the body, takes
energy. These two facts found good proof in the experiments by Professor
182
The Poultry Book
W. P. Wheeler, who found that Leghorn hens having a ration in which
the grain was whole consumed on the average for two years more than twenty
per cent. more food for the same egg-production than did similar hens
having half the grain in their ration ground and moistened.
The hens having the whole grain had on the average for two years
6.4 pounds of water-free food for every pound of eggs produced. Those
having ground grain had on the average for two years 5.3 pounds of water-
free food for every pound of eggs produced—a difference of 1.1 pounds of
water-free food for each pound of eggs. Possibly it may be asked why not
then feed more ground food and get still more eggs? That would probably
be wise if the largest number of eggs were desired for a very short period—
which is not usually the case. Under such forced feeding upon concen-
trated foods it is more than likely that the result eventually would be
indigestion, which would result in retarding egg-production. The ultimate
effect would depend much upon the nature of the soft food. If it were
composed largely of the bulky food, such as bran, ground oats and cut clover,
the result would be much the same as if all whole grain had been fed. It
would make digestion slow, and the danger of giving too much soft food
would be decreased. Great caution must be used when feeding such rich
concentrated foods as meat scraps, middlings, gluten and oil meals, corn
meal and the like—which are fine in texture and deficient in fiber.
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EXERCISE
Nearly all poultry-keepers believe that exercise is an important factor
in egg-production. It would seem that there must be some truth in this
general belief. I believe there is, and that it is found in the fact that activity
of the ovaries is very largely dependent upon the physical vigor of the fowl,
and that exercise is an essential to physical vigor. By it fowls strengthen
their vitality and increase all their bodily functions, including purification
of the blood by better breathing and elimination of impurities through the
secretions from the kidneys. Activity of respiration increases combustion in
the lungs, which warms the body. Therefore, the busy hen will be warmer
than the one that stands around with nothing to do.
This is an important consideration in cold weather. It is to be expected
that all this exercise will burn up food nutrients and thus increase the
appetite, for that exercise increases the appetite is a self-evident truth.
This is a sign of good health and always precedes good egg-production.

Aworis a louie
Del
THE TRUE OLD ENGLISH PIT OR WARRIOR GAME.
The property of MR. JOHN HARRIS.
The Feeding of Poultry*
183
The extra cost of food is no argument against exercise if by it the
fowls keep in better health and are stimulated to higher production.
Another argument in favor of exercise is that fowls are made happy
by being allowed to indulge their natural instinct to hunt and scratch. So
pronounced is this characteristic that little chickens a day old will scratch
industriously for food on a bare table where there is no excuse for so doing.
It is born in them. They enjoy it. The best way to start hens to singing is
to give them something to do. A singing hen is apt to be a laying hen.
When the cold weather comes another law asserts itself. The animal
instinctively avoids exertion. The physical activities of the hybernating
animal become almost dormant. This same tendency is noticed with.
poultry, though in a less marked degree. They are simply following the
dictates of a natural law, which is that activity, either physical or mental,
uses up energy, which is the result of heat, which is derived from the fat
in the body or direct from nutrients in the food. Thus we find hybernating
animals coming out of winter quarters spring-poor, having used up the
fuel stored up in the fall-in spite of the fact that they have been husband-
ing their energies—just the same as a fireman short of coal would economize
his fuel. The hen does the same. She does it intuitively. The difficulty
of overcoming
this inherited
tendency is one
of the reasons
why it is so
hard to make
hens lay well
while the days
are getting
shorter and the
weather colder.
The all-
important
problem of the
poultryman is
not so much the husbanding of energies or the saving of food as it is the
getting of eggs and the keeping of his fowls in the best possible health.
*Begun in Part III.-By James E. Rice, New York.

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A GOOD BUT SMALL COMMON GOOSE
Weight ro lbs.
A Wein
184
The Poultry Book
Therefore, the first object for the poultryman to overcome is the inactive,
conserving tendency in his fowls. He must do this even at the expense
of greater food-consumption if he wishes to force egg-production.
TEMPERATURE AND FOOD-CONSUMPTION
It is apparent that fowls which are kept in cold houses will require
more of the food nutrients than will those which are kept warm. How-
ever, the part of the food-the carbohydrates-which is used for the purpose
is the least expensive of the food nutrients and is usually found in sufficient
quantities in most of our grains. Inasmuch as it is the same nutrient
that is required to make fat in the animal, it naturally follows that animals
already fat will suffer less during exposure than fowls not fat. It is the
natural tendency of all animal life to prepare for this emergency, and there-
fore as cold weather approaches the body fortifies itself by storing up
fat. At such times the appetite naturally craves those foods that will most
readily make fat. This increased appetite and the readiness to fatten as
cold weather approaches is recognized by feeders of all animals, and is
one reason why it is so difficult to keep hens from becoming too fat for good
egg-production at this time of year. It is the natural instinct of all animals
to go into winter quarters "hog-fat.”
FEEDING ACCORDING TO AGE
Mature fowls not laying eat less in proportion to live weight than do
those that are young. This is because the mature fowls have only to main-
tain their bodies, while young stock not only maintain the growth already
made but they must have the food to make new growth. The table here
given shows the relative amount of food required per day for each 100
pounds live weight with chickens of different ages. It illustrates most
aptly the point in question.
For first two weeks
From 2 to 4 weeks of age
66
"C
"C
4 to 6
6 to 8
8 to 10
Io to 12
**
<C
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เ
[(
""
""
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เ
RATIONS FOR CHICKS
Total
Dry Matter
lbs.
IO.I
9.6
86
7.4
6.4
5.4
* W. P. Wheeler, Geneva, N. Y., Experiment Station.
Ash
lbs.
.5
.7
.6
.5
.5
.4
Protein
lbs.
2.0
2 2
2.0
1.6
I.2
I.O
Carboh.
lbs.
7.2
6.2
5.6
4.9
4.4
3.7
Fat
lbs.
+
.5
.4
.4
.3
•3
The Feeding of Poultry
185
The digestive apparatus of young animals is larger than of the adult,
in proportion to their live weight, which is a physiological explanation
of their rapid growth in proportion to their live weight.
As the fowls become older their tendency to throw their energies into
fat rather than into eggs or muscle increases. Therefore it is not
profitable, as a rule, to keep fowls after the second year-except in case
of exceptionally good ones, which of course should be retained as breeders.
FEEDING PULLETS
The aim in feeding pullets from the time the sex can be distinguished
until they have reached the proper period of maturity to lay is to keep them
growing as rapidly as possible without forcing them to premature pro-
duction. This is a fine point and a difficult one-particularly with the
breeds that have the egg-producing tendency largely developed.
If the food is too easily digested and too stimulating and fed too liberally
the pullets will be stimulated to lay before they have reached the proper
size, which would check their growth and perhaps injure foreve what
should have been the most prolific layers in the flock. On the other hand,
if the food is too indigestible or too deficient in growth material or too spar-
ingly fed they will not get sufficient nourishment to make a normal growth.
This latter condition occurs more often by far than the former, but both
should be guarded against. To avoid too stimulating a diet, feed meat
sparingly and concentrated ground feed but once a day. Plenty of range—
good mixture of whole grain, like wheat, oats, barley, peas and corn. To
avoid too slow development, guard against feeding too largely on fattening
foods, like corn, buckwheat, etc. See to it that all the flock have enough
to eat three times a day. When feeding ground food there should not be
too much bulk.
FEEDING DIFFERENT BREEDS
Generally speaking, the ration that will give the best results with one
breed of fowls will not in the long run be the one that will give most satis-
factory returns when fed to dissimilar breeds.
On general principles, it may be accepted that the same food nutrients
that go to make eggs, meat or fat in one breed will do the same in all breeds,
but that they are not required in similar proportion. This is because the
element of heredity enters into the problem and the inherited tendencies
of the breed assert themselves. That is why the same ration will make


186
The Poultry Book
a Leghorn produce eggs while an Indian game produces meat; a young
fowl grow muscle and an old fowl grow fat.
In the first case, the tendency is inborn to throw its food into reproduc-
tion; in the second,
the inherited
tendency is to
throw its energies
into expansion;
in the third, the
tendency toward
muscular develop-
ment asserts itself;
while in the fourth
case, this tendency
having reached its
limit, the food
nutrients are then
naturally enough
stored up as a
reserve 1orce in the form of fat. That is why it is difficult to fatten
young stock, and why it is almost impossible to keep mature stock
from becoming too fat when fed liberally. So strong are these
tendencies asserted that the mature animal will actually convert
the food nutrients into fat which with a young animal would have
naturally gone to make muscle or eggs. So, too, one breed inherits.
an active, industrious disposition and works off its energies, while
a fowl of another breed having a phlegmatic disposition stores up its
energies, being too good-natured and lazy to use them. Therefore it becomes
necessary to feed fowls of different ages and different breeds on rations best.
suited to develop or counteract these tendencies, as may be desired. If we
want a breed to lay that is naturally inclined to become fat, we must feed
foods containing less of the fattening nutrients-i. e., a narrower ration-
and make them work to use up fat which may be stored.
If they are of the active disposition that naturally works off their fat,
they can be fed more of the fattening nutrients with safety-i. e., a wider
ration. In fact, it is imperative that we pay close attention to the dis-
position of the fowls if they are to be kept fat enough to do well.

CORNISH INDIAN AND LANGSHAN
A good fowl
Dr
Dig


The Feeding of Poultry
187
The problem, then, of getting the best net results in egg-production
with heavy breeds is how to give enough food to enable them to lay well
without getting them too fat. To do this we may have to sacrifice some-
thing in cost of food, because the narrower ration costs more than the
wider one.
Protein is more expensive than carbohydrates. The following
result of an experiment is a case in point:
Cochin hens having a whole grain ration laid much better than those hav-
ing the ground grain, while with the Leghorns those that had part soft feed laid
best. The better results from feeding whole grain to Cochins was very likely
due to the fact that they were compelled to exercise more to get their food,
and, having to do all their own grinding, were prevented from becoming too
fat—the fat nutrients being used up in the work of grinding and scratching.
It must be apparent, then, how impossible it is to get the best results
from egg-production where the breeds are mixed up miscellaneously and
the same ration and treatment given all.
FEEDING BREEDING STOCK
Ahay
The greatest care should be exercised in feeding the fowls that are
to perpetuate their kind. While it is the natural law of all plant and animal
life that the
parent will sacri-
fice its own body
to the last ex-
tremity in order
to make a perfect
offspring, never-
theless there.
comes a time
when the body
can no longer fur-
nish the materials
in the right quan-
tity and propor-
tion to perform
its natural office and reproduce vigorous, perfect offspring. This fact
is clearly shown in the analysis made by Professor Harry Snyder of
eggs from hens fed by the writer upon rations that were radically different

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PRIZE FAVEROLLE (EX) ANCE AUMA
Shown at Islington. 3½ months old. Very fat
188
The Poultry Book
in composition; one being very deficient in protein, called the carbonaceous
ration, the other being deficient in carbohydrates, called the nitrogenous
ration. Surely such wide differences in the composition of the eggs would
result in wide differences as to the development and vitality of the
chickens.
White of Egg Contained
ANALYSIS OF EGGS FROM THE TWO RATIONS
Carbon-
aceous
Ration
Per cent.
Water...
Nitrogen in dry substance
Protein.
Fat..
Nitro-
genous
Ration
Per cent.
92.08
14.23
88.92
0.53
90.22
13.71
85.69
0.64
Yolk of Egg Contained
Water.
Nitrogen in dry substance
Protein...
Fat..
Shell..
•
·
•
•
•
Nitro- Carbon-
genous
aceous
Ration
Ration
Per cent.
Per cent.
41.60
4.97
30.83
64.78
8.48
44.47
4.90
30.62
64.43
8.69
It
It will be wise generally to not push for eggs the hens that are to be used
for breeders during the early winter months. It will pay in the long run to
sacrifice something in egg-production for the sake of increased vigor and
vitality in the chickens. It seems pretty well demonstrated that fowls that
have been laying rapidly and continuously for a long period previous to the
breeding season will not give eggs that will hatch as many or as strong
chickens as fowls that have not been forced up to the breeding season.
is perhaps largely for this reason that hens are usually more satisfactory
as breeders than pullets. Hens in comparison to pullets usually lay but few
eggs during the fall and early winter. In order to hold back the breeding
stock it will be wise to feed them almost entirely on whole grain, only a little
meat and plenty of vegetables. Or if much soft ground food is fed it should
be very bulky in its make-up. The activity of the gizzard and slow diges-
tion will help to keep the fowls from being over-forced or becoming too fat.
For the same reason plenty of exercise in the fresh air should be encouraged.
FEEDING SITTING HENS
Sitting hens should be as well fed as those that are laying, but the
feeding should be different. Grain should be left where they can get it
whenever they desire to come off the nest. This is done not only as a
matter of convenience, but also to insure the hens getting all they want to
eat, and also to get them in the habit of coming off regularly, which they will
be more apt to do if they know the food is always obtainable. It is better
to feed all whole grain in good variety, such as corn, oats and wheat. The
reason is that all the food a sitting hen requires is for her bodily maintenance.
The Feeding of Poultry
189
She is a non-producer, and will therefore be able to satisfy her needs without
soft food, vegetables or meat, though a little of these will be a benefit.
The danger lies in feeding so much vegetable food as to loosen the bowels,
or in feeding so much meat as to stimulate a desire to discontinue sitting
and go to laying.
BREAKING UP BROODY HENS
The problem in feeding broody hens is twofold: we want to break
up the desire for incubation, and get the fowls to laying again as soon as
possible. If it were simply to do the former, starving them or ducking
them in the water-trough
might be sufficient diver-
sion to take their mind
from the natural inclina-
tion to sit. This treat-
ment, however, would
delay rather than pro-
mote that state of
physical vigor and nerve
strength necessary to
egg-production.
After a period of
laying the fowl is in a
condition of nerve ex-
haustion. This may and
may not mean fat exhaustion. Because very often broody hens are
overfat. When in this state they are not in the best physical con-
dition. The same is also true of the hen poor in flesh. Manifestly the
best way to get a hen to lay is the best way to break up the broody desire.
That is to say, if she is too fat, feed abundantly on easily digestible food
rich in protein and mineral matter. If she is poor in condition, more fatten-
ing food like corn should be added. As a matter of practice, it will be found
impractical to bother to feed broody hens differently from the laying fowls
unless it appears that the broody hens are radically different in their condi-
tion and a special effort is being made to get the largest possible net results
regardless of time and expense-the point to be emphasized being the
importance of liberal feeding instead of a starvation treatment in the hand-
ling of broody hens. It is important also that the hens be taken from the

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From a drawing by Harrison Weir
FAT MONGREL FOWL
Shown at Islington. Showing fat accumulation about neck and lower part of breast
190
The Poultry Book
nests as soon as they manifest a desire to sit, because the desire seems
to become stronger if they are allowed to remain on the nest several days.
Grit, water and both whole grain and soft mash should be provided. It is
our practice to let the broody hens out after three or four days' confinement.
A few of the hens will return to the nest and must be recaught. We
think it wiser to do this than to keep the others cooped up unnecessarily.
FEEDING MOLTING HENS
The molting period of fowls is a critical time in their lives. In nature
they seek seclusion because they are in a somewhat defenseless condition-
both as to their ability to escape from natural enemies and their power to
withstand inclement weather. Therefore in domestication they manifest
the same disposition, and must be given special care as to food and shelter.
The time and manner of molting is largely a question of inheritance;
various conditions of age, production and food may affect the natural
inherited tendency so as to hasten or retard the molting process. Normally
hens of the same age and breed would shed their feathers at about the same
time, provid-
ing other con-
ditions were
equal. But
fowls that are
early hatched
will have
reached a
condition of
maturity pro-
portionately

10%
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
MISS CROAD'S LANGSHAN PRIZE PULLET
Note the shortness of thigh and leg. A fine sample
earlier than
those that are
hatched late,
consequently
they will have
performed
their normal annual life work of growth, egg- and feather production, after
which will follow rest, recuperation and a new coat of feathers. Most fowls
begin life during the warm spring months both in nature and in domesti-
The Feeding of Poultry
191
cation. They will then naturally fulfil their life work of reproduction at
about the same time, and if conditions are favorable they will take their
rest and renew their coats and be ready for winter before it arrives. But
when we change the conditions by hatching exceedingly early and then very
late, even extending the time to fall hatching, we find a difference in condi-
tions of maturity and a consequent difference in time of molting. When
we add to this a system of feeding intended to prolong the egg-production
late into the fall, or, in contrast to this, a system of neglect or improper
feeding on fattening foods, we find potent factors which most emphatically
influence the time and manner of molt.
On
It may be well to here inquire what constitutes a healthy molt.
this point poultrymen do not agree. My own belief is, that a natural,
healthy molt is one where a rapid growth of new feathers takes the place
of the old ones as fast as they drop, and where certain feathers are
naturally shed while others wait until some of the new feathers are well
grown, which is a condition that never permits a fowl to be nude or
decidedly ragged.
The molt where all or most of the feathers are shed before the new
coat comes on is not the most healthy molt. It is not in accordance with
the natural laws. In nature, all bird kind quietly drops a few feathers and
replaces them before other feathers fall, so that at no time will it be unable
to flee from a pursuer or be unprotected during a storm.
A careful study of molting hens will reveal the fact that a very fat
fowl will shed its feathers and will not have the power to renew its coat,
and that a very poor fowl will not be able to shed its coat. The best con-
dition for a healthy molt is to be found between these two extremes. In
other words, the best molt occurs when the fowl is in the best possible
health, having completed its year of egg- and feather production.
The feathers lose life and vitality when the ducts which nourish them
have done their season's work. This exhaustion may be brought about
prematurely by physical or nerve exhaustion, either through heavy laying,
by sickness, or by starvation.
This is according to common observation in the case of fever in the
human family, when the hair is apt to fall out, or where pullets completing
their first period of laying will molt even in the dead of winter. A restora-
tion to health by generous feeding will start a new coat.
In a healthy animal, the glands will work, and unless there are live,
192
The Poultry Book
healthy feathers there to take the nourishment supplied, new ones will start,
as is shown by the cases where persons preparing fowls for exhibition have
plucked their feathers and so timed them that a new coat is grown complete
in time for the show.
While it is apparent that the molting process is somewhat under the
control of man, the practical question to be asked is, whether or not it is
desirable to force a molt. All producers of fall and winter eggs know that
the hardest time of all the year to get hens to lay is during the months
of October, November and December, and that the hens that lay best
during these months are usually the ones that have molted early. The
practice of forcing an early molt by a starvation process, so that the
fowls throw their feathers in a bunch, is receiving wide publicity and
trial. With what success, time only will reveal.
I venture the suggestion that it will be wiser and more profitable to let
the hens lay while they will under normal conditions rather than stop them
in order to force a molt. One will have to take desperate chances to get
them to lay again much sooner than they ordinarily would, particularly
if as radical a means as starvation rations is used to compel the molt.
Would it not be wiser to depend more largely upon early hatched
pullets to keep up the early winter egg-supply, and simply cut out the
forcing diet from the hens during late summer, and continue to feed
good, wholesome whole grain for maintenance and good health?
The rational ration for hens during their molt will depend upon their
condition. If they are poor after a long period of laying, a food rich in oil,
with a moderate amount of protein, will be best; oats and sunflower and
flaxseed are the best examples of foods that are rich in oil and not deficient
in protein. If the fowls are fat, a ration rich in protein will supply the
material to grow a new coat of feathers better than one which has a tendency
to fatten. Old-process oil meal, wheat bran, meat meal, skim milk and clover
meal are the best examples of feather-making foods. It will be seen by the
analysis of feathers that they contain a large proportion of nitrogen, and
therefore must have a ration rich in protein in order to make the growth.*
FEEDING CHICKENS
Young chickens should be fed little and often. The great danger in
feeding chickens up to the time they are feathered is from overfeeding.
*Van Dreser's Molting Art.
The Feeding of Poultry
193

Her
1892
MALAY PULLET
गए
It occurs far more frequently than does underfeeding. Overfeeding is more
apt to occur with brooder chickens that have little chance to exercise than
it does with chickens that run with the hen. There is far less danger of over-
194
The Poultry Book
feeding with whole or cracked food than there is when all ground food is
fed, for the reason that digestion must take place more slowly.
It therefore follows that as between hard and soft food, where both are
fed, the larger the proportion of ground food the chickens eat the faster they
will grow; and conversely, the larger the proportion of cracked or whole
grain they eat the slower they will grow and the less will be the dangers
from digestion troubles.
It really becomes a question of seeing how fast we can grow them with-
out "feeding them off their feet”—which means without injuring their
digestion. Most feeders will prefer to keep on the side of safety, and
not try to force them too fast.
The first food should be given about twenty-four hours after hatching
has been completed. The yolk sack, which has been enclosed within the
body a few hours before hatching began, contains all the food that is
required until the digestive system is in working order. The mistake some-
times is made of leaving the chickens so long without nourishment that they
are weakened—but the mistake is more apt to be made in the other direction.
Hens pay more attention to keeping their little ones warm than they do to
hunting for a big dinner. We should do the same.
The best results that we have ever had in raising little chickens was when
we fed wheat bread soaked in skim milk-squeezed dry and fed crumbled—
for the first day or two. For the next few days this was supplemented with
fine cracked grain, principally wheat and oatmeal. I think a large variety
of seeds and fine grain is an advantage. They can be purchased in quan-
tities of poultry supply houses and a mixture made to suit conditions.
Several combinations of these grains are upon the market which we have
found very valuable. We have had well-grounded suspicions that a good
deal more grit is often put in these foods than is really necessary. The
feeding table on another page gives the composition of many foods that
may be used for chick feed.
All whole or cracked grain should be fed in a litter of chaff, where the
chickens will have to scratch for it, if they are confined. This should form
the first and last feeding of the day.
During the day they should be given what they will eat up clean of
soft food, which should be dry and crumbly. After four weeks this soft
food may be fed quite liberally.
The best combination which we have ever found is to make a corn-meal

Harry, & Wein
Bel.
IDEAL COCK LANGSHAN, OF "CROAD'S" IMPORTED BIRDS. HEN, Mr. C. M. GURNEY'S PURE "CROAD."
1st Prize Paris Exposition de l'Industrie, 1896.
The Feeding of Poultry
195
"Johnny cake," by mixing sour milk and soda to make it light. It must
be thoroughly cooked all the way through. If it is sodden or only partly
baked it is a dangerous food. When taken from the oven it should be
covered with a damp cloth so that it will steam and soften. With this
should be mixed a little pot-cheese or custard. The custard is made by
adding half a dozen infertile eggs to a quart or two of milk and the whole
beaten thoroughly and placed in the oven and allowed to cook by slow heat.
This custard takes the place of meat, which in some form is a necessity
in feeding
chickens. No
kind of grain
or vegetable
can take its
place. I f
custard is not
fed, some kind
of meat must
be provided,
such as green
cut bone, fresh
meat which
is better cooked

Mem
Lii
ng m
22
CORNISH INDIAN PULLET
Bred by Mr. W. Brent
or meat
scraps, which may be sifted and the coarser particles mixed with grain,
about one-tenth to one-fifth weight. If skim milk is to be had, it can be
fed freely as a drink or in the form of pot-cheese-or both.
If the chickens cannot get to grass, green food of some kind must be
provided. The best vegetable for little chickens is lettuce. Cabbage is
also very satisfactory. Chopped onions or onion tops in small quantity are
particularly healthful.
Finely cracked grit is a necessity from the start. It should be mixed
and scattered with the fine grain at first. It should also be kept in a box
where they can help themselves at all times.
In case of sour stomach, which is indicated by gas or water in the crop,
feed some charcoal. In fact, it is a good plan to have some of it where the
chickens can help themselves.
Water should be given from the start, but always in such a dish that
196
The Poultry Book
the little ones cannot get wet. Use large fountains that can be taken apart
and thoroughly cleaned and scalded if necessary.
The great danger in watering chickens is that the dishes will not hold
enough. When chickens get out of water they get too thirsty, and then
drink too much when it is supplied them.
The six things to keep in mind when raising chickens are:
First, keep them warm.
Second, keep them dry.
Third, keep them clean.
Fourth, keep them busy.
Fifth, keep them hungry.
Sixth, keep them growing.


HWei
Dis 15 1893
MISS WATERER'S MODERN DORKING COCKEREL
Showing good fleshy form without much fat

By courtesy New York Duck Farm
PEKIN DUCKS ON LONG ISLAND
Photograph furnished by Miller Purvis
FINISHING FOWLS FOR MARKET
MILLER PURVIS, ILLINOIS
"Though in our work we often fail,
The way we finish tells the tale."-CAREW.

T is not uncommon for the poultry dealer to find a large
number of fat fowls among those he gathers from the
farms, but it is a comparatively rare thing to find
finished ones, and it is the finishing of poultry that
determines the class to which it belongs. While a fat
fowl may sell well and bring the highest open quota-
tion, the perfectly finished one will bring the fancy prices that are paid
by those consumers who are willing to pay extra for extra quality.
It is comparatively easy to feed a lot of fowls until they are very
fat, yet such fowls may not be finished in the real sense of the
word as applied to poultry prepared in the best manner for the market.
It is quite easy to feed a flock of fowls that have entire liberty until they
are loaded with fat, and yet they may lack in flavor, and when brought to
table may present anything but an appetizing appearance.
197
198
The Poultry Book
The poultry consumers of this country do not recognize the difference
between a fowl that has been simply fattened and one that has been properly
finished as readily as do the consumers of England, France and other
European nations, because they have not been educated up to the point
of realizing how much better the finished fowl is than the merely fat one.
The fat fowl has its fat distributed on the intestines and immediately
under the skin, while the finished one will have the fat distributed among
the fibers of the flesh in very small globules. In the process of cooking, the
fat in the fat fowl will melt and run out into the cooking vessel, leaving the
flesh hard or stringy according to the way it is cooked, and lacking that
delicious flavor that belongs to the flesh of fowls properly finished,
while the flesh of the finished fowl comes to the table sweet, juicy and
tender.
>
To fatten a fowl it is only necessary to give it all the corn or other grain
it will eat and water to drink, and pay no more attention to it. Such a fowl
will sell readily in the American market; but our great poultry-packing
firms soon learned that when such fowls were exported the consumers
rejected them as not being first-class, and they immediately began to study
European methods, and up to this time no method has been discovered that
is superior to those which have been followed in the old country for cen-
turies. Some improvements have been made in the manner of handling
the fowls, and the rations have been slightly modified, but in the main the
processes followed are those of the old country, and in more than one instance
men have been brought from abroad to inaugurate European systems of
finishing in this country. Because fattening fowls requires no special
skill, and can be done by any one who knows enough to throw corn out of
a corn-crib with a scoop shovel, we have devoted this chapter to the
finishing of fowls.
Perhaps the importance of this final finish may be made more clear by
relating the instance in the experience of the writer. We were going
through one of the largest poultry-packing plants in this country with
the manager, observing the methods in use and inquiring into the magnitude
of the business, when it occurred to us to ask him how much difference there
was in fowls merely fattened and those properly finished. For reply he
took us into a storeroom where some thousands of fowls were disposed on
racks before being packed. Putting his hand on one rack he said: “Here
is a lot of birds that came from Arkansas. They are just ordinary mongrels,
Finishing Fowls for Market
199
but have been well fed. To-day these birds are worth nine cents a pound,
just as you see them.”
Going over to another lot, where an inspector was engaged in sorting
the fowls before they were packed for shipment, he said: "Here is a lot
of birds that were bought in Iowa and finished in our place here. They
were mostly Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, well fattened on the farm
and finished by ourselves. They are worth sixteen cents a pound to-day,

し
​Дев
پیر
사람
​1
OUTDOOR FATTENING PENS
초
​श
but I wouldn't thank any man to give me that price for them, for I can
export them and get more out of them."
We then asked him if he would pay the difference in value between
fowls that were simply fattened and those that were properly finished if the
poultry raisers would take pains to finish their poultry. He said he probably
could not afford to do so unless such finishing became common enough
to make it possible to buy poultry in large lots at first hands. This is the
substance of several conversations we have had with extensive poultry
buyers-those who do business amounting to hundreds of thousands of
dollars every year.
The advantage of properly finished poultry is becoming well under-
200
The Poultry Book
stood in Canada. Canadian poultry breeders haye created a great demand
for their product by sending to England poultry finished in every sense of
the word and as English consumers have been educated to expect it to be.
Already in America several private plants are producing finished poultry
for market and creating a demand that must have a beneficial effect on
the general practice in this country.
It is the opinion of the managers of the great poultry-finishing plants
in this country that Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes are the most profit-
able breeds for the high-class markets. They recommend those from
whom they buy their supplies to breed these and their grades. The Indian
Game fowl has a good many friends, but does not seem to be making any
headway, and the Asiatic breeds have fallen behind in the race for popu-
larity. The Orpingtons have recently been introduced, and are gaining
ground very rapidly, and the desire to secure them amounts to almost a
furore in some parts of the country. They promise to become very popular
for exporting, as they have the white skin desired by foreign consumers.
The smaller breeds, such as the Mediterranean varieties, the Polish and
the Hamburgs, are not esteemed for market purposes, and do not finish in a
satisfactory manner. They are kept principally for eggs. Of the French
breeds, the Houdan is oftenest seen, but these are not numerous enough to
make any showing in the poultry market, although they are beyond a doubt
very desirable table fowls. A very few Dorkings are kept in this country,
and these mostly by fanciers who are not interested in market poultry.
While they are among the best table fowls, they are not prolific layers and do
not meet the American demand for a general-purpose fowl. The Orpingtons,
having a Dorking cross and also a cross of blood from the distinctively
laying breeds, are rapidly taking the place of the other English breeds, as
they are very good layers as well as good market fowls.
Mr. Weir says, "All very short- and close-feathered birds, as a rule,
though fine in flesh, are not rapid in fattening; in some cases they will not.
fatten on the breast at all, though abundantly,so on the back, etc." A fowl,
to be really good and the breast meat rich and mellow, must fatten on that
part; otherwise, however deep and full of flesh the breast is, it will be dry
and to a certain extent hard, and especially if it is to be served as cold
fowl. Therefore, those birds that fatten evenly, with a close, square,
well-fleshed form, prove of the highest quality. A long-breasted bird is not
so good, as there is never the depth of flesh, though it is longer; still, the
Finishing Fowls for Market
201
slice that can be cut from the one is no heavier than from the other, while
the shorter is usually the richest in flavor. The long breast is a modern
mistake.
When fowls or chickens have a capacity to fatten they may be brought
to this condition by being kept in grass enclosures and fed liberally three
times a day-in the morning, at seven, on corn-meal or barley meal
and oatmeal, mixed and moistened with scalding skim milk, or
water if milk can not be had; at twelve, on scalded wheat and
rice mixed; lastly, on ground buckwheat and ground oats mixed,
moistened with scalding skim milk; or they may have a trough,
replenished twice a day, to go to as they are inclined.
In this way,
four to six months, they make fine and very
Or if a grass run is not available, the birds must
be put into a room or coops, but the small runs are preferable, and the birds
are better flavored and at the same time firmer and more healthy in their
flesh. In all cases grit or fine gravel should be put in the food when it is
mixed, the sexes separated, and punctuality as to the time of feeding
observed.
when of the age of
richly flavored fowls.
There is nothing new in the process of fattening as now used. It is
the same as that used thousands of years ago by the inhabitants of Delos
and others who were celebrated for the perfection of their poultry, and as
such have a world-time lasting fame.
The poultrymen of to-day claim an excellence and an advance to
which they are by no means entitled: the same kind of food is used now as
was used centuries ago, and the methods adopted for feeding in England
and America are similar to those followed in the eighteenth century,
and doubtless long before. Poultry has been one of the most valued
adjuncts to the farm from time immemorial, as is clearly proved by the law
documents and books of household expenses. The rearing of the stock
was one of the duties of the poulterer and the henwife, while the fattening
process was generally a business by itself, as presently will be shown.
COOP FATTENING
The coop finishing of poultry is practically the same as it was in the
time of Columella two thousand years ago, and it is doubtful, judging by the
description that he gives, whether we have better table fowls, or even as
good, as those that he so graphically describes. Even then, as now, the
202
The Poultry Book
rearing and the finishing were two distinct occupations, for he says:
“Although it is the business of a poulterer, and not of a husbandman, to
fatten a hen,
nevertheless, be-
cause there is no
great difficulty
nor charges in the
doing it I have
thought it proper
to give directions
concerning it. An
exceedingly warm
place, and of very
little light, is
requisite for this
purpose, wherein
the fowls may be
shut up one by
one, in very
narrow coops or
in hanging baskets, but so straightened that they may not be able to
turn themselves." This closely resembles the modern French method, and
is almost the same as our own, with the exception that we not infre-
quently put more than one bird in the same compartment. Columella
warns the poulterer to beware of lice and other vermin, and to take precau-
tions to prevent the fowls from being infested with such pests, as they
materially retard the finishing and are directly opposed to the well-being of
the fowl or the progress of the process. He continues: "But they give
barley meal for their food, of which, when they have sprinkled
with water and kneaded it, they make pellets and fatten the fowls
therewith; but these ought to be given more sparingly the first days,
till they are accustomed to a greater quantity, for indigestion is especially
to be avoided, and as much must be given them as they can digest.
They who are desirious not only to make their fowls fat but also tender,
sprinkle that kind of meal beforementioned with fresh mead, and so cram
them. Some mix one part of good wine with three parts water, and with
wheat bread soaked therein fatten the fowl."

Vic
4:
.ހ ށ
ہو
20
Pre
SHAPING-BOARD
!!!!
Finishing Fowls for Market
203
Then M. Porcius Cato, who died in the year of Rome 604, in his treatise
on agriculture says (Owen's Trans., page 102): "Cram hens and geese.
thus: Confine tender pullets which are likely to lay, make pellets of flour
and barley meal, dip them in water, and administer them, adding a little
gradually every day, judge of what is sufficient for the pullets' voracity.
Cram them twice a day and give them water at noon, and let not the water
remain before them more than an hour. Feed geese in the same manner,
but give them drink first, and twice a day, and give them food twice."
And Marcus Varro, the friend of Cicero, who also wrote a treatise on
agriculture, thus observes (Owen's Trans., B. 11, page 228): “In respect to
the three sorts, the Vallatic poultry is mostly fattened. They confine them
in a warm, narrow and dark place, for motion and light are unfavorable to
fattening. They cram them with pellets made of barley meal mixed with
the flower of darnel, or linseed, and some spring water, having taken off the
large feathers of the wings and tail. They feed them twice a day, observing
from certain signs that the first meal may be digested before they give a
second. Having given them food, they clean their heads of vermin and
shut them up again. They do this during five and twenty days. Some
cram them with
wheat bread dipt
in water mixed
with good and
well-flavored
wine, so that they
make them fat
and tender in
twenty days. If
they become fas-
tidious from too
much cramming,
you must be more
remiss in propor-
tion, and after the
first ten days you
may diminish the
quantity in that ratio that the twentieth and the first day may be equal.”
We might almost imagine these descriptions were written by one

ارد؟
War
Det
SHAPING-BOARD WITH WEIGHTS
204
The Poultry Book
who had visited and inspected one of the great modern poultry-finishing
plants, so similar are the methods described to those in use to-day. In
these modern plants the poultry is brought from the farms by hucksters,
who go about the country for this purpose. It is then placed in small cages,
five or six in each, and fed a mixture of ground grains, the mixture usually
containing oats, wheat, corn, barley, and sometimes oil meal. This is mixed
with milk or water to the consistency of a thick batter and fed in troughs
arranged outside the coops or cages. As soon as the fowls have eaten all
they will the troughs are removed and thoroughly cleaned The feeding
is done three times a day, and it takes from twenty to twenty-five days to
finish a fowl, the time depending on its condition when the process was
begun.
The cages are arranged on each side of a long building, in tiers five or
six cages high. These cages have a solid bottom and on top of this is a
slatted bottom, raised one inch from the true one. This allows the
droppings to fall through the openings between the slats, where they
lodge, and it is not necessary to clean the cages until the fowls in
them are finished: No water is given during this finishing process,
as the food is wet enough to supply the needs of the fowls.
The cramming machine is slowly coming into use, and will no doubt
soon be in as high repute in this country as it is in France. In these great
plants, as soon as the feeding is finished curtains are drawn along each side
of the passageway in such a manner as to shut out most of the light, leaving
semidarkness, which induces quiet and the more rapid addition of weight.
The illustration on page 205 is from a photograph taken by the writer
during a visit to one of the greatest finishing plants in the United States.
It shows very plainly the manner of arranging the cages in which the fowls
are confined. It also shows one of the cramming machines mentioned in
this connection, and the old English poultryman who was brought over
from Sussex to instruct American attendants into the mysteries of finishing
fowls by the English method.
Doubtless in England, during the time of the Roman occupation, the
keeping and the fattening of poultry was common, as it was long after
in the time of the Saxons and Normans, for mention is made of
fattened capons, capons of geese, etc., in some of the early records. And
later, Polydore, in the time of the Henrys, mentions the tenderness
of the young geese and the Kentish hens, and in the "Antiquities of
Finishing Fowls for Market
205

=71
Photograph by Miller Purvis
INTERIOR VIEW OF A POULTRY-FINISHING PLANT, SHOWING METHOD OF CRAMMING
Hengrave, in Suffolk, A.D. 1572," there is this entry: "To my Mres as to
so much by her given to two maids wh came out of Essex to teach the maides
to fatte capons, xiijs. xiijd."-a goodly sum in those days. I quote this
to show that, more than three centuries ago, in England, not only was
good poultry raised, but the finishing process was a separate and
desirable art to learn in conjunction with the breeding and rearing.
Leonard Mascall (who wrote A.D. 1570) says that for "the fattening
of bigge chickens in the coope or penne, they doe commonlye give them
steeped bread in ale, sometimes of dry breade, and their drink, milk and
water, or of soaked bran in milke; and sometimes ye must give them barley,
and feel them one after another, if there be anything left in their crops, for if
that which they have eaten is not gone and consumed, nor their craw yet
emptie, that signifieth undigested, and like not the meate, then give them
no more until they have digested that." And further Mascall says of
pullets: "For the feeding and cramming of young pullets, a verye goode


206
The Poultry Book
way is this to make them fatte and tender to eate: ye shall keep them in a
darke place, or blindfold them; then take barlye ground small and sift all
the branne thereof, then they doe use to moysten this barley meale with
warm milke; and some take ale, and some beare, and so they cramme and
feed them morning and evening, by giving them as much at once as they
may well digest;
and to helpe
their digestion,
some doe mix
with their meate
of mustarde
seede, or anise
seedes; thus

Gervase
Markham, and
other writers
on the subject,
during the six-
teenth century,
all give more
or less similar
advice; and in
some, stones or
something hard
is mentioned as
helping diges-
MR. MATTHEWS' PRIZE STREAKY-BREASTED BROWN-RED OLD ENGLISH tion. In the
Mystery of
Husbandry," by J. W. (Worlidge), A.D. 1681, we read: "If convenient
places or houses were made for them as dark as may be, which doth
much expedite their fattening. Buckwheat, either ground and made into
paste, or whole (the former is the better), is the best single fatner of fowl,
hemp seeds, as they say, giving an ill flavor to the flesh of the bird that feeds
on it; but this only on report; if it proves otherwise, it would be one great
Del
you may fat
them in short
space."
GAME COCKEREL
64
Finishing Fowls for Market
207
encouragement for the planting and sowing of hemp that the seed should be
of great use." In another place we find this advice: "Most certain it is,
that darkness doth much conduce to the fat'ning of any creature; also, rest
and sleep. Gravel not a little availeth, it being usual, that when poultry
are penned up and have lost their appetite, being set where gravel is, they
will greedily eat.” This practice has always been that of the intelligent
poultryman, even to the present, and no birds, whether cooped for finishing,
or other purposes confined, were expected to thrive without it, broken shells,
or very coarse sand. The modern poultry keeper has also within the last
few years made this discovery, and written columns in favor of the practice
as being new, though known for centuries.
During the last century the following methods of finishing were in
vogue: The first consisted in cooping the poultry in a dark place, in feeding
the fowls abundantly with barley, buckwheat, or maize, either of these
seeds boiled and made into balls.
The second, practiced in Maris (France), differed in that instead of
letting the poultry feed at liberty, they were made to swallow rolls of paste
in an oval shape, about two inches in length and one in breadth, made of
two parts barley meal, one part buckwheat, and a sufficient quantity of
milk.
The third method was accounted more expeditious than the preceding.
The fowls, being put into rows of pens and placed in a warm place, were
crammed two or three times a day by means of a funnel with the meal of
barley, wheat, small millet and maize, soaked in milk. A small quantity
of this mixture in a rather liquid state was given them at first, no drink being
allowed. The dose was afterward gradually increased until the crop
was filled entirely, allowing time enough to empty it in each case before the
renewal of the process, in order not to disturb the digestion.
The cages employed in the third method were a series of small pens, in
which each fowl was separate, and in a manner cased up and so closely
wedged in that it could move with difficulty. All that it was allowed to do
was to thrust its head through a hole and void through another. With
the help of the funnel a man could cram fifty fowls in half an hour. The
machine used was similar to that now in use at many finishing plants.
Every time the funnel was used for cramming the whole number it was
washed, as any remains of food on it would become sour. The chickens
fed in this manner were particularly well suited to poultry dealers.
208
The Poultry Book
At the end of a week they were very white and well flavored; in a fort-
night they would be at their best.
A writer in "The Family Receipt Book," 1815, gives the following for
fattening poultry. I quote it because it indicates the general use of gravel,
now called grit, for the healthful feeding of cooped birds: "Poultry
should be fattened in coops, and kept clean. They should be furnished with
gravel but no water; their only food, barley meal, mixed so thin with water as
to serve them for drink. Their thirst makes them eat more than they other-
wise would, in order to extract the water that is in the food. This should

RED PILE
pesablis
TROYES
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
Finishing Fowls for Market
209
not be put in troughs, but laid on a board, which should be washed clean
before fresh food is put upon it." Another method for fattening at
this period was one then much in vogue, as it was supposed to add a finer
flavor than that in ordinary use: "Take, for the purpose, a quantity of
rice and grind or pound it into fine flour. Mix sufficient for present use with
milk and a little coarse sugar; stir the whole well over the fire, till it makes
a thick paste, and feed the chickens, in the daytime only, putting as
much as they can eat, and no more, into the troughs belonging to the coops.
It must be eaten while warm, and if they have also beer to drink they will
soon grow very fat. A mixture of oatmeal and treacle, combined till it
crumbles, is said to form a good food for chickens, of which they are fond
and on which they thrive so rapidly that at the end of two months they
become as large as the average full-grown fowls fed in the common way."
About the early part of the nineteenth century, Mr. Turner, of North
Chapel, in Sussex, a tenant of Lord Egremont's, was wont to fatten about
two hundred chickens annually to a size and prefection not known else-
where. The food given them was ground oats, made into gruel, mixed
with hog's lard or grease, sugar, pot liquor, and milk; or ground oats,
treacle, and suet, also sheep's pluck, etc. They were kept very warm,
and always crammed in the morning and at night. The pot liquor was
mixed with a few handfuls of oatmeal, then boiled up, taken off the fire,
and the meal therewith made into paste and divided into rolls for cram-
ming. The fowls were put into the coops a few days previous to cramming,
the process being completed in a fortnight. Fowls thus fattened would
weigh about seven pounds, and average five pounds, though some arrived
at double that weight."-Sussex Agricultural Report.
The system of cramming became usual with the hucksters both in
Kent and Sussex, and fowls of large size and weight were not infrequently
produced. My father had a couple of pullets from a farmer of Cuck-
field, Christmas, 1834, which weighed one ounce more than twenty-one
pounds, the food used in this instance being two parts oatmeal to one part
of barley meal mixed with milk, with some suet and a little sugar added.
Some of the old Kent and Sussex capons, fully fattened, have weighed at
Christmas as much as twelve to thirteen pounds. Latterly the sugar,
treacle or molasses mixture has been abandoned in favor of oatmeal and
barley meal mixed with boiled skim milk.
Formerly, as at present, the best fattened and finest table fowls in Eng-
(6
210
The Poultry Book
land were to be found either in Kent, Sussex, Surrey or Bucks, and it was
from these counties that London and other large cities or towns obtained
their chief supply. In no other counties was so much care exercised in the
selection of the breeding stock or the management and rearing of chickens.
These were collected by hucksters, some going on foot, with nets or
coops at their backs, which would contain one dozen to two dozen chickens,
according to size. These men often traveled twenty miles a day, while
others with a horse and panniers or cart would far exceed this distance.
The fowls now chiefly kept in England are the following: The Brahma-
Dorking cross-a rough-and-ready kind, also a long-cherished buff cross
with the Shanghai, both large-boned by comparison with older and better
breeds. The Langshan has been found to be very good, but in some
instances it does not thrive well in the fattening pens.
The
One English poultry dealer who finishes a large number of fowls every
year and is very successful uses the following method: The chickens are
taken in tops or crates to the finishing sheds or yards and at once placed in
the pens.
If not "fasted" they are kept without food for a few hours
to increase their appetites, to reconcile them to feeding in coops.
cages are in long lines, about breast high, and are lightly constructed,
having the backs, fronts and bottoms made of wooden bars, the roof and
sides of close wood or corrugated iron. Each compartment will hold four
fowls, with just room to turn around. In some cases a flat board is in
front, on which the food is placed. In others a V-shaped trough, or parts
of zinc water-chuting, are used. The cages are sometimes covered with
canvas drawn down in front, as darkness is said to shorten the time
required for the process. Usually the pens are placed in sheds or barns,
which are kept close and dark. Warmth being essential, ventilation in
some cases is neglected except in summer. The droppings fall through
the bottom bars of the pen on fresh earth, which is removed. and
renewed periodically. Cleanliness of the pens, and frequent washing
with lime-water in which carbolic acid is mixed, is considered to be
essentials to success.
The period of finishing varies slightly, some responding to the process
and the kind of food used better than others, but it is seldom less than from
three to four weeks. The chickens are fed twice a day on ground oats (not
oatmeal) mixed with skim milk, enriched with fat either of beef or mutton.
This dealer feeds quantities of Australian mutton tallow, which is imported
Finishing Fowls for Market
211
in barrels, and is mainly used for soap-making; the cost is $7.50 to $10 per
100 pounds. The fat is melted and mixed with the ground oats and milk, to
which some brick-dust or sand is added as a digester. For the first two
weeks the chickens eat naturally, but afterward they are crammed until
finished. The operation is performed rapidly by a cramming machine,
which now supersedes the old hand process. If the operator is experienced
the cramming is very
of the machine being
mouth, a half turn of
is-next, and-next.
machine varies from
is usual to kill twice
according to the
ready they sicken if
plucking and stubbing
women, after which
breast downward on a
weight placed over
quickly done, the tube
inserted into the fowl's
the crank, and then it
The price of the
$17.50 to $22.50. It
or three times a week,
demand, but when
not attended to. The
is mostly done by
they are put in rows
shaping-board and a
them.
One curious fact
namely, that the
is far greater than the
several finishers who
needs in this respect as
one hundred dozens per
There is much
capacity of fowls for
are somewhat long
more readily than the
breeds. Here I would
fatten generally, if
not always, on those
parts on which the plumage grows. Thus on the back, where the
feathers are close, the fat is excessive, as also about the neck and
belly; while on the breast, where there are open spaces between the
lines or tracts of the feathering, there is no fat. The goose might be
taken as an example of the difference between a feather-covered bird
and one that is partially so, the whole body of the former being enveloped
in layers of fat, while those fowls that are short- and close-feathered on
remains to be noted,
demand for chickens
supply, and there are
are so far short of their
to advertise for at least
week during the season.
difference in the
finishing, those that
in feather taking on fat
PROPERLY FINISHED PLYMOUTH close, short-feathered
point out that fowls

ROCK HEN
Photograph by courtesy of Miller Purvis

212
The Poultry Book

Mein
182
OLD ENGLISH GAME HEN
the breast seldom if ever fatten on that part, though they may be fleshy
and well formed.
It has generally been supposed that the more nutritious the food given
the better the fowl, but experiments have proved that this is by no
means always the case. For instance, buckwheat and oatmeal mixed
have not been found so serviceable as when one-third of boiled potatoes
have been added. Again, ground corn is better with one-third boiled un-
husked rice. Ground oats, with one part potatoes or some boiled cabbage,

Finishing Fowls for Market
213
are good; wheat and rice boiled together are good, as is also buckwheat and
one-third potatoes, with a finish of all buckwheat. The old finishers never
gave hard grain, but, if whole, soaked it at least twelve hours, or boiled
it. In all cases it was usual to add some gravel or very sharp sand.
Sometimes table beer was used in the latter part of the day for moistening
the food, and skim milk in the morning, but not generally. The giving
of sugar was thought to make the birds so thirsty that they would eat
more of the mixed food for the sake of moisture.
PREPARING FOR USE OR MARKET
The English method is as follows: A fowl should be fasted from
twelve to twenty hours before it is killed, otherwise it soon taints.
When a fowl is ready, or sufficiently fat for the purpose required, the usual
plan of killing is that of breaking the neck, which by an adept is quickly
and painlessly effected. Another method is bleeding, which is more
common in France than in this country. With some the fowl is stunned
by a blow at the base of the skull, if bled; but the first plan is the most
humane. Immediately after, the process of plucking is performed, when
great care must be taken not to tear or injure the skin, this being likely
through rough usage, especially on the breast, which is generally first
operated on. Then the feathers on the back, belly, lesser wing coverts.
and tail are removed, leaving the head feathers, those of the upper part of
the neck, and the larger wing primaries or quills. After which pluck
away all feathers but those of the head and neck. So quick are some
of the American pluckers that they have been known to remove the
feathers of six fowls in twelve minutes, while many of the English
experts are not a minute behind, showing that practice makes perfect.
The birds are hung up to slightly cool, then taken down, and their legs tied
at the hocks; they are placed in rows, with the breast under, on shaping
boards, another board then laid on, with weights added. They cool into
shape. When cool they are removed, packed into crates, and despatched
to market. Pullets, cockerels and capons keep better than quite young
chickens or ducklings.
We have purposely given in considerable detail the English and French
methods of finishing fowls, and also the methods advised by ancient writers,
because the essential facts have been understood for hundreds of years,
and the finishing of fowls is practically accomplished by the same means to-
214
The Poultry Book
day that were in vogue during the time of the Roman Empire. In this
country we use more corn than in other countries because it is the
cheapest grain food we have and is essentially a fattening food.
The American method of preparing for market is somewhat different
from that in use in England. In our large finishing plants the fowls are
not fed for twenty-four hours previously to being dressed. They are placed
in crates and taken to the dressing-rooms, where an attendant catches them
and hangs them by the feet in a device that holds them fast. This device
is suspended on a wire, a small wheel running on the wire. The fowls,
hanging head down, are then pushed forward and another workman kills
them by deftly cutting the artery in the back of the head with a pointed
knife. As they are pushed along on the wire support in a continual pro-
cession they come to a tank of scalding water, where they are taken from
the support, scalded, and quickly returned. Then a workman makes a quick
"grab" and pulls out a handful of feathers, and, with the same motion,
pushes the bird forward, where another takes out another handful, and so
on, each workman pulling out as many feathers as he can without stopping
the bird in its onward course. By this means the feathers are stripped off
in an incredibly short time, and a line of birds extends the whole length
of the long wire, all progressing toward complete dressing all the time.
Where it is desired to save the wing and tail feathers without wetting
them, these are pulled out before the bird is scalded and kept separate from
the softer feathers.
As soon as the feathers are all stripped from a fowl, it is taken from
the wire and laid on a shelf on a rack specially constructed for this purpose,
where it is allowed to cool until all the animal heat is out of the body.
The birds then go to the inspector, who rapidly grades them, and they
are packed in new, clean boxes and pressed into shape and taken to the
freezing-rooms, where they remain until taken out to be sent in refrigerator
cars to market, often across the ccean.
The inspector selects the birds according to quality, those with very
short thighs being put by themselves and reserved for the English market,
being sold under the name of "Sussex fowls," the reputation of Sussex in
England being so great that the best are given the name in order to get
a better price for them, just as all good butter is sold as Elgin butter.
English finishers seem to think cross-bred fowls better than the pure
breeds, but the great poultry dealers in this country do not agree with
Finishing Fowls for Market
215
them; and one firm that handles millions of fowls every year has been at
considerable expense to teach the poultry breeders of the districts from
which they draw their supplies the advantages of using only pure-bred
stock in their breeding pens.
The English consumer is partial to a fowl with a white skin, while the
American wants yellow-skinned fowls. This is mere fancy, and it is
probable that before many years the prejudice that exists in this country
against white-skinned fowls will disappear. The great poultry-packing
firms of the country do not finish fowls particularly because they desire to

Men
OLD ENGLISH GAME, AGRICULTURAL HALL, 1897
do so, but because they are compelled to do so in order to get the
quality the best markets demand.
The most profitable part of poultry breeding is in this final operation
that finishes the fowl and puts it in condition to command the highest price.
The writer has seen a lot of ordinary fowls which were bought at six or
seven cents per pound put in the finishing pens for three weeks and taken
out weighing twenty or twenty-four ounces more than they did when put in,
and worth more than twice as much per pound as they were when bought
on the farm of the breeder who produced them. In such cases the finishing
process not only added weight to the fowls, but added one hundred per cent.
or more to the value of the weight they carried before the process was begun.
The market for the best poultry is an insistent and growing one. It
216
The Poultry Book
has never yet been supplied with all it would take. Any glut in the market
is always produced by an oversupply of inferior stuff, which does not meet
with a ready sale. Any poultry breeder, by following the directions given
in this chapter, modifying them to meet his surroundings, may with very
little trouble be able to meet the demand that will rapidly grow for properly
finished poultry. Every city and every considerable town in this country
would consume large quantities of poultry that had been finished properly, if
it were once introduced, for its superiority to poultry as ordinarily fattened
is so great that it commends itself at once to every one having an
opportunity to compare the two qualities.

A Ve
DARK-BLUE OLD ENGLISH GAME HEN
Aquarium Fishery Show, 1902
en
Del
CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES
H. E. Moss, NEW YORK
HE fattening or finishing of poultry by any special process
or feed with this definite object in view is practically
a new and almost unknown industry in the United States.
Until two years ago, when the writer made and ex-
hibited a cramming machine at several of our large
poultry shows, not one person in a thousand had ever
heard of such a thing, and many who saw it in operation protested that
we should be prohibited from using it under the plea that it was cruelty
to animals, due of course to their lack of knowledge of the anatomy of
the bird.

It is scarcely ten years since the large packing-houses at Chicago and
Kansas City took up the poultry and egg question, which has since grown
tɔ be such an important branch of their business of supplying the world
with meat food. Several years later the writer urged upon them the
advisability and importance of either the producer or a middleman putting
a finish on thin birds, there being a very large percentage that dressed out
as No. 2 stock which had either to be worked into soup or canned,
or sold at a reduced price, and even at a loss. There was surely an
Here were
extravagant waste of opportunity on the part of some one.
three-pound chickens with their frames practically grown-carcasses that
carried about six ounces of bone, eighteen of fat and but thirteen ounces, or
twenty-eight per cent., of edible meat, when such a bird of almost any
suitable breed could, by twenty to twenty-five days of proper feeding, be
made to carry forty ounces, or three times as much weight, of edible meat.
The packers realized these facts, and spent both time and money in what
proved a futile attempt to impress upon the farmer the importance of
special feeding and better breeds, so as buyers of their stock they might
be able to secure more birds of the quality for which they had an almost
unlimited demand, and fewer of the unprofitable kind. They recently
took the matter in their own hands and to-day there is scarcely a town of
any size in the States west of and tributary to Chicago and Kansas City in
217
218
The Poultry Book
which there is not located a buying station for one of the packers, where
birds are taken from the farmer. At many stations they are coop-fed
and finished before being dressed and sent to the central house for final
grading, packing and shipping.
It is difficult to understand why the farmer, who has every facility
for properly finishing his fowls, should waste this opportunity. He is
very careful to see that every steer, hog or sheep that he sends to the
shambles is carrying all the weight possible--but he thinks it costs him
nothing to produce his poultry and all that he gets for it is clear profit;
whereas, if properly handled, a pound of grain can be converted into more
poultry meat, of greater value and in less time, than through the four-
footed animals.
The packers are not the only ones who have discovered this possibility.
Since 1900 many individuals and companies have gone into the finishing
business in the western States, while a few had previously been established.
Very little is known of the magnitude or methods of their business. Their
No. 1 stock is almost all exported, and little is known of it in the
eastern markets. The New York Produce Review of February, 1903,
reports one shipment of seventeen carloads as having left New York for
Liverpool on the steamship Celtic.
These finishers have encountered but one obstacle, and that is the
unintentional production of a variable and uncertain quality of meat, and
an excess of fat in layers. This is the result of the random and experimental
methods of feeding they have followed. But within two years they have
made much advancement in producing birds of the color and finish that
foreign markets demand, which it is necessary to furnish if they would
obtain the prices they are seeking. The farmer sticks to corn, which,
perhaps above all other cereals, makes the most unsatisfactory quality
of meat; but as it produces weight and is the cheapest and most available
grain, he supplies it, and where the supply is unstinted the weight is gained.
The peculiar nutritive properties of corn and its effects are comparatively
unknown to the average feeder. It has a special tendency to deposit a soft,
oily fat in layers under the skin and in masses in the abdominal cavity,
instead of depositing this fat in globules throughout the tissue where it
belongs. In corn-fed birds these globules are watery instead of being fat.
When such a bird is cooked these oil globules escape and the carcass shrinks.
If oats, barley or a suitable mixture of these and other grains, ground,
Conditions in the United States
219

Arom
weiller.
Min
BLACK-BREASTED PRIMROSE DUCKWING OLD ENGLISH GAME COCKEREL
Owned and bred by Mr. Weir
were used as a base in feeding, these globules would consist of fat which
would soften in cooking, thereby rendering the tissues soft and juicy.
Numerous experiments in fattening have been made in the eastern and
New England States in the past, but the demands of the eastern markets
always having been for a yellow-skinned, plump bird, there appeared but
one course open to poultry fatteners, and to secure it corn was used ad
libitum. As a result, where a forced diet of corn was fed often without
the safeguards necessary to accompany it indigestion and liver or bowel
trouble followed and defeated their purposes, which discouraged them to
such an extent that but little general advancement was made along
this line.
The western men have outstripped those of the East, and it is a
common occurrence to find 25,000 birds in the coops of one establishment
at one time during the fattening season. These are ordinary farm birds,

220
The Poultry Book
the American breeds predominating, and largely Plymouth Rocks or
their crosses.
The fattening industry is in its infancy in this country. It has no
past. As yet we have nothing here with which to make a comparison, but
we are safe in predicting its rapid growth. Many cramming machines are
now in use, and many people are seriously investigating and studying
the possibilities of both trough and machine fattening. To these we wish to
say there is much to be learned before the maximum results can be attained,
as Mr. Purvis and Mr. Weir have clearly shown in this chapter: The
questions of how much, what kind, and when to feed it are the vital ones.
Experience will teach as no other method can. The question of best breeds
for the purpose will also determine itself in time. The writer believes the
Dorking-Brahma cross would prove superior to any for the purpose, but
it would take many years to establish this or any other special cross to the
exclusion of others, even if a united effort were made in the large poultry
producing sections.


Photographed by C. Reid, Wishaw, N. B.
OLD ENGLISH GAME HENS


Photograph by Professor Schutt, Canada
MARKET TYPES OF LIGHT BRAHMA AND BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK CROSS COCKERELS
AS BRED AT THE CENTRAL EXPERIMENTAL FARMS IN CANADA
THE SITUATION IN CANADA
PROFESSOR A. G. GILBERT, ONTARIO
HE rapid growth of cities, with corresponding development
of population and augmentation of wealth, has created
a great demand for the products of the farm for consump-
tion both at home and abroad. In this connection we
have an urgent and ever-increasing call for a superior quality
of poultry and eggs of undoubted freshness in winter, the latter especially
from our own city markets. Opportunities are thus afforded our farmers
to make money out of their fowls both summer and winter. It is of the
superior quality of poultry and how to produce it that we more particularly
write on this occasion. There are undoubtedly other producers of the finer
quality of poultry than farmers, but we speak of the latter because
from them must inevitably come the great bulk of the supply. This supply
will not be from the few farmers with many fowls, but rather from the greater
number with comparatively few hens each. It is of very great importance,
then, that our farmers should thoroughly understand the necessity of pro-
ducing nothing but the best. How can that superior quality be produced?
Experience has unmistakably shown that breed, feed and proper caring

221
222
The Poultry Book
for the chicken after hatching and during its tender months are all factors
of vital importance.
The finishing of the chicken in reality begins at an early period of its
existence. It has been shown over and over again that unless the chicken
has been regularly fed and carefully looked after from the time of leaving
the nest or incubator it will not make a satisfactory subject for fleshing
in coop or pen with limited run. There is a world of truth in the old
English maxim that a chick which has become "stunted" from being
"stinted" of food will never fully recover from such neglect. If the "feed" is
not altogether half the "breed," it certainly has a potent effect. And again,
a bird may be properly reared and carefully finished and yet its market
value much deteriorated by improper killing, careless plucking or clumsy
dressing. The first six weeks of the chicken's life has been found to be a
critical period, demanding extra care and attention, for during that time there
is a tax on its vitality for bone, sinew, muscle and rapidly growing feathers.
Before proceeding to note the merits of different breeds it is well to
understand the requirements of the market to be catered to. We have
two markets, with their different features, as follows:
The home market, with a high price for winter eggs and for young and
tender birds with yellow color of flesh and legs.
The British market, which gives the best price for birds three and
four months of age, with legs of light color and flesh as white as possible,
and eggs large and of even size, preferably weighing seven to a pound.
It is now in order to consider which breeds most acceptably fill the
requirements of the aforementioned markets. Heretofore there has been
little difficulty in supplying the demand with one or more of the well-known
American utility breeds. In this sense the term utility is used to describe a
breed which is a winter layer as well as a rapid flesh-maker in spring or early
summer, thus permitting the farmer to make money at both seasons. In tc
many cases, either from carelessness, bad management or ignorance of
proper methods, farmers have fowls of nondescript origin which are
non-productive during the winter season of high values. They begin to
lay in spring and summer, when prices are very much reduced. It is
needless to point out that in such cases only half value is obtained. Where
up-to-date methods are practiced, the fowls are gotten over their molt by
early fall; are in proper condition, being neither too fat nor too lean; and
so comfortably housed and intelligently fed that they begin to yield their
The Situation in Canada
223

22
17
Photograph by Professor Schutt, Canada
WHITE WYANDOTTE COCKERELS AS FINISHED IN CANADA FOR MARKET AT THE CENTRAL
EXPERIMENTAL FARMS
Hatched March 31, 1902, and killed when 3 months and 22 days old. No. 17: Live weight, 5 lbs. 3 ozs.; plucked but not drawn, 4 lbs. 14½ ozs.
No. 22: Live weight, 4 lbs. 7 ozs.; plucked but not drawn, 4 lbs. 2½ ozs.
product in November and continue so to do all winter. In April the eggs,
which are then cheap, are converted into chickens, which will mature early
and bring a good price. We do not refer to specialists, who begin
operations in December or January with the aim of producing early
broilers. These operators are in most cases skilled men and have special
equipment, such as incubator rooms, brooding houses, etc.
In the colder districts of the country, unless the farmers are provided
with facilities to enable them to be independent of outside temperatures, they
will find the most satisfactory chickens to be those hatched in late April or
early May. The importance of having a grass run at this season for the
chicks, whether hen or incubator hatched, can not be overestimated.
As to the means of hatching, where more than fifty or sixty chickens
are desired early and of uniform age, artificial incubation will be found
most satisfactory.
Quite possibly it may be pointed out that germs of April eggs from

224
The Poultry Book
hens which have been closely confined during the previous winter, yet good
layers, are not likely to be strong. In certain cases this is doubtless true,
but observation has shown that the majority of farmers have opportunity
to allow their fowls to run in barn or shed during winter and so enjoy exercise
and fresh air, so conducive to fertile eggs and strong germs. Where laying
hens have been so situated, results in healthy chicks from early eggs have
been most satisfactory. In the case of the closely confined hens without
opportunity for outdoor exercise, experience has shown it is better to
defer hatching operations until they have had a run outside and time to
recuperate from their enforced term of artificial life and treatment.


Photograph by C. Reid, Wishaw, N. B.
OLD ENGLISH GAME COCK

Photograph by courtesy of New York State Experiment Station
YARD OF CAPONS AT THE NEW YORK STATE EXPERIMENT STATION AT GENEVA
CAPONS AND CAPONIZING *

CAPON bears the same relation to a cockerel that a steer
does to a bull; it is an altered rooster. As with steers,
a Capon is more quiet, lays on much flesh and fat, and
remains tender for many months after the operation.
They usually weigh from twenty to thirty per cent. more
than roosters of the same age, if kept the proper length
of time. For a few months after caponizing they are very hearty eaters,
but later do not consume appreciably more food than ordinary fowls. The
comb and wattles do not grow after the operation, while the feathers of
the neck and saddle develop rapidly, becoming very glossy. They neither
crow nor fight, and do not chase the hens. In many eastern markets the
prices paid for them range from eighteen to thirty cents per pound.
Caponizing was in existence more than two thousand years ago.
It was the impression that such fowls fatted better, and were of finer flavor
and quality. At first hens only were fed, but Pliny says fatting cocks
*This chapter has been carefully rewritten by the editor from an American point of
view. In Canada, Capons have not been given as much attention, up to the present time,
as in the United States.
225

226
The Poultry Book
was begun by the inhabitants of Delos. Beckmann states that "These
people brought the art to such perfection that they became instructors
to the Romans, among whom all those who made a trade of feeding fowls
were called deliaci." It was in practice also with the ancient Athenians,
for it is recorded that Arcesidans, the son of Scuthus, on being asked
"why many scolers of everye secte became epicures, but none of the
epicures became of other sects," he said, "because the cockes were made
of men, but never men of cockes," or as some say, "Capons be made of
cocks, but never cocks of Capons."
In course of time the Romans followed the example of the Greeks,
who had long known that the feeding of cocks could be much improved
by rendering these animals incapable of propagating their species. As
the Delians took advantage of this process, and acquired the greatest dex-
terity in the management of it, they are mentioned by the ancient writers.
The invention of this art is not known. It is, however, singular that
the Greek writers mention no particular name for Capon. It is not known
whence the Romans obtained the terms "capo" and "capus.
""
Columella and Galen make mention of such birds, and fed on food
prepared with milk, though the practice of caponizing was dissimilar to
that now employed.
"How old our present method of making Capons may be," says
Beckmann, “I do not know, but one might almost believe that it was
practised in the seventh century, because Isidore of Seville seems to say
so, unless we are to suppose this ecclesiastic, not being fully master of the
subject, wrote merely from conjecture.
"The present mode was no doubt," continues the same author, "first
practised in France, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, but it was
not made known in Germany till a much later period, when the princes
began to fall into the weakness of imitating the French by employing
French cooks. La Bruyere-Champier, who wrote his book on 'Cookery,'
in 1530, says expressly that the art was a new invention. Aldrovandi, in
the year 1598, treats of Capons, and adds these were not common. Olivier
de Serres, however, in his treatise on 'Agriculture,' A.D. 1600, speaks of
this method of feeding being well understood in his day. After that time
the word poularde was not used as before to denote a cock which had been
fed, but one caponized and afterward fed."
Mr. Weir says: "Surely Mr. Beckmann must be a little wrong here,
Capons and Caponizing
227
the word poularde usually signifying a pullet so treated, but perhaps it
might also mean a caponized cockerel." About 1642 Vincent Tanara,
an Italian, stated that Capons were then common. In 1645 Lewis Nonnius
said that the method was used to make young cocks more beautiful, and
had but lately been known.
Thus it appears that the Germans were much behind in adopting
the method. Old writers mention that it was usual in France. There
is little doubt that the usage was carried from that country to Germany.
Though this might possibly be so, there is no doubt whatever that capon-
izing was known and used in England long before. Professor Thorold
Rogers, in his “Agricultural Price List," gives that of the capon as 21½ d. in
1261-70; 134d. in 1271-80, and so continuously almost every ten years
until 1391-1400, when it had risen to 3½ d. After this there is frequent
mention of it at feasts and banquets, and so without intermission, more
or less, to the present time. In "Medieval Agriculture," Vol. I., it states
that "Fowls are kept on all estates; Capons on most-before 1348." Tusser,
in the seventeenth century, in his "Five Hundred Points of Good Hus-
bandry," says in his cautioning way—
and-
and again-
(6
66
Who many do feed,
Save much they had need,'
Put chippings in dippings, use parings to save,
Fat Capons or chickens, that lookest to have,"
Leave Capon unmeet,
Dear fed is unsweet,
16
>"
which evidently means that it is not to be done with costly grain or food,
for he further says-
(*
""
"Though fat fed is dainty, yet this I thee warn,
Be cunning in fatting, for robbing thy barn."
Shakespeare later mentions Capons in his plays no fewer than a dozen
times, and often in eulogistic terms, as-
With good Capon lined."-As You Like It.
"But to Carve a Capon and eat it. 1 Henry IV.
'You Cannot feed Capons so."-Hamlet.
"}
Andrewe Borde, writing A.D. 1542, says: "Of all tame fowle a Capon
is the most beste, for it is nutrytyve and is soone dygested. A henne in
wynter is good and nutrytyve, and so is a chickyn in somer, specyalle
cockrellys and polettes."
228
The Poultry Book
Lawrence Andrewe, writing in the sixteenth century in "Noble Lyfe,"
says of the Capon: "Gallinacius, the Capon, is a gelded cock, and because
that he waxeth the soner fatte, and though he go with the hennes, he
dothe not defend, nor crowith not."
Leonard Mascall, also about the same period, not only alludes to the
Capon, but gives particular instructions as to the best means to be adopted
for the fatting: "When as you take uppe your Capons to make them
fatte, ye must prepare of wheaten meale, or barlye meale, mixed with two
parts of brawne.
Then ye shall heate ale or beare, but ale is better, or
lukewarm worte, and therewith temper your meale and brawne; some
do put thereto fresh hog's grease, or of sheepe, or oil of olive, and when it
is all tempered together, they take a small piece and make and roll it be-
twixt their hands, of two inches long or more, and small at both ends like
this figure, then they dippe it in milke, ale, or oyle, and give a Capon
so many thereof as ye shall think good, to a great Capon xx roles, and to
the other as ye shall see cause; thus ye muste feede them twice a daye,
at morning and evening, and so ye shall make them fatte in a month or
lesse, but always ye must see their meate digested before ye give them any
more, for some be of a slow digestion, and if ye give them meate upon
meate they will loathe it."
In the beginning of the seventeenth century Gervase Markham, in his
Cheape and Good Husbandry," says: "Now, touching Capons, the
best time to carve or geld him is as soon as the dam hath left them or they
begin to crow, for the act of carving itself is both easie and common, and
much sooner learned by seeing one carved than by any demonstration
in writing." He also, like Mascall, gives the most approved method of
fatting, thus: "To feed capons for the dish, as either at the barn door,
with scraps of corn and the shavings of pulse, or else in pens in the house
by cramming them, which is the most dainty; the best way to cram a Capon
(setting all strange inventures apart) "-rom this one would suppose
that even at that period there were certain machines or appliances in use,
or why are such alluded to? But to resume is to take barley-meal
reasonably sifted, and, mixing it with new milk, make it into good stiff
dough; then make it into long crams, biggest in the midst and small at
both ends, and then wetting them in lukewarm milk, give the Capon a fuil
gorge of them three times a day, morning, noon, and night, and he will in
a fortnight or three weeks be as fat as any man need to eat."

Photograph by courtesy of "Commercial Poultry"
WHITE WYANDOTTE COCK
Owned by Biltmore Farms, North Carolina
Capons and Caponizing
231
This, though somewhat the same as Mascall's, differs so far as to render
it desirable of notice as one of the various means employed for coop-
fatting at a later time.
Other authors particularize the "capon"; poets and historians allude
to it; culinary books, old and new, have recipes for the cooking; at Christmas
Capons found a place on the tables of the wealthy; the landlord had Capons
as toll, the tenants dined off their own, while even the cottager at such
festive seasons and times of high glee had a tasteful knowledge of what
was best in poultry.
According to the "Sandwich (Kent) Records, 1552," Capons were
not neglected as propitiatory gifts, for there is an entry to the following
effect: "The Lord Warden being late come to Dover Castle, 6 couple
(of) Capons be sent him as a pst. (present) at the expense of the town.”
Mr. Weir says: "At present Capons in England are not in the ascend-
ant, the big and coarse being the satisfying chick of the people; tenderness
and fine flesh, with delicate flavor, is unsought, and quality is not the con-
sideration so much as size, with its concomitant evils of hardness, greasi-
ness, and thick skin. The man who tastes, knows, cares for and appreciates
what he is eating the keen old epicure-is a thing of the past; and it is
only on the Continent and in America that the Capon is gastro-
nomically understood and valued. In Paris the finest of the "Créves” and
"La Flèche" realize as much as from twenty to twenty-five francs each,
while from three to five dollars is not an uncommon price in New York.
The French Capon, when really good, is in its way the perfection of poultry.
It is generally exposed at the poulterer's lying on the breast, showing the
back, which is mostly evenly coated with white, somewhat dense-looking
fat. In France, and now in America, caponizing is very prevalent.
"Our French neighbors make use of the Capons to rear and brood
chickens. In this they are very successful, one Capon often leading as many
as from fifteen to twenty little chicks. After the process of caponizing,
the comb is cut off, so as to readily distinguish the birds from the cockerels,
and these, if of sufficient size, are 'bottled,' and not only preserved for
home use, but exported to England in some quantity. For this purpose
the rose comb is not desirable. The variety of forms and sizes, spiked
or simply serrated, clearly disposes of any argument that the generality
of French fowls are any particular or uniform breed.
“The Capon has sometimes been made to incubate two sittings of eggs
232
The Poultry Book
in succession; the first brood, being removed, are often reared to a certain
size, fatted, and sold as chicks-petits a la gourmet. This plan is much
in vogue in Belgium, in which place the dainty morsels are principally of
the Coucou de Malines breed. A number of such were exhibited at the
Smithfield Show of 1898. They attracted considerable attention both
by their novelty and even quality. I was assured by a Belgian poulterer
that this practice was not so much done for the purpose of 'marketing'
small delicacies, as more often for the want of space after second broods.
were hatched, though he was of opinion that it was as lucrative as those
of a larger growth and more matured, the lesser being sought for by invalids.
،
"The Capon in the poultry yard has a sorry time: the cocks and
cockerels attack him; hens also ill-treat or despise the 'combless' object.
Therefore it is advisable to keep Capons apart from the general flock.
"It is not uncommon for a Capon to bring up chickens, but for a
Game-cock to do so is indeed rare. M. Cliqueunois, of Lille, had an Aus-
tralian Game-cock, which was placed with four hens on a walk in the suburbs
of that place; the hens all began to sit at the same time, leaving the cock
by himself. There was one nest unoccupied, in which had been left
several artificial eggs. The cock took possession of that nest; he sat and
clucked for a week or so before attention was paid to him; from his per-
sistency it was thought he would incubate. Good eggs were placed under
him, when he continued sitting, and, after three weeks, four chickens
were hatched. The Editor of the American Game Cock Monthly, January,
1895, says: 'We saw the sitting cock last June, when he was right in the
midst of his maternal duties; he clucked and acted just like any hen, in
spite of the fact that he had gone through many hard battles in his life-
time. Such proves that he was not only a cock, but a Game-cock.'
"""
Speaking of caponizing, Michael K. Boyer, of New Jersey, says: “Just
when the art was introduced in America I cannot say.
I have newspaper
clippings referring to caponizing that were published about fifty years
ago, which shows that at that time the art was more or less practised.
Geo. P. Pilling, of Philadelphia, a noted expert, says he has had more than
forty-nine years' experience in the manufacture of caponizing instruments.
'Philadelphia Capons' are known throughout the United States and
Canada. These birds come mostly from New Jersey and other nearby
States. Pilling says Philadelphia and vicinity was the pioneer section
for raising Capons. As the fame of the bird spread, it naturally took on
Capons and Caponizing
233
the name of its marketing center. In 1888, W. H. Rudd, of Massachusetts,
wrote that about 5,000 Capons were sold in Boston annually, mostly
during January, February and March. Generally the supply was exhausted
by April 10th. The average price was about twenty-two cents per pound,
but if very nice and large they brought two cents per pound more. They
would weigh about eighteen pounds or upward per pair. The Plymouth
Rock, Light Brahmas and Partridge Cochins were generally used.
1892, Capons in the Philadelphia market sold for twenty-five cents per
pound, while roosters brought only six cents per pound. The usual price
charged for caponizing by experts was from four to six cents per bird.
Capons come into market about the time early broilers are shipped."
In
Doctor Richard Schmidt, a well-known American breeder, says: “In
the spring of 1891 I caponized 167 cockerels, ate a good many, treated
several of my friends to a Capon dinner that Christmas, and shipped a
barrel of Capons to New York City, from which I realized $31.50 net profit.
There were twenty Capons in the barrel, and they dressed 210 pounds at
about eleven months old. They were incubator- and brooder-raised, and
fattened like pigs, in a row of coops each 18 x 18 inches and 22 feet high,
giving them all the corn and wheat they could clean up.
"The mortality of Capons in 1891 was 1.67. I lost two out of 167,
one being my first and the other my fifth. The latter was lost on account
of the use of a pair of scissors with which I thought to facilitate the opera-
tion. Having a very rebellious spermatic cord to twist off, I snapped it
in two with my scissors, since which time I have had no use for scissors
in caponizing, for my would-be Capon passed quietly away, a victim of
“hemorrhagica interna arteria spermatica," a very easy and apparently
painless death. Since 1891 I have caponized some cockerels each year,
both for myself and my friends."
A large buyer of poultry in Iowa recently wrote the editor of the
Reliable Poultry Journal as follows: "To dispose of the cockerels which
usually predominate in the hatches at a profit has been one of the problems
for the poultryman and one that he has not completely solved. Caponizing
offers to him a new and fertile field of operation, one that will yield him
great profits and whose hidden treasures cannot be exhausted, as food is
always a staple. By the process of caponizing one bird can with less cost
to the producer be made to bring from sixty to eighty-five cents. A
dozen birds can be made to return from seven to nine dollars.
One

234
The Poultry Book
buyer here paid out $2,347 for Capons alone in December, January and
February, 1896-97. One farmer's wife that winter brought in 100 Capons
that brought her $90. The next season she sold 110 for $97.50. When
Capons bring from ten to twelve cents per pound at our depot, while hens
sell at five to six cents per pound, the wisdom of caponizing is plain."
The photograph reproduced herewith shows just how Capons should
be dressed for market. The feathers are left on the neck, legs, wings and

Photograph by courtesy of New York State Experiment Station
CAPONS DRESSED FOR MARKET AT THE STATE EXPERIMENT STATION AT GENEVA, N. Y.,
SHOWING MANNER OF LEAVING FEATHERS

rump, as well as the tail. Otherwise Capons should be dressed the same
as other fowls, except that they should be dry-picked. It would be impos-
sible to scald them and leave part of the feathers on. If scalded,
Capons bring no more than other fowls. They are distinguished more by
the way they are picked than any other manner. Capons are in the best
demand in the Chicago market from November 1st to May 1st. Highest
prices usually prevail from January to May. The larger the birds the
more they bring per pound. Capons that weigh less than seven pounds
Capons and Caponizing
235
do not bring any more, as a rule, than common fowls. If well-bred, a
Capon may weigh from twelve to fifteen pounds. Such a bird will sell
for two to three dollars, while a cock of the same size will not bring
more than fifty cents.
When raising Capons the breed should be carefully considered. The
operation should be performed before the bird is three months old. P. H.
Sprague, a prominent dealer in Chicago, says: "The largest Capons, accord-
ing to our information, are produced by crossing a Dorking male with
Brahma hens; the best in quality are produced by keeping the pullets of
the Dorking-Brahma cross and mating them with an Indian Game male.
Capons thus produced combine the size of the Brahma, the compactness
of the Dorking and the full breast and juicy qualities of the Indian Game.
Other good crosses may be made by using a Houdan male and Brahma,
Cochin or Plymouth Rock hens. The Dorking or Indian Game may
be used in place of the Houdan. The hen should always be large. The
form and quality are mostly derived from the size.
"A Capon grows and fattens on a small amount of food. The first
point should be to secure large frames, and fatten them after they are
fully matured. If the Capon is produced from a large breed it should
have plenty of time for growth-about fifteen months—for every pound
is valuable. The food should be nourishing, but not fattening. Corn is
unnecessary until near the ime for fattening. Wheat, oats, pounded
bone, meat, milk and green food, all that it can eat twice a day, will be
sufficient to help Capons rapidly in growth.
'Capons should be put in a small yard (not too crowded) three weeks
before being sold, and fed four times a day, giving plenty of corn and also
a variety of other food. One of the best preparations for fattening Capons
is corn-meal and ground oats, equal parts, adding half a pound of crude
tallow to every quart of the mixture. Moisten the whole with skimmed
milk or boiling water and season with salt.
'Buyers are not so particular about the size of the legs and skin of
the Capon as they are of its size and attractive appearance in other respects,
yet a yellow-leg Capon holds an advantage. Yellow legs may be secured
by using Plymouth Rock males on pullets that have been produced by
mating a Dorking male and a Brahma hen. Such a Capon will be of
excellent quality and will always bring a good price. Light Brahma
males are also mated with Cochin hens in order to secure large Capons,
(6
236
The Poultry Book
but they do not have that full breast which is imparted by the Houdan,
Dorking or Game. If the color of the legs is of no consequence, the Houdan
male and Langshan hen produce excellent Capons when mated.
"The comparison of a well-bred, well-kept and well-fed Capon with
a cock of the same breeding will show that where a cock reaches ten pounds
weight in a given period of time the Capon will weigh one-third more,
and the difference in price is three to four times as much. If, instead of
keeping the yards full of useless and unprofitable cockerels, caponizing
were resorted to, there will be a greater desire to have more cockerels
hatched than pullets. By keeping good breeds, neighbors may be induced
to use the eggs for hatching purposes. Then the surplus cockerels may be
bought at a slight advance, as they will prefer to keep the pullets for their
own use. By then providing the neighbors with pure-bred males every
season there would be no limit to the supply of eggs for hatching cockerels
for Capons."
Several years ago the New York Agricultural Experiment Station,
at Geneva, conducted a series of experiments with Capons, under the
direct supervision of Doctor William R. Wheeler. In his report (Eleventh
Annual Report of New York Agricultural Experiment Station) on this
work he says:
"The much higher prices at which Capons are quoted,
compared with those of the average of poultry, have led to many inquiries
being made in regard to the profit in growing them for the market. When
we remember that beef cattle have been fed in this State during recent
years at very small profit, and that often to find any profit in producing
pork it has been necessary to take into account the advantage of using
skim milk, etc., and to consider the manurial value of the grain fed, we
may find it well worth while to learn the cost of any possible animal
product of the farm that will command a good price in the market."
In this report Doctor Wheeler records the results obtained in feeding
several lots of Capons for the months during which they are usually
grown, beginning in August and September, when young cockerels are
old enough for caponizing, and continuing until February, at which time
the birds are so nearly mature and the growth becomes so slow that it
is only a question of holding them longer or not for higher prices.
In the feeding trials, Doctor Wheeler says, skim milk was as profitably
fed to Capons as to young chicks. With every lot, sweet skim milk was
fed during nearly all the time in place of water, and much of the time
ܕ
Capons and Caponizing
237
constituted about sixty per cent. of the total food. Of the water-free
substance consumed, the skim milk supplied from nine to nineteen per
cent., generally from twelve to fifteen per cent. Fowls of several breeds
and a few crosses were used: Light Brahma, Buff Cochin, Plymouth
Rock, Black Langshan, Indian Game, Indian Game-Light Brahma
cross, Indian Game-Buff Cochin cross, and White Plymouth Rock-Black
Minorca cross.
The cockerels were caponized at an average weight of 3.8 pounds.
The average weight of those caponized at smallest size (Barred Plymouth
Rocks) was 2.7 pounds, and of those at largest (the Light Brahma) 4.8
pounds, when the operation was performed. While the former recovered
from the operation much more rapidly, the latter made, after recovery,
much the more rapid and profitable growth.
The average loss in weight from the thirty-six hours' fasting and
operation was 11.2 per cent. Within five days thereafter the birds had
generally recovered the weight lost, so that seven days from the time of
the removal found the cockerels back in the pen as Capons at the same
weight (the average showed a slight increase of three-tenths per cent.),
with but the additional cost for food of that consumed during the five
days.
"No bird among those grown at the station died during the experiments
directly on account of the operation. The loss of one, some weeks after
caponizing, was due more to an oversight in after-treatment than to the
direct effect of the operation itself. To make sure of killing no birds, it
is occasionally necessary to leave some with almost the assurance of their
developing into slips. Even the most expert professional operators expect
to kill a few birds.
((
The excess that the average market prices show over the cost for
food, however, is enough to promise a fair profit, over an ordinary per
centage of loss, for any reasonable investment of labor, etc. The cost of
caponizing where the services of any expert operator can be obtained is
but a few cents per fowl, sometimes as low as four cents. After a fall in
the high broiler prices of spring and early summer, it will probably be found
more profitable to caponize the surplus cockerels than to market them,
especially where cheap skim milk and grain are to be turned into a market
product. For while often the per centage of profit over the cost of food in
selling at broiler age is greatest, the actual difference per fowl in market
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The Poultry Book
price over cost of food is greater with the Capon, providing the latter is
sold before growth has ceased. After caponizing, the labor in caring for
and feeding is but little more than in feeding cattle or pigs, and the
proportion of labor to produce one hundred pounds of Capons is therefore
less than in the production of one hundred pounds of broilers, as the latter
have most of the time been with the hen or brooders.
“As the demand for Capons does not come from those who are looking
for the cheapest possible animal food, it is evident that effort should be
made by any grower toward improvement in quality, and the most
successful and profitable competition will probably be in this direction.
"It is better to use only the larger breeds for Capons, and the Brahmas
and Cochins are among the best, but while these breeds furnish poultry
of superior size and excellent quality, there is, compared to the Game, an
undesirable deficiency of breast development which is plainly noticeable
in the dressed fowl. At the New York Poultry Show in 1892 the first
prize was given by a competent judge to a Capon eight and one-half
months old of Indian Game-Buff Cochin cross over Capons young and
old of Light Brahma, Black Langshan, and two or three other breeds
and crosses. A cross of the Indian Game gives nearly as large fowls as
the pure breed, with much of the Game shape. This cross can probably
be used with advantage, for the Indian Game, while larger than the pit
Game, has little of the fighting spirit of the latter, and, having yellow skin
and legs, will not interfere with the common prejudice in that direction.
is not probable, however, that, did such prejudice exist in a market demand-
ing the best of Capons, it would be hard to overcome where good fowls of such
breeds as the Dorking, Houdan, La Fleche and Langshan were to be had.
It
"The labor required in feeding Capons is less than with young chicks.
The cost of caponizing is small where expert services can be obtained,
and an expert should be employed where possible. The methods of
operation can be learned from the printed instructions accompanying
several of the different sets of instruments advertised and sold, but any
one endeavoring to teach himself should operate on several dead cockerels
before attempting to operate on a live one."
DIRECTIONS FOR CAPONIZING
The following complete and interesting account about caponizing
is taken from Success with Poultry. From twenty-four to thirty hours
Capons and Caponizing
239
before preforming the operation, select such cockerels as you intend to
caponize (these should be from two to four months old), confining them in
a clean and airy coop or room without
either food or water. The best time
to confine them is at early morning,
as their long fast will then end about
noon of the following day, at which
time the operation is best performed.
Should the day be cloudy or wet, do
not caponize them, but let the opera-
tion go until you have a bright and FIG. 1.
fair day. It is necessary that you
If it be a cloudy day, and
have all the light possible in the matter.
you decide not to caponize, the birds may be given a little water and
food if necessary, but it is much better to avoid this if possible, as it is
very desirable to have their intestines quite empty, thus allowing their
testicles to be more readily seen, besides giving the operator much
more room in which to perform his work. Lay
the bird on the operating table (Fig. 8) on its
left side. Wrap the cord (Fig. 2) twice around
the bird's legs, above the knees. In making one
wrap only there is danger of the birds kicking
themselves out of the loop. Hook the other cord
once around both his wings, close to the body. To the opposite end of
these cords attach a half brick, or some other weight, letting them
hang over the sides of the table. This holds the bird securely. Have
all your instruments in readiness, that you may work quickly. Thread
the canula (Fig. 3) with a strong and long horsehair or fine steel wire
(we think wire the
best), letting the
wire form a loop at
the curved end, and
extend well out at
the other end.
Now, after slightly

FIG. 2. CORD USED IN
CAPONIZING
FIG. 3.
METHOD OF HOLDING FOWL READY
FOR CAPONIZING

CAPONIZING CANULA
wetting the spot, proceed to pluck the feathers from the upper part of the
last two ribs and just in front of the thigh joint. Pull the flesh on the side
240
The Poultry Book
down toward the hip, and when the operation is finished the cut between
the ribs will be entirely closed by the skin going back to its place. While
holding the flesh back with the left
hand, with the right hand take the
knife (Fig. 4) and insert it (cutting
edge away from you) between the last
two ribs, cutting first down and then up a little way, following the direc-
tion of the ribs, making the cut not more than one inch long. Cut deep
enough to go through the skin and flesh, being very careful not to go so deep
as to cut intestines. There is little danger of doing this, however, if they
are empty, as they will be from the bird's long fast. The danger of cutting
the intestines is when they are full, as in this state they press against
the ribs. Should the cut bleed, stop a moment, let the blood clot on the
thin skin covering the bowels, and then remove it with the spoon forceps.
Next take the spring spreader (Fig. 5), press it between
the thumb and finger until the ends come together,
and insert the ends in the incision, with the spring end
toward the bird's feet. Upon looking into the cut a
thin tissue-like skin will be seen just under the ribs
and enclosing the bowels. Take a sharp hook (Fig. 6)
and pick the tissue open, so that you may get into
the bird with the instruments. The breaking of this
skin does not cause the least pain to the bird. One of
the testicles will now be brought plainly to view, lying close up to the back of
the fowl. Sometimes both testicles are in sight, but this is not generally
the case, as the other one lies beyond and more on the other side of the
bird, the intestines preventing it from being seen from this opening. The
testicle brought to view is enveloped in a film. This should be brought
away with the testicle. Some people, in caponizing, tear the skin open
and then take the testicle out. The danger in so doing is, that if this
skin is left there is danger of causing a “slip."
Now comes the only dangerous
part of the whole operation, getting
hold of and removing the testicles;
but with a steady hand and plenty of
light not one bird in fifty should be lost. Attached to the testicle and lying
back of it is one of the principal arteries of the fowl, and this, if ruptured,

FIG. 4.
FIG. 6.
KNIFE FOR MAKING CUT

SHARP HOOK TO OPEN FILM-LIKE
SKIN
FIG. 5.
SPRING SPREADER
Capons and Caponizing
241
is sure to cause death. It is here that the canula (Fig. 3) proves of great
advantage. The hair (or wire), being small and very fine, is easily slipped
between the testicle and artery without
injury to either, and a clear, clean
cut made. Take the canula in the
O

A
right hand and adjust the hair (or
wire) in it so that a loop about one-half inch long will extend from
small end of tube, leaving the two ends of wire extending far enough out
of the open end to secure a good hold. Insert the end of the tube that
has the loop on it very carefully and slip the loop over both ends of the
testicle and entirely around it, holding end of tube close to the testicle.
When the testicle is entirely encircled by the loop, take both ends of the
wire (or horsehair) which comes out of the other end of the tube with
thumb and first finger, holding it tight, and draw up on it carefully but
firmly, being particularly careful to have the loop around testicle. Keep
the end of the tube very close to testicle all the time. If drawing up on the
wire does not at once cut testicle, slightly turn from one side to the other
(but not entirely around), then the testicle will come off. After removing
it, carefully examine inside of bird to see that no piece is left in, and also
to see that no foreign substance, such as feathers, etc., has gotten in.
If any have, it is necessary to remove them, for, if allowed to remain, they
are liable to cause inflammation. Sometimes part of the testicles or
a feather may drop among the bowels; if this occurs, move bowels
around with probe (Fig. 7) until the object is found, then remove with
spoon forceps. When the operation is performed, remove the spreader
at once and the skin will very soon slip back over the cut
and heal in a short time. Never sew the cut, as it will
heal just the same as any other small flesh wound.
The bird can now be turned over on its right
side, cut made, and testicle removed in exactly the
same manner as just described
as just described for the left side.
Both testicles may be taken out with the one incision,
but to the beginner we would say this is attended
with more difficulty than the two incisions. The
other testicle being situated so far over on the
other side, there is more difficulty in reaching it, besides danger in piercing
artery running back of first testicle. To an experienced person there is
A
B-S
C
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8. TABLE SUITABLE
FOR CAPONIZING ON
A LARGE SCALE
CAPONIZING PROBE
¿

242
The Poultry Book
no danger in removing both testicles from one incision, but to those who
have not that degree of confidence given by practice we would recommend
the two cuts. The bird recovers just as quickly as though one cut were
made, and the operation is performed equally as quick, if not quicker.
If both testicles are removed from one cut, the lower must always be taken
out first, for if the top is first removed the small amount of blood that may
follow will cover the lower one, keeping it from view.
THE BEST TIME TO CAPONIZE
Fowls hatched early in the spring make the finest Capons. They can
be cut before hot weather comes, which is a great advantage, although
no ill results follow the operation at any time in the year. The bird should
be from two to three months old (not more than six months), and weigh not
less than from a pound to a pound and a half. The size is equally as im-
portant as the age. June, July, August, September and October are the
months generally taken for caponizing, for the reason that spring chickens
arrive at proper age and weight for market during the months of January,
February, March, April and May, at which times there is the greatest
demand for them in the cities, and the highest prices secured. That
Capons are in our markets at certain seasons only is because the demand
is far in excess of the supply. The time will be when Capons may be
obtained the year round.
The top of an ordinary barrel (see illustration) meets all requirements
of a table, admits of the birds being easily secured, brings them to the
proper height with the operator; in brief, makes as good a table as can be
desired. It costs nothing, as there is always an empty barrel lying around,
or one that can be easily emptied.
The question is often asked: "How are capons to be fed?" After
caponizing, give the bird all he will eat of soft food, and let him have plenty
of water. Caponized fowls begin to eat almost immediately after the
operation is performed, and no one would think for a moment that a
radical change had been made in their nature. Now leave the bird to
himself, as for the time being he is his own doctor. It is well to
look him over two or three days after the operation, as in breathing
the air sometimes gets under the skin, causing "wind puff," or a
slight swelling, in other words. Simply prick through the skin at the
sides with a sharp needle, gently pressing at the same time, when the
Capons and Caponizing
243
air will be expelled and the Capon relieved. Within ten days from
the operation the wounds will be healed over. A day or so after
caponizing, the bird should be allowed to run at large, treating him
just the same as any growing poultry would be treated.
KILLING AND DRESSING CAPONS FOR MARKET
The Capons should be allowed to grow until at least one year old.
By this time they will have attained an imposing size. Some keep them
even longer than a year. While this is optional with the raiser, yet we
would not advocate killing them under one year old if they are being
raised for market. There is a great difference between the dressing of
Capons and an ordinary fowl.
When the capons are ready for market, select such as you propose
killing, and confine them. Keep them without food or water for about
twenty-four hours before killing, that their crops may be entirely emptied.
Now get ready your place for killing and dressing the fowls (if you have
conveniences in the chicken house, this will do quite well, or the wood-
shed, or any cool outhouse), and drive two heavy nails or wooden pins
about one foot or less apart in an overhead beam. Make two nooses of
strong string, each noose long enough to hold one each of the legs, and have
the Capons hang low enough to pluck with ease. Have a weight of two or
two and one-half pounds attached to a hook, and when the bird is killed
fasten this hook in his lower bill after you hang him up for plucking. The
weight holds the bird in position while picking and renders the operation
much easier.
Next, procure a table to dress the fowl upon, and make a frame on
the same principle as a small box without the ends and cover.
In this you
lay the Capon, back down, to remove the intestines.
When everything is in readiness, take your Capon and suspend
him by the two legs from the nooses. Catch hold of his head,
and with your poultry-killing knife (Fig. 9)
cut vein at back of throat, through the
mouth. Never cut this from the out-
side. Immediately upon cutting vein, run
point of knife through roof of the mouth
clear into the brain. This operation causes what is termed “drop-
ping the feathers," making them come off more easily. As soon as
FIG. 9.
(PKLKING PHILA
KNIFE FOR KILLING
POULTRY
244
The Poultry Book
the knife enters the brain the bird loses all sense of feeling. Begin
plucking at once.
As to the style of dressing, the feathers are left on the wings up to
the second joint, the head and hackle feathers, also on legs half way up to
drumsticks, all the tail feathers, including those a little way up the back,
and the long feathers on hips close to tail. These feathers add greatly
to appearance of the bird when dressed, and are also a ready marker from
other fowl in markets. Never cut the head off, as this is a distinguishing
feature of the bi.d. A Capon may readily be identified among a thousand
cockerels, as the comb and wattles cease to grow immediately after capon-
izing is performed. Wash head and mouth well with cold water, being care-
ful to remove all blood. A Capon should not be torn in plucking. There
is no danger of this happening if proper care be taken. Place the plucked
fowl back downward in the box frame already described. Cut carefully
around the vent and pull out the intestines. These will be found
covered with fat, which, as they are pulled out, should be pushed
back. When the end of the intestines is reached, insert your finger
and break this off, leaving everything else in. As may be expected,
the fat will be found very heavy around the opening, and if slightly
turned outward will soon become hard, which will give a rich appearance
in this portion of the bird. Let the birds hang in a clean, cool place
until thoroughly cold. For packing, use a new box of the required size,
lined with white paper (any good, clean paper will do). Pack the birds
in solid, back up, being careful not to bruise them. Your birds are
then ready for market. With a bird not torn and the feathers properly
left on, you have a fowl which for inviting and "taking" appearance
it is impossible to equal.
A slip" is neither Capon nor cockerel. He is much inferior to the
former and a great deal worse than the latter. The "slip" is caused by
not entirely removing the testicles. The smallest fraction left in the bird
will grow again with no benefit to the fowl.
Our first advice would be, "Keep cool and make haste slowly." If
you are rather tenderhearted, read the directions over carefully and then
try your hand on a dead fowl. All surgeons do this in the first place, and
probably it would be as well for you to follow their example. Have
plenty of light. It is impossible to properly perform the operation unless
you have this. After your first performance of caponizing you will be
Capons and Caponizing
245
surprised at its simplicity. Always keep your instruments in perfect
order. Before using the knife, see that the edge is sharp, and that the
other tools are as they should be. After beginning the operation of capon-
izing there should be nothing to hinder you from going right ahead.

Photograph by courtesy of Commercial Poultry"
SINGLE COMB BROWN LEGHORN COCK
Owned by W. G. Warnock, Illinois


Harri Ftoin
Du.
BUFF SHANGHAI COCK.
(FIRST PRIZE.)
The property of the late MR. PARKINSON. The winner of many prizes.
PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES *
A. F. HUNTER, MASSACHUSETTS
IN THIS CHAPTER on poultry houses the purpose has
been to present plans which have approved themselves
in the experience of practical poultrymen, and to give a
sufficient variety of plans so that every one's taste
and circumstances may be suited. In recent years the
tendency in poultry house construction has been toward a better supply
of fresh air, especially during the day, when the fowls are naturally
active and are exercising; hence the prominence given to house plans which
combine a curtained-front scratching-shed with a close roosting-pen, or
give a more or less open-front scratching-roosting pen, at the discretion
of the attendant. The most essential points in a poultry house are
shelter, warmth, sunlight and fresh (pure) air; and that plan is best
which judiciously unites these essential points.
1. Essentials to success in the poultry business. Poultry keeping
is an exacting business. The four corner-stones upon which success
rests are:

(1) Suitable buildings properly located.
(2) The right food skilfully fed.
(3) Good fowls carefully bred.
(4) Facility and ability to hatch and rear chickens.
To these should be added a willingness to work, love for the business,
good common sense and marketing ability. Not the least in importance is
the matter of building the poultry plant.
1. Location.-The location should be dry. If the ground is not
dry naturally, it should be made so by drainage. Damp ground means
cold ground, because rapid evaporation cools the soil. It also means
""
* In the preparation of the pages on "Practical Poultry Houses" free use has been made,
by permission, of the matter published in “Reading Lesson No. 10A, Cornell Reading
Course for Farmers. This lesson was prepared by James E. Rice, of New York, and issued
by the College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
247
248
The Poultry Book
unhealthful soil, because the air and sunshine cannot penetrate to purify
it. Muddy ground means dirty feet, and dirty feet make dirty eggs.
Air drainage is as important as soil drainage. Cold air settles in low
places. A low place, though more
sheltered from the wind, may be many
degrees colder than a higher spot a few
rods distant. Therefore avoid locating
poultry houses where cold strata of
air can settle. Secure warmth by
building in the lee of a windbreak or
in front of farm buildings or a hill.
Buildings that face the south will get
the largest amount of exposure to the
sun's rays. Other things being equal,
they will be warmer and dryer and
more cheerful. An exposure from two
to four points east of south will give the
most shelter from the prevailing west and northwest winds of winter, and is
the exposure most preferred by experienced poultrymen. An eastern ex-
posure is usually preferable to a western exposure, barring prevailing winds
from the east, because, like flowers,
hens prefer morning to afternoon sun.
2. Steps may be saved by studying
the form and location of the building.—
The form and location of poultry houses
have much to do with their convenience.
Time is money. Therefore a poultry
plant should be built with a view to
saving steps. With this point in mind
a man would have to walk 1,320 feet
to go the rounds of the sixteen houses
shown in Figure 1. Most men feed
their fowls three times, water once,
gather the eggs once and clean house
once daily, making six trips a day, which would require the attendant
to walk 7,920 feet a day, or 547 miles a year. Walking four miles an
hour, it would take 136 hours, and at 12 cents an hour would cost
1
-300—

FIG. I
75=
ㅁ
​-75-
·300′
·300
1
·300

SOUTH
YARD
OR
ALL ONE YARD
NORTH
16×13=240—
YARD
1
FIG. 2
£304
Practical Poultry Houses
249
$17. If the sixteen houses are brought together into one continuous
house (Fig. 2), the attendant would make the round by walking 540 feet.
Six trips a day would make 3,240 feet a day, or 223 miles a year, taking
fifty-five hours and costing $6.97 per year, a saving of 324 miles, of eighty-
one hours and of $10 a year. A horse and cart to carry the feed and water,
eggs, litter, cleanings, etc., in case of the colony plan, and a trolley through
the continuous house, could be made to save two or three trips a day—
reducing the amount of travel proportionately.
4. The form influences the cost of construction.—Houses built on the
colony or separate plan cost more to build than a continuous house of the
same capacity. (Figs. 1 and 2.) One
end of each house is saved by bringing
them together. Supposing the build-
ings to be fifteen feet wide and six feet
high on the sides, the lumber saved
would amount to 127 feet for one
house, equal to 2,040 square feet for
sixteen houses, and if double-boarded
such buildings would require 4,080 feet,
besides other materials and cost of
building. The colony houses are much
cooler because more exposed.
+37½%2=
-
300-

-150
∙150
5. YARDS: Fences are expensive
and increase labor.-To fence separate
yards for the pens (Fig. 1) would require twenty-seven and a half rods
of fence, which would cost about $20. Every time a division fence
is taken out each flock has twice as much liberty as it had before. When
all the division fences are removed each flock enjoys sixteen times as much
liberty as it had before. Fences increase labor. The labor of cultivating
and seeding sixteen yards is much greater than it would be if all were in
one field. Again, one would have to open and shut about one hundred
gates a day in caring for the stock in buildings arranged as in Figure 1.
Large flocks can pasture in the same field. Hens know enough to return
to their own roosts. The biggest bump on a hen's head is the bump of
location!
FIG. 3
A strong argument in favor of yards, however, is the fact that fowls
lay better when not permitted free range. When kept in semi-confinement
250
The Poultry Book
in yards sufficiently large for healthful exercise, the physical energies
are not dissipated in ranging, but are conserved for egg-production. This
is upon the same principle as the keeping of milch-cows upon the soiling
plan, giving all needed food at the stable and permitting from two to
four hours' exercise in a paddock daily: sufficient exercise for good health,
but no ranging in search of food.
6. Features of large and small yards. As a rule, make them long
and narrow.
Double yards are desirable (Fig. 2). They allow one to
rotate green crops. This practice converts the filth which would become
a source of danger into a valuable food
crop. (Note house and yard plans in
subsequent pages, especially the north-
and-south-yards plan, page 285.)
Where several breeds are kept or
many small breeding-pens are desired
the following plans are suggested to
save steps (Figs. 3 and 4). The shape
of the fields, the slope of land and
location of the other farm buildings
will have much to do with the shape of
the yards and mode of access to the
buildings. Generally, the yards should
be long and narrow, to facilitate culti-
vation. Two rods wide and eight rods
long is a good size for forty or fifty
hens, although more room would be better. This permits a row of
fruit trees in the center for shade, which is a necessity. If the nearest
point of access should be from the north (Fig. 4), it would be better to
have the houses on the west at B instead of at A.
3001-
B
South
300ft

L
North
FIG. 4
7. Small flocks lay best.-Ordinarily, we expect to get more eggs
from a small flock than from a large one. But every time we double a
flock we divide the labor. From forty to fifty seems to be about as large
as it is safe and economical to keep together. If more are together the
weaker are crowded and the individual is lost sight of.
8. CONSTRUCTION: The working unit in building a hen house is the
floor and air space required for each hen.—A safe working rule is about
five to six square feet of floor space and from eight to ten cubic feet of air
Practical Poultry Houses
251
space for every fowl. The lighter breeds, because more active and
restless, require about as much room as larger breeds.
Foundation walls should be built deep enough to prevent heaving
by the frost, and high enough to prevent surface water from entering.
Sometimes grout walls may
be made with gravel or
small stones where large
stones are scarce; or, in
the absence of foundation
materials, the building may
be set upon posts.
Bottom of sills should

A
be one and
one-half feet
above na-
tural ground
level (Fig. 5), and the ground outside should be sloped down from bottom
of sills so as to turn away surface water. Inside, the pens may be filled
to the depth of a foot with small stones or coarse gravel; then about six
inches of dry, sandy loam or fine sand. This loam (or fine sand) should
be carted off and the earth floor renewed with fresh material every summer,
at the annual house-cleaning.
6'x75 = 450 sq.ft.
8x564 = 450sq.ft.
10'x45 = 450 sq. ft.
12:x37½-450sq.ft. D
FIG. 6
-75-
9. Square houses economize lumber.-The nearer square a house is
-other things being equal—
the less lumber it will require.
(Fig. 6.) It is seventy-two feet
farther around house A than it is around
house E, both having the same number of
square feet floor space. If the sides of the
house are six feet high, then one thickness of
boards would take 6 x 72=432 feet. If the house
is double-boarded it would be twice as great, i. e.,
864 feet, besides the extra material required for
seventy-two feet of frame-work, building paper, nails,
labor, foundation, etc. The long, narrow house is colder because it
has 432 square feet more of exposed surface.
IO. Cost and value affected by form of roof.—The shape of the roof
с
SLOPE
15'x30-450sq.ft. E around
90°
B
110'
around
99'
arouna
SAND OR SANDY LOAM
SMALL STONES OR GRAVEL
NATURAL GROUND LEVEL
FIG. 5
A
128'
around
SLOPE

162′
around
252
The Poultry Book
affects the value of a poultry house. It takes the same amount of material
to build a gable roof—a one-pitch roof or a combination roof, if the pitch
of the roof and the ground plan are similar. (Figs. 7 and 8.) The shape
of the roof influences the cost of the
sides of the house. If we assume that
the window is six feet high in a
building fifteen feet wide, it would be
necessary with a gable roof to have
both sides of the house the same
height, which makes more interior air
space than is necessary and requires
the rear wall one and one-half feet
higher than would be needed with
a one-pitch or combination roof. A
one-slope roof will cost the extra
lumber to build three feet higher in
front than is required by the combi-
nation house. If an alleyway should
be desired along the back side of the house, or if a large garret space is
desired, the gable-roof style of house will be the most economical to build.
In order to build the three styles of houses, each taking the same
amount of material and having the same pitch of roof and floor space,
they would be as seen in Figure 9, which would make the one-pitch roof too
low in the rear for convenience. The steeper the pitch, the greater the
comparative expense of building a shed-roof house, as compared with the
gable or combination roof house (Figs. 7 and 10). The steeper the roof the
greater the cost for roofing and the longer it will last. Most roofs can be
one-fourth pitch. Shingle roofs should generally be one-third pitch.
Total Roo
Total Sides
14 Pitch
-7/18-
FIG. 7
10/2
12'
132
b
1612
16
1612
162

II. Each form of roof has
its advantage and disadvantages. —
The single-span roof is the easiest.
to build. It gives the highest ver-
tical front exposed to the sun's rays,
which are reflected back, drying the
ground and making a warm shelter. It throws all the rain-water to the rear,
lessening the length of eaves-trough one-half, and keeping the front of the
house dry, where no eaves-troughs are used. It allows the windows to be
Total Roof
Total Sides
12ft.
10%ft.
FIG. 8
18½ft
18% ft.
18315
18%0
Practical Poultry Houses
253
placed high up. A tarred-paper roof will last many years longer if the slope
is toward the north. It is cooler in summer if not exposed to the vertical
rays of the sun.
The gable roof provides for a large garret space which
can be stuffed with straw, making the
house warmer and drier. The com-
bination house shares in the advantages
and disadvantages of each of the others.
12. Alleyways are expensive and
do not always economize labor.—They
occupy from one-fourth to one-fifth
the entire space of the house, which
would accommodate from one-fourth to one-fifth more hens or would give
the regular number of hens from one-fourth to one-fifth more room.
From twenty to twenty-five per cent. of the total area of a building is
too much to pay for a free passageway.
Every time one enters the pen from the alleyway he opens and shuts
twice as many doors as he would in a similar house without an alleyway,
if one passes from pen to pen and returns outside (except in case of a full
section scratching-shed house). (See Fig. 11, A and B.) If alleyways are
boarded up tight one cannot see the fowls without opening the doors. If
they are not tight they encourage drafts.
The nesting and roosting conveniences can be so arranged that most
of the work may be done from the alleyway, which might be a
saving of labor. But in so doing one would not be among
his fowls, which would be a decided disadvantage.

·15°
FIG. 9

Long houses should always be divided
by tight partitions, either cloth or board,
between every two pens at least, to avoid
drafts. Otherwise, cold and dangerous
air-currents will be formed whenever
windows, doors or ventilators are open.
13. Sunlight is a necessity.—It carries
good cheer and tends to arrest or pre-
vent disease. Too much glass makes a
house too cold at night and too warm during the daytime, because
glass gives off heat at night as readily as it collects it in the daytime. Much
glass makes construction expensive. Allow one square foot glass surface to
Pitch
-15--
FIG. IO
ΙΟ
14
254
The Poultry Book
about sixteen square feet floor space if windows are properly placed. The
windows should be high and placed up and down rather than horizontally and
low. (Fig. 12.) In the former the sunlight passes over the entire floor during
B
с
A
Alley
Pen
-30-
E
Closed Closed
Roost Roost
S Shed S Shed
30-
Pen
FIG. II
a house about fifteen
feet square.
16.
13½-
Li
Pen
←105»
the day from west to east, drying and purifying
practically the whole interior. The time when
sunshine is most needed is when the sun is lowest
-i. e., from September 21st to March 21st. The
arrows in Fig. 12 represent the extreme points
which the sunshine reaches during this period
with the top of a four-foot window placed four feet, six feet and seven
feet high, respectively. With the highest point of the window at four feet,
the direct sun-rays would never reach farther back than nine feet; at
six feet it would shine thirteen and one-half feet back, and at seven feet
it would strike the back side of the house one foot above the floor.
Window sash with small glass seriously obstruct the
light. Very large lights break too easily and are
more expensive; 8 x 10 is a good-sized glass to
be used in twelve-light sash, making it about
three feet nine inches high by two feet five
inches wide. Use two of these for
-15-
FIG. 12
Pen Pen
FIG. I I
6/½ 5½ 374
S
$ Pen
Shad:Shed
*
D

Pen
onlinene
Y:
top, or be made to slide to one side.
closed quickly and completely, and
least apt to be broken. With
S
S
Shed Shed
1
Pen
<712 71/2 →

Single sash
are usually less
expensive than double
sash of the same size,
and the cost for window
frame is less. Single sash
may swing from the side or
They can be opened and
are against the wall, where
double sash this is more difficult.
Sun from
April 21st
Sept.21st.
to

Sun at
Dec. 21st.
Practical Poultry Houses
255
Whitewashing the inside of a house makes it as much lighter as would
an extra window.
14. Extreme temperature may be modified by careful ventilation.-
It is as important that houses be kept cool in summer as it is that they
be kept warm in winter. Therefore remove windows in hot weather.
Curtains over windows, though adding to trouble and expense, can be used
to advantage during the night in the coldest weather and during the
day in the hottest season. Hens must be kept comfortably warm. This

Inside boarding unmatched,
Straw packing 2-4in.
-Paper
Outside boarding matched
15=-
Damper
Ventilator
08
✩
Window.
FIG. 13
is particularly true at night, when the body is less active. The great
difference between summer, when hens naturally lay most eggs, and
winter, when they always lay the least eggs, is a difference in temperature
and sunshine. Therefore we must build our poultry houses so that we can,
as far as possible consistently with cost, overcome this condition.
15. A low house is warmed more easily than a high one.—Solid walls
radiate heat rapidly. The best way to make a poultry house warm is
to build it as low as possible without danger of bumping heads. There
will then be ample air space for as many fowls as the floor space will
accommodate. Too much air space makes a house cold; it cannot be
warmed up by the heat given off by the fowls.
256
The Poultry Book
With the house as seen in Figure 13, 15 x 15 x 6 feet, there would be
1,350 cubic feet of air space, which, with forty hens weighing five pounds
each, would allow 9 cubic feet to each pound live weight. This is
eight times greater than is recommended for each pound live weight for
other animals. The gable roof alone has 562 cubic feet air space, or 2
cubic feet air space to each pound live weight.
16. The walls should furnish insulation.—Matched lumber is cheaper
in the end than unmatched with battened sides. Planed lumber will pay
for extra cost in the saving of paint and brushes. For durability, painting
Line
buildings may not pay, but for appearance's sake it is desirable.
with tough building paper, always making the laps tight. Make the walls
double, with the space stuffed with straw, rather than have a so-called
dead air space or the same material built solid together. (See Fig. 11.)
With the solid wall heat passes through rapidly. The same is true of a dead
air space, where the air becomes as cold as the outside boarding, and in
turn, by direct contact, cools off the inside boarding. This occurs less
quickly when the space is stuffed with non-conducting material. Stuffed
walls will not be necessary over the entire house except in the very coldest
sections, or the coldest sides in the milder sections, and not at all farther
south. It costs about the same to build a double-battened wall with
unmatched boards solid together, with paper between, as it does to make
two single walls of matched boards with one lining of paper and the space
stuffed with straw. With vertical boarding every board serves as studding
and saves expense.
17. Dampness is fatal in hen houses; drain to promote dryness.-
Better by far to have a cold, dry house than a warm, damp house. The
warmer the air the more moisture it will hold. When this moist air comes
in contact with a cold surface, condensation takes place, which is often
converted into hoar-frost. The remedy, therefore, is to remove the moisture
supply as far as possible by first cutting off the water from below which
comes up from the soil. The water table is the same under a hen house
as it is outdoors. Dirt floors are therefore damp. Stone-filling covered
with soil is hard to clean, and only partially keeps out dampness, unless
raised considerably above the natural ground-level, as shown in Figure 5.
Board floors are short-lived if the air is not allowed to circulate under
the house. If the foundation walls are not tight the floors are cold. In
any case, they harbor rats. A good cement floor is nearly as cheap as a good
Practical Poultry Houses
257
When
matched board floor, counting lumber, sleepers, nails, time, etc.
once properly made it is good for all time. It is practically rat proof,
easily cleaned and perfectly dry, cutting off absolutely all the water from
below. An objection to cement floors is that rats may burrow under
them and so undermine them that the floors break through when stepped
on by a man. We have seen cement floors so badly broken they had to
be dug up with a pick and relaid. If covered with a little soil, or straw,
or both, as all kinds of floors should be, it will be a warm floor. Make
cement floors by filling in with small stones or coarse gravel, if possible,
for drainage. Then work in and smooth off about from one to two
inches of mortar, made by mixing thoroughly, while dry, one part good
cement to three parts sharp sand, then wetting and thoroughly mixing
again and again and again. Other things that can be done to keep
dampness out of the air is to use absorbents, like dry dust or land-plaster
(ground gypsum), or South Carolina rock on the droppings (which should
be frequently removed), and by keeping plenty of dry straw or buckwheat
hulls on the floor or for litter overhead.
18. When air is warmed it expands and rises. Cooling has the opposite
effect.—Damp air may be removed by ventilators, which will necessarily
make the house a little cooler. Warm air rises.
Warm air rises. Therefore the best
ventilator is one that has an out-take near the floor, with a tight galvanized
iron shaft leading up through the warm air of the house to the roof and out
at the peak. The metal, being more quickly affected by heat, will cause
currents of air in the shaft to rise more quickly. (Fig. 13.) The intake
air should be received from the bottom on the outside and conducted to
the ceiling before being allowed to enter the room. This avoids direct
drafts and causes a circulation necessary to the removal of moisture.
The less the difference between the inside and outside temperatures and the
quieter the air the more difficult it is to ventilate. The tighter and warmer
buildings are made the easier they are to ventilate. The larger the amount
of air space the less need there will be for ventilators, provided there is
a change of air through windows or doors during the day. (See King, on
"Ventilation.") Stuffing the sides and roof of the house with straw to
prevent condensation of moisture will help to keep the moisture in the
air so that it can be removed by ventilation. Pure air is as necessary
to good health and good egg-production as are pure food and pure water.
It will require a perfect system of ventilation and considerable personal
4
258
The Poultry Book
attention to keep the air in a poultry house as pure as it would be outdoors;
it will, therefore, often be found advisable to adopt the scratching-shed

-3/22
6-8"
—12→→→→
12"
8'
FIG. 14
plan of house, which allows fowls some discretion in choosing an open-
air temperature.
19. Exercise is necessary to insure health; scratching-pens provide
for this.—Hens do not like confinement. The fact that hens can go in
and out freely from house to shed seems to be a deceptive form of liberty
which they crave, and which is not provided in a single close compartment
house. The fact of having been in the cooler air during the daytime
seems to make the fowls less affected by the cold of night. In practice
they are generally found to be more healthy and to lay more eggs in a year
when proper scratching-sheds are provided. The relative size of the shed
and closed compartment will depend upon the location. The farther
south, the larger the scratching-shed and the smaller the closed pen, even
to the extent of having all open sheds with cloth fronts and with hooded
roosts. Such houses are far warmer than is generally supposed. The
farther north one goes, the smaller the scratching-shed and the larger the
closed compartment should be, until in very cold sections the open shed
might be entirely undesirable. Ordinarily, they should be about equally
divided.
There are several ways to provide scratching-sheds, each one possessing
some advantage over the others. Figure 11 shows three styles. Plan C has
the advantage of a scratching-shed as deep as the house, which is thus
better sheltered from the wind. It has the disadvantage of having more
doors to open and close in passing through a long house. Plan D does
away with two doors, thus saving time, and is no more expensive to build,
Practical Poultry Houses
259
but is more exposed to the wind, and will make a somewhat dark corner
unless a window is placed at the back of the scratching-shed. Plan E is
all scratching-shed except a small, warm roosting-room. This would be
a little cheaper to build, but would not be adapted to the coldest sections.
The fronts of the open sheds should generally be provided with heavy
cotton cloth doors to keep out sleet and snow during heavy storms. They
may be hung at the top and raised by a pulley, or sliding doors with cloth
windows can be used. Hens are easily frightened. Anything that causes
uncertainty or suggests danger retards egg-production. Therefore every
house should provide a retreat. This is done by placing the opening
through which the fowls pass to and from the shed and the house at the
rear side instead of the front side of the partition (Fig. 11, C). When any
one approaches the shed the hens retreat, without alarm, to the house, or
to the shed if the alarm were to come from the other direction. Placing
the opening at the rear side also prevents the wind from blowing into the
house. It should be raised eight inches above the floor to prevent the
litter from being scratched out.

20. A dust-bath is as essen-
tial to a hen's health and happiness
as a water-bath to a human being's.
-By it they scour off the scurf
and scales from the skin and rid
themselves of vermin. The finer,
lighter, drier dust is the better,
because the dust must be light
and fine to get into the breathing-
pores of the lice to kill them.
Sandy loam is often better than
sand or some kinds of road dust,
which are cold and heavy; wood
ashes and coal ashes lighten it up.
The best place for the dust-bath
is in the open air of the scratching-
shed. Here the dust quickly
6-8″
K
-2-3'-
-6-12"
-3½-
FIG. 15
-18"
41½-6-
settles, and the hens that are not dusting are not compelled to
breathe it. Fowls are apt to stand upon the edge of a dust-box
and befoul it. The interior arrangement of a poultry house should
260
The Poultry Book
not occupy the floor space; the hens need it all-and thus, also,
the floors are more easily cleaned.
2I.
Cleanliness is important; movable fixtures facilitate in cleaning
the house. For the most part, interior fixtures should be portable to facili-
tate fighting mites (Figs. 14 and 15). Generally they should not be allowed
to touch the sides of the house. If they do, the wall must be kept tight
and vermin-proof. Roosts should be on the same level to prevent fowls
from fighting to get to the highest place. They should be placed in the
warmest spot, out of the reach of drafts, and as high as possible without
injury to the fowls in
close that fowls can snuggle
warm, and enough space
can separate during warm
twelve inches for each fowl.
desired seems to be a piece
the narrow edge rounded.
a platform to catch the
permit cleaning without
22. Hens are
descending. They should be so
together and keep each other
should be provided so that they
weather. Allow from six to
The form of perch most to be
about two by three inches, with
Under the perches should be
droppings-far enough below to
removing perches.
Wooden Cover

Partition
darkened nests.
their nests, there-
be partly dark;
secretive and prefer
They like to hide
fore these should
they are less apt
nests. A good
is under the drop-
to eat eggs in dark
place for the nests.
pings board. They should be so placed that the eggs can be gathered without
stooping. Hens like to fly up to lay. Nest boxes should generally be about
one foot square and from six to eight inches deep, so that the nest material
will prevent the eggs from breaking, and the hens cannot roll eggs from
one nest to another. The partitions between nests should permit hens to
go from one nest to another, otherwise they will fight and break eggs.
Fine hay is the best nest material; sawdust stains eggs; excelsior wads up
and sticks to hens' toes; straw is too coarse. Provide nest eggs; the
hen then feels a sense of security. That is why different hens like to lay
in the same nest. Figures 14 and 15 are suggestions for roosting and
nesting arrangements which we have been using with great satisfaction;
they can be modified to suit conditions.
Water basins should be large enough so that when filled the water
Water Pan
Platform
Floor
FIG. 16
Practical Poultry Houses
261
will last for twenty-four hours; then we shall know that the hen will never
suffer from lack of water. They should be easily cleaned, and should
be made of such material that they will
not break if dropped or frozen. The best
water-dish is a galvanized iron refrigerator
pan, with corrugated bottom and with
top larger than bottom. It should be
placed a little above the floor, with а
cover to prevent its becoming dirty
(Fig. 16).

A self-feed grit-box should be placed
where the hens can have constant access
to it and cannot roost upon it (Fig. 17).
Every pen should be provided with a
hanging coop, with slat sides and bottom,
in which to place broody hens or extra
males (Fig. 18).
In the foregoing pages the attempt
has been made to take up the parts of a poultry plant in detail,
to discuss the principles involved, and to give the reasons why,
leaving to each one who reads it the problem of applying the principles
by locating and building according to his own conditions. There is no
one best poultry house for all, but there is a best poultry house for each
one. We will give in the following pages illustrations and descriptions of
practical poultry houses of several different designs.
FIG. 18
ст
11PM
Floor
S
FIG 17

262
The Poultry Book
POULTRY HOUSE SUGGESTIONS
Poultry houses are discussed in "Farmers' Bulletin No. 141," United
States Department of Agriculture, as follows: "It is very desirable that
poultry should be provided with a house somewhat separated from the
other farm buildings, but near enough to
the barnyard so that they can spend a
part of their time in scratching for and
gathering up the many seeds and grains
which otherwise would not be utilized. On
farms where no poultry house is provided
the hens are compelled to seek roosting
places wherever they can find them-
sometimes in fruit trees, sometimes on feed
racks, sometimes on the farm machinery,

FIG. I IMPLEMENT HOUSE TRANS-
FORMED INTO POULTRY HOUSE
and sometimes even on the wagons and carriages.
Poultry houses need not be elaborate in their fittings nor expensive
in construction. There are certain conditions, however, which should
be insisted upon in all cases. In the first place, the house should be.
located upon soil which is well drained and dry. A gravelly knoll is best,
but, failing this, the site should be raised by the use of the plow and scraper
until there is a gentle slope in all directions sufficient to prevent any stand-
ing water even at the wettest times. A few inches of sand or gravel on the
surface will be very useful in preventing the formation of mud. If the
house is sheltered from the north and northwest winds by a group of ever-
greens, this will be a decided
advantage in the colder parts of
the country.
66
"Sometimes there is already
a small building on the farm
which has been used for imple-
ments or animals and which is
no longer required for these
purposes. Such a building may
be easily fitted for poultry by cutting a small door in one side and placing
roosts and nests in the interior. (Figs. 1 and 2.)
"In case there is no building suitable for remodeling into a poultry
FIG. 2. IMPLEMENT HOUSE TRANSFORMED INTO
<p>

POULTRY HOUSES
Practical Poultry Houses
263
house, an inexpensive lean-to may be built (Fig. 3), or a new building
constructed. A house for this purpose should be planned with a view to
simplicity, economy and convenience while supplying the conditions.
proper for successful poultry keeping.

247
06
"The details of construction of roosts are
seen in Figure 8. The important points are a
nearly flat or slightly rounded surface on the
upper side and as few cracks and crevices as possible in which vermin
may hide. The roosts may be made of two- by three-inch scantling, and
should be so put in that they can easily be removed at any time for
cleaning and
A platform is
under the
catch the
and the nests
under this
disinfection.
often placed
roosts to
droppings,
are placed
platform.
simplest form
With heavy
(( The
of nest is a box placed upon the floor of the poultry house.
fowls, which are apt to break their eggs in fighting away other hens
that try to enter their nests when they are laying and thus acquire the
habit of egg-eating, a
more concealed or dark
nest may be necessary.
83
"One of the most
troublesome parts of
a poultry house to
make satisfactory is
the floor. Many use earth floors, but these are often damp, especially
in cool weather, and then induce rheumatism, colds, roup, digestive
disorders and various other diseases. Some have put in cement floors,
FIG. 3. A LEAN-TO POULTRY
HOUSE
"One of the simplest forms of poultry house
is shown in Figure 4, and ground plan of the
same in Figure 5. A scratching-shed may be
attached to the side of this house, as in Figures
6 and 7, which, if desired, may be inclosed in
front with poultry wire, so as to keep the birds
confined.

FIG. 4.
SIMPLE FORM OF
POULTRY HOUSE
DOOR
GROUND PLAN.
ROOST & NESTS.
WINDOW.
1000A
FIG. 5. GROUND
PLAN FOR FIG. 4

FIG. 6. POULTRY HOUSE WITH
SCRATCHING SHED
DOOR.
GROUND PLAN.

ROOST & NESTS.
FIG. 7.
WINDOW
OPEN
SHED
DOOR.
GROUND PLAN
FOR FIG. 6
264
The Poultry Book
but have found these cold and also more or less damp. Probably
a good cement floor, laid on broken stone and covered with a few inches.
of earth, would be satisfactory, if not too expensive. A board floor, six
or eight inches above the
earth, with good ventilation
under it, is dry but too
cold, except in the South.
A double flooring, laid
tightly with building paper
between, or a good single
flooring covered with a few inches of dry earth, is probably the best.
In all cases of board floors there should be sufficient space beneath for
ventilation and to guard against the lodgment of rats.
"A good style of poultry house, with scratching-room under it, is
shown in Figure 10. In case more than one flock is to be kept, the plan
may be multiplied to any extent by adding to the ends. With such
houses there may be fenced runs at the back or front, or on both sides, so
that the birds may be confined.
<<
'The amount of space to be
allowed for each bird depends
upon the size of the birds, whether
a shed is attached to the house or
whether the fowls have a free
run of the open fields. For birds
in confinement there should be
from six to fifteen square feet for
each adult bird in case there is no
shed attached to the house; and
with a shed this space may be
reduced about one-half. The yards
should be large enough to allow
exercise in the open air and to
furnish more grass than the birds
will eat. This will vary from 60
to 150 square feet per adult bird. The open shed facing the south,
where the birds can be induced to hunt for their food and take
exercise in all seasons of the year, and where they can enjoy the pleasure


GARAH STEL
FIG. S. CONSTRUCTION
OF ROOSTS
NESTS
ROOST
PLATFORM
POLE
NESTS
NESTS
FIG. 9.
OF ROOST, PLATFORM
AND NESTS
SECTIONAL VIEW

FIG. IO.
MITA
min
MARTINUIT
titul
POULTRY HOUSE
IIITUNU
SCRATCHING-ROOM UNDER
Practical Poultry Houses
265
of scratching and dusting themselves in the sunshine, even during the winter
months, is of great assistance in maintaining the health and productiveness
of the flock. The roosting space allowed should be from six to eight inches
for the smaller breeds, from eight to ten inches for the medium breeds,
and from ten to twelve inches for the larger breeds.
"Poultry houses should be well ventilated, but so arranged that
drafts of air will not strike the birds. Windows and doors should be
provided in such locations that the sun may shine into the building a
considerable part of the day. Sunshine is required both to keep the houses
dry and to destroy various forms of infection."

U
COLONY HOUSES AT THE WEST VIRGINIA EXPERIMENT STATION
EXPERIMENT STATION COLONY HOUSES
The West Virginia Experiment Station colony houses are ten feet
wide and twenty feet long, and are arranged in a row facing southward so
as to give the fowls as much sunlight as possible during the winter. In
front of each house is a door and two windows. The doors are furnished
with spring locks, thus securely fastening the houses at all times. The
windows are covered with wire netting and are kept open during the hot
weather. These and a drop door on the east end of each house, also
covered with wire netting, are the only means of ventilation. At the
approach of very cold weather the windows and doors are closed and
remain so until spring.
There are two runs for each house, and they are entered by the fowls
through two drop doors in the rear of the houses. An advantage of
having double runs is that the fowls are thus constantly supplied during
266
The Poultry Book

WATER
SCRATCHING-SHED HOUSE AT THE MASSACHUSETTS EXPERIMENT STATION
the summer with an abundance of green food, the runs being plowed three
or four times, and alternately planted to rape or some other suitable crop.
During the planting, and while the crop is young, the adjacent run is opened
and the fowls have free access to it, while the newly planted yard is closed
by means of a little drop door. Each run is furnished with a wire gate
opening out upon a boardwalk which extends in front of the houses and runs.
The houses rest upon brick founda-
tions about two feet in height, a foot
of which is aboveground. The surface
of the ground within this wall is filled
up to the sills with sand, and upon this
is scattered litter in which the fowls
scratch during the winter for grain
and grit.
A tile drain extending along the rear
of the houses keeps the dirt floors of the
houses dry in all kinds of weather.
The houses are divided into two rooms, a roosting room, in which
the roosts and nest boxes are situated, and a scratching pen. The perches

10 FT
NESTS UNDER BOARDS
PERCHES
SHELLS
18 FT
DROPPING BOARDE
MENT STATION
12 FT
GROUND PLAN OF SCRATCHING-SHED
HOUSES, MASSACHUSETTS EXPERI-
Practical Poultry Houses
267
are merely frames made from two-inch strips, suspended from the rafters
by wires. Under the perches are the platforms for the droppings, which
are also suspended from
the rafters. Underneath
these platforms are the
nests. The accompanying
cut shows the general ar-
rangement and appearance
of the houses.

We show an illustration
of the colony poultry house
with scratching-shed which
is used at the Hatch Experi-
ment Station, Amherst,
Massachusetts. These houses are 12 x 18 feet, having a scratching-shed
8 x 12 feet and a roost- and nesting-room 10 X 12 feet. There are two full-
sized windows made to open up and down in the roosting department, while
the scratching-shed is provided with double doors which open nearly its
entire front. These houses are very substantially built, are nine feet high
in front and six feet high in the rear. The walls and roof are shingled.
The doors to the scratching-shed each contain a twelve-light window
in the upper half. These doors are made to open inward, as shown in
the illustration. The houses have earth floors, which are perfectly dry, as
the buildings are located
on well-drained land. Each
house is provided with a
yard, as shown in the illus-
tration.
HOUSES AND YARDS, MASSACHUSETTS EXPERIMENT
STATION

The colony houses of
the Connecticut Experiment
Station are cheaply built
scratching-shed houses, six-
teen feet long and five feet
nine inches wide, six feet
high in front and four feet
high in the rear, a little less than one-half of which is made as a roosting-
room and the balance a curtained-front shed. The front of the roosting-
SCRATCHING-SHED HOUSES AT THE CONNECTICUT
EXPERIMENT STATION
268
The Poultry Book
room has a two-foot-wide door and one double-sash window. The
curtain of the scratching-shed is stretched upon a light frame, which is
hinged at the top, and may be raised or lowered by a cord which passes
through the outside front of the shed. The scratching-shed has an earth
floor and a board floor is provided for the roosting-room. Each of these
colony houses has a yard sufficiently large so that there is good grass in
them for the fowls all summer long.
PRACTICAL COLONY HOUSES
A colony house suitable for growing stock, a breeding-pen or a brooder
house was described by Arthur G. Duston, a practical poultryman of
Massachusetts, in the Reliable Poultry Journal as follows: “I have been
in the poultry business for many years, and have seen and tried many
houses, but I have never seen the equal of the house shown in the accom-
panying illustration. This house is ten feet in length and five feet in width.
The height in front is five feet three and a half inches and in the back is
four feet two inches. A large double window furnishes light. It is placed
low in the house, as you will see, being but one foot from the board floor.
When the door is open the sun shines in as though it were an open shed.
The door is 2 1-2 X 4 1-2 feet and is made in two sections. The inner
section is hinged to the outer, thus making a door within a door. The
opening in the door proper is covered with one-inch-mesh wire netting.
This permits of the opening of the panel door. Throughout the winter,
except in stormy weather, this outside door is left open all day. When
closed the building is tight and warm. The first year there is no need of
papering the sides, but after that the openings from shrinkage make
drafts, which, of course, the birds cannot stand. The roof is covered
with any good roofing fabric.
"This convenient colony house is durably built of 2 x 3 studding
and seven-eighths-inch matched stock. About 68 feet of studding and
230 feet of boards are required. The house is built on two pieces of 2 x 4-
inch stuff, rounded at the ends. I can take my work horse and haul one
of these houses all over the farm. I can hang three- or four-foot wire
netting on stakes driven in the ground and in a few minutes have a house
and yard ready for occupancy. I have kept breeding-pens in buildings of
this type with splendid success and have housed sale cockerels in them
until late in spring. What better can be found than a house of this size for

Australian Malay
1892
AUSTRALIAN-BRED MALAY COCKEREL
Practical Poultry Houses
269
service in the spring, with either chicks just hatched or with growing stock?
With a bran sack I divide the house into two pens and into each put hens
with chickens. They do splendidly; if the mothers are shut in small
coops formed by placing a board across each back corner, the chicks have
the range of the whole floor.
"A brooder may be put into this house in early spring when the weather
is too changeable to allow the use of any brooder out-of-doors. When a
brooder is in a house like this your chickens have practically outdoor
JJ

MR. DUSTON'S COLONY HOUSE
exercise when they could hardly run out on the ground. Last spring I
placed a brooder in this house and cut a hole in the end of the house for a
lamp: This brooder gave entire satisfaction. The large window, and the
door always open, furnished an abundance of sunlight and air, which had
much to do with the success of the brooder.
"The general usefulness of the house is what has appealed to
me most. Last season I had several of these houses for summer
quarters for yearling hens distributed through the fields. The hens
so housed have molted better than any I have ever had before.
The doors are not shut at all at night, and the hens have been free
from every malady. I have twenty of these houses and intend to
build more.
If one can do the work oneself, one can build such a house
270
The Poultry Book
for $9.61 This estimate does not include the cost of paper for covering
roof and sides.
“There are many uses for such a house on any poultry farm. It cannot
be bettered as a summer shelter for growing stock. If one has but little
room he can haul this house eack week to a fresh plot of grass, as he would
do with a small brooder, thus allowing the grass on the old place to grow
again. The brooder, however, cannot be compared with this colony
house when the chickens have reached some size."
A CURTAINED-FRONT POULTRY HOUSE
At the Maine Experiment Station fresh air was the main consideration
in their new poultry house. Its chief peculiarity was a curtained-front
roosting-room and a curtained front to the house proper. The developing
of a new idea in poultry-house construction, and the test proving it a most
practical one, certainly justifies a feeling of satisfaction, and this success
has come to Professor Gowell at the Maine Experiment Station. Although
the experiment was tried with great misgiving, the success was beyond
question, and when the fifty birds not only continued in high health but
contributed a steady supply of eggs throughout the winter, it would seem
as though the conditions were substantially right. The chief point of this
poultry house is that only two cloth curtains are between the birds and all
outdoors at night, and it's cold weather up in Maine, the mercury often-
times going away below zero. A remarkable feature of this house is that
the birds were tight-shut within the small roosting-pen on decidedly cold
nights, with only about four cubic feet of air space for each bird.
A point that we want to keep in mind is that the Maine Experiment
Station is in a very cold country, being located some ten or a dozen miles
north of Bangor and almost up to latitude 45. When we see that Ottawa,
Ontario, is only 45 1-2 north, that Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Portland,
Oregon, are 45 plus; Chicago 42 minus; Cleveland, Ohio, 41 plus, and
Buffalo, New York, 43 minus, we realize that a poultry house which does.
good work at the Maine Station will do equally good work anywhere in
the northern States and the more thickly settled portions of Canada.
The house is twenty-five feet long by ten feet wide, and as the roost
platform is three feet above the floor the whole of the 250 square feet of
floor space is available for exercise room: five square feet of floor space
for each of fifty birds.
Practical Poultry Houses
271
A decidedly important factor in this curtained-front house is that
straw to the depth of six or eight inches was over all the floor, and some
kernels of grain were thrown in the straw overnight, so that the birds went


B
A
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ممم.
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"
•
THE CURTAINED-FRONT HOUSE AT THE MAINE EXPERIMENT STATION
immediately to scratching (exercising) as soon as they came off the roost
in the morning. It would be unwise to open the curtain of the roosting-
pen and let the birds out into the very cold atmosphere of the house
without their having an inducement to work; the air within the close-shut
roosting-pen would be warm (comparatively), and that of the house very
cold, with only a muslin curtain between the inside air and the below-
zero air outside. The air inside would be down toward zero some morn-
ings, and far below freezing many mornings, and yet by that simple pre-
caution of having them go immediately to work kicking the straw about,
the warm, snug air of the roosting-pen and the sudden change to the
cold air of the scratching-room induced no colds nor any troubles of a
similar character. We would build such a house with a shed roof, the
front seven feet high and the back five and one-half feet high. In
describing this house Professor Gowell says:
"The roost platform is three feet above the floor and is three feet
two inches wide (clear). This width gives sufficient room so the back
wall and front curtain are not soiled by the discharges from the birds
while on the roosts. I do not like to have the platform nearer the floor
than three feet. If the space is three feet high it is light and clear and is
really a part of the room; if but two feet high it is only a hole into which
the hens can go, to be sure—and a man has to crawl in search of the eggs
272
The Poultry Book
sometimes laid there. It is dark, and you have to make excuses (?) to
yourself about it every time you go into it. Don't make it less than
three feet for me! The roosting-room is three feet two inches wide in the
clear (from wall to curtain), and averages three feet high from the plat-
form below the roosts to the roof above. The house is clean, light, plain
and inexpensive, and with so much open front it gives room for a large
number of birds on small floor space.
'The walls and roof about the roosting-room must be double, must
be tight and well packed, and the curtain must fit very close to prevent
currents of air. Don't put in any ventilators! When the curtains are
first shut down, on the first cold night, they are not allowed open another
night until cold, freezing nights are over, unless we have a long winter
thaw, in which case we use our judgment about leaving curtain open.”
The curtain for front of roosting-pen is 3 x 16½ feet, and there
is a "broody" coop (in which to imprison broody birds) at the left
end four feet long. It is essential that the broody birds have a
similar closed roosting-room as those not imprisoned, hence the curtain
front of broody pen should be opened and closed, same as the other.
For convenience make the front of roosting-pen in two curtains of 3 x 8 1-4
feet, setting a stud in center of front. For the front of the house have
two curtains each four feet wide by eight feet long, which gives 4 x 16
feet of curtains, and three windows as shown.
All of these curtains should be tacked to well-made frames of 1 x 3-inch,
hinged at top so as to swing up to the roof rafters, where hooks and screw-
eyes secure them, and there should be a cross-brace to stiffen the frame.
The front curtain, which is exposed to the weather, should be of oiled
muslin such as gardeners use for covers for their coldframes; the curtains
for front of roosting-pen and broody pen are of a good quality of muslin.
The curtains should fit tight to prevent currents of air. The roost platform
is made of two thicknesses of inch boards put together so as to break joints,
the upper thickness being an inch within the lower, and the curtain frame
shutting down close against it. The door to house should be in the
west end, sufficiently far front to clear the broody pen curtain; as
the front curtain does not come to the end of the house, the door will
clear that. The three windows are of twelve lights each, 8 x 10 glass,
and in winter for very cold latitudes have an outside ("storm") window
ɔn each, the chief advantage of it being to prevent the windows frosting
CC
-
Practical 273
Poultry Poultry
Houses
over. As that size of outside windows costs but about $1.25 each, they
soon pay for themselves.
There should be a double wall, tightly packed with straw or swale
hay, back of roosting- and broody pen and up the roof to front of same;
in other words, the roosting- and broody pens are double-walled throughout.
Covering roof and walls with a good quality of prepared roofing, such as
Flintkote, Rubberoid, Neponset, Swan's Felt, etc., the outer wall would
be wind- and frost-proof. To make inner wall about roosting-pen air-tight,
put tarred sheathing paper upon inside of studding before boarding up.
The roost platform is continued to the east end, making a nest-box plat-
form four feet long. The nest boxes I would make three feet long by
fifteen inches wide and high, five inches at the back closed up to enclose nest
material; the front is closed by a door which is secured by a simple button
and can be opened for collecting the eggs. To facilitate the fowls reaching
the platform an inclined stairway could be put in leading up to an opening
at the rear. The nest-box flats are partitioned into four apartments each.
The house used at the Maine Station had a board floor, with two or
three inches of dry earth on it. I would prefer an earth (fine sand) floor,
and to get absolute dryness would build houses with sills eighteen inches
above ground-level, filling up inside to base of sills and sloping up the
ground outside to same point. The slope outside would turn away the water
and insure inside ground being bone-dry, for absolute dryness is essential
to the best health of the flocks. Many poultry houses are damp and
unhealthy because they are tight-shut, and the moisture condensed from
the breath of the birds cannot escape; it collects on the ceiling and walls
(in the shape of frost if the weather is cold) and drips upon the fowls
and scratching material below. This curtained-front house would be
wholly free from that trouble, and a part of the secret of the excellent
results with it is that there is "ventilation" every day, and ventilation
without drafts. Fresh air and a reasonable amount of exercise are a
necessity if we would have good health and egg-production, and those
qualities are combined most excellently in this curtained-front house.
SUCCESSFUL AND PRACTICAL HOUSE
Writing of the "New Idea" laying- and breeding-house, Doctor C.
Bricault, of Massachusetts, says: "We are firm believers in fresh air for
our hens. We have had ample opportunity to note its good effects upon
274
The Poultry Book

DR. BRICAULT'S "NEW IDEA" POULTRY HOUSE
the health of the stock and the egg yield. The open scratching-shed
gives us fresh air but not enough comfort, and it takes up too much
space: It was in thinking about these things that we planned the house
illustrated here.
66
'The large doors in the south front were the solution of the problem.
With correct handling, the doors allow us to give our hens all the fresh air
necessary, and still we are able to close them at night during the extremely
cold weather and give them a comfortable place to roost in. During mild
weather the upper part of the door is left open at night and a cloth curtain
put in the opening, as can be seen in the illustration. When the sun is well
up in winter the door is open and the whole floor is flooded with sunshine.
How the hens appreciate this can be best understood by noting their
contented appearance as they stretch out to sun themselves. The size of
each pen is 10 x 12 feet, which will easily accommodate fifteen females
and one male for breeding, or twenty-five females for laying.
"The frame is 2 x 4 for sills, plates and rafters and 2 x 3 for studding.
It is five feet high in rear and seven feet in front. The sills are laid on
cedar posts about one foot from ground-level. We take a six-foot post,
cut it in two, and set it two feet into the ground. It is boarded up with
cheap hemlock boards, first by imbedding the bottom board four inches
into the ground, and having the bottom board come up to half the thick-
ness of sill. Then the upper boarding begins at this point on the sill.
This makes a tight joint near the floor and prevents cold drafts striking
the hens and producing colds. The house is filled inside to level of sills
Practical Poultry Houses
275
with gravelly sand, which makes a dry floor. To make the house tight
along the upper part of the back wall, the rafters are cut even with plates
and boarded up even with top of rafters.
"The boards are covered with a cheap building paper, then with
The roofing paper
sheathing quilt, and over these a prepared roofing.
is held in place with tin caps and nails. In laying the paper we begin
at the back, laying it up and down and lapping it well on the roof boards.
This makes a perfectly tight joint just where the roosts are placed. The
paper is then laid on all four walls, but the roof paper is laid lengthwise
of the building. After the paper is laid on the back wall, we lay a course.
of shingles projecting from the house about five inches and another on
top of this one. This we do in order to allow the roof water to be carried
away from the building. Right over these shingles, but leaving about
five inches of them to the weather, we begin to lay the roof paper.
"The south front contains a large door in the middle of each pen,
with a window on each side of it. This door is 4 1-2 X 6 1-2 feet; it is
divided into two parts; the upper part, which is 2 1-2 x 4 1-2, is hinged
to the plate, swings upward against the rafters, and is held in place by two
hooks. On stormy days or at night in mild weather this part of the
door is left open and a cloth curtain placed in the opening. The lower
part of the door is hinged at the side, and swings. The cloth curtain is
a two-inch frame on which oiled muslin is tacked. The windows are ordi-
nary two-sash twelve-light windows, and can be opened up and down at
will. When the weather is settled we leave both windows and door open

FRONT OF HOUSE, SHOWING MOVABLE GATES DOWN
276
The Poultry Book
all the time; the house is then practically an open shed, and the most
comfortable place possible for the hens in summer. A small opening
about a foot square allows the hens access to the yard when the lower
part of the door is closed.
"The divisions between pens are made solid, except the doors, which
are two-inch wire netting nailed to four-inch frames. A good-fitting door
is our hobby, and ours fit well; they are hung on double-spring hinges,
and work perfectly both ways. Going through the pens with a pail in

SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF ROOSTS AND NESTS IN NEW IDEA
クラ ​HOUSE
each hand, it is no trouble to push the doors with the foot going
or coming, and we economize the room which the passageway would
occupy. Along the back wall, eighteen inches from the floor, is
placed the droppings board, and six inches above this two roosts,
which are 2 x 3, with corners rounded off and laid on the two-inch
side. Sixteen inches above there is a row of coops the length of the
pen. These coops we use for spare males, broody hens, or for a trio
preparatory to shipping. Under the droppings board are the trap nests.
In the division between pens are the drinking vessels, raised ten inches
from the floor. These are made of galvanized iron and are fourteen
inches in diameter and six inches deep."

MALAY COCK AND HENS.
Harris on wein
Del
7735
Practical Poultry Houses
277
AN EXCELLENT CANADIAN HOUSE
The poultry house of L. H. Baldwin, of Canada,* is well planned and
has given good results. The point of excellence in it is that the fowls are
allowed exercise in the open air and are at the same time protected from
the wind. It also furnishes a warm roosting-pen.
It is a frame building seventy-two feet long and ten feet deep, and is
divided into four scratching-sheds and four roosting-pens. The ground
plan is shown in Figure 1. The sills are 4 x 4 cedar, resting on large stones.
The studding is 2 x 4 hemlock. The top of the sill is one foot above the
surface of the ground, and a base-board is fastened on the inside of the
sill; the floor of the house is filled with sand to the top of the base-board,
and the earth is banked up on the outside to the same level. The stones
upon which the sills rest are placed at varying distances to meet the joists
and at intervals of about eight feet. The north wall is four feet high from
the top of the sill, and the south wall seven feet high. In the north wall
the studding is placed at each corner of the roosting-pens and an additional
one in each center, also at the corner of each scratching-shed, and an
additional one in the center. In the south wall the studding is placed so
as to accommodate the window. At the east end an extra stud stands as
a doorpost, and one at the west end, in the center. The rafters are 2 x 4
hemlock, placed at two-feet centers. On the outside of the studding
and rafters ordinary lumber is used, running the boards lengthwise.
The ends of the building, the north wall and the south fronts of the roosting-
pens are covered with a two-ply "ready roofing," and for the roof
three-ply "ready roofing.' A scantling 2 X 4 reaches from the north sill
to the south sill at the base of each division. The division wall between
the scratching-shed and the roosting-pen is made of rough lumber on the
scratching-shed side, with a lining of tar felt nailed on the interior of these
boards, and battened closely with laths to make the joints of the tar felt
complete. The division wall between the roosting-pens is made of seven-
eighths tongued-and-grooved flooring, and the other interior walls of the
roosting-pens are lined with seven-eighths tongued-and-grooved dressed
material. The ceiling is of the same. Before putting on this dressed
material, a second layer of tar felt was placed between the sheathing and
rafters, so that there is a dead-air space. The large doors between the
*Described in "Bulletin No. 127,'' Ontario Department of Agriculture.
""
-
278
The Poultry Book
scratching-sheds and the roosting-pens are about three inches thick, made
of two thicknesses of seven-eighths tongued-and-grooved dressed material,

Fig.
1.
Fig. 2.
Scratching
Shed
10 x 10
*
DO
ROOF
Roost
Nests
_ Sand
NNN
10 x 8
}
-
W
N
w
N
IN
10 × 8
7
1
a
Scratching
Shed
10 x 10

O

Door
Cotton Curtain
Water
Sand
Fig. 4.
**
Fig. 3.
DETAILS OF MR. BALDWIN'S SCRATCHING-SHED HOUSE
مرمر
R
with a space of one inch between, and lined with tar felt on the inside.
These doors are raised a foot above the level of the sills, and in this
space, near the south wall, is cut openings ten inches wide, furnished
with sliding doors.
The droppings board is three feet wide and eighteen inches above
the top of the sills. Two roosts, each 2 x 3, are placed on the flat side,
fastened together by a cross strip which is hinged to the north wall. Two
legs support the roosts on the outer side. The roosts being hinged, they
can be lifted up and fastened to the roof so as to leave a clear space
when making the daily cleaning. The roosts come short of each wall by
about two inches. Three nests each eighteen inches square are allowed
to each pen. Against the inside division, between the roosting-pens,
a twelve-inch board extends on the level of the droppings board to within
Practical Poultry Houses
279
twelve inches of the door, and an upright twelve-inch board is fastened
to the end of this and runs up to the ceiling. To correspond with
it, a board is placed against the opposite wall, and a cotton curtain
on a two-inch roller is fastened to the ceiling. This curtain is shown
by the dotted lines across pens in Figure 4. When this curtain is down it
comes to about two inches below the level of the droppings board. The
purpose is to protect the fowls on very cold nights. Mr. Baldwin has
found that it is not necessary to use it when the pens contain more than
fifteen birds; but if the number is reduced, and the thermometer drops to
the neighborhood of zero, it is well to let it down.
The windows in front of the roosting-pens are each three feet wide
and two feet six inches high, containing six panes 10 x 12 inches each.
The windows are placed high in the front wall and slide to the right and
left. The windows being placed high up, the sun in winter, when it is
low in the heavens, shines upon the roost and droppings board. The door
between the roosting-pens, which is also a foot above the level of the sills,

白宮
​Photograph by Prof. W. G. Johnson
AN ORCHARD RANGE ON THE POULTRY FARM OF WHITE AND RICE, NEW YORK
is of seven-eighths-inch stuff, the upper half being made of wire netting.
The front of each scratching-shed is divided in two by the center studding,
on each side of which there are cotton screens hinged at the top and reach-
280
The Poultry Book
ing down to within one foot of the top of the sill, and, when down, close
upon the top of a rain-board which slopes to the outside, so that rain beating
against the cotton screen is carried outside, thus keeping the interior dry.
These screens swing up to the roof and are there caught by hooks from the
rafters. The front of each scratching-shed is closed with two-inch mesh
wire netting. (One-inch mesh should have been used to keep out the
sparrows, which now get in and fly off with a lot of grain.) An eaves-
trough runs the length of the building, distributing the water east and
west. Drinking fountains are placed on the end of the board that runs out
from the droppings board, and on the wall opposite hang the boxes for
oyster shells and grit. The windows of the roosting-pens are open every
day. Of course, when the weather is stormy or bitterly cold they are
open only for from fifteen to thirty minutes in the middle of the day.
When the sun is shining brightly they may be left open for some hours.
This thoroughly ventilates the house, dries up all moisture, and keeps
the place clean and sweet. The screen in front of the scratching-shed
is let down only on very cold days and when the weather is cold and
stormy, the idea being to keep the open shed dry where the birds take
exercise in the open air.
This method of housing poultry keeps the stock in the most vigorous
health, and this is the secret of success in obtaining a plentiful supply of
fertile eggs in winter.
THE SCRATCHING-SHED HOUSE
A practical poultry house with curtained-front scratching-shed was
recently described by the writer as follows: We give herewith plans for a
continuous poultry house with alternating pens and sheds, the sheds
having curtained fronts and all the space within the house being utilized.
Many years' study of poultry-house problems has convinced us that this
alternating-shed-and-pen plan is the best, all things considered. No house
plan is perfect; we have to balance advantages against disadvantages, and
should choose the plan which combines the greatest number of advantages
with fewest disadvantages, and so firmly are we convinced of the general
excellence of this pen-and-shed plan that if we were erecting a poultry
plant for 200 or 300 (or 2,000 or 3,000) head of fowls that is the plan we
would use.
Each combined pen and shed is 18 x 10 feet, the curtained-front shed
Practical Poultry Houses
281
being 10 X 10 and the closed roosting-pen being 8 x 10-room sufficient
for twenty-five fowls of the American or thirty of the Mediterranean
varieties; no walk is required because the walk is through gates and doors,
from shed to pen and pen to shed, and so on to the end of the house and
out the other end. We have seen this plan given with a roosting-pen at
the end, then two sheds and two pens, etc. Don't do that! By bringing
the closed roosting-pens together in pairs they contribute to each other's
warmth, and every pen has the protection of the shed beyond; the end
apartment should always be a shed. The ventilation (so much desired)
is very varied, and can be adapted to the different seasons in half a dozen

CURTAINED FRONT
SCRATCHING SHED
10 x
-
CONTINUOUS, CURTAINED - FRONT SCRATCHING SHED POULTRY HOUSE.
C
10 FT
RLIQ VA
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ROOSTING ROOM
8 x 10 FT
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THE CONTINUOUS SCRATCHING-SHED HOUSE
GROUND PLAN OF PENS AND SHEDS
10 X 10 FT
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different ways. In summer the doors and windows are all wide open,
excepting the door between two pens, and the curtains all hooked up
against the roof out of the way
When the nights begin to be real frosty in the fall, close the windows
in fronts of pens, but leave shed curtains hooked up and doors between
sheds and pens open. When it begins to freeze at night, close the curtains
in fronts of sheds, but still leave doors between pens and sheds open.
These doors (including slide door A) are never closed excepting on nights
of solid cold, say from five to twenty degrees above zero; and for zero
nights (five degrees above to away below) close the curtains in front of
roosts, and all doors and windows should be closed. An additional pro-
282
The Poultry Book

PARTITION BETWEEN PENS
E
BACK OF ROOSTING ROOM
Partition BETWEEN SHEDS.
FRONT OF SCRATCHING SHED
Nest Boxes, ENTRANCE IN REAR
с
FEED TROUGH
No.1
SHOWING CURTAINS, ONE DOWN,
ONE HOOKED UP TO ROOF
DETAILS OF SCRATCHING-SHED HOUSE
No. 2
ENDS OF RAfters
MIN
tection against cold in extremely cold latitudes would be to double-wall the
roosting-pen from the sill up to the plate and then four feet up the roof,
packing the spaces with straw or swale hay (seaweed, where it can be had,
as it is vermin proof); then have a hinged curtain to drop down to within
six inches of front of roost platform, going a foot below it; this curtain
we would close only on zero nights.
Sills and plates are all of 2 x 4 scantling, halved and nailed together
at joints. The rafters, the corner studs and studs in centers of fronts of
sheds are all 2 x 4; the intermediate studs are 2 x 3. Set the sills on stone
foundation, or on posts set into the ground below the usual frost line,
the posts being set five feet apart excepting in front of pens, where they
would come four feet apart, there being a post at corners of each pen and
shed and one between; the rafters should be two feet apart. The sills we
would set a foot and a half above average ground-level; put hemlock
(or some hard wood) boards from bottom half of sill down to ground,
nailing it securely to sill and foundation posts, then fill up inside to bottom
of sills and slope up the ground outside to same height. Toe-nail studs
to sills firmly, plates to studs ditto, and rafters to plates. Make front
studs seven feet (or at least six and a half feet) in the clear, and back studs

Practical Poultry Houses
283
five feet (or four and a half feet) in the clear; of course, studs in front of
pens will be set to take window-frames (or the window-sash, if no
frames are used), and in partitions the studs will be set to take the
two-and-a-half-feet-wide doors. All of this framing is simple, and any
man who can saw off a board or joist reasonably square and drive nails
can build such a house, the slight bevel at each end of rafters being
quite as simple. All boarding is lengthwise, the boards being firmly
nailed and close joints made everywhere. Cover the boarding, both roof
and walls, with a good sheathing paper (or sheathing quilt) and then put
on the outside a covering of some good roofing material.
The prepared roofings come with nails and tin-heads inside each roll,
the price at which they are sold covering everything of that kind. As a
general rule, these roofings should be applied lengthwise of roofs and
walls, and where doors and windows are set in walls bring the covering
material out over top of door or window-frames. A twelve-light window of
8 x 10 glass is set in front of each pen, and all doors and gates are two
and a half feet wide by six feet high. Have plenty of hooks and screw-
eyes to secure doors and gates back against the walls and curtains up
against the roofs, each large curtain in front of shed needing two hooks
4

Photograph by Prof. W. G. Johnson
COLONY HOUSE AND OPEN RANGE ON POULTRY FARM OF WHITE AND RICE, NEW YORK
284
The Poultry Book
and screw-eyes, one at each lower corner, to prevent it from twisting.
All windows should be protected by two-inch-mesh wire netting tacked
to inside of frame to keep fowls from dashing against it if startled
and keep varmints out when window is left open at night. To keep the
fowls enclosed when curtains are raised, cover the front of shed with wire
netting, having one section of it made as a gate to open and let the birds
out into yards. This large gate will be found very convenient when
bringing in coops of birds from the fields.
The frames for the curtains are made of good, sound 1 x 3-inch furring,
halved and securely nailed at corners, and a brace set diagonally across
back of frame to firm it. Care must be taken that gates between sheds
do not come in conflict with these curtains when they are hooked up; as
they are left up seven or eight months in the year and taken down nights
and stormy days four or five months, care must be exercised to have the
gates swing clear. The doors from sheds to pens swing into the pens
and are out of the way of the curtains. Another point to be considered
is carrying off the drip from the curtains in case of a driving rain from
the south. As there is usually (in winter) six inches of scratching material
in the sheds, the curtains should not come down to the sills, and a board
eight or ten inches wide should be set slightly slanting in from the sill to
just inside the bottom of the curtain frame; such drip-board secures the
scratching material within the shed and conveys the drip outside the sill.
The roost platform should be three feet wide and the full length of roosting-
pen, excepting that it should be short enough to lift out easily for house-
cleaning; strong cleats should be nailed to each end wall to support it,
and the platform should be two feet above sill level.
Make the platform of matched boards, secured by two cleats across
bottom, an "edge" of two-and-a-half-inch-wide furring being a decided
improvement, keeping the droppings enclosed; for convenience, a space
a foot in length can be cut out of middle of front edge through which to
scrape the droppings. The two roosts are made of 2 x 3 scantlings, slightly
rounded on top and cut eight inches shorter than platform, so ends of roost
come four inches within the platform. Set roosts fourteen inches apart,
which will bring them eight inches within the platform front and rear.
Two cross-arms are hinged to wall at back eight inches above platform
and terminate with legs eight inches long leading to platform; the roosts
are swung up and hooked against the wall while cleaning off droppings.

CORNISH INDIAN PULLET
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
Practical Poultry Houses
285
Describing the scratching-shed houses with double runs, the Reliable
Poultry Journal says: "The laying houses with scratching-sheds, illus-
trated herewith, are used extensively on egg farms and by many breeders
of exhibition stock throughout New England and the East. It will be
noted in the illustration that these houses are provided with yards on both
sides of the house. The short yards can be used for the fowls of either
row of houses and as alternate runs, so that the regular yards can be

PANAMAAN Mah
SANTA
SEDONA
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♡
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COPYRIGHTED
JAN 1 1908
R. P.J. PUB. CQ.
SAPTAMA
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SCRATCHING-SHED HOUSES WITH DOUBLE RUNS
Mape
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By courtesy of “Reliable Poultry Journal”
plowed up and planted to corn in order to purify the soil. This insures
also a supply of green food for the stock birds throughout the year. We
especially recommend this style of yarding. The dimensions of the houses
and yards shown are as follows: The closed part of the house 10 X 15,
scratching-shed 10 x 10; the main yards 25 x 75 feet and the short
yards 25 x 25 feet. Each of these houses, with yards connected, will
accommodate from ten to fifty fowls, depending on the object for which
they are kept. If intended for breeding birds, flocks of from ten to fifteen
birds will be large enough. If the fowls are kept solely for the production of
286
The Poultry Book
market eggs, from thirty to fifty hens can be kept in each closed house and
will do well. Green food, like rye, oats or blue grass, can be kept growing
in these yards the entire season-the rye if planted in the fall will supply

TRAL A
4 ft.
REE FROM HIS CAS
ARRANGEMENT OF ROOSTS
PARTITION
BETWEEN THE SHEDS
1ofi.
#for
12x
8ft.
10rt.
ARRANGEMENT OF NESTS.
FRONT VIEW WITH WIRE SCREEN & DOOR TO SHED.
1541.



ROOSTS
Fort
15F1
SCRATCHING SHED LAYING HOUSE
M257S
7
WINDOW
GROUND PLAN.
ROOSTS
13Ft.
LAYING HOUSE
DETAILS OF SCRATCHING-SHED HOUSES WITH DOUBLE RUNS
NESTS
WINDOW
IOFI.
SCRATCHING SHED
green food throughout the winter and in the early spring whenever the snow
is off the ground. We recommend gates as shown in the cut-large gates
next to the house, so that a wagon may be driven in, thus facilitating
changing the litter and cleaning out the house.
'The windows of these houses should be comparatively small, say
21½ x 5 feet—that is, windows made of two six-light sashes, one sliding to
the right and the other to the left. These half-sashes are inexpensive. A
still better plan is to hinge them at the top so that they can be swung
outward, thus keeping out the rain when open in the summer time. Prop
them one-third open. It is a good plan to whitewash them with a view
to keeping out a portion of the heat during hot weather; have them clear
and clean in cold weather.
"In a majority of cases the houses of this style that exist in New
England and the East are covered with roofing fabric held in place by
wooden battens, but we recommend a shingled roof. For roofs having
a steep pitch shingles will be found cheaper and more satisfactory in the
end. Twelve-inch-wide boards will do for siding, and the house should
be snugly lined with good building paper held in place by laths, or should
Practical Poultry Houses
287
have double walls and the inside of the outside wall lined with building
paper or tar felt. There is no danger whatever of making a poultry house
too warm. On the other hand, it is unwise to go to unnecessary expense.
Make sure that no draft can get in through cracks to strike the fowls
when at roost, for this is certain to result in colds, which may end in roup.
Do not worry about ventilators, provided the houses are kept reasonably
clean. Plenty of fresh air will find its way in, especially during the
winter, when it is most needed. No ordinary poultry house is likely to
be built tight enough to keep out the necessary fresh air.
"The detail plan shows an enlarged front view of this plan of house
with scratching-shed, giving dimensions. Any person who is handy with
tools can by consulting these illustrations build a house of this style and
equip a poultry plant on this plan.
"The sectional view shows the style of partition recommended for use

By courtesy of White and Rice
Photograph by Prof. W. G. Johnson
GENERAL VIEW OF AN OPEN RANGE ON FERNWOOD FARM, WESTCHESTER
COUNTY, NEW YORK
in dividing each closed section into two apartments and for use between
the scratching-sheds. It is advised that these partitions in both locations be
built up solid from four to six feet, so that there will be no fighting through
288
The Poultry Book
the wires by the birds either when on the roosts or in the scratching-sheds.
Furthermore, this plan will make the houses and sheds warmer and will
lessen the danger of drafts blowing over the fowls at night.
"The ground plan shows the laying house with scratching-shed
attached, also location of roosts and nests. The detail shows arrangement
of nests. These should be located on the ground underneath the windows.
It will be understood that this plan can be added to or enlarged as desired.
A single house with scratching-shed can be built, or a double house with
two scratching-sheds and yards, or any number of the double houses,
as shown in the illustration."

FAI
EVS
A LONG HOUSE AT THE WHITE LEGHORN POULTRY YARDS
A CONTINUOUS POULTRY HOUSE
The long, continuous poultry house is in use at the White Leghorn
Poultry Yards of New York State, and was especially designed for housing
White Leghorn breeders. It is 250 feet long by 16 feet wide. It
has a floor of matched seven-eighths-inch boards. The outside walls are
first boarded, then covered with sheathing paper and clapboarded. The
inside of the building is boarded up with matched stuff on the inside of the
studs, making a four-inch dead-air space between the walls. The ceilings
are made of matched boards laid at the level of the plates. In this ceiling
there is a trap-door two feet square over each pen, connecting with the
attic chamber above.
In each gable end of the house there is a full-sized window, and, as
shown in the illustration, there are three ventilating cupolas at regular
intervals from the peak of the roof. In this way provision is made for proper
ventilation of the pens without any direct drafts. If desired, straw
can be placed in this attic, covering each of the trap-doors when open,
and this will provide an effective means of getting rid of all moisture in the
Practical Poultry Houses
289
poultry house in the winter. On many poultry plants this system of
using straw above the ceiling to afford diffusive ventilation is practised
with great success.
There is a door at
each end of the
house opening into
an alleyway which
is three and a half
feet wide and ex-
tends the entire
length of the build-
ing on the north
side. This passage-
way is separated
from the pens by a
tight matched
board partition.

INTERIOR OF LONG HOUSE, SHOWING PARTITIONS BETWEEN PENS
The pens are twelve feet square, with two windows in the front (or
south) side of each pen. A door opens from the alleyway into each pen,
and there is a door in each partition between the pens. The roosting
platforms and nests are placed as shown in the accompanying illustrations,
which also show
the construction of
the partitions be-
tween the pens, the
location of food-
trough and water-
dish, the windows,
and the slide door
which connects with
the runs. A long
house of this de-
scription, while
somewhat expensive
to build, possesses
many advantages, and on a large, permanent poultry plant will more
than make up for the first cost in the ease and economy of feeding, the

INTERIOR OF LONG HOUSE, LOOKING TOWARD THE WALK
290
The Poultry Book
warmth of the house, ease of caring for the fowls, and the simplicity
of ventilation. If there is any tendency to drafts in the building, this
can readily be controlled by using burlap curtains over the wire partitions
between the pens. Burlap bran sacks cost about two and a half cents
each and will cover about ten square feet.
This style of house has been in use on the White Leghorn farm for
several years and has been found both practical and economical. It com-
bines very completely the laying house with the breeding house. The 144
square feet of floor space in each pen affords ample accommodation for
twenty-five laying fowls or from fifteen to twenty breeders and a male.
On this plant, where the alternating system of handling males is practised,
a small coop for the extra male is located on the wall in one corner of the
pen. The male bird is confined in this coop for a few days while his
partner runs with the birds, then the males are exchanged at night, the
one which has been running with the flock being cooped up and the other
set at liberty.
HOT-WATER PIPE BROODER HOUSE
Most large poultry farms make use of brooder houses in which to raise
the chicks, the heat being supplied by a hot-water heater and conveyed
to the brooder pens by a bank of hot-water pipes. We give illustrations
of one of the best types of these brooder houses, by courtesy of the Lake-
wood Poultry Farm, of New Jersey. This brooder house is 110 feet long,
six feet high at the back and five feet high in front, with a long and short

HOT-WATER PIPE BROODER HOUSE, LAKEWOOD POULTRY FARM
roof, the apex of the roof being over the partition between the walk and
the hover pens.
Ten feet of the house are occupied by the heater
Practical Poultry Houses
291
pit, containing heater, chimney and coal-bin, and the 100 feet of brooder
hovers is divided into twenty-three pens, each calculated for fifty chicks,

INTERIOR OF HOT-WATER PIPE BROODER HOUSE, SHOWING DETAIL OF PEN
PARTITIONS, HOVERS, ETC.
making a capacity of more than 1,000 chicks in 100 feet of brooder house.
The baby chicks need the highest temperature, hence are placed in the
three-feet-wide pens nearest the heater.
These first five small pens are succeeded by five pens four feet wide
by twelve feet long, and the balance of the house is divided into thirteen
pens each five feet wide. A bank of two flow and four return pipes extends
the entire length of the house, rising slightly from four inches above the
floor next the heater to eight or ten inches above the floor at the farther
end. The pipes are covered by "hovers," a covering of boards two feet
wide and as long as the pen is wide, a strip of felting being tacked along
the front and rear edges, this felting being slit into ribbons each about
three inches wide.
A few years ago these brooder houses were built with the hovers
close up to the walk, and all feeding and watering was done in the pens
in front of the hovers; the later method is to put the hovers out three
feet from the walk partition, giving a space for feeding and watering next
the walk. This plan has the further advantage of giving a better circu-
292
The Poultry Book
lation of air under the hovers, and should the temperature be a bit too
warm for comfort under the hovers the chicks stretch their heads and
necks (and frequently their whole bodies) out into the pens. By this plan,
also, there is no possibility of a weak chick being crowded back into a
corner and smothered; if crowded, he is simply pushed out from under
the hover and runs back under it again at another place.
The illustrations well show the details of pen partitions, which are of
boards for one and a half feet of the height and wire netting above; there
is a slide door in each partition which is opened for driving the chicks
through from one pen to another, and a small trap-door, operated by a
cord leading back to the walk, opens into a small yard (or runway) out-
of-doors. Two cleats about six inches out from the hovers secure a
board for confining the chicks close to the hovers in very cold weather,
and are useful to prevent the chicks hiding beneath the pipes when being
driven through from pen to pen.
A half-window is set in the south front, at end of each pen, just above
the trap-doors; these windows are hinged at top, and may be swung up

BROODER HOUSE HEATER, WITH WALK AT THE REAR
Practical Poultry Houses
293

BREEDING-HOUSES FOR DUCKS, WITH HALF THE LENGTH OF YARDS IN WATER
against the rafters by cords operated from the walk. They should
be screened by one-inch mesh wire netting to exclude chick enemies
during warm weather, when it is well to leave the windows open (or partially
open). A serious defect in hot-water-pipe brooders in the past has been lack
of sufficient heat in extremely cold weather. To make the house abund-
antly warm there must be a heater of sufficient capacity for the maximum
of cold; and to insure that the atmosphere of the whole house shall not
fall too low a bank of pipes is put along the wall at the back (sometimes
along the front beneath the windows), and these are operated in very
cold weather to keep the temperature of the house at about 60 degrees.
A shut-off valve disconnects these pipes when the weather has become
mild and they are no longer needed.
Another decided improvement in brooder house construction is an
electric regulator, which can be so attached to the draft-dampers of the
heater as to open them if the temperature of the thermostat (set beneath
one of the hovers) falls below the point desired to be maintained. With
a brooder house properly equipped with hot-water heater and electric
regulator the problem of raising chicks in winter is greatly simplified.
HOUSES FOR DUCKS
Growing ducks for market has developed into a business of con-
siderable magnitude, in some instances ten, fifteen or twenty thousand
dollars being invested in the buildings of a single plant. Twenty, thirty,

294
The Poultry Book
forty or fifty thousand ducks, weighing about ten pounds to the pair,
are marketed from some of these plants each year. On the eastern end of
Long Island
are grouped
several great
duck plants.
While
Long
Island ap-
pears to be a
favorable

THE INCUBATOR HOUSE AND FEATHER-DRYING LOFT
location for
duck growing,
there are
many large
duck plants
located inland, one of the largest in America being in Massachusetts;
while in Pennsylvania are other great duck ranches. In the latter State
Messrs. McCormick and McFetridge recently established a large plant,
and this has been selected for illustrating in this article the construction
and arrangement of duck houses.
This Pennsylvania farm was chosen especially for a duck ranch
because of its combining the essential qualifications in an unusual degree.
The land is slightly rolling, giving excellent drainage; on the rear half

BROODER HOUSE, 250 FEET LONG
there is a small brook well adapted for water-yards and sheltered on
the north and west. Here about a thousand head of breeding ducks are
Practical Poultry Houses
295
kept. About half of these are in small, semi-detached houses, each 8 x 16
feet in size, set about thirty feet back from the pond formed by damming
the small brook. Each flock of fourteen ducks and three drakes occupies
a pen 8 x 8 feet and has a yard about 16 x 60 feet, half of the yard being
in the pond. A tramway for conveying food to the pens extends along
the front of the houses. Other laying houses, 16 x 30 feet and accommo-
dating fifty ducks each, are built lower down the brook, and the ducks
are given large yards extending some 200 feet across the little valley.

INTERIOR OF NURSERY BROODER, SHOWING HOVERS AND ALLEYWAY
The 48 360-egg incubators are housed in the basement story of a build-
ing 42 x 44 feet, the second story of which is a feather-drying loft. The
incubator cellar is set eighteen inches below the ground-level and has a
brick foundation three and a half feet high; the ground outside is sloped
up to top of foundation. The wooden walls of the incubator rooms are
of three thicknesses of boards with sheathing paper between, and twelve
half-windows, hooded to exclude the rain, give light and air to the room;
three cupolas give ventilation.
From the incubators the baby ducklings are taken to a brooder
house 25 x 250 feet, in the center wing of which are set the large
hot-water heaters to give the necessary heat to the brooders. The first
one hundred feet, of this house contains the "nursery brooders." This
section is divided into pens 4 x 102 feet, a walk four feet wide extending

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The Poultry Book

AK
COLD BROODER HOUSE, 300 FEET LONG
through the entire length of the house giving access to the hover pens for
feeding and watering. The illustration of the interior of the nursery
brooder house shows the hot-water pipes and hovers set three feet in from
the walk, which gives feeding and watering space between the hovers
and the walk; this part of the house is well lighted by windows in the
monitor top, which windows also serve for ventilating. Small runs, 4 x 10
feet, give outdoor air and exercise room in favorable weather. From these
nursery brooder pens the ducklings are driven through to the second
brooder house, 150 x 25 feet, where the pens are 6 x 101½ feet and outside
runs 6 x 15 feet. Here are hot-water pipes and hovers, and the four-foot-
wide walk extending the full length of the house; but the temperature is

FAR
FATTENING SHED AND YARDS
BEA
TE
Practical Poultry Houses
297
lower, and the ducks are gradually moved along with a steadily lower
temperature, until, when about five weeks' old, they are graduated into one
of the cold houses, which have no artificial heat. Of these there are several
200, 250 and 300 feet in length by twenty-five feet in width, with yards
outside for exercise and fresh air and simple pens within for sleeping-
rooms. These cold houses, also the large fattening houses, are practically
great sheds for shelter at night, and in stormy weather they are chiefly
roofs to turn off the rain. Pekin ducks reach market maturity in about ten
weeks, and there are about two and a half weeks each of nursery brooder,
second brooder, cold house and fattening pens on the way to market.
On such a great duck plant as this the buildings are located and built to
facilitate the necessary work in the most efficient manner, to the end
that no steps be wasted. Everything is reduced to a businesslike system.
INCUBATOR HOUSES
Incubator houses are best made in half-cellars, and when possible should
be put up early in the season, so they will become thoroughly dry, and should
be located on high, dry ground. It is often desirable to hatch late in the spring
or even in the summer, and a house entirely above ground then gets too warm
for the best

work. With a
half-cellar the air
strikes the wall,
which the outer
ground keeps
cool, and the
temperature can
be kept down
to sixty or sixty-
five degrees,
excepting in the
very warmest
weather. A row
of windows is
placed on either
side, well up toward the ceiling, so that a window can be opened on either side
of the house to afford ventilation without a draught striking the machines.
FILL
FILL
By courtesy of Cyphers Incubator Company
FRONT ELEVATION OF INCUBATOR HOUSE
298
The Poultry Book

By courtesy of Cyphers Incubator Company
GROUND PLAN OF INCUBATOR HOUSE
All things considered, the half-cellar herewith shown is one of the best
that has been devised for the purpose. The temperature keeps very even
and there is just enough natural moisture in the air to give the best results.
To build it requires an excavation three feet deep and the building of a
wall four feet high, with an additional three feet of woodwork above it.
Bank the earth up against the wall so as to make the cellar four feet deep.
The door is in one end of the building, and the stairs are inside, so that
they are safe from the weather. Three half-windows are used on each
side, and are double glass, being placed on each side of the window-frame.
The inside of the room of the cellar is sealed with matched stuff. The
sealing runs inside of plate, up studs and rafters, to a point ten feet from
the floor, where it crosses on the tie beams. The roof, ends and sides may
be either shingled or papered. In such an incubator cellar it is well to have
the incubators lefts and rights for greater convenience in the care of them.
The ground plan shows a half-cellar arranged for ten large-sized
incubators, but the size of cellar can obviously be adapted to the number
of incubators it is intended to run.
The incubator cellar is best set three feet in the ground, with a one-
foot banked wall above, making four feet in all under ground. There
should be eight feet head room from the floor to the plates or ceiling.
Do not build a lower ceiling, as a lower room will not give sufficient cubic
feet of air space to allow the air to be kept always fresh.
Practical Poultry Houses
299
THE BROODER HOUSE
A practical, sensible and economical house for brooding chicks or
ducks is described as follows by Charles A. Cyphers, president of the
Cyphers Incubator Company: "The most popular brooder house in use
to-day is the hip-roof, single house. This house may be seven feet at the
back, eight feet at the ridge, and five feet at the front. It is usually put
up sixteen feet wide. It has a three-foot-eight-inch walk in the back,
with the hover runs twelve feet long, divided off in five-foot sections.
To each five feet of hover run there should be one six-light 8x10 window
set in the center of the front, about two feet from the floor, and facing
the south. Do not put more glass in a brooder front than this, as
it makes it too warm in summer and too cold in the winter, and there is
positively no advantage gained. It is well to put at least two windows in
the back, or north side, of each twenty-five feet of brooder house. These
should be double windows for use in the winter time; the outer sash can
be removed in the summer, and the inner sash should be hinged so that
it may be let down to keep the building cool in the summer time. It is
well, also, to hinge the front windows at the bottom, so that they, too,
could be opened during the warm weather. This is all the ventilation that
it is necessary to provide."
THE COMMON DISEASES OF POULTRY
DR. NATHAN W. SANBORN, MASSACHUSETTS
HE twentieth-century poultryman is not satisfied with the
knowledge of ten years ago. He wants the results of
the investigations of the times in which he lives, and
insists on getting them while they are fresh and new.
This applies not only to breeds, varieties, methods of
housing, and feeding, but to the diseases he must meet from year
to year.
It is a sign of promised success when a poultryman insists
on knowing causes and prevention of disease rather than cures.
Sure-cures for the ailments of poultry are only too many-and it is well
known to some of us that dependence upon these "medicines" has ended
in the failure of more than one poultry plant. It is the man who looks
ahead, learns the causes of disease and prevents their beginnings, who
gets real satisfaction out of the keeping of healthy poultry. So you will
understand at the outset why I lay so much emphasis upon prevention
of poultry ailments. Understand thoroughly the pitfalls of disease,
that you may take your birds safely around them, rather than sweat
in the unsuccessful attempt of getting them out of the pit that you
probably have dug.
The most common factor in causation of poultry diseases is filth.
This may be impure water, foul air from crowded houses or contaminated
air from dirty droppings-boards or floors. A yard that is bare of grass
and foul with the accumulated droppings of several years may lead to
diseases of more than one kind. While filth alone does not surely lead
to disease, it is of great importance to success with poultry that the
bird's life is passed in clean quarters. Catarrhs, roup, cholera, and
several other common diseases of poultry, are intensified if they are not
fully caused by filthy conditions.
Another cause of disease is improper feeding. Too much of the
corn products, to the exclusion of foods that would balance up the com-
plete ration, unduly fattens the bird, and is often followed by liver disease
:

301
302
The Poultry Book
and breakdown when the bird gets to be over twelve months of age.
Too large a proportion of meat tends toward rheumatic condition, and is a
common cause of winter diarrhea in laying stock. Even the absence
of grit is sufficient to cause indigestion, and I have seen large flocks supposed
to be dying from cholera, when careful study of the situation made
sure that the one thing wrong was "no grit in reach." Many soils
are deficient in grit; most hen-yards contain only old grit that has passed
through the birds' digestive system and has lost all grinding properties.
Oyster shells fill a place in the birds' needs, but they do not do the work
that grit will do.
Lice and mites have a part in the starting of disease. Lice irritate
the birds, make them uneasy, and multiply rapidly when disease is present.
Red mites (spider lice) weaken the birds by sucking the blood, thereby
lowering the birds' vitality and furnishing better breeding-ground in which
the disease can work.
Dampness is not conducive to heaitny poultry. Birds may keep
well under wet conditions, but it is a factor in disease that should be kept
in mind. A leaky roof, a damp surface soil, a foggy valley, have led, in
my knowledge of poultry plants, to more than one serious epidemic of
disease. Dampness combined with any of the filth conditions I have
mentioned in this article is usually followed by some disease of the
mucous surfaces.
Crowding of birds, whether in the laying house of winter or in the
brooder of the springtime, is dangerous. The overfull brooder soon has
the right number of chicks through the death of many, but this is not an
economical method of chicken-raising. The crowded chicks sweat, chill,
take cold, and die of catarrhal troubles of different names. The overfull
roosts of the laying house seldom pay. The birds are not rested by the
night's roosting; they foul the air of the house, and overload the drop-
pings boards with a product which contaminates the air they breathe.
Extremes of temperature are hard for the bird to bear, and tend
to produce some of the winter ailments. Better have a house cold all
the time than one hot at noon and near the zero mark at midnight. Our
birds are well dressed for cold, but have no way of adjusting their clothes
to the hot air of a glass-front house at noonday. The change from a
temperature of eighty degrees at one o'clock in the afternoon on a sunny
winter day to zero or below in the early morning hours is too much for
The Common Diseases of Poultry
303
most birds to stand. It is followed, more often than is commonly under-
stood, by the lung diseases, such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Better
have the cloth-covered window-frames, that give a cold house both day
and night, than a building with a front largely of glass. This glass-lighted
house will be too warm by day and too cold at night, unless some means
are provided for the proper ventilation and equalization of the temperature.
An even temperature of day and night will do much to avoid some of the
common diseases of winter.
The improper use of food and condiments will help toward the pro-
duction of disease, if, indeed, they do not directly cause poultry ailments.
A ration too rich in starchy food, or containing a large proportion of
indigestible elements, too much meat and bone, will upset the digestion
of birds that are off a free range. Birds running at large will do quite
well on almost any kind of food, but the yarded stock must be carefully
fed for good results. The overuse of spice does positive harm, and it had
better be let alone altogether than used carelessly.
SOME COMMON DISEASES
The diseases that appear in the flock of the average keeper are those
connected with either the digestive or the breathing systems, the first
as the result of faulty feeding, the second because of improper housing.
Indigestion usually shows itself in the loss of appetite and possibly
some diarrhea. The bird is "off its feed." It mopes in corners of house
or yard, and is slow in all its motions. Its feathers are dull, and the
comb is lighter in color than normal. These birds need a light diet of
simple feeds-half starved, in fact—and a grass range in summer and a
clover diet in winter. They should be made to work for all grain, feeding
it in deep litter. No work, no food! If the birds have anything wrong
with the bowel discharges, whether constipation or diarrhea, a tablespoon-
ful of castor oil in mash for four birds will help get rid of some of the
irritating material. Other medicine than this I should not advise. A
better diet and good care will cure most of the sick birds.
The crop may get inflamed as the result of eating some irritant poison
and the organs beyond may become involved. Paris green (and other
arsenical poisons) is the usual poison that our birds have access to. So
much of it is now used for spraying orchards and other crops that we
have become careless in its use. Birds suffering from inflamed crops—
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The Poultry Book
gastritis, we call it seem to be in pain and are very thirsty. They are
seen to be going to the water-dish every few minutes. Give these birds
clover tea in which arsenite of copper, one one-hundredth of a grain for
each quarter-pint, has been dissolved, and let this be their only liquid.
The diet should be little except a baked mash of cornmeal and bran.
The ideal diet would be that to be had from a run in a grass-covered orchard.
Diarrhea and cholera are two diseases that have similar symptoms
at the start. Diarrhea is slightly infectious, while cholera is one of the
easiest diseases to take from bird to bird and from farm to farm.
Diarrhea is usually a mild disease. Cholera runs a rapid course, with
high fever. Diarrhea is caused by wrong feeding, bad hygienic sur-
roundings, or lack of grit. Cholera is due to a disease germ that
puts in its work in healthy birds just as surely as in debilitated stock.
Most of the so-called "cholera cases" of the poultry papers are bad
diarrheas. Cholera is seldom cured. Many of these so-called cases
recover and this fact is against the diagnosis.
The well-fed bird on farm range seldom has diarrhea. It is the
yarded bird, that looks to the owner for every particle of food, that is
reported as having a bowel discharge. Good feeding, as put forth in
the prevention of disease at the opening of this article, will prevent this
trouble and cure mild cases. Sulphocarbolate of zinc, ten grains to
each pint of drinking water, will do good service in overcoming the
irritation in the intestines.
Cholera always comes unexpectedly, runs a rapid and fatal course, and
is attended by intense pain. There are fever, total loss of appetite, and a
bowel discharge that is more watery as the hours go by. The bowel
discharge is fairly normal in colour at first, but soon changes to a light
color, yellow and red in streaks, that may be all red in twenty-four hours.
You know that birds that were well two days before are decidedly sick,
and you decide mighty soon that the chances of recovery are slim. Cholera
is brought from a neighbor's flock of sick birds without effort on the
shoes of any one passing from place to place. It is passed from pen to
pen, from house to house, in the same way. There is no good cure for
cholera. Treat all birds as you would for a bad diarrhea, and if many
of them recover you may be sure that you have not had cholera. All
sick birds should be kept by themselves and away from the rest of the
flock. This is true of any sickness that may visit your yards.
The Common Diseases of Poultry
305
Gapes.-This is the one parasitic disease that is likely to be at all
common to many poultry yards. This condition, known to us by the
peculiar gaping of the chick, is not found in all yards in sections of the
country where it is common. A worm makes its home in the windpipe
of the bird and causes the irritation of the mucous lining. In turn the
bird tries to get rid of it by swallowing or coughing. This parasite or worm
has its home also in the earthworm. Strange as it may seem, the earth-
worm is, therefore, the source of trouble. But the gapeworm must be
present in the earthworm or no gapes results. A few gapeworms do
little injury, but when the number is large the bird suffers intensely.
Hundreds of thousands of chicks die of gapes in some of the sandy regions
of the eastern United States. Chicks seem to contract this disease easily,
while adult birds on the same place are free from it. When it is once
introduced into a yard it is seldom exterminated, except by putting new
chicks on fresh soil in new yards.
Prevention is everything in this trouble. It is hard work to get a
wire into the windpipe of a small chick, yet it is common to introduce
a wire and entangle the worms in a twisted horsehair on the end of the
wire. In this manner a few worms are dislodged and more of them are
coughed up later by the chick. Some poultrymen put the chicks into a
box covered with burlap; air-slaked lime is then dusted through the cloth
cover and is breathed by the chick. This irritates the bird and is followed
by coughing, which gets rid of some of the gapeworms. Whatever method
is resorted to, one cannot remove gapeworms without hurting the chicks.
Catarrh and Roup.-The diseases of the breathing apparatus are
catarrh, roup, canker, diphtheria, bronchitis, and pneumonia. Of these
six, catarrh and roup are the most common to all sections and yards,
and present the same symptoms at the commencement of the sickness.
The first case that appears cannot be named for a few days. All start
with a slight running at the nose, probably sneezing, and some watering
at the inner corner of the eye. Catarrh seldom presents more symptoms
than these. On the other hand, roup passes from these symptoms to
those of more severity. The disease is intense. There is swelling of the
sides of the head, the breath is strong-smelling, and the nostrils are tightly
closed with thick mucus. If you have a flock of birds that present the
catarrhal symptoms, with the addition of that rotten odor to the air of the
roosting house in the early morning, you may know you have roup to treat.
}
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The Poultry Book
All these ailments call for arsenite of antimony in the early stages.
Catarrh will soon clear up and roup be made more mild. The dose of
this medicine is small. It is one one-hundredth of a grain for each sick
bird, added to the drinking water for one day's use. Prepare fresh
each day.
If several cases are on hand it is well to add a half-dose
to the drinking water of each well bird.
Roup needs more energetic treatment. After all the trials of new
drugs, I have come back to the old, well-tried remedy, common kerosene.
Put a tablespoonful of kerosene on the top of a pailful of cold water and
dip the head of each bird through the film of oil into the water, hold for an
instant and then withdraw. Do this twice a day, and use the arsenite of
antimony in the drinking water of every bird on the place.
All sick fowls should be put by themselves, lest the well ones contract
the disease. All drinking vessels should be scalded. It is through the
vessels and water that the disease is largely spread. When the disease
is eliminated, clean up all yards and pens, lest it appear another
season from germs that stay on the premises. It has always seemed
to me that catarrh is quite likely to pass into roup whenever the
pens are in a filthy condition. Catarrh, filth, and wet combined lead
to the roupy outbreak.
Diphtheria and canker are winter ailments. They appear generally
in fowls that have been exhibited at shows, and have been exposed to long
express trips, or have roosted in a cold house near a crack in the wall.
Canker is more local in its action than diphtheria. A patch or spot in
the throat or mouth is a prominent symptom. In canker this spot is
yellow, while in diphtheria it has a leaden cast. The membrane in canker
is thicker than in diphtheria, and is not bound so tightly to the mucous
surface underneath. Both diseases respond to similar treatment. Possibly
the diseases are the same. Swabbing the patches with a full-strength
solution of peroxide of hydrogen twice a day, and the internal use of a
one-grain pill of calcium sulphide three times a day, will give best results.
Bronchitis is a catarrhal condition of the mucous lining of the bronchial
tubes. The fowl rattles in its breathing, is dumpish in all its movements,
and quite likely shows some catarrh of the nostrils. Bronchitis calls for
aconite. One-drop doses of the tincture, three times a day, with the birds.
kept in a dry, sunny house on a light diet, will help cure these late-fall
and early-winter troubles.
The Common Diseases of Poultry
307
Pneumonia is rarer than any of the common diseases. Pneumonia is
so fatal that it is seldom recognised by the average poultryman. The
bird has some difficulty in breathing. The number of breaths per minute
is large, and the air exhaled is hot to the hand held near the mouth and
nostrils. One's ear held against the bird's chest may reveal a sound
similar to the movement of thin parchment paper. The bird has no
appetite, is feverish, and usually very constipated.
Pneumonia is fairly common in the winter. It is the single cases
appearing often that make this one of the dreaded diseases of the cold
season. Treatment should be prompt. The man who is with his fowls
is more likely to recognise this disease and treat it early than is the
person who sees his flock only morning and night. The early use of a
tablespoonful of castor oil, with drop doses of tincture of aconite every
two hours, will usually help the fowl. While this disease is not easily
passed from fowl to fowl, there is danger enough to call for quarantine.

WHITE LEGHORNS RANGING ON FAIRVIEW POULTRY FARM
(Owned by H. J. Blanchard, New York)
PRINCIPAL INSECTS INFESTING POULTRY
A. F. HUNTER, MASSACHUSETTS
LL poultry-keepers realize the very great importance of
keeping their flocks free from parasites. Sometimes fowls
become so badly infested with parasites that they are
totally incapacitated for work; brooding hens frequently
die upon their nests; newly hatched chicks are lost in
very great numbers as the result of carelessness in keeping the fowls
and their nesting and roosting places free from lice and mites.
There are several distinct species of Mallophaga, or lice, as they are
popularly known. The various species are partial to particular parts
of the body, as the rump, under the wings, between the wing feathers,
and upon the head and neck. They subsist upon the productions of the
skin, devour fragments of the feathers, and even feed upon the barbs of
the feathers, especially attacking those of the saddle and hackle, the
latter sometimes showing curiously jagged and notched edges when birds
are severely infested. Often lice are present in great numbers on fowls



香港​。
FIG. 4
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF BODY LICE
Fig. 1. Lipeurus variabilis; primary and secondary feathers and wings in chicks. Fig. 2: Menopon biseratum: large wandering
hen louse; common to all parts of the bird. Fig. 3: Goniodes eynsfordii; head and neck feathers of fowls and chicks.
Fig. 4: Menopon pallidum; common pale wandering hen louse.
FIG. I
suffering from diphtheritic roup and gapes. By their debilitating effects
the constitution of the fowls becomes impaired and rendered more sus-
ceptible to any infectious disease. Darkness and filth are especially
309
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The Poultry Book
favorable to the development of lice and mites. They thrive best in
dark, damp, badly ventilated and dirty runs and houses.
Cleanliness is the first step toward prevention, and the most powerful
aid in the extermination of the pests when once established. If facilities
for dust-bathing are furnished, and the quarters kept clean and well-venti-
lated, there will be little difficulty with lice, as the fowls will keep them-
selves pretty well freed from them. The quarters should be thoroughly
whitewashed twice a year, preferably spring and fall. The floors (if of
wood), walls, nests, perches, etc., should be well washed with a whitewash
sufficiently liquid to flow freely and run into every crevice. A little
carbolic acid solution or kerosene oil added to the whitewash will make it
still more effective and cleansing. The addition of a little soft soap (or
potash lye) will make the solution more destructive to the parasites. The
addition of a handful of sulphur and lime mixed in the road dust provided
for the dust-bath makes the latter more effective.
Dusting the sitting hens with powdered pyrethrum, known also as
Persian insect powder, or bubach, is an excellent remedy. All dusting
remedies, while efficacious, cannot reach the eggs, commonly called nits,
which in a few days hatch out another lot of lice. Therefore, sitting hens
should be dusted several times at intervals of about eight days. Usually
three applications will suffice. If the dusting is thoroughly done the
chicks hatched by these hens will be practically free from lice and should
be kept from infected birds.
THE CHICKEN MITE
The chicken mite is scientifically called Dermanyssus gallinæ Redı.
It is commonly known as "red mite," or "red spider louse." Unlike
the lice, it does not live in the feathers and upon the bodies of fowls,
but inhabits cracks and crevices of the roosts, nests, walls, etc., coming
out at night to prey upon the birds upon the roosts or attacking
them while upon the nests. Instead of feeding upon the body
excretions, feathers, etc., of the fowl, as do the lice, the food of mites
is blood. It is only when engorged with blood that they are red. Their
natural colour is a light gray, with tiny dark spots showing through
the skin. In many respects they are worse than lice, and poultrymen
should do everything in their power to destroy them if they find a
lodgment in the houses.
Principal Insects Infesting Poultry
311
In a recent bulletin (No. 69) issued by the Iowa Experiment
Station the following interesting and practical facts are given: "The
mites are of peculiar and stealthy habits of life, rather unlike that which
one naturally expects from a parasite. Indeed, they are only semiparasitic,
and, as a rule, remain upon the fowl only long enough to secure a meal.
They are very active in their movements, and seem to be ever on the
lookout for a victim. On account of their vigorous and vicious habits
they may be styled the wolves of the insect parasites of fowls. The

+SASA+
MA
FIG. I
FIG. 2
FORMS OF THE CHICKEN MITE
Fig. 1: Young chicken mite, lower view. Fig. 2: Adult chicken mite, upper view. Both greatly magnified
mites hide in crevices and under objects in the henhouse during the day-
time, while the chickens are outside, and lie in wait for their return. They
lay their eggs and the young are hatched in these hiding places. A barrel
affords an excellent hiding and breeding place, as the mites lodge between
the staves and under the hoops. In the nests they are to be found under
the straw or other nesting material. It is a noteworthy fact that a place
which shows only a few mites on the surface may contain vast numbers.
in the crevices or under objects. Often they become so plentiful that
they overflow the hiding places and appear in hordes upon the exposed
surfaces.
312
The Poultry Book
A RELIABLE REMEDY
"The most effective exterminator found was kerosene emulsion,*
made as follows: Take one-half pound of hard soap, shave it into
a gallon of soft water and put it on the fire and bring it to a boil. By this
time the soap will have dissolved. Then remove the soap solution from
the fire and stir into it at once, while hot, two gallons of kerosene. This
makes a thick, creamy emulsion, which is made ready for use by diluting
with ten volumes of soft water and stirring well. It can be utilized as a
spray, dip or wash.
"It is necessary to use soft water, for hard water decomposes the
soap and destroys its emulsifying power. We used white laundry soap,
but any good hard soap will do.
، ،
Make up as much of the stock emulsion as it is thought will be
needed. This can be kept in a suitable vessel and a portion taken out
and diluted as needed. If the bucket or holder attached to the spray-
pump holds five gallons, one-half gallon of the stock emulsion should be
put into the bucket or holder and four and one-half gallons of soft
water added and the whole well stirred. It is then ready to be sprayed
on the places occupied by the mites. A beginning should be made at a
particular place and the whole habitation of the mites sprayed in a regular
order, of which account should be taken so that the same order may be
followed in subsequent sprayings. The spray should be directed with
special care into all crevices, holes, joints, or other hiding and breeding
places of the mites. The first spray of kerosene emulsion will kill within
five minutes all of the mites and eggs with which it comes into contact,
but many mites will be left in the hiding places unaffected by the spray.
Hence the spraying should be repeated as soon as the first spraying is
completed. Even this will not kill all of the mites, hence a third spraying
should be done as soon as the second is completed. At each spraying
the beginning should be made at the same place and the same order followed
* There is now upon the market a combination spray-pump for mechanically mixing
oil and water. By putting the kerosene in one tank and the water in another, any per-
centage of the two combined can be obtained by simply setting a gauge and pumping out
the mixture. This apparatus, simple, cheap, and effective, does away with the somewhat
troublesome method of making kerosene emulsion by hand. Every well-established
poultry plant should have either a knapsack or hand combination oil-and-water sprayer.
The same apparatus can also be used for whitewashing by substituting a coarser nozzle.—
EDITOR.
Principal Insects Infesting Poultry
313
as in the first. These three sprayings, done in one day and in rapid suc-
cession, will destroy nearly all of the mites, but, as my researches have
shown, many eggs are left in places untouched by the spray. If mites
are seen crawling about the building the next day, it should be sprayed
again.
"One might ordinarily suppose that he had now exterminated the
mites; but such is not the case, for in about three days a crop of young
mites will be found hatched from the eggs which escaped the first spraying.
If these should be allowed to go undisturbed it would not be long until
the building would be as badly infested as at the beginning. Therefore
the spraying should be repeated once every three or four days, spraying
two or three times on each occasion, for about two weeks. The spray
should be applied to every part of the building that is likely to contain
the mites. In a two-story building they will crawl up a post and find
lodgment upon the second floor, even if chickens do not go there.
"The procedure described will, with very little doubt, be effective in
ridding a place of mites, but we would advise that a constant watch be
kept, and the spraying repeated when mites are seen at any subsequent
time. Extermination of the mites* may be hastened by dusting the
fowls with pyrethrum powder after they have gone to roost the evening
before the spraying. The powder will drive the mites from the birds, and
as a result few, if any, will be carried out upon their bodies the next day."
* Mites are not casily destroyed by the use of insect powders. In fact, these creatures
are not insects at all, but belong to a different group. They are allied with the spiders,
and, unlike the true insects, such as the lice, have a peculiar breathing apparatus character-
istic of their class. The various insect powders prove valuable in certain cases by closing
up the breathing organs or spiracles, situated along either side of an insect's body, when
dusted upon them. But if dusted over mites or spiders it would not necessarily destroy
them, even though it made them uncomfortable for a short time and forced them from
the body of the fowl.-Editor.
ད

Harrison Wein
1901
FIRST PRIZE BLUE GAME COCK.
The Fisheries Exhibition, Aquarium, Westminster.

Py
THE FORKED-TAIL JUNGLE-FOWL.
Photograph by A R. Dugmore.
COMB AND WATTLE HAVE CHANGEABLE
COLORS
Owned by Homer Davenport
THE JUNGLE-FOWL
HE Jungle-cock [Gallus bankiva] is about one-third the size
of our domesticated races, measuring from point of
beak to the extremity of flattened tail about two feet
four inches, and nearly fifteen inches in height from the
level of the feet to the top of the head, not including
crest on indented comb. The wattles resemble those of the domestic cock,
the deaf ear in some being red and in others a light greenish-blue,
though they are larger in some breeds of domestic fowl. The female is
smaller than the male, with scarcely any comb or wattles, but the throat is
covered with feathers forming a remarkable distinction from the domestic
hen, the throat of which is usually nearly naked. The females do not differ
in color among themselves in plumage, like those of the tame varieties.
The cry of the Jungle-fowl is in some measure different from that of our
domestic species, but there is much resemblance in their habits. Captain
Skinner, in his "Excursions in India," says: "In some parts of the forest
we saw several Jungle-fowl; they have exactly the same habits as domestic
poultry. The cock struts at the head of his hens and keeps a strict watch

315
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over their safety. Whenever disturbed by us, he flew to the highest
branch of some tree beyond our reach and crowed with all his might,
while his dames ran into holes and corners to escape; they are so cunning

Ghraibek
INDIAN JUNGLE-FOWL
that we found it impossible to get within shot of them, with all the
caution we could use."
The Shecarries, or low-caste, in India, catch Jungle-fowl by the fol-
lowing method: "Two or three men go together and proceed in this
manner: A line thirty or forty yards long is fastened to the ground, with
wooden pegs at each extremity, and is then elevated by props to the height
of about eighteen inches. To this prop nooses of horsehair are fastened
about two feet apart. When the birds attempt to pass under the line
The Jungle-fowl
317

Photograph by A. R. Dugmore.
GRAY JUNGLE-FOWL-WILDEST AND HANDSOMEST OF THE SPECIES
OF JUNGLE-FOWL
Owned by Homer Davenport
they are caught in the noose by their necks. Sometimes a similar line
is fastened to the ground and left lying there with all the nooses spread,
and as the birds pass over them they are caught by the legs; these lines.
are never spread where there is much jungle. When the lines are ready,
the men go a considerable distance and beat the bushes, thus driving
the game toward them." This method is precisely the same as that used
by many of the savage tribes of the South Sea Islands. It is also put

Photograph by A. R. Dugmore.
THE RED JUNGLE-FOWL (GALLUS FERRUGINE US OR BANKIVUS), THE
PROTOTYPE OF ALL BREEDS OF DOMESTIC CHICKENS
Owned by Homer Davenport
318
The Poultry Book
into practice for catching pheasants, etc., by poachers in England. The
Mussulman natives of Hindustan are in a degree fond of cock-fighting.
The Hindus, on the contrary, do not tolerate the existence of poultry;
a Hindu would sooner forfeit his life than wear a fowl's feather. In the
Bay of Amphila, in Abyssinia, Donakei, also in Adaiel and Sanauli, the
inhabitants entertain a prejudice perhaps against the common fowl, the
flesh of which they hold in abhorrence; this may tend to the idea of these
tribes having sprung from an Egyptian origin.
A fine specimen of the Gallus bankiva in the collection of Mr. Harrison
was brought from the northern circars of India; whether this is the original
stock from whence all our domestic varieties have sprung I leave others to
determine; personally, I do not incline to that opinion. There is a reference
in “Dampier's Voyages" to a small species seen at Condor; and at the
same place (in “Cook's Last Voyage,”) a “wild hen, of splendid color, but
less than ours in Europe," is described as having been shot.

ROMAN COCK-FIGHT
From a painting on a vase in the Gregorian Museum, Rome
ANCIENT AND MODERN GAME-COCKS *
"Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate." -POPE'S Essay on Man.
HE existence of the Game-cock is almost prehistorical.
It is mentioned in the earlier records of China. Cock-
fighting is commended, with other amusements, in the
codes of Manu more than a thousand years before the
Christian Era. Dempster states the Game-cock was
indigenous in Persia, and conveyed thence to other countries. Athenæus,
indeed, quotes from a work of Menodolus some lines by which this
assertion is confirmed; and Aristophanes in two places calls the
domestic cock a Persian bird. It is proved by more modern accounts that
this species of fowl is at present found wild in the East Indies and many
neighboring countries. Sonnerat found them in Hindustan; and they
were seen by Cook and Dampier on Pulo Condor and many islands of the
South Sea. According to the testimony of Gemelli Careri, the Game-
fowl was indigenous in the Philippine Islands. Morolla states that it was
to be found wild in the kingdom of Congo; and it is asserted by Neineggo
that it was to be met with in Georgia in a wild state as late as 1797. The
account, therefore, of the Greeks that they obtained domestic fowls
from Persia may be admitted, but as in cock-fights one Persian overcame
another, how could they convey the idea of victory of the Greek over the
Persian? The Jungle-fowl is the accepted progenitor of the Game-fowls.
That cock-fighting was a favorite pastime long ago is proved by the
frequent mention of it by various authors. Pliny says it was exhibited
annually at Pergamus in the same manner as the combats of gladiators.

*This part has been read by the following experts on Games: George S. Barnes, of
Michigan, and John Glasgow and John Filkin, both of New Jersey. It was finally revised
and partly rewritten by the American editor.
319

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The Poultry Book
According to Petronius, a boy was promised a fighting cock. From this
it appears that even boys kept fighting cocks for this pastime. Cock-
HIMERA COINS
Very much enlarged to show form of birds
fights are delineated on vases found at Pompeii, on ancient sculpture in
Rome, and other places. Æsdinus reproaches Timaichus for spending
the entire day in gaming and cock-fighting. Plato complains that not
only boys, but "grown-up" persons, instead of laboring, had birds for
fighting, and employed their whole time in idle amusements.
Coins of Persia, Himera and Afghanistan have their effigy of cocks.
Cock-fights were represented also by the Greeks on coins, as we are told
by Pollux; and this seems to prove that these people were as fond of the
sport as their neighbors of Pergamus. Mr. Pegge had engravings made
of two gems in the collection of Sir William Hamilton, on which is seen
a cock in the humble attitude of defeat,
with his head hanging down, and another
in the attitude of victory, with an ear of
corn in his mouth as the object of contest.
On the other stone are two cocks fighting,
while a mouse carries off the ear of corn
Two cocks fighting are represented on
ASIA
An Indian bird which was
crowned by Alexander
GREEK
Struck in India, circa
B. C. 335-280
for which they are contending.
a lamp found in Herculaneum.
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
321
The Rhodian fowls were celebrated fighters, as were those of Medea,
Chalcis, and Tanagra; the last were said to be large, powerful birds of
great courage. Hieroglyphically (Baily's Dict., 1736), a cock signifies
a noble disposition of mind, there being no bird of a more generous or
undaunted courage at the sight of imminent danger. "While the cock,
says another, "is the emblem of strife, of quarrels, of haughtiness, and of
victory, because he rather chooses to die than yield, therefore he is called
a bird of Mars."
,"
"He is likewise an emblem of jealousy and vigilancy."
"The cock crows when he is conqueror, and thus gives notice of his
conquest."
"Cock-fighting appeared on the coins of Dardania, and under the
presidency of love. The battles were often fought in the presence of the
god Terminus (Hermes among the Greeks), and the palms destined to the
conqueror were placed upon a pedestal."-Gentlemen's Magazine.
“Upon a coin of Athens we see a cock crowned with palm.”—Ency-
clopedia des Antiq.
"Polyarchus gave public funeral and raised monuments to cocks, on
which were placed epitaphs in praise of the birds."-Elian, Vai, Hist.,
VIII. 4.
"The sport passed from the Greeks to the Romans, and Caracalla
and Geta were great cock-fighters.
"It is said that the gaffle, or modern metal spur attached to the legs
of the cock before being put down to do battle, is a modern invention.
This is not so, as it is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Synod, and was some-
times made of brass.”—Lye's Dict. Sax., v. Geaflas.
}}
There is great reason to believe that the Game-cock was held in
such high estimation by the Romans as to become almost a deity. They
were not infrequently buried with some degree of honor, as is partially
proved by a discovery of a Roman urn at Lewes in 1814 by Doctor Gideon
Mantell, when digging in his garden near the castle. An account and
description of the find are given at some length in "Horsfield's History of
Lewes."
Markham, describing a Game hen, says: "If she have weapons she
is the better." Mr. Brent speaks of spurred Game hens in the Journal
of Horticulture; and that excellent authority, John Harris, informs me that
he has somewhere read that the Ancients possessed spurred hens. From
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The Poultry Book
the foregoing it may be seen that it is possible, though not very
likely, that some of the bones here figured are those of hens rather
than cocks.
The old English Game-cock has held its own against all comers.
Bright and beautiful he stands to-day, as he stood with eager, bold, dilated
eye, full of defiant gaze—a monarch bird, clad in lustrous feathery garments
of the brightest sheen-when, unflinching and undaunted, he faced his
foe, while old Roman warriors made the ring in which he fought on English
soil. Though they beheld with wonderment his high prowess and daring
deeds, not even then was he more cherished and better cared for than
now.
On the grassy mead he leads forth his hens to meet the rising sun,
and with voice clear, loud, and shrill he proclaims "'Tis day."
The universal diffusion of the bird is also surprising. Mr. Lesson
asks if it is not remarkable to find the domestic hen, differing in nothing
from that of other countries, in all the islands of the South Sea and among
people with whom Europeans have certainly never communicated. Cocks
and hens, he tells us, were very common at Qualan, for example, though
the natives were ignorant of the fact that they were good to eat. They
may have obtained them from some other nation with whom they had
held communication.
Take Cornwall, in England, as an instance. It is said that the
poultry bred and grown there, more particularly Game-fowl, were all of
a white-legged breed, and that until of late years such a thing as a yellow-
legged bird was not to be seen. Another curious fact is that the hens
were mostly "spurred" like the cocks, as are many of the five-toed hens of
Kent, Sussex, and Surrey farm fowls to this day. Those in Cornwall, called
"the Persian bird," may possibly have been brought by the Phenicians,
and perhaps bartered for tin and other metals from the mines. However
this may be, there are plenty of the white-legged breed still to be found
in Cornwall, though, as John Harris, of Liskeard, informed Mr. Weir,
now that the yellow-legged fowls have been imported breeders are not so
particular, but at one time they would not have been tolerated.
That the Greeks used artificial spurs, like the English at present, is
denied by Pegge, though the contrary seems to be proved by a passage
of Aristophanes. They were said to have used a cap on the spurs called a
telum.* As the English are supposed to have procured the best fighting
* See drawing of the silver spur discovered in Cornwall.
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
323

cocks from
other countries,
and sometimes
from Germany
through Ham-
burg,
the
Greeks in like
manner ob-
tained foreign
Game-cocks for
the same pur-
pose, the most
celebrated
breeds being
mentioned by
Columella,
VIII. 2; Pliny,
X. 21; Geofron,
XVI.
3, 30.
Varro mentions
the birds most
sought after in
Greece, but
adds that
though they
might have
been good for
fighting they
were not fit for
breeding, but
gives no
reasons for
this latter
statement.
Had the breed-
ing of Game-
cocks been an
5
i
2
ije
3
ت
2
4
A
COCK'S BONES FOUND IN A ROMAN URN AT LEWES, BY
DR. GIDEON MANTELL, IN 1814

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The Poultry Book
#Heir
fy
how & drowning
W. Ward. R.A
From a drawing by Harrison Weir, after a picture by W. Ward, R.A,
OLD WHITE GAME
The old Cholmondely white cock, The Ghost. Winner of many mains. He was twenty years old when the picture
was painted, and still mated to hens
employment, he would have spoken of it in a different manner. Columella
also ridicules the breeding of these cocks as a Grecian custom, and prefers
the native race to all others. Eustathius remarks that the Romans
preferred quails to Game-cocks. It has been stated that the Roman
Emperor put one of his subjects to death for killing a quail that had
been victorious in combat.
Since the time of the Romans in England the earliest mention of cock-
fighting is that by William Fitz-Stephens, who lived in the reign of Henry
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
325
II., and died in 1191; this reference is also quoted by Stow in his "History
of London." Cock-fighting was put down as unlawful in the reign of
Edward III., and again during the reign of Henry VIII., in 1569, although
this king built a cockpit in Whitehall. It was again a popular sport in the
reign of Elizabeth; and though Roger Ascham wrote against it,* he is said
to have loved it at last. James I. is said to have been so entertained at
least twice a week; and his son, Prince Henry, had a stud of his own, there
being an entry in his household expenditure to that effect. In the town
archives of Lincoln there is on record that during the visit of James I. to
the town, "at the Sign of the George, 1617, on Wednesday, he made
merry at a cock-fight." It was forbidden again by Act of Parliament
during the time of Oliver Cromwell; though, judging from the copy of the
act or proclamation, it was not suppressed on account of any cruelty,
but as a gathering together of disorderly persons.
During the reign of Charles II. it was again revived, and was a very
favorite sport of the "Merry Monarch"; so much so, it is stated, that on
more than one occasion at Newmarket the horse-racing was postponed for
some hours until the mains of the cock-fighting had been fought out.
Charles II. is said to have invented, or rather brought into notice, the
Red Pile cocks. But they most likely existed long before, as they are
mentioned in Gervase Markham's book, which was published many years
previous to the reign of Charles II. From the time of the Restoration
until the act passed about 1834 for its suppression the sport had not been
interfered with.
In Beckmann's "History of Inventions" it is stated that "cock-
fighting in France was forbidden by Order in Council, A. D. 1260, on account
of some mischief to which it had given rise." Though at the present
time, I believe, there is a law against it in that country, it is still carried
on, as, also, it is in Spain.
Whatever may be or has been said for or against cock-fighting, it
is certain that to it we owe at least in a great measure, if not entirely-
the preservation of a most extraordinary breed of fowls, peculiar and
remarkable in every way, besides being of great value from a culinary
point of view.
Writing of a certain breed or strain of Game-fowl some time ago, Mr.
* Mr. Weir says: "I have never seen a copy of this book, nor can I learn anything
about it, further than one old English 'cocker' saying that he had seen a copy."
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The Poultry Book
Weir urged its claims to public and general recognition in the following
words: "Fine in form, graceful in carriage, beautiful in color, small in bone,
with white shanks, feet, and toe nails, plenty of white flech of unsurpassable
quality, skin thin and white, fat white, with an absence of offal to a remark-
able degree, good layers of delicately colored delicious eggs; while both
the young and old birds seek their living far and wide." And to this may
be added a courage strong, high, and enduring. Such were, and I trust
are, "the Derby Reds." Yet these are but one type, and are proof to us
of the present day of the care, consideration, thought and judgment in the
selection for breeding purposes that ever actuated our forefathers to
produce the highest excellence attainable in "cocks of the Game.”
The very fact of their training and being fought demonstrates without
doubt the survival of the strongest, the most hardy, healthy, best formed,
and, in short, to use Darwin's words, "the survival of the fittest." Indeed,
had cock-fighting as a sport never existed, it can scarcely be doubted that
such birds as we now write about would be in evidence. Thus our poultry-
yards would not have been graced, as they now are, with a bird as useful to
man as it is preeminently beautiful.
What other bird has the stately walk, the symmetrical form, the bold
alertness, the daring, haughty look, the graceful pose and carriage? "Where
is there one so agile? Where another so rich in colors?" or of more befitting
texture of "plume"? Erect, bold as a chief from battle with glory crowned
a natural ruler-a bird without a peer! And this because from genera-
tion to generation and century to century the best, strongest, healthiest,
truest, and of the purest breed have been kept, while the weak and ill-
formed or ill-conditioned were set aside. I have found," says Mr. Weir,
"that tuft as often means a fleshy comb as feathers.”
"(
For a clear and accurate enumeration of the points of excellence
the Game-cock of the present century should possess, we are much indebted
to the well-known veteran, John Harris, of Liskeard, Cornwall, whose
knowledge is indeed great of the breed "that has braved a thousand
years the battle and the breeze." We quote his description of the points
of the English Game-cock: "The beak big, boxing,* crooked, pointed,
and hawklike; eye bold, fiery, large, fearless; head small and tapering;
throat and face very loose and flexible; neck large-boned, round and strong;
back short, broad at the shoulders, and tapering to the tail; breast broad,
* The upper mandible shutting close over the lower.
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
327
full and prominent, with well-developed pectoral muscles to give the neces-
sary action, power, and force to the wings. Breadth and fulness of breast
are most essential to Game-fowls, whether regarded from a sporting or edible
point of view. In a table fowl it is indispensable." Mr. Weir's "Derby

101
July 23
Rev
BLACK-BREASTED LIGHT RED PRIZE OLD ENGLISH GAME
Bred and owned by Mr. Weir
Reds," after coming to the yard to feed, nearly always used to take wing
and fly across a two-acre field into an adjoining wood, thus proving their
strength of flight.
Mr. Harris maintains that "the wings should be large and long, with
the quills strong and of a powerful description, so as to impart additional
force in action; tail large, up and spread. The up-spread tail is indicative

328
The Poultry Book
of spirit and of high courage." And yet he says "we frequently read of
tail too high. Whoever saw a Game-cock's tail 'too high? A low, droop-
ing tail is a sign of
weakness and consti-
tutional debility."
There is a grow-
ing propensity among
some of those acting
as judges at shows of
calling all fowls
carrying their tails
high, as in many
breeds they should,
"squirrel-tailed."
Nothing, in the
opinion of Mr. Weir,
in many cases shows
more want of charac-
ter than "a drooping
tail"; we are glad to
find so ardent an old
fancier as Mr. Harris
agree with Mr. Weir.
But to resume Mr. Harris's description of the Game-fowl: "Belly small and
tight; thighs very short, round, and muscular, not 'straddling,' but the thigh
crooked or bent, following the line of the cone-round breast; this would make
the cock as he stands close-heeled. No one with knowledge of the true Game
shape would approve of a cock standing with his legs wide apart.* Legs
strong, clean-boned, and not at all gummy like some other fowls, or stiffly
upright, having small spurs set very low down, and having a good bend or
angle at the hock; color black for black reds, whitey yellow, or carp for
other black-breasted reds." This bend of the hock-or, more correctly,
the junction of the metatarsal bone with the tibia-may aptly be com-
pared to the bent hocks and muscular thighs of the hare or kangaroo, as
BLACK-BREASTED SILVER DUCKWING
*How true this is the practical Cocker knows, but of which so many modern writers
are lamentably ignorant, yet, assuming a knowledge they do not possess, they too often
advance a fault as a point of excellence.
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
329
furnishing them with such wonderful propelling power. In cocks of this
perfect conformation there is nothing wasted in these individual bones,
which are constructed so as to enable all to move with velocity exactly
commensurate to their distances from the center of action. "Feet flat, thin,
with long taper nails; in hand evenly balanced, what 'cockers' term 'clever';
firm, but corkey and light-fleshed, mellow and warm, with strong con-
traction of the legs and wings to the body."
A finer description of a Game-cock could not well be made; every
touch shows a master hand.
Mr. Sketchley, in The Cocker, puts the most serious defects as—
Flat-sided and thin generally, Thin thighs,
deep keeled,
Crooked or indented
breasts,
Duck- and short-footed,
Unhealthful,
Imperfect eye,
which may easily be seen when "up" for the purpose of handling.
Mr. Sketchley further says: "Cocks that do not bear conelike shapes
are for the most part straddling in their walk, and as they walk they fly;
whereas in the cone shape the legs are more inverted and narrow.' These
remarks do not agree with those laid down as "the points" of beauty to
be attained in the modern Game, though manifestly better.
Mr. Robert Howlet said on the title page of his book (1709), “That
the sport is both ancient and honorable." He divides the breed into
two classes, the "Game-cock" and "match cock." We do not find any
writer before his time so observant or so careful in distinguishing the
varieties of size and form.
Short legged,
Short, thin neck,
""
"Having furnished yourself with a breed that is stout and sure, see
then to the shape, and know that here you ought to be very nice and
circumspect, strictly examining every part; and if by severest scrutiny
you find the cock to be foul-grown or disproportioned, reject him as a bird
unfit to breed from, and consequently unworthy of your care or least
regard, notwithstanding the stock be ever so good from which he is derived."
After describing the shape, which is almost identical with that given
by Gervase Markham at a much earlier date, he proceeds: “As to the
color of your cock, that is best which you fancy most-black, white, red,
dun, gray, or piled, or any other color whatever; for, though Captain
Markham makes a great difference in the color of the cocks, there is nothing
330
The Poultry Book
in it, for the world affords no better birds for the Game than many of your
duns and white prove.
"The scarlet-colored cock my Lord likes best,
The next to him the gray with the thresle (thrush's)* breast,
This knight is for the pile, or else the black,
A third cries, "No cock like dun with yellow back,"
The milk-white cock with golden legs and bill,
Or else the cuckoo, choose you which you will.
،،
But this all mere fancy is, and no more,
The color's nothing, as I said before.'
•
And, therefore, without taking any notice of color, I shall only
hold you close to the aforementioned shape, as being 'the all and only
part necessary to make up a complete cock."" Yet in many cases the
old Game men prided themselves on the colors and uniformity of their
studs; still, with such a full and excellent description as just given, no
breeder of "the Game" can be at a loss as to which is the old English
Game, and having the high qualities of shape, if not possibly color.
Howlet continues: "Having obtained a cock that is hard, sharp-
heeled, and handsome shape, it remains then for you to pitch upon a fit
size for your purpose, otherwise you will still be at a loss. Now, though
there are as many different sizes as there are several cocks" (which
difference in size is often produced by the early feeding, as Mr. Richard
Stamp has fully demonstrated), "yet are these birds reduced to two sizes
only, and distinguished by these two general terms—that is to say, the
great Game-cock or "Shake-bag," and the little match cock or "battle
cock," which last is now called "the old English Game."
The Giant or Herculean was called the Shake-bag by the English
and Dutch; by the Indians it was known as Mag Chantille Champone, and
Mag-Gal by the Scotch. Baden assures us the word signifies great or
mighty. Doctor Wilde, writing in the seventeenth century, gives the
reason why they are called shake-bags: "Here in England," says he,
"they are so termed from a Scottish custom, and that 'the Dutchmen
have, who are great admirers of large cocks, and these being fought at a
venture,' the bags in which the birds are being taken by the bottom, they
shake the cock out at the mouth upon the pit, from which custom they are
called ‘shake-bags.' In some parts, as in Kent and Sussex, where a bag
"""
* A throstle (local},
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
331
is often called a "poke," they are called "turn pokes," and "turn-out" in
other places.
These large Shake-bags were not only well known but plentiful previous
to the year 1709, at which date Mr. Howlet's book appeared, though
Mr. John Laurence (Mowbray), writing more than one hundred years later
(1815), speaks of them as rare and only kept by the Duke of Leeds. He
says: "Shake-bags, formerly the largest variety, has in all probability
been entirely worn out for some years. It was called the Duke of

Cal
BLACK-BREASTED GINGER RED, EIGHT MONTHS' COCKEREL
Owned by Harrison Weir
332
The Poultry Book
Leeds's breed, His Grace, more than fifty years since, being a great amateur
breeder of them"; but it does not appear whether His Grace first raised the
variety, or whether it arose merely from improving the size of the common
Game or the "dunghill kind," or from any foreign cross. The former
is the most probable conjecture, on account of the whiteness and fineness
of the flesh in the genuine Shake-bag. "The only one I ever possessed
was a red, in 1784, weighing about ten pounds." At that period the
real Duke of Leeds's breed had become very scarce, which induced
dealers to put Shake-bag cocks to Malay hens, by that means keeping
up the original standard size, but entirely ruining the color and deli-
cate flavor of the flesh.
Mr. Harris remembers the Duke of Leeds's breed, as it was called, all
of which he says had much of the unmistakable Malay stamp about them;
but, according to the statements of old men, especially Smytherum, who
fed for Lord Rodney, and Bidgood, feeder to Admiral Duckworth, the
original breed of "the Leeds" Shake-bags had pure white legs, with the
flesh and skin as white and delicate as any Game-fowl, though some had
carp legs and colored skin, which showed evident traces of Eastern blood.
We have given these descriptions at length, for many writers of poultry
books of the present day quote Mowbray, often without any knowledge
of the word or meaning of the name "shake-bag," some authors even
spelling it "shakbacks.”
Mr. Weir remembers that very large Game-fowls were kept by some
of the Kent and Sussex farmers and landholders, mostly, if not all, with
white shanks, though a few were dark or deep yellow, according to plume.
The duckwing Game-cock in Herring's picture of "Feeding the Horse
was painted from a very heavy bird he knew well. It was fully nine pounds
or more in weight. Yet possibly the original very large birds might have
come from the Low Countries, for they are still plentiful not only on the
Continent, but also in England, Scotland and India. There is an opinion
existing among cockers, from the mode of attack and general demeanor
in the pit, that they have much of the Malay blood in their composition,
as previously stated.
""
Centuries ago the lesser Game-cock, as now, was preferred. The
little cock, as is well known, is full of dash, activity and courage, while
the old Shake-bag was slow and cruel. All this tends to show that at
least some of the ancestors of the Shake-bag were Chittagongs or Malays.
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
333
This is but the usual effect in breeding for size; most, if not all, large
fowls are longer in attaining their full growth or in "filling out" to what
will be their more permanent bulk. It is so with geese and ducks of the
"improved" varieties, these last seldom attaining their full form under
the second year, whereas the goose of three years is not as big as it will
possibly attain.
We are disposed to
think that those of
the Duke of Leeds
were only the ordi-
nary farm Game-
fowl bred to a large
size by ample feed-
ing and selection.
Others are of the
opinion there was
much of the Malay
blood infused to
obtain the larger
growth. Looking
back at the old
prints of the Malay,
we find them
delineated as large,
upright birds, with
by no means small
tails, and very
different to the
form in which they
are now bred.
Even in India there are varieties, which causes us to inquire "Is the
Malay a breed or a family?"

M
Per
UNDUBBED BLACK-BREASTED GINGER-RED OLD DERBY
Bred at Weirleigh by Mr. Weir
BREEDING GAME-COCKS
Regarding the breeding of the Game-cock, Howlet says: "First, know
that the cock from which you intend to breed is a bird well descended,
rightly shaped; he must be healthful, fresh, and full of feather."

334
The Poultry Book
Referring to the Game hen, the same author says: "She must be
either the mother or sister of some admirable cocks known to signalize
their valor in the field of honor, and not only they, but their progenitors.
She must be rightly shaped, healthful, fresh, and full of feather; her age
ought to be different from that of the cock; if the hen is old then the cock
must be young; but if the cock is old the hen should be young."
It must be borne
in mind that this
was written in the
days of the pit. It
will be observed
that, though Howlet
was an experienced
and thoughtful
breeder, his mode
differs from others.
His observations, as
well as those of a
later date, have been
quoted here to show
what care and ex-
actitude in all
details our old
Game-cock masters
endeavored to excel
in the production of
the most healthful,
strongest, and best
fowls. To this ex-
cellence the breeder
of the present day
has scarcely pro-
gressed. It may be
doubted whether
we have better or

More
mashell
GAME
After a drawing by Marshall-1790
even as good fowls as the breeders of more than a century ago.
The Sportsman, 1797-98, says: "Be certain the hens from which you
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
335
intend to breed are sound. Use the same methods as those for the cock.
Be assured that there has not been a taint in their race for many generations.
The breeding place should be at least half a mile from where dunghill
fowls are kept. In February, put the cock and hens together. If a cock
disagrees with a hen, take her up. Breeders differ much as to the food
given to chickens the first ten or twelve days; they grow best when fed
with bread and egg mixed, as for young canary birds. If the weather
is wet and you are obliged to keep them in a room, give them bones of raw
mutton or beef to pick once a day. When a fortnight old, begin feeding
barley, wheat and oats, and see that they have gravel."
Early feeding with barley or hard food of any kind is, in Mr. Weir's
opinion, wrong. Soft food of various kinds is the proper feed, he thinks,
until the chicks have passed their first feathering at least, and even then
it is best to be sparing of hard grain unless well crushed or broken.
See that the perches are round, and not thicker than the fowls can
grasp. When they are flat or large, as some advise, it tends to distort
the feet, the outer toe often twisting. If they can grip the perch, the foot
is seldom deformed. Put the perches high to make them fly, but not too
high. Have the floor soft." Mr. Weir says he uses pine sawdust at least
six inches thick on the floors of his houses.
66
As to the perches, the old breeders had somewhat different opinions,
but mostly the approved perch was low, seldom more than two feet from
the ground. High perches and hard soil for the chickens or fowls often
produces lameness, crooked breasts, and other deformities.
Speaking of inbreeding, Howlet says: "By no means let them be
too near of kin. Out of brother and sister, or father and daughter, seldom
or never good cocks are bred. They either prove thin, weak and ill-shaped,
or else dull and false-heeled-especially if they are great cocks, for one must
be much more cautious in breeding them than the little match cock."
Howlet's opinion, however, does not agree with the views of Mr. Sketchley
and Richard Stamp. The latter, one of the very best breeders of his day,
advises breeding "in-kin" thus: "In all cases the hen bird should be the
oldest, mother and son, aunt and nephew, half-brother and sister, cousins
and half-cousins, grandmother and grandson, and the more crosses in that
way the better." John Harris, in his description of the method of breeding
adopted by the most celebrated cockers, states that "the breeding-walks
generally contain six hens, full-blooded sisters, with one stag cock,

336
The Poultry Book
so that the produce would be full-blooded 'brothers or sisters."" Mr.
Stamp further says: "I have many a time thus bred seven to ten
crosses, and by so doing the cross appears like fresh blood in the strain.
I have bred from a hen fourteen years of age and got good feather, size
and weight, appearing just like the former type. I bred from a hen ten

BLACK-BREASTED RED GAME COCK, 1807
From Ree's" Cyclopædia "*
years of age, and got some good birds, one winning four mains and
another seven."
Like most men of his type, Mr. Stamp was full of observation. In
one of his notes he says: "I have reared birds to as far as eight or nine
pounds in weight by following them up with nourishing food," but
he adds that they did not improve by that means, showing that selection
and matching was the surest method. He further states: "By doing so
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
337
I got weight, but no more strength, and lost a good deal of action. When
I reared a bird on natural food up to six pounds, good size to weight,
and good type, I could match him against any bird any size in the
world." This from such an authority carries conviction, and is worthy
of all consideration. He also notes that strong-boned birds generally
grew thicker and longer spurs. We suppose by this he means close-
textured bone, and by no means "spongy." If so, this would most
likely be the case, the spurs themselves would be of a finer texture
and less liable to get broken off. It will likewise be seen from the
above that, although Mr. Stamp bred closely "in-and-in," he not only
maintained great stamina in his birds, but could also gain size as well,
when he wished to do so, adding several pounds weight simply by selection
and feeding; yet we are told that crossing out is absolutely necessary to obtain
size, and "in-and-in" breeding reduces it. Failure possibly attends those who
are ignorant of methods, whether of "in-and-in" breeding or of crossing out.
But as doctors differ, so does "the Fancy," even on the question of
breeding "in-and-in." Mr. Sketchley says, writing in 1814: "To promote
the means of keeping these fowls in their wonted health and valuable
acquisitions, if you are in possession of stags and pullets, as well as cocks
and hens, select the blooming of both, and put stags to the two-year-old
hens, and cocks to the pullets, and you may for years continue in the
same blood, observing to put them invariably together in the above-
recited manner, never on any account making use of either cock or hen
after their being two years old; for by adhering rigidly to present youth to
youth you can scarcely fail of success. Here is a decided difference of
opinion as to never breeding from an old bird, and yet both show equally
good results. Mr. Sketchley deprecates most conclusively the breeding
from old birds over two years, while Mr. Stamp proves the contrary—
that when necessary for the purpose of retaining certain blood it may be
adopted with success. The former speaks of several sisters running with
one cock, but then he points out that all must be of full and robust health,
and watched as to any deterioration in this respect, and the cock must
have and retain-
""
"The standard ruddy bloom of health,
That his feathers are not dry or loose,
But mellow in feel, bright and firm;
His flesh firm and compact;
His legs well under him, and his crow clear and sound."
338
The Poultry Book
Then all ought to go well, and the progeny be strong and hearty; but
if the breed fails, though bred from sisters in health with a cock in good
health, simply from deterioration in some way, he says "that a cross away
is never necessary, but frequently robs them of some rare qualifications
they had formerly enjoyed. A general failure wants no cross, but total
eradication.”
However, "in-and-in" breeding is by no means of modern date, but was
practised centuries ago. Judiciously managed, it is the most ready method
of securing any particular type. As Richard Stamp and Mr. Sketchley
clearly demonstrate, when in master hands " it does not in any way
weaken or injure the constitutional strength of the birds so bred. Our
forefathers knew this, and it also appears to have been their practice.
((
This mode for the perpetuation of certain qualities was continued by
the later cock masters. It was adopted by such men as Doctor Bellyse,
who was considered one of the best breeders of the old fighting strain of
Game-cocks. He was celebrated far and wide as the owner of some
wonderful piles.
John Harris remarks: "There were the renowned in-and-in bred,
mealy grays of Hugo Maynell's and Sir Charles Sedley's, which beat every-
thing that could be pitted against them in their day." Particular attention
is called to the fact of these strong and valorous birds being bred "in-and-
in" as they were, yet possessing such wonderful vigor and constitution
which they by demonstration clearly showed themselves to possess. This
goes a long way to prove an assertion Mr. Weir often made and
maintains, that the mode of "in-and-in" breeding, if properly understood
and used with care and judgment, is one, if not the very best, method of
perfecting any desired quality, form or color, retaining it without deteriora-
tion of the constitution. Mr. Harris says in his remarks: "Until crossed
out after the decease of their masters, so powerful were they that even
the 'killing smocks' (white) and 'light pyles' of the Warburtons, Raylences,
Molyneuxs, and Egertons, whose heels were wont to bring down death
suddenly, could not live a battle through with them"; and only when
those black-legged warriors of Maynell and Sedley were opposed to each
other did either find their equal. By this same system of breeding Maynell
produced the most perfect pack of foxhounds the world had ever seen. We
again wish to impress this method for attaining perfection thoroughly on
the notice of all breeders of stock, also bearing in mind the fact which should
-

The
BLACK HENNY OLD ENGLISH GAME
Owned by Mr. Weir
11/5
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
341
never be lost sight of-it requires a good eye for properties, a keen and
experienced judgment, and a more than ordinary development of natural
talent and aptitude for matching only those birds that are likely to produce
in excess those properties which are
lacking in those to which they are
mated; thus it is that more points
are gained tending toward perfection,
and with more certainty of a good
and even result. We have purposely
quoted their prowess to show that
they neither wanted vigor nor courage.
Mr. Harris informs me that Stamp
bred for seventy years with two
crosses, Bellyse more than fifty years,
only going back to the original on
two or three occasions. The crosses
in the Derbys from Lord Germain,
the Whitworth "Doctor's," and one
or two others were the only ones used up to the death of "the old Earl,"
from the time when Lord Strange first made them. He also adds that
if he wished for first-rate qualities, "I should take a cock from a strain
I had sixty years ago, although I have had such strains for crossing as
Bourne's, Weightman's, Baily's, Brough's, Callicote's, Daughberry's,
Rendleson's, and many others."
Writing some years ago, John Harris says: "I have just seen one,
if not the very last, of the pure-bred Parkhouses (Tassels) on a brood
walk, where he has got fine chickens this season, although he is from
fifteen to twenty years old, and is a true and good type of the breed, having
a long, narrow tassel." Another proof of stamina in a breed was in that
of Mr. Morris's well-known "grays," one of which, after winning in eleven
mains, had thirty-six sons fight in a main at the Royal pit, and only four
of them were beaten.

Qrey
HEAD OF OLD ENGLISH GAME COCK WHICH
WON A WELSH MAIN
At the present day, most of our fowls are considered old and past
usefulness when about four, five or six years of age, and this with all the
modern methods of crossing "out" and recrossing "out." We have pur-
posely mentioned the birds of "the pit" as showing that there was no
loss or any deficiency of courage unless they were crossed out.
342
The Poultry Book
After reading Mr. Darwin's remarks on the "in-and-in" breeding of
poultry, it appears that he was by no means sufficiently supplied
with the actual facts of Game-cock breeding, nor of their condition after
a continuous course of many years of “close interbreeding," with, we may
almost say, scientific selections; but in this, as in other cases, he had to,
and did, rely on the knowledge of others, who possibly were not themselves
sufficiently well informed, or rejected much that did not assimilate with
their views on interbreeding. We are fully aware that some men have
such preconceived opinions as to believe in no proof, nor in any one but
themselves. Of course, it requires much judgment and attention to pedigree
to breed "in-and-in" with success, and it is considered almost necessary to
have walks on different soils, and, if possible, wide apart or even in different
counties, good soil and environments-all being of value, each in their degree.
With all care we can never be positively certain in what proportions
the desired combination may be brought about; the advantages to be
gained by cross breeding fowls appears to present so great a hazard of
injuring pure breeds that few beyond those to whom the test of experiment
is sufficient to interest will be likely to take shares in the lottery.
The introduction of a "pile" Game-fowl into a strain of black-breasted
Reds is said to have made its appearance after a lapse of fifteen years, when,
moreover, for many generations not a symptom of it had been apparent.
This is but one case; several have come under my own observation. But
further, the editor remarks: "All we contend for, as in other crosses
between the different breeds of fowls, amounts to this: that it cannot be
said that such produce generally will exhibit in form, feather, or properties
any very near approach to the proportion of the parents' features to which
their origin would entitle them."
One of my points is the first cross, which it is said should be half of
each parent, shows often so strong evidence of the one that the other part
of the cross is scarcely perceptible; and when this is the case it as often
again shows itself, though it is supposed to have been "bred out."
An instance of this is to be found in the old Derby Reds; these were
kept intact for very many years (it is said a century), when, about ten
or fifteen years before the Earl's death (1835), they were crossed with
the "toady-breasted" grays, with which he fought many battles latterly,
and these frequently produced wheaten hens; before this they were
unknown in the stud.
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
343
Mr. Sketchley so strongly deprecates a slovenly way of matching
for breeding "incongruous colorings" with, in his estimation, most perni-
cious results. He says: "A regular, well-chosen system to breed uniformly
not only in feather but in each character respectively is the best mark
and criterion of an experienced breeder." (That is so, doubtless, and
any one that decries color as not being a "part and parcel" of the life
and constitution of a bird has, I think, yet something to learn besides
the lack of uniformity in the "livery.") "When a main exhibits a regular
set of brothers that require minute discrimination to distinguish one from
the other, it meets with the general plaudits of the surrounding pit."

GAME DE BRUGES
SHAKE-BAG,

344
The Poultry Book
The art of breeding true in color, in plume, shanks and feet seems
to rest with very few, judging from what poultry shows give us as types.
Take the Derby Reds as an example. So ignorant are the breeders
of the present day of the method adopted by the Earl of Derby that
these fine old servitors are fast losing their identity as "reds" and becoming
mere splashes and pieds, these sometimes miscalled spangle, and often
even with discolored
shanks and feet. And
in the richer, brighter,
light-colored forms the
lamentable falling off
in the last quality is
most grievously observ-
able and deeply
regrettable. This
comes, undoubtedly,
from the want of
knowledge, not only
of how to match, but
only too often from
the outside remedy
being tried in the way
of an alliance with
some other breed or
strain, the Derby "light
reds" having been got
originally from piles
(Smock-breasted reds)
Hasan toch
7853
CAPTAIN HORNBY S BLACK-BREASTED LIGHT RED
DERBY GAME-COCK
From an old pencil drawing, 1853
and the old black-breasted black reds, and so bred and selected
until the black under-color was bred out and a white substituted.
This white "splashing," therefore, is merely atavism of color, and
in some localities disappears, while in others the white is so aggres-
sively persistent as to become the ruling color; but one curious
fact, noticeable throughout, is that although it may be said the color is
weakened, yet neither the strength, health, vigor nor courage is in any
way impaired.
And, further, it has been stated that none of the old warrior strain
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
345
were without some white; this may be the case generally, but not with
all. Having kept the breed for many years, it was seldom Mr. Weir
could breed either a cockerel or pullet whole colored, though the latter
were less difficult to produce; yet sometimes he was successful.
Of all colors, the most attractive is the black-breasted, dark, blood-
red, with pure white shanks, feet and beak; being at once not only the
most beautiful, but also the most useful for all purposes, the yellow
shanks in England being objected to for table.
In some cases the white in the Derby Reds is so much in evidence
as to make it a white bird, somewhat lightly splashed with red, purple
and black, in variegation more like a tulip than a fowl. Such splashed
birds are too often miscalled spangles, a real spangle having a colored
ground, each feather being tipped only with white.
There are red,
brown, yellow, blue, dun and black spangles. (A spangle is foul in feather
that has nearly or wholly white or black feathers in the tail or wing primaries
and secondaries; yet such are erroneously given precedence by the modern
so-called Game judge over black-breasted reds pure in color, and so with
black-breasted, silver and other duckwings.)
The Cornish light reds were an offshoot of the Earl of Derby's and
Mr. Taylor's strain, which were one and the same family. Coath kept
these birds carefully bred, and was very successful for upward of forty
years, until he crossed them to gain bone with those of more sturdy make,
when they were just as unsuccessful in the pit as "they proved good
before”—another instance of the value of "in-and-in" breeding; and here
is one more:
The Earl of Derby's strain had been bred at Knowsley for many and
many a long year; some aver for much more than a century. They were a
beautiful strain, though a few of the old fanciers objected to their dun or daw
eyes. Beesley was His Lordship's first feeder; on his decease, Potter took
office, followed by Potter, junior. For a great number of years His Lord-
ship's breeder was Roscoe; and who does not remember the son, "Thomas,"
that next took charge of the Knowsley stud? And "what a stud!"
For a number of years he placed out more than three thousand chickens
annually, and from these it was an easy matter indeed to pick out many
and many a faultless bird, fine in color, good in shape and constitution.
Well do I remember the grand, the noble and stately appearance of these
beautiful "flame-black and purple" colored birds, as they walked and
346
The Poultry Book
crowed among their hens amid the bracken of the old deer park, with a
dauntless mien and a majestic carriage, well poised on their ivory, stainless
shanks, their jetty breasts, their large, full-feathered flowing tails, some
few having a white feather or two or a half-white sickle, others "without
this blemish" of color, though perhaps "blanched winged." The stag
was perfect in all ways, without a streak of white, as were the partridge-
colored hens.
Those most preferred in bygone times were: (1) Black-breasted
black reds; (2) black-breasted reds; (3) black-breasted Birchen duckwings;
(4) brown-breasted Berry Birchens; (5) piles (these really should be
designated "white-breasted reds," or yellows, duns, blacks or blues, as
the capping might be); (6) black-breasted silver grays; (7) white or smocks;
shaded-breasted mealy grays; (8) black-breasted dark grays; (9) ginger-
breasted reds; (10) black; (11) brass-backed blacks; (12) spangles; (13)
smock or clear whites; (14) duns and blues. Although some were esteemed
more than others in different localities, their merits were pretty generally
admitted in the order named. This being so, then it would seem there
was something in color after all, there being better cocks for "the pit "
of the darker colors than mostly of the lighter; and it appears to be so
thought by universal consent, although "the smocks" in their times have
borne themselves in a true and knightly way, and the red-and-white liveried
piles have maintained and upheld the honor of royalty.
After the black-breasted black-reds few if any of the old English Game-
cocks stood so well in the opinion of the many, or were more daring, more
full of life and vigor, or had a more fearless, haughty carriage than the
blacks, the very blacks-"Satans" or "Demons." Fine upstanding
birds, somewhat tall, yet strong, and big in girth, fierce in look, with large,
round, defiant, bright black eyes, black combs, faces, beaks, shanks, feet,
and toe nails, while their plumes of black intensity, with sheen of crimson,
purple, blue and green, as they moved in quick or deliberate motion,
caught the sun's rays and flickered and flashed in varied hues, as though
the very color lived. Full-tailed and big-winged, which they clapped,
then crowed, stopped, gazed and crowed, they were of the Game-birds
once seen never to be forgotten; but they are past, and other colors and
forms are now the vogue; and so with the azure-breasted blues, lovely in
color, bright and beautiful, and their congeners, the blue duns, with their
mellow-toned and softened, tinted feathering, looking bright by contrast.
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
347

#E
AFLERE
Drawn from a photograph by Harrison Weir.
OLD-STYLE GAME
Where now are the charming yellow-breasted, red-breasted and ginger-
breasted reds, with their glowing, fiery-flashing colors, the robin-breasted,
the old black-and-white piles, and the lovely mealy grays, with the chestnut
wing bar-all these and more were "the liveries" of the dukes, lords and
squires in the old times gone before us. These and such as these were of
the highest type of vigor, health, strength, beauty of form and color that
art, care and knowledge could possibly achieve as was maintained and
evinced by some yards having this remarkable uniformity in all respects.
When cocks were entered for the pit they were weighed and described
most carefully in every way, but perhaps it is not generally known that
at some of the more northern pits they were also named on the match bill,
of which, being interesting, I give an example:
"Cock-match bill, to be fought at the old Galloway Pit, at
Newcastle-on-Tyne, Easter Meeting, commencing April 1, 1850."
At all the matches the birds were numbered as well as named, and it
is curious to note the odd and strange names given, and under which these
348
The Poultry Book
""
feathered warriors fought. Here are a few which may some day prove
to be historical: "Gay Deceiver," "Laplander," "Blue Bonnet,
Blue Bonnet," "Steeple
Chaser," "Lord Hill," "Bob Must Take Care of Isabella," "Kill Him, So
I Will!" "Trial Is the Best Proof, Billingham Lass" (this seems some-
what wrong for a male bird), "Tip, the Daisy," "Bella Wants Him Back
Again," "Paul Jones," "Peep o' Day Boy" (this is fairly descriptive of
the early bird"), "Plodge the Burn," "Horn of the Chase," "He Is
Waiting in the Village," "Robert Is a Plucked One," "Jane's My Darling,
"The Bonny Pit Lad," "Free Trade," "Proud and Saucy," "Teaser,"
"Fair Play," "Jenny's Fancy" (this is entered as a dun pile), "Little
Devil" (it is to be hoped this did not survive the combat), "Hark to
Thunder," "Hark to the Lark” (does this in any way indicate the musical
crow of this entry?), "Slashing Harry," "The Tout," Beny's the Best,'
"White Stockings" (perhaps a white-shanked Derby Red), "Through the
Wood, Laddie,' 'More Whisky" (this is suggestive of having at least
some spirit), "Hairy Leg," "More Brandy," "Wanton Willie," and
a large number of others, thus illustrating by their names the peculiar
whims and fancies" of their owners. After reading through this
old cocking-bill, and the number of birds mentioned, one cannot
repress a feeling of depression and extreme sadness, knowing these
encounters were a matter of life and death, and they, too, in all their pride
of youth and beauty, with apparently more life than the body could well
contain, stately in step, haughty in carriage, and beautiful in contour and
color. Yet how many of all these lovely birds were alive at the end of
this seven days' meeting, where it was no doubt the lot of some to fight
and fight again, and yet again, before they gained the oft-contested right
of "going home," and there to end their days as brood cocks among flowery
meads near rippling rills, in peaceful walks, proud of their ever-prating,
cackling hens, and then with loud voice rousing the rested world to begin
anew its work and daily life.
((
Of mains and Welsh mains nothing need be said, as what they were,
and are, is so well known, but it is not so with the battle royal, which
is most imperfectly understood, so many writers of fiction designating a
furious fight between two as—“hereupon ‘a battle royal' at once ensued,
which in no way gave any idea or represented that which occurred in the
days of "the cockpit"; indeed, even then it had long been in disuse, and
was only resorted to when a few birds were left over, and time was pressing.
"(
"} ((
29 66
ܕ
"" ((
•
>>
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
349
This may be so, but it is a well-known fact that such exhibitions at the
most celebrated pits were conspicuous by their absence.
The battle royal was for a time a favorite mode of fighting among
cockers of the lower order, who, upon the old maxim of "the more danger
the more honor," became practical advocates for general destruction in
the following way:
"A battle royal may consist of any number of cocks, but it is hardly
ever known to exceed eight, the owner of each having made good his entry
by paying the stake-money, or previously contributed his share of the
prize or purse (sometimes the cocks were handicapped, great winners
paying more entry money, and untried cocks or stags somewhat less).
All parties being ready, the battle or fight for the prize is begun by turning
out into the pit all the cocks (that are to do themselves honor) at one
time; a general melee commences like to the old jousting times, when every
knight's weapon was against that of the one next him, and every one
his enemy." The scene in the cockpit can better be imagined than
described. “Here, there, and everywhere birds rose and fell, the last often
to rise no more—carnage at once revolting, inhuman, and disastrous to all
the combatants save one, and generally not one lived till the pit was cleared.
Often the gallant conqueror of birds.
as brave and strong as himself had
barely time to scramble on to the

As
heap of slain and crow his last crow
of defiance ere sinking wounded
unto death" or, perhaps, "A
scuffling, racing, tearing, crucial
bandying of blows, vigorously
dealt, a restless rushing from side
to side, a savagery of killing without
science or art of attack or defense,
at times two or three springing
high over the others, alighting again
amid the battling throng with deadly
effect as they buried their burnished
weapons into the throbbing mass of contentious combatants below
them. Now and again a pause, a shrill, ringing crow like a trumpet
blast, and the living dash on their nearest foe, and over the heaped-up
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
OLD ENGLISH GAME HEN
350
The Poultry Book
dead or dying another falls, another, and yet another. Two are left,
which, though bleeding from many a vein, are yet undaunted; they meet,
they rise, they fall, and, as they lie, strive yet to rise again to strike. One
is up, he staggers, falls dead on a heap, an inanimate mass. There is a
movement, the other feebly lifts his head, struggles to rise, and falls!"
Is it sport? Is there any sport in this sort of thing, this "battle royal”?
Truly the last survivor, if any, wins-wins what? Credit, renown, lasting
honors, a happy life to the end of his days, or what? All this slaughter,
this
the winner wins the stake-money for his owner. "But,"
says the editor of the Sporting Dictionary, writing as long ago as 1803,
"this species of sport is but little practised now, and that in the most
distant and remote corners of the kingdom.' And it may be added
happily now-nowhere.
""
66
FACTS ABOUT SPURS
The artificial metal spur as an appliance in cock-fighting is by no
means a modern invention, though its use has been in abeyance for a
considerable period, especially in England, if not in other countries. As late
as the seventeenth century it could scarcely have been the custom, for
Gervase Markham, writing on the subject of Game-fowl combats, distinctly
states “that having so far prepared your cock by trimming, you shall with
a knife scrape his spurs to points, and then put him down to try his for-
tune." As to when it became the common practice to cut off the natural
and to arm the birds with artificial spurs is an undecided question, yet
there is but little doubt that at the Cockpit Royal weapons both of silver
and steel were at once the usual and necessary arming in the struggle for
life or death. The use of these, instead of the natural spurs, has to the
thinking mind somewhat too hastily and recklessly been called barbarous,
when in point of fact it really is not so, tending, as it does, greatly to shorten
the conflict, the striking power by such means acting with more deadly
certainty, every blow telling in a far more conclusive way than the softer,
natural, less efficient young spurs of the scarcely year-old "stag," they being
weak and less hurtful. This possibly would not be so with the older,
fully matured cock. Yet even here the artificial spurs would end the fight
sometimes at the first stroke, and if not, then after a few passes had been
exchanged. Therefore, reasonably speaking, the use of the metal weapons
is less punishing than without, and the term barbarous certainly has been,
and is, misapplied.
Ancient and Modern Game-cocks
351
The artificial spurs were sometimes in the remote past made of brass,
iron, steel, or silver. Those that have been discovered are not only of
the two latter metals, but also differ much from the modern make, inso-
much as they more resemble elongated protective cappings than abso-
lutely lengthened natural forms for defense or destruction, while not a

2
3
W
5
1. Manila spurs, native workmanship, recently sent home by J. Hancock, C. E.
2. A very old drop-socket steel or iron spur.
3. A pair of steel spurs of Kendrick, Kennick, or Kenick make.
6.
4. A pair of Watling steel or iron spurs.
5. A pair of Singleton steel spurs.
6. A pair of long drop silver spurs.
few of the spurs made in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries have
varied from two to six inches in length from the heel to point; though the
size of the latter is with me but a matter of hearsay, yet, being on good
authority, it is given as fact. Not all were made of metal, some of the
continental being bone or horn.
The making of cockspurs was a great art, and by no means one of
easy production; while as often many hundreds or thousands of pounds

352
The Poultry Book
depended on the battle, it is not surprising that the manufacture received
every care and attention, both in the material, shape, bend, curve, and
fitting, the metal being of the highest temper, welded into form with
thoughtful touch and practical nicety. Birds of a certain length of limb
required one make, others another; while the mode of attack, varied
action of hitting, striking, or blow-delivery had, or should have, appropriate
lengths, inclines, or well-considered curves. The practiced setter knew
this, and the spursmith could and did make to the requirements with an
exactitude scarcely to be excelled. With such perfection of material and
knowledge of the craft but few names were associated, and of these their
handiwork was treasured, valued, and carefully kept. As heirlooms,
many exist at the present time, with oft-told stories of battles won by the
gallant warrior birds which wore them, aye, and that long ago. Yet even
these, of high courage and with desperate fighting power and endurance,
when armed with steel would, as cravens, turn from "silver," though of
the same size and make. This is so well known that when a match was
made the terms used were for steel or silver.
The illustrations show the different makes of some of the most cele-
brated cockspur armorers, and, more conclusively than words, their
varied forms for usage.

OLD ROMAN SILVER SPUR
Found in Cornwall
The property of Mr. John Harris

TRANSATLANTIC GAME-COCK
Photographed and owned by Dr. H. P. Clarke, Indiana
AN AMERICAN COLLECTION OF COCK-SPURS
DR. H. P. CLARKE, INDIANA
IN THE illustrations reproduced herewith are shown what is
undoubtedly the most varied assortment of artificial spurs
in the world. Numbers 1, 3 to 6, 8, 14, 15, 35, 36, 43
to 46 were made at Indianapolis, Indiana. The other
specimens are freaks and foreign spurs collected from many
different parts of the world. Of the forty-eight specimens here shown,
each one represents a pair excepting the slashers, which come singly and
are used only one at a time.
Numbers 3, 6, 8 and 36 are the famous "Gold Spurs" which have
attracted considerable attention in some of the largest cockpits of this
country and Europe. They are triple plated with gold. These are the
'Armes Americaines" which in 1894 revolutionized spur-making in France
and Belgium. Number 3 were used at the International Concourse of
that year, and with No. 6 was won what was in some respects the most
important main ever fought in Europe: America against France and
Belgium combined.

66
Numbers 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 36, 43 and 44 are Full Drop Sockets of various
lengths from one and a half to three and a half inches, the longest
(Number 36) being a pair of shake-bag size made expressly for slugger
cocks and locally known as "Soul-Searchers."
Numbers 8 and 46 are Regulations. Number 45 is of Cincinnati style.
Numbers 14 and 15 are Half-Drops, Front Drops or "Jaggers,” as they are
called in different sections of the country.
IO. Drop Sockets made in England.
II and 12. Ordinary French gaffs.
13.
From southern Belgium.
17. Typical English steels, made by J. Tepin.
19. Very old gaffs from Scotland.
21.
22.
Meat-ax Slasher of American make.
Texas Slasher from San Antonio.
355

356
The Poultry Book

22
17
28
23
14
13
15
HP.Clarke
30
OF
AN AMERICAN COLLECTION
SPURS
Reproduced by courtesy of the owner, Dr. H. P. Clarke
26
23. Ivory "haip"
from Scotland.
24. Very old tin spur,
early history unknown.
25. Scottish "haip";
natural cock-spur with metal
socket.
26. Round-socket
Slasher, American make.
28. Horn spur from a
Belgian settlement in this
State.
29. Horn spur from
northern Belgium.
31. Bronze socket, iron
blade. Very ancient relic
from pays d'Artois, or
"country of Artois,"
France.
27, 30, 32, 33, 39, 40.
Slashers from various parts
of Mexico.
34. Australian gaff;
Brisbane, Queensland.
35. American 50-
millimetre gaff, made
to conform to the
newly adopted International Standard of Europe.
From Manila, Philippine Islands, U. S. A.
37.
38. Fiipino Slasher in sheath.
41.
One of the famous old silver spurs of England. Made of silver
with copper alloy and yet has a temper equal to the finest steel. Spur-
making of this kind is a lost art, as no man alive knows how to temper
pure silver.
42. "American style" spur from France.
47. Three-inch Slasher from Central America.
48.
Five-and-a-half-inch Slasher from southern Mexico.
An American Collection of Cock-spurs
357
AMERICAN CONTESTS
There are three different kinds of cocking contests in this country:
short heels, inch-and-a-half heels, and long heels. In the northern States
east of the Alleghanies and also west of the Rocky Mountains the inch-
and-a-quarter Regulation, No. 46 in collection, is the only spur which
local pit rules allow. In the remaining portion of the North the popular
spur is one inch and a half in length, without restriction as to style. This
means the use of steels such as Numbers 1, 5, 8 or 14, though the Drop
Sockets are objected to in some localities.
In most parts of the South "long heels" prevail, the only requirement
being that blades be round from socket to point. Each man may use
any style and length he choose, and the spurs most in vogue are Full
Drops like Numbers 4, 6, 43, 44. Occasionally one will see Half-Drops,
Number 15, and more rarely still such spurs as Number 35. Numbers 9,
41, and the gaffs shown
in Mr. Weir's pictures
would never be used in
the United States. Those
old English spurs of silver
and steel are interesting
as curiosities, but of no
value for practical purposes
in this progressive age,
being almost as far behind
the American Drop Socket
as the ancient flint-lock is
behind the modern Krag.
The Frenchmen of the
Province of Quebec use long
gaffs, all the rest of Canada
short ones. In Mexico and
Central America there is no
fighting now except in
slashers or
or navajas, the
latter word being Spanish
for razors. In former

36
37
38
34
40
32
35
39
31
46
33
41
42
43
44
45
47
AMERICAN COLLECTION OF SPURS
Owned by Dr. H. P. Clarke
49

358
The Poultry Book
times birds were often fought "naked heel" in the valley of the
Rio Grande, until a couple of Chinamen came along with a string of
Oriental cocks, some six or eight years ago, and killed that kind of sport,
likewise numerous pit fowl. The Cubans and Puerto Ricans fight almost
exclusively in natural spurs or their artificial equivalents, zapatones,
somewhat similar to the Scottish "haips." In Spanish-speaking South
American countries the rule is either naked heels or slashers, never round
blades, while the Brazilians match their birds in blunt natural spurs, just
as do the Japanese.
ACROSS THE ATLANTIC
In Scotland, where the steel (Number 19) was once in vogue, the
natural spur or its substitute, the "haip," now reigns supreme. Ireland
is about equally divided between naked heel and old-time Singleton.
Northern and eastern Belgium employ a spur of horn, Number 29.
Southern Belgium and northern France formerly fought in steels like
Numbers 11 to 13, then tried to copy the "American style," which resulted
in Number 42, then barred Drop Sockets and adopted a spur similar to
Number 35, and finally at the Regional Congress of Cockers of the North,
June 29, 1901, called for a steel whose blade shall be absolutely straight
and horizontal, with a length of fifty millimetres, or about one inch and
seven-eighths. This last has not proven entirely satisfactory, and although
vigorously upheld by the organ of the fancy, Le Journal des Coqueleurs,
it is noticeable that many mains the past season were fought armes libres,
or, as we would say, "long heels."

From a photograph

Harrin Wenn
Del
CAPTAIN HEATON'S CHAMPION MODERN ENGLISH GAME STAG-COCK.

Photograph by Dr. H. P. Clarke.
GAME-COCKS TETHERED ON THE LAWN
An old Mexican method adopted in Indiana
THE MODERN GAME-FOWL
OTHING stands still; all things change and are ever
changing. The admired of yesterday is thought less of
to-day, and, where "fancy" leads, will be of the past
to-morrow. What is now "a property" is in time called
"a defect,"-not that it is so, but so "young fashion"
wills it. The flaunting dame toys with to-day and yet sighs for
the changeful morrow - with her, only novelty charms. And thus
fancy has out-fancied the old English warrior Game-fowl - the
sturdy, strong, and valiant bird of ages. It has been singularly
interesting to watch the process and the ever-moving change. One at
this time can scarcely realize how or why it was done. It is not as if
no standard existed of what the Game-cock should be; this standard had
been recognized, and bred to, from time without date. The good type of
the Game-cock was held in high esteem. Power and symmetry were not
only sought but found, for in the pride of beauty, strength, courage and
undaunted valor he was peerless and unequaled, much less surpassed-
the admiration of all beholders. The change was effected slowly. It
was the work of certain judges of birds. One liked less hackle, another
not so much tail, a third agreed with both, while the fourth wanted a longer
"reach," even though the fighting days were past. The reachey bird
was developed. There was a joining of hands, a little Malay crossing,
more selection away from the true old type. On and away year by year,
passing on and becoming less of the one and more of another, the modern

359
360
The Poultry Book
Game resulted. Still, "the old" warrior is as grand as he was fifty, nay, a
hundred years ago. The standard of what he then was is what he must
be to-day.
Mr. Weir says:
"Whether the change is for the better is really, in a
sense, a matter of opinion. Happily, we have the old, as well as the new,
consequently there comes to our aid these standards for comparison. We
are, however, asked to disregard the old in favor of the new; quite a different
style and type, yet still to be called and known as the English Game-
cock. There are those who go so far as to say that the improvement is of
such high quality that the new breed has not an ounce of superfluous flesh.”
In the meager, tall, attenuated form now in vogue with some few
highly respected and notable fanciers we have a bird that has been changed
from one with a large, full, gracefully feathered and "sickled" tail to one
of the scantiest and almost ludicrous dimensions. This is partly achieved
by Malay or Indian crosses and careful continuous selection in the
direction needed. Turn to the illustrations given of the old-style "Game-
fowls, either on coins, vases, etc., many of the former dating back thousands
of years, and not one will be found with a small, thin, narrow tail. Those
old breeders knew the many advantages of an extra-sized tail with hard,
well-developed feathering. Where are the thick, strong, full and rounded
pectoral muscles for the active use of the big, impennous wings-wings
of unusual form and strength? These must, of necessity, in the new be
reduced, as muscle is flesh. It is very remarkable that at the present
time there is a craze for short tails.
""
Our horses are docked and their tails made ridiculously small to meet
the so-called modern ideas of fashion. Irish, Scotch and English terriers
and spaniels have more or less mere stumps as tails. There is also the short
or bob-tailed sheep-dog; and, far worse than all, the “novelty dog,” the
Shipperke, a tailless, walking exhibition of modern "fancy." Our Malays,
Cornish Indian crosses and Langshans are disproportionately limb length-
ened, like our warrior Game. Let us return to the modern ideas of what
a Game-fowl should be, with its weakened, stilty, thin, storklike legs, and
thighs with shanks to match; the more slender these are the more a lessening
section of fanciers prize and value them. When killed and trussed as
table fowls these thighs and legs make a fleshless, ugly show. Yet breeders
of the new, almost nude-so short and close are their scalelike feathers-
tell us this is the same breed that our forefathers loved and cherished.
The Modern Game-fowl
361
The fancier of the new Game pretends to ignore the pit, while he carries
some of the old warrior bird's points of excellence to an almost ludicrous
To a great extent he neglects those of positive utility that were,
excess.

em
Deli
1858
Jesa
CAPTAIN HORNBY'S OLD ENGLISH GAME COCKEREL, 1858
Winner of $500 sweepstake
and rightly are yet, to be found in the true old breed-a breed that has
descended to us intact as an heirloom from the time of the Romans in
England until our poultry shows of about 1851-55-58, at which date the
modern heresy feebly began its growth.
More than forty years ago we had the true old long-pedigree breeds in
362
The Poultry Book
plenty, yet even then Mr. Weir noted that when some of the more modern
"cockers" caught up a bird, after making a half circle to steady it, they
would rest it on one hand and draw the hackle quickly through the other
to take out "the spread," as they called it. At the earlier shows of
Birmingham and elsewhere it was no uncommon thing for accusations
to be made of "hackle-drawing" to fine up the neck or plume hackle
so that it should appear "thin and fine." A reaction in favor of
the old English birds has arisen. Common sense has asserted itself,
as in the end it always
will. Thus it is that
the length of head,
neck, and limb, com-
bined with the paucity
and shortness of
feather, has become
such as to border on
absurdity, while
beauty of form and
natural proportions
were on the verge of
extinction in Eng-
land's most favorite
fowl. Happily, the
admirers and breeders
of the true "old
English Game" re-
sisted this innovation;
clubs were formed,
and a stand made
against a change.
Yet, for all this, it
must be admitted that
in the hands of some
there is a grace and
beauty peculiar to the
are numerous, but the few
These, in the hands of such


Photograph by courtesy of Dr. H. P. Clarke.
AMERICAN HENNY GAME
bird as it now is. The absolute failures
that are good are justified by the result.

AZEEL COCK AND HEN.
The property of Mr. HARRISON WEIR.
The Modern Game-fowl
363
men as Captain Heaton, bred as he breeds them, shown as he shows
them, are widely different from the general rut of weak-legged nonentities.
With him may be classed the names of Ainscough, Briarly, and others.
In such hands there is something beyond the bird to admire not only in
production, but the wonderful way in which they are conditioned, and
the faultless style, vigor, and fulness of life in which they are shown.
POINTS OF BEAUTY
Head, long and narrow; beak, straight, with a light curve and finely
yet strongly set on the head; the eye large, full and fiery; the neck long
and thin, yet strong shoulders; wide in the body, deep, but rounded,
and flesh on breast full and hard, with a slight tendency to length; thighs,
long and thin, or slender, slightly bent inward; the legs long, feet long and
well to the ground, with sharp toe-nails, spur set on rather low; tail narrow,
small, and carried low, the whole of the feathers short, hard, almost like
scales, yet moist or cool to the touch; general carriage somewhat of a
tendency to be upright, yet not so much so as the Indian Game, or Malay.
In appearance, when good, it is light and elegant (but this is the exception
and not the rule). The hen is built, to use a modern expression, on the
same lines.
It is recorded that Captain Heaton, one of the very best fanciers of the
day, has by no means reluctantly paid 300 guineas for three cockerels,
while, on the other hand, many of his own breeding have realized as much.
He, of all the modern Game fanciers, is the winner of champion cups.
Yet the interest wanes. There are so few prizes and so many blanks,
unless the birds are bred, handled, and conditioned, not only by the
practical, but, it may be well said, the highly gifted fancier. Such men
are not of an every-day occurrence, as a reference to the "show-pen"
clearly proves. Whether the new creation will be in existence fifty years
hence is a moot problem which only time can prove, but a reference to the
entries of the Crystal Palace Shows leads to the supposition that the bird
is gradually subsiding.
LOCATING THE RANGE
The range, if possible, should be beyond the hearing of the hourly
challenge of neighboring cocks. "A thing," says Mr. Howlet, "which
is apt to stir up their choler. It is, as Captain Markham (1620) so much
364
The Poultry Book
commends, a lodge, grange-house, or mill, because, for the most part, such
places are remote from neighbors. Choose a walk that is graced with
solitude, having green fields or pleasant meadows on one hand and moun-
tainous, hilly, dry ground on the other. A murmuring brook, rivulet, or,
in their stead, some pleasant pools of clear sweet water is desirable. Avoid
having too many hens in your walk. Indeed, had the cock but two or three
hens it is enough, and the walk would be better than when a larger number
is kept. Many hens make a cock too lustful, and greatly debilitates a bird
of the Game, though length of turn and good feeding will much restore a
cock that is decayed."
Many of the old breeders varied the number of the hens according to
the time at which they will put up. This system is the best to adopt.
In January, two or three hens, according to the age of the cock; in February,
four hens, or at the end of the month five. With Game hens never
add a new one, but continue with the original number. A fresh hen
would most likely have a sorry time, if not killed, before the hens in
possession became friendly. It is well to get hens used to each other before
the introduction of the cock. In a measure it prevents favoritism, but
the cock is sure to have a preference in this respect.
If there is a wood or shade to which the birds can retire during the heat
of the day in summer it will be of great service in keeping them in health.
Game-fowls, in particular, like to perch in the trees either in damp or hot
weather. If circumstances will permit of their being roosted out, it is
far preferable to a hen-house. It contributes to their often becoming
exceedingly wild, and, if frightened, they often fly beyond their allotted
bounds and are lost.
When Game-fowls can have full liberty and a wood to fly in and
about they have much stronger wings, legs, and better feet. Alert
moving about in high grass, underwood, among the boughs and leaves of
bushes and trees, gives a gloss and color to their plumage that can be
obtained in no other way. Neither do their feathers or shanks ever
present that sunburnt hue that must be with those kept more in the open
and devoid of such cool and invigorating shelter.
Game-fowl will do well in an uninterrupted run of a stack-yard.
The ordinary farm buildings and straw-yards, where proper nest places are
provided and where they can roost, will suit them even in winter. Fowls
having such full liberty are seldom, if ever, in any way diseased. With
The Modern Game-fowl
365
this freedom one essential is clear-clean water in a shaded place twice
daily, and a pile of sand and wood ashes under cover close by for a dust
bath. Care should be taken to feed them, when possible, on different
ground day by
day, thus pre-
venting any
particular spot
being stenched.

If two
clutches of
chickens are
required of the
same hen in
one season, it
is best effected
by putting her
first eggs under
another fowl of
the same breed.
The Game hen
should be kept
under a coop
among the
other hens
until the pro-
pensity to sit
has passed
away. If she
Terr
Nov 23
здоро
BLACK-BREASTED DERBY OLD ENGLISH GAME
Bred and owned by Harrison Weir
is taken away while the "heat" lasts she will be fresh again to the run,
and there will certainly be considerable fighting and perhaps much dis-
figurement on her return. On the next occasion of the Game hen wanting
to sit, it is advisable to let her do so, otherwise she will get a weakened
constitution. It is argued that by continually preventing hens from sitting,
after a generation or two the inclination becomes less frequent. This may
be so, and is possibly correct. Mr. Weir has prevented hens of the Game
from sitting the whole year. They continued laying well. The second
season they were found less inclined to sit and more regular in laying.
366
The Poultry Book
Sometimes the cock will take a dislike to a brood hen. This is par-
ticularly so among Game-fowls. The hen must be removed in such a case;
otherwise serious consequences, possibly death, are likely to occur to the
hen. Some breeders remove the cock for a few days, putting him with
the hens a short time each day, during which time the hen, if broody,
is taken up.
The number of eggs for a clutch should vary according to the season;
nine is sufficient in February,
thirteen at the end of March.
The Game hen, being small,
is unable to cover with
proper warmth as many as
twelve or thirteen in cold
weather. She cannot well
mother the chickens if
hatched. For want of
warmth they are likely to
be weakly. Should the
chickens hatch unequally,
those first out should be
gently removed, so as to
disturb the hen as little as
possible, and placed in a
well-warmed flannel-lined
basket near a fire. When
all are hatched they should
be returned at night; other-
wise, it is possible the hen may kill them. The next day the hen and
brood should be taken to a dry place, put under a coop, and left at liberty
in a room or under a shed. Nothing is more likely to kill little chickens
than wet, dirty, or long-grass runs. Many fine, healthy broods are destroyed
by being confined on damp floors, wet straw, or long grass. As a rule,
young chickens cannot be kept too dry, though they may be too hot.
Game chickens, like Hamburgs, require special attention for a week
or two-in fact, until their heads are feathered, after which they have
passed the most critical time. At first they are best fed on stale bread-
crumbs and hard-boiled eggs chopped small and well mixed. Crushed

Photograph by courtesy of Dr. H. P. Clarke.
AMERICAN GAME STAG
The Modern Game-fowl
367
and broken wheat later on, with a very little raw meat cut fine and mixed
in with chopped lettuce or tender young grass, with cheese crumbs rubbed
small in ground oats can be used; occasionally a meal worm may be given.
Mr. Weir does not advise whole oats or wheat until they are at least six
to seven weeks old. Ground oats or maize meal may be given, slightly
mixed with boiled potatoes and some thinly sliced fresh cabbage; naturally
fowl do not get grain in the spring. Above all, clean water is essential,
but many old breeders prefer barley-water for the first week or two. Some
advantage is gained by the chickens being brought up under ordinary
barndoor fowls, because they are generally excellent mothers, and rarely
quarrel with other hens.
With Game chickens, the young cocks, if well bred, prove to be most.
pugnacious at a very early age. To a certain degree this can be somewhat
remedied by removing all the young pullets. Thus on one occasion a
clutch of twelve little cock chickens were running together with the hen.
Being of varying sizes, they seldom fought. Neither did the other sex,
removed at the same time. This is more easily managed when the eggs
are hatched in an incubator. Old "cockers" used to select the most
promising chickens from the broods and destroy the rest, thinking that a
less number would thrive better. Mr. Weir does not agree with this
practice, provided the number does not exceed ten or twelve. They help
to keep each other warm.
There are three ways of cutting the comb, says Mr. Weir: The first
is close to the head, which is called the low cut; the next is that slanting
upward toward the back of the comb, called the slant cut; and the third,
the more ancient, cutting on a curve, leaving the comb higher in the middle
and so round to the hook of the beak, called the high cut. The latter is
practised in America, though at present in England the second is thought
to be the best. In all cases the cockerels should be shut up for a day or
two on low diet before the operation, after which, if young, they may be
dubbed without loss of blood. After a week or two their wattles may be
removed. The bird is thus saved from much possible after-mutilation,
torn combs and wattles by fighting. But is it necessary? I have been
credibly informed by an old cocker that many of the birds of the cockpit in
the old times had entire combs. They generally appeared to have more
stamina, and were more daring and absolutely ferocious. The red combs
of their adversaries, acting as an incentive, tended to enrage them in the
368
The Poultry Book
same way that a red flag does a bull. The comb and the wattles of the
cock are not only ornamental, but by their elastic resistance are natural
buffers to break the force of a blow. As such, though vascular, they are
almost devoid of feeling. Of this I am convinced after many years of
close observation. I am also of opinion that if the combs of the cockerels
are cut off when young-that is, as soon as they are of sufficient size and
in the way stated above, the operation is not painful. Instead of being, as
some aver, cruel, it is, on the contrary, a merciful act under the conditions.
The havoc and
disfigurement that
ensues when young
cockerels are kept
together un-
dubbed is not
only lamentable
but often very
destructive; there-
fore, on the side
of humanity, in
cocks of the Game
it is a matter of
necessity. If every
bird could be kept
separate this would
be another matter,
but where twenty,

Wer
MR. FLETCHER MOSSES' OLD ENGLISH GAME, 1892
forty, sixty, a
hundred or more
are raised, such
isolation becomes
impossible.
When a cock
is put up to be con-
ditioned for show,
it is often necessary to cleanse the system. The following pill or condi-
ment is said to be of service and is recommended by Robert Howlet
in the "Royal Pastime of Cocking," 1709: "Take of white sugar-
The Modern Game-fowl
369
candy, rosemary, feverfew, and ground ivy bruised; mingle these with
sweet butter; let the sugar-candy be finely powdered, and let these
be well incorporated together. These will cleanse a cock of grease and
add to his strength."
RECIPES FOR MAKING COCK-BREAD
Mr. Weir gives the recipes of several kinds of cock-bread, most of
which were generally considered to conduce largely toward getting a farm
cock into the highest possible condition. If this be so, it is possible that
something of the kind may be found preeminently useful in preparing
birds for the show-pen, though, in Mr. Weir's opinion, good outdoor
feeding, with an unlimited walk, cannot be surpassed. Some fancy
that the common baker's bread is as good as any. Instead of plain
bread, Mr. Weir found toast and a little ale once a day or at night, just
before exhibiting, highly invigorating.
The following is another recipe for making cock-bread, given by
Howlet: "Take of wheat, pease, beans, and oats of each a like quantity
in meal or flour finely dressed, with the juice of liquorice and a little sack-
wine, or strong stale beer with brown sugar-candy, aniseeds and carroway-
seeds mixed together; but if the season be hot, you must put white wine
instead of sack, and as much common ale as will make the flour up into
dough, with the whites of ten or twenty eggs, and a yolk or two amongst
them; and this they take to be the best sort of bread to feed cocks withal.
There are those that think the finest wheat-bread with good store of hot
spices in it, and soaked or sprinkled only with simple water or juice of wood-
sorrel, to be the best food for a cock. And some again heed not what
bread they have, so that they have good store of flesh to give their cocks,
crying that up for the best and strongest food. But in my opinion, these
extremely err in fancying flesh food to be fit for a cock; these carnivorous
feeders understand not the nature of these valiant sort of birds who force
such unnatural food on them.'
""
A little meat may be given to advantage with other food, but vege-
tables should, in some way, be mixed with it. Mr. Weir prefers in summer
ground oats, with a very little ground barley, wet with milk or water,
some finely chopped bullock's liver, and cabbages.
'Some feed their cocks," says Mr. Howlet, "twice a day, and others
three times, and water them between each feeding, and that for the most
"C
370
The Poultry Book
part with common fountain water; but the following barley water is best,
especially in summer, and indeed all the year long, when the climate is
anything hot and sultry; for this water excellently cools and wonderfully
refreshes the vital spirits that labor
under heat; it has also a cleansing
quality, and is highly restorative when
feverish distempers afflict the body,
therefore preferred before common
fountain water: Take barley and boil
it in spring water. Let it stand to
cool and settle; then pour off the
settlings and give this to your feed-
ing cocks.

Photograph by Dr. H. P. Clarke.
'But, in my opinion, there is yet
a better sort than any of these, and I
make it thus, viz.: Of the best and
finest wheat-meal I take three-
quarters of a peck and one-quarter of
oatmeal of the purest sort, and first
of all mix these well together; then
add the whites of twenty new-laid
eggs, four yolks, an ounce of the
best extract of liquorice, and as much of the fine powder of brown
sugar-candy, a quarter of an ounce of aniseed and carroway-seed,
grossly bruised, with a lump of good sweet butter as big as your
fist at least, and a quarter of a pint or more of the best white wine
that can be got for money, with three or four spoonsful of syrup of
clove-gilliflowers put into it, and a date or two, with some candied eringo
roots cut very small, so that it may be scattered into every part, and let
these ingredients be well worked together in some tub or pan for that pur-
pose with your hands until you are satisfied that they are properly and
thoroughly incorporated. Then take wood-sorrel, ground ivy, feverfew,
dandelion, and burrage, of each a little quantity, and distil them in a
cold still; add three or four spoonsful of the pure juice of lemons to every
pint of distilled water, and add as much of thin julep as will serve to make
all into a good stiff paste; let this be wrought quick and made into little
flat loaves, which ought to be a day or two old before you open them, and
CC
TRANSATLANTIC STAG
Winner of two battles at national tournament in 1898

Leel
492
SZTEL
THE REV. H. H. HUTTON'S BLACK-BREASTED BRIGHT RED OLD ENGLISH GAME
Bred by Mr. Herbert Atkinson
The Modern Game-fowl
373
then, being well rasped or pared so that none of the brown or burned
outside remain, they may then be cut and given to the cocks as aforesaid.
And this I take to be the best and fittest sort of bread for English cocks,
it being a food that does greatly strengthen and exhilarate them, and at
the same time cools and keeps them temperate in their bodies, provided
you have regard to the season, for in hot weather, or when the climate
is more than ordinary hot, there must be more of the cooling ingredients
added, and fewer, or a less quantity, of those that are hot in nature."
THE MUFFLED GAME-FOWL
In the Muffled Game-fowl we have a very distinct form of the old
fighting-cock, though perhaps it is not so apparent to the uninitiated.
It differs much in form, carriage, weight, and in the bearding and
muffling; it is generally a much heavier-framed bird, stouter and broader;
the head is thicker and shorter, the base of the skull wider and rounder,
the beak larger and much curved, especially in the upper mandible, the
point or end being down-turned and hawklike; the eye is usually dark, full,
and fiery; the feather muffling often
extends behind the skull, thus
thickening the head and neck
hackle, while at the sides it covers
the cheeks and becomes an almost
profuse beard about the lower part
of the beak, almost hiding the
wattles; the comb is stout, and
in some cases semidouble, and
there is mostly a fierce, cour-
ageous expression, and an un-
daunted bearing, almost amounting
to ferocity. The general make is
sturdy and strong, the girth being
large; the breast is round and
broad, while the full-sized wings
are up-carried and almost touch
at the quill ends under the tail, so devoid of offal is the hinder part;
while the grand flag-tail has an upright, almost forward carriage-a
sure indication of high-mettled stamina, vigor, and bravery; it has a

By courtesy of Dr. H. P. Clarke.
TRIO OF TRANSATLANTIC PRIZE-WINNERS
Owned by Dr. H. P. Clarke, Indiana
374
The Poultry Book
lofty, upstanding carriage, and is well balanced on stout muscular thighs,
legs, and strong shanks, with well-formed feet. Usually it is somewhat
heavier than the old match cock, weighing as much as seven or even more
pounds, still it is active, alert, and has a style of going and, it may be
added, doing all its own.
The hen is a female counterpart of the cock, and has a peculiar and
attractive appearance, the head often having, besides the muffling, a neat
rounded topknot, though this is not considered a point of excellence.
They are good layers of fair-sized eggs, careful and protective mothers.
If anything, they are the most hardy of all the varieties of the different
races of Game-fowls, and certainly deserve, if only as table fowls, much
more attention and favorable estimation than is at present accorded
them. As to color, the best, or at least those that have come under Mr.
Weir's observation, are the black-breasted dark reds, crow-winged, black
in beak, shanks, and feet.
THE TASSELED GAME-COCK
The crested Game-fowl is not a modern creation, but of ancient,
though unknown, origin. It is one of the birds mentioned in "The Treatise
on Poultry," 1810, thus: "The English tufted fowl does not surpass
ours (French) in size, but it stands higher on the legs. The cock, which
has rather an aigrette than a tuft, and the bill and neck of which are of a
more open shape than in the common breed, is superior to ours for fighting."
Other writers, both ancient and modern, have referred to it as being a
distinct breed. In form and feathering it closely, if not entirely, resembles
the ordinary Game-cock, excepting that it is generally of somewhat stouter
make, and has a more hawklike beak. The lark-crest at the back of the
comb is small, and about one inch and a half in length; the feathers are
hard, crisp, narrow, with loose web and rounded at the ends; the colors
are mostly very rich, and black-breasted reds with yellow or orange shanks
and feet are considered the best, and are the truer breed.
In their style and habit they are bold, active, and vigorous, and have the
reputation of being of the warrior blood that fought for life and limb in the
old pit days. One of the best strains, and famous for strength and courage,
was that of Richard Stamp, which at his death passed into the possession
of John Harris, in whose company Mr. Weir saw some twenty to thirty
in unlimited range in 1894. There, among the then flowering gorse, and
The Modern Game-fowl
375

OLD ENGLISH GAME COCK, 1856
From a drawing by Harrison Weir.
amid the far-extending rocks and greenery, they looked the perfection of
the Game-fowl, and were by their reputed prowess worthy of the name.
It is possible that, such services as theirs being no longer required, ere long
the breed will become extinct. The hens inherit much of the fire and
376
The Poultry Book
dash of the master-birds. They are strong, well made, and fantailed,
like the cocks, and as Game-fowls should carry them high and not low,
which gives a soured, craven look, although it is now thought to be a point
of excellence by those who profess to be judges of the Game, and yet are
ignorant of the very nature, habits, and lofty bearing of the birds of a
thousand years.
The true breed of the tasseled Game had, and should
have, large tails, and these should be carried high.
SPANISH GAME-FOWL
The Spanish Game-cocks are mostly small, and their fighting weight
seldom exceeds four pounds and a half, many of the most fiery and of
dashing courage being less than four; these are exceedingly active and very
game. They are generally black reds—that is, black-breasted black reds,
with crow wings, and some are black; though small in bone, they have the
true English Game stamp, and are believed generally to have descended
from birds taken out by or sent to our officers during the Peninsular war.
Many have been exported from this country during the last sixty years.
As the small size was preferred, some of our best match cocks, weighing
but three pounds four or five ounces, found ready sale in Andalusia, at
prices highly favorable to the seller. Alike at Cadiz, Malaga, and Algeciras,
Mr. Weir saw several that were unmistakably of the English type. They
were seldom cut out for fighting, but their faces were decorated with
emerald-green ornaments, or markings, a color much admired in Spain;
they are yellow- or carp-shanked, very few being white. They are fought
mostly about carnival time, and also at other times should opportunity
offer, excepting during Lent.
THE HENNY OR HEN-FEATHERED GAME-COCK
There are few kinds of fowls about which there has been more con-
troversy, or so many unsupported statements, than those respecting the
Hen-cock or Henny Game, one believing that they are a degenerate
section of the old English Game, another that they arose from an occasional
sport, being cultured and then bred for, while others declare they come of
some worn-out stocks that have been too far bred in-and-in. Many hold
that they are not only a pure and distinct breed, but a strong, healthy,
exceedingly heroic, hardy race or section of the old fighting cocks of
England.
The Modern Game-fowl
377
They are mostly of a larger size than the match cock, weighing from
seven to eight and occasionally nine pounds; yet even then there is no coarse-
ness; they are thick in girth, though somewhat long in body; in shape and
contour handsome; quick and alert in their movements, yet wanting the
proud, aristocratic, stately carriage that is so conspicuous in their sickle-
tailed brethren. Shy and retiring, they are difficult to approach, running
for cover to any hiding bush or shelter near at hand, and yet with this
apparent timidity they possess in fighting a courage unsurpassed and
almost, if not quite, invincible, which conclusively shows that there is no
lack of health, endurance, strength and vigor, being as full of stamina as
any other breed. So like
are the cocks to hens, both
in style and plumage, that
an old Derby white-shanked
spurred hen often looks
the very counterpart of a
Henny-cock.

THE AZEEL THE INDIAN
GAME*
Clu
Mille
This, as its name
implies, is the true Indian
fighting-cock. It is the
high-class Game-fowl of
India, and has been known
as such ever since the Indian
life of Lord Clive-the
word Azeel indicating true
and noble. The breed is
one of the oldest, and the
pureness of blood and
pedigree have been most
carefully preserved for
centuries on centuries of
years. The origin of these warrior birds has been lost in the dim vistas of
the past. It has long been kept as, and is, a royal fowl in India, treasured
beyond expression as such. It is of the highest value, being almost
* See page 417, Dr. H. P. Clarke's "General Remarks About Game-fowls
YORKSHIRE HERO, 1823
Trimmed. The winner of 27 battles
378
The Poultry Book
impossible to procure specimens of the purest blood-the warriors of
to-day-the descendants of such renowned in story. "Moorgah" is the
Hindoo for cock, while the Mohammedans call it "Mooruh" and “Azeel
Mooruh," which is, the exceeding noble cock, or the cock that fights nobly.
As Game-
fowl they are
game. They are
called so because

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From a drawing by Harrison Weir.
OLD ENGLISH GAME, BIRMINGHAM, 1858
they are em-
phatically
known to be so,
with a world-
wide reputation
assuch,areputa-
tion rightly and
honorably won,
theirs by con-
quest. Game
ages ago and
Game to-day,
not called so for
commercial pur-
poses, but for
their steadfast,
fiery valor; not
for their beauty,
which is great;
not for their
strong, well-knit
frames; not for
dashing attack,
vigor, and
V
strength, nor for their varied loveliness of color and beautiful intricate.
markings, nor their sturdy make, general contour, fierce eye, squared, wedge-
shaped head and powerful beak-no! Not for any or all of these are they
Azeel Indian Game, but because they are the true, the high-class, the
blue blood of Indian bird warriors, the veriest Game of Game.
The Modern Game-fowl
379
The Azeel are the only proper and rightful owners of the well-
earned appellation Indian Game; theirs is a world-wide fame. Those
who have seen them in India-birds such as never reach our colder
land-have told of their prowess, of their ungovernable, unwearying,
unconquerable tenacity in battle; with them, as with our English Game
of old, it has ever been-death or victory. Such are the Indian Game,
the Azeel, the true, noble, thoroughbred-Game.
Sir John Astley, in his very interesting book, "Fifty Years of My
Life," 1894, gives valuable information on many things, and so, respecting
the Indian Game-fowl, he says of his brother that "When he came home.
he brought with him some of the higher type of Indian Game-birds, and
I was surprised to learn the value set on those birds by the native sportsmen
and the trouble to procure and land them in this country; yet some of
them had succumbed on the homeward journey. I noticed one black
hen particularly, and upon asking if she was of a high-class tribe, was
assured she was the very top of the pedigree class, and that no money
could buy her; in fact, he would have lost caste had he put a price on her
in particular, when he had been offered £20 each for her eggs." She
never laid in England; but Sir John Astley states she returned to
India, and laid on board the ship, and he dryly adds, “My readers will be
satisfied that it would be very difficult to set a price on such a bird."
These Indian Game have a wider, fuller, rounder head than our
English, and are shorter and broader in the back; the product of a cross
from the two breeds sometimes turn out well, but are not to be depended
upon to be like either-pure. From the foregoing it will be seen how
highly the natives of India value pedigree, and it is but a haphazard,
unwise proceeding the breeding without it; whilst with it, even with the
greatest care in the matching, disappointment only too often occurs;
and yet it is saddening to hear some people, ignorant of Nature's laws,
restlessly advocating a cross, a breed out and in, after which they can
never know, nor others with the very least certainty, what can or will
come of it. Such has been the case with the Azeel; in no cross has it
proved a success.
A friend of Mr. Weir's had some very high-class Indian Game, long
in pedigree, from Madras, in color black and some a soft blue, and yellow
in the shanks; and although he was a fairly good ordinary breeder of
poultry, by unscientific matching he not only lost the beautiful purity
380
The Poultry Book
of feather coloring, but he also found that it was most difficult-in fact,
almost impossible, to retain the orange yellow of the shanks and feet;
they would come stained. If this were so in the pure breed, what would
he have had to contend with had he crossed "out" and "in"?
Captain Robert Buller Young, writing to Mr. Weir of this breed,
says that "The ordinary fighting-cock of India is very different from what
we know here as the Azeel, which, from what I gather, is of the highest
class, and I have heard it termed the rajah's Game-fowl."
Of the ordinary fighters he says: "To begin with, many of the
cocks are hen-plumed—that is to say, an absence of sickle feathers, having
a square tail and scarcely any bright feathers, either on the shoulder or
hackle, with a fair comb, but for which otherwise it might pass for a
hen." "Here is another proof," says Mr. Weir, "that our Hennies are
distinct breed, and possibly originated in India, as our fine old English
Game is said to have done many centuries ago."
In color the Azeel is variable, but always more or less beautiful.
Like most of the Indian domestic poultry or pigeons, there is a finished,
refined, almost poetic, touch about both the cocks and hens, the spangling
tints being generally brightly and charmingly arranged, widely different
to any European breed. In habit they are peculiar, being wonderful
scratchers, almost burying themselves in the deep holes so made in their
runs. Mr. Weir's would most industriously turn over, to a great depth,
all the available ground continually; and were scarcely contented, if ever
so, unless they were digging or delving, their extra-strong limbs and feet
making the process a light matter of exercise, though presumably they
were in search of insect life. Again, though fierce in combat to a remarkable
degree, both sexes were unusually tame, allowing themselves to be caught
up and put down as desirable at his will or pleasure; they would feed
from his hand, and perch on his shoulder in the most trustful way
imaginable, which rendered them enjoyable pets to keep.
As a table fowl it is of wonderful shape, the breast being a counterpart
of the red grouse, or between that and the partridge, plump, broad, full,
and rounded; the skin is thin, and the flesh very fine in grain, and close,
but rather dry and somewhat hard, for the reason that it will not put fat
on the breast nor between the layers of the muscles, though it does some-
what about the thighs and legs; the bird, however, fattens inwardly.
One cock that Mr. Weir had was very fleshy, particularly so on the breast,
The Modern Game-fowl
381
though apparently lean, but it died from apoplexy, when, on examination,
the inside was found to be-to use a common expression-one mass of fat.
If the breed could be got to assimilate more fat on the breast, it would be
undoubtedly one of the best table fowls that we have. Grouse-breasted
to a degree, it, like the grouse, is thin-lean.

выше нов
Howling
BLACK-BREASTED BLACK RED OLD ENGLISH GAME
Owned by Mr. John Harris
66
CROW ALLEY

382
The Poultry Book
What power there is in the short, thick, bony, straight shanks, covered
as they are with stout, large scales! What strength in the feet, with
their strong, thick-made toes, horn-tipped with stout, curvicular nails,
all-powerful for attack, defense or scraping; the thighs hard and muscular,
well apart, and sparsely feathered;
the head broad and thick; beak
strong, stout, and well set on,
slightly curving from a triple pea
comb to the point; eyes deepset,
yet in themselves bold and
prominent, pearl-colored, pink-
cornered; face glowing purplish
red, slightly beset at the sides with
bristles; deaf, or earlobe small and
hard; wattles small, both red;
point of breast naked and red;
shoulders broad, stern narrow,
making the body almost trian-
gular; wings very strong, well out
at the butts or shoulders, carried
level, showing the big first joint
bare; neck round, powerful and
medium length, if anything rather
short than long, rising curved or
bending in the elevation; tail
carried low, flat, the feathers
narrow and hard, with slender
sickle feathers, thin and sharp in
point, but wiry in substance; tail-
covert fine, evenly laid on, close,
firm, and compact-that of the hen
a little short, but not too much so, carried low, and tapering; all the plumage
hard, almost scaly, yet feathery, but devoid of fluff; body heavy for its
size, well-boned, close in texture, and strong; the carriage somewhat
upright, but runs with a stooping gait; general appearance combative
and dauntless, moving quickly and fearlessly. Fortunately, there is no
standard for color, nor should there be, so many of our best breeds being

+0800
Augun
1897
MODERN OLD ENGLISH GAME-COCK
A great winner-cut out for fighting. This cock won at Lille a few
years since
The Modern Game-fowl
383

OLD ENGLISH GAME HEN-PRIZE PARTRIDGE
Bred and owned by Mr. Weir
more or less sacrificed to a slavish craving for certain colors to the exclusion
of others, often quite as beautiful, and in the opinion of some more so.
The so-called colored Dorking is a notable example of this, the dark and
silver-grays now only obtaining notice, while the black-breasted reds, the
384
The Poultry Book
golds, the spangles, and the speckles are entirely neglected; therefore,
well is it for a breed that it not tied to color as a point for or against.
In this matter the Azeels are preëminently beautiful, the formation of
the feathers lending an additional charm to the various blendings. The
white, with an undertint of lilac-gray, yellow shanks and beak, and silvery
eye, being one among the most approved. The black has its admirers,
and what a black it is! How brilliant! rich bronzy and purplish,
with an iridescent emerald-green, flashing to every movement of the
bird. Then the self-colored blood-reds, with black hackles, and these,
with a delicate black lacing, now claimed as a property of an alien
variety of fowl. Spangles and splashes, and almond-tinted tans almost
complete, but do not exhaust, the list of the varied featherings and
colorings of these rajah-treasured fowls.
Profitable poultry they are not; as charming and delightful pets or
hobbies, saving and except the old English Game and some few others,
and these very few, they have no peer. True, on account of their courage
they are somewhat difficult to keep, the hens even having their likes and
dislikes, mostly the latter; as a consequence, these end sometimes in the
death of one or the other, or the temporary maiming or disfiguration of
both, such being especially the case on the introduction of a stranger.
This may be partly remedied by cooping the newcomer within sight of
the other fowls for a few days. They are by no means prolific breeders,
laying but few eggs as a rule, but there is much difference in this respect;
they are good and close sitters, excellent mothers, defending their little
ones with the utmost audacity and fearlessness. The chickens require
some attention for the first week or two, after which they shift for
themselves in the same way as our English Game-fowl; they grow
slowly, feather well, but require a dry situation, well-protected from
cold winds. The eggs are small, of a dull light-brown, and the shells.
are generally thick.
A cock of this breed, mated with a lightly feathered-shanked Shanghai
hen or hens, will produce some excellent table fowls, very hardy, and
easily fattened, the flesh thereby being rendered rich and delicious in
flavor. Though they cannot be said to be very hardy, still in some localities
and on certain soils they thrive; and where such is the case, they prove
not only an interesting but, being so different in most ways from others,
a very enjoyable breed to keep.
The Modern Game-fowl
385
•
THE MALAY
This is one of the best known, though of doubtful origin, of all the
domesticated Indian birds; it is more or less the Indian Game-cock, vary-
ing in size, color, and habits as it does, from the high-bred Azeel to Gallus
gigantus. Mr. Weir has shown that the old fighting shake-bag was in some
instances probably partly, if not wholly, what is generally termed a Malay,
the name comprehending a large family of bony, tall, sparse, hard-
feathered, variously
colored fowls.

Any tall, large, tight-
feathered fowl without
wattles, with either a
knob, lump, or thick-made
pea-comb, is at once called
a Malay or Kulm fowl,
though the variations in
these are numerous. Con-
sequently, those wishing
to gain prizes at any of
our poultry shows must
breed them to certain
forms, colors, and
standard.
GLAMOU
Hanco
Although long known
in England, and probably
used in fighting, we have
no drawing or picture
of one antecedent to that given in Rees' "Cyclopædia" since 1810. In
this one sees at once the Malay in England at the time, and
with its peculiar form and flowing tail there was but little difference
between them and those shown in the early fifties. Marsden observes
of the St. Jago cock "that this bird is so tall as to enable it to
pick grain off a common dining-table, and that it has the habit when
fatigued of resting its body on the hock or hind part of its legs,
and in this state is taller than the common fowl." Latham adds,
"we have not been fortunate enough to see this bird, but that it must
BIRCHEN YELLOW, 1792
386
The Poultry Book
be a giant of its race can easily be imagined from the figure of a leg of
the natural size sent to Mr. Temminck from Batavia, at the back of which
is a tremendous spur, two inches in length, and stout in proportion."
Here we have the habit and leg-bone of the Fancier's Malay.
"Lieutenant-Colonel Sykes, in his 'Memoir of Birds found in the
Dukan (Deccan) States,' states that it is only there met with as a

MR. ASTLEY S PRIZE AND CUP OLD ENGLISH GAME WHEATEN PULLET
The Modern Game-fowl
387
domestic bird, and that he has reason to believe that it is not a native
of India, but was introduced by the Mussulmans from Sumatra or Java.
The iris, he says, of the real Game bird should be whitish or straw color."
(This is the same, or nearly so, of the Azeel, and some strains of the old
English Game, and is also the not unusual color of the eye of some of
the imported fowls called Langshans.) "The Colonel landed two cocks
and a hen in England in June, 1831, and they bore the winter well; the
hen laid freely, and by September, 1832, had reared two broods of chickens.
"The cock had not the shrill pipe of the domestic bird, and his scale
of notes appeared to be more limited. A cock in the Colonel's possession
stood twenty-six inches to the crown of the head, but was said to attain
a greater height. The length, from the tip of the beak to the insertion
of the tail, was twenty-three inches. Hen one-third smaller in size than
the male." (Zoological Society Proceedings, 1832.)
Jardine's notes, with some additions, give a true picture of the Malay
as known here: "It often stands more than two feet high from the crown
of the head to the ground. The comb extends backward in a line with
the eyes; it is thick, a little elevated and rounded at the top, and has
almost the appearance of being cut off. The wattles of the under
mandible are comparatively small, and the throat is bare. Pale goldish-
reddish hackles ornament the head and neck and upper part of the back,
and some of these spiny; from the bare part of the throat, middle of the
back and lesser wing-coverts deep chromes; the webs of the feathers
are disunited. Pale reddish-yellow, long drooping hackles cover the
rump and base of the tail, which last is very ample and entirely of a glossy
green" (this description by Sir William Jardine shows the bird before
the modern innovation and peculiar fancy of lessening the tails of all
our domestic fowls, and thus much of the green is lost as well as the utility
of the tail), "of which color are the wing-coverts; the secondaries and
quills are a pale reddish-yellow on their outer webs; all the under parts
deep black and glossy green, with high reflection. The rich chestnut
of the base of the feathers appears occasionally, and gives a mottled
appearance to these parts." Such was the description, and from this
even as far back as the teens of the last century there were numerous
variations, such as the tufted, the whiskered, and bearded (as now),
besides that of form and habit.
The following letter from Singapore, November 12, 1823, Straits of
388
The Poultry Book
Malacca, by Beruga Ayam Saborg, is of especial interest, throwing light,
as it does, upon the whiskered Malay, etc., and perhaps on our English
muffled Game, and more on the Azeel: ". . . having frequently
read notices relative to the Malay and Chittagong crosses which appear
to me to be erroneous, as the writers proceed on wrong data. One writer

CH
Wer
Weiling cont
BLACK-BREASTED LIGHT-ORANGE DUCKWING OLD ENGLISH GAME COCKEREL
Owned and bred by Mr. Weir
complains of the muffly heads, another of the great weight and clumsiness
of the Malay Game-cocks, which when well bred have very seldom indeed
any top-knot, and seldom weigh more than four pounds. The Jungle
cock, which inhabits many of the islands in the Eastern seas, is a perfect
Game-cock, high on the leg, light fleshed, hard feathers, a fine eye, and
the most beautiful plumage conceivable-in fact, a perfect Game-cock.
The Modern Game-fowl
389
This bird I look upon as the father of the true-bred Game-fowls. The
Malays frequently secure their eggs, hatch and bring them up, or put
them in the way of Jungle cocks.
"The English Game-cock has no doubt reached the acme of perfection,
but at the same time the Malay birds are equal in blood, as perfect, and
even deeper Game of the two. The Chittagongs cannot be called Game;
they are large, heavy, and out of all repute as Game. It appears to me
very odd indeed how good Game-cocks (Malay) could have been seen in
England. The only places which Englishmen, and more particularly
captains of ships, are in the habit of visiting, are Pulo Perring or P.W.
Island, the entrance of the Straits of Malacca, once or twice a year to the
west of the coast of Sumatra, and the island of Java. Now one thing is
clear, they have no cocking either in Java or P.W. Island, consequently
no good cocks. On the west coast there are some, but not what the captains
of ships would get by asking for (i. e., if good). The majority of importa-
tions have been most probably made by men who scarcely knew a cock
from a goose, often bought in the bazaar or market-place, where good
Game are not to be procured, for they are never exposed for sale if worth
having. I have myself seen worthless dunghill cocks sent to England as
fine savage Game-cocks; by this means no doubt their credit is sullied,
and that muffly heads, top-knots, clumsiness, dark skins, etc., are raked
up against them; but it certainly arises more from the kind of bird called
in England a Malay Game-cock than from the actual bird itself.”
It appears from Mr. Saborg's letter that the high-class Malay is small,
and is most likely the one we now term Azeel; and this view is borne out
by the opinion of others, who put the lesser bird as the one of the highest
class. Yet, nevertheless, the larger is the one known as the Malay, and
the Azeel is of later importation; and though of fine quality in all
respects, still there are lovers of the old Kulm or Malay-the Giant.
The wings of the Malay should be long and carried high, almost
touching over the back, with powerful shoulders, and be large in girth,
breast-bone somewhat long with strong-made keel; the breast meat hard,
muscular, and well-developed, flesh firm in grain but rather inclined to be
dry, as the Malay does not fatten well on the breast, the angle part of
which generally shows red in flesh between the feathers. Captain Robert
Buller Young informed Mr. Weir that the ordinary fighting-cocks of India
are Malays, and that the general term is Indian Game, but is totally
390
The Poultry Book
distinct from the Azeel, and that pointed steel tips, or blade spurs, are
used in the fighting. The natives of Java and the Malayan Archipelago
are the most noted cock-fighters of all the Asiatics. The Malay is in India
called the Callum or Kulm fowl. The number of Malays that are continually
imported from India, Mauritius, the Philippines, and other places, of
varied forms and colors, give a wide opportunity of selection; thus it is
that some are exceedingly tall, while others are lower and more square
in body, more sturdy, and much less liable to leg weakness.
The Malays now exhibited are in no way superior to those of half a
century ago; some perhaps may be a little taller, one being said to be over
thirty-three inches, but whether this is an improvement is a matter of
taste and opinion; for utility, the shorter-legged birds are the more hardy
and in all ways more preferable. These and the so-called Cornish Indian
are almost identical excepting in color, the latter being formerly known
as Pheasant Malays. The Malay is a cruel, long, and persistent fighter,
but lacking entirely the fire and dash of the English Game-cock; there is
a sort of cool, old hidalgo, stately mode about him that is not found in
other Game birds, and this renders such as he a troublesome adjunct to
a farmyard where other cocks are kept.
In the Gentleman's Magazine, as far back as 1770, it is stated that "The
inhabitants of the islands to the eastward of Bengal, such as Sumatra,
Borneo, and the coast of Malay, are very famous for cock-fighting, in which
they carry gaming to a greater excess than the customs of Europe can
admit. They first stake their property on the battles; these lost, then
their money and effects; these gone, then their wives and children."
In Sumatra they do not trim their cocks for fighting, as was the practice
in England and is now in America, Spain, France, and Belgium. At
Manilla, in the Philippine Islands, cock-fighting is regulated by law, and
has been taxed since 1779. It is only permitted, under a code of regulations,
on Sundays and Feast days, at places officially designated for the meet of
the combatants. The cock-pit is called the "gallera," and the tax is
rented out to the highest-bidding contractor, who binds himself to pay
a fixed sum per annum. The laws of the cock-pit are very strict.
In the French colony of Martinique cock-fighting is still a national
sport, which usually takes place on Sundays. Malay cocks are used,
and they fight with their natural spurs, which are sharpened for the purpose
by the setters, who suck the spurs afterwards to show that they are not
The Modern Game-fowl
391
poisoned; the plumage is then ruffled, the limbs are moistened by passing
them along the setter's open mouth, and the birds are then put down

GUSTO
Lindos
H. Weir Des
1953.
By permission of the proprietors of the "Field"
CUSTARD DUCKWING OLD ENGLISH GAME, 1853
Owned by Mr. Thurnall
for combat. The Malays fight their cocks with only one spur. It is like
the blade of a penknife, only more curved. Sometimes, but seldom,
artificial spurs made of horn are used.
There are white Malays or Game in India-pure white, white beaks,
shanks and feet, with pearl eyes; but they have not been imported, those
in England having yellow skin, shanks and feet, with the lightest of a
light primrose tint pervading the plumage.
As layers they are not good, the eggs generally being small and of a
dull color. Their numbers are few, besides which they lay only during
the spring and summer months. On dry soil the Malay thrives. It can
be bred and kept like the Azeel in small enclosures, even in the heart of
towns. The chickens are hardy but slow in feathering, and require warmth
also when moulting, as much as good feeding, the thin skin and lean
392
The Poultry Book
breasts not producing oleaginous matter and other requirements in sufficient
quantity to give the necessary moisture for the proper feather growth.
After the chicks have their heads covered all goes well, but both the
young and old are subject to leg weakness, especially in cold or wet weather.
One noticeable peculiarity is their manner of resting on their hocks (heels)
and shanks, the body being somewhat upright; but this is the habit of
most long-thighed, long-legged and long-shanked fowls, as witness the
modern or Club Langshan. Whether the Malay proper will ever regain
its former position in public favor is a moot point, although an offshoot
under the appellation of the Cornish Indian is held by some—at least, for
the present-in considerable estimation; but how long this will be so only
time can determine.
THE INDIAN CHITTAGONG
Is what might be generally termed the Indian barn-door fowl, being
a mixed kind and of various sizes, forms, and colors, some partaking
of the Azeel character, others of a Malay cross with a semi-Dorking
appearance. Captain G. Buller Young's experience with the Chittagong
is as follows:
"During the latter part of the sixties and the greater part of the
seventies I was stationed at Point de Galle in Ceylon, then a garrison
town and the main port of all our mail steamers, and a calling port for
vessels from many parts of the world, being a coaling station as well.
It was during this period that I gained my knowledge of the Chittagong
fowls. They used to be brought over in the native rice-laden vessels
and allowed to run loose between the decks on the bags of rice; conse-
quently they landed in Galle quite fat, and in such quantities that they
were hawked from door to door, and also brought to the port, so that I
had many opportunities of purchase. The fattest and biggest cost
one shilling or eighteen pence each, the cheaper ones being bought by
the dozen.
"The Chittagong is a mongrel breed of fowls that have been perpetuated
in the locality of Chittagong and the surrounding districts for generations,
possibly from the fact that most of the inhabitants are Mussulmans;
though, with the upper classes of the Hindoo fowls, are an abomination,
and the rearing of them studiously avoided.
"The Chittagong is of various colors, much the same in this respect
The Modern Game-fowl
393
as the English barn-door fowls, and in size would compare with a small
Dorking or Leghorn. The combs of the cocks vary in size and shape;
there is the single erect comb, the 'rose,' and the short stump like the
Malay, with rather full but small wattles. The crow of the male bird
resembles that of the English, but is shorter; the hen cackles when she lays
eggs; in color the eggs of larger kinds are of a dark smoky-brown, with a

Am
M
BLUE-BREASTED DUN OLD ENGLISH GAME COCKEREL
most beautiful plum-like bloom when just laid. The chicks are rather
slow in feathering for about the first six weeks, especially on the shoulders
394
The Poultry Book

OLD ENGLISH BLUE-BREASTED BLUE GAME COCKEREL
Aquarium Fishery Show, 1892
and rump; the young cockerels are pugnacious and fight courageously,
often until blinded.
"One curious complaint from which these and other fowls of the
East suffer is smallpox." (This is rare in England.) "The adult birds
The Modern Game-fowl
395
are fully, not to say abundantly, plumed, and the more scanty the feathers
on the growing chick the stronger the assumption that it will be a big
fowl-budda Murghi,' in Hindustani.
"The hens are not prolific, usually laying between eighteen and twenty-
five eggs; and it is the native belief that if untouched by hand they will
produce about the same number of chickens, with rarely more than two or
three failures. But it is always better to set the eggs of a well-developed
and matured hen than the first eggs of a young pullet; in point of fact,
in the East this is an invariable rule, and I can from actual experience
prove the correctness of the surmise. Taking the Chittagong as an ‘all-
round' bird, I have no hesitation in pronouncing it one of the hardiest and
most easily reared of any in India. It is quite a poor man's fowl as well.
The expense of production is small, and if properly looked after the
profit is considerable.
"The Chittagong is a clean-shanked fowl, having no shank feathers.
As to size, there is as much difference between the true Malay and a Chitta-
gong in height, etc., as there is between a Dorking and a Bantam, the
Chittagong being nothing of the size of the Malay in bulk or height.”
G
THE AUSTRALIAN GAME-FOWL
This is another variation of the Game or fighting type of fowls. With
all poultry, the cocks more or less have a combative propensity, some
to the death of one or occasionally that of both, while with others there is
knowledge of when they have had enough, and they suddenly end the battle
by a somewhat hasty retreat, perhaps being possessed with the idea that
discretion is the better part of valor; but no craven is respected, or should
be, and thus it is that the warrior tribes of our poultry, both by their
daring and courage, as well as their high and lofty mien and generally
acknowledged beauty, are considered not only to be the blue blood, as it
were, but rank as much above the common as the racer does above the
slow, slaving cart horse. Thus it is that the Australian Game-fowl,
though a new combination, already has many friends.
"The origin of this fowl," says a writer in the American Fancier of
September 8, 1897, "rests solely with the Malay and the old-style British
Game-fow', but being bred to an ideal for so many years it has now become
a definitely fixed breed, often being exhibited of immense size (it is a
common occurrence for cocks to scale twelve pounds, hens ten pounds).
396
The Poultry Book
As a table fowl they are, par excellence, of extraordinary hardy consti-
tutions, easily reared, and thoroughly suitable to our trying climate
(Australia), with beautiful
hard, short, lustrous plumage,
and possessing great physical
beauty. They combine the
great reach, strength and size
of the best Malay with the
magnificent plumage of the
old-fashioned Game-fowl;
however, not being nearly so
coarse-looking or angular as
the former, nor nearly so
feathery as the latter, they
find great favor on all sides
for their economic qualities,
which are of a very high order."
Mr. Weir says he can
offer no opinion further than
that in England, both in the
past and the present, the
Malay pure and simple has

もい
​not been thought a desirable
cross with the old English
Game. When such has been
tried, it has generally proved
to the disadvantage of both
breeds, being from its size a
shake-bag of an inferior
quality in all respects. Still,
the hearsay reports, as well
as those from actual observation, are highly favorable to the new
comer; and judging from these there appears to be a brilliant future
for the new-made breed by the poultry fanciers. Daily we are told
that the gallant beauties are becoming more beautiful and perfect,
and their coloring brighter, their forms more compact and shapely;
that they breed truer and more true, and they may now be fully considered
ļ
Wein
хие
یرم
ENGLISH GAME
Owned by Mr. Flecher Moss
こ
​CROSS BETWEEN MODERN GAME AND OLD
The Modern Game-fowl
397
to have maintained if not surpassed their newly acquired fame, and
thus among the many of our poultry varieties have established a right
to recognition.
CORNISH INDIAN, MISCALLED GAME
This breed is said to have been first exhibited at the Crystal Palace
and elsewhere in 1858-59 in the classes for "any other breed," and at once
attracted attention,
besides being the
winners of prizes and
commendations. Later,
at another Crystal
Palace Show, Mr. Weir
handled a cock and hen
both surprisingly heavy,
considering their size
and appearance. One
old poultry breeder
remarked that they had
so much meat on their
backs as to be what
he should call "double-
breasted." These were
shorter in the leg and
shank than the present
miscalled Indian Game

more square and
compact. Here is a
description given at the
time by Mr. J. Lloyd:
"Their peculiarities
consist in the tail being
set on in a horizontal
position in a similar
manner to the
pheasant's, so that the
saddle hackles fall over and mix with it, this fowl being the only one I know
that is unable to elevate its tail. The feathers on the head have all the
!//!!
Pete
Kin
\
MODERN GAME HEN
398
The Poultry Book
appearance of being brushed up so as to meet at the crown. The comb is
something similar to the pea of the Brahmas, but more elevated behind. In
color the cock is a mixture of green, black, and dark red; the hen is rather
of a browner tint; both have a strong metallic lustre." Mr. Lloyd further
notes its pheasant-like ways and mode of action. Evidently they partake
more of the character of those known as the Azeel. The birds exhibited
were decidedly more like Azeel than the Cornish-bred Indian of the present
time, which often resembles the Malay so closely that one of each breed
might easily be picked out of the same brood, yard, or run.
In fact,
cases have been known where birds from one brood have been sent for
exhibition in separate pens from the same breeder, and have won both in
the Malay and the Cornish-Indian classes.
There is little doubt, if any, in the mind of Mr. Weir that the present
form of bird emanated from a cross between the Pheasant Malay and the
pheasant-breasted old English Game, or the latter with a pure Malay.
He has seen them pure black with orange shanks and beak, and of an
orange-colored ground, marked on the breast and sides with black precisely
of the same half-moon form as the pheasant's, as was the old Pheasant
fowl and the pheasant Game. Of the same clutch of chickens have come
cockerels of a bright blood-red with black tails, while the pullets were of
the same deep red with black hackles and tails. In both cases the shanks
and beak were yellow, while others were of a deep red or bay color, with
laced markings with an inner lacing; but these are not nearly so bright in
appearance as the single-laced variety, though the last, for the present,
is preferred by the fancier.
On damp ground Mr. Weir has found them to be delicate, subject
to leg weakness, and inclined to colds. Some are said to be fairly good
layers; but with the exception of the Azeels and Malays, they are nearly
if not quite the worst domestic fowls for ordinary use. In size and color
the eggs closely resemble those of the Malay.
For a considerable period the breed was generally known as the Pheas-
ant Malay. At the Crystal Palace Show in 1896 the Malay and the Indian
Game classes adjoined. In the pens next to each other stood a cockerel of
each said-to-be-distinct breed. One of the best fanciers of the day, consid-
ered one of the keenest and most unbiassed observers, looking toward them
said, quietly, “Which is which?" They have the leg weakness peculiar
to the Malay, and the long shank and "the big bone" which so many
The Modern Game-fowl
399

Weir
11542
GAME-FOWL DURING THE TRANSITION PERIOD
now insist on having. The points of difference, then, between them and
the Malay have been mainly in the coloring and markings, but these
existed when they were the Pheasant Malay in an appreciable degree. Had
this name been retained, little could or need have been said as to their
nomenclature. But to call them Indian Game is a misnomer. It is
400
The Poultry Book
foisting them on one of the oldest breeds in the world-one that was in
full possession, and the rightful possessors, of the name of Indian Game,
now known as the Azeel, the pit-birds of India. They were of wonderful
and lustrous beauty, of lengthened pedigree, and of such value that it has
been said that a lac of rupees has been refused for one cock. These are
the true, the real Indian Game-fowls; but these Cornish, which Enoch
Hutton said "may be fairly called English," are not, and have made such
reputation as they have by being "boomed" under a false name, as an
inferior article is sometimes imposed on the unwary public under a trade-
mark not its own.
ORIGIN OF CORNISH INDIAN
Here is what a friend of Mr. Weir's says regarding the breed: "The
true Indian Game-cock has a history ages before any record can be found
of the English Game-cock-of which Englishmen are so justly proud.
In England the Indian Game-cock has been known and used, where, as
well as in his native land, he has proved himself the gamest of the game.
But it is with the spurious breed, not Game-which modern fanciers have
manufactured and named Indian Game during the past few decades-
with which we have now to deal. If a multiplicity of names was any
criterion of their merit, then would they be the most valuable fowl, as they
have been known by the various cognomens of Injees, Indians, Pheasant
Malays, Spotted Malays, Malay Game, Himalayan Game, Cornish Game,
Indian Game, and Cornish Indian Game (where is Cornish, India?); and
probably there has been even more diversity of opinion as to their quality,
classification, and origin than even as to their correct nomenclature, for
while their admirers laud them to the skies as the most profitable and
best table-fowl on earth, their detractors brand them as the most worth-
less, producing very few eggs, and a long, lean, though plump breast,
close-grained yellow or yellowish skin and flesh; in addition to the large
quantity of food they consume, which produces immense bone and inside
fat, mere worthless offal. Exhibitors assert that they are Game; the
votaries of the sod, both here and in America, prove them the most abject.
cowards that ever crowed in a cock-pit. Interested fanciers claim that
they are a pure breed imported from India by Colonel Gilbert. Sportsmen
who have had the most extensive experience with Game-fowl in India
declare such fowls are totally unknown in India; while those who know
The Modern Game-fowl
401
their origin also know that they were first bred in Cornwall from a cross
between two distinct varieties of fowls which Colonel Gilbert never saw.
Neither did he take any interest in nor import any other breed of
fowls except Game
or Azeel.

"East India-
man' was the
term usually ap-
plied to any of
that magnificent
class of ships
formerly engaged
in carrying on the
trade of the old
East India Compa-
ny, and Falmouth
being the first port
on entering the
Channel, they
usually waited
there for orders.
Those Indiamen,
locally pronounced
'Injeemen,' fre-
quently had on
board strange
and new birds and
beasts from the
East, among
which were fowls,
mostly of the
Malay type, and
often very good Malays, too; but whether shipped from the Bay of
Bengal or the Philippine Islands, or black, white, red, or gray in color,
they were termed 'Injees' or Indians in Cornwall, from the name of the
country they were brought from, although the officers and crew often
called them 'Chittagongs,' the word Malay, or the new term Azeel, as applied
(6
.
Hi,
C.P
1896
A
MODERN GAME COCKEREL

402
The Poultry Book
to fowls, being quite unknown or unheard of in Cornwall until the advent
of poultry shows. Not only were there a large number of these fowls
(Injees) kept in the Fal-
mouth district, as stated
by the author of a modern
poultry book, but their
short feathers, large size
and immense bone induced
many breeders of Game-
cocks in other parts of the
country to cross them with
their own Game-fowl in
order to obtain additional
strength and bone. The
produce of this cross between
the 'Injee' and true Game
were simply termed 'Injee'
and Game," which,
shortened, became perverted
into 'Injeegame,' or Indian
Game; and perhaps the
handsomest birds ever
produced by crossing our
pure Game-fowl with those
Injees (more correctly
Malays) were those bred
from the celebrated white
cocks of Captain Maunsell,
of Falmouth. These active, elegant cocks had not only won a
local reputation second to none in the county, but for many years
after the Truro cockpit was closed (it has very recently been
converted into a spirit store) fought in the crack mains in London
with equal success. They were 'smock-breasted white' cocks, with
bright yellow legs and beaks, perfect in symmetry and shape, and
so wary, fast and furious in fighting that their battles were generally
short, sharp, and decisive when crossed with the 'Injee,' like all other
Injee crosses."

From a drawing by Harrison Weir
GAME-FOWL CHICKS
The Modern Game-fowl
403
((
FIRST APPEARANCE OF SPURIOUS INDIAN GAME AT SHOWS
Their produce proved worthless as they were not Game; but those
who saw them in the pens of the first large poultry shows will not easily
forget their pure white feathers and stately forms. They were the admired
of all admirers, and a grand future lay before them had it not leaked out
that they were not Game, followed by the assertion of Anglo-Indian
sportsmen that such fowls were unknown in India; and as poultry shows
were introduced for the avowed purpose of improving pure-bred poultry,
purity of breed in a prize-winner was a paramount consideration at our
early shows. Consequently inquiries were made by the secretary of the
Cornwall Poultry Society and others as to their origin, when that excellent
naturalist and friend of Yarrell's, J. J. Tratham, C. E. Rook Hunt and
other breeders sealed their doom by frankly owning that they were a cross-
breed variety between white Game and Malay, alias 'Injee.' Banished
from the show-pen, useless for the pit, hard and dry in flesh, and, compared
with English Game, worthless for the table, they became neglected, and
at present they are nearly if not quite extinct in Cornwall.
But years
before this white Indian and Game cross had been tabooed, or even appeared
in the show-pen among other colors of the same cross, the Pheasant Malay
had been produced by the noted Sam Diamond and his trusty friend
Joseph Clemens.
(6
Those who purchased them for the pit soon proved they were a fraud;
those for the table found them coarse, hard, and dry, and of inferior qual-
ity compared with the excellent Game-fowls then in the Cornish markets
-so much so that the higglers refused to take them except at a reduced
price: thus they quickly became unpopular; and Mr. Palmer, who has kept
them more than forty years, recently stated, in an excellent article in a
poultry paper, 'that at one time they had nearly become extinct.'" Then
it was that by dexterous manipulation, here and there letters of praise
and advocacy, vaunting them as having qualities of excellence which they
had not and never have possessed, they were, to use an expressive American
phrase, “boomed.” Like the Cochins and the Brahmas, all that could be
said in their favor was said, and more than should have been, for many
were thus induced to buy. Some not only kept them awhile, until their
deficiencies became apparent, but also unwisely crossed them with such
breeds as the old Kent, Sussex, and Surreys-this not only hardening
404
The Poultry Book

пор
PRIZE MALAY COCKEREL
From a drawing by Harrison weir
the breast meat of these superb table fowls, but also lessening to a marked
degree the fine quality they possessed of fat distribution over and above
the pectoral muscles. There was further deterioration in the way of long
thighs and legs, frequently with yellow or horn-colored shanks, yellow
The Modern Game-fowl
405
flesh, skin, and fat. "Thus this Malay cross," says Mr. Weir, "through
the tact of some and the reckless advice of others, has caused and is
causing more permanent injury than can possibly be imagined to our
best table fowls.”
AN AMERICAN POINT OF VIEW
One of the most experienced poultrymen in America on Games is
John Glasgow, of New Jersey, whose comments are as follows:
Reading from an American standpoint Mr. Weir's several chapters
on the Game-fowl, the reader need not be told that the author is an old-
time cocker and breeder of Game-fowls for the pit. He exhibits
considerable bias in favor of the old English Game in comparison with
what one is accustomed to call Standard, Modern or Exhibition Game
at the present day.
"The writer of this criticism is also an old-time fancier of some forty-
five years' standing, and the first Game-cock he ever owned, when a lad
of fifteen, was a brassy-winged black, of the old type and of a famous
fighting strain, in a mining district of western Scotland. About this
period or shortly afterward a ban was put upon cock-fighting in England,
an act of Parliament being passed making it a punishable offense to engage
in cock-fighting. Mr. Weir claims that a standard existed of what the
Game-cock should be, at the time when what he terms the 'new breed' was
launched on the fancy, viz., the modern Game-fowl-and had been bred to,
from time without date. This may be so in regard to formation of body
characteristics, but could not possibly be so as far as feather property
and colors went, because not one cocker in a hundred cared a fig for colors,
and does not now. Through crossing of strains that were known stayers
and good fighters, irrespective of colors, the progeny of a single mating
would come of a variety of colors, not only in plumage but in color of
legs as well.
66
((
'The advocacy of the old-fashioned in comparison with the modern
Game-fowl by Mr. Weir is past my comprehension.
That there is any
comparison in points of beauty between the get-up of a fighting Game
and the 'race horse' of the feather fancy, the modern Game, I candidly
confess I cannot see. There is just as much difference as there is between
that of a prize-fighter and a blue-blooded aristocrat. This even Mr. Weir
admits where he says, 'in the hands of a few keen, clear, thoughtful, and
406
The Poultry Book
strongly practical men the new variety stands forth in the new fashion,
form and dress, a thing of beauty.'
"To evolve this thing of beauty' to the high perfection it has attained
is a monument to the men to whom we are indebted for it. Although
Mr. Weir mentions Captain Heaton, Ainscough and Brierley in particular,
there is no man living or dead in England to-day who has brought to bear
more skill in perfecting the aristocrat of the feathered fancy, 'the lordly
modern Game-fowl,' than George Furness, Hugo Ainscough's present
manager, who exhibits birds in such superb condition.
"Mr. Weir makes much of the supposed advantages of the extra-sized
tail and hard, well-developed feathering of the old-fashioned Game-fowl.
If of so much advantage, I should like to know why 'cockers,' when
preparing to fight their champions, divest them of the flowing neck-hackles,
tails and wing-feathers before going into action?
"The modern Game-fowl is harder by many degrees, in feather and
flesh, than any old-fashioned Game I have ever handled, and in general
formation more symmetrical. That they are a difficult fowl to breed to
perfection is to be admitted. There are lots of weedy specimens raised
every year; so there are of every variety of fowls in existence, but that is
the fault of the breeders and not the variety, and only adds zest to their
operations. Some fanciers, as a rule, are as game as their birds and make
up their minds to conquer. That the modern game is inferior to the
old-fashioned Game as utility fowls I do not admit. A good judge of a
modern Game has no use for spindled-shanked specimens either in England
or America. They want a well-developed thigh, plenty of bone, and not,
as Mr. Weir asserts, 'weakened, stilty, thin, stork-like legs and thighs with
shanks to match; and the more slender these are the more a lessening
section of fanciers prize and value them. When killed and trussed as
table fowls, these thighs and legs make a fleshless, ugly show.' This
statement is at variance with facts, as our best breeders can substantiate.
There is no plumper, short-fleshed, juicier fowl in existence than the
modern Game; or one carrying less offal for weight and flesh-not even
the old-fashioned Game-fowl.
'The reason why there are so many weeds exhibited in the modern
Game classes in England is because exhibitors send out their youngsters
to shows long before they are well matured. As a consequence, they
undermine the constitution of the bird to such a degree it never makes
The Modern Game-fowl
407
the development it otherwise would. You don't find such breeders as
Captain Heaton or George Furness following that plan. Moreover, they
would not think of mating up a specimen that has a tendency to a weakened
constitution; hence the success they attain at the principal fixtures, such
as the Palace and Birmingham shows, against all comers. That the
fighting or old-fashioned English Game as exhibited at English shows
are counterparts of the
same variety as they
were fifty years ago I
am not prepared to
admit. I remember well
about thirteen years
ago, when clubs were
formed to resuscitate an
interest in the old-type
Game-fowls.

"They were altogether
too fleshy and soft to
handle, and lacking in
the characteristics of the
Game-cock of half a
century ago. They may
have improved since then
for aught I know, still I
hold the opinion that
the show-room is not
the place to adjudge the
qualities of a fighting
Game-cock. The only
place is in the cock-pit.
As the fighting of Game-cocks is a cruel relic of the past, and punish-
able as an offence in nearly every civilized country, all self-respecting,
law-abiding citizens should set their faces against it and use their birds
exclusively for domestic purposes, either pure bred or, better yet, as a
cross on some other pure breed.
"The commercial value of the old-fashioned Game as compared with
modern or exhibition Game, either in England or America, is very striking.
Mein
Gryff
898
OLD ENGLISH BLACK GAME HENNY COCK
Owned by Mr. Weir

408
The Poultry Book
It will be a long time before a hundred guineas (a little over five hundred
dollars in American money) is paid for an old-fashioned Game. That sum
is by no means a record one for an exhibition or standard modern
Game in England."

From a photograph
CORNISH INDIAN COCKEREL, 1892

CHAMPION MODERN GAME
Owned by Captain Heaton
Wom
1889

BLACK-BREASTED RED TRANSATLANTIC
The winner of three battles. Bred and owned by Dr. Clarke
ORIENTAL GAME FOWLS
DR. H. P. CLARKE, INDIANA
Who is he who sets the world in motion, the holy, strong Sraosha, a
mighty-speared and lordly god? It is the bird named Parodars, the
cock that lifts up his voice against the mighty dawn.-VENDIDAD, ancient
sacred book of the Parsees.

SSS
O DIFFERENT are these birds from every native European
race that one can scarcely think of them without being
brought to consider the whole subject of the origin of
domestic poultry. The old idea that all fowls are direct
descendants of Gallus bankiva is not tenable when one
knows the nature of this Oriental type, its prepotency, and the persistence
with which it reproduces its kind under varied climates and conditions.
It may seem almost incredible that the Game-fowl of England could be
more closely related to the feather-legged Shanghai than either is to
the Aseel of India, and yet there is apparent testimony to this effect.
The statement of early authors that all domestic breeds tend to revert
to the Bankiva type does indeed hold good of European and African races,
and also of many Asiatic varieties, but think of the Game birds of Brazil,
4II

412
The Poultry Book
which have been raised and fought there for at least a century and are
stronger in Oriental features to-day than our exhibition Malay.
The Shamo of
Japan is well
known as the
very acme of
Orientalism, and
the fowls of
Madagascar, re-
ferred to in the
next chapter,
bear even greater
evidence that this
Oriental or
Malayoid type is
a natural and not
an acquired one.
Lack of time
and space forbids
full treatment of
the subject here,
but let us briefly
consider a few
points. American
soldiers who have
been stationed in
Mindanao and
Jolo say that the
natives of those
islands are too lazy to raise poultry, so they tame and pit the
jungle cocks, and that these wild cocks are absolutely game during
the breeding season-that is, they will fight to the death in either
natural spurs or steels. These fowls of the southern Philippines are
closely akin to the Bankiva and Sonnerat of India, also game cocks,
and doubtless all descended from one common ancestor, for the peculiar
feather-formation of the Sonnerat offers but few difficulties to a natu-
ralist. That remote ancestor, or possibly the immediate parent of

SHAMO JAPANESE GAME
By courtesy of Dr. Clarke
Oriental Game-fowls
413
present-day Bankiva, must have been the progenitor also of the Old
English Game and other European races, the genuine Game being the
only real thoroughbred which has retained its original type and courage,
the dunghill races having lost their primitive traits through degeneracy
in domestication.
Now having noted the probable antecedent of the Old English, and
having observed that a domestic game-fowl, even such a bird as the Flemish,
differs but little from its primitive wild type, we are led to the conviction
that the present existence of a game Aseel almost certainly indicates that
some such fowl as that described by Temminck under the name Gallus
giganteus did once
live in the wild
state. There are
only two real ar-
guments against
this theory: one
is the fact that
all domestic fowls
are fertile when
bred one with
another, which
seems to be fully
explained by the
well-known "Pal-
lasian doctrine"
exemplified in the
feline and canine
tribes, viz.,
descendants of

species which,
when first do-
mesticated,
would, if crossed,
probably have
been in some
degree sterile, become perfectly fertile after a long course of domestication.
The other, and the one upon which Darwin rested his belief, is the
Photograph by courtesy of Dr. Clarke
AN AMERICAN GAME-COCK, WITH JUST A TRACE OF ORIENTAL BLOOD
414
The Poultry Book
fact that no such wild fowl has ever been found, and its extinction he con-
sidered "an improbable hypothesis, seeing that the four known species
have not become extinct in the most ancient and thickly peopled regions
of the East." But reasoning from analogy, and going upon the theory
that Old English Game as closely resembles Bankiva as the Aseel or the
Shamo Jap does its own wild prototype, let us try to picture the primitive
Oriental. Think of the short wings and heavy build, and consider whether
after all it would not be "an improbable hypothesis" to expect such a
wild fowl to survive "in the most ancient and thickly peopled regions of
the East." Would it not rather have been a matter of wonder if such a
fowl in the wild state had failed to go the way of the dodo and the
great auk?
Returning to the subject of classification, it will be found that
all domestic fowls, both game and dunghill, may be grouped under
two headings or distinctive types, one of which for convenience sake
we will call the Bankiva, the other the Malayoid or Oriental. Game
fanciers sometimes recognize a third, the pheasant* type, but this last is
generally thought to be either a slight variation from the Bankiva or
the same with a small infusion of Oriental blood. It embraces such
varieties as the Minoshki of Japan, our old-time Sumatra, and some
of the slasher fighters of the Far East as illustrated in the “Ayam
Jallak" of Wright's first edition.
The Chittagong of India, named after a city near the mouth of the
Brahmaputra River, is the common farm fowl of that country. In blood
it may be considered a grade Aseel, strongly Oriental in features, though
without any fixed character of form, size or plumage. The fowl known
in England and the United States as Malay is simply a standard-bred
Chittagong, its present perfection and uniformity being due to British
art rather than to anything East Indian. It is not an original or pure
breed, but very distinctly Oriental, and consequently quite different from
all European and from many Asiatic varieties.
Mr. Weir appears not to distinguish between the Malay and the Malay
Game. The former is a heavy-weight farm fowl or show bird of strong
Oriental features. The latter is a light-weight fighting fowl, not Oriental,
* In America the term
pheasant" refers to shape and carriage, in England to color
of plumage This difference in usage is what caused Lewis Wright to confuse the
Pheasant Malay with the Sumatra Pheasant, two varieties quite dissimilar.
(C
Oriental Game-fowls
415
but rather pheasant type. The birds mentioned as being fought at Manila
and those described by Mr. Saborg are evidently Malay Games, not Malays.
English fanciers are in the habit of referring to Aseel as "the true
Indian fighting-cock," and the expression is perfectly correct as applied
to the north of India, in the region of Patna, Cawnpore, Lucknow, Agra,
and Delhi. But there are other varieties of fighting-fowls in other parts
of India, and some of them quite unlike the bird we now know as Aseel.
"India Game," as they were formerly called, have occasionally appeared
in this country since long
before the poultry show era,
and it may be possible that
some of those early importa-
tions were of Aseels. The
first birds brought to the
United States which actually
bore this name were imported
by the writer some seventeen
years ago. They did well in
our climate and proved quite
a valuable acquisition; too slow
when bred pure, but of great
value for crossing, and the
blood may now be found in
several of America's most
successful pit strains.

Photograph by courtesy of Dr. Clarke
JAP-ASEEL CROSS
How strange it is that
almost every author who writes
on the subject of Cornish Indian tells a different story as to the fowl's origin,
and stranger still that nearly all these stories may be correct, for the truth of
the matter seems to be that the modern Cornish, like the White Plymouth
Rock, came from several sources. Similar birds exist in the Deccan. This
has been denied by some English fanciers, but it is noticeable that "Poultry
Keeping in India" (a very pretentious cloth-bound volume lately pub-
lished at Calcutta) uses a number of old British and American cuts of
Cornish fowls to illustrate "Hyderabad Game." Many of the crosses
named by poultry authors contain too large a proportion of real game
blood, and this fault may be found with some of the statements given by
416
The Poultry Book
Mr. Weir's informants. The disposition and soft feathers of most modern
Cornish would seem to indicate a mixing with something rather more on
the order of the Langshan or Dorking.
Our new American Standard credits the Cornish with being composed
of Derby, Aseel, and Black Sumatra. The trouble about this is that a
mélange of five-pound birds could hardly turn out ten-pound offspring,
and the Sumatra was not known in England at that time anyhow. The
sum of it all is that if you mate a laced Aseel cock with hens of almost any
large-sized smooth-legged race you will be able to pick some Cornish out
of the progeny.
Birds more or less of this character have been known
in the United States for many years, but the first true Cornish were
introduced to the American public at the Indiana State Fair in the
autumn of 1887, and next exhibited at the Indianapolis Poultry Show
in January, 1888.

Lu
CORNISH INDIAN COCK

Narris Ne
1900
FOWLS KNOWN AS "FIG-PUDDING," OR "PLUM-PUDDING" GAME FOWLS,
BUT MORE PROPERLY "ALMOND MOTTLES."

INR
From a photograph by Dr. H. P. Clarke, Ind.
FLEMISH GRAY STAG AND COMBATTANT DU NORD HEN
Owned by Dr. H. P. Clarke, Indiana
GENERAL REMARKS ABOUT GAME-FOWLS*
DR. H. P. CLARKE, INDIANA
Leporem et gallinam et anserem gustare fas non putant: haec tamen
alunt, animi voluptatisque causa.-DE BELLO GALLICO.

CASUAL reader of the ordinary poultry paper might form
an idea that there were not many Game-fowls in this
country, but after learning of the six monthly journals
and one weekly publication devoted exclusively to Game
he would begin to realize that this branch of the fancy
forms a little world all to itself. There are several distinct breeds of
Game-fowl, and almost as many sub-varieties as there are non-Game
kinds in the Standard. The pure American Games, as distinguished from
crosses of the Jap and Aseel, are mostly made up from Irish, English,
and Spanish elements, the proportions being probably as in the order
*In this chapter, Dr. Clarke, one of the closest students of Game-fowls in America,
has covered the subject in a general way. He has touched matters of special interest to all
breeders and fanciers in this and other countries.-EDITOR.
417
418
The Poultry Book
named, for the land of "Kelly and Burke and Sheay" has contributed
to us much of its fighting blood in cocks as well as men.
The "modern" Game of Great
Britain is rapidly passing from view
in its native home and being
replaced in poultry shows by the
Old English. This same trend of
the fancy is becoming apparent
in the United States, and possibly
by the time the American Poultry
Association is ready for another
revision fanciers may be clamor-
ing for the Pit Game standard
which was adopted and after-
ward thrown out by the American
Poultry Association at Indianapolis
in 1888.

The Transatlantic fowls
shown in the accompanying illus-
trations are descended from, or
closely related to, the first-prize
pen in the Pit Game class at the
World's Fair, Chicago, in 1893, and
are of the same breeding as the first pen at the Pan-American Exposition.
By courtesy of Dr. H. P. Clarke
GRAY THREE-QUARTER TRANSATLANTIC
A four-time winner
BELGIAN
There are in Belgium three distinct varieties: Flemish, Liége,
Bruges. The "Flamand," as it is called in French, is the steel-spur
fighter of West Flanders and Hainaut. Cocking is prohibited in
Belgium, and as a consequence no publicly advertised mains are
held, but that historic borderland which Napoleon called "The
Cockpit of Europe" is alive with fighting fowl. From Mons and
Mainvault; through Tournai and Templeuve-i. e., Templum-Jovis,
a relic of the Roman times; Courtrai of the ancient prison;
on, almost, to the city of Bruges, whose belfry our own poet
Longfellow celebrated in verse-throughout this whole region, in fact-
cock-fighting is the common pastime of the people, and the number
General Remarks About Game-fowls
419
of birds used in small mains and private matches during each year
is something enormous.
Nearly all colors are to be found, but light and dark grays are the
most common and apparently bred to the highest point of excellence.
Fowls
Many elegant mottles, blues, brass-backs and reds are also seen.
have single combs, and are heavily feathered, with long wings and full
tail. Cocks usually weigh between eight and ten pounds, and are very
active, considering their size-much more so than British Game of even
approximate dimensions.
Closely related to the preceding, and, indeed, differing but little except
in such points as naturally distinguish a naked-heeler from a steel fighter,
is the Combattant de Liege, or coq du pays, as it is commonly called in the
north of Belgium. The fashion there is to match cocks in natural spurs.
Little circular straw pits about six feet across are set up at almost any
convenient place, two birds are thrown in, and the fun commences. Liége,
Hasselt and Tirlemont are centers
for this kind of sport, and much
of it may be seen in the old
Flemish town of Borgerhout, a
separate corporation, although
inside the fortification walls of
Antwerp, and to be reached by
street-cars from the old cathedral
where hangs Rubens's most
famous painting, "The Descent
from the Cross." These cocks
average about two pounds heavier
than the Flamands and are slower
in action, stronger, tougher, and
more rugged. Common colors,
dark red, iron-gray, blue-red.
The name Bruges is some-
times applied by poultrymen,
seldom by cockers, to both Game
varieties of northern Belgium.
Strictly speaking, Liége is the true pit-fowl and Bruges the Malay-cross ex-
hibition bird. They bear about the same relation one to another as the Old

Photograph by courtesy of Dr. H. P. Clarke
BLACK RED TRANSATLANTIC
Owned by John T. Maunder, of Ontario, Canada
420
The Poultry Book
English and the modern or standard Game. The Bruges is a tall, coarse-
looking fowl with pea-comb, heavy brow, comparatively scant plumage and
small tail, usually some kind of a blue in colour, either blue-red or blue-
gray. Hens, blue with lacing, similar to Andalusians. Being part
Malay in blood, it is not a real Game bird, and consequently of no value
for pit purposes.
In this connection there is cause to remark that if any
cross be made between Game and non-Game, the offspring may be line-
bred to the Game parent for countless generations and will never produce
a genuine Game-fowl.
FRENCH
The Combattant du Nord is practically identical with the Flamand
of southern Belgium, the two being often bred together or crossed one
upon the other. Yet some few minor differences may be noticed. The
French fowl averages about half a pound lighter in weight than the Flemish
and shows some feather markings not often seen in that variety. Fully
one-half of the French birds are yellow-legged, black-breasted, bright
reds, the remainder being blue-legged dark reds, green-legged golden
duckwings, yellow-legged pyles, and yellow-legged pure whites. Fowls
with white legs are occasionally seen, but rare. The two adjoining depart-
ments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais are a kind of cock-fighters' paradise.
Game is the common fowl of the country, and in nearly all the larger
towns and cities cocking contests are advertised on the bill-boards and
mains fought every day in the week between St. Eloi and 1st of May.
Roubaix has the largest cockpit in Europe, with a seating capacity of
two thousand. It is here most of the grand concourses take place. At
Lille there are more than twenty public cockpits, besides a fine big hippo-
drome where entertainments of this sort are sometimes held. The best
birds of Britain have there fought and lost.
Another cocking community exists at St. Malo, Ille-et-Vilaine, and
extending into Brittany. Here the birds are mostly medium weights,
fought with rules and steels not unlike the American. One other cocking
center is in Ariége, near the Spanish frontier, and the sport is not unknown
at Marseilles. From all that can be learned, it would seem as if Game-
fowl had been bred in France since before the time of Cæsar's invasion.
They are known to have existed in Britain at that early date, and it
certainly appears more reasonable to suppose the birds were taken across
General Remarks About Game-fowls
421
the channel from the Gauls of the mainland, who held many customs and
practices in common with their island neighbors, rather than imagine
the birds carried over sea all the way from the Levant by the tin-hunting
Phoenicians and then dropped among the semisavage nomads on the
wild and dreary coast of Cornwall. Prior to about the year 1830, when
it was put under
ban, cocking was a
popular pastime at
the French capital.
Since then the gay
Parisians "know not
Joseph," but get
their excitement
through such
channels as the
naughty can-can
and the "danse du
ventre."

Two foreign
breeds found in
France may well
be considered under
this heading. One
is the "Race de
Barbarie," or fight-
ing Bantam, and
the other a naked-
neck fowl called
By courtesy of Dr. Clarke
AFTER HIS SIXTH BATTLE
Showing the American method of heeling and trimming
"Malgache" or
"Denude" from Madagascar. The name Barbary was once applied to
the five states of northern Africa: Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and
Morocco, all then under the suzerainty of the Sultan of Turkey,
and the presumption is that these Bantams came originally from
one of those countries, just which one is not now known. Of late
years no Game-fowls have been discovered in northern Africa except
a few among the Spanish settlements at Ceuta, Melilla, etc. The
Barbary cocks of France usually weigh from two to two and a half
422
The Poultry Book
pounds, greatly resemble in style the newly produced Old English
Game Bantam (some strains of the latter being unquestionably
of Barbary blood), and run through the usual variation in colors. The
handsomest are mille-fleurs, what we might call tri-color spangles. They
are fought in funny little steel spurs about one inch in length, can fly
almost equal to pigeons, and the pure breed is said to be absolutely game.
The Malgache is much like a Shamo Jap whose plumage has been
all plucked out excepting wings, tail and a small tuft on top of the head.
Too slow for any use excepting naked-heels-and fowls are not fought
that way in France-but of very greatest interest to the scientific breeder
and naturalist. All Oriental Game-fowls are scant in plumage and often
show spots of bare red skin upon breast and shoulders, so it is easy to see
how this tendency could be followed up, by selection in breeding, until
a bird were produced almost destitute of feathers. But think where this
chicken, as illustrated on page 423, comes from-that is the most remarkable
thing from the Island of Madagascar. The dominant native tribe there
is the Hova, whose language as well as racial characteristics show a
relationship not with the nearby coast of Africa, but with the Malay
country, more than three thousand miles away.
Think how remarkable that such a man should have been able to
cross the Indian Ocean centuries ago, even before its waters were ruffled
by European craft. Think how much more wonderful still the fact that
he took his domestic fowls with him, that the Oriental type remained
unchanged in its new-found home-not all varieties are lacking in plumage
—and that real Malay chickens may be had to-day as easily in Madagascar,
Reunion, and Mauritius (see Mr. Weir's remarks on Ravenhill's Malays)
as at Pinang or Singapore.
SPANISH
The Spaniards as well as their descendants are notoriously poor
breeders, so it would not be surprising if the fowls of Spain were very
frequently infused with a bracer of English blood, just as the strains of
Mexico are kept up by importations from this country. But that Game-
birds and cocking were unknown in the Peninsula before the campaigns
of Wellington and his soldiers-a view almost universally held in Great
Britain—seems very difficult to reconcile with the well-known fact that
Spanish Game, "Gallos de pelea Espanoles," have been fought in Cuba
General Remarks About Game-fowls
423
ever since the island's first settlement. Spain is one country in the world
where the royal sport is undoubtedly on the decline. There is no longer
a pit at Cadiz formerly one of the great cocking centers-and very few
birds are now to be seen at Algeciras, Marbella, Cartagena or Valencia.
Malaga still has a fair supply and seems to be about the only city on the
Mediterranean so provided.
Of the different lands where cocking flourished in early historic
times-Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, the Island of Rhodes, Egypt, Persia-not
one contains a native race of Game at present, and the sport survives
only in the last-named country in the form of small boys' amusement,
matching common cocks in nature's weapons.

Photograph taken 1901 and reproduced
by courtesy of Dr. Clark
ISLAND OF MADAGASCAR GAME
SECOND DIVISION
THE POULTRY BOOK
•

WHITE DORKINGS.
The property of MR. O. E. CRESWELL.
Starre, interi
Del
A C
FOWLER. TYPO
L
The Farm or Homestead Fowl....
Old Barn-Door Fowls....
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking
Fowls.
•
1850 and 1860.
The Rise of the Dorkings.
Present-Day Dorkings..
•
Some Scotch Fowls.
• ·
The White Dorkings.
Colors of the Dorkings.
Breeding Old Kent, Sussex, and
Surrey Fowls..
The Scotch Grays.
General Characteristics
•
Cock..
Hen
Points in Scotch Grays
Value of Defects in Judging
Scotch Grays.
Disqualifications.
Scotch Bakies or Dumpies—Jump-
ers.
•
The Dumbartonshire Fowl.
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl.
The Cochin Fowl in America.
The Buff Cochin.
White and Black Cochins.
The Partridge_Cochin.
Light and Dark Brahmas..
The American Light Brahma.
The Dark Brahma.
The Langshan.
•
• •
•
•
•
CONTENTS
•
•
·
•
Standard of Excellence.
The Plymouth Rocks.
Their Origin and Name.
Typical Form and Shape of Male..
Points Concerning the Female..
Barred Plymouth Rocks.
Points About Proper Barring..
Under Barring
Single and Double Matings.
General Demands.
•
·
The Jersey Blues..
The Wyandottes.
The Varieties of Wyandotte.
The Size of the Wyandotte.
The Shape of the Wyandotte.
The Color of the Wyandotte
Silver Wyandotte...
•
•
Buff Plymouth Rocks.
White Plymouth Rocks and Their
Origin.
•
•
• •
•
•
•
PAGE
425
436
45I
467
475
485
498
500
∞ 3
508
513
514
517
517
518
518
∞ a
518
519
519
521
523
537
544
55I
554
559
571
577
587
607
609
610
•
The Pea-combed Variety
638
First Importations Into England. 640
613
616
618
619
622
623
626
629
633
3∞
647
651
672
673
676
677
679
Golden Wyandotte..
White Wyandotte.
Black Wyandotte...
Buff Wyandotte.
Partridge Wyandotte.
Silver-Penciled Wyandotte...
The Male
The Female
• •
The Modern Java.
Columbian Wyandotte
Buff-Laced Wyandotte..
Comments by the Judge.
•
Origin of the Black Javas.
The Mottled Javas.
An English Authority.
Rhode Island Reds.
•
•
•
·
•
•
•
Standard for the Rhode Island
Reds..
Shape of Male.
Color of the Male..
Shape of the Female.
Color of the Female.
Mating and Breeding.
Reds, Old and New..
Defects and Dangers.
•
•
.
•
•
739
744
747
American Rose-Comb Dominique. 753
761
·
The Orpingtons.
How Black Orpingtons Were Pro-
duced...
Rose-Comb Black Orpingtons.
Buff Orpingtons
Single-Comb and Rose-Comb
White Orpingtons.
Diamond Jubilee Orpington.
Spangled Orpington.
General Comment.
Mating Orpingtons...
The Lincolnshire Buffs...
The Leghorns
►
•
•
•
•
By E. G. Wyckoff
Value of Careful Selection.
Leghorn Characteristic Shape
Single-Comb White Leghorns
Single-Comb Brown Leghorns
Single-Comb Buff Leghorns
Making the Color .
Keeping Accurate records
Black Leghorns..
Silver Duckwing Leghorns
Pile Leghorns.....
Dominique Leghorns
Rose-Combed Leghorns.
Care and Management
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
·
•
•
•
•
•
PAGE
683
686
691
694
699
708
7II
712
716
717
718
723
724
727
729
731
733
733
734
736
736
763
765
766
767
768
771
773
775
781
787
792
797
799
805
812
816
817
828
831
834
839
841
849
White Dorkings ..
Prize Rouen Drake and Duck..
Dark Brahmas.
Light Brahma Pootra (Brahmaputra) Cock and Hen..
Old Kent and Sussex Five-Toed Gray Fowls, 1855..
Plymouth Rocks.
White-Laced Red Wyandotte Cock and Hen.
Black Orpingtons.
•
LIST OF COLORED PLATES
·
•
Silver-Spangled Hamburgs.
Buff Leghorns..
Black-Breasted Brown-Red Prize Leghorn.
Modern Prize Shanghai or Cochin..
•
·
•
►
•
·
·
•
•
•
FRONTISPIECE
FACING PAGE
498
523
558
587
609
651
723
750
787
808
827
LIST OF FULL-PAGE
BLACK-AND-WHITE PLATES
Old Kent Farm Fowls..
Old English Four-Toed Cock and Hen...
The Celebrated Gray Dorking Cockerel and Pullet.
Prize Dorking Cockerel..
White Dorking Prize Hen.
White Shanghai Cock of 1853
Scotch Gray Fowls..
Langshan Cockerel.
Buff Plymouth Rock Cock.
Cross of Old Sussex Game Cock and Lincolnshire Buff Hen.
Good All-Round Silver Wyandotte.
The Famous White Wyandotte Cockerel, “Dodo
American Rose-Comb Dominique Cock.
American Rose-Comb Dominique Hen.
Rose-Comb Black Orpington Cock...
Single-Comb White Leghorn Cockerel.
Rose-Combed Buff Leghorn Exhibition Birds.
•
•
•
•
""
•
•
•
•
A Flock of Single-Combed White Leghorns About Four Months Old.
A Pair of Rose-Combed White Leghorns From Exhibition Stock.
White Leghorn Cock..
•
PAGE
429
457
473
491
515
545
567
599
627
635
661
681
755
759
769.
803
825
836
843
851
LIST OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS
Old Kent White Group..
Sunning.
Cuckoo Bakies, or Jumpers.
Modern Rose-Comb White Dorking
Old Kent and Sussex Barn-Door
Cock..
Cornish Indian
Old Azeel Cock.
Leg of Tawny Old Kent Five-Toed
Fowl...
Feet of Old Kent Fowl.
Dark Old Kent and Sussex Four-
Toed Pullet.
Pheasant Markings.
·
Pullet, Showing
Old-Style Kent Five-Toed Hen.
Kent Barn-Door Spurred Hen.
Old Sussex Cock.
Old Sussex Hen.
Sussex Barn-Door Fowl.
•
•
White-Shanked and Spangled Par-
tridge Game Hen.
White-Spangled,
•
Black-Breasted,
Bright-Red Old Kent and Sussex
Five-Toed Hen.
Dark Dorking Cock.
Cockerel and Pullet, Old-Style Prize
Dorking of 1853..
Cockerel and Pullet, Prize-Bred Old
Kent
•
·
Young Dorking Cockerel..
Old Kent Dark-Red Hen and Two
Others.
A Pair of White Dorkings.
Prize Dorking Hens.
Prize Dorking Cockerel.
The Honorable Mr. Astley's Gray
•
•
•
•
·
Dorkings
Old English Black-Breasted Red
Dorkings
•
Old Kent Five-Toed Hen
Present-Day Prize Dorking.
Front View of a Dead Dorking,
Showing Breast.
Champion Silver Dorking Cock.
Dorking Cockerel..
Prize Dorking Cockerel of 1885.
Silver Dorking Pullet.
"Restful"
Champion Dark Dorking Hen.
Prize Dark Dorking Hen.
Dark Dorking Cockerel.
Prize Dark Dorking Hen.
Prize Silver-Gray Dorking Hen.
Bright Red and Black-Spangled
Dorking Hen..
Silver-Gray Dorkings.
Silver-Gray Dorking Hen.
Dorking and Langshan Hen.
Rose-Combed White Dorkings.
•
·
·
·
▸
PAGE
425
427
428
432
433
435
436
438
440
441
445
446
449
450
452
455
456
459
461
462
463
465
466
469
471
476
479
481
494
497
499
500
502
504
505
507
508
Cockerel.
White Cochins in Open Range.
Cochin Pullet.
First-Prize Buff Cochin Pullet.
Old-Style Shanghai Cochin, 1856.
Type of Shanghais in 1858.
Thomas Sturgeon's Buff Shanghai
Cockerel,“Jerry”
•
·
••
Cochin Pullet..
Prize Buff Cochin Pullet.
Buff Cochin Cockerel.
White Cochins in Their Summer
Quarters..
Buff Cochins at Home.
•
·
White Cochin.
Type of the Present-Style Cochin.
Prize White Cochin.
Buff Cochin Cock.
Cochin Cockerel.
Partridge Cochin Cock.
Dark Brahmas, 1853
Light Brahma Pullet.
Queen Victoria's Light Gray Shang-
hais, 1853.
·
..
·
•
•
►
•
•
•
482
485
486 Light Brahma Cockerels.
489 White Cochin Hens.
•
Prize Light Brahma Pullet..
Very Young Light Brahma Cockerel,
•
1853.
Very Young Light Brahma Pullet, 1853
Prize Light Brahma Cock.
Light Brahma Hen.
Head of Light Brahma Hen.
First-Prize Light Brahma.
Light Brahma Hen.
Dark Brahma Male..
Brahma Cockerel.
Dark Brahma Cockerel
Dark Brahma Pullet.
Dark Brahmas.
Light Brahma Cockerel, 1900.
·
•
•
•
• •
·
•
•
.
Croad Imported Langshan
Croad Langshan Cockerel.
A Croad Imported Langshan, 1883..
Young Langshan Cockerel.
Langshan Cockerel, Showing Length
of Limb.
Imported Black Langshan on the
War-Path
Pure Croad Langshan Cockerel.
Pure Croad Langshan Hen.
PAGE
511
512
520
522
523
525
526
528
531
533
535
536
539
540
541
543
547
548
550
553
555
556
559
561
563
564
565
569
570
571
573
574
575
576
579
581
582
584
спечели сел
585
586
587
588
∞ ∞ ∞
56 7∞0
589
590
591
592
593
593
Prize Black Langshan Hen.
White Langshan Hen.
Croad Langshan Hen.
Cross-Bred Cockerel, Langshan and
Cornish and Old English Game.
Imported Croad Langshan.
Croad Langshan
Croad Langshan, 1889.
Langshan Pullet.....
List of Text Illustrations-Continued
·
An Imported Langshan.
Langshan Pullet.
Langshan Cock..
Some Well-Bred Plymouth Rocks..
White Plymouth Rock Prize Cock,
"Edward B., Jr.".
A White Plymouth Rock Prize-
Winner at New York Show.
Three Prize-Winning White Ply-
mouth Rock Pullets..
6 G
·
•
Buff Plymouth Rock Pullet.
Ideal Plymouth Rock, Male.
Ideal Plymouth Rock, Female.
Prize-Winning Barred Plymouth
Rock Cockerel..
A Marvel of Regular Barring.
Regularity of Barring.
Showing Surface and Under Color..
"Vulcan III." A Son of "Vulcan
II." Plymouth Rock Cockerel
-American Type
"C
·
First-Prize White Rock Pullet-
American Type
White Plymouth Rock Pullet.
“Philla Ï.” Prize Plymouth Rock
Hen-American Type.
"Gloria II.," Prize Plymouth Rock
Hen-American Type...
"Vulcan." Plymouth Rock Cock-
erel-American Type.
"Dolly Madison," First Prize Ply-
mouth Rock Pullet-American
Type..
"Philla II." Plymouth Rock Hen-
American Type
·
·
•
►
Plymouth Rock..
Superba," Plymouth Rock Hen-
American Type…...
"Vulcan I." Plymouth
Rock-
American Type
"Vulcan II." Prize Plymouth Rock
Cock-American Type.
•
Plymouth Rock Hen-American
Type.....
Langshan Cockerel
Chicks in Repose.
White Wyandotte Pullets in Winter
Quarters..
Silver Wyandotte Cock-"Norwood,
Jr."
Silver-Laced Wyandotte.
Silver Wyandotte Pullet.
Silver Wyandotte Hen..
Silver-Laced Wyandotte Pullets.
Two Silver Wyandotte Pullets..
•
PAGE
596
596
597
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
607
609
611
612
615
617
618
619
620
621
621
622
624
625
629
630
633
634
639
640
641
642
643
644
647
648
649
653
655
657
659
667
669
672
White Wyandotte Cock..
White Wyandotte Cockerel of Good
Type..
White Wyandotte from Illinois.
Splendid White Wyandotte Hen.
Buff Wyandotte Cockerel.
Buff Wyandotte Cockerel.
Partridge Wyandotte Cockerel.
Prize-Winning Partridge Wyandotte
Cock..
Prize-Winning Partridge Wyandotte
Hen...
•
A Pair of Partridge Wyandottes.
Partridge Wyandotte Pullet, Greatly
Reduced, and Some of Her
Feathers.
Two Prize-Winning White Wyan-
a
•
•
•
Buff Wyandotte Cockerel.
Two Good Buff Wyandotte Hens.
Typical White Wyandotte Cock.
An American Black Java Cock.
Mottled Java Cock of Good Form.
Mottled Javas of Twenty-five Years
Ago...
Single-Comb Rhode Island Red Cock.
Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red Cock.
Rhode Island Red Pullet.
Rhode Island Red Hens, Ruby and
Rose..
Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red Cock.
Single-Comb Rhode Island Red Hen.
Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red Pullet.
Rhode Island Red Cock.
Rhode Island Red Hen.
•
•
•
dottes.
First-Prize Silver-Penciled Wyan-
dotte Cock..
Feathers Taken from Ordinary Silver-
Penciled Wyandottes as they
Run in the Yards of the Breeder,
E. G. Wyckoff..
.712 and 713
Silver-Penciled Wyandotte Cock...
Silver-Penciled Wyandotte Hen.
Silver-Penciled Wyandotte Pullets
in the Yards of E. G. Wyckoff,
New York..
714
717
•
•
•
PAGE
674
•
676
679
685
688
691
694
697
699
701
•
704
707
710
719
720
721
722
725
726
728
732
735
738
American Dominique Hen.
Single-Comb Jubilee Orpington Hen.
Single-Comb White Orpington Hen.
Single-Comb Black Orpington Cock-
erel..
Single-Comb Black Orpington Hen.
American-Bred Single-Comb Buff
Orpingtons..
766
Black Orpington Shown in 1892.. 771
Single - Comb Spangled Orpington
Hen..
741
742
745
746
748
749
754
761
763
764-
765
Rose-Comb Buff Orpington Hen.
772
773
·
775
Single-Comb White Orpington Cock.
Single-Comb Buff Orpington Hen.. 776
Single-Comb Buff Orpington Cock..
Head of Single-Comb Spangled Or-
777
pington Cock..
778
Lincolnshire Buff Cockerel, 1891-92. 782
List of Text Illustrations-Continued
Lincolnshire Buff Hen..
Single-Comb Brown Leghorns, in
Yards of W. W. Kulp, Penn-
sylvania.
A Typical Single-Comb White Pullet
Head.
A Single-Comb White Leghorn Hen..
Old Style White Leghorn Cockerel.
Rose-Comb Brown Leghorns, in Yards
of W. W. Kulp, Pennsylvania..
Single-Comb White Leghorn Cockerel
Head..
}"
66
66
Shape Sketch of (English) Silver-
Medal Brown Leghorn.
Single-Comb Brown Leghorn Cock,
'Nina's Duke, Ist'
Single-Comb Brown Leghorn Hen,
Nina's Pride'
First Prize Single-Comb Buff Cock
Madison Square Garden, 1904. ·
From a Prize-Winning Pen of Single-
Comb Buff Leghorns at Madison
Square Garden, New York, 1904
•
•
PAGE
783
787
788
791
794
797
800
806
810
812
815
818
·
Buff Leghorn Cockerel.
Single-Comb Buff Leghorn, Madison
Square Garden, New
New York,
Winner of First Prize, 1904..
Single-Comb Black Leghorn Cockerel
Single-Comb Black Leghorn Hen...
Silver Duckwing Leghorn Cock.
Silver Duckwing Leghorn Hen.
From a Prize-Winning Pen_Single-
Comb White Leghorns, Madison
Square Garden, New York, 1904
Prize Rose-Comb Brown Leghorn Hen
Prize Rose-Comb Brown Leghorn
+
•
•
PAGE
821
823
828
830
833
835
838
847
848
853
854
Cock.
Buff Leghorn Pullet.
White Leghorn Twenty Years Ago..
From a Prize-Winning Pen of Single-
Comb Buff Leghorns at Madison
Square Garden, New York, 1904 855
THE POULTRY BOOK

M²..
OLD KENT AND SUSSEX BARN-DOOR COCK
MZOL
Finan
Lell
THE FARM OR HOMESTEAD FOWL*
"Let me embrace thee, good old chronicle,
That hast so long walk'd hand in hand with time."-TROILUS AND CRESSIDA.

HE time and origin of our domestic fowl will never be
known; surmises have been made, and indefinite con-
clusions have been arrived at, but the foundations of
belief are such as to leave considerable doubt as to the
stability and strength of the theory, though said to be
based on natural sequences. Whether the domestic fowl was derived
from one source only, or whether there were others that have passed from
the earth leaving no trace behind, is a moot question, and one that must
* As the three following chapters deal largely with English breeds, Mr. Weir's text as
it appeared in the English edition has been but slightly changed. It is printed substantially
as he wrote it, except where condensation and revision were necessary to meet American
ideas and conditions.-EDitor.
425
426
The Poultry Book
be left undecided. No absolute proof exists, yet there are peculiarities
and differences that were noted centuries ago, that I for one can scarcely
reconcile, as to our domestic fowl having but one common origin, that of
Gallus bankiva. It being so well known, it is needless to say that thousands
of years ago poultry was not only one of the valued adjuncts of the farm,
but, from descriptions of them still in existence, there were other numerous
forms, sizes, and varieties; though as to what they were, or how differing
from each other, we get no insight until about the first year of the Christian
era, and that from the pens of Lucius Junius, Moderratus, Columella,
Varro, and Pliny the younger. Nor do any of these write as though
the varieties were something new, or that the fowls of the period were
merely the reclaimed of the wild, but distinctly point to the fact by their
descriptions that there was at that time little or no resemblance between
the varieties then enumerated and the slightly made, brilliant-colored
inhabitants of the Indian jungle. True, they write of the courageous.
fowls of Tanagra, and they note also the fatting of a different kind of
poultry at Delos, etc.; while Columella gives at length a description which,
taken as being correct, tells of a fowl for the homestead and for the table
of even superexcellence. Nor are these mentioned as in any way peculiar
or strange; but such, among others, in the belief of the writer, being the
best of their kind and the most desirable for profit beyond all others.
Thus at that time the fowl as a household bird was plentiful, of the highest
quality, and not only in great variety, but even then held in the greatest
esteem, as much for its dignified bearing and courage as for its culinary
usefulness.
Pliny the younger, having a naturalist's knowledge of the fowl as it
then was, writes enthusiastically of the noble bird. In the tenth book
of his great work he says: "These birds about our houses are our sentinels
by night. Nature has created them to awaken and call men up to do
their work; they have also a sense and understanding of glory; moreover,
they are astronomers and know the course of the stars; they divide the
day by their crowing from three hours to three hours; when the sun goes
to rest they go to roost, and like sentinels they keep relief of the fourth
watch; in the camp they call men up to their careful labor and travel.
They will not suffer the sun to rise and steal upon us, but they give warning
of it; by their crowing they tell us the day is coming, likewise by clapping
their sides with their wings. Ye shall see them march stately, carrying
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
427
their necks bolt upright, with a comb on their heads like the crest of a
soldier's helmet, and there is not a bird besides himself that so oft looketh
up to the sun and sky; and hereupon it is that, advancing proudly as they
do, the very lions, which of all wild beasts are the most courageous, will
not abide the sight of them."
This is the general outline of "the bird" as Pliny saw it, and for which
he has no stint of

admiration. But
long before his time
-ages, perhaps its
known,
valor was
and in the far-away
centuries it was
appreciated; and
one section at least
was kept almost as
warrior retainers for
strife and "wage of
battle" only. Of
these, distinctive as
birds of a higher
grade, different as
is the mettled racer
or the Arab steed
from the massive
Clydesdale cart-
horse, was the
Game-fowl of
Tanagra from that
of the farm, so well
described by
Columella as the
fowl that lacked
nothing to make it
perfect in form,
size, and utility; he also tells what it should be and no doubt then
was: "They should be of a plumage red or tawny, with black wings.
ge
Indian forme Inter
Crystal Palace
Alpern
CORNISH INDIAN PULLET, SHOWING PHEASANT MARKINGS
First prize, Crystal Palace, 1893

428
The Poultry Book
Let the whole be of the same color, or a near approach. Let white
fowls be avoided, for they are tender and less robust; neither is it
easy to find those
of that color
that are prolific.
Let the breeding
hens be of a
choice color, of
robust body,
square-framed,
large and broad-
breasted, large
heads, with small
erect combs and
white ears; and
of those thus
characterized let
the largest be
procured, and not
with an equal
number of claws.
Those hens are
reckoned the
purest bred which
are five-clawed,
but so placed
that no cross spurs arise from the legs, for she that hath this malelike
appendage is rarely fruitful, and when she does sit she breaks the eggs
with her sharp spurs or claws."
Here it will be observed that as far back as two thousand years
Columella speaks of the pureness of breed; this is evidence that there were
others with which they might be mingled or crossed, but he does not
consider it advisable, as he expressly mentions that the hens should be
of the "purest breed"; and if the hens were of such form and color
it would be difficult to either improve or equal, much less surpass
them, just in the same way and for the same reason that the Kent,
Sussex, and Surrey fowls of fifty years ago were
were pronounced by

OLD AZEEL COCK
Owned by Mr. Weir

Mery
For de
OLD KENT FARM FOWLS
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
431
competent judges to be of such excellence for the table as
unsurpassed and unsurpassable."
66
was
Columella continues: "The cocks should be lustful, colored like
the hens, with the same number of claws, but taller, proud of carriage,
with combs erect, and of blood-red; eyes brown and black, beak short
and hooked, ears very large and very white, wattles looking white for
their shining and hanging down like a beard; the feathers of the neck
varying, but preferably yellow or golden, and spreading down over the
shoulders; the breast broad and muscular, the wings brawny, like arms;
the tail lofty and composed of a double row of arching feathers, legs sturdy,
not long, but armed as it were with dangerous spurs. Even when not
prepared for fighting or triumph of victory their temper should be shown
to be highly generous, haughty, active, watchful, and given to crow often,
also not easily alarmed, for sometimes it may be needful for them to
repel attacks and protect their conjugal flocks."
66
From the foregoing may be noted the great resemblance between
these and our old Kent, Sussex, and Surrey five-toed fowls of half a century
ago. Chaucer, writing in the fourteenth century, tells of a similar fowl.
Maister Prudens Choiselat (in 1586) describes the farm fowl
of that period, and the profit to be gained by a poultry farm to be “five
hundred pounds of honest profit, all cost and charges deducted." He
states that "fivescore cocks shall suffice for twelve hundred hennes:
for one cock may suffice for ten hennes." And as for their age, those
of one yeare and a half unto two yeares are the best."* The color is
like to that described by Columella: "You shall consider the plumage or
feathers; the black, red, and tawnie are the best, also they have their
crests or combs upright and double, or divided; their eyes red and glistening,
their beaks short and hooked, well spurred, their going haughtie and
proude, their voice strong and sounding, and a crow much representyng
such a majestie as the cock of the Persians, which among them was rever-
enced for a 'Kyng,' as reciteth Aristophanes."
It appears that in those days women were employed "to increase
and govern them well": "You must have foure servants or maides.
with large eares, well to conceive and understand your commandments,
and the feete of hartes, with diligent expedition to execute the same,
and a right trustie right hande to be faithful, loiall, obedient, and of few
*Then as now.
432
The Poultry Book
wordes; for, as saith Terentian Parmenis, 'it is a great fault of servants
to be babblers and not to keep their master's counsel'; their office shall
be bringing the hennes into their houses every day at five of the clock in

ހރު
ه
Artery
/.
August 20
jer
3/01/
LEG OF TAWNY OLD KENT FIVE-TOED FOWL
Bred and owned by Mr. Weir
dans
BUTTON
the evening in summer, and at three of the clock in winter; also they
shall be diligent to close the entries and windows of the henne-houses,
that in the nighte the foxe* (the natural enemy of the henne), weaselles,
and polecats, mai have no access, and in the morning open the entries
and windows that they may come forth, and then make clean the perches
and lathes; also refresh their pottes and troughs with clean water, for
filthy and corrupt water engendereth pippe and other sicknesses."
Here it should be noted that the hen-house is to be cleansed every
morning, and further, that fresh water is to be given in all the pots and
troughs; showing how careful the poultry-keeper of that period was for
the comfort, health, and cleanliness of his fowls. But I am somewhat
in doubt whether it would be possible to get "four maides with large
eares" to undertake the management of twelve hundred hens and five-
score cocks at the present time.
All the writers on the subject seem to agree with Columella as to
what a good fowl should be. Leonard Mascall, writing in 1581, speaks
* It will be observed that both in this century and the subsequent no mention is made.
of the rat, which is now the bane of nearly all our poultry yards and houses.
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
433
"And
precisely in the same way as to the signs and figure of a good hen:
these to be of a tawny color, or of a russet [reddish black], which are
counted the chiefest colors; and those hennes next whiche hathe ye
pens* and hackled not all blackish but in parte, as in the greye and white
hennes, are nothynge so profitable. The henne with a tuft of feathers
on her head is reasonably good, and of feathered hens also keep the grey,
the brown, and the red." This is the first mention of top-knots. He
adds: “Chickens lay in seven months."† Our present early layers lay
sometimes at five months, but this is an exception; so in this respect we
have now a slight advantage with some breeds, but not in all. Further
he says: "The redde cocke is counted on as the best."
Thomas Cogan, Maister of Artes, in "The Haven of Health" (1595)
points to the fact that "the fleshe of those fowles which trust most
to their winges and to breed in high countries is lighter than the
fleshe of such as seldom or never flies and be bred at home."
This is a
truism that is not

۱۱۱۸
sufficiently recog-
nized now. Any
one keeping fowls
for the table must
be aware that
unless they have
their liberty and
freedom to
to fly,
and so exercise
their wings, it is
useless to expect
to find a large
muscular system,
such as the pecto-
ral, as when the
wings are used
freely and often. With poultry kept only for the production of eggs it
.
2
#111
FEET OF OLD KENT FOWL
Once owned by Mr. Weir
* The primary wing feathers.
† Several of my old gray-colored Kent and Sussex have laid this year (1902) before
they were six months old.
434
The Poultry Book
matters little, as fleshy muscular development is not needed, nor is it
generally in such existence when the hens are prolific egg-producers.
In the translation from the French by Surflet of "The Maison
Rustique," 1600, occurs the following: "As concerning and ordering
of pullen, which is the cheapest thing that a good housewife is to regard,
there must care be had that the hen-house be every day made clean, even so
soon as the pullen be out, and the dung put aside for fatting the meadows."
Again, cleanliness in the hen-house is considered to be one of the chief
points tending to success, and the frequent destroying of insects most
essential, nor is it nearly often enough put into practice by the modern
henwife or poultryman; but, says the old writer: "It is always preferable
to have baskets for your hennes to lay in, inasmuch as you can take the
baskets, and by having a large lead tank or cistern, put them into any
liquid you may like to destroy the insects, then dry, and put them back
again in their proper positions. You will find this a very excellent plan."
And again the importance of fresh, clean, clear water is urged on
the housewife, not simply as a want, but as an actual necessity, and as
not only one, but as the most prominent means of keeping the poultry
flock healthy. "Their water-pots to let them drink must be kept clean,
and filled with clean water every day, and that twice in winter and thrice
in summer. Let their water be good alwaies." The extreme wisdom
of following this advice must be manifest to the most careless, for it
is well known that the germs of typhoid fever, which are so fatal to the
human species, are generally present in dirty or sewage water. "Let her
[that is, the housewife] cause to be cast out upon the dunghill oftentimes
fresh straw, right over against the barne, where the pullen used to scratch,
and neare unto the same place let her cause to be put sand, dust, or ashes,
to procure them the pleasure of dusting themselves in the sunne and
preening their feathers." This is quoted to show that all these things
were as carefully attended and looked to over three hundred years ago
as now, and it might be added generally more so. Nearly all our modern
methods are only the old ones re-substituted, even that of the incubator.
In the olden time they kept fowls and bred chickens with a greater certainty
and in better health than many of the now professed poultrymen of
the day.
And still further, writing of the dunghill cock (1630), Gervase Markham
says: "You shall understand that the dunghill cock (for the fighting
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
435
cock deserveth much larger and particular discourse) is a fowl above all
other birds, the most manlyest, stately, and majesticall, very tame and
familiar with man, and naturally inclined to live and prosper in hospitable
houses."* This was in Markham's time possibly the case, or at least
before that, because the kitchen was not infrequently a roosting-place
for the poultry. Chaucer mentions this in the "Nun's Tale," as regards
Chanticlere. But further, Markham describes the cock as "hot and

DARK OLD KENT AND SUSSEX FOUR-TOED PULLET
strong for generation, and will serve ten hens sufficiently, and some twelve
and thirteen; he delighteth in open and liberal plains, where he may
lead forth his hens into green pastures and under hedges, where they
warm and bathe themselves in the sun, for to be penned up in walled
places or in paved courts is most unnatural to them, neither will they
prosper therein."
"Now for the hen," says Gervase Markham, "if she be good, she
*May not this have reference to "household pieces," which too often are plentiful
when provisions are abundant?

436
The Poultry Book
should not differ much from the nature of the cock, but be valiant, and
laborious, both for herself and her chickens." (This is self-evident, and
should be an almost indispensable quality in every barn-door hen.) "Her
shape the biggest
and largest are the
best, every pro-
portion answering
those described of
the cock, only
instead of her
comb she should
have upon her
crown a high,
thick tuft of
feathers; to have
many strong claws
is good, but to
want their hinder
claws is better, for
they oft break
their eggs, and
such hens some-
times prove unnatural." (Perhaps he means by this that the spurred
hens crow, which is not infrequently the case, but nevertheless they lay
well and are excellent mothers.) He continues, however, "It is not good
to choose a crowing hen."

یکان
Dorking A
лей
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
OLD-STYLE KENT FIVE-TOED HEN
OLD BARN-DOOR FOWLS
HAVING traced the red, tawny, black, and gray fowl through the
Middle Ages in reference to color, form, and usefulness, it will be well
to show its importance as part of the live stock of the farm, and as the
luxurious food of the lord, the landowner, or the wealthy. As stated
before, there can be but little doubt, if any, that the Romans bred both
Game- or fighting-cocks, as well as the magnificent domestic fowl which
have been so carefully and minutely described by Columella and Pliny.
Each author quoted gives the outline of form and color of the particular
and much-to-be-desired breed of his time as the best, in terms almost.
The Farm or
or Homestead Fowl
437
identical with the Game-cock. Though possibly not proved, still it is
rightly supposed that the Romans, when in England, had this very breed
about their farms and villas, while it is a most curious fact that only the
bones of the Game- or fighting-cock have been discovered. Later, the
Anglo-Saxons must have kept them, as the bondmen, "borderius," or
small farmers had the care of the poultry to supply the table or “board”
of their lord and master, and their farms they held as bordlands, from
whence they furnished eggs, poultry, and other cibarious produce. Rent
was likewise paid either in service or land-produce, as was also the case
in A.D. 1066. It was, however, found far easier to collect the manorial
dues once for all in coin than to ensure the various services of work, and
boon work, and the payments of seed, fowls, geese, or eggs-though they
were faithfully rendered. Of such importance were fowls as articles of
food and commerce that from very early times they are to be found
included as part of the fines and rent-charge of lands and tenements,
numerous documents being still in existence attesting the fact. As notes
from some of these may prove interesting, I will give some extracts from
the 'Kent Archæological Society's Transactions" (though there are
entries of fines elsewhere of a much earlier date), giving simply the number
under which they are tabulated, and omitting details foreign to my purpose:
VOL. XIII. 8TH OF KING EDWARD II.
(384) £1 IIS. 6d. rent, and rent of 10 cocks and 30 hens and appur-
tenances.
(421) £4 75. 4d. rent, and rent of one ploughshare, 7 cocks, 48 hens,
2 geese, and 392 eggs and appurtenances.
(438) 35. rent, and rent of 5 hens and pasturage for 15 two-year-old
sheep.
(445) The fourth part of 57s. 10 d. rent, and rent of a fourth part
of 19 hens and 190 eggs.
VOL. XV. 17TH OF KING EDWARD II.
(753) At Westminster.
1 messuage of 250 acres, 10 acres of wood,
21s. rent, and rent of 17 hens with appurtenances.
(761) £4 rent, and rent of 4 cocks, 100 hens, and 100 eggs.
(771) Sixth part of 3s. 8d. rent, and rent of 1 cock and 3 hens with
appurtenances.
(805) 345. rent, and rent of 20 hens, etc.

438
The Poultry Book
(806) 3s. rent, and rent of 4 hens and 36 eggs, etc.
(892) 20s. rent, and rent of 2 cocks and 10 hens with appurtenances.
(894) 100s. rent, and rent of 21 hens and 200 eggs, etc.
These are a few covenants out of many, and are only given to show
that there must have been a certain evenness of quality, size, and value in
poultry throughout this period, so as to be a recognized staple for barter,
purchase, or rental. Some of these entries are quaint, such as that relating
to a fourth part of 19 hens, rendering the division somewhat difficult
in the way of dividing the half a hen into four parts. Other entries are
even still more interesting, for Hume, in his "History of England" (which
is reproduced in the "Tunbridge Wells Guide" of 1701), states that
"the Lady of a former Lord of Abergavenny offered the King a
bribe of two hundred hens if she might be allowed to be with her

livey
su 1851
KENT BARN-DOOR SPURRED HEN
li
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
439
husband but a short time, who it is presumed was confined or
imprisoned for some reason.”
The tithes of Yaldham, Kent, from 140 acres of land were given by
Godfried de Cos to the monks of St. Andrew, Rochester, and continued
in the possession of the priory until its dissolution. They were afterward
presented to the dean and chapter, who let them for twenty-one years
for 6s. 8d. and two fat capons.
Again, in the twelfth year of the reign of Henry VIII. (De Banco Roll,
Michaelmas term): To wit, Henry Ffynche [now spelled Finch] in his
proper person demands against Thomas Grovehurst and Joan his wife,
the Manor of Ore, Gondhurst,* and Hadlow, with appurtenances, also
300 acres of land, 40 acres of meadow, 200 acres of pasture, 40 acres of
wood, 300 acres of marsh, and 40s. rent; also rent of 5 cocks, 20 hens, and
200 eggs, etc., etc.- "Kent Archæological Society's Transactions,
Vol. XIII., page 330.
This is given in extenso to show the curious distinction made between
land, meadow, and pasture. One more illustration of the strange way
the farmers paid their rents at the beginning of the last century is from
Chambers's Journal, September 4, 1897.
Abstract of rental of the real estate of James, late Earl Panmure:
Money rent payable in money.
Then follows botts of wheat, barley, oatmeal, etc.
Geese, 8, at Is. each. . . .
Capons, 458, at 6d. each..
Chickens, 456, at 1½d. each.
Hens, 312, at 3d. each.
etc., etc.
•
·
•
£
S. d.
1,843 17 11
1,586 I 8
8
Med
II 9
2 17
3 18 I
""
Here again we get half a hen rendered and valued. How could this
have been accomplished? It must have been a difficult task to dispose
of such stock to advantage. Yet the method of payment partly in kind
still existed in the nineteenth century, and does so in a few cases at the
present time. However, these excerpts show our poultry was by no means
a neglected farm product during the Middle Ages, but was carefully
selected, tended, and used as being of a certain monetary value or exchange.
In a "Treatise on Husbandry," written by Maystre Groshede (Great-
head or Grossteste), sometime Bishop of Lyncoln, entitled "Reules Sayns
Robert," made and translated out of the French into English, and con-
* Now Goudhurst.
UorM
K
440
The Poultry Book
sisting of twenty-eight practical maxims-compiled by the learned bishop
for the guidance of Margaret, Countess of Lincoln, who was left a widow
—
A.D. 1240 it
appears that
instructions
were to be
given to the
farm bailiff.
From the
wording it is
conclusive as

to the yield
and profit that
were expected
from well-
selected poul-
try, which were
to be rented:
"Fyve hennes
and a cocke for
IIIs. in a yere,
and there be
some baylyfs
and deyes*
that may say
nay to thys
prouffytes.
But I shall preue it by reason, for in halfe a yere be XXVI weeks,
and in those XXV
those XXVI weeks IX score dayes, and in eche of these
dayes shall have an egge of eche henne in that half yere, it is a feble
sale, and XXX eggs be not worth a penny." As before remarked,
the fowls kept for many centuries, and described by writers on the
subject, were apparently unequaled in form, flesh, and large full
breast by any cross-breeds of this half of the present century. Yet
we have had these same old English farm or dunghill fowls described
||||
HTTPS
Kemili
را رررز
-S.
OLD SUSSEX COCK
Owned by Mrs. Ellis
old Suover
mr.sc. Ellis:
O
-
* A female servant that had charge of the dairy and all pertaining to it, in some
cases a man seeing to the same work.
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
441
as delicate, bad layers, and unfertile; but here is Bishop Groshead telling
of the poultry of A.D. 1253, that besides these excellences of size, form,
and colors they were also good layers-180 from a good table-fowl in
half a year is a number that most of our modern hens fail to produce.
Nor does it appear that they were much inclined for incubation, for
the Bishop puts in by way of parenthesis: "And yf ony of theym syt in
that half a yere or in some daye in defaulte of lyenge, ye shall be recom-
pensed therefor, and of VI more to bere out the ferme ye cocks and wt
the sale of chikens y syttynge hennes brynge forthe in that other half
yere." Evidently from this the first half-year's eggs were by no means
all that were laid, and if not, these "old-time hennes" are not equaled
by our modern mongrels in any respect. He concludes: "Every henne
shall answere you of IX score egges or of chikens to ye value."
As regards the prices of poultry in A.D 1261, capons were 2½d., cocks
d., hens Id. In A.D. 1326 they rose to-capons 3d., cocks 13d., pullets
Id.; and in the
time of the
famine, A.D.

1368-70
capons 4d.,
cocks 2 d.,
hens 2d., pul-
lets 1d. These
prices ruled
with only a
little deflec-
tion until A.D.
1400-20, when
food again
becoming
scarce they
rose; and
Kentish capons
۱\\\.
た
​%
Old Suosy
OLD SUSSEX HEN
Owned by Mrs. Ellis
mis Eflin
-trud
Weis Rod mile
Del
are frequently
quoted at a
higher price than the ordinary capons, in some cases being of
double the value. No mention is anywhere made of Sussex as being
Dorm
442
The Poultry Book
good, nor is "Dorking" accredited with fowls of any particular merit—
in fact, with none at all.
Perhaps it would be well to give an idea of the general state of agri-
culture and farm produce of England over three centuries ago. Here
are some passages of a book entitled "A Compendious or Brief Examination
of certayne Ordinary Complaints of divers our Countrymen in these our
Dayes." It was written by W. S. (William Stafford), gentleman, and
was for a time erroneously ascribed to Shakespeare. It bears the date of
1581, and treats in dialogue of the depressed state of the country at that
period, and of the great dearth then existing, and its supposed causes.
Here is the gentleman's (a knight) complaint against the husbandman,
in which we get the value of farm stock at this period:
"And I say it is long of you husbandmen, that wee are forced to
rayse our rents by reason wee must buy so deere all things that wee have
of you: as corne, cattell, goose, pig, capon, chicken, butter, and egges.
What thing is there of all these but that yee sell it now deerer by the one
nail than yee did within these XXX yeares? I could in this towne [London]
buy the best pig, or goose, that I could lay my hand on, for fourepence,
which now costeth twelvepence, a good capon for threepence or four-
pence, a chicken for id. [one penny], a hen for iid. [twopence], which
costeth me double and triple ye money; it is likewise in greater ware,
as biefe and mutton." The husbandman answers: "I graunt that, but I
say you and your sorte, men of lande, are the first cause hereof by reason
you rayse your landes. The knight offers to lower the rent if the other
will reduce the price of the food, which the latter ultimately refuses.
""
Further on it is interesting to note the profit the husbandman attributes.
to his live stock in comparison to his corn, for he answers: "And to say
the very truth, I that have inclosed little or nothing of my grounde, could
never be able to make up my lorde's rent were it not for a little herd that
I have of neate,* sheepe, swyne, geese, and hennes, that I do rear on my
ground; whereof, because the price is somewhat round, I make more
clear profit than I doe of all my corne." Thus it will be seen that even
over three hundred years ago corn-growing was not looked on with more
favor by the farmers than at the present, though they grew, besides
their cattle, poultry to advantage, as doubtless may yet be done.
Presently the Doctor (scholar and parson) speaks, and after enumer-
* Cattle.
Mou
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
443
ating the value of various goods says: "Then the more husbandry there
is occupied, the more universal breede should be of all victuals of meate,
sheepe, swine, geese, hennes, capons, and chickens; for all these are reared
much on corne." It appears, then, that the argument for the breeding
and rearing of poultry would be equally applicable at the present time;
and it is my firm belief that this particular live stock of the farm was
then more even and finer in quality than those of the ordinary farmer
of to-day; which if more understood, as a high-class food production,
better prices would be realized, consequently a larger degree of profit. As
to the value of poultry, and the quantity provided at the numerous feasts
of the middle and later ages, it will be best to follow up the fine old English
breeds of fowls gradually with regard to their marks, value, and locality.
Horsham was a parliamentary borough from the year 1295, and a
market-town. In 1697 (more than two hundred years ago) “The Traveller's
Almanack" mentions the market as being held on Saturday; and in 1770
a gazetteer describes it as having been granted by King John, and having
great store of poultry, usually bought up for the London market. The
Horsham poultry market in 1837 was held on Mondays at "The Black
Horse," where a considerable number of poultry changed hands.
"Kent was celebrated for its capons centuries ago, and in a lesser
degree Sussex. Dorking became known as a fatting center about the
middle of the eighteenth century, the fowls for which it afterward became
so celebrated mostly coming from Kent and Sussex, and it, like these
also, may have derived the white breed for which the district became
noted from the Romans.* The great causeway called Stoney Street
passes through Dorking Churchyard. Dorking was destroyed by the
Danes, but was rebuilt by Canute or the Normans. This place is famous
for its meat trade and its market for poultry, particularly for the largest
geese and the fattest capons, which are brought hither from Horsham
in Sussex; and the whole business of the people, for many miles, consists
in breeding and fattening; its market is on Thursdays."
An old friend of long ago, who lived at Dorking and well knew its
history, once mentioned to me the fact that incredible numbers of fowls
were sold in Dorking. Upon my questioning him as to what they were,
etc., he said that mostly they were not bred at Dorking, but came from
Sussex, and Horsham market in particular.
* Vide "Environs of London," A.D. 1761.
444
The Poultry Book
From this and what is to be gathered from various other reliable
sources it is pretty certain that Dorking was only a fattening station like
Uckfield, Waldron, Heathfield, Handcross, some places in Kent, and
Boston in Lincolnshire; and the fowls coming from these might just as
well, and with the same propriety, be called Heathfields, Waldrons, etc.,
or Bostons; they are so in the dead markets, but not as a distinctive breed.
The Dorkings, as a breed, have got a reputation entirely from the slovenly
writings of several authors, who have simply echoed the previous one
without inquiry or verification, while the Kent fowls are historical.
Kent, centuries ago, it was said: "The Weald for wood; East Kent for corn;
Romney for meadow; Tenham for an orchard; Sheppey and Reculvers for
wheat; Thanet for barley; and Headcorn for the brood of big, fat, and
commended capons" ("British Curiosities in Art and Nature," 1728).
Of
Mr. Ferguson, in his excellent book on fowls, 1854, gives the following
item of interest: "That a breed bearing much resemblance to our Dorking,
both for external appearance and internal qualities, as well as possessing
the additional claw, has long been propagated in the town of Dorking is
conclusive. I have before me a list of the fowls remitted to market by a
farmer living there, from June to August, A.D. 1683, comprising:
17 dozen.
(6
H
I
5 claws, dead stock
(C
66
((
+ in
4
5
(C
live stock"
From this we observe the five-clawed fowls were well known in that
locality, and at that comparatively early date appear to have been more
numerously kept than the four-clawed ones, at any rate by this individual.*
I also discover from the original manuscript that the price for the one
dozen five-clawed ones (alive) was nearly three times the amount of the
dead stock. It was therefore at that time, as until lately has been the
case, "the breeders were determined, if possible, to monopolize the trade."
Here Mr. Ferguson does not seem to be aware, or has not taken into con-
sideration, that all the southern fowls at least were more or less five-
clawed, and thus described by Gervase Markham in the early part of the
same century; so the argument of the five-clawed being a breed peculiar
to Dorking utterly falls to the ground. The four-toed birds were most
likely a cross between the old English Game and the ordinary barn-door,
* This confutes the oft-repeated statement that four-toed fowls were unknown in the
real and old "Dorking" breed.
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
445

SUSSEX BARN-DOOR FOWL
Sixty years since
apres
Del
1851
many white-shanked Game-cocks being "at walk" about the farms and
homesteads of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey. The live fowls being sold
for more than the dead is no criterion of price, the first possibly being
matured and good breeding stock, while those dead were the refuse, and
killed as being of no value alive. "Still," continues Mr. Ferguson, "it is
evident that the town of Dorking and its suburbs are now, as heretofore,
not only more suitable, from the nature of the soil, to the rearing and
breeding of this class of fowl, but every other thrives unusually well there."
In this there is the error that this breed of five-clawed fowl throve better
at Dorking than elsewhere; for Kent produced better, and Sussex, as noted,
reared large quantities, which, being taken to Horsham market, were

446
The Poultry Book
purchased to be fattened at Dorking and then sent away as the particular
breed of the town; and when, as further proof, the breed was sought for
to exhibit (circa 1850), the best southern birds came from Kent and Sussex,
and in the north some from Lancashire and even Scotland. It is indeed
surprising how long and persistently it has been the endeavor of some
writers about our poultry to attach an undue, an undeserved and inaccurate
importance to the town of Dorking in connection with fine and excellent
white-shanked, five-toed, colored fowls, and those of Kent and Sussex,
when, as has been shown, most of these were bought at Horsham. And
further, history points to the fact that such fowls have for centuries always
been plentiful in our southern counties, and not only used as food, but
also as articles of barter and commerce.

Weir
WHITE-SHANKED AND SPANGLED PARTRIDGE GAME HEN
Style often used to cross with the old four-toed and other barn-door fowls
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
447
In Italy five-toed fowls have long existed; also in France, as several
French writers affirm, and who are quoted; so in Norway, Sweden, and
Spain; and yet with regret one sees it asserted that these, and more especially
those in England, in some way owe their origin to the town of Dorking,
the writers failing to see the absurdity of the theory. It is an entire
misnomer and an utter fallacy to call our fine old Kent, Sussex, and Surrey
fowls all Dorkings, nor were they thus called until about 1850, previously
only the rose-combed whites being so considered. Even now so little
is known concerning our poultry by those "in office" that not infrequently
schedules are made out and prizes offered for Sussex and Surrey fowls
with those of Kent omitted, which was one of if not the very best breeds,
and quite equal to anything in the former counties. Such omissions,
wilful or otherwise, lead to the strong suspicion that many of our best
show-prize birds are the outcome of a combat of interests.
In the "General View of Agriculture in the County of Kent, 1805,"
Mr. John Boys writes of the Kent poultry thus: "Geese and turkeys,
fowls and ducks, are bred in the county sufficiently to supply the inhabit-
ants, and a few to spare for the supply of the shipping that sailed from
Faversham and the Downs." He goes on to say that the price of poultry
is very much increased within the last few years; turkeys now sell as high
as 6s. and 75., geese * 4s. to 5s. each, and ducks and fowls at 3s. 6d. to 4s.
I believe I am correct in saying that this Mr. John Boys was an ancestor of
the Reverend John Boys, who became, with his "old Kents," a prominent
prize-winner in the early fifties of the last century. This brings the breed
of the Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking fowls down to the institution of
poultry shows, and to the time when such fowls, which have been carefully
noted and described by numerous authors, were those so long cherished
and kept in the southern counties. It will be my next duty to show what
they then were, and how they at once not only took a high position, but
were eagerly sought for on their merits as high-class fowls, being raised in
Kent, Sussex, and Surrey by the farmers' wives and daughters from genera-
tion to generation; and many is the time I have heard wordy altercations
as to the particular qualities and values of certain birds to be bred from
or not. My own relatives had stocks of such good and true old Kent and
also Sussex fowls as it would be almost impossible to find now; and there
* These then were small, seldom weighing more than nine to twelve pounds; the
last being considered a very good goose even so late as about 1830–40.
448
The Poultry Book
was nothing on the different farms and homesteads that received and
merited more attention. Some of the land, both in Sussex and Kent,
having been family property for centuries, the poultry was as jealously
guarded-almost as heirlooms. The colors at one farm were nearly
white, with black in the hackles and tails; another flock was entirely
cuckoo-colored; two kept to the old red and tawnies; three had mealy
grays (these were very large) and one had light browns; all were very
white in the shank and feet, with five toes and white toe-nails; the ear-lobes
were large and nearly white, with a pink weather-tinge at the lower part.
Until the importation of the Cochin there were no farm fowls with red
ear-lobes as now-they were truer bred; a red ear-lobe shows decidedly a
cross-breed. These were kept by farmers friends of mine-who, one
and all, were equally proud of their other stocks of poultry. One family
in particular often boasted that they had kept the same breed over a
century; they were dark reddish browns. Others kept black speckles;
some red and some gray speckles, and mealy grays, with a variety nearly
black. On the grass land about the house might be seen in early spring
long lines of the old style of Sussex-made coops with the hens under them,
and quantities of strong, healthy chickens running about or creeping in
to nestle beneath the full-breasted, well-feathered, kindly mother hen;
such were our Kent and Sussex farm fowls much more than sixty years
ago as I knew them, saw them, fed them, and sketched them at our own
home. Some of the breeds had been for centuries carefully mated and
bred—not neglected, as has been erroneously and ignorantly stated; but
to my own knowledge their shape, color, and qualities as table, egg-
layers, and high-priced market fowls were well attended to, the owners
being as proud of their poultry, and possibly more so, as nine-tenths of
the prize-winners at the now fashionable poultry shows.
There were several reasons for this, of which nearly all the writers
on the subject are obvious--namely, that in the corn-growing districts
especially the "tail-wheat" siftings and winnowings were the perquisites
of either the farm housewife or the daughters, and by them used for the
keeping and rearing of poultry; for generally it was the proceeds from
the sale of chickens, poultry, and eggs that they relied on as the source
not only of pocket-money, but of actual clothing and other wants. These
were by no means isolated cases, while not infrequently the general
expenditure of the house was provided for entirely by the sale of dairy
The Farm or Homestead Fowl
449

A
Omay
WHITE-SPANGLED, BLACK-BREASTED, BRIGHT-RED OLD KENT AND SUSSEX FIVE-TOED HEN
produce and of the fowls. Thus it was that our southern farm poultry
received such considerable attention and was so carefully bred. In some
districts only certain colors were to be found, though all bore the same
analogy to each other in point of form, being square, full-breasted, with
good legs and thighs, large-winged and strong flyers, and were like to,

450
The Poultry Book
in almost every respect, those described by Columella nearly two thousand
years ago; and this was not to be wondered at so much, for, if introduced
by the Romans, the belief of Kent and Sussex men is that they were not
crossed and spoiled with other and foreign varieties, as is the craze now
to do. For this reason they bred their birds chiefly "in-and-in" or not out
of their district, as they had not the means of either hearing of, seeing,
or getting any other kinds but their old breeds, that had been kept on or
about the various farm holdings or independent lands
DARK DORKING COCK
Owned and bred by Herbert Reeves. The winner of many prizes
From a photograph
KENT, SUSSEX, SURREY, AND DORKING FOWLS
"Old fashions please me best; I am not so nice,
To change true rules for odd inventions."-TAMING OF THE SHREW.

ONNINGTON MOWBRAY (John Lawrence), writing in
1824 of the Darking (or Dorking) fowl, says: "It is so
called from a town in Surrey, where probably the variety
was first bred, and where and in its vicinity they are to be
found in great plenty and perfection. It is in a third degree
the largest of our fowls, well shaped, having a long, capacious body and
short legs, and is a plentiful layer." *
B
This is precisely the description of the Kent, Sussex, and Surrey
fowls given previously, which is not in any way peculiar to the Dorking,
nor is the fifth toe. Mowbray states: "The genuine color, entire white;
chief distinctive mark, five claws upon each foot." He adds that "the
white is not so pure as certain of the dunghill fowls, nor is the flesh, that
inclining to yellow or ivory shade; the Darkings are the species generally
made into capons."
Any one reading this would doubtless be led to believe that the cock-
erels of this breed were those principally used for caponizing, whereas the
Kents and other southern breeds were so noted for centuries; and the
prices also for such capons are given in Professor Thorold Rogers's excellent
book of "Ancient Mediæval Values of Farming Stock," occurring as far
back as the thirteenth century. Again, Mr. Mowbray states that an
attempt was made to deprive Dorking of the honor of the breed, etc.
"The surveyor pretends that the Dorking fowls were all raised in the
Weald of Sussex, and that Horsham is the chief market for them."
This, as has been shown, was undoubtedly the case. Further he
says: "No doubt it is probable that having five claws accidentally
brought certain fine and well-formed individuals into notice, but from
these proceeded a distinguished permanent variety, and that variety
* Here it should be noted that Mowbray mentions the Dorking as in the third degree
the largest of our fowls.
451
452
The Poultry Book
bearing the name of Dorking seems a sufficient proof of that town and its
neighborhood.” This is fairly jumping at a conclusion. As to the five
toes, they were the common appendage, not only of the fowls of Kent,
Sussex, and Surrey, but also of other breeds, of France, Spain, Italy,
etc. How, then, could this form be noted as distinctive? To make

Brit
ان و به شرح شرایط
2
COCKEREL AND PULLET, OLD-STYLE PRIZE DORKING OF 1853
*
the statement even more doubtful, presently, when writing of the Polands,
he asserts: Perhaps the genuine sort has always five claws, and as
the Poland cock will produce occasionally white stock from white English
hens, it is not impossible, the similarity of form likewise considered, that
66
* I have seen Polands not only with five tocs, but also "spurred" like a cock. A
hen at the Crystal Palace Show, in 1900, had a very large spur on one shank only, and no
indication of one on the other.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 453
our famous Dorking breed may have been originally from that cross,
and, supposing such speculations groundless, the Dorking, differing as it
does from the common, may have been an imported breed."
This is what Mr. John Timbs, F.S.A., author of "Things Not Generally
Known," and who lived some years at Dorking, says in his valuable
description of Dorking, 1824: "An incredible quantity of poultry is
usually sold at the weekly markets. This trade is chiefly in the hands
of a few individuals, who regularly attend and supply the London dealers.
There is also a breed of fowls with five claws, well known among the poul-
terers of the metropolis by the appellation of 'Dorking fowls'; one sort
is perfectly white and another of a partridge color. Columella, in his
'Husbandry,' describes fowls of this kind; and it is conjectured that they
were originally brought here by the Romans." Knowing Mr. John Timbs,
I asked if these fowls were all bred at or about Dorking, when he told
me that many were brought from long distances to the town to be sold,
and that by no means all or anything like it had five toes, and he fully
agreed with me that they were precisely the same breeds as the Kents
and Sussex, and that they also were brought over by the Romans.
Mr. Walter B. Dickson, writing of this bird in 1847, says: "These
fowls, which form the principal supply of the London market, are dis-
tinguished by having five toes instead of four on each foot." Nor does
he stand alone in this statement, for it is the common assertion of most
modern writers on poultry even to this day; but it is more difficult to
understand how Mr. Dickson could have fallen into so great an error,
when he quotes Temminck, Buffon, and Bechtien, who surely, when writing
on the subject of fowls with five toes, were fully aware of numerous breeds
that have the extra toe not belonging to the widespread variety now
commonly and erroneously called the "Dorking." For there are other
breeds, quite different in their general aspects, that also possess the fifth
toe. Therefore I dismiss the subject so far as it is a criterion of the breed
to be found in the so-called Dorking only, and have little or no hesitation
in believing that it was the ordinary large fowl of the southern parts of
England, so numerous in the counties of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, which
are all eminently celebrated for the excellent quality of their poultry.
It has also been averred that a property of the so-called Dorking is the
large size and generally bulky appearance of those denominated "colored
Dorking," and which have given place of late years at poultry shows to one
454
The Poultry Book
variety—the dark gray, the hens especially being almost black, with
white quills, stems, or mid-ribs to their feathers, and also the very beautiful
cross-bred silver-grays. The double or rose-formed crest has been sus-
pended in favor of the high, deeply serrated single comb. A writer
in Rees's "Cyclopædia" (Vol. XXVIII.) thus gives his opinion of a Darking
breed, as the town was sometimes called:
"Dorking fowls, as they are called, are all raised in the Weald of
Sussex, but the finest market for them is Horsham. The five-clawed
breed have been considered the best sort; this is, however, a great mistake,
and it took its origin in some fowls of this peculiarity that happened to
be very large and fine, which laid the foundation of what has since been
called the Dorking or five-clawed fowls, and considered in other parts of
England as the prime stock, but such a thing is hardly known in Sussex;
it is a bastard * breed which is used at the table of Lord Egremont, and
have very frequently, it is said, astonished the company by their size."
Here again error creeps in, the five-toed being by no means confined
to Dorking, and those of Lord Egremont were simply the true breed.
After the most searching inquiry, I am led to fully believe that the four-
toed varieties of barn-door fowls were the bastard breed, and were most
probably a cross with the English white-shanked Game-fowl, which was
resorted to sometimes to give increased vigor. Again, the Dorking
fowls proper, if any, were a smaller breed, and, as Mr. W. B. Dickson
observes, were almost always white, their legs short and remarkably
smooth. In the engraving of the Dorking fowls, from a drawing by
Edwards in Rees's "Cyclopædia," the birds are white with rose combs.
and slight "lark" crests, and it is generally admitted that these albinos
were the breed of fowls for which the town of Dorking was, if ever, held
in such repute; at the same time, and which must not be overlooked, it
is also a fact that it was one of those large "fattening" centers for which
the south of England was and is to this day so celebrated, and to which
I shall hereafter allude; also that most of the poultry so fattened were
bought principally at the Horsham poultry market, which is even now
one of considerable importance. And formerly, as I have shown, instead
of Dorking being the most celebrated breed of fowls, it appears the Kentish
were considered superior. William Lambarde, in his "Perambulations
of Kent” in 1576, after eulogizing the cattle as being the largest of their
* How bastard? If so, how bred?
ܕ
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 455

Mary
1854
COCKEREL AND PULLET, PRIZE-BRED OLD KENT
Showing fine form and breast
kind, states: "The like whereof also Polydore* in his history confesseth
of the Kentish poultry." Izaak Walton, also, in his book on "Fishing,"
mentions that the Kentish poultry were even then of unusual size. The
old "Tunbridge Wells Guide Books" state that the fowls sold there were
large and good. Nor is this to be wondered at, for if Dorking is said to
have obtained its breed from the Roman period, is it not as much or
more likely that Kent, possessing as it does a Roman road throughout,
should also have had some of the ancient breed mentioned by Columella?
And indeed the five-toed varieties, as stated, are not by any means confined
to England.
* Virgil.
456
The Poultry Book
As conceded, Dorking may have had the credit of a certain breed of
white fowls with rose combs, but to say that all the white or colored
varieties of fowls are Dorkings, or that the latter have emanated from
them, is simply absurd; for all the Dorking fowls were not even five-toed,
though many undoubtedly were; but so also were the Sussex, Surrey,
and Kent. Over fifty years ago it was well known, and often stated,
that breeds of fowls with five toes were kept in the same neighborhood,
both in Kent and Sussex, from generation to generation. Dorking, as
far as can be ascertained, was a place chiefly for table fowls, obtained
from several breeders living many miles away, and carried there by
"higglers" to fatten for market, but not bred there.
Mr. Arthur Young, writing on the subject of poultry in the beginning
of the last century, among others mentions a Mr. Boys* as possessing a
fine breed of fowls; and it is a curious fact that the Reverend J. Boys, of
Biddenham, Kent, was among the first to take prizes under the name of
"Dorkings." When the Zoological Society instituted poultry shows
prizes were offered for Kent, Surrey, and Sussex fowls; many with five
toes were exhibited, and foolishly disallowed by the judges calling them

433
YOUNG DORKING COCKEREL
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
Dorkings. Where did Mr. Lewry get the Dorking fowls he won with at
the poultry shows but from the farmers of Kent and Sussex? Not from
Dorking. One of the greatest evils that befell the splendid, large, well-
*See notes on Mr. Boys in previous chapters.

AWove
OLD ENGLISH FOUR-TOED COCK AND HEN
Once owned by Mr. Weir
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls
459
formed, active, and profitable table fowls of the southern counties was the
introduction of the Shanghai or Cochin. The "higglers" procured cocks
of this breed, and prevailed on many of the Kent and Sussex farmers to
cross them with the grand old fowls that were before the perfection of
the barn-door breeds. One of the greatest sinners in this respect was
this Mr. Lewry; and many were the Dark Cochins that he has been known
to sell or exchange with the Sussex and Kentish men for some of their
very best fowls, and with which he stocked a number of now high-class

High ein)
7896
OLD KENT DARK-RED HEN AND TWO OTHERS
poultry yards; but with some of these he also gained a "Dorking" notoriety
and prizes as a successful breeder, while the old stocks from which he
drew his supplies were (for the time, at least) utterly ruined by the Cochin
cross; for though it possibly somewhat (which I deny) improved the size,
it was at the cost of flesh quality and increase of bone and offal.
Having at various times visited several "out-of-the-way" places in
Kent and Sussex and noted "here and there" some of the old short-
legged breeds that once were so common in almost every farmyard (bright,
lively, active, square-made, large-breasted birds, light of bone, good
foragers and hardy), to-day I scarcely know where to look for these;
460
The Poultry Book
nor where are the old speckles or spangles (truly beautiful fowls), or the
reds or cinnamons, the light grays with speckled breasts, or the browns,
many with bright rose combs; or the old single-combed whites, with thin
white shanks, the cocks with large flowing tails. (The portrait of a
cockerel of this breed, from one of mine, appeared in the "Poultry
Book" of 1852-53.)
Where are all these? Where are to be got the snow-white, fine-
flavored eggs, whiter than the cloth they were wrapped in? Gone!
Nobody buys any but brown eggs now," said a henwife to me a few
weeks ago, when I remonstrated with her on the breed of fowls she kept.
The mongrel things were fairly good layers of light-brown eggs, and so
her old south breed had been parted with; for living near a country town,
she could make more money of her brown or tinted eggs; and as to her
fowls, as table fowls, well! "it made but little difference that way," for
but few of her town customers realized whether they were good, bad
or indifferent when trussed for cooking, with broken ribs and crushed
breast-bone.
((
And all these colors, forms, and varieties are now scarce or gone—-
at least, I know of but few; true it is there is the "Show Dorking," as it
is called, a large, heavy, cumbersome bird, bigger in bone, meaty, deep-
breasted, and as some aver hardier; it is a grand bird, doubtless, and
worthy of great praise; but "is it a better bird in all respects than the
old stock bird of the Kent, Sussex, and Surrey farmyards?" Does it
forage so well? That is a point worth noting. Is it not more coarse in
flesh and feather? Does it not "go wrong" in its feet frequently? while
such a thing was scarcely or ever known in "the old five-toed" fowl.
The old breed could fly well, and generally roosted in the trees, stood
up and crowed at the "proper times" as old English fowls should-" they
of the olden time." I have had a cock weigh thirteen and a half pounds,
and a hen of eleven pounds when taken up from the poultry run; and
these, as far as I know, never had a taint of the Shanghai or Cochin blood.
Why was the term "Colored Dorking" taken out of the show schedules
and "Dark Dorking" substituted? Why was one color made to take
precedence? Why should the speckles, the reds, browns, and other
colors be stamped out of existence by the "whims and fancies" of certain
judges, etc., and no other five-toed fowls of the old English breeds be
considered worth keeping but the cross-bred dark, colored, and gray,
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 461
the silver-gray, and the white? Were poultry shows only instituted for
such as these?
At one time the four-toed Surrey fowl was greatly in demand; where
is it now? We are told, by those who are said to know, that the fifth
toe is the cause of the lameness of the so-called "Dorking"; if so, why
then was the old English Game-fowl lame from gout, as the old books on
"Cocking" testify? There is no doubt that the real and simple
cause of the gouty or "bumble-foot" in the exhibition Dorking comes
principally, if not altogether, from feeding, food - "forcing," and high-
perching. Long experience and close observation make it difficult to
believe that the fifth toe has but little, if anything whatever, to do with

Af
Free

Drawn by Harrison Weir from a picture in Rees's" Cyclopædia"
A PAIR OF WHITE DORKINGS
462
The Poultry Book
the foot disease, which was unknown among barn-door fowls, though
having the fifth toe, but kept in a natural way; yet the hind toe was then,
as now, largely and very fully
developed, as also spurs on the
hens of considerable size and
sharpness.
Nor are these modern crosses
better for early chickens; for in
1815 Mrs. Adams, of Shipton-on-
Stour, always had chickens ready
for New Year's Day. This is
remarkable, but by no means
uncommon with the old Kent and
Sussex henwives, the birds being
reared in the dry sheds about the
farmyards. As late as May, in
1827, the price of poultry ruled
high in London markets, young
fowls being sold at 18s. the couple
and ducks equally dear. To remedy this, shows for dead poultry
were instituted for fattening, those of Earl Spencer being the most
successful; and it is a common fact, which should not be lost
sight of, that the points of excellence noted in, the schedule for
prizes are almost identical with those taken from Columella and
other writers of 1580, 1581, 1600, 1616, 1670, and so until 1790,
1810, 1820, and 1827, as: "The fowls should be plump, deep, long,
and capacious in body, with short white legs of small-sized bone,
of very white, juicy, fine-grained flesh, the fat and the skin equally
white and of delicate flavor."

From a drawing by Harrison Weir
PRIZE DORKING HENS
Bred by Fisher Hobbs and sold to H.R.H. Prince Albert
"All the birds to have been bred in Northamptonshire and to be
shown alive." It concluded with this instruction:
66
Small-boned, well-proportioned poultry greatly excel the large-
boned, long-legged kind in color and firmness of flesh and delicacy of
flavor; for it is held good that of all animals of the domestic kind, those
which have the smallest, cleanest, and finest bones are in general the
best proportioned and are covered with the best and purest meat; besides
being, in the opinion of good judges, the most inclined to feed, and fatted
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 463
with the smallest proportionable quantity of food to the greatest com-
parative weight and size."
After a while these shows were followed by other utility shows at
the Zoological Society's Gardens, Regent's Park, when again the excellence
and variety of our "utility" fowls were duly recognized, and all the
before-named requirements were taken into consideration.
At the first live poultry show held at the Society's Gardens, June 6,
1845, there were classes for Speckled Dorkings (then plentiful), Surrey,
Kent, and Sussex fowls, all for table purposes-the Dorkings and Kents
being awarded first prizes, Messrs. Baker, of Leadenhall Market and
Chelsea, winning for Hamburgs, Black Spanish, and Madeiras; they were
also commended for Chinese and Madeiras. I was present; and these
latter appeared to be nothing else than a variety of what is called the
Minorca and the Black Spanish. The Bakers also won with their feather-
legged Bantams; Mr. Tyler,
of the Surrey Zoological
Gardens, winning a first
prize with "Polish"; Mr.
Nolan was second with
Malays; these were very
different from Messrs.
Bakers' Chinese. Several
varieties of Bantams were
exhibited, including gold
and silver spangled as then
called, not laced and true
black Bantams, nor pygmy
black Hamburgs now
known as such. The show
was held on the left-hand
side of the long walk at the
back of the bear pit, near
the boundary of the
gardens; there was no tent
or covering. The exhibi-
tion was well attended, and considered to be successful. The judges
were Mr. John Baily, who afterward took a prominent place at

From a drawing by Harrison Weir
PRIZE DORKING COCKEREL
Bred by Fisher Hobbs and sold to H.R.H. Prince Albert
464
The Poultry Book
the many and various shows, the offspring of this the first attempt
at a utility and fancy gathering, and who for so many years strongly
advocated the merits of the so-called "Dorking" as the very best
of table fowls; Mr. George Fisher, well known as an excellent judge of
pigs; and last, but by no means least, the gentle and kind-hearted Mr.
William Yarrell, V. P. Z. S., the author of "British Birds and British
Fishes, and Monograph of the Salmon." Here are the names of some
of the prize-winners:
Prize 1. Speckled Dorking
"
2.
Surrey (Bartlett)..
Kent (Miss Cooper).
Hamburg (Bakers)
•
""
(C
it
<<
""
""
I.
I.
I.
I.
2.
I.
I.
Black Spanish (Bakers)
•
Polish (Tyler) .
Malay (Nolan).
Chinese (Bakers).
(commended) (Bakers).
Spangled Muffled Fowls, Bantams, etc.
(C
Also varieties of coops were exhibited.
Class A.
B.
C6
(6
66
((
<<
*
(4
C.
H.
E.
E.
E.
This was considered to be a step in the right direction, as the show
was instituted for the purpose of insuring the purity of breeds, and the
more careful production of poultry of the greatest utility and perfection.
At the same time, it was admitted that our southern white-legged farm-
yard stocks were, in many instances, exceptionally good, and as table
fowls unsurpassable; nor was it possible for these to be more carefully
selected, mated, bred and reared; to which the vast number of market
fowls, both in form, color of flesh, skin, fat, and shanks fully testified.
Moreover, if a "Game cock" was taken "to walk," it was contended that
he must correspond somewhat in color with the home birds, and have
white shanks, etc. The farmsteads, too, would not keep any mixed
variety that was not considered to be of the best for sale to the higgler,
and good early layers, as they were looked upon not only as farm-house
luxuries but also as channels through which considerable profit was derived.
When the first show was held at the Zoological Society's Gardens, the fowls
from Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and the so-called Dorking gave ample proof
that they were to be had in plenty and of a quality which left little to be
desired. It has often been stated that our barn-door fowls were small;
this might be the case in some instances, but those of Kent and Sussex
were not usually so, the cocks often weighing more than ten pounds, and
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 465
the hens eight, and in some instances even more. Latham writes of a
Dorking in the last century that weighed more than fourteen pounds.
In 1847 the Zoological Society held another show in their gardens,
which was again successful, and, indeed, led the way toward and induced

Donc
THE HONORABLE MR. ASTLEY'S GRAY DORKINGS
#Was
By permission of the proprietors of the "Field"
the Birmingham Cattle Show Club to add poultry to their Christmas
exhibition, which they did in 1849.
At the Zoological Society's show the most approved were Sussex
(which had in some cases five toes), Surrey, and Kent, and the so-called
Dorking, nearly all of which were of excellent quality and of rich coloring,
but mostly shown young, the exhibitors being under the impression they
were better as table fowls. They were immature birds, not having full-
466
The Poultry Book
grown tails, etc., and so not presenting the grand appearance that the
southern barn-door cock usually attained in his second year, nor having
the massive frames so characteristic of these much-prized birds; yet
Messrs. Baker, of Chelsea, had an extra prize, while Mr. Lewry,* of Hand-
cross, Cuckfield, Sussex, was the winner of two prizes, with very fine
large-framed, well-formed, short-legged fowls, very clean and white in the
shanks. In point of fact, all the table poultry was good in quality excepting
the White-faced Black Spanish. The lofty-standing Malays of Messrs.
Baker received much attention, they being very rich in color.
The chief object of the show was the encouragement of the breeding
of the most approved sorts of table fowls; therefore, as might have been
expected, the Dorking, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent barn-door formed the

wygonal
OLD ENGLISH BLACK-BREASTED RED DORKINGS
Once owned by Mr. Weir
Y
principal and most interesting part both of this and the former exhibi-
tion; and the improvements in showing, in size, quality, and pureness
* Mr. Lewry was of a family of "higglers" and poultry "fatters," and frequently
bought fowls and chickens of my friends and relatives before-mentioned, some of his best
and purest-bred prize birds coming from their farmyards and homesteads.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey,
and Dorking Fowls 467
, Surreyof breed elicited from the judges a very decided opinion of high approba-
tion. It was also a matter for much congratulation to find that our farm-
yard produce was in so satisfactory a state, so much so that the society
thought that they had done enough to demonstrate the fact, and that
in future poultry would be found a worthy and profitable adjunct to
farming, especially in what is termed the home counties, as indeed at
this time some of the best fowls ever sent to market came from the English
homesteads, grown by farmers' wives and daughters, not by mere fanciers,
but as good and serviceable stock, and by no means to be neglected as
sources of income. Then came the Shanghai fowls and the craze for size,
novelty, and colored eggs; and ill it fared with our old breeds. The
Shanghais were taken to the English homestead as desirable crosses to
get size and, as some said, hardiness, whereas no one ever complained
of any tenderness in the old birds but those ignorant of the proper treat-
ment of chickens and how to rear them. Seldom was it that broods were
seen of less than eight or nine, while they often numbered ten, twelve,
sixteen, and I have known twenty all hatched by one hen. The Cochin
or Shanghai craze was the first blow that our ancient and almost perfect
farm poultry received; though every effort was made by such men as
Mr. Baily, Captain Hornby, and others to keep the breeds from con-
tamination, the wave came on nevertheless, and in too many cases the
damage became irreparable, while fortunately in others some few of the
Kent and Sussex breeders would have none of them.
-
1850 AND 1860
"O, what men dare do! What men may do!
What men daily do, not knowing what they do."
-MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING.
At this time the Shanghai "took the lead and kept it," and its merits,
greatly exaggerated from the first, were still further extolled, until it was
averred that there was no property that a good fowl should have but
this possessed it; it was delicious roasted or boiled, and the hens laid two
or three eggs a day. All this tended for a while toward the depreciation
of the fine old English fowls of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking. Nor
was this the worst, for many farmers, poulterers, and others, finding the
Shanghai so much in request, and stimulated to do so by writers on and
about poultry, unhesitatingly crossed the old breeds with the new and
coarser birds; and to such an extent was this done that many, if not most,
468
The Poultry Book
of the larger five-toed fowls were more often than not half Shanghai; not
a few were seen in the show-pens with unmistakable scars on their shanks
and toes where feathers had been removed and in some cases filled in with
wax, while the sides of the shanks, though clear of feathers, were too often
of a deep pink or red color, as though they were in some way suppressed.
Such crosses were also visible in the combs, being more of the Shanghai or
Cochin shape. Yet through it all the grand old English birds held their
own, and with the exception of the White-faced Black Spanish and the
Cinnamon or Buff Cochin, had prizes of the same value offered, and for
table purposes were pronounced by the best judges not only able to main-
tain their high position, but when pure bred were unrivaled—the magnifi-
cent birds of Captain Hornby, Towneley Parker, Reverend J. Boys, L.
Lewry, Sir John Cathcart's speckles, Christopher Rawson and Thomas Potts,
Mrs. Arkwright and, later, Lady Holmsdale, with those of Mr. Fisher
Hobbs, who latterly spoiled his strain by the Cochin or Shanghai cross;
though this was denied, yet such was the fact, Mr. Fisher Hobbs* himself
telling me that he had used a Dorking cock to a Partridge-colored Shang-
hai hen, and from these some of his prize-winners were bred. At this time
(1853) the Dorking, etc., were again coming slowly to the front and
winning favor entirely on their own individual and collective merits,
though the rose-combed birds, the brilliant reds (of which Mr. Tegetmeier
once wrote that a cock of this breed was "indeed a beautiful sight"), the
tawnies, and the ancient breed of speckles were pushed out by the cross-
bred silver duckwing grays and whites, until the old and lovely color was
never seen in the show-pen, but only found in some of the homesteads of
the better class of Kent and Sussex farmers.
Thus it was that the real and wonderful merits of the southern birds
became more and more recognized, and for a while were in request, when
Mr. John Douglas † bought a white-shanked, very dark-colored, nearly
black Malay cock at the London Docks, and by crossing this with some
Dark Dorking hens again brought more foreign blood into the old English
breed; his boast was that he got much darker and richer colors and heavier
birds. Though this has often been asserted, still the fact remains, before
* Mr. Fisher Hobbs sold his Dorking eggs at 5s. each, packing included.
† Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier states that Mr. Douglas obtained the Malay from the Zoological
Society's Gardens, but Mr. J. Douglas told me himself that it was not so, but that the
cock was bought at the docks; and as he was the buyer, owner, and raiser of the cross-breed,
I prefer to take his statement rather than that of Mr. Tegetmeier.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 469
mentioned, that there is a record of a Dorking weighing fourteen pounds
as far back as the beginning of the nineteenth century, and cocks weighing
more than twelve pounds and hens more than ten pounds, and these of the
pure old farmyard breed without a cross, were in evidence. This crossing and
recrossing had the baneful effect of rendering the breed unreliable. Then
it was that the mongrelization became apparent in dark and sooty shanks
and feet, and that being more often in the larger birds than the old and
true, the judges
gave the prizes to

avowed cross-
breeds, although
the shows were in-
stituted for the
perpetuation of
pureness of breed
and fineness of
quality, mere size
not to be con-
sidered." Here is
Mr. John Baily writ-
ing in the Poultry
Chronicle, 1854: "It
may seem at first
sight that two
combs dissimilar as
possible should be
equally pure, but
it is not the less
true. I do not
object to a cup comb, and the fact proves it, while the contrary is
only supported by bare assertion. Some have said that the rose
combs arise from a Malay cross; but if there be any truth
in this, can its supporters explain how every indication of the cross
has been got rid of?" Further he says: "There is no color for
Dorkings, and only two are excepted: they are the black and white;
the latter are a distinct breed." (Just so, it is said that the latter are
the only true, if any.) "Yet," adds Mr. Baily, "while every color is
CC
мини
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
OLD KENT FIVE-TOED HEN
470
The Poultry Book
admirable, care should be taken to match the birds composing a pen with
due regard to uniformity."
Here is the opinion of Mr. Baily, who was considered to be one of the
best judges of table fowl at that time (1854). He knew well that certain
breeders and farmers had colors and strains which they preferred and
which they kept true; his knowledge was of fact, and his, like my own,
was from actual observation, not merely stating from hearsay, like far too
many writing on the subject both then and now, most of whom never saw
the old stocks of red and brown or other colored birds that were numerous
even then in Kent, Sussex, and Surrey-men who were "writers" only,
and not, as Mr. Baily, of long, sound, practical experience as poultrymen
and poulterers; had his advice and dictum been attended to, as it should
have been, we might still have had in table fowls the fine rich colors of
the more olden times, besides retaining the full-fleshed forms and square-
made, short-thighed legs and medium-shanked birds, with all their attend-
ant good qualities. Mr. Baily goes on to say: "One of the most popular
colors for hens in the present day is that known as Lord Hill's. These
are 'silver-grays'; in point of fact, they are duckwing silver-grays, and
were a cross between the old duckwing silver-gray, white-shanked, pearl-
eyed old English Game-cock and the gray Surrey, Kent, and Sussex. The
silver-gray 'proper' has no steel-black bar on the wing. The next class
is the grays, and," continues Mr. Baily, "with all these the most desirable
match for a cock is one with light hackle and saddle, dark breast and tail;
I advisably say dark in preference to black because I think servile adher-
ence to any given color too often necessitates the sacrifice of more valu-
able qualities." (This is quite right, and in a table fowl especially so.)
"I look on a fine Dorking with no less admiration if his breast is speckled
and his tail composed of a mixture of black and white feathers. and such
a bird is a fit and a proper match for any gray hens." This is precisely my
own opinion; the Kent, Sussex, Surrey or colored Dorkings should be
shown now and then of any colors that suited the fancy of the rearer,
provided that the whole "pen" match in comb, color, form, shank, and
feet. This Mr. Baily said in 1854, and so acted one of the best judges of
table poultry ever known. He then notes the chocolate and the black
white-speckled of Sir John Cathcart*: "Another speckle-a grayish-
brown spotted with white, and brown hens with black-breasted red cock
* White-spangled blacks, others white-spangled of colors.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 471
cuckoos, etc." It is well to bear in mind that this is the unbiassed opinion
of so eminent a judge both of live and dead poultry, and goes to show that
the old colors could be shown with success as late as the fifties, and even

PRESENT-DAY PRIZE DORKING
The winner of a silver cup
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
later, before "fancy" and other committees unwisely interfered by restric-
tions made to meet the darker hues and feathering brought to notice by
the larger Asiatic crosses. Here is Mr. Baily's description (1854) of the
other form of one of the finest breeds of table fowls ever produced, and
which is identical with that bred for centuries in England:
"In shape, the body, divested of head, tail, and legs, should give a
square.* The head should be fine and intelligent, the face plump and
round, the legs short, the tail ample and carried cheerfully; neck short,
increasing in bulk till it is lost in the breast; it is not placed on the shoulders
as in some breeds, but loses itself in the body, helping to form the
prominent and full breast for which these fowls are famous."
All this was true-perfectly true and accurate, and with such a breed
or breeds it might be deemed impossible to improve it by adding to or
crossing in with the coarser-fleshed Cochin or Shanghai. Loud and long
* Not a long, but plump, meaty breast, far the best form of all both for appearance
and quality.
472
The Poultry Book
were the protests made by the best utility-fowl breeders, but these were
written down by the glib pen of the ignorant but ready writer, and so the
credulous were led to spoil, more or less, with a foreign blend so grand, so
good, and so ancient a breed. Nor was this all, for another candidate
appeared for mongrelizing honors in the so-called Brahma Pootra, itself
a cross-breed. This, like a new doll with a child, for a while possessed all
the charms of novelty; and the fine old southern breed were not crossed
to improve the Brahma," but by a curious obliquity of mental and
intellectual vision it was said to benefit the already nearly perfect old
English favorites, the Dorkings, etc., etc.
((
Thus another mongrel race of fowls came into existence, a semi-
Asiatic breed with red ear-lobes instead of white tinted red on the outside
rim or edge, shank and feet sometimes horn-colored or sooty white, often
almost red, sometimes light yellow, with feathers, thicker bones, shorter
wings and tails, less alert and different habits; even the very crow of the
cocks was "strange and new." So a fresh standard of points of excellence.
was thought needful, and the red ear-lobes were substituted for the white,
and sooty shanks and feet passed as correct or allowable by the judges (?)
of the newer mongrel, and the depreciation of the old and true was, by the
more modern poultry-breeder, unblushingly called “progress.
And further, by these being interbred with coarser and, though larger,
far inferior fowls, the quality was deteriorated for the table, and the colors
were altered. From the steel-gray Brahma came the bluer-gray Dorking
and the Partridge Cochin, the dull-brown dark-grays; while from the nearly
black Malay or Kulm of Mr. John Douglas came those since-named Dark
Dorkings, the silver-grays being mated with the Light Brahmas; these last
a different breed from the Dark, having but little alteration in the color.
The old variety, known as the "cuckoo," for some time had a class and
notice; but it, like the browns, the reds, speckles and spangles and the
rose-combed, became neglected, uncalled and uncared for; and so it was
that some of the most beautiful and useful types of our English farmyard
or barn-door fowls gradually became "things of the past.'
""
""
Mr. Nolan, writing in 1850, then said of the colored Dorking:
"What we want and expect is size, and the colored birds have it in perfec-
tion." This was before the Asiatic mongrelization began. He derides the
Reverend Saul Dixon, who wrote that "fine Dorking fowls" weighed only
seven pounds, while the roadside Irish ranged from seven to nine each.

Harrison
Wear
Scaurumus
By termission of Messrs. George Routledge & Sons
THE CELEBRATED GRAY DORKING COCKEREL AND PULLET
Once owned by Captain W. W. Hornby, R.N.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 475
Mr. Nolan says: "The cock figured above, now in my possession out of
condition and in heavy molt, weighs ten and a quarter pounds; if fed
and over molt it would be at least two pounds more." The editor of the
Farmer's Gazette verifies the truth of the above. Mr. Nolan also quotes
the Dorkings of Mr. William Ogilvy, then late Honorary Secretary of the
London Zoological Society, a promoter of the breed, and who kept them
for his own use and the benefit of his tenants, and that he (Mr. Nolan) had
chickens from this stock that weighed eight pounds at the age of six
months. "The hens," says he, "are from seven to nine pounds; they
stand low on the legs; the cock is about twenty-two inches high, the hen
twenty inches, with short, round, plump body, wide on the breast and
back, with abundance of white, juicy flesh; nothing to surpass them as a
table fowl." Here again is another tribute to the wonderful breed we
had, and another proof of the mischief done by reckless crossing.
He
adds, "their plumage, gray, speckled, or striped, and sometimes red; and
further, there cannot be any fowl better calculated to add to the profits of
the farmyard, from their abundance of flesh and small offal; they are hardy,
naturally climatized, and are, as their progenitors are described, 'good
layers and sitters, but heavy on the nest."" Need more be quoted to show
what our breed was before the mongrelizing, by in-breeding it with such
coarse and bony all-foreign fowls as the Cochin, Shanghai, Brahma, and
Malay? and yet at this time (1850-53) for table fowls these were of surpass-
ing excellence. But, like much assertion, only the truth lives; and so the
old English fowls are still to be found, but with a blot on their escutcheons.
THE RISE OF THE DORKINGS
THUS writes Sylvanus in the Poultry Chronicle, Vol. I., page 303:
"If 1853 saw the decline of the Cochins, it saw the rise of the Dorkings.
These latter have occupied for centuries the pinnacle of the poultry temple,
but, unfit for towns and possessing few of the startling points of plumage
or shape, they remained to a certain extent unnoticed, and their good
qualities were only appreciated when an unusually delicious fowl on the
table caused a look-up, inquiring whether the fifth claw did not at once
explain the cause of excellence. Till last year these meritorious birds were
to be had for a few shillings. Witness the beautiful hens exhibited four
years since by Lord Hill, which were sold for 10s. 6d. each; next, the excel-
lent ones of the Honorable and Reverend S. W. Lawley, which were put
476
The Poultry Book
at £1; and many others, till the Birmingham show of 1853 and the Hitchin
show of the same year. At the latter place the Reverend Mr. Boys sold
his prize hen for £50. At the Midland Counties show, the Reverend S.
Donne lost his prize birds, although protected by 'twenty guineas.' At the
Metropolitan show, Mr. Fisher Hobbs sold his birds for seventy-eight
guineas; Mr. Terry, of Aylesbury, sold his for five guineas each. Captain
Hornby protected his pen by a reserve of £500; but it is beyond a doubt
they would have been claimed at £100. This was the rise of the Dorkings,
but their rise partakes of the quiet, every-day, and useful character of
the birds themselves. While the best make the best prices, there are
plenty of good, useful, pure-bred birds to be had at moderate sums.
"The increase does not spread over the whole race as it did in the
Cochins; these will never go out of favor as a really good fowl for the
table. It seems almost impossible that the Dorking of last year can ever
be surpassed; if it can, then he would be a bold man who would fix
limits to its capabilities."
At this time, also, I may
add that Captain Hornby was
selling his Dorking eggs at £3,
and even £4 a dozen, while £2 25.
was almost a common price.
Again I quote: "The common
sense of the public has brought
back the Dorking fowl to its
wonted preeminence. At the
sale after the Metropolitan show,
and also at the Birmingham
exhibition of this year (1854),
the Dorking* fowl met with
readier disposal at large prices
than any other bird. The public
voice has recognized it as the
bird for the English farmyard;

16/
میر قطر مرقومه
LEN
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
FRONT VIEW OF A DEAD DORKING,
SHOWING BREAST
it is altogether the pet of John Bull, as possessing great and good
qualities without ostentation and clamor. The history of our county
* I only use the word "Dorking” as indicating the old Kent, Sussex, and Surrey
five-toed fowls.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 477
town [Derby] records no less than three poultry sales by public auction,
and at each of these the Dorking fowl obtained the highest bidding-good
hens selling for as much as 30s. each; and further, the most successful
breeder of Dorking fowls is, at this moment, selling his eggs readily at
three guineas per dozen. These and the Game-fowl are the true British
poultry. They are racy of the soil, and come down to us, like many other
good things, from a remote antiquity. If it were possible to engraft the
hardihood and quality of the latter upon the size and early maturity of
the former, perfection would be obtained. The veriest gourmand would
ask no more, for there would be quantity and quality enough to satisfy
the most capacious and capricious of appetites. Tenderness and plumpness
would go hand-in-hand with juiciness. The Dorking fowl stands pre-
ëminent as the fowl for the table. Those persons, and those only, who
saw and studied Pen 160 at the Birmingham show of 1853 can form an
accurate idea of the size, quality, and beauty of a first-rate Dorking fowl.
They were the birds of the exhibition, and before them the whole tribe of
Spanish, Cochins, black, white, brown and buff, 'paled their ineffectual
fires.'
Thirty-five pounds' weight of the most delicious meat
under heaven were there enshrined in their beautiful forms, and robed in
plumage in which richness and grace struggled for ascendency.”—The
Derby Reporter, 1854.
•
After 1860, the Dorkings were said to be more massive; certainly they
were larger in bone, coarser in flesh, rough and loose in feather; dark grays,
silver-grays, and dark, almost black, hens with gray breasts became the
fashion, and gradually classes were for these only; even in those for color,
if any reds or browns were sent for competition, they were said to be in
the "wrong class," though not disqualified, and as a rule "passed"; thus
the craze of "outer" breeding grew, and the Malay was brought into requi-
sition again and again. The most curious part of all this was that the
different breeds engrafted on the Dorking, Kent, and Sussex fowls, as I
have pointed out, was not done to improve the Cochin, the Brahma, the
John Douglas black, white-shanked fowl, or lastly the dry-fleshed, scaly-
feathered Malay; but with a fatuity seldom, if ever, excelled it was said,
no matter how erroneously, that it was done to benefit the old English
fowl-the perfection of centuries.
As is well known, by long experience, to breeders of any stock, cross-
breeds bred inter se will sooner or later revert to one or the other of the
478
The Poultry Book
varieties used to produce them; and thus it was that in some cases the old
English form was extinguished by the Cochin or the Brahma, and the
progeny became at last like to an inferior one of either; but the old type
of breed was sometimes the strongest, and the Asiatic element to some
extent expelled. So it might have been, and in some instances it was, the
best in form and the whitest in flesh and fat, and by other careful selections
the old form was partially retained. Thus the sooty shank color was
being gradually eliminated, and would possibly by this time have been
nearly or quite so had the judges acted as true to the old breed as honest
John Baily endeavored. But this was expecting too much; the lumpy
coarseness of the cross-bred larger fowl still prevailed to the almost total
extinction of the old and finer quality. Aye! and even Baily was obliged
to give in to others. Breeders of experience know that when fowls with
yellow shanks, feet, etc., are crossed with those of white it is to the detri-
ment of both. If yellow is to be the outcome, it is browned or blacked; if
white, it is almost the same, being blurred and stained; but if bred inter se,
the one or the other color prevails. And so it was that when real Dorking
fanciers refrained from further intermixtures of foreign blood, the old
English fowl again partially asserted itself; and in some cases, where the
white-shanked pit-Game-cocks were used, the produce somewhat nearly
resembled our poultry of the farm before the arrival of the Shanghai,
Cochin, Brahma, or the Malay crossing. Again, in the show-pens the
closer-feathered, better-formed, and finer-fleshed birds were getting once
more “in evidence." But this happy state of things was not allowed to
last long, for, what with neophyte judges, lecturers and a press ever ready to
publish the opiniones fallaciosa of every agitator of variability and crossing
as needful to progress or said-to-be improvement, those that upheld purity
of breed as the first and chief consideration had a sorry time of it, many of
whom, grown gray in the fancy, were scoffed at and flouted by those who
had yet to learn the strength and value of the natural forces that are ever
present and at work, enlarging or reducing either one quality or the other.
Gradually and by careful selection the Dorking has become or is
becoming more valuable, and is likely to be one of our best table fowls.
Again we are sometimes getting the soft-scaled, flesh-colored shanks and
feet, and the general massive appearance is being regained, ample in form,
but almost too much so in looseness in feathers, yet the Dorking is rising
in public estimation. At present the breast-keel is too deep, as it gives
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 479

CHAMPION SILVER DORKING COCK
Owned by Arthur C. Major
From a photograph
a flat-sided appearance that it formerly did not possess, being in breast
more the shape of the old English Game, which to the uninitiated looks
flat, and wanting, as they say, depth; but experience and knowledge of
the fowl when stripped for table show it to be far otherwise.
Of late no fowl has made more progress, both in beauty and utility,
than the Silver-gray Duckwing Dorking (1887); it is truly a grand and
480
The Poultry Book
handsome bird and generally of excellent quality, being finer than its
congener, the dark-colored exhibition variety, which is decidedly coarser
in bone, flesh, and feathering. Still, the breed is a valuable one, though
differing much from the old type; both were and are good when
the latter can be found true. For my own part, I have a preference for
the old style, liking a close-feathered, compact, square-made, smaller-
boned fowl, and one which generally is both hardy and prolific.
Besides being good table fowls, the Dorkings are good mothers, and
the chickens, when understood, are easily reared,* as witness the healthy
flocks of chickens in our southern homesteads half a century and more ago,
before the coming of the Asiatic Shanghais or Brahmas.
Now I will take what Mr. Tegetmeier says in the official report on the
dead poultry exhibited for competition at the show of the Dairy Farmers'
Association, 1892: "It is stated that the judge, Mr. John Baily" (grandson
of the John Baily before mentioned), "is convinced that there is no fowl
equal to the pure Dorking" (and in this he was right, as will be presently
shown). "The value of this remark may be inferred from the fact that
the medal for the best entry of dead poultry exhibited at the show was
awarded to Miss Gubbins, of Cork, for cross-bred fowls between the Indian
Game and Dorking breed,† and in the manner I have advocated for so
many years. The success of this lady is not exceptional with the same
strain; she has always maintained the very highest position whenever her
fowls have been exhibited."
It so happened that I saw these birds, and, having the advantage of
my early training, I pointed out that, although the breasts were meaty,
they were lean, and that most likely they fatted in the wrong place, viz.,
inside. To prove whether I was right, I bought the pair. They were
very carefully weighed, measured, etc., and I now turn to my notes on
them. They weighed, when I got home, one, six and a quarter pounds,
and the other six pounds, and were to the ordinary observer a very fine
pair. They were sent to the kitchen, and my cook was told to bring me
the offal, etc., to be weighed and inspected; she came up and said that in
* Here at Appledore (February 3, 1902), I have ten Dorking chickens well and
healthy, although the weather has been intensely cold, rainy, and windy, and the soil is
of clay, and wet.
† An illustration of this prize fowl will be found on page 22 of the present work,
where it was wrongly described as a Dorking and Plymouth Rock instead of Dorking and
Indian Game. The error first occurred in the English edition.-EDITOR.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls
481
all her experience-and she had had much-she had never found so much
fat in the inside of any fowl. The fat alone inside the one of six and a
quarter pounds weight was just over two pounds, and with the head,
neck, legs, intestines,
etc., made just an-
other pound; so this
desirable fowl lost
nearly half its weight
in offal. I directed
the cook to skewer
the fat over the lean
breast to help "baste
it." The smaller one
also had nearly two
pounds of fat and
offal inside, etc., and,
as I anticipated, the
breast meat was dry
and hard when cooked.
The other details are
too long to go into.
So much for Miss
Gubbins's cross-
breeds, quoted as
better than the Dork-
ings. Mr. Baily was
right, and "a long
way right."

It will interest
my readers to know
that I wrote Miss
Gubbins, pointing out
the loss in offal in
the Cornish Indian cross, and,
remarks, Miss Gubbins's reply will
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
DORKING COCKEREL
Dairy Show, 1888
after reading Mr. Tegetmeier's
probably surprise others, as it
* Very fat gizzard and liver, with the pure fat elsewhere, the intestines being laid in
masses of fat.
482
The Poultry Book
certainly did me. She informed me that "she did not keep any
particular fowl or breed of them, as she only had a small back yard, and
that her French cook bought such fowls as she liked and fatted them up
for her own table--that was all; and she never sold any."
Afterward Miss Gubbins won with a pure Dorking, and she sent me
as a present a half-bred Dorking and a Plymouth Rock, fairly fatted, of
which I have notes, etc. "The French cook" sent me her method of
fatting, which I have; it is all in French. I must be pardoned if I have
not been greatly influenced by Mr. Tegetmeier's remarks about Miss
Gubbins and her breed of fowls.
Now, lastly, I will give what I deem to be a most truly valuable
n

Amen
PRIZE DORKING COCKEREL OF 1885
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls
Fowls 483
opinion regarding our Dorkings as table poultry, and with which I most
heartily and entirely agree, for it is true. Here it is. It is Mr. Teget-
meier's own opinion of the Dorking in his book, "Profitable Poultry,"
which I illustrated in 1853-54. Yes; it is one of the most valuable
opinions he has ever given, and the honest truth, as I know by a
lifelong experience.
Page 42 (1854): "For market fowls for table use the colored Dor-
king is unequaled.
"Many persons recommend cross-breeding fowls for this purpose of
improving certain varieties. It is difficult to see by what cross the qualities
of Dorkings as table fowls can be improved.*
"I have myself, however, never seen any cross-bred fowls equal for
the table to the pure Dorkings."
This from the 1853 edition:
"The plan of crossing breeds for the purpose of improving them is
fallacious in the extreme. By what cross can the good qualities of the
Dorking be improved?
"It is said that the hardihood of birds is improved by crossing. If I
state the result of my own experience, it would be precisely the opposite
opinion. I have found that my half-bred chickens (of which I have reared
for curiosity several varieties) have been less hardy than those of pure
race which have been carefully bred from parents not related to one another.
Another serious evil attending cross-bred birds is the uncertainty in the
color, form, and general character of the chickens. After one or two
generations they are certain to throw back toward one or the other of
their parent stocks, producing worthless specimens of mongrelism.”
This is true, and "the people" are now finding it so, and how cruelly
they have been deceived by worthless advice as to crossing "this" with
that," and thus our very best table fowls are being ruined-permanently
ruined! Here is more of Mr. Tegetmeier's advice, all true and good; but
not what he advocates now.†
66
"I would strongly recommend persons who are at present breeding
from common fowls not to attempt to improve them by introduction of one
or two good male birds into the yard, but to obtain a good stock either by
* This was in 1853, of which time Mr. Lewis Wright wrote that I wished to ruin the
Dorking by bringing it back to what it then was.
† See his edition of "Poultry Book," 1867.
484
The Poultry Book
purchase or eggs and breed from them alone, avoiding, of course, all
intermarriage between blood relations.”
This is Mr. Tegetmeier at his best, and this is good advice. My
readers—for the good of our poultry, for the good of our country-follow it!
If the Utility Club would take up the matter with due earnestness,
and try to restore the old breed, and help to maintain pure breeds of known
usefulness, instead of simply wandering among "boomed" and varying
mongrels, they would then achieve something that might gain the appro-
bation of the thinking and experienced breeders of poultry either for the
table or egg-production.
It has been truly said that Dorkings, etc., if kept in confinement
deteriorate in size, bulkiness, and quality; but none have pointed out the
reason why; the fact being, that both it and the old English Game, or any
other good table fowl, must have liberty of action—such as flying,* jump-
ing, scratching, with any or every kind of exercise to fully develop the
muscles (flesh). If this is denied, then the shrinkage, for want of use, of
that development ensues, and no matter how good and true the breed is,
the birds if well fed become gouty, bumble-footed, inert, idle, and diseased.
They are essentially in all ways a farmyard fowl of the best, and should,
nay must, have to keep them always in perfection wide grass ranges, sheds,
stacks, and stock-yards, with trees and coverts to roost in.
If on the farm it is needful to keep them shut up at night, then the
poultry-house should be made large with tolerably high perches, so that
they must fly up to roost, with a soft material for flooring, such as peat
moss, or well-loosened, not gritty, mold, at least six inches deep, on which
to descend; the perches must be so placed that they can fly down obliquely.
In my own fowl-house I prefer four or five inches of yellow deal sawdust,
which is cool and soft for the feet, and destructive of insect life. This
also is used for the nest-boxes, with good effect, for the same reasons,
while straw, heath, or hay has an opposite tendency in regard to vermin.
In mating Dorkings, Kents, etc., it has always been found by experi-
ence that two- or not more than three-year-old hens, of large frame, short
legs, and medium shanks, are the best for the stag cock-that is, a cockerel
in his second year, a full cock being in his third year. In either case he
* My present fowls fly over a six-foot wire partition easily, and the cock, wishing to
come straight home from an adjoining meadow, flew across some of it and cleared a five-
foot hedge by at least three feet.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 485
should be very compact in shape, hearty, strong, and full of life. If a
little less in size than usual it is not a fault, for big, bony, heavy birds are
generally lethargic, and are by no means so useful, nor are they so prolific.
Let the shanks and feet be of a pure white or flesh color, with all white
toe-nails; even one dark toe-nail must be strictly avoided as well as those of
a yellow tendency, as it is an indication of cross-breeding, and will almost
certainly eventually produce cooty shanks and feet.
PRESENT-DAY DORKINGS
The so-called Dorking is (1898-99) gradually, and it is to be hoped
surely, winning its way again into the position as one of, if not the best of,
all fowls for table purposes. Much has yet to be done to restore the old
form-the fine rounded breast, high quality of flesh, and the early propen-
sity it had for fattening and finishing at a few weeks or months old. There
was a fulness and plumpness in the young birds possessed by no other
breed, with the exception of the old English Game, and with which there
is plenty of proof that it was not
infrequently interbred, losing
nothing thereby, but somewhat in
size, and even this rapidly enlarged
when left among "the usual run"
in the farmyard, though the vigor
and alertness imparted by the
Game-cock cross was long apparent.
Thus it was that the old southern
fowls, as before noted, were close-
feathered, hearty and good feeders
and foragers, and none the less
so in such localities where Game-
fowls were much in evidence. But
even without any such admixture
the old English breed were of
super-excellence, of large size,
fleshy, well feathered, full tailed,
and particularly handsome.

Confer
SILVER DORKING PULLET
Crystal Palace, 1891
It was with the Shanghai cross that the looser plumage first appeared,
and that as far back as 1849-50. Then again, with the advent of the so-
486
The Poultry Book
called Brahma, more crossing and less compactness, deeper keel to the
breast-bone, and coarser, darker flesh; then the John Douglas black fowl
cross, and more and more mongrelism, and so on again and again with
Cochin, Brahma, and others, until the red ear-lobe self-testified the fulness
of foreign bood, while the length and want of closeness in feather told but
too truly the general source of the long-fiber flesh deterioration. It is
with this that the Dorking fancier of the present has to combat, and from
such endeavor to restore the finer texture of the breast-meat that the
far too liberal use of the Asiatic breeds has so materially and so lastingly
injured. This will have to be done by a reversion to the old southern
breeders' tactics of choos-
ing the best-breasted,
closest-feathered, pure
white-shanked, having
white feet and toe-nails,
with white ear-lobes, or
that of infusing the
blood and purest breed
of the old English white-
shanked Game-cock. I
know of no other satis-
factory means, or any
with so much chance of
success in restoring the
fineness of flesh as this, still retaining, as it will, the full-breasted
plumpness so characteristic of the grand old breed.
*
A short time ago I had the pleasure of inspecting the fine flocks of
Colored, Silver and White Dorkings of Mr. Herbert Reeves at Emsworth,
Hants. Here was a double attraction, for this ardent and well-known
Dorking fancier had just purchased the whole of Mr. Padwick's stock of
colored birds, which when united with those of Emsworth made an aggre-
gate number of over five hundred cocks, cockerels, hens, and pullets, all
well housed and carefully tended. On entering one meadow a score
or more of black-breasted, silver-gray cockerels came running toward us,
each and all good in form, short-shanked, and fine in color, putting one
in mind of a troop of yeomanry cavalry, with their dark uniforms, white
* With these Mr. Padwick incorporated Mr. O. E. Cresswell's strain of dark birds.

64
RESTFUL"
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 487
braidings and facings; while of Dorkings no group of "silvers" ever showed
to better advantage than they in the bright light of the morning sun when
“halted" on the green turf in varied attitudes of quiet surprise. Not
many yards could show their equal, as was abundantly proved at the
Crystal Palace a few weeks afterward, when Mr. Reeves made "the
record” in the Silver-gray Dorking cockerel class by winning all the prizes,
five in number, and a V. H. C. From photographs kindly taken expressly
for me I arn enabled to give pictures of some of the best, also of several
silver hens and a few of the darker-colored show champions. And here
it would be well to observe that the difference between the two breeds was
well defined, the former still showing clear evidence of the old English
Game cross, used so many years ago to obtain the quality and color which
they now possess in such a remarkable degree; while their. heavier and
darker brethren told us unmistakably, by the length and looseness of
feathering and smallness of tails, with largeness of bone, how much the
eastern blood still prevailed. And yet, what noble, massive, big birds
they were, with a character of grandeur that no other breed possesses.
In weight, many of the cocks exceeded twelve, while several hens were
well over ten pounds--quite large enough for any table purposes, and for
such, where coarseness is to be strictly avoided, perhaps a little more than
full-sized.
In conversation with Mr. Reeves I learned that, as I anticipated, he
still had some difficulty in breeding to the old style of pure white shanks
and feet, though he had gone zealously to work in that direction, with the
full intention of making the breed revert to what once was not the
exception, but the rule.
One fact to be noted was, that the birds of the purest color and best
shanks were those that had the ear-lobes of bluish-white. It was most
instructive to note the peculiarities of individual birds, though all were
bred to "a type"; yet, as seen daily in human beings, no two were pre-
cisely alike. To the ordinary observer the slightly apparent differences
were but small, though to the fancier remarkable; while out of such a
large number it was surprising how well the quality sought for was main-
tained, both as to size and body color. Much of this was no doubt due
to careful "weeding" when in the chicken or younger state, and it is alone
by such revision that anything like success can or ever will be achieved.
The Captain Hornby of to-day (perhaps a relative?) worthily sus-
C
488
The Poultry Book
tains the high character and prestige of the "Knowsley Cottage" poultry,
so far-famed half a century ago, then the home of Captain Hornby* (after-
ward "Admiral"), who possessed in "the fifties" some of the very best
close-feathered, clear white-shanked colored Dorkings then in competi-
tion. Whether the Captain of to-day holds any descendants of these I
know not; but one thing is certain, and that is, he has among modern
Dorkings some of the best, and not only that, but has repeatedly protested
against the craze for size in the Dorking as actually depreciating the value
of the breed. With this I heartily agree.
In the Dorking Club standard of excellence, recently published, there
is a foot-note which for the guidance of the to-day Dorking fancier points
out that the true breed should have red ear-lobes. Who is responsible for
this I know not; but of this I have no doubt whatever-in fact, I am
perfectly certain, that no one would make such an assertion unless they
were lamentably ignorant of the origin of the true old breed. Never,
until the red-ear-lobed Cochins and Brahmas were crossed into the southern
five-toed fowls, was such a thing seen; and further, not any one of the
show birds of the very early fifties had red ear-lobes, though slightly stained,
until the time of the Douglas cross; and then but few years later the
original Dorking standard of perfection says "ear-lobes whitish." It is
this utter ignorance of facts that has led this and other clubs besides the
Dorking not only to commit errors, but to persist in them. The so-called
Dorking is a European-an old English fowl, and as such never had a red
ear-lobe nor ever was so described. It was a good omen, that of whitish
ear-lobes birds winning at the last Palace show, but it is to be hoped the
Dorking Club will correct without delay their utterly erroneous declara-
tion in their standard of excellence as to the red ear-lobe. It may be "a
fad" of some foolish person who "likes to see a red ear-lobe," but to say
it is the only correct color shows but too clearly a want of knowledge in
those who would teach that which is not only absolutely deplorable, but
must prove disastrous to the breed in many ways.
The Dorking of to-day is a large, five-toed composite fowl, the foot
* In 1858 Captain Hornby was an exhibitor at the Birmingham Christmas Poultry
Show. His first-prize pen of four Dorking chickens, though in lean condition, weighed
thirty-five pounds; and he also won the first prize with his Dorking hens. At this show
White Dorkings of increased size were much admired; altogether, the Dorking entries
consisted of 188 pens. In 1852 there were separate classes for Dorkings with rose and
also with single combs.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 489

From a photograph by Nightingale & Langley, Bucks
CHAMPION DARK DORKING HEN
Owned by Arthur C. Major
formation being considered by some of very limited knowledge as a proof
of purity of breed; whereas it is no criterion whatever in that respect, there
being hosts of the veriest mongrels having the five-toe appendage. What
showed, and should not show, the true breed of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey
five-toed fowls was the clear white fleshy shanks and feet; and of these,
purely so, there was at one time such an abundance that at the poultry
markets they might be seen by the score, in this respect "perfection";
while in form and quality there was nothing left to be desired. Another
sign of their "blue blood" was the white ear-lobe. These were not merely
"fancy points," but distinctive, unmistakable indications of the race, and
490
The Poultry Book
were then and before any poultry show existed known throughout the
world as the very finest table fowls. In every respect they differed from
others in make, quality of flesh, and general habits; but beyond all
they were—I say were" advisedly-with the exception of the white-
shanked old English Game, the only pure white-shanked, white-footed
fowls in existence. As such, apart from all other considerations of utility,
one would have thought that every endeavor would have been made to
keep such a superb variety intact, instead of which they have been more
beset by the crossing-mongrel craze than any other, as though they lacked
that which they possessed in extreme degree "excellence."
There is not much more to chronicle than has already been said.
But little, if any, advance has been made in quality, though the general
outcome of somewhat more careful selection is an evenness of form and
character that has been so long earnestly desired not only by the Dorking
fanciers themselves, but by the community at large. In a neighborhood
where the Dorking is "the fowl" there will most certainly be found
the finest early chickens, for these, even when very young, fatten more
quickly than any other, and they feather better—at least, this is my experi-
ence. The Buff Orpington is one that has been eulogized as having such
properties in excess, but with my Dorking chickens of the same age they
proved themselves no laggards in this respect, the five-toed true birds
being ready nearly a fortnight in advance, while the color of the flesh
and the fulness and plumpness of the breast made them a much more
presentable table and market fowl. They had a fair trial, but being less
than an improvement on the old stock the latter was found to be not
only more profitable but far superior in other ways. Still as time wears on
the pernicious advice is given that crossing the Dorking improves it as
a table fowl, and the yellow-skinned, somewhat yellow-fleshed and fat
Cornish Indian is the one yet unblushingly put forward as the breed tend-
ing to perfect that which already has no peer. Most breeders of the finest
table fowls who have tried the blend have truly said that the yellowing
of the chicken flesh and fat made them less salable than the Dorking
pure and simple.
Another point noticeable is that the Dorking judges are now instructed
to look for squareness of form more than the elongated absurdity that
was at one time considered to be a better table fowl, when, in reality, it
was a worse, for certain it is that a broad, deep breast is far better than a

Apre
PRIZE DORKING COCKEREL
Dairy Show, 1895
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls
493
longer one, the end portion being so shallow as to be dry in fiber and gener-
ally fatless. Again, it must be clear to the reflective and reasoning mind
that as the whole of the breast flesh consists of muscular development
necessary to move the wings, therefore that quantity of power must be
better when placed in the front part of the fowl, and if so it is thicker,
also more juicy, richer, and flavory than when the breast cut is long,
narrow, and thus dryer. Nature always provides that which is the best,
and the short, square-made form, like that of the breast of the grouse, is
infinitely superior to any out-lengthened and unnatural formation. A
really good Dorking should be heart-shaped, like the old English Game,
and any divergence from such is a loss, or at least by no means a gain.
A fowl to have a long and deep breast is a physical impossibility, though
there are those ignorant of Nature's laws who yet advocate such as having
more flesh than the square-made bird, irrespective of the fact that the
strong, short-winged, quick-flying birds ever have the greatest chest
muscular development. Besides which, experience teaches that long-
bodied fowls have generally the weaker constitutions; therefore to advo-
cate such shows a want of knowledge, due consideration and understanding
of Nature's absolute laws and requirements, which by themselves produce
a desired form of the greatest utility value.
Of the general show Dorkings, the silver-gray has decidedly advanced
in quality to what it was some twenty years ago, when sooty shanks and
feet were awarded prizes as though they were worthy of them, while their
owners grew irate when told of the impurity of their stock. Such birds
would now be unnoticed by the judges, and deservedly so. Therefore it
is gratifying to find almost the whole class not only fine in form and color,
but with shanks, feet, and toe-nails of the old ancestral white. Opinions
differ on the subject, but it is none the less right that the silver-gray Dor-
king hen, like that of the silver-gray old English Game, should not have
any other color but black, gray, and white, and the presence of buff or
salmon color on the throat and chest denotes that it is the hen to the
custard duckwing cock. Silver is a pure, light, steel-gray, or, more properly,
the tint of that metal; any other color whatever, therefore, displaces the
pureness of tone and it is no longer silver. It is this preference by some
for the salmon breast on the silver hens that destroys the vivid brightness
of the ground color. This is so whether the majority of the silver-gray
fanciers think so or not, and one is generally met by the assertion, “Well,
494
The Poultry Book
I like to see a salmon throat," instead of carefully considered argument.
Thus it is that the silver cock is one color and the salmon-throated hen
decidedly of another. My own Gray Dorkings are pure grays, without the
slightest tint of any other color but black, gray, and white. This being
so, if a hen with a salmon throat is put among them the difference in
the tone of the gray is at once apparent, and the gray shows the want of
blueness that is present in the white-throated spangled grays. Another
noticeable fact is that the silver-gray Gray Dorking of 1902 is more com-

PRIZE DARK DORKING HEN
Owned and bred by Herbert Reeves
From a photograph
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 495
pact, and the feathering is closer and of moderate length, which was not so
twenty-five to thirty years ago, at which time the yellow-shanked Brahma
cross was conspicuous by the coarser bone and longer, looser feathers;
and the consequence of the Asiatic blood was proved by the sooty shanks
and feet and dark or yellow-tinted toe-nails. Happily these are of the past
or nearly so, and it is to be believed that the Silver-gray Dorking fancier
is doing his best to make and maintain not only a beautiful breed of poultry,
but one as near perfection as it is possible that the forces ever present in
Nature will admit of. The breed of to-day is in far better hands than it
was at the time mentioned, and faults are called by their right name—
defects, and not smoothed as "blemishes" only, and the mongrelized
Dorking called good and valuable because it was-big.
Now as to the Dark Dorkings of 1902, not nearly so much can be
advanced in their favor as "the silvers"; they are decidedly more ungainly
and clumsy both in progression and their general habits. In form there
is a sort of rambling line that is neither graceful nor pleasing; also there is
a looseness of feathering, which is of abnormal length; they are more bony
and heavily made, and in all ways coarser, with a decidedly sour expres-
sion about the head; even the texture and spiking of their over-large
combs is rough and granulated by comparison with the lighter, brighter
breed. Nor does careful examination of the flesh fiber when prepared for
the table give any points in their favor. There is nothing, perhaps, that
makes faults of contour more clearly visible than "the camera." Photo-
graph the two breeds and place the results side by side and the difference
can be easily yet perfectly noted. The two are said to be Dorkings, yet
devoid of their feathers the difference is wide, the dark generally being of
the ugly, reprehensible, elongated form, while the silver is shorter, thicker,
and has a plumpness of breast that is generally absent in the former. Why
is this? for undoubtedly it is so. The reason is that it has been more
mongrelized by Asiatic and other alliances to gain size at the expense of
quality, and which is still unmistakably shown by the dark toe-nails and
soot-tinged feet. Still it is a grand fowl, and by some considered handsome,
but, as said before, in such, as in many other poultry matters, tastes differ.
The neglect of these charming varieties of our poultry is the more
inexplicable when so many new-made breeds are sought and extolled
for their alleged high qualities and gay coloring. There is no way
of accounting for this other than that novelty seems for the time to possess
496
The Poultry Book
more attraction than proved sterling merit. The Buff Dorking has long
been put aside, though the form is superior in most ways, and undeniably
so as a table fowl. (The Dorking breeds that have been before the American
fanciers' public are the white-colored and silver-gray, with an occasional
"cuckoo" marked (Dominique plumaged) specimen.)
The craze of to-day is for bone and size; and the very cause and reason
of the establishment of poultry shows-that of purity of breed and superior
quality to be the first consideration-is scornfully derided, coarse and
clumsy bigness being more prized by the semifancier, half-commercial
judge of to-day. As long as this is so, the best and most desirable
table fowl can scarcely hope to hold with the public, fanciers, or
farmers that estimation that it most justly and incontestably is
rightly entitled to.
A fowl to be good for culinary purposes must not only be of good
form and fleshy, but one that will fat not only readily but evenly, and
more particularly on the breast. It has already been observed that where
the feathers are longest there are tracts of fat formation; thus it is that the
back is well covered, and generally much accumulation about the lower
part of the neck. The Dark Dorking, being particularly long in feathers,
fattens more readily on these parts than the silver-grays; but this latter is
by no means deficient, while the former would be greatly improved by
the flesh being of finer fiber or tissue, and this to a certainty by a judicious
cross with the old English white-shanked Game-cock, the hens being two
years of age and the Game a stag. This cross has so often been used with
excellent effect that with gourmands it is greatly in request, though of
course it is not so perfect a fowl as the true-bred old English Game. One
of the worst crosses in my opinion is that with the Cornish Indian, for
the reason that it not only does not fatten so well on the breast, but fre-
quently the whole body is stained with a golden yellow, which renders it
perfectly unsightly and unsalable as a boiling fowl. (In many places
in the United States dressed fowls of the yellow color are preferred.)
Therefore it is more desirable for general purposes to keep the Silver-
gray than the Dark Dorking, especially so if exhibiting is contemplated;
but if not, and prize-winning is uncared for, but beauty and utility the
first object, then the black-breasted silver-spangled, the black-breasted
reds, and the old gray black-spangled will at all times not only give pleasure,
but add a most enjoyable charm to the home surroundings; also the white
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls
497
with thin double or rose-form coral red combs must not be forgotten, nor,
by way of variety, the cuckoos and cuckoo white spangles.
The Dorkings or old Kent, Sussex, and Surrey five-toed fowls are

DARK DORKING COCKEREL
The winner of many prizes. Owned by Herbert Reeves
From a photograph
said to be tender and difficult to rear; this is distinctly untrue. Had they
been so, they would not have held their own as our farm poultry for hun-
dreds of years, and then were the very best of fowls. My own (old grays,
black-spangled) are kept on a somewhat low-lying meadow, with a reten-
tive clay subsoil, yet the chickens thrive, grow quickly, and are out and
about in all weathers, seldom or ever roosting in the house; but, whether
wind, rain or snow, they are more often resting on the outside of their
house in a row along the top ridge.
They lay as well as most of the poultry kept in the neighborhood,
and in some instances better, often helping to fill the egg basket when
there is both frost and snow. For table the Dorking is unequaled. Other
breeds, because they are new and eulogized far beyond their deserts, have
become prime favorites with the many in consequence; but as the fowl
498
The Poultry Book
is good, right, and proper for the English homestead, there is, take
it for all in all, nothing to equal our old, pure-bred, white-shanked,
five-toed native beauties.
THE WHITE Dorkings
IN the article on "Poultry," in Rees's "Cyclopædia," 1819, it is stated
that "The Darking [Dorking] fowls are all raised in the Weald of Sussex,
but the finest market for them is Horsham, the five-clawed of them being
considered the best sort; this, however, may be a mistake,* and it took
its origin with some of this peculiarity that happened to be very large and
fine, which laid the foundation of what has since been called the Darking
or five-toed fowls, and considered in other parts of England as prime stock;
but such a thing is hardly known in Sussex-it is a bastard breed.”
This is strange reading after all that has been quoted from the old
writers as to our poultry having five toes, and shows clearly how little
trouble was taken to verify the statements respecting "our poultry." To
my certain knowledge the fifth claw was prized and noted as the best to
keep, both in Kent and Sussex, long into the last century; for when young
I have heard this variety spoken of by very old people as "the true," and
their own breed; also the whites were by no means uncommon. Then the
writer of the above said, and most likely very truly, that "the Darking
are all raised in the Weald of Sussex."
Mr. B. P. Brent, writing in the Poultry Chronicle, Vol. I., page 595,
insists that the White Dorking is a distinct breed from any other fowl,
and that it must have a rose comb, and that no other is true bred. He then
describes the fowl as he knew it: "Comb rose, square-shaped, and evenly
sprigged and terminated in a single point behind, and not falling on either
side; gills and wattles moderate; ear-lobes whitish (moldy); beak, shanks
and toes white; shanks short; toes five in number, the hind ones being
double, well-defined, and raised slightly on the shank; plumage spotless
white; neck short and full; wings and tail ample; back broad, stout across
the loins; breast full and large, and the nearer the body approaches a
parallelogram the better.
"The White Dorking is an excellent farmyard fowl, being a good layer,
a close sitter, and an attentive mother; the chickens grow rapidly, and
*The mistake lies with the writer. The five-toed fowls have been noted as a breed for
any number of years, and so kept and described, as old books and records prove.

Hewire, on locen
1901
PRIZE ROUEN
DRAKE AND DUCK.
The property of the late Mr. J. PARTINGTON.
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 499

PRIZE DARK DORKING HEN
Owned and bred by Herbert Reeves
From a photograph
are most excellent on the table. The pure White Dorking may also be
considered as fancy as well as useful, because they will breed true to their
points."
This is what the White Dorking was in 1852-53. Mr. Brent has
given a fairly accurate description not only of what it was, but what
it should be; still it cannot be conceded, after what has been said as to
the origin of Dorking fowls, that it is "a distinct breed" from that of the
Kent, Sussex, and Surrey fowls, or does not derive its existence either from
these or Roman importation. There is no doubt that there was a white

500
The Poultry Book
breed of fowls kept there or thereabouts, but to say that they were of a
different ancestry from our others of a similar form is, in my opinion,
advancing too much, and is in some degrees contradicted by the various
statements already quoted, particularly those of Mowbray (John
Lawrence). Moreover, there were from time immemorial white fowls in
Kent, etc., with rose or single combs; and many of the old writers, after
describing the five-toed fowls of the period, warn their readers against
having white as being of less worth, etc.
Not a few of the old Kent and Sussex farmers were proud of their
breed of white fowls, and even ducks. The former mostly had a rose
comb, as indeed did many of the colored, but they generally were not
in favor, and the old single comb was preferred.
COLORS OF THE DORKINGS
Of these there is not much to be said, for the reason that they mostly
follow those of the old English Game already enumerated and described;

PRIZE SILVER-GRAY DORKING HEN
Owned by Herbert Reeves
From a photograph
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 501
but perhaps it would be better to give a few notes regarding them; the
Dorking or southern fowl being, as it is, one of our oldest and the best
of European breeds.
The White.—This should be a clear dead white, without the slightest tint
of yellow or any other color. Some prefer the eye to be pearl in color. I do.
The Gray.-In color this is like the old black-breasted or gray-
breasted Game-fowl. Dark-gray breasts were allowable in the cock when
heavily streaked with black; these have no black wing-bar, but a black
lacing of the wing coverts. The hens are gray, with black tips to their
feathers, which should have white mid-ribs and shafts, white and gray
on the upper part of their breasts.
Dark Gray.-These resemble the black-breasted birchen grays, with
a black wing-bar. Hens gray with dark tip to their body feathers, breasts
white with the feathers gray to dark edging, with white mid-rib.
Reds.—Cocks, black-breasted reds, with large full tails, mostly black
with emerald sheen. The hens deep, bright-chestnut red, with black tips
to their body feathers, hackles dark-purple black, wing primaries and
secondaries black on inside web, red on outside web, the shaft and mid-rib
of the body feathers a light bright-yellow or orange.
Brown. The cock the same as the foregoing, but of deep brown or
rich bright ruddy tints, with dark chestnut-colored breast. Hens brown
partridge, upper part of breast a reddish-brown, with dark tips to feathers,
with white mid-ribs.
Darks. The cock black-breasted, with black tail and wing-bar; the
hackle, back, saddle, and wing bow a light gray, with a tint of black down
the center of the hackle feathers. The hen to be a glossy black with the
exception of the throat and breast, which should be a rich gray, slightly
laced with a dark color.
Spangles.-The same in coloring as the old English Game. Each
feather tipped with white; but if black spangles, then black.
Speckles. These are the same as the old English Game spangles.
If a red speckle, each feather should be tipped with white, and so if a black
and gray speckled. These, when good, have a very fine, rich, bright
appearance, a flock of the reds and blacks being as bright as a tulip bed.
Any pure white feathers in this or the foregoing should disqualify.
Cuckoo. A well-known color of a light gray ground transversely
striped with a darker gray. There are also brown and golden cuckoos.

502
The Poultry Book
Barred and Spangles. Cock white, black spotted on the breast,
black wing primary and secondary, wing feathers black or inner webs
white outside; hackle, back, saddle, and wing-bow ticked with round
black spots. Hen white, spotted, or barred with black throughout; tail
black. There is, or was, another variety of these in which the ground

in
BRIGHT RED AND BLACK-SPANGLED DORKING HEN
was orange, the marking the same; these were called the old Kent barred
spangles. Another variety was laced instead of being spotted with black.
Very Light Grays. These were nearly white, with full rich black
markings on the hackles and the wing primaries and secondaries black
on inner webs; tails black, in point of colors resembling what are now
called Light Brahmas.
There are many with moderate colors, as in the old English Game.
In all, the shanks and feet were white, combs double or single, wattles
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls
503
red, deaf ear pinkish-white or white-edged pink, as though (and possibly)
weather-stained.
Here is an excerpt from Varro, translated by the Reverend J. Owen,
M.A., 1800, page 223, giving a description of the farmyard cock of about
two thousand years ago, with form and color, etc. It appears the red
were thought the best, for he says those "who wish to have a perfect
poultry yard are to choose the villatic hens chiefly, in procuring which
they must select such as are the most prolific, generally with red plumage,
black pinions, unequal claws, large heads, erect large crest, for these are
better qualified for breeding. They must choose the cocks that are
muscular, with a red crest, a short, full-pointed beak, gray or black eyes,
bright-colored red wattles, a variegated gold-colored neck, the inside
of the thighs hairy, short legs, long claws, large tail, close pinions, which
are also erect, and crow often." Here is a description of the then red,
five-toed fowl. One peculiarity mentioned is, thighs hairy. This is an
almost exact description of the old Kent and Sussex fowls, and goes far
to prove that they were an ancient and pure race, and most probably,
as before stated, brought to this country by the Romans; for not only
were many of our five-toed southern poultry of this form and color,
but they had also the long hairs on their legs and thighs. Among my
own old Kents, many, both cocks and hens, had coarse hairs nearly
two inches long on their thighs, and some few an inch or so more. On
pointing out this peculiarity to my man (a man of Kent), he said that it
was nothing uncommon, and that years ago most of the cocks about
were more so. Is not this some proof of the antiquity of the five-toed
Kent breed?
By way of conclusion, I will call attention to the peculiar coloring
of the old Kent and Sussex five-toed breed. In the first place, they varied
in this exceedingly, being bred chiefly to the fancy of the owner, and in
certain localities. Though some varieties were much more scarce than
others, perhaps the white with nearly black penciled hackles, wing primaries,
secondaries, and black tail were the most uncommon. A near relative
of mine had three or four flocks of these. Possibly it may not have been
noticed by other fanciers that this is a colored form of the albino, and
exists in many animals as well as birds. The East Indian rabbit is white
with black ears, tail, and legs, and has pink eyes. The Siamese cat is
the same.
There are Guinea-pigs so marked, and the Chillingham cattle,
504
The Poultry Book
besides others. Therefore, being as it were a freak of Nature, it ought
not to be difficult to perpetuate, mostly coming true.
But in these fowls
there is the
peculiarity of the
white mid-rib or
shaft of the
feathers; no
matter the
colors, this in
the pure breed
remains white or
nearly so, and
with the richer
tints produces a
most brilliant
effect; and there
is another differ-
ence, namely,
that generally
the feathers are
tipped with black
or a black color
on almost any
kind of ground. Thus in the red the hens are black spangled, so
in the browns, the grays, light or dark, and others; and often
this is so in all shades; but when the black tip is changed to white,
this then is the speckled or white spangled one of the many colors
for which the old Kent, Sussex, and Surreys were fancied. If
crossed out, as the silver-gray is an example, then a mossy smooth
appearance is often the result, but even colors are the exception and not
the rule, and are not typical of the race.
At the present time it may be justly said that no one has a truer
stock of the White Dorking, or one that has endeavored by all legitimate
means to uphold the breed and to restore it to its original purity, than
that highly respected fancier, O. E. Cresswell, Esq., J.P., of Morney Cross,
Hereford.
Mr. Cresswell began keeping the breed in 1868, with chickens hatched

SILVER-GRAY DORKINGS
From a photograph by C. Reid
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 505
from eggs that he got from Mr. B. P. Brent, then, as he says, residing in
Sussex (but later of Bessels Green, near Sevenoaks), well known by his
excellent book on pigeons and his various articles on poultry; he was
also a good naturalist. These chickens were the foundation of Mr. Cress-
well's well-known and highly successful strain. Of these he says in the
Feathered World, January 9, 1900: "My original Sussex birds were,
as far as I can recollect, very pretty and pure white; but they were by no
means massive enough nor deep enough in the breast to be first-class
table birds, and nowadays would stand no chance in a show-pen. I have
always suspected that they had some slight taint of White Game blood,
for single combs were common among their immediate produce, and the
hens laid pale-pink eggs, as did many of their descendants for several
generations." I quote this for more than one reason; firstly, because the
old and original breed of white Dorkings consists of strains with both
rose and single combs; also there
were rose and single combs among
the colored varieties.

Other White Dorking fanciers
have contributed largely toward the
refinement of the breed besides
Mr. Cresswell; but none, or few,
have so well succeeded in returning
to the old type. A few years ago
Mr. Joseph Pettipher showed some
exceedingly nice birds of high com-
mendable form of character, but he
does not seem to have kept pace with
Mr. Cresswell; and the White Dorking
Club has rendered lasting service,
though it does not appear to be aware
of all the points and excellences of the
old breed. I can fully realize, and
know how often it is said, that elderly
people think there is nothing like or
equal to the past, and that such
assertions are merely that and are not borne out by facts; but in this case at
least the statements can be well substantiated, for there is the drawing
From a photograph by C. Reid
SILVER-GRAY DORKING HEN
506
The Poultry Book
of my white cockerel in the 1853 edition of the “Poultry Book," and which
gives an original drawing, with that of a pullet made at the same time,
and which in character and form, fleshiness and quality, is, I maintain,
unsurpassed by any of his age at the present time. The cock had a single
comb, that being my preference, as well as many others at the time. If
I had preferred a thicker and more clumsily made bird, it could have been
bred easily from the same stock by feeding the hens on more forcing
food. This bird was heavy for his age-nearly ten months—and with full,
rounded breast; the deep form, as to keel, does not carry any more than
the moderate, while according to the size of the wings and their frequent
use is the sternum thickly covered with pectoral muscles. The bird
weighed about ten pounds at the time he was selected by the editors of
the "Poultry Book" as one typical of the breed.
Here it would be well to call attention to a curious fact that has
escaped the notice of the numerous writers on poultry, especially those
who call themselves experienced and practical; namely, that before the
time of the shows all farmyard and other poultry was considered, for
table purposes, to be at its prime in its first year, and stags, as cocks,
the best for breeding in the January and February of their second year.
Early hatched pullets of the previous years that had laid in the autumn
were good also, but none after the spring of the third year for breeding
stock. It was always a young stag to an older pullet or third-year hen
which kept up the freshness and vigor of the strain. Well, this being
so, when the Zoölogical Society of London held their first exhibition, all
shown were young birds-fowls, ducks, and geese. The second show
was the same, the poultrymen believing their birds to be at that time at
their very best, both for winning and selling. And so it was in selecting
types of breeds for illustrating the "Poultry Book"; all, with very few
exceptions, were birds of the year. Any one having the 1853 edition
can easily arrive at the truth of this statement by examining the shanks
and the bud-like spurs of the cockerels and pullets. Mr. Sturgeon's
cockerel Shanghai was under ten months, so were Mr. Balance's Malay,
Mr. Gilbert's yellow Shanghais, Mr. Sturgeon's cinnamon pullet, Captain
Hornby's Game and his colored Dorking, my own White Dorking cockerel,
and all the rest, with the exception of Mr. Sturgeon's buff Shanghai “Queen,"
which was in her second year. I am able to certify such as a fact, for I
painted, handled, and examined them all. Possibly this has made
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls 507
much confusion of ideas as to what our poultry was at that date. The
poultrymen of the present, comparing their old birds with the chicken.
pictures of the past, are rather more than apt to sit down in an elated
state of self-glorification, and to plume themselves into the belief as to
the variations of the breed of to-day being "progress." This showing
of young birds was the general practice for some time, until old and young
classes were
formed, and
the boasted
weights of the
older began
to tell seriously
against the
younger, when
all sorts of

crosses were
resorted to to
get size, how-
ever rough in
character,
and this was
naïvely termed
"early matur-
ity." So it is
that nearly all
the illustra-
tions made of
the shows at
the Zoological
Society, those at Birmingham, London, etc., are portraits of young
birds; therefore those in the "Poultry Book" must be regarded as
such for comparison. And thus it is that such a number of "ready
writers" commit somewhat serious blunders in their description of
"the past and present"; and not the least pretentious of them, as to
knowledge, are those who, having perhaps bought a few birds or a stock
or pen of some noted winners and breeds, show and win with them, not
their own raising, and then claim knowledge that they really do not possess,
DORKING AND LANGSHAN HEN
508
The Poultry Book
though generally ever ready to inform and opinionize on every quality
and detail.
BREEDING OLD KENT, SUSSEX, AND SURREY FOWLS
It has been urged against the old Kent and Sussex five-toed fowls,
times and often, that they deteriorate in size and color, and some come
with four toes only. If true bred, the latter is never the case, as I know
by experience; nor do they deteriorate in size or vary in color if rightly
managed, as they were on our farms seventy to a hundred years ago,
and probably more.
While admiring Captain Hornby's Dorkings in 1852-53, he told me
that they bred as true as "Game" in color. But he afterward made a
contrary state-
ment in the
Poultry Press,
and said that
some came four-
toed, though
they were pure
bred. How
could this be,
when the
silvers" were
got by crossing
with Lord Hill's
silver-gray
Game-fowls, and
these were inter-
bred with the
darker kinds?
It was stated by
others who kept
the so-called
Dorkings, and
believed as correct, though this breed of fowls was bred by the
Kent and Sussex farmers as true as any other race of fowls, and
that while the modern fancier mostly failed, not from the mere

Move
ROSE-COMBED WHITE DORKINGS
C C
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls
509
non-purity of the breed, but from an absolute want of knowledge of
the right way to obtain success; and thus, from such lack on their part, to
shelter themselves, they said it could not be done, and this with plenty
of flocks of uniform colors still in and about the old southern homesteads.
How was it done? Why, on the same principle as the best Game-fowls
were bred—“youth to youth." Mr. Edward Hewitt, in the Cottage
Gardener, 1857, page 223, adverts to it, when to the question, "Could you
favor me with the cause why the chickens I now breed are so infinitely
inferior to those I obtained a year or two back from the same old birds?”
he answers, "I am confirmed in this opinion, by oft-repeated trials,
that the gradual decline of individual constitution in the size of such
poultry tends incredibly to produce such results; that while the most
uncared-for fold-yards of our agriculturists are free from such calamity,
the infinitely more highly esteemed flocks of our amateurs, who let no
expense deter them from adopting every available advantage, are constantly
the subject of this most vexatious discomfiture." Here I must join issue
with Mr. Hewitt when he says "the most uncared-for fold-yards of our
agriculturists." If this were so, the result would not be what he claims
for it. The farm poultry were cared for and bred on certain principles,
and they the most ancient-that is, the selection of the largest and best.
After noting "natural selection," etc., he further says: "We continually
find instances in our fold-yards where a cock that has maintained inviolate
his supremacy one full season has the next spring been subjected to
maltreatment and oppression from a stronger and a younger bird, his
own former victim; thus treated, he becomes 'a changed bird,' literally
'henpecked. This would be so, doubtless; but it was not the practice
to keep such cocks until the third year, but to rear the largest, strongest,
the most vigorous "stags" or second-year cocks, and these were changed
every year; and indeed to such an extent was the custom carried that it
became proverbial—
"""
“Never keep a cock nor a servant more than a year.”
And the hens bred from were in their third year, seldom the second year
(or pullet hens, as they were called), unless they were unusually large,
"roomy," and forward; and all were chosen for bulk, health, and quality,
especially so when the stock was "inbred" or a "cockerel or two" was
* A variant is, "A cock and a servant are good but a year."
*
510
The Poultry Book
got in exchange from neighboring farmsteads. Thus it was that the
poultry of certain farms and locations became of an even coloring and
character, and, as is admitted by Mr. Hewitt, the method was successful,
while that of the fancier was a failure. But further, from his remarks:
The truth can be soon told. Amateurs are directly prone to two equally
ill-advised practices. First, if a male bird has been able to gain high
position at poultry shows, combined perchance with the production of
extraordinary chickens, he is retained long beyond the time it was advisable
to keep him as 'a stock bird.' The other error is equally mischievous.
From possessing some much-desired peculiarity of feathering, a cockerel
is most unwisely selected, puny, and without constitution.
I
am confident when any race of poultry has arrived at all the required
features fancy dictates as the uncompromising rule of absolute perfection”
(and they certainly are acquired by long-continued attention to careful
mating of the parent birds), progress itself is not more unattainable.
than the perpetuity in all respects of the 'points' so long coveted. They
must, in this case, be crossed with strange blood, or they will infallibly
breed out altogether." With this I disagree, as I have known the same
strain to be not only maintained in perfect health and size by proper
selection and judicious management, but have also known the work of
many years destroyed by the crossing-out with "strange blood”—it has
generally proved to have the most disastrous effects, and was seldom
or ever resorted to by the "henwife" of the best poultry on the Kent,
Sussex, and Surrey farms; and yet, as Mr. Hewitt has admitted, "they"
(the farmers) bred successfully. But further, he says: “A friend of
mine purchased some unexceptionable gray Dorkings. For three years
the produce was equally large with the parent birds, and true likewise
to a feather as to general coloring." (This might be expected if the
parents were of the right stock, but would probably be the limit as to
age for breeding strong, vigorous birds, and the sequel proves this, as it
has done in very many cases before and since then.) "The chickens the
next two years 'sported all colors' and in size degenerated exceedingly,
no additional brood stock having been obtained in the interim." (Nor
would there have been need had the old southern plan of breeding a fresh
young cock (stag) been resorted to; and these fanciers were those that
published the erroneous statements that the Dorkings could not be bred
true, when it was their own ignorance of the natural way and proper
((
(6
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Dorking Fowls
511

OLD KENT WHITE GROUP
methods that brought about the deterioration.) But further of Mr.
Hewitt: "To the old hens, a son of one, bred two years previously, was
repurchased and turned down in lieu of his own male parent; every
chicken produced to him was equally good in color, as they had formerly
been in the youthful days of his sire, but did not attain so good a size."
Here it should be observed that there was no change of blood, but close
"inbreeding"; and yet the value of youth and vigor was demonstrated
by the fact of the cock giving color, as it is said to do, while the hens
being old the size was not again increased; had they been sisters of his
own age the result would most likely have been entirely satisfactory.
But further, "At four years old this latter bird produced chickens of
'all colors,' and was this spring removed to make way for a younger

512
The Poultry Book
one, a cockerel of last year. This last bird's chickens, so far as can yet
be seen, are true silver-grays without any spangling in the breast, or indeed
any deterioration of color." He adds, "To me I admit it is strange,
though true, that such want of general uniformity of plumage should
accrue simply from age in the male bird; but of this I am equally aware,
that an excessively old cock Sebright Bantam invariably begets chickens
with most imperfect 'lacings,' though himself strongly marked on his
own plumage, while no such imperfection is general from long life on
the hen's side. From what I have advanced, I think it is pretty apparent
that the most vigorous cockerels should always be the selected ones for
'breeding,' even where it is still considered desirable to retain an especial
good old cock simply for exhibition; it will prevent many troubles." I
have quoted Mr. Hewitt because he was recognized at the time (1857) as
an old, true, and ardent poultry fancier, and one whose opinion was valued;
and yet, probably, like most, if not all, of the fanciers of the period, he
was unacquainted with the natural forces always present, not only in the
breeding of poultry, but of other domestic animals, that was a traditional
knowledge of the Kent, Sussex, and Surrey farmers for many generations.

Ay
* SUNNING
SOME SCOTCH FOWLS*
"The true friend is to be more esteemed than kinsfolk."-CICero.

D
ANIEL, in his "Rural Sports," 1813, under the heading of
Roxburghshire, writes: "Poultry, in this district, are
reared in vast quantities, and several cartloads of the
eggs of dunghill fowls are annually collected by egglers, who
sell them in Berwick for the London market. A certain
practice to make hens lay plenty of eggs is to feed them frequently with
boiled potatoes and a small portion of oatmeal, a little heated; in winter,
to forward the same purpose, the hens are kept in as dry and warm a
place in the house as possible; in cottages, they generally, during the night,
sit at no great distance from the fireplace; the consequence is that farmers
whose poultry are in the night-time confined in places without a fire
obtain no eggs; the poor people have them in abundance."
As far back as 1862-64 I spent much time in Dumfriesshire, grouse-
shooting, etc., and can therefore bear testimony that about Moffat and
on the hills the cotters still acted on the same plan. In many cases the
byre for the cow was also a part of "the hoose," and the fowls would
come in and sit near the fire, or walk about the table at the meal times;
even a hen and chickens found a warm corner for the night, undisturbed.
The eggs were collected and brought in by barelegged lads or lasses,
who often came long distances ow're the hills, carrying a basket of eggs
and their shoes.
But few old birds were kept at the shanties, seldom more than five
or six hens and a cock, and in the early morning these would roam away
some distance, mostly to the damper or moist part of the hills, in search
of insects, etc., but they were sure to be back at feeding time, which was
about 10 A.M., as a shepherd told me was the right time, as the grouse fed
then or a little before; and, said he, "Nature is Nature, and if ye'll do
weel ye mon abide by Nature. Besides," he added, "they been at it
* This chapter is substantially as it was printed in the English edition.-Editor.
513
514
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all the morn, and noo they'll sleep a' the sun awheel," and then in a lower
tone, "like thee grous."
The fowls then kept "there and thereabouts" were quite the old
sort-square, plump, short in leg and thigh, with medium length of shank,
the heads rather large for the size of the body, with upright combs on the
cock and a drooping one on the hens; the eyes were full and intelligent
and dark or red; the ear-lobes white to a light pink, which last was, perhaps,
but a weather tint; the shanks and beak were white; the carriage somewhat
upright; large tails, full-feathered, and mostly of a dark gray or mottled
black and white, seldom with red, but more often with straw color; the
bodies of the hens were brown, or a gray brown with dark hackles, and the
cocks had mottled gray and black breasts. The cuckoo grays, one old
man told me, were called about there (out by St. Mary's Loch) Shepherd's
Plaids; this, possibly, was mere "pleasantry," with a leaning toward the
truth. All laid snow-white eggs of a somewhat oval form and good in
flavor. As table fowls they were excellent, being extremely fleshy,
and this very white and sapid, not being used to much grain food; when
cooped or well fed they fattened quickly, and were then delicious eating.
The same breed was kept at the "big hoos" where I was staying; and
the fowls of Craiggieburn were for the table of the host; these were the
old, old breed, and none else were kept about there at the time of my
visit. Though not of the same color generally, they much resembled in
form, but somewhat shorter in the body, the breed that is now to the
front and called
THE SCOTCH GRAYS
THIS is a very old breed, and, like the ordinary old Scotch fowl kept
by farmers, keepers, and cotters, is particularly hardy. Though it is
said to be distinct, it has always given me the impression that its origin
lies almost, if not entirely, with the ancient dunghill breed of the country,
with the exception that the true old Scotch Gray was a trifle more Gamey
and upright in its carriage; but its habits were precisely the same as those
I noted in Dumfriesshire round about Moffat, Loch of the Lowes, St.
Mary's Loch and the adjacent hills, villages, and cotters' homes. Although
there were grays among these, yet they were not looked on as anything
beyond “the ordinary," nor were they sought for more than other colors.
Still, in some districts, an attempt had been made to breed for form, flesh,

WHITE DORKING PRIZE HEN
Some Scotch Fowls
517
and color; and over forty years ago, when at Kelso, I was shown some
examples that showed not only careful breeding, but also an evenness
in general appearance and utility that was highly favorable, and went
far to prove that they were a good and true strain of an ancient and original
type of fowl.
I give the standard as proposed by the Scotch Gray Club, 1885-86,
with some of which it will be seen I am not in full accord, nor do I think
that the bird of to-day possesses the numerous high qualities of that of
forty to fifty years since, having, as it has, a mixture of foreign blood not
observable in the old Scotch farm and cotters' breed.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Cock
Comb.-Single, medium size, fine in texture, perfectly straight and
upright and with well-defined serrations, bright red in color, free of side
sprigs and come well down on the head behind.
Beak.-Strong, well curved, white in color, or white streaked with
black.
Head.-Neat, long, and fine.
Eye.-Large, bright, and clear.
Ear-lobe. Medium size, fine in texture, and bright red in color. (I
say "white" emphatically.)
Wattle.-Medium length, bright red, well rounded on lower edge.
Neck.—Medium length, finely tapered, well arched, and having hackle
flowing down on shoulders and back.
Breast.—Broad, deep, and full, and carried well forward and upward.
Body.-Medium length, compactly built, and full of substance.
Wings.—Medium size, carried well up, distinctly barred bow and tip,
covered by hackle and saddle feathers.
Tail.—Medium size, carried well up and receding from body—not
squirrel-with flowing sickles and secondaries nicely and evenly barred.
Thighs.-Long, straight, wide apart and strong; not quite so promi-
nent as in Game.
Legs. Strong and rather long, white in color, or white mottled with
black; not sooty.
Feet.-Four-toed, straight, and strong; same color as legs; toes
straight and well spread out.
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Size. The larger the better if combined with quality.
Shape. Neither Dorking nor Game, but a blend of both-i.e., having
features allied to both.
Carriage and Appearance.—Erect, lively, active, bold, and graceful.
Plumage.—Cuckoo-feathered, grand color of body; thigh and wing
feathers should be bluish-white, while that of hackle, saddle, and tail
feathers may vary from bluish-white to light gray. The color of the
barring must be glossy black with a metallic luster. The barring in body,
thigh, and wing feathers should be straight across, while that on hackle,
saddle, and tail may be slightly angled or V-shaped, and the alternating
bands of black and white should be equal in width and proportioned to
size of the feather. The bird should read throughout-i.e., be the same
shade from head to tail, and be free from red, black, white or yellow
feathers; and the hackle, saddle, and tail should be distinctly and evenly
barred, while the markings all over should be rather small, even, distinct,
and sharply defined.
Hen
Comb.-Medium size, evenly serrated, either erect or falling slightly
over.
Beak, Head, Eye, Ear-lobe, and Wattle.-Same as cock.
Neck. Rather long; hackle distinctly marked and same shade as
body.
Breast, Body, and Wings.-Same as cock.
Tail.—Medium size, well marked, receding from body; not squirrel.
Thighs.-Long, strong, and well shown.
Legs.—Rather long, pinky white or slightly mottled; not sooty.
Feet, Size, Shape, Carriage, and Appearance.-Same as cock.
Plumage.—Same as cock, but markings rather larger, even, and
distinct, producing an appearance like a shepherd's tartan.
Points in Scotch Grays
Size, 5; comb and head, 3; tail, 3; color of plumage, 5; symmetry, 5;
condition, 4. Total, 25 points.
Value of Defects in Judging Scotch Grays
Standard of Perfection.-A perfect bird in shape, style, color, condi-
tion, etc., to count 25 points.
Some Scotch Fowls
519
Defects to be Deducted.-Bad comb and head, 3; bad shape and carriage
of tail, 3; want of size, 5; want of symmetry, 5; want of condition, 4; faults
of plumage, 5. Total, 25 points.
Disqualifications
Fraudulent dyeing and trimming, any bodily deformity, and distinct
characteristic of any other breed not applicable to the Scotch Gray.
SCOTCH BAKIES OR DUMPIES
JUMPERS
ALTHOUGH aware of the existence of this breed in Scotland, I had never
seen any until visiting Mr. John Fairlie, of Chevely Park, near Newmarket,
in 1852-53. The flock consisted of some twenty-five or thirty, and all bore
the stamp of being a separate and distinct breed from any other European
fowls. In many ways they were particularly interesting, much so in
their general habit and walk, which was sometimes diverted into a jump
or hop; though not a series of hops like the progression of the sparrow, but
simply one or two occasionally, then a short walk, and again possibly
more jumps, according to any impulse or need they had for moving. After
much careful observation and study of the cocks, hens, and some few
chickens, I came to the conclusion that they were most likely a variant
of the old English short-shanked fowl named "Grigs," mentioned by Rae
in his edition of "Willoughby," 1678, and that being so short limbed they
were probably found unsuitable for our English homesteads, and had thus
become scarce. Although those of Mr. Fairlie came from Scotland, I could
not learn of any others being there; and therefore there was no conclusive
proof that they were by any means entirely a Scotch breed. Nor could
this be considered at all likely, when taken in conjunction with the old
English "Grigs"; though, at the same time, this being a mere surmise, it is
not needful to suggest any alteration of the name by which they are known,
or that there should be any prefix or addition to it, for though the resem-
blance by description is great, they may not be identical.
Besides making several pencil studies, I painted a cock and two hens
for Mr. Fairlie. The birds of the whole flock throughout were very similar,
the difference of form and color being very slight. This evenness of
general character and appearance fully impressed me as demonstrating
the pureness and possible antiquity of the breed. All were particularly
healthy and strong on the wing, and if frightened they, being very timid,
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would fly very rapidly some distance. Curiously, though short in their
thighs, legs, and shanks, they were rather long in the body, or appeared to
be so, yet were full and plump-breasted; the feathering, though somewhat
long, was close and compact, the tails being large and well spread, the
sickle feathers broad, curved, and lengthy, as were the large tail coverts;
the neck hackle or plume and the saddle hackles were full and long. In
color they were red and black, or yellow, gray and black, splashed with
white, in some instances quite "gayly" so. The head was broad at the
back and tapering toward the front; the comb medium size, single, upright,
and deeply serrated or spiked; the wattles rather large, long, and pendulous;

Aragu
CUCKOO BAKIES, OR JUMPERS
Owned by Mr. Weir
Some Scotch Fowls
521
ear-lobes full and pinkish white or white; eyes light reddish-orange, though
in some cases inclining to pearl or daw color; the crow of the cocks
resembled that of the Game-fowl; the eggs were somewhat oval in shape
and white; the hens were fairly good layers. The weight of the cocks was
between seven and eight pounds; the hens, five and a half to six and a half
pounds, or even more. The beak, shank, and feet were stout and strong;
the shanks very short and all of a flesh-white; toe-nails white. The hens
were good sitters and mothers; the chickens when very young were tender
to rear, being susceptible to colds from damp; even when five or six weeks
old a run in long grass was sometimes fatal.
As a breed they were particularly active, being fond of perching on
trees, flying up with great agility. As table fowls they were said to be
excellent, while for household pets their quaint odd appearance gave an
attractiveness that was pleasurable.
THE DUMBARTONSHIRE FOWL
THE following is a peculiarly interesting excerpt, taken from Daniels's
"Rural Sports," 1813, Vol. III. Of Dumbarton it says:
'This county produces a variety of the dunghill fowl which has some-
times been found in the mosses and domesticated by taking the eggs from
the wild birds and hatching and rearing them by a common hen. This
variety is called the 'heath fowl,' and is but rarely found either here or in
the northern counties of Scotland. It is not so large as the common sort,
but the eggs for the most part are of the size of the duck's, and are very
fine. The hen continues to produce eggs for a long time, and seldom
inclines to hatch. When the eggs are hatched by another hen, care must
be taken to burst the shell after it is chipped, it being frequently so hard
that the young bird cannot disengage itself. The color of the chick
very much resembles that of a partridge, but in fowls come to maturity
it is commonly red or brown, mixed with spots of white or gray. Both
male and female are round-crested, and often the tufts are so large as to
hang over the eyes, and must frequently be clipped. They are smooth-
legged, and the length of the leg is in proportion to the body. The heels
of the cock are short, and not well adapted for fighting; yet both sexes
fight keenly with the bill, which is thick, short, and crooked. Although
fully tamed, yet they are fond of swamps and woods, and extremely
greedy of worms and other reptiles, in quest of which they wander to a

522
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considerable distance. They sometimes leave the dunghill fowls and,
for the sake of insects, follow any plow that is going in the neighbor-
hood. This breed is more easily supported than the common, and their
eggs bring nearly double the price of those of ordinary fowls."
As this was written as far back as 1812-13, it seems curious that in
these times, when every variety of fowl, worthy or unworthy of notice, is
being hunted up and lauded, rightly or wrongly, that this, which appears
to have its own, if peculiar, merits, is entirely lost, or at least is not con-
sidered worthy of notice; yet, according to description, it appears to pos-
sess much that should render it highly acceptable to the general fancier
or the one seeking a utility fowl of some excellence.
After
Wit
MODERN ROSE-COMB WHITE DORKING COCKEREL
A prize-winner

Harrison Wein
Del
DARK BRAHMAS.
The property of MRS. CAMPBELL, of Uley.

WHITE COCHINS IN OPEN RANGE
Bred and owned by J. D. Nevius, New Jersey
THE SHANGHAI OR COCHIN FOWL
THOMAS F. MCGREW, NEW YORK
Photograph by Mr. Nevius
"Allow not Nature more than Nature needs."-KING LEAR.
O domestic animal or bird has created more general enthu-
siasm than did the Shanghai,* now called Cochin, fowl.
From the hour of its first coming into both England and
America it has been prime favorite with the expert
fancier, amateur, and the general public alike. No
aspirant for stage honors was ever better presented than were the
imaginary qualities of this wonderful breed of fowls. It was not a question
of laying one egg per day-any fowl should do as well as this but the
new-found breed, the Shanghai, could and would produce at least calcula-
tions two or three per day. These same false declarations were heralded
in this country as well as in England. Many imagined them as large as
the ostrich or nearly so.

In 1879 the writer began to gather information for a work on Cochin
fowls. The following is from the pen of Joseph Wallace, who spent several
* It will be noticed that in speaking of the Cochin fowl Mr. Weir calls them Shanghais.
Those who are interested in the full history of Shanghais, Chittagongs, and Brahma Pootra
fowls will find then more fully treated in the English edition of this work.-EDITOR.
523
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The Poultry Book
years in China and India. Being a thorough poultryman, he quite well
understood his subject. I quote him just as he wrote over twenty years
ago: "With the exception of the domesticated native Game of India,
the Cochin and its relatives, Brahmas, Chittagongs, Javas, etc., are perhaps
the oldest distinct race of fowls. This may appear strange and perhaps
doubtful at first thought, far-fetched, and wholly unsupported by compe-
tent authority on Chinese galliniculture, owing to our limited knowledge
of the great Chinese empire and surrounding countries. But we antici-
pated this and have accumulative proofs from Chinese records, missionaries,
naturalists, and educated Chinese fanciers to support our theory."
The Reverend Jean Baptiste Proulx, a distinguished linguist and
naturalist of Louvain, Belgium, who traveled through China in the first
quarter of the present century and spent many years instructing the
natives in the arts and sciences, says: "I was astonished, when I first
came here, at the slow and patient industry of the people and the num-
ber and size of their domestic fowls. Not but there are small fowls in
China, like as in Europe, but size is a behest, a specific religious injunction.
In no other quarter of the globe is found so large and distinct a race of
domestic fowls. This land is really the paradise of gallinaceous birds. The
giant race one meets with everywhere have outgrown the records of
time.'
""
Father Tachard (or Sicard), the noted missionary and scientist,
300 years ago penetrated into Cochin-China and Tonquin. In addition
to his studies, he collected a large fund of information regarding
the history, ethnology, zoölogy, and industries of the country. His
observations of the domestic fowls of Cochin-China and Tonquin at that
early day are much the same as observed by recent travelers. "From
what I have learned," says he, "in many parts of the country the domestic
fowls receive the greatest care and solicitude, this especially so among
the Brahmo-Buddhists and the followers of Khoung-foo-tsee and Leo-tsee,
who worship the spirits of their ancestors and believe in the immortality
of all forms of life. They will not suffer a fowl to be killed or injured in
their presence, and it is enjoined on them by their religion to propagate,
increase their size, and care for them in sickness and health, as they are
the living, moving temples wherein the spirits of their departed ancestors
and relatives dwell, by whose wings they are wafted to eternal life after
a certain probationary period on earth.”
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
525
This belief is supposed to account for the number and size of the
domestic fowls of China and parts of India, and the encouragement to
propagation is intensified by the hope of a departed relative taking up
his abode in a fowl under the care and guardianship of one of his kin.
The eggs from each fowl may be sold or bartered for other articles, and
those who hold different religious views breed them for their own use and
for sale. They
also constitute the
chief meat food
for those who can
afford to use them,
so this giant race
has a large geo-
graphical area.

The religion,
tradition, and
superstition of
some of the primi-
tive races of China
show that domestic
fowls were coeval
with their religion
and institutions.
In support of our
theory of antiquity
and distinctness
of the Cochin race,
we will quote from
a learned Chinese naturalist and writer: "The Chinese entertain odd
notions regarding the cultivation of animals and plants. Anything
peculiarly unique, contorted, or abnormal they try to develop and evolve,
dwarf or enlarge, to excite curiosity and turn a ready penny. Young
chickens, goslings, and cormorants are often bound to young bamboo
stems. The plant grows so rapidly that they are stretched out of all
due proportions."
COCHIN PULLET
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
In the populous empire of China habits of industry are necessarily
enforced. Breeding fowls and domesticating wild birds are favorite
526
The Poultry Book
pursuits among the people. Local governments aid and encourage industry,
as the taxes are paid in produce of the land, whether it be in rice, fowl, or
goats. Artificial incubation is thoroughly mastered by a class of pro-
fessionals who travel from one leading part to another plying their vocation
on flat boats, but where the pursuit is carried on largely and also naturally
is in the mi-aus, or retreats, corresponding to the monasteries of Christian
lands. They are invariably long brick buildings one story in height,
simple and solemn in architecture. The grounds for the cultivation of
flowers and wholesome food are ample. Around the buildings are windowless
walls symbolic of the busy life forever shut out from view. In the grounds
and surrounding lands poultry enjoy undisturbed freedom. They are
allowed to make their nests under gnarled trees and beneath creeping
vines. The finest specimens of the Chinese race of fowls are bred in these
places, and there is an attempt at breeding them to an ideal standard.
There are more than 11,000 mi-aus in the Celestial Empire, exclusive
of caravansaries, lambsories, and distinctly religious establishments. The
number of inmates varies;
the highest is that of Tal
Sin, with a roll-call of 600,
and the lowest is that of
Lanchow, with only two
brothers. The imperial
census shows they aggre-
gate 200,000 men who
have renounced the world
forever, and have taken
up the pursuit of poultry
and vegetable cultivation.

In many of these
retreats thousands of
specimens of Buff
and Partridge China
(Cochin) fowls are annually
raised, and in other places
the colors are mixed. The
kinkee (gold flower) colored birds are the most esteemed, both as
regards antiquity and purity. After supplying the wants of the brother-
AP. Grahan
Drawn from life by L. P. Graham
FIRST-PRIZE BUFF COCHIN PULLET
Oakland Farm, Massachusetts. New York Show, 1895
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
527
hood and distressed travelers, the others are sold for the support of the
retreats. Hoang-ho is the oldest mi-aus, and its records show that this
same race of fowls was cultivated by the brotherhood 1,500 years ago.
Buff and Partridge Cochins are indigenous to the temperate and
more southerly portions of the empire. This is corroborated by natural-
ists and travelers. Mr. Gabb, the well-known English naturalist, says:
"According to my view, a black or white Cochin is an improbability, if
not an impossibility, as a natural product of a tropical or subtropical
region. The natural color of the feathers of the poultry in the zone of
Cochin-China would be buff or yellow, or some of the varieties of these
colors, but never black or white, except by accidental variation.”
George E. Haight, an American well known to the fanciers of this
country, visited China and the Straits Settlements a decade ago, and wrote
to the Poultry World as follows: "I believe in my last letter I promised
to let you know if I found anything new in southern China in relation to
poultry. Although there are no distinct breeds of fowls bred or known in
China by the Chinese, there are yet a great many specimens to be seen
in all parts of the empire, and so closely do they resemble each other in
general appearance that it is quite difficult to understand why distinctions
should be made; but I find that the different names of all the Chinese
fowls have been given them by the different foreigners who have brought
them from various places in Asia, and that if they have procured them at
Shanghai they have called them Shanghai fowls (Red, Gray, and Buff, as
the case may be), and if from Hong-kong the Hong-kong fowls, and so
on until we have a dozen or more different names for the same variety.
That they differ in some minor details is true, for no two can be found of
exactly the same color. Some are a chestnut color, others darker, and
some quite light, yet they can all be seen in the same yards together,
bred at random, and producing many different colors; but in size and
shape they are about the same and are known simply as the Chinese fowl.
"In various parts of China (and intermixed with other fowls) can be
seen a large, faded, buff-colored fowl, the male bird being a light buff
with black penciled neck-hackle, dark wings, and black tail with a greenish
cast. Some of them have single combs, others resemble the pea-comb.
Their legs are yellow and well feathered. The hen is two or three shades
lighter (in fact, almost white), and has a heavy body, short, yellow, well-
feathered legs, black hackle, dark-gray wings and tail. These fowls will

528
The Poultry Book
weigh about eighteen or twenty pounds per pair. From fowls of this
description I am convinced the Light Brahmas originated. I have
talked a great deal with old residents of China, some of whom know what
our Light Brahmas are and
have seen and raised them,
and they all agree that they
came from the fowls I have
described. I am convinced
that Doctor Brown was the
first to notice them in China
and keep them separate as
far back as 1840, and that
he was one of the first (if
not the first) to introduce
them in America when he
left China on a visit to his
father in Connecticut in
January, 1847, bringing a
number with him.
Pen
"There is an impression
in the minds of many
breeders at home and abroad
that all our present varieties
of Cochins are descended from the original Cochin-China fowls sent
by the British Ambassador from China to Her Majesty Victoria of
England in 1843. This is hardly possible, for the Queen did not
exhibit her Cochin-Chinas until April, 1846, at the Royal Dublin
Agricultural Society, though prizes were offered for Malays and other
Asiatic breeds at the English poultry show held at the Zoological
Gardens, London, in 1845. Between 1843 and 1846 several private
purchases were made from ships coming from Chinese ports. Sir Richard
Ansley O'Donnell, of Newport, Mayo, Ireland (father of the present Sir
George O'Donnell), had in 1846 a nice flock of deep golden Buffs with
small single comb and wattles, black penciled hackles, short black tails,
smooth yellow legs, large size of body and slightly tapering to the tail.
"At the same time William Mairs, a Scotch gentleman living two
miles from Newport, had a few Chinese fowls, known afterward as Gray
desh
OLD-STYLE SHANGHAI COCHIN, 1856
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
529
Shanghais. Our informant, Joseph Wallace, while temporarily residing
at Newport, received a present of the Shanghais, and many a time, with
young Sir George, they tried the mettle of the Buffs, as they were pugna-
ciously inclined. The Buffs possessed the same general characteristics as
those bred by J. Joseph Nolan, of Dublin, to whom Lord Heytsbury, Lord
Lieutenant of Ireland, gave the first pair that were presented to him by
the Queen in 1846. The Gray Shanghais were more rangy in form, the
feathering soft and loose, and a few downy feathers appeared on their legs.
“In connection with the royal Cochin-China fowl, it may be surmised
that the original stock was in the hands of others besides those of Her
Majesty before 1846, though Mr. Dickson, the English poultry author
of that time, in his work published in 1847 makes no allusion even to the
Queen's fine fowls. This strange fact is accounted for by an old English
fancier, who says that Mr. Dickson's work was prepared several years
before the advent of the Queen's Cochin-Chinas, and that owing to the delay
of publication, absence and sickness of the author, it went to press without
mention being made of these rare and grand fowls, for on no other reasonable
grounds could such palpable inadvertency be excusable.
"Some writers seem to cast doubt on the name Cochin-China being
an appropriate one for the Queen's fowls and those which subsequently
came from China and now classed under the general name Cochin. In
Wingfield's 'London Poultry Book,' issued in 1853, illustrations of noted
Chinese fowls appeared under the titles 'White Shanghai,'' Buff Shanghai,'
'Lemon Shanghai,' 'Partridge Shanghai,' etc. In a subsequent issue
(1867), under the editorship of Mr. Tegetmeier, the word Cochin is sub-
stituted for Shanghai under the illustrations, evidently a more appro-
priate name, better liked, better understood, and better for the class of
fowl, as the name Shanghai, where it became generally known, served as
an epithet of ridicule.”
The above statement describes the actual conditions as they seem to
have existed. We rest the origin in these words and proceed with the
Cochins as they were when described by Mr. Weir, who tells us they were
very accommodating as to form and feather. A few were rather tall,
some of medium height; with others the shanks were short; while those
fanciers that were averse to feather-legged birds could have them clear
and clean on those parts and with skins and scales of rose-tinted yellow.
Rice and maize were their prescribed food, but being coarse feeders they
530
The Poultry Book
would eat almost anything and, what was a great desideratum, fatten on
what they had. They never wanted to fly and cared but little for walking;
being of such a contented nature, they never attempted to scratch or
scrape for their living; given a grass plot surrounded by a wire
fencing two and a half feet high, they would stroll and graze their fill and
then seek repose and be restfully happy.
As to color, here, again, all could be satisfied. They varied from
white to black, from light buff to cinnamon, with many shades of yellow
admixture. While the Partridge and Grouse were of the richest hues, the
Silver Cinnamon claimed to be the most beautiful. Of the feathers and
fluff, it was said that the former surpassed those of the goose for bedding
and the latter swan's-down for pillows. The flesh was mellow, flavory,
rich, juicy, tender, and plentiful. True it was that in the breast meat
there was a deficiency, but then there was the thigh and leg of a sheep in
size by way of compensation. No, there never was such a fowl. By its
advent a new era in British poultry began. The sanguine prophesied
active improvement, while the far-seeing and experienced almost timidly
hinted at disastrous deterioration.
،،
At what period or date the Shanghai fowls were imported to England
is not very clear. In the early forties, Mr. Weir says, some were said to
have been landed in Cornwall, others domiciled in Wales, and Captain
Heaviside, of Walthamstow, had some sent to him by Captain Elder,
whose letter accompanying them was dated "Off Canton, August 21,
1842." Mr. Weir says he never saw any of these. It was in 1843 that
Her late Majesty Queen Victoria received five pullets and two cockerels
under the name of Cochin fowls." A drawing of these appeared in the
Illustrated London News, December 23, 1843. This picture was made
from the birds by Samuel Read, an architectural artist of high repute;
but never having attempted the task of delineating along this line, and not
in the least understanding poultry, the result bears but a small resemblance
to the actual birds. In a sense the drawing is useful, giving as it does the
carriage of the two cockerels. In a conversation with Mr. Read respecting
the fowls, he described them to Mr. Weir. He said they were very bright
and lively, quick and alert, and to his idea very much resembled in form
and carriage what he had been shown as Malays. The cockerels were a rich
red, with dark marks on the upper part of the breast; the pullets were red,
with redder or browner pencilings, and the legs (shanks) of a bright yellow.
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
531
Some time after Mr. Weir had occasion to go to the Windsor poultry
yards. Asking to see the Cochin fowls, he was told the cocks were dead,
but that two of the hens were alive. One of the cocks had been stuffed,
and so preserved. Examining the two hens, Mr. Weir found they did
compare somewhat favorably with the drawing made by Mr. Read.
They were upright in carriage, decidedly of the Malay type, with fairly
long tails and no cushion. They had scarcely any fluff on their thighs,
but were clean, as shown by Mr. Read. The combs were single, clear red,
and small, as were also the wattles. The ear-lobes were larger; the neck
hackle somewhat sparse and Malay-like, though the whole of the feathering
was very much longer than any Indian fowl he had hitherto seen. In

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TYPE OF SHANGHAIS IN 1858
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532
The Poultry Book
fact, says Mr. Weir, they in no way resembled the feather-shanked
fowl called the Shanghai. The stuffed specimen cock was very bright
and rich in coloring, the hackles, back, saddle, and wing bow being of a
rich, deep, varying orange-red, much deeper on the back; there was no
horseshoe in the breast, which was a deep yellowish-chestnut, with here
and there a dark feather; the tail was black with a green sheen; the sickle
feathers were longer than the others, while the whole tail was by no means
small, but full; the tail coverts, especially the lesser ones, were bronzy
brown edged with orange; the shanks and feet were strongly made and
the spurs large and sharp. It was evidently a bird in at least his
third year.
When Mr. Weir went to Windsor again to sketch the Gray Shanghais
sent by Burnham in the early part of 1853 he inquired after the Cochins,
and learned that all were gone. Not a single pure-bred one remained.
The stuffed skin of the cock was still standing in the window, but being
without a glass covering it was almost in the last stage of decay. Mr.
Weir told this to Mr. Baily, and desired him to go and see the specimen,
as it would prove to him that there was no resemblance between those of
Her late Majesty Queen Victoria and Messrs. Moody, Sturgeon, and
Punchard's Shanghais. He did go and see the fowl. Later, when he
met Mr. Weir, he said as far as the specimen stuffed cock was concerned
Mr. Weir was right. Samuel Read's drawing shows how widely different
the birds were from the Shanghai in build, fluff, feathering, and upright
carriage, having clean, rather small-boned, but strong shanks. Thus
Mr. Weir is of opinion that these possibly might have been Cochin fowls.
Later, at the Zoological Society's show, Regent's Park, those shown by
Messrs. Baker, of Chelsea, much resembled them; and though by some
said to be Malays, the Messrs. Baker assured Mr. Weir that certainly
they were not, but imported by them direct from China. It was John
Baily's opinion also that they were not Malays as we knew the breed,
but a Chinese breed. George Landseer drew one set of these for the
Illustrated London News and Mr. Weir the other.
Writing of the modern Cochin, Mr. Weir, when referring to vulture
or falcon hocks, states that at one time there might be seen in England
birds with hocks having long, stiff quilly feathers, both in size and form
equalizing those of the primary and secondary wing feathers; then
more on the shanks and more on the feet, longer, looser, and more
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
533

Harrinn len
THOMAS STURGEON'S BUFF SHANGHAI COCKEREL "JERRY
Showing the shape, hocks, and feathering of the bird in 1853
fluffy everywhere, until the birds looked is if they were a moving mass of
colored softness of utter uselessness. With all this it had and has its
own peculiar beauties-its lines of elegance, its placid habits, its gentleness
and entire domestication, which rendered it, and does still even as a curiosity
in bird life, worth having and observing. After all, as it is now there is
something charming and attractive in this wonderful variation by selection
from that of the wildly natural.
But the large, strong hock coverings had their day. Like many
other absurdities, they were decried and said to be wrong and unsightly,
534
The Poultry Book
but having been the fashion it was difficult to get rid of them. In many
cases in exhibition birds this was done by the simple process of pulling
them out. Even to this day the deteriorating disfigurement exists in a
large degree. What was the first outcome of this feather exaggeration?
The more of feathering the less the number of eggs; less inclination or
ability in the bird to move about in search of food or even to graze; the
flesh became coarser and dryer, and less of it, because much of the muscular
system was unused. The feathers took the lime that the bones should
have, and so arose twisted breasts, etc. Still, though it has lost utility, it
is a fowl apart from all others, singular in aspect, and yet, to Mr. Weir's
way of thinking, much to be admired. As they now are, Mr. Weir says,
possibly he would not care to keep them, as they require so much care
and attention to keep their plumage in condition; but in the hands of others,
to whom such careful study is a pleasure, Mr. Weir still thinks the breed a
desirable and peculiarly interesting one.
It would be tedious to follow the varying fortunes, the varying colors
and forms of the ancient breed. Sometimes their value increases, and
again there is a lull in the demand; then a rise, then a fall; but always
there are at least a few who want and will have only the best; $50 to $100
or more is now given, not only for the pleasure of seeing, but of having.
These are the fancy forms and featherings, but widely differing from the
early imported birds which Mr. Weir saw and some of which he kept; they,
as Miss Watts describes them, had merely a strip of feathers down the
outside of the shanks; these were feathery and cushiony, some of them
being well-breasted and meaty birds, while most, if not all, were very
excellent layers, but now it is not so with the fanciers' fancy.
In America falcon hocks are a disqualification, yet the hocks must be
well and heavily feathered, with plenty of soft incurving plumage, also
with the shanks and feet thickly clothed. Still, even this militates against
the flesh formation and the fecundity in egg-production.
Yet the Shanghai of to-day is a wonderful fowl, a grand exemplification
of the poultry fancier's art, and the marvelous outcome of careful, thought-
ful breeding, wise selection, and in no way deviating, but steadily keeping
on in the only but narrow path that could possibly end in the full attain-
ment of the desired object-that of perfection. This the Shanghai fancier
has attained. He can go no further. He has bred for an ideal which,
unprofitable though it may be, still has a certain class of beauty that is
V
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
535
worthy of our admiration. There is a poetic charm about these gentle
domesticated fowls that is not possessed by any other; they have a way
so confiding and trusting that they seem to belong more to the household
than to the poultry-yard. What they were once is one thing and what
they are now is quite another. Though they certainly have lost much of
that fecundity for which they won fame and notoriety, still the change
has not been all loss, for in the Shanghai as it now is we have a breed of
domestic poultry grandly handsome and widely differentiated from all
others.
These notes relate chiefly to the Buff, and this is a color, as is well
known, that has many hues and tints. Formerly a yellow or canary held
sway, then a deeper, then a cream, then richer; again paler, tending to
a red; again a more solid color, and to-day a vivid yellowish-red, both
pleasing and
bright. A flock in
a green grass-field
in its best attire is
a sight long to be
remembered. This
color from the first
has ruled the fancy,
and for all pur-
poses it is generally
known as the Buff
Cochin, though
none of it but the
Shanghai.

The dark,
black-breasted
brown-reds are
noble, heavily
booted, massive
birds. They and
their Partridge-
colored hues claim attention and thoroughly merit it; while those
similarly marked and known as Grouse, the Brown Grouse also, being
of a rufus color, were, when in the hands of Mr. Tuddman, most attract-
జ
COCHIN PULLET
From a drawing by Harrison Weir

536
The Poultry Book

B
PRIZE BUFF COCHIN PULLET
Jhey
ive, as the brilliant cinnamons-the silver cinnamons-the silver grays,
without a tint of brown, red, or yellow. These looked, if not so, near
akin to the Brahma. Mr. Weir says he has never seen any blues, but
thinks there is no reason why there should not be.
In the fifties the black were somewhat in evidence. They were
superb, with a rich purplish-black sheen on their dense colored plumage.
Some were imported. They were bred mostly from a buff and a white
or, better still, a black and a white. Generally they would come whole
colored, either white, brown, or black. A few cockerels of these blacks
so bred turned brassy-winged in their second molt, but not all. The
hens scarcely ever changed. All had yellow shanks, though some were
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
537
slightly sooty, while others were of a rich orange. Of the best were those of
Captain John Fairlie, of Chevely Park, Newmarket, and were of a deep
purple-black. None of these had the jewel emerald-green of the Langshan,
and until their importation such was conspicuous by its absence. Then
it was that this latter was declared by the ignorant of both breeds to be
nothing more than a Black Cochin, and this with a dogged determination
not to be convinced to the contrary. But as dripping water will wear the
hardest stone, so it was that the gentle pressure of fact overpowered
an ill-conceived obstinacy that should never have existed. But the worst
was that these Cochinists advised the Black Shanghai fanciers to throw
aside the yellow shank and breed black. Then came muddle and mixture
and their enlightenment. Now the black are again yellow-shanked, as
they were and should be.
There were two distinct shades of white. One was the pure albino,
and the chicks, when hatched, were a light straw color; these had gray
eyes and were, when feathered, very white. This variety, when bred with
Buffs, never threw dark birds, but mostly mealies or silver cinnamons.
The other white was a gray chicken when hatched, and got more sooty,
but molted apparently pure white. It was from these mated with blacks
that the best blacks were bred. Mr. Weir had some of both varieties
nearly fifty years ago; whether such exist now in England he does not
know, for the whole of his stock was bought by a Mr. Butler and brought
to America.
Mr. Weir thinks the Buff Shanghais will again come into favor,
though possibly never to realize their former high position and prices;
but their simple habits, quiet, tame, gentle ways, their color and singular
beauty must, he believes, again reassert their presence and, however
reluctantly, bring them many admirers. Perhaps it is the trouble and
difficulty of showing them in high condition, the washing, etc., that has
somewhat tended toward their neglect. Even if that is so, might they not
be kept about our grounds as ornaments and as fowls usefully so? for,
being non-scrapers, the damage, were they to attempt it, would be so
slight as to be almost if not quite unnoticeable.
THE COCHIN FOWL IN AMERICA
THERE cannot be any compromise between the types of modern
English and American Cochin. While both have the same general origin,
538
The Poultry Book
they are so different in form and feather as to be almost a separate family
Early in the nineties there was an effort put forth to introduce the English
type into this country as full-feathered Cochins. Thousands of dollars
were spent to push them into popularity, but the venture was a failure
and the supremacy of the American type of Cochin was fully established.
The main difference is in the length of legs, hock feathering, and the shape
of breast. We favor the short legs, full, soft fluff and hock, full, round
breast and forward carriage, while the English Cochin has long legs, long,
stiff vulture hocks, and flat, high-carried breast.
The early-day Cochin in America was not so fully feathered as now:
in fact, the Cochin of fifteen years ago, for shape and feather, was quite
like the present-day New England Brahma; but with the coming of the
full-feathered Cochins mentioned above came the ambition and determina-
tion to have equally as much fluff and feather as they without the vulture
hocks, long legs, and flat breasts. Along these lines have been built the
beautiful Cochins of to-day. They have all the much-admired feather any
one could wish, and none of the objectionable points raised against the
English type. We now have them far in advance of ten years ago and
far ahead of the whole world in form, feather, and color.
When the American standard was first compiled we had the pale or
lemon, the dark or cinnamon, and the true buff colors. In the face of
this and the fact that three separate classes had been the rule for shows
prior to this time, the standard of 1868, the one original as compiled by
A. M. Halstead, declared for the one buff color, then termed for males.
"rich, deep golden buff," for females "uniform, clear, deep buff through-
out." This was changed somewhat by the American Poultry Association
in their standard of 1875,* which called for rich, clear buff. Since that
time the tendency has been for a uniform color of an even shade of golden
buff throughout, the male and female as nearly one color as it is possible
to have them, now described as "rich golden buff."
The original of all Cochins as they came from China were pale or
lemon buff, dark red or cinnamon buff, and brown or Partridge color.
Whites and blacks came later, but were very scarce. The pale or lemon
Buffs and the pure white had originally the most feather and the more
* A. M. Halstead compiled and owned the original American standard of 1868, 1870,
and 1871. This was absorbed by the Poultry Association standard of 1875, now The
American Standard of Perfection."
24
"

The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
539
rotund or Cochin form. We noticed this from the very first. It is recorded
that Mr. Sturgeon selected the pale or lemon from all the rest for their
beauty of form and feather. This might naturally be, for the Buff is the
favored color of the Chinese empire, and would, through preference,
have the most
care and atten-
tion bestowed
upon them. This
condition would
improve or finish
them to a truer
type than might
be with the
others.

From the
very earliest im-
portation, a cin-
namon cock and
hen and a Par-
tridge - colored
hen (she in reality
a brown-penciled
hen), there were
produced speci-
mens, some of
which were
lemon-colored,
Payr
while others
were Partridge-
colored and still
others cinnamon
in color; all three shades from the one deep cinnamon-colored pair
and the brownish or Grouse-colored hen. This seems to show plainly
that all colors must have been bred promiscuously, as was Our
early-day barnyard fowls and the Rhode Island Reds prior to their
separation into exclusive varieties. We have seen Cochins in the
show-pen of the then-called Cinnamon variety of about the same shade
BUFF COCHIN COCKEREL
540
The Poultry Book

Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Nevius
WHITE COCHINS IN THEIR SUMMER QUARTERS
Bred and owned by J. D. Nevius, New Jersey
of color as are many of the Rhode Island Reds of to-day, and they
did not reproduce much better at that time than do the Rhode Island Reds
of to-day. We have seen two or three shades of color, all from one
clutch of eggs laid by a single hen and mated to but one male throughout
the season.
The writer has constantly bred Cochins for nearly forty years, but not
in all this time have I known of a strain of Buff Cochins that would not
show from time to time the early day evils of cinnamon color, red wing
bows, black in wings and tail, and black marks or stripes in neck hackle.
It was not unusual in early days to have female Buff Cochins show quite
as much striping in hackle as did the Brahmas of the time. This striping
is shown in a colored picture made by Mr. Weir prior to 1853. Our
standard of 1875 mentions that black at end of hackle is not a disqualifica-
tion. This fact I made prominent as a connecting link between all our
Asiatic fowls. Mr. Weir would add to this the pea-comb of a variety
called "Pea-Comb Partridge Cochins," but I rather think that strain
was produced through a Dark Brahma cross.
In early days we had the Shanghai, the Chittagong, and the Brahma-
Pootras, all of which came from the Asiatic countries. They must have
been related one to the other, as are the Chinese of the several provinces,
who differ quite as much as did the early-day fowls from their land. Each
has been guided into its separate form, differing much in the same breeds
and varieties, not only in this country and England, but in the extreme
localities of China. If this is true of the present-day fowls as we find them
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
541
after years of care and breeding, we should not wonder at the several
forms and colors, combs, smooth or feathered shanks in earlier times.
The true Cochin is a bird of feather. The more profuse they are in
plumage the better Cochins will they be considered, providing they are
rotund of form and true to Cochin type and variety color. They
should be deep and massive of form, strong and vigorous, with an at-
tractive dignity of poise that is so suited to their form. They have a
natural tendency to lean rather downward or forward, which gives them
the low carriage of breast. With the breast carried low and the cushion
well up, you have the great depth of body through these sections. This,
with the full fluff, leg and toe feather, unites to build out the massive form
in feathers of the true Cochin.
The massive form of feathers is built out by the excess of down or
under fluff of the Cochin plumage, which largely overbalances the web.
This excess of fluff builds out each section into the rotundity of form that
gives to the well-feathered Cochin the appearance of a ball of feathers.
With all this there should not be any stiff or vulture hocks. Plenty of
feathers may be obtained and maintained without the extended stiff
plumage at hock, and plenty of form and feather may be had with good
liberal size and a full round breast. All of this is an absolute necessity
for the true Cochin, and any deviation from these lines detracts from true
quality and desirability.
In type, shape, or form all Cochins should be the same, no matter
what the variety color may be. The shape must be the same in all.

BUFF COCHINS AT HOME
Bred and owned by J. D. Nevius, New Jersey
Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Nevius
542
The Poultry Book
The head, broad and deep and full over the eyes, where the head and neck
join, is plainly shown by a slight ridge or juncture as called. The head is
ornamented by a nice, even, well-balanced comb. It rounds off to conform
to the shape of the head. The finish of comb is smooth and free from all
unevenness, supplemented with full pendant wattles and ear-lobes that
hang almost even in length. The former the largest and longest; eyes
bright and attractive, bay in color; the head gracefully placed upon the
short, full, handsomely arched neck with its long, flowing hackle that
sweeps well over the back. This rounds up the one-fourth of the
specimen in what may be called the introduction to Cochin beauty.
There is seldom seen upon a fowl a more attractive portion than is
presented by the true Cochin head and neck, the form and carriage of
which is grace itself.
The back, saddles, and cushion unite with the tail to build out Cochin
form; the full-flowing hackle that comes so far down over the back of the
male unites with these to build out or round up the shape and shorten its
appearance. The saddle, or cushion, should begin to take form just where
the flowing hackle ends; the dense under fluff of the plumage of the back
builds out the cushion into almost a perfect half-globe; the spread of
the main tail feathers under the coverts backs up or maintains the
shape of the cushion as if the entire cushion and tail was one and
the same.
The tail of the male should be short and spread at
base, and well filled under and between with a profusion of soft
feathers, the whole hidden away beneath a profusion of coverts
and lesser sickles; the more of these the better, so as to almost hide
from sight the main tail feathers. The beauty and finish of the
Cochin male depend very much upon the length of feather about the
cushion and tail. The longer and more flowing these can be the greater
the beauty and finish.
The breadth of shoulder is of vast importance, as is the cupping of
the wing bows; the filling out of the muscles under the wings rounds up
same and adds to the rotund form of body. With this goes the full, round
breast of both width and depth; these supported by a long, full under-
body give the massive form so much to be desired in the Cochin. Great
breadth between the thighs and shanks allows the body to fill in and
settle down between them; the long, flowing or profusely fluffy feather-
ing about abdomen and thighs entirely hides from view the hock
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
543
joints without the presence of any stiff hock feathering. About the
hocks should be profuse feathering that rounds up about same, but
no vulture hocks; the feathering of shanks should join in under the
hock plumage so as to
avoid any appearance of
a break between the thigh
and shank plumage. All
this profusion of long,
soft feathers above the
hock joint should be
upheld by strong, heavy
shank and feet that are
entirely hidden by shank
and toe feathering.
The female must con-
form to the general
make-up of the male in
a feminine fashion; the
shorter hackle plumage
gives her a longer appear-
ance; the shape of cushion
makes it look larger; the
main tail feathers gathered
together in the center
of the rear of cushion
often droop a little, as if
weighed down by weight
of cushion; the low-carried
breast and shorter legs
give her the very low
carriage so much to be
desired. The most com-
plete Cochin hen is almost round in form and so profuse in feather as to
be called a ball of down. Both the male and female must be round of
form in every section, without any flat formations on either back or
breast; well rounded up and profusely feathered in each and every section
is the rule for quality.

Photograph by Prof. W. G. Johnson
WHITE COCHIN
Prize-winner at New York, 1902
544
The Poultry Book
THE BUFF COCHIN
NO MENTION can be made of this variety of Cochins without bringing
to mind the names of Sturgeon, Moody, Baily, and Proctor, of England,
who have done so much to improve the Cochins of their country, as have
Williams, Pool, Crosby, and Doolittle to establish the supremacy of this
variety of Cochins in America. Mr. Pool was the first to have the males
and females of the same shade of color of a quality that stood supreme.
in the show-room. The writer originated what was known as the “Gold-
Dust Strain," the first to have one even shade of buff throughout without
foreign color. To Messrs. Sharp Brothers, of Oakland Farm, belongs
the credit of the modern full-feathered Cochin of the present, they having
completed the work that had been started by the others, after a fashion
that has gained for them and their Cochins an international reputation.
This variety of Cochins was the first of all Buff fowls. From them,
it is claimed, has been drawn the color or start for all Buff breeds or varieties.
No color is more difficult to fully understand or handle, none more beau-
tiful than a perfect shade, and none less attractive than a bad shade.
To be near perfection the Buff Cochin must be of true Cochin shape and
one even shade of "rich golden buff" throughout, and free from other
foreign colors. The under color should be of a lighter shade than
surface color; surface color or the color of the web of the feather to
be so close or dense as to preclude the possibility of mealiness or white.
ticking showing in the plumage. The thin or washy shade of color should
be equally condemned with foreign color. The true golden buff is the
only shade that looks well and holds its own under all conditions. It is
the only shade that can be depended upon to reproduce good quality.
There has been a tendency to favor the thin or lemon shade in all
Buff fowls. This is an error; usually all such have white under color;
they cannot possibly reproduce even as good color as they possess, and
the greater part of their progeny will have white in the wings. This came
as the result of sacrificing all to a light surface color to be rid of the
black in plumage. The only way to gain or have true, even buff color is
to use only such in your matings for the reproduction of better than you
may have. The presence of black in any part of plumage of the parent.
fowls assures a deeper shade of plumage on their chicks, while white or
white under color also softens or reduces the shade.
-

fish
Har Har
By permission of Messrs. George Routledge & Sons
WHITE SHANGHAI COCK OF 1853
Bred by Mrs. Herbert. Owned by Mr. Sturgeon
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
547
There are two peculiar things about the buff color of fowls. The
males at two years old generally have a deeper or darker shade of surface
color than as cockerels. On the other hand, the hens have usually the
reverse. By inbreeding there is usually some loss in color between the
parent fowls and the chicks. For this reason we must mate to overcome
or allow for this. Naturally if unguided the males would be considerably
darker than the females. This was originally true of both the Cochins and
the Cochin Bantams. Only after years of constant care has this been
brought under our control, and to this time must be continually guarded
against.
There are three plans of mating for color, while there is but one for
shape, if we produce the best type of Cochins in size, form, and feather.

TYPE OF THE PRESENT-STYLE COCHIN
10
548
The Poultry Book

Tein
PRIZE WHITE COCHIN
The necessary qualities should be present largely in the parent stock. Do
not hope to produce good size, shape, or feather from stock lacking these
qualities. Size comes largely from the female, while color and finish
are transmitted through the male. Select only as producing-stock the very
best specimens. Pay special attention to head, comb, wattles, ear-
lobes, and eyes. Have the eyes bright and bay in color, indicating both
health and vigor. This is an important factor in obtaining good results.
In mating for color select the male of a shade or two darker than
the female. The breast color of the male should be a full shade darker than
that of the female. In under color the male should be rich and true to
the skin if possible; in both the shade or tinge the under color should
be some lighter than the surface color. Hens true in color shade when
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
549
pullets may be used, providing the under color is good. Hens that hold
their color at two or three years old invariably produce the most valuable
stock for exhibition purposes. I once possessed a hen that at four years
produced some twenty chicks, fourteen of which made presentable exhibi-
tion fowls. All her progeny were valuable producers. When bred in
line from such stock true color may be established and maintained.
Never make use of poor, thin, or mealy colored Buffs in hope of im-
proving stock. Better kill or discard as breeders 400 of poor quality and
stick to four of the proper quality. In selecting the male a shade or more
darker than the females with which he is mated, we provide against the
natural loss in color mentioned above. By so doing one should have
both males and females from this mating the proper shade of buff for the
exhibition room. This is what would be called single or standard mating,
or the producing of both males and females of exhibition quality from
the one single mating.
Some of the very finest exhibition specimens are produced through a
system of double matings—that is, to mate separate pens, one to produce
males, the other to produce females. In this way are produced some of
the most beautiful pullets. For producing males the same rule as de-
scribed above is followed, only the shade of the breast color of both may
be uniform. For producing pullets they mate together hens, pullets, and
male birds, all of what might be called almost a lemon shade of buff. In
the pairing of these soft shades some beautiful pullets are produced, but
seldom a high-class exhibition male is gotten. It is true that some beauti,
ful males have come from such matings, but they are always a light shade.
Some females produced in this way have improved as exhibition
specimens as hens over what they were as pullets.
When the double matings are followed the two lines of breeding
must be kept separate and distinct in the standard or single matings,
but the one line must be kept up. In either or both the breeder should
always know the individual hen that produces each chick. Some hens
will not lay an egg that will produce an exhibition specimen, while almost
every chick from another hen may be of the highest quality. If one knows
the parents of each individual chick and reserves as breeding-stock only
those that have produced the best, a strain of producers will soon follow
that may be depended upon.
Line breeding, close breeding, and inbreeding should all be considered
550
The Poultry Book
in the handling of Cochins of all kinds. The breeding in line from a well-
selected lot of ancestors is called line breeding. This is breeding for the
purpose of concentrating into the stock all the good qualities of the selected
ancestors. In this way is established a strain that should have the power
or quality of reproducing better and better all the time. In this way only
can one have both good form and color. To hold or to continue this

From a photograph by W. Goshawk
BUFF COCHIN COCK
Owned by Messrs. Baily & Son, England
First prize, Birmingham, 1901 and 1902, and second prize, Crystal Palace, 1902
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
551
reproducing power in a strain one must breed very close. To aid in this
one should at all times select the most vigorous for breeding-stock. The
most promising pullets should be kept for hens next year and mated with
the best cockerels. Never mate full brother and sister under any con-
ditions. For the introduction of new blood it is always better to obtain
the best female possible, mate her to one of your most perfect males, and
gradually work the result of this mating into your flock, providing they
are of good quality. If this cross does not give good results, better discard
them all and try again with another female. Violent crosses will ruin
any well-established strain of Cochins; such are more injurious to Partridge
Cochins than with any others.
WHITE AND BLACK COCHINS
ALL that has been stated above regarding the Buff Cochins may be
followed with confidence in handling the White and Black varieties. As
stated, form and feather should be the same in all; the color is simply
the variety distinction by which they are known. The very same laws
rule in mating these for size, shape, and color. There are certain set
rules for color that must be followed if we hope to produce exhibition
quality in these. It is quite reasonable to presume that no one would
select these of all others, the most exclusive of high-class fanciers' fowl,
unless their wish was for exhibition quality. We have known Cochins to
produce 140 eggs a year, but this is not usual with those of the highest
quality. The maintenance of their profuse feathering detracts somewhat
from the egg yield. We are familiar at this time with a flock of Cochins
bred for winter laying that do quite as well as any of the American varieties,
but with these exhibition qualities and feather have but little consideration.
All Cochins are fully the equal of our American breeds for table use. We
know this as a result of years of experience.
The White Cochins have continually possessed fairly good form and
feather. They have lacked somewhat in size and color, but these have
so improved in the past few years as to grade them close to the winning
Buffs. For some unexplained reason neither the Whites nor the Blacks
have gained public favor or attention as have the Buff and Partridge
varieties. It might be said that there was a prejudice against their color.
This might be with the Blacks, but cannot be attributed to the Whites,
for there is and has been a continual increase of favor and attention
552
The Poultry Book
bestowed upon White fowls of all kinds. There are the same difficulties to
overcome with these as with all of our American White varieties—namely,
the influence the yellow skin and shanks have on the color of feather.
It is most difficult to have the pure white plumage where these influences
contend for supremacy.
Pure white plumage throughout is the absolute rule for color in this
variety. To have and maintain this at its best calls for great care in
selecting and pairing of stock. Pure and absolutely white to the skin
must be the entire plumage of the producing-stock, or one will fail in
producing pure white offspring. If either the male or the females show
creamy white or yellowish white in surface or under color, its influence
will be cast over or through the entire plumage of their offspring. It is
absolutely necessary to have pure white-plumaged Cochins for producers
to gain the best results; when breeding-stock for generations has been of
this true white plumage, the breeder may depend upon pure white chicks.
Following this line, one will lose some of the rich yellow color of shank and
skin, but this is of no importance, either for market or exhibition, so long
as a yellowish shade of shank is maintained.
By selecting as producing-stock those that have the very best form,
feather, and color year after year, you will build up a line or strain that
may be depended upon to reproduce of the best quality. Keep up this trait
by selecting continually the best for your own use. Maintain size and
feather in the same way by selecting the largest and best-feathered hens.
In addition to all this, hatch as early in the season as possible and feed
continually for size, bone, and plumage. It is of advantage to select
their food in reference to its influence on color. White corn is best at
all times for White fowls. Yellow corn will influence the color of plumage
if fed during the season of molt. Wheat, hulled oats, and white corn are
the best grains for White Cochins at all times. Never feed the mature
stock so much as to make them fat. Feed the growing stock all you can
get them to eat.
To obtain the proper shade of black, glossed with the rich beetle-green
sheen, upon Cochins, the greatest care in selecting and mating the parent
stock must be observed. At the present time it is desirable to have
Black Cochins as rich in metallic luster as are the Langshans. This has
been accomplished by mating of the richest-colored specimens to be had.
This may be continued as long as it does not bring markings of bronze
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
553
or red into their plumage. The presence of too much color will have a
tendency to cast a purple or bronze finish through the plumage of both
males and females. The same may also bring red feathers into hackle and
wing bows. This is the natural reversion to the Black, Red, or Malay
influence. The males
that show these red
markings are of
value to improve
color in strains of
Black Cochins of
dull color and
enrich the color of
the females.

The males of
the Black Cochins
have naturally the
richest color of
plumage. At times
it is necessary to
keep down the
producing of too
much color in the
males through the
use of females of a
dull shade of black.
Often the very best
males are produced
from rich-colored
males mated with
dull-colored fe-
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
males. The best
colored females will
come through the mating of the richest colors in both males and females.
The darker the under color of the breeding-stock the more assurance of
good surface color. There is less chance of white showing in plumage
of the offspring of parent stock that has rich surface and dark under
color throughout than from stock with light or slate-colored under
COCHIN COCKEREL
Dairy Show, 1893
554
Poultry Book
The
color. The darker the beak, shank, and under color the more assurance
of proper color of their produce. No matter how dark the color of
shank, the darker or blacker they may be the better for breeding good
color. Just so the bottom of their feet show the yellow color. The
absolute distinction of color between Black Cochins and Black Langshans
is as follows: Black Cochins, shanks and toes black or yellow, black
gradually shading into yellow preferred; bottom of feet yellow. Black
Langshans, shanks and toes bluish black, showing pink between the
scales; web and bottom of feet pinkish white.
The maintenance of these colors assures the yellow skin and meat
for the Cochin and the pinkish-white skin and meat for the Langshan.
The intermingling of the two destroys these features and makes it quite
possible to detect the mixing of the two. Some years back many of our
Black Cochins showed the influence of the Langshan blood that was intro-
duced to improve color. This is gradually disappearing, and we now
have by far the best Black Cochins ever bred in this or any other country.
They excel in all the Cochin qualities, including size, form, and feather.
The best Cochin cockerel shown in America during the winter of 1901 and
1902 was a Black of astonishing quality. No Buff had surpassed him
in quality up to that time, but during the winter of 1902 and 1903 Oakland
Farm exhibited a Buff Cochin cockerel that excelled any Cochin that has
been shown in this country. Always strive for the very highest Cochin
characteristics in every variety. Follow this with the very best possible
color and markings to be obtained in each variety. This rule has been
continually followed by American fanciers. Therein is the secret of
American successes in producing Cochins of the very finest form and
color.
THE PARTRIDGE COCHIN
THE color of the Partridge Cochin is one of the most striking combina-
tions of shade and color found in domestic poultry. The Malay or the
Games of the black-red type must be responsible to some extent for the
foundation color. But the present-day finish of beautiful shades of
color-rich black striping of hackle and saddle of male and the mahogany
color of female so beautifully penciled all over with a darker shade that
conforms in its markings to the shape of each feather—is the result of
continued care and judgment upon the part of the careful breeder of this
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
555
variety. Not many years ago we had the salmon- or clay-colored breast
upon the females of this variety of Cochins, somewhat like the Brown
Leghorns have to-day, but now every feather of the body and breast is
penciled throughout. Formerly the color of both male and female

From a photograph by W. Goshawk
PARTRIDGE COCHIN COCK
First prize. Birmingham, 1902. Owned by Baily & Son
was not of the most pleasing character; to-day it is rich and beautiful
throughout.
There is a wide difference in the color of the English and American
Partridge Cochins. In both males and females the English types are of a
lighter shade of color. The top color of the male, according to the
556
The Poultry Book
English standard, is orange or golden red, while with us it is a bright red
or a dark orange-red. For the females the English fancy demands a
"light brown penciled with a darker shade." We have the rich mahogany-
red penciled with brown or black. The English style of color rather
leans toward the orange-red or even more of a dark yellowish shade than
an orange-red, while we prefer the deeper or dark cherry-red shades. At
times they show a shading or ending of dark orange in both the hackle
and saddle of male, while in females we aim for the deepest shade of
mahogany-red for ground or body color.
It has been almost an impossibility to produce the highest class
of exhibition specimens from a single mating. Some have been produced
from the single line, but few, however, have come in this way. To have
the bright-red top color of the male heavily overlaid or striped with bright

431-45H
DARK BRAHMAS, 1853
By permission of the proprietors of the "Field
The Shanghai or Cochin Fowl
557
metallic black in hackle and saddle and often on back debars the possi-
bility of having the dark or orange-red hackle and mahogany-red body
color distinctly penciled with brown or black in the female. I will
describe the highest class exhibition specimens for color as preferred
by the American fancier, and follow this with a description of how they are
produced.
The top color of the male one even shade of bright red from head to
tail coverts, with a darker shade on back; the hackle and saddle heavily
striped with metallic black that has the appearance of having been laid over
or on top of the other color. Often the entire plumage of the back is
striped with the black, the shape of the black striping conforming to the
shape of the feather; coverts, sickles, main tail, and under filling glossy
greenish-black; some of the lesser coverts edged with red; under body
color a rich, deep black. If rich in sheen or metallic luster, so much more
desirable. The entire plumage throughout bright and lustrous. Some
highly meritorious specimens show some inclination to an orange shading
at end of hackle and saddle. This is undesirable, but may be overcome
by other high qualities.
The female bright red or dark orange hackle, striped with black.
Often this black striping is penciled, but the edge of red must be clean and
clear from dark or black shadings; the entire body color mahogany-red
penciled with brown or black, this penciling to follow the shape of feather;
wing primaries and secondaries darkish brown or blackish brown; inner
web of secondaries penciled with the lighter color; main tail feathers
black, some of the upper ones penciled; coverts penciled like back
plumage. It is not unusual to have the entire shank and toe plumage
penciled like body plumage, many specimens so rich in sheen as to
glisten in the light.
To produce such specimens demands the highest art at mating for best
results. The male strain must be kept separate and distinct from the
female line, but few if any exhibition females come from this sort of breeding.
The most elegant males, with the richest top color and heaviest striping,
mated to very dark females that have hackle color that almost equals
the males, will produce this style of males. These females must be bred
in the male-producing line the same as are the Barred Plymouth Rocks.
To establish the female strain, mate the son of the very best hen you can
obtain to a perfect exhibition female. Follow this line of mating year
558
The Poultry Book
after year; never introduce the male strain into this line of breeding,
but always introduce the new blood through the female.
Males for producing females should have the orange color in hackle
and saddle and rather light under color, but it is quite possible for this
to come with some of the specimens bred from the male line. For this
reason the only safe way is to know that the males used for producing
females are the direct descendants from hens of the highest character
that were mated to males rich in the true female line of breeding. In no
other way can or will you succeed. We stated above that a few exhibition
males had been bred and successfully shown that came from mating that
had been bred for years to produce exhibition females. This, I have no
hesitation in saying, is the most successful breeding-strain of Partridge
Cochins in America. They have been built up by years of continued study
and care by George W. Mitchell, of Connecticut, a life-long ardent lover
and fancier of this variety of Cochin.
There are a few important factors in the production of Cochins that
must never be overlooked. Never make use of females of small size.
Do not hope to produce good Cochins from medium or poor quality stock.
To succeed, the breeder must have the true Cochin type, including size,
form, feather, and color all combined in his producing-stock. True
Cochin characteristics cannot be gotten and maintained in any other way.

R

Harrism Luan
1901
LIGHT BRAHMA POOTRA COCK AND HEN.

Photograph by courtesy of "Reliable Poultry Fournal"
LIGHT BRAHMA PULLET
LIGHT AND DARK BRAHMAS
THOMAS F. MCGREW, NEW YORK
"Man is the measure of all things." -CLAUDIAN.
HERE has been continued contention for years in England
as to the origin of the Brahma. Mr. Weir, in the English
edition of this work, holds strongly for what may be called
the Burnham "Gray Shanghais." Lewis Wright has
continually opposed such origin. It is quite true that
George P. Burnham had these Gray Shanghais, and that he sent
some of them to England, as mentioned hereafter. However, there are
other sources from which came better quality according to American
notions of what the true Brahma should be. Of this Mr. Weir says:
Nine birds were sent from America in 1852, as a present to Her late
Majesty Queen Victoria, by George P. Burnham. None of their ante-
cedents were known, and only now by such revelations as Mr. Burnham has
deemed fitting to make in his book entitled 'The Hen Fever,' published
in 1855, and his later work, 'The China Fowl' (1874). It would be
well to make such excerpts from these as are necessary to show in some
degree the origin of the breed as first exported to England.
"The Gray Shanghais presented to Her late Majesty Queen Victoria
were the first arrivals. It must be at once apparent that from the name
then given them by Mr. Burnham it was possibly nearly the correct one.

66
559
560
The Poultry Book
He did not call them Brahma Pootras, nor did he pretend or assert that
they were aught else than what he represented them to be. What followed
this importation as to name, etc., had little or nothing to do with these
birds, which were sent as Gray Shanghais, and no reference whatever was
made to any other color or breed. He had some fowls of this gray color,
and as such he sent them to England. But let him speak for himself, as
he does in 'The Hen Fever' (1855): 'An ambitious sea-captain arrived
at New York from Shanghai, bringing with him about 100 China fowls
of all colors, grades, and proportions. Out of this lot I selected a few
gray birds that were very large and consequently very fine. I tried these
with other gray stock that I had at once.' (Here it would be right to remark
that Mr. Burnham does not state what that gray stock was, but it is not
at all unlikely that they were from his pair of birds imported in 1849,
and which are spoken of in Doctor Bennett's 'Poultry Book,' 1854, as
Chittagongs.) 'I soon had a fine lot of birds to dispose of, to which I
gave what I have always deemed their only true and appropriate title
(as they came from Shanghai), to wit, Gray Shanghais.'
Mr. Weir made a water-color drawing of these, and it has been used
for many years as "copied from the Illustrated London News of 1853."
Mr. Burnham's statements and writings on poultry are scarcely considered
serious by Americans. There is no breed of fowls so near and dear to
the American fancier's heart as the original Brahma. The Brahma.
preferred in America and selected as the true and only proper type come
direct in line from what are known as the Chamberlain origin. The
American fancier is exacting as to form and color, and to his notion the
Chamberlain stock is by far the most desirable in all Brahma qualities.
The English type of Brahma would not attract attention in this country.
They have more hock and feather than is considered desirable even for
Cochins with us. Just how the Chamberlain strain was started or from
where the originals came it will never, we presume, be truly known.
At
the same time they have the full credit with us of being the original of our
American Light Brahma.
The original White or Gray Shanghais had single combs, while the
Chamberlain Brahmas have the well-established pea comb, much like
the comb of the Aseel Game. This comb is of vital importance to our
Brahmas, as is the overhanging skull, quite different from the head of
the Shanghai (now Cochin). These two features are cultivated and
19
Light and Dark Brahmas
561
admired as Brahma characteristics. They are features of beauty that
belong to the Brahma as their emblem of purity of blood and high quality.
Without them they are of no value as Brahmas. The more complete they
may be of finish the greater their value.
There is but one rule for shape or form in Brahmas, and both varieties
must conform to it or lose caste as Brahmas. The shape or type is absolute,
and unless the specimen has this to a marked degree it will not be classed,
even though the color may be superb. Type and shape must have the
supremacy in the selecting of a good Brahma, but even in this there is
considerable of a difference of opinion. The leaders of the New England
Light Brahma Club favor a Brahma that has rather more of what is
called a Cochiny type than is selected as a preference by the Brahma
breeders throughout what is known as the Middle West. The difference
in these two types largely rests with the having of more underbody,
plumage, fluff, and toe feathering, with the shorter leg, and a slight stoop
or a recline at the knee, the preference of the Middle West being for a
little more length of shank, a straight poise at the hock joint, no recline
or stoop, and less of fluff or under feather. While these two distinctions

H. Weir
From the "Illustrated London News"
QUEEN VICTORIA'S LIGHT GRAY SHANGHAIS, 1853
562
The Poultry Book
are plainly recognized in America, neither one of these forms leans toward
the English type as shown so plainly by Mr. Weir's illustrations of Crystal
Palace winners. Their type of bird would not even be considered in the
Brahma class in this country. In fact, our Cochins would scarcely show
as much forward carriage and feather as Mr. Weir illustrates on their
Brahmas.
In pursuance of this Mr. Weir states: "Now, it must be admitted on
all hands that in this particular direction the Brahma fancier has got as
far as he can well go, and the differences between it and the Cochin have
been so lessened that, with the exception of the pea comb and the slight
variation of the skull, they are now so small in some cases as to be scarcely
apparent. With almost the same fulness of fluff, the heavy foot and shank
feathering, both have now hanging dewlaps or gullets, and both have the
Shanghai falcon hock; true, the one has a tail and the other scarcely any,
yet neither on their first importation had these shall I say defects of
heavy feathering?-neither the misnamed Cochin, the Shanghai, the Gray
Shanghais, afterward called (though not by their exporters) Brahma
Pootras, nor the Dark Brahmas that Mr. George P. Burnham sent over in
1853. I am willing to-in fact I do, and others do also-admit that both the
Cochin, Shanghai, or the Brahma Pootra of to-day are wonderful in their
way and in a sense beautiful; but for all that, the judges have been highly
to blame in allowing such properties to become so far in the ascendant as
to almost, if not quite, annihilate their more valuable qualities.
“One of their peculiarities has not been impaired, and that is the
hardiness, feathering, and quick growth of the chicken. These, as far as
I can learn, still have that reputation, though it is said, and possibly
truthfully, that they do not carry the large and fleshy breast that, as among
the Asiatics, first brought them into notice; still, even this might yet be
remedied by careful selection for flesh instead of feather properties, and let
us hope that better counsels will prevail in this direction.
66
In my opinion, the American Brahma is of better quality for the
table, and as a layer of colored eggs far surpasses our English improved
breed. The breeding for quantity of feather and feathering has rendered
ours much dryer and longer in the fiber of the flesh; then, again, the large
size of the falcon hocks is absolutely a positive waste of vital power, nor
does it add to the beauty; while it renders the poor bird's ambulatory
powers unsatisfactory and ungainly. If the Brahmas of the present are
Light and Dark Brahmas
563
compared with those of 1853, the loss of the round fulness of the breast
will at once be observed, while the thick necking of the hackle and generally
clumsy make will also be apparent, though they still retain the American
Chittagong head. Yet in most, if not all, other respects they have the
general appearance of the heavily booted and falcon-hocked English
strains of the Shanghai, which latter now appears in such an exaggerated
form, whether beautiful or not, as never was or could be anticipated by us

PRIZE LIGHT BRAHMA PULLET
Crystal Palace Show
old Shanghai fanciers of 1851-53. Had the judges of the Dark Brahmas
adhered to the type of the 'hundred-guinea pen,' as it was called, sent to
this country by Mr. Burnham, we should have possessed a far handsomer
fowl, and one of much higher table qualities than the judges' notion of this
now too-heavily feathered fanciered bird of to-day.
"It must be admitted on all hands that the utility of certain strains
differs widely, some being more fleshy, others far better layers. This
must be reasonably expected when they are kept with care and intelligence
exercised as to the full development of the particular qualities that are
564
The Poultry Book
most desirable. As an instance of this, Mrs. Campbell, of Uley, Gloucester,
may be honestly quoted as deserving honorable mention, she having
succeeded in breed-
ing prize birds of
both sexes from
one pen. This is
as it should be, and
there can be nothing.
more prejudicial to
the general fancy
than that of fanciers
who feel obliged to
have two pens of
fowls-one to pro-
duce cockerels and
the other pullets.
When this lady
went to live at
Uley, about 1891,
she had a few Dark
Brahmas. Five
eggs from the breed-
ing-pen were set
under a half-bred
Bantam hen, from
which resulted five
chicks-three pul-
ets and two
cockerels. One
pullet was never
exhibited, but the other four achieved victories in the show-pen. The
handsome cock whose portrait is given and one of his sisters both gained
poultry-club medals, the former during the three years of his existence
winning at twenty-nine shows the large number of thirty-seven prizes,
specials, and other honors. The pullet died in 1896, having won thirty-
six cups, prizes, and specials. On no occasion were they shown without
being noticed. The other brother of the brood, though not often shown,

G
By permission of the "Field"
VERY YOUNG LIGHT BRAHMA COCKEREL, 1853
Light and Dark Brahmas
565
was sent to Redditch, where he gained a first. At the Bath and West of
England show he was third, when he was sold, afterward winning a second
at Dublin, Ireland. The other hen also won a number of prizes, so that
out of a brood of five, so excellent was the strain that four-two cocks and
two pullets-were conspicuous by their marvelous success as winners of
prizes or honors. Another curious fact should be mentioned, and that is
that all Mrs. Campbell's stock are descended from the before-mentioned
brood of five or their parents; and yet she has frequently produced brother
and sister from the same pen, both being successful when exhibited at the
Royal Agricultural Show at Chester in 1893-a brother and sister carried
off both firsts. What is still more remarkable is that although the stock
has been close-bred, through proper management they have not deterio-
rated in size, nor indeed should they when inbreeding is rightly understood
and practised. Further, the cock with which Mrs. Campbell won at the
Royal show in 1899 was
one of the largest she
has hitherto sent to the
show-pen, showing in
an unmistakable degree
what can be done by
systematic selection and
matching, no
no foreign
blood having been in-
troduced, with the
exception of one hen.
Nor is this all.
By
skilful attention she has
produced a strain of
non-sitting Brahmas, or
nearly so, some of her
laying hens not wanting
to incubate, while others
have been very easily
restrained. Her plan
was to take away all
eggs immediately after they were laid, with the idea-and most likely
a right one-that the birds, seeing no eggs in the nests, lost their

LIYIM?
чи
18150
Del
By permission of the "Field"
853
VERY YOUNG LIGHT BRAHMA PULLET,
566
The Poultry Book
natural inclination to sit. To this I can testify, having so treated
my old English Game hens, with the happy result that some have
never attempted to sit at all, and it is therefore probable that a non-
sitting strain of old English Game may be established. As to egg-
production, the strain of Mrs. Campbell's Brahmas* average about
170 to 180 a year. It should be added that the portrait given of the
Dark Brahma cock has been selected by this lady to show the difference
between her stock and those in America in the leg and shank feather, a
point in which this bird was remarkably good.
"As already stated, I am not in favor of either the heavily feathered
Shanghais or Brahmas, they being a deviation from the original breeds
sent here by Mr. Burnham from America in 1853-54. At the Crystal
Palace Poultry Show in 1899 I drew the attention of a Shanghai fancier to
a very heavily feathered, falcon-hocked White Shanghai cock, and then to a
Light Brahma near, equally so feathered, and asked where was the difference
between the two, with the exception of the combs, wattles, and the black
markings. He at once admitted that in all other respects he saw no
difference. Both had dewlaps, were falcon-hocked, and heavily feathered;
carriage, bulk, wings, and tail were the same, but the skull was a trifle
broader. When the first imports of 1853 were exhibited some had single
combs. I made a drawing of a pullet. John Baily was asked if it was like;
he answered it was exact. I took it home, traced and colored the copy
buff. This was again shown to Mr. Baily as a Buff Cochin or Shanghai,
and he said it was very good and true. Shown side by side, he admitted
that he believed the Light Brahma and the Shanghai were identical at that
time. But when the dark birds of George P. Burnham came we both
changed our opinion, believing they were either American Chittagong
crosses or some of them, as before described by Doctor Bennett himself
in his book written in 1850-53, and when the difference between the Light
and Dark was more distinct than it is to-day, but even now to the critical
eye it is apparent.
"Since the foregoing was written, giving the facts that came under
my own observation regarding the origin of the Brahma as I knew it in
England in 1852-56, and later its present development, I am pleased
to find that one of America's most venerated fanciers, I. K. Felch, of Massa-
chusetts, an old and reliable admirer of the Light Brahma, has published his
*Mrs. Campbell's Dark Brahmas have been inbred for over seven years.

From a photograph by L. Reid
QTY
SCOTCH GRAY FOWLS
Light and Dark Brahmas
569

KLEERS
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PRIZE LIGHT BRAHMA COCK
Crystal Palace, 1891
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knowledge of the history of the breed and what he terms its purity.
it differs somewhat from the statements made at the time and my own
of its first importation into England from America, it is but fair and just
to give the new record prominent attention. He says in his 'Notes of the
Origin of the Light Brahmas,' written expressly for the Reliable Poultry
Journal and published in June, 1902, that 'the breed which came to us in
America completed, if we may use that term. That is, it passed through
no mongrel, no transitory state. So perfected was it there that fifty years
have failed to make them one whit better. A breeder is not able to-day
to produce a bird with a higher score than those we had in 1876.'
"This is possibly true as to 1876, about a quarter of a century after
its introduction to public notice, which was in 1851-53, and certainly, as I
570
The Poultry Book
have already shown, there was much variation in those imported into this
country in 1852-53. Mr. Felch incidentally remarks that at that time
(1876) 'one specimen has reached the remarkable score of ninety-seven.'
Possibly at the time in America, as was the case here at this date, but not
so in the fifties, when the pea comb was only too often conspicuous by its
absence."
Nothing could prove more conclusive than the above the vast differ-
ence between the fashion of form and feather of the Cochin and the Brahma
in England and America.

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Crystal Palace, 1896
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Light and Dark Brahmas
571
THE AMERICAN LIGHT BRAHMA
THOSE acquainted with the vast amount of testimony for and
against the several origins of the Brahma fowl will need no further
explanation at this time. Those anxious for more on this subject can be
fully gratified in the several English books that seem to be much more
interested on this subject than we Americans. It is a pleasure and a
satisfaction to the American breeder to give full credit to what is known
as the Chamberlain-Cornish original Light Brahmas. A slight reference
to this origin will suffice to trace the lineage of the present-day American
Light Brahma. It is stated that Mr. Chamberlain, who lived near Hartford,
Connecticut, purchased from an East Indian ship-captain some fowls, which
he took home with him, and from them started
the strain of Light Brahma fowls from which the
American fancier selected and bred in line for
years until there has been established the beau-
tiful form and feather of the present-day Light
Brahma.

Many of us know that several others made
the same attempt, and it is more than likely
that some of the blood from those early day
attempts has been intermingled with the
Chamberlain strain. At the same time, it is
fairly well established within the mind of the American breeder, writer,
and investigator that the true origin of the American type of Brahma
must be credited to that line of birds that originated with Mr. Chamberlain.
The greatest consideration and respect is due others that have selected
and followed some other line. The American Brahma is an Asiatic fowl
which in form, feather, and color is considered to be the best of all the
large fowls for general-purpose and utility use.
The most striking individuality of the Brahma is the formation of
skull and comb. The head, which is broad, should project over the eye.
This makes the skull formation of such a character as to widen out the
width of the head. The comb of the Brahma is termed a pea comb,
described as a triple comb resembling three small single combs placed
parallel one with the other and joined at the rear. Each of these three
distinct combs evenly serrated, the large serrations near the center create
Drawn by Mr. Weir
HEAD OF LIGHT BRAHMA
HEN
572
The Poultry Book
the highest knobs or points in the center or midway from front to rear.
These combs should never be so large as to be out of proportion, nor should
they be small or delicate, the comb of the female conforming to that of
the male, though smaller and of finer texture.
The most beautiful Brahma head has the formation of the beautiful
rounded skull that declines gently four ways from the center. The front
rounds to the beak, the rear gently inclined to the juncture of the neck
with the head. From the center either side over the eye the crown projects,
forming a protection or covering, as might be, to the eye. As the birds
grow older, at times this skull formation, with the dewlap, tends to give a
rather coarse appearance to the head. This, being the result of age, can
readily be overlooked where a specimen is superb in other qualities. The
well-proportioned and nicely rounded skull that conforms to the size and
proportion of the entire bird is most to be desired. This manner of head
gives a depth and finish of elegance to the whole bird. The comb of the
Brahma should rest upon the head as if part, and not have the appearance
of being added or placed upon same. As the crown rests upon the head
of the ruler of an empire, so should the comb ornament the head of a
Brahma.
The comb of the Brahma, being so much of a distinctive mark to this
individual breed, should always be of the most perfect quality. Lower
and narrower front and rear, always following the shape of the skull, at
times a slight rising in the rear may be present without detracting from
same. The most beautiful comb formation is that which starts close to
the beak, following the shape of the head and resting rather low at the rear
of the head. The juncture of the head with the neck should be apparent;
ear-lobes and wattles full and well shaped; what is known as the gullet
underneath the beak adds much to the appearance of the head, if not
too large or out of proportion.
A medium length of neck that is low-arched and rather heavy as it
approaches the body is most desirable. The hackle should widen or spread
out as it flows over the shoulders on to the back. The long, sweeping
hackle adds much to the appearance of both male and female, always
proportionately longer in the male. Much of beauty depends upon the
true striping of the hackle of both male and female. This striping must
be of a rich glossy black. It should follow the shape of the feather and
not run out at the point. This black must be completely surrounded
Light and Dark Brahmas
573
with white, no taint of color of any kind permissible in the white edging
of the hackle feathers. The hackle of the female should be rather large
and round toward the end, that of the male pointed. This provides for
a broad black stripe in the neck of the female, beautifully edged or laced
about with white. Each and every feather of the hackle, extending well
up to the juncture of the head with the neck and clear around in front,
should be striped with black. The presence of white on stripe in any part
of the neck is most undesirable.
The back formation of the Brahma is one of the most distinctive
sectional differences between the formation of the Brahma and the Cochin.
It should be quite broad
and of fairly good length
and breadth across the
shoulders. There should
be a gentle rise from the
shoulder to the middle
of the back. Here, in
juncture with the saddle,
there is a slight curved
sweep to the tail. The
saddle very full; the
oval form of the main
tail feathers holding up
the sickles, saddle, and
coverts makes the full
formation of saddle about
the tail. This is the
same in both the male
and the female, that of
the male being the more
pronounced. It is permis-
sible to have some dark
striping on the saddle
of the male. Coverts

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Drawn from life by F. L. Sewell
FIRST-PRIZE LIGHT BRAHMA
Owned and bred by J. W. Shaw, Massachusetts
of both male and female laced about or edged with white, main tail
feathers rich glossy black.
The breast and body of the Brahma, both male and female, should be
574
The Poultry Book
rather longer than these same sections in the Cochin. Breast very promi-
nent, broad, deep, and full, well rounded underneath, with full or prominent
abdomen and thighs. Under-body plumage and fluff rather full; shank
plumage well rounded over
about the hock joint, with
no inclination whatever to
stiff hock feathers. In
fact, anything like a
vulture or falcon hock
should be disqualified.
Shanks straight and well
set under the body. As
mentioned above, there is
an inclination to a bend-
ing at the hock which
gives the Brahma the ap-
pearance of being shorter
in leg than should be.
This same has a tendency
to give the incline forward
of the body. While this
does not detract so much
from the appearance of
the female, it does detract
from the appearance of the male, creating a forward or stooped ap-
pearance which does not belong to the true Brahma. The shanks of the
Brahma should be straight and well placed under the body, the carriage
more erect than stooped.

From a photograph by W. Goshawk
LIGHT BRAHMA HEN
First and Special, Dairy Show, 1902. Owned by Messrs. Baily & Son, England
It must be acknowledged that there is an inclination to have consider-
ably more feather upon the Brahmas than in former years. At the same
time there is a determinedly strong demand that they shall not be injured
through having too profuse fluff, thigh, and shank plumage. The present
determination to call a halt to this through the revision of the standard
will do away with any possible chance of the utility value of the Brahma being
injured. This is undoubtedly a move in the right direction. The Brahma,
being the most valuable of all of the meat-producing fowls, should not be in-
jured through the propensity for fancy points at the sacrifice of real value.
Light and Dark Brahmas
575
The beauty and grandeur of the Light Brahma depend, first, upon
its stately formation, which must be true to Brahma characteristics;
following this is the richness and distinctive lines between the black and
white color; this must be clean-cut and distinct, each free from all shadiness
or discolorations or intermingling one with the other. The clean, clear
white body color is of vast importance. While it is allowable to have a
slate or smoked under color to the plumage, every effort should be made
to keep this from tainting the surface color, which should be pure white.
The stripings or black centers of the hackle and the coverts should be rich
glossy black, the edging pure, untainted white. The beak and shanks
yellow; eyes bay, bright, and clear; the wings a beautiful white on the
outside or surface; flights black; secondaries black marked with white.
The neck plumage under the throat clear down underneath the body pure
white, running up to the under-
filling of the tail.
The back and body
plumage should be white,
with as little black striping
as possible upon the saddle of
the male. While there is a
tendency at this time to have
the saddle of the male almost
as heavily penciled as the
hackle, we think that this is
a mistake that will not be
continued or countenanced by
the most successful producers.
The prevalent appearance of
black in the web of the feather
upon the back of the female
is a disqualification. There
cannot be any possible ex-
cuse for permitting the
encroachment of black
into the surface plumage of either the male or the female. The
pure, clear white with the black in hackle and coverts presents a
beautiful combination, but so soon as this black is permitted to crop

Mer
DARK BRAHMA MALE
576
The Poultry Book
out into the back and body plumage the real beauty of the Brahma
will be gone.
The tendency is strong for solid black wing flights in both male and
female. No one can deny the beauty of this when opened up for ex-
hibition. The having of this has much to do with the encroachment of
more black into the body plumage. It is perfectly easy to have these
black flights in the cockerels, the same often found in the pullets, but it is
injurious to the producing
qualities of the Light
Brahma to have this black
so pronounced as to hold
its own or continue the
same in the old birds.
Flights that are black or
nearly so should have the
same consideration as the
solid black flights; so long
as the black predominates
in the male and a fairly
even distribution of black
and white in the flights
of the female, you have
the safest condition for
the reproducing of proper
color.

Amas

The richer the black
and more glossy in finish
the tail of both male and
female the better for appearance. The tail of the Brahma female
should not be so large as that of the male. It should be well spread at
the base, as called V-shaped. This spreading at the base widens out and
builds up the cushion into proper Brahma form. When this tail is nicely
filled in between the main tail feathers it adds to the finish and elegance
of the specimen. The same is true of the tail formation of the male, the
color of which should be very rich and glossy.
In the mating for the production of best exhibition quality in Brahmas
it is necessary to follow a few absolute rules. First of all, it should be
BRAHMA COCKEREL
Light and Dark Brahmas
577
God
remembered that no one can be successful in the producing of exhibition
Brahmas unless they have had years of experience in the studying of this
art. Those who desire to have reasonably fine exhibition quality combined
with good utility qualities should mate their Brahmas as follows: Always
select in your producing-stock the identical type which you desire to have
in the offspring. Have this as perfect as you can obtain it. This will
assure your having a fair proportion of the type or shape that you admire.
Have color that will be clean, clear, and attractive. Use females of ex-
hibition color mated with males that are rather dark in under color and
very pronounced in the color of hackle, saddle, and wings. With such
matings you may be reasonably certain of securing quite a large percentage
of fairly good specimens. As stated above, the producing of the highest
exhibition quality only comes as the result of years of study and experience.
Those who wish to work along these lines should select and secure the
darkest-colored females that are true and rich in color and pair these
with a male equally as dark, always guarding against the encroachment
of the black into the white where it does not belong.
The greatest danger along these lines comes from the use of males
where the black runs out at the point of the feather. This is always
certain to produce smutty or badly colored hackles in both the males
and the females. Many of the specimens that will be produced in this
way will be of no commercial value on account of their very bad color,
but through care in selecting, mating, and a study of the results you will
in time build up a strain that will produce what you desire. No one can
tell you better than this how to proceed. You must follow along these
lines and study out the problem for yourself after considering the results
that come from each season's work.
THE DARK BRAHMA
THE best authorities of the present describe penciling as being “marked
with fine lines, as if with a pen or brush, especially when concentric, as on
a breast feather of a Partridge Cochin." This peculiar style of marking
belongs to the Partridge Cochin and Dark Brahma females, and other
varieties that have been originated through crosses with them and other
fowls. There are features of these markings that tend to disprove their
actual existence on an early day Jungle fowl in as good form as claimed;
these are that it is possible to have the plumage of an individual specimen
578
The Poultry Book
penciled as it should be with the lines following the shape of the feather,
other feathers lined almost directly across, and others stippled or marked
with small dots like a Brown Leghorn female. When, through neglect in
breeding, the Dark Brahma or Partridge Cochin begins to run out or lose
in color qualities, these several markings are more prevalent, especially
the stipple marking.
Among the Jungle fowl that might have been the ancestors of the
Asiatic breeds is the Ceylon Jungle fowl. Writing for The American
Poulterer's Companion (1856), Mr. Bissell states that “their general appear-
ance has much of the Shanghai character; they are exceedingly tame and
weigh about eight pounds per pair. There appears to be two distinct
varieties of color-one light, the other dark. The lighter-colored ones
resemble the body color of the silver-penciled Hamburgs, but on close
inspection the markings of the feathers are found to differ materially.
The edge of the feather is margined with white, then a brownish-black
inner line, then one of white, then a dark center." This describes the
present-day markings of our Dark Brahma females. From these may
have come the influence that has made possible the beautiful plumage
markings of the Dark Brahmas.
The Dark Brahmas have never had equal prominence with the Light
Brahmas in America, nor are they generally of as good quality. With
some-like Philander Williams, Newton Adams, and the late Charles A.
Sweet-the quality has always been excellent. They must be bred up to
the highest degree to maintain all the characteristics as well as proper
color and markings. There are equal troubles to overcome in both males
and females when aiming for proper color and markings. The producing
of the nice light steel-gray for females and the clear top color for males
is a task of no small proportions. The keeping out of the brown shadings
in plumage that are said to have come from crossing with the Partridge
Cochins to improve the penciling demands close attention. No one can
hope to keep the Dark Brahma up to the highest point of excellence unless
the greatest attention is given to the selecting and pairing of the
breeding-stock.
For actual value as egg-producers and table fowls they are fully the
equal of the Light Brahma. If they had equal attention given them
that has continually followed the Lights, no one can tell how beautiful and
popular they might have been. There is not a fowl of all the many breeds
Light and Dark Brahmas
579
and their subvarieties in which there are more possibilities for beauty and
real value. They have the size, form, vigor, quick growth, and egg-
producing qualities. Their
color is suited to any or
all localities. None sur-
passes them for table
poultry. All they need
is cultivation to bring
them fully abreast of any
or all of our high-class
poultry. They can fill
almost any position the
fancier may select for
them, providing their
breeding is guided with
care and judgment. There
was formerly in England,
where the very best of
the early day Dark
Brahmas were grown, a
tendency for two shades
of color, the one a rather
white ground color closely
penciled with dark gray,
the other dark-brown
penciling upon dark-
brown ground.

Photograph by courtesy of T. F. McGrew
DARK BRAHMA COCKEREL
Bred and owned by J. T. Painter, Iowa
In addition to this,
some cultivated the dark-
brown shadings upon the surface of wings. This tendency toward
the brown shade of color in former days has its influence even to
the present time over their color and markings.
markings. The American
demand is for the clear, clean top color and glossy black body
color for males and the clear, clean-cut silvery gray for the female,
as free as possible of all tendency toward brown shading. Yet with
all this many of the very finest hens shown have the brownish cast in
their plumage, as have some of the pullets. To be rid of this, great
580
The Poultry Book
care and attention have been given to mating for pullets. This has
brought to the front again a marked tendency for the white or spotted
breasts in males from this line of breeding, making special matings for both
males and females almost a necessity. This counts against this breed
somewhat; at the same time it is necessary so to mate many of our most
popular breeds to succeed with them.
The fashion now in England is for a pure gray ground color, with
black or mealy black penciling, uniform throughout, but the massive
hock and underbody fluff has destroyed their value to American breeders.
Head points of the female specially have been neglected. This, joined with
bad hocks, spoils the English-bred birds for America when head points and
close hocks are so important. It is to be lamented that the two most
successful poultry-producing countries should be so far apart in the rules
for breeding such valuable fowls. The most surprising feature of it all is
that the English people have drifted so far away from market qualities,
in the pursuit of useless and unsightly hock plumage, and the utter neglect
of the most valuable meat portions of the fowl in the having of flat-breasted
Cochins and Brahmas—a feature most prominent in all fowls that are
cultivated to an excessive extent for fluff and stiff hock plumage.
The question of producing exhibition males and females from the one
single pair has had considerable attention. That it has been done and that
it is a practical proposition is no longer doubted. In the doing of this it is
the safest to select the female-bred stock, or, in other words, select from a
strain that has been bred successfully in line for females. Select of these
the darkest of the males and the finest-colored females, and continue in
this manner of selecting year after year. Remember that white markings
on the breast of males are not proof positive that he is properly bred in the
female line. Know full well the breeding of all the stock you have, and
select from the full knowledge of their ancestors rather than for looks.
In this way only is it possible to have the quality that will produce the
best of exhibition stock.
The early day Dark Brahmas as bred in America differ considerably
from the present style. They had a very smoky color throughout the
back and body plumage, breast colors very light—often, in fact, almost
white in color. This has been built up and improved, as have the Partridge
Cochins, until now we have Dark Brahmas with one even shade of ground
color and penciling throughout, the neck hackle beautifully marked
Light and Dark Brahmas
581
with black, the tail coverts and several of the main tail feathers of equally
good color. Males are constantly met with that have beautiful body
color, perfectly black underbody color, but with all this they are not a
favorite fowl with us nor are they as plentiful as they should be. The
very best of our American-bred Dark Brahmas are descended from fowls
imported from England, changed and brought within the rules of proper
characteristics under our standard.
The standard description for shape of the Dark Brahma is identical
with the demands in the same direction for the Light Brahma. In other
words, the Dark Brahma must be a counterpart of the Light Brahma, the
only difference being the color and markings. Having fully described
the type or form that is
demanded for a Brahma, it
is only necessary to give a
thorough description of the
color demands and how to
produce them in the Dark
Brahma.

The head plumage of the
male is described as silvery
white. While this same color
description is made use of in
describing the top color of
the Dark Brahma, it is not a
pure silvery white, but more
of a grayish white, in fact.
The hackle is also described
as silvery white with a black
stripe in the center of each
feather, that tapers to a point.
In other words, the hackle
should have the black center
entirely surrounded by a white
edging. This white edging
must be entirely free from
smoky or dark marking and edgings of any kind. This same is true
throughout the entire top color of the male. Wherever the white of
Photograph furnished by T. F. McGrew
DARK BRAHMA PULLET
Second at Chicago, 1903. Bred and owned by J. T. Painter, Iowa
582
The Poultry Book
the feathers is marked or marred with dark shading it makes the
dark, smutty appearance which is most undesirable.
The entire top color, including the back, saddle, and wing bows,
should be of the same clear silvery white, saddle plumage striped through-
out the same as the hackle. The saddle should be long and flowing well
down about the sides of the tail. When the entire top color is free from
dark marks and shadings other than the proper striping of hackle and
saddle, you have the ideal top color.

DARK BRAHMAS
From a photograph by C. Reid
One of the most attractive features of the Dark Brahma is the marked
contrast between the white and the black top color, the clear, distinct
markings of hackle and saddle, and the rich, brilliant glossy black tail that
comes up and is surrounded by the coverts and the saddle plumage. The
tail should be a rich glossy black throughout and of the same form and
finish as the tail of the Light Brahma. Tail formation is of great impor-
tance. A narrow, pinched tail is a great defect. The tail should be well
spread out at the base and run up toward the center, building out the
full saddle and cushion on the back, which makes the proper back formation.
Underneath the main tail feathers should be well filled in with curling
Light and Dark Brahmas
583
feathers of rich black color. Sickles and coverts glossy, greenish-black,
lesser coverts edged with white.
The breast and underbody color should be of a rich glossy black;
a slight sprinkling or speckling of white, while undesirable, is not a defect.
that should count overly against an otherwise well-colored specimen.
It is quite natural that the males bred from the female line have these
markings, and while the white spots on the breast are not proof positive of
having been bred true to the female line, they are usually found upon males
that are bred in this way. While you cannot select the proper line breeding
from breast indications, it is very valuable to have the proper markings
of this kind from a truly bred male that descends from a fine line of
penciled females
The primaries of the wings of the male are black, excepting a
narrow edging of white on the lower edge of the lower web;
secondaries black, except the lower half of the lower web, which
should be white till near the end of the feather, where the white
terminates. Shoulder coverts black, wing coverts glossy, greenish
black, forming a well-defined bar across the wing. Feathers on shanks
and feet black or black mixed with white-the pure black much
preferred; shanks and toes orange. While orange is the desirable
color for the shanks and toes, most frequently they are found with
what is called smoky yellow shanks.
The beak of the female is rather dark, head color silvery gray, neck
black edged with silvery white, the black running to a point near the end
of the feather. It will be noticed that the form of the black in the feather
of the neck of the Dark Brahma is different from the demands in the Light
Brahma. In the Light Brahma the black must run nearly parallel with
the edge of the feather, while in the Dark Brahma the black running to a
point near the end of the feather and conforming to the shape of the
feather is the color demand. In Light Brahmas we now have the neck
feathers of many of the females quite large and oval in shape, giving a
much larger black center than is usual with the Dark Brahmas;
this distinction of neck-marking is worthy of consideration. The
balance of the body plumage of the female, including the breast, should
be gray with a distinct dark penciling, the outlines of this penciling to
conform with the shape of the feather; any shafting, dark shading or
mealiness of color undesirable. While the standard describes the body color
584
The Poultry Book
of the female as gray, there are too many shades of gray not to select
among them. The most popular of these shades is known as the light
steel-gray; or, as it might be termed, a silvery gray body color is the
most admired in pullets.

When this color is attained throughout
and the entire plumage is nicely penciled
with a distinct dark penciling it makes the
most beautiful body color for the pullet.
We do not think that there is any kind of
a fowl more beautiful than is a rich-
colored Dark Brahma pullet. It is quite
usual for all of the hens to become darker
or more brown in body color as they grow
older. The lighter in shade the pullets are
the lighter in shade will they be as hens as
they grow older. The inclination to go
brown in body color must come from one
or two causes. Undoubtedly the Dark
Brahmas and the Partridge Cochins have
been crossed with each other to improve the penciling in either or
both. There was also an inclination at one time in England to
favor the brownish-colored females; all these may be responsible
for the inclination toward the brownish shade of color in females.
However, the fact exists, and as is natural that it should be the
lighter they are able to have the pullets, the lighter will they be as
they advance in years. A beautiful
beautiful colored female carries the
richness of color throughout her entire body, including the leg and toe
plumage.
From a photograph
LIGHT BRAHMA COCKEREL, 1900
Winner of First Dairy Show Cup, Birmingham
Bred by J. Baily & Son
The primaries of the Dark Brahma female are black, with a narrow
edging of gray penciling on the lower web; secondaries the upper web
black, the lower web gray. Main tail feathers black, with more or less
penciling upon the upper edge of two or more of the upper feathers of the
main tail.
The producing of the best-colored Dark Brahmas makes it almost a
necessity to follow what is known as the double-mating plan. This is to
have one pen mated for the producing of males, the other pen mated for
the producing of females. When such manner of breeding is followed, it
Light and Dark Brahmas
585
is an absolute necessity to keep the lines separate so as to make it utterly
impossible to intermingle their blood. A male bird bred under the double-
mating system will almost ruin the penciling of a well-bred female strain.
For the producing of the finest exhibition males, the best male possible
to be secured, one perfect in form and color, should be mated to females
of good size, shape, and of a dark shade of color. Above all, these males
should be bred in line for the producing of exhibition males. For the pro-
ducing of exhibition females exactly the opposite rule must be followed.
Use only the very finest-colored females that have been bred in line for
use for the producing of pullets, mated only with males bred direct in
line with the female blood. These two lines of breeding must be kept well
apart, and it will be found absolutely necessary to guard continually against
the loss of Brahma type and characteristics in the female line, as there
seems to be a tendency toward the loss of shape when paying so much
attention to color element.
Fairly good Dark Brahmas may be bred from a single mating by
selecting the very best-colored males that it is possible to secure and mate

Photograph by courtesy of "Reliable Poultry Journal"
LIGHT BRAHMA COCKERELS
Bred and owned by J. W. Shaw, Massachusetts
them with the very best-colored females to be had; taking the males-the
best of them from this mating and mating them again to the very best-
colored females to be obtained, you will gain a start of well-penciled
586
The Poultry Book
females and very good males. By selecting the darkest of these males
continually and always mating them with fine-colored females you will
be able to secure quite a number of very creditable exhibition fowls,
both males and females, from such matings. To continue this, always
select the very finest-colored females and mate them with the males
bred in this same line that are of rather the darker shades of color.
Always and continually keep in mind the proper type and shape of
the Brahma. Never be led astray in this. Do not allow vulture hocks
or excessive feathering to creep in. Hold continually to proper shape and
color and you will succeed. There are a few points of interest in the
general make-up of the Brahma that should be constantly considered. It
is not proper to have the Brahma stoop at the hock joint or knee, as do
the Cochins. The Brahma should stand up well upon his pins, more erect
than does the Cochin. The Cochin naturally leans or stoops forward and
bends at the knee. This is a defect that should not be allowed to creep
into the Brahmas. Keep Brahmas of true shape, proper color, and always
select them because they are Brahmas true and pure, rather than because
they have an inclination toward Cochin form and feather.

32
Photograph by courtesy of T. F. McGrew
WHITE COCHIN HENS

wires
OLD KENT AND SUSSEX FIVE-TOED GREY FOWLS, 1855.

""
CROAD IMPORTED LANGSHAN
THE LANGSHAN *
A. H. ASCHE, ILLINOIS
Pray that the right may thrive."-KING Lear.

HAVE bred Langshans since 1885. During the same period
I have bred several other varieties, but always retained
the Langshans in preference to others. When in proper
condition they are one of the best table fowls ever produced.
There is an abundance of white breast meat; their thin,
tender white skin, devoid of fat, makes them a fit rival to that great
American bird, the turkey. Those who object to a black fowl should try
the White Langshan. They will hold their own with any white variety.
For winter eggs I have yet to find their equal. For my own satisfaction
I have tested several individual birds, showing as high as twenty-nine
eggs in thirty-one days. This trial was made during one of our coldest
months. With such evidence before me I feel justified in upholding
*This chapter has been revised by A. H. Asche, of Illinois, an experienced Langshan
breeder and formerly secretary of the American Langshan Club. It was further condensed
and changed to meet American ideas by the editor.
587
588
The Poultry Book
them. On account of their quiet disposition they are well adapted for
city lovers of poultry. If allowed liberty they are great foragers. I
have seen as many as 600 black beauties on one farm. It was a great
sight. The male birds, with their stately carriage, large, flowing tail,
waved by the wind, was a sight long to be remembered. In the face of
all the criticism against
them, both in England and
America, they are still very
popular, which can be at-
tributed only to their good
qualities.

Few if any fowls sent
into England have had to
contend against such deter-
mined and lasting opposi-
tion and perverse criticism,
or whose merits have been
more controverted, than the
Langshan. Mr. Weir says:
'Many persons, totally
ignorant of these fowls,
came to the false conclusion
that they were nothing
more than Shanghais, now,
for no valid reason, called
Cochins. Certainly they
were neither; they in no
way resembled the Shang-
hais excepting in having
feathered legs, also being somewhat cushioned and slightly fluffy. The im-
ported Black Shanghai, of which I possessed a hen in 1854, was a far different
bird, squarely made, of a purple-black color, with yellow legs (shanks) heavily
feathered, the tail and wings being very short, the body feathers long, the
back much cushioned, and very fluffy on the thighs and belly. I sketched
Captain Fairlie's Black Cochins (Shanghais) at Chevely Park, Newmarket.
From the first time I saw the Langshan I have undeviatingly maintained
that they were distinct in make, shape, quality, color, habit, and flesh.
Photograph by Walter Gardiner
CROAD LANGSHAN COCKEREL
66
S
The Langshan
589

All Ja
A CROAD IMPORTED LANGSH'N, 1883
The Langshan is a deep, rich brown-black with a very bright green sheen,
tail fairly long by comparison, the wings large, breast somewhat full,
in which quality the Shanghai was and is deficient, with smaller, shorter
thighs. The Langshan is also a bright, active bird, a good flyer and
forager, and in this respect entirely different from the Shanghai. In
fact, the two breeds are widely distinct. I feel myself capable of giving
an opinion regarding both breeds. I had Shanghais from the imported
birds of Messrs. Sturgeon, Punchard and Gilbert in 1851-53, and Lang-
shans from the birds imported by Miss Croad, 1883-85.
"There is no doubt whatever that the Langshan fowl was immedi-
ately used by the Black Cochin breeders to improve their stock in point of
color, and the clear yellow on the shanks was at once abandoned as being
590
The Poultry Book
a necessary point of color in the Black Cochin. Thus it was that a num-
ber of birds were bred, and those that partook of the Shanghai the most

Atten
Akt
YOUNG LANGSHAN COCKEREL
were shown as Cochins in their classes, and the lesser-feathered birds were
put in with the Langshans. The judges became confused and the prizes
were awarded to either as one and the same breed. This state of things
arose chiefly from want of knowledge on the part of those adjudicating.
Thus it was also that through this Shanghai or Cochin crossing the
Langshan was deteriorated, and some of these would-be-thought Lang-
shan fanciers actually owned that they preferred them Cochiny, and by
this mixture in many cases they got increased size, though at the sacrifice
of quality, grace, and shape.
"In the early days also the Langshan was crossed with the so-called
Dorking, and the four-toed ones shown as pure-bred birds. The judges,
not having studied the breed as fully and closely as they ought, by no
The Langshan
591
means infrequently awarded prizes to mongrels scarcely showing the
Langshan type. At this time also the shorter-legged were wisely pre-
ferred to those of greater and monstrous length of limb. And then it
was because of the Cochin mongrelizing and the foolish belief that they
were one and the same breed that the small and rounded bunch of feathers
on the cocks was adopted as one of the points of excellence instead of the
beautiful large flowing tails, with plenty of side hangers, of the imported
birds. This mistake is maintained even to this day; though the elegance
of the latter should have won by far the most and highest approval, being
widely different from
any other existing breed.
Again, with a perverse-
ness that has seldom
been equaled in poultry
rearing excepting by the
modern Game fanciers,
the medium to short,
shanked, square-made,
and compact forms were
neglected in favor of long-
thighed, long-legged, and
long-shanked birds, op-
posed as this is to all
rules of what constitutes
a good table fowl; but
these long-limbed, ill-
proportioned composites,
for such many un-
doubtedly were, required
and do require more time.
to bring to maturity.
Even then they in many
cases possessed a coarse-
ness or dryness of flesh
comparatively unknown
in the lesser and plumper forms of the true imported stocks. The
fanciers of the Langshan have always been more or less divided.

Langshan Cockene
Davy Show
11895 ha)
LANGSHAN COCKEREL, SHOWING LENGTH OF LIMB
Dairy Show, 1895
592
The Poultry Book
Doubtless much of the bitter warfare that has been waged respecting
them would never have arisen if they had not been ignorantly
designated and described as Shanghais or Cochins. Most of these
detractors and those fiercest in the attack had never kept the
Langshan. Some of them were not thoroughly acquainted with its
ways and habits beyond noting them in the exhibition pen, even then
seeing with a prejudiced eye.

ரந்
GYCA
Surten
~7177
Wear
Deb
IMPORTED BLACK LANGSHAN ON THE WAR-PATH
A favorite bird of Mr. Weir's
"The breed was imported into England in 1872 by Major Croad.
From that date until the present the battle has been waged against them.
The two greatest opponents of the Langshan as a distinct breed have
probably been Lewis Wright and W. B. Tegetmeier. The former said in
Wright's 'Poultry Book,' first edition; that it was a a Black Cochin
pure and simple, but in a later book on poultry he says: ‘It is an ad-
mirable fowl. The skin is not only white, but very thin, and the meat
is extremely white and sapid.
It is one of the best layers of any
The Langshan
593
These
breed known, though the eggs are perhaps rather small. ...
qualities, combined with size and a color that gives a town breeder no
trouble in caring for it, are rapidly extending its
popularity on all sides. The general verdict is
that it is one of the best, and for many localities
the very best, fowl we have."
With Mr. Tegetmeier the case is somewhat
different. From the first importation he regarded
the Langshans as Cochins. Although the Lang-
shans were first imported in 1872, still, after ten
years' observation of the breed, Mr. Tegetmeier
writes in the Field, January, 1882: "The so-called
Langshan is a Black Cochin, which has been bred
with more attention to table points than had
hitherto been the case."

From photograph
PURE CROAD LANGSHAN
COCKEREL
A winner at Paris
In the Dead Poultry classes at the Dairy
and Islington Shows the Langshans beat, in the
classes where they could be shown, such birds as the modern Game,
the Orpingtons, Wyandottes, Plymouth Rocks, and some French breeds.
This occurred not only one year, but several. At Islington they were
thought to be sufficiently good in themselves to have separate classes,
one for cockerels and another for pullets. In
1897 the prizes were taken in those classes by
Mr. Crane and Miss Croad with pure-bred Lang-
shans in the pullet class. It would not be too
much to say that these pure-bred Langshans
from imported birds were of such high quality
that, although this pair of pullets was priced at
ten shillings, they brought at the auction
eighteen shillings. This one fact, without any
other, would tend to disprove Mr. Tegetmeier's
repeated statement about the value of the
Langshan as a table fowl. This was the
unalloyed breed as imported by Miss Croad.
To this may be added the fact that this par-
ticular strain of Langshans are also most excellent layers of fine, highly
colored, rich reddish-brown eggs. Thus they are high-class all-round fowls.

From a photograph
PURE CROAD LANGSHAN HEN
A winner at Paris
594
The Poultry Book
Some years ago a farmer at Brenchley kept a large number of the Black
Langshans (doubtless there are other colors in China of the same valuable
breed). These Black Langshans were the produce of eggs bought directly
from Miss Croad, and were kept principally for egg production. They
were found to excel all other varieties both in the number of eggs laid and
their marketable value, being both high in color and rich in flavor. They
were valuable as early chickens, the breast flesh being particularly white.
Hardy and fast growers, they were soon ready for market. As Shanghais

By courtesy of "Reliable Poultry Fournal"
PRIZE BLACK LANGSHAN HEN
An American Type, 1902
The Langshan
595
and their half-breeds were kept, the distinction of race was easily observa-
ble. Where the latter required much food, the former foraged largely for
theirs. Any one seeing the Langshans kept thus, or keeping them where
they had an extensive range, would not be long, unless they were wilfully
blind, in discovering how widely distinct were the two breeds, the Cochin
and Langshan. Thus it was and still is that the bickering and strife
continue. It is simply a contention between superb indifference to facts
and actual knowledge.
Mr. C. W. Gedney, of Kent, who from the first has been a stanch
supporter of the Langshan, says in the Feathered World, March 25, 1898:
"The real issue before the poultry-keeping world is whether or not the
cross-bred fowls which now win Langshan prizes are superior to the pure,
unadulterated bird. No sane person will pretend for one moment that the
Langshan has gained anything, either as an egg-producer or a table fowl, in
the hands of the mongrel-breeders. The pure Langshan possesses all
the characteristics which go to the making of a first-class table fowl. As
a layer of rich brown eggs it can hold its own against all competitors,
including the non-sitters. I speak from forty years' experience of the
breed. I first made the acquaintance of these fowls in a 500-mile journey
up the Yang-tse-Kiang River in 1858 in Her Majesty's ship Furious with
Lord Elgin. The Langshan has suffered severely from the ignorance and
prejudices of some fanciers, and it has suffered more at the hands of a
pot-hunting fraternity, who have ruined our best breeds of fowls in order
to win prizes." This is good evidence that the Langshan is a distinct
breed.
The pureness or trueness of the breed seems established. Many other
persons have stated that they well knew the variety in China. It was one
of the very few besides Bantams that the Chinese were somewhat careful
about keeping up to the standard in form, size, and feather. Others
have said they have kept or were keeping them in England, knowing their
excellent qualities in their native country. I have not found a single
person who knew the Langshans in China that approves of the long-
thighed, long-legged, long-shanked birds that the Langshan Club pat-
ronizes as the Langshan. One and all have condemned this class of bird,
so unlike the Langshan in China that they knew or had there. Mr. Or-
monde told Miss Croad that a fellow-student of his at Oxford was the
son of the then Prime Minister of Japan, and their love of bird life drew
w
596
The Poultry Book
them together, it being to each a common object of study and pleasure.
The Prime Minister had spent seven years in China, and possessed an
extensive knowledge of the various breeds of poultry in both countries,
and in his letters to his son mentioned the Langshan district and the
black breed that were a native poultry of the place. Miss Croad further
says that Mr. Ormonde told her of another friend that had joined the
Chinese police. He was at one time called away to the Langshan district,
and being a lover of fowls he naturally noticed the different breeds. He
had never seen the Langshan in England, but when Mr. Ormonde sent him
an illustration of the bird he at once recognized it as identical with a breed
of fowls he saw in Langshan. Mr. Ormonde's brother presented him with
some Langshans. While stationed in China he visited a Chinese gentleman
who possessed a huge flock of these black birds. Another gentleman
from the north of China informed Henry Ormonde that as far as he
knew the Langshan was by no means common in China. The breed there
is held in all reverence-in fact, regarded almost as a sacred bird. It had
been known there for many generations, but was not common in the
Langshan district. He thought that those who had attended the poultry
yards had been influenced by the Chinese dealers, and that the birds
were thus obtained for the European market.
In 1884, having written to the Live Stock Journal
in favor of the Langshan, I will now give the sub-
stance of a letter from Mr. Keele, which followed mine
in this journal, March 7, 1884. He says: "I was
very pleased to see in the Journal that interesting
article on the Langshan fowl, especially coming as
it did from such an authority as Mr. Weir. My
long residence in China enables me to confirm all his
remarks as to the Langshan being a distinct breed,
peculair to the district from which it takes the name,
the Langshan crossing over the River Yang-tse some
hundred miles or so from Shanghai. It is more than
From a photograph twenty years since I first saw these large black
fowls brought from there, and when in Shanghai

WHITE LANGSHAN HEN
Owned by A. H. Asche
last winter I was offered a crateful that had just
arrived from the same place. It is a strange fact that this breed of fowls
has been kept pure, and bred, as they have been, to retain all their good
The Langshan
597
qualities, indifferent as the Chinese notoriously are to keeping breeds of
fowls or animals distinct, taking, as a rule, no trouble in the matter.
"The Langshan
fowl, as well as being
endowed with the
numerous good quali-
ties described by Mr.
Weir, retains also in
its name a title really
descriptive of the place
from whence it comes,
and so unlike most of
the other varieties of
poultry which rejoice
in inappropriate titles;
for instance, the
Cochin-can it be sup-
posed for a moment
that the originals came
from Cochin-China?
At the time the first
importation arrived,
now forty years ago,
Cochin-China was al-
most a terra incognita;
there were no ports
opened to foreigners or any vessels coming thence to England. Cer-
tainly in Cochin-China at the present time this large breed of fowls is not
to be seen, unless it be a few in the possession of some of the Chinese traders
who have come from Canton to Hong-Kong. It is not the common breed
of the country, which are small. In Shanghai, on the other hand, these
large fowls are very common, and Shanghai was opened to commerce
about the time these birds were introduced into England. I have no
doubt in my own mind that it was from there that the first birds came,
and that they should rightly have been called Shanghais and not Cochins.
So with the Brahmas. Has a large breed at all like this ever been seen
on the Brahma Pootra or any of the districts adjacent? All the fowls

CROAD LANGSHAN HEN
From a photograph
598
The Poultry Book
I have ever come across in this part of the world have been small, except-
ing now and again a larger breed of the Malay type. In Shanghai silver-
penciled birds of the Cochin type are common enough, and from these
the Brahmas doubtless have been bred."
The Langshan judge in some cases, says Mr. Weir, often gives a first,
second, and third prize to three different types of Langshans at a show. One
is generally impressed with the idea that any particular breed has but one
style, stamp, and type, but it is not so with some Langshan judges. Birds
very long in thigh, leg, and shank, the medium and somewhat short, have
all taken honors in the one class under an accommodating judge. One
curious fact is that pure-bred birds, coming from the yards of those who
have had no other stock but imported birds, seldom get any notice at
English shows, while if exported they often take the very highest honors.
Such is the case in France. M. C. Gurney, consul at Cherbourg, won
the first prize, silver medal, at the great show at the Palais d'Industrie,
1896, with a hen that was bred by the owner from a pure Croad stock.
She was a typical Langshan, weighing eight and a quarter pounds. In
1897 he won again with cockerel and hens, gaining three firsts and medal.
Since the first importation into England by Major Croad in 1872 there
has been sent either to him or to Miss Croad fourteen others at different
times, numbering in all nearly 100 fowls. Mr. Thompson, of Scotland,
and Horace Martin, of Kent, are said to have imported some; Harry
Wallis received a few from China. Besides these, several other shipments
have been made to England and America. In all cases that have come
under my own observation the prevailing type has been that of medium
to rather short thighs, legs, and shanks; square and somewhat short in
body; full in the breast, with a good girth, the carriage of the body high,
the tail large and full in feathering and upright, in some cases having a
tendency to lean toward the neck. In color they were jet-black, except
a cock, which was slightly red in the hackle; one had what is termed a
lark crest, while another had a double sprig comb; all the rest were single
combs. In feathering they were tight by comparison with the Cochin or
Shanghai, though not so regarded from a Game-fowl fancier's point of
view. The more proper term to use would be close-feathered. I have
never seen any imported birds having anything like the size and length
of limb as those in the show-pens exhibited as pure Langshans. In
point of size none of the imported cocks weighed much more than ten

LANGSHAN COCKEREL
From a photograph
The Langshan
601

Boun
CROSS-BRED COCKEREL, LANGSHAN AND CORNISH AND OLD ENGLISH GAME
pounds, but nearer eight pounds, while the hens never exceeded nine
pounds. I can speak of their high qualities as table fowls. When pure
bred, the flesh on their breast is whiter than any other fowl, Asiatic or
European. Among the number of those imported were some more or less
weedy-that is, they were rather longer in the shanks and thighs than
others but these were in the minority. It was but reasonable to suppose
that the style of bird most useful, best for table, earliest to mature-the
square medium to short thighs, medium to short-shanked type-would
have been adopted by the British fancier and farmer. Happily for
602
The Poultry Book
the true Langshan fancier, but not so for the ill-proportioned, ungainly
birds, there are yet a few yards where the Langshan of the true blocky
type and full breasted may be found preserved in all their purity.
Even Americans are heartily tired of long-thighed, long-legged,
long-shanked monstrosities. They are by no means inclined to be further
led away from the original type. An American poultry paper, commenting
on the photographs of the prize-winners of 1896, which appeared in the

Amen
Til
IMPORTED CROAD LANGSHAN
The Langshan
603
Langshan Club Rules, etc., gave outlines and warned its readers to be
careful of what they ordered in England. It was clear that there were
two distinct types. As the
outline of one was given,
it was not necessary to say
which to avoid.

I asked Frank
Saunders, a gentleman just
returned to England after
living in the Langshan
district for more than two
years, if he knew the breed
in China. He said that he
not only knew the Black
Langshan, but kept no
others when
when there, and
considered them in all
respects excellent. He said
he had seen large flocks of
white birds, but they were
more scarce than the black.
He liked the latter best.
Some strains of the breed
had small top-knots, but
it was not usual. He
preferred them so. It was a matter of taste with breeders. There were
some birds of a rich red-brown which had the same characteristics. He
said none of these had yellow legs. This is precisely what I expected—
that the Langshan is a true breed, and not simply of a single coloring.
The blacks are considered the highest, with the whites and others following.
It would indeed have been strange had it not been so.
The Langshan is even more hardy than the Shanghai. It is far the
best winter layer of any of our breeds, be they European, Asiatic, or
mongrels. They are not inclined to sit with that persistency characteristic
of many of the Asiatics and cross-breeds. Often they do not become
broody until April or May. They are excellent sitters and mothers,
though they often begin laying again before the chickens are advanced
CROAD LANGSHAN
Bred by Mr. Weir, 1889
^
i the
604
The Poultry Book
enough to be left alone. The chickens are hearty, hardy, and thrifty.
They grow rapidly and feather better than the Shanghai; they are bright,
lively, and very alert. They begin to perch early, frequently before leaving
the hen. When hatched they are black with white breasts and pinkish,
white shanks and feet. The black scales make their appearance as they
advance in age. Usually the primary feathers of the wings are white.
These disappear at the first molt and are replaced by those of an entire
black. The pullets begin to lay when about five months old. I believe
that next to the Minorca the Langshan is unsurpassed as a layer, and for
winter eggs is excelled by none. A hen in the possession of Miss Croad
laid 146 eggs without intermission. A year's record of 260 and 300 eggs
has been reported. Every one who has kept Shanghais knows that, though
very docile and gentle, the hen as a mother is clumsy in the extreme.
She seldom roams with her family or scratches for worms or insects. She
is essentially a grazer, eating
much grass and expecting her
young to do the same.
Here is what M. V. Le Pierre
de Roo says of the Langshan in
his book: "For a long time these
superb fowls have furnished us
with incontestable proofs of their
gentleness; they run about almost
as soon as they are hatched. A
few hours suffice to dry them.
They demand no particular care.
The farmer who has an orchard
at his disposal where he can let
the mother free with her chicks
can abandon them to their fate
without a fear that this liberty
will be followed by injurious.
results. The Langshan hen leads
her chickens about with incon-
ceivable tenderness; before the
slightest glimpse of dawn she is on the alert; before the rising of the sun
she is on foot traversing the extent of the run allotted to her in every sense

From a drawing by Harrison Weir
CROAD LANGSHAN, 1889
The Langshan
605

LANGSHAN PULLET
-turns over the dry leaves and scratches the ground, seeking for nour-
ishment for her young family with the utmost zeal. When she discovers
the larvæ of an ant or a worm or a fly she calls her young with a cry peculiar
to her and places her find under their little beaks. Then, with an abne-
gation of self that is astonishing, she sets herself again with fresh courage
to hunt for insects of all sorts, whereof she clears the crops and
nourishes her offspring."
606
The Poultry Book
The American vice-consul-general at Shanghai, W. S. Emeris, wrote,
July 12, 1893, as follows:
"There is no special interest taken in fowls in the consular district
of Shanghai. The varieties generally raised and kept are the Langshan *

Jers
1896
AN IMPORTED LANGSHAN
Yard of Miss Croad
black fowl, Cochin-China yellow fowl, and the ordinary barn-yard. Crests
are to be found in the first two varieties, which are good-sized birds, the
males averaging from eight to ten pounds each and the hens from four
to six pounds. These are goods layers and prolific breeders. Both
varieties have feathers on their legs, those of the Langshans being
*Note the crests on both the Langshan and Cochin-China; but are they feathers
or combs ?
The Langshan
607
higher up than the Cochins. In the former the legs are a dark brown,
those of the latter a dirty yellow. Both Langshans and Cochins breed
true, but are frequently crossed. As to whether these
fowls are bred pure I cannot say, but I think the
Langshans are in some cases. They are all sitters. The
principal reason for which each variety is kept is for
eggs. The climate has always a tendency to dampness."
The American Fancier, April 4, 1894, says: "The
Langshan fowl is a distinct and fairly pure breed from
the Yang-tse River region, just below Chin-Kiang. It is
a large, heavy, handsome bird, usually black or slightly
tinged on the neck with brown; weight between seven
and eight pounds; legs slate colored and frequently LANGSHAN PULLET
feathered; they are good layers and sitters; the eggs are
of darkish brown and of good size. The hens are good mothers. The
cock stands more than two feet in height. There is a well-developed
comb on the cock and the hen."
From a photograph
Bred by A. H. Asche

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE
Size of Cock.-In fowls of such remarkable merit for table pur-
poses size must be one of the considerations, and an adult bird should
not weigh less than nine pounds.
Carriage and Shape.-Sufficiently long on the leg
to give a graceful carriage to the body; fine in bone;
head small, carried well back, with full flowing hackle;
good wide shoulders; broad, meaty breast; fan-
shaped tail, carried high, with plenty of glossy side-
hangers and two sickle feathers, some six inches or
more beyond the rest; general bearing that of an
extremely active, intelligent bird.

Comb.-Red, single, straight, upright, of medium
size, fine in quality and evenly serrated, being free
From a photograph from side sprigs.
LANGSHAN COCK
Bred and owned by A. H. Asche,
of Illinois
Beak.-Light to dark horn color-the latter
preferred-strong, somewhat straight, well tapered.
and slightly curved at point.
Eye.-Large, bright, and intelligent, and ranging in color from lightest
608
The Poultry Book
brown to very dark hazel, with black pupil. (Mr. Weir says some of
the imported birds had silver or pearl eyes like the Malay.)
Deaf Ear and Wattles.—Brilliant red, fine in quality, and medium size.
Neck.—Sufficiently large to give a symmetrical appearance to and
harmonize well with the other proportions of the body.
Wings.—Somewhat low in the carriage, large, and having very bril-
liant coverts.
Thighs and Legs.-Somewhat short, yet large and full, covered with
long, rather close-fitting feathers.
Shanks.-Medium, with the scales of a dark-slate color showing
between the skin under the scales of a light vivid pink, wide apart, a few
feathers running down outside the legs and the centers of the outer toes on
each foot.
Feet.—The toes should be long and straight, small of bone, and, like
the shanks, a dark-slate color, with the skin between the toes and scales
a light vivid pink. (This vivid pink should be described rather as a quality
than a color, it being the evidence of a thin skin.) Toe-nails white, the
under part of the foot light-pinkish white; in young birds, the part de-
scribed as vivid pink should be white.
Plumage.-Dense black throughout, with brilliant beetle-green gloss
upon it. Purple or blue tinge should disqualify, as should white feathers
in adult fowls; * the closer the plumage is, the better.
Size of Hen.—Not less than seven pounds when fully grown.
Carriage and Shape.-Gracefully rounded outline; general appearance
that of an active, intelligent bird.
Plumage.-Same as cock.
Comb.-Red, single, medium size, erect, fine in quality and evenly
serrated, coming somewhat to a point at the apex.
Tail.-Fan-shaped and full, carried rather high.
* All black-plumage birds are liable to throw a white feather, especially after the first
adult molt; such feather should not disqualify.

Harrison Win
1902
Yaba
PLYMOUTH ROCKS.

Photograph by courtesy of" Reliable Poultry Journal"
SOME WELL-BRED PLYMOUTH ROCKS
Owned by D. F. Palmer, Pennsylvania
THE PLYMOUTH ROCKS*
H. P. SCHWAB, NEW YORK
W
HEN first produced, no other name was needed; they were
simply Plymouth Rock fowls, and became well known
the world over by this title. Since their introduction
the White and the Buff Plymouth Rocks have been
added; consequently the original stock is now known as
the Barred Plymouth Rock, on account of their color and markings. No
other fowl has ever enjoyed equal popularity in America. No variety
has the same hold on the fancy or commercial breeder as this one. There
are, however, several remarkably good breeds, but when compared with
this one as the best general-purpose fowl they are not even a close second.
Utility and actual worth are the basis of their well-earned popularity.
There seems to be no condition, surrounding, or climate unfavorable to
the Plymouth Rock. Where any fowl can live they will prosper. Their
constitutional vigor appears to have no limit. They thrive anywhere
and under all conditions. They stand confinement and, when allowed

*This chapter has been entirely rewritten from an American point of view. Mr.
Schwab is an experienced breeder and secretary of the American Plymouth Rock Club.
He has made liberal use, by permission, of the excellent bulletin by T. F. McGrew on "The
American Breeds of Fowls," published by the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture. Mr. Weir's chapter on Plymouth Rocks in the English edition
contained very little of interest to American breeders except the history of their early
introduction into England, which is quoted herein.-EDITOR.
609
610
The Poultry Book
freedom, prove excellent foragers. They are a business fowl in every
sense of the word, one that never deserts its post nor shirks a duty. They
are prolific in yielding large-sized brown eggs of the richest flavor. Under
favorable conditions they will produce as many eggs as any thoroughbred
fowl. They are rapid growers, and make plump, juicy broilers at eight
to ten weeks old. As a practical fowl, suited to the wants and conditions
of those who desire eggs, meat, and feathers combined in one breed, they
acknowledge no competitor.
THEIR ORIGIN AND NAME
The first fowl to bear the name Plymouth Rock was developed in
1847-49 by intermingling Cochin, Dorking, and Malay blood. The result
was a mongrel, pure and simple, of very little or no real value. The
knowledge of this inferiority influenced a sentiment against what was to
be the most popular breed ever produced. When the present Barred
Plymouth Rock was first announced, those best informed believed it to
be the same as before under other guidance, but in fact it was an entirely
different breed and in no way whatever related to that of 1849, except-
ing in name, which breed, for reasons given above, was entirely extinct
at that time. Our present type of Plymouth Rock is the outcome of
the careful handling and breeding of fowls secured from crosses. The
Barred Plymouth Rock was first brought to public attention and exhibited
at Worcester, Massachusetts, in March, 1869, by D. A. Upham. All agree
that the cross which was the source of this breed was first made by
Joseph Spaulding, of Putnam, Connecticut. This cross was effected by
the use of a Single-comb Dominique male and a Black Asiatic female,
known at that time as the Black Java, but in reality it was the Black
Cochin, and was so named with their adoption into the standard in 1875.
Similar crosses and others of like character were made by some breeders,
who obtained much the same results. The principal crosses, according
to Messrs. Upham and Felch, were as follows:
Black Spanish,* then so called, bred upon White Cochins and top-
crossed by the Single-comb Dominique.
Black Spanish males with Gr y Dorking females, topcrossed by
Dominique. (This was called the Gray strain.)
*The Black Spanish in these crosses were called Minorca Spanish, with red faces,
white ears, and much smaller combs than the present Spanish and Minorcas.
The Plymouth Rocks
611
Dominique on Buff Cochin, and inbred. (The Cochins then called
Shanghais.)
White Birmingham on Black Java,* topcrossed by Dominique.
White Birmingham with Black Java, the Barred female specimens
of the cross bred to the

males of the product
of the last named.
The most promi-
nent of the early
strains were the
Spaulding, the Upham,
the Drake, the Gray,
the Pitman or Essex,
the Gilman, and the
Ramsdell, Of these,
in the Ramsdell, al-
though given a place
to have this complete
in all detail, there is
no evidence that its
influence is appreciable
in any of the birds of
to-day. The Drake
strain is supposed to
have been made by
crossing Light
Brahmas, White
Cochins, and Domi-
niques. Mr. Drake
also had fowls and
eggs from Mr. Upham.
and thus modified his
cross with the Upham stock. It is also claimed by the very best of
authority that Mr. Drake introduced Dark Brahma blood by breeding a
Plymouth Rock male upon Dark Brahma females. The original birds
Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Fishel
WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK PRIZE COCK, "EDWARD B., JR."
Scored 96%½ at Indianapolis in 1903. Bred and owned by U. R. Fishel, Indiana
*The Black Javas were of Asiatic origin, legs indifferently feathered, with black
shanks and yellow bottoms to the feet. Isolated specimens were smooth-shanked.
612
The Poultry Book
of the Pitman strain were the progeny of a trio owned by a Mr. Lord, who
procured them from Mr. Upham. The foundation of the Gilman strain
also came from Mr. Upham. I have no doubt that both he and
Mr. Pitman made some other crosses, as did H. B. May, who later (1876)
bought some of the best Pitman birds. He used the Light Brahma cross
and later crossed them with the Grade Game. This last cross proved
successful. It gave his strain great weight for moderate size, rich, red
eyes, and great stamina. Mr. Gilman produced a strain that was noted
for its fine females. The prominent characteristics were yellow legs and
beaks. The make-up of the Gray strain is given above.
The above is, I believe, a true account of the origin of the early
strains of the Barred
Plymouth Rocks. Out
of this amalgamation
we have a race of which
we are proud, it being
America's first achieve-
ment in breed-making,
which as yet stands un-
rivaled.

No matter what
variety of color is
shown, the form or
shape of all must be the
same. The presence of
breed characteristics
must be so strong as to
stamp them with the
unmistakable emblem
"Plymouth Rock
Shape." The impor-
tance of this is shown
in the fact that some
persons can select a
White Plymouth Rock
from a White Wyandotte only by the difference in comb. This is the
outcome of not demanding greater attention to
greater attention to true type in the
Photograph furnished by T. F. McGrew
A WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK PRIZE-WINNER AT NEW YORK
SHOW
Bred and owned by Harry Graves, Connecticut
The Plymouth Rocks
613
show-room, where size, color, and comb are given more credit than
is due and too little attention to the breed emblem-
shape. An
effort is here made to describe the proper shape of the Plymouth Rock,
and all sections, including the head and its belongings, are described as
minutely as possible, omitting reference to color, which will be taken up
separately.
TYPICAL FORM AND SHAPE OF MALE
The head of the male should be moderately large, rather round when
viewed from the side, prominent in front with broad crown, and carried
well up. A long head is quite improper and should not be tolerated.
It destroys the whole appearance of an otherwise handsome specimen.
Eyes should be large and clear, bright rich bay in color. Bright bay
eyes are one of the chief beauties of the well-bred Rock. Weak-colored
or pearl eyes are almost a deformity. They look real bad, and in addition
to their appearance indicate either poor breeding, a delicate constitution,
or both. The eyes of a strong, vigorous specimen are usually very bright
and striking in appearance. The comb is one of the most important sec-
tions of the bird as far as looks and fancy points are concerned. To meet
with standard requirements it should be medium or slightly below medium
in size, and in proportion to the specimen set firmly on the head, perfectly
straight and upright, and of fine texture, with five even and well-defined
serrations. The points of the comb must be even and regular. The
comb from the front where it rests on the beak should curve gracefully
back, finishing with a nicely shaped heel; it should form a half-oval over
the head, being highest in the center and gently declining either way,
neither high in front nor in the rear. A twisted, uneven, or thumb-marked
comb is much despised, while a perfectly formed comb is the crowning
effect. The beak should be short, stout, and regularly curved. The
wattles should be moderate in size, nicely rounded, and of even size and
fine texture. When ill-shaped or uneven they are a deformity. The
ear-lobes should be neat, fine, and of equal size, nicely placed on the face
below and in the rear of the eyes. A nice, prominent pair of wattles and
ear-lobes, if of good shape and texture, add much to the appearance of
the head and the bird.
Neck.—To be perfect in shape the neck should be of medium length,
nicely arched from just back of the comb to the body, tapering and with
abundant hackle; the hackle and saddle will meet when the head is thrown
614
The Poultry Book
back. A narrow, long, or thin neck on a Plymouth Rock is very bad-
nothing looks worse-while a strong, full, well-proportioned neck gives
the specimen the real high-tone requirement of the breed.
Back. The back of the Plymouth Rock is one of its most important
characteristics. We quote in full the standard description:
"Broad,
of medium length, and rising with a slight concave sweep to the tail;
saddle feathers of medium length and abundant.” To be perfect the
back must meet with this description. Add to it "broad at the shoulders,'
and you have the real ideal to follow. This description calls for nearly
the same style back as is mentioned for the Brahma. Note that the
Plymouth Rock back is fashioned after that of the Brahma, while the
Wyandotte back resembles that of the Cochin. No cushion is called for
in the Plymouth Rock, while for the Wyandotte male a broad, full saddle
is necessary, the female being slightly cushioned. If these characteristics
of back were strictly adhered to the Plymouth Rock would be more dis-
tinctive. The broad back of medium length (medium as between the
long back of the Java and the short back of the Wyandotte) is essential.
Nothing short of this description fills the standard requirement. A
demand of so much importance should be most strictly adhered to. If
this description was well understood and followed to the letter much of
the present confusion as to type would disappear. In my opinion, the
back is the most important section. Unless it is good, it is impossible
to reach the highest type in breeding.
Tail.—Tail formation is quite a factor in the proper finish of the back.
If the main tail feathers are strong and fairly well spread they help to
build up the back to the proper ending, in accordance with the standard;
but when these feathers are contracted or narrow they allow the saddle
plumage to gather and form the narrow or pinched appearance instead
of the proper sweep to the tail. They also spoil the shape of the tail itself,
giving a tapering appearance from the shoulders back. The tail should
be of medium length, spread at the base, and carried moderately upright.
The sickles should be fairly developed, spreading latterly beyond the
tail proper; lesser sickles and tail coverts well developed and well curved.
Medium length in Plymouth Rocks, not alone in standard description of
tail, but in all sections, means a medium between the large and small
varieties. The tail of the Plymouth Rock in formation and finish resem-
bles somewhat the tail of the Brahma. The carriage of each is about
The Plymouth Rocks
615

Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Fishel
THREE PRIZE-WINNING WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK PULLETS
Scored 95, 96, and 96%. Bred and owned by U. R. Fishel, Indiana
the same.
The sickle feathers and coverts are fashioned much on the
same lines. Therefore, when it is stated that the Plymouth Rock back,
including the tail, is fashioned somewhat after the Brahma, it is hoped
that the proper formation of each in accordance with the standard is
properly understood as the meaning. This positively prohibits the Cochin
form of back for either.
The under portion of the Plymouth Rock, including breast, under
part of body, abdomen, and legs, is of equal importance. The broad,
deep, and well-rounded breast gives these fowls their value as table poultry.
The notably rounded keel-bone that extends well forward helps to build
out the foundation for plenty of breast meat, while the strong, full abdomen
provides the space for eggs in the female. But both the male and female
are confined within the demand for moderately full fluff only, while in the
Wyandotte considerably more fluff is allowed. Here, again, is the fact
616
The Poultry Book
that while the Cochin form is allowable in the Wyandotte it must not
be present in the Plymouth Rock. Wings of medium size, broad and
full at the shoulders, help to spread the hackle and widen the shoulders,
giving the strong, broad appearance as the specimen faces one, while
close, narrow wings help to give the narrow, inferior appearance such as
is often found on what are called undeveloped specimens. The strong,
prominent wing point, or bow, which is well built out with under muscles,
adds very much to the appearance of the fowl. A large thigh supported
by stout, well-proportioned shank of medium length, good feet and toes
compose the proper leg for the Plymouth Rock. A long leg, thin shank,
and ill-shaped toes are incorrect. Without the proper foundation a fowl
of such build as the Plymouth Rock could not have that finished appear-
ance demanded for it.
POINTS CONCERNING THE FEMALE
While the general description given above touches upon the form
of both male and female, there are some features about the female which
require a more special notice. The most important of these is the tail.
This should be so carried as to form a continuation of the back. It should
not be so elevated as to form an angle in the back, nor should it droop in
the least. To give the best appearance to the back the main tail feathers
may spread out at the base, but should come together at the point. The
most striking feature of a well-formed Barred Plymouth Rock female
is a beautiful head and neck, which are most difficult to obtain in any
approach to perfection. In many instances the head is large and heavy
in appearance, and the barring of the neck gives rather a spotted appear-
ance on the surface, which should show true barring. When of proper
make-up the head is nicely formed and well set on the neck; the beak
should be short and strong and nicely curved, so as to present a finished
appearance; comb should be neat and rather small, but well defined and
of suitable proportions to conform to the head; eyes bright and clear, bay
in color; neck nicely curved, gradually widening toward the juncture
with the shoulders. This graceful head and neck make a most attractive
appearance.
The medium length as demanded for back furnishes correct propor-
tions for a graceful sweep or incline of back toward the tail, as described.
This description allows the beautiful back formation that should be free
The Plymouth Rocks
617
from all appearance of a cushion, for the true Plymouth Rock female
should be free from cushion on back and have only a slight showing of fluff.
While they are required
to be well feathered about
the abdomen, there should
not be a fluffy formation.
Back, breast, and body
should be well rounded
and full at point of breast;
the wings closely set
against the body and
strong at shoulder; main
tail feathers standing at a
slight incline as if they
formed the end of the back.
They should be so spread
at the base as to form a
graceful support to the
back without causing a
too full appearance at
point of wing. The under
filling of the tail should be
prominent.
The marking of the
Barred Plymouth Rock
female, when properly distributed, is grace itself. Beginning with the close,
narrow bars just back of the comb and gradually broadening and widening
as the tail is approached, there is formed what might be called circles of
grayish blue when seen under good lights and conditions. Much depends
upon the evenness of barring and the well-defined lines between the two
colors; for when either encroaches upon the other the greatest beauty is
wanting. This combination of light and dark colors creates the so-called
blue tint of the Barred Plymouth Rocks. The beauty depends entirely
upon the purity of color and the graceful formation of the bars.
The beak and shanks of both male and female should be true yellow;
but it is a fact that many more have dark spots than the true color. These
dark spots come from the early Java cross, no doubt, and will continue

Photograph by courtesy of" American Agriculturist"
BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCK PULLET
First at Boston, 1901. Owned by P. W. Noyes, Connecticut
618
The Poultry Book
for years to come. A very limited amount of black striping is allowed
in the beak of the female, but the nearer it approaches pure yellow the
better; while the beak of the male should under all circumstances be a
clear, pure yellow. Yellow skin is also required. The shank should be
strong and well placed, with no inclination to turn in at the hock. They
should be wide rather than narrow at this point.
BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCKS
In his most excellent bulletin on "The American Breeds of Fowls"
T. F. McGrew says: We have never seen an authentic proof that there
is any other native North American fowl than the turkey that has been
domesticated. All of our poultry, both land and water fowls, which are
classed as domestic poultry, came to us from other lands. Those we
have are all the result of careful crossing, mating, and improving. We
have always paid the strictest attention to color demands, often at the
sacrifice of shape. This is a natural result almost sure to follow close
breeding for color. Good, even color of plumage can be procured and
maintained in highest perfection only
by close line breeding, a natural result
being more or less loss of size and good
form. Line breeding, or inbreeding, is
an absolute necessity to produce a
certain type or color. There is no
other way to produce either with any
certainty, and while we are thus guiding
our stock into new conditions we are as
surely reducing their size and injuring
their shape and vigor. The only sure
way to maintain all is to have more
than one line of breeding-stock, so as
to be able to invigorate one by the
other with as little injury to color as
possible. Our demand for perfection of
color and barring in our Barred Ply-
mouth Rocks has driven all those who

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From a drawing by F. L. Sewell
IDEAL PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE
Adopted by the American Plymouth Rock Club
produce for exhibition purpose to close line breeding and to the
double-mating system. These two methods have proved successful
The Plymouth Rocks
619
for color, and at the same time have added more grace or better
form to the fowls as a breed.
The color demand of the standard
is bluish-gray, barred with narrow
parallel lines of dark blue, approaching
almost to a positive black. The bar-
ring is to be close in all sections of
the body, and on neck and saddle
hackle narrower and closer than in
other sections. The barring must
positively show the entire length of
the feathers in all sections when they
are not mostly composed of down
In the primaries, secondaries, and
feathers of the tail the barring is to be
wider than in other sections. The
shade of surface color is to be nearly
or quite uniform throughout. The
most perfect colored Barred Plymouth
Rock is one whose color is so perfectly
blended as to present to view the attractive blue shade so continually
talked of as belonging to them, but so seldom seen in anything like perfec-
tion. When the ground color is of a clear bluish-gray and the modified
blue-black, so called, and the lines between the two shades are clear-cut
and distinct, the combination, under proper light, reflects the blue tint
which is so desirable in a high-class specimen. The crowning beauty of
the Plymouth Rock is its purity of color. The two shades, one light
and the other dark, must each be pure and true to its color and positively
free from any tinge of foreign color. This, to begin with, is the funda-
mental condition when selecting for proper coloring. When we have
this purity of color perfect surface color is assured.

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From a drawing by F. L. Seweli
IDEAL PLYMOUTH ROCK FEMALE
Adopted by the American Plymouth Rock Club
POINTS ABOUT PROPER BARRING
There are two very important factors in the problem of barring
often passed over without due attention—that is, the narrow and parallel
lines of dark blue. The bars must be narrow and straight, those of the
neck fine and distinct. Spots on the surface of the neck plumage are
620
The Poultry Book
not bars. The barring of the neck must entirely cross the feather, barring
it just as perfectly as the most perfect feather of the body. Or, in other
words, fine lines of the darker color must extend across the light shade,
as straight as if made with mechanical precision, from the point of the
feather down close to the skin in perfect regularity. The lines in the
smaller feathers close to the head are the finest, and they grow wider and
more pronounced until they reach
the lower portion of the hackle,
which are about the same as the
saddle plumage.

The saddle plumage of the
male is another section that has
the narrower lines of
lines of barring.
While these lines are not so fine
as in the neck plumage, they
conform to one another in their
graduation and style of lines.
Often the most beautiful barring
is present in this section. The
prevalent defects found in these
sections are the V-shaped bars
and the broken lines, where the
quill, or shaft of the feather,
passes through them. In the latter
the line, or bar, on one side of
the quill will be its own width
higher on the feather than the
continuation of the same bar on
the other side, thus: + These two defects are quite serious,
as they destroy the uniformity of surface bars, which should
parallel each other, and, in addition to this, count against them in
under color.
The van de v
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but a
oth
Suvell
Drawn from life by F. L. Sewell
PRIZE-WINNING BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK
COCKEREL
Bred and owned by Schwab Bros., New York
Best
+.
The body plumage, including breast of both male and female, is
barred alike, being broader and more striking than in neck plumage.
Each feather usually ends with the darker shade. When this is not
the case the specimen is frequently too white for exhibition. It is especially
important that the lines in these sections should be very uniform and
The Plymouth Rocks
621
straight. The dividing line between the light and dark shades must be
very sharp and entirely free from bronzy shading..
The back plumage of the male
should conform in shade and barring
with its own hackle and saddle plumage.
While the barring is not so fine, neither
should it be so heavy as to look out
of place between the two. This portion
of the fowl is one of the weakest color
sections of the male bird. Metallic black
will often show like a network over the
back, and here, more than in any other
section, is found the white under color.
All these faults should be absolutely
driven out.

Copyright, 1900
by Bradley Be
Copyright, 1901,
by Bradley Bros.
The main tail feathers of both male
and female should have the perfect
barring, but should be considerably wider
than in any other section.
Here, again, is often present the broken bars,
and, being so much broader, they look the more out of place. The
clear-colored, regularly barred tail
feathers add considerable finish to any
specimen, while poor color and ir-
regular barring in the tail feathers,
being always in sight, have an un-
favorable bearing upon the other sections
of the bird. One of the most beautiful
effects of plumage comes from a profu-
sion of handsomely marked feathers
filling in underneath the tail. This not
only vastly improves the general appear-
ance of the fowl, but gives a perfect
finish to the tail. Wing bows of male
birds are often defective. Here the
barring is often weak and ticked, and
the color of the flights of both male and
female often has the appearance of
From a photograph. Used by permission
REGULARITY OF BARRING
One of the thirty-seven winning males at New York shows
that have been bred and raised by Bradley Bros., of
Massachusetts, the last fifteen years
Of
From a photograph. Used by permission
A MARVEL OF REGULAR BARRING
Bred and raised by Bradley Bros., Massachusetts

622
The Poultry Book
gradually merging the one shade into the other. A wing with flights
equaling the tail or secondaries in color and barring is quite uncommon,
a condition which seems seldom removed.
To sum up the subject of surface color: Whether it be of the very
light shade sometimes seen, or much darker, or whatever shade the specimen
may be, a uniform shade of color should prevail throughout the fowl.
Let it not have a light neck with a dark saddle or back; neither will it
do to have one shade on back and saddle, including tail, and another
shade on breast. "The shade of surface color must be nearly or quite
uniform throughout" to meet the standard demand.
UNDER BARRING
fluffy feathers that cover
the fowl shall show
skin. This with some
that the barring of
be quite as distinct
ring, which is
neous, it not being
wording of the
simply calls for a
tively shows itself the
feather." In this case
does not demand the
under as upon the
is the intent of the
same time the
has been produced
approaching the
fection of surface barring has attracted the greatest admiration of all
who have seen them. Such instances point to this style of barring as
being very near to perfection as gauged by public opinion. If it is
possible to produce such intense under barring and hold the surface
The barring must show on the entire length of the feathers in all
sections when they are not mostly composed of down. This is the law
for under color or barring,
according to the standard.
Or, in other words, all
feathers other than the
the posterior portion of
positive barring to the
is taken to mean
under plumage must
as the surface bar-
considered erro-
the intent of the
standard, as it
"barring that posi-
whole length of the
a positive showing
same intensity of color
surface. While this
standard, at the
limited number that
with under barring
distinctness and per-

From a photograph
SHOWING SURFACE AND UNDER
COLOR
"Alice," a Nonpareil strain pullet, winner of Ist at
Rochester. A daughter of hers won 1st at same
show, 1903. Bred and owned by Schwab Bros.
The Plymouth Rocks
623
color clear and clean-cut, we shall assuredly have an attractive color
and style of marking.
The weak points for under barring are on the back of both male and
female and just forward of the tail of the male. Not very long ago the
surface of wing and the plumage of thigh of both male and female were
quite deficient, but this is now much improved. The greatest trouble
experienced with an excessive under barring is an injury to surface color.
The much barring to the skin carries with it such a predominance of
strength in the darker shade as to influence the surface color undesirably
and to show the metallic black rather strongly on the males.
When a clear, clean under color, nicely barred to the skin, quite
plain enough to be readily seen, is obtained, the standard demand is
fulfilled. At the same time the most positive preference is shown, by
all who are well informed, for the positive barring, provided it is clear,
clean, and regular. Often those who are not fully acquainted with the
methods of judging fail to understand why a fowl which fills the standard
demand in under color should be discounted as against the one with the
better barring. The fact that one has better barring than the other
must place it in advance on this point, at least. With some, the wing
flights are classed as under color, or barring. These are the most difficult
to control and to bring within the desired color demand, and few specimens
are ever seen that have flights that could be considered within the standard
line. Seldom do we see one in which the lines between the two colors are
distinctly drawn. The tendency of the colors to run (as the saying is in
the dye-shop) seems to invade the flights.
SINGLE AND DOUBLE MATINGS
The formations, as shown in their origin, gives the greater strength
of color to the female. The so-called top cross of the lighter-colored
male with the darker-colored female still casts its influence toward the
too dark female and the too light colored male. This natural condition,
it is claimed, renders it quite impossible to produce the proper exhibition
color males and females from the same pair. For this reason, what is
called the double-mating system has come into general use. There are
those who claim to produce exhibition males and females both from the
same mating. While this is done to a certain extent, the facts are that
by far the greater portion of our best exhibition Barred Plymouth Rocks
624
The Poultry Book
are produced by the double-mating system. One of our most successful
breeders states that each year his single-mating system comes nearer to
achieving the same
success as has been
obtained heretofore
from the extreme
double matings.
When we speak
of single matings
for producing
Barred Plymouth
Rocks the pos-
sibility of being
able to mate a pair,
trio, or pen that
will produce both
males and females
of high-class exhibi-
tion qualities is im-
plied. If it is pos-
sible to select a pair
that will produce
both males and
females of proper
standard color and
shape, that have
the very desirable
surface color and
barring, also the
requisite amount of under color, then we have succeeded on the
single-mating system. Until this is accomplished the single-mating
method is not a success. A standard colored male mated to three-
or four hens, some of them light in color, some dark, and some medium,
might produce both males and females of good quality. But that is not
single mating. Single mating, in the strictest sense, is producing both males.
and females of the highest quality from a single pair. It must be the
result of a true single mating of one pair of fowls, not a pen, nor yet a trio.

From a photograph
PLYMOUTH ROCK
"VULCAN III." A SON OF "VULCAN II."
COCKEREL-AMERICAN TYPE
Bred by Mr. C. H. Latham
The Plymouth Rocks
625
This is the selection of what are called pullet-breeding females and
mating them with pullet-producing males, for the express purpose of
producing exhibition colored pullets; also the selection of cockerel-breeding
females and mating them with cockerel-producing males for the purpose
of obtaining exhibition cockerels. This is what is known as double mating.
For the production of pullets under this method, select females of perfect
standard color in barring and under barring; be careful as to clear, clean-
cut barring that is absolutely perfect in all respects, so far as it is possible
to obtain it; pay strict attention to the fine, close barring in the neck;
see that this is really and properly barred, and not marked with broken,
or V-shaped, lines. Also look well to the tail, flight, and secondary feathers.
Spare no pains in selecting the breeding females, taking only such as will
satisfy thoroughly your desire were the same condition of plumage inherited
by their future chicks.

With such females place
a male of considerably lighter
color than they are one that
has been bred for this line of
breeding. Their breeding is
their quality. Some use very
thin-colored males. These
very light-colored males with
such females as are above
described will produce light-
colored pullets. Others take
what might be called a
medium shade and gain the
medium color in females.
The shade in this way can
be partially guided in your
pullets. The fact to be borne
in mind is that with such
females the lighter in color
the male used the lighter the
pullets will be. No matter
what shade of color is preferred, let it be remembered that the male
used for producing pullets must be lighter in shade than his mates.
From a photograph by permission of the "Reliable Poultry Journal"
FIRST-PRIZE WHITE ROCK PULLET-AMERICAN TYPE
Bred and owned by Mr. Mortimer F. Stapleton, Manchester, Iowa
626
The Poultry Book
When success in producing high-class exhibition females is attained
and a line established that will produce them year after year, the males
from these matings are most valuable as pullet-breeders.
For producing males that will win in strong competition, select fine
large females in shades of color considerably darker than standard color.
These females must be entirely free from any bad color. They must
have fine, close, regular barring, running to the skin. It is quite useless
to hope to produce good males, or in fact good fowls of any kind, from
inferior females. Better by far to give all the time and attention to one
pair or trio of real meritorious specimens than to hope for success that can
never come from inferior stock. After selecting these darker-colored
females, place with them the finest male possible to obtain-—one of perfect
standard color, marking, and under color. The nearer he comes to perfec-
tion in every section the better will be his sons. In all these matings.
the barrings must be of straight, narrow type. Each and every specimen
must conform to all the demands of the standard, as well as to the style
and manner of barring.
GENERAL DEMANDS
In addition to what Mr. McGrew says above, I think it proper to
add that the double-mating system is not confined to the Plymouth Rocks
only, but that this style of mating has been used for years by the most
successful breeders of all the Wyandottes, Leghorns, Minorcas, Brahmas,
Cochins, etc.
The standard weight for Plymouth Rocks is as follows: Cocks,
nine and one-half pounds; cockerels, eight pounds; hens, seven and one-half
pounds; pullets, six and one-half pounds. This answers for all varieties.
Some breeders dote on larger size and claim consequently improved stock,
laying qualities, etc. It is my opinion—and facts have often demonstrated
it—that the nearer standard the better the quality and the truer the shape.
Undersize is a serious defect and so is oversize. An extra pound over is
allowable in most cases, but do not go beyond that. The standard size
for Plymouth Rocks was arranged by breeders who knew at what weight
they were at their best. If we follow this standard we are bound to be
headed right. So if you use the limit of one-half pound under to a pound
over standard you have the right weight and size. Mr. McGrew says,
and I fully agree with him, that "no fowl, of any kind, not true to its

From a photograph by C. F. Ross
BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCK COCK
First prize, New York, 1904. Bred and owned by Millville Poultry Farm, New Jersey
The Plymouth Rocks
629
breed characteristics should be used as a breeder. The first requisite to
be considered in selecting either a male or a female for these matings is to
have present in each specimen a true Plymouth Rock form of the highest
degree. It should always be borne in mind that the male largely influences
color, while the female gives the size and general formation. A breeder
that has a poor comb or deformity of any kind should never be used, and
the strictest attention to proper
color of eye, ear-lobe, beak,
legs, and toes should be given.
By following closely these sug-
gestions and selecting, when
it is possible, specimens that
have been bred in line for
males or females, as the case
may be, for years, success in
producing high-class Barred
Plymouth Rocks should be
attained."

BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS
The whole fraternity of
poultry fanciers thought the
advent of the new white
varieties marked the full tide
of success with fowls; but
when the facts as to new buff
breeds shone upon us, all in-
terested in fancy fowls, to a
greater or less extent, went,
as might be said, color-mad. Even to this day men will argue the
question as to the shade of color, and present as samples of true buff
color specimens ranging from lemon-yellow to snuff-brown, some one
calling each shade the proper color.
It is acknowledged that there have been two original strains of the
Buff Plymouth Rocks the one called the Wilson strain, the other the
Fall River strain. The Wilson strain originated with J. D. Wilson, of
Worcester, New York, from Buff Cochins and Light Brahmas. The Fall
Photograph by courtesy of" New England Homestead"
WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK PULLET
630
The Poultry Book
River strain was produced by R. G. Buffington, Doctor N. B. Aldrich,* and
others, at Fall River, Massachusetts, by crossing Rhode Island Reds and
White Plymouth Rocks; also from
selected Rhode Island Reds that
had fairly good Plymouth Rock
shape and buff color. The Rhode
Island Reds selected for this pur-
pose had more or less Plymouth
Rock blood in their veins.

These early productions had
black tails, dark flights, almost
red body color, and very red wing
bows. The Wilson strain had the
better size and color; the Fall
River strain better form. From
the union of the two those in-
terested have produced a fowl
that has the true breed charac-
teristics, also good size and color.
Few varieties have advanced so
fast as these in real quality of
both form and feather. It is not
unusual to see male birds of true
color through and through, while in
females true color is so common as to be practically established; yet in
some cases the color is thin and washy and in others too deep or too red.
But even with these faults their handlers have shown great skill in bring-
ing them to their present condition in so few years, notwithstanding an
undercurrent of hereditary forces tending toward many shapes and colors
which came through their original make-up.
The first exhibit of this variety was made by Mr. Buffington in
December, 1890. Both he and Doctor Aldrich exhibited at Providence.
Mr. Buffington entered his birds as Buff Plymouth Rocks, while Doctor
"PHILLA 1."
From a photograph
PRIZE PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN
-AMERICAN TYPE
Bred by Mr. C. H Latham
*In a recent letter Doctor Aldrich says: "I was the first to exhibit Rhode Island
Reds. I showed them in New York in 1891 or 1892, the same year that Buff Wyandottes
and Buff Plymouth Rocks were first seen at that show. R. G. Buffington and myself made
the exhibit; but I showed also the Rhode Island Reds in 'the any other variety' class."
-EDITOR.
The Plymouth Rocks
631
Aldrich named his exhibit Golden Buffs, under which name they attracted
very little attention. Those known as Buff Plymouth Rocks were the
center of a new excitement. The Wilson strain was exhibited for the
first time as Buff Plymouth Rocks in 1892, but the first exhibit made by
Mr. Wilson himself was at the World's Fair, 1893. Ever since they have
held a prominent position at the shows.
It cannot be too strongly emphasized that all Plymouth Rocks must
have the same shape, form, and breed characteristics. That the shape
makes the breed is ever true, while color is simply the emblem of the
variety. In mating these fowls for producing the highest-class specimens,
first of all select good size, vigor, and Plymouth Rock shape, always
looking well to the quality of comb, eyes, wattles, ear-lobes, beak, shanks,
and feet. In addition, have good, even color as described below.
out.
The standard calls for one even shade of true golden buff through-
This is a most simple proposition, that tells us in the plainest possible
language that all buff fowls must be a true buff of golden hue; not lemon-
buff nor reddish-buff; neither shall it be reddish-brown nor snuff-brown,
but true and simple "golden buff" which approaches a true-colored
chamois-skin or one of our American (yellow) gold coins.
The most constant defects in the buff color are the red that comes
on the wing bow, the black that comes on the tail and wings, and the
white that comes in the tail, wings, and under color. Some one of these
is always present. A surplus of black seems to drive the others out.
Years of experience have taught those who have bred buff fowls that it
is a good plan to confine the black to the tail feathers and to hold just a
little of it hidden away in the main tail plumage. This can be done,
and it helps to fortify against the white. All specimens having the red
wing bows should be discarded and used simply as market poultry.
By all means keep your Plymouth Rocks up in size. Have them
look their character. A small-looking specimen which is so fat as to
pass muster underweight demands is simply a heavyweight small bird.
Breed them to good size. Have them look to be full-sized Plymouth
Rocks. It is the good, reasonable size that is needed-not overfat,
so as to weigh in at standard weights. Pay attention to all head portions,
for they count largely for or against the specimen. All fowls should have
good, bright, rich bay-colored eyes. Nothing detracts more from their
beauty than poor shape or poor color of eyes. Stamp out the tendency to
632
The Poultry Book
feathers on shanks or between the toes. Destroy these, no matter if
they excel in color and shape, by sending all that show the slightest
tendency to this defect to the poultry market.
The Rhode Island cross still shows its presence by marking some of
the hackle feathers with black. Watch for this continually and get
rid of it. Keep clear of all unevenness in color, and do not allow the
color to run thin and light in shade; at the same time avoid the deep
dark shades that properly belong to the Rhode Island Reds. Select
the true-shaped, true-colored specimens and hold to them and breed
for better results, thus building true and well as the stock advances closer
and closer to the line of perfection.
Formerly it was supposed that the mating of extremes in color would
result in a correct shade of buff, but breeders have found it does not do
to mate deep-red-colored birds with lemon-buffs. The result has been
mossy-colored offspring, particularly so on wing bows and breast.
With buff fowls the greatest attention must be paid to the color of
the male. Good colored chicks cannot be produced from light, thin-
colored males any sooner than from those that are deep red. The color
of the males to be used in breeding should be very true and even; ticking
should be avoided. In shade it must be the breeder's ideal, the color that
he thinks most closely approaches that called for by the standard. The
under color should be a shade or two lighter than the surface, but should
extend well down to the skin. These properties will result in a solid,
true surface color, and with proper mating good colored chicks will be
produced. A good test to know if the surface of the male is even is to
hold the bird in such a position that the hackle and saddle feathers will
come together. By doing this any difference in the shade can be easily
detected.
After selecting a male with proper shade, even in color, allowing for
the glossy finish of neck, back, saddle, and wings, which must be of same
shade, mate him with the truest-colored female it is possible to obtain.
The females should range in color from a shade lighter to the exact shade
of color in the male's breast. Be careful and avoid breeding from females
with the lacing often found in strains where much red-buff blood has been
used. Where this fault is present true buff is a long way ahead.
The Plymouth Rocks
633
WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS AND THEIR ORIGIN
The White Plymouth Rocks are (so-called) sports from the Barred
variety. There are two causes found for such a variation in the formation
of the breed-first, the Black Java was part of the original foundation
stock, and all solid black fowls are apt to occasionally throw white chicks;
and, second, the cross of the white Asiatic fowl, for the purpose of enlarging
the size, clearing the plumage, and increasing the size of their eggs, might
be expected to occasionally crop out in the offspring. It is not surprising,
therefore, that white fowls have been occasionally produced; the greatest
surprise in their appearance is their good Plymouth Rock form.
About 1875 or 1876 Oscar F. Frost, of Monmouth, Maine, had hatched
from eggs laid by Barred Plymouth Rocks some white chicks that grew
to be good Plymouth Rocks in shape, but white in color. These are said
to have been the first that
were ever mentioned up to
that time as having made an
appearance. As soon as it
was admitted that such was
the case, others through the
country claimed to have had
the same experience in their
flocks. In almost every case
they seemed to come from
either the Essex or the Drake
strain of birds. The origi-
nator of what was known
as the Essex strain of Barred
Plymouth Rocks claims to
have crossed into his flock
a fowl called the White
Birmingham. It is claimed
by some that this is the true
reason for this strain pro-
ducing white fowls. There
was considerable activity in an effort by those who disliked the idea of
allowing a white fowl to be called a Plymouth Rock to have them named

"GLORIA II."
From a photograph
PRIZE PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN-AMERI-
CAN TYPE
Bred by Mr. C. H. Latham
634
The Poultry Book
Birminghams, but the satisfactory establishment of their descent from the
Plymouth Rocks, the evidence that they reproduced their qualities, and
the presence of as good form as could be shown in the Barred variety
secured to them their right to the family name.
When we speak of this variety as a sport from the Barred Rocks,
"VULCAN."
From a photograph
COCKEREL-AMERICAN
PLYMOUTH ROCK
TYPE
Bred by Mr. C. H. Latham
we mean that eggs laid
by the Barred variety
-produced these white
specimens, and that this
was simply the reappear-
ance of ancestral charac-
ters through the action of
well-known laws of
heredity. It is asserted
that it is not an unusual
occurrence for some lots
of Barred Plymouth Rocks
to produce solid or almost
solid black fowls. This
also might be expected,
since there were black as
well as white breeds used
for foundation stock.
When solid black fowls
produce pure white off-
spring these are called
Albinos. This is looked

upon as a weakness in
color of the parent birds.
But when any made breed
shows a tendency to "throw back" to any one of its ancestors it is
called a reversionary tendency, or the going back to an ancestor. In this
case the white specimen took the color of one of its ancestors and held
to the shape of its immediate family.
We must not have the impression
had good clear color, for they had not.
in mating to get them started toward
that the first of these white sports
It took several years of great care
breeding true. This, however, is

T
Then
Dd
Pr
SI
CROSS OF OLD SUSSEX GAME COCK AND LINCOLNSHIRE BUFF HEN
The Plymouth Rocks
637
not remarkable, since our very oldest known breeds will not breed abso-
lutely true at all times. A new variety could not be expected to do better
than those which have been carefully selected for many years. As the
result of patience, skill, and good judgment we now have the White Plym-
outh Rock, which is of as good form as can be found in any Plymouth
Rock variety. Their color is pure white, with beaks, shanks, and feet of
beautiful orange-yellow, giving the combination of color so popular in this
country.
As stated before, all Plymouth Rocks, no matter of what variety
color they may be, must have the same shape. There is but the one true
Plymouth Rock shape. An effort has been made to state plainly in previous
pages just what this should be, and the first and most essential require-
ment is that all specimens of the white variety that are used for breeding
shall be most perfect in Plymouth Rock shape. As there are but two
conditions of quality to be considered-good shape and pure color-it
is of the greatest importance to have them both as near to perfection as
possible. Fine large specimens of most perfect Plymouth Rock shape
which are pure white in color and whose head, comb, and eyes are right up
to standard demands are the only kind worth consideration for breeding
purposes. With these they must also have a good, richly colored, yellow
beak, shanks, and feet. It is simply folly to hope to produce good speci-
mens from under-sized, ill-shaped, poor-colored specimens. To succeed
it is necessary to have good stock.
The pure white plumage of a fowl is quite as difficult to obtain in
perfection as any of the variety colors; yellowish or creamy tints, also
black specks, will show in the feathers of the very best strains. Often
when the surface plumage appears white the under color will show the
creamy tint. This discoloration is often prevalent in the quills of the
wings and tail feathers, also in the back just in front of the tail. As before
stated, in shape they are a counterpart of the Barred variety; size and
weight should be the same; in color they should be pure white-not creamy
white, but chalk-white. Every feather should have special attention in
your breeders if you wish to improve color. In addition to the white
plumage, they should have clear yellow legs and bright bay eyes. These
are two characteristics hard to get in a white fowl, but they are of vital
importance. The idea that any one can breed any white variety to
standard requirements is radically wrong. It takes the same degree
638
The Poultry Book
of skill and patience to breed good white fowls successfully as is required
for those of parti-color.
THE PEA-COMBED VARIETY
One of the results of the many additions of new blood used for im-
proving the Barred Plymouth Rock is a barred fowl with the Pea or Brahma
comb. Such specimens came from true Plymouth Rock matings and
were fostered by several who believed the style of comb to be of advan-
tage. As to their origin, the words of H. S. Babcock, who, more than
any other person, should have the credit of their origin, are quoted. He
writes as follows: "In searching for its origin the writer has received
hundreds of letters showing that in various flocks, at sundry times and in
divers places, Pea-combed chickens have appeared, the parents being
Single-combed thoroughbred Plymouth Rocks. These fowls were so kept
that a cross was impossible, in some cases being the only variety upon the
place or in the immediate vicinity. The testimony was simply over-
whelming in favor of the assertion that the Pea-combed birds were just
as pure in blood as the Single-combed ones, and hence they were regarded
as a 'sport' of the Single-combed Plymouth Rocks. A 'sport' they have
been called, and perhaps justly, though there appears a possibility of con-
sidering them a reversion, for it appears from considerable testimony
that the Single-combed Barred Plymouth Rocks had in their veins a
decidedly mixed blood.
"For example, I. K. Felch declared in an article written about the
time the Pea-combed Barred Plymouth Rock was admitted to the standard
that a certain breeder of Single-combed Barred Plymouth Rocks, acting
upon his advice, had bred into his strain the blood of the Light Brahma,
and that when the Light Brahma blood had been reduced to one-eighth
the resulting birds were winners. Again, a prominent breeder of Barred
Plymouth Rocks told the writer that he had personally crossed into the
original Essex strain a Black-red Pit Game, in order to give more vivacity
to the fowls, and then had bred out the strictly Game characteristics.
It was also learned that another prominent early strain had in its compo-
sition the blood of the Dark Brahma, and it is well known that the Black
Java used in the making of the original Plymouth Rocks was an Asiatic
fowl, and all Asiatic fowls have a tendency to produce pea combs. Inas-
much as the Brahmas, Light and Dark, are pea-combed fowls, and as Pit
The Plymouth Rocks
639
Games produce all manner of combs-single, rose, nub, strawberry, and
pea-and as all Asiatics have a tendency toward the production of the
pea comb, it is possible
that the comb upon the
Plymouth Rock is due
not to sporting, which
means the production of
an entirely new character-
one not possessed by any
ancestor-but to reversion,
in this instance affecting
the comb only of the fowls.
But to one or the other
cause (either to sporting
or reversion) the pea comb
of the Plymouth Rock must
be referred, for no imme-
diate cross for its produc-
tion was ever made. The
Pea-combed Plymouth
Rock is as pure in blood
as its single-combed
ancestor; it is a Plymouth
Rock, and nothing else."
In breeding it presents exactly the same problem that the single-
combed varieties present-careful mating for color and the preservation
of the true Plymouth Rock type. In the Parred birds the color problem
is a difficult one, but not beyond the skill of a good breeder. In this
variety the color demand was not forced by competition to the same high
limit. For this reason good show specimens were produced from the
single-mating system. If still popular at this time, it would be neces-
sary to use the other system to keep to the present demand. This variety
never became popular as a fancy fowl, but was quite extensively kept
for eggs and dressed-poultry purposes, until finally it was admitted that
they were far better calculated for utility than for exhibition. This con-
dition caused them to be dropped from the list of standard fowls, and at
the present time they are seldom seen outside the confines of poultry

From a thotograph
FIRST-PRIZE PLYMOUTH ROCK
PULLET AMERICAN TYPE
Owned by Mr. C. H. Latham, Lancaster, Massachusetts
"DOLLY MADISON
59
640
The Poultry Book
farms, where they are much valued for their continual egg yield and
quick growth for broilers and market poultry.
FIRST IMPORTATIONS INTO ENGLAND
Mr. Weir says that James Long was the first to import the Plymouth
Rocks into England, somewhere about 1870. He had one pen-a cock
and two hens, or pullets. Mr. Weir went to see them and made a very
careful pencil sketch of the cock. He describes them as follows:
"They were stout-made, hardy-looking birds, and all showed evident
signs of Shanghai cross, though much more alert and upstanding." After
that there was another importation or two, and some were exhibited at
Birmingham. Mr. Weir says: "As is usual with anything new, they
received quite their warranted mead of praise, and perhaps a little more.
They were said to be essentially the farmer's fowl, and as such were kept
in many of the Sussex and
Surrey homesteads; they
fully justified what had
been said of them as re-
quiring careful breeding to
bring them to perfection.
Where this was done by
the fancier uniformity in
color and shape was the
result; but when left to
themselves to breed as
they may the outcome was
anything but gratifying.

"When these only were
kept and let run in the
farmyards the variation
was peculiar, considering
what has been said of their
From a photograph origin. I have seen,
without any other admix-
ture of breed, chickens
that have been black and with whitish shanks instead of yellow,
some black with black shanks, and these slightly feathered; in a
"PHILLA II."
PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN-AMERICAN TYPE
Bred by Mr. C. H. Latham
The Plymouth Rocks
641
few the plumage was a sooty blue in color, others dark barred on
a nearly white ground, and some cuckoo-colored with yellow shanks,
and very many
with white shanks
with occasionally
five toes. This
being so, which or
what was the origin
of the present-day
Barred Plymouth
Rock? Doctor
Bennett said his
had Dorking blood
in them, but then
it is said his breed
was extinct, and
the present is a
cross-breed between
the Dominique and
the Java. If so,
where does the oc-
casional fifth toe
and the white
shank come from?

تی است
S
From a drawing by Sewell. By kind permission
PLYMOUTH ROCK
not so
At one small farm
in Sussex the breed
was represented by a number of cuckoo-colored fowis, all with four
toes, and nearly all with fairly white shanks and feet-
purely white, of course, as the true old Kent, Sussex, and Surrey
fowls, or but rarely so, and with proper care and selection they might
have been greatly improved in a few generations.
"Why should there not be black Rocks, brown Rocks, white or any
other color? A breed of fowls is not constituted by its color only, though
a strain may be. A friend of mine had a flock of black Rocks, and hand-
some, useful birds they were. As far as shape goes, irrespective of comb,
I see but little difference between a good Plymouth Rock and what is
called the Wyandotte. I have seen white of both, and the difference was
First prize pullet, Boston, 1900 (showing the fine American type)
642
The Poultry Book
scarcely apparent; it is indeed small. The Barred 'Plymouth Rock'
varies, and has varied very much, in shape, markings, and carriage, both
now and from its first
introduction. This is
due chiefly to the fancy
not only of some
breeders, but also that
of the judge- some
liking dark lines on a
nearly white ground,
others blue markings on
a light or light gray.
At a farmyard near
Worthing, in 1896,
there were some very
handsome in feather,
the ground being nearly
a clear white and the
marking approaching
black, more like to that
of the silver-penciled
Hamburg. These were
acidentally bred, and I
questioned myself as to
whether I would buy
and try to perpetuate
the variety, but con-
ciuded not, and the next time I went that way they had passed to
the higgler. Once only have I seen amid a flock of grays a fawn-
colored cuckoo varied sport. In my own opinion and judging from
its sports, the Plymouth Rock is the old American Dominique crossed
in with the Shanghai and the Dorking. It is not to be supposed
that such men as Doctor Bennett and G. P. Burnham, after starting
it as a breed, should allow it to die out and become extinct, nor
does it appear likely; and the almost universal approval that it at once
had and continues to receive appears to me to contradict any such asser-
tion, and the more particularly so when in Doctor Bennett's book it was

From a photograph
PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN-AMERICAN TYPE
Bred, owned, and exhibited by Mr. C. H. Latham
"SUPERBA."
The Plymouth Rocks
643
said that it was the intention to gain uniformity of color and form,
etc. Therefore to me the Java cross as the origin has always ap-
peared to be at least doubtful, though it is just possible it was
one source, with other breed influences added afterward.
Both in America, England, and elsewhere it is now a well-
recognized and very useful breed, and takes a foremost rank with
that class of fowl; but to ask us to say that it is equal in any
way to our Dorkings as table fowls and some others as layers
is simply asking that which cannot be conceded, at least here in
England, though in America, where a yellow-skinned fowl is pre-
ferred, it might, and even perhaps does, take precedence over most
other of the newer breeds, though now closely pressed by the
Wyandotte, and possibly surpassed. If the reader will study the

From a photograph
"VULCAN I "
PLYMOUTH ROCK-AMERICAN TYPE
First prize winner of $150 challenge cup at Boston, 1902. Bred, owned, and exhibited by Mr. C. H. Latham,
Lancaster, Massachusetts
644
The Poultry Book

VULCAN II."
From a photograph
-AMERICAN
PRIZE PLYMOUTH ROCK COCK-
TYPE
Bred by Mr. C. H. Latham
first cock imported to England, he will observe a not-very-far-away
analogy to the first Dark Brahma sent to this country by G. P.
Burnham, with the exception of the comb, and discarding the color
and the clean shanks. Years ago I found I was by no means alone
in this observation.
"One peculiarity that may be noticed in the true variety of Plymouth
Rock is the depth of rich crimson color that the comb and wattles obtain.
There is no other fowl like it. There is a remarkable difference between
it and our Scotch Grays and Cuckoo Dorkings, with which no doubt from
time to time it has been interbred. Here it may be added that so good
is it of its class that it is likely to hold and receive the appreciation of the
ordinary poultry keeper as a generally useful all-round fowl, though it is
The Plymouth Rocks
645
more than possible that it will be pushed from the high position it has
attained by the self-colored and the Silver Wyandotte; a point in favor
of the Plymouth Rock, with some persons, over the Wyandotte being
the single comb, while with others the flat rose comb of the latter is con-
sidered to have a neater and more finished appearance. However that
may be, one thing is certain-the Barred Plymouth Rock has a deservedly
strong hold on the American fancy, and also that of the small rough-and-
ready poultryman. As an egg machine the Plymouth Rock is considered
one of the best, while for early chickens and broilers it has in America
few equals, if any. And even in England it is much to be preferred to
many of the still newer varieties the Cornish Indian, for instance-it
being a far better layer and more easy to fatten than this vastly overrated
fowl."
then
کروہات
1891
Tevr
رارداد
-


By permission of the "Reliable Poultry Journal'
ROCK HEN- -AMERICAN
Owned by Mr. C. H. Welles, Stratford, Conn.
PLYMOUTH
—
TYPE
THE JERSEY BLUES
MONG the breeds allied to the Plymouth Rocks may be
mentioned the Jersey Blues* and the Rhode Island Reds.
The Jersey Blues are mentioned as among the very
earliest productions of American fowls. They were named
after the State of New Jersey, in which they originated, and
became popular on account of their prolific egg yield. Early records tell us
that they are the result of a cross between the Great Malay and some one of
our other breeds (name unknown), and that the product was a rather long-
legged fowl, neither valued as an egg-producer nor as a good market fowl.
No doubt this original cross from the Malay had the long legs and inferior
egg capacity, both of which belong to the Malay family. Why such a cross
should be inferior as table poultry can only be accounted for on the ground

* No special account of the Jersey Blues was given in the English edition of this
work. This account of them is taken, by permission, largely from T. F. McGrew's bulletin
on "American Breeds of Fowls."--EDITOR.
647
648
The Poultry Book
of poor care or perhaps a Spanish cross. The Great Malay of early days
did not have the beautiful black-red colors of the present, nor were they
the equal in many ways of our present type. As described in their advent,

LANGSHAN COCKEREL
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
the Jersey Blues were large-sized, long-legged fowls, of a bluish cast in
plumage, weighing, when full grown, from twelve to sixteen pounds per
pair. All these facts point to a Malay crossed with either Black Spanish
or Java.
Blue fowls, from all time, have come as the result of many crosses.
Dark Brahmas crossed with Black Spanish, Minorca crosses, and pure
white and pure black fowls-all have produced fowls having blue color
in plumage. The entire make-up of the Jersey Blue is similar to that
of the Andalusian, which is of Spanish origin, and no doubt the result
of crossing a Black and White Spanish fowl, or perhaps two black fowls
of different breeds, as it is a well-established fact that either cross may
produce a blue specimen. The present form and color of the Jersey
Blue would rather incline one to believe that they are the result of an
Asiatic-Java cross. The absence of the white ear-lobe shuts out the proba-
bility of a Spanish cross, while their large, heavy bodies and under formation
resemble the Asiatic family. They have dark eyes, single combs, red
ear-lobes, and smooth legs. The color of body plumage of the male is slaty
The Jersey Blues
649
blue, each feather being laced about the edge with a darker color; top
plumage, including neck, back, saddle, and wings, a metallic blue-black;
main tail feathers should be blue or bluish-black; beak, legs, and toes of
both male and female dark or slate color.
The female should be slaty blue in color all over, each feather being
laced around the edge with a darker shade (color and lacing like that, of
the Andalusian); the neck somewhat darker than body color; they are
of good size, deep and full in breast and body; not long in legs, rather
active. They produce an average number of eggs that are of a brown
color (indicating that they are not of Spanish origin), medium in size,
good rich flavor. In fact, they are the counterpart of the Andalusian
in color and activity, while favoring the Brahma in size and shape of
body. Even at this late day they show an inclination occasionally to
produce chicks with some feathers on their shanks, suggesting their ancestry.
The Jersey Blue, like the Pea-combed Plymouth Rock, was formerly
allowed a place in our standard, but so little attention was paid to its
improvement that it was thought best to withdraw it from a position
among those called standard fowls and allow it to occupy the place which
it so long filled among the utility fowls.

Kic
CHICKS IN REPOSE
Del

Harrina Weir
902
WHITE-LACED RED WYANDOTTE COCK AND HEN.
The property of DR. PRIDHAM, Wittersham, Kent.
Aside from their combs, these fowls are utterly without Wyandotte characteristics. Nothing like them has ever been
seen in this country. The nearest approach to them was a pair of Buff Laced Wyandottes, exhibited by Mr. Keller at the
Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo. Such a back and hackle as shown in the male, the long back and snaky head of the
female, would not be tolerated by an American breeder. If these represent the English type of Wyandotte, we do not wonder
that Mr. Weir devoted so little space to them in his recent book. Compare these birds with the American ideals illustrated in
the following pages.-EDITOR.
A. C. FOWLER,
THE WYANDOTTES *
T. E. ORR, PENNSYLVANIA
66
'A dozen cities claimed old Homer, dead,
Through which the living Homer begged his daily bread."

T requires some hardihood to attack a subject on which
so much has been written, yet on which there has been,
and continues to be, so much diversity of opinion.
We
can scarcely hope to add much that is new. If we can
condense and classify the much that has been said, and
rearrange the claims that have been made so that the seeker for real in-
formation will find this part of our subject worthy a careful reading, we
shall be satisfied.
Prior to the year 1883, there were no Wyandottes. For a dozen
years before that date, numerous fanciers in various sections of the country
had been at work trying to develop some new variety that might bring
them such fame and such profits as had come to those who had originated
and perfected the Plymouth Rocks. So, when these new birds-the
outcome of their labors-were recognized as worthy of a classification as
a standard variety by the American Poultry Association, their name
was born with them.
To F. A. Houdlette, of Massachusetts, belongs the credit of the name.
The Wyandotte Indians had formerly occupied those portions of New York
and Michigan in which these fowls, or their immediate progenitors, were
* The Wyandottes represent one of the most important breeds of fowls of American
production. Indeed, they might be properly called our most popular breed, when all
varieties are considered. With the exception of the Silver-Penciled Wyandottes, by
E. G. Wyckoff, this entire chapter was written by T. E. Orr, one of the most experienced
Wyandotte breeders in this country. As an expert judge and secretary of the American
Poultry Association, Mr. Orr has had exceptional opportunities for comparing and studying
the various strains of American-bred fowls. He began breeding Wyandottes in his own
yards two years before they were admitted to the Standard. This chapter contains the
most complete account of the Wyandottes that has ever been published. Mr. Weir seems
to have overlooked the importance of the Wyandotte in his recent work. His remarks in
the half-dozen pages devoted to the subject are vague and of no practical value to American
breeders.-EDITOR.
651
652
The Poultry Book
first cultivated. They had flourished there under various names such as
Hambrights, Hambletonians, Eurekas, Excelsiors, Columbians, Seabright
Cochins, Seabright Brahmas, and American Seabrights. Much bitterness
as to the name was manifested among the various fanciers who were urging
their admission to the Standard, and, when Mr. Houdlette proposed the
name Wyandottes, giving the argument above referred to, it seemed like
oil upon the troubled waters, and it was accepted as a happy solution
of the difficulty.
Mr. Houdlette has since admitted to the writer that the personal
love he had for a coasting-vessel of that name formerly owned by his father
had more to do with his choice of the name than had any love he bore for
the Wyandotte Indians. The name seemed both unique and appropriate,
and we hope no further attempts will be made to change it, or even its
spelling, as was attempted and promptly defeated at the famous meeting
of the American Poultry Association in Indianapolis in 1888.
It is said that one's life-history cannot be correctly written until
he has been dead fifty years. Perhaps, then, we are too prompt in attempt-
ing to write something of the early history of Wyandottes, but we do not
hesitate to admit regret that some one did not begin the work thirty
years ago. Had those who were striving to develop a new breed at that
time realized how great would be the ultimate results of their labors, the
most careful records would have been kept of all combinations and top-
crosses of blood that were made. As it is, we have only the recollections
of men now well advanced in years, aided by an occasional fragment from
the correspondence of men who were helping to make something, they
scarcely knew what.
The writer began breeding these birds in 1881-two years before
they were admitted to the Standard, but four years after the first attempt
to have them admitted. He makes no claim of even having had a hand
in originating them, for these birds came to him, from one of the originators,
quite thoroughly perfected in many particulars. In fact, he wishes now to
admit that, after twenty-three years spent in breeding, handling, showing,
and judging them, he can see very few points in shape of body in which
even the best-shaped birds illustrated in this book excelled the male and
four females that constituted his breeding-pen in the year 1882. From
that same breeding-pen all his Silver Wyandottes of to-day have descended,
except that, three years after starting, he introduced into his flock one
The Wyandottes
653

Photograph furnished by Mr. Menges
WHITE WYANDOTTE PULLETS IN WINTER QUARTERS
Owned and bred by C. S. Menges, New York
female from the same breeder from whom he purchased eggs in 1881.
We think, then, that we may safely say that the type of the bird, so far as
shape of body is concerned, was quite definitely fixed in the leading strains
in existence at the time of their admission to the Standard in 1883.
It is true that, at the time of which we speak, there was not a little
diversity of shape and especially of color shown in the birds to be found in
different sections of the country. This was due to the fact that different
men, East and West, had each been doing some experimenting, hoping
to reach a result previously predicted, but definitely announced for the
first time in the proposed Standard, and thus share in the harvest that
was surely coming to those who could show themselves well stocked with
these new favorites. And it was just this recklessness in breeding and
consequent lack of uniformity in result that gave the Wyandottes such
a backset about the years 1886-7 as came near proving their ruin.
But what of their origin? As we have said, the first official attention
given them by the American Poultry Association was at Buffalo in 1877.
Concerning the birds offered at that time, I. K. Felch, who attended that
meeting, wrote just after their admission, in 1883, as follows:
"It was, without doubt, the intention with the first cross to produce
654
The Poultry Book
an improved Cochin Bantam, the cross being a Seabright Bantam cock
with a Cochin hen. When the size proved too large, they were offered
and illustrated as Seabright Cochins. This suggested the cross of Silver-
Spangled Hamburgs with Buff Cochins. These two crosses, mingled with
another cross through a half-Breda and Cochin hen, became the blood-
mixture of the early birds offered to the American Poultry Association as
American Seabrights. Their friends could not agree as to the comb's being
single or double, as it was then expressed, and, the name being so sug-
gestive of an American Bantam, the request was refused and the matter
referred back to a committee."
Concerning that 1877 meeting when they asked for admission, J. Y.
Bicknell, who was secretary of the American Poultry Association from
1877 to 1887, writes:
(6
'The reason they were not admitted was because they were not con-
sidered worthy. Some were breeding one comb and some another.
I hope you will not accept the statement of any one as to a knowledge
of the origin of the Wyandottes, for there is not a living man who knows
when they made their first appearance. No one knew anything then as
to their origin. I know this from a careful and persistent search from
every known source when I was breeding them."
In the American Poultry Journal for January, 1886, Mr. Bicknell says
that birds similar to the Wyandottes were bred in Oneida county, New
York, as early as 1866; that it was Mr. Payne who made the attempt
to have the American Poultry Association recognize them in 1877, but
"failed simply because the specimens offered as samples were pronounced
unworthy of recognition." Mr. Bicknell declares that, as no one knew
the origin of those Oneida County birds in the sixties, so no more was
known as to their origin twenty years later.
Concerning that same 1877 meeting, Joseph Wallace wrote:
"The American Poultry Association acknowledged the promising
merits of the new breed, but objected to the name American Seabright
on the ground that it was suggestive of Bantam. They knew, too, that
several types of the new breed were being cultivated, and that the admirers
of each were desirous of giving new names. Mr. Whittaker was in favor
of rose-combs, and Mr. Kidder strongly pressed the advantages of a pea-
comb. The petition was so far considered that Mr. Payne was appointed
chairman of the committee to settle on a name and standard for the
The Wyandottes
655
breed, but the committee failed to make a report, and the American Sea-
bright had to wait till 1883."
Concerning that same meeting, Mr. Whittaker, under date of April
II, 1904, writes me: "My birds were not represented there. Mr.
Payne, of Binghamton, New York, afterward wrote me, and admitted
that it was a motley lot of birds, no two breeders agreeing on name, combs,
etc. The fact was, they did not have the right blood there. Mr. Payne
sent me some of his birds
afterward, which I found
to be of an entirely differ-
ent makeup from my own,
and they got it in the
neck' on arrival, or as soon
thereafter as possible."
Mr. Felch, in writing of
that meeting, on April 7,
1904, says:
"Whittaker, in 1877,
offered the birds to the Am-
erican Poultry Association
as American Seabrights.
At the same meeting, the
Kidder faction wanted them
accepted with pea-combs
and feather-legs as Eurekas.
The American Poultry As-
sociation refused, and rec-
ommended that the
breeders come together and
agree on some one thing. You can scarcely understand the interest
of the breeders at that time. We sat up until 3 A. M., discussing these
things, and the conclusions of those nearly all-night meetings caused
me to write for the Ferris Publishing Company the text of their first
Wyandotte book. There is no disputing the fact that Ray, Baker, and
Rev. Benson were breeding them as Seabright Cochins; that the first cross
was a large Seabright Bantam cock with a Buff Cochin hen; that this was
subsequently top-crossed by Hamburgs; that Kidder did introduce Dark

From a photograph
SILVER WYANDOTTE COCK-" NORWOOD, JR."
Bred and owned by Henry Steinmesch, Missouri. First prize at three leading
western shows
656
The Poultry Book
Brahma blood and then the Silver-spangled Hamburg male. All this
came out at that Buffalo meeting in 1877. I have Ray's letters dated
1871, with an indorsement on the back in 1886 by A. S. Baker, that show
that the first cross was as early as 1864 to 1866. Ray was one of the two
or three breeding these birds in 1867, but the fact that he was hunting
for crosses to breed to his shows that there were others at it, too. Between
1877 and 1883 there was another top-cross, and the blood of the French
Breda and the Hamburg was added-also light-colored specimens of the
Dark Brahma. Ray, Baker, and Benson were the starters, but these
other crosses were added before they went into the Standard in 1883."
We have quoted from the writings of these four men, Messrs. Felch,
Bicknell, Wallace, and Whittaker, because all were interested in poultry
progress at the time this new variety came officially to the front, namely,
in 1877. They agree in two or three particulars worth rehearsing:
First. That the foundations for the Wyandottes of 1883 were laid
back in the seventies-more probably as far back as the close of the Civil
War.
Second. That several men were interested in reaching the first
object of attainment—a bird of considerable uniformity, known from
1871 to 1875, and perhaps both earlier and later, by the name of Seabright
Cochins. We have no such a variety in modern poultry history. Its
sole purpose seems to have been a stepping-stone to something else. Of
course, it was a bird with feathered shanks.
Third. That aside from the three, Ray, Baker, and Benson-who
did most to develop those so-called Seabright Cochins-there were others
in both New York and Michigan who had been doing some experimenting
on their own account, using several varieties of blood for top-crossing;
and that they were sufficiently interested in the fate of their favorites to
send them to that meeting of the American Poultry Association at Buffalo
in 1877, and to come with them and take a hand in arguing them through,
if possible.
Fourth. That, after a semi-official recognition of the breed in 1877,
there was great activity on the part of the fanciers to carry out the sug-
gestion made by "the powers" that breeders get together, agreeing on a
type as well as on a name.
Let us now call to the witness-stand a man who has, in the past thirty
years, been as close an observer of poultry progress and as extensive and
The Wyandottes
657
correct a writer upon poultry history as any other living American-T. F.
McGrew, of New York City. Mr. McGrew wrote for our National Govern-
ment in 1901 a bulletin
on the American
breeds of fowls that
was made a part of
the Eighteenth Annual
Report of the Bureau
of Animal Husbandry
for that year. Speak-
ing of the origin of
Wyandottes, Mr.
McGrew said:

"The Wyandotte
was for years, before
it reached its present
perfected state,
without a name. Its
presence was far from
attractive, and its
average quality was
hardly the equal of
the common barnyard
fowl. So far as the
writer remembers, the
first Wyandottes were
called Seabright
Cochins.' The result
of investigation was
convincing that the Seabright Cochin was the product of the union of a
Seabright Bantam and a yellow hen, which might have been a Cochin.
While there was little attention paid to them prior to 1870, immediately
after that year they began to attract some public notice, and mention
was made of them in a few of the stock papers of New York State.
"A later investigation has shown that several parties, in the same
section of the country, made an effort to produce the Seabright Cochin
by crossing the Seabright with the Cochin. This fact is known from letters
Photograph by Prof. W. G. Johnson
SILVER-LACED WYANDOTTE
Prize-winner, New York, 1902
658
The Poultry Book
which passed between those who made the experiment and who inter-
changed stock, the letters having been presented for publication. The
result of the first accidental cross no doubt prompted others to try the
experiment. Consequently, the original foundation of what are now
called Wyandottes came as an accidental product of an unusual union.
"The theory of their origin, as accepted by those claiming to be
authority, is as follows: A John P. Ray, of New York, originated a rose-
comb fowl by a cross of a Seabright Bantam male and a yellow
'Chittagong,' which he named Seabright Cochins.
"Others who became interested (among whom were the Rev. A. S.
Baker and Mr. Benson) produced the same kind of fowl. These three
gentlemen became so interested with their newly formed fowls that one
of them had them illustrated in the agricultural press during 1872. As a
result of the publication of such illustrations, these fowls were spread
over the country into several States, and were advertised in the columns
of poultry journals soon after. Thus, by unguided crosses, was the founda-
tion of this wonderful breed begun. Some carefully planned crosses soon
followed, and the able breeder began the labor of molding them into a
set type, or form, and of clothing them in a plumage that should be dis-
tinctly laced about the edge.
"When the Wyandottes were admitted as a breed to a position among
our standard-bred fowls, they had reached a form and color which were
quite distinctive. The males favored the Dark Brahma in form and
color, the body-color being quite like a well-splashed Dark Brahma. They
had smooth legs of a smoky-yellow shade, and the rose-comb. The females,
in form, favored our present Silver-spangled Hamburg females. In
color and markings they were quite crude. Some had grayish-white
breasts and backs, while others had breasts of white ticked with a darker
color and backs mossed with the gray of the Dark Brahma.
“A better description would be that they resembled half-sized Dark
Brahmas of very inferior color and having Hamburg combs and smooth
shanks. In many cases, the breast-feathers of the male were black, with
a white stripe through the center a little larger than the shaft of the feather.
The back color of the male was mixed black and brown, while, in the female,
it was mossed quite like the marking of a very inferior Dark Brahma.
Such was the original Wyandotte of this now much-valued breed.
“There was an increasing demand for Wyandottes throughout the
The Wyandottes
659
United States. Anything that resembled their description was sent
forth to fill the demand, and much inferior stock was spread about under
the name of Wyandotte. The result of such distribution was of temporary
injury to the advancement of the breed. Then came the good results
obtained by the skillful handling by expert breeders, and the several
varieties of Wyandottes were placed in their present well-deserved
position.
33
In the above paragraphs, Mr. McGrew has given a very accurate state-
ment as to the condition and state of progress made by the fanciers of
this variety at the time the writer became interested in them as American
Seabrights, in the spring of 1881. He reinforces the records of the four
men quoted before him,
and certainly gives as
much credit to Mr. Ray
and his coadjutors as
do any of them.
In a statement pub-
lished in March, 1904,
Mr. Ray denied that he
ever owned a Seabright
Bantam male, that he
ever saw a Yellow Chit-
tagong, or that he ever
named his birds Sea-
bright Cochins. He al-
most utterly eliminates
the Rev. A. S. Baker and
the Rev. Benson from
the case, although he ad-
mits having tried to pro-
cure a Silver Seabright
from each of them. He
says, "These men kept
a few Silver Sea-
brights (not Bantams,
but a fowl as large as a Wyandotte), while mine carried a Chittagong cross.
Mr. Ray brands the claim that there is either Hamburg or Dark Brahma

2
From a photograph
SILVER WYANDOTTE PULLET
Owned by A. C. Le Duc, Illinois. First at Chicago, 1903
660
The Poultry Book
blood in the Wyandotte as "a flight of the imagination." He proceeds
to support his statement that there could not have been either of
these lines of blood used in the make-up, else "we should have been
troubled with blue legs and feathered hocks." He denies that he ever saw
either of these. We predict that Mr. McGrew will quickly prove that
Mr. Ray knows but little about Wyandottes, as all old-time fanciers know
that these defects, with white ear-lobes and Hamburg lacing, were the
four features hardest to eliminate.
Mr. Ray gives the following as the origin of the Wyandotte:
"In the spring of 1870, we obtained a setting of eggs from the late
Edward Bronson, of New York, later of Kansas. His fowls were the first
cross between the Silver Seabrights and the Black and Yellow Chittagong.
The following fall we purchased Mr. Bronson's best pair—our selection
from his breeding-birds. This blood we bred together for two years. Our
next move was to select a pair, our choice from the flock of pure Silver
Seabrights owned by my friend of many years, the late H. M. Doubleday, of
New York. Mr. Doubleday is entitled to the credit of bringing the Silver
Seabrights to western New York. With this new cross injected into my
blood line, the birds carried three-fourths of the Silver Seabright blood
and one-fourth of the Chittagong, and I do not know of any other blood's
being crossed with the breed down to date.
"Mr. Doubleday says, in his letter, the Chittagongs were essentially
the Golden Wyandottes of to-day.
"My first birds were silver-laced and gold-laced, clean-legged and
feather-legged, and single-combed and rose-combed. I selected for breed-
ing-stock the silver-laced, rose-combed ones, and, for some little time,
those with feathers on the leg; these, as a rule, were the best birds as to
shape and color. Later, we bred for clean legs altogether."
So, here we have the modesty wiped away from the face of the man
who, away back in the early seventies, originated not only the Silver
Wyandottes, but the Goldens, too. And also the Whites! Notice this
quotation:
"Then, again, with such a mixture of blood as that named by
Mr. McGrew, would White Wyandottes have cropped out as sports?
We had them about 1875.'
""
As illustrating Mr. Ray's desire to exterminate everybody else who
had a share in the work, notice his reference to "the late L. Whittaker."

CONT
Photograph by courtesy of "New England Homestead"
GOOD ALL-ROUND SILVER WYANDOTTE
Bred and owned by J. C. Jodrey, Massachusetts
The Wyandottes
663
Mr. Whittaker is still living and an active man, although no longer a
breeder of Wyandottes. In addition to those already quoted, we shall
later make some further extracts from recent letters received from
Mr. Whittaker. He is a modest man, and has never made claim to the
honors that really belong to him in the early development of the
Wyandotte.
Here are some of Mr. Whittaker's letters which Mr. Ray publishes
and comments upon in the belief that they establish him in a position
utterly unassailable. He says:
"No such crosses as named (by Mr. McGrew) were made by breeders
in this section who had these birds coming from my flock; and a sufficient
number of fowls and eggs were shipped north, south, east, and west to
give the breed wide dispersal, while others at an early date, like the Rev.
Forsythe, George F. Hull, Barnard Brothers, and the late L. Whittaker,
of Michigan, were not idle. The last-named gentleman was a very suc-
cessful breeder, and established a strain of great value that was widely
known as the Whittaker strain, and some breeders claim to have the
strain to-day, while not a few have given him credit for originating the
breed. The following letters, the originals of which lie in my desk, will
not only tell where and when he got his foundation-stock, but will also
show what were his ideas as to what type of bird should be bred. I can
also furnish communications from persons in New England who obtained
stock in my section, discussing points and type to which the fowl should
be bred."
The following letters were addressed to Mr. Ray by Mr. Whittaker:
Dear Sir: Mr. B. P. Huff informs me that you have some nice fowls
called Seabright Cochins. Will you please inform me in regard to their
origin? Are they bred to feather and points? Also, what will you send
me setting of eggs for?
Yours truly,
April 19, 1873.
L. WHITTAKER.
Dear Sir: Your favor came duly to hand. Please find $6.50 inclosed
for the cockerel mentioned by you. I have no electrotype at present
that I could send you. Have written to have some made at once. They
cost me $2.50 each in Chicago. Don't know but they are cheating a little.
Am not much acquainted with this kind of work. If you want one, send
664
The Poultry Book
a first-class pullet with the cock. A young one would do, and I will send
you one when they come to hand. The cut cost $25, and represents my
idea of the birds, or what I thought of breeding to. Think they could be
bred with feathered legs easily, and, if that is your idea, will endeavor to
breed in same direction. I would like to see the cocks with clear hackle
and saddle-feathers, with rather upright tails well fanned out; sickle
feathers black and well curved. Think the hens should have rather longer
legs; in fact, would like to have them just the shape of the cut. I give
you my ideas in regard to them, and hope you will do the same to me
fully, so that we may breed in unison. Don't you think it advisable to
get them in Standard this winter when it is revived by the convention?
Please ship the birds in as light rack as possible and be secure.
Very respectfully yours,
L. WHITTAKER.
December 10, 1874.
Dear Sir: The birds came safely to hand on the 21st.
I am very
much pleased with them, especially the pullet. The cock has a fine head,
neck and breast, as far as shape is concerned, but my idea is to breed this
variety with clear-striped hackle- and saddle-feathers, as I think it would
improve the looks of the cocks amazingly. I have a young cock that has
a comb the same as this one, but it is not more than two-thirds as large,
not so large wattles, and is nearly as clear in hackle as the pullet you sent;
does not show any of the yellow or straw color, and has a clean, bright
leg, and I must say he suits me better than those with leg-feathering. I
send you copy of Poultry Record, containing my description. Would have
sent you one before, but I had to send to publishers for this. When I
get more leisure, will try to draw up standard and send you for amend-
ments. In the meantime, would like to have you give me the name of sire
and dam of the pair; also sire and dam of pair your brother sent me last
year.
I shall be able to send you electrotype in a few days.
Would be glad to hear from you any time, and especially in regard to your
ideas of the origin of this variety. I believe they are bound to be one of the
leading birds in a short time.
Very truly yours,
December 24, 1874.
L. WHITTAKER.
A
T
Dear Sir: Can you send me from three to ten good Seabright Cochin
hens or pullets (not more than two years old)? Something that will
The Wyandottes
665
breed well-marked birds, mated with the cockerel you sent me.
cannot supply me, please tell me where you think I could get them.
answer by return mail and oblige, yours, etc.,
April 2, 1875.
L. WHITTAKER.
If you
Please
Dear Sir: Not having very good luck in raising Seabright Cochin
chicks this year, I write to see whether I could buy from three to ten
pullets of you. About such styled ones as the one you sent me last year.
Please give me age and price soon, if you have them to spare.
Yours very respectfully,
L. WHITTAKER.
August 21, 1875.
Dear Sir: Inclosed find P. O. order for $25 for thirteen head of S.
Cochins. I have concluded to breed them clean-legged, with the edging
or lacing of black entirely around the feathers; comb small. In fact, I
wish you would select by the cut I sent you as much as possible.
as soon have a young cockerel in place of the old one.
send later in the week than Tuesday. I believe the bargain is for the top
of your flock.
September 20, 1875.
Respectfully,
Would
Don't
L. WHITTAKER.
These letters prove,
First. That, although Mr. Ray has declared that he never called his
birds Seabright Cochins, yet, as early as the spring of 1873 and as late as
the fall of 1875, he was selling eggs and birds under that name.
Second. That, as early as 1873 and as late as 1875, he was breeding
these birds with feathered shanks. This is proved by the cut he had
printed in 1873, showing them to be feathered on the shanks. We have
seen proofs of this cut, and the birds look about as much like modern
Wyandottes as a jack-rabbit resembles a ground-hog.
Third. They show that, as late as the fall of 1875, Mr. Ray was still
holding to the idea of a feathered-shanked bird, and was very willing to part
with those having clean shanks. Mr. Whittaker writes us under recent
date that the thirteen birds for which he sent $25 on September 20, 1875,
were to be all the clean-shanked birds Mr. Ray had, and he believes, to
complete the number, Mr. Ray had to obtain a part of this number from
other breeders in his neighborhood.
666
The Poultry Book
Fourth. But these letters prove something else, namely, that, as early
as 1874, Mr. Whittaker had decided to breed the new variety with clean
shanks; that, in that year, he had a cut made to illustrate them thus. We
have seen proofs of this cut also, and it shows a very different style of bird.
It was made by the late B. N. Pierce, and showed that both Whittaker
and Pierce had an accurate idea of the modern Wyandotte in mind.
Fifth. These letters also help us to prove that Mr. Whittaker realized,
as early as 1874, the importance of setting these birds properly before
the public by bringing them into the Standard of the American Poultry
Association, for he suggests this matter to Mr. Ray, December 10, 1874.
Felch, Bicknell, and Wallace all speak of Whittaker's zeal to have these
birds started in the right direction, on the right basis, and by the proper
authority. He became a life-member of the American Poultry Association.
We do not hear that Mr. Ray took any interest in what the American
Poultry Association was doing for the new variety. In fact, we can hear
little about him or his work after he furnished a few of his so-called
Seabright Cochins-feather-shanked as they were to a few breeders in
the seventies; then he seems to drop out of sight, scarcely to be heard
from, until after the birds had been molded into a very different type,
had been admitted into the Standard, and had become very popular. Then
he is aroused to the point of quoting early history, and comes up to claim
the credit of their origin.
Far be it from us to rob Mr. Ray, or any one else, of an iota of honor
to which he or they may be entitled. All of the prominent authorities
from whom I have quoted give him credit for having given publicity
in the seventies to a feathered-shanked bird with quite an amount of
Seabright lacing, although his illustration shows but little lacing that is
distinct. Mr. Whittaker and several other breeders, who were not "quit-
ters" in the race, but who kept on until it was on record, admit that they
used some of Mr. Ray's stock as a foundation on which to build. Why
a man who establishes one thing, and tries to give publicity to it in that
form, should claim credit for something entirely different-something of
a type he discarded at low prices-this is beyond our understanding.
Mr. Ray gives quite a circumstantial account of his birds from 1870
to 1875, but there were others who were doing the same thing in his vicinity.
Mr. Bicknell tells us that there were birds similar to the American Seabrights
bred in Oneida County in the sixties. Mr. Ray himself tells us that
The Wyandottes
667
Messrs. Baker and Benson, also his friend H. M. Doubleday, were, as
early as 1872, breeding Silver Seabrights-birds which he declares were
not Bantams, but a fowl as large as the Wyandotte." Now, if this is
true, why were not these men the originators? and why not call these
Silver Seabrights the originals of the Wyandottes? They certainly must
have been more like
modern Wyandottes than
Mr. Ray's Seabright
Cochins. Why did Mr.
Ray infuse into them either
Cochin or Chittagong blood
unless he was trying to get
something entirely differ-
ent from the real Wyan-
dotte type? When, in
1874, Whittaker sent him
a cut showing his ideal
-a blocky bird with clean,
yellow shanks - why did
Ray part with his clean-
shanked birds at a low
price, and persistently con-
tinue to produce something
else a feathered-shanked
bird? With those Silver
Seabrights before him-of
a size, according to his
description, far exceeding
our belief and with
Whittaker's models before-
him, why did he adhere to birds with feathered shanks? It seems very
inconsistent in Mr. Ray, in later years, to claim credit for originating
the Wyandotte when he was breeding right away from Wyandotte type.
Now, as to the Brahma and Hamburg blood: When we began a study
of American Seabright history in 1880, it was the current opinion that
both these lines of blood were in its make-up. We have quoted eminent
authorities to prove that this was the understanding and the expressed
CL

-
Photograph by courtesy of "American Agriculturist"
SILVER WYANDOTTE HEN
Bred and owned by J. C. Jodrey, Massachusetts
668
The Poultry Book
opinion of those most deeply interested from year to year, from 1875 to
1883. But Mr. Ray says he did not use either of these lines of blood.
We shall not accuse him of doing so, but the fact remains that others did.
Mr. Whittaker writes us under recent date that, in those early days, he had
urged Mr. Ray to tell him something of their origin, to which he replied
that he did "not know how they were produced"-he had "made inquiry
through the press to no avail." It is not strange, then, that Mr. Whittaker
should be surprised to see Mr. Ray's specific statements of their origin
under date of March, 1904.
Now, Mr. Whittaker is not claiming the honor of originating these
birds. He simply claims to have been the first to describe them as Seabright
laced, silvery-hackled birds with heavy, round bodies and clean, yellow
shanks, and to have been the first to have them so illustrated, namely, in
1874. This illustration of Whittaker's, made by B. N. Pierce in 1874,
was before the American Poultry Association in 1877, and, but for the
opposition of Mr. Kidder, who wanted pea-combs, they would probably
have been admitted at that time on the Whittaker basis.
As to the pea-combs, Mr. Whittaker writes me that he never had any
of them, that he had a good many single-combs, which, with the abundant
feathering, made him think there was Cochin blood in their make-up.
He takes kindly to Mr. Felch's claim that there was Breda blood in
them, because he did find a comb with three small knobs, each knob
something like a strawberry. He did have trouble with the white ear-
lobes, which he thought traced to the Hamburg side of the house.
Mr. Whittaker's simple claim is this: "I do claim the honor of bringing
order out of chaos, of shaping up the breed to what it finally became a
large, round-bodied bird with Seabright lacing, rose-combs, and clean, yellow
shanks; of so illustrating it in 1874, and of naming it the American Seabright
in January, 1877; of requesting its admission under that name in February,
1877; that this same bird was admitted to the Standard in 1883 as the
Wyandotte, on practically the same Standard description as I had used
for years, but which was written up by Mr. Felch in 1881, he at that time
preferring the name Hambletonian. I did not originate the foundation-
stock, nor make the original crosses. The stock I sent you in 1881 was
wholly from blood procured by me in New York State from 1872 to 1875,
which, by careful selection to a definite end, I had mated up, year by year,
so as to produce what you then obtained from me.”
The Wyandottes
669
The writer, in one of his earliest circulars after the admission of
Wyandottes to the Standard, made use of the following language:
LL
The best informed on
the origin of Wyandotte fowls
agree in giving the chief credit
to L. Whittaker, of Michigan,
and J. P. Ray, of New York.
Mr. Whittaker, more than
any other of the dozen or
more claimants for the honor
of originating them, was able
to give the clearest explana-
tion as to their origin and
development. His natural
modesty prevented him from
defending his title from the
assaults of others more ambi-
tious, but to him tardy justice
has accorded the chief honor."

The above was our candid
belief twenty years ago, after
a careful study, for three
years, of the best information
then obtainable. At that
time we did not own fifty of
these birds, and had no reason to so record ourselves other than with a
desire for the truth. And now, twenty years later, having watched the
development of these original Wyandottes, now called Silver Wyandottes;
having studied them and their characteristics year by year; having bred
them by the thousand, we wish to declare that the further we investigate
their origin and history, the more information we gain from many sources,
the more fully we become satisfied with our declaration as recorded above
a score of years ago.
We could quote authorities by the dozen, but we should always come
back to the same conclusions, namely, that, for ten years prior to 1874,
various fanciers, particularly those in New York State, were experimenting
with combinations of Cochin, Brahma, Hamburg and Seabright blood; that,
Photograph by courtesy of Orange Judd armer"
SILVER-LACED WYANDOTTE PULLETS
Owned by G. W. Brown, Arkansas
670
The Poultry Book
until 1874, there was no fixed type in the direction that finally resulted
in the Wyandotte; that, in 1874, Mr. Whittaker first had it illustrated in
a form that would be instantly recognized as Wyandotte to-day; that, in
1874, he urged other breeders to join with him in asking its admission to
the Standard; that, in 1877, it was refused because other fanciers asked for
something different; that, in 1883, most other fanciers had come to his
way of thinking, so it was admitted on the basis he had promulgated
persistently for years; that there were other strains, particularly in the
East, containing elements of blood not found in his, but that at that time
what was known as the Whittaker strain was more generally recognized
than any other.
Once and for all as to the disputed point that both Dark Brahma and
Silver-Spangled Hamburg blood were used in the earlier crosses:
I am
permitted to make the following extracts from letters and published
articles now in the possession of T. F. McGrew:
B. N. Pierce, in 1886:
"That they were principally the result of a cross between Dark
Brahmas and Hamburgs is quite apparent, often indicated by the reversion
to white ear-lobes, to spangles in the plumage of the females, and to the
wing-markings and other characteristics of Dark Brahmas found in both
male and female."
Joseph Wallace, in 1890:
"The subsequent cross on this foundation-blood was a Silver-Spangled
Hamburg and Dark Brahma."
W. O. Dakin, in 1882:
"A cross of Spangled Hamburgs, Dark Brahmas, and Buff Cochins
stock came with single combs, pea-combs, and Hamburg combs."
Theodore Hewes, in 1904:
The breed was originally made with Dark Brahma and Silver-
Spangled Hamburgs.
H. S. Babcock, in 1904:
،،
""
"I am sure, however, that Dark Brahma was used in some strains
also that either Polish or Hamburg blood was used in some
strains."
C. S. Mattison, in 1904:
At considerable length, Mr. Mattison states that some of the prize-
winning Silver Wyandotte pullets shown by his brother F. L. Mattison at
The Wyandottes
671
the Pan-American were the result of a recent cross of Dark Brahma upon
Silver Wyandotte pullets.
F. A. Houdlette, in 1904:
“I never had any question about the Dark Brahma's figuring very
largely in the make-up of this variety. When first I had anything to do
with it, the Dark Brahma shape and markings were very prominent, and
the little short, stubby comb was one of the features that then existed.
This stock was of Dark Brahma origin and White Cochin and Ham-
burg crosses. The White Cochin kept cropping out in white chickens,
from which subsequently came the White Wyandottes. The man who
stamped the present markings more firmly than any one else prior to
1883 was L. Whittaker, of Michigan. He had been at work on this for
ten or twelve years, and had some very nice birds. I visited his place and
bought some of his stock."
We have thus dealt at some length on this subject of origin because
we feared that the wide publicity given Mr. Ray's most recently promul-
gated theories might do temporary damage to a cause well established and
evidently on a true foundation. We shall, therefore, dismiss Mr. Ray's
most recent claims with the remark that the man who wrote Mr. Whittaker
in 1876 that he did "not know how they were produced," had "made
inquiry through the press to no avail"; the man who, in 1871, wrote Mr.
Felch that he helped to start the breed back in 1864 to 1866, can hardly
come to the front in 1904 with the statement that he originated the breed
in 1870 and expect a discriminating public to place belief in any of his
theories. If, in 1864 and 1866, he helped to originate them; if, in 1870,
he did originate them; if, in 1876, he did not know and could not find out
anything about how they did originate, we may safely conclude to pass
by as scarcely worthy of notice the revelations that have come to him in
minute detail in 1904.
—
When the Wyandottes were admitted to the Standard in 1883, the
boom that had been rising in anticipation of this event spread with incred-
ible speed. It seemed that nearly everybody had them, and those who
did not have them wanted them. Those who had been breeding them
under the various names that had previously prevailed all fell in line, and
"Wyandottes, the best in the world," were advertised in every poultry
journal. The result, as we have already intimated, was most disastrous.
By 1886, the poor specimens, and especially the eggs from such, that had

672
The Poultry Book
been foisted upon an unsuspecting public, had begun to show how poor
were many specimens in the breeding-pen, and a reaction set in that came
near doing great damage to the breed. Only the cool, determined persist-
ence of a few of the early breeders who, knowing the real merits of their
favorites, adhered to the plan of mating and shipping worthy specimens,
saved the day.
Besides, a mistake had been made in the Standard description of the
wing. It made a double black bar of spangles in the wing-coverts of the
male. This made a wing rather easy to obtain, but one entirely incon-
sistent with the laced wing of the female. It was Mr. Felch who wrote
most of the Standard that appeared in 1883, and he also claims the credit
of judging the first Wyandottes by the new Standard in 1883, at Worcester,
Massachusetts; but we notice that he was soon advocating in the poultry
papers a change in the wing description, which change was made in the
revision of 1888.
THE VARIETIES OF WYANDOTTES
Scarcely were the Wyandottes introduced officially to the poultry
public, scarcely had the boom on the original or Silver variety been thor-
Coplanet Wumors
From a photograph by permission
TWO SILVER WYANDOTTE PULLETS
Bred and shown by W. E. Samson & Son, Pennsylvania. Sold for exhibition on the
Pacific Coast
oughly announced,
before other varieties
of the new breed began
to be heard from.
There seemed to be a
substantial foundation
for the favor which
greeted Wyandottes,
for there was real
merit in them. It has
long been seen that
no variety can become
a prime favorite with
the masses that does
not possess features of
economic value to
recommend it, aside
from its beauty or peculiarity of shape or plumage. It was evident
that the new breed possessed several peculiarities that would make
The Wyandottes
673
it to be desired by the farmer as well as the fancier. The chief of
these points were:
First. Of a good size. Not so large as to be coarse in bone or in
texture of flesh, but small of bone in proportion to gross weight, and of a
size that the small family could afford to have a fowl for its Sunday dinner.
And, to this day, the favorite-sized fowl among dealers, because a favorite
among shrewd buyers, is the fowl that, when dressed, has the appearance
of maturity and rotundity without weighing more than six pounds. The
Wyandottes answer this demand perfectly.
Second. Of quick maturity. There are a number of varieties of
fowls that are slow of growth, that always appear thin and scrawny and
immature until nearly a year old. It was soon found that Wyandotte
cockerels were as well matured and as plump for roasters at five months
as were most other varieties at six or seven months, and that at the age
of five months they would weigh as much as the larger and coarser birds.
Third. Early egg-production. It was soon found that the Wyandotte
pullets were ready to do business at the egg-basket from one month to two
months sooner than any other American variety, almost equalling the
Leghorns in this particular.
So it was not to be wondered at that there began at once a multipli-
cation of varieties of the new breed. In fact, before Wyandottes were
called by that name, the foundations were laid for two new varieties of the
breed, both of which, the Whites and the Goldens, had become so well
established that they were admitted to the Standard in 1888.
THE SIZE OF THE WYANDOTTE
All varieties of this breed are of the same size. Cocks should weigh
eight and one-half pounds, hens six and one-half pounds. Cockerels,
when in the show-room under one year old, are scored on a basis of seven
and one-half pounds; pullets five and one-half pounds.
There has been some difference of opinion as to whether the size of
Wyandottes might not be raised, but, almost without exception, those
who are most familiar with the merits and demerits of the breed are now
agreed that the above weights are just right. The weight for cockerels is
only one-half pound below the Plymouth Rock cockerels, while Wyandotte
cocks, hens, and pullets are each one pound lighter than Plymouth Rocks.
This gives each breed a sphere of its own in the commercial field, and
674
The Poultry Book
neither has any occasion to trespass upon the other. To the fancier who
wants large, heavy hens to sell for market in the early spring, the Plymouth
Rocks and Javas give him just what he wants; but we have noticed that
the smaller, finer-boned hens, such as are found in the Wyandottes and
American Rose-Comb Dominiques, are always preferred by the discrimi-
nating dealers. Where there is one market customer for hens weighing
eight to ten pounds each,
there are five customers
for hens two pounds
smaller. The man who
is making a specialty of
capons may reasonably
prefer the larger-sized
American or Asiatic
varieties, for capons do
not come to the best
market until they are
ten or twelve months
old, and the larger
varieties have time to
mature and develop in
that time. But the
breeder of Wyandottes
has the double oppor-
tunity of disposing of
his surplus youngsters
at a profit twice in their
earlier days. First, as
broilers - and it is ad-
mitted that there is no
bird that wears feathers that will mature into so fleshy, plump, and
toothsome a piece of meat as will the Wyandotte at eight weeks old.
They can be, and are frequently, made to weigh two pounds at eight weeks,
and, near our large eastern cities, the one-and-one-half-pound broiler is the
one that brings the most money, as much as if it is kept until twice as large.
For this market, there is nothing to equal the Wyandotte chick. It seems
to develop flesh rather than feathers, maturing in its fluff.

From a photograph
WHITE WYANDOTTE COCK
Bred by C. F. Preston, Iowa. Winner at many western shows
Nearly perfect in shape
The Wyandottes
675
The second chance to market the Wyandottes profitably is as roasters.
The bird that can most quickly and most cheaply be made to weigh four
to five pounds is the bird the farmer is looking for, and that bird is em-
phatically the Wyandotte cockerel. We have seen Wyandottes hatched
in the same incubator and reared in the same brooder and the same colony-
house, fed day by day on the same food, with some of their American
cousins, and, when market-day came, the Wyandottes were the ones chosen
because they weighed just as much and looked and handled so much
better, being shorter-legged, shorter-backed, plumper-breasted, and
rounder-bodied.
Just here it may not be out of place to remark that the managers of
the large packing-houses of the West, that give so much attention these
days to packing poultry in cold storage for the large eastern cities and also
for export, greatly prefer birds of the Wyandotte size and type. The pro-
prietor of one of these large houses, in order to get the farmers in a certain
section to raise the kind of birds he wanted, purchased a large lot of Wyan-
dotte cockerels and gave them to these farmers. His claim is that, for
packing, it is worth much to have a bird whose leg (first joint, it is called
on the table) does not project beyond the rump. The Wyandotte is the
only American variety of which this is true.
There have been some to criticise the statement in the new Standard
that all attempts to raise it beyond its present standard size have been
damaging to the breed. The writer is perfectly willing to father that as-
sertion, and feels himself able to demonstrate its truth by a very extensive
and somewhat expensive experience with the leading varieties of Wyan-
dottes. We have bred Wyandotte males from one and one-half to two and
one-half pounds above the standard, and to have attention called to their
great size is something to be proud of; but we are thoroughly convinced
that it was a mistake. Those large birds were almost invariably birds of
large frame and heavy bone—they had to be so, to carry the extra weight.
To put those birds into show condition required long and heavy feeding,
and, after show season, they were utterly useless as breeding-birds for at
least two months, and when reduced to breeding condition were so un-
shapely as scarcely to resemble Wyandottes. If we were given our choice
of increasing or decreasing the weight of Wyandottes, and were compelled
to choose one or the other, we should certainly, for the good of the breed
and of all interested in it, make them smaller rather than larger. The

676
The Poultry Book
larger hens-and, of one of the varieties, we breed two distinct strains and
have every opportunity to compare them--are slower of maturity, do not
lay so soon, and do not lay nearly so many eggs.
THE SHAPE OF THE WYANDOTTE
If there is one breed of fowls more than another of which we may
properly use the common expression, "It travels on its shape," it is the
Wyandotte. It is emphatically a bird of curves. Hogarth's "line of
beauty," reduced to the language of the engineer, was the double-reversed
curve. We ask, where in nature will you find this same curve so perfectly
exemplified as in the top line of a Wyandotte cock? From the tip of his
beak pass your eye over his rounded comb, down his beautifully arched
neck, along that handsome back, up and over his gracefully curved tail,
and what is there to be desired? No breaks, no angles, and the same is
almost as true if you start from
the same point and traverse
the lower lines. But this is not
all: Stand above him and look
down: The body seems to
round out, not only on the breast
in front and at the sides, but as
well on the wings at the sides.
Take him in your hand, and he
feels full and round at every
section; on the back, over the
shoulders, down on the thighs,
and especially on the breast, he
feels "meaty" at every point.
So here is a bird that fills the
high ideals of the artist so far
as form is concerned, and sup-
plies the farmer and villager,
the seller and the buyer,
with the choicest of flesh.
in the most compact form,
with the least waste and at the smallest cost.
In addition to the curves referred to, there is another expression in

From a photograph
WHITE WYANDOTTE COCKEREL OF GOOD TYPE
Bred by David Murray, Pennsylvania. Winner at New Jersey shows
The Wyandottes
677
the new Standard that helps even the amateur to understand Wyandotte
shape "A low-set keel." The Wyandotte must not be a stilty bird; he
must stand on short legs. But he might do this and still be far from the
true Wyandotte shape. The breast or forward portion of the body must
be carried low, giving the bird a tipped-forward appearance. There can-
not be any semblance of being "turkey-breasted" or he fails completely.
One has only to compare the typical Wyandotte, as shown in several cuts.
in this book, with cuts of typical Dorkings or of typical Javas, to have this
feature of the low-set keel impressed upon him. The Dorking is a bird
that carries large quantities of breast-meat, but he carries it high up, and,
in order to balance himself, his keel stands at quite an angle of elevation,
while in the typical Wyandotte this is reversed.
The head-points of a Wyandotte count for much, and the beginner
must learn to recognize the true Wyandotte comb, ear-lobes, and wattles,
and how they differ in shape and proportion from Hamburgs and rose-
comb varieties of Leghorns. Of the comb, remember that, medium in
size, low, close-fitting to the shape of the head, level on top, with small
points or corrugations evenly distributed, and terminating in a downward-
curving spike, are the cardinal points. The new illustrated Standard, with
a dozen full-page illustrations of typical Wyandottes and a glossary with
every term defined and many peculiarities illustrated, should be his most
carefully studied guide.
-
THE COLOR OF WYANDOTTES
The seven standard varieties give the fancier a chance to choose,
and, whatever his choice may be, he will find problems to solve that cannot
fail to interest him. Often he will find himself sorely perplexed how to
obtain and how to hold the colors called for in his chosen variety. The
well-known expression, "Shape makes the breed, color the variety," is
markedly true in the Wyandotte family; therefore, the color-descriptions
are treated under the several varieties.
Before passing from this subject, the writer wishes to say to amateur
and professional alike, let the Standard be your guide. Don't imagine
that there are short cuts you may take, and thus avoid the long lane of
perseverance that leads to success for the breeder. Standard-colored
males mated to standard-colored females should give standard-colored
chicks. If not, then the Standard is wrong. There are those who will
678
The Poultry Book
teil you to mate such and such a male to such and such a female if you
want to get standard-colored chicks. Don't you believe it. In nine cases
out of ten, it is for the purpose of palming off defective birds upon you,
and, in the tenth case, it is the result of ignorance. It is not possible to
secure perfect birds. The 100-point bird is not yet hatched. There
must, of necessity, be many extreme matings, many cases where one hopes
to overcome one extreme by an opposite extreme, but don't imagine for a
noment that such extremes are necessary in order to secure a happy
medium. As well say that it takes two wrongs to make a right. Get
just as close to Standard requirements as possible in both sire and dam,
and don't be hoodwinked by any double-mating theories. There is no
necessity for them in any variety of Wyandottes.
One more point on this subject: do not sacrifice shape for color.
Remember the maxim, "Shape makes the breed, color the variety." You
must have the breed before you get the variety. One has only to make a
careful study of the birds exhibited to see how often the exhibitor stakes
his chances wholly on color, almost ignoring shape considerations. Even
in the solid-colored varieties-Whites, Blacks, and Buffs-birds are often
presented in the Wyandotte classes that more closely resemble Plymouth
Rocks or Javas in shape. My attention has recently been attracted by
illustrations of the first Buff Wyandotte and first Buff Plymouth Rock
males, at one of our great shows, that appeared on the same page of one
of the leading poultry journals. Covering the head of both cuts, and even
the most amateur looker-on would declare that the Rock is a Wyandotte
and the Wyandotte is a Rock. Of course, the judges may have found that
color so far outbalanced shape-points in these cases that they felt compelled
to place the awards as they did; but it is too true that not only breeders
and exhibitors, but judges also, place more stress on color, and less on
shape, than they should.
As an illustration of the statement that, even in the most popular
varieties of Wyandottes, there is much yet to be acquired in shape, the
writer may be pardoned for referring to the fact that, for several years, he
has been called upon to place the White Wyandotte awards at the great
shows of New York and Chicago, where it is not unusual to find from
thirty to fifty specimens in each of the four classes. Yet he fails to
recall a single instance in those great shows where he found enough cocks
or cockerels to carry the five awards in each class without placing at
The Wyandottes
679
least the fourth and fifth ribbons upon birds so radically different in shape
from the first- and second-prize birds as to make him feel disposed to hang
up an apology or ex-
planation that these
winners of the lower
awards Won because
their color more than
made good their defects
in shape.

SILVER WYANDOTTE
This variety, the
original one of the
breed, has never re-
ceived the attention it
deserves at the hands
of the public. It is the
acknowledged ancestor
of the breed. Two of
the other varieties are
known to have come
from it as sports.
These are the Whites and the Blacks, and it was but a short time until
the Whites had far outstripped the original Silvers in public favor.
There seems to prevail an impression that the Silvers are hard to breed
true to feather. Far be it from me to give out the impression that, to
get a majority of chicks that will make breeds scoring 92 points or above,
one has only to have a few breeders of that quality. But this is not more
true of the Silver Wyandottes than of the other varieties of Wyandottes
or of all varieties of Plymouth Rocks. With the exception of the Black
Javas of the good old-fashioned type, I do not believe there is an American
variety from which a larger per cent. of 92-point chicks can be obtained
than from a well-bred strain of Silvers. I know there are those who will
rise up in haste and say, "You don't mean to say that the Silvers breed
as true as the Whites?" That is just what I mean to say! Not but that
the Whites will breed a larger percentage of birds that look white to the
casual observer, but there is a great difference between white and what
Photograph by courtesy of "Reliable Poultry Furnal"
WHITE WYANDOTTE FROM ILLINOIS
Bred and owned by E. Craig
680
The Poultry Book
looks like white. It is as difficult to breed a pure white bird as to breed a
95-point Silver Wyandotte; for this reason, the writer adhered strenuously
in the revision committee to the idea that it is wrong to handicap a solid-
colored variety in favor of a particolored variety. He succeeded only in
having the handicap reduced. As a breeder of both Silvers and Whites for
many years, I wish to go on record as saying that, if the new Standard
rules for judging are rigidly enforced, it is no more difficult to get
94-point Silvers than to get Whites of the same score.
We shall not attempt to give a detailed description of the Silver Wyan-
dotte. To do so with any variety would be to trespass upon the Standard,
and would overstep the limits of our space. We shall content ourselves
with a glance at some of the leading features of this variety and how they
may be obtained.
The Silver Wyandotte cock must be Silvery in appearance as well
as in name. There must be no smuttiness or brassiness on his surface.
The hackle is a silvery white with a distinct black stripe through the
middle of each feather, which must terminate before it reaches the end.
The saddle is of the same color as the hackle. These feathers, being
broader in proportion to their length, have a broader and shorter central
black stripe, and, if this black center is itself punctured with a white
center, so much the better.
The breast and thighs should be a distinct black, each feather having
a large white center, which should be as near the shape of the feather as
possible. It was formerly considered impossible to have the thighs thus
laced, but, of late years, the best fanciers have been very successful in this.
Our English cousins, who, a few years ago, imported some of our best
specimens, are now returning some of the results of their skill as fanciers—
marvels of breast- and thigh-lacings--but the methods they admit having
used to accomplish this result promise no good to the breeders who inject
this English blood into their flocks, as some have done to their sorrow.
The wing-color of the Wyandotte male is one of the most difficult
points of attainment. What is called the laced wing-bar is made by the
wing-coverts. The lower half of each feather should be white with an
edging of black; this edging makes the bar, and there should be two of
these—and some specimens show three.
The tail of the Wyandotte is one of its beauty points. In this variety,
and in all other standard varieties except the Whites and Buffs, it should

THE FAMOUS WHITE WYANDOTTE COCKEREL,
Bred and owned by Grant Mott, Iowa
Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Mort
DODO
33
The Wyandottes
683
be black. Look out for purple bars in the tail. This is one of the defects
that has been greatly intensified of late years. In our attempts to get
the glossy greenish-black we may be breeding too high or feeding too
high. At any rate, it is much more prevalent than ten or a dozen years ago.
The rules for judging demand that it be punished very severely.
One of the most difficult points to get in a Silver is a distinct black
lacing absolutely free from a secondary edging of white. This white
edging prevails in both sexes, and the only remedy known is to cut it hard,
both as breeders and judges.
If we were asked which is the next most common defect in Silver
females, we should say black or smoky hackles. The breeder who suc-
ceeds in getting silvery hackles on his females has gone over one of the
hard places in his journey.
the part
Lastly, but not of small importance, is the under-color—i. e.,
of the feather that does not show on the surface. The casual or careless
judge in the comparison show may pass over this section lightly; indeed,
we have heard men of some reputation argue that the judge should ignore
under-color entirely and judge solely by surface-color. He who does so
ignores the mandates of the Standard, for under-color is specifically men-
tioned in connection with each plumaged section of the bird. The
breeder who ignores the Standard demands of under-color at mating-
time has no reasonable hope of winning at showing-time.
In recapitulation, then, we would say silvery hackles, open or oval
centers with black lacing free from white edging, are the great difficulties.
Overcome these, secure a bright bay eye, give attention to under-color
and clean yellow shanks; then turn your endeavors toward early maturity
or quick development, and you will have in the Silver a thing of beauty
as well as a money-maker.
ww
GOLDEN WYANDOTTE *
The Golden Wyandotte was the second variety of this breed that
was brought before the public. The originator of this variety was Joseph
McKeen, of Wisconsin, who first produced a fowl which he called “Winne-
bagoes," that being the name of his farm. These Winnebagoes were the
* This section has been read by Ira C. Keller, of Ohio, secretary of the National
Golden Wyandotte Club, who says: 'I cannot suggest any changes in this part of the
chapter on Wyandottes. It is well written and brings out all the important points."-EDITOR.
""
684
The Poultry Book
result of crossing Rose-Combed Brown Leghorns, Pea-Combed Partridge
Cochins, and some Buff females, these latter the result of aGolden Seabright-
Buff Cochin cross. The best males produced from the combination of
these several breeds were mated with some American Seabright females.
Here again we have the double Asiatic cross of the Partridge and
Buff Cochin with the Seabright Bantam. In this instance, the Golden
Seabright was crossed with the Buff Cochin, and the product united with
the rich black-red colors of the Partridge Cochin and Brown Leghorn.
The rich-colored males from this combination of blood were bred to selected
females of the American Seabright breed, now Silver Wyandottes. Almost
the same identical combination of blood produced the Silver. It originated
from the silvery white of the Dark Brahma and Silver Seabright, as men-
tioned before, while the top cross for the Golden came from the Golden
Seabright upon the black-red colors of the Brown Leghorn-Partridge
Cochin union. Great patience and care were necessary for the com-
pletion of this variety, not so much to insure good Wyandotte form (this
came as naturally to them as to the Silvers), but to establish the true
golden-bay color to conform to the white of the Silver and at the same
time gain the deep, rich top-color of the Partridge Cochin for the male.
The result of the buff color of the females employed, and also of the
white color of the Silver females, was a very pale shade of golden bay for
the males and yellow centers for the females. This color has been improved
to the extent that we now have a deep golden bay for the top-color of males
and yellow bay for the females and under portion of males. The tendency
is toward a deeper and more brilliant color in both, and for a top-color
on males of almost as rich colors as that of the Partridge Cochin. Grad-
ually these colors have been deepened until the present rich shades of the
finer specimens are quite in contrast with the old-time yellow shades.
Our Standard specifies that the color of the Golden male and female
shall be the same as that of the Silver Wyandottes, except that "golden
bay" should be substituted for "white."
white." This substitution of golden
bay for white falls short of describing the rich top-color of the Golden
male, which now rivals the Brown Leghorn in brilliancy of color and
richness of striping.
G
-
The striping of hackle- and saddle-plumage must be the same in the
Golden as in the Silver-the same diamond center in saddle and the
same open lacing on both male and female. All conditions of marking,
The Wyandottes
685
lacing, and striping must be the same in both. Many specimens are seen
at the present time which have the very open center of rich golden bay
edged about with metallic
black that glistens, forming a
most beautiful combination
of colors.

It is best to mate for
medium centers, using females
that have the larger portion
of their plumage very open
laced and males having rather
dark breast-plumage and
good, clear top-color. Depend
upon this fact that, if the
male has bad top-color, the
same will be found on his
chicks as they grow up. Too
many males having black
edging on back- and saddle-
plumage (a defect that has
been bred into them for many
years) are used.
-
Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Keller
In selecting a Golden
male for a producer, choose
one having the golden-bay
color-not a reddish-bay nor a chestnut color, but a golden shade of
bay. Keep clear of light or yellow shading on breast and dark
shadings on back or wings. By all means, have good, clear hackle-plumage,
nicely striped with black and free from smut. Many are too deep a bay
or red; some are as rich in color as a Partridge Cochin. This is not as the
Standard reads. It calls for a golden bay; not even a rich golden bay is
demanded.
SPLENDID WHITE WYANDOTTE HEN
Bred and owned by Ira C. Keller, Ohio. First at Chi. ago, 193
A very safe plan of mating is to select both males and females with
the medium centers and mate them, year after year, until this line of
breeding is established in the strain. Such matings will produce both
sexes of fairly good quality and a greater percentage of good, salable
birds than may be expected from the other more extreme matings.
686
The Poultry Book
The above points on color-markings should be a safe guide for the
amateur. He will need to exercise care in selecting his breeding-stock to
avoid two shape particulars in which Golden fanciers have been negligent,
namely, size and shape of comb and length and shape of back. Too often,
in our show-rooms, we find males with elegant plumage, but coarse or
lop-sided combs. Avoid these. The shape of the Golden is the same as
that of all Wyandottes. Avoid a long or narrow back, or one that angles,
rather than curves, into the tail at their juncture.
WHITE WYANDOTTE
White Wyandottes originated as sports from the Silvers. It is
claimed that some of them appeared as early as 1872. If this is true, those
of that early date had not much of quality in their ancestors. Early
writers speak of them as better in Wyandotte shape than the Silvers, and
regard them as models for all varieties. Much of this distinction, it is
presumed, was the outcome of self-applause arising from the pleasure of
adding a new variety to the list of American fowls.
When it is considered that, as late as 1883, the Silver Wyandottes
gained only quality sufficient to establish them as a standard breed, what
must they have been in 1872, at which time it is claimed that the white
sports were produced? The statement is not questioned that they did
produce both solid black chicks and also solid white ones, for this is
known to be the fact. At the same time, the quality of these self-colored
sports was not better than that of the parent birds from which they came
as sports.
The credit of their origin has long been given to George W. Towle
and B. M. Briggs, both of New York State. These gentlemen did much
for their advancement. But the writer has long been of the opinion that
Fred A. Houdlette, the man who named this breed Wyandottes, was the
first to bring these White Wyandottes before the public. In a personal
letter dated April 6, 1904, Mr. Houdlette gives the following explanation.
of the matter:
"The fact of the case is, I had some dealings with Mr. Towle in which
I exchanged three White Wyandotte cockerels with him for a Silver
cockerel. Right away after this exchange, namely, in February, 1883,
the Silvers were accepted and adopted by the American Poultry Associa-
tion, which gave them their boom. Very soon after this Mr. Towle intro-
The Wyandottes
687
duced the White Wyandotte, but, previous to this, I had a pen of White
Wyandottes which I sold to George Wooley, of Massachusetts. Mr.
Wooley showed these birds at many exhibitions, winning wherever he
went. From this, you may judge whether Mr. Towle was the first to
introduce the White Wyandottes. He may have been one of the first to
put them out, but the original White Wyandottes were sports that came
This I can
from my stock when I lived in Waltham, Massachusetts.
prove by a great many witnesses, and especially by George Wooley."
If our information is correct, it was not until 1885 that the White
Wyandotte was brought prominently before the public; and its admission
to the Standard, in 1888, was accomplished at the meeting of the American
Poultry Association held at Indianapolis in that year. Prior to 1892,
there had not been produced any considerable number which attracted
attention in quality of shape or color. During the years intervening
between 1878 and 1885, white chicks came too often from the Silver variety.
Their breeders considered it as positive proof of impurity in the breeding-
stock. Efforts were made to shield the fact until it became known that
they would be advanced as a true variety of the Wyandotte family; then
many willingly acknowledged the presence of the White in their yards.
Few varieties of fowls in this country have ever been as well managed as
these have been. Both utility and exhibition qualities have been fostered
equally. The result is greatly in their favor, and makes them one of the
strongest, if not the strongest, competitor of the Barred Plymouth Rock
for public favor.
In the history of American poultry exhibitions there has not been
recorded a more popular fowl than the White Wyandotte. It has gained
so fast in this direction as to call together the largest classes at our fall
and winter shows, the largest class of any variety ever exhibited being
composed of White Wyandottes. Large sums are continually subscribed
by those who are interested in their welfare for special awards in these
classes, thus creating an unusual interest in them and rendering them
more and more popular. The National White Wyandotte Club has a
membership of more than 1,000 breeders, and is the strongest poultry
specialty club in the world.
Great improvement has been made in their shape and color. Almost
perfection of shape and immaculate plumage must be present with the
specimen that now wins the honors. Medium quality has but little

688
The Poultry Book
chance in the show-pen in well-contested classes, and poor condition of
feather is almost certain to bring defeat. No fowl is more beautiful
or attractive than a pure-white one in prime condition of plumage. Feathers
of such purity rest most gracefully upon the White Wyandotte.
The White Wyandotte is, without question, the model for market
poultry. The compact form and full, plump breast give the desired broiler
as well as the most perfect roaster. The color of the meat and skin is of
that attractive yellow so much in demand in our markets. It has the com-
bination of attractive shape and color, and the white plumage removes all
chance of prejudice so often advanced against dark pin-feathers, thus
giving it three very important advantages
for sale as market poultry. The White Wyan-
dotte has long been the prime favorite in
exclusive poultry plants where both eggs
and meat" are produced. The White Wyan-
dottes lay about as many eggs as are laid
by other varieties of Wyandottes, and their
eggs are of good color and firm in shell.
They are quite as economically kept as any
breed, with an inclination to accumulate fat
with age, which counts in their favor when
sold for market fowls.

Photograph
BUFF WYANDOTTE COCKEREL
Bred and owned by W. T. Lord, New York
A famous prize-winner
*C
To produce White Wyandottes for exhibi-
tion, we must look simply for perfection of
form and purity of color, with good head-
points. The male should be a model of Wyandotte shape, clothed in
absolutely white plumage that is true and pure in color to the skin, in-
cluding the quills; head and comb in strict conformity with Standard
demands. The females should be superb in all sections in both shape
and color. No hope of success can be placed on inferior breeding-stock
when the aim is to produce winners of the highest character.
The following special points of value may be considered to advan-
tage: To produce winners, do not use White Wyandotte females that have
narrow, contracted main-tail feathers, although this is permissible with
the Plymouth Rock. Have the well-spread tail on all Wyandotte females
used for breeding exhibition stock. Such matings are of the very highest
character, and, while they are difficult to secure, they are almost
The Wyandottes
689
certain to give returns that will fully repay for the necessary trouble
and expense.
When such quality is not obtainable, the following methods involved
in building up a strain should be pursued: Select the very best at hand
year after year until some are produced that are equal to the best, and
from these hope may be gained for a reputation in the show-room. In
any class where the competition is as keen as in the White Wyandotte,
specimens are always met in competition from the yards of the most
successful producers, thus making it of the utmost importance to select
as breeding-stock specimens of the highest merit for breeding winners.
Other features of great importance are purity of color of ear-lobes,
back, and sianks, including the feet. White ear-lobes and shanks other
than yellow are disqualifications not removable. The presence of either
is noticeable and should be avoided. It is equally important that there
should not be the slightest trace of feathers or down upon the shanks or
between the toes of any breeding-stock. Only the absolute avoidance of
this will assure against its future appearance, and it should be guarded
against with the greatest care.
Pure white as a color of plumage of fowls is quite as difficult to main-
tain as any other color or parti-colors. A cream or yellow or black tinge
must continually be contended against; any one or all of these colors
may crop out when least expected. The most perfect white is apt to be
sprinkled with black, and the yellow under-color must be fought against
unceasingly. The surest means of obliterating these undesirable tinges is
by the selection of males that have absolutely white plumage, including
under-color and the quills, or shafts, of the feathers.
Many of the most attractive and vigorous male White Wyandottes
show a tendency toward the yellowish tinge in plumage, but their other
attractive qualities are inducements to use them as breeding specimens,
the result often being disappointing. It is better to discard them than
to run the risk of infusing the taint of yellow into the flock. Equal care
should be given to the selection of white females.
We cannot too strongly urge upon breeders the necessity of close
study of white in plumage. At one of our large eastern score-card shows,
a gentleman who had been exhibiting came to the writer and, in the most
courteous way, asked us to explain to him why we had cut a cockerel
from one-half to one and one-half in each section on color-a bird which
690
The Poultry Book
he supposed was absolutely white. We did not recall the bird, but asked
him to take him to a certain window, where we should be pleased to examine
him again.
Passing around in another direction, we took under our arm a White
Wyandotte hen, the second bird in twenty years' experience that we could
not cut on plumage-color. Arrived at the appointed place, we found our
friend carefully examining his bird, section by section.
"How does he look to you now?" we inquired, opening out his wings,
neck, back, and tail with our free hand.
"Mr. Orr, that bird looks to me to be absolutely white," was his
earnest reply.
"Let us compare him, section by section, with this hen," said I.
We did so.
In ten seconds, our friend looked up and said: “It is
enough. I never before realized the difference between white and white.
The wonder to me now is that you did not cut him twice as hard.”
In preparing for the show-room, exhibitors can do much to further
their chances by more careful washing. At one of our great eastern
shows the past year, we placed a bird first that we had handled at the
same show the year previous and had placed very low because of the dirty,
greasy condition of his plumage. So great was the improvement this
year that we did not recognize the bird, and could scarcely believe it was
the same one.
At the same show, a very prominent breeder had to take a low award
partly because his birds did not match in the show-pen. The male had
been washed by an amateur who had used the indigo injudiciously, while
the females were of a very different though far from perfect shade. Both
male and females could have been greatly improved.
An odd experience came to me recently: A southern customer, to
whom I had sent a $25 trio last year, complained that their chicks were
full of black or gray feathers, and he sent nearly a handful of feathers to
prove his point. The fact was that the feathers were simply very dirty
even the quills showed them to be naturally very white. We wrote him
our conclusions, asked him to take one of his blackest birds to a well-
known fancier in his city and request him to wash the bird. If it
did not prove to be white, we would refund his money. Inside of
a week, came a letter full of his thanks for the suggestions and of
apologies for his blunders.
The Wyandottes
691
BLACK WYANDOTTE
The Black Wyandotte is generally supposed to have originated in
the yards of F. M. Clements, Jr., of Ohio, in 1885. It came as a sport
from the Silver Wyandottes. The first Black Wyandottes possessed by
him were a few black pullets, which he mated with a male having black
body-plumage and a silver hackle. From this start he built up a true
breeding-strain of Blacks, which are credited with being the foundation of
those we now have. The care bestowed upon them by Mr. Clements
brought the Black
Wyandottes to a
condition of good
reproducing power,
and they could be
depended upon to
produce solid black
plumage with good,
dark under-color,
red ear-lobes, dark
shanks, and correct
style and shape of
comb.

But another
well-known fancier,
F. J. Marshall, for-
merly of Ohio, but
now of Georgia,
began breeding
Black Wyandottes
at the same time as
Mr. Clements.
Here is his letter to
me, written April 11,
1904: "In 1885, I
had two sports from
my Silver Wyandottes, one a pullet almost solid black. Wings had a
little light color along the lower edges of the primaries,
and a slight
Photograph by C. J. Ross
BUFF WYANDOTTE COCKEREL
Bred by A. C. Hawkins, Massachusetts. First Madison Square Garden, 1904
692
The Poultry Book
flecking of light in the neck. The other one, a cockerel not so black
as the pullet, had a little more light in the wings in the same manner and
position, and a good deal more in the neck. Neck a lot of silver
sprinkled through it, and, when you turned the feathers back, it was
almost white under-color. The tail had a little tinge of light on the
tops of the sickles. Aside from this, he was solid black. To the casual
observer, at little distance he looked to be black. Both of these birds
had pretty good combs as combs were going at that time on Wyandottes
—a little narrow, and rather lumpy. As soon as I detected these birds, I
began to study the question, and I saved them from the block and put them
in a pen to themselves the following spring (1886), and kept every egg
laid and set them. I raised something like twenty that summer from
this mating. I got five good black pullets with little if any white on them;
no solid black cockerels. I saved two cockerels for breeding that had
no white appearing on the surface but had a good sprinkle of it in the under-
color of hackle and some in the saddle under-color. The rest of the cockerels
were of different shades from nearly solid black to those with a lot of light
in tail and neck. One was a very good Silver in color. I also got another
black pullet from the same Silver pen that produced the first pair. I
never had another mating of the Silvers to give me a black specimen. I
inbred them for some three years or more; then I found that F. M. Clements,
Jr., had been breeding some sports in about the same manner as I had.
I traded cockerels with him, and in that way got some new blood into my
flock. I then began to advertise them and sell a few eggs, and so the thing
moved along. I bred them for some seven years. In my experience, I
rarely got anything but solid black females, but got a good many males
that were off in color. The white in under-color of neck was hard to get
rid of. All in all, however, I think they bred true to color, shape, and
markings much sooner than most new breeds, from the fact that they
were true sports, and not made by crosses. At least, mine were."
Good size was also present in these early Black Wyandottes, and the
color was improved into a rich glossy black, giving them a start in the
right direction. Breeders who thought it best to have the yellow shanks
and feet on this variety did much to injure them. It was finally settled
that it was impossible to have the yellow shanks and feet with good black
surface and under-color. This information, gained by bitter experience,
resulted in establishing the original dark color for beak, shanks, and feet.
The Wyandottes
693
It is quite unnatural for black fowls (or birds of any kind) to have
other than dark or black legs and feet. When any other color is present,
it is an unnatural condition, brought about by artificial methods, which
demand undue care in their reproduction to prevent undesirable colors from
coming into the plumage. Careful consideration of these facts guided the
framing of the Standard description for this new variety, which is: Black
shaded with yellow as the color for beak, shanks, and feet, at the same
time demanding that the bottom of feet shall be yellow, and making the
absence of this yellow a disqualification.
Time has proved the possibility of producing both good shape and
color under these Standard requirements. Within the last few years,
some beautifully colored specimens of excellent Wyandotte qualities have
been shown, some of them fully the equal of any of the other varieties.
But American prejudice against black fowls has barred the way of the
Black Wyandottes to much-deserved popularity. The same influence has
counted against all other black fowls, many of which have qualities that
rival any or all other breeds. Much of this feeling has been removed
within the last ten years, and it may be that a better appreciation is in the
future for all fowls of this color.
The position filled by the Black Wyandotte is quite that of "the
fanciers' fowl." While it is fully the equal of the other varieties in utility
requirements, it has never been urged with the same vigor for public
popularity. It can hardly be expected that it will gain equal prominence
with the Whites, handicapped, as it is, with a less popular color. At the
same time, persistent effort in its behalf would make it equally popular
with the Langshans or Minorcas. There are localities where this variety
ought to be particularly popular-for example, near a large city where
coal-dust precludes the breeding of white birds and the possibility of
keeping them white.
Always select good, dark under-color and dark shanks, as they give
assurance of an established color in the blood, while the light, or willow-
colored, shanks and the pale under-color bespeak the influence of the
lighter shade of the ancestors, the influence of which is detrimental. Good,
strong black, through and through, including under-color and quills of
feathers, is the best assurance against white in the offspring. All these
features of color must be closely watched if we hope to succeed in producing
Black Wyandottes of highest quality.

694
The Poultry Book
BUFF WYANDOTTE
There is less controversy over the origin of the Buff than that of any
other variety of Wyandottes except the Silver-Penciled. The fanciers who
have been bringing these magnificent birds
to the front the past ten years seem to
have been much more concerned with the
question of perfection than of origin; and
yet to these same fanciers belongs more
of the credit for their origin than can
justly be given to any other set of men.
In other words, the men who first began
to appreciate the value of the Buff
Wyandottes have been persistently stand-
ing by them, helping to develop and
popularize them-never once going off to
new favorites.
T-R FNG.CO.K.C.
From a photograph
PARTRIDGE WYANDOTTE COCKEREL
Bred and owned by W. A. Doolittle, Kansas
First at Kansas City, 1901
Between the years 1886 and 1893,
there were numerous fanciers, in various
sections of the country, each trying to
reach the same result, but scarcely any
two of them following exactly the same method.
Early in the nineties, R. G. Buffington bred the Silver Wyandottes to
Rhode Island Reds, and in this way produced a Buff Wyandotte, the
Buffington cross being, in turn, bred to the others with the Cochin cross.
It is believed that it is from this last crossing that we have the most.
perfect Buff Wyandottes to-day. Prior to that time, several breeders were
striving to get Buff Wyandottes by various combinations. One party was.
crossing the Golden Wyandottes with Buff Cochins; another crossing
White and Golden Wyandottes, these, in turn, being bred to Buff Cochins.
Another was crossing Golden and White Wyandottes, and these back again
to Golden Wyandottes.
On this subject, W. R. Wooden, of Michigan, when secretary of the
Buff Wyandotte Club, wrote: "No one individual can claim the honor
of originating the Buff Wyandotte. The variety to-day is a composite of
the results of several efforts at its production made during the period
extending from 1885 to 1890. The following-named pre-existing varieties.
The Wyandottes
695
were used in the combination, which to-day stands as one of the most.
beautiful and useful fowls, viz., White and Golden Wyandottes, Buff
Cochins, and Rhode Island Reds.'
,,
Concerning the origin of his own strain, Charles P. Pond, of New York,
wrote the following for the second annual catalogue of the Buff Wyandotte
Club: “As the originator of one of the pioneer strains, I have been asked
repeatedly to give a history of my strain. I used three lines of blood
in my first matings. The first line was some large yellow hens, bred by
my grandfather before me from a Cochin-Hamburg cross that were bred
in the family for more than thirty years. My second line was made of
sports from the Golden Wyandotte. The third was a very brassy White
Wyandotte male. This male was mated to hens of the other two lines,
and their progeny together in the next season. I kept this up until some
of the other breeders could supply me with good male birds. One inquirer
asks how I first thought of a Buff Wyandotte. The Buff Leghorn was
just then looming on the horizon, and I had noticed that buff was the
most popular color on the Cochin. So I reasoned that buff would be the
most popular color on the Wyandotte. If they increase in the future
as they have in the past five years, they will surely get there. My first
advertisement appeared in January, 1889. I advertised, not to sell birds,
but to find out if others were in it. I soon found other minds were traveling
in same channels, and a pleasant and instructive correspondence was
opened with Mr. Brackenbury and others. While my work on this breed
has been limited, my strain has helped the good work on. This I know from
the very flattering testimonials received from some of the leading breeders.
of this variety. The greatest credit should go to Messrs. Piser, Mattison,
and others, who, having the means, have not spared them to buy the very
best specimens, and, mating them, have brought the Buff Wyandotte to its
present high position in so short a time."
Writing on the early history of this variety, A. F. Ackley, of Illinois,
says: "One familiar with the different breeds that were originally crossed
to produce the Buff Wyandotte will not be surprised, upon giving due
thought to this origin, at the wonderful popularity of the bird. A certain
breed of poultry will be admired and bred to a more or less extent for
beauty of color. It will also be bred and be popular for its market value as
a table-fowl, and also for its laying qualities. That breed of poultry
which will produce the most eggs in cold winter months is bound to be
696
The Poultry Book
the most desired by the majority of those who are breeding poultry. In
looking over the origin of the Buff Wyandotte, we note that all of the
original breeders used first or last a Buff Cochin cross. The Buff Cochin
is a cold-weather layer. This breed has the feathers long and thick, which
gives them greatest protection from cold. It is from this Cochin cross
that the Buff Wyandotte inherits a warmer plumage than any other of
the Wyandotte family. Thus, from the Cochin cross, we have a warm
covering for winter, and also the winter-laying qualities of the breed.
There also enters into this Buff Wyandotte origin the factor of Wyandotte
shape from the Wyandotte originally used, and the hardiness of the breed
and its laying qualities from the cross of the Rhode Island Reds. Thus
we have a warm plumage, a winter-layer, and a strong, vigorous breed.
The standing of this breed to-day is due largely to the careful mating by
those breeders who are so intensely interested in the welfare of this kind
of Wyandottes. Years of careful breeding have produced a bird that is
a thing of beauty to look at, a choice morsel for the table, and a tangible
source of dollars from eggs. In fact, the Buff Wyandotte is one of the
most beautiful breeds."
In common with all other buff varieties, Buff Wyandottes have
"suffered much at the hands of many doctors" on the question of "shade
of buff," the pendulum having been pushed back and forth from light
lemon on one extreme to a reddish-brown on the other. On this question,
Arthur Sykes, of Wisconsin, gives some cogent reasons for adhering to a
strong orange-buff rather than to a lighter shade. We quote from him
thus: "Much has been said on the question of which shade of buff shall
we hold to. The answer which some breeders have given to this question
is, 'Hold to the shade which is the most difficult to produce’—rather a
selfish answer. The answer I give to this question is, hold to the shade
which strikes the popular fancy, and which is, in other respects, the most
practical. My experience has been that the popular fancy runs to the
orange or pumpkin buff, or a darker shade, rather than to the lemon buff.
I have yet to have the first visitor to my yards tell me that he fancied
the lemon buff shade. The farmer, and other breeders not familiar with
the controversy over which is the right shade, will select without hesitancy
the darker shade as his choice, and pronounce it more desirable and more
beautiful. This is a potent reason why we should accept the orange shade
as the standard buff. If the breed is to be a popular breed, it must be
The Wyandottes
697
acceptable to the eye of the mass of poulterers. The lemon shade of buff
is not attractive to the lay poultryman, and especially after it has been
once shed. It is urged that the orange-buff is not buff at all, etc.; but it is
sufficient to say that it is buff enough to have been accepted for years by
breeders of Buff Cochins as the desirable shade. It is the shade that we
have all admired so long in poultry; and it is the shade which has made.
buff the popular color in fowls. Let us hold to it and breed for it."
The writer has only within recent years been a breeder of any variety
of buff fowls, and he does
not assume to speak from
large personal experience
as a breeder; but from a
close study of the methods
of the most successful
breeders, especially as il-
lustrated by their results
as found in leading shows
where we have been called
upon to judge buff birds,
we are sure the Standard
description is just right;
and, further, that the
breeders who are succeed-
ing are those who are fol-
lowing Standard descrip-
tions, and striving to
obtain for breeders, both
male and female, one even shade of rich, golden buff throughout.
Any explanation on the part of a seller of a bird that "you must have
black in flights and main tail feathers of your males to hold the color of
your chicks strong enough"; or that "you must have some white in the
wings or hackles of your females in order to get a nice, delicate shade
of buff in your chicks," is all nonsense, and is put forth for the purpose of
helping to sell off-colored specimens. The Standard expression, "black
or white in plumage is equally objectionable," is as near the truth as we
can get.
In comparing males and females for similarity of color, take the breasts

Photograph by S. L. Sheldon
PRIZE-WINNING PARTRIDGE WYANDOTTE COCK
Owned and bred by E. G. Wyckoff, New York
698
The Poultry Book
of both sexes as a basis of comparison-not the backs. As soon as a
cockerel reaches maturity, he takes a luster peculiar to the male sex on
hackle, saddle, and wing-bows. This gives one the impression that the
male bird is a shade or two darker than the females; but, if examination
is made of the breast of both sexes of the best birds to be found, these
sections would be found to be very close to the same shade.
Commercially considered, the Buff Wyandotte is a most satisfactory
bird. He has little in his make-up of any ancestor of a smaller size than
the Wyandotte, so it is as easy to keep this variety up to standard size as
any other perhaps more so. The color of the shanks and skin of this
variety is perhaps easier to maintain as yellow than any other Wyandotte—
i. e., there is little tendency in the Buff to have pale shanks or pale skin.
One other peculiarity of this variety its fanciers advance as a strong
point in its favor, and it is certainly a good talking-point, namely, there
is quite an amount of Cochin blood in the Buff Wyandottes (more than
in any other except the eastern strain of Partridge Wyandottes), and from
this ancestry it inherits an abundant plumage, its feathers seeming to be
longer and fluffier than those of most other Wyandottes. This, no doubt,
enables the Buffs to withstand cold weather with less discomfort than
other varieties. If this does not bring with it that other Cochin trait of
persistent broodiness—and from our own experience, we think it does not
-this is a feature worth advocating in their favor.
One other point advocated by Buff fanciers which we have seen and
heard for twenty years advanced by the fanciers of all light-colored
varieties is this: "The pin-feathers are so near white and have so little
colored pigment that they do not show; so the Buffs, like the Whites,
have the advantage in the commercial markets.”
This tune has been played more than its merits justify. People
buy chickens for what they are as chickens, and not for the color of their
pin-feathers, and the best argument I have heard recently on this subject,
made by a fancier of a black variety—not a man, but a practical woman—
was this: “I like them for the table because their plumage is black, and
I can easily distinguish the pin-feathers and pull them out; for who wants
to eat feathers with his spring chicken?"
To the writer, one argument is about as strong as the other. We
repeat it, although a breeder of the Whites and a great admirer of them,
and although we breed the Buffs and endorse them for the same good
The Wyandottes
699
commercial features they possess; yet we have heard too much of
this pin-feather argument.
PARTRIDGE WYANDOTTES
Two strains of Partridge Wyandottes were originated in different
sections of the country, the one as separate and as distinct from the other
as if they were entirely different varieties. We do not believe there
was any attempt to commingle the blood of the two strains until after
their admission into the Standard in 1901.
As to which of these strains is entitled to the credit of priority, we
do not believe there is much difference. Both originators used the same
primary combinations of blood, and each, after seeing the result of his
first cross, had about the same ideal in mind as an object to work for.
We shall let the adherents of each strain state the facts and give
the dates as they understand them. T. F. McGrew, who has
always been intimately
acquainted with the work
that was done by Messrs.
Brackenbury and Cornell,
writes thus: "The first
mating for the production
of Penciled Wyandottes
was made by George H.
Brackenbury, of New York,
in 1889."
Of the first matings,
Ezra Cornell, who was
closely identified with
Mr. Brackenbury, in
October, 1899, wrote: "The
Golden Penciled were
started first (two years
before the Silver Penciled
were started), dating back
ten years. Our first mating
consisted of a beautiful Partridge Cochin hen-magnificent in both
penciling and richness of ground-color-mated to a Golden Wyandotte

Photograph by S. L. Sheldon
PRIZE-WINNING PARTRIDGE WYANDOTTE HEN
Owned and bred by E. G. Wyckoff
700
The Poultry Book
male. A pullet of the above cross was mated to a Daggett Golden
Wyandotte cock. This male had thrown a large flock of pullets having
inner lacings, and in some, instead of the outer edge of feathers being
laced, their entire plumage was penciled. This penciling led me to
believe that this Daggett Golden male was a mixture of Rose-Comb
Brown Leghorn, Partridge Cochin, and Golden Wyandotte blood.
'From the above pullet (Golden Wyandotte-Partridge Cochin
cross) and the Daggett male one pullet only was selected. This pullet
was mated to a Golden-Penciled Hamburg male. The result of this cross
was then mated to Partridge Cochins both ways—i. e., a Hamburg-Wyan-
dotte-Cochin cross male was mated to two grand Partridge Cochin
females, and three or four of the best Hamburg-Wyandotte-Cochin
cross females were bred to a pullet-breeding Partridge Cochin male.
Among our Golden - Laced Wyandottes was one female having
double lacings or markings resembling the markings of an Indian Game
female. This Golden Wyandotte hen was mated to a rich-colored Partridge
Cochin male whose sisters and dam were of rich mahogany color. From
this last mating we selected one young cockerel of mammoth size, mag-
nificent color, blocky build, having rose-comb and clean yellow legs barring
a few tiny down-stubs between the toes. This cockerel was bred to a
few of the best - penciled, cleanest-legged, best-shaped pullets. From
matings Nos. 1 and 2 we selected two pullets from each mating-four pul-
lets in all. The above was mating 'A.'
I
((
(6
'Mating 'B' consisted of a pen of four pullets of the mating No. 3,
or the Partridge Cochin-Golden-Laced Wyandotte cross, all from the
inner-laced Golden Wyandotte hen. These four pullets were all of mam-
moth size, showing heavy green-black or irridescent black penciling and
deep mahogany ground-color, almost clean yellow legs, and rose-combs.
These four pullets were mated to a Hamburg-Wyandotte-Partridge Cochin
cross male.
"The pullets from mating 'A' were bred to cockerels from mating
'B', and pullets from mating 'B' were bred to cockerels from mating
'A.' After a few years of selection and breeding from only a few of the
very best specimens, Partridge Cochin blood was again introduced through
the best Partridge Cochin hen Byron D. Sarn ever produced. This
Partridge Cochin hen mated to the most typical (in color and shape)
Golden-Penciled Wyandotte male we had yet produced is the foundation
The Wyandottes
701
of our entire strain of Golden-Penciled Wyandottes. This Partridge
Cochin hen and her full sister were used in our second Partridge Cochin
experimental crossing or second infusion of Partridge Cochin blood, and
again in our third and last infusion of Partridge Cochin blood. Each
succeeding year we are breeding back to one hen, now three years old,
of Golden-Penciled Wyandotte-Partridge Cochin blood, resulting from
the third infusion of Partridge Cochin blood. And the blood of this hen
is making itself felt or seen in my entire strain of Golden-Penciled
Wyandottes."
The writer is very glad, through the courtesy of Mr. McGrew, of
having the opportunity of reading and copying this letter written by
Mr. Cornell himself. It gives in greater detail than we have ever seen
published the make-up of the
Brackenbury-Cornell or Eastern strain
of Partridge Wyandottes. To one who
will take the trouble to make a breeding-
chart, starting at the finish and working
back, it will become evident that there
is but a very small per cent. of Wyan-
dotte blood represented, Partridge.
Cochin being one-half of the first cross,
also one-half of each of several of the
later crosses. Mr. Cornell also expresses
his belief that the male used in the
second cross was "a mixture of Rose-Comb Brown Leghorn, Partridge
Cochin, and Golden Wyandotte blood." He also intimates the possibility
that, in one of his later crosses, there might have been a trace of Indian
Game blood. This is the first time we have ever seen it officially
admitted that there was any blood in this strain except Cochin,
Wyandotte, and Hamburg, although we have long been sure that there
was some Indian Game blood in the later crosses of the Western strain.

ܟܢܐ
Drawn from iife by Burgess
A PAIR OF PARTRIDGE WYANDOTTES
Prize-winners. Bred and owned by W. A. Doolittle, Kansas
Before passing any further comments upon either strain, we will
now hear briefly from the western contingent, and just here the writer
will give his own testimony and experience, although he makes no claim
to have even helped originate this variety. He purchased one cock and
two hens (also five pullets which he promptly discarded) from the widow
of his old-time friend, Joseph McKeen, of Wisconsin. These birds were
702
The Poultry Book
three and four years old, having been, it was said, bred by Mr. McKeen
himself and consigned to the care of a neighbor. The cock was a large
bird of true Wyandotte shape and coloring. The four-year-old hen
was not of good shape, being too slender in body and too long in back.
The three-year-old hen, said to have been a daughter of the older pair,
surpassed her mother in size and shape, but did not equal her in plumage.
We succeeded in raising a few good pullets and one cockerel from
this mating—the eggs being few in number, late in the season, and not
very fertile. The next season we mated these two females and their
best pullets to a cock that we purchased along with two females of Thiem.
This cock, although bearing unmistakable evidence of having some Indian
Game in his blood, was of so true a Wyandotte type as to win, the succeeding
year, at Madison Square, second prize, also the special for best-shaped
male. We make mention of these early experiences with this variety
because these birds — the first we owned-corroborated our preconceived
opinion that the Western strain contained much more of Wyandotte and
much less of Coohin blood than the Eastern strain. This was our opinion
of them from correspondence we had had with the western originator,
Joseph McKeen, before the year 1890, wherein he detailed to us some of
his experiences in making the Golden Wyandottes and some of his expec-
tations concerning a "new variety" he was then working on which would
'prove both a surprise and a delight to Wyandotte fanciers.”
Mr. McKeen died in 1896. His friend and neighbor, Mr. Thiem, had
been working some with him, and it was Mr. McKeen's request that Mr.
Thiem should have some of his best birds. These Thiem took with him
to Iowa.
(C
From an article written by W. A. Doolittle, president of the Partridge
Wyandotte Club, we quote the following as to their origin and breeding:
“There are two strains of Partridge Wyandottes, usually termed the
Eastern and Western strains. The writer lays no claim as to having
originated either strain, though I took hold of the Western strain virtually
where the originator left off at the time of his death in 1896, and Mr.
Thiem and I are to-day breeding a strain virtually our own. The origina-
tor of the Golden Wyandottes, McKeen and Thiem, originated the Western
strain of the Partridge Wyandottes. The first cross was made in 1884,
when they used a Golden Wyandotte male and a Partridge Cochin female
for the purpose of toning up the color of their Goldens; in 1888 they again
The Wyandottes
703
3
made the cross, this time with the definite object of producing the Part-
ridge Wyandotte, and no doubt this was the first cross made by any one
with the view of producing the Partridge Wyandotte. The Western
strain was the first to be introduced, which they were by an illustrated
article in a leading poultry journal in November, 1894, and they were first
exhibited the same season at the Mid-Continental Poultry Show at Kansas
City, Missouri.
66
At the time of McKeen's death, it was his request that Thiem should
have two or three of the best females. The remainder of his best yard I
purchased, and since that time it has been my pleasure to carry on the
work so well begun in perfecting this variety. The first cross used to
produce the Partridge Wyandotte was undoubtedly the same in both
Eastern and Western strains. Into the Eastern strain, however, they
have introduced the blood of the Golden-Penciled Hamburg, while Thiem
and myself introduced blood into our strain that increased their weight,
added more and firmer breast meat, and at the same time gave us clean,
bright-yellow legs on our females as well as on the males. The blood intro-
duced gave us a closer, firmer-fitting comb than did the Hamburg cross.
All of this we have obtained without reducing the egg-yield, for, when
breeders of more than forty years' experience write that they have never
seen such layers as our Partridge Wyandottes, it means something."
Concerning methods of breeding, Mr. Doolittle also writes under date.
of December, 1903: "In selecting breeding-stock, first consider the quali-
ties of the Wyandotte, good Wyandotte shape, yellow legs, bay eyes,
size, and comb, and do not overlook the all-important quality, vigor; and
you should well consider ancestry, for remember a high-scoring specimen
coming from a long line of meritorious ancestors is far more valuable than
is the bird from a chance mating that happens to be good. The former
can be depended upon to transmit its desirable features, while the latter
is wholly unreliable. So much depends on the male bird that great care
should be taken in his selection. Remember, he is one-half of your pen,
and, if he is a strong line-bred bird, he will stamp his characteristics on your
flock, and especially so if the females have not been so bred. After satisfy-
ing yourself that he has the above qualities to a marked degree, next look
to his plumage. See that he has a good dark, slate under-color throughout,
and, above all, avoid white in any part of the plumage. I have no use
for white in the plumage of a Wyandotte, except, of course, a white variety,

704
The Poultry Book
for it is a serious defect and the hardest one to breed out. It is unnecessary
for me to describe the markings of the various sections. The Standard
does this, and here, let
me state, procure one
of the revised Standards
as soon as published, for
the changes relating to
the Partridge Wyan-
dotte I consider very
important ones. The
females should possess
vigor, Wyandotte shape,
and be as near to the
Standard as it is possible
in all requirements. See
that they have good
dark under-color, are
well-penciled through-
out. I like to see the
females with well-
penciled hackles, at
least the lower hackle.
The new Standard al-

PARTRIDGE WYANDOTTE PULLET, GREATLY REDUCED, AND
SOME OF HER FEATHERS
Bred and owned by W. A. Doolittle, Kansas. Prize-winner at the Boston show
lows this, and it is, in fact, a necessity if well-penciled birds are desired."
There was great diversity of opinion as to what the name of this
new variety should be-almost as much as eighteen years previous, when
the Silvers were admitted. Mr. Cornell was very anxious that Golden-
Penciled be the name, so as to compare and contrast them with another
variety on which he was then working, which has since been admitted,
without opposition as to name-the Silver-Penciled Wyandottes.
In 1900, The Partridge Wyandotte Club was organized. At that
time there were more birds shown and more prizes won by the Western
strain at the large eastern shows than by the Eastern strain. At the
Chicago meeting of the American Poultry Association in 1901, application
having been properly made, and a grand show of birds, all of them strictly
of the Western strain, being present as illustrating their type, they were
admitted as Partridge Wyandottes without a dissenting vote.
The Wyandottes
705
Concerning that action, Theodore Hewes soon thereafter wrote as
follows: "There has been more or less contention over the origin of the
Partridge Wyandottes, and many articles have gone the rounds. The
eastern breeders, under the leadership of the late Ezra Cornell, were loud
in their claim, and asked that they be named the Golden-Penciled Wyan-
dottes. T. E. Orr, E. O. Thiem, W. A. Doolittle, and a number of other
western men were equally strong in their claims as to the true origin of
the variety, and asked that they be accepted by the American Poultry
Association as Partridge Wyandottes. At the meeting of the American
Poultry Association in Chicago, 1901, this variety was admitted to the
Standard as Partridge Wyandottes. The Standard adopted at that time
described the shape as being the same as that of other varieties of the
Wyandottes, and the color description was similar to the Partridge Cochin
in both male and female.
"While this practically settled the matter so far as the name is con-
cerned, there was more or less dissatisfaction expressed among our eastern
breeders, some of them feeling that they had been taken advantage of
in the meeting. However, we believe this sentiment is fast losing ground,
and the breeders throughout the country are beginning to realize that the
name of Partridge Wyandotte fits the breed as well as, or better than, any
name that could have been supplied. They have, in reality, the true
Partridge Cochin color, and there is no question but that this breed
enters largely into their make-up, and it is due to that breed, partly, that
they are as valuable a fowl as they have proved to be. While controversies.
in regard to the origin of the breed, which heralded the approach of this
variety, are not, as a rule, calculated to do any great amount of good, it is
a fact that they materially assisted in making this variety popular. But
it was its good qualities, more than this system of booming, that held
it up after it was once introduced.
""
The writer, and, so far as we know, all breeders of the Western strain
(a majority of the fourteen signers to the application for their admission
lived east of Ohio, and six of them in or east of New York City), have
tried at all times to harmonize the differences between the factions, and
to bring all fanciers of these beautiful birds to united and hearty work
for their more general recognition. Shortly after their admission, the
following was written by me for one of the poultry journals. We believe
it reflected the sentiment of the best breeders:
706
The Poultry Book
“Your request is at hand for an article on this youngest member
of the Wyandotte family, admitted to the Standard of Perfection at the
Chicago meeting of the American Poultry Association. It really seems
to me that so much has been said through the poultry press, the past two
years, concerning this variety, that the public must desire a rest.
"Inasmuch, however, as most that has been said about them has
been of a controversial nature, in which controversy I have never written
a single line for publication, perhaps a few comments from me may not
be out of place. The fact that the twenty-seven Partridge Wyandottes
shown at Chicago were the recipients of so many favorable comments
from old-time breeders of Wyandottes and Partridge Cochins, the former
admiring their fine Wyandotte shape and the latter their handsome Part-
ridge Cochin penciling, convinces me that the fanciers of this new variety
acted wisely in delaying their application for admission to the Standard
until the strong points of the breed were well fixed. Old-time breeders
of Silver Wyandottes well remember the unfinished condition of that
variety when admitted to the Standard in 1883.
“The Partridge Wyandotte is more fortunate in its initiation. In the
first place, there are less than a dozen fanciers who have pretended to breed
them with care. These men have been neighborly, and have helped each
other to decide upon a type, and to reach it and fix it by an interchange
of their best birds. Secondly: In this work, the shape has been fixed
from the start, in the shape of the other Wyandotte varieties closely
followed. Third: The meat features have not been ignored. Every
one knows that the true Wyandotte carries its covering at the right points,
and, in developing them, the Cochin blood that has been infused has not
been a detriment in holding shape and size. Fourth: Egg-production
has been kept constantly in mind. I know of no new American variety
coming in the past twenty-five years with such flattering egg-records to
back it up. So, combining these four advantages, we have in the Partridge
Wyandotte a bird that commends itself to the practical man who breeds
for the market, as well as to him who dotes on handsome shape, com-
bined with beautiful plumage.
"I have no desire to open any controversy as to who originated
this variety, and am especially opposed to any further discussion of the
proper name for it. This last point has been decided by the supreme
court. Let it rest. All honor to any man who has the brains and the
The Wyandottes
707
perseverance to even help to make so good a sort. Let us all work
together to perfect a variety that has so auspicious a start.
Let us
not imagine that the work is done. Those who have labored so faithfully
in the past are the very ones who can still lead the others in fixing the strong
points. Let every fancier of this variety join the Partridge Wyandotte
Club, and let us all work, hand in hand, for the success of our favorites."
There was a wholesome boom on Partridge Wyandottes immediately
after their admission, and, showing that there is a merit on which it was
based, this boom has continued. The writer sold the cock that won first
at the time of their admission for $60, and another trio for $100. Mr.
Doolittle sold single birds as high as $50 each, and, within the past few
months, single birds have sold as high as $100 each, to go to England,
our English cousins greatly admiring both their shape and their plumage.
There is still a difference in both the shape and plumage of the two
strains, when bred separately. The Eastern surain shows more of the
Cochin type, looser feathering, and, as a rule, we are willing to admit, more
accurate penciling on the backs of the females. The Western strain still
shows a more compact bird, and one that feels more solid in the hand.
It also shows better shape, and richer coloring on the male birds. These
are differences that the judge familiar with both strains will notice the
moment he starts down the Partridge Wyandotte alley; but they are
differences that will gradually disappear. We predict that, within five
years, these differences will be blended and result in Partridge Wyandottes
even handsomer and better than those we now see at our best shows.

I ST.
COCKEREL
INDIANAPOLIS
2ND.
PULLET
CHICAGO
Reproduced by courtesy of Cypher's Incubator Company
TWO PRIZE-WINNING WHITE WYANDOTTES
First cockerel at Indianapolis and second pullet at Chicago. Bred and owned by Charles V. Keeler, Indiana
708
The Poultry Book
SILVER-PENCILED WYANDOTTE *
E. G. Wyckoff, New York
A chance glimpse of a few buff-laced feathers, as related by the
late Ezra Cornell in an article appearing in one of our leading poultry
magazines a few years ago, was enough to excite the interest of that gentle-
man in the work of George H. Brackenbury, of New York State. Mr.
Brackenbury was at that time (1894) absorbed in the work of developing
the now well-known Golden-Penciled or Partridge Wyandottes, and the
idea of the possibility of a silver penciling occurred to Mr. Cornell,
who began operations immediately by mapping out a plan for the
crosses and re-crosses necessary to produce what many fanciers now
consider the most beautiful member of the Wyandotte family yet ad-
mitted to the Standard. Messrs. Cornell and Brackenbury worked to-
gether in the development of the Silver-Penciled, following faithfully,
however, the lines originally mapped out by Mr. Cornell.
The trials and setbacks encountered in the process were many. Natu-
rally, it was necessary that the strongest and best types of birds be selected
for the foundation stock, in order to infuse into the forthcoming variety
the real "blue blood"—and real "blue" blood, even in poultry, reluctantly
lets go of its points of identity. The true characteristics of the ancestral
stock were bound to assert themselves, even after several generations,
and to-day some evidences of the points sought to be discarded appear
from time to time in the young stock. In the main, however, so much care
having been exercised in the selection of the truest and best types of both
males and females for mating purposes, the matings of to-day are certain
to produce a high percentage of specimens, the equal of the parents in all
essential points.
The first matings consisted of a Dark Brahma hen to a Partridge
Wyandotte male, which resulted in Silver females and in Silver males with
red wings. Simultaneously, were mated Dark Brahma and Silver-Penciled
* It is fortunate, indeed, that this splendid variety of Wyandottes came into the
possession of one so thoroughly familiar with the methods and objects of the originator.
From the beginning of the work upon the Silver-Penciled Wyandottes, E. G. Wyckoff, the
author of this section, was intimately associated with Ezra Cornell in its development. As
a result of the careful work of Mr. Wyckoff on the Cornell-Brackenbury strain, the Silver-
Penciled Wyandottes were admitted to the Standard of Perfection at its fall meeting of
1902.—EDITOR.
The Wyandottes
709
Hamburg females to a Silver-Laced Wyandotte male. These matings
produced Wyandotte-Brahmas and Wyandotte-Hamburgs; therefore, the
offspring of the mating of the latter contained one-half Wyandotte, one-
quarter Brahma, and one-quarter Hamburg blood. So far all went well,
and the task seemed half-accomplished, but, indeed, was just begun. While
the object of the labor was the production of a specimen well defined in
the minds of the originators, there appeared at intervals in the process
a variety of colorings, shapes, and markings unsought and many times
inexplicable in own brothers and sisters. The matter of selection then
became a serious one, and the ordeal of "beginning again" frequently called
into play a high quality of judgment and a vast fund of patience such as
few mortals possess. No expense was spared. It was not the idea to intro-
duce this new design of bird by contract and produce a finished article
in the shortest possible time, but rather, by "day labor" and earnest
thought, giving each point the most careful consideration-in fact, to do
everything necessary to bring forth something worth the effort, no matter
how much time it required, and with a history made authentic by the care-
ful records kept.
The known ancestry certainly adds flavor to the fancier's enthusiasm,
and the lineage of very few varieties can be so truly traced as that of the
Silver-Penciled Wyandotte. From 1896 until the time of the death of
Mr. Cornell, in 1902, the writer was intimately associated with him in
business enterprises and in the poultry industry. It was but natural
that the work that he had so well begun should be carried on along the
same familiar lines by his former associate, who later became his successor
by the purchase, from his estate, of Valley View Farm, with its entire
complement of birds, including, intact, the Cornell-Brackenbury strain of
Silver-Penciled Wyandottes. That they have not deteriorated is readily
proven by the past season's show-room record, highest honors having
been accorded them in the largest and best shows of the country.
In the fall of 1903, the writer was invited to send a pen of Silver-
Penciled pullets to Australia, to take part in the Australian Laying
Contest. The invitation was accepted and the birds sent. In commenting
upon the arrival of the shipment, the Astralian Hen has the following
to say: "By s. s. Sonoma, Friday, December 12th, came to Sydney
probably the largest shipment of thoroughbred poultry on record-sixty
birds in all, most of which are to compete in the next International Laying
710
The Poultry Book

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FIRST-PRIZE SILVER-PENCILED WYANDOTTE COCK
Bred and shown at Boston in 1899 by the late Ezra Cornell, New York
م
IGU.
Drawn from life by F. L. Sewell
Competition at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College. Not only is the
shipment, so far as we know, a record in numbers, but it should be also
well up as regards value, and an absolute record in that not one bird was
lost on the voyage. To those who have had anything to do with import-
ing birds, this fact will appeal most strongly, and will do more than any-
thing else to promote a growth in importations of birds from the United
States."
The Wyandottes
711
Of the birds from Valley View Farm, the following was the com-
ment of the same authority: "In the Silver-Penciled Wyandottes sent,
we have birds that deserve all the encomiums heaped upon them in the
land of the Stars and Stripes. With the beautiful color and delicate
pencilings of the Dark Brahma, but minus its gauntness and heavily
feathered legs, we have a breed unsurpassed for genuine beauty, and one
that will probably, in a few years' time, run its near relation-the popular
Partridge very close in public esteem. The birds sent are well penciled,
of grand shape, with good head and comb. Like the bulk of the Partridges,
however, they show smut in leg-color. We welcome them as an exceed-
ingly attractive breed, possessing all the general characteristics of the
other Wyandottes, including, let us hope, their great laying propensities."
A little later on in this article, the "smut in leg-color" is accounted
for. Had cockerels been sent in place of pullets, there would have
been less criticism on this score.
THE MALE
The face, comb and wattles are bright red. The head is silvery white,
and, topping off a neck well rounded, also of silvery white, each hackle-
feather having in the center a black stripe, the outline of which follows the
outline of the feather to its tapering point. There is no white shading
in the center, or black bars or spots on the edge of the feather.
The wing-bows are of the same silvery white, the primaries being
black, with the exception of a delicate edge of white on the lower side
of the lower web. The secondaries are black, with the exception of the
lower half of the lower web, which is silvery white, extending nearly to the
end of the feather, where it stops suddenly, leaving the end of the feather
perfectly black.
The back is of a silvery white in surface color, and must be free
from brown. The brownish tints are likely to crop in, owing to early
Partridge Wyandotte crosses. The saddle feathers are of a silvery white,
and marked in the same manner as the feathers of the hackle, as above
described.
The breast is black. The body and fluff are black, or delicately
tinged with white.
The under-color all the way through is very similar to the "gray dawn
of the morning," and is very rich and silvery in appearance.

712
The Poultry Book

1
2
3
U4
5
6
Arranged by E. G. Wyckoff
Photograph by S. L. Sheldon
FEATHERS TAKEN FROM ORDINARY SILVER-PENCILED WYANDOTTES AS THEY RUN IN THE
YARDS OF THE BREEDER, E. G. WYCKOFF
Female-1, wing; 2, breast; 3, wing; 4, shoulder; 5, back; 6, hackle
The shoulder coverts are black, and the wing coverts a glossy greenish-
black, forming a clearly outlined bar of greenish-black across the folded
wing.
The tail is black, and the sickles are of the same glossy greenish-
black above mentioned. The coverts are glossy greenish-black, or may
be slightly edged with white.
The shanks and toes are yellow, and breed true to color more readily
in the male than in the female.
THE FEMALE
The face, comb, and wattles are a bright red, and the head a silvery
gray. The neck is a silvery white, having a distinct black stripe running
down the center of each feather, almost parallel with the edge. This
stripe may be slightly penciled with the silvery white, though there should
be no black bars or dark spots on the edge of the feather.
The body has generally the same appearance as that of the back,
and the feathers are penciled well down upon the thighs. The fluff is of
the same color as that of the body, with less distinct penciling. The
primaries of the wings are black, with a strip of gray penciling on the
The Wyandottes
713
lower web. In the secondaries, the upper web is of a dull black, the lower
web gray, having a distinct black penciling.
The back is gray, with well-defined dark penciling conforming to the
outline of the feather.
The breast is of the same color as the back, and shows penciling in
well-defined outline, the same running well up the throat.
The shoulder- and wing-coverts have the same colorings as the breast
and body, and are clearly penciled.
The under-color is the same as on the male bird.
The tail is black, except the two highest main tail-feathers, and these
are penciled on the upper edge. The tail-coverts are also well penciled,
and are as well defined in penciling as are the breast and body.
The shanks and toes are yellow, but, in the female especially, the
shank has a tendency to smut.'
With the true Wyandotte shape, and the beautiful, rich penciling of
the Brahma, without the feathery legs, Silver - Penciled Wyandottes
7
8
CC
27

9
12
10
11
Arranged by E. G. Wyckoff
Photograph by S. L. Sheldon
FEATHERS TAKEN FROM ORDINARY SILVER-PENCILED WYANDOTTES AS THEY RUN IN
THE YARDS OF THE BREEDER, E. G. WYCKOFF
Male 7, wing, primary; 8, back; 9, saddle; 10, back; 11, wing, secondary; 12, hackle

714
The Poultry Book
present an appearance which never fails to unusually attract and hold
the attention of all who are interested in poultry of any description.

Any good description is all right in its place, but the foregoing does
not sufficiently emphasize the fact that the silver penciling is to the fancier
the most beautiful penciling to be seen. A glimpse of a sunlit pen of the
Silvers would certainly indicate that the name had been well selected.
The plumage fairly glistens
-even a poor specimen
looks well. The first real
show specimen was ex-
hibited in 1899 at Boston.
This bird was afterward
sent to England, and, since
that time, that country
has captured many choice
specimens. A reliable
English breeder writes
that the "Silver-Penciled
beauties" are much ad-
mired in his country,
though there are com-
paratively few specimens
there as yet.
The policy of Mr.
Cornell in conservatively
"holding back," and in
not attempting to force
early popularity, by scat-
tering the birds broadcast,
has been rigidly followed by his successor.
All culls have been killed,
and only the choicest specimens saved. This plan has prevented the usual
spontaneous boom, and slowly but surely has procured a host of stanch
friends for the new Wyandotte. Of this policy, the California Live Stock
Monthly says:
"The two new varieties of Wyandottes-Partridge and Silver-Penciled
-are forging ahead at a great rate, not only on this coast, but also in the
east. These birds have great producing qualities, as well as being very

Photograph by S. L. Sheldon
SILVER-PENCILED WYANDOTTE COCK
First prize Madison Square Garden, 1904. Bred and exhibited by E. G. Wyckoff
The Wyandottes
715
beautiful to look at, and requiring great skill and patience to produce
birds of the best quality. Most of the new varieties have boomed and
then gone back to the normal demand, many of them never recovering
from the boom. But, in the case of the Silver-Penciled and Partridge
Wyandottes, there has been no boom, but just a steady increase in their
number of admirers. The promoters of these varieties have been very
careful to sell nothing but the best specimens, and to this can be attributed
their growth and good standing in the poultry world."
Distinct marking or penciling is the prime essential to the ideal bird.
The beauty lies in the strength of the contrast between the black and the
white. The tendency is for these colors to run together, or, if not to shade
into each other, to change places entirely. This blending presents an
ashen-gray appearance, and is very undesirable. It has been said that
the Partridge Wyandottes hold the penciling with a nicer precision than
the Silvers, and that there does not seem to be so great a tendency for the
brown and black to blend. We doubt very much that this is so.
It is true,
however, that a minor defect in the Silver penciling is at once and easily
discernible, while a defect of the same magnitude in the Partridge penciling
would require a minute examination in order to discover its presence,
owing to lack of such a striking contrast in the colors. The nicety with
which the mating problem must be handled, on account of this necessary
contrast in colors, makes the task the more interesting, and excites the
enthusiasm of all who undertake it.
A systematic plan of single matings has been followed, and the staunch,
true breeding qualities of the present-day specimen convince us that
such was the safe course to pursue. Perhaps it took longer, but the strik-
ing characteristics which now hold themselves identified closely with the
new dress for the Wyandotte, while, at the same time, withstanding the
strong tendency to exhibit undesirable traits of ancestry, well repay
the additional time spent.
Ja
The Standard calls for "yellow" shanks and skin. This is ofttimes
difficult to obtain, together with the desired white in the feather. The
two colors are really somewhat inconsistent, considering the natural
plumage of the Silver-Penciled Wyandotte, as the yellow pigment is likely
to run into the feather and deaden the bright, clean white necessary to
make up the desired contrast with the black. The male birds seem to hold
the yellow shanks more naturally than the females. If, therefore, the
?
716
The Poultry Book
breeder finds a dusky yellow appearing on the female shanks, he must not
be discouraged; it is nature, and hardly truly objectionable.
Possessed of an unusual share of beauty, they are likewise a general-
utility fowl. They are full, round and plump, and reach maturity quickly.
The standard cock weighs eight and one-half pounds, the hen six and one-
half, the cockerel seven and one-half, and the pullet five and one-half.
Larger birds are often exhibited, and the increase in weight seems
not to have interfered with a high score. The utility bird may be
bred to weight, but the exhibition bird ought not to run above the
standard weights.
As egg-producers there are none better. In our laying-houses the
Silvers, under identical conditions, are on a par with, if not actually ahead
of, the Single-Comb White and Buff Leghorns, and reports from other
breeders indicate great surprise and satisfaction at the egg-yield from this
strain. The eggs are larger than those of the Cochin, or other Wyandottes,
and possess a remarkable degree of fertility.
On the whole, the Silver-Penciled Wyandotte bids fair to become one.
of the greatest of our domestic fowls. "Beauty and utility," surely,
might be more appropriately applied to the Silver-Penciled than to the
Partridge Wyandotte. To the eye of man, in nine cases out of ten, the
former appeals more strongly than the latter. By absolute comparison,
breeding both varieties under equal care and like conditions, the Silver-
Penciled is long strides ahead in coming to an earlier maturity and in
the yield of the egg. In the not far distant future, it need not be sur-
prising if the now ever-present Barred Plymouth Rock shall have to stand
aside to make room for her more beautiful and at least as useful sister,
the Silver-Penciled Wyandotte.
COLUMBIAN WYANDOTTE
The most prominent of the non-standard varieties is a Wyandotte
having the color and markings of the Light Brahma. They are known
as the Columbian Wyandotte. The originator of these, the Rev. B. M.
Briggs, claims to have crossed White Wyandottes and Barred Plymouth
Rocks, whereby he gained the original from which the Columbian has
descended. Mr. Richardson, of Rhode Island, deserves credit for the care
and attention bestowed by him upon the improvement of this beautiful
variety of Wyandottes. This variety, like many other of the Wyandotte
The Wyandottes
717
family, has been handicapped by unusual crosses. The best seen at the
present time seem to have come from a cross of White Wyandottes with
Light Brahmas, and then, again,
with some of the original of
this variety.

The Columbian Wyandottes
of to-day are very
very handsome
fowls. While lacking, some-
what, the very best Wyandotte
shape, they are fast being
brought within the law of true
Wyandotte type and fairly
good Brahma color. They, like
the Brahma, have beautiful
yellow beaks and shanks. This
seems stronger in them than
in any of the other varieties of
the Wyandotte family, and so
soon as they are brought to better
shape and color they will rank
as one of the most beautiful of
the Wyandotte breed, as they
will have the Wyandotte type
and the color and markings of the Light Brahma, which is one of, if not
the most beautiful of, all the parti-colored varieties.
Photograph by S. L. Sheldon
SILVER-PENCILED WYANDOTTE HEN
First prize Madison Square Garden, 1904. Bred and exhibited by
E. G. Wyckoff, New York
BUFF-LACED WYANDOTTE
Of the other varieties of Wyandottes, not yet admitted to the Standard,
we believe the Buff-Laced is the only one, besides the Columbians, that
is worthy of mention and description. These originated with Ira C. Keller,
of Ohio. He has also another variety that he is developing, called the
Violet-Laced. Concerning these varieties Mr. Keller writes as follows:
"The Buff-Laced Wyandotte is surely one of the most beautiful
and strikingly handsome fowls. They are pure Wyandotte blood, and have
all the good qualities of a Wyandotte, and are the best layers of all. It is
now ten years since we commenced to breed them. They take the eye
of all who see them. They are very showy, being exactly like Golden
718
The Poultry Book
Wyandottes, only with buff or golden-buff ground-color, laced with white
instead of black. We have exported most of the birds we had to spare,
winning at the shows in England, where they have taken a strong footing.
They breed as true to lacing as Goldens or Silvers, often lacing far better
than either. We breed also Violet-Laced Wyandottes, which we have
also developed, after twelve years' careful breeding. They are like the
Golden, only blue instead of black, making a handsome fowl."
COMMENTS BY THE JUDGE
As most of our illustrations are from actual photographs, we have
an opportunity to pass some comments on the shape and coloring of the
birds represented. It must be borne in mind that it is a very hard matter
to photograph chickens. Seldom can they be induced to pose naturally,
and often their defects are greatly exaggerated at the moment the camera
catches them.
Silver Wyandottes. In the large cut on page 661 we have a fine,
large cockerel, one of rather bulky type, very silvery hackle and saddle,
the former showing good stripe and the latter large, open centers. His
breast-lacing is excellent and free from white edging, but the centers are
quite pointed rather than oval. His first lacing on wing is good, but the
second gets too heavy and shows a tendency toward spangles. In shape,
he is rather long and straight in back, and his tail too high and pointed.
He carries quite a good comb.
We have represented, on page 655, a very typical Wyandotte.
He has the deep, round body and the low-set keel; an excellent shaped
neck and back. His worst fault on shape is that his tail is rather too long.
He is strong in a silvery top-color and excellent breast- and wing-lacing.
The cockerel shown on page 657 is quite good on his top lines;
shows a good comb and a well-spread tail. His main defect is in shape of
breast. He needs much rounding out in the lower front lines to balance
his heavy posterior and to conform to the requirement, "a low-set keel."
His wing-lacing is particularly good.
G
The Silver Wyandotte pullet shown on page 659 is unfortunate
in having been photographed with a full crop. Without that handicap,
she has a low, well-rounded breast. She is a trifle long in back and body,
and rather rough about the head. She is a remarkably good specimen
of strong, heavy lacing, yet showing large, white centers.
The Wyandottes
719
The hen shown on page 667 is excellent in shape, except that her
tail is too long and is carried too high. Her wings and back, also body
and thighs, are remarkably fine, as illustrating the white oval centers
with narrow, Seabright lacing. As is nearly always the case in a female
of this style, she "goes off" in breast to crescentic tips, instead of
complete lacings.
On page 669 is shown a pair of nice, immature pullets. The one

CIAL POULTRY
From a photograph
SILVER-PENCILED WYANDOTTE PULLETS IN THE YARDS OF E. G. WYCKOFF, NEW YORK
Some of these pullets were exported to Australia for the 1904 laying competition
standing shows a back fine in both shape and color. The one in the hand
has a fine hackle and wing.
The two pullets pictured on page 672 show excellent hackle-, wing-
and back-lacing.
White Wyandottes.-In our half-tone on page 681 we have a
treat for lovers of White Wyandottes in the reproduction of "Dodo."
Being a three-fourths front view, with the camera focussed on the front of
his wing, the rear part of his tail is not brought out strongly, and its dis-
tance gives it the appearance of being slightly pinched; but we can hardly
believe this possible on a bird so strong in shape of breast, neck, back,

720
The Poultry Book
wings, body, and shanks. Notice the depth and rotundity of form and the
wide-spread, short shanks. He looks as if he was mostly choice meat.
Note the vigor and energy indi-
cated in his head points.
The illustration shown on
page 674 is from one of the
finest photographs of a fowl that
I have ever seen. The half-tone
in the hands of the engraver was
slightly damaged on both back
and breast. This is nearly an
entire side-view, and I commend
it to Wyandotte students as nearly
perfect in shape. One sees the full,
rounded curves in every section.
Notice the breast, back, and body
particularly; also the low-set keel,
although this has been marred
slightly. Breed toward this type.
In the half-tone on
on page
676 we have a stylish cockerel.
This photograph was taken when
he was quite immature. He is of the strain mentioned as "slow of
maturity," but when fully grown attains fine size and shape. As he
stands before us, the chief criticism is that he is a trifle long in back and
body. When hackle- and saddle-feathering are full, the back will appear
shorter. His carriage is what we have described as "slightly tilted
forward," and is very much to be admired.
We present, on page 679, a picture to show the contrast in breast
and body with the shape of those sections given on page 676. This
bird, seen from above, is a well-rounded specimen, but, viewed sidewise,
his breast is too high.

From a photo
BUFF WYANDOTTE COCKEREL
Bred and owned by Ackley and Page, Illinois. First at Chicago, 1903
The hen shown on page 685 is of a very excellent shape. If we
could shorten her back and body a trifle, she could be marked as ideal.
Buff Wyandottes.-On pages 688 and 691 we have remarkable
contrasts of shape. The former is about as good as is often obtained
with the camera, and the latter is extremely faulty. On page 688 is
The Wyandottes
721
a youngster without tail-development, yet of typical Wyandotte shape
in every section. We saw, at New York, the fine, large bird shown on
page 691. He had a good head and back, somewhat defective on
breast, but not so bad as the picture shows him. The owner of this bird
showed another at New York that almost escaped without mention; yet
we would have given twice as much for it as for the one that won first prize.
Partridge Wyandottes.-Two very good birds are represented on
pages 694 and 697. The former is better in shape of back, tail, and
breast; the latter, in shape of comb and shanks. Both are good in shape of
body. The camera always fails to show the nice color-points of a brown
bird. The illustration on page 699 tells us nothing about color, but
it furnishes a good idea
of what modern writers
like to call the egg-type.
Note the wedge-shaped,
rather long body, with
the extra-large size of the
posterior portions of the
body. This hen has the
low keel, but carries a
high tail for a Wyandotte.
We must depend for
the penciling of the
Partridge Wyandottes upon
the cut on page 701. This
represents one of Mr.
Burgess's best efforts at
delineating Partridge
Wyandotte coloring. On
page 704 we have the finer
penciling of this variety
very accurately reproduced.
Silver-Penciled Wyan-
dottes.-The cut on page
710 represents one of Mr.
Sewell's first reproductions of this variety. The bird is too high in breast
to be a typical Wyandotte. The showing of hackle-, saddle- and wing-

From a photograph
TWO GOOD BUFF WYANDOTTE HENS
Bred and owned by Ackley and Page, Illinois. First and third prize-winners
at Chicago, 1903

722
The Poultry Book.
color on this bird is excellent. Mr. Wyckoff says this cock was the
first really good exhibition bird of this variety ever exhibited. He was
the first Silver-Penciled Wyandotte exported to England.
On page 714 is represented a New York winner. He is a finely
colored specimen, but partakes too much of the rectangular shape of the
Dorking to be of true
Wyandotte type. He
has the low-set keel,
but his long, level
back, angling sharply
into the tail, marks his
worst defect.
The picture on
page 717 is a fine
specimen of the
Wyandotte female.
In both shape and
color she is excellent.
It is seldom a better
photograph of a fowl
is obtained. Barring
a little thickness at
the throat and a little
thinness at the tail,
this shape is one of a
true type.
The cock illus-
trated on this page
represents one of the
most massive birds I remember ever having handled. He was suf-
fering from frosted wattles at the New York show in January, 1904,
and had a somewhat discouraged look, but in shape, size, and color
he is typical of all that is best in White Wyandottes.
From a photograph
TYPICAL WHITE WYANDOTTE COCK
Bred and shown by Mr. Jackson, Massachusetts. Now owned by M. F. Delano, New Jersey
Headed first pen at New York, 1904



Harri, on winn
1902
HODE
BLACK ORPINGTONS.
The property of the late MR. JOSEPH PARTINGTON.
THE MODERN JAVA*
HERE has been, and is still, much confusion about the
origin of the Java fowl. The article on Javas by Mr.
Weir, published in the English edition of this work,
does not fit the American Java at all. The modern Javas
in this country are the direct descendants of stock which
came from Missouri more than fifty years ago. The fowls bred by Luther
Tucker and son, of Albany County, New York, about fifty years ago,
were originally called Javas; but, in reality, they were feather-legged,
and were afterward called Cochins. It is now a well-established fact
that the so-called Java blood said to be in the Plymouth Rock make-up
was of the Tucker strain, and in no way connected with the Java of
to-day. It is the modern Java we are considering, and the one men-
tioned by Dr. Bennett and quoted by Mr. Weir bears no relation to
our present-day Javas. Dr. Bennett, who wrote about 1853, is quoted
by Mr. Weir as follows:

"The great Java fowl is seldom seen in this country in its purity;
excellent specimens may be seen at Charles Burton's, at Plymouth, or at
E. T. Packhard's, at East Bridge, which he purchased in New York as
'Malays.' The pair are now one year old, and the cock weighs ten pounds,
the pullet nine pounds and a quarter. These, like all other pure Java
fowls, are of a black or auburn color, with very large black legs, single
comb, and thin wattles; they are good layers, and their eggs are very large
and well flavored; their gait is slow and majestic; they are, in fact, among
the most valuable fowls that we have in this country, and are frequently
described in books as 'Spanish fowls,' than which nothing is more erroneous.
They are as distinctly an original breed as the pure-blooded Great Malay,
and possess about the same qualities as to excellence, but fall rather
short of them as to beauty. This, however, is a matter of taste. Some
consider the pure Java superior to all other large fowls so far as beauty is
concerned. Their plumage is decidedly rich."
* This chapter on Javas has been entirely rewritten. The ideas expressed by Mr. Weir
do not conform to our views and notions relative to the origin and make-up of the various
varieties of Javas.-EDITOR.
723
724
The Poultry Book
In a recent letter, J. Y. Bicknell, the well-known Java breeder and
expert, says: "This Malay business referred to by Dr. Bennett has no
bearing whatever on the modern Java. When I was a young man, we had
fowls called Java Games which resembled the Malay, but the latter is so
distinct in make-up and general characteristics that the English article
should be thrown overboard altogether. In fact, it relates to a fowl
entirely different except in name. The Malay is more like the Indian Game,
and cannot compare at all in shape with the Java. I remember the Java
Game, as it was called, away back in the sixties. It looked much like
the Indian Games I have bred."
The standard for the modern Java is the same as for the Plymouth
Rocks. Knowing the quality of both breeds, those who made the Standard
placed them equal in size. There are only two varieties of Javas, the
Black and the Mottled. There were a few white fowls, bred as Javas and
put into the Standard, but they were soon dropped. In 1885, Henry
Turch exhibited White Javas at Chicago. They were sports from the
Blacks. When admitted to the Standard, its qualifications called for
dark-willow legs and feet." Here Mr. Turch experienced great diffi-
culty. A majority of his white chicks showed either a slate or orange-
colored legs. It was next to impossible to get a dark-willow or greenish-
black leg. After a few years' experimentation along this line, Mr. Turch
gave it up and the variety was lost.
(C
--
ORIGIN OF THE BLACK JAvas
The early history of the Black Javas was given in the American
Farmer, Volume II., published in 1882. J. Y. Bicknell wrote the article
mentioned above. In a recent letter to the American editor he said:
"Although written more than twenty years ago, the article on the origin
of the Javas printed in the American Farmer remains. substantially the
same to-day. The statement can be relied on all the way through."
As this article has not been extensively circulated, the main facts are
quoted as follows: "About thirty years ago (1852) a family living in
Missouri came in possession of three eggs from the yard of a celebrated
doctor who delighted in the ownership of a few fine fowls called Javas.
The doctor would neither sell the progeny nor consent to having it grace
the yards of his neighbors. His coachman 'borrowed' the three eggs
mentioned above, and from them the American Javas have all descended.
The Modern Java
725

Photograph by Edwin C. Powell
AN AMERICAN BLACK JAVA COCK
Position rather awkward, but a splendid bird. Bred and owned by J. R. Jones, of Connecticut
They were first brought into Dutchess County, New York, about twenty-
five years ago (1857), by a family removing thence from Missouri. About
fifteen years since (1867) they were brought into Orleans County, New
York, by the same family, where the birds have been bred in large
numbers ever since. All this time no fresh blood has been introduced, all
crossings having been obtained by different matings of the same breed.
"Most breeds of fowls are made of crosses. When one type is de-
cided upon, we must keep clear of foreign blood to retain that type. All
crossing, whether by one or more breeders, must be from the original
stock. That is just what has been done with the Black Javas. Their
manifest vitality strikes us forcibly at first sight. Until three or four
years since, they have been bred in comparative obscurity, yet have been
noted for their large size, quick maturity, hardiness, and beauty. Their
color is a rich, lustrous black, with a beautiful green shading; comb single;

726
The Poultry Book
shanks black, approaching willow, free from feathers. The bottoms of
the feet are always yellow, corresponding with the color of the skin.
When served on the table the flesh does not present that objectionable
dark color common to Spanish and some other breeds. It is equal to the
Plymouth Rock in every particular.
"At the outset let it be understood that Javas are not of foreign
origin, but are an Amer-
ican fowl and deserve an
American name; still,
the name has nothing to
do with their merits or
demerits. Modern Javas
bear no relation to the
Plymouth Rock. The
Java side of the latter
was in reality a Black
Cochin, and merged into
the Cochin class where it
properly belongs. Let us
not confound the so-
called Javas of 'ye olden
times' with those of the
present day. They are
entirely unlike Cochins
in shape and style, and
in almost every particu-
lar. Our American Javas
have characteristics of
their own, differing from
any other known breed, clearly demonstrating that they are indebted to
no other recognized variety for their existence. They present large
size, long bodies, and deep, full breast. This is just what is required
for usefulness, hardiness, and superior table qualities.
"In breeding them, care has been exercised in selecting birds of cer-
tain shape and a good degree of vigor. Their vitality and activity are rarely
equaled and never surpassed by fowls of equal size. Notwithstanding
these facts, no high fence is necessary to keep Javas in bounds. In my
Photograph by Edwin C. Powell
MOTTLED JAVA COCK OF GOOD FORM
Bred and owned by J. R. Jones, of Connecticut
The Modern Java
727
experience with nearly everything in the line of domestic fowls, I have
never found a breed better adapted to close quarters, nor one that could
resist the attacks of disease with more fortitude. I never lost one with
any disease.
"In selecting breeding - stock, chocse birds with straight combs,
brilliant black plumage, black shanks, and dark-colored eyes. Willow
shanks are tolerated, but are objectionable in young Javas. In old male
birds, however, we can seldom avoid them. Never breed from red feathers.
Better allow a little white than red. The Standard calls for brilliant red
comb, correct for male birds, but some of the striking characteristics of
the breed are black comb, face, and wattles among females. Pullets
should always have them. If retained at maturity, so much the better.
I have a few two-year-old hens with comb, face, and wattles nearly black.
Kill all birds that show striking defects. Retain only first-class ones for
breeding. When first hatched, and until they molt their first feathers,
Javas will show very much white, but when matured every white
feather should disappear."
THE MOTTLED JAVAS
Referring to the Mottled Javas in the same article, Mr. Bicknell says:
"This valuable acquisition to our poultry was originated ten years since
(1872) by crossing a large white hen with a Black Java cock. The hen
was selected from a flock of large white fowls highly prized for their superior
laying and table qualities. They had been bred pure for many years,
but were unlike anything described in the Standard. The first cross,
although not intended for the purpose of forming a new breed, devel-
oped qualities worthy of cultivation.
Although accidental, the cross that produced this new variety was
in harmony with the principle that both parents come from established
strains. Now we find them breeding with as much uniformity as many
of our old-established breeds. In color they are black-and-white, closely
resembling Houdans in this particular, but in no other. The color should
be broken black-and-white throughout-not a large patch of black followed
by patches of white, but both evenly distributed. If either predominates
it should be the former; yet we find, as with Houdans, some will be too
light and some too dark in color. Their history, after describing the
Black Javas, must necessarily be short, for the general characteristics
، ،

728
The Poultry Book
of each are very nearly alike. Yet I think the fresh blood introduced
by the white hen has a tendency to give the Mottles an advantage over
the Blacks in laying
qualities; at least, I have
found it so with my
stock. As they have de-
scended from parents
with yellow shanks on cne
side and black on the
other, I find both colors
are common, yet neither
disqualifies. The shanks
should be yellow, blotched
with black; but even
when black alone appears
the bottoms of the feet
are always yellow.
"In selecting stock,
utility first and then
beauty should be the rule.
From an old drawing by permission
MOTTLED JAVAS OF TWENTY-FIVE YEARS AGO
Bred and owned by J. Y. Bicknell, of New York
The former in domestic fowls consists in hardiness, early maturity, and
large size, with good laying and table qualities. Almost any variety
possesses one or more of these qualities, but a combination of all, with
beauty added, can hardly be expected. No domestic fowl, according to
my opinion, approaches nearer to this high standard than a flock of well-
selected Mottled Javas. They are certainly attractive, and at first sight
impress one with their proud and noble appearance.
"The breeding-stock should be selected with a view to large size,
uniformity in markings, small combs, and, if possible, with yellow shanks
blotched with black. They like the black variety, were bred very care-
lessly regarding fine points by those who accidentally produced the original
stock; but careful breeders are improving them from year to year, and
even now the uniformity of markings is equal to that of the Houdan.
Improvements cannot be expected unless great care is observed in crossing
and mating.
"Javas are certainly adapted to the farmer who gives his fowls free
range and good quarters-one who desires large profits in eggs and flesh.
The Modern Java
729
No better choice can be made by him who has only a small yard and likes
a combination of beauty and utility.
66
'The type for Black Javas is, body long and broad; breast deep and
full; comb single, straight, and of medium size; eyes brown, the darker
the better; shanks black, or black approaching willow; plumage rich,
lustrous black throughout."
AN ENGLISH AUTHORITY
The best authority on the breed in England, according to Mr. Weir,
is Joseph Pettipher, of Banbury, who has kept Black Javas for many
years. He states that although there are two varieties in America—the
Black and the Mottled-only the former has found its way into England,
and the latter are little kept even in America; consequently, he confines
his remarks to the Blacks:
"Black Javas are by no means a new introduction. Lewis Wright
refers to them in the original edition of his 'Poultry Book,' quoting Ameri-
can authorities as to their use in the manufacture of the Plymouth Rock,
which at that time were looked upon as an established breed. [As already
shown, this was not true-Editor.]
"The first importation into England was made in 1885 by Joseph
Pettipher. Several other pens were imported soon after. There are at
present numbers of these useful birds scattered about the country, although
for some reason unexplained they have never become popular as a show
variety. As a utility fowl the Black Java stands out as a valuable breed,
of a rather more than medium size, compact in shape, very full of breast
meat and well clothed in that respect in other parts, and this of a fine and
juicy quality; it makes a good table-fowl, while as an egg producer it is
very superior to some; besides which, it is very hardy, a patient sitter, and
a careful mother.
'The plumage is close-fitting to the body, something approaching
the style of the so-called 'club type' Langshan, with none of the loose
feathering of the black fowl named the Orpington; and, consequently, to
a degree, it looks of less size than it really is, while on handling it will be
found both heavy and very fleshy. The cocks weigh eight to ten pounds
and the hens six to eight pounds; the head is of medium size, with a rather
small, stoutly made single comb evenly serrated, a peculiar feature being
that the serrations commence farther from the beak than is the case with
((
730
The Poultry Book
ordinary fowls, giving a kind of smooth appearance to the front of the
comb which is especially noticeable in the cocks; the eye is rich dark-brown,
its brightness and lustre being particularly noticeable, so much so as to
call for comment from even non-fanciers on seeing the breed for the first
time; the earlobes are red, the legs black in birds of the year, with a ten-
dency to willow with increasing age; the tread of the feet should be yellow;
legs (shanks) moderately short, any inclination to stiltiness to be specially
avoided. In point of fact, a distinctive feature of the Java is its compact
appearance, which outwardly denotes its usefulness as a general or
'all-round' fowl.
"The Java, having such numerous qualities and being somewhat hand-
some in appearance, only requires to be better known to become largely
in request; it has never been 'puffed,' forced, 'clubbed,' or in any way
advertised for the purpose of gaining public notice, and no reliable or unre-
liable assertions made as to its superiority; but it has so far made its
way, though perhaps slowly, into its present position by the excellence of
the breed, which has thus enabled it to have and maintain a foothold among
the fanciers' fowls of England."
RHODE ISLAND REDS *
EW new varieties or breeds of fowls have enjoyed a more
quickly gained prominence than has come to the present
up-to-date Rhode Island Reds. They have been brought
into line by breeders known as utility men, who claim for
them all the requirements that go to make the general-
purpose fowl.
Ardent admirers do not hesitate, apparently, in sober
honesty to claim that they are better egg-producers than the other
American varieties. Breeders of Rhode Island Reds that have kept
Leghorns under the same conditions claim they are the equal of a Leghorn
in egg-production, and those that kill for market claim the carcass has a
small percentage of entrails. No breed ever had a club all the members
of which were more sincere admirers of its fowl. Dr. N. B. Aldrich, of
Massachusetts, in an article in the catalogue of the Rhode Island Red Club
for 1904, speaks of the origin of Rhode Island Reds. He goes back into
history more than fifty years, and shows that Red Cochin China cocks and
later Red Malay cocks were introduced into sections of Rhode Island and
Massachusetts by certain sea-captains. He refers to a Dr. Alfred Baylies, of
Massachusetts, who was a relative of Walter Baylies, the treasurer of the
Boston Poultry Association. Dr. Baylies, in July, 1846, imported Cochin
Chinas, and, in Bennett's Poultry Book, published in 1850, is recorded as
saying, “the cockerels are generally red.”

A Mr. Taylor, who imported Cochin Chinas in May, 1847, says: “The
imported cock was a peculiar red . . . and the hen a bay or reddish-brown."
We find thus a record of Red Cochin China males almost sixty years ago.
The sea-captains brought home just such specimens to Little Compton,
* We are indebted to Dr. N. B. Aldrich, of Massachusetts, for many of the facts relative
to the early history of the Rhode Island Reds. W. J. Drisko, Secretary of the Rhode Island
Red Club, has made many valuable suggestions and furnished part of the illustrations used
in this chapter. In his latest work, entitled Our Poultry," Mr. Weir did not give this
promising breed the prominence it should have had and deserved. Mr. Weir says: Good
as the Rhode Island Reds are said to be, and probably are, it is very doubtful, for many
reasons, if they will gain a lasting position in England. But let none prophesy. Time will
prove this as it does much else. As yet we have no English standard of the breed." This
chapter has been entirely rewritten from an American point of view by the editor.
"C
<<
735
732
The Poultry Book
Rhode Island, and Westport, Massachusetts. Later, they brought home
the great Malay fowl from Asia. In Little Compton was introduced what
was spoken of as Red Malays. These Red Cochin China cocks and the
Red Malay cocks were selected and bred with the flocks of fowls in Little
Compton fifty and sixty years ago, the same as the red cock is selected
there to-day. Later, in some sections, Rose-Comb Brown Leghorn blood
was introduced. Whereas, it is quite true that other blood at times has
been mixed in, the fact
remains that the utility
poultry farmer of this sec-
tion for nearly sixty years
has been selecting to head
his flock a hardy red
cock of a type that showed
vigor. That this red cock
dates back to the origin
given above seems to be
beyond dispute.
There is no need of
claiming the reds are а
mixture of this, that or
the other breed; they are
the result of fifty years of
careful out-breeding, and
it would be better for the
stamina of many of our
breeds if they had been
bred on the same plan,
there were practically no
The combs that prevail
instead of in-bred. Dr. Aldrich states that
Pea-Comb Rhode Island Reds ten years ago.
are rose and single. In fact, these are the only combs that have
been recognized by the Rhode Island Red Club. It is difficult to
describe the color of Rhode Island Reds. The Standard says the males
are "rich brilliant red, except where black is desired. The bird
should be so brilliant in luster as to have a glossed appearance. The
females have the "general surface color lighter than in the male. Except
where black is desired, the color is a rich, even shade of reddish buff,

Ci
ر سے ہے
виль
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190!
Drawn from life by F. L. Sewell
SINGLE-COMB RHODE ISLAND RED CCCK
Owned by C. M. Bryant, Massachusetts. First at Boston and New York shows in 1901
""
Rhode Island Reds
733
darker than the so-called golden buff. The female is not so brilliant in
luster as the male."
In times past, criticism has been made that these fowls have a wide
range of color.
The answer to this statement is that they vary "only
in shade of color"; and this variation is fast disappearing by the present
careful breeding. The American Poultry Association has admitted the
Single-Comb variety of Rhode Island Reds to the Standard; but the Rhode
Island Red Club still recognize two, the Rose- and the Single-Comb
varieties. Most members of the club are against the Pea-Comb Reds, and
well they might be, if recent exhibits are fair samples of them.
STANDARD FOR THE RHODE ISLAND REDS
The following copyrighted standard for the Rhode Island Reds was
adopted by the Rhode Island Red Club at its 1903 meeting, and is reproduced
herewith from the club's catalogue by permission of Secretary W. J.
Drisko:
"The Single-Comb variety was admitted to the Standard by the
American Poultry Association at its February meeting in 1904. The
Standard adopted by the American Poultry Association is substantially
the same as below, differing mainly in the wording.
Disqualifications.—Feather or down on shanks or feet or unmistakable
indications of a feather having been plucked from the same; badly lopped
combs; more than four toes on either foot; entire absence of main tail-
feathers; two absolutely white (so-called wall or fish) eyes; wry or squirrel
tails; a feather entirely white that shows in the outer plumage; ear-lobes
showing more than one-half the surface permanently white. This does
not mean the pale ear-lobe, but the enamelled white. Diseased specimens,
crooked backs, deformed beaks, shanks and feet other than yellow or red
horn color. A pendulous crop shall be cut hard. Under all disqualifying
clauses, the specimen shall have the benefit of the doubt.
(C
"Standard Weights.—Cock, eight and one-half pounds; hen, six and
one-half pounds; cockerel, seven and one-half pounds; pullet, five pounds.
Apparent vigor is to be regarded with the consideration of shape.
SHAPE OF MALE
"Head. Of medium size and breadth.
“Beak.—Short and regularly curved.
J
(6
734
The Poultry Book
Eyes. Sight perfect, and unobstructed by breadth of head or comb.
“Comb:-Single, medium in size, set firmly upon the head, perfectly
straight and upright, free from side sprigs, with five even and well-defined
serrations, those in front and rear smaller than those in the center, of con-
siderable breadth where it is fixed to the head.
(C
"Comb.-Rose, low, firm on the head, top oval in shape and surface
covered with small points, terminating in a small spike at the rear.
comb to conform to the general curve of the head.
The
"Wattles.—Medium and equal in length, moderately rounded.
"Ear-Lobes.-Well developed. Symmetry of proportion in head
adjuncts is to be considered.
“Neck.—Of medium length and carried slightly forward, not arched
backward. It is covered with abundant hackle, flowing over the shoulders,
but not too loosely feathered.
، ،
Back.—Broad, long, and, in the main, nearly horizontal; this hori-
zontal effect being modified by slightly rising curves at hackle and lesser
tail-coverts. Saddle-feathers of medium length and abundant.
((
‘Breast.—Broad, deep, and carried nearly in a line perpendicular to
the base of the beak-at least, it should not be carried anterior to this line.
"Body.-Deep, broad, and long; keel-bone long, straight, and extend-
ing well forward and back, giving the body an oblong look.
"Fluff.-Moderately full, but feathers carried fairly close to the body,
not a Cochin-fluff.
Wings. Of good size, well folded, and the flights carried horizontally.
“Tail.—Of medium length, quite well spread, carried fairly well back,
increasing the apparent length of the bird. Sickles of medium length,
passing a little beyond the main tail-feathers. Lesser sickles and tail-
coverts of medium length and fairly abundant.
“Legs.—Thighs large, of medium length, and well covered with soft
feathers. Shanks of medium length, well rounded, and smooth.
Toes. Straight, strong, well spread, and of medium length.
(6
(C
(6
، 1
'COLOR OF THE MALE
Beak.-Red horn color, or yellow.
Eyes.-Red.
"Face.-Bright red.
“Comb, Wattles and Ear-Lobes.-Bright red.
،،
TRUE
-
Rhode Island Reds
735
"Shanks and Toes.-Yellow or red horn color. A line of red pigment
down the sides of the same is desirable.
desired.
Plumage.-General surface rich brilliant red, except where black is
Free from shaft-
ing, mealy appearance or
brassy effect. Depth of
color (red) is slightly ac-
centuated on wing-bows
and back, but the less
contrast between these
parts and the hackle or
breast, the better: a har-
monious blending is what
is desired. The bird should
be so brilliant in luster as
to have a glossed appear-
ance. Other things being
equal, the specimen having
the deepest and richest red,
salmon, or buff under-color
shall receive the award.
Any smut or white in the
under-color is to be cut hard. The quill of the feather should be red or
salmon. White showing on the outside of the body is to be cut harder than
white that is out of sight. Black is desired in the under-web of the wing-
flights. The main tail-feathers and two main sickle-feathers are to
be black or greenish - black. The greater tail-coverts are mainly
black, but, as they approach the saddle, they may become russet
or red. The blending of the red body with the black tail is gradual,
thus preventing any sudden contrast. With the saddle parted,
showing the under-color at the base of the tail, the appearance
should be red or salmon, not whitish or smoky. The hackle should
be free from black, although a suspicion of black that can hardly be
found would not cut the bird much. White in hackle will be cut
harder than black. The wing-bars should be free from black, and all
black in the primaries and secondaries should be out of sight when the
wing is folded.
66

Photograph by courtesy of W. J. Drisko
ROSE-COMB RHODE ISLAND RED COCK
Bred and owned by W. J. Drisko, Massachusetts
736
The Poultry Book
"Head.-Of medium size and breadth.
“Beak.—Short and slightly curved.
"Eyes.-Sight perfect and unobstructed by breadth of head.
“Comb.—Single, medium in size, set firmly upon the head, perfectly
straight and upright, free from side sprigs, with five even and well-defined
serrations.
((
"Comb.-Rose, low, firm on the head, much smaller than that of the
male and, in proportion to its length, much narrower. Covered with small
points and terminating in a small, short spike at the rear.
“Wattles.—Medium and equal in length, moderately rounded.
'Ear-Lobes.—Well developed. Symmetry of proportion in head
adjuncts is to be considered.
“Neck.—Of medium length and carried slightly forward, at least not
much arched backward. Hackle sufficient, but not too coarse in feather.
Back.-Long, in the main nearly horizontal. In the completely
matured hen it would be described as broad, whereas in the pullet not yet
well matured it will look somewhat narrow in proportion to the length of
her body. The curve from the horizontal back to the hackle or tail should
be moderate and gradual.
66
66
'SHAPE OF THE FEMALE
'Breast.—Deep, broad, and carried in a line nearly perpendicular to
the base of the beak-at least, not anterior to that line.
،،
'Body.—Deep, broad, and long; keel-bone long and straight, giving
the body an oblong look.
“Fluff.—Moderately full, but not loose (Cochin) in feathering.
Wings.—Of good size, well folded; the flights carried horizontally.
"Tail.-A little shorter than medium, quite well spread, carried well
back, increasing a trifle the apparent length of the bird. The tail should
form no apparent angle with the back, neither must it be met by a high-
rising cushion.
"C
(6
66
'Legs.-Thighs, of medium length and well covered with soft feathers.
Shanks, of medium length, well rounded and smooth. Toes, straight,
strong, well spread and of medium length.
COLOR OF THE FEMALE
،،
((
Beak. Red horn color or yellow.
“Eyes.—Red.
Rhode Island Reds
737
"Face.-Bright red.
"Comb, Wattles, and Ear-Lobes.-Bright red.
((
Shanks and Toes.-Rich yellow or red horn color.
'Plumage.-General surface color lighter than in the male, free from
shafting or mealy appearance. Except where black is desired, the color is
a rich, even shade of reddish buff, darker than the so-called 'golden buff.'
The female is not so brilliant in luster as the male. Allowance should be
made for the fading of the mature hen, incidental to her prolific laying.
The under-color is of reddish-salmon, or buff, free from foreign colors.
Other things being equal, the specimen having the richest under-color shall
receive the award. The quill of the feather should be red or salmon. The
general surface-color in the female is more even than in the male. White
showing in any part of the plumage is a serious objection. Black peppering
in the outer plumage of any feather is also very objectionable. Black is
desired in the under-web of the wing-flights and on the tip end of some
hackle-feathers. This black in the hackle should be a slight ticking rather
than a heavy lacing. Females without ticking, superior in other points, shall
be given awards over those that have ticking. The main tail-feathers are
to be black or greenish-black.'
""
There is probably not another breed produced by fifty years of out-
breeding. The Rhode Island Reds stand as the only proof of what out-
breeding will do. We fanciers do not live years enough to compare a
breed deliberately, unless we in-breed, but it was not so with the original
Rhode Island Red breeders; they knew the red cock was the most vigorous,
and, almost unconsciously, they made a breed. The Rhode Island Reds
were first exhibited in New York city, by Dr. N. B. Aldrich, of Massachusetts,
in the "any-other-variety" class in 1891-92. At this same show, R. G.
Buffington, of Massachusetts, and Dr. Aldrich exhibited Buff Wyandottes
and Buff Plymouth Rocks. They were composed almost entirely of
Rhode Island Red blood. It was not until 1898 that the Rhode Island Red
Club was formed by a few breeders at Fall River, Massachusetts. It was
at this first meeting of the club that the fight against the Pea-Comb Rhode
Island Reds began, and it has been kept up ever since.
There has been much criticism about the early standards, but, as the
Hon. C. M. Bryant, president of the club, well says, in an article, "The
trouble with all standards outside of the Rhode Island Reds at the present
time is that altogether too much is said." It is true that the early standards

738
The Poultry Book
for Rhode Island Reds were rather crude and somewhat indefinite, but
this was intentionally so, in order that the breeders might, for themselves,
gradually find out what they wanted, instead of being hampered by a
standard that perhaps later would call for a very different fowl. The
present Rhode Island Red standard is as clear and definite as that of any
other breed. The following, taken from the Standard of 1901, shows
the high aim of the breeders of Rhode Island Reds:
"The special aim of the promoters of this breed being to conserve
vigor and prolificacy rather than immaculate perfection of color, black
may find its place in sections enumerated; and the gradual fading of the red
portions of the mature hen's plumage, which naturally follows upon prolific
laying, shall not be discriminated against in the placing of awards."
In the 1903 Standard we find the following: "Apparent vigor is to
be regarded with the consideration of shape."
Note what John Crowther, a prominent breeder of Rhode Island
Reds, says:
More than what the famed Faverolle is to France, the
Rhode Island Red is to America-the best all-purpose fowl of a practical
CC
and progressive
people. And, as
Myra V. Norys, an
able writer on general
poultry topics, has
well said, 'In rich-
ness and harmonious
blending of tint,
there is nothing in
domestic fowls to
equal the color of
the best Rhode Island
Red males.' These
fowls are certainly
destined to attract
fanciers almost as
much as those who
admire them simply
as profit-getters. Their quick growth, early maturity, tinted or brown
eggs, small proportion of bone and entrails to the weight of the body,

Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Drisko
RHODE ISLAND RED PULLET
Bred and owned by W. J. Drisko, Massachusetts
Rhode Island Reds
739
fine motherly qualities, without being persistently broody, found favor
for them at once. Their well-shaped and compact bodies, long keel-
bones, and plump, wide breasts made them unequaled for market
poultry at any stage of growth 'from the hatch to the hatchet,' as
expert poultryman Cochran has very cleverly put it. They proved
a match as layers at any time of the year for any mere ‘egg machines'
that were tried against them, but as winter layers they were
peerless. Their development on the lowlands made them hardy and
proved that 'high and dry' situations are not indispensable to the health
of fowls."
One of the most frequently quoted writers on poultry in this country,
H. S. Babcock, says: "The Rhode Island Red has gained its reputation.
upon its economic merits. Farmers have kept it and reared it in great
numbers because it paid better than other breeds. Its size is desirable.
Medium-sized fowls lay better than the very large ones and invariably sell
better in the market."
I. K. Felch, known the world over as an expert judge and breeder
of poultry, says: "As carcasses for poultry, they are equal, and, I think,
may be safely said to be superior, to the Plymouth Rock, for they are free
from dark pin-feathers, and their bodies and their shape are better, for they
grow nearer one shape all the way up."
Again, Wm. P. Shepard, one of the oldest breeders of fancy poultry in
this country and an unusually practical man, says: "I have demonstrated
that Rhode Island Reds can be kept at less cost than any other breed, not
excepting White Leghorns. While it costs $1.20 to keep a Plymouth
Rock, a Rhode Island Red can be kept for from 85 to 90 cents per year,
which I consider a very important item."
Dr. Aldrich says: "In shape, the Rhode Island Reds are squared
better in body-lines than the other American varieties. Their wings and
back are carried horizontally, they have a long keel-bone, a tail carried
quite well back, and yellow skin and legs.
""
MATING AND BREEDING
On this important subject, P. R. Parks, of Massachusetts, says:
First of all, study your birds carefully, and train the eye to see type,
recognizing the male or female that most closely conforms to the standard;
which would be described as oblong, without the square corners; a long,
(6
740
The Poultry Book
nearly flat back in the male and female. The long, flowing hackle at the
shoulders and the full cushion at the tail-base of the male soften the lines
and deceive the eye, making a good, long back appear only medium in
length.
"In selecting the male, get one that is well rounded at every point-in
fact, there should not be a line on him that does not curve gracefully.
Such birds usually are more prepotent and get more uniform progeny.
The breast should be especially full. This is doubly important, for here is
where so many of the other breeds 'fall down.' With a full breast, and
long keel-bone extending out a good distance behind the legs, the wide, full
tail well set, fully cushioned out, leaving no square corner, we have a fairly
good profile started.
"The neck may be of medium length, but well carried. Many times,
cockerels that have not been mated will carry themselves so much better
after they have run with females a week or two that their owners would
hardly recognize them. The only difference is in the way they carry
their heads. Did you ever see the second male that was the under dog
running in a pen that carried his head to suit you? Thus, in making your
selections, be careful that the birds from which you are choosing have had
an opportunity to fully develop before discarding an otherwise good
specimen. After being mated, cockerels carry their necks much more
gracefully, are less upright, and seemingly 'get together.'
"The crowning glory of a good male or female is the head, and upon
its proper proportions depends the beauty of the specimen in a large degree.
However good the bird in other ways, if the head is misshaped the other-
wise good effect is apparently lost. Seemingly, nature comes to our
rescue here, for we seldom have a really good specimen with a great many
imperfections in the head. The long hawk-head in the female is usually
accompanied by an ill-shapen roach-back and a bird out of proportion in
other ways. A male or a female with a neat, short head, a strong, well-
curved beak, will nearly always be of fairly good type. Keep your birds
up on a medium-length leg, not so short as to make them appear squatty.
A really good flock of layers will be found usually with fairly good length
of leg. At the same time, avoid the long legs with the Game-like carriage,
seeking a happy medium for most satisfactory results.
"Get your best birds together. You cannot make progress trying to
grade up your entire flock, putting your very best females with your
Rhode Island Reds
741
second-best males, or putting your inferior females with the best males.
When you have chosen your male bird, select a small pen of your very best
females, choosing those that correct his faults by their own strong points.
For instance, if he carries his tail a little too high or too low, select females
that do not have the same faults, but rather lean the other way. By
selecting a pen of only four or five, you will not breed as many culls, the
eggs will be more strongly fertilized, the chicks live well, and much evener
flocks result.

"It matters not
whether you have fifty
or five hundred females
to select from. In that
number, there are four
that are better than any
other four; in fact,
probably greater breeding
value exists in this small
number than in one-half
the balance of the flock.
Let your male run with
these females until the
season is over; then place
him alone until he is
wanted for breeding
another season. In this
way, his breeding life is
prolonged for several
years. If matings are a success, which they are sure to be if no mistake
has been made, you then have chicks of which the ancestry is known
and upon which one can rely.
"Every egg should be marked as gathered. Each chick toe should
be punched before it leaves the nest, so that there may be no guess-work
the following year. Aim at perfection, but do not expect it the first,
second, or fifth season. If you can breed birds slightly better than the
other fellow, he is sure to want some of them, and is perfectly willing to pay
any reasonable price. He is doubly willing if you can point to this bird
as being the sire and that as the grandsire, showing him a line of blood that
From a photograph
RHODE ISLAND RED HENS, RUBY AND ROSE
Bred and owned by P. R. Parks, Massachusetts. First and second at Boston, 1902
742
The Poultry Book

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is correcting the faults that are bothering him most. There is no value on
a really good male bird, for, if properly handled, he will continue to throw
good, strong chicks for four or five seasons, in which time you should have
his strong points so woven into your flock that they will continue to
reproduce for generations to come. An extra $5 or $10 judiciously invested
in a stock male will often repay the expenditure a thousandfold in a few
years' breeding. In fact, there is scarcely a price named that will not be
Rhode Island Reds
743
cheap if the bird is of a long line of careful breeding. Such a bird cannot.
fail to be prepotent. If properly mated, he will produce many sons and
daughters his equal or superior in type.
"After having gotten the type fairly fixed, we must put the proper-
colored clothes on our pets, or we lose much of our labor. Judges, breeders,
and the public all disagree in the color-description of a good Red, but when
once they have seen one of those gorgeous-colored males in the sunlight, all
descriptions fade away, and in its place comes a desire to possess one or
more that will approach or equal him in color. Nothing in our domestic
poultry approaches him in beautiful blending of all sections, rich red,
terminating in a tail of beautiful bottle-green black, adding a wealth of
strength to his color, which completely overshadows the neutral, indifferent
shades of his buff cousins.
"Experience proves that the dark mahogany birds are not reliable as
breeders, and that their continued use gives mottled females, with mackerel
backs and an almost barn-yard fowl appearance. It is those gorgeous,
lustrous, medium-colored males of the same uniform color from head to
tail-base that throw the beautiful soft-brown females, uniform in color and
breeding true each generation. In color mating, avoid the extremes in
both sexes, also the 'shafty' feathers having a quill lighter than the body
of the feather, also the tendency to deposit a ring of color around the tip,
giving a laced appearance not at all pleasing. Select females with color
extending evenly to the tip of the web and shaft, so colored as to make it
almost impossible to tell just where the one feather begins and the other
leaves off. This point should be looked to in the male's breast as well.
Avoid smut, smoky or mouse-colored under-color in both male and female.
See that the undercolor in the male is distinctly salmon or pink at the
base of tail as well as in the middle of the back and under the hackle. See
that females have clear backs, with no pepper spots of black either here or
on the shoulders, that they carry red quills with even surface-color, and
no smut. Color should carry well around on the breasts, with as little
weakening as possible. Shanks and feet of best specimens will be found
quite red or horn-colored in both male and female. Females that do not
fade badly with early laying and moulting should be given the preference
over better-colored pullets that lose a large part of their beauty as soon as
laying begins. Stick to the rich black tails in the male line, and do not
expect too much progress with a year's mating. The Reds are going to
744
The Poultry Book
be a power in the next twenty years, and we are now laying the
foundations upon which to build a mighty structure-how mighty
depends upon how well we do our part right now. So build carefully,
do not make radical out-crosses, but correct faults as they appear to
you, and be careful, in making these corrections, that you do not let
down the bars to other defects much greater."
REDS, OLD AND NEW
In a recent letter to Secretary W. J. Drisko, of the Rhode Island Red
Club, Lester Tompkins, of Massachusetts, says: "My experience with
Reds dates back some thirty-five years to the time when my father was
one of the largest breeders of poultry in Rhode Island. He kept about
two hundred Reds, exclusively-a large flock for that time. It was a
custom with my father, and also with some others in that neighborhood, to
get male birds, and occasionally females, from the whaling - ships that
brought them from the South Pacific and Indian oceans. These birds
were a rich, brilliant, even red (no yellow, no chocolate) from comb to
sickle, long keel, broad heavy breast, heavy thighs and wide between the
legs, with bodies somewhat upright like our present Games. They were
called in that neighborhood 'Red Games,' or 'Yellow-legged Red Games,'
and sometimes 'Malay Games.' I think they were all single comb.
،
"Flocks of fowl in that section soon became red, whatever their blood
might have been for this reason—the ‘Red Game' was a vigorous fighter.
As soon as one was put with a flock, he felt it a self-imposed duty to kill every
other male in the flock. During my years of experience as a breeder, I have
handled and closely observed quite a number of different strains of Reds.
I have always noticed that those strains which were directly descended
from the Red Game were the most hardy and vigorous, bred the truest
to type and color, had the richest yellow skin and legs, and were the most
prolific layers. The early flocks of Reds were practically all single-comb,
and, I think, the short 'pugged' rose-comb, sometimes called the Malay
comb, came from the 'Red Shanghai' blood. There were no pea-combs
(and in my opinion there never should be) until crosses were made with
'Light Brahmas.' With pea-combs came poorer type, feathered legs,
and a decrease of prolificacy. Those strains which had a dash of Cochin
blood also threw feather-legged chicks.
"The introduction of Brown Leghorn blood was also a detriment to
Rhode Island Reds
745
the breed on the whole, I think, for it decreased the size, diminished the
hardiness, and gave us most of the smut in under-color which is so objec-
tionable now-a-days. It also gave us a lighter colored and a less uniformly
colored egg.
The original 'Red Games' laid a finely colored egg, not
so brown as a Brahma's or a Langshan's, but more of a pink or reddish
brown. It has probably been necessary to have a tinge of all these different
bloods, Buff Cochin, Red Shanghai, Brown Leghorn, and Dunghills, to give
us a genuinely American breed; still I firmly believe that the good old Red
Game blood is a very essential foundation. My experience in breeding

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SINGLE-COM B RHODE ISLAND RED HEN
Bred and owned by House Rock Poultry Farm, Massachusetts

746
The Poultry Book
has led me to believe that males should be just as near the ideal color as
possible and should be free from marked contrast between hackle and back,
or back and saddle, for to the male side we must look for color. Females
fade very soon after moulting, and it is difficult to judge of their true
virgin color. I look for size, vigor and good type in females, for to them,
and not to the male,
should we look for size.
I believe it is a mistaken
idea to think that an
oversized male mated
to a flock of immature,
under-sized females will
show a pronounced
increase in size of off-
spring. I always avoid
heavy fluff in females
and short-bodied males,
preferring a long keel
and consequently a long
back in the male, with
just enough cushion, as
seen in profile, to avoid
an abrupt angle where
the back joins the tail.
"Generally speak-
ing, my best males and
best females have been
produced from the same
ROSE-COMB RHODE ISLAND RED PULLET
Bred and owned by P. R. Park, Massachusetts. First at Boston, 1903, and winner of $50 cup mating. In some in-
for best female in class

Drawn from life by F. L. Sewell
stances, certain matings
produced fine females, with a tendency to rather light-colored males, while
certain other matings have thrown choice males, with only moderately
good females. I have had no success from mating extremes of color; the
offspring lacked very much in uniformity of color. There is a great future
for the Reds, and I believe progress will be more rapid now that we have
a definite standard to which all should breed. Although the breed is old
from a utility point of view, it is in its infancy as a fancier's breed. We
Rhode Island Reds
747
can produce as large a percentage of show-birds as any breed, but we can
not yet produce as uniform a flock. If we stick to the standard, looking
well to size and type as cur first essential, brilliance and permanence of
color as our second, we ought to develop a breed that should possess more
good points, both useful and beautiful, than any other in existence."
DEFECTS AND DANGERS
Of the defects and dangers to be avoided, Secretary W. J. Drisko, in
the "Red Hen Tales," says: "It appears only just to breeders to have a
fair statement made of some of the common defects, and points which are
to be avoided. The following remarks are the results of experience,
information gathered from personal interviews with prominent breeders,
and partly from a very large amount of correspondence regarding the good
and bad points of Reds. The first careful examination of Rhode Island
Reds I ever made was in 1898. Most of the males were very brilliant
red, a light cherry-red, fairly uniform, with greenish-black tails showing
russet or reddish edges to the feathers. I began breeding them shortly
after this time, and, from numerous interviews with the most prominent
promoters at that time, I learned that 'the darker the bird, the better,
provided there was no smut in under-color.' There was a prejudice against
white in wings, but light, almost white, under-color was not regarded as a
serious defect. The females which produced these chocolate-colored males
were described as 'mahogany red.' Most of them showed a decided
contrast between hackle, which was more of a golden red, and back, a duller
hue. They also had rather light-colored breasts. The following character-
istics usually, not always, accompanied these extremely dark strains:
strong tendency to both smut and white in under-color, and white in wings;
less hardiness than the more brilliant, lighter-colored strains; very early
maturity and, consequently, rather small birds, which were not satisfactory
as soft roasters, as they often hardened before they were large enough to
roast. They usually had clean, yellow legs, were excellent layers of a not
very dark egg, and were not much inclined to broodiness. I have often
been told by breeders who were 'on the spot' where such strains originated
that they possessed an excess of Brown Leghorn blood, and my experience
leads me to believe that, as a general statement, that is true. There was a
mistaken idea of the desirable size for market poultry which got possession
of some of the early Red breeders. Any one who has kept track of the

748
The Poultry Book
fancy market on soft roasters knows that it is an impossibility to get soft
chickens too large. The Boston market is always open to fancy soft
roasters; the bigger, the
better, provided they are
plump, yellow and soft.
A breed that gets 'hard' or
'staggy' before they dress
nine or ten pounds per pair
isn't a breed for 'killers.' I
saw a crate of poultry, many
of them capons, but sold as
soft roasters, ranging from
twelve pounds per pair to
nineteen and one-half pounds
per pair, sold at wholesale
for 37 cents a pound in
Boston in May, 1903. On
the same day, small roasters
were selling at 28 to 30 cents
per pound.
"Many of the practical
Red breeders who realized
the market poultry situation
began breeding larger birds. At about the same time, fanciers started
the pendulum swinging the other way, by emphasizing 'brilliance'
and 'uniformity of color.' The straw-colored hackles with chocolate wing-
bows of males were shelved. In 1900, 1901, and 1902 there were more good,
large, vigorous, evenly colored birds seen than in previous years. These
strains generally possessed the following distinctive marks: better meat-
type-that is, longer keel, broader, deeper breast, no hatchet breast' of the
Leghorn; but they showed more tendency to broodiness, more stubs on
legs and toes. They also laid a darker, more uniformly colored egg. It
is often remarked that such strains have a larger percentage of the Red
Malay Game or the Buff Cochin in their make-up. It may be that, or they
may have been the result of selection and careful mating.
"At the present time, I fear there is a tendency toward the darker
color. All agree that the present standard weights are satisfactory. I

From a photograph
RHODE ISLAND RED COCK
Owned by Frank D. Read, Massachusetts. Winner at Boston, 1903
Rhode Island Reds
749
know of several breeders who have exhibited birds darker than they
really thought ideal, simply because many judges show a tendency to
favor dark birds. I find the most progressive breeders just as strongly
opposed to the chocolate or dull-brown males, on the one hand, as they
are to the buff or yellowish-red males on the other hand. Colors can
only be described by comparison. As there is nothing in nature com-
parable with the coloring of a good Rhode Island Red male, we can't
describe his color. It is sometimes compared with the color of a cherry
just before it is fully ripe-that is, a little lighter than a fully ripe red
cherry. The Reds have had two potent enemies-first, the established
breeders of the other American breeds, and, second, the great popularity
of the Reds. The howl of 'scrubs' and 'mongrels' is fast disappearing,
but the popularity we have still with us. However, there are so
many reputable breeders of Reds now that one need not fear the
trickery of 'poultry brokers,' unless he deliberately patronizes them.
"Experienced breeders
as
know that there is no
danger from judicious in-
breeding. They also know
that defects, as well
desirable qualities, can be
accented by inbreeding.
Farmers, as a rule, can
not select and make special
matings, so they usually
'swap roosters' or buy a
cockerel for 'new blood.'
The farmer knows that it
is not safe to inbreed. The
fancier knows that it is not
safe to outbreed; but the
semi-fancier of the city
back-yard has neither the
precaution of the farmer
nor the knowledge of the
fancier. The farmer keeps up vitality and hardiness, though he has not
uniformity in either size, type or coloring. The fancier keeps up both the

From a photograph
RHODE ISLAND RED HEN
Bred and owned by Frank D. Read, Massachusetts. Prize-winner at many shows
750
The Poultry Book
exhibition points and vitality, while the town-lot breeder often fails in
both. The Reds owe their vigor and snap to their outbred origin, but it
has taken much longer to establish them along this line. There is danger
now from too much injudicious inbreeding in the haste of breeders to fix
certain characteristics. Make haste slowly should be our motto, and our
inbreeding should be coupled with the most careful selection, so that, in
fixing a desirable characteristic, we do not also fix many undesirable ones.
There is one peculiarity of Reds, and also of Buffs, that is not usually
allowed for by their enemies—that is, the ease with which culls may be
picked from a flock: I mean the culls from a color point of view. In a
flock of white birds, a brassy back or wing-bow or a fine black lacing in
the hackle doesn't appear to the untrained eye. In Barred Plymouth
Rocks, the brown-black instead of blue-black, or the flights without barring,
and the very brassy birds are seen only by the trained eye. Very few
casual observers of a flock of black birds would notice whether the sheen
appeared green or purple. Our eyes, being very sensitive to change of
hue or shade of red, orange and yellow, at once detect variations in color
in a flock of Reds which, if present in the Barred Plymouth Rocks, Blacks,
or any of the duller-colored breeds, would be entirely unnoticed, except by
experts. Then, again, the fading incident to laying makes an apparent
contrast in Reds which, though equally great, is less noticeable in many
other breeds. It is difficult to maintain uniformity among Reds for the
above reasons; but I believe that careful breeding from the best, using
care to select the females which show least fading—that is, breeding for
permanence of color-will largely overcome this apparent variation.
Breeders who have bred Reds in comparison with other breeds know
that they will throw as large a percentage of show-birds as any breed;
which shows that the apparent lack of uniformity is only the natural
variation common to any breed.
،،
"Probably one of the greatest dangers to Reds is the probability of
color being placed paramount in importance to type and vigor. I believe
our best breeders put type and vigor on an equality, with color as second.
Many judges in all breeds reverse this order. It is very unfortunate that
a poor-shaped bird should win on such a minor point as ticking in hackle,
slightly better under-color, or a deeper-colored eye, over a bird superior in
type with only a slight defect in some of these minor points; but such is
often the case. The Single-Comb Reds are still throwing pretty high

Harris on Wein
1900
ท
SILVER-SPANGLED HAMBURGHS.
The property of MR. CHARLES HOLT.
Rhode Island Reds
751
combs, and there is considerable complaining of Rose-Comb Reds throwing
single combs. This is believed to be due to the craze for small, neat,
smooth combs. The Wyandotte breeders have had the same difficulty.
A prominent breeder of that variety told me that he had more single combs
last year than in all previous years combined, and he attributed it to the
prevalent idea of small, smooth combs. Our Standard calls for a comb that
is oval in outline, as seen from above, and 'covered with small points
terminating in a small spike at the rear.' Smooth combs, then, are not
standard. Judges please note.
"The following troublesome defects need careful study in mating:
Hazel, greenish or bluish tinge in eye; white in base of hackle and at roots
of tail, and sometimes over the 'hips,' usually accompanying very brilliant
surface; russet or reddish tails in birds showing great strength of color;
shafting, especially in females, and feathers edged with color a few shades
lighter than the rest of the feather. The finest surface color is generally
accompanied by either smut or white in under-color, perhaps only a trace,
and the very excellent under-color is generally accompanied by a lack of
richness in males and a 'mealy' appearance in females with lack of brilliance
in both. Nature seems to put about so much coloring into a bird, and, if
it is concentrated in the ends of the feathers, it is a more striking picture.
But how about the breeding qualities of such concentration? 'Rather
uncertain,' is the general verdict. The surest method of improving is by
careful selection, using great precaution in introducing new blood, lest it
fail to nick. There is one best pullet in every clutch, and one best cockerel
in every flock. If such best birds are only slightly better than either
ancestor, the road to improvement is open. It will take years to breed out
all the defects. It can be done only by persistent effort.'
AMERICAN ROSE-COMB DOMINIQUE *
T IS the opinion of our best poultrymen that the Rose-
Comb Dominique is the oldest distinctly American breed.
of fowl. They clearly antedate the Javas. There is little
or nothing definitely recorded about the early history of
this breed. Some writers claim that they came to this
country from the Island of Dominica. There are, however, few, if any,
well-informed breeders that believe this was their true origin. One
author states that they were indigenous to this country, resembling, some-
what, the White and Cuckoo Dorkings of England. Their shape, flowing
tail, and short legs were similar to the Dorkings, but our Dominique had a
rose-comb, four toes, and yellow shanks. The Dominique colors—or
Cuckoo colors, as they are called in England-might have been produced
by crossing the White Dorking with any native black fowl of this country.
It is a well-established fact that the crossing of pure white and pure
black fowls results in the production of three well-defined combinations.
of color, as follows: First, the Andalusian; second, the black and white,
like the Houdan; and, third, the Dominique, or Cuckoo.
Referring to the probable origin of the Dominiques, T. F. McGrew, of
New York, says: "We know that the Dutch were among the earliest
settlers in and about New York. The pencilled Hamburg comes from
Holland, or rather from Hamburg (hence their name). These people
would naturally bring some of their everlasting layers with them. When
intermingled with our white, and perchance our black fowls, they would
produce the Dominique, with the Hamburg type of comb, the short
shanks, and the long, full, flowing tail. Feathers of both the pencilled
Hamburg and the Dominique, illustrated in early books, show such a
similarity that I have been led to believe this theory might possibly be the
correct one as to the origin of the Dominique."
It is unfortunate, indeed, that the typical or ideal Rose-Comb Domi-

* No mention of the Rose-Comb Dominique, an American production, was made in
Mr. Weir's recent work. Although not now generally bred in this country, we consider it
worthy of close attention. The many excellent characteristics of the Dominique should
appeal to the fancier. It should be more generally bred, and we believe it will.—EDITOR.
753

754
The Poultry Book
nique has practically gone out of existence. The best of them had an
inclined back, a full, sweeping tail, like the Hamburg and the Dorking.
The birds we have been accustomed to seeing, in recent years, are small,
suggesting a modification
of the Dominique and the
Pea-Comb Plymouth
Rock. Really fine speci-
mens are seldom seen in
the show-room at the
present time. There is an
opportunity for some
enterprising fancier to
immortalize himself by
rescuing this old-time
favorite from impending
oblivion.

In a recent letter,
T. E. Orr, of Pennsyl-
vania, says:
"When a
mere boy in Virginia, I
recall distinctly the Domi-
nique fowls of my grand-
mother. They were con-
siderably smaller than
present standard require-
ments, which are eight
and one-half pounds for
cocks, six and one-half pounds for hens. I believe these weights
about one pound too large, even to-day, although the Dominiques are
very firm-fleshed birds and deceive one as to their weight. I continued
to breed these birds in West Virginia as late as 1886. I have always
believed them a neglected breed, without a cause. They possess many
characteristics that should make them very popular. They are of the
right size to please, and classed as medium with the Wyandottes in
that particular.
From a photograph, July 1, 1904
AMERICAN DOMINIQUE HEN
Bred by S. F. Yerkes, Pennsylvania
"Those Virginia Dominiques were pugnacious birds. The males
were able to hold their own with many Game-cocks. The hens were

tantl
105
187
AMERICAN ROSE-COMB DOMINIQUE COCK
Bred and owned by J. G. Darlington and S. F. Yerkes, Pennsylvania
1687456
TAMS
Photograph by Louis P. Graham, 1904
American Rose-Comb
Rose-Comb Dominiques
757
wonderful mothers, and able and willing to fight for their young against
any odds. They are great rustlers, seeming to delight in shifting for
themselves, ranging about the farm. They are longer and stronger of
wing than the Plymouth Rocks, which they resemble so accurately in
color; so are not easily confined by the ordinary poultry fence.
66
In shape, as well as in size, they are much like the Wyandottes;
but are a trifle longer-bodied, though very full and round in the breast.
This peculiarity makes them great favorites as table-fowls-the flesh
being of excellent quality. Their close rose-combs render them almost
oblivious of cold weather. There is no hardier fowl. To get their color,
which is described as the same as for the Barred Plymouth Rocks, is the
most difficult feat for the fancy breeder. The tendency is for the males
to run light, with faint barring; while the females run dark. The dark
barring is usually too heavy, and merges into the white bars, giving an
indistinct result.”
One of the oldest breeders of the Rose-Comb Dominiques in this
country to-day is Jesse G. Darlington, of Pennsylvania. In a recent
letter, he says: "I believe I have bred the Rose-Comb Dominiques
longer than any other person in this country. I never considered that I
could do them full justice in any descriptive article. I refer to the old-
style Dominiques-not as the standard of excellence requires them.
Why one of the best, if not the very best, of the American varieties of fowls
should be neglected for the newer and untried ones has always been a
mystery to me. They should be similar to the Hamburgs in shape; breasts
round and full; color, slaty-blue or blue-gray, each feather evenly barred
with blue-and-white barring; the tail long and full. The male should have
long sickles, well arched and barred; yellow legs and beaks; neat rose-comb;
eyes rich bay or bright red in color. The flesh is fine and juicy.
"The standard weight is, for cocks, eight and one-half pounds; cockerels,
seven and one-half pounds; hens, six and one-half pounds; pullets, five and
one-half pounds. In my opinion, these are at least one pound too high
all around. It brings them too near the size of the Plymouth Rocks.
Some years ago, a well-known judge disqualified my birds as being too
large; yet they were not up to the standard weight, and I have never
tried to get them there. They are good mothers, and lay a medium-sized
egg. They mature early. It is not uncommon to have them laying when
four months old. They were my first fancy, and, although I have bred a
758
The Poultry Book
number of the new varieties, I have never found any that would quite fill
their place as an all-purpose fowl.
"In the early forties, when a bit of a boy on the farm at home, where
we kept nothing but Dominiques, I took a great fancy to the chickens,
selecting the best-shaped and handsomest-colored ones to breed from.
Father gave me charge of them. When the Jersey Blues came out, father
bought a pen of them, at a long price for those days, and was going to do
away with Dominiques. The Jersey Blues were recommended highly.
I pleaded so hard that father let me keep the Dominiques. Before the
season was over he was glad we had kept them. The Blues went. One
season was enough. When the boom of the Plymouth Rocks came along,
I bought a pen of the best I could get. I sent them to the farm, with a
request to breed them separately, and see how they would compare with
the Dominiques. There was no other variety there. The following
winter I asked for a report. I got an answer, saying that they had been
marketing the Plymouth Rocks along with Dominiques, but could never
sell a Rock as long as there was a Dominique in the stall. There must have
been a marked difference, as customers could pick out the Dominiques
from the Rocks when dressed. Both varieties were fed and cared for just
alike, and by the same person. My long experience in handling all kinds
of fowls taught me that the smaller and finer-fleshed birds would bring
from one to three cents per pound more than the larger ones. That is one
of the chief reasons that I have always stuck to the cld, reliable Dominiques."

Yu
103
YANKE
AMERICAN ROSE-COMB DOMINIQUE HEN
Bred and owned by J. G. Da lington and S. F. Yerkes, Pennsylvania
ER
133
Photograph by Louis P. Graham, 1904

Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
SINGLE-COMB JUBILEE ORPINGTON HEN
Owned by W. P. Willett
THE ORPINGTONS*
WALLACE P. WILLETT, NEW JERSEY
HIS remarkable breed of fowls was originated by William
Cook, of Orpington, County of Kent, England, from whence
they take their name. There are five-or rather ten-distinct
varieties, namely, the Black, single and rose combed;
the White, single and rose combed; the Buff, single and
rose combed; the Spangled, single and rose combed; and the Diamond
Jubilee, single and rose combed. The Orpington has come to the front
faster than was expected, on account of its superior points. It is predicted
that the Orpington will be the leading fowl ere long in America as it
is already in England. The Buffs were admitted to the Standard very
shortly after their merits were well known and appreciated. We feel
confident that the remainder of the Orpington family will be admitted
soon; the Blacks are under consideration now.


The first Orpingtons produced and exhibited by Mr. Cook at the
Crystal Palace Show in 1886 were black. Since then he has originated
*The ideas expressed by Mr. Weir in the English edition of this work regarding the
Orpingtons do not conform to the opinions held by American breeders. This chapter has,
therefore, been entirely rewritten by Wallace P. Willett, of New Jersey, the well-known
breeder and popular secretary of the American Orpington Club. William Cook, the originator
of the Orpingtons, who was at the New York show at Madison Square Garden in 1904,
read and approved this chapter.-EDITOR.
761
762
The Poultry Book
and presented to the public the four other varieties-the White in 1889,
the Buff in 1894, the Jubilee in 1897, and the Spangled in 1899. These
varieties are all entitled to the distinctive name of Orpington. Although
produced from different combinations of blood, yet they each bear the same
general characteristics of type, symmetry, size, and laying and table qualities.
During the seventeen years since first presented the breed has been greatly
improved. At that time Mr. Cook wrote: "It is not to be expected
from any new variety that all the produce will be true to color and type.
The Orpington is much more true than the Plymouth Rock.'
The pictures
reproduced herewith of Black Orpingtons owned by E. D. Till, of England,
in 1892, show fairly well what they were at that time. The pictures
given of birds owned by the writer will show what they are now.
During the seventeen years the Orpingtons have made the most remark-
able progress of any fowl ever produced. They can now be found in
every country of Europe, Australia, Africa, and Canada, and are rapidly
extending over the United States. Mr. Cook states as his reasons for
bringing out the Orpingtons: First, the old varieties of England were
inbred too much, and therefore their egg-organs were weak. Second, very
few good birds of any breed were kept. The Barred Plymouth Rocks
were at this time just taking the lead as autumn and winter layers; in fact,
he says he could find only two good autumn and winter layers, the Lang-
shan and the Plymouth Rock. Third, he had tried many experiments in
crossing different varieties with pure male birds as many as seventy
crosses a year—not only putting two pure varieties together, but often
using the pullets from the first cross to breed again. He found in this way
that he produced so many more eggs than he did when the birds were pure
and not crossed that it gave him a new idea. From his former experience he
knew just what he would get in crosses. Fourth, no variety at that time
was considered by him good winter layers and table birds combined. He
believed he could secure a good-looking bird answering the three
requisites of utility for eggs, table, and show combined. To make
the Orpington, he selected the best layers of each breed possible, some
laying as many as 250 eggs a year.
From these combinations Mr. Cook selected such as make the
Black Orpingtons. He exhibited one cock and three pullets in 1886 at
the Birmingham Crystal Palace and Dairy shows. A large number
would have gone to Germany, Russia, and other parts of the world, from
The Orpingtons
763
which many dealers and breeders had come to the shows, but he had
but sixty of the breed, and sold none, although he sold eggs from them at
15 shillings per dozen. From this time the breed spread rapidly. An
Orpington club was formed. Their first exhibit was made, of Black
Orpingtons exclusively, about three years after their introduction, in a
moderate-sized room in London. This show gave the breed a big boom
and the birds brought £8 each-a big price for a new bird then. The
price later rose to £25 for
best birds, and as the
Blacks have never gone
backward, but always for-
ward, £150 ($750) was paid
for a Black Orpington cock
in 1901.
At the New York
show, 1903, Mr. Cook sold
one bird of this variety
to an American fancier
for $150. Specimens of
the birds brought over by
him for show here were
weighed by us as follows:
Cockerels, at seven to eight
months old, nine to nine
and one-quarter pounds;
cocks, eleven pounds.
Jubilee, Spangled, White,
and Buff cockerels, about
the same age, varied only one-half pound from these figures. These were
the best and biggest birds, but many under six months old weighed six
and one-quarter to eight and one-quarter pounds

Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
SINGLE-COMB WHITE ORPINGTON HEN
Owned by W. P. Willett
HOW BLACK ORPINGTONS WERE PRODUCED
When the Barred Plymouth Rock fowls were first imported into
England from America they were a comparatively new breed and gave
many black sports. These sports when tested by Mr. Cook laid thirty-five
to forty-five more eggs per year than the Barred Rocks hatched from

764
The Poultry Book
the same parents. Besides, they began laying, as pullets, from one to six
weeks earlier than their Barred sisters of the same pens. All America
knows the superiority of
the Barred Plymouth
Rocks for hardiness and
other good qualities. The
black sport pullets of this
American breed were
taken for the basis of the
Black Orpingtons. Mr.
Cook found the Black
Minorcas to be extra
layers of large eggs, with
flesh particularly white
and tender, but not
standing the cold weather
very well. From the
Black Minorcas he
selected cocks and mated
them with the Plymouth
Rock black pullets. The
pullets produced from
this cross were mated
with Black Langshan
last. In making all new
cock. Note that the Langshans were used
breeds, the last breed used must be selected to give the type of fowl
aimed at. The Langshan was then a shorter bird than now, and the
best winter layers England possessed, laying a dark-brown egg, the
darkest of any, a chocolate color, and possessing very fine skin and
flesh, but rather slow in growth.

Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
SINGLE-COMB BLACK ORPINGTON COCKEREL
Owned by W. P. Willett

Amalgamating the three breeds, they matured for the table one
month to six weeks earlier than either of the breeds separately, and the
pullets laid from one month to six weeks earlier than either of the breeds
separately. These matings produced the Black Orpingtons. It has
taken years of careful selection to do away entirely with the feathered
legs of the Langshan, besides the special peculiarities of the other breeds
not wanted in the Orpingtons. After seventeen years it can be truly
The Orpingtons
765
said that they breed perfectly true to type and color, and the
veriest amateur can produce as fine Black Orpingtons for the show-
pen as the most expert. This is proved over and over again in
England, where a new beginner at the shows frequently takes the
prize away from the old fancier.
ROSE-COMB BLACK ORPINGTONS
The pullets produced from the first cross of the Plymouth Rock
black sports with Black Minorca cock were mated with Rose-Comb
Black Langshan cocks, a sport from the single combs. The Black
Langshans originally brought from Shanghai direct to England had
rose-comb birds in several consignments. Doctor Gabb selected all
these rose-combs and
bred from them, show-
ing them at Birming-
ham as Rose-Comb Lang-
shans. Mr. Cook bought
his entire stock of
these, bred them several
years, and gave them
up after utilizing them
for the Rose-Comb
Black Orpingtons. The
Black Orpingtons have
a lovely gloss on their
plumage of a beautiful
beetle-green shade.
Their faces and combs
are a rich red; they
have dark eyes-the
darker the better; in
the best birds they are
almost black. They
lay brown-shelled eggs
and their flesh is

Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
SINGLE-COMB BLACK ORPINGTON HEN
Owned by W. P. Willett
light-colored. The cocks weigh
nine to ten pounds and the
hens seven to eight
to eight pounds on the average. The plumage should

766
The Poultry Book
AMERICAN BRED SINGLE-COMB BUFF ORPINGTONS
Owned by C. F Blackman & Son
From a photograph
be close and not loose, the skin thin and fine in texture, and
flesh firm.
BUFF ORPINGTONS
Mr. Cook remembered that many people like buff colors. The Buff
Cochins were held in favor a long time, even though they were fond of sitting,
inactive, and had feathers on their legs, interfering with scratching. Among
all varieties they were considered the hardiest (that were ever brought into
England), and as a rule they laid fairly well between their broody periods,
which periods, fortunately, lasted only a short time. To improve their egg-
production Mr. Cook made a careful selection of the best layers. He found
that some would lay twenty-two eggs in twenty-two days; even forty-three
eggs without missing a day. This was the class of Cochins selected.
Mr. Cook made many experiments for years before he found the best
blood to blend with the Cochin. He crossed Cochins with every variety
of fowl in England before deciding which to take. He was able to judge
the needs for producing a good buff color as well as a good all-round bird.
The Orpingtons
767
After five years of such experiments his ideal was fully formed. He
began by taking a Golden-Spangled Hamburg cock and Dark Dorking
pullets. The product of this mating in pullets were mated with a Buff
Cochin cock of the highest laying strains. This makes the Buff Orpington.
He selected Hamburgs because they laid more eggs than any other
variety in England, were non-sitters, but too delicate for winter layers
in their pure state. They were the best-shaped birds of any living variety.
He took the Dorking to get length of breast-bone and quality of table-
meat. The English Dorking has always been considered one of the best
table-fowls. From the first cross he selected the pullets that came of a
dark-brown color with white legs, and the very best layers of these. Buff
Cochin cocks bred from the very best layers were selected for mating the
last cross. Note that the Hamburg has blue legs, large black tail, and
white ear-lobes; the Dorking, white legs, large black tail, and five toes
on each foot; the Cochin, yellow legs with an immense amount of feathers
to the toe ends. Mr. Cook had ten years' breeding before he showed the
public a single bird. From the beginning to the finish required fifteen
years—five years in experimenting and ten years in perfecting the variety.
The perfected Buff Orpington has pinkish-white or flesh-color legs, no
black or white showing in wing or tail when the bird is at rest; bay eyes,
bright-red face, comb, ear-lobes, and wattles; clear legs; light flesh, and
lays a brown-shelled egg of good size and shape.
SINGLE-COMB AND ROSE-COMB WHITE ORPINGTONS
The White Orpingtons were the second variety produced and came
out two and one-half years after the Blacks. Many experiments were
made to find out the best method of producing white fowls that were
up to date.
White Leghorn cocks were crossed with Black Hamburg
hens, and the pullets from this cross came very white and with four toes
on each foot. Next was used a Single-Comb White Dorking cock,
mated with the offspring; some of the birds were blue, some barred like
Cuckoo Dorkings. It was several years before white birds could be
produced. Even now occasionally some will come with color on them.
The White Dorking blood is seen sometimes when a five-toed bird is
produced. By careful breeding the White Orpingtons were developed
nto a breed which produces quick-growing, vigorous birds with good
laying and table qualities.
768
The Poultry Book
The Rose-Comb White Orpingtons were made by using Rose-Comb
White Dorking cock instead of Single Comb. The blood in the Single-
Comb and the Rose-Comb White Orpingtons is exactly the same, and there
is no difference in size and qualities. The White Orpingtons have neat
combs, either single or rose, white beak, red face and ear-lobes, white
plumage throughout, white legs, and four toes on each foot. The cocks
should carry their tails fairly well back, much as a Dorking, only the
tails are a trifle smaller and are carried higher. In the hens the
points are the same, only the comb and tail are smaller. They lay a
nice brown egg of good size.
DIAMOND JUBILEE ORPINGTON
The next in order of production by Mr. Cook was the Diamond Jubilee
Orpington. As far as color is concerned it is a revival of the old Speckled
Dorking, one of the prettiest birds known. They were produced much
in the same way as the Buff Orpingtons, only that a Speckled Dorking
was used instead of a Colored Dorking. There are two varieties Single
Comb and Rose Comb-but the color in both is exactly the same. The
cocks have white legs, four toes on each foot, long breast, with a single
comb well serrated, standing erect, red face, a white beak, occasionally
showing a brown shade. The neck-hackles are reddish-brown, rich in
color; the center of the feathers should be black, edged with brown, and
just the fine tips at the ends are white. Saddle-hackles the same color, a
rich dark-brown on the shoulders in good specimens, also ticked with
white; the outside wing-bars should show a great deal of white, the under-
neath part showing black and brown; tail also principally white, with a
little black mixture; a few. of the short hangers round the tail are a rich
black-green, tipped with white; the large sickle feathers should show black-
and-white mixture, but the under or end tail of the cock should be princi-
pally white. In other words, the more the tail is broken up black-and-
white the better.
The breast and underbody feathers of the cocks are almost black,
tipped with white, and a shade of brown intermixed. This is the coloring
of a dark bird. Many of the cocks have what is termed a light-colored
breast, the body color being brown, and then a black mark right across the
center of the feathers down near the end, the extremity being tipped with
white. A perfect specimen of the hen shows the body color brown with

Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
ROSE-COMB BLACK ORPINGTON COCK
Owned by Wallace P. Willett, New Jersey,
The Orpingtons
771
a distinct dark marking near the end, while the extremity of the feather is
tipped with white lacing; the color has a brown black-and-white speckled
appearance all over the bird, the black showing a little less on the buff
over the thighs.
Old hens get
whiter as they
advance in age.
The tail and the
wings are of the
mixed broken
color like that of
the cock, the wing
flights showing a
great deal of
white. The rose
comb should be
full of work, but
the colors are just
the same. The
Diamond Jubilees
were brought out
in 1897, and the
colors are now
fully fixed. They
lay tinted eggs
of good size.

SPANGLED
ORPINGTONS
JHODSOLL
Phots
This, the last
new variety of
Orpingtons, was
brought out in the autumn of 1899. The plumage is different from either of
the other Orpingtons. They are considered the most remarkable layers of all
English breeds. They lay large numbers of tinted eggs of good size. They
breed very true and present a fine, handsome appearance. In some instances
In order to
they weigh nine pounds at eight and one-half months old.
BLACK ORPINGTON SHOWN IN 1892
Owned by E. D. Till, England
From a photograph
772
The Poultry Book
produce this fowl, Mr. Cook had in his mind a still better layer, if possible,
than any of the other varieties. He completed his task within eight
years, giving the result to
the public in 1899, under
the name of the Spangled
Orpington. To make the
Spangled, a Dark Dorking
cock was mated with a
Barred Plymouth Rock
hen. This first cross gave
pullets of great size, but
almost black, with very
little white in them and a
trifle brown on the breast.
These pullets were mated
with a Silver-Spangled
Hamburg cock for shape
and laying quality. The
Dorking gave size, the
Hamburg eggs, and the
Barred Plymouth Rock
hardiness.

Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
HEN
SINGLE-COMB SPANGLED ORPINGTON
Owned by W. P. Willett
The second cross pro-
duced pullets of black and
white and cockerels of
drab or straw color, with
scarcely any white in them. It required several years of close selec-
tion before the black and white necessary in the cockerels was pro-
duced. In some cases the pullet has dark legs, which grow lighter
as the bird grows older, dark plumage birds being darkest in legs.
They are quite clear in the head, with no muffle. The single combs
should be evenly serrated and stand erect. The cocks and cockerels are
white on the wing and have much more white in the wing, but the principal
tail feathers should be white, edged with black, the breast being the same
color as in the hen. The neck hackles and saddle feathers should correspond
black and white. The eggs are tinted or brown, not so deep as the other
Orpingtons. The pullets begin to lay at five and six months old. They
The Orpingtons
773
are plump, splendid table birds, very hardy, stand confinement well, and
are good foragers when at liberty. The plumage is black-and-white-that
is to say, the ground-color is black with white spots upon it, so that it is
really black-and-white. The pullets and hens should have an even marking
all over.
The Rose-Comb variety should be exactly of the same color, the comb
fitting close to the head and full of work, with only a short peak at the
back, not fitting down like the Wyandottes, but straight out over the back.
Standard of the Spangled Orpingtons is as follows: Cock-single
comb, small, well set on and free from side spikes; lobe, red; eye, orange
color and bold; neck, hackle, even, white and black; breast, broad and full,
with black ground-color, spangled evenly with white; back, broad and
short, ticked with white; wing-bow, black tipped with white; secondaries,
black; flight, white; tail, carried full, sickle feathers black-and-white,
undertail or hentail white; legs and feet, black, but black-and-white not
objected to; four toes on each foot; weight, eight to nine pounds.
Hen-head, same as cock, but somewhat full in comb; body, full and
cobby, with black ground-color, spangled with white; wing-flights, black-
and white; tail, black
tipped with white; legs and
feet, same as cock; weight,
six to seven pounds; dis-
qualifications, any sign of
red feathers; white in lobe;
feathers on legs; five toes.
-

GENERAL COMMENT
The following is from
the Commercial Poultry,
February 20, 1901: "Per-
haps never before in the
history of 'fowlism' have
birds so universally gained
prominence in so short a
time as have the Buff
Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
ROSE-COMB BUFF ORPINGTON HEN
Owned by W. P. Willett
Orpingtons, which were originated in England in 1894 by William
Cook. They surpass the Leghorns in laying and the Plymouth Rocks
774
The Poultry Book
in size, and combine thus in superiority the excellence of both
standard breeds, and supply the public demands for these requisite
essentials. They are beautiful beyond description with their pure
red ears, pinkish-white flesh and legs, and color of males merging
into golden-red. Their great intrinsic worth is their laying qualities,
pullets laying at five months and continuing through all changes of
winter weather; making fine hatchers and mothers, and are the strongest,
healthiest stock in existence. At five months they weigh from six to
seven pounds, and mature from nine to ten. These wonderful birds were
first imported in 1898, and are scarce and high-priced yet. He who
possesses them is indeed fortunate, as they are undoubtedly the birds of
the future for all enterprising poultrymen, and to secure them early is to
reap a harvest in money-making. They are universally admired, univer-
sally sought after, and in the course of time will be widely distributed.
Breeders of same have been unable so far to supply more than a few of
hundreds of orders received, on account of scarcity as yet. At the name
Buff Orpington a wave of attention is felt all over the land, and successful
breeders are each striving to gain the front in acquiring this valuable
variety. Most fowl-raisers find it necessary to have two breeds—a large
one for the table and a smaller one for laying purposes. The Orpingtons
in both respects stand unexcelled, and they are likely to remain for many
years the premier fowl of this country. Wherever introduced they supplant
all rival breeds."
The Hawkesbury Agricultural College, an Australian government.
institution, held a six-months' egg-laying contest in 1902 between
various breeds of fowls. On September 20th, near the close of the
contest, a pen of Black Orpingtons headed the list with 512 eggs.
Silver Wyandottes came next with 482 eggs, White Leghorns next
with 425 eggs, Buff Orpingtons next with 417 eggs, two pens of Black
Orpingtons next with 415 and 411 eggs, Anconas next with 411 eggs,
Silver Wyandottes next with 402 eggs, Buff Orpingtons next with
392 eggs, Blacks next twice, 388 and 384 eggs. There were 41 pens in
all, and Orpingtons took seven out of the thirteen highest places.
The forty-first pen, Minorcas, laid 125 eggs.
Minorcas, laid 125 eggs. This was the winter
season in Australia, and a correspondent of American Fancier says:
"These facts prove beyond question that in addition to their generally
admitted superiority as regards table properties, the Orpingtons
The Orpingtons
775
are splendid winter layers, a qualification that adds much luster to
their reputation as tip-top all-purpose fowls."
MATING ORPINGTONS
*
In an article published in the "American Orpington Club Catalogue"
on "Mating Orpingtons," William Cook, the originator of the breed, says:

SINGLE-COMB WHITE ORPINGTON COCK
Owned by Wallace P. Willett
Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
There are many people who purchase expensive birds who have cause
to be very disappointed when they see the result of their first season's
rearing. Having expended a good sum of money for their birds, they
naturally expect to get something good from them, and those who have
had the least experience in breeding are those who expect most from their
*This article also appeared in The Orpington, a journal published in this country and
devoted exclusively to this breed.-EDITOR.
776
The Poultry Book
purchase. There are many who have bought very expensive birds who
have not even reared a fairly good specimen from them, which, to say the
least, is most disappointing.
The principal cause for this
failure is one which we will
explain here.

"There is a belief,
which is held by numbers,
that because a bird has
won a prize it must be
the best bird that can be
obtained for breeding pur-
poses. The fallacy of this
belief can only be under-
stood when it is explained
that on many occasions
birds have won prizes which
have not even been pure-
bred. There are strange
freaks in breeding, as every one who has had anything to do with stock
of any kind knows that when a pure male bird of good strain has been
used with mongrel hens it is not an unusual thing to find one or two of
the progeny with all the characteristics of the pure breed, and with
points far above the average of birds of ordinary pure breed.
"Then, again, sometimes a bird of this type is thrown by mongrel stock
into which at some time two or three years previously a good pure strain
had been introduced. This is particularly the case with the Barred Rocks,
several winners of rare type having been bred in this way. Judges who
award prizes have to give them to birds which are the nearest to the
standard of the breed they are judging, and it is not their concern as to
how they were bred. Birds of this class do a breed a great deal of harm, as
their progeny are a great disappointment to their purchasers. It is wrong
of
any exhibitor to allow such birds to be sold, and we firmly believe that
all who have the best interests of the breed at heart would not do so, as
they are only causing trouble and disappointment to every one who
purchases stock bred from these birds.
"No wonder that people have cause to grumble when they get hold
Photograph by C. J. Ross
SINGLE-COMB BUFF ORPINGTON HEN
First at Madison Square Garden, New York, 1904. Owned by Willow Brook Farm,
Connecticut
The Orpingtons
777
of such a bird, and we strongly advise amateurs who are going in for a few
good birds to buy only from a breeder whose name is sufficient guarantee
that he would not stoop to such a practice. Now, many of the best stock
birds never see the inside of a show-pen, and it does not follow because
a bird has won a prize that he can be relied on to throw good stock. It all
depends on how he has been bred. Blood tells in breeding, and therefore it
is necessary that in order to obtain satisfactory results birds from a well-
established strain be procured, whether they are show birds or other-
wise. Another mistake made by some is that they do not mate good
birds properly, so that they really waste valuable material. When one
does not know how strains
of fowls are bred, and
they are anxious to breed
show birds, they would do
well to place themselves
in the hands of a reliable,
conscientious breeder of
the variety they are going
in for, and they will stand
a much better chance of
success.

"Now, a few words
on the general mating of
Buff Orpingtons. It is
not advisable to mate a
very dark cock with light-
colored pullets, as their
progeny have a tendency
to be mottled, some of
the feathers being of
dark shade and others of
very light. Then a light-
shade cock should not be
mated with hens which
are also of light shade, as
this mating throws birds with a good deal of white about them. In
mating Buff Orpingtons to breed really high-class birds, the hens or
Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
SINGLE-COMB BUFF ORPINGTON COCK
Owned by W. P. Willett

778
The Poultry Book
pullets should be selected with as sound flights as possible-it is much
better to have a little peppering of black than white. It is most essential
that the pullets should be sound of wing, if possible, and birds with white
be avoided, as a hen or pullet will throw progeny with a good deal more
white in them than a cock or cockerel.
"There are very few male birds which are absolutely free from white;
nearly every one has had a tinge of white in them. Some of the most
successful show birds show white in wing, and often in tail also. It will,
therefore, be remembered that it is not advisable to use hens or pullets
with white in their wings, but by mating a cock
that has a little white in his flights or tail with
sound pullets a good percentage of the progeny
will be of satisfactory color, and particularly
the pullets.
Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
HEAD OF SINGLE-COMB
SPANGLED ORPINGTON COCK
Owned by W. P. Willett
"A cock may be much richer in color on his
shoulders than on his neck- and saddle-hackles,
and will produce some of the best-colored pullets,
very rich in top- and under-color, but is not likely
to produce very good colored cockerels unless
bred from a particularly level cock, when it is
possible that some of the young birds will throw
back. When mating for pullets, the male bird
should be darker than the hens and pullets he
is mated with, but very dark cocks must not be
mated with hens which are very light in shade.
Sometimes a male bird of excellent color will have
a little white in the under-color of neck-hackles, and he will be an ex-
cellent stock bird and throw really sound colored birds if mated with good.
pullets.
"Our readers must use their own judgment when mating up birds.
If the hens or pullets fail in any point the male bird used should be par-
ticularly strong in that point, and be careful not to mate birds together
when both have the same failing. It should be the object of every one
to get birds as nearly perfect as possible. In all varieties of poultry it is
necessary that care should be taken in the mating when typical birds.
are wanted, and if the male bird has a weak comb the hens should have
good strong combs, and if the birds lack size, get hens with good bone
The Orpingtons
779
and shape. Some people will not use hens if they are pale in color,
but that does not make any difference to the offspring if the stock birds
had good under-color as pullets the first year.
All buff birds get paler
in color as they get older. Many hens get so pale as to be almost
white in their under-color. In using young pullets, look for under-
color in addition to good top-color."
THE LINCOLNSHIRE BUFFS*

HE Lincolnshire Buffs are discussed by Mr. Weir in his
recent work, entitled "Our Poultry," as follows:
"Of late there has been a veritable craze for poultry
of a sandy or buff color. The coming of the buff Shanghais
and Cochins made it for a time the color, and the present
demand is but a revival of that of 1850-53-60. This was one of the
periodical outbursts for something new. Buff was the vogue full fifty
years before-among men the buff waistcoats, while buff dresses were
worn by ladies. There was a deeper color, now erroneously called buff,
but then nankeen, a fabric of a reddish light yellow, so named as coming
from Nankin, or Nanking, in China. Now a deeper-colored cotton cloth
is called khaki. It much resembles thick nankeen. This color, at the end
of the eighteenth century, ruled and was worn. There were Nankeen
poultry, nankeen Bantams, and similarly colored, though redder, Game
cocks. In 1830, nankeen was to the front again, as was buff. As a boy, I
well remember both my brother and myself were clothed in suits of
buff-colored nankeen. It has been erroneously stated by writers on
poultry that the fowls originated on the arrival of the Shanghais in 1847.
This is certainly not the case. Beyond our farm poultry, Game-fowls
and Bantams, there was the reddish-buff Malays, the hues of which were
a uniform buff or nankeen color.
"True it is that the importation of the Shanghai gave a new zest, and
doubtless added additional beauty to the tone of the most approved tints,
but no Shanghais ever surpassed those of the old nankeen Bantams. These
latter, crossed with the light Red-Breasted Game, made beautiful birds of
about six to eight pounds weight in the cocks, but only five to six in hens.
The buff Shanghais were extensively used with both the four-toed farm
fowls and the five-toed old Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, many of which were
* Little or nothing is known of the Lincolnshire Buffs in this country. Mr. Weir is
strongly of the opinion that the Buff Orpingtons are closely related to this breed. Whatever
may be the facts, the Lincolnshire Buffs have certain good characteristics that commend
themselves to breeders. They certainly deserve more careful attention.—EDITOR.
781
782
The Poultry Book
rich browns and reds. They not infrequently produced birds of rare beauty
and color. The chickens, invariably, were white in beak, shanks, and feet.
Many hundreds
of these might
be seen
about
the southern
homesteads.

Jul
FUCKLE
NTV
Drawn from life by Mr. Weir
LINCOLNSHIRE BUFF COCKEREL, 1891-92
They proved
marketable
fowls, though
slightly less
plump than the
old English
breeds.
the Cochin
(Shanghai)
When
began to decline
and lose its hold
on the public
appreciation,
then it was that
the darker colors
again prevailed.
The buffs were
kept only in
isolated places
and about fat-
ting centers, and
in the northern
counties. Though found very serviceable, they were soon put aside
by the crosses with the l'ght and the dark Brahma. Still the buff
Shanghai was a power in the poultry kingdom, and is yet considered
worthy of all praise. In 1853, C. P. Boston, of Lincolnshire, wrote
that, from 'one hatch of half-bred birds, a cross between the Cochin and
Dorking came off last October. The mother died a fortnight afterward,
but the chickens reared themselves. It was very pleasing to watch the
little creatures huddle together at night in some hay I gave them. I have
The Lincolnshire Buffs
783
not yet tasted the flesh of the thoroughbred birds, but the cross men-
tioned above produced excellent fowls for the table. They weigh, when
six months old, from six to seven pounds each.'
"This was the commencement of this particular cross in Lincolnshire.
Finding that they were hardy, easily reared, quick in growth, and readily
fattened, they gradually grew in the estimation of farmers and others.
They became so plentiful after a few years, that they were known in the
London and other markets as Lincolnshire Buffs. During my frequent visits
to Leadenhall and other marts, I have noticed for very many years their
excellence as a good ordinary market table-fowl. When care and atten-
tion was given to selection for breeding purposes, they proved not only a
good utility fowl, but many were of singular comeliness and beauty of
color. I learned that many thousands were raised annually in Lincoln-
shire, some of which were of exceptional merit. Liking the color, and
hearing that, besides being
a good medium white-
fleshed table-fowl, they
were also winter layers, I
determined to have some
when opportunity offered,
and cross in with a couple
of fine-colored wheaten
white-shanked old English
Game-hens. These would,
no doubt, go far toward
perfecting the breed as a
high-class culinary fowl.
From R. Seed, of Tattersal,
Lincoln, I learned, June 7,
1895, that, though called
Lincolnshire Buffs, they
were not all bred for color,
but chiefly for marketable
birds, the best quality
table-birds being sent to
London, and the coarser to other markets. About 50 per cent. of
the chicks are more or less feathered on the leg, and these are
Theils
Wel
Tw
*
درسه
11
Wein
I bel
21
LINCOLNSHIRE BUFF HEN
"
Drawn from life by Mr. Weir
M
C

784
The Poultry Book
usually the best colored birds, when a buff cockerel has been used.
Of the remainder, 25 per cent. will have yellow legs. The clean white-
legged birds are, as a rule, either lighter buff or penciled with black
tails, but occasionally we see a beautiful clean-legged bird as sound in
color as a prize Cochin; these, when bred from, throw many chicks with
leg-feathers. These clean-legged birds are sent to market along with the
rest. I have frequently remarked that it was a pity to kill such birds;
they ought to be selected for breeding purposes. There is much inquiry
about them now. I know they are being used for manufacturing or improv-
ing buff Orpingtons, Wyandottes, Rocks, and Leghorns. As Lincolnshire
Buffs, I admire them and can testify to their good qualities. As to the
other names—well, they are still Lincolnshire Buffs in my opinion.'
"Fully agreeing with this statement, and having known this cross-
breed for many years, I asked Mr. Seed to send me a cockerel and two
pullets on approval. They fully realized my expectation. The cockerel
was well-made, robust, and with plenty of breast meat. It had many of
the characteristics of the Buff Orpington. In color it was a beautiful rich
buff, with a full bronze tail, no black whatever. The pullets were of the
same type and perfectly clear buff; the beak, shanks, feet, and toe-nails
were a fleshy white. The trio were as good and desirable as any of that
class of fowl.
“In a letter dated May 28, 1895, Mr. Seed writes: 'I wish to say that
you have not been too severe in your criticism of the Buff Orpington craze.
Since last September I know of several Lincolnshire Buffs that have been
picked up at pot-price and re-sold at big figures as Buff Orpingtons. I
had offers from two parties, one a prominent judge in the fancy, to buy
all the sound-colored, clean, white-shanked buff birds I could furnish. I
declined with thanks.' Further, J. Fowler says: 'I have two hens, one
more than three years old, I brought out of Lincolnshire. I am positive
the breeders never moved egg or bird for change of blood for seven or
eight years, except a cockerel bought from one of their own farms, and
vice versa.
I have got a V.H.C. in an Orpington class, any color, under Mr.
Partington with these Lincolnshire Buffs. They are just as I used to breed
in Lincolnshire nearly thirty years back.'
"I therefore adopt the name of Lincolnshire Buffs for this style and
character of fowl. I present herewith illustrations of the Lincolnshire
Buffs. In doing so, I feel that I represent the true, good, old breed. If
The Lincolnshire Buffs
785
these were mated with large-sized, Old English, white-shanked, rich-colored
wheaten Game-hens, intelligently selected and bred, the result most likely
would be a more satisfactory and reliable cross-breed than any such buff
now existing. As it is, the Lincolnshire Buff is a good winter layer. The
eggs are medium-sized, of a variable light yellowish-brown, mostly of a
roundish oval, though some few are elongated. The hens are steady,
patient incubators, and good mothers. The chickens are easily reared, and
fatten readily. The flesh is juicy, delicate in flavor, and white; the skin
thin, the fat white, though, in some instances, this is not so in the much-
feathered or yellow-shanked birds. If well fed, fatted, and finished, they
are a very salable market-fowl, and, as a cross-breed, can be recommended
as such; but always those with clear shanks should be kept."


BUFF LEGHORNS.
The property of MR. and MRS. LISTER KAY.
Harrison tou
1.1900
A. C. FOWLER, TYPO

From a photograph
SINGLE-COMB BROWN LEGHORNS, IN YARDS OF W. W. KULP, PENNSYLVANIA
THE LEGHORNS*
E. G. WYCKOFF, New York
FTER having just completed a short history and description
of a recently developed breed of poultry, in the production
of which accurate records of matings, crossings, and re-
crossings have been carefully kept, I find myself somewhat
embarrassed in any endeavor to find sources of reliable
historical information in connection with the Leghorn, inasmuch as our
forefathers were not so particular about detail in poultry culture as is the
fancier of to-day. In this connection, I desire to express regret that so

* What are known as the Mediterranean breeds of fowls are classified usually in this
country as follows: 1. Leghorn; 2. Ancona; 3. Minorca; 4. Andalusian; 5. Spanish.
The various breeds will, therefore, be treated in this work in that order. The chapter on
Leghorns by the well-known breeder and expert, Edward G. Wyckoff, of New York, is,
by far, the most complete account of this group ever published. Many facts of interest,
from an historical standpoint, are here brought together and systematized out of frag-
As a successful breeder of
mentary articles heretofore scattered in poultry literature.
many years' experience, Mr. Wyckoff has made the chapter all the more valuable by
incorporating his own methods and ideas. Fanciers everywhere cannot fail to appreciate
this splendid piece of work. In his recent English edition, Mr Weir seems to have utterly
failed to grasp the importance of the Leghorns, particularly the Whites, in this country.
Some of the newer varieties, especially the Blacks, are coming rapidly to the front.
successful development of the Leghorns to their present high standard is due, largely, to
the careful work of American breeders -EDITOR.
The
787

788
The Poultry Book
little really good distinctly American literature has been produced relating
to poultry and poultry culture; and to suggest to readers of the "Poultry
Book" who may be working experimentally in the development of new
breeds, or in improving upon the old, that exact data of all the various
experiments-whether successful or not-be carefully kept and recorded
as of inestimable value to the incoming generation of fanciers and breeders.
As to the origin of the Leghorn, various opinions have been advanced
in years past by reputed authorities; and, while it is true that thirty years.
ago much difference of opinion existed, it now seems to be fairly well
established that the original
Leghorn came from Italy, that
the first recorded exportation of
these birds from Europe was
made some time about the year
1834, and that America was the
destination of this shipment.
It is recorded, also, that the ship
which brought the small flock to
America was from the city of
Leghorn, in Italy, and, there being
no name by which the birds were
known, that of Leghorn was
applied, and the progeny of this
class has to this day, both in
England and America, borne such
name. Allowing for a doubt that
such shipment was made at the
time mentioned, or that the birds actually came from Leghorn, it is
definitely known that birds of the Leghorn type had, for some years even
prior to 1834, been bred in different parts of Europe, and that they were
known there by the name of "Italiens."

From a photograph
A TYPICAL SINGLE-COMB WHITE PULLET HEAD
In any event, the data furnished with reference to the 1834 importation
are more or less mythical or legendary-and no writer on the subject
seems able to give definite facts, or to name any particular person who was
in any way connected with the transaction. It is, however, authoritatively
stated that F. J. Kinney, of Massachusetts, purchased, in Boston Harbor,
in 1853, a trio of Single-Comb Brown Leghorns, which had come direct
The Leghorns
789
from Italy. This appears to be the earliest definite transaction in Leghorn
history in America of which record has been made, and it is not entirely
to our credit that the record is furnished by English authority. Mr.
Simpson, of New York, is also credited with having received, during the
same year, a shipment of White Leghorns which came direct by ship to
the port of New York.
During the early days, the Brown and White Leghorns were alone bred
to any extent, the other classes being developed from time to time, a
portion in America and a portion in England.
The offspring of early matings of Leghorns were said to have, in many
instances, pink or white shanks, and this characteristic caused confusion,
and led to the belief among many breeders at the time that the Leghorns
were really a branch of the Minorca family, and hence belonged to the
Spanish class. This theory, however, has been disproven, and it seems
to be now well established that the Leghorn is a class by itself and not
directly related to the Spanish. The White Leghorn differs essentially
from the Spanish in that it has bright yellow legs, feet, and beak, and has a
red, instead of a white, face. Some authorities, such as Martin Doyle
(England), aver that the Leghorn originated in America. This theory is
hardly acceptable in the light of their known early history, yet, when one
considers the type of the American Leghorn of to-day as compared with
the stock bearing that name of fifty years ago, it might almost be termed
a distinct variety. In any event, Edward Brown, editor of the Fanciers'
Gazette (England), says, "To America first belongs the credit of discovering
their value and developing their special qualities." This is undoubtedly
true.
Many authorities claim, and with some reason, too, that the Leghorn
has completely outstripped the Spanish and other Mediterranean breeds,
in that they are hardier, that small chicks feather more quickly and reach
maturity in much less time.
While on this subject, I beg to also quote as to the relative egg-
producing qualities of the Minorca and Leghorn, and have taken the
following from the Sydney (N.S.W.) Daily Telegraph:
(6
'Charles K. Horwood, of Wagga, has been conducting some experi-
ments as to the relative merits of Leghorns and Minorcas as layers, as a
result of which he gives the palm to the former. He has made a reputation
as an ‘egg'-farmer, and, accordingly, speaks with some authority. Though
790
The Poultry Book
interesting, such a test cannot be accepted as conclusive, for the
productiveness of the hens largely depends on the strain; and, good as
Mr. Horwood's Minorcas may be, some one else may have a better laying
strain. We think, of course, that it is generally conceded that the
Leghorn is the better layer of the two, but some of our readers could doubt-
less give equally impartial evidence in favor of the larger breed. However,
as Mr. Horwood carries on poultry farming on a large scale, and on up-to-
date lines, his views carry a good deal of weight. 'Some time ago,' he
says, ‘J. J. McCae, poultry expert at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College,
in replying to a letter of mine in which I had mentioned the number of
eggs laid during a certain period by my Leghorns, said, “Very good, indeed,
for Leghorns, but, if you had had Minorcas, I think you would have done
even better." G. Bradshaw expresses similar views in a recent publication
of his, so I would like to give the result of a little experiment I tried with
Minorcas and White and Brown Leghorns. I procured some Minorcas
of the best laying strains obtainable, bred from them, and when the pullets
matured I made three large, wire-netted yards and put twenty-five pullets
of the three breeds into them, fed and cared for them in exactly the same
way, and, at the end of seven months, I find the White Leghorns 17 per cent.
ahead of the Brown Leghorns and 28 per cent. ahead of the Minorcas; or,
in other words, while the Minorcas were laying 100 eggs, the Browns laid
117 and the Whites 128.
I
These pullets were treated exactly alike from
the time they left the shell, and, as I am breeder of, and prize taker with, all
three breeds, and have no object in lauding one breed at the expense of
another, I think it may be considered a fair trial of laying capacity. I
may add that my breeding-pens of the three breeds have coincided in
results very approximately with the "pullet" pens, confirming my belief
that the Minorca is "not in it" with the White, or even the Brown, Leghorn,
as a layer. As to the size of the eggs from the three breeds, mine average
eight to the pound. I have only to quote from a letter received to-day
from Sydney, which says "the head storeman at the cool-storage depot says
of all the eggs in the store, yours [nearly 1,000 dozens, all laid by my own
hens] are the best," to show that no complaint can be made on the score of
size.'
???
;
During the first few years of the adoption of the Leghorn to American
purposes, decided improvements were made. The general type of the
bird, its symmetry of outline and carriage, were greatly improved upon.
The Leghorns
791

PHOTOGRAPHED Br
Souis T. Graham
19011
SINGLE-COMB WHITE LEGHORN HEN
First prize at Trenton, New Jersey, Inter-State Fair, 1903. Owned and bred by E. G. Wyckoff, New York
The desired colors in the Brown Leghorns were made more distinct, while
the Whites were converted into a pure white, instead of a dusky yellow.
The breast of the originally imported Brown Leghorn male was brown, but
has now been developed into a rich and glossy black.
792
The Poultry Book
In 1869, England imported her first Leghorns from America, and
thus had the advantage of the labor put upon the breed during its thirty
years, more or less, of growth in this country. Since then, that country has
imported many birds direct from Italy, and, with the crosses made, has
produced a type which, according to the idea of American breeders, is not
so attractive as the present-day American specimen.
Of the varieties of Leghorns, other than the White and Brown, there
is no question but that the Buff comes next in favor, and, after naming
these three, there is little choice in those remaining, as none of them are
extremely popular at the present time in this country, although some
faithful fanciers continue to breed Blacks, Silver Duckwings, Piles, and
Dominiques, with, possibly, the Dominiques least favored of all.
In 1896, M. K. Boyer, of New Jersey, classified Leghorns as follows,
as to popularity and merit: Brown, first; White, second; Black, third;
Dominique, fourth; Buff, fifth; Silver Duckwing, sixth. Since that date,
there has evidently been quite a turn of the tide in favor of the White
Leghorn. Referring to this year's (1904) catalogue of the Madison Square
Garden Show (New York), which show was held in January, I notice there
are 139 single entries of Single-Comb Whites, as against 67 Single-Comb
Browns, and, at the same time, there are 50 single entries of Single-Comb
Buff Leghorns. This seems to show that the White Leghorn has exchanged
places with the Brown, while the Buffs have gone up from fifth place to
third, and, as a matter of fact, are practically on a par with the Brown, in
second place. In comparison with the figures which I have given above,
there were only three birds of the Single-Comb Leghorn variety shown
other than Brown, White, and Buff at the above-mentioned show. In the
Rose-Combed varieties there were 33 White Single entries and 36 Browns,
being practically the same. The only other Rose-Combed varieties of
Leghorns shown were Buffs.
VALUE OF CAREFUL SELECTION
It is thus seen that styles and fancies change in the line of poultry
as in everything else, and I should, as a fancier, like to here emphasize my
opinion, which comes from several years' observation, not only of poultry
but of other live stock as well. That opinion is that quality and real
merit are much more to be found in the strain than in the breed. For
example, the Holstein-Friesian cattle, as a breed, produce large quantities
The Leghorns
793
of milk with a low percentage of butter fats, but many single specimens
and families of the breed, which come from selected strains, produce the
quantity with a high percentage of butter fats. It is the strain that
produces results. The breed is excellent, but poor specimens of the
breed are no better than the most ordinary.
In the same manner, to achieve success with poultry, we must select
the best strains we can obtain, and it makes but little difference which
variety of Leghorns may be chosen, if the individual birds are well selected
and well mated. The breeder who selects and mates superior birds of any
Leghorn variety, and then handles them well and intelligently, will produce
a strain that is worth having, and for specimens of which his neighbors
will be glad to pay the price. Fanciers well know that they cannot raise
choice stock for the show-room at the price it costs to produce ordinary
fowls. We often hear that "such and such a breeder" receives a "fancy"
price for his birds and eggs. If a breeder puts intelligence into his business,
and exercises it, I do not believe he is apt to get more than his just due,
no matter what price he may ask for his product. Prices are largely
governed by the market for the product, and style and fancy largely
control the market. At the present time, while the White Leghorn seems
to be the most popular of the Leghorn varieties, I am quite certain that
individual Buff birds might demand a higher price than individual White
birds of the same quality. This is possibly so because the Buff is a later
variety, and may be also in part accounted for by the fact that it is so
extremely difficult to raise Buff birds which are all buff—an accomplish-
ment that but few have attained up to the present time.
Of Leghorns, Professor James Long, of the Royal College (England),
wrote in 1886 as follows:
"These striking birds are still popular in England, although there is
not the rage for them that appears prevalent in America. The first
Leghorns came from the States, and were for some time supposed to be
American fowls, but they are Italian, by which name they are now known
and exhibited throughout the Continent. We have seen them at French,
German, Swiss, Dutch, and Danish exhibitions in far greater perfection, as
regards useful fowls, than in England, and offered at exceedingly moderate
prices. In North Italy they are common, and we have seen them sold at
I s. 6 d. each, the colors not being confined to Brown and White; Blacks,
Piles, and Cuckoos (blue-barred or Dominiques) being quite common.

794
The Poultry Book
The Brown variety was introduced by Lewis Wright and ourselves from
the yard of A. M. Halstead, of New York, Mr. Tegetmeier being the first to
import the Whites; the first birds to take a prize in this country, having,
with the Plymouth Rocks, been bred by ourselves. We suggested the
Utest
Lu
alohou,
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
OLD-STYLE WHITE LEGHORN COCKEREL
The Leghorns
795
first class for American fowls ever offered by a committee, when some
first-rate White Leghorns were shown. In ear-lobe these were very supe-
rior to the Brown Leghorns; but we were, nevertheless, disappointed in this
particular point, for, instead of being similar in color and texture to that of
the Hamburg, it was actually yellow, a color which, we are sorry to say, is
still often exhibited."
The above criticism, made by Professor Long in 1886, as to the yellow
color of the English Leghorn of that day, would certainly not hold good as
to the modern type of the American White Leghorn, than which there are
probably no whiter birds now bred.
Professor Long says further:
"The Leghorn cock should be an upright and sprightly bird, standing
and carrying his tail erect, but not squirrel-fashioned. The comb is large,
single, brilliantly red, firm and grown well back; the head is short; the
wattles are long, pendent, even, and very red; the ear-lobes small, slightly
pendent, and a clean, opaque white; the eye is large and quick; the neck,
long and gracefully curved; the hackle, full and flowing; the back, very
short, the tail starting up almost at the base of the saddle, which is rather
broad and plentifully feathered; the breast is 'full, carried well forward';
the wings, well clipped, but not too large; the tail, large and plentifully
adorned with side-sickles; the legs are brilliant yellow and rather long and
slender. In white cocks, the hackle and saddle incline to the unpleasant
straw color; this, however, must be avoided. Lop-combs, stained or yellow
ears, and blue legs are disqualifications. The hen is a deeper bird, rather
square in body, with full, round chest, close plumage, large and erect tail;
the comb is large and red, and falls over to one side; the face is red, the
ear-lobes white, small, and free from folds; the wattles rather short, round,
and thin, and the neck long; the wings well tucked; and the legs rather long,
slender, and yellow, to match those of the cock. Her comb must not be
upright (i. e. prick-combed), although, in the moult, many hens are thus
temporarily adorned.
'Brown Leghorns approach in color, in both sexes, dull - colored
black-red Game-fowls. In the cock, the hackle and saddle are of a dull,
gamey red, the tail being a lustrous black, the breast and thighs black, and
the legs yellow. The hens, excepting in comb and shape, closely resemble
black-red Game-hens. The general body color is very similar, although it
is deeper, and the penciling less delicate; the breast is a deep, full salmon,
796
The Poultry Book
We have bred many
shading off to ashy brown toward the thighs.
chicks, all of which were particularly true in feather and fancy points,
very precocious growers, and hardy in the extreme. The pullets are
splendid layers of large white eggs—indeed, in this respect they have few
superiors. They are not great eaters, and this fact, together with their
productiveness, may account for their not putting on flesh for the table.
At any rate, Leghorns are invaluable for the egg-farmer, and we do not
hesitate to recommend them strongly.
"The Black and Cuckoo varieties resemble the others, except in color;
the former, with their white ears and yellow legs and beaks, being very
striking.
"One of the principal fancy points in the Leghorn is the five-point
comb; but we would much rather see greater attention paid to the im-
provement of its size, as is the case on the Continent."
Many of the comments made by Professor Long, in 1886, are applicable
at the present time, although the American Standard on Leghorns has been
revised several times during this period. The question of size will probably
never be settled to the satisfaction of all. Those who breed for "fancy"
do not like to see their birds grow too large, while to those who are breeding
for utility alone it appears that the larger the birds grow the better are
the breeders suited.
To the small poultryman and general farmer, the question of profit is
all-essential, and the question of profit in poultry has been well decided in
favor of the egg-producing breeds. Where Leghorns are allowed a free
run, they will pick up a large part of their living during the greater part of
the year. Under ordinary circumstances, it is said that the cost of raising
them to maturity is about one-half that of the Asiatic varieties, also
proportionately less than that of the heavier Wyandottes, Plymouth
Rocks, etc. So far as my observation goes, I should think that it costs a
very little less per pound to raise Leghorns than Plymouth Rocks or
Wyandottes, although I am quite sure that it costs considerably less per
pound to raise either of these classes than the Asiatics. If this be true,
and if one secure a good-laying strain of Leghorns, there can be no ques-
tion that the profit side of the ledger in the transaction will be more
favorable to the Leghorns than it would have been had any other breed
been selected.
The objection often raised--that owing to its small size the Leghorn
The Leghorns
797
is not a good table-fowl-cannot well be sustained, for, if a Leghorn be
properly fed and put in condition for the table, there is none to excel it,
with the possible exception of the Game. Probably none will dispute that

Photograph by L. P. Graham, 1901
ROSE-COMB BROWN LEGHORNS IN THE YARDS OF W. W. KULP, PENNSYLVANIA
to the Game belongs the credit of being the very best domestic table-fowl
that we raise; but when we consider how difficult it is to raise Games and
bring them to maturity, and how short they are in their laying qualities,
ordinary mortals cannot consider them at all for steady diet, but only as a
table delicacy to be seen on rare and state occasions. If our family happens
to be large, it may take two Leghorns to supply the table, where it might
otherwise have taken but one Brahma or Cochin; but, if the cost of producing
the two Leghorns were equal only to that of producing the one Brahma
or Cochin, and, in the meantime, we had received more than twice as many
eggs from the two Leghorns as from the one Brahma or Cochin, why
could we not well afford the two of one rather than one of either of the
others? There is the disadvantage, of course, that we dislike to cut off
profits by disposing of these egg-machines in this manner; but it is necessary
that we make a sacrifice of some kind once in a while.
LEGHORN CHARACTERISTIC SHAPE
The Leghorn cock should be trim, active and graceful; body, plump,
round, broad at the shoulders, and tapering toward the tail. He should
798
The Poultry Book
have a hard, close-fitting plumage, and the tail should be well balanced
on a fair length of shank and thigh. The breast should be full, well curved,
prominent, and carried well forward; neck, rather long, well arched, and
head carried erect; back, of medium length, with saddle rising in a rather
sharp, concave sweep of the tail. The tail should be rather full, carried
well up, but not upright, and the wing long, well folded and tightly carried.
The legs must be bright yellow and free from feathers. Hackle and saddle
feathers should be long and abundant, and flow well over the shoulder and
saddle. The ideal head is short and deep, with yellow beak and full,
bright-red eyes and red face. The single comb must not be too large, but
straight, firm, and even upon the head, bright red, and with five or six
points, the Standard of Perfection allowing only five.
The Leghorn hen is not so graceful as the cock, but, owing to its lighter
weight, may appear more sprightly. Its head is smaller than that of the
male, short and deep, with moderately curved beak. The single comb
should be of medium size, with the front standing perfectly erect, including
the first spike or point. The ear-lobes should be small, thin, free from
wrinkles, and fit close to the head, and the wattles medium-sized, thin, and
rounded. The breast should be round and full, and the neck long and
well arched. The back neither too long nor too short, with a long tail, full
and carried well up, but not upright. There should be a reasonable spread
to the tail, so it does not have a "pinched" appearance. The thighs should
be of medium length, slender, and toes straight.
The American Standard of Perfection has not, up to the present
time, given a fixed standard of weight for the Leghorn, and there is a
consequent diversity of opinion as to what the correct Leghorn should
weigh. The fancier, for exhibition purposes, usually prefers the females to
weigh not more than five pounds, and the cocks less than six and one-half
pounds. The utility breeder would like to have the females weigh six and
one-half pounds and the males eight pounds. It is a matter of choice, but
it is my opinion that there is little to be gained by putting too much weight
to the Leghorn. Certainly, the heavier birds are not so active, and, conse-
quently, do not forage so well, nor are they such good egg-producers.
Treating the several varieties of Leghorns, I will take them in order
of their apparent present-day popularity. I will first discuss all of the
single-combed varieties, and then the rose-combed birds, although I do
not at all mean by this to have the reader infer that the less popular of the
The Leghorns
799
single-combed varieties are more popular than the rose-combed. As a
general proposition, I may safely say that the single-combed varieties are
far more popular than the rose-combed, and I believe that a canvass of the
situation would show the relative popularity of the different single-combed
varieties to be about in the order in which they will follow.
SINGLE-COMB WHITE LEGHORNS
It seems to be the consensus of opinion of nearly all writers on the
subject, that the Single-Comb White Leghorn was introduced into the
United States in 1853, and that, previous to that time, this now popular
breed had not made sufficient mark for itself in the world to have
been given a distinctive name by which it should be known through the
centuries to come. While Single-Comb Brown Leghorns are given the
credit for having landed in America some years before the Whites, the
White Leghorn was first to be exported to England, and the probable date
of their arrival there is given as 1869. In 1873, Tegetmeier stated in his
poultry book (English) that White Leghorns had recently been introduced
into England, but the fowls were hardly, if at all, popularly known there.
The earliest copy of the "American Standard of Excellence" that I
have seen was published in 1871, although I am sure there were one or two
earlier editions. In this 1871 edition, the Single-Comb White Leghorn is
referred to as “Leghorn," and its sister, the Brown Leghorn, is referred to
as "Brown Leghorn." It is interesting to note how few differences there
are between the Standard of to-day and the Standard of thirty-odd years
ago. In some cases, words have been changed, but in very few points do
the descriptions vary in marked degree. The most noticeable difference
is in carriage of tail, which, according to the 1871 idea, should be carried
very upright, whereas the present-day model cock bird must not carry his
tail upright. Another noticeable feature is that a straw-colored tinge on
neck - hackle and saddle was admissible in 1871, whereas at the present
time it must be pure white throughout, even including quills. One of the
greatest difficulties the present-day White Leghorn breeder has to contend
with is to breed a bird with an absolutely pure-white plumage and yet
show a good yellow color in the shanks. This is really the most difficult
proposition White Leghorn breeders have to contend with. In the descrip-
tion of the Standard White Leghorn female, I find that the tail demanded
must be large and full, and carried very upright in 1871, while to-day we

800
The Poultry Book
say the tail must be carried well up, but not upright. The Standard comb
in the early days was large, while at the present time it must be neither
too large nor too small.
By a comparison of the present-day birds with the old-day Standards,
it would seem that the wording of the Standard has not so much effect
upon the breeders as the interpretation of this wording; and this probably
accounts for the fact that many specimens are exhibited at our leading
shows which would almost exactly fill the bill so far as Standard descrip-
tion goes, yet fail to receive prizes or even honorable mention. Our
judges do not all interpret the same language alike.
Up to this point, I have been treating of the Single-Comb White
Leghorns, which are bred by fanciers more particularly with the desire
to produce exhibition specimens and birds that conform to the expert's
idea of what a prize-winner should be.
In the United States, there is another class of Single-Comb White
Leghorns which really is a type
in itself, and which should not
be confounded with the exhibi-
tion type that has been here-
tofore treated. This type was
originated some twelve or fifteen
years ago by C. H. Wyckoff (New
York). This gentleman had been,
for many years, a moderately
successful general farmer. In
connection with the other
branches of his calling, his place
had always supported more or
less poultry of the usual barnyard
mongrel type. Discovering the
fact that, even when kept in a
haphazard way, the poultry end
of the farming industry was, in
his case, at least proportionately
branches of that industry, he
more profitable than many other
determined to make poultry raising the main line of business and
to subordinate general farming. A small farm was purchased two
From a photograph
SINGLE-COMB WHITE LEGHORN COCKEREL HEAD
E. G. Wyckoff stock
The Leghorns
801
It
or three miles from a village of about fifteen hundred inhabitants.
was originally the intention to maintain an egg-farm "pure and
simple," and, for this purpose, White Leghorns were selected as the
most desirable breed. Poultry houses were erected, of a size suffi-
ciently large to accommodate about 200 hens, but so divided in numbers
that the flocks were limited to fifty each, it being necessary to divide
each poultry house into four pens. The houses were of good size, well
built, and each flock of birds had access to a yard of ample proportions,
thickly planted with fruit-bearing shade trees. Mr. Wyckoff had no eye
for "fancy points" in his poultry. His was the business, in the early
days, of furnishing strictly fresh eggs to the New York market, and for a
price considerably in advance of the highest market prices of the day.
Being a keen observer, it was but a matter of a few months when he was
able to distinguish the "queens" from the "drones" in his poultry hive,
and it became with him a matter of selection for utility. At the end of a
year or more, he found that he had considerable surplus laying
stock on hand. His fame as a successful egg-farmer had spread
throughout the neighboring towns and villages, and a demand im-
mediately sprang up for breeding-pens, small flocks, and
eggs for
hatching." The supply, however, more than met the local demand,
and the experiment of advertising in the poultry press of the day proved a
successful one. Mr. Wyckoff developed into a shrewd advertiser, and
his happy phrase, "America's business hen," stands for the C. H. Wyckoff
strain of Single-Comb White Leghorns; and, in that it positively stands for
a utility type alone, with no reference to fancy points in any essential,
it is almost unique in the annals of poultrydom. The business proved to be
a profitable one, and it is to be regretted that, when the founder chose to
change his vocation, those who succeeded him could not maintain the
business on the same successful basis.
66
66
Q
Successful poultry raisers are, as a rule, born, not made. The man
or woman who attempts to raise poultry on a large scale will not succeed
if he or she has no natural liking or inborn talent for the business.
From the point of view of a fancier, it is difficult to see a necessity for
utility only" breeds of poultry; but, when we stop to consider out
of the many millions of chicks, ducklings, poults, etc., raised each year,
what a comparatively small proportion is raised by the fancier, we must
admit that the utility class has its place.
802
The Poultry Book
To my mind, the great danger in breeding for utilitarian purposes
alone would be the tendency to too frequently resort to crosses of outside
breeds for different purposes. Under ordinary conditions, and with the
average breeder who is not to some extent a fancier, poultry bred from
stock like that which I have here last described would be very apt to so
deteriorate in four or five years that it would be no better than the most
common, ordinary, mongrel stock, although it must be admitted that, with
proper care, in the hands of careful, painstaking poultry-keepers, it must
produce satisfactory results.
The breeding of a utility strain has its advantages as well as draw-
backs. The question of single or double matings does not have to be
considered to any extent, and any correct-sized male bird is considered
good enough to be at the head of a pen if he has the requisite amount
of vigor. It makes no difference whether his comb has the Standard-
required five points or the mongrel's fifteen. It matters not if the hens or
pullets be sprinkled with black feathers, or if their tails be "pinched,” or
shanks be white or blue, providing they have the requisite amount of
business ability. They must be, above all else, veritable egg-machines,
and "none others need apply."
Mr. Wyckoff, so far as I know, never exhibited in the show-room.
In this, as in other details, he evinced good judgment, although I have no
doubt but that, from the large number of birds which he raised, occasional
show selections could have been made. It is doubtful, however, with any
given bird selected for show-room purposes, if its sons or daughters would
have been of any value whatever for exhibition, as exhibition birds may
not ordinarily be bred along the lines he followed.
It is difficult to understand how an extraordinarily heavy egg-laying
strain could have been produced without the aid of trap-nests, and, as
none were ever used by Mr. Wyckoff, it must be surmised that to some
extent the wonderful egg-producing qualities may have been largely the
result of judicious advertising. In any event, it is certain that Mr. Wyckoff
disposed of many birds and eggs annually, and that his reputation for
integrity and fair dealing was of the best, and has stood the test of time.
I have treated the utility branch of the White Leghorn subject in this
article for the reason that I believe it to be of sufficient importance and
interest to entitle it to proper recognition. My interpretation of the
subject may not be a correct one, but I can see no reason why we should not

PHOTOGRAPHED BY
Souis P. Graham
1904
SINGLE-COMB WHITE LEGHORN COCKEREL
Winner of first prize at Madison Square, New York, 1904. Owned and bred by E. G. Wyckoff, New York

The Leghorns
805
breed for beauty as well as utility. It costs no more to feed a prize White
Leghorn than a mongrel Leghorn. It requires more time and more ability
to raise exhibition stock than the barn-yard variety, but my recommenda-
tion to the interested reader who may perchance be about to embark in
the poultry industry would be to make a beginning in a small way, with
a few of the very best birds or the very best eggs from the best exhibition
strain to be had. By making a start along these lines; by a careful study
of the birds and conditions and the requirements of the Standard of Perfec-
tion; by judicious selection and proper mating, any intelligent breeder
may bring into existence an exhibition strain of his own. To the poultry
enthusiast, this is a goal well worth earnest, honest effort.
SINGLE-COMB BROWN LEGHORNS
The Single-Comb Brown Leghorn, as has been before stated in this
article, is credited with having been received in this country about the
year 1834, although nothing definite seems to be known of this shipment.
I. K. Felch (Massachusetts), in 1886, referring to the definite known
early history of the Brown Leghorn, in an article written for Poultry
Culture, wrote as follows:
"The first importation of Brown Leghorns into this country was in
1853. This importation was bred along the Mystic River, Connecticut,
and they were then called Red Leghorns. These fowls were short on the
leg, red in ear-lobe, and very small in size. The modern acquisition of
white ear-lobes, long legs, and not more than five points in the comb, the
dark-brown color and greater weight, has been the result of the following
crosses known to the writer: Spanish sires bred upon black-red Game-
hens, and the progeny to Brown Leghorn cocks, and this progeny inbred
to sire. Again, black-red Game-sire upon Spanish dams, and the progeny
bred to Brown Leghorn cock and inbred as before; and Black Spanish hens
bred to Brown Leghorn cocks, and the progeny inbred. Thus, we have birds
of type far different from the original ones, and the Brown Leghorns of
1885 are as much different in color and type from those of 1853 as can
well be imagined, and they well deserve the appellation of an American
breed."
With reference to the ear-lobe of the early Brown or Red Leghorn,
T. F. McGrew (New York) has written as follows:
"The early-day Leghorns had rough or corrugated ear-lobes that

806
The Poultry Book
were thick and beefy, not white in color, but corn-color mixed with red,
many of them drawn into a bunch rather than smooth against the face."
At that time, a wordy contest of considerable length took place, by
which it was sought to introduce an ear-lobe at the same time consistent
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
SHAPE SKETCH OF (ENGLISH) SILVER-MEDAL BROWN LEGHORN
with nature's laws, delicate in texture, and harmonious in color. Ear-
lobes of reddish tints and dusky yellow appeared in different strains, so
that, when the "white or creamy white" ear-lobe became the standard,
there were very few birds anywhere near perfect in this particular. A. W.
Halstead, of New York, was among the first to produce birds true to color
and with white ear-lobes.
The Leghorns
807
In the American Standard of Excellence, in 1871, the requirement
in colors for breast of male is mentioned as "Black, splashed with brown.”
The early males were known to have had brown breasts, though, evidently
as far back as 1871, there arose a preference for the black. It gradually
came to be observed that the rich, glossy black, similar to that of the
black-breasted Red Game, was more desirable, and it was accordingly so
described in the early Standards. The introduction of the black in the
males, and the continuous holding to the light shade of brown in the
females, have given ample opportunity for the use of the double-mating
system. J. C. Williams, a breeder of this variety, in California, writing on
the subject for the Reliable Poultry Journal, says, “The conditions have
demanded double matings, which, with some breeders, have been very
interesting; but, with others, it has made the breed lose its fascination, for
the reason that the females from a cockerel-bred line are always worthless,
and the males from a pullet-bred line are also worthless, at least for ex-
hibition."
Ca
We do not care to enter upon an argument here as to whether the
single or double-mating system is preferable; suffice it to say that the writer
personally knows of breeders of high standing who continually preach on
the single-mating system, while, in their own yards, the double-mating
system is used altogether. It is for the reader to choose whether he will
follow the line of argument, or the practical example, of the one who does
not practice what he preaches.
It was not until after the Civil War that the Browns came into special
prominence in this country, and probably as late as 1875 before the real
points of merit, as later recognized, began to be developed. In 1872, the
first Brown Leghorns were exported to England, and it would seem, from
the following paragraph, by an English authority, they have only recently
become genuinely popular there.
"This is of nearly, though not quite, the original color of the Spanish,
or Mediterranean, fowls, and may be seen in plenty, both in Spain and in
many of the Italian coast towns. It was first brought into special notice
by the American fanciers, and, being imported from Leghorn, was, as a
consequence, so named. Its fame for egg-production having reached this
country, some were imported from America, and it is said that A. C.
Bradbury, near Nottingham, was among the first to recognize the valuable
laying properties of the breed in the early 'seventies.' For a time, it
808
The Poultry Book
did not attract the attention of the English fancier so much as its beauty
and usefulness merited. After a few years, its position was jeopardized
by a long and wordy contention as to the color of the ear-lobe, some main-
taining that it should be white, others that a primrose tint was to be
preferred."
There has been much criticism in years gone by as to the latitude
allowed to judges at the various shows in construing the language of the
American Standard in such a way as to meet their own personal whims on
any given points. In the matter of instruction to judges, the Standard
of to-day is not, in some respects, up to that of twenty-five years ago.
The Standard of 1879 describes the male comb: "Bright red, of medium
size, firmly fixed on head, single, straight, deeply serrated (having but five
or six points), extending well over the back of the head, and free from
twists, side springs, or excrescences." This description is interesting in
the light of that of the latest Standard wherein the comb is described as
simply “bright red.” It would seem that "bright red" were rather an
indistinct and unsuitable description for the comb of a Brown Leghorn
male bird, and it is such descriptions as these descriptions which do not
describe-which cause so much dissension and dissatisfaction in the show-
room.
The early Standard requirement of the female neck in color was
"yellowish-brown, each feather striped with black." Wonderful progress
in breeding has been made in beautifying the Browns-the present system
of color being at once beautiful and conforming more to the laws of nature
in both male and female. The female neck to-day is described as being
"rich orange yellow with a broad black stripe extending down the center,
tapering to a point near the end of the feather, and conforming to the shape
of the feather." The result of the many years of careful breeding has been
the strengthening of color in a harmonious blend, at the same time defining
outlines clearly and distinctly. The Standards, until the early “nineties,”
permitted the stripe in the female hackle-feather to be penciled in a golden
brown. This allowed great opportunity for the personal opinion of the
judge to be a factor deciding cuts, and was not only unfair, but the idea
of penciling was wrong and unnatural. The true possibilities of the Brown
in color are probably not yet fully comprehended, though the Standard of
to-day gives us a specimen which marks a wonderful advance over even
ten years ago, when ninety-seven-point birds were too numerous.

BLACK-BREASTED BROWN-RED PRIZE LEGHORN.
The property of Mrs. LISTER KAY.
The Leghorns
809
The typical points as to carriage have been described in previous
chapters dealing with the general subject of Leghorns, and, therefore, will
not be again mentioned here, the requirements of carriage, shape, and
size being the same in all the Leghorns. It is said of the Browns, however,
that, of all the breeds, they lead in type uniformity.
They are specially qualified for town or city keeping, as they do not
show dirt to the extent of the breeds with lighter-colored feathering.
The typical female is a beautiful specimen, the breast being of a rich
salmon color, shading off lighter under the body, with no traces of shafting.
The back feathers are light brown, finely penciled with a darker brown,
the lighter shade predominating, the whole producing a soft, even, brown
tint with no perceptible trace of shafting, the under-color being of a light-
brown shading into a slate. The wing primaries are of a slatish brown,
the outer edge of which is slightly penciled with lighter brown. The
secondaries are brown, the outer web finely penciled with a lighter brown.
The wings have the same delicate color, but show the black on the inner
web when open. The true bird has solid-color wing, and this solidity of
color is often difficult to obtain, there being a tendency toward a disfigure-
ment caused by the appearance of reddish spots. The shanks are of a
bright yellow; the toes yellow. In the male hackle, which should be a
rich, brilliant red, is a well-defined stripe extending down the center of
each feather and tapering toward the end. English authorities claim the
stripe as a rarity in their specimens, and L. C. Verrey, of England, in notes
contributed for the new book of Lewis Wright, says of the Brown Leghorn
hackle, "This striping in the neck- and saddle-hackles, more especially in
the former, is one of the points that American breeders have been most
careful to maintain, so that a Brown Leghorn cockerel with a plain hackle
is considered of little worth across the Atlantic."
Of the male, the wing-bows are bright red, the front edge black and
covered by the breast-feathers. The primaries are black, the lower web
of each being edged with brown. The secondaries are black, the edge of
the lower web a rich brown, sufficient to produce a wing-bow of the same
color. The coverts are of greenish-black, forming a well-defined bar of
the same color across the wing when folded. The tail of the male, which,
as in other Leghorns, should be carried well up, but not upright, must
be black, with rich, greenish-black sickles and coverts. As before stated,
the tendency has been to increase the extent of the black feather on the

810
The Poultry Book
PHOTOGRAPHED BY
Souis D.fraham
1904
SINGLE-COMB BROWN LEGHORN COCK,
"NINA'S DUKE, I ST"
Sire of many prize-winners. From the breeding-yards of Geo. H. Burgott, New York
male, until, at the present time, instead of a brown breast, it has one of a
rich, glossy black: hence the tendency in the female to run darker of color
than that required by the Standard. The tail of the female should be
dull black, except the two highest main tail-feathers, which are penciled
with a light brown. In mating, care should be taken not to use a darker
female than the Standard requires. The correct shade is a soft, delicate
brown, and not that which borders on the seal.
The Leghorns
811
As a general-purpose fowl, the Brown Leghorn is hardly equal to the
White or Buff, for the reason that, on an average, they do not lay so large
an egg, nor do they approach the Whites or Buffs in size; still, there are,
no doubt, some strains of Brown Leghorns in existence to-day which are
quite the equal of any of the Leghorn varieties.
George H. Burgott (New York), a present-day poultry-breeder and
judge, writes of the Brown Leghorn as follows:
"It is safe to say that not enough has yet been done in the interest
of the Brown variety of Leghorns, as they are certainly grand specimens of
the breed. They cannot be excelled for egg-production, and for quick-
maturing broilers they have no equal; their commercial qualities, therefore,
are of the very highest order.
"In the exhibition-room, they have made rapid advancement during
the past five or six years, strictly upon their own merits. I can only attrib-
ute this to the wording of our present Standard. Under the Standard
of twenty years ago, it was an easy matter to produce from a single mating
75 to 80 per cent. of specimens that would score well up in the ‘nineties.'
In the old days, average exhibition specimens were worth from $1 to $5
each. At the present time, with a Standard that makes the breeding
of the Brown Leghorn a science, a winning specimen at any of our leading
shows commands a price of from $25 to $100. Most breeders would prefer
present-day conditions, where one bird may be raised and sold at $50,
rather than the former method of raising fifty for the $50. In years gone
by the entire production of Browns were all a good average lot, but they
commanded a low figure. To-day they must be bred scientifically, and
not in a haphazard way, with the result that we realize, from a few well-
bred, properly reared specimens, many times the amount in actual cash
that we received in former years for many times the number. This is all
due to the methods that must be applied to-day in order to produce
specimens of either sex that will come near the Standard requirements. I
am a firm believer that, in the near future, the Single-Comb Brown Leghorns
will be a near rival to any of the popular breeds of pure-bred poultry; and
this fact is evinced by noting the increase in entries in the Brown Leghorn
class at all of the poultry exhibitions throughout the United States and
Canada.
"The fine problems we have to work out in breeding this variety make
their breeding decidedly interesting. To procure a fine neck, back, and

812
The Poultry Book
wing in either male or female; to produce the solid, glossy, black breast in
the male, and the clean, salmon breast in the female, and, at the same time,
to show the pure yellow legs, make it no easy problem. Certain it is that,
in order to produce high-grade specimens, the best of parent-blood lines
are essential."
SINGLE-COMB BUFF LEGHORNS
As the Buff Leghorn of to-day is distinctly the production of English
breeders, we will present herewith the English version of its origin and
development. This narrative is not only interesting, but instructive, and
those who have an idea that the formation of a new variety of poultry
upon a solid foundation is simply a matter of taking a cross between two
breeds and letting it go at that, may realize their error by a careful reading

PHOTOGRAPHED BY
Souis P Graham
1904
SINGLE-COMB BROWN LEGHORN HEN, "NINA'S PRIDE
From the breeding-pens of George H. Burgott, New York
The Leghorns
813
of what follows with reference to the foundation of the parent stock of the
Buff Leghorn.
There is scarcely anything more interesting to the poultry fancier,
or to him more delightful reading, than the facts and experiences, the
failures and successes, and, at last, the final triumph of another lover of the
beautiful in nature, who, like himself, possibly, is not only seeking for
"the new," but the new as nearly as it can be obtained “perfect." He it is
that dreams, as it were, of a "new ideal," not of a new form only, but one
with added grace, and a feathering not so much of radiant brightness, as of
softened, sweetened, tender hues, taking the eye more by its harmonious
loveliness than by sharpened contrasts, and which soothe not, but almost
repel "the liking."
'Tis often seen
Adoption strives with Nature; and choice breeds
A native slip to us from foreign seeds."
("
And thus it is, one just imagines how many charms such a tinted
form would have; then comes the endeavor to make, if it exists not, and
so possess. Upon this, closely comes the question: Yes! but how? By
knowledge, observation, experience, and thought, much is achieved, and
so that which was, as it were, a dream, becomes a reality, a fact.
He who sets his mark high must rise, and he that has a difficult problem
thinks, strives, acts, and solves it.
And so, with the restless fancier of "domesticated" animal and
bird life; he admires much, but wants more. With him, it is not only the
beautiful, but also "the new," and the interest of and in "making"!
Thus it was with Mr. and Mrs. Lister Kay, then of East Close, Christ-
church, Hants, England, who, keeping the Brown Leghorn fowl, pictured
in thought or imagery a Buff Leghorn. Then it was, how to make it?
Few who succeed tell of how "they won the goal”—that is generally their
secret; but, with a friendly "fancier" generosity and kindness known to
few, Mr. and Mrs. Lister Kay have placed the entire MS. notes of their
modes, methods, proceedings, and experiences in the "making of the Buff
Leghorn" at my disposal; the way it was done, and how, and why it was—
and this for the benefit of present and of future poultry fanciers. Here
is the highly instructive and interesting story of the birth, life, and being
of the Buff Leghorn:
'It appears that a yellow Leghorn, a color quite unknown in England,
814
The Poultry Book
was exhibited at Copenhagen in 1885, and there seen by the late Alexander
Comyns, the then acting Secretary of the 'Poultry Club,' and the founder of
The Feathered World-the most successful fancier paper of the day. Mr.
Verrey, in his treatise on the Leghorn fowl, had noted the existence of the
yellow color, for he wrote: The most novel color to us is the yellow as they
are called over here [Copenhagen], but correctly speaking, they are chamois,
or buff, color. The body is buff, with white flights and tail, and each feather
of the tail has a margin of buff running round it; they look very pretty and
attractive.' A pullet of this variety was exhibited for the first time in
England at the Crystal Palace Show of the year 1888, by Herr Pedersen-
Bjirgaard, of Denmark, but obtained no recognition from the judges,
Messrs. Tegetmeier and Dixon. She was disappointing in color, being of
pale primrose, and in no sense a buff, though of fair size and type.
Here I would observe, that, in the colors of poultry, we have black
and white, which are synonymous, and red and yellow. Given a black
fowl, match it with white, and you get either blacks, whites, or grays.
A red matched with white will often eliminate the red and leave it
yellow; but, as it is natural for the fowl (cocks especially) to have black
tails, when the white acts on this part it does not produce yellow cr red,
but, its function being either that of white or black, it will often vary to
the former, being the weaker color, and sometimes a bluish-gray. Thus it
was that these Danish birds had white tails, which white will frequently
take many generations to get rid of. To remedy this, the best thing to
do was to find, if even in another breed, fowls with red or yellow tails, and,
if such had been long so bred, the prepotency of color would have the
proper and wished-for effect on the white. I make this remark before
reading further, for I have but little doubt, if any, that such experienced
fanciers as Mr. and Mrs. Lister Kay will have adopted this principle. But
to resume the very interesting narrative of the raising of the 'Buff Leghorn':
Having heard through a Norwegian fancier friend of a Herr Heinrich
Johansen, of Denmark, as a person likely to supply birds of the needful
color, we applied to him, and then learned that he himself was not a breeder
of the yellows. He, however, very obligingly advertised in the Danish
papers, and wrote to various fanciers of his acquaintance, with the result
that he ultimately succeeded in securing for us one cock, one cockerel, two
hens, and two pullets, picked up 'here and there' as they could be found,
and, to judge from their differences in shape and style, cmanating from at
"C
"
The Leghorns
815
least three breeders, possibly more. Of these six birds, we at once killed
three, there remaining: (1) a second- or third-season cock. This bird was
of small size, with a poor comb, thumb-marked, and standing off the back
of the head at an angle of forty-five, ear-lobes the size of a three-penny
piece, and a squirrel-tail. His body-color was a pale primrose, or lemony-
white, blotchy and uneven, the back slightly streaked with dun color, look-
ing as if a wet comb had been drawn through the feathers, this dun color
showing on the hocks.
His fans were a lemony-
white and the sickles the
same, their butts and
tips, however, matching
the hocks; the inner side
of the flights lemony-
white, the outer matching
the sickle-butts and tips
and hocks. No black
feathers anywhere, nor
any sign of any blue or
black in fluff; legs a good
yellow, with no sign of
green. In type, he was a
genuine and undoubted
Leghorn, though a poor
specimen. (2) A pullet
about the size of an
average Brown, with
hackle noticeably darker
than the rest of her plumage; good yellow legs; fair comb and lobes.
(3) A seemingly very old hen, not much larger than a bantam,
with fair lobe, and really good comb without any twist in it; the best
and evenest colored bird of the three; legs pale with age, but showing
no trace whatever of green.

Grahan
4904
PHOTOGRAPHED BY
Sours
FIRST PRIZE SINGLE-COMB BUFF COCK, MADISON
SQUARE GARDEN, 1904
Bred and owned by E. G. Wyckoff, New York
"In none of the six birds did I see any sign of the fringing with darker
color spoken of by Mr. Verrey, either in body or tail-feathers. The latter,
in the case of both the hens, were, as regarded the fans, of the palest lemony-
white, the sickles alone colored like the back, this color being solid, and
816
The Poultry Book
extending over the lower two-thirds of the feathers, melting into lemony-
white on the upper third.
"It will be gathered from the above description that the yellow
Leghorn, though a pretty, could scarcely be called a striking, bird, and we
felt that the variety, as we had seen it hitherto, was certainly not worth
taking up and endeavoring to perfect on the original lines. To begin with,
the color was not buff, nor anything approaching it. We therefore made
numerous inquiries with a view to discover, if possible, whether there was
really in existence a variety of Leghorn of a genuine buff color. The answers
we received only seemed to confirm our suspicions, that, while there were to
be found, in Italy, Germany, Belgium, Denmark, and the south of Norway,
birds of a lighter or darker shade of yellow, more or less qualified, with
white in wing and tail, a Leghorn which could be honestly called a buff
existed only in imagination. Among others, we wrote to Herr Pedersen-
Bjirgaard, who advertised constantly in the 'fancy' papers, both at home
in Denmark, and in Germany, but was not able to hear of such a strain of
Buff Leghorns. He said, 'There is positively not in existence a single good
male bird of this variety. Such a one, could he be found, would be worth
his weight in gold.' He then goes on to say that he has one pen of an
advance in this difficult breed, though not altogether buff, but the chickens
were not turning out what he could wish, yet he offered eggs.
"Further inquiries in various directions conclusively proved that only
light yellow, or primrose, Leghorns were known, and they of inferior
quality, but certainly no buffs.
MAKING THE COLOR
"In January of 1889 we mated up three pens, as follows:
،،
1. The cock mentioned above, whom we named Dannebrog, and
the pullet, Dagni.
"2. Dannebrog and the hen, Dagmar.
("
3. Dannebrog and two Buff Cochin pullets, purchased of the Rever-
end W. J. Humberstone, of Gloucestershire.
(C
Here a few words may be useful as to our system of keeping a stud-
book, which we have done continuously since 1889, for all our birds, both
Buffs, Browns, and Whites, this enabling us at any time to say with certainty
as to any bird in the yards—and we have, on occasion, reared as many as
The Leghorns
817
1,200 chickens, Buffs, Browns, and Whites, in a season-exactly how it is
bred, and to furnish its correct pedigree for the last eight years.
Į “It, indeed, gives me very great pleasure to record the foregoing; it is
what I have urged on the poultry breeders 'times beyond number,' pointed
out, and that continually, the extreme value of pedigree stock, of races
of long existence, of strains of certain breeds that have been such almost,
if not quite so, for centuries, of the grand importance of blood and type,
and the perfecting of a breed, not by alien blood, but by selection and
judicious mating of the true and already good. But here is a case of a
European fowl, with absolutely a foreign breed introduced, and bred to
form, size, and color, simply by system, and organization of no common
order.
"But we are perfectly convinced that, were some such system more
universally adopted, we should soon see fewer of those meteor-like appear-
ances and disappearances in the firmament of the 'fancy,' due, in our
firm belief, mainly to the vicious system of mating by the eye alone, with-
out any care to ascertain the exact relationship of the birds put together.
Had the breeding of Short-horn cattle and Hampshire Down sheep been
carried out on this principle, or rather want of principle, the sensational
prices of the past and, on occasion, of the present would never have been
realized. [This is perfectly true.] What the purchaser pays for is a pedigree.
in the main; in other words, definite information as to the ancestry of the
stock for a certain number of years back, and not merely for the weight,
quality, milking powers, or fleece of the individual, meritorious as these
may be. Similarly, the advanced poultry breeder, when desirous of intro-
ducing fresh blood into his yards, will, for preference, go to a person who
is known to have a strain. This word is far too often very loosely and
deceptively employed where poultry-dealing is concerned, and still testifies
to a general recognition of the fact that descent, carefully and truthfully
recorded, has a distinct and special value of its own. Our system, then, to
illustrate the doings of the year, is as follows:
KEEPING ACCURATE RECORDS
((
'On receipt of the birds from Denmark, we picked out an initial
letter for the names of themselves and their possible winning progeny,
while bred free of any admixture of other blood-'D' being the initial
selected. We then entered into the stud-book particulars of the several
818
The Poultry Book
breeding-pens as before given. As the chickens hatched from the eggs of
these, they were ringed with small rings, either on the right or the left shank.
These rings are made in increasing sizes, to allow for the growth of the

Photograph by L. P. Graham
FROM A PRIZE-WINNING PEN OF SINGLE-COMB BUFF LEGHORNS AT MADISON SQUARE
GARDEN, NEW YORK, 1904
Bred and owned by E. G. Wyckoff, New York
chickens, and of three metals, copper, brass, and German silver. Using one
of these on either the right or left shank allows, it will be seen, for the
separating marking of six different matings of the same variety. If a
bird from another yard is introduced at any time-and this, by the way,
should always be preferentially a pullet-it is entered in the stud-book
under a name commencing with a different initial, and its progeny-such,
at least, of them as are winners-are mostly under the same initial; non-
winners are not so honored with a name, excepting always the first bird of
the line; and, if used for stock, are entered as such-and-such prize-winners'
relative, as the case may be, in the stud-book.
"All birds, as soon as awarded prizes, are marked with a numbered
ring, and the number entered opposite the name. Thus, for the Cochin
(Shanghai) pullets in No. 3 pen, of this year (1889), W. J. Humberstone's
The Leghorns
819
second initial title 'J' was selected; and, as it was only intended to keep one
bird of the progeny of the two pullets, they ran together under the collective
names of Jacqueminot, and their chickens were all marked with the same
ring. From Pen 1, we saved two pullets; from Pen 2, one cockerel and two
pullets; from Pen 3, one cockerel-killing all the remainder hatched from
the three pens, of the exact number of which no record was taken. The
reserved birds were as follows:
'Pen 1. These pullets were whole Leghorn, of a fairly even primrose
shade, and legs of an honest yellow; they were rather larger than the
parents; the neck hackle of both was distinctly darker than the rest of the
body-a drawback, in our opinion; the fans lemony-white, the sickles
matching the rest of the body, ticked and tipped with white combs, and
ear-lobe improved. Pen 2. These three birds were whole Leghorn, the
cockerel a rather better version of his breed, the dun color being somewhat
more pronounced on hocks, saddle, and sickles; the same streakiness on
the back; lobe very poor, comb small, but evenly serrated and fairly
straight in front; shanks good-the two pullets were all straw-colored.
No. 3 cockerel was, of course, half Leghorn and half Cochin (Shanghai),
shanks feathered, but not heavily so, and of a rich orange color, much black
in tail and wings. [Here I would remark that this was probably the outcome
of the white in the lemon-colored birds' tails, and so subject to that color
reversion.] Color buff, but of varying shades in different parts of the body.
Across the wings, when closed, are evident lighter bars of buff, which was
lemon-white when the wing was spread; this being a fault that occurs
occasionally to the present day, though, of course, in much modified form.
[This is but the substitution of nearly white for the natural black wing
bar, and, with the black or white in tail, is ever a reversion.] Hackle
color absolutely even, with no sign of ticking whatever; comb, good in
shape, substance, and serrations, though wanting in size. The ear-lobe,
however, strangely enough, was the best part of the bird, and for this we
have never been able to account; it was large and open, and fully two-
thirds of it of good color. [The Cochin, or Shanghai, has comparatively
a large ear-lobe, and has a tendency to white when crossed with the Black
Minorca or Leghorn.] The lower third being badly feathered — that of
the Cochin-but the back longer and lower at the root of the tail. [This
would be so, as the shape generally in a cross favors that of the female.]
"1890. Our mating of the year was as follows:
(C
820
The Poultry Book
"Pen 4. The cockerel from Pen 2, son of Dannebrog, and the pullets
from Pen 1, daughters of Dagni.
"Pen 5. The cockerel from Pen 3, son of Jacqueminot, and the old
imported hen, Dagmar.
"From Pen 4 we saved one cockerel and two pullets; the cockerel was
useless for show. Of the pullets, Dairymaid took first prize at Dairy
Show, V. H. C. at Crystal Palace; and Daisy, V. H. C. at the latter-being
both yellow Leghorns. From Pen 5, of which the chickens were three-
fourths yellow Leghorns and one-fourth Buff Cochin, we got, among
others, the following, which were the first Buff Leghorns ever shown:
'Cockerel Jupiter, first Crystal Palace, and Jonathan, C., and two
brothers, used later for stock.
،،
"Pullets, Juliet, first at Dairy Show, first at Crystal Palace, and
Julia, second at Crystal Palace.
"This year (1890), separate classes for Buffs were provided at the
Crystal Palace, where also the Leghorn Club Show was held on this occasion.
In December, we sold to August D. Arnold, of Pennsylvania (America),
through Mr. Payne, twenty pullets from Pen 5; these were the first Buff
Leghorns sent to America. We refused to sell any cockerels, the truth
being that, with the exception of Jupiter and Jonathan, none of the Buff
cockerels were quite clean on the shanks. The price that Mr. Arnold paid
for the twenty pullets was £40 on the spot, and to this was added the
expenses of transport, which must have been considerable.
"To return to the chickens of 1890: The cockerel and pullets from
Pen 4 were much what might have been expected; in point of size, style,
comb, and lobes, they showed just the advance anticipated, chiefly owing
to selection and better feeding, but the color was about the same; and
we congratulated ourselves on having foreseen this probability, and acted
accordingly. The last descendants of the original Danish stock were used
for breeding in 1893, and even by then they were no nearer being buff
than they had ever been. We may safely say that, had this Cochin
cross not been made by ourselves, or some one else, the Buff Leghorn
would never have been added to the list of our varieties of the domestic
fowl."
To show the method adopted by Mr. and Mrs. Lister Kay, as regards
their stud-book and mating, and the means by which ultimate success was
won, I give a page from their stud-book of 1891:
The Leghorns
821
-
1891. BUFF-PEN 6
CC
Bronze-tailed cockerel, brother to Jupiter-Dairymaid, and Daisy.
Cockerels
Jacobite (11)
Janizary (Sold to America)
Janitor (Sold to America)
Journeyman (22)
Journalist (15)
From the foregoing and the above it will be clearly seen with what
care and strict attention to detail the whole of the original idea has been
carried out, and how well success was merited.
Jupiter may be said to be their first buff success as a cockerel, and
Juliet and Julia as to color good; Jonathan was a perfect Leghorn, buff
from head to foot,
fans excepted;
Jupiter's brothers
were not a success
-the shanks
feathered, etc., etc.
But it will be un-
necessary to follow
the making" of the
Buff Leghorn in
detail. Say the
breeders: "We will
content ourselves
with explaining
that the system
thus followed was
to keep running,
side by side with
the Leghorn-Cochin
blood, a line of unmixed Leghorn blood, and from this to dilute the Cochin
element, breeding out the Cochin shape yearly, while retaining the Cochin
Pullets
Jocaster (44)
Junket (32)
Jessamine (7)
Jonquil (9)
Jemima (48)
Jeanette (38)
Jewel (Sold to America)

Photograph by courtesy of" Farm and Home"
BUFF LEGHORN COCKEREL
First at Ottawa, 1903. Owned by John O. Allen, Canada
822
The Poultry Book
color as much as possible. This system was continued until 1893, the
Buff Leghorn of which year was composed of one part Cochin and thirty-
one parts Leghorn.
“The result of eight years of systematic breeding was seen in the year
1896, in the first prize, Crystal Palace cockerel, a bird, as all who saw
him will admit, as fit to hold his own as a Leghorn with either Whites or
Browns. In point of fact, earlier in that year, at Tunbridge Wells, with
Mr. Lambert judging, he was awarded first and special as the best
Leghorn in the show, there being no less than seventy-four entries in
the six classes.
(6
'One thing, however, must be borne in mind, namely, that without
the advantage of selection given us by breeding in large numbers, the
Buff Leghorn could not possibly have been perfected at this rapid rate.
In 1891, we mated one pen of yellows and yellows, and five pens of buffs and
yellows, or yellow and buff (no mating was made of buff and buff), which
bred 516 chickens, from which we got six cockerels and eight pullets
winners, winning at the Dairy Show: First, second, and third prizes in
both cockerels and pullets. First, second, and third prizes at the Crystal
Palace, cup and all prizes. First, second, and third Leghorn Club Show,
both in cockerels and pullets.
"In the spring of the year, we sold a sitting of eggs to Miss Pulford,
Mrs. Dean, and a customer at Ealing. From eggs bought by her, Miss
Pulford reared a pullet which was awarded a reserve at the Dairy Show
and a V. H. C. at the Club Show. The sales at this period were remarkable.
In September, we sent a consignment to Mr. Arnold, a former purchaser
in America, five cockerels and twenty pullets, at the price of £70; and after
the Club Show, in December, the cockerels Janizary, Janitor, and the
pullet Jewel, all winners of some of the highest honors, also to Mr. Arnold,
who won with them at Philadelphia and New York. For the three birds
we received £55. Early in 1892, five more stock cockerels were sent out
for £20.
{{
1892. This year we put eight pens, from which we reared 853 chickens;
of these, ten cockerels and fifteen pullets proved winners.
We were
awarded: Dairy, first and medal, second, third, and reserve in cockerels;
first, second, reserve, and V. H. C. in pullets. Palace, first, second, and
third, V. H. C. in cockerels; first, cup, second, V. H. C. (2), H. C. for pullets.
Club, first and special, second, and third, cockerels; first, third, and H. C.,
The Leghorns
823

PHOTOGRAPHEDP AY
Souis P. Graham
1904
SINGLE-COMB BUFF LEGHORN, MADISON SQUARE GARDEN, NEW YORK, WINNER OF
FIRST PRIZE, 1904, AND SEVERAL AMERICAN LEGHORN CLUB SPECIALS
Bred and owned by E. G. Wyckoff, New York
pullets. Mrs. Dean took third at the Dairy and Palace, and second at
the Club.
"In December, we sent Mr. Arnold first Palace cockerel Jasper, the
second pullet Jessica, and a breeding-pen of cockerels and four pullets,
at a total price of £65. Many others were sold at prices varying from
£20 to £5.
824
The Poultry Book
"1893. From six pens mated this year we reared 616 chickens, of
which thirteen cockerels and eleven pullets were winners. Since 1893,
we have sold no more Buffs to America, as doubtless they can now produce
as good birds as we can ourselves.
"In 1894, we mated seven pens and reared 755 chickens, of which
twelve cockerels and nine pullets were winners of first-class prizes.
"1895. In this year an evil befell us, many of our best pullets having
lost their numbered rings through misadventure; we had to destroy most
of them, as we could not rely with certainty on their exact breeding.
(6
1896. This season we mated five pens, and reared 429 chickens, of
which seven cockerels and six pullets were winners.
1897. We mated five pens of Buffs."
66
Such was the making of the Buff Leghorn; and it now stands as one
of the first and foremost of its class in the public's estimation; and yet
Mr. and Mrs. Lister Kay add: "As those who have taken up the breed
know, much yet remains to be done, and many disappointments will have
still to be encountered. For ourselves, we shall always look back to the
last eight years as time well spent in adding yet one more variety of domestic
fowls; and we have but little or no doubt but that it will be able in many
ways to hold its own in the struggle for 'the survival of the fittest.""
The words of Antonio, in the "Two Gentlemen of Verona," would
here well apply:
"Experience is by industry achieved,
And perfected by the swift course of time."
But how far, in this case, time will perfect, only time can prove.
As to breed and color, and how it will hold, it is worthy of note that
the clean, firm buff in its entirety comes from the Cochin, and that the
original Leghorn employed was little more than a yellow Pied, or Pyle, or
Pile as now erroneously called, the black only being changed to white;
and thus it is the light bar and fans are more likely to again appear, as the
blood of the Cochin is gradually eliminated. This might possibly be to
some degree obviated if some of the old plain-shanked Cochins could be
found, and such cross introduced. These were not short in the tail, nor
were they so square in form; and they bore strong evidence of being of
different origin from that of the Shanghais subsequently imported. Again,
the red-breasted, old English Game would sometimes sport to almost a buff
or reddish-yellow. Years ago, hens of this breed were to be seen with

Graham
PHOTOGRAPHED BY
1905
Souis P. 2013
pro
ROSE-COMB BUFF LEGHORN EXHIBITION BIRDS
Owned and bred by Sylvester Shirley, Ohio



MODERN PRIZE SHANGHAI OR COCHIN.
Harri, mwen
Del
A. C. FOWLER,
The Leghorns
827
little or no black in their tails; but nowadays their rarity is such that that
color in the Game may be said to be extinct.
Also there is the Nankeen Bantam, lovely and pure in color; these
sometimes are brown-black in their tails, and the cocks have a red-bronze
bar; the comb is single, the shape good, but they have blue shanks; yet
this would not be an unsurmountable difficulty, but, in my belief, one more
easily disposed of than the Cochin form and feathered shanks.
While it is seen from the preceding description that the Buff Leghorn
originated from a conglomerate origin, yet, in the short time which has
elapsed since they were originated, the type has become a fixed one to-day,
and, as early as January, 1898, had become so well developed that it was,
at Boston, admitted to the American Standard of Perfection. As is shown
in the foregoing, August D. Arnold, of Pennsylvania, was the first to
import birds of this variety from England, and he has done much toward
developing and popularizing them in this country-as did also the late
Ezra Cornell, of New York, and George S. Barnes, of Michigan, whose
labors along the lines mentioned have had a telling effect. By the earnest
efforts of Mr. Barnes as secretary of the Buff Leghorn Club of America,
the keen interest of the members of the Club has been kept alive, and
largely through his efforts are there more articles running through the
American poultry press of to-day on subjects pertaining to the beauty and
utility of the Buff Leghorn than on any other individual breed. The
difficult part of Buff Leghorn breeding has been to obtain the desired
cvenness of surface color which would be free from shafting or mealy
appearance, and to get in the male, the head, neck, hackle, back, wing-bow,
saddle, and in the female the head and neck, richly glossed with metallic
luster.
Until apparently recently, but little attention has been paid to the
development of a correct Leghorn comb on the Buff; but, at the present
time, many specimens are shown quite equal in comb to the best of any
of the other varieties.
From experience in my own yards, I am quite satisfied that a strain
of Buff Leghorns is now being produced which is quite the equal in egg-
production of any other variety of Leghorns. I do not see but that the
Buffs are as hardy and mature as quickly as any other variety, but as I
have said previously, in this article, my opinion is that there is not so much
difference between the different varieties of Leghorns as there is between
W

828
The Poultry Book
strains, and, if a first-class strain may be selected, one cannot make a
mistake in the variety.
BLACK LEGHORNS
The Black Leghorn is said to have been first brought into the United
States in 1872, by Reed Watson, of Connecticut. The original stock
came from Genoa, Italy, and was of Italian origin. It is stated that the
progeny from the first pen
of birds received were of
various colors and classes,
although the parent stock
was pure black. There
were a few brown Leg-
horns, some black and
white, others tricolored,
and it is said that there
were three or four buff-
colored young birds in
the lot. There was one
rose-combed Black, and
the remainder were
straight, single-combed
Blacks. It can well be
imagined that Mr. Watson
was not any too well
pleased with his purchase,
and he soon disposed of
this entire lot. However,

GRAPHED OF
ais Pigralian
1904
Photograph by L. P. Graham, 19.4
SINGLE-COMB BLACK LEGHORN COCKEREL
Bred and owned by F. W. Traviss, Michigan
being satisfied that the Black Leghorn was the breed which best
suited his fancy and met his requirements, he again, in 1876, after having
disposed of all the old stock, imported two cocks and three hens. This
importation reached New York in July, by the bark Ironsides, and Mr.
Watson had no trouble in breeding satisfactory birds from this lot.
The Black Leghorn must have been in a mature state of development
when the first birds were shipped to this country, for, three years after
the original birds arrived, we find the Black Leghorn in the Standard of
Excellence (1875). It is not known when or where the Blacks were
The Leghorns
829
admitted, as the old records of the American Poultry Association have been
lost or destroyed. Suffice it to say that the Black Leghorn has been a
recognized Standard variety of fowl in the United States since 1875.
About fifteen years ago, from 1889 to 1894, the Black Leghorn appears
to have been at the zenith of its popularity in this country, although
such a meritorious bird as it is would again come to the front
in short order if its good qualities were better known by the breeders
of to-day. In 1891, the American Black Leghorn Club was organized,
and a catalogue issued. This Club flourished for five or six years,
and then, so far as I can learn, from lack of support, was allowed to
fall into a state of “innocuous desuetude." Quite recently, interest in the
Black Leghorn has been revived, and it is becoming more generally known
to the fancier, with the prospect that we shall see larger classes of them at
coming fall and winter shows.
The difficulty in raising Standard Black Leghorns appears to be in
getting pullets with yellow shanks, although there is not the same difficulty
with cockerels. Another difficulty seems to be a tendency of feathers
other than black to frequently appear in the plumage.
In order to give the English point of view, I will give a quotation,
which is credited to James Ashcroft, a well-known English breeder of
Black Leghorns:
"This variety of the Leghorn family holds, I think, the premier
position as a good, hardy fowl and excellent egg-producer. It is particu-
larly well suited to our smoky manufacturing towns, as it does not show
the wear and tear of plumage when kept in confined runs, as its more
delicate relatives do. During severe weather, when other kinds are at a
complete standstill, so far as egg-producing goes, they keep up a regular
supply of eggs, which are wonderfully fertile.
"Chickens, with ordinary care, are robust, grow and feather quickly,
and are easy to rear, the percentage of loss by death being very small.
“With the cocks, a great fault is the splashed white tail, which occurs
very frequently to a greater or less degree. The legs, however, in the cocks
usually come a good yellow, while in the hens this more often fails. On
the other hand, hens have a good uniform black plumage throughout.
That these defects, by careful mating, can be eradicated, I feel sure,
although I have heard it stated by naturalists that it is against nature to
produce a solid black bird with pure yellow legs, the more natural color

830
The Poultry Book
being mottled legs. These defects, however, are no greater than any one
finds in breeding Buffs, the disappointments which occur with white-
tailed cocks and un-
even - plumaged hens
being many.
"Black Leghorns
are, without doubt,
excellent members of
the Leghorn class, and
are destined to be, in
the near future, quite
as popular as the other
Leghorn varieties."

Leghorns of all
varieties are more or
less naturally wild, but
the wild state seems
to be emphasized in
the Black, and, on
slight provocation,
they will make a flight
of from fifty to one
hundred yards with
apparent ease. They
are said to be excep-
tionally hardy, and to bear confinement well. It is a well-
established fact that their egg-producing qualities are of the highest
order, and the size of the egg is larger than that produced by
ordinary strains of other varieties of Leghorns. As a general rule,
the Black Leghorns shown are larger than the majority of other
Leghorns.
DSpaham
7904
Photograph by L. P. Graham, 1904
SINGLE-COMB BLACK LEGHORN HEN
Bred by F. W. Traviss, Michigan
Notwithstanding their size, they are active, and birds with free
runs are splendid foragers, and, as a rule, small eaters.
When first hatched, the majority of chicks have dark legs, which
gradually become yellow, especially with the cockerels. The chicks are
easily reared, and, with proper care, usually free from disease.
The comb of the Black Leghorn cock is, in general, too large and
The Leghorns
831
irregularly pointed to suit the Leghorn fancier of to-day, but, with care,
this may be remedied.
In the mating of the breeding-pen, I would advise the selection
of a cock with a rich, glossy black plumage, with the accompanying greenish
sheen throughout, and with a good face with bright-red wattles, white ear-
lobes, and with yellow legs; he to be mated with pullets of good shape,
with solid black bodies, yellow legs, red wattles, white ear-lobes, medium-
sized comb, evenly serrated with but five or six points, drooping to one
side, the front standing as nearly erect as possible, including the first spike.
The Standard of Perfection allows the shanks to be yellow, or yellowish-
black, but, in the selection of birds for breeding-pens, it is desirable that the
black be eliminated as much as possible in the leg-color. Pens mated along
the lines of these suggestions cannot fail to produce birds which will give the
keenest sort of competition in the exhibition-room, and which would land
a large number of "firsts" in any present-day competition. In Leghorn
breeding, I do not believe there is any field to-day which could be entered
by the amateur fancier that would produce such prolific results as that of
breeding the Black Leghorn. The experimental stage has been passed,
and it is not necessary to sacrifice utility for points of perfection. It is
to be earnestly hoped that the next few years will bring about a keen revival
of interest in this meritorious breed.
SILVER DUCKWING LEGHORNS
Duckwing Leghorns are not extensively bred in the United States
at the present time, although there are some choice specimens of Silver
Duckwings occasionally shown. There is a Golden Duckwing Leghorn
known in England, but the American Standard of Perfection does not yet
recognize such a variety. The Silver Duckwing Leghorn was admitted to
the American Standard of Perfection at the meeting of the American
Poultry Association held in Boston in January, 1898.
Duckwing Leghorns are distinctively of English origin, and G. Payne
is credited with being the originator. His first crosses leading to the
production of the Duckwing were made in 1881, but it was not until after
1886 that he was able to produce birds which were sufficiently good for
exhibition purposes, and of his exhibition birds--two pullets and a cockerel
-it is said that the latter was a very poor show specimen. In 1889,
Mr. Payne is credited with having visited Antwerp with a collection of his
832
The Poultry Book
birds, where his Duckwings took first and medal. While on this visit,
Mr. Payne obtained, for crossing, a long-tailed Japanese Phoenix cock.
By this cross a decided improvement in color was obtained, but bad effects
were seen for several seasons, the principal objection being that, in the
male progeny, sickles had been produced which swept the ground-an
undesirable adjunct which it required time and patience to efface.
In all essential points, the color of the Silver Duckwing Leghorn is the
same as that of the Silver Duckwing Game, except in the striping of the
hackle. In the Leghorn male, the hackle should be silvery white, with a
narrow black stripe running along the center of the lower hackle-feathers,
while in the Game it should be of the same silvery white, but free from
black stripes. In the female Leghorn, the hackle is silvery-gray, with a
narrow black stripe through the middle of the feathers, and the same
description answers for the Game, although the plumage of the neck in
the Leghorn, other than the hackle, is a light salmon color.
There was probably, originally, no intention of attempting to breed
both the Golden and Silver Duckwing Leghorn, but the Golden followed
the Silver as a matter of course. In England, at the poultry shows, there
is but one class of Duckwing Leghorns, which is simply "Duckwings."
Here the Goldens and Silvers vie with each other for the ccveted prizes,
and it is stated that the winners are almost invariably Golden Duckwing
cocks and Silver females. It is said that good Silver Duckwing males and
females may be produced from one mating, while it is an absolute im-
possibility to obtain good male and female specimens of the Golden variety
without the aid of the double-mating system. This is true for the reason
that, while a good gold-colored cock would breed undesirable pullets (red
or rusty on the wings), it is necessary for use in the production of Standard
Golden cockerels. And while good colored Golden cockerels could be
produced only from more or less rusty hens, the pullets from these hens were
useless as representative specimens of the breed.
Some English writers credit R. Terrot with having shown, at the
Crystal Palace Show of 1886, a Duckwing Leghorn cockerel on which he
won second prize. They further claim that Mr. Terrot is entitled to credit
as originator of this variety. It is admitted that Mr. Terrot did exhibit
the single Duckwing Leghorn at the time and place mentioned, but it is
claimed that the bird so exhibited was a solitary cull from a cross he had
made between a silver-gray Dorking and a Duckwing Game, and that no
The Leghorns
833
other results from the experiment were ever seen; and, as it is admitted
that Mr. Payne showed Duckwing pullets as well as cockerels at one show,
long before any one else thought of doing so, it would seem to be quite well
established that Mr. Payne should be entitled to the credit of being the
originator of the variety.
A statement in an English article on Black Leghorns, which quite
attracted my attention, is as follows: "To Duckwings only will Black
Leghorns yield pride of place as egg-producers, and, like the first named,
they will, if well cared for, lay throughout the severest winter." As the
Duckwing Leghorn is a Leghorn, it must necessarily be placed in the
category of an egg-producing variety of poultry, but it is a surprise to me
that it is claimed to be the equal of, or even better than, the Black Leghorn;
and my opinion is that the person who made this statement must have
had experience with
some extraordinarily
good strain of Duck-
wings or correspond-
ingly inferior strain of
Blacks. I have not
had sufficient experi-
ence of my own to
speak with authority
on the corresponding
merits of these two
varieties, but the im-
pression conveyed to
me from a general
knowledge and investi-
gation of the subject
has always been to the
effect that the Blacks
were, as a rule, the more
prolific egg-producers
of the two varieties.

MIDTAGITAPHED BV
Souis P. Graham 1904
SILVER DUCKWING LEGHORN COCK
Bred by Sylvester Shirley, Ohio
From a careful
survey of the subject, it appears that, in England, practically but
one class of female Duckwings is really recognized-that being the
834
The Poultry Book
Silver. In the males, there are the two classes, but each with a
Silver mate. That is to say, there is so little difference in the color and
markings of the females, as they run, that they are scarcely distinguishable
from each other. The body-color of the Silver hen should be lighter, of a
silvery gray, each feather having a very slight edging of light silvery gray,
just a trifle lighter than the general color. In general appearance, the
plumage of the Silver hen is described as having a "softer" look than the
Gold hen. It would certainly take the eye of an expert to distinguish
between Golden and Silver Duckwing females.
As a matter of fact, it is often difficult to distinguish between the
Silver Duckwing females, as bred by fanciers in this country, and the
Brown Leghorn. There are many points of difference, but the casual
observer might readily be deceived into believing that a Duckwing pullet
was, in reality, a Brown. The breast of the Duckwing Leghorn is described
as "light salmon," but the shading often seen in these birds could readily
be described as "rich" salmon, supposed to be a mark of distinction for
the Brown.
It is rather surprising that such showy, distinguished-looking Leghorns
as the Duckwing should not have commanded greater attention of fanciers
and breeders in this country, and I believe the field to be a fertile one for
the ambitious fancier of to-day. The Duckwing Leghorn is popular in
England because the breeders there have taken a fancy to the variety and
have bred it up to their ideals of what it should be. There is no reason why
the American fancier should not make an effort to put the Duckwing class
where it belongs in this country. This is a proposition which should
especially appeal to the younger generation of fanciers for the reason that
they would have but little competition to contend with at the outset, and
could make their mark in the poultry world in a comparatively short
period, while it might take years to reach the same level with some of the
older and better-established varieties, to which the older and more ex-
perienced breeders are giving their thought and attention.
PILE LEGHORNS
Pile Leghorns, like Duckwings, are of English origin, and the origination
is also credited to G. Payne. The Pile Leghorn, as did the Duckwing,
ultimately resulted from the original cross of White and Brown made
by Mr. Payne in 1881, and we are to understand from the accounts given
+
1
The Leghorns
835
by Mr. Payne, or at least credited to him, that no foreign blood was used
in the building up of the Pile. That is to say, no blood was used in the
make-up other than
the White and Brown
Leghorn. It is ad-
mitted that, after the
strain was fairly well
established, fresh
Brown Leghorn blood
was introduced for a
change of blood, in
order not to inbreed
for too many genera-
tions. Where a change
of blood was necessary,
a Brown Leghorn
cockerel would be
mated with a pen of
specially selected pul-
lets, and, during the
following season, the
cockerels from this

pen were mated
with Pile-bred hens,
and the pullets to
Pile-bred males, which
system of introducing
new blood proved
quite satisfactory.
raham
1904
Photograph by L. P. Graham, 1904
SILVER DUCKWING LEGHORN HEN
Owned and bred by Sylvester Shirley, Ohio
There are very few Pile Leghorns in the United States, and only
rarely are they seen in the show-room here. As they are not recognized
as Standard Leghorns in this country, they must be shown in the "all-
other-varieties" class at the exhibitions. In England, however, they
appear to have preference over the Duckwings.
It may readily be claimed for the Pile Leghorn that he is hardy and
strong, and this would be accounted for by the fact of the process of pro-
duction-i.e., amalgamation of White and Brown Leghorns. It is rather
836
The Poultry Book
difficult to understand why Pile Leghorns do not mature quite so early
as either Whites or Browns. Close inbreeding for many generations may
account for some lack of vitality, and for a tendency to take a longer time
in which to come to maturity. The Pile Leghorn is said to be of a very
domestic nature, not wild like the Black, probably to be accounted for by
close confinement and frequent handling in the early days of the formation
of the variety.
For some reason, it appears that the earliest productions of pullets
were superior to those which were later bred, having reached an excellent
size, while the present-day pullets are said to be somewhat inferior.
The breeder of Pile Leghorns has many obstacles to overcome. In
the male, it is difficult to obtain pure-white breast and tail, rich, dark
color on back and wing, pure orange-colored neck-hackle, and solid light-
red wing-bay. In pullets, the difficulty is to get clear wings, and, when
sufficient color has been obtained on the breast, the purity of the body-
color is apt to have been impaired. Many Pile breeders resort to the
double-mating system for producing their exhibition and breeding speci-
mens, selecting dark-breasted, rose-winged hens for producing cockerels,
and much lighter hens for pullet-breeding. After a few generations, the
color in Pile Leghorns seems to lose its richness, and, at such a time, resort
has to be made to a cross with the Brown.
A well-known English authority describes the Pile Leghorns as follows:
"A first-class cock should have a full-flowing neck-hackle, bright
orange-red in color, deeper near the head than at the base, but not running
to 'washiness' at the latter. Freedom from white or other striping is
desirable throughout the hackle; but, on account of the black stripe in the
hackle of one of its progenitors, it will be found a great difficulty to avoid,
in obliterating this black, the natural evil of white appearing.
"The back from the neck to the saddle should be extremely deep
claret or crimson-red in color—the darker the better-shading off, on the
saddle itself, down to the tips of the saddle-hackle, to a lighter, brighter
red, but not many shades lighter, lest the undesirable patchy, washy
hackle result.
"The wing-bow should be similar to the color of the back, as deep
and yet as 'glowing' as possible; whilst the wing-bar should be white,
slightly streaked with chestnut. The wing-bay, or secondaries, are
light red, somewhat similar in tint to the tips of the saddle-hackle.

From "Country Life in America"
Ch
A FLOCK OF SINGLE-COMB WHITE LEGHORNS ABOUT FOUR MONTHS OLD
They are all fed at four o'clock in the afternoon, and are accustomed to assemble a little before time
The Leghorns
837
"The breast and under parts should be white or creamy white, perfectly
free from ticks or spots of any color or description.
"
'The tail must be clear white, although it is rare to find a cockerel
without at least a few ticks of black, and, in many of the best-colored
cocks, one finds more or less on the sickles, near the root, a patch of black.
'An exhibition hen's hackle should be as nearly white as possible,
although a slight lacing of light gold, almost imperceptible, is looked for;
whilst the remainder of the plumage throughout, except breast, should
be white or creamy white. The purer this white is, the better, and free
from spots, ticks, or splashes.
'The breast should be a rich brown-red, even as possible, free from
mottling, and the color should confine itself to the breast, and not encroach
on the white surface of the wing.
،،
""
((
Of all the so-called minor varieties, Pile pullets are bred with the best
combs, although, strange to say, cockerels are rarely first-class in this
respect.
The following is credited to E. A. Lane, a well-known English Pile
breeder, whose birds have achieved considerable success in the show-
room:
"In mating Pile Leghorns for breeding exhibition birds, it is best to
get a cock with dark, even color, good head points, and one that carries his
tail fairly well back. By no means breed from a high-tailed bird. Mate
with the above-described bird, for breeding cockerels, a dark-colored hen
-one that has a good breast-color, and what is termed 'rose-wings '—i. e.,
a little brown in color on the wings. The hen should also be large in size,
as, from the hen, you always obtain size in the offspring, and from the cock,
points.
"As regards the breeding of pullets, we like to mate a little lighter
cockerel to a hen that has a good dark breast-color, but pure white on all
other parts of its feathers, except neck-hackle, and that should be tinged
with gold.
"Another good plan for breeding exhibition pullets is to use a hen
that is on the light shade, rather than one too dark, as, if your stock is
bred from a good strain, you very often get a good-colored pullet from
such a mating, as breeders breed their pullets to come too dark on the
wings if they are not careful, and such offspring are only fit for breeding
cockerels of course, providing that other points are correct.

838
The Poultry Book
いため​かく
​SOUTS
Braham
7904
FROM A PRIZE-WINNING PEN OF SINGLE-COMB WHITE LEGHORNS AT MADISON SQUARE
GARDEN, NEW YORK, 1904
Bred and owned by E. G. Wyckoff, New York
"The appearance of the chickens when first hatched, and the way
to indicate, as near as possible, those which will be of any use in the show-
pen-the best-colored cockerels are those which show two stripes of color
straight down the back. Pullets cannot be distinguished until they get
their feathers. The cockerels will sometimes come brown on the breast
with their first feathers, but will afterward clear with their adult plumage.
"I find the variety breeds very true to color, although now and again
a brown chicken is produced. These are sometimes very useful for breeding
from. In respect to their breeding true, we may mention that, out of the
one breeding-pen, we produced the first, second, and third prize-winners,
also silver medal, at the Dairy Show, 1895; first and second prizes at the
Crystal Palace Show, 1895; and first at the Club Show, New York, 1895,
besides numerous other prizes. These facts speak for the manner in which
the variety breeds true to color.

The Leghorns
839
((
'As regards their useful qualities, there is no breed which I consider
such good layers in both cold and warm weather; either makes very little
difference to them, if properly fed and attended to. We have a pen of
this variety which laid all through a month or six weeks of frosty weather,
two years ago. They continued to lay right into the spring time, only
resting for a few days after they had laid most days for a month at a
stretch. The chickens are extremely hardy and easy to rear. With these
qualities, together with their beautiful plumage, they are much admired
by those who keep them or see them.”
If any of our Leghorn enthusiasts have an inherent love for surmount-
ing difficulties, or overcoming obstacles which seem insurmountable,
I recommend to their tender mercies the breeding of Pile Leghorns. To
many, the production of a very few choice specimens of this variety, after
several years of earnest effort, would be an object of extreme satisfaction
and a
game worth the candle"; but the average breeder or fancier would
not be able to expend the time or patience necessary to produce satisfactory
results. To us, it must stand as a type of beauty, and its points of utility
will be lost to all save those who are able to command monumental perse-
verance and dogged persistence.
(C
DOMINIQUE LEGHORNS
Probably the least fancied of any Leghorn variety is the Dominique,
or Blue-Barred. In England, this class of Leghorns is known as the Cuckoo
or Cuckoo-Colored Leghorn, and they are credited with having been origin-
ated on the European Continent. It is said that they were bred in Den-
mark for a number of years before they first appeared in England. They
were exhibited in England as early as January, 1885, and, since that time,
have been shown there occasionally, but never have been bred nor fancied
to any great extent. About the first-known record of the exhibition of
Dominique Leghorns in continental Europe appears to have been also in
1885, although it is known that the birds were bred there for some years
previous to that time.
It is barely possible that this variety originated in America, for it
appears to have been bred in this country long enough previous to
1875 to allow of its admission to the American Standard of Excellence in
that year.
It is one of the few varieties of poultry that has been dropped
from the Standard after once having been recognized. When or where
840
The Poultry Book
it was admitted to the Standard cannot be ascertained, but it appears
as a Standard variety in all the editions of the American Standard of
Excellence from 1875 to 1894, inclusive. After 1894, it was dropped, the
breed being almost extinct.
There is often confusion in the minds of poultrymen from not being
familiar with the distinction between Dominique Leghorns and American
Dominiques. Many suppose these breeds to be identical, while there is
really as much difference between the two as there is between the White
Plymouth Rock and the Single-Comb White Leghorn. The Dominique
Leghorn is a blue-barred Leghorn, with single comb and all the Leghorn
characteristics, while the American Dominique has a medium-sized rose.
comb and the characteristics of the Plymouth Rock, except that they
are slightly smaller, the standard weight being the same as for Wyandottes.
The Dominique Leghorn is the smallest member of the Leghorn
family, and, in consequence, is said to mature at an extremely early age.
They are said to have a hardihood which is remarkable, and good average
Leghorn laying-powers.
In the breeding of Dominique Leghorns which would meet the Stand-
ard requirements there has been much difficulty. In the color, it has
been difficult to produce a blue-black bar which will not run or shade into
the white, and, in the male especially, off-colored feathers appear in the
tail; usually white. In the female, the production of a satisfactory comb
has been a difficult problem, it usually appearing with far too many points,
and unevenly serrated. In the early days of the Barred Plymouth
Rock there was the same difficulty, but this excellent breed has been bred
for color and marking through so many generations and in such large
numbers that the difficulty is not now found to such a great extent.
Had the Dominique Leghorn been a popular variety, and bred as exten-
sively as the Barred Rock, it is not to be doubted that many of the obstacles
would have been overcome. However, the variety never was a popular
one; is so little thought of to-day that it has been dropped from the Standard
of Perfection, and, unless some enthusiastic breeders take up the subject
and lay the foundation for a good strain of this variety, it bids fair to soon
become simply a matter of ancient history.
Closely allied to the Dominique Leghorn is the Ancona, which, while
not a Leghorn by name, is a Leghorn by nature, and cannot be anything
else. The Ancona is far more popular than its Dominique sister. Anconas
The Leghorns
841
were admitted to the American Standard of Perfection at the meeting of
the American Poultry Association, held in Boston in January, 1898, and
they still hold their place in the Standard.
The Ancona is sometimes called Mottled Leghorn, being black and
white mottled. In England, there are also red and tricolored mottled
Leghorns, and, during the years 1887, 1888, and 1889, it appears that the
red mottles carried off a large proportion of the prizes in the "any-other-
variety" classes there.
As there are practically no breeders in this country interested in the
mottled classes, it is hardly desirable to treat of them further than to
make brief mention of the fact that they belong to the “also-ran” class, so
far as this country is concerned.
ROSE-COMB LEGHORNS
In general characteristics, aside from comb, the rose-combed varieties
are very similar to those with single combs. In 1883, at Worcester, Mass.,
at the meeting of the American Poultry Association, which lasted from
January 31st to February 2d, Rose-Comb White and Brown Leghorns
were admitted to the Standard. We now have the Rose-Comb Buff
variety, which has not yet been admitted, but, as may be seen by the
illustrations accompanying this article, this variety has reached a very
fair state of development, and the number of breeders and admirers is
steadily increasing. At the present time, the American Rose-Comb White
Leghorn Club is displaying signs of great activity. Their membership
does not by any means include all of the breeders of Rose-Comb White
Leghorns, but the members seem to take great pride in pushing their
chosen variety well to the front. Of the Rose-Comb White, an enthusiast
writes as follows to The Farmers' Guide:
"The Rose-Comb White Leghorns are little known, but are gaining
in popularity very rapidly, as people learn their good qualities.
As a
farmer's breed, they cannot be excelled; they are good foragers where range
is plenty, requiring very little feed or attention. They have low combs,
that will not freeze in the coldest weather of this climate. They are unsur-
passed for table use; sweet, close-grained meat, easily cleaned, and, while
they will not bring quite so much per head on the market as heavier breeds,
yet the difference in number of eggs laid will more than balance difference
in price per pound.
A
842
The Poultry Book
"From the fancier's points of view, there is no prettier chicken:
low, red comb, true Leghorn shape, snow-white plumage. For village
or town where they must be confined to small yards there are none of
the breeds, large or small, that will stay in or thrive better. I keep them
in yards that were made for Barred Plymouth Rocks, and have less trouble
with their flying out than I did with the Rocks, and the amount of feed
that I used for my Rocks will keep twice the number of Rose-Comb White
Leghorns.'
9"
W. W. Babcock, of New York, Secretary of the American Leghorn
Club, writes of the Rose-Comb Leghorns as follows:
The origin and history dates back some forty years, as claimed by
old fanciers. Their origin, it is claimed, was the result of the mating of
White Leghorns with White Hamburgs, in order to produce a rose comb.
The results, for many years, were poor with respect to comb, size, and legs,
the comb being very wide and on the order of Red Caps, and, in most
cases, when the bird was in full health, the comb would lop to one side and
obstruct the sight; and it is also reported that white in the face was very
prominent in many cases.
(C
'In body, they were short, and favored the Hamburg shape, with very
high tails. In legs and feet, very short and pale in color. They were
bred along these lines until about fifteen years ago, when breeders began
to realize their good qualities as winter layers, and, since that time, great
advancement has been made. The question of small size has been one of
the objections to the variety, and many breeders have spent much earnest
effort in bringing them up to the present size, and we find to-day many
flocks of Rose-Comb White Leghorns quite equal in size to the Single-
Combs. I find, through my correspondence and travels, many breeders
with yards numbering as high as two or three hundred, using them especially
as winter layers. The matter of their being a poor table fowl is many
times argued against them, and, as to this question, I wish to say that there
is more meat in proportion to the bone in a Leghorn than in any other
fowl grown. The expense of bringing a Leghorn from the shell to broiler
size is only about one-half of what is required for other breeds, and can
be accomplished in much less time; and, for the table, no fowl has any
sweeter meat than a Leghorn, at one year. In fineness of color they are
unequaled.
"As layers, the Rose-Comb White Leghorns are unsurpassed. A
((

Graham
PHOTOGRAPHED BY
1904
Son's P. A PAIR OF ROSE-COMB WHITE LEGHORNS FROM EXHIBITION STOCK
Prize-winners, Madison Square, New York, 1904. Bred and owned by W. W. Babcock, New York
The Leghorns
845
pullet hatched in May, with proper food and runs, will lay in October, and,
if properly housed and cared for, will continue her laying until the following
June, and there is no question but that winter layers are the ones which
have a balance on the right side of the ledger.
"The next advantage that comes to our notice is the large white
eggs, which, it is undisputed, command the highest price in all markets.
“A word in regard to experience in housing Rose-Comb White Leg-
horns: I have always endeavored, if possible, to let my birds roost in trees,
or occupy quarters where they can get plenty of air. In many instances, I
have allowed them to roost in trees until the middle of December. The
advantages of the Rose-Comb over the Single-Comb Leghorns are that the
former are not bothered with frosted combs, and they can, therefore, be
kept in cold climates with better results.
“A majority of the breeders of Rose-Comb White Leghorns are in
the West and in Canada. The Canadian breeders claim their advantage
is in a comb which enables them to stand the long, cold winters of that
climate. The Western breeders are booming them through the West,
especially through the Northwest, and are making a great effort on size.
In looking over my correspondence, I find letters from more than four
hundred Rose - Comb White Leghorn breeders west of the Mississippi
River. I find, in my files, correspondence from over twelve hundred
breeders of Rose-Comb White Leghorns, and it is estimated that there
are over twenty-five hundred breeders of Rose-Comb White Leghorns in
America. In comparing the show records of New York, Boston, and
Chicago, and, in fact, all the shows, the exhibits of this variety are many
times double in numbers those of a few years ago.
"The model type of Rose-Comb White Leghorns may be described as
follows: The first question is size and shape: the body of medium length,
slim in statue, with a medium-length back, rounding from hackle to tail,
with a good, deep, rounding breast, with plenty of fluff, with a good rounding
appearance; wings carried close and neatly folded, with good-sized tail,
carried well up and at an angle of about forty-five degrees. Neck should
be long, with a well-arched hackle flowing down on the back and shoulders,
in order to form a good concave for the back. The next most important
feature is pure white, for which all breeders are making a great effort.
"The head and comb: The head short, with a good yellow beak,
eyes of a bright red. Face, red, and free from wrinkles and white. Lobes
846
The Poultry Book
of medium size, and pure white. Comb of medium size, rounding in
front, and not over two inches wide on top in the widest place, tapering
back to a well-rounded spike; spike running back with an upward tendency.
Comb evenly set upon the head, and well up from the head to avoid the
Wyandotte appearance; top comparatively flat, covered with small points,
or corrugations. Care should be taken that corrugations are small and
comb set well enough on the head to prevent the obstructing of the sight.
Many breeders contend that the spike should have a downward appearance.
In such case, the comb usually develops into a Wyandotte comb. A
small, narrow comb has the preference with most breeders. Legs and toes:
thighs of medium length, and slender; shanks long between joints, and
deep yellow in color. Toes to compare with legs in size, and yellow in
color. Some of the undesirable features are as follows: Large, coarse
comb, lopping to one side, or obstructing sight; white in face; red in lobes;
absence of spike; long body, without concave; tail carried too high; scant-
ness of breast. These few features are liable to follow in-breeding.
"With proper breeding and mating, Rose - Comb White Leghorns
promise in the future to equal in number and quality those characteristics
of their Single-Comb brothers."
What has been heretofore said with reference to the Rose - Comb
White Leghorn is largely applicable to the Brown and Buff, except as to
color. In general, it might be said that up to the present time the Rose-
Comb White leads the other two in shape, although the latter two varieties
will undoubtedly crowd it in that respect from now on. A leading breeder
of Rose-Comb Browns is W. W. Kulp, of Pennsylvania, who breeds also
several other varieties of fowls. With reference to the Rose-Comb Browns,
Mr. Kulp is quoted as follows:
"As all fowls are kept for income, and the Leghorn's specialty is eggs,
I will write a little about this before I take up form and feathers. I am
sorry to say that I have not many egg records. That the Rose-Comb
Leghorns are good layers I know, for I have fed them and gathered the
eggs, winter and summer, for sixteen years, and I also know that a Leghorn
egg costs only about one-half what an egg from a large breed does. I do
not need an account to tell me whether a pen is doing well, if I gather the
eggs the year around.
"Of late years, I produce breeders and eggs for hatching altogether,
and do not feed for eggs during the fall and winter, preferring to have the
The Leghorns
847
hens lay during the hatching season and save their vitality for these eggs.
My early pullets, hatched the latter part of February and early in March,
begin laying the latter part of July and in August. From then on the pullets
lay their eggs where they are raised, for I do not move them into their
breeding yards until from about December 25th to 30th. If they are
laying then, the moving will stop them for a couple of weeks.
is wanted, they should be housed before they start to lay,
right along.
If a record
and forced
"I put six Rose-Comb pullets in a building one year on January 5th,
when the first one laid. The building was ten by eighteen feet, with no
yard. I did not let them out for five months and twenty-five days, and
in that time I gathered just 600 eggs. I was young at the business then,
and did not feed to make a record at all. I just fed them well. I know
I could do much better now. During this past January, I wanted some
eggs, and in seven days
made them increase their
yield nearly 500 per cent.
"Last summer, I had
a pen of twenty-one Rose-
Comb hens running with
a few pullets. In the next
house were thirteen Barred
Rock pullets. I found
that the thirteen Rocks
required almost the same
amount of food the twenty-
one Leghorns did, and, in
a ten-days' count, the
Leghorns laid five more
than twice as many eggs
as did the Rocks, and my
Rocks are good layers, too.
To sell eggs at the price I
do, I must have good
layers. We see by the above test that a Leghorn egg costs less than one-half
as much as a Rock egg. This was in June. In April, the Rocks would have
laid more. When you come down to facts, it seems to be as C. E. Howell says,

1904
PHOTOGRAPHED BY
Souis Graham
PRIZE ROSE-COMB BROWN LEGHORN HEN
From the yards of W. W. Kulp, Pennsylvania

848
The Poultry Book
'A Leghorn is so profitable as a layer that you can afford to give or throw
away the body.' But the Leghorns are increasing in weight, and, when
the hens dress four pounds each, the market value of the carcass will
be no mean part of the Leghorn
as a utility fowl.
"One thing more I feel sure
of, and that is, the larger the
bird, the more it will eat, and
the more each egg will cost. The
period from egg to maturity will
also be lengthened. It cannot be
otherwise. I favor and try to
breed so that the cockerels, when
developed, will weigh five pounds,
and the pullets four pounds each.
I have several five-pound Rose-
Comb cockerels and four-pound
pullets, and they are large, making
a fine appearance. To get these
weights, you must pay attention to width of back. Part of the
weight must be in width. I have seen many Single - Comb Brown
Leghorns that were tall enough to weigh five pounds, but they had
only the width of a three-pound cockerel. A Leghorn pullet weighing
three pounds is a fair-sized bird. If below three pounds, when they are
well developed, I would call them too small. A three-pound pullet will, at
two years, make a four-pound hen.
"In the Brown Leghorn, we have combined grace, beauty, and use-
fulness to a higher degree than in any other breed. I am well aware
that all breeds are beautiful, when bred close to perfection. I cannot
look at the fine specimens shown at New York without wanting to breed
them all, but, in the Browns, we have so much in so little.
"The Rose-Comb Browns may not be quite as showy as the Single-
Comb Browns, because of their low combs, but the advantage of the low,
fleshy comb has made them popular in the northern States, although they
are also bred in the South, perhaps to as great an extent proportionately
as in the North, considering all breeds North and South."
By reading the comments of different breeders who look at breeds
770"
PHOTOGRAPHED
1904
Souis Braha
PRIZE ROSE-COMB BROWN LEGHORN COCK
From the yards of W. W. Kulp, Pennsylvania
The Leghorns
849
from their own point of view, we can readily see that, unless a breeder
has more than one variety, he is very apt to by prejudiced in favor of his
own hobby. In the case of Mr. Kulp, we have the testimony of one who
breeds several varieties, and who gives the Leghorn the credit of being
the most profitable.
As has been previously mentioned in this article, the Rose-Comb
Buff Leghorns have not as yet been admitted to the American Standard
of Perfection, but their popularity is on the increase, and they are now
bred in considerable numbers in Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, New York,
Connecticut, and many other States, which fact, together with the rapid
strides that are being taken in the development of specimens of the
breed, which are well along toward an ideal type, must, in the near future,
demand recognition from the American Poultry Association and admission
to the Standard of Perfection.
In conclusion, I may say, in general, that Leghorns are Leghorns,
and each variety has its own special field and its own admirers. In the
humble opinion of the writer, as previously emphasized, there is less
difference in the varieties of the breed than in the strains of the varieties.
Select whichever variety you may, and get the best strain of that variety
to be had; then, by a process of selection of the best and weeding out of
the inferior, produce a strain of your own that is equal to the best, and
success must attend your efforts.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT
Success with almost any breed of fowl depends largely upon the care
and management given them. The temperament and characteristics
common to the Leghorn require more than passing notice in this chapter.
As a successful breeder of White Leghorns for many years, Professor
James E. Rice, of the Department of Poultry Husbandry at Cornell
University, has the following to say about the care and management of
Leghorns:
"The fact that Leghorns are more active than many other breeds,
that they have large combs, and that they originated in a mild climate,
has given rise to the notion that they require radically different treatment
from most fowls. This is true in some respects, but the distinction is often
a fine one, and, for the most part, is more a theory than a fact. In other
words, a house that is built warm enough to give the best results with
850
The Poultry Book
Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes should also give satisfactory returns
with Leghorns. The fact that they are active tends somewhat to offset
their mild-climate feathering and their exposed combs. Proof of this is
found in the fact that this breed, in all its varieties, is kept successfully
in very cold countries in the same, or similar, houses with many other
breeds, and, under these conditions, is growing in popularity.
“Leghorns like to roost high, but it does not follow necessarily that
they must have higher perches than most other breeds. All fowls seem
to prefer to fly, or to drop from their perches stiff-legged, rather than to
walk down a prepared incline. This pounding on the floor causes corns
and bumble-foot, which is a serious trouble even with Leghorns. There-
fore, their perches should be as low as for other breeds. High fences are
necessary to confine Leghorns. How high depends on the way they are
brought up.
If they have been taught to scale fences from chickenhood
to maturity, by permitting them to fly over low fences made a little
higher each time as fast as they have learned the preceding lesson, they
will become adepts at going over a ten-foot fence, which, if they cannot
fly, they can, at least, climb, by using toes, bill, and wings. If, on the
other hand, they are given a fence five to six feet high at the start, they
will remain peaceable through habit, because they do not know any
other liberty.
'While Leghorns are called non-sitters, I have never seen a strain that
did not have individuals which became broody, often persistently so.
Every Leghorn ranch should have a place provided in which to place
broody hens as soon as they show the first signs. This should be either a
roomy open coop, with slat bottom, on the wall in each pen, or a separate
pen for this purpose. In any case, plenty of nourishing food, grit, and
water should be supplied.
(C
"In regard to feeding Leghorns and other breeds, there is, perhaps,
some difference in requirements. I believe that there is less danger in
overfeeding Leghorns than there is with many of the heavier breeds. At
least that has been my experience. Their tendency is to put their surplus
food into eggs, rather than into flesh or fat. While excessive feeding does
not so often result in excessive fatness, it does frequently cause much
ovarian trouble, particularly during the close of the laying season.
The danger with Leghorns, however, is more apt to come from over-
stimulation through feeding excessive quantities of meat and other protein

WHITE LEGHORN COCK
Photograph by A. Radclyffe Dugmore
The Leghorns
853
food than from feeding too much corn, or other fattening foods.
brief, the danger in feeding Leghorns is more apt to be over-stimulation,
while with the heavy breeds it is overfatness. Rations, therefore, should
be varied accordingly.
In
CC
A more important difference between Leghorns and the so-called meat
or general purpose breeds, which must be taken into account, is their re-
markable precocity. Under heavy feeding, to produce rapid growth, they

Photograph by courtesy of Thomas Peer
BUFF LEGHORN PULLET
Special prize at New York, 1903. Bred and owned at Fairfield Poultry Farm, New Jersey
are stimulated to lay prematurely as pullets. As a result, they lay many
small eggs, and are apt to be checked in their growth, and perhaps injured
for subsequent production. I have known White Leghorn pullets to lay
when four months and twenty-four days old. There are reported records
of even earlier laying. In order to guard against this precocity, all meat.
and soft food should be dropped from the ration after the pullets begin
to throw their combs, at about three to four months old. They should
be fed liberally, however, on a good variety of mixed whole grain, and should
have abundant range.

854
The Poultry Book
We inter
WHITE LEGHORN TWENTY YEARS AGO
About
Dety
"A point which should be considered in feeding White Leghorns for
exhibition (which applies as well to all white-feathered, yellow-skinned
fowls) is the influence of yellow corn and green food, such as clover and
alfalfa, on the color of the plumage and the shanks. Less yellow corn and
clover, and more wheat, oats, buckwheat, etc., should be fed where pure
whiteness is required. Notwithstanding the marked influence that
certain foods have upon the color of shanks and feather, their influence
may be considered only temporary, and we must depend upon careful
breeding and selection for permanent results in attempting to fix colors.
No amount of careful feeding can make a brassy fowl snow-white or a pure-
white fowl brassy, but creamy plumage can be made white and white
plumage creamy. One can tell at a glance white Leghorn chickens that
The Leghorns
855
―
have been raised largely on yellow corn on a free-grass run, from chickens
of the same strain raised without corn and a liberal supply of green food.
"The precocity of the Leghorn calls for another difference in treatment
from that accorded most breeds. The sexes must be separated early and
chickens of different ages must not be permitted to run together - cer-
tainly not to be confined together. What to do with the young Leghorn
males becomes a considerable problem on most large poultry farms.
Every Leghorn raiser should have chickens of different ages separated until
they are about three months old, at least. In other words, he should
have a 'maids' paradise' for the pullets and a 'bachelors' hall' for the
cockerels. They should be as widely separated as possible. If this separa-
tion is made when the sexes can first be distinguished, there is much less
fighting among the cockerels.
"Leghorn eggs have the
advantage of superior hatcha-
bility, as compared with dark-
shelled eggs.
Their treatment
in incubators, however, is not
essentially different from that
of other eggs.

"Leghorn chickens are
remarkably intelligent and
self-reliant. This is particu-
larly noticeable in their readi-
ness to go under the hover
for warmth, or to seek cover
from danger, and the readiness
with which they learn to eat
and drink and adapt them-
selves to artificial conditions
generally.
Photograph by L. P. Graham
FROM A PRIZE-WINNING PEN OF SINGLE-COMB BUFF
LEGHORNS AT MADISON SQUARE GARDEN,
"Leghorns are often un-
justly condemned because of
their tendency to grow wing-
feathers rapidly. Many breeders, with best intent, clip the wings
on the assumption that the feathers are growing so fast that they sap
the system. This assumption is wrong, and is a great injustice to the
NEW YORK, 1904
Bred and owned by E. G. Wyckoff, New York
856
The Poultry Book
chicken. The feeder, not the chicken, is to blame. Overdeveloped wings
are a sure indication that the chickens have suffered a check in body growth.
This may be due to weak vitality inherited from the parents, to the food,
or to the temperature of the brooder. More often it is the latter. Too
cold or badly ventilated brooders are responsible for a large part of
chicken mortality. The principle involved is that when a young
animal suffers misuse, the parts that are most necessary to prolong
life suffer least. Therefore, the wings, the bill, and the feet continue
to grow, and, by comparison with other parts of the dwarfed body, appear
much exaggerated. It is a fact which I think will be acknowledged by
poultrymen generally, that, other conditions being equal, Leghorn chickens
are easy to raise. But, as with all breeds, much depends upon the strain
and previous care.”
THIRD DIVISION
THE POULTRY BOOK
1

Harris, in Wein
Del.
1902
PRIZE BLACK (WITH WHITE COP-KNOT) POLANDS.

The Ancona
The Minorca.
White Minorca.
·
•
The Andalusian.
The White-Faced Black Spanish.
The Polish...
Polish Fowls Up to Date.
How I Improved One Strain..
Careful Selection and Breeding.
Care and Management...
The Hamburgs.
Characteristics of Hamburgs
• •
The Mantes.
La Bresse.
•
•
• •
The Crèvecœur...
The Silkies.
La Flèche.
•
•
•
Cock..
Hen...
Points of Color..
Points to Deduct.
•
Rearing and Management...
Preparing for Exhibition.
The Faverolles...
•
•
• •
•
•
•
The Houdan as a Utility Fowl..
Characteristic Points of the Houdan
How to Mate for the Best Results..
•
•
The Spangled Hamburg.
The Silver-Penciled Hamburg.
The Golden-Penciled Hamburg..
The Black Hamburg
White Hamburgs..
Preparing Hamburgs for Exhibition 950
948
The Redcap..
The Houdan.
957
961
•
•
•
•
• •
·
The Campine and Brackel...
The Guelders..
Coucou de Malines.
The Bruges.
Lakenvelders..
Lakenvelder Standard.
Japanese.
White Yokohama Fowl..
• · •
•
The Phoenix Fowl..
Bantams in General.
Modern Bantams.
Game Bantams.
•
• •
•
• •
·
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
·
The Sultan
The Frizzled Fowl..
The Rumpless Fowl, or Wallikiki.
Turkey-Necks, Naked Necks, Gilli-
kins, Nudes...
·
· ··
•
•
• •
•
Non-Standard Game Bantams.
Old English Game Bantams.
Aseel Game Bantams.
Rose-Comb Bantams.
•
• •
CONTENTS
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
·
•
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•
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White Rose-Comb Bantams.
Booted Bantams
Brahma Bantams.
Dark Brahma Bantams..
Cochin Bantams....
Buff Cochin Bantams
Black Cochin Bantams
White Cochin Bantam...
·
·
· •
• •
•
•
•
•
•
Partridge Cochin Bantams.
Cuckoo Cochin Bantams.
Nankin Bantams..
Polish Bantams.
•
··
•
[
1055
1056
1057
1059
лобо
лобо
The Sultan, or White-Booted Polish 1062
1062
The Japanese Bantam.
Non-Standard Varieties
1066
•
• •
A Hunter's Word..
Ducks...
•
•
•
•
•
• •
Geese Flocks Driven on Roads
Early Hatching.
The Sitting of the Goose
Hatching...
Rearing the Goslings..
The Goose on the Farm.
Embden Geese..
Toulouse Geese..
African Geese.
History of African Geese..
The Chinese or Swan Goose.
•
.
• •
•
•
The White Chinese Goose..
Egyptian Geese.
Sebastopol Geese..
Scotch Gray Bantams.
Rumpless Bantams..
Frizzled Bantams.
Black Spanish and Black Seabright
Bantams..
Silky Bantams
Belgian Breeds.
The Campines.…..
The Ardennes.
•
The Barber Dwarf of Antwerp.
The Domestic Goose
The Spur-Winged Goose..
The Hutchins' Goose...
The Snow Goose...
The White-Fronted Goose
Canada Geese..
Ducklings and Chicks.
Comparison with Chicks.
The Domestic Duck..
· •
•
•
•
•
·
•
•
•
3
·
•
• •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
·
•
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
*
·
•
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
·
•
•
Laying Habits.
English Idea of Selecting and
Cross-Breeding..
American Method of Selecting and
Breeding...
•
PAGE
1046
1048
•
1049
1050
1052
1053
1067
1067
1067
1068
1068
1068
1070
1070
1070
1073
1077
1078
1079
1080
1082
1082
1083
1091
1097
1099
II04
1107
IIIO
IIIO
IIII
1113
1113
II13
1114
II15
II17
II 19
II 20
II 2 I
1123
1127
1130
Contents Continued
Selection of Stock Ducks...
Feeding and Care...
How to Care for Ducklings..
Dressing and Shipping.
Standard Varieties of Utility Ducks
The Chinese or Pekin Duck...
The White or Aylesbury Duck.
The Rouen Duck.
The Cayuga Duck..
The Indian Runner Duck.
Blue Swedish Ducks..
Disqualifications..
·
Shape of Drake and Duck.
Color of Drake and Duck.
The Musk, or Muscovy Duck.
Non-Standard Utility Ducks
Ornamental Varieties
•
•
•
·
The Crested White Duck, or
Top-Knotted Duck .
The Dutch Dwarf Duck, the
Duck, the Decoy Duck...
The Wild Duck or Mallard.
The White Wild Duck.
The Wood Duck..
The Mandarin Duck.
The Spoonbill.
·
•
•
The Pouter..
The Barb...
Short-Faced Tumblers
· •
•
•
Index
•
•
Classification of Pigeons
Favorite Varieties in America.
· •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
· •
·
·
•
·
•
Common Sheldrake..
Ruddy Sheldrake.
The Bow-Billed or Hook-Billed
Duck..
The Eider Duck..
The Swan...
To Roast a Swan
The Commercial Value of Swans
Pigeon...
Origin of Fancy Pigeons
Breeding Pigeons as a Pastime or
for Profit..
The Aviary, or Loft, and Its Ap-
pliances..
Food and Feeding.
Mating and Breeding.
•
• · •
❤
•
•
O
•
•
the
Call
:
·
•
•
•
•
·
·
·
•
•
•
·
PAGE
1133
1135
1137
II39
II4I
1141
1144
1148
1152
1155
1159
1161
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1166
1167
1169
1169
1170
1172
1172
1173
1173
1174
1175
1178
1181
1183
1183
1188
The Runt.....
The High-Class Toys.
The Turbit.
The Jacobine
The Owl...
The Trumpeter..
The Fantail..
The Dragoon.
The Scanderoon.
Lophura.
Diardigallus.
Crossoptilon.
Gennæus..
Catreus
Phasianus.
Polyplectron..
Argusiannus.
Peacocks.
• •
• ·
•.
•
··
•
•
·
•
•
Guinea Fowls..
Florentine or Hen Pigeon..
The Frill Backs.
The Priest...
The Brunswick.
Oriental Frills...
The Antwerp, or Homer
A Practical House.
Successful Squab-Raising.
Pheasants...
Housing and Feeding
Description of Species..
Lophophorus.
•
•
Syrmaticus.
Colophasis..
Crysolophus
Jungle Fowls.
The Peacock..
•
The Guinea Fowl..
The Turkey...
•
·
•
•
•
·
·
•
•
·
··
Brush Turkeys.
The Bronze Turkey.
The White Holland.
The Narragansett.
The Buff Turkey.
The Slate Turkey.
•
•
•
•
.
·
··
..
··
•
II9I
1198
1202
I212
1213
The Black Turkey
1215
1216
The Bourbon Reds..
Mating and Handling
1217
1301
•
•
·
•
.. •
·
•
•
•
·
•
D
•
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
•
·
•
•
►
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
·
·
•
•
·
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
·
·
•
•
·
.
2
·
•
•
•
•
PAGE
1219
1219
I220
122 1
1222
1223
1225
1226
1227
1228
1228
1229
1229
1230
1231
1233
1237
1246
1252
1254
1255
1255
1256
1257
1257
1258
1258
1260
1260
1262
1262
1263
1263
1263
1264
1266
1276
1279
1289
1289
1291
1293
1293
1294
1294
I294
1296
LIST OF COLORED PLATES
Prize Black (With White Top-Knot) Polands.....
Red Black-Spangled Hamburgs.
Golden-Barred Hamburgs.
Faverolles..
Toulouse Geese.
Mallard and Wild Duck.
White Aylesbury Ducks.
Prize White Pekin Ducklings.
Prize Black-breasted Silver-gray Dorkings.
Prize Dark Dorkings..
•
•
·
•
• •
·
•
•
..Frontispiece
FACING PAGE
929
945
991
1073
1117
1130
II44
1175
1266
•
•
•
•
LIST OF FULL-PAGE
BLACK-AND-WHITE PLATES
Prize Andalusian Hen...
Golden-Spangled Hamburg Cock..
A Peacock in All His Glory.
•
●
•
·
•
•
•
•
·
•
PAGE
881
951
1269
LIST OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS
The Modern Ancona.
Modern Ancona..
Prize Minorca Cockerel.
Black Minorca Pullet..
Group of Ordinary Minorca Fowls
with Cock's Comb Far Too Large
for Comfort...
Minorca Cock of Ordinary Form
Black Minorca Cock and Hen.
Good Prize Minorca Hen.
•
Modern Minorca as Seen in England...
Prize-Winning White Minorcas..
Andalusian Prize-Winner at New
•
York, 1902.
Prize-Winning Andalusian Pullet.
Prize Andalusian Dairy Show Pullet..
A Splendid Andalusian Cockerel.
Prize Cockerel and Pullet-Andalu-
sian Spanish Fowls..
Prize Andalusian Cockerel, Dairy
Show, 1892...
Fine Quality Minorca Hen.
Medal of the National Society of Agri-
culture of France..
Pen of White-Faced Black Spanish
Fowls...
White-Faced Black Spanish Fowls.
White-Faced Black Spanish Hen.
Black Spanish Pullet, 1903.
Head of White-Faced Black Spanish
Cock..
Blue Polish Cock.
Plain White Polish Hen.
•
White-Faced Black Spanish Cock.
Plain Golden Polish Cock.
••
Head of White-Faced Black Spanish
Hen..
Prize Polish Cockerel.
Golden Polish Hen.
• ·
Improved White-Faced Black Span-
ish Cockerel.
White-Faced Black Spanish Cock ..
Black Spanish Cockerel.
An Old-Type White-Faced Spanish
Cockerel
•
•
Group of White-Breasted Black Polish
White-Crested Polish Cock.
•
•
White-Crested Black Polish Cock.
Prize-Winning Golden Polish Cock.
•
Plain Silver Polish Hen.
Plain Golden Polish Hen.
Golden-Penciled Hamburg Hen.
Prize Black Hamburg Hen.
•
White-Crested Black Polish Cock and
Hens..
Blue Polish Cockerel.
•
·
•
• •
PAGE
858
860
861
862
865
866
868
871
872
873
885
∞ ∞
∞ ∞
887
A Houdan Pullet.
A Standard Colored Female Houdan..
Houdan Male as It Looked When
First Imported into This Country
Houdan Pullet, "Bonnie Lass"
876
A Well-Shaped Female Houdan Crest
877 A Standard Shaped Fifth Toe...
878 Prize Houdan Cockerel, 1897.
880 Houdan Female as She Looked When
First Imported into This Country 977
A Pen of Prize Houdan Hens in Win-
ter.
Houdan Chickens a Few Days Old...
First Houdan Hen at Boston, 1902-
883
888
889
∞ ∞ ∞
890
891
893
894
895
896
899
900
902
903
905
907
908
911
913
915
918
921
923
924
925
926
928
931
936
*
Silver-Spangled Hamburg Cockerel...
Golden-Penciled Hamburg Cockerel..
Silver-Spangled Hamburg Cockerel...
Ideal Silver-Spangled Hamburgs.....956
Ideal Silver-Pencilled Hamburg.
"Defend Your Reputation "..
Houdan Chickens, Four Months Old..
In the Houdan Yard.
•
•
•
Pullet..
First Boston Houdan Cock, 1902.
978
980
1903.
982
985
The Noted Sire and Undefeated Hou-
dan Show-Bird' Danbury
Houdan Cock, the Champion Chal-
lenge Cup-Winner at Boston, 1893 986
A Famous Prize-Winning Houdan
:
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
Salmon Faverolle Cock..
Salmon Faverolle Hen..
Black Langshan Cock..
Japanese Silky Cockerel.
Japanese Silky Pullet.
First Prize Buff Cochin.
Old Bantams, 1801.
Indian Game-Cock "Prince Imperial" IOII
Frizzled Hen....
1017
IO 20
IO2 I
Indian Game-Hen "Columbia
Coucou de Malines Cock.
Lakenvelder Cock..
Prize Yokohama Cock.
1025
1031
1032
Colored Phoenix Yokohama Cockerel.
Golden Duckwing Bantam Cock.
Black-Breasted Red-Hen Bantam.
1034
1039
1044
1049
•
"}
""
•
•
•
••
·
• • ·
•
·
•
·
•
Black-Tailed Japanese Bantam Cock.
Black-Tailed Japanese Bantam Pullet
Silver Seabright Bantam Hen..
Black Japanese Bantam Cockerel
Black Japanese Bantam Pullet
White-Booted Bantams, 1897
Rose-Comb Black Bantam.
Burmah Bantams, 1896..
A Trio of Old Embdens.
፡
·
•
▸
•
•
•
•
•
•
PAGE
941
946
955
O
•
959
962
963
965
966
967
•
•
969
970
971
972
974
987
988
992
995
1000
1002
1003
1005
1008
1054
1058
1064
1066
1069
1071
1075
“On the Warpath”....
White China Geese..
Young Brown China .
•
•
•
•
··
Toulouse Goslings
• •
The Value of Animal Food (Plate I)..
The Value of Animal Food (Plate II).
A Bunch of Toulouse Geese on a Flor-
ida Farm.
"On Guard'
>>
• •
•
List of Text Illustrations—Continued
•
• •
• ··
Flock of Young Geese After a Swim.
Muscovy Ducks in Open Yard...
Embden Geese on the March..
•
Group of Toulouse Geese on the Way
to Creek...
A Group of White Chinese Geese
Prize White Aylesbury Duck.
Pekin Ducks in Range.
Muscovy Ducks..
Prize Rouen Drake..
Colored Muscovy Ducks.
Old Variety of Black East India
Ducks...
·
•
•
•
•
·
•
·
• •
·
·
·
►
•
•
•
·
•
Prize Modern Rouen Duck...
Pekin Duck and Mixed Breed Duck-
lings.
•
Showing Structural Characters of
Head and Mouth...
Group of Common Ducks.
The Common White or Mute Swan
Black-Necked Swan with White Body
White Swan Nesting.
A Loft of Fancy Pigeons Stirred to
Indoor Flight.
Red-Checked Male Homer
The Jacobine..
Blondinette Oriental Frill.
The Barb...
A Blue Cock Turbit.
The Pygmy.
The Nun.
A White Male Dragoon.
Ruffled Moorheads...
•
•
·
•
•
•
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
•
•
•
•
•
•
PAGE
1078
1081
1084
1088
1089
1093
1096
IIOI
1104
I105
I109
III 2
II16
1119
II 22
1125
1128
1132
1137
1140
1145
1151
1165
1175
1179
1182
1185
1190
1196
I I
1196
1196
1197
1197
1197
1204
12 II
Swallows.
A Saddle Fantail.
A Satinette Oriental Frill Hen.
A Runt Hen
The Carrier.
1225
The Almond Short-Faced Tumbler... 1225
End View of Pigeon-House and "Fly" 1233
Sectional View Through Centerof Coop 1234
South Side of Coop...
1234
··
A Group of Homing Pigeons.
Section of Breeding House.
After the Weekly Cleaning.
The Proper Way to Catch a Pigeon..
Interior of a Breeding House.
A Reeves Cock..
"The Mongolian Pheasant.
The Argus..
•
•
Floor Plan Showing Foundation,
Sills and Joists...
1235
A Male Black-Splashed Horner with
Squabs on Nest.
1238
A Pair of Squabs Ready for Market.... 1239
A Good Kind of "Fly'
>>
1241
I242
1243
I244
•
Lady Amherst Pheasants..
The Common Golden Pheasant.
The "Mongolian "Pheasant.
The Peacock Pheasant..
•
·
•
A Prize Winner
White Holland Turkeys..
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Swinhoe's Pheasant from Formosa..
Elliot's Pheasant--A Native of Tibet.
A Silver Pheasant Hen..
•
•
Male Silver Pheasant.
•
Melanotus Pheasant or Hill Pheasant
of Asia.
··
•
·
•
•
PAGE
1217
1221
•
The Siamese Fire-Back.
White, Splashed and Other Guinea
Fowls...
Bronze Turkey..
Turkeys at Home in the Farm Yard.. 1284
Wild Turkey.
1287
•
1224
1224
•
I244
1245
1246
1248
I249
1251
1252
1253
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1261
1265
1277
1281
1292
1297
THE POULTRY BOOK
THE ANCONA *
HIS is one of the Mediterranean breeds. It is simply the
common fowl of Ancona. It is not bred to any particular
standard there, either in form or color, but the black and
white, mottled or spangled, are said to be preferred. It
much resembles in general appearance that known as the
Minorca, but is not quite so large. The eggs are smaller. It is very
prolific, hardy, wild in its habits, flies with ease and rapidity, is a good
forager, and, of its kind, a useful fowl. So far as it has hitherto been tried,
it is more than equaled by other varieties.

Mr. Weir says it has been known in England for about half a century,
and as yet has never succeeded in pushing its way to the front rank, though
some are now endeavoring to gain for it that position. There were sixteen
exhibited in 1851 and but one in 1852. Two or three pens were shown
at Baker Street in 1853, some the property of John Taylor and others of
Mr. Simons; these were principally black and white, the last being black
with white feather-tips. They were admired by few, others being con-
sidered superior, particularly the Andalusian, which appeared at the
same shows.
Some were exhibited at Birmingham in 1861. The Journal of Horti-
culture, of January 14, 1862, thus speaks of the breed: "The Ancona are
seldom seen and very little admired. They are birds with very small
bodies, black and white patchy plumage, enormously large combs and
gills, the latter resting on the ground when they eat. They are said to be
very good layers." Rather less than thirty years ago, more were imported
and exhibited, but failed to attract any particular notice. However, in
1898, there was a fresh arrival, when, like most new breeds or neglected
old ones revived, the poultry press became strong in their praise and
their marvelous qualities of egg-production.
They are hardy and inter-
* While Anconas are kept in this country, they are by no means common. They
are considered a very good fowl, having the same shape of the male and female Leghorn.
Their plumage is an evenly mottled broken black and white. The shanks and toes are
usually yellow or yellow mottled with black.—EDITOR.
857

858
The Poultry Book

Aleyhe
1901
THE MODERN ANCONA
Black-and-white-spangled Italian fowi
Drawn from lige by Mr. Weir
esting. True, they are small, but already a cross is intimated as likely, if
not already used, to improve them. Under the auspices of Mrs. Bourlay
and some others, a club has been formed. They are to be pushed into
notice, if not into profitable recognition. Already we are teeming with
new breeds and a vast number of varieties of fowls.
Therefore, it may
The Ancona
859
be reasonably asked on what grounds does the Ancona go in for "honors"
against such as the Andalusian, the Minorca, and the Leghorn? Is it a
better, or even as good? Time tries all things, and so it will be with the
Ancona; but one would have thought that half a century was sufficient for
the poultry world to judge of its merits, whatever they may be, and the
reasons known why they have hitherto not met with much appreciation.
Mr. Weir says: "For my own part, from what I have seen of the
Anconas in England, during the last half-century, I am not much possessed
in their favor. I do not think that they are a sufficiently distinct breed
and of such value as to warrant separate classes being made for them,
unless at some of our larger poultry shows."
Consul M. C. Gurney, of Marseilles, late of Cherbourg, wrote Mr. Weir,
under date of June 8, 1898, in answer to his inquiries regarding the Ancona
fowl, as follows: "With regard to the Ancona, and my opinion of them, I
think they are a color variety of the common barn-yard Italian fowl. This
has been my opinion regarding them for some years. I have seen no reason
as yet to modify it. Some black Italian fowls, with more or less of white-
tipped feathers in the wings, tail, and neck-hackle, are to be found on all
sides, but more especially in the Tuscany and Ancona Provinces.
'From the latter port, a pen of the latter were exported to England,
and called Anconas; they were bred by constant selection to a fairly even-
mottled black and white, but even now many come almost black, and
some with red-and-gold hackles. Vice-Consul Tomassini writes me from
Ancona that the local name given to the black-and-white fowl (that is,
the black with more or less white in wing and neck) is the 'Marchegiana'
fowl-the name of the district near Ancona where they prevail; but all the
cockerels have red or golden necks or saddle, though the tails are almost
always pure black.
(C
-
“The ordinary colored Ancona fowl is similar to the common Italian
fowl seen everywhere else in Italy, and has a coat of many colors-black,
white, and almost every shade of brown, the browns mostly with yellow
shanks, pure yellow, or with a greenish hue.
"In Tuscany, especially in the upper valleys of the Arno (in the
Florentine hills), the pure blacks are the most numerous. Their local
name is 'Valdarno,' typical birds of the Italian shape, but their shanks
are never yellow, always bluish-gray. The black fowls in all parts of
Italy have, as a general rule, dark shanks. The browns and whites

860
The Poultry Book
have more often yellow shanks. The first Italians exported to America
from Leghorn, and these, called 'Leghorns,' are similar in type to all the
color varieties of the Italian fowl.
"They are smaller (though I have seen some fine specimens among the
earliest hatched, but the climate favors early maturity-thus small size).
They are very prolific-extraordinary layers; hence, British poultry

Preg
6.79%
MODERN ANCONA
Black-and-white-spangled Italian fow!
The Ancona
861
rearers wanting eggs will do well to import the Italian fowl pure, which is
a far superior fowl to the Gamey-legged Leghorn too often seen in England.
Marseilles imports
Italian fowls, Ger-

many and Belgium
also, in very large
quantities.
"I had a trio
of the local Marche-
giana (or Ancona)
fowls sent me from
Ancona-black
hens with a little
white on their
wings, black cock
with black tail and
red-brown neck
and saddle-hackles.
Of the first eight
chickens hatched
from their eggs,
three are brown,one
is brown-red, two
chestnut - brown,
one black with a
touch of white,
and one black.
Photograph by William Radford
PRIZE MINORCA COCKEREL
Owned by J. Haywood, England
"Now, Mr. Tomassini assured me that the cock and hens sent to
me were exactly similar to those sent to J. Davis, who is selling eggs from
his pens of imported Anconas, and has given a cup for a local show, for
which birds hatched from his hens' eggs only may compete."
Here is the whole gist of the sudden rising of the Ancona fowl in the
poultry horizon. It appears that it is not so much due to its distinctness,
or the purity of breed both in form and color, as to its being a fresh and a
commercial speculation-not but that it may be a good fowl of its kind
for certain purposes; but if so, why has it taken so many years to discover
this? Of the Ancona little more need be said, further than that, if they are

862
The Poultry Book
of various colors, then why should any one having a fancy to keep them be
tied down to breeding them all to one color-or that of black-and-white
only. Different people have different ideas, and some may like brown
better than black; therefore it does seem rather arbitrary that any one
keeping the Anconas shall not be entitled to show and win prizes unless
Gimen
10.1
BLACK MINORCA PULLET
An English type
Drawn from life by Mr. Weir
they are black-and-white. In England, it is not uncommon to see prize
Ancona cocks with nearly white feathers in their tails, when, if rightly
feathered, they should certainly be black with white spangles. It is in
this way that most of our 'utility' fowls are ruined, and it is to be hoped
that, whatever good qualities the Ancona possesses, it may not be sacrificed
to freaks of fancy and fashion
The Ancona
863
The Ancona has been admitted to the American Standard of Perfection,
in which it says of the “shape of male or female-the same as Leghorns.
And this is much the general rule, though some are shorter in body, and
rounder in form, with a more sturdy make. It also says "Wattles and ear-
lobes-wattles red, ear-lobes white." With the latter Mr. Weir does not
agree; a white ear-lobe on a black-and-white does not show to advantage,
besides which, it is not the right color to harmonize with a yellow beak,
shanks, and feet. Nor is it correct with other birds, such as the Leghorn,
which, when pure yellow in the shanks and feet, has a light primrose-
tinted ear-lobe, and this on the black-and-white Ancona tells with beautiful
effect. Mr. Weir says: "I have seen many such, and greatly prefer
them to the white, which I do not consider the right color. Again, the
proper color of the shanks and feet is yellow: we have the authority of
Mr. Gurney, who knows and has kept the breed, and many others, and I,
moreover, look on the yellow black-mottled shanks as foul markings; the
feather colors being black with white tips, it is 'a black silver-spangled.'
In the same way, the silver black-spangled Hamburg, or the golden black-
spangled Hamburg, it might just as well be said, should have spotted
shanks, instead of whole colored; nor is the appearance of the former at all in
favor of showing the silver spangling to advantage, nor can it be proper
that either is admissible-only one can be right, and I am entirely in favor
of the bright and clear yellow.
((
Already the breed is said to be improved by crossing with the Game-
fowl; of this, however, there is no indication. The Ancona has a large
arc-shaped comb, high in the center, while that of the Game is long, and
rises equally toward the lobe at the back of the head, and so persistent
is this form that many of the Silver Dorkings that were originally produced
by a cross with Lord Hill's Duckwing Silver Game, and 'the Game,' have
bright-red ear-lobes. Also it is said to have been crossed with the White
Leghorn. This, if so, can scarcely be a cross, the Leghorn, for all practical
purposes, being the same breed—that is, like the Ancona, one of the smaller
kinds of the Italian fowls; and, indeed, having seen the Anconas exhibited
nearly fifty years ago, I am firm in the belief that those of to-day are
entitled to be called pure as much as any of the former, be they Minorca,
Leghorn, or Ancona.
""
m
"The United States Consul at Belgium reported to his government, in
1893, the following, which appeared in the American Fancier, December
864
The Poultry Book
16, 1893: A company has been formed for egg-production, in the
Province of Liège, called the 'Société Belge-Italienne,' for the purpose of
importing hens. from Italy which would lay throughout the winter.
This company does a large business. It should be noted that the Italian
fowls are chosen in preference to the English; they are shipped at Padua.
In the transit, the mortality is only one per thousand. On their arrival,
they are transferred to wooden cages, and in less than two hours are on
their way to the farms of Belgium. The coarsest of the cross-breeds,
which are cheapest, and the Italian pure breed with yellow shanks, are
extra choice. Altogether, the report is most instructive, and is well worthy
of perusal, going far to show how much better they do things on the
Continent, where these same Italian fowls are imported in quantity, while
we, by private enterprise, get 'a pen or two,' boom them with an asserted
superiority over all other breeds, establish a club, offer prizes, and then, as
a commercial speculation, it pays—while it is a speculation perfectly open
to any one or more of the public to import such at a cheap rate by the
thousand, or on the same lines as is done in Belgium. But there should be
little or no surprise at this, for, as to poultry rearing, traffic, and manage-
ment in England, we have scarcely any organization whatever; nor, under
the present want of system, does there seem to be any chance of improve-
ment as a commercial product."
:

From a photograph by Charies Reid
GROUP OF ORDINARY MINORCA FOWLS, WITH COCK'S COMB
FAR TOO LARGE FOR COMFORT
THE MINORCA
DR. C. J. ANDRUSS,* New York
QUOTE first from the description of the English Minorca,
by Mr. Weir: "Why these fowls are called Minorcas is one
of the mysteries which are so abundant in the poultry
fancy. The breed has been known in this country for
considerably more than half a century as the Black Spanish,
sometimes as the red-faced Black Spanish, or Portugal fowl. As non-
incubating, it was a favorite in Cornwall, Devonshire, Surrey, Sussex, and
generally in the southern counties, for its excellence in egg-production.
As a rule, they are shorter in both body and shanks than their white-
faced brethren, the combs of the cocks larger, and much stouter and

*This chapter has been written by Dr. C. J. Andruss, ex-president of the American
Black Minorca Club, one of the best-known fanciers of this breed in this country. The
American Standard recognizes both the Black and White Minorcas. Standard weights for
each are as follows: Cock, eight pounds; hen, six and one-half pounds; cockerel, six and
one-half pounds; and pullet, five and one-half pounds.-EDITOR.
865

866
The Poultry Book
thicker in the base, while those of the hens were much larger. Such was
the case with this variety forty years ago, but much of this overgrowth
has now been avoided, and the quality of the combs of both cocks
and hens considerably
improved. At one
time, it was thought
that the comb of the
former could not be
too large, if upright,
though thick and
ponderously heavy,
with immense, widely
divergent spikes.
Besides the absurdity
of such extremes in
comb and wattle
development, the
birds were not only
more likely to suffer
from frost-bite, but
so much was this the
case that, after the
show season, the
breeding stock was
dubbed completely.
Even now the Stand-
ard might be altered
with advantage to
utility, and a less-
sized comb be con-
sidered as proportion-
ate and sufficient in-
dication of the purity
of the breed.

vu
Drawn from life by Mr. Weir
MINORCA COCK OF ORDINARY FORM
As seen in England
"The Minorca is an excellent town and suburban fowl, and, when
properly attended to, bears confinement in small runs remarkably well.
If provided with grit and plenty of green food, they prove most prolific
The Minorca
867
layers of large, white eggs, frequently throughout the winter months, if
well fed and kept in a warm and sheltered position." Mr. Weir also says,
'That, as table fowls, they are but second-rate, though the flesh, fat, and
skin are white, yet the first, though fine in texture and short in fiber, is dry;
but, when heavily fattened, and not too young, they are better than many
others that are more pretentious in this particular direction. For some
time past it has been an open secret that various crosses have been intro-
duced for the purpose of gaining a larger-size bird. It has been freely
admitted that the Black Orpington and the pure-bred Langshan have
blended their blood with that of the Minorca. Certainly, there appears
to be more than a degree of truth in the statement when it is found that
the shell hues of the eggs are not of that snowy whiteness that at one
time was so well known as one of their characteristics, and that but a
very short time since. It is, however, a mistake to cross pure breeds that
have already achieved a high reputation for a particular quality, such as
that of the Minorca, the more so when the cross is a sitting variety
allied to one that is not, to say nothing of the color-stained eggs."
66
Reviewing Mr. Weir's description of the Minorca, as here quoted, we
come to the inevitable conclusion that it does not very well fit the American-
bred Minorca. Instead of being shorter in both body and shanks than
the White-faced Black Spanish, the Minorca is a longer and larger bird in
every way. It is, in fact, a general complaint at the best shows that the
coops furnished are both too small and too low to accommodate the male
birds of this breed. The combs of both sexes have been bred proportionate
to the bird. The present size renders the fowls much more comfortable
than when encumbered with the immense combs which were formerly
so eagerly sought. The old form made it necessary to keep the birds in
artificially heated winter quarters or deform the breeding stock by dubbing
the comb, as Mr. Weir states was at one time done by the English breeders.
The purity of the breed may be as certainly indicated by the comb of
medium and comfortable size as by the abnormally large combs, which I
trust have been discarded for all time to come. It has frequently been
claimed that the laying qualities were indicated by the size of the comb
more surely than by any other distinguishing feature of the breed; but
my experience has been that the hen with a long, deep, angular body, with
a comb of small or medium size, will be found much more prolific than
the hen with a comb so large that she is well-nigh blinded by it.
868
The Poultry Book

"
Mh. Siwell
1900
(18)
པ་་་་་ས་
Mi
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my
позиране на
1
With
ный
Yle Bau
m
AND WARE
F2CAL
One
vvy
BLACK MINORCA COCK AND HEN
Winners at New York show in 1900. Bred and owned by Santee and Andruss, New York
166
Drawn from life by F. L. Sewell
The Minorca has become a popular fowl in all sections of this country,
and has made its way solely on its merits. They are not only very prolific
layers, but the eggs are pure white, very large, frequently running from
six to eight to the pound. They make a very desirable fowl for a small
run, as well as for the farmer who can give them abundant room. They
bear confinement quietly and profitably, if given proper food and care.
In fact, my experience has been that the most profitable flock of Minorcas
is one kept in a run where about ten birds are given a yard of 10 by 140
feet, with suitable food and care. With a six-foot fence, one always
knows where his fowls are.
Their great beauty is not to be overlooked. In their glossy, green-black
The Minorca
869
plumage, in contrast with the white ear-lobes and bright-red combs, they
have a combination which makes a most pleasing and attractive display,
especially if given the added attraction of a well-kept lawn.
I cannot fully agree with Mr. Weir as to the value of the
Minorca as a table-fowl. When well kept, so as to be in proper
condition for the table at all, their flesh is sweet, juicy, and abundant.
The objection most frequently heard is the reference to the black legs.
This is no fault.
Possibly, as Mr. Weir suggests, now and then some unscrupulous
breeder may have crossed in the Black Orpington or the Langshan to
increase the size of his birds, but it is certain that such a course has been a
disaster to him, as it surely ought to have been. There is a general demand
for large Minorcas, but not for mongrels that may somewhat resemble
them. The Minorca is susceptible of increased size of body, as well as
decreased size of comb, by careful selection, breeding, proper feeding, etc.
At the same time, keep the stock absolutely pure from contamination by
crossing with any other breed. It is an open question, however, whether
the craze for large size is not unwise. Some other more valuable qualities
may be sacrificed to obtain the large body. It is a fact that the typical
bird is of the medium size, and invariably is the most prolific and the best
breeder. Although I have had cocks weighing eleven pounds, and hens
nine pounds, I have ceased to look upon such fowls as being the desirable
ones in the breeding-pens. I place the greatest confidence in and depend-
ence on the birds of medium size. These are the ones which hold the true
type of the breed and have the stamina to give results as breeders of
strong, healthy stock. Besides, they are invariably the best layers. The
present standard weights of eight pounds for cock and six and one-half
pounds for hen are conservative and fair. They tend to better results in
perpetuating the useful qualities of the breed than can be obtained by
breeding for extreme size.
Minorca chicks are quite hardy, and remarkably rapid in growth after
they once get a favorable start. They will attain to marketable size
more quickly than the larger breeds with the same feed and care. If
the Minorca is kept in its purity, and the individuals selected because of
their persistent laying qualities, as well as for exhibition points, there
is a yet more useful future awaiting the breed, not only with the fancier,
but also with the utility breeder, who requires but a few birds to supply
870
The Poultry Book
eggs and meat for his family needs, and also for the man who produces
eggs in large quantities for market. The good qualities of the Black
Minorca are fully duplicated in the White variety, which has fully proven
that it has a place, and is being bred in increasingly large numbers.
WHITE MINORCA *
The true origin of the White Minorca is very much in doubt; some
believe that they originally came from the Island of Minorca, situated
in the Mediterranean Sea. Others contend that they are a variety of
the Spanish. About twenty years ago, a variety of Spanish known as
Red-faced White Spanish was in existence, and it is thought the White
Minorcas are derived from them. The White Minorca was first introduced
into this country by the late Francis A. Mortimer, of Pennsylvania, about
1885. For the last few years, they have been shown in great numbers
in the different show-rooms of the country, and people are beginning to
become acquainted with the merits of this commendable breed.
The White Minorca has a large body, and stands well up on its legs; it
has a broad chest and a long, flat back. The Standard requires the tail to
be carried upright, but breeders generally prefer having it carried well back.
The body of the male is long, square in front, tapering toward the rear.
The thighs are stout; shanks medium in length, stout in bone, and pinkish-
white in color; the comb is single, large, perfectly straight, evenly serrated,
and extending well back over the head. Wattles are thin and pendulous,
and correspond with the size of the comb; ear-lobes are pure white.
The general appearance of the female in body is the same as that of the
male, rather long, broad and deep. Her comb is single, large, and drooping
to one side. The color of the White Minorca must be white throughout;
feathers other than white disqualify. The comb, face, and wattles are a
bright red, showing no white in the face. The eyes are hazel or red.
Referring to mating for exhibition and utility, F. B. Zimmer, of New
York, says: "If the beginner were to ask which of the above methods to
adopt, without a second's thought I would answer, mate for exhibition, or
to produce specimens just as near Standard requirements as it is possible
to get, taking it for granted that in so doing he would not neglect or over-
*The facts presented herewith relative to the White Minorcas were furnished by
William Sapper, of Pennsylvania, the secretary of the American White Minorca Club.
-EDITOR.
The Minorca
871
look any of the qualities for which this grand breed is noted, such as egg-
production or pure color, for some other quality alone-for instance, comb.
In other words, the breeder should "ride no hobby" except the one that
produces the all-round birds. We understand there could be two sorts
of breeders, or rather breeders of different sorts of White Minorcas, but I
can see no sense in having the two sorts, as those bred nearest Standard
requirements can, and should, combine all the desirable qualities of the
breed. The one sort, who claim they want them only for their large and
numerous eggs and their large carcasses, could, if they desired, ignore the
size and shape of comb and lobe and the spotless white plumage, and breed
birds in consequence that would disgrace the name they bear, and, in the

GOOD PRIZE MINORCA HEN
Owned by the late Joseph Partington, England
Photograph by Hedges

872
The Poultry Book
minds of those who love the beautiful and know the uselessness of such
careless mating, disgrace the owner of such a flock.
MODERN MINORCA AS SEEN IN ENGLAND
Showing the much-advocated excess of comb and wattles
From a photograph
But why breed or mate them in any such manner, when by thought,
study, and scientific mating birds can be and are produced that combine
size, the true Minorca shape and carriage, the silvery white plumage, free
The Minorca
873
from any yellow tinge in quills and surface color; and that are veritable egg-
machines and produce eggs that indicate what breed produced them, by
their large and uniform size. Soon after the introduction of the White
Minorcas into this country,
they came into disrepute on
account of some avaricious
breeders who could not
supply the demand for pure
stock, and therefore used
White Leghorn blood, which
showed itself plainly in the
size, shape, and color of the
offspring. I have refused on
different occasions to award
a prize to such specimens.
The breed to-day has a new
lease of life. It is in the
hands of a different class of
breeders, and specimens
have been shown in the last
five years that, in all quali-
ties that go to make up a
typical Minorca, are on a par with the Blacks. However, there is one
particular, taking the breed as a whole, that will require some little
attention, for a few more seasons, to refine and perfect, viz., the comb. They
are a trifle too large, as a rule, too thin at the base, more particularly in
males, and too much inclined to shirr or wrinkle in front over beak. I
expect to see this remedied, and yet no harm come to the utility side."
As egg-producers, Dr. J. W. Lyder says: "White Minorcas have long
been known for their great egg-production. A peculiarity about their eggs
is the uniform thickness of the shells, which is also a valuable quality in
long-distance shipments for hatching purposes. The eggs are pure white
and much larger than those of most breeds. It is a fact, noted by careful
observation, that the White Minorca eggs, with their delicious flavor and
bountiful supply of nutriment, are the first to be taken from the egg-basket
for choice relish of egg-food, and also by the operators in pastry-cooking.
We know of no other egg possessing so many superior qualities."

From a photograph by courtesy of Mr. Nehrboss
PRIZE-WINNING WHITE MINORCAS
Bred and owned by William Nelirboss, New York
THE ANDALUSIAN *
HERE is considerable confusion in poultry literature about
the origin of the Andalusians. Mr. Weir says: “In some
cases, though not in all, certain breeds of poultry have
been named after the country from which they were im-
ported, and the Andalusian is one of them. Whatever
country or locality this breed came from, it is simply a medium color,
between the melan and the albino, the same light and dark grays being
found among nearly all our varieties. These colors were bred, as in the
old Kent and Sussex fowls, from cuckoo, black, or dark grays, and from
black and white Spanish; also in Game-fowls, Polands, Langshans, etc.;
while in animals the blue tint is easily attainable, as in the tame rabbit,
and even a wild one of a blue fur, captured near Lewes, Sussex. Cats are
frequently of a blue tint, as are also dogs, rats, and mice. It is reasonable
to suppose that, though some Andalusians were imported, still it is but a
strain of the ordinary fowl of Andalusia, similar in character and habit to
the so-called Leghorn. This being so, this characteristic is by no
means common to the country."

To ascertain whether this was true, Mr. Weir went to Andalusia in
February, 1879, and made inquiry respecting the blue variety near Cadiz,
Gibraltar, Algeciras, Malaga, etc. Although he visited several places
where choice fowls were kept, the so-called Andalusian appeared to be
quite unknown, though blacks, whites, browns, black-breasted reds,
speckles, and splashed birds were plentiful. All of these were almost, if
not entirely, identical with the breed known in England as Leghorn, or
Andalusian, with the exception of the coloring.
Speaking of the early birds brought to England, Mr. Weir says:
Leonard Barber imported fowls into England from Andalusia in 1846–7.
Some were evidently Polish and other crosses; he says in a few instances,
(6
* The Andalusian is not an uncommon fowl in American yards, but is not largely
and generally bred. The weight ranges from four and one-half pounds for the pullets to
six and one-half pounds for the cocks, while the hens and cockerels are rated by the
Standard at five and one-half pounds.-EDITOR.
875

876
The Poultry Book
they were pure white, and in shape and carriage exactly like the Black
Spanish, only wanting the white cheek-patch. (Does this mean the cheek
or face, or the white ear-lobe, which latter more or less all Spanish fowls
have?) 'In my opinion,' remarks L.
Barber, 'they are the most useful and
ornamental breed of fowls, both for
breeder and amateur. The eggs are
equal in size and number to those of
the Black Spanish. Some of mine last
year weighed three and some four ounces
each. They appear very healthy and
hardy. My fowls came from Xeres de
la Frontera in Andalusia, about twenty-
five miles from Cadiz.

Photograph by Prof. W. G. Jonnson
ANDALUSIAN PRIZE-WINNER
AT NEW YORK, 1902
Some of these birds were of a
blue-gray or slaty color. Their growth
is so rapid, and their eventual size is so
large, that they are remarkably slow in
obtaining their feathers; although
covered with down when first hatched,
""
64 6
they look half naked when half grown, and therefore should be hatched
as early in the spring as possible. This is the case with both the
Black and White Spanish.' This description coincides with a class of
fowl Mr. Weir says he saw in the market at Cadiz in 1879. A few were
white, others black, but none blue.
"In 1850-1, John Taylor, of Shepherd's Bush, imported a dozen or
so fowls from Andalusia. A few were black, others speckled, but of the
entire number only three were of the much-coveted blue tint; all more or
less bore a close resemblance to the already well-known Minorca, or Portugal
fowl, as it was sometimes called in North Devon and Cornwall. It was
from these three or four birds that John Taylor produced what were
afterward described as a pure and distinct race, but of this there are
doubts, as they were said to be a cross of what were termed the Manx, or
Manx blue fowl, a variety now supposed to be extinct. I remember John
Taylor's fowls well, and thought then, as now, that they were simply a
selected variety of the ordinary fowl of Andalusia, like the Minorca, Leg-
horn, and some others. Of course, years of careful selection and breeding
The Andalusian
877
makes slowly and, in the end, but not always, surely a distinctiveness
that may be admitted by some of our modern fanciers as indicative of a
pure race. The difficulty of maintaining it true to all its points of excel-
lence, without sudden and entirely unexpected deviation by reversion,
somewhat contests this as to being a fact.
"It is conceded that Mr. Taylor imported such birds, but before that
time blacks and whites had arrived, and in the West of England were
kept in quantity. There is no doubt whatever that these were bred from
true blue birds. Many of these were incorporated with those of Mr.
Taylor, especially after leaving his possession, and his imports were not
by any means of such graceful and elegant proportions as those that have
for the time taken such hold of the Andalusian fancier of to-day, nor
were they so likely to breed true either to color or even the desired form;
but it was by John Taylor's uniting the best of his imported with his
original stock that the present charming result was subsequently obtained.
"Andalusians were first exhibited in London at the Baker Street Show
in January, 1853, by John Taylor, in a class for any other distinct breed.
He entered four pens, two of which
were Andalusians. Then follows an
entry with White Spanish, exactly
the same age (twenty-seven and
fifteen months) as the Andalusians.
This is somewhat significant, for at
that time the blue color was made
by crossing a black with a white,
when the outcome would be some
blacks, some blues, and some whites.
Is it not reasonable to suppose that
all these exhibits, being the same
age, were of the same stock, and
each simply sports? The next
exhibit of Mr. Taylor, at the same
show, is described as speckled
Andalusians. This was the state
of the fixedness of character in 1853. At the same show, Edward
Simons, J. Whittington, and W. Culter also showed Andalusians. They
were not uncommon then, and did not vary from many of the old Cornish


2
From a photograph
PRIZE-WINNING ANDALUSIAN PULLET
Owned by Miss Pulford, England

878
The Poultry Book
and Devon blues, with which they were undoubtedly crossed. It was
said they were not only more beautiful, but hardier and better layers
than the black and white."
The important points of the Andalusian fowl are given in "The
Illustrated Book of Domestic Poultry," by John Taylor, as follows: "Comb
large, erect, and
evenly serrated;
cheek white; legs
bluish; plumage
gray or dove-color,
each feather being
lightly margined
with a lighter tint;
hackles, glossy
velvety black,
falling evenly on
each side of the
breast, in strong
contrast to the
color of the latter,
but full; tail car-
ried very uprightly,
with sickle feathers
well arched. The
hens have the same
colors, but pendant
combs." This is a
true description of
Mr. Taylor's birds,
says Mr. Weir. At
that time there was no black lacing either on the breast of the cock
or any portion of the hens, they being of an entirely soft blue, a
dove tint, or a violet color. The cock was marked in the way of dis-
tribution of the black and the blue exactly the same as the Game-fowl-
red pile or pied-the blue tint taking the place of the white and the black
that of the red, and thus would be a blue-breasted black. Sometimes
the hackle of the cock, when the strain was of the light or azure character,

From a photograph
PRIZE ANDALUSIAN DAIRY SHOW PULLET
Owned by Miss Pulford
The Andalusian
879
would, instead of black, be of a rich purple. Where this was so, occasionally
a few fawn-colored feathers would appear in the neck-hackle. The fact
of the feathers being edged with a light color led to the attempting and
successful production of the black lacing-only permanently obtained
within the last few years.
It has been stated that the chickens feathered much more quickly
than the Black White-faced Spanish; that is so, but not earlier than the
Minorca. In point of fact, they are somewhat erratic in this respect, some
gaining their plumage much more quickly than others, it being no un-
common thing to see some of a brood almost bare, while the rest are well
clothed. This was one of the points urged as tending to show that a
Spanish cross had been used in the making of the strain; and not only
that, but it was an open secret that the beautiful blue old English Game-
fowl, once so plentiful in Devon and Cornwall, was requisitioned to add
grace, color, contour, and hardiness, and that from this cross came
a lesser and finer quality of comb. Be this so or not, gradually the breed
improved, and was justly and eagerly sought. Though more than a little
inter-breeding was doubtless used, still the result is now satisfactory.
In the Cottage Gardener for 1859 appeared the following on the Anda-
lusian: "A White Spanish hen was thrown to an Andalusian cock for
the purpose of lightening the hue of this class and making them more self-
color." Here it will be seen that there was no idea then of lacing, but
only an even color was sought. It was many years after this that black
edging to the feathering was suggested as a point of beauty. Later,
Mr. Hartley writes: "I have been a breeder of fowls over forty years, and
seeking for the best layers. I have this year a cross between a white
Andalusian cock and a Black Spanish hen; the produce are all blue, the
color of a blue pigeon; and, although hatched on the 23d of May, the pullets
have begun laying a fortnight ago (November 7th). I am at a loss what
class to enter them in, for I intend to show them at the next Liverpool
meeting. I think they are most like the Blue Andalusians, but better
in color, and harder in plumage than any I ever bred or saw."
Exeter.
Following this is another letter, dated January 3, 1860, signed “W. H.,”
He says:
He says: "I think it is in my power, as an old breeder of what
we in Devon call Minorca fowls, to enlighten the questioner respecting
this breed. By Minorca are invariably meant birds without any white on
the face, only the ear-lobes being so, and, of course, very round and Ham-

880
The Poultry Book
burg-like-if wished for, it can be as successfully produced. Where
only two colors are used, and those black and white, the interchange is
both easy and sometimes quickly
accomplished; the only difficulty
-and that, under the circum-
stances, by no means a difficult
is to keep clear of any
admixture of either red or yellow."
one
One great peculiarity of the
modern Andalusian is the ten-
dency of the pullets at first to
come cockerel-tailed, so much so
in several cases as to lead to the
supposition that they were bi-
sexual. This was particularly
apparent in the pullets of the
late Capt. Egerton Jones. On
Mr. Weir's last visit of inspection
of his beautiful birds, he pointed
out five pullets thus developed;
in fact, though undoubtedly
pullets, they looked far more
like cockerels than many of the
old English Game hen-tailed
cocks. Not only had they the
two upper or sickle feathers of
the tail much longer than the

你
​From a photograph
A SPLENDID ANDALUSIAN COCKEREL
Winner of cup, medal, and first prize at Dairy Show, 1891
Owned by Miss Pulford
➖➖
others, but these were curved, as also the larger tail coverts.
Captain Jones informed Mr. Weir that, at the next molt, this strange
tail-feathering was replaced by the ordinary hen-tail, with the exception
that it was generally a little longer than usual.
In the Hamburg family of fowls, the pullets are often predisposed to
semi-sickle feathers in the tail, and, in such cases, they also are long-tailed
after molting. This is sometimes so much that it has more than once pre-
sented the idea to my mind as to whether we ever had the slightest strain
on the faces of either the blue, white, or black, till within these dozen
years, except in isolated places, and whether the presence of it was ever

PRIZE ANDALUSIAN HEN
Owned by Miss Pulford
From a photograph, 1897
The Andalusian
883
thought anything else but a fault. Well, to the point, as to the mode of
producing the whites and blues: the black Minorca will often sport a white
chick and a blue one also, however carefully bred; although some birds
never do. Mr. Weir says: "I must confess I have my misgivings of those that
do, because a white bird of any breed will be sure, with a black hen, to
throw some very light birds. I have known a white single-combed Dorking
cock to produce, with a black Minorca, the most perfect blue hens ever seen,
with most marvelous combs. This is not by any means unlikely, consider-

Dray
PRIZE COCKEREL AND PULLET-ANDALUSIAN SPANISH FOWLS
Owned by the late Captain Egerton Jones
884
The Poultry Book
ing the general belief that the Dorking is of Spanish or Italian origin, and
was brought to England by the Romans. It has also, when true, a white
or nearly white, deep ear-lobe, and the hens have large folding combs. It
is only the modern cross-bred that has the red ear-lobe, and, very happily,
not all of them. When they revert to the old standard, blue, white-shanked,
five-toed fowls may be as easily bred as the blue Andalusian.”
"The common plan of breeding blues in the county of Exeter," says
"W. H.," "where they are numerous, is to mate the white and black, as
Mr. Hartley has done. This mode of producing these fowls is not at all
uncommon."
(6
"This is the gist of the matter and the real beginning of the blue
Andalusian," says Mr. Weir. Long before John Taylor's blue birds
were imported, there were plenty of the color in Cornwall and Devon
that could not be distinguished from them. In the science or art of breeding
for color it is one of the easiest to obtain, but not so the modern added
beauty of the black edging or lacing of the feathers. Perfection in this
direction, though desirable, is scarcely attainable."
Here is what the editor of the Cottage Gardener says, February, 1860:
"The Andalusian should be in shape and form like the Spanish; the
color blue, the cock's hackle and saddle darker shaded, the face red, the
comb of the cock upright, the hen's falling. They are said to be a distinct
breed, and they certainly are not the same as the Black Spanish.'
""
Possibly not the same as the White-faced Black Spanish, though then,
as now, the faces will come with white, or of a whitish color; but, at the
time of 1845-50-55, they differed so little, if at all, from the Minorca that
the produce of both, when mixed, were difficult to separate. Further, both
bred not only blue, but black, white, and splashed or speckled chickens.
As noted, Mr. Taylor showed some of these last at Baker Street in 1853.
In another excerpt from the Cottage Gardener, John Hartley wrote: "In
confirming the account given by 'W. H.,' in your last part, in respect to
white and black Spanish producing blue or Andalusians, I can affirm that,
in all the breeds I had at home and elsewhere, which were nine or ten
hatches, there was no other color but blue. H. Hutson appears to have
had a very different result in his breeding; mine have all, more or less, the
white face, being bred from white-faced hens.
"It is certain that, up to the last very few years," says Mr. Weir, "the
black Minorca was used for gaining a deeper coloring or lacing. At the
",
The Andalusian
885

From a photograph
PRIZE ANDALUSIAN COCKEREL.
Owned by Miss Pulford
DAIRY SHOW, 1892
same time it produced a very undesirable sootiness in the ground tint,
instead of the clear, soft, azure hue so keenly sought, admired, and, to a
large extent, achieved. In some cases, 'the ground,' or body, tint was far
too dark, while in others it became very light and silvery. I have heard
it debated whether it would not be well to try to produce a further variety
by having the lacing on a white surface instead of the azure, and the white
feathering finely margined with a deep, rich black. These would be
light, elegant, and very beautiful, and quite as possible to obtain, if not
more so, as the Silver-laced Seabright Bantams, which are so justly admired
as veritable living works of art. I have seen some of a bluish or dull buff,
886
The Poultry Book
and, now and then, in the lighter colors, the cocks would have light tawny,
manes. Had such been taken in hand by the skilled breeder, no doubt
the results would have been both novel and beautiful. Perhaps, some
day, they will be buffed, as the Leghorn now is-with this difference, that
the Andalusian should have a black margin or lacing, when the first variant
only is desired. Would it not be possible to produce a breed in which
the hens might become sickle-tailed like cocks. It is only reversing the
sex feathering in either; therefore, if the one is possible, and not only
possible but exists, then why not the other, when Nature has already
given an indication in that direction. Had the idea occurred to me earlies
in life, I most certainly should have made the attempt to produce a fertile
cock-feathered hen, or at least one sword-feathered in the tail.
Here we
find the chicken pullet, before she arrives at the state of fruition, slightly
sickle, and, when such time is passed and over, then also not unfrequently
she obtains the entire cock feathering. It is only the space between these
two ages that has more or less to be dealt with. My belief is that such
a variation can be made.
"In the breeding of all lace-feathered fowls, it is easier to get the
clear, thin black or white margin than one evenly thick or of heavy markings;
also the former has a lighter and brighter appearance. Take the Seabright
Bantam as an example. How much better the thin, fine line looks than
that of the broader black lacing of those of even but a few years ago;
besides which there is, generally, a distinctive clearness and sharpness of
outline about the former that the latter seldom or never possesses.
"If the blue with white lacing be ever attempted, the hens will present
a light and lovely appearance, and the hackle, back, saddle, and wing-
bow of the cock will be white, all the rest clear blue, edged with white.
These, with the large coral-red combs of the breed, coupled with their
erect, slender, and graceful forms, would indeed be a charming addition to
our non-sitting varieties of poultry. In point of shape, the Andalusian
of to-day has a far better undulating outline than the Minorca. This
latter having been crossed for size, etc., with the Langshan, black Ply-
mouth Rock, and others, has imparted to it a weighty look and heaviness
that is not natural to the Spanish or Mediterranean breeds; while the
Andalusian, from the coloring required, etc., has fortunately escaped this
deteriorating alloy, and has, therefore, maintained a delicate beauty of
form and carriage on a par with the white-faced Spanish, which, like to a
The Andalusian
887
good statue, can be seen on every side with a perfect pose that takes and
keeps our admiration."
Mr. Weir's illustrations are principally from photographs of birds
bred and exhibited
by Miss Pulford
some years since.
There are also some
sketches of the
almost perfect
"strain" of the late
Capt. Egerton Jones.
He was not only
an enthusiast upon
the breed, but able
to blend the colors
and to rear birds in
full agreement with
the desired points of
excellence.

"As to match-
ing for color or
lacing," Mr. Weir
says, "there is no
hard and fast rule.
No one can match
with any certainty,
or even proper
expectancy, not
only these but any
kind of poultry, that
does not know, or
is in some way
acquainted with, the antecedents of his stock; and even then, with
a selection of years and continuous 'in-breeding,' the chances are few
of getting even one perfect bird. The most approved plan, however,
is for the cock to be the lighter, and the hen the fuller and richer, both
in marking and ground-color. The eggs should be clear white in shell.
Ver
1897
Drawn from life by Mr. Il'eir, 1892
FINE QUALITY MINORCA HEN
An old English form

888
The Poultry Book
The chickens, when hatched, vary in grays and white, some being much
darker than others; but all, more or less, have white breasts and light-
tinted shanks and feet. When feathering, which is often but slowly,
the primary wing-feathers are white, as also the pinions, and occasionally
with some more white about them; but they must not be discarded on this
account. Most of these blemishes generally molt out. In some cases,
however, they actually increase, making nothing more than mottled
grays. When excellence is required, these should not be kept for
breeding purposes."
NATIONALE SVRVICVLT

DEARANCE
MEDAL OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF
AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE

From a photograph furnishea by Mrs. Fob
PEN OF WHITE-FACED BLACK SPANISH FOWLS
Contains winners at Chicago, New York and Boston shows. Owned by Mrs. S. G. Job, Massachusetts
THE WHITE-FACED BLACK SPANISH
T. F. MCGREW, NEW YORK
W
RITING of poultry, Bonnington Moubray, one of the
earliest writers, in 1816 states that the true varieties
of the common species of fowls in use were the Dunghill,
Game, Dorking, Poland, Bantam, Chittagong, Malay,
Shackbag, Spanish, and their endless subvarieties. Among
those mentioned, we find the Spanish. In describing the Spanish, he
states that they are very large, the plumage black, flesh white and delicate.
This variety equals in size the Duke of Leeds breed. They are well adapted
for capons, and produce the largest eggs obtainable. To illustrate the
position that the Spanish fowl must have had in the past, we find that the
revised edition of Moubray's work, issued in 1834, contains color plates
of seven breeds of fowls, one of which is the Black Spanish. These facts
only illustrate the early and pronounced value of the breed. In describing
them, Mr. Weir writes as follows: "Of all the fancy, and at the same
time useful, fowls of the latter part of the last and during the present
century, none are considered to have a higher lineage, apart from all other
qualities, than the White-faced Black Spanish."

This is true not only of the Old World, but of this country as well.
We find that they were highly valued throughout New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
and as far west as Ohio, in the early sixties as egg-producers. While the
Spanish of that early day did not have nearly so much of their distinctive
features in the shape of the white face and cheek, they were almost of the
same form, of good size, very much more vigorous and sturdy than at
889

890
The Poultry Book
present, and wonderful egg-producers. Those who originated and fostered
them did much along the line of art and beauty in their upbuilding. The
fanciers have gone far beyond this, even to the extent of adding to their
make-up an unnecessary amount of
white appendage or cheek, as it is
sometimes called.
We often inquire as to the
causes that have produced purple
in the plumage of these black fowls.
We find that early writers, in de-
scribing the fowl, stated as follows:
"Plumage of clear black, with
brilliant reflected tints of green and
purple; single comb, with a clear
milk-white face and ear-lobes; dark-
blue legs and a lofty carriage."
Speaking of the Black Spanish
of the early fifties, Mr. Weir states
that at that period the White-faced
Black Spanish fowl may be said to
have been, par excellence, the fancier's fowl. It was looked upon as not
only being useful, but as having properties of such refined character that
they were difficult to obtain; hens were less so than cocks, and certainly
a well-grown, well-developed White-faced Black Spanish hen was a very
graceful and beautiful bird. In these, there was an indefinable elegance of
pose and bearing not observable in any other breed; the long, slightly
curved head, the large, full, dark but bright chestnut, almost black eye,
the fine quality of the deeply toothed and folded comb, the white kid-like
texture of the ear-lobe and face-covering, the thin, fine, smooth, coral-red
wattles, hanging from the base of the jet-black beak, the head well set
on a neck of graceful and slender form, and so carried as to make a line of
beauty scarcely ending in the shoulders which bore it; and also the high-
carried, close-feathered tail. Such hens have their admirers, and justly
so. It was the cocks that were the trouble.

From a photograph
WHITE-FACED BLACK SPANISH FOWLS
From the yards of Messrs. Abbot, England
When young, they, too, held their own for stately form against all
comers, save the old warrior English Game. Even with these the White-
faced Black Spanish cock in all his pride of youth and beauty stood well for
The White-faced Black Spanish
891
honors. But, as they grew in years, then it was, as now, like the Spanish
beauties of the gentler sex-their beauty diminished, the folds of the
ear-lobe and face became enlarged, exaggerated, and, in some degree,
unsightly, though still marvels of the fancier's art in the way of production.
Yet the beauty left failed to assert itself; and not only that, but in some
cases where the white flesh quality was coarse, or none of the best, it would
hang so loose, so ill in form, that the bird was prevented by it from seeing,
and this was mostly the sequel to an undue fulness above and around the
eye. But much of this has been obviated by the endeavor, not only to
obtain size of face, but to have it smooth and silky, with as few folds as
possible.
One point in favor of the old White-faced Black Spanish fowl was that,
though in many cases they
were somewhat tall on the
leg, they were also fairly good
in the breast, and occasionally
very much so, especially the
pullets, and the flesh was
remarkably white, tender,
and rich in flavor, the skin
thin, and the fat white and
delicate; besides which, they
fatted evenly and with less
offal than many other varieties.
True, they were not large, the
adult cocks rarely being more
than eight pounds, and it
would be a large hen at seven
pounds; still the quality was,
all things considered, very
fine; therefore, they might,
and yet may be, placed
among some of the best of
our medium-sized table fowls.

OP
Drawn by Mr. Weir
WHITE-FACED BLACK SPANISH HEN
From an English yard
Then why is it that they have sunk so low in the fancier's estimation,
possessing as they did, and should now do, so many excellent qualities-
fancier's beauty not one of the least?
892
The Poultry Book
Mr. Weir says: "Of the White-faced Black Spanish of to-day, that
kindly, courteous, veteran fancier of the breed, F. M. Chatterton, late
Honorary Secretary of the Black Spanish Club, has supplied me with
the following reliable, practical, and highly interesting notes, all of which
tend to uphold and justify what has already been said, both of the beauty,
excellent qualities, and great utility of the breed: It is appropriate that
the Black Spanish fowl should occupy a prominent position in every work
on poultry, not only because of its ancient lineage, but for the many sterling
qualities, wonderful laying powers, and great adaptability to be kept in good
condition and health with only a few yards of ground to live upon. The
Spanish can bear confinement better than any variety of poultry; hence
it is the ideal bird for all people living in large towns, where garden space
is limited. Some people have libeled this breed by saying it is delicate.
They are often subjected to such treatment as would completely ruin
most breeds of poultry. They are often kept in small, heated, dark pens
for weeks, to develop their lobes quickly, instead of giving the poor birds
time to develop them in a natural way. Is it to be wondered that birds
treated in this manner should become delicate? Spanish fowls, under
reasonable treatment and management, are as healthy as any other kind.
They are non-sitters, and prolific layers of a very large egg of the most
delicate flavor-such that invalids can eat with impunity. In fact, we
have known people that could never touch eggs in the ordinary way without
feeling ill effects, but who could relish a fresh Spanish egg with no after
inconvenience. Recently, some of my Spanish fowls have averaged 200
to 250 eggs per year each. What becomes of the assertion that now they
do not lay well?"
The cock bird should be high in the leg, of very stylish carriage, comb
not too large, of smooth quality, free from twist or thumb-mark in front,
serrations deep, the back part nearly touching the back of the neck, with a
good, thick base, firmly fixed in his head. The face should be very broad
and smooth, the white extending as far toward the back of the head as
possible, with a good space of white between the eye and base of comb; the
lobes long and broad, and not pointed at ends, perfectly flat, free from
folds and creases, and the whole face and lobes of a dead-white color, a
texture of white to resemble fine white kid, and having a beautiful gloss.
The white should appear between the wattles and hang down below them.
The Spanish hen should also have a large, smooth face, and lobes very
The White-faced Black Spanish
893
broad, especially at the bottom, perfectly flat and free from tucks or folds.
The plumage of both birds should be a beautiful beetle-green with plenty
of sheen, the legs and feet pale slate color, as birds with the dark legs
generally have faces and lobes of a dirty white color. More than one
person, writing of this breed lately, has described them as having black

Day
11963
From a drawing by Mr. Weir
BLACK SPANISH PULLET, 1903
Showing diminished comb, with much enlarged white wattles and face, also with lessened shank
Bred by Harrison Weir
legs. This is a great mistake, as, in the Standard drawn up by the Black
Spanish Club, compiled by a very strong committee composed of some of
the large breeders, it was decided that the dark or black legs should be a
disqualification. When taking one of these writers to task, he remarked
that he considered that all black birds should have black legs, but, as he

894
The Poultry Book
had never bred any Spanish fowls in his life, the value of his opinion is
questionable. We shall now see under what conditions they can be kept
satisfactorily with a little care and attention, so as to enable any intelligent
person to successfully breed and prepare them
for exhibition. It must be taken into considera-
tion that they do not require a large run or field
to roam over, for it is well known that most of the
best Spanish that have been exhibited were bred
and reared in large cities, such as London,
Bristol, etc.

We have always found that the best birds are
bred from broad-faced hens, providing they are of
good quality, mated with cockerels a little rough
in face, rather than having a smooth-faced cockerel
with rough-faced hens. Having procured a cockerel
and three or four hens, make up your pen in
January; you should then be able to get some
chickens in March or April; those hatched in the
early part of the latter month generally make the finest birds, both for
exhibition and stock purposes.
It is very desirable to keep the hen with the Spanish chickens as long
as possible, the little things having so few feathers when losing their
chicken-down. For this purpose, keep the hen under a coop, and, although
she may drive the chicks out in the daytime, she will brood them at
night.
HEAD OF WHITE-FACED
BLACK SPANISH COCK
From a photograph furnished
by the owner, Mrs. S. G. Job, Mass.
Perhaps no one has written more fully of the Spanish fowl than has
Martin Doyle, in his early publication. We quote from him as follows:
The fowl called Spanish is not an aboriginal of Spain, but was imported
into that country from some portion of the East, through the Mediterranean,
or has been brought from the West Indies by Spanish merchants, and
propagated and naturalized in Spain. Thence European countries were
stocked, and the name is therefore a misnomer. These birds differed from
the present Spanish in having a smaller and less white face, darker feet
and shanks. We find that, previously to the introduction of the bird in
question, a diminutive species known as Manx was the common class
of fowls reared in Spain. These two breeds were crossed together, varieties
were thus raised, and the present subvarieties of the Spanish fowl are
66
The White-faced Black Spanish
895
partly the result. In Holland, before the introduction there of Spanish
fowls, there was a domestic bird-in color a dun or bluish-slate-much
inferior to the other, whence, if we should carefully observe the variations
in this latter class, it becomes evident that such differences are the result
of admixture with the primitive breed."
Again, Mr. Doyle states that, in 1853, it was quite as difficult to produce
the wonderful Spanish cock at Birmingham as to produce the winner of
the Derby. This shows that the quality of the Spanish as show specimens,
even at that early day, must have been very fine indeed. This writer
goes further and states "that the original Spanish fowls brought from the
West Indies and naturalized in Spain and Holland were excellent sitters
and good mothers, but the high artificial culture to which they have been
subjected in these countries, coupled with the occasions of breeding in
and in, have had a great share in influencing the Spanish hen further from
her primitive motherly habits. These hens seldom exhibit a disposition to
undertake the task of incubation, and, if it be attempted, they will in the
generality of cases vacate the nest long before the chicks would be hatched."
Sometimes they will perseveringly perform the maternal duties, but it is
against their general character. They are somewhat disproportionately
long in the leg sectionally, and more
subject to cramp. This commonly ac-
counts for their being so averse to such
sedentary occupation.

While many of the writers, as well
as naturalists, do not agree with the
statements above recorded, it shows
the early-day inclination of the fowls,
and the ideas and beliefs of the different
fanciers as to their general make-up and
origin.
Writing of them, Lewis Wright states
that they stand at the head of a group
which almost certainly came from the
Spanish Peninsula. All the names of
the nearest kindred race testify to the same origin. While there is
ample evidence that fowls of the same type are still found in that country,
the general type itself is found over a much wider area; the smaller size
HEAD OF WHITE-FACED BLACK
SPANISH HEN
From a photograph furnished by Mrs. S. G. Job, Mass.

896
The Poultry Book
and yellow legs of the Leghorn family are minor differences, as are various
colors of plumage; but all around the Mediterranean, in Greece, Asia
Minor, Algeria, and Egypt, as well as in Italy and Spain, are found fowls
which, in their large single combs, startling carriage, absence of the incu-
bating instinct, and generally more or less white ear-lobes, evidently
belong to one great family.
While there seems to be little dissension as to the claim of the Spanish
origin for all the Mediterranean fowls, there is every reason for believing

During
Show
12267189
New
183
From a drawing by Mr. Weir
IMPROVED WHITE-FACED BLACK SPANISH COCKEREL
The White-faced Black Spanish
897
that some of the very best specimens of the Black Spanish breed were
formerly bred in the Netherlands and in Holland as well. Some sixty
years ago, perhaps the best specimens came from there into the hands
of the French and English fanciers. The silk-weavers of Spitalfields were
classed as among the best fanciers of this breed. In speaking of these
weavers as producers of this breed, Mr. Weir states that: "These were
the men among whom years ago were the most ardent fanciers of the
White-faced Black Spanish fowl, and it was in this district and home of
looms in the East of London that they were to be found, and in considerable
numbers. Some in sheds, some in cellars, but mostly in small covered
runs in the gardens or back-yards; and then, when work was done, on a
summer eve, would these quiet, peace-loving people sit two, three, or
more together, smoking their pipes and contemplating their flowers,
pigeons, and fowls. Well I remember some of them in their gardens, the
plant-frames with auriculas in full bloom, and near at hand their White-
faced Black Spanish that, admire as you might, money could not purchase;
and yet of such cheerful fellowship were they that they would sooner
give than sell.”
There were formerly two varieties of the Spanish fowl, the one known
as the White-faced Black Spanish, the other pure white with a white face.
The white variety was never popular, some think because the white
plumage and the white face and cheek were not so attractive as the same
upon the black variety. We remember, in years past, having seen some
fowls that were called "White-faced White Spanish," but, as we remember
them, the impression made was that they were more like a white Leghorn
or Minorca, the red face of which has been overgrown partially with the
white. We can readily understand that it might be possible within a
short time to have many of our White Leghorns with full white faces; all
that would be required would be to select and breed together specimens
showing the inclination for white in face. By so doing, we might soon
have white faces upon our Leghorn fowls.
In considering the Black Spanish fowl from the American standpoint,
we must take them as we find them in the exhibition room, and as described
in the American Standard. We do not encourage quite as much length
of limb as seems to be desired at the present time in England. While we
do advocate birds of good height and carriage, we do not lean toward
the awkward length of leg that has the appearance of being stilty or too
long in proportion to their bodies.
898
The Poultry Book
Another feature of vital importance under the American standard is
that the face should be long, deep, smooth, and free from wrinkles, a face
so wrinkled as to obstruct the sight being a disqualification with us. We
like to have the white in the face well up about the eyes and down below
the wattles, forming a long, pendent cheek which joins the wattles, hanging
considerably below and very much larger than they. Combs we prefer
not to have unnaturally large in size. They should be well-formed,
perfectly straight, and upright, deeply and evenly serrated, not too thick
and heavy at the base, starting well down to the beak and extending well
over the head, with an arch almost following the shape of the head.
One of the most unfortunate features of the Black Spanish is to have
the combs unduly or unnaturally large, and excessively large wattles
that are rough or corrugated. We have seen some Spanish male birds
with combs so large that, when they rested at night, as they did upon a
bed of straw, they would lay their heads down upon the straw while they
slept. Some breeders have made the statement that these unduly large
combs are injurious to the mentality of the fowl; we have known some of
them to be dubbed as are Game-fowls, when made use of in the breeding
pens. We do not think that it is to the best interest of the breed to
encourage these combs of unnaturally large size.
The neck of the Spanish male should be long, nicely arched, and have
an abundance of hackle plumage that flows well down over the shoulders.
While the Standard calls for a back of medium length and breadth, the
tendency at the present time is for a long back that slants back to the
tail. This is even more noticeable and prevalent in the female than in the
male. The tail in the Black Spanish male should be large and full; the
carriage of the fowl rather erect, wings large and closely fitted against the
body. The demands for legs and toes in the American Standard is for
thighs rather long and of good size, shanks long and medium; while the
English Standard calls for rather long thighs and long shanks. While
these descriptions are so nearly alike, the facts are that the English birds
are considerably longer in leg than are the American-bred birds.
One of the features of equal value in the female is the good, long, well-
proportioned body, the back long, breast and abdominal proportions
quite prominent, tail described as large and similar to that of the male.
The facts are that the most-to-be-admired tail on the Black Spanish female
at the present time is the one that has the carriage almost the same as that
-
The White-faced Black Spanish
899
of the modern type of the Minorca. The comb of the male stands erect.
The comb of the female hangs over to one side, as should the comb of all
the Mediterranean females. For color of shanks, our Standard calls for
blue or dark leaden-blue; the color of shanks in the English Standard is
described as pale slate color. We are satisfied that great improvement
might be made in the plumage color of the Black Spanish if the color
demand for shanks might be encouraged along the lines of a considerably
darker shade of color.
The largest classes of Black
Spanish that have ever been
known in this country have come
to Boston. Many of the most
successful breeders of Black
Spanish live in Massachusetts,
New York, and Canada. They
have never become so plentiful
as to be classed as one of the
popular varieties or breeds. This
is largely the result of their having
been developed into a strictly
high-class exhibition fowl. They
are a true fancier's fowl, as bred
to-day, and they must be care-
fully cared for and nurtured and
protected from the cold of winter.
If, perchance, the frost might
nip the white of face or cheek, it
would result in the almost certain
destruction of the specimen.
In former years, this was not true; in many localities they were kept
and cared for as are the Leghorns of the present time. Their real value
now is their winning qualities in the exhibition hall. They must be bred
to the highest type and character of standard demand, and for this reason
they have stepped down and out of the list of general-purpose fowls, and
have taken their position with the present-day standard Game-fowls and
other high-class, fancy exhibition breeds. The pen-sketch description of
the Spanish fowl would describe them as being lengthy in legs, although not

1890
Drawn by Mr. Weir
WHITE-FACED BLACK SPANISH COCK

900
The Poultry Book
Ameren 1903
W
Drawn from life by Mr. Weir
BLACK SPANISH COCKEREL
Showing improved white face and skin, with less wattles and comb. Bred by Harrison Weir
so lengthy as to be stilty, the neck rather long and nicely arched, the head
carried high, with breast prominent. Ofttimes this upright carriage is
injured from the fact that the overgrown comb pulls down so heavily upon
the head of the male, and perhaps the female as well, as to cause them to
stoop or droop, as might be said, in the exhibition pen. To obviate this
and improve the general appearance, it is best to breed them for the smaller-
sized combs.
The body rather narrow, with a gentle sweep to the tail. Squirrel-
tails are an abomination in this breed. The chief points, however, center
in the perfect form, finish, and color of the face and cheeks as well. These
The White-faced Black Spanish
901
must be perfectly formed, smooth as enamel, and pure white in color.
Ofttimes the face of the Black Spanish will become injured or sore from
some cause or other. When this ailment attacks them, great care and
attention should be given to the careful cleansing and caring for the injured
parts, for, if the soreness attacks them, it is very apt to destroy their beauty
and attractiveness.
In producing the Black Spanish, the great desire is to have only the
best, and to gain this end you must have in the parent stock, to the highest
extent possible to be obtained, the very qualities to be desired in the
young stock, viz., form, feather, color of plumage, and head and face
qualities of the highest character. In fact, to begin with, in the growing
of Black Spanish fowls you must have the very highest quality of exhibi-
tion specimens from which to breed them. In addition to this, the chicks
must be hatched early, never later than May, strongly fed and carefully
grown, and pushed to quick maturity. There is considerable trouble in
the growing of the chicks, as they do not seem to feather as fast as they
should. They should be carefully fed not only with that manner of food
which will furnish the blood elements for the growing of the comb, wattles,
face and ear-lobes, but they should also have plenty of bone- and feather-
forming foods. If these demands are carefully followed and catered to,
there will not be very much trouble experienced in the producing of good
quality specimens.
The greatest difficulties present themselves in growing and keeping them
in the best of condition for show purposes, in a climate where the winters
are very cold. One of the most satisfactory houses we have ever seen
for the growing of Black Spanish was a low-set, well-constructed house,
with very small runs for individual birds. Within this house were built
small pens or runways of muslin, the side and top of the run being cov-
ered with the muslin. This building was heated the same as a house, with
a base-burner stove. It was kept continually heated to a temperature
above fifty degrees F. the entire winter. In this house, the specimens
were at all times in as fine condition as they would have been during the
same temperature of the summer months. It was surprising to note the
number of eggs that the Spanish hens produced under these conditions.
These specimens were always ready to be taken out and sent to the ex-
hibition room, and, when shipped to the exhibition, they went in double-
lined boxes, made especially for the purpose, an attendant always going

902
The Poultry Book
with them to be sure that there would be no chance of their smothering in
the boxes, if, perchance, they were placed in overheated cars or rooms.
The same assiduous care and attention were given them when they were
exposed to the cold, to keep them from being
frosted. In preparing the Spanish fowls for
exhibition, it is quite necessary to examine
the face, wattles, and ear-lobes for the presence
of any small feathers or hairy appearance
that may grow thereon. Carefully pull all
these with the tweezers, so as to remove
any appearance whatever of the growth of
feathers or hair upon the face or ear-lobes.
This careful going-over ofttimes improves
the appearance of the face, which might show
dark specks or blotches if the presence of this
unnatural growth of hair or downy feather
is permitted. In addition to this, the comb,
wattles, ear-lobes, and face must be thoroughly
cleansed, by using lukewarm water and a soft cloth. A soft brush, or
sponge, may be used in the scouring of the shanks and feet, in warm
water, to give them the finest appearance. After being thoroughly
cleansed, the shanks may be improved somewhat if rubbed or polished
with a chamois skin and a very small amount of melted beeswax. Polish
the shanks in this way, but do not leave the slightest trace of the wax
upon the shanks.

Drawn by Mr. Weir
AN OLD-TYPE WHITE-FACE
SPANISH COCKEREL
There is no breed of fowls that suffers so much from the effects of the
confinement of the show-room; hence, when they are returned to their
home from the exhibition room, they should be carefully cared for and
looked after, special attention being given to protecting them from cold
and the baneful frost. This is more likely to attack them after leaving
a warm exhibition hall than at their home. In the judging of the Spanish,
it must be remembered that weights are to be considered, the Black
Spanish cock weighing eight pounds, cockerel and hen six and a half
pounds, pullets five and a half pounds. We have seen some specimens
weigh even more than this. While the Spanish fowl is judged under the
same scale of points as are the Leghorns and other Mediterranean breeds,
in considering the Spanish great stress is laid upon the value, condition,
The White-faced Black Spanish
903
and qualities of the head points, including comb, wattles, ear-lobes, and
cheeks.
When preparing the birds for exhibition, place them in separate pens,
about three or four feet square, wash the face and lobes two or three times
a week, using a good quality of soap, warm water, and a soft piece of
sponge.
After thoroughly drying with a soft towel, dust on a little oxide of zinc
powder. It is a great preventive of the eruption which comes at times
upon the heavy-faced birds. Feed them a little hemp seed and bread
soaked in warm milk. Wheat is very much valued for feeding Spanish
fowls that are intended for the exhibition room. It is less heating to the
blood than corn or other fattening foods. The face and lobes of a good
Spanish cock often measures about nine inches from the base of the comb,
and about five or six inches when spread out, and those of an equally good
hen, four inches long and two to two and a half inches wide.

Mein
Del
From a drawing by Mr. Weir
WHITE-FACED BLACK
SPANISH COCK

From a photograph
PLAIN GOLDEN POLISH COCK
First at Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo. Owned by W. H. Card, Connecticut
THE POLISH *
W. H. CARD, CONNECTICUT
HE name "Polish" is, I understand, taken from the conforma-
tion of the head under the crest., viz., poll or crown, which
is a sort of soft, spongy mass of fat and flesh, globular in
shape. The following is from the pen of B. P. Brent, of
Kent, England, and is quoted from Kidd's Journal (Vol.III.):
"The following are the varieties which I think should be acknowl-
edged: The Padua fowl, so called from the fact of its having been culti-
vated in Padua a Venetian legation of Austrian Italy. They are described
as very large fowls, the cock so tall that it can peck crumbs from a common
dining-table, and often weighing as much as ten pounds. Behind the mod-
erate-sized comb is a large tuft of feathers, which is still larger in the hens.

*The American Standard of Perfection recognizes the following varieties of Polish:
White-crested Black, Golden, Silver, White, Bearded-golden, Bearded-silver, Bearded-
white, and the Buff-laced. This chapter has been entirely rewritten by W. H. Card, the
well-known Polish breeder and expert. The records of his personal experiences here
set forth are valuable and suggestive.-EDITOR.
905
906
The Poultry Book
Their voice is hoarse, eggs large, legs yellow, and plumage various. They
are supposed to be descended from the Gallus giganteus of Sumatra. Does
not this description answer to a tufted Malay? Poles were also a large
fowl. They were of Spanish extraction, but where the Spaniards first ob-
tained them is a matter of doubt; most likely from some of their western
possessions. St. Iago has been suggested, but which St. Iago is not speci-
fied. They were introduced by the Spaniards into the Netherlands, whence
we obtained them. The Poles were very large, roundly built fowls, rather
low on the legs, which were dark-slate or lead-colored. They were desti-
tute of combs, but had large topknots of feathers on their heads, which fell
over on all sides. They were considered good layers and an excellent
quality of flesh. None are bred to-day, as breeders have failed to repro-
duce them. There were three varieties of colors-the black with white
topknot, the white with black topknot, and the spangled, the ground
color of which was a mixture of ocher, yellow, and black, each feather hav-
ing either a black or white spangle at its extremity. These varieties are
now very scarce, if, indeed, they are not quite extinct.
"The Hamburgs (by this name I allude to the tufted fowls formerly
known by that name, and not to the Dutch Every-day Layers, which are
now generally known by it) were, and still are, imported from Hamburg.
I believe them to be a mongrel of the Poles, now considered a cross be-
tween what is called Silver-spangled Hamburgs and Polish fowls. They were
called Bolton Grays in some sections of America, also Everlasting Dutch
Layers. They are smaller, their tufts are not so large, and are fronted by
a small comb; they have, generally, a profusion of beard and whiskers;
their legs are dark, and their plumage is either golden or silver, or edged
or bordered with black, giving them an imbricated appearance. The
pheasant marking is where the feathers, either of gold or silver ground
colored, are marked or dotted with black at the extremity only, resembling
the feathers of a cock pheasant's neck, whence the name. This marking is
often (improperly, I think) called spangled. Polands, Polish, etc., such as
are generally known by these names, are a mixed lot. They are crosses
from the foregoing, and perhaps also from some others. Consequently,
they vary considerably; hence arise the disputes respecting the beards,
etc. Beards, or muffles, are preëminently a characteristic of the old Ham-
burgs, but also occasionally occur in the Paduans and Poles, and frequently
in all other tufted fowls. There is a tufted cuckoo, or slate-colored fowl,
Wh
The Polish
907
known as the Egyptian or the blue Poland; also a common white-tufted
variety called the lark-crested fowl. Moreover, a sort of Game-fowl with
a small tuft used to be very plentiful some years back, and esteemed for
courage; from which, I think, it is evident that all tufted fowls can hardly
be considered of a common origin."
Mr. Weir says: "The crested, or topknotted, whiskered, and bearded
fowls are not confined to any particular country. They are not of modern

GROUP OF WHITE-BREASTED BLACK POLISH
Bred and owned by Charles L. Seely, New York
From a photograph
introduction. Their origin is not known. They are found in districts as
widely apart as Russia, Turkey, Egypt, China, and most parts of Europe.
They are generally handsome in appearance, fairly good as table birds,
excellent layers of pure white eggs, yet when true-bred are mostly non-
incubators-none of my own Golden and Silver Polish ever becoming
broody."
Many changes are brought about by scientific breeding for certain
points and not by chance. The domestic fowl is a good example. The

908
The Poultry Book
varieties of the comb and wattles are interesting to a degree; but far more
so when these natural, ornamental, and, it is asserted, useful appendages
are partially, and sometimes nearly, if not quite wholly, replaced by
feathers of a size commensurate with that
of the kind of comb which they displace.
In some cases, even the skull of the bird is
enlarged or deformed to the extent of
becoming a round, an oval, or a hemi-
spherical form, about which the growth of
the topknot or feathered ball is placed.
This was, without doubt, the most extraor-
dinary part of the change, for nothing
of the same character takes place if the
comb is enlarged to any size beyond its
normal condition; indeed, it has been
stated that fowls with the largest ccmbs
nct infrequently have the smoothest and
thickest skulls; but of this there is no
From a photograph positive proof. Mr. Weir says he has seen
WHITE-CRESTED POLISH COCK
First at many New England shows in 1904
Owned by Miller Brothers, Massachusetts
many wonderful and peculiar bone forma-
tions among the heavily feathered top-
knotted birds. This is not so in the duck tribe; although the "copping" or
"topping" may be of a large size, there is no difference whatever in the bone
of the skull formation, there being only a larger fatty ball, more at the back of
the head than in the fowl, and on which the feathers grow. Perhaps the
most perfect breed of this kind of domesticated fowl is that which for cen-
turies was known as the Hamburg-now termed Polish or Polands or, in
the north of England, Coppies or Copples.
A similar fowl was noted by Aldrovandi in the sixteenth century, and
by Blumenbach in his work of 1813, where he mentions it as a remarkable
variety of domestic poultry, distinguished by a thickly feathered crest on
the head and by a ball-like protuberance on the forehead. In England,
Mr. Weir says, this variety was known as the Hamburg, by reason of its
being originally imported from that city. It was a breed much fancied in
Holland, the Netherlands, and in some parts of France, though the English
dealers invariably obtained their supplies from or about Hamburg. It
was more especially from the south of France that the Messrs. Baker, of
The Polish
909
Chelsea, obtained those fine specimens that in other hands figured so largely
at most of the early poultry shows. Philip Castang derived his from an-
other source, and many of them, though large in the crest, were without
beards. From what precise locality these were obtained was kept a pro-
found trade secret, though numerous efforts were made to discover the
particular Dutch or Belgian fanciers that produced birds unrivaled by
any other country, and always commanding high prices in the English
market.
The breed has been one of repute and beauty for a long period.
The numerous paintings by the old Dutch Masters, in which the Ham-
burgs are faithfully pictured, amply testify that they, the rose-combed
and wattled fowls, were evidently regarded with unusual favor, and, judg-
ing by the delineations, deservedly so. Both these and the rose-combed
birds were non-incubators.
Willoughby (1678) does not mention the breed, but gives only a pass-
ing notice of the common hen as white and "copped." But, in the "Natural
History of Birds," by Dr. R. Brookes (1763), it is thus described: "The
Hamburg cock is a stately fowl; his bill is thick at the base and ends in a
sharp point; the eyes are of a fine yellow, encircled by dark-colored feath-
ers, under which there is a tuft of black ones that covers the ears. It has
a rosy comb, but that does not reach half way on the head, the hinder part
being covered with dark-colored feathers, inclining to black; the throat
and gills are of much the same color, with long hackle-feathers of a mixture
of orange and red waving down the neck, and black at the extremities;
the breast and belly are of a dark color, variegated with round black spots,
and the thighs and lower part of the belly are of a velvety, shining black;
the hinder part of the neck and top of the back are of a darkish red, and the
tail consists of shining black, red, and orange-colored feathering; the legs
and feet are of the color of lead, only their bottom is yellow."
This is the Hamburg of one hundred and forty years ago. It appears
from the description that then it was "a stately fowl," the adjective pos-
sibly meaning somewhat large. Evidently, it was very rich in coloring,
and at that time appears to have been free from the modern blemish of
white feathers in the topknot, though this latter does not seem to be of
the full round character of even half a century ago. Another noticeable
point is that the soles of the feet were yellow.
Next, Bewick, in his “British Birds," speaks of (1) "the crested cock.
910
The Poultry Book
of whom there are several varieties, such as the White-crested Black and
the Black-crested White, the Gold, and the Silver.”
That he considers the crested fowl different from the Hamburg is
apparent from what follows:
(2) "The Hamburg cock, named also Velvet Breeches, because his
thighs and belly are a soft black." Buffon still further adds: "This is
a very large kind, and much used for the table.”
This tallies with Dr. Brooke's description, which may be from the
same source. At any rate, the Crested, the Polish, the Polands, and the
Hamburgs have always been considered as one and the same, or but a
slightly varied breed. More confusion arises from reading "Rees' Cyclo-
pædia" (1819), Vol. XXVIII. (“Poultry"), where the writer says: "It
is well known there are many different breeds of these sorts of live stock,
but those best known of the fowl kind are the Game breed, the white or
English breed, the black or Poland, the Dorking breed, the large or Shake-
bag breed, and the Malay breed.
"The first two are much smaller birds than the others. This sort of stock
affords profit in the eggs, as well as the chickens; therefore, such as are
best layers and sitters must be chosen, which are in general the Game and
the Poland birds."
Here the Poland is mentioned as black, and not only as a good
layer, but a sitter, which is unusual in the Hamburg, Poland, and
Polish fowls.
Peter Boswell, writing in 1840 ("Poultry Yard "), alludes to the Poland:
This is a kind we esteem above all others, both from their appearance
and usefulness. We regret they are so seldom met with in this country.
We have often been disappointed in not meeting with a single specimen.
even in some extensive and well-furnished poultry yards. The prettiest
flock of them we have seen in Scotland was at a cottage door on the road
between Piershill Barracks and Leith.”
(C
Boswell continues: "They are not so thickly covered with feathers as
some of the other breeds, and still less with down; their form is plump and
deep, and the legs of the best sorts not too long." This was so, and many
people kept them for the table, as well as for egg-production. Mowbray
writes thus: "The Polanders are kept as ornamental, but they are also
one of the most useful varieties, particularly on account of the abundance
of eggs they lay, being less inclined to sit than any other breed, whence
The Polish
911
they are sometimes called 'everlasting layers,' and it is usual to set their
eggs under other hens.
CC
"They fatten as quickly as any other breed, and are in quality similar
to the Dorking; their flesh is, perhaps, more juicy and of a richer flavor.
From October 25th to the 25th of the following September, our five
Polands laid 503 eggs, only one of them wanting to sit within the time.
An average egg weighed one ounce five drachms, exclusive of the shell,
which in this bird is very thin; the above number making a total weight
of fifty and one-quarter pounds and a fraction more," which is by no means
up to the usual good laying. My own averaged about one hundred and forty
per annum-two hens laying more. Still, it is significant, showing that
the weight of eggs
produced far exceeded
that of the birds them-
selves. Egg-produc-
tion depends largely
upon the feeding, etc.
"The tops of
these fowls should be
periodically clipped, or
they grow into the eyes
of the fowls and nearly
blind them, rendering
them very subject to
alarm and to be driven
away; this is particu-
larly necessary in wet
weather." Thus far

3
Mowbray.
I found when "the
tops" of mine were
allowed to remain
entire, any one could
easily from behind,
moving softly, pick up
either a cock or a hen, which would not appear even surprised. Several
were stolen, being thus caught up by strangers.
From a photograph
BLUE POLISH COCK
Bred by the originator of the variety, H. L. Clapp, Massachusetts
912
The Poultry Book
The Rev. Saul Dixon, writing in 1850 of the Golden Polands, says:
"Many of them are disfigured by a muff or beard. No such birds should
be allowed the entrée of the poultry yard, but should be dispatched at once
to the fatting coop." Further on he apparently relents, for he says: "It
is a question with the curious, whether the muff at the throat is, or is not,
an original appendage to these birds. The earliest figures with which
Mr. Weir was acquainted (Aldrovandi's) increased the difficulty by dis-
playing a pair of fowls, one with and one without a muff. Albin (1736)
figures a cock 'of a peculiar breed, which is brought from Hamburg by
our merchants,' with a short topknot, a decided beard, and actual whiskers
- a tuft of black feathers which covered his ear.' The Irish fanciers decide
that, in the same clutch of chickens, the produce of the same parents,
those which have beards in addition to their topknots are to be called
Hamburgs, and those with top-knots only, Polish." This was indeed an
odd way of trying to get out of the dilemma, and scarcely safe to follow.
Again: "Others contend that the beard comes from the Russian fowl, which
is, as near as we can ascertain, a bearded Dorking." The Russian fowls
that have come under Mr. Weir's observation certainly have been bearded,
but not top-crowned. Mr. Dixon adds:
Mr. Dixon adds: "A distinct race, of which the
muff is a permanent characteristic, is not at present known." He con-
tinues to assert his aversion to this variation, for he says, "It is a frightful
appendage, and not easily got rid of if once introduced into a poultry yard;
which makes me suspect either that the original Polish were beardless, or
that there were two ancient races." In this supposition Mr. Dixon was
ccrrect, as events subsequently proved.
"When the Poultry Shows commenced," says Mr. Weir, "there were
without any doubt two separate and distinct varieties of the Polish or
Poland fowl, both having the singular formation of skull. The black,
with the white crest, never had a beard—at least, I never saw nor heard
of any such; while among the entire blacks were some with the beard and
some without; so also among the golden and silver spangled, the white,
blue, and fawn-colored. This being the case, and some of the fanciers
preferring them with, and some, like Mr. Dixon, without, there appeared
to be nothing for it but to have separate classes for each, with proportionate
prizes. The contention was long and 'wordy,' and somewhat militated
against the advancement of the breed in the estimation of the public. The
Messrs. Baker, who imported many of their best birds from Marseilles,


Harri, in Wein
Del.
1902
PRIZE BLACK (WITH WHITE COP-KNOT) POLANDS.
The Polish
913
the beard.) Then fol-
golden, with ruffs
contended that the silver and golden spangled should be bearded, but not
the black with the white crowns. Mr. Parkyns Jones, also a Poland fan-
cier, was on their side. The question was not decided one way or the other
at the beginning of 1853. At the Metropolitan Poultry Show held in Janu-
ary of that year, I find that there were two classes: one for a cock and
three hens, and one for a cockerel and three pullets, for black Polands with
white crests. The united number of entries in both classes was but fif-
teen. (I saw
(I saw these, and
conceived a preference for
lowed Poland fowl-
and beards-the
three hens, with
entries. An-
a cockerel and
golden Po-
ruffs and
but one
of Master
Horner, of
for Polands
colors, etc.,
the number of
birds was but four,
five. In the silver-
class, for
age with ruffs
but four
numbered,
entries were
and the chicken class had but three entries; while in that for birds of any
age without ruffs or beards there were only two entries; and in the chicken
class of 1852, no entry. Thus it will be seen that of those spangled, with
ruffs and crests, the united entries were but eleven; and the aggregate of
those without was twelve, one in advance of the bearded, ruffed, with
crests. This is exclusive of the black with white topknots, about which
there was no difference of opinion. However, the paucity of the entries
helped to decide the controversy, and at the next show in Birmingham
(1853) the two were amalgamated, the bearded and beardless contending
for honors in the same class. Still the controversy dragged on, but, as the

best cock and
only three
other class for
three pullets,
land with
beards, had
entry, that
Godfrey
Hull; while
of the same
without beards,
entries for the old
and for the young,
spangled
birds of any
and beards,
From a photograph
PLAIN WHITE POLISH HEN
Winner of seven first prizes at leading New England shows in 1904
Bred and owned by Cutting and Estes, Massachusetts
914
The Poultry Book
ruffed and bearded birds also had the largest crowns, the beardless ceased
to be shown, and it is now doubtful whether any could be found. Whether
this was a change in the right direction is purely matter of opinion. Saul
Dixon liked the beardless birds best, and, judging by their utility, he may
have been justified; but, to my thinking, both were equally interesting and
beautiful, while the beardless were more easily kept in health, being not
so liable to get mud-clogged in wet weather. On the other hand, it does
seem a little strange that the blacks with white crests should be allowed
to continue beardless, while all the other colors now must have ruffs,
beards, and whiskers, as well as large and full crowns. But, then, poultry
fanciers give singular names to breeds, and are also a little odd in their
likes and dislikes. One point of interest to be noted is that, from the
small number of the entries shown, it is evident that fifty years ago the
breed was not only scarce, but in the hands of only a few persons. Thus
the standard of excellence was, rightly or wrongly, more easily arranged.
Though the number of these elegant, useful, beautiful, and peculiar birds
was then small, it is saddening to find that there are even fewer to-day.
For these really good table birds-these good layers of pure white eggs-
these non-sitting fowls-there was no class at the Crystal Palace shows
of 1896-9-probably on account of deficient entries. So it happens that
another breed is likely to be lost; one that is centuries old, a different
fowl from any other. In spite of all its excellent qualities, scarcely any
are now kept in localities where at one time their bright spangled forms
and rose-like top-head gear made the green and grassy meadows floral-
like in beauty. One would suppose there still are fanciers who love and
cherish them. There must be, for no birds with so many attractive excel-
lencies can lack some admirers. Is there a pretter sight on a fine grass
run than a flock of the old black Polands, shining emerald-like, with their
lily-white crests, coral fronted? I have seen many such, and in suitable
places they had a distinctive, fascinating loveliness. Perhaps the trouble
in finding fresh stock may have had something to do with their decline.
Years ago that prince of fanciers, George C. Adkins, of Edgbaston, Birming-
ham, informed me that he found it most difficult, almost impossible, to
get 'fresh blood,' for at that time the firm of Messrs. Baker had ceased to
exist, and he thought there was a lack of constitution. Surely, even now,
some of the old and true breed might be found in the south of France,
though in commerce they are unknown.
An
The Polish
915

From a photograph of mounted specimens
WHITE-CRESTED BLACK POLISH COCK AND HENS
Bred and owned by Charles L. Seely, New York
"In the spangled kinds, great progress has been made in the plumes
of the breed, though undoubtedly they have lost in size. From the small,
round, often nearly black crown, larger, longer feathering has been evolved,
and, with this, more length of hackle and saddle-all adding much grace and
beauty to the already handsome, lucrative breed. Half a century ago,
there were spangled Hamburgs; a little later on, spangled Polish or Polands
were marked in the same way as the so-called spangled Hamburg of the
present time, but the spots were round, instead of oval, as shown now.
Lacing was also strictly forbidden, except upon the line of the greater
wing-coverts. Gradually, and almost unobserved as to time, place, or
ownership, the 'spangled' tip has been eliminated, and the 'laced'
edging substituted. In this coloring, there is more finished lightness; but
with the spangle the feathered forms flashed more brightly in the summer
sunlight. Both feather enrichments had, and have, their votaries. They
differ widely in appearance, each having its attractions, and it is impossible
to decide whether the old or the new form of the black on the feathering
916
The Poultry Book
is best. From the spangled there is a decided advance in the tail of the
cock, which was previously almost, if not quite, hen-tailed. Now the
sickle feathers are long, well-curved, and graceful; the ground color is
purer, and the lacing clear and distinct. So it must be allowed that so
far the breed is better for being fancier-bred. But it must not be for-
gotten that it was originally not a fancy fowl alone. On all hands it was
admitted to be, and to my knowledge it was, of great and surpassing utility
as a summer layer, though the number of eggs was never so great as in the
Shanghai and the so-called Brahma. The Polish have now lost prestige
with utilitarians, being much smaller, laying a less number of eggs, and
those of a smaller size. In 1850, there were the blacks with white
crowns. These are now less in bodily size, though larger in crests. The
wholly black seem to have got amalgamated with the 'Crève-Coeur.'
The wholly white have helped the Sultans, and they still exist as
whites; but the blues and blue white-laced, the black, white-laced or
spangled, have merged into the Houdans or become 'lost.' The buff
laced with white are few in number, but none the less beautiful; and the
golden- and silver-laced still have all the attractions that should win for
them both friends and admirers, which, it is devoutly to be hoped, may
ere long be gained.
'Being non-incubators, for increase, the eggs must be set under other
hens, and as the chickens are small, the old English Game is found to be the
best for hatching and rearing them. They are queer, odd-looking little
things at first, with apparently ill-shaped heads; their colors accord
with those of the parents. The young spangled are much darker in their
first feathering than they become afterward. In fact, this class of color-
ing in poultry puts one very much in mind of the seedling tulips, which are
self-purples, reds, or browns, as breeders, and only at a certain age break
-to reveal their latent beauty. So with spangled or laced chicks; some
that are very light when in the down-state become eventually the darkest
of the whole brood.
"As the chicks grow, they must be examined often for insects, to
which they are subject, especially about the head; and insect powder
[should be] carefully used. The loss of many a chicken is due to inatten-
tion in this respect, though ascribed to delicacy in the breed.
"As soon as the crowns or crests are developed, it is best to cut them
off at the sides, allowing a blunt, somewhat high top center. It is not.
The Polish
917
well to cut off the whole, as it shelters the head at a part where the skull
is apt to be entirely deficient.
'After the chicks have got the full growth of their head or crown
feathers, they are generally safe, and, if properly fed and attended to, will
mature fairly fast. Rules never to be neglected are: regular times for
giving food; keeping the fowls dry, and on dry ground if possible; not
letting them run in long, wet grass or weeds, which generally prove fatal.
As chickens, they are particularly active, very quick in searching
for and catching insect life; so they should be placed where they can obtain
it. The cockerel chicks are somewhat disposed to be quarrelsome. To
prevent injury, it is well to transfer them to another place, if old enough
to leave the hen.
(C
((
"In shape, the Poland fowl should be well proportioned. The body
should be rather long than otherwise, with a full, well-rounded breast,
shaped more like that of the old English Game-fowl than the Dorking;
back, broad between the wings, growing narrower toward the tail; thigh
and legs, medium length and plump, the shanks neither extra long nor
short; wings, long; tail, ample, full-sized, and not carried too high; neck,
medium length; head, rather small, surmounted by a large globular top-
knot, set well toward the front of the head; head, narrow, the beak having
large, cavernous nostrils, rather more straight than curved; eye, full,
large, and dark. If not bearded, the comb should be very small, and con-
sist of two small horns; the wattles thin, rather long, pendulous, and coral-
red. If bearded, it should be large, full, hanging well down and forward,
with whiskers which should be distinct, joined to, but reaching along the
face to form part of the ear-covert. When this is fully developed, the fowl
is called well-bearded and muffled. The black with white crests are self-
colored, with the exception of the crest, which should be of a clear white.
Had this variety been properly and carefully bred, it would have proved
as good a table fowl as the Houdan, if not better. Of the modern fanciers,
the late Joseph Partington possessed some wonderful birds, which, he in-
formed me, were not only good for the table, but abundant layers of white
eggs.'
""
-
POLISH FOWLS UP TO DATE
The best fowl is the fowl one loves best, whether its virtues be many
or few. To their admirers, Polish fowls are of the "Four Hundred,"
918
The Poultry Book
making no appeal to the utilitarian, but only to the fancier. Their feather
markings and peculiar crested heads, perpetuated for centuries in the same
likeness, proclaim them to be unquestionable aristocrats. In some varie-
ties, the Polish fowls of to-day differ not over-much from those of early
history. White-crested Blacks preserve the same characteristics in every
section, although
the birds bred
thirty years ago
were larger and
heavier than
those now reared.
The same might
be said of all
varieties till
within the last
few years.
Silver Polish
and White-crested
Blacks, thirty
years ago, were
equal to the best
shown to-day.

Eighteen or
twenty years ago,
one would look
in vain for laced
Polish of any
variety fit to show
at all. To-day
they are again
preeminent in every variety, as leaders in beauty and in the highest
attainable qualities, among exhibition fowls. Their very noticeable race
characteristics place them far beyond the ordinary and attract attention
always to their uniqueness. The cause of their degeneration and re-
generation can be explained in a few words: nonsense versus common
sense in breeding methods.
Why Polish fowls had degenerated during the ten or twelve years
BLUE POLISH COCKEREL
Bred and owned by H. L. Clapp, Massachusetts
From a photograph
The Polish
919
up to 1880 was simply from nonsensical "fad" breeding, or breeding to
increase size and shape of crest or beard, with hardly any consideration
for color, markings, or stamina. Birds bred upon that idea evolved the
above-named points nearly to the ideal, regardless of health, strength or
family lines. Blind, unintelligent inbreeding, carried on simply to pro-
duce their chief characteristics, resulted in their almost complete ruin.
About this time, Polish admirers awoke to the fact that their favorites
were likely to become extinct, unless radical preventive measures were
taken.
Radical measures were taken; but, strange as it may seem, for the
first few years there was no concerted action of fanciers toward this end.
Different breeders, unknown to one another, chose their favorite variety
and proceeded to build it up along natural lines, to reëstablish the fowls
in vigorous strength and beauty, with their chief characteristics and color
markings unimpaired. Five years ago the American Polish Club was
formed—a grand step in the right direction, of which the Polish fowls of
1904 are proof. No show is now complete and up-to-date without the
Polish alley of the eight varieties, displaying the full tide of scientific
breeding and splendid vigor. Thus has the regeneration of one of the
oldest-known breeds been accomplished.
As an admirer of Polish, my first fancy leaned toward the laced birds,
or to the so-called spangled Polish. Thirty years ago, laced Polish were
common, the spangled being simply laced stock degenerated ten or twelve
years later. Since my first sight of a trio of Silver-laced Polish, I have
known my favorite breed, but years passed before I again saw Polish in
any variety.
HOW I IMPROVED ONE STRAIN
In 1886, I found a very ordinary pair of plain golden-spangled Polish,
and, with my ideal of twelve years before fixed in my mind, I determined
to produce in time as good Golden as were those Silver I had seen in
earlier days. First of all, I had to submit to certain natural laws and lines,
which, I reiterate, must be observed to win success. The results attained
amply exemplify the law of the "survival of the fittest." My first pair
was known to be seven or eight years old. Being aware that the breed
was reputed to lack vigor and hardiness, and having noticed that mon-
grels and cross-breeds were the strongest of fowls at that time, I resolved
920
The Poultry Book
to produce Polish as hardy, by the same methods, except in the use of the
same breed in my out-breeding. I reasoned that for the first few years I
should let feather markings and crest take care of themselves, till I had
established vigor and stamina in my favorites. Therefore, I procured a
cock of the same breed, vigorous as possible, without regard to markings
or crest, and bred him to the old hen. The first year I set over fifty eggs,
hatched 40 chicks, and succeeded in raising one pullet which seemed to
have the strength and vigor of all the thirty-nine other chicks combined.
The next spring I procured a cockerel which was a sport from the Bearded-
goldens "without beard," and bred him to the two females and five
others I had purchased—all spangled. The cockerel was nicely laced and
just the bird to my mind. That year I set 200 eggs and raised five chicks
from twenty-five hatched. They were very strong and vigorous, with
feather markings tending toward the ideal. By this time I felt I had
worked well in the direction of stamina, and proceeded to establish an-
other family by buying another cockerel not related to any blood I had
and mating him to part of the females, breeding the first cockerel back on
his own pullet. The next season returned splendid results in hatching.
Chicks of both strains were as hardy as wild birds, nearly every chick com-
ing to maturity. Now the problem of problems confronted me. How
to keep this stamina and vigor and still perfect the color markings and
crest puzzled me. By this time chicks from both families were quite
numerous. I had taken pains to keep the eggs separate while hatching,
and I knew the chicks from each. Following the advice of an older breeder,
I punch-marked, according to family, every chick as soon as hatched, and
kept records.
-
To preserve the vigor, I reasoned that the strongest and most mature
young male of one family should be mated to hens (not pullets) of the
other family. The results proved my reasoning correct by an increase
of markings toward the standard ideal. So on, year after year, I have
bred from male birds widely removed in blood-lines from the females, and
to-day, without having, for years, used any new blood outside of my own
strains, I have Polish that are as vigorous as the utility fowls, and that
carry the colors of the Standard as they should. I can truthfully say I
never have 5 per cent. of culls in any year's breeding. The chicks hatch
out like quail, and are as active and hardy as Plymouth Rocks.
My experience with this one variety has been duplicated by other
The Polish
921
breeders with White-crested Blacks, Silvers, Whites, and with the beautiful
Buff-laced Polish.
It has been said that Polish, as chicks, are susceptible to wet weather;
that many die therefrom, where other chicks would live and thrive. In
eighteen years' breeding, I never gave the fact more than a passing thought.
Vigor and stamina in flesh, blood, and bones are nature's safeguards
against wet or dampness. When roup ravaged my Plymouth Rocks, the
Polish came through without a single sick bird. As regards lice or other
vermin, cleanliness is the ounce of prevention. For the chicks, I use a
grease preparation sparingly three times in two weeks, on their heads,
around the poll and underneath the wings. I dust the hen with a good lice
powder, but not on the same day that I grease the chicks, for fear of com-
bining the grease and
powder to the possible
detriment of the chicks.
Many breeders cut off
the crest and face-
beard feathers of the
growing chicks, and
also of the breeding
stock, claiming more
vigorous chicks and
hardier fowls thereby.
I have experimented in
that direction on adult
birds, too heavily
crested, with excellent
results.

Polish chicks
should never be raised
with chicks of other
breeds. Because of
their crest obstructing
their sight, they are
not aggressive, are
easily brow-beaten, and, therefore, suffer through lack of food and con-
tentment, both necessary to constant and steady growth. By following
Photograph by Prof. W. G. Johnson
WHITE-CRESTED BLACK POLISH COCK
Bred and owned by C. L. Seely, New York. First at New York, 1902
922
The Poultry Book
these methods, I have brought cocks to weigh from four and one-half
pounds to five and one-half and six pounds each; hens from three and
one-half pounds to four and five pounds each; many cockerels, six pounds
at six months old.
As layers, my experience shows the Polish to lay as many eggs as
any other breed; but they lay them all within six or seven months, gen-
erally from March to November. The eggs are snow-white, weighing
from twenty-six to twenty-eight ounces per dozen.
In breeding the laced varieties, care should be taken to breed from
the cleanest-feathered specimens. Never breed from a spangled bird, and
avoid those with mossed feathers, although they are preferable to the
spangled, being always well laced.
It is the bird perfectly and clearly laced, with ideal crest, etc., that
breeders are looking for; not the narrow lacing of the Seabright nor the
various-sized lacings of the Wyandottes, but a good clear lacing on each
feather, in perfect proportion, in each section.
Among Goldens, one thorn in the flesh of Polish breeders is the ten-
dency to white wings and tail of adult birds. This can, in a measure, be
overcome by careful selection with that end in view, although, as long as
adult birds are allowed white in their crests, the white will crop out else-
where.
One noticeable fact is that the best-colored and best-laced Goldens
have this tendency, whereas a spangled cock or hen never has it. Because
of this, beginners with Polish invariably take up the spangled birds, but
the first year's breeding reveals their mistake.
Spangled stock deteriorates in all the attributes that make up a first-
class Golden. The same can be said of Silvers and Buff-laced.
Again, some breeders will discard a bird that is too dark in lacings, or
has lacings that are too broad, giving the appearance of solid black in some
sections—notably on breast and body, and sometimes on the back of
females. But these are the birds that will keep in check the inclination
to spangling in Silvers and Goldens.
The color of Golden Polish should be a deep gold, approaching mahog-
any red. Otherwise, the color is apt to fade out in young stock. The
deeper the golden color the richer the appearance of the bird.
In Goldens and Silvers, the black lacings should have a greenish luster
throughout, indicative of high breeding and vigor.
The Polish
923

PRIZE-WINNING GOLDEN POLISH COCK
Bred and owned by the late Joseph Partington, of England
From a photograph by Hedges
CAREFUL SELECTION AND BREEDING
Other things being equal, the value of the laced varieties depends
upon their lacings. First in value is the perfectly laced bird, the lacing
completely encircling the feather in every section, except in the back of
males as per Standard.
Second in value is the bird with too broad and deep lacings, which

924
The Poultry Book
at a distance gives the appearance of being a solid color; always a first-
class breeder, because the young are always laced and of standard color.
Third in value is the bird of spangled or imperfect lacings, the lacings
partly encircling the
feather till the end is
hidden by feathers
overlapping, thus pro-
ducing a surface ap-
pearance of being
perfectly laced, but
close inspection reveals
the imperfections.
Such birds, in breed-
ing, tend to lose the
lacings in each genera-
tion. They are, there-
fore, always detri-
mental as breeders.

In choosing a male
bird for a breeder of
the laced varieties,
notice the small
feathers on the inside
of the wings and where
back joins hackle. A bird well laced in those sections will always sire
first-class, well-laced birds. In Goldens and Silvers, females sometimes
have crests nearly black, especially those with deep, heavy lacings.
Mate such hens to a male with well-laced crest, lacking somewhat in
breast lacings. In Buff-laced, there is the white to overcome, and,
unless judgment is used in mating, the flock will soon beccme a faded
yellow or a dirty, streaky white.
To keep up the color, breed from males several shades darker than
the standard, but well-laced in every section. Bear in mind that breed-
ing parti-colored fowls is like mixing colors in paints.
Use common sense in breeding to offset too much or too little coloring
in the birds, and the general quality of the fowls will be up to standard in
any of the varieties. Keep an eye on the crest, shape, and color. Re-
From a photograph by Thomas Gates
PRIZE POLISH COCKEREL
Bred and shown by Frank Rice, of England
The Polish 10
925
member that a Polish is not a Polish without the crest. Body lacings
and color do not always make a winner of a bird with a pinched or ill-
shaped crest. On the other hand, a bird devoid of standard markings
with a perfect crest is not to be chosen in place of the well-laced but poor-
crested bird.
To secure crests of standard shape, etc., breed from birds with natural
absence of comb, because combs more or less cause the crest to grow
upright in front and irregular in shape. Some breeders cut off the comb

GOLDEN POLISH HEN
Winner of many prizes. Owned by the late Joseph Partington
From a photograph by Hedges
926
The Poultry Book
to bring the crest into shape. It is needless torture, as the roots of crest
feathers are influenced by the base of the comb. Encourage the clear
white ear-lobe, which indicates purity of blood, and preserve the deep-blue
color of shanks and feet.
Coal-ashes in coops or yards invariably cause shanks and feet to
bleach out nearly white, and are said to induce scaly legs also.
In White-crested Blacks, white or gray in wing-flights is often a source
of annoyance to breeders, but experience has shown that it is generally
after molting that it appears. When the birds thus disfigured are given
a little extra time to complete their
molting, the trouble disappears entirely,
provided, of course, that the strain is
well-bred and vigorous. In poorer
specimens, it always remains, seemingly,
a badge of weakness and inferiority.
Aim to preserve the snow-white crest,
with only the narrow band of black
in front, as per Standard. Keep good
size and good shape in view always.
Many crests have a grayish-drab tinge
on the feathers, which is quite
objectionable, especially in adult birds.
Young birds, if well-bred, will molt
it away.
In choosing birds for breeding or
for show, never be blind to the general make-up of the specimen. Study
the allotment of points in the Standard relative to each section, and
choose according to the general summing-up. Otherwise, fad breeding
will gain in possession, and that works ruin in any variety.
In the white varieties, more inferior birds are shown to-day than in
any other sort of Polish, but there are breeders who bring them to the
high standard of the others, preserving the snow-white, stay-white plumage,
the grand, well-shaped crests and beards, with the shape of body typical
of the breed. The defects most frequently met with are small, irregular
crests, large beefy combs, resembling miniature elk-horns with their many
sprigs and prongs, brass in plumage of cocks, gray or drab tinge in plumage
of hens.

From a photograph
PLAIN SILVER POLISH HEN
Winner at many shows in 1904. Owned by Cutting
and Estes, Massachusetts
The Polish
927
Careful breeding by selection will, in time, eradicate these evils. It
has been done with the other varieties.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT
In raising Polish chicks or breeding fine Polish fowls, no satisfactory
results can be obtained unless good care is taken in every particular with
regard to feeding, breeding, and cleanliness. No fowl known to me
shows abuse or neglect so quickly as the Polish. In my own yards, as
soon as the breeding season is over, every male is penned by himself away
from the hens, having access always to the earth, and he is kept thus till
show-time, or till molt is complete.
Exhibitors should always keep in mind that condition is a big factor
in the show-room. Broken or mussed feathers, lack-lustre plumage, scaly
legs, or a general appearance of lack of care, will cause the best specimens.
ever bred to yield the prize to a fair ordinary bird well cared-for and in
good condition. In showing a string of Polish, find the best male and
female in the string, and choose every other male to correspond as nearly as
possible to the best male, selecting the females in like manner, in order that
the string in both sexes may be as nearly alike as so many peas in a pod.
Thus matched, first prize means second, third, and fourth also. Uni-
formity of breeding to the Standard counts with the public, the possible
buyers, and with the judges. They make up public opinion in the poultry
world. Never show an inferior specimen simply to fill a class. It works
harm and is of no benefit. Keep to high ideals. The birds on dress parade,
well fed and well groomed, with good breeding, make a combination hard
to beat.
In caring for Polish fowls, have roosts low enough to prevent their
crests from rubbing against the roof. When shipping birds, observe the
same rule in the height of coop. To keep them clean and in good con-
dition while in confinement, especially Whites and Silvers, cover the flocr
of the house with about six inches of rye straw. Use a water-jar to secure
the crests against becoming wet. It also prevents wattles in plain varieties
from getting frost-bitten in cold weather, as they would be if allowed to
become wet.
To prevent disfiguration of crests by feather pullers, take a red-hot
iron and burn off the sharp edges of the culprit's beak, about one-half inch
back. This hinders the beak from closing tightly at the point, where the

928
The Poultry Book
fowl grasps the feather. Burn the edges, but do not cut them. If a knife
is used, the edge soon grows again.
In closing, I desire to emphasize the main points: good care, common
sense, perseverance, and a true fancier spirit. Our favorites are called
the beauty breed, and our aim should be to keep them worthy of the name.

PLAIN GOLDEN POLISH HEN
Bred and owned by W. H. Card, Connecticut
From a photograph

1900
Weer
RED BLACK-SPANGLED HAMBURGHS.
The property of Mr. HARRISON WEIR.
THE HAMBURGS*
CHARLES ELDREDGE, New York
ONG before what we now call fancy fowls were known or
recognized, in fact, long before the memory of any person
now living, Hamburgs were kept and bred to feather among
the peasants of Yorkshire and Lancashire in England, and
by them exhibited at the small town and country fairs in
their neighborhood. Of course, they were then known under different
names, the Blacks being called Black Pheasant Fowls, and the spangled
varieties Lancashire Moonies and Yorkshire Pheasants; while such a
variety as the Penciled Hamburgs were either wholly unknown or else were
so little thought of that they have left no record of their origin, if, indeed,
they are native of England at all.
Mr. Wright, who has traced these fowls back still further, inclines to
the belief that at some period whereof we have no knowledge the penciled
varieties formed a part of the Hamburg family, although our earliest
positive knowledge traces them to direct importations from Holland,
where they were brought in great numbers, and were originally known
under the names of Dutch Every-day Layers, or Dutch Everlasting Layers.
As such a thing as a black-spangled variety of this fowl was utterly
unknown in Holland, it is presumable that at some period the penciled
varieties were exported to Holland and there bred and cherished, while
they were allowed to run out or sink into insignificance in England. We
cling to this belief so tenaciously on account of the wonderful similitude
which marks the characteristics of the Hamburg family, in spite of the
fact that one branch came from Holland and the other is emphatically
English. These two branches, namely, the Penciled and the Spangles and
Blacks, resemble no other varieties of fowls in the slightest degree, while
their common characteristics are the absence of the incubating instinct,
clean, slender legs, neat rose-combs, small, round and white ear-lobes, and

* This chapter on Hamburgs has been entirely rewritten by Charles Eldredge, of
New York, one of the best-posted experts on this breed in this country.-EDITOR.
929
930
The Poultry Book
the light, but sweeping and graceful lines of form which are wholly their
own and unapproachable by any other breed of fowls, no matter how fine
their symmetry. If this were not enough to stamp them with certainty of
having one origin, we mark the fact that spangled chickens are frequently
penciled in their first feathers; while, as they mature, the black spangles, or
moons, are often surmounted by a light tip beyond them, thus again ap-
proaching the penciled character, while conversely it will be found that, if
penciled birds be bred too dark, the last bar has a strong tendency to become
too wide, this approaching a spangled character.
If we consider the utter want of interest with which poultry was
regarded in the earlier days, and the fact that no traditions of any account
relating to fowls have been handed down, we may be justified in believing
that these facts prove our conjectures in regard to the original identity
of these varieties to be correct. From whence their common progenitor
came we can have no idea, but that they did have one we strongly believe.
It may have been that they came from the Blacks, as that variety is
thought to be the oldest, and a cross might have resulted in the broken
color, or, possibly, these Blacks having a number of white feathers may
have been bred together until a distinctly marked plumage had been
obtained.
Bearing in mind, however, that Aldrovandus speaks of a fowl which
strongly resembles the penciled variety as Gallina Turcica, it is possible
that the Penciled was the original, and, as the name suggests, is of Eastern
origin.
These conjectures and hypotheses are perplexing and unsatisfactory,
and are really of no practical value, being of use only in affording another
instance of the fascinating problems which constantly present themselves
to the poultry fancier of a philosophical and inquiring turn of mind. This
much appears to be certain: that, of all our many varieties of fancy fowls,
the Hamburg is by odds the oldest; indeed, Mr. Wingfield claims that old
records show that fowls with all the Hamburg characteristics were bred in
the yards of monasteries as early as the fourteenth century.
At the great Birmingham show, the authorities there, recognizing the
general resemblance between the Penciled, Spangled, and Black varieties,
and the inconvenience of their numerous and varied appellations, grouped
them together under the general name of Hamburgs, by which they have
been known since, fanciers accepting with alacrity a name which was at
The Hamburgs
931
once convenient in classing the breeds and which brought the separated
members of what was no doubt a distinct family together, as it is most
certain they belong
and should be ar-
ranged.

Many breeders
who have no knowl-
edge of the delibera-
tions at Birmingham
have been puzzled
to guess why the name
Hamburg should have
been chosen to des-
ignate a family which
was mainly English;
but these "fathers of
the fraternity" had
too much business to
transact to allow them
to inquire very care-
fully into the early history of this fowl. The Rev. E. S. Dixon
proposed "that, as the penciled varieties were then imported by the
Levant merchants from the port of Hamburg, they should all take
the general name of Hamburg," and, indeed, this term is as euphonious
and convenient as any other could be.
Mr. Theodore Hewes says in his "Book of the Hamburgs":
Photograph by A. W. Scott
GOLDEN-PENCILED HAMBURG HEN
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAMBURGS
"In usefulness and beauty the Hamburgs stand very prominently
amongst that numerous collection of fowls which our broad nomenclature
denominates 'fancy poultry.' The plumage of every variety, either
Penciled or Spangled, Silver, Golden, or Black, is at once beautiful and
striking, attracting the attention of strangers to the poultry yard or exhi-
bition room when all other breeds have failed to interest them, and drawing
from them involuntary tributes of admiration. And if they are so much.
admired by cold and superficial observers, surely the Hamburg fancier
may be pardoned for his unbounded enthusiasm for his favorites when
932
The Poultry Book
every season and nearly every day unfold new beauties in his birds and
renders them more fascinating and delightful to his eye. The exquisite
symmetry, the novel and shapely rose-combs, the snowy and delicate ear-
lobes, the tapering blue legs and graceful carriage, give them an aristocratic
and 'dressed-up' appearance and render them the most beautiful of our
domestic fowls.
“The Hamburg fancier has plenty of scope in which to indulge his
taste, the different colors and markings affording an ample variety from
which to choose, while the general characteristics are the same.
'Hamburgs,' says Mr. Beldon in Lewis Wright's poultry book, ‘are
without doubt the most beautiful breed of poultry we possess, as well as
the most useful, all varieties being alike elegant and beautiful. The
dweller in the country will generally prefer the Silver, while the citizen
will take the Golden or Black; but all of them, in their matchless variety
of marking and color, will delight the eye with the utmost degree which is
perhaps possible of beauty in fowls. Their marvelous beauty, however,
would not recommend the Hamburgs to the practical breeder so much
as their wonderful egg-producing qualities, which, it has been claimed,
surpass those of any other breed. The wonderful stories told of Hamburg
productiveness, while often more amusing than reliable, serve to show that
in any hands, in any climate, and under the most adverse circumstances,
they have proved very profitable to their owners, while with ordinary
care they are the best of layers.'
"The average Hamburg pullet will begin laying at four or five months.
of age, and will lay from 150 to 200 eggs the first year under favorable
circumstances. The second and third years' hens will average from 175
to 225 eggs when properly cared for, and from the third year their produc-
tiveness gradually declines, although one reliable breeder asserts that he
once owned a Black Hamburg hen which at five years of age laid 220 eggs
in ten months. A great deal depends upon the strain of birds and the
care they receive, as, if productive traits are cherished and carefully bred
for, the number of eggs may be greatly increased, while neglect to properly
cultivate this quality by careless and incompetent breeders will result in a
marked decrease in productiveness.
(66
"The absence of the incubating instinct has much to do with the
productiveness for which Hamburgs are noted, as no time is lost in sitting
or brooding the chicks. Some breeders claim that Hamburgs never attempt
The Hamburgs
933
to sit. This is incorrect. We have known cases, although we acknowledge
they are rare, where Hamburg hens have hatched and reared goodly broods
of chickens, in every case proving themselves steady sitters and excellent
mothers; nor was there a particle of tainted blood in their veins, these
being merely cases where that wonderful instinct which is common to nearly
all fowls will 'crop out' occasionally in every variety of non-sitting fowls.
It is not necessarily due to a former cross, but may be occasioned by 're-
version,' to which we attribute everything that we do not understand in
nature's domain.
"This non-sitting instinct is of double value to the Hamburgs, as
they do not lose half their feathers during incubation, but maintain their
sleek appearance through the entire season, and when they do molt they
molt easily and rapidly, seldom or never being left for a time denuded
of feathers, as are most other breeds, but the new feathers making their
appearance as the old ones drop out, so that they are never an eyesore to
their owners. Indeed, they seem to change their coats so easily that it is
no rare thing for hens to lay as steadily during this ordinarily trying
process as at any other time. They should, however, have an extra
allowance of feed at this time, and a little tincture of iron in their drinking
water or a few rusty nails placed in the drinking-pans will strengthen and
tone up their systems.
"To do their best, Hamburgs should have free range. Mr. Beldon,
though greatly overdrawing their need for this luxury, attaches so much
importance to it that he says: 'They are of little use penned up, in which
state they pine and mope for liberty; that bright cheerfulness which is
common to them disappears, and, from being the happiest, they become
the most wretched of birds.'
"Though Mr. Beldon may have found this the case, our own experience
has been that no small breeds of fowls will stand the tedium of a long and
severe winter in close quarters better than the Hamburgs. In fact, all
you need is to keep them busy, and they will seem happy and contented.
Still, the larger the grass run they have in summer the greater their pro-
ductiveness and the better they will do. They are very small eaters, and
when at liberty are excellent foragers, being up at break of day and away
rummaging the fields and pastures in search of food. Their quick eye at
once espies their prey, and 'woe to the poor worm that happens on that
particular morning to have got up a little too early.' Every corner is
934
The Poultry Book
searched with indefatigable zeal, and by the time the man gets around in
the morning to feed them they have made a good breakfast and are ready
for the business of the day. Perfect liberty or a large grass run are valuable
adjuncts to health and egg-production. Give it to them if you possibly can.
“As a rule, Hamburgs are a healthy breed, being little subject to the
common ailments of poultry. One of our correspondents writes: 'They
are remarkably hardy, often enduring with successful fortitude hardships
that to other breeds mean disease and death. I have had young Hamburg
chicks pecked by the mother of a rival flock and virtually "scalped" in her
insane jealousy, the skin being torn from the head down the entire back,
and yet the youngster would trot around as lively as though nothing had
happened, and not only get well but flourish. Sometimes the feathers
would grow out upon the "skinned" place, and sometimes it would always
retain a smooth appearance. I have now a hen, which we consider one of
our best breeders, without a vestige of feathering upon her entire back,
owing to a like accident in her youth. The chicks are very easily reared.
Of course, they must have proper care, as they cannot rear themselves;
but, with a moderate degree of attention, no trouble will be found in raising
them to maturity.'
“Taken as a whole, we consider the Hamburgs as hardly excelled by
any other fowl for the farmer, fancier, or poulterer. On a good homestead
they will keep themselves, and, if well attended to, will pay better than any
other farm-stock in proportion to the investment. In fine, I feel perfectly
safe in an assertion that in no one breed will be found so much beauty and
usefulness, and so many excellent qualities, as in the several varieties of
the Hamburg family, while in the one item of egg-production they stand
to-day where they did hundreds of years ago, unrivaled by any domestic
fowl.
"This is a statement of one who is full of enthusiasm, but it may be
noted that only a superior breed of fowls would excite so much com-
mendation in a breeder who has been familiar with them from his youth."
THE SPANGLED HAMBURG
"This beautiful variety of fowl," Mr. Weir says, "consists of two or
more ground colors—the gold, the bay, the blood-red, and the silver—
none of which are from Hamburg, nor from any foreign country, but are
entirely of English manufacture. Most likely, they emanated from the
The Hamburgs
935
careful selection and breeding of the old English Spotted-breasted Game,
with the Dutch Every-day Layers, now called Penciled Hamburgs. From
what breeds or crosses they were actually obtained possibly will never now
be known, but it is generally admitted that the old English Game contrib-
uted very largely to the beautiful fowl now called the Spangled Hamburg.
Having kept the Spangled Hamburg more than fifty-five years ago, and
again lately; and having seen many of the old Spotted-breasted Game,
I have come to the conclusion that the latter had much to do with the
origin of the former. In the first place, the Spangled Hamburgs are most
incorrigible fighters, surpassed in courage only by the warrior Game-fowls.
Two of mine fought until neither could stand, and when found were
lying on the ground covered with gore, mud, and dirt. Even as they
were then lying, they shuffled toward each other, tearing and pecking
at the ragged, bleeding combs until, faint with the loss of blood, they
both became insensible. One died, and the other took weeks to recover.
Nor is this an isolated case, for they have been actually pitted against some
warrior Game of the best fighting blood, and have maintained the fight
with such prowess as to leave the issue a matter of considerable doubt,
very nearly placing their adversaries hors de combat. In breeding, Game-
cocks were specially used, and even now the Hamburgs occasionally revert
to the brown-red or ginger-breasted reds of 'the old Game'; and so also
with the Silvers even to this day. In a single clutch of chickens more
than one may have a single comb and ear-lobes nearly white; white shanks
are produced from time to time, apparently from no other cause than
that of reversion or atavism; and this is not surprising when certain pecu-
liarities of breeds reintroduce themselves after having been apparently non-
existent for a number of years. Take, as an instance, the breed of White-
shanked Game-fowls. After coming pure for perhaps more than twenty
years, they will throw three or four clear, yellow-shanked birds, and after
that produce only white-shanked again. Thus it is with the Spangled
Moonies, or Pheasant Fowls, now called Hamburgs. Another curious
fact is, that if a single-combed bird (a pullet) is bred, and put to another
strain of rose-combed birds, among the young there will often be as many
single as double and rose-combs. This may be perhaps a partial reversion
to the single comb of the wild bird, so that there is a prepotency in that
direction. A single-combed pullet was bred from my Golden Spangled,
all of which had had rose-combs for many generations. Put with another
936
The Poultry Book
cock of a different strain, she produced several single-combed birds, one
of which was a cockerel, but all were well marked and rich in moons and
ground color, though those with the single combs had ear-lobes nearly
red. Although my Golden Spangled were of a deep, almost blood-colored
ground, like some of the old Red-breasted Gaine, they one and all main-
tained the beautiful moon markings that have always been so much in
demand. One very curious peculiarity, clearly noticeable in two or three
of the cocks,
was that,
although
their sickle
feathers were
black, they
were marked
throughout
with transverse
bars of green
and purple iri-
descence, which
showed very
plainly in a
strong light.
This might be
accounted for
by the birds at
some distant
period having
been crossed
with a Hen-
tailed or
Henny-penciled Hamburg or a Dutch Every-day
a Dutch Every-day Layer. The Hen-
tailed cocks of this variety were barred like the hens, some being
scarcely distinguishable as cocks. It is on record that a Hen-coated
Penciled cockerel won as a hen at several shows before its owner discovered
the sex.
"As far back as the early forties, and even earlier, there were Hen-
tailed Spangled cocks of the silver kind, and some few of the golden. The

Photograph by R. Whitehead, Kettering
PRIZE BLACK HAMBURG HEN
Owned by Charles Holt, of England
The Hamburgs
937
former were clear in the tail, while the latter were not, but more resembled
in character the old English Game-Hennies, and for years it was contended
that the hen-tailed cocks should be adopted as the standard. After much
wordy warfare, the advocates for the long and graceful sickle-feathered
birds won the day, and now, rightfully, the hen-tailed cocks are ignored.
One reason (and that was a strong one) alleged for not retaining them was
their non-productiveness, though some, when matched to hens whose eggs
had always proved fertile, no longer bore the stigma. The Moonies con-
sisted of two varieties, one having the round and full moons, and the
other what were termed nut-shaped moons. It was always considered
desirable to breed cocks from the former and hens from the latter. Then,
as now, for exhibition purposes two or more pens were necessary to produce
the best of either sex. It simplified matters, however, to keep light and
heavily marked hens with a properly marked and round-mooned cock.
Much skill was necessary in the selection, besides a knowledge of the
antecedents of the particular strain used. The late Mr. Beldon used
both the hen-tailed and the full-tailed birds in producing his beautiful
stock. The old hen-tailed bird had no neck-hackles or sickles, or side.
sickles to the tail, but was like a hen in all respects, though the comb,
wattles, and the leg spurs were larger. James Dixon, an old breeder
of the Spangles, states, in 1850, that he had both kinds, and had bred
from them for more than ten years. In the early days, Lancashire Moonies
were used for hens and Yorkshire for the cocks. As regards myself, mine
were bred all from the same pen, as before stated, and I think it is possible
to do so now, though it is the practice to breed from separate pens. I
found one hen in particular always bred good cocks; another would some-
times; three others never did; while all the pullets were excellent. At one
time, the plumage of the spangles, especially the now-termed Golden, had
a blood-red ground, or a rich mahogany color, beautifully marked with
black moons, and an emerald-green gloss, so that, as the birds turned
about in the sunlight, the two colors flashed, changed, or intermingled.
The Pheasant fowls were more of a brilliant orange or deep bay color than
the Moonies, which would be considered 'off color' if they showed the
same.
'Here I may notice that there is a distinction between the two breeds,
the Golden and the Silver. The Silver, both cocks and hens, have clear or
colorless tails, while the Golden have black tails. This, I think, is wrong.
((
938
The Poultry Book
Both should be the same as to markings, whatever the ground color may
be, and it is a wonder that the fanciers of to-day have not tried to remedy
the fault of the black tail—for a fault it decidedly is-by clearing the ground
color, and having only the black, full round moon at the end of each feather,
as in the Silvers. I feel certain that it would not be difficult, for I succeeded
with one or two hens in getting the first three feathers of the tail colored
and spangled at the tips. It has been accomplished in the Seabright
Bantams and in the lacing of the Polish fowls, though not as yet in the
Wyandottes; but then the latter is a breed only in its infancy, and
capable of much improvement.
'Another point worthy of consideration is, whether or not there
shall be a subvariety of golden ground color, as well as of the bright
deep mahogany or chestnut color now in vogue. That is to say, a ground
color of pure, clear, bright orange, marked with black moons, with brilliant
green sheen, like some of the Indian beetles, or our well-known green
beetle, commonly known as the green June rose-bug. Had opportunity,
time, and space been at my command, I feel confident that in a short
time some red- and black-spangled Hamburgs (now called golden) would
have been produced with clear tails and moon tips. The modern rose-
comb is objectionable, and not in harmony with the general contour of
the bird. The old form was better, slightly higher in the center, giving
a fuller and richer appearance. It should be remembered that no rose
is considered of good shape among rosarians that is flat in the center,
and, therefore, a raised rose-comb, like a rose, must unquestionably be
the better of the two.
(6
'Again, the old size of the 'Mooney' markings was, to my thinking,
preferable to the much larger of to-day. Each black spot overlapping
the next, as they do now, gives the bird frequently the appearance of having
a black breast streaked with white or red, rather than a white or red breast
spotted with black; either style has a very rich effect, but the latter is, if
anything, the brighter. It is but a matter of taste, after all, and when
a judge prefers the one to the other and he happens to be much in demand
—the style of bird in that particular district soon becomes altered, and,
to the thinking of some fanciers, not improved.
“As regards the variety now 'in the fashion,' namely, the old Yorkshire
Mooney modernized, it is very near kin to the Lancashire pheasant or
Pheasant Moonies, which, as before stated, no doubt originated with the
(6
The Hamburgs
939
Spotted-breasted Game, probably crossed with the Dutch Every-day
Layer, or Penciled Hamburg. It was surmised that the Hennie Game
was the kind of cock used, from the frequency of hen-tailed cocks being
at one time so prominent that it was strongly argued that such tails were
the only correct form, and that clear white tails with the large round
moons at the tip of each feather could not otherwise be obtained. Certainly,
when I kept White or Silver-spangled Moonies fifty years ago, such a thing
as an entirely clear tail was scarcely to be found, though common in the
Lancashire Silver Pheasant breed. A happy blending of the two in skilful
hands was at last successful; nor was it so difficult to get the white ear-lobe
as the modern writers declare. Many of mine were perfectly clear in this
respect, though the lobe perhaps was not so full and thick as some of the
best at the present time; nor were the markings so large, though quite as
round, as on the Mooney of to-day, miscalled Hamburg. They were rather
bigger fowls, though no better layers, it has been asserted, than some of
our exhibition highly bred and selected strains. Mine, being in a confined
run, did not have such advantages for egg-production as those at liberty
over a wide range. Nevertheless, although three were old hens and
only three were pullets, they averaged in 1896, from March 1st until the
beginning of July, five eggs a day, and were in 'full lay' when, for want of
room, I was reluctantly obliged to part with them.
"Years ago, the Yorkshire Mooney was the favorite breed, though
some fanciers believed that the Lancashire Crescents were as difficult to
produce clear in ground, with markings shaped like those on the breast of
a pheasant. Both were called Moonies, except in their particular localities,
and even in Lancashire the Crescents were sometimes called Half-Moonies.
Much ignorant writing on the subject has led to many wrong statements
concerning the breed, each writer copying from the preceding one by setting
down as points of excellence those given by people frequently unable.
It was B. P. Brent, a thorough fancier, who, in the Poultry Chronicle
and elsewhere, pointed out clearly that certain breeds, passing under
various names, were not all of one kind, as then and even now asserted,
but were absolutely distinct, so that they could not be interchanged in the
breeding without the loss of beauty and the distinctive points of excellence.
Thus it was that the Bolton Bays, though spangled, were sometimes
called Bolton Bays when they were 'penciled.' When the Moonies were
called Hamburgs, they naturally became connected with the Dutch Ever-
940
The Poultry Book
lasting Layers, which, in the first instance, were said to have come from
Holland. Previous to 1849-50, the now-called Polands (Polish) were the
only fowls so called, the Spangles and Crescents being entirely an English
breed; but since that time they have been crossed and re-crossed with
the penciled varieties. For many years previous to the Birmingham
show, the Moonies, the Crescents, the Corals or Redcaps, and the
Pheasants had their admirers, and clubs were formed for breeding these
to their respective ideals without reference to any written law as to
what they should be. The prizes were a copper tea-kettle, a saucepan,
a warming-pan, a silver bell, and sometimes a plum cake. Thus arose the
saying, now so common among northern and some other poultry fanciers,
'That is the one that will take the cake.'
"What has yet to be achieved is a clear red or golden tail, with the
black moon in the gold variety not all black, as now, but like that of the
silver. I am quite satisfied that it can be done with time, patience, and
judgment. It would be well to begin by putting a Silver cock to some
rich chestnut-colored Black-spangled hens. A few of these would possibly
produce clear or nearly clear-tailed birds, though others would be light in
color, or perhaps dark. I once bred a black from a Gold-spangled cock
and full-mooned Silver hen. A few of the chicks made promising progress
in the right direction, but circumstances prevented me from carrying the
experiment further. One curicus fact should be mentioned-the cross-
breeds, though only of the two colors, were much larger than either parent
when full grown. The curious result of crossing the Penciled with the
Spangled has already been pointed out, but such crosses sometimes pro-
duce laced and double-laced chicks, and these frequently have a lighter
ground color than either parent.
"Gold-spangled hens allied with a Black-breasted Red old English
White-legged or Blue Game-cock mostly breed beautiful and rich colorings,
with either moon or lace markings in the same brood, and some nearly
black, these being generally cockerels. Black-breasted Red Game-hens,
matched with a good Spangled Hamburg cock, seldom produce any but
laced birds or partridge-colored pullets with black tips to their feathers,
occasionally with white tips, which often occur in the pure-bred Moonies
after their second year's moult.
"A Gold-spangled Mooney cock, crossed with colored Dorkings,
gives produce that vary in color from a dark rich brown, spangled, and
The Hamburgs
941
laced, to red, black, gray, and sometimes speckled white. The white ear-
lobe is maintained nearly clear, the legs are generally blue, not slate, and
the feet have mostly five toes. Some few may come with white shanks,
but these will generally breed back to the blue coloring.
Crossed with a Spanish cock, many are darkly spangled, with very
large rose or upright combs, and white faces. Years ago, I saw some of
these. They were handsome birds, good layers, and I was told were 'non-
sitters'-therefore a desirable variety where white eggs were in demand.
Not a few of the birds were larger than the Spanish, but others less, so
that a new breed might possibly have been got through selection, by using
the Minorca instead of the Spanish. In breeding the Spangled Hamburg
66

SILVER-SPANGLED HAMBURG COCKEREL
Owned by Charles Holt, of England
From a photograph
there is generally a greater tendency toward the single comb than in the
penciled variety, which, though now called Hamburg, is in no way related,
except through an occasional cross. This tendency to the single comb
942
The Poultry Book
becomes more apparent when crossed with distinct breeds other than the
Penciled Dutch. Crossed with top-knot fowls, sometimes the top-knot
entirely disappears and the whiskers and beards are large. Mostly, the
comb is single, double, or cupped; more or less spangling generally remains.
"A Cochin cross is often a handsome fowl, with much loss of fluff and
increase of tail, the body ground color being a rich golden-red, moon and
crescent spangled. They are good layers. In the first cross, the eggs are
not infrequently a clear buff. Cochin hens should be used with a Golden
or Silver-spangled cock. In the latter case, the cross-breeds are often white,
or a very light buff, and well marked with black. The shanks are generally
willow in color, and if the Cochins are lightly shank-feathered the crosses
are bare or have but a feather or two, but if clear and bred from they not
infrequently revert to the Cochin type.
THE SILVER-PENCILED HAMBURG
"As already stated, the Penciled Hamburg is the oldest of all the so-
called Hamburg breeds. It is pictured by the old Dutch painters, and it
is supposed, rightly or wrongly, to be one mentioned by Aldrovandus in
1630. It may be the breed so often alluded to by older writers as such a
prolific layer of eggs, and so long known as 'the Dutch Every-day Layers,'
Chittiprats, or Praters, from the continuous, almost monotonous and slightly
querulous noises which the hens make as they walk, for no apparent
reason. In Kent and Sussex, the local term for this is 'talking'; and with
other breeds is said to give an indication of the hen or pullet being about
to lay. This is also called 'prating,' it being nothing uncommon in by-
gone times to hear it said of a talkative woman that 'she ga’as aboot a-
pratin' like her old heen a-lookin' for a nee'st.' From the word 'chitty,'
also indicating something small, no doubt these fowls gained their name of
Chitty-prats or Praters. Like all the Hamburg breeds, they are shy and
apt to become wild, being very good flyers, sometimes perching on trees
or on the tops of houses and barns. A friend of mine losing his newly
arrived birds late in the day, discovered them clustered about the chimney
and top ridge of his house, where they remained all night, flying down in a
flock when called for feeding the next morning. The Hamburgs are in
habit and disposition particularly bright and lively. Although they may
be kept to some advantage in small inclosures or runs, they are at their
best when given unrestrained liberty. They often range some distance
The Hamburgs
943
from home, and, ☀ not under some kind of surveillance, they will nest in
the hedgerows or any other place that seems to them suitable. One hen
that I know of laid in a patch of nettles that grew nearly in the center of a
four-acre field. The tops of partly cut hay or straw stacks are a very
favorite resort, where, if there is a snug corner, two or three hens will lay
together. They are abundant layers of smooth, rather satiny-white
eggs. As a proof, there was in 1873, and is now, a stuffed specimen of a
Penciled Hamburg hen in a glass case at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham.
It is the true Penciled variety, and not, like the present specimens, barred,
with no penciling. The bird is placed in a position as if 'cackling,' and
is surrounded with white egg-shells. There is a description, taken from
the Gardeners' Chronicle, February, 1873:
'Weight of hen alive two pounds thirteen ounces (this shows that the
breed has not so much deteriorated in size as alleged by the "new" fanciers,
while that of the 200 eggs, her year's produce, is twenty-one pounds thirteen
ounces.' What would be thought of a cow that produced seven times
its own weight of good flesh every year? No doubt this egg-production is
very extraordinary from many points of view, but the writer has somewhat
'anticipated' when he says that it is an annual record. Nor does it surpass
that of the White-faced Black Spanish, with its 200, 230-50 much larger
and heavier eggs.
"The Penciled Hamburg is a non-sitter or incubator, therefore no
time is lost by the hens becoming broody; though cases have been known
of a hen rearing two broods in one year, when a pullet, and never becom-
ing broody again. Occasionally, one or two hens in a season may show
symptoms for a day or two, but they pass off without any preventive
measures being taken.
(((
"Sixty years ago, or more, the Penciled Hamburg was very differently
marked, each feather of the body, wings, and tail of the hen being irregu-
larly 'penciled' with light thin, thicker, and much thicker lines, some-
what waving and transverse, thus giving the bird a bright appearance.
Sometimes only the two upper feathers of the tail and the outer webs of
the primaries and secondaries of wings had these elegant traceries. The
cocks were white, with slight markings on the wings; the tails, black, with
the sickle feathers lightly mottled; the primaries and secondaries, black on
the inner webs, with black tips. Now, a real Penciled Hamburg does not
appear in the show-pen. The specimens so called have bars throughout,
944
The Poultry Book
quite as much, if not more, clearly defined than those of the Plymouth
Rock, being beautifully regular and even in spacing and thickness. It
may be admitted that in this direction at least the Penciled, or, more
properly, the Barred Hamburg, has nearly reached the fanciers' goal of
perfection. This has been attained by the most patient, skilful, and
careful matching-perhaps, in a degree opposed to the breeding for utility;
for, according to the received standard of excellence for both cocks and
hens, it requires two sets of birds or pens to produce the points of both the
sexes. It is, and must remain, a source of regret that the hen's marking
and color should not, in a true sense, correspond with those of the cock,
the cock being now the male of a differently marked hen.
“The remedy would be to have the feathering standard of the cock
bred naturally from such perfection in the hens as is now attained. If
this were done, it is certain that far more Penciled Hamburgs would be
kept and exhibited than at the present time. It is said, and in many
directions most erroneously, that the breed is not so good in egg-production
as formerly. As far as I can learn, there is little or no difference, many
laying more than 180 eggs a year or season, and some a few more. It is
further said that the eggs are smaller, and I think them decidedly less than
mine were some fifty or sixty years ago. The generality are smaller than
those shells that were about the Penciled Hamburg hen at the Crystal
Palace.* Still I do not think the 'exhibition' breed has deteriorated in
utility to the alleged extent, while its extreme beauty is almost beyond
praise. As a fowl, in elegance, grace, color, form, carriage, and attractive-
ness, it is a living picture, and highly finished by the art of man.
(6
‘Take a golden or silver 'barred' hen in hand, lift and spread the tail
fan-like. How clearly defined and regular are the accurate curvings; how
neat and compact in form the whole bird is the head, the eye, the thin
rose-coral colored comb and wattles; the well-formed, white kid-like ear-
lobe; the blue or, more properly, azure beak, shanks and feet-all lend a
charm that holds and delights.
"Years ago there was a subvariety that came from Holland, and
was found among the northern fanciers, of which the pencilings were more
like cobwebs on the feathers. The black was fine and thick, without the
* As many of these were broken, F. Wilson, the naturalist to the Crystal Palace
Company, renewed them about fifteen or more years ago, unfortunately with much
smaller egg-shells.

Harrison wenn
Del. 1902
GOLDEN-BARRED HAMBURGHS.
The Hamburgs
945
heavier blotches, giving the bird at a distance a silvery-gray or a tinged-
brown appearance. These were universally called Mossies, and were
much admired. Though they never attained to the dignity of the show-
pen, they were to be seen both at Birmingham and London in the early
fifties. The hackles of these were pure white and the tails black, lightly
traced about with white, and they were rather stouter in build than their
compeers the Penciled of that day. Not having seen this variety for
many years, it is possibly now 'crowded out' and extinct.
THE GOLDEN-PENCILED HAMBURG
"Is in all respects—that is, both in shape and markings—the same as the
Silver, with the exception of the ground color, which on the head and neck
of the hen should be a bright golden orange, with a deeper and more orange
body and tail, the belly being a fine brown. The cock should be a uniform
rich orange, rather inclining to crimson; the tail, deep crimson, with
orange edges to the sickle feather, larger and lesser tail-coverts; eyes, large
and full; face, red, with a dark rim around the eyes; ear-lobes, oval and of
medium size, well defined, of a clean, white-kid leather-like appearance and
perfectly smooth; beak, shanks, and feet, azure; toe-nails, white. For
some unknown reason, the tail carriage of both these and the spangled
breed has of late been altered from high to low, thus giving a depressed
look and 'cowed' expression entirely foreign to the lively, brisk, and
courageous nature of the bird. It is not only with the Hamburgs, but also
with the Game and other fowls, that this heresy detrimental to the appear-
ance of all has crept into existence. Who is responsible is not to the
point. One thing I am perfectly clear about is that it is on a par with the
reduction in size of the tails in other varieties, a change for the worse,
which cannot be too strongly deprecated. A few weeks ago I saw a flock
of Golden-spangled Hamburgs bred from prize birds, and a more spiritless,
craven-looking collection it would be difficult to find in any breed, except
the modern Hamburg. The cock is a bird that shows both his courage
and form to the best advantage, with his tail well-carried and high, and
not half a century ago such were chosen in preference to fowls of beauty
and character. Why the fancier of to-day likes his cocks and cockerels to
look like beaten birds or arrant cowards is a problem that wants solving
with many other poultry follies that are rampant because the wise are in
the minority.

946
The Poultry Book
Aside from this aggravating fault, for such it is, the Hamburgs are
so much improved in other ways as to reflect the highest credit on those
who have by zealous love, tending, and careful matching fashioned them
so near to perfection.
(C
THE BLACK HAMBURG
"The Black Hamburg, a modern invention, was originally produced
by crossing the old English Black Game-fowls with some of the darkest
Moonies and the Dutch Penciled Hamburgs; also with the black red-faced
Spanish fowls,
now called
Minorcas. Some
aver that the
White-faced
Spanish fowl was
also used, but of
this I am doubt-
ful. Many of
the old Black
Game-fowls had
a brilliant green
sheen, while
others were more
less purple.
It has been stated
on very good
authority that the
or
Game-fowl was undoubtedly at least one of the ancestors of more than one of
the varieties of the present Black Hamburg, and this may be considered
partially proved by the tremendous fighting propensities of the breed.
It is almost as difficult to keep young Hamburg cockerels together as
Game-cocks, many times their beauty being entirely ruined by the per-
sistent vigor and fury of their combats.
"The Black Hamburg of to-day is a singularly beautiful bird when
kept in high condition and on a suitable soil; for the soil, without doubt, as
well as the food they are fed, affects the coloring of the feathers, and to
some extent that of the beak and shanks. I have known birds of a most bril-

Photograph by A. W. Scott
GOLDEN-PENCILED HAMBURG COCKEREL
The Hamburgs
947
liant color, with sheen like the emerald, to lose their gloss in chalky districts,
and the leaden color of the legs is also affected. The Black Hamburg is
generally somewhat larger than the colored varieties, and the eggs, greater
in size, should be white. In shape it resembles closely the Penciled
Hamburg, though it is not by any means so noisy, not even crowing.
The most frequent crower of any that have come under my own observa-
tion has been the Golden Mooney, though individual birds vary in this
respect.
"The plan adopted by those who keep these for exhibition is to shut
them in a dark place for a few days, only letting in the light at the time of
feeding. By this means, and the application of a little weak vinegar and
water, the ear-lobes are blanched. The fine iridescent green gloss on the
feathers is very much enhanced if the birds are highly fed on wheat and a
mash of linseed-one-eighth to seven-eighths parts ground oats.
"These, like the whole family of Hamburgs, are very good foragers,
and a most excellent addition to the stock-yard of the farm, where they
make their nests among the straw-heaps or the generally surrounding
hedgerows. The color being black, they are often kept about towns, as
good layers, though the penciled variety is said in this respect to be the best
of all. Of course, much depends on the strain, locality, and method of
feeding, the whole family requiring a good supply of green food, if in
confinement. They are non-incubators.
"The best cross for laying purposes is, perhaps, the Minorca, but I
am no advocate for this, and think that far better results can be obtained
from pure breeds, as such are generally the most reliable. If a cross for
size is desired, I know of none better than a Langshan hen mated to a
Black Hamburg cockerel, which produces, in the first cross, fowls that are
not only fine and handsome fowls, but have tinted eggs, and are often
winter layers. Fowls so bred are very rich in color, and carry the green
gloss of both parents, while the breast meat is of a fine white quality. The
cross with the Dorking is good to a degree. The chicks generally come
five-toed, are robust and hardy in comparison with the young of either,
and they feather better than the former. Allied with Polish fowls, they
produce something like the 'La Fleche,' with rather more comb; these are
good layers. Other crosses can be made, but none that I know of to so
much advantage as those mentioned above. The true silver are best pure,
and in this respect Mr. Pickles is the premier."
948
The Poultry Book
WHITE HAMBURGS
"While we undoubtedly owe," Mr. Hewes says further, "the White
Hamburg to skilful English breeding, it is a variety bred much more
generally in America than it is across the water, where it is regarded as a
mere subvariety of Hamburgs. The variety was originally bred in Eng-
land as an experiment, and was obtained by selecting the lightest Silver-
spangled Hamburgs, both male and female, and mating them together,
each year selecting the lightest progeny, until the pure white bird was
produced. Thus it will be seen that, in spite of all arguments to the con-
trary, the White Hamburg is really a pure Hamburg in every particular.
While they were a very pretty variety, they were looked upon with con-
siderable disfavor by the English, who discouraged their breeding, and
regarded them as an innovation in the Hamburg family.
(
"It is many years now since they began to be bred in America, and
they are much thought of for their many good characteristics, while they
figure quite prominently at our principal exhibitions. What has served
principally to discourage White Hamburg breeders is the fact that so many
imitations have been made and thrust upon the public under the name,
that were really mere mongrels. The only true White Hamburgs are those
which come from Silver-spangled or Silver-penciled Hamburgs, in the
manner we have described. Those with White Leghorn or White Dorking
crosses are impositions, and should be avoided by the fancier, who will
readily know them by their clumsy symmetry, large size, and coarse combs.
Characteristics of the Variety.—The White Hamburgs should be pure
white in plumage throughout, with no signs of that undesirable yellowish
tinge so often seen on otherwise good birds. They should be true Hamburg
in symmetry, avoiding the Leghorn or Dorking build, and they should
be (and are) no larger than the other varieties. Size is not a point to be
regarded in Hamburgs; it is their laying qualities we look to, and this
variety, while not quite up to the others in this respect, is very productive.
The comb in White Hamburgs should resemble that described under the
heading of Black Hamburgs. They should have a small, round, white ear-
lobe, by no means pendent, and bright-red face; carriage upright, sprightly
and graceful.
J
"The Leg Controversy.-We have so far said nothing concerning the
color of legs in White Hamburgs, for the reason that there has been a
The Hamburgs
949
spirited controversy for many years among breeders as to whether they
should be blue or white. It has been a great nuisance to the American
Poultry Association, who have found themselves persuaded, because of
specious arguments on both sides, to change their Standard at least four
times on legs of White Hamburgs. It was originally decided by the
Standard committee that a white leg was proper. It was afterward
changed from white to blue, from blue back to white, then again to blue,
and in 1879 to white.
“Hon. Lewis F. Allen, who is perhaps our largest and most prominent
breeder of the White Hamburg, and who has done as much as any other
man to push the breed, says in a clever letter, which, however, betrays
his chagrin at the vacillating decrees of the Standard committee:
66
"I have been so disgusted with the doings of the Standard committee
on the points of fowls that I have determined never again to take any part
in its discussions, or show a bird in its exhibitions, although I still keep
and breed the White Hamburg with white legs and beak, which marks
truly belong to them, as they did when I first knew them, in 1870.
"I obtained my original birds from a gentleman who bought them in
New York-descendants from imported stock, I was informed. They
were then, and still are, true Hamburgs in style and form, non-sitters, and
nearly constant layers; hardy in temperament, and, in short, very satis-
factory birds. They were successfully shown in several of our poultry
shows in Buffalo, and won prizes, the white legs and beaks being entirely
satisfactory to judges and the society.
"But when the American Poultry Association undertook to make a
Standard of points for the various varieties of fowls, some of the pretended
professionals" introduced various innovations, and among them accorded
the blue leg and beak to the White Hamburg, which was adopted. Conse-
quently, at the next show at Buffalo, my birds were ruled out under the
new blue-leg regulation. The Standard committee had a full meeting
during the show, and I went before them and showed the absurdity of
the new rule, and the committee decided to reverse the late action and
return the points of white legs to the White Hamburgs. It has since,
however, been changed several times.'
"Mr. Allen seems to have no doubt but that the white leg is entirely
proper, and he shows himself to feel injured by the constant changes
made in the Standard; and, indeed, it has greatly injured the variety, simply
(6
950
The Poultry Book
because breeders never could tell how to breed their birds so that they
would not be disqualified at the next season's shows. That the point
between the two colors is a fine one is proved by the indecision of the
Standard committee.
66
'Through all the changes the Rev. C. W. Bolton has stood as firmly
by the blue legs as Mr. Allen has by the white ones, and his faith in their
propriety has never wavered. Mr. Bolton is one of our most prominent
Hamburg men, and has proved his skill as a breeder in showing some
excellent stock of the several varieties. He writes us:
"I know perfectly well that my White Hamburgs are pure Ham-
burgs in every respect. I have bred them myself from the Silver-Penciled
Hamburgs, with blue legs and all the characteristics of their predecessors.
For ten years I have never had a chick with legs of any other color than
blue, which shows that the blue leg is a firmly fixed characteristic, and
properly belongs there.'
"Why should other varieties of Hamburgs have a blue leg and the
White Hamburg a white leg? The blue leg is a distinct Hamburg char-
acteristic.
"We believe that when our final and unalterable Standard is made,
the White Hamburgs will be credited with blue legs.
“Points in Breeding.—The rule in mating White Hamburgs should
be simply to procure the birds which possess the finest combs, ear-lobes
and face, pure white plumage and blue legs. Guard against heavy, blocky
forms and coarse combs, and pay less attention to size than to proper
symmetry.
PREPARING HAMBURGS FOR EXHIBITION
"Condition means everything in showing Hamburgs, and, without
it, many a fine bird comes home from a show minus a prize that could easily
have been won had its owner known how to properly fit it for exhibition.
By 'fitting it' we do not refer to the unscrupulous tricks resorted to by
unprincipled scoundrels who mutilate and torture their birds to bring
them within the requirements of the Standard, but to the legitimate
preparation to which it is not only allowable to subject a bird, but without
which it is really a pity to send a good bird to the show-room.
We are
not going to recommend any practices which may not be fully known and
approved of by any judge, so that any exhibitor may have no hesitation

Allent
Hel
From a drawing by Mr. Weir
GOLDEN-SPANGLED HAMBURG COCK
Tail solid black, rest of plumage dark-red with black lacings and spangles.-Charles Eldredge
Bred by Mr. Weir, of England
The Hamburgs
953
in following our instructions.
For at least three weeks before the exhibi-
tion, all varieties of Hamburgs should be confined in a darkened coop-
not too dark, but with just light enough to enable them to see to eat.
We recommend this for the following reasons:
((
I. It serves to whiten in an astonishing degree the ear-lobe. We
have often seen a bird which, when placed in the darkened coop, had ear-
lobes discolored by exposure to the weather, come out at the end of three
weeks with pure milky-white ear-lobes throughout. During this confine-
ment, the ear-lobes should be washed each day with sweet milk, applied
with a sponge.
"2. This confinement is of great value in promoting a rich luster to
the plumage, making each color stand out distinctly, and giving the
feathers that glossy appearance so much desired. This matter of plumage
is one of primary importance. In Black Hamburgs, the greenish gloss
should be brought out as much as possible, and in order to do this con-
finement in darkened quarters is necessary. After they (the Blacks we
are now referring to) have been confined until about a week previous to
the show, they should be taken from the coop, and their feathers rubbed
down daily with a piece of flannel cloth. Hold the bird firmly on your
lap and pass the cloth lightly down the back from the neck to the tip of
the tail, and keep up this rubbing steadily for the required time, say fifteen
minutes. You will be surprised to see the magnificent gloss brought out
upon birds that before were even slightly dull in appearance of plumage.
If your birds have the undesirable purple tinge, this will bring it out more
than you would wish, but if they have the greenish sheen it will make them
glisten in a manner to delight your eyes.
"The Whites are much improved likewise by this confinement, as it
gives the plumage a clear milky-white color, and it loses under this treat-
ment the yellowish cast they have acquired by exposure to the weather;
only, if they are bad in this respect, they should be put in their darkened
quarters at least a month previous to the exhibition. With Golden-
penciled and Spangled Hamburgs this darkened coop is of much assistance
in bringing out the greenish spangles and in brightening and enriching
the ground color; and with these varieties, as with the Blacks, we would
recommend the gentle rubbing with coarse flannel.
'Silver-spangled and Penciled birds gain by their darkened quarters
a clear and distinct appearance in their markings, as it makes the ground
954
The Poultry Book
color a beautiful white, furnishing a desirable background for the colored
feathers.
'There is no help for a bad comb or a white face. The best way
is never to allow a bird with these defects to see the inside of a show-room.
Birds with a tendency to scaly legs should have them rubbed with Stoddard's
Poultry Ointment, beginning at least two weeks before the show. If
breeders would only attend to this repulsive appearance of the legs in
time, or whenever it makes its appearance, and treat it as above, these
remarks would be unnecessary. It is an eyesore in any bird, but par-
ticularly disgusting on the neat, slender legs of the Hamburgs.
"In fitting birds for show, they should have a wholesome variety of
food, wheat and buckwheat being the staples. A little sunflower seed, fed
at judicious intervals for the six weeks previous to the show, has a very
desirable effect in giving them the gloss and finish so desirable, and which
is always observed in prize birds.
"When the time arrives to coop the birds and start them off for the
show, great care should be taken that they are in proper trim. As each
bird is cooped, it should be carefully examined to see that there are no
symptoms of disease, or any foul feathers in the plumage. Then take
a sponge and carefully wash the comb, wattles, face, and legs with a mix-
ture of equal parts of sweet oil and alcohol, applying as little as is possible
to procure the desired effect—which is, by the way, a remarkable brighten-
ing of the comb, wattles, and face, giving them a rich, healthy, and bright
appearance, and imparting to the legs a beautiful gloss, which brings out
their color with good effect.
66
If these instructions are carefully followed, you will hardly recognize
in the smart, clean-looking bird that graces the exhibition coop the soiled
and dull-appearing fowl you began fitting three weeks before.
It may
require a certain amount of time to attend to these details properly, but
you will feel amply repaid by beholding the prize-card on your coop and
having your brother fanciers comment upon the fine condition of your
birds.
66
((
It should be remarked," Mr. Weir continues, "that Theodore Hewes
has done excellent service in so forcibly calling, it is to be hoped, a lasting
attention to some of our most beautiful as well as useful breeds of fowls.
It is true that some have attempted to disparage their valuable qualities
and to ignore their beauty, making good the old adage that 'Where
The Hamburgs
955
ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise.' They who know the birds and
their many and enchanting ways, their habits and alertness, combined
with their decorative appearance and remunerative good qualities, must
indeed feel deeply
the lamentable
want of perception
that can and does
set aside such well-
beloved and useful
old favorites, pre-
ferring the mongrel
monstrosities cun-
ningly made and
foisted on 'the
fancy' for commer-
cial purposes.
This, too, at a time
when the worldly
wise, all too-often
elated with a fleet-
ing success, call
loudly such devia-
tion from the
narrow road of truth and honesty-progress."
But the poultry breeder often cares not, so long as a variety is-
new. He forgets that, but to remember that change does not always
mean progress. The swimmer who lets go one plank before he has got a
better is very likely to drown. And so it is that fashion decrees much that
is useless.

Photograph by A. W. Scott
SILVER-SPANGLED HAMBURG COCKEREL
Graceful and elegant as the Spangled and Penciled Hamburg is,
it is pleasurable to find that American fanciers are not only recognizing
this, but also its usefulness as an abundant layer of pure-white eggs.*
A club has been formed, and an illustrated book has been issued with
exhaustive articles on the breed, by Theodore Hewes, and a historical
résumé from the well-known pen of Dr. H. P. Clark, who most lucidly
describes its antiquity. To give an idea of the intention, it would be
*"The Book of the Hamburgs." By Theo. Hewes.
956
The Poultry Book
well to quote briefly from the preface. Mr. Hewes states that: "In
furnishing this work on the Hamburgs, I have a twofold object in view.
First, to give the amateur as thorough a knowledge of this breed as possible,
and, second, to assist in popularizing one of our best varieties of fowls. I
have tried to give the lovers of this meritorious breed a book that will
assist them in their efforts to improve it in a general way, and one that will
aid the amateur to avoid many of the pitfalls with which he is continually
confronted in the mating and selecting of exhibition stock. I am firmly
convinced that a better understanding of the breed is all that is necessary
to popularize it as a leader among the small varieties. Heretofore they
have not been popular in this country, from the fact that breeders and
editors have not given them the attention they deserve. They are re-
markably good layers of fair-sized eggs; they are interesting and attractive,
no matter how carelessly bred; and there is no bird in the Standard to-day
that will give the fancier a better opportunity of trying his skill, and but
few, if any, which will respond more quickly to scientific mating.
Lasic.
www.
From a drawing
IDEAL SILVER-SPANGLED HAMBURGS
""

THE REDCAP *

HIS is the modern name for a very old English breed of
fowl, whose origin is now unknown. Not many years
ago, under the name of Coral, it was one of the favorite
breeds in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Staffordshire, and some
parts of Cumberland. For some reason, it never gained
so high a reputation in the southern counties, in spite of its excellent
qualities. It has been asserted that this was one of the breeds used by
Sir John Sebright to produce his well-known Gold-spangled, now Gold-
laced, Seabright Bantams. This is just possible, judging from the full
rounded shape and rose-comb of the breed, since the original Seabrights
were spangled, not laced, as at the present time. The Redcaps were
known by many different names in as many different localities, such as:
Copheads, Corals, corrupted into Creoles, Rosetops, Redheads, Redcaps,
Derbyshire Redcaps, and Yorkshire Ever-layers. They are quite distinct
from the Hamburg fowl (now so called), either the spangled or barred, as
already shown in my description of these varieties. As table birds they
are of good quality, though smaller than is generally required for market
purposes, the cocks weighing seven to eight pounds, and as much as nine
pounds in exceptional cases. Generally, the larger birds are not so well
colored and marked as the lesser. In habit they are lively, alert, and given
to roaming, being excellent flyers, and in disposition shy and somewhat
wild unless thoughtfully managed.
C
Many farmers prefer this breed to the Hamburg, considering it heavier
and of better shape as a table fowl. When the Redcaps can have a large
run or freedom, they do exceedingly well, but, like Hamburgs, they are
impatient of confinement, and subject to many diseases. Even in smaller
runs, they may be kept to advantage, provided due care is taken to give a
daily supply of vegetable diet and cresses, or some substitute for insect
life. The Redcap of late years has lost caste, excepting in some districts,
*This account of the Redcap has been revised, to meet American conditions, from
the chapter in Mr. Weir's latest work. While this breed has been admitted to the
American Standard of Perfection, it is not a common fowl in this country.-EDITOR.
957
958
The Poultry Book
such as Derbyshire, where prizes are still offered for the pure breed, now
becoming somewhat scarce by reason of the craze for crossing every
variety, be it good, bad, or indifferent. The cock is a very handsome bird
of good mien, erect, carrying the head and tail somewhat high. The latter
is full, large, and sickled, with long, well-curved feathers, the side hangers
being more numerous than in most breeds; the shoulders are broad; body,
medium length, round, with a full deep breast; the thighs and legs, medium
length and fleshy; the shanks, fine in bone; feet, well spread; toes, rather
long, with hind toe resting on the ground; the shanks, blue; spurs, set low;
neck, rather short than long, and well set on the shoulders; the head, rather
thick at base, but tapering toward the beak, which is somewhat curved
and stout; the most noticeable point being the comb and wattles, the
former representing the truest form of what is termed the rose-comb.
The old-time endeavor was to get this perfectly circular, without the point
at the back, just like a full-blown rose.
Many of the rose-combed fowls of the present time were formerly
termed Rosebuds, etc., the true rose-comb being a circle. About fifty
years ago, many of these were to be seen, and they were held in high esteem,
the full tails and round-made bodies being in unison with the rose cap, which
was filled with small, or middle-sized spikes, and was very red, presenting
a remarkable appearance. Now, for some unknown, unreasonable cause,
it has become fashionable to have an elongated comb of about five inches by
three to four across, with a peak of at least half an inch. This is not by
any means an improvement, and as it has probably arisen from a cross with
the Hamburg, it is a sign of impurity. The shape, looking from the point
of the head, should be a curve, the sides all round lower than the center,
the spikes well grouped in rows, or, at least, in even divisions; the wattles,
rounded, though somewhat pendulous; the deaf ear, full, oval-shaped, and
red; face, comb, and wattles, and whole fleshy part of the head, brilliant
deep red; eyes, large, full, and deep hazel, inclining to bright dark-red;
shanks, feet, and beak, blue or slate color; toe-nails generally whitish.
The ground, or body color, should be deep rich red, the breast clearly
spangled; hackle, very rich dark-red, slightly ticked with black; saddle and
back, rich maroon, inclining to orange-red; wings the same with a black-
spangled bar; tail, black, with lower tail-coverts edged with dark-red;
thighs and belly, nearly black. The opinion has been expressed that these
are the fowls designated "Velvet Breeches" by Bewick, and this is just
The Redcap
959
possible, though scarcely probable. The hens are of the same ground
color, each feather spangled with black; black tails, comb, and wattles,
the same as the cock, but much smaller. As laying fowls, they can suc-
cessfully compete with most breeds, even with the Dutch Every-day
Layers, known as the Penciled Hamburgs. The eggs are white, like those
of the Hamburg, but larger, as the fowl itself is also bigger and more
robust. The flesh flavor is light and delicate-not so rich as the Langshan,
for example. The chicks when first hatched are of a mahogany color
with a rather dark stripe. They are lively, and more easily raised than
the Hamburg, but require new grass runs when strong chickens are desired.
They do not obtain their markings until they have their real plumage, and
the cocks are more handsome the second year, but in the third they attain
their full beauty and maturity. Judging from appearances, they will ere
long prove to be more in demand, and there is just a possibility of their
becoming a popular fad. Fashion rules the poultry throng more than
quality, which is known to exist, but is scarcely understood, except by
the few.

fot
* But tout but you wa
jduŋ
Said by Cricil
From a drawing
IDEAL SILVER-PENCILED HAMBURGS
THE HOUDAN *
REV. C. E. PETERSEN, Maine
HE origin of the Houdan is clouded in obscurity. After years
of careful research, I can find no authentic information on
the subject. This is not to be wondered at, as we find the
same difficulty in tracing the origin of breeds that have come
into existence long after the Houdan was even known by
the name it now bears. The origin of this name is well known, as it is
simply taken from a town in France bearing that name, and from which
place it was first imported; but what name the fowl went under before
that time is another matter. The first public mention of the Houdan, by
its present name, was in The Journal of Horticulture, June 3, 1862. There
were also figures of the breed as it then looked. There is no doubt in my
own mind that the breed had existed in France long before 1862. All the
noted French writers are almost unanimous in their views regarding this
matter, giving to the Houdan a very early date, making the fowl as ancient
as France itself.

Monsieur P. Megnin, in his valuable treatise, “Élévage et Engraisse-
ment des Volailles," speaks of the origin of the Houdan thus: "The
essential characteristics of the Houdan are a mixed plumage of black and
white, a half crest, and five toes on each foot. This indicates that they
are derived from the common five-toed fowls that existed in the time of
Columella, and which are still met with in the north of France and Bel-
gium, and the old crested race of Caux."
Lewis Wright and other English writers consider that the Houdan is of
recent origin, and that it is a cross between the Polish and Dorking fowls.
I do not agree with this. If the Houdan was of recent origin, and Dorking
blood was used in its make-up, it would assert itself sometime or other in
* This account of the Houdan, by the noted breeder and fancier, the Rev. C. E.
Petersen, of Maine, is without doubt the most complete and comprehensive chapter
ever written on this breed of fowl. Houdan breeders will appreciate it all the more
because it contains a general summary of the methods practised so successfully by the
author himself. Most of the photographs used in this chapter were arranged by Mrs.
Marie S. Petersen, wife of the author.-EDITOR.
961

962
The Poultry Book
the manifestations of Dorking characteristics. Dorking blood may have
been introduced after the Houdan was introduced into England, but little
is known as to the time
it was imported into
England. In a letter,
dated August 27, 1901,
Harrison Weir writes as
follows: "I cannot say
when the Houdan first
came into England. As
long as I can remember,
there has been in the farm-
yards of Kent and Sussex
a fowl similar to the
Houdan, but not under
that name. Some were
imported from France in
1860. I secured some in
1864, and liked them very
much. Part of the first
birds sent over had the
stag-horn comb, and it was
some time before the fancy world settled on the leaf comb. In color,
they were white, mottled with black."

Photograph by C. E. Petersen
"DEFEND YOUR REPUTATION, OR BID FAREWELL TO YOUR
GOOD NAME FOREVER"-MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR
Look at these eggs and ask that again
The first English book on poultry mentioning the Houdan, and then
under the name of "The Normandy Fowl," was Wingfield and Johnson's
"Book of Poultry" published in 1853. They describe the fowl as fol-
lows: "The Normandy Fowls are entirely speckled in black and white;
they have a small erect topknot, drooping backward like a lark-crest.
The plumage of the male bird is much darker than that of the hen. In
shape, they are lengthy, but become contracted toward the tail. The
cock's tail is of great length; his comb and wattles are also of large size.
The chickens are very peculiar, having, at first, perfectly black backs and
white breasts; but they gradually become speckled, like the old birds.
They have five claws, and the skin of the leg is pied black and white.
This, however, turns to a blue leg with a whitish foot in the adult
birds." This, as far as I have been able to discover, is the first

The Houdan
963
published description of any fowl coming within a reasonable certainty
of being the Houdan.
In his book on poultry (1834), Moubray says, "The genuine Poland.
has five toes." It is more than possible that the bird here mentioned is the
one about which Mr. Weir wrote me, and said, "A bird similar to the
Houdan has existed as long as I can remember in the farm-yards of Sussex
and Kent."
It may be wise to leave the field of speculation here and go back to
the year 1865, when the American history of the Houdan begins. In the
spring of that year, a Mr. Dorose made an importation of some very fine
birds. I. K. Felch, the veteran fancier of the United States, at that time
being interested in this importation, bought most of the progeny from
Mr. Dorose. These he shipped into several States, thus making an early
distribution of well-bred birds. In 1867, at Worcester, Mass., the first
Houdans exhibited in America were seen, and it is of no little interest to
know that the exhibitor was the famous temperance lecturer, John B.
Gough. Mr. Felch, who was
the judge, says: "They were
as evenly broken in black and
white as I have ever seen
them since. Comb was both
what was called 'leaf' and
'antlers.' They were large, fine
birds, much larger than at the
present day." The accompany-
ing illustrations, taken from
The Agriculturist, May, 1867,
will give an idea of what these
early Houdans looked like.
They were much lighter in
color, and the comb of no
established shape. The straw-
berry, leaf-shaped, and antler-
shaped combs, or a mixture of
them all, was the order of
Photograph by C. E. Petersen
HOUDAN CHICKENS FOUR MONTHS OLD
the day. The topknot (for we cannot call it a crest) was small,
straggly, of the all-over-the-head type. In fact, it was not a fancy
ME

964
The Poultry Book
fowl at that day. They were mated for meat and eggs. This
satisfied their French owners more than the beauty of their plumage.
Utility and beauty could not even be imagined by them; the first object
attained, the other side was of little consequence. Since then, such great
improvements have been made in the Houdan by American fanciers
that we should almost be justified in calling the present-day Houdan an
American creation.
The color of the plumage is much darker than in the early importa-
tions. The white mottling in a well-established strain is small and evenly
distributed all over the body of the fowl. The ill-shaped strawberry-like
comb is a thing of the past. In place of it, we have the much neater
V-shaped comb. The honor of this great improvement, as to present
shape of comb, is entirely due to the untiring efforts of America's veteran
Houdan breeder, Daniel Pinckney. His Houdans, for a lifetime, were
well known in every show-room of note in the United States. Inquiring
into the matter, regarding the V-shaped comb, I asked Mr. Pinckney whether
any Creve blood was used by him in fixing this form of a comb. To which
question he answered as here stated: "No Creve blood was used to intro-
duce the V-shaped comb into my strain of Houdans. I began breeding
them in 1871. Several years after, I raised a cockerel which was a very
fine bird, but with a very small V-shaped comb. I mated him to a pen of
hens that also had small combs. From this mating I kept on selecting
and breeding the smallest-combed birds, until I finally established what is
now known as the V-shaped comb. At that time, Capt. James E. White
was an importer and breeder of the Houdan. Making a visit to my home,
he there saw for the first time the V-shaped comb. This he much pre-
ferred to the open-leaf comb, which he said gave the fowl a much more
aristocratic appearance. It was through Mr. White's efforts that the
V-shaped comb was finally adopted by the American Poultry Association,
and the change made in the Standard of Perfection."
This V-shaped comb is now the established and accepted standard of
the Houdan fancy in America. No one desires to go back to the old type,
though there are still some critics that seem to think that the "leaf" is a
Houdan characteristic, and ought to be bred. I think differently, and so
does every other Houdan breeder in this country. The V-shaped comb
has come to stay, while the "leaf" has gone forever.
If there has been any failure on the part of some of our American
The Houdan
965
The English Stand-
eighteen points for lack
following weights: Cock,
pounds; cockerels, six
six to seven pounds;
pounds. It then adds,
better." Our Standard
lowered the weight,
time, it calls for cocks at
six pounds; hens, six
pounds. Even these
exhibition halls at the
exhibited under-than
miserable apology for
and best table fowls ever
country. I shall always
tinent remark made by
disappointed exhibitor,
class at the Boston show he had passed without any mention whatever.
When approached by the exhibitor about the matter, Mr. McGrew, who
had done the judging, said, "I do not pass on Leghorns in the Houdan
class." The birds were not any larger.
Houdan fanciers, it certainly has been in neglecting the all-important
point, size. I well remember some of our early experiences when I laid
the foundation of our strain. I was desirous to obtain birds of good size
and true Houdan shape, but everywhere I failed most woefully. Finally,
I had to make an importation, and got all I wanted in this respect. The
females, in size, dwarfed whatever stood up against them. In shape, they
represented the ideal bird we had so much coveted. In 1875, the Stand-
ard gave ten points for
size, while our present-
day Standard makes
only six points. If I
am rightly informed, in
the next edition of the
Standard the scale will
be dropped altogether.
ard makes a cut of
of size, and calls for the
from eight to nine
to seven pounds; hens,
pullets, five to six
"if larger, so much the
has continuously
until, at the present
seven pounds; cockerels,
pounds; pullets, five
weights are scarce in the
present time, more being
over-weight. This is a
one of the most beautiful
introduced into this
remember a very per-
T. F. McGrew to a much-
whose birds in the pullet

IN THE HOUDAN YARD
THE HOUDAN AS A UTILITY FOWL
As to the value of the Houdan for utility purposes, there is much to
be said in its favor. In fact, it would be hard to say too much. And, if

966
The Poultry Book
it was not for our American fad of yellow skin and legs, I sincerely doubt
whether there would be a more popular breed in America to-day. As it is,
it is gradually coming more
and more into favor. Where,
a few years ago, the Houdan
was not seen outside of our
large exhibits, like New
York and Boston, there is
hardly a show anywhere at
the present time within the
bounds of the United States
or Canada where exhibition
displays of Houdans may
not now be seen. The climax
was reached at Boston in
1900, where 135 specimens
were on exhibition. That
the establishment of the
American Houdan Club in
1898 did much to popular-
ize this most excellent fowl
is an undisputed fact, but
the fowl itself has the qual-
ities in it that will make it
popular wherever it is intro-
duced and given a fair trial.
It is not only beautiful, but
There are

Photograph by C. E. Petersen
A HOUDAN PULLET
Too dark for exhibition, but which will molt into a standard colored hen
in every particular a useful fowl for domestic purposes.
none better.
A few of the many points of true excellence it possesses are these:
1. Quick to grow and feather as a chick, making broilers almost as soon
as the Wyandotte, Plymouth Rock, or Brahma. 2. Fertility of eggs,
nearly every one producing a chick under favorable conditions. 3. Early
laying of pullets. 4. Great productiveness of the females. Hens, three
to five years old, lay nearly as well as when they were young. 5. Large-
ness of its egg, and the pure white shell. 6. Ease of confinement and per-
fect contentment in restricted quarters. 7. Perfect quality as a table
The Houdan.
967
V
fowl, both as to flavor of flesh and the very small percentage of waste
when dressed, the loss being only about one-eighth part. 8. Small
eaters. 9. Hardy of constitution, adapting themselves to all kinds of
climates and conditions. 10. Good winter layers when given any kind of
decent care and attention. Surely, these qualifications are enough to
entitle the Houdan to better recognition.
That objections have been made to its crest I cannot deny, nor
pass by without mention. It has been said by those who do not favor
the Houdan that, if it is left out in cold rain-storms, the crest becomes
water-soaked, and colds and sickness follow. I know from experience
that the Houdan is not more likely to suffer from rain-storms than any
other breed. They can stand as much exposure as, or perhaps more than,
most other breeds. They are hardy and robust of constitution. Sickness
is almost unknown to
them. We must have
hardy fowls in Maine,
where zero weather is the
order of the day, and not
the exception. The crest
is a great help in winter to
shield the comb from
freezing. In this way, it
becomes a help in cold
climates to increased egg-
production. Another ob-
jection has been made
because of a white skin
and pinkish-white feet.
The American public
demands a fowl with
yellow skin and feet.
As this is simply a fad, it
is hardly worth taking
into consideration. The
Houdan, when dry-picked

Photograph by C. E. Petersen
A STANDARD COLORED FEMALE HOUDAN
and put up as it ought to be, makes a handsome carcass and finds a
ready market.
968
The Poultry Book
In an editorial in the Baltimore Sun, George O. Brown writes as fol-
lows on the merit of the Houdan fowl: "In the great rush for new crea-
tions in poultry, the sterling qualities of the Houdans and other well-
established breeds are being sadly overlooked by the new generation of
fanciers. The booming of new breeds has not only become a fad, but a
veritable science, from an advertising point of view. The excellence of
Houdans as table fowls is not equaled by any other breed. The breast
meat is of rich, juicy, tender quality, free from stringiness. The bones,
for the size of the carcass, are unusually small. The Houdan chicks are
thrifty, hardy, rapid growers, showing great vigor when first hatched.
The eggs of the Houdans are pure white, and so large that it seems a sac-
rifice to sell them by the dozen, when compared with the size of eggs of
other breeds, except possibly the Black Spanish. The fertility of Houdan
eggs is simply remarkable; often every egg that is put in a nest hatches—
in fact, their hatching qualities are not surpassed by any other breed. It
is to be hoped that much stress will be given to the fact that Houdans
are a utility breed in as strong a degree as they are fancy. If the breed
had received as much attention as the Plymouth Rocks and some other
breeds have, Houdans would to-day stand as high in utility as any breed.
The fact that the legs of the Houdan are bluish-white should be no draw-
back. The real test of excellence or desirable qualities of a table fowl is in
the eating after they are cooked. A yellow leg may be admired on a dressed
fowl in some sections more than others, but it is in no way an indication of
desirable quality. In France-a nation of epicures the characteristic
color of the legs and the five toes are a certificate of quality. A dressed
turkey is almost identical in color with the carcass of a dressed Houdan.
No one disputes the quality of a good cooked turkey on account of color
of legs or carcass. Knowledge is a great dispeller of prejudice, even when
the prejudice is handed down from one generation to another, without
attempt at investigation.
"One thing that used to be classed as against the Houdans was their
non-incubating qualities. Now that incubators and brooders are so
popular, and in such universal use, that characteristic further enhances
the Houdans' value. Complaint used to be made that their eggs were too
large—that they spoilt the sale of eggs of other breeds. There are plenty of
sources where Houdans and their eggs may be sold at prices above general
retail market prices. There are plenty of people who are always ready to
-
The Houdan
969

BIG HERE THE F
- AND W
S AND FASTNATE TO DO TEDENTED THE EARED
-
"
ENTERADEN THE STATION BE THE TEATE THE ONE MONTH
BETROTHERMATEMATITE C
..
-
THE
Within
DEMANDE ESTANTE OTHER AND THE RESTORED TRENGETE PUTE
COUNTRY, IN THE SIXTIES
An unpardonable crest nowadays, but still seen
prende a tres ve
THERE ARE THEY
The "
ONS AND
•
{
4
WE WERE
From an old woodcut, by permission
HOUDAN MALE AS IT LOOKED WHEN FIRST IMPORTED INTO THIS
purchase extra quality in fowls or eggs, and who are willing to pay an extra
price for the same. Superior quality and size in any commodity command
their worth over smaller or less desirable articles. In these days, when
poultrymen are giving their flocks humane, sanitary, and business atten-
tion, by providing good houses, scratching-sheds, runs, etc., and giving a
healthful, varied diet, there is no reason why crested breeds should not
-
:
970
The Poultry Book
prove as healthy as other breeds. One thing that has resulted in belittling
the Houdans is the miserable specimens that have been exhibited around at
agricultural fairs-speci-
mens which were in reality
a libel on the size and
appearance of the breed.
. At one time, farmers were
so prejudiced against
Jersey cattle that they
were called fancy cows,
and were not considered
in a utility degree at all.
The farmers simply did
not know their utility
worth. Now they do, and
many dairy herds are
almost entirely composed
of Jersey cows.
"The Houdans,
because of their uniform
mottled black-and-white
plumage, their showy
crests and beards,
beards, or
muffs, and their five-toe
peculiarity, are conspicu-
ous objects, or, in other words, because their make-up renders them
handsome, are concluded to be fancy fowls only; but they are just as
deceiving as the Jersey cow. Their attractive looks are not their only
desirable qualities: a real utility worth goes hand-in-hand with them.
The French people, as before stated, are epicures, and all their breeds of
poultry, though generally odd in appearance, possess the very highest
degree of useful or desirable utility merit."

Photograph by C. E. Petersen
73
HOUDAN PULLET, "BONNIE LASS
First. Boston, 1900, and winner of many other prizes. Bred and owned
by Rev. C. E. Petersen, Maine
Such unstinted praise from a man who knows should do much to
convince the poultry-loving public of the great value of this breed for
utility purposes. Another great authority on the merits of our different
breeds is Michael K. Boyer, whose name as a poultry expert on all matters
pertaining to the subject is familiar in the United States and England.
The Houdan
971
He makes this statement regarding the Houdan as a utility fowl: "I bred
Houdans for several years both in Virginia and in New Jersey, and found
them excellent layers. The objection to the color of their eggs, which
was white, was greatly offset by their size. I even had customers, who
were brown-egg cranks, that would pick out our large white Houdan eggs
in preference. The Houdan is not only a good layer, but her eggs are re-
markably fertile. For winter layers, if provided with a good warm
house and fed plenty of nitrogenous food, they are equal to the best. I
would like to see the Houdan fowl more popular than it is. It is the best
French breed that we have, and should be more universally bred here in
America."
A noted English breeder, Henry Thornber, in an article contributed
to "The Book of Poultry," among other things in regard to the Houdan as
a utility fowl, says: "There
can be no question of the
value of this breed as
layers and as table breeds.
A properly reared and
properly fed Houdan of a
good laying strain, hatched
in March or April, should
commence to lay in Octo-
ber, and should be laying
three eggs per week by
the end of November.
From my experience, I
find that they soon run
up to four eggs per week,
generally about the latter
end of January or middle
of February. After this,
according to my egg-
recording books, there
seems to be no increase
in the number per week
until about the middle of April, when there has been an increase
for most of my pullets to five eggs per bird per week, which high

Photograph by C. E. Petersen
A WELL-SHAPED FEMALE HOUDAN CREST

972
The Poultry Book
rate has lasted till about the middle of June. Toward the latter
end of June, there has been a diminution to three per week, and
by the end of July I have been having only two per week per
bird. After this latter month the laying quickly ceases, and the birds
go into molt, which, with a little care and the use of Douglas mixture,
should not last more than about five weeks. They come on to lay again
very quickly after the completion of the molt, and, according to the be-
havior of my birds, there seems to be practically no shrinkage in their lay-
ing powers during their second year of laying, although they start laying
rather later, and continue until a later part of the year. The succeeding
molt, after the second year's laying,
appears more prolonged and more
exhausting, and I find a very con-
siderable reduction in the number of
eggs afterward. My laying-stock
average per annum has varied from
160 to 189 eggs. I get a number
of eggs of quite a tinted appear-
ance, rather deeper than cream
color, among the rest, the majority
of which are snow-white; yet the
birds are all bred the same, and
have been so for some years. I
have never been able to account
for it.

Photograph by C. E. Petersen
A STANDARD SHAPED FIFTH TOE
"Selected birds have done
much better than the above. My breeding fowls are kept in pens,
each comprising seven pullets or hens and a cock, in pretty large
runs. There are five of these breeding - pens, which are also fed a
little differently from the general flock. Thirty-five birds, selected
to breed from as good layers, have averaged for four years, counting from
November 1 to November 1, as follow: 1896-7, all from pullets, 207;
1897-8, about 20 per cent. hens, the rest pullets, 203; 1898-9, about 25
per cent. hens, the rest pullets, 208; 1899-1900, all from pullets, 226. I
consider a Houdan worthy of the name of a layer when she lays 200 eggs
between the beginning of the November after being hatched and the
beginning of the following November."
The Houdan
973
CHARACTERISTIC POINTS OF THE HOUDAN
THE COCK.—A Houdan cock, fully grown, should not weigh less than
seven pounds, the Standard requirement. That weight should have been
attained when the bird is in good breeding condition. Size, in a Houdan,
is of great importance. I would emphasize this requirement by having
the Houdan Club instruct its judges never to give the blue ribbon to an
undersized bird, male or female.
In form, the Houdan is a squarely built fowl, somewhat resembling
the Dorking in shape; a fairly long body, indicative of a good supply of
breast meat; low on the feet, the hock coming nearly up into the fluff of
the body. The shoulders, saddle, and back are very wide. The latter
straight with a slight drooping toward the tail, which should be carried
moderately low and abundantly furnished with saddle and sickle feathers.
A Houdan with an upright tail is not in good taste with the massive build
of the breed. The breast should be conspicuous for breadth and fullness.
When I say fullness, I mean a good rounded breast, coming well forward;
the breast-bone deep in the keel, extending from the forepart toward the
tail, that there may be ample room for the production of flesh. The wing
should be carried well up, properly developed, large, heavy, and muscular.
The thighs large, with legs firm, of medium length, and moderately thick.
The fifth toe should be quite distinct, well developed, and curving gently
upward.
The head should be of medium size, carried well up, and surmounted
by a large crest composed of evenly mixed black and white feathers; in
texture they should be similar to those of the hackle, falling well back-
ward upon the neck and sides of the head, incasing, as it were, the head
in a half-circle. It should not be of the topsy-turvy kind, with feathers
in it, standing up straight, and front falling forward over the eyes of the
bird, but a crest perfectly smooth, high in front, making a natural back-
ground for the comb, falling backward upon the neck in an unbroken
mass.
This is the crest of a well-bred Houdan, giving style and finish to the
whole bird.
The beard should be strongly developed and pendulous in shape; it
should be long and full-not a few feathers curling upward between the
wattles, with a split or division in the middle. The muffling should be

974
The Poultry Book
in abundance, hiding the ear-lobes and almost covering the face, curving
upward to the back of the eyes, and there joining the crest.
The comb must be V-shaped, the smaller the better, but well defined;
natural absence of comb is not to be desired. Free from side springs or
extuberances of any kind.

From a sketch by Harrison Weir
PRIZE HOUDAN COCKEREL, 1897
The English type, and the butterfly comb; not bred in America
The Houdan
975
The Houdan hen, like the cock, should be a full, square-bodied bird,
weighing not less than the required six pounds; seven or eight pounds
would be still better. She should have a broad, straight back, sloping
imperceptibly toward the tail. The crest should be large, globular, full,
and compact, with the feathers closely overlapping, and enough of them
to more than fill your hand. Females with fallen crests should be dis-
carded. An evenly mixed crest of black and white is, of course, here, as
in the male bird, to be desired. The comb, as in the cock, V-shaped, but
very much smaller; in a well-bred specimen, the crest should almost hide
it. Short but stout shanks; fifth toe well developed, and, as in the cock,
curving gently upward.
The color of the plumage, in both male and female, should be black
and white, black to predominate, and of a good greenish tint. The white
should be clear, without the slightest tinge of straw color; the frosty and
grayish mixture, which is neither black nor white, should not be
present. There is also a kind of black, with a rusty tinge to it,
that is not at all desirable; neither is the only too much prevalent
purple-black, and where there is also bronze-bars present it is, of
course, a good deal worse.
The Standard calls for black and white, evenly mixed, in the propor-
tion of three black feathers to one white. This is the stumbling-stone to
so many fanciers. They will continue to exhibit birds that are too dark
in color. These birds are all right in the breeding-pen, but it is not what
the Standard calls for, nor is it Houdan color. Yet a bird may be very
dark and, for all that, be evenly mottled with white all over the body
This is the kind of mottling we desire. No judge will pass such a bird for
being too dark in color, neither is such a bird likely to fail in her first moult
nor in the breeding-pen. It makes a great deal of difference whether the
white is all in one or two places or evenly distributed all over the body.
A feather all black with a little pure white on the end is what makes a
beautifully spangled bird, and all right for breeding, as well as for exhibi-
tion purposes. On the other hand, a bird with great splashes of white
here and there on the body, with wings of a color that the Standard does
not call for, any more than all black splashed all over with white, de-
scribes fairly well what I mean. Such a bird is not fit to exhibit, and use-
less in the breeding-yard. Wingbows and secondaries black. Primaries
black and white. The feet should be pinkish-white, mottled with black.
976
The Poultry Book
The eye a bright red. In characteristic, wide awake and alert in all its
movements.
HOW TO MATE FOR THE BEST RESULTS
The first essential to future success is the perfect health of the birds
from which the breeding-pen is to be made up. And of such vital impor-
tance is this selection of healthy spirited birds, that if neglected will simply
invite absolute and complete failure and disappointment after disappoint-
ment in future operations. We might have ever so fine a bird, but if it
lacks in constitution it is of no value in the breeding-pen. Every chance
is in favor of such a bird transmitting its own lack of constitution. Usu-
ally there is not enough strength and vitality for the transmission of some
of the good points it possessed. And still worse, her undesirable qualities
would be intensified. Line-breeding must be resorted to so as to obtain
best results and fasten the distinctive qualities and characteristics of the
birds, so they will reproduce themselves. If in the very beginning of the
formation of a strain, weakly and unhealthy blood is introduced, the
result will, of a necessity, be fatal to success. Inbreeding, therefore,
without good material and skilful application, is useless; with both it is
almost irresistible.
-
-
The females should, as near as possible, be of the same type. What-
ever their faults are in other respects, as far as type is concerned they
should be uniform. By so doing, and securing a male bird of true Houdan
shape and type, we shall obtain that uniformity of character so notice-
able in a first-class strain.
-
The first thing of importance in the male bird is size. He should
never be below the Standard weight, and if two or more pounds over so
much the better. He should have no grave defect of either body or limbs.
Good, well-formed feet in the male bird is of the first importance. On
this point I find his influence very potent.
I consider the crest of great importance in the male. I would never
use a small-crested bird for stock purposes.
J
In color, I prefer a male darker than the Standard calls for, of a good
greenish, glossy black, with as good a clear white mottling as is to be
obtained.
In temperament, he should have a great deal of vivacity and restless
activity. He ought, moreover, to delight in caressing the females, to be
The Houdan
977

MMACU
Lipinsk
THERE ARE THAN MOST
w -
*
From an old woodcut by permission
HOUDAN FEMALE AS SHE LOOKED WHEN FIRST IMPORTED INTO
THIS COUNTRY DURING THE SIXTIES
An undesirably shaped crest, yet still seen
gallant in defending them, inviting them to eat, and be incessantly taken
up with his mates. If he is sulky, selfish, persecuting, and domineering,
divorce him immediately. Sometimes an old male exhibits these char-
acteristics and is of little use. In making a choice between two males
equally fine in feathers, always choose the most courageous.
The good qualities of the female are of no less importance than those
of the male. In selecting females to be put in the breeding-yard, a minute

978
The Poultry Book
examination of their combs is of great importance. Never use a female
with a large, ill-shaped comb. In this respect their influence is very
great, however good the male may be in this point.
Never breed from a hen with a curved middle toe; one with a bumble

Photograph by C. E. Petersen
A PEN OF PRIZE HOUDAN HENS IN WINTER
foot should also be avoided. These defects are hereditary. Once bred
into the flock they are difficult to eliminate.
The crest should be well formed. A little topknot will not answer.
A large, smooth, and globular crest, with well-shaped beard and muffling,
is desired. Never use a female with a ragged or a fallen crest if fine,
smooth-crested males are wanted. In wattles, as well as in comb, the
influence of the hen is very potent.
Regarding the age of breeding-stock, we may take for granted, once
and for all, that nothing but mature stock should be used if best results
in vigor and stamina are wanted. My experience has been that two-year-
old birds on both sides give the best results, but fully matured yearling
birds will give good results and can be bred with impunity.
Of course, the breeder of long standing knows the breeding value of
his old stock birds whom he can depend on, while in a pullet mating the
The Houdan
979
breeding value is not so well known. Here it is that the skill of mating
and the value of good blood comes in, but even good blood in unskilful
hands may be ruined, and years of judicious breeding may be upset by
one mistaken cross.
Any one with money enough can buy prize-winning birds, but he can-
not keep them up to their high standard until he understands the art of
breeding. Those who have high-class exhibition birds are most particular
regarding the selection of breeding birds, and will take any amount of
trouble that would be regarded by the inexperienced as unnecessary. So
then, when eggs for hatching are wanted, or stock birds, don't buy as cheap
as you can, but as good as you can afford, and from some established breeder
that has been in the field for years and knows the breed you want by long
and intimate acquaintance. For a dollar saved in buying breeding birds,
or eggs, is, in a good many instances, the other dollars lost. The very best
to be had is none too good.
The subject of mating these birds for the production of stock equal to
the parents is important. Of course, let it be clearly understood that if
one parent fails in any one particular point the bird mated to it should
excel in that point. For instance, if the cock should be a little faulty in
comb, I should mate him to a hen extra good in this particular. If he
should be too short in back, mate him to hens not failing in this respect,
and so on. I may also state that double mating is not necessary what-
ever, as both sexes of the highest merit can be bred from one pen. No
need, in Houdans, for a pen for cockerels and another for pullets. No
breed in existence will breed truer to individual characteristics than the
Houdans.
ܒ
-
My preference is a dark male bird with a good greenish black for
color to put with standard colored females. This mating will produce
good colored birds of both sexes, perhaps a trifle too dark for exhibition,
but they will moult into fine cocks and hens of the kind that will keep their
color for years. If exhibition pullets are wanted—that is, of the kind that
some judges desire, "even mottled white and black," a lightish cockerel
mated with dark hens will give the desired results, but such pullets will go
to pieces, as far as color is concerned, after the first moult.
The mating I like the best and that every time will give the very finest
results is a two-year cock of standard color mated to hens in their second
season who have moulted into the standard colors. Here we have every-

980
The Poultry Book
thing that is desirable, and we are never disappointed in the offspring from
such a mating. As the Houdan cock is a vigorous fellow, care must be
taken to mate him with a sufficient number of females, say from five to
eight, and most every egg will be fertile.
REARING AND MANAGEMENT
Houdan chickens are pretty little creatures when first hatched. In
their black and lemon-colored furry garb, if viewed for the first time, a
breeder may be apprehensive that something is wrong with his chicks.
They don't resemble their parents at all. The black is on their backs,
with a speck or two on their necks and on the top of their heads, while all
the rest of the body is white. One of the first things we notice in a good
strain of Houdans
is that the chickens
have a projecting
poll of fluffy down.
The extent of this
will determine the
size of the future
crest the bird will
have when fully
grown. To some
extent, the same
may be said of the
beard and muffling,
some chickens
having a veritable
cravat under the
front part of the
neck. The fifth toe
is also in full evi-
dence at this early
date. It will show,
beyond a doubt,
its future shape.
Houdan chicks develop feathers with great rapidity. One can almost
see the feathers grow and unfold. The day after hatching, the wing
Photograph by C. E. Petersen
HOUDAN CHICKENS A FEW DAYS OLD
The Houdan
981
feathers are visible. The feathering proceeds at an amazing rate. When
chickens of other breeds are still in their furry garb the Houdan is all but
fully feathered. As growth progresses they grow darker and darker in
plumage. When about three months old, they are a pretty evenly mixed
black and white. The black will continue to increase until, in the mature
bird, we have a plumage such as is required by the Standard. Under
no circumstances will it be wise for the inexperienced breeder to discard
a young bird because of what may, in the beginning, look like a badly
colored bird. As a general rule, if the strain is right the color of the chicks
will be correct. There is one exception to this rule. I have already
mentioned that in the newly hatched chicken a black spot is visible on the
top of the head. If the chicken should be minus this black spot, and the
poll entirely white, one can be sure of a very light-crested adult bird.
Though the body of the bird will gradually grow darker until maturity is
reached, I have never seen the same change take place as far as the poll
is concerned. If a minute speck of black is visible over the bill of the
chick, we will have in the adult bird a crest with a black frontage, but
with too much white in the back. If the black runs up on the head, nearly
meeting the black on the neck, we shall have a dark crest, almost black.
Where the black is found in minute specks, two or three of them, we shall
have an evenly mixed crest. These early manifestations of crest color
are so sure that the experienced breeder can, in most every instance, pick
out the chicks that give promise of future excellence. This, from the very
beginning, makes it possible to separate promising chicks and give them
necessary care.
·
Now and again a chick will first appear with spots of a reddish-brown.
These will all disappear, without leaving a trace as the bird grows older.
In my opinion, this is the old theory of a "thrown back" to the common
ancestor of the fowl-tribe, Gallus Bankiva. I do not know a single breed
that will not now and again produce the original red. When a violent
cross is made from another strain, the red spots are more apt to appear
than in a strain of years standing. No strain can be said to be absolutely
immune from this curious reappearance of early characteristics in former
ancestors.
The rapidity with which the Houdan chick develops its feathers
emphasizes the necessity of good, nutritious food. In this respect, many
breeders of the Houdan fail to bring their birds up to the required Standard

982
The Poultry Book
size. We say size knowingly, for if the size is there, a bird in good breeding
condition will be up to the Standard weight also. The drain on the system
at this time is great. If proper food is not given them, the results will

Photograph by C. E. Petersen
FIRST HOUDAN HEN AT BOSTON, 1902, 1903
Special for shape and color. Bred and owned by C. E. Petersen
be under-sized specimens. Give them all they require, and no more.
Good, sound food, fresh water, grit, and common sense in their adminis-
tration, is all a Houdan chick will need.
It is a saying at the National Poultry Company establishment in Eng-
The Houdan
983
land that "you cannot kill a Houdan chick." It is literally true. Energetic,
vigorous, active, always on the move, it will subsist where some breeds
would starve. An American writer once said: "If there is a hole in your
garden fence, a Houdan chick will be the first to find it. If the poultry-
yard gate blows open, the Houdan chick will be the first out." No need
of coddling that kind of chicks; they are born with a desire to live and to
take their own part in "the struggle for existence."
I do not feed them the first twenty-four hours after they leave the
shell. The majority do not need any food until then. The rest will not
suffer by waiting a few hours longer. For the first meal, I give them a
little fine grit, after which I feed them bread and milk for the first week or
two—that is, crumble the bread and moisten it with milk. Notice I said
moisten, not wet it. This, in my experience, will clear the crop and
gizzard as no other food. It may be followed with pin-head oatmeal,
cracked wheat, millet, and any other small grain the chicks can put away.
I use a great deal of hulled oats. I know of no better frame-builder for
the youngsters. Green bone may be used sparingly, if it is to be had.
From the time the chicks are hatched, I mix just a little bonemeal in their
food. It is a fine ingredient to help growth. Wherever it is used, there
will be few or no complaints of bowel trouble or leg weakness. Early
hatched chicks must be provided with green food of some kind. Lettuce
can be sown in a shallow window-box. When a few inches tall it will supply
all the green food needed. These early chicks should also be fed their last
one or two meals by lamplight. Chicks hatched in February and March,
for the fall exhibitions, will need this extra care. Night, this time of the
year, is much too long for chicks to go without food. They soon learn to
know what the gleam of the lantern ineans, and will come running out
from under the hen or brooder-hover to get their last meal.
When the mother shakes off her chickens, they must be moved to
quarters where they will not crowd one another. They will thrive best if
kept in small flocks. A lot of light-colored birds I have always found to
be the final result where a number of half-grown chicks were kept in ill-
ventilated, crowded quarters where the heat was extreme. There is no doubt
that the growing chickens do best where each brood can be acccmmodated
with a separate house and run; but it very frequently happens that the
amount of room at the disposal of the owner does not allow this. When
this is the case, see that all of the chickens are of the same age, or nearly
984
The Poultry Book
SO.
Chickens of larger growth will crowd out their younger companions
and gorge themselves with food unless special provision is made so that
all will get their proper share.
I watch carefully the growth of the crest as soon as it appears. Those
that promise well are separated from the others. They need attention and
particular care in feeding. As their crests develop, day by day their
opportunity for fair treatment in sharing the daily rations grows. I have
found, by experiment, that these large-crested pullets will not once in
ten times get a morsel of food if thrown among the chicks piece by piece.
If the birds are not to be used or sold for exhibition, the matter is
easily adjusted by cutting away the crest from around the eyes. This, of
course, is out of the question where the birds are to be used for exhibition
purposes. Some of the best-crested birds I ever saw in the exhibition halls.
of this country failed in size. To my mind, there is no doubt that it was
owing to lack of attention in feeding. This treatment is needed only for
the pullets. The differently shaped crest in the cockerel never obscures
its vision to the same extent as with the crested exhibition pullet. The
Houdans bred for utility purposes only need, of course, no such attention.
Their crests usually are not large enough to be a hindrance in their develop-
ment. To get fine birds, the cockerels, at from eight to ten weeks old,
should be separated from the pullets. They should not be allowed to
perch too soon, as the result is likely to end in crooked breast-bones.
A week or two later, the whole of the youngsters should be carefully
scanned, and all but the really promising ones should be disposed of.
Twisted or fallen crests, deficiency or deformities of toes, crooked breasts,
backs, and beaks, will of course preclude any idea of prize-winning. These
defects will, of course, not be found in a well-established strain of Houdans,
where careful selection has been the rule for years. Do not, at this time,
discard any birds that may seem deficient in crest or beard development.
They will continue to fill out and develop until mature. In fact, the crest
and beard will be finer and better after the first moult. Houdans improve
in beauty as they grow older. It is very common to have cockerels fully
three parts fledged before the beard is developed to any great extent.
When three months old the birds are large enough to show with absolute
certainty their future exhibition or breeding qualities. Birds that at this
time give full proofs of their value as show specimens must be separated
and given special attention in feeding and care. Their quarters must be
The Houdan
985
kept scrupulously clean. Plenty of straw and a good dust-bath will keep
the plumage clean. There is nothing that will clean a bird so neatly as
straw.
If a
At this time it is of great importance to look after the crest.
large and well-developed crest is desired, carefully go over it and remove all
awry feathers. With the finger-nail, open the sheath enveloping parts of
the feathers. It is astonishing the difference this makes in the growth
and filling out of
the crest. This
care is responsible,
to a great extent,
for that perfect
crest development
SO necessary in
an exhibition
specimen. Wash-
ing the crest with
water in which a
little carbolic soap
has been dissolved
will clean the scalp
and keep away
intruders. Another
important matter
at this time is
to see that
drinking-fountains
are used in which
they cannot im-
merse their crests. If this is not done, the crest will become draggled
and unsightly, falling over the eyes. When this occurs, the birds
will pull the feathers out of each other's crests.

AS
(6
Spe
BETAN
Sketchs from
Life Fif
Louis
6.
우원하
​THE NOTED SIRE AND UNDEFEATED HOUDAN
SHOW-BIRD, DANBURY
Bred and owned by C. E. Petersen
;;
1900.
11520
PREPARING FOR EXHIBITION
'Very few men are wise by their own counsel, or learned by their own
teaching; for he that was taught by himself had a fool for his master."
Remembering this wise saying of Ben Jonson, I have given my own methods
986
The Poultry Book
in preparing Houdans for exhibition, and those of others, gathered from
various sources. As the show season approaches, the birds should be sepa-
rated. Give them a rather
more liberal diet, but excess
should be strictly avoided.
There should be no approach
to fattening, if you do not
want to ruin the birds for
future use in the breeding-
yard. A single coop should
be given each specimen,
if possible, as this will
facilitate handling and
encourage tameness in the
specimens prepared for ex-
hibition. Very often really
good birds are passed by
the judge simply because
they are of a wild or timo-
rous nature, crouch in the
corners of the coop, and
look their worst instead of
their best. Many an ex-
hibitor knows this too well.
On the other hand, a tame,
well-trained bird will stand
upright in front of the coop,
appearing pleased to court
observation.

HOUDAN COCK, THE CHAMPION CHALLENGE CUP
WINNER AT BOSTON, 1003
Bred and owned by C. E. Petersen, Maine. Pronounced by expert judges to be the
best Houdan male shown in America. A great grandson
**
of the noted sire" Danbury"
I begin handling my
birds when they are only a few days old. I can pick them up
most anywhere. They seem to like it and seem to know that I am
their friend. Never use a fretty, afraid-of-you, suspicious-of-every-
thing hen for a mother. She will soon teach the whole brood her own
wicked ways and make work harder. Valuable birds are frequently unfitted
for exhibition through untimely loss of their feathers, more particularly
those of the tail. This is mainly caused in small yards by their being
The Houdan
987
constantly worried by tyrannical companions. To get away, the unfortu-
nate bird rushes into corners and out-of-the way places to escape punish-
ment. In a little while the mischief is done. After yarding the birds
intended for exhibition, watch them carefully so as to be sure that they
are on good terms. Wherever conditions are such that it can conveniently
be done, each bird should be penned singly at least one week before exhi-
bition, to receive the finishing touches and get used to the pen. As a good
method of preparing choice cockerels for exhibition, it has been suggested
to place them, like younger
school-boys, under the ken
of a superior and older
monitor, who by his in-
fluence can keep the
youngsters under sur-
veillance. To any one
observant of the manners
and habits of poultry, this
domineering spirit of the
older cocks is naturally
familiar, and forms an
excellent discipline for
training the younger ones.
To those who have regarded
the consequential bearing
of a young cockerel subject
to the delicate attentions
of two or three wide-awake
hens, this must have been
plainly obvious, and has
led more than one suc-
cessful breeder to pursue
this plan of placing, some
days before the intended
exhibition, a promising
cockerel with one or two
hens, thereby bringing him out with no mean opinion of himself,
so that, when he appears at the show, he will, after the previous

Photograph by C. E. Petersen
A FAMOUS PRIZE-WINNING HOUDAN PULLET
Bred and owned by C. E. Fetersen, Maine

988
The Poultry Book
treatment, exhibit his quality and style to the greatest perfection
of Houdan excellence.
In making a pen for exhibition, be careful that the birds match one
another as much as possible in markings, size, crest, and style; the cock
must match in
general appearance
the females he is
to accompany.
If one of the
females should
have a much larger
crest than her
companions, she
will completely
outshine what
otherwise would
have been good
birds. The same
thing is true where
a female is much
larger than the
others.

Never put an
old passé cock in
an exhibition pen.
To the intelligent
breeder it only
shows deficiency
in exhibition
males. I have
always maintained
that the cock unfit to breed from is also unfit to exhibit, and should
be debarred from competition. Fowls should, under no considera-
tion, be sent to a show with their crops full of hard grain. The treatment
of birds on their return from the show-room is frequently of still more
importance. Although a Houdan will stand the fatigue and excitement
of showing as well as most breeds, the feeding and care at many shows are
Photograph by C. E. Petersen
FIRST BOSTON HOUDAN COCK, 1902
Bred and owned by C. E. Petersen, Maine
The Houdan
989
guided more by a sense of convenience than by what is most required
on the part of the birds. Such fowls not properly cared for often evince a
feverish tendency on their return home.
Be careful how the birds are entered, and see that each label is fastened
where it belongs. Be equally watchful that the right bird is put in the
proper place. The day previous to sending the birds to the show, their
crests should be thoroughly washed and their feet carefully cleansed and
polished. A nail-brush will do good service in cleaning their legs. After
drying, a few drops of sweet oil well rubbed into their legs will put a fine
gloss on them, and very much improve their appearance. Do not oil the
red on the male bird, as the slightest exposure to dust will make these
parts look infinitely worse for the operation; diluted vinegar will give the
desired result without any attendant drawback.
Whenever we accompany our birds to the place of exhibition (and we
generally do), we attend to these things the morning the judge is to handle
them. We also see that the water cup is empty, otherwise the birds will
wet their crests, which makes them appear unsightly. From shell to exhi-
bition, it is these little things that bring the bird into full perfection.
The old birds need the same careful attention. A watchful eye should
be kept over them continuously, providing they are to be used for exhibi-
tion purposes. Many a fine Houdan has been ruined by being left to
itself after the show season was over. Particularly during the time of
molting, they need the most attention and the best of care, otherwise a
good crest development is an absolute impossibility. It takes from six
to eight weeks to properly grow a good, full crest. I prefer to have the
birds molt their crest before the rest of the feathers. When I know that
the crest-feathers are dead and dry in the quill, I pluck them all out,
being, of course, careful not to pluck out any feathers in progress of growth,
and there are always some few. All the strength of the bird's system
will be expended in growing the new crest, which, most always, will begin
to grow out in a week's time.
The birds thus treated should be kept in a place where no strong
light will enter. They should be kept separate, otherwise they will work
on the old motto, "Scratch me and I will scratch you." This will usually
end in eating of the budding feathers. During this time (no other time
will do), feed to each bird twice a week as much saccharated carbonate
of iron as will lay on a penny. At the same time, mix a little melted fat
990
The Poultry Book
in the soft food. The result will be surprising. Follow this treatment
during the general molt, but alternate with a tablespoonful of sulphur to
every six fowls-that is, give the carbonate one day and the sulphur
the day following. Don't give the sulphur on wet days. This treatment
will put the bird through an easy and quick molt, and will give the much-
desired glossy, greenish sheen to the plumage. During the period of molt-
ing, we will observe that all fowls are in the habit of cleaning their feathers
from the sheath which covers the webbing while the feathers are growing.
It is impossible for the bird to perform this act to its crest, and unless
personally taken in hand it will often never properly grow a full crest.
During the time the crest is growing, examine the bird occasionally, and
if any of the sheaths of the feathers appear dried up, carefully run your
thumb-nail through it, and in a short time the webbing will properly
expand. All this means time and trouble, but to the genuine fancier,
who is always something of an enthusiast, no trouble is too great as long as
the desired result is attained. When the prize, or cup, is carried off as
the reward, there is the satisfaction of feeling that success was honestly
earned.
Harrison wen
"Det, go?

FAVOROLLES
The property of MR. T. R. ROBINSON.
THE FAVEROLLES *

N a recent article in the American Poultry Advocate Dr. A. H.
Phelps, of New York, said: "Since 1896 there has been
much attention given to this breed of French fowls by
breeders in England, where they have been steadily grow-
ing in the favor of utility poultrymen until the present time.
While there has been no boom or extravagant advertising methods adopted
to force them to the front, as has been the case with Orpingtons and
several recently introduced varieties, yet they have, by reason of their
wonderful rapidity of growth and fine laying qualities, constantly advanced,
and are now so well established that finely marked specimens command
the highest prices of any purely utility bird at all the great shows of Great
Britain. Last season there were scores of Faverolles pullets sold at from
ten to twenty-five pounds each. The last eight years has brought about
great improvement in the birds through the careful and scientific methods
of English breeders, and from the mongrel-colored barnyard fowl of France
has been evolved a definite type which is as fixed and breeds as true as do
Barred Plymouth Rocks or Brahmas.
"The real exhibition specimen of the Faverolles is, however, not to
be found in every chick hatched; they are the exception, just as they are in
Barred Rocks, Light Brahmas, and most other vari-colored breeds. This
comparative rarity of show specimens is not against them, however, as
their desirable utilitarian properties are as fixed as those of any breeds
of fowls in existence. While it is the exception to breed a pullet having
neck feathers free from black and breast pure straw color, and while it is.
not every cockerel that has a pure solid black breast and back of straw,
free from brown; and again, while it is not rare to find that your chicks are
hatched with four toes where the Standard tells you that there ought to
have been five, it is a certainty that you will have a pullet that will lay
eggs all through the cold winter months, and that your cockerel will be
ready for marketing as a broiler or roaster in two-thirds the time required
to bring any other breed in existence to the same stage. The breeder of
* This French breed is growing in popularity in the United States.—EDITOR.
991
992
The Poultry Book
Faverolles will get a fine show bird only occasionally, but he will get a
first-class utility fowl every time.
"The writer owns many thoroughbred imported Faverolles, comprising
each of the varieties of the breed, English Salmon, English Ermine, French
Salmon, French Black, and Blue Faverolles. The English Salmon variety
is the most highly developed and most popular. The cock birds are
marked almost identically like the dark Brahma, the comb is single and of
medium size, while the
face and throat are pro-
tected by a dense whisker-
ing of black feathers,
slightly marked in most
birds with gray; this
whiskering is one of the
fixed characteristics of the
entire breed, and is not
unlike that of the 'Old
Muffle Chops hen' of half
a century ago. It is not,
however, an impediment
to the bird's vision, and
possesses none of the dis-
advantages of the breast
feathering met with in the
Houdan and Polish breeds.

Photograph by A. W. Scott
SALMON FAVEROLLE COCK
Owned by Dr. A. H. Phelps, New York
"It is, in fact, a
valuable protection to the
bird's throat and face
during cold weather and contributes much to the natural hardiness of the
breed. The breast underparts and fluff are black, and the short, broad,
Brahma-like tail is of the same color, with a rich greenish luster. The
neck and rump hackles and back are a light straw. The skin and feet
are white, and the shanks are sparingly booted. The hen is in marked
contrast to the cock, having creamy white bearding and breast and brown
hackle, each feather being lightly penciled around the margin with straw
color, the back and wings are salmon colored or wheaten, gradually blending
with the cream color of the breast. A little black appears in the tail and
The Faverolles
993
flight feathers. The comb of the hen is single and very low, scarcely
appearing above the feathers.
(C
Ermine Faverolles resemble Light Brahmas in coloring, while the
French Black Faverolles resemble Langshans, which they equal in size
and very much exceed in rapidity of growth and laying properties. I have
great faith in the future of both the Black and Blue Faverolles and am
preparing a fine breeding-pen of each for the season of 1905. Personally,
I believe these last two varieties to be superior even to the Salmon Faverolles,
and very much superior to any other breed of general-purpose fowls I have
ever had any experience with."
The authorized standard of Salmon Faverolles, prepared by the
Faverolles Club of England, is here quoted by permission.
Cock
Comb.--Upright, single, medium size, four to six neat serrations, free
from coarseness or any side work.
Wattles.—Small, fine in texture.
Beak. Stout and short.
Head.--Broad, flat and short, free from crest.
Neck.-Short and thick, especially near the body, into which it should
be well let in.
Back.-Flat, square, very broad across the shoulders and saddle, and
of fair length. The back of the hen is longer than in the cock.
Breast.-Broad, keel bone very deep and coming well forward in front,
but not too rounded. A hollow breast very objectionable.
Sides.--Deep.
Wings. Prominent in front, but small, and carried closely tucked to
body.
Body.-Thick, deep and cloddy.
Tail.—Feathers and sickles stout, medium length. A flowing tail
carried low or straight objectionable.
Thighs.—Short, wide apart, plenty of body between them.
Shanks. Medium length and stout, straight, slightly feathered down
to outer toe. Knees straight, carried well apart, narrowness or tendency
to be in-kneed very objectionable.
Toes.-Five, the fifth toe totally separate from the fourth.
994
The Poultry Book
HEN
Comb.—Similar to the cock, but much smaller, and very neat and fine
in texture.
Neck. Short and full, carried straighter than in the cock.
Back.-Broad and flat, longer than in the cock.
Breast.-Deep, full and prominent, keel bone longer than in the cock.
Body.-Generally longer and deeper than in the cock.
Tail.-Fan-shaped, feathers broad, stout and medium length, carried
midway between upright and drooping.
Toes.-Same as in cock.
POINTS OF COLOR, ETC.
Cock
Beak.-Horn or white.
Face, Lobes and Wattles.-Red, both partially concealed by muffling.
Beard and Muffling.—Full, wide, short and solid black.
Hackles.-Straw.
Back and Shoulders.-A mixture of black, reddish-brown and straw.
Breast.-Black.
Wings. The wingbow straw, the wingbar black, and the secondaries.
showing white on the outside.
Thighs and Under Fluff.—As black as possible.
Legs and Feet.—White.
Carriage.-Active and alert.
HEN
Beak, Face, Lobes, Wattles, Legs and Feet.-Same as cock.
Beard and Muffling.—Creamy white.
Head and Neck Hackle.-Wheaten brown, striped with same color of
darker shade.
Back and Shoulders.—Wheaten brown.
Wings. Similar to back, but the colors are softer and lighter. Pri-
maries and secondaries wheaten brown.
Breast, Thighs and Fluff.-Cream.
Tail.-Wheaten brown.
Weights.—Cocks, 7 to 8 pounds; hens, 6 to 7 pounds; cockerels,
6 to 7 pounds; pullets, 5 to 6½ pounds.
The Faverolles
995
Bad Combs..
Insufficient Muffling.
Defective Color...
Want of Symmetry
Want of Size...
Want of Condition.
Total....
POINTS TO DEDUCT
Photograph by A. W. Sot:
SALMON FAVEROLLE HEN
Owned by Dr. A. H. Phelps, New York
IO
20
25
20
15
IO
100

THE CRÈVECŒUR *
M
R. WEIR considers this one of the most useful of the French
breeds. The birds are large and handsome in appearance,
and also possess fine table qualities. They are strongly
built, full-breasted, and broad in the back; the thighs
and legs are somewhat short and fleshy, though not hard;
the shanks and feet are nearly black, especially when young, and there is
a general attractiveness in their appearance which goes far to win atten-
tion. The cock has a peculiar beauty in the profusion of the head, throat,
face, and neck feathering, which, partially covering the eyes as it does,
gives a timidity of action generally discernible among the tufted or copped
fowls. The wings are large, the body medium length, and the tail very
full and well sickled; the feathers of the breast, back, and sides are some-
what longer than usual, and have a mellow coolness to the touch; the comb
is peculiar, being divided or forked, having a full base, and stands either
horizontally or at an angle of forty-five degrees. It is purely a matter
of opinion as to which is preferred. However, I like those having the comb
turned toward the top-knot best. The hen has a fairly large rounded top-
knot, with a smaller comb, divided like that of the cock, and a small white
ear-lobe of a pearl color, which is almost hidden by the cheek or face feathers.
It is regrettable that the present "fancy" is to enlarge the head feathering,
not only to an unsightly degree, but so much so as to be a hindrance to
the bird's freedom of action, and in a degree injurious to their health.
This may be remedied by cutting "the preponderance" off, or at least the
side portions, during the breeding season. Still, they are bright and
lively, and excellent foragers, though at times somewhat dazed and over-
weighted with their headgear, especially in wet or dirty weather. I found
them to be excellent layers of fairly large white eggs, and quite as hardy as
most of the feather-crested varieties. They have also the straight beaks
and large, full, open nostrils of the Polish or old Hamburg fowls, and, like

-
* Although not common in America, this splendid French breed is becoming more
popular each year. Crèvecœurs have been admitted to the American Standard of Per-
fection.-EDITOR.
997
998
The Poultry Book
them, are a little inclined to colds and catarrh. The eye is dark, large,
and full. It is a very popular breed in some parts of France. When
staying at St. Servan, Dinan, and St. Malo a few years since, I noticed that
the Crèvecœur was the principal fowl offered for sale in the market, where
they were mostly bought alive, and if unsold carried home, to possibly
reappear on a future day.
Though an old breed, it is not so old as some others, and is not men-
tioned as a distinct one in a list published in 1810. It is known as the
Picardy or Normandy breed, and takes its name from the village of Crève-
cœur, in the Department of l'Oise, where some attention is paid to the
keeping of the breed pure; and it is from this place that the best bred,
the birds having short and thick bodies, can be obtained. It is a good
layer, averaging 110 to 120 eggs per annum, the eggs being of two and
a half ounces' weight.
When the chickens are hatched they are very pretty, showing the tcp-
knot; in color they are black, with white on the breast; and in their first
feathering they not unfrequently have white in the wings and tail, which
generally is moulted out in the nest, and they become a soft, clean, uniform
black. Any tendency to white or speckle must be avoided, and none of
the self-colors matched as breeding-stock; although I bred a considerable
number, there was no white in the adult birds.
The growth of the Crèvecœur chicks is very rapid, and they feather
well; at five to six months old they are fine, fleshy, and well developed. I
have found them to fatten easily; getting into good condition, if well fed,
without being penned, or if so, but for merely a few days to "finish,'
if it was desirable. The breast meat is very white, and the texture good
and juicy—very different, in fact, to that of the close, hard, scaly feathered
Cornish Indian, at the present time so much in "the fashion." The pullets
are especially plump and square, and are much in request, producing high
prices, and deservedly so, for as table fowls they are excellent.
""
Although the hens are good layers, they are not so useful as sitters,
and to avoid disappointment I either used other hens or put the eggs in
the incubator. When the hens became "broody" they were easily pre-
vented, and soon ceased to have the inclination; my usual plan being to
shut two or three together in a coop in another run in company with a
different cock; they are a breed, however, that are impatient of confine-
ment, and require a good run to keep them in full health.
The Crevecoeur
999
M. Ch. Jaque, in Le Poulailler, thus writes of the Crèvecoeur: "This
admirable race produces certainly the most excellent fowls that appear in
the markets of France. Its bones are even lighter than those of the Houdan;
its flesh is fine, short, whiter, and it takes more easily to the fattening
process." (This, by experience, I have found to be correct.) "The
chickens are of an unheard-of precocity; they are ready for fattening when
they have attained two months and a half or three months, and for eating
fifteen days after." These, of course, are quite chickens, and by no means
full grown, and they were equaled in this respect by some of our old Kent,
Sussex, and Surrey fowls, or rather chickens, both in quality and size;
though at the present time the Crèvecoeur have the advantage of squareness
and plumpness, our five-toed breeds having been so persistently crossed
with the Shanghai and the so-called Brahma as to produce a different
shape. "But," continues M. Ch. Jaque, "at five months old a bird of
the breed (Crève) is nearly complete as to size, weight, and quality—the
young fat hens (pullets) at five to six months have attained the weight of
three kilogrammes (six and one-half pounds). It is the Crèvecœur that
make the 'fatted' hens and fine chickens which are sold in the market of
Paris. The Crèvecoeur is the first breed in France for the delicacy of its
flesh and the ease with which it is fattened." As far as my own experience
goes, this praise is not too much; I was perfectly satisfied with them.
M. C. Lemoine says that "in Normandy the raisers only go for the
whiteness of the flesh; they are not concerned about increasing the size
of their birds; the latter are well marked, but they do not attain the re-
markable size of the specimens raised by some amateurs.” And in this the
breeders are perfectly right; it is the foolish craze for size and its consequent
coarseness that has been the bane and the destruction (as far as table
poultry is concerned) of some of our very best breeds. “But,” adds
Lemoine, “on the other hand we must say that these raisers understand
their business perfectly" (far better than we in England). "They com-
mence by selling the eggs at the time when the prices are highest at the
markets of Lisieux, of St. Pierre-sur-Dives, Pont l'Evêque, etc. When
they are cheaper, the eggs are generally hatched under turkey hens, and
the pullets sold at four months old. In order to sell readily they cram
these a fortnight before the market day; the pullet is sold the moment
the food ceases to produce flesh." It would be far more profitable to the
English raiser if he followed more closely the examples set him by our

1000
The Poultry Book
thrifty neighbors. "In short," says Lemoine, "they do not do the rearing,
having other occupations in the month of June. They sell the petits poussins
to persons who are not, properly speaking, raisers, but who keep pullets
for their own consumption, and here they still make a profit."

Photograph by Prof. W. G. Johnson
BLACK LANGSHAN COCK
Owned by R. P. Keasbey, Connecticut
Prize-winner, New York, 1902
THE SILKIES*

HIS is one of the oldest breeds known, although the date of
its origin has been often combated. A variety with naked
shanks and four toes is mentioned by Gesner, who lived
during the first half of the sixteenth century. Aldrovandi,
who wrote on birds in 1645, describes a fowl covered with
hairy wool, like a hen in sheep's clothing.
Willoughby, in his translation of Ray's "Ornithology," 1678, utterly
repudiates the statement as fabulous.
Later, Latham mentions the fowl under the name of Phasianus
lanatus; and a full description of it is to be found in a treatise on the breeding,
rearing and fattening of poultry, 1810: "The feathers, having webs with
no adhesion to one another, have the appearance of down or rather of hair;
hence the name 'silken' is also applied. This fowl is white, and about the
size of the common fowl. It is clothed on the legs, but only outward till
the beginning of the claws, and on the outward claw to the first joint of
toe or nail. It is found in Japan and China, and is easily adapted in our
climate." This is the breed which gave rise in 1776 to the fable of the
rabbit-fowl, shown at Brussels as the produce of a rabbit and a common
hen. It was merely a downy fowl of Japan. Buffon was for a long time
teased by the letters of two pretended "observers," of Brussels, one of
whom was a prebendary, the other a Jew merchant. They were continually
writing to convince him of the existence of the rabbit-fowl. Buffon an-
swered by arguments that proved the impossibility of the fecundity of such
a disproportioned connection. Their credulous obstinacy at last put him
out of temper, and he answered them by a joke-which forever rid him of
the importunity of the Jew and the prebendary. The Silkies have been
mentioned by several other writers; but the same description is given so
that it is needless to quote them.
Nolan writes in 1850: "There is a large variety besides the small one;
* Silkies are not generally seen in American poultry yards, but are usually entered
in limited numbers at our shows. They were admitted some years ago to the American
Standard of Perfection. This chapter is practically as it appears in the English edition
of Mr. Weir's latest work.-EDITOR.
1001

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The Poultry Book
the large of many colors, the small usually white. For many years I
have had the small white, which were imported from Sumatra, and I
have most successfully hatched by them gold, silver, white, pied, and
brown pheasants. Nothing
could be better adapted
for these than the fine,
downy, silken, or woolly
coat, and the Silkies are
most careful and invalu-
able nurses. Though their
plumage is white, their
skin is black; their flesh
is coarse and of unpleasant
flavor; their bones, after
cooking, are always pink,
so that the fowl has the
appearance of being under-
done. They will breed
readily with most other
varieties, but in no case is
crossing desirable for en-
hancing the value either
as a table fowl or an egg-
producer." Mrs. Camp-
bell, of Uley, Gloucester-
shire, crossed a white
Dorking cockerel and Silky
hens with very curious
results. The cockerels were white feathered, but the flesh and skin
were black and white, as well as the shanks. Even the inner
parts were of the two colors, the rough muscular lining of the
gizzard being of the ordinary yellowish-gray spotted with black. This
is interesting as showing by coloring how far the two breeds had amalga-
mated. In the cocks, the Silkie seems to have predominated over
the Dorking strain, but the hens were much darker, both in shanks,
face, and ear-lobes. This exemplifies the curious fact that in breeding
for white shanks, feet and toe-nails, in the Game or Dorking breeds,

Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Radford
JAPANESE SILKY COCKEREL
First at Wisconsin Show, 1904. Ered and owned by Frank W. Radford, Wisconsin
The Silkies
1003
it is much easier to produce cockerels with clear-colored shanks and feet
than pullets. Not only will the poultry yard testify to the correctness
of this statement, but an examination of the show-pens will largely confirm
it. A cross with the Langshan has been found to produce progeny with
Langshan shape, but silky instead of feathery. I have seen some of these
which have the appearance
of a sub-breed of fowls, and
they are said to repeat them-
selves for several generations,
but of this I have no abso-
lute proof. A silky, downy,
or hairy Cochin hen was
shown in London at Baker
Street in the early fifties
under the name of the Emeu
fowl. Bred with the ordi-
nary Shanghai, its peculiari-
ties did not continue; though
some buff Shanghai cocks
that were used had a decided
tendency toward silkiness,
particularly on the back,
lesser wing coverts, and
saddle.

Some forty or fifty years
ago, a black variety was
shown by Mr. Cross at the
Surrey Zoological Gardens.
These were precisely the same
as the white of the present
day, except in color. The comb, face, and wattles were a darker
purple, and the ear-lobes a deeper and
and more vivid blue. The
keeper called them the "devil fowl," and they were also known as
"Negroes." Even the eggs were sooty, light brown. There is also a
white variety with bright red comb, face and wattles, but this is not
believed to be pure bred, though, even in habit, it closely resembles the
black-fleshed and crimson-wattled bird. The Silkies are in great request
Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Radford
JAPANESE SILKY PULLET
First Wisconsin State Show, 1904 Bred and owned by
Frank W. Radford, Wisconsin
1004
The Poultry Book
for incubating the eggs both of game and poultry. Mrs. Campbell, of
Uley, Gloucestershire, uses them for hatching her Brahma eggs, and finds
them excellent sitters and mothers-probably unsurpassed in this respect.
They are also precocious layers, often beginning to lay under four months.
The chickens when hatched are a light buff. They are hardy and
easily reared. The comb of the cock is diminutive, rather thick, and
inclined to a sectionized knob, though sometimes single and serrated;
wattles small, and, like the face, of a deep blackish maroon; the ear-
lobe blue, with a tinge of green in some lights; the shanks and beak dark
slate or blue, and covered on the outside with hair or wool; toe-nails white.
They should have a full lark-crest coming to a point at the back of the head;
that of the hen is rounded. "They are small, the usual weight being
two and one-half pounds to three pounds for the cock, which stands about
eighteen inches high, and the hen weighs two pounds and stands eleven
inches high" (Nolan, 1850, page 33). In the Treatise (1810) there is
mention of the Negro fowl (Phasianus niger-Latham): "This differs
from all others, as it has the crest, the wattle of the bill, the epidermis, and
almost always the feathers of a black color; the plumage is sometimes white.
It is common in Java, the Philippines, in some parts of northern Asia, and
Africa. It is also reared in France, but merely out of curiosity, for when
its flesh is dressed it turns black, and is ill-tasted; it seems as if it were
boiled in ink." This is evidently a different breed to those exhibited by
Cross at the Surrey Zoölogical Gardens, because it was feathery, while the
others were downy or silk fowls.
"From the mixture of Negro fowls with other breeds arise mongrels,
which usually retain the black crest (comb) and wattle.
This breed of fowls has been carried to the hot parts of America,
and has increased. 'In Paraguay,' says M. d'Azara, 'Buenos Ayres, and
in the Cordilleras of the Andes, there are tame fowls of common and other
breeds, which do not differ as to shape, and which have their feathers,
legs (shanks), comb, wattles and skin black as the Negroes of Guinea.
When dressed, their skin is still black; their flesh is more insipid and of a
darker color than that of the common fowl, and their bones are plainly
more opaque. They reproduced and intermixed with common fowls and
made mongrels. Their eggs are white; and some people value these fowls
because they are said to be more fruitful, and their flesh more fit to be given
to sick persons. They probably descend from the common Spanish or
(C
The Silkies
1005
Canary breeds brought by the Conquerors.""-Essai sur l'Hist. Nat. des
Quadrupeds du Paraguay, trad. Fran., Vol. II., pages 320 and 324.
"Besides the Negro fowl, there exists in some parts of Africa, and at
Sumatra, another breed still darker, as its very bones are black as jet.
Marsden's History of Sumatra' makes this distinction between it and the
Negro fowl, also found in the island, of which he has written the history."

Photograph by C. J. Ross
FIRST PRIZE BUFF COCHIN
Madison Square Garden, 1904. Bred and owned by J. D. Nevius, New Jersey
LA FLÈCHE*
HE breeds formerly known as La Flèche, the Bresse, the
Caux and the Mans were so nearly akin as to be considered
almost, if not entirely, the same, varied by selection and
locality, and they are at the present time called exclusively
La Flèche. The origin is unknown. It is called the “Horned
Fowl," and is peculiar to the Maine Department of France. Maister Prudens
Choiselat, in his book, “A Discourse of Housebandrie," 1580, writes “that in
the choice of the cock you shall consider the plumage of feathers; the black,
red, or tawnie are the best; also that they have their combs or crests up-
right, and double or divided." This may be the same breed as the present
La Flèche having a divided comb. He further recommends the getting of
the best birds from Angeow, Touraine and Lodumoys, with Britaigne. "M.
Jaque," says Mr. Latrône-to whom I am indebted for part of the in-
formation used in this article "believes that the origin of La Flèche is
unknown." Its fame can, however, be dated from the fifteenth century,
according to the relations of some of the old historians, "but it is doubtful
if the origin does not date even further back." M. Jaque adds: “It was
at Mans that these fine fatted fowls were first produced; afterward
at Mizeray, then at 'La Flèche.' They have been called by different
names, but the chief industry has comparatively ceased at Mans. There
is a variety known by that name, but the truer and the best 'are those
preserved at La Flèche and the neighborhood.""

However this may be, there is a certain appearance of the Spanish
fowl, in the shape, action and carriage, and the ear-lobe is white. Some
are slightly tufted, or "lark crested," others more so, and a few clean-headed.
The comb is divided into two horns, somewhat large, upright, or with a
lateral inclination, giving the bird a wild, weird expression; the wattles
are full size and pendulous; ear-lobe, small and white; the plumage is black,
the feathers of the neck abundant and long, and likewise those of the saddle;
over the black color is a sheen of violet, crimson, and green, which has a
*This chapter has been thoroughly revised by Thomas F. McGrew, with comments to
meet American conditions.-EDITOR.
1006
La Flèche
1007
flickering brilliancy in sunlight. The carriage of the body is stately, and
rather upright; the step is firm, yet elastic; the body much larger and
heavier than it appears, on account of the closeness of the feathering,
which gives a compact, yet elegant outline. While its pose is generally
graceful, like that of the high-bred Spanish fowl, at times it has the shrink-
ing timidity of the Crèvecœur, with which it is said to have been allied.
The flesh is white, short-grained, delicate, juicy, and tender, with thin
white skin, and the fat is also white. The breast is full, meaty, somewhat
long, and fattens well, as do the thighs, legs, and especially the back,
which, in heavily crammed birds, obliterates all sight of the flesh.
The shanks and feet are very dark slate-almost black in some cases—
but this depends much on locality and conditions. If much exposed to
sunlight, they become a leaden gray. They are of a medium length, hard,
and fine in bone; the eye is large, prominent, full, and bold, with a rather
fierce and commanding expression; head strong-made, beak dark, strong,
and somewhat curved; the abdomen small in the cocks, but less so in the
hens; both sexes are broad across the upper part of the back and shoulders.
As may be expected in so excellent a table fowl, they are but indifferent
layers, mine rarely averaging more than 110 to 120 per annum—the
last an outside number. Being well-rounded in the breast, robust, and
rarely ill, if kept on dry soil, they are suitable for fattening for market or
table purposes when their excellence is not damaged by mongrelizing.
Of all the French breeds, this is held in the highest esteem, and rightly so,
for its fine qualities as a culinary fowl. Its name carries its own recom-
mendation and a ready remunerative sale. The fowls are usually fed on
corn, and are voracious feeders, so must not be fed more than twice a day,
or they will get too fat and then become unhealthy. The chickens are
raised in the usual manner, and as they grow older their food may consist of
buckwheat, bran, and some ground oats, mixed into a crumbling paste,
for the first six months. As time goes on the bran ration should be in-
creased and that of meal decreased. Hard corn is not generally used, but
green food and herbage should be abundant. At an early age, the cockerel
and pullet chickens should be separated, as they are found to thrive much
better apart, and there is also far less quarreling.
La Flèche, like most of the larger, firm-fleshed poultry, is somewhat
slow in getting its growth, but when this is attained there is no fowl that
lends itself more satisfactorily to the fattening and finishing process, or
1008
The Poultry Book
more amply repays the operator for the trouble and expense incurred.
The bachelor cockerels and the maiden pullets are equally good for the pur-
pose, and the latter are called poulardes. These take about nine or ten
months to attain their full growth and high quality, and they continue to
develop during the winter months, when, just before the time of laying,
they are considered to be at their very best. The finest of the pullets
sometimes reach the weight of nine pounds, and the cockerels eleven to
twelve pounds, or even more. The fowls intended for fattening are kept
on soft food throughout, and it is only those reserved for breeding purposes
that are fed with hard grain of any sort, to give them more strength and
stamina. In England, all the chickens being reared are fed alike, and
grain is given to all. In this matter the French are not so wasteful, and
the birds destined for the table are thus brought to the required degree of
maturity at a much lower cost.
Considering the high excellence of the breed, in quality, texture, quantity
and flavor of flesh, it is surprising that La Flèche is not more appreciated,
and kept in this country; but possibly the day is not far distant when it
will be found that the best of everything kept for sale is that for which
there is a demand. When that time arrives, many of the French breeds
will be sought in all their purity, and not the least among them will be the
almost unsurpassable La Flèche. One difference between French and
English people is that the former understand and appreciate what is a
good table fowl, while the latter only think they do. If the idea were not
illusionary, there would not be seen on the poulterers' stalls such bony,
coarse, skinny forms as now are shown and sold as good market fowls.

Amer see
Lidh
Drawn by Harrison Weir
OLD BANTAMS, 1801
THE MANTES *

HE plumage of the Mantes fowl is speckled like that of the
Houdan; sometimes black, sometimes white preponderates.
It differs from the Houdan in having but four toes, and
no feathered crest; its head is ornamented with a fairly
large comb, which in some cases is upright and in others
falls to one side. Those that I have seen had upright combs and were
dark in color. They had full, large cravats, and some whiskers. The
Mantes is very easily fattened; the flesh is good and fine in quality; it is an
excellent layer, and the eggs are large and clear white. The hen is a
sitter, and is reported to be an excellent mother.
The cock is larger than the Houdan, and somewhat broader in the
front part of the breast, sloping toward the legs and abdomen. The
thighs and legs are thick and somewhat short; the shanks of medium length;
the comb is rather large, spiked, and upright. Those that have kept them
in England report very favorably of the breed, and consider it a useful
adjunct to the English farmyard. Its weight is: for cocks, seven and a
half to nine and a half pounds, and hens about a pound less. When
fattened on milk and buckwheat meal, the flesh is of the highest quality
and color. Its home is Normandy, especially in the Department of Aude;
but some the best at the Paris Show-came from that of La Sarthe, where
also the Crèvecoeur is extensively bred and fattened.
* Few fowls of this breed are seen in the United States. Recently several importa-
tions were made by Wallace P. Willett, of New Jersey —EDITOR.
1000
LA BRESSE *

N the "Treatise on Poultry," published in 1810, the Bresse fowl
is described as "a breed similar to the Caux, which supplies
capons in repute among gluttons." Though this may
have been true nearly a century ago, there is at present
a dissimilarity, La Bresse having considerably advanced
in the esteem of both the English and the French market poulterers. It
is now among the best of the Continental breeds, though by no means equal
to the Crèvecœur and La Flèche for the higher qualities of a first-class
table fowl. They were first brought into notice in this country by Mr.
Christie of Fenchurch Street, but though highly appreciated they have
lately been neglected. They are a full-breasted fowl with tender flesh and
excellent flavor, and fairly good layers of pure-white eggs, but it is felt that
they do not surpass or even equal other breeds already on the market.
M. La Perré de Roo, in his book on Poultry, speaks of the breed
in these terms: "This charming race, of which we do not know the origin,
is probably the result of crossing the common breed and the Andalusian"
(those that I have seen do not convey this idea to my mind, but appear to
me a superior kind of some breed anciently domesticated in Italy or France),
((
as the erect comb in the cock, and the falling one of the hen, allows us
to suppose. But the breed seems to have been fixed for a very long time,
and is by no means wanting in characteristics sufficient to raise it to the
rank of a distinct breed, though it has an immense comb, single, and
carried erect in the cock, and folded in the hen, with triangular, deep and
acute indentations, like the Andalusian." It is evident that here M. La
Perré de Roo refers to the ordinary Spanish fowl as the Andalusian, formerly
known here as the Red-faced Spanish, now as the Minorca. “The cock
is extremely elegant in shape, the neck hackle thick and long, the tail
ornamented with long sickle feathers, forming a magnificent cluster; its
movements are graceful and lively.
"The hen is identical in form of body with the Andalusian, from which
* An occasional La Breese is seen in our poultry yards, but it is not a common fowl.
-EDITOR.
2010
La Bresse
IOII
she differs only in having a little less tail, and cheeks less red and less bare;
her principal point being the drooping comb falling from one side to the
other, as in the case of the Spanish. She is a good layer, giving fine eggs,
sits well, and is an excellent mother. Like the Campine breed, she is
lively and alert, and likes to wander about the fields and woods in search
of food. Breeders esteem this race as much for its productiveness as for
the fineness of its flesh. There are several varieties, the most remarkable
being the blue, the black, the white, and the gray."
The blue or azure Caux fowl was at one time common, and more than
one of the Continental breeds seem naturally to lend themselves to this
color and to a kind of blue dun; but all the La Bresse that I have seen in
England have been "speckled," either with black, or brown and white.
As far as I can learn, the breed is far more worthy of notice and acceptance
than many of the coarse-fleshed, big-boned, over-balanced mongrel novel-
ties for which there is now a depraved craving.

From a photograph
INDIAN GAME COCK "PRINCE
IMPERIAL
First at Pan-American Exposition. Bred and
owned by J. Y. Bicknell, New York
THE SULTAN *

HE first Sultans that came to the United States, I secured
very unexpectedly. One day in 1877 I received a letter
from a lady in New York saying that she had recently
returned from Europe, and that her husband had just
died. While abroad he had secured, with great difficulty
and at a high price, some Sultan fowls. They were to her a constant
reminder of the trials her husband had experienced, but she wanted them
placed in good hands, and had shipped them to me, knowing I was a poultry-
man. The Sultans were remarkably fine specimens, heavier than the
Polish breeds. The plumage was snowy white. The two cocks were
stylish, broad-breasted and broad-backed. They had large, globular
crests, composed of short, broad feathers, and the hens had the same.
The tails were large; the legs and the whole of the toes were heavily feathered
and they all had prominent hock-feathering. The hens proved to be good
layers of large, white eggs, and the eggs were very fertile. They were the
tamest and most contented birds I ever owned. In fact, I used to show
them to visitors as my singers, because they were almost constantly singing
that song of contentment that every fancier enjoys hearing. Unfortu-
nately, a big fire destroyed the records I had preserved about their egg-
laying, to whom I had sold birds, etc.
(6
This very beautiful and interesting breed was imported from Turkey
by Miss Elizabeth Watts, who wrote on domestic poultry under the nom
de plume of Anster Bonn." Her description is: "They were sent to
us from a friend living at Constantinople, in January, 1854. We had sent
him some Cochin China fowls, and in return he said that when his son came
to England he would present us with some Turkey fowls. They arrived in a
vessel manned by Turks. The voyage had been long, the sea rough, and
between the rolling and the dirt the fowls were in a deplorable state.
"It was thought doubtful if a stock could be reared from these, and
* Sultans were admitted to the American Standard of Perfection some years ago.
This chapter has been partly rewritten and revised by George O. Brown, of Maryland,
who came in possession of the first Sultans brought to this country.—EDITOR.
IOI2
The Sultan
1013
we therefore applied for more, but our friend informed us that they were
very difficult to obtain even in Constantinople, and though he had tried in
other parts of Turkey he had not as yet been successful. They were called
Serai-Täook—Serai being the name of the Sultan's palace, and Täook the
Turkish for fowl-so we named them fowls of the Sultan, Sultan's fowls, or
briefly 'Sultans.'
((
They are about the size of cur Polish breed, white in color, full tailed,
with compact, rounded top-knot; the comb consists of two points: they are
muffed, the wattles small, the hackle full and flowing; vulture (falcon)
hocked, five-toed, and charming in appearance. It is to be hoped that a
fresh importation may yet arrive, though it is doubtful."
Mr. Weir continues: "This wish was not granted to Miss Elizabeth
Watts, though some few have since been secured, but whether or not from
Turkey direct I have been unable to ascertain. Having seen the imported
birds, I can testify to the accuracy of Miss Watts' description. She gave
me the privilege of handling the new fowls. They were exceedingly well-
shaped and full-breasted, 'trim made,' short in thigh and legs, while the
shanks were of medium length and well clothed to the toes with feathers,
which were much longer about the outside of the feet. The weight of the
cock was more than six pounds, the hen five pounds. They were quick,
bright, lively birds, fonder of insects and grain than of grass or vegetables.
On a lawn they presented a very beautiful appearance, and in many
respects far surpassed breeds of a higher reputation. They differed from
the Polish in one noticeable point. The crest, top-knot, or cop, of the cock
was much more globular, and the feathers of which it is composed not so
long and narrow, but fuller and more closely compact.
"Since 1854, the Sultans have been 'manipulated' and 'fancier im-
proved' by crossing with the White Polish, which has produced a heavier
and decidedly less charming style of bird. The late Mr. Beldon had some
good ones, but they lacked the refinement and elegance of Miss Elizabeth
Watts' imported 'beauties,' as she was wont to call them.
Among the show fanciers who have kept the breed pure is Mrs.
Harriett Christy, of Falconers, Edenbridge, Kent, who is also one of the
most successful exhibitors. I am indebted to her for the following facts
concerning this remarkable breed:
(6
-
p
“I have kept Sultans more than twenty years. My only fear is that
-owing to the difficulty of getting a fresh strain, and the numbers who are
1014
The Poultry Book
crossing with the White Polish-the distinct and true breed of Sultan will
soon be lost, unless we can procure some from abroad. It is a delicate
but not expensive breed to keep. They lay during the summer months
large white eggs, are non-sitters, and very good table fowls, the flesh being
white and delicate. They are healthy, and do well either in confinement
(if kept clean) or on a large range. On the latter they will almost keep
themselves, being small eaters, and fattening quickly. They will wander
to a distance if allowed, but being quite domesticated will generally find
their way back at night. Naturally they are rather nervous birds, but with
kind treatment become very tame. Mine will perch on my hand or arm
at any time.
"The eggs usually hatch well, and the chickens grow and feather
very fast till about six to eight weeks old. At that time they require
great care, good feeding, and warm housing, as many are lost by fits or
some wasting disease. If they get over the seventh or eighth week, with
common care none are lost. They do not arrive at perfection until the
second year, but after that they are very hardy, and some live to a good
age. They lay pretty regularly from March till early in September.'
"In breeding Sultans, 'character' is the first point to be maintained,
and this comprehends style, carriage, the form of the top-knot, beard and
ruff, the shape and feathering, the clothing of the shanks and the general
elegance. In all these it is best to match those that have too much of one
point of excellence to those that have too little, and these with prepon-
derating other qualities. Two perfect birds seldom breed their like."
The American requirements call for leg and toe feathers in Sultans.
A cross with Polish would simply result in a cross, which would not be
recognized as anything else.

ellig!!
I de
Ney
Del
THE FRIZZLED FOWL *
12
S far back as 1678, Ray, in his translation of Willoughby,
treats of this peculiar and curious breed as a distinct one.
He says: "Besides those set forth by Aldrovandus, we
have often seen another kind of hen, called in English the
Frisland hen, not (as I suppose) because it was first brought
out of Frisland, but because the feathers of the body are curled or frisled,
by which epithet I believe this bird was at first called, the word afterward
by the mistake of the vulgar corrupted into Frisland of the like sound.
For, knowing this to be an outlandish hen, they thought it could not be
more fully denominated than from its country, and thereupon imagined it
to be called a Frisland hen instead of a Frisled hen." Here it would be well
to point to the fact that at this time it must have been by no means un-
common, as “he had often seen it, and ourselves have also at Middleton.”
The translation continues: "I suppose this to be the same breed which
Aldrovandus hath put in the chapter of 'Monstrous Hens' in the last
place, whose figure, he saith, was sent him by Pompilius Tagliaferrus, of
Parma, with this description: 'I would have you understand that there
are two things especially found in this cock worthy of admiration. The
first and chief is, that the feathers of its wings have a contrary situation to
those of other birds, for that side, which in others is naturally undermost or
inmost, in this is turned outward, that the whole of the wing seems to
be inverted: the other is, that the feathers of the neck are reflected toward
the head like a crest or ruff, which way the tail also turns up. From
this description it may be gathered that the birds described were without
top-knots, but that the feathers on the neck turned upward in such way as
to resemble a crest.

(6
Again, it is mentioned in "The Treatise" of 1810, page 174, as "The
Frizzled Fowl" (Phasianus crispus, Latham). This breed, more singular than
agreeable to the eye, has all its feathers turned upward, and in a manner
frizzled. It is of all sorts of colors: white, black, silvery, golden, slate, etc.
The Frizzled Fowl is found in Java, Japan, and in Southern Asia.
It dreads the cold, and the chickens seldom hold out against our climate.”
"""
* Admitted to the American Standard of Perfection.-EDITOR.
1015
THE RUMPLESS FOWL, OR WALLIKIKI *
HIS breed has been known for many centuries, and has been
bred in many varieties and forms. It is pictured by
Aldrovandi, and from him by Willoughby, in each case
with a single cup comb. In modern times it has been
represented at most of the large poultry shows in England
and on the Continent. The breed is found in the interior of Africa, domesti-
cated by the natives as well as by the Boers. I am informed that the
latter cut away the hinder feathering, with the idea that hawks and falcons
will not attack it when so disfigured.

In Belgium it is called the Walloon, and it is not uncommon in the
country about Seize. It has been known in the Walloon country from time
immemorial, and there it is said to have been originally imported from
Ceylon, on which island large flocks of at least an analogous variety are
said to exist. It is of no particular use either for egg-production or for
the table, although some that I have seen and handled have been remark-
ably plump and meaty. Many have only a single comb; others, a straw-
berry or knob; others, a semi-rose; some, sprigged rose, and some cupped,
with lark-crests. They vary much in color and size, the largest weighing
at the outside eight to nine pounds, and the smallest no more than a
Bantam. I have never kept any, but am told that they are hardy, and
the chickens easily reared. It is reasonable to conclude that they are
fancied more for curiosity than for profit, their odd appearance when
plucked creating an unfavorable impression in a market fowl.
Doctor Bennett, in his "Poultry Book," Boston, 1854, remarks:
This fowl is erroneously supposed to be a native of Japan, and by an
equally common error is frequently called the Friesland fowl,” etc.
<<
Doctor Bennett is wrong, as the breed decidedly comes from Japan,
one of the places in which it is admired and fancied, not only the larger
variety, but a distinct breed of Bantam. Both have been imported.
The European differs from the Japanese in being mostly crested or adorned
with a top-knot, in which the true Japanese is entirely deficient, the cock
* Admitted to the American Standard of Perfection.-EDITOR.
1016
The Rumpless Fowl, or Wallikiki
1017
especially having a somewhat large comb and wattles. The ear-lobe is red,
while that of the European is small and of a greenish white.
Of the larger breed, those mostly seen in England have either lark
crests or full-sized top-knots. S. W. Cole, writing on the breed in
Doctor Bennett's book, says: "The Frizzled has its feathers pointing
forward so that it cannot run among the grain; and this is a peculiar
advantage." Further, it is stated "that Dr. Eben Wright, of Massachusetts,
the distinguished importer of fowls, has many of this variety." Although it
was denied that Japan was at least one of the countries from which they
were derived, Doctor Wright did not state whence his birds were imported.
The origin of those in America, in 1853, was apparently unknown.
They are the form and shape of our common "barn-door" fowls, and
are plump and round in breast. They are delicate to rear, impatient of
cold or heat, and not good layers. The eggs are white and of a medium
size. They have been frequently exhibited during the last fifty years, in
the forms of plain-heads, top-knots, and lark-crested, and in almost every
variety of color and spangling. I have been informed by a friend that they
are not uncommon in Africa, and are in some places kept by the natives.


FRIZZLED HEN
Drawn by Harrison Weir
TURKEY-NECKS, NAKED-NECKS, GILLIKINS, NUDES
HIS breed of fowls is said to have been originally an im-
portation from Japan, and it certainly bears a resemblance
to some of the drawings of poultry oddities occasionally
seen on Japanese-made painted-paper fans. It is a quaint,
original and peculiar bird, but opinions vary as to its
beauty, for I have heard it called wonderfully handsome and downright
ugly. For my own part, if well-proportioned, I do not consider them
ugly. They certainly arc an achievement in the way of misdirected art, and
though unattractive are at least interesting.
They are not new, being mentioned in "The Treatise," of 1810, thus:
"The Fowl Without Feathers. With the exception of a few feathers
on the wings, one can hardly find twenty more on all the rest of the body
of this fowl. It is not certain whether it be a particular breed.
Some say
it reproduces, and that every individual arising therefrom, without any
admixture of other breeds, is equally naked. Others pretend that this
nudity is artificial." The breed, whatever its origin, is reproductive and
distinct. Of late it has been the fancy of some; and it is not kept entirely
as a curiosity, since, despite a tendency to coarseness, it is found to be a
table fowl superior to others of more pretensions. It is neither a bad
nor a good layer, but about the average. The eggs are of medium size
and oval. The comb and wattles of the cock are large; the former mostly
single or cupped well and deeply spiked or serrated; the latter large, long
and pendulous. These, as well as the face, throat and much of the naked
parts of the body, are a brilliant red. The feathers vary much in color,
being in many slate- or dove-colored, splashed with white and barred with
a darker tint. The black are said to be very handsome, the red and black
giving a rich appearance. Both in beauty and utility they are so far
surpassed by others as to be rendered scarcely desirable.

1018
THE CAMPINE AND BRACKEL
HE Campine and the Brackel fowls are considered to be one
family. They are the great egg-producers of Belgium,
The
being to that country what the Leghorns are to us.
Campines are a single-comb fowl, resembling in color of
plumage the early day Silver- and Golden-Penciled Ham-
burgs. They are irregularly marked, with wider bars than are permissible
at the present time upon our Hamburgs, and of late they have been bred
for exhibition in England. This has to a very great extent robbed them
of their personnel, changed them from the plump, full-breasted, egg-
producing and desirable market fowl into one having the modern Hamburg
shape, color and markings, with the single comb.
The Campines have the desirable breast and body for good table
poultry, and it is for this purpose and for the production of a large number
of white-shelled eggs that they are bred in Belgium. For other purposes
it is better to select the Hamburg, pure as we now have it, than to attempt
to make show fowl of the Campine through a process of mating Campine
males with Penciled Hamburg females and selecting the best single-comb
specimens for exhibition. The desirable qualities of the Campine are thus
lost, and we have, instead, a single-comb half-breed of little value for any
purpose.

The Brackels are a variety of the Campines that are supposed to have
gained greater size through having been continually reared in a warmer
climate. Writers differ in describing them. Some say the Campines have
single combs and the Brackels double combs, while others state the reverse,
and this would lead one to conclude that they are the same breed. The
rose and the single comb are found in each, and the Brackels are naturally
larger in size than the Campines; but otherwise they are alike in form, color
and markings.
1019

THE GUELDERS
NOTHER Belgian fowl, known to us as the Breda, was
formerly bred to some little extent in the United States.
They resemble the early-day La Flèche more than any
other fowl, having a head of the same shape and style as
the La Flèche of early days, with no comb, but a flat, or
depressed, red formation just behind the beak, and a small crest like some
of the early day La Flèche. This fowl has entirely disappeared from
public notice in America, and we understand that but few of them are seen
in Belgium at the present time. They have been known as Guelders,
Bredas, and Guelderands. The variety colors are black, white and Dom-
inique colored (called cuckoo color). These are fully described and illus-
trated in "The People's Practical Poultry Book" (1871), and there is little
doubt that they, as well as the Coucou de Malines, are closely related to
the early day Cuckoo Cochins.

From a photograph
INDIAN GAME HEN "COLUMBIA"
First at Pan-American and first at New York, 1902
Bred and owned by J. Y. Bicknell, New York
1020

COUCOU DE MALINES COCK
Imported by Wallace P. Willett, of New Jersey, in 1904
COUCOU DE MALINES
HIS is the favorite market poultry of Belgium. They are
large in size, ranging from five to ten, even more, pounds
each, according to age and sex. They might be called a
Cuckoo Cochin, or a feathered-legged Plymouth Rock.
Their shape is much like the Asiatics, and their color like
our Barred Plymouth Rocks. They have some feathers on shanks and
toes. The shanks and toes are white or pinkish white; skin white. They
are fashioned more like the Cochin than the Plymouth Rock, having short,
heavy thighs and shanks and full, round bodies. Of these there are two
varieties, the one Dominique color and the other pure white. They lay
tinted eggs of moderate size, compared with their own size. These fowls
do well in all climates and are classed as general purpose fowls of excel-
lent quality for the table.
In a recent issue of The Orpington, Wallace P. Willett, of New Jersey,
Secretary of the American Orpington Club, has the following to say about
the Coucou de Malines:

C6
The Belgium peasants grow a market fowl to thirteen pounds. They
call it the Coucou de Malines. I noticed that there were one hundred
and thirteen birds of this variety exhibited at the recent Brussels show.
My natural curiosity to see this bird led me to write to friends in Antwerp
to procure a trio of them for me from the first prize winners at that show.
1021

1022
The Poultry Book
My curiosity was partially satisfied by receiving in October a cock, a hen
and a pullet of 1901 hatch, all covered with blue ribbons. The cock weighs
ten pounds, the hen nine pounds, and the pullet seven pounds. When in
condition I can easily put on two pounds more. On arrival, just to show
what they could do in eggs, the pullet hen gave us a two-and-one-half-ounce
egg. The hen the next day tried to do as well, but fell one-quarter ounce
short in weight. The three are inseparable; where one goes they all go.
The cock and hen went on the nest with the pullet, and the cock and pullet
went on the nest with the hen.
"In color they are the old Plymouth Rock or English Dominique, with
the Langshan type and feathered legs. Thus much of the enthusiasm of
curiosity which has still to be satisfied by the later action of this trio of
inseparables. They will never interfere with the Orpington's progress,
though when crossed with Barred Rocks might produce some remarkable
results in that breed. Put a feathering on the legs of the Barred Plymouth
Rocks of 1889 and you have a good idea of their appearance. They com-
pleted laying twelve eggs on the twelfth day of arrival. The twelve eggs
weighed exactly twenty-eight ounces, an average of two and one-third
ounces each. The eggs are of a dark tinted color."
THE BRUGES

HE Bruges fowl might be called the Malay Game of Belgium,
as it resembles the Malay in shape and color, though
somewhat smaller in size. They have single combs, dark
or lead-colored shanks, and are quite sprightly, like our pet
Games. They are not prolific egg-producers, but hardy
and easily reared from chicks to maturity.
LAKENVELDERS *

ONSIDERING the fact that there are only a few breeders in
America who own pens of Lakenvelders, and that there has
been scarcely any attempt to advertise them, the interest.
which this breed has awakened is something phenomenal.
Every breeder who had eggs for sale has been completely
"snowed under" with orders, and many have found it necessary to refuse
more than they accepted because the demand vastly exceeded the supply.
Surely, Lakenvelders are coming to the front. The reason for this spon-
taneous boom of the "Shadows on a Sheet" is not far to seek. They are
striking and beautiful, symmetrical in form and extremely active and grace-
ful in movement. They possess all the attractive and valuable qualities
of the Leghorns, together with a wonderful color scheme in white and
black which cannot fail to arrest the attention of all who see them.
Imagine a beautifully formed, stately White Leghorn or Hamburg
cock with head, neck, rump hackles and tail of the most intense jet black,
and you have a fair picture of the Lakenvelder. The females have white
bodies with black tail and neck. They are the most active foragers of any
birds I have ever seen, and their power of flight is equal to that of the
Pheasant. As layers they rank with Hamburgs or Leghorns, and their eggs
are of porcelain whiteness and as large as those of the White Leghorn.
In table qualities the Lakenvelders are as good and no better than the
Leghorns, and their chicks are reared in the same way as those of the
Mediterranean breeds. Like Leghorn chicks, the young Lakenvelders show
a tendency to grow wing feathers early and sometimes to excess, but after
five or six weeks this ceases and the birds become compact and exception-
ally active.
A
My own experience with five pens (in all, forty birds) has been most
satisfactory. The birds are healthy, vigorous, and constant layers. My
flock has averaged more than 75 per cent. daily egg-laying since their
*This brief description of the Lakenvelder was written for American Poultry Advocate
by Dr. A. H. Phelps, President of the Lakenvelder Club of America, and is reproduced
here by permission.—EDITOR.
1023
1024
The Poultry Book
importation in February last. Lakenvelders are, like Hamburgs and
Leghorns, practically non-sitters, and I believe they are superior to either
of these breeds as utility fowls. Where they can have wide range, they
surpass all other breeds in egg-production, because their great foraging
abilities render them well-nigh self-supporting throughout the months of
the year in which forage is obtainable. Their extreme activity, powerful
flight and wariness protect them from the depredations of birds and beasts
of prey in localities where many other breeds would be exterminated.
Lakenvelders are primarily Dutch birds, as their name implies, and
they were introduced from Holland and Belgium into England and Ger-
many. The German Lakenvelders are slightly different incol oring from
the original Dutch or standard English type, since there has been a tendency
toward white rump hackle feathers, with only tail and neck hackles black.
This type is, in my opinion, far less beautiful, and certainly more difficult
of attainment, than the true original Dutch type, which constitutes the
standard of English breeders.
The official standard of the English Lakenvelder Club is here repro-
duced by permission:
LAKENVELDER STANDARD
Cock.-Comb single, erect, evenly serrated, following the contour of
the head, moderate size; lobes white, almond-shaped; body color and
wings white; neck hackle full, black (special attention to the feathers
about the head); saddle hackle black, free from stripes or spots; tail
black full; sickle feathers long, and carried at an angle of 45 degrees.
Hen.-Comb, upright, single, small, evenly serrated; neck hackle
black, solid if possible; body and wings white; tail solid black and full.
Cock and Hen.-Size as large as possible; eyes, red or bright chestnut;
legs, blue slate; shanks free from feathers, medium length; beak, dark
horn; body long, wide in front, tapering to the tail; general character-
istics, sprightly and active.
Points.—Color, 45; size, 20; head, 10; carriage, 10; condition, 10;
legs and feet, 5. Total, 100.
Doctor Phelps says the above standard appeared in the Feathered
World, over the name of Percy W. Thornilery, the president of the Laken-
velder Club of Great Britain. Lakenvelders have received more admira-
tion from fanciers and judges than has been accorded to any other variety
Lakenvelders
1025
of two-colored fowls introduced in recent years. This speaks volumes for
their beauty, as the fancier is usually strongly prejudiced in favor of
solid colors. One or two writers have spoken of them slightingly as
"misfits," but by the same rule a gentleman in evening dress with white
vest would be a misfit. From my own experience I must say that I find
Lakenvelders as easy to breed true to color as any variety of poultry I
have ever owned, and I have had personal experience with over seventy
different breeds. A considerable number of the pullets show more or less
black in the plumage of the back, and are therefore considered off-color,
but these same off-color females will breed the best cockerels and intensify
the black in the neck and tail of future pullets. Colonel Sandbach writes
me that, in Holland, belted cattle are called Lakenvelders, and it causes
me to wonder whether these are also "misfits."

Photograph by A. W. Scott
LAKENVELDER COCK
Owned by Dr. A. H. Phelps, New York
JAPANESE *
M
JANY varieties of fowls in Japan are at present unknown to
the European fancier. This is demonstrated by the numer-
ous and very accurate drawings and models made by the
natives, and also by the observations of travelers in that
country. A friend of Mr. Weir's, Mr. Joyner, who resided
near Yokohama many years ago, informed him of a middle-sized breed, in
which, by constant selection, the comb and wattles of both the cocks and
hens had become so large that the wattles touched the ground when the
birds were in a natural walking position. Not infrequently they trod on
them, if hurried, and threw themselves down with considerable force.
Others of the same class were almost devoid of feathering, the whole head,
neck, and most of the body, except the wings and tail, being bare and red.
Both these breeds, he said, were rare, and from his description Mr. Weir
was inclined to think that they resembled those that go in the English
poultry yards under the name of "Turkey-necks, Naked-necks," or
"Gillikins." Then there are
Then there are "short tails" and "hen-tailed" varieties,
some of which are white and very handsome. I have made a drawing,
from a beautiful and highly finished cloisonné picture by a very celebrated
Japanese artist, depicted in the usual instructive way—the cock, the hen,
and the newly hatched chick. The last was a sooty color, which no doubt
would change to white on feathering. The old birds had golden-yellow
beaks and shanks. Besides the numerous forms of Japanese Game fowls
and Bantams, there are the lovely white long-tailed fowls of Yokohama,
known here by that name only; and the colored variety, still more wonder-
ful as to length of feather, known as the Phoenix. As far as my observation
goes, the rose, or round, full, many-spiked comb does not obtain favor with
the Japanese fanciers of natural oddities-large and small, ugly and
graceful. Nor does the European taste for long-thighed, long-legged and
long-shanked monstrosities prevail among this truly artistic people, who
"" ((

*Specimens of these rare and beautiful fowls are not often seen in the United States.
Mr. Weir's account of them is here reproduced practically as he wrote it.—EDITOR.
1026
Japanese
1027
know by instinct what is not only agreeable to the eye by reason of beauty,
but harmonious in form.
WHITE YOKOHAMA FOWL
THIS is smaller than our English Game breed, more slightly made, and
very alert, being quick and desperate, both in attack and defense. Though
somewhat slight in build, it is of good girth. The head is long; the
beak slightly curved; the eye large and full; the comb middle-sized to
small, single and serrated even to the lobe at the back extremity; the wat-
tles small and somewhat round, though rather pendulous; the wings are
carried close to the body, which is almost horizontal in most cases; the great
and lesser tail coverts of considerable length, in some specimens exceeding
twelve to fourteen feet, while the saddle feathers are long in proportion.
The length, combined with the pure whiteness of the feathers, gives a most
refined and beautiful appearance. A cock, seen on a fresh green grass
plot, with its tail plumage lying in graceful curves, and his hens about him,
is indeed a marvel of perfection in this class of poultry breeding. The
hens resemble in form and character our English Game, but are more
slender, and have an Oriental fineness in curvature of line throughout.
The thighs and legs are plump and of medium length; so are the shanks,
which in both sexes are, like the beaks, of a lively golden yellow. There
is a black variety in Japan, equally elegant in form and feather, but as yet
none have been imported.
They are very indifferent layers, seldom exceeding fourteen to fifteen
eggs before becoming broody. Occasionally some of my pullets laid as
many as twenty, and one even thirty, but this was very unusual. The
time of incubation is rarely more than twenty days, and the young are
lively and quick in insect-hunting. The chicks are rather tender: if the
weather is damp and cold they must be kept in a warm, dry place. They
feather well and early, but the "shooting" of the tail-feathers is rather a
critical operation, so at that time they require a little chopped liver or
beef in their food, and an egg or two. Afterward they are not more
difficult to rear than English Games.
In color they are mostly white, or a delicate, very light fawn, though
black and mottled ones are not unknown in Japan; but none of these have
been imported, as far as I am aware. In some parts of Saxony and Germany
1028
The Poultry Book
they are raised in great perfection, and clubs have been instituted for their
production and possible improvement.
They interbreed freely with other varieties of fowls, and some of these
crosses are very beautiful. With the five-toed "old Kents" they are a
complete success, the cocks produced being particularly handsome, with
tails and tail coverts large, long and elegant. Nearly all the broods had
white shanks and five toes, while the feathering was rich in coloring.
The bodies short, plump, and meaty, were a desirable acquisition. Crossed
with the Minorcas, they lost in beauty both of carriage and tail.
There is little doubt that a Yokohama cock crossed with Polish or
Hamburg hens would produce something novel, beautiful, and useful;
and even the Asiatics might be tried with advantage, such as the old variety
of Shanghai or Cochin, with featherless shanks, of which numbers were
imported in “the forties." A large-tailed Langshan hen, with a white or
black Japanese cock, would most likely lead the fancy in a new direction,
both as regards beauty and utility, and very likely the eggs would be fine
in color. Those of the Yokohama are tinted, and some are slightly sooty
in color.
Perhaps the old English Game, with its fine form and almost endless
variety of coloring, would lend itself more completely than any other to a
Japanese cross. The birds are so much alike in general character and in
courage, it is almost certain that something elegant, refined and useful,
as well as highly ornamental, would be the outcome of judicious mating.
A white Yokohama cock with Blue Game hens, or Silver Grays, or Black-
breasted Reds, or Spangles, or Blue Duns, would all be worth a trial. A
cross with the Azeel would make a handsome and good table fowl, but the
laying would not be likely to be improved.
It has often been to me a matter of regret that Japanese fowls should
have been overlooked in the imparting of new form, carriage, habits and
elegance to some of our European breeds. The coarse Asiatics, Shanghais
or Brahmas and the finer Langshans have been almost universally pre-
ferred.
THE PHENIX FOWL
WHY it is so called is as much a mystery as the nomenclature of many
of our fowls. There is no more reason why the Phoenix should so be called
than that the Shanghai should be named a Cochin China fowl. The Phoenix
Japanese
1029
fowl is another of the wonderful productions of the untiring, persistent,
well-directed patience of the Japanese fancier, who must have taken ages to
bring it to its present state. It much resembles the Yokohama in general
outline, character and carriage, but the sickle or end feathers are wonderfully
elongated, far surpassing this or any other breed. How the length has been
obtained is a matter of controversy, but the fact remains. The sickle
feathers in some specimens have been known to reach the extraordinary
length of twenty-six feet. The Japanese poulterer, knowing that the
feathers grow from the base and not the end or point, watches the tail
development, and as soon as the sickle feathers are long enough he bends
them gently into a circle, which is kept in form by silk ties or paper, and
thus, during growth, protected from injury. At times the bird is put into
a narrow, upright cage, with a perch, which is central and suspended at
the top, the feathers being untied and allowed to hang down to their fullest
extent. It is also permitted to walk on ground that is perfectly smooth,
soft, and free from grit; but there is continual anxiety to prevent the
feathers being injured, torn or broken. It is said that the fowls do not
arrive at any degree of perfection under the age of four or five years, at
which time they may be regarded more as a triumph of art over nature
than as actually beautiful. The colors vary, being mostly black or a
starling-breasted silver gray, though yellow often predominates instead of
white, and some are slightly spangled or ticked with red. The hens much
resemble the Yokohama, though the sickle feathers are somewhat longer,
and the lines of body and limbs are not quite so graceful. Though not good
layers, the eggs are less fertile than is generally the case with birds that
lay a restricted number. Except it be for their peculiar development of
feathering and their unusually quaint appearance, they are scarcely a
desirable acquisition, as they require adept and continual attention. The
chickens are said to be delicate and difficult to rear, particularly at the time
of feathering.
No doubt in a country like Japan there are a number of fowls entirely
different from any of our European varieties, and from the Asiatics hitherto
known. Now that the country is becoming commercial, there is a proba-
bility that in course of time something more varied yet may be discovered
and imported. As far as my own observation goes, I have not seen, in
paintings, drawings or alive, any Japanese breed that has a top-knot,
either large or small.
Gr
1030
The Poultry Book
Although the length of tail is to the Japanese a great attraction, they
do not slavishly confine their energies to that particular form of gracefulness.
Some of the larger varieties have short or hen tails, while the fighting Game
fowl seems to have been bred for combat, its whole action being quick,
alert, and impetuous to a fault.
Frank Rice, of Sudbury, sent Mr. Weir an account of his experiences
with these fowls, his stock being mostly bred in England.
He says: "It is my intention to give a few of the principal features
which make this charming variety of fowls so exceptionally attractive.
Apart from their proportional elegance, the tail is totally different from
that of any other variety of poultry bred in this country. The sickle
feathers of the cockerel grow about two feet long the first year, and after
each moult they increase in length, until they extend about five feet, which
is as long as we generally expect to grow them, although in Japan, their
native country, they reach to as much as, and even exceed, fifteen feet.
My intention is to deal with the breed only as it can be produced in England,
not as a foreign or tropical bird.
"The peculiar grace and size of the tail is doubtless one of if not the
chief attraction, adorned though they be with such a grand array of feathers.
The male bird comports himself with graceful ease, being so evenly balanced.
He does not awkwardly drop the long and pendulous adornment, but
carries it so as to trail with an attractive undulation an individual curve
difficult to describe, which may be more readily observed in the illustration.
The primary and other feathers of the tail should be broad and strong,
except the side hangers, which are soft, flowing and of great abundance.
The wings should be tight and close; the head small and neat, furnished
with a delicately formed pea-comb, a special trait of the pure Yokohama
fowl. The neck must have plenty of long hackle feathers; the legs, above
medium length, and of a bluish willow color, with four toes. The Yoko-
hama should be long-made, have long wings, long body, long neck, and
long tail.
The sickle feathers of the male bird are utilized for officers' plumes;
the lesser and more decorative are worn by ladies. In the colored variety
they are of a rich and lustrous black. Though the whites are very orna-
mental, they never grow so much tail as the other varieties. The hens
resemble the cocks in all points, except that of the sickle feathers, although
mostly they carry a big tail.
((
Japanese
1031
"I find the best months to hatch the eggs and rear the chickens are
March, April, May and June, as very late birds never grow such long
tails, one of the principal characteristics of the breed. They are truly
wonderful layers, the weather having little or no effect. Mine have laid
continuously through the winter. I have a pen of buff Orpingtons, which
were not nearly such good laying-fowls as my Yokohamas. They are rich
in color and gay in appearance, although somewhat small for market pur-
poses. We get a large egg-average from each hen per year. They are good
sitters and mothers, but do not become broody more than twice in the

PRIZE YOKOHAMA COCK
Owned by Herr Hugo de Roi, Brunswick
From a photograph
year. For table or culinary purposes they make a nice fleshy fowl, with a
good breast, white in color. They are very active, and their eggs prove
to be very fertile. The chickens hatch strong and are easy to rear.
"The pure breed is exceedingly rare, but perhaps it would be less so
if its good qualities were better known. Irrespective of their beauty they
fully deserve to become very popular, as they are not only ornamental, but
hardy. They will thrive in a wild state, roosting in trees, somewhat after
the manner of the common pheasant, breeding in a natural way, or in
confinement, penned up like ordinary fowls. It may therefore be said that
Phoenix Yokohamas do well under any conditions, and keep their tails very

1032
The Poultry Book
clean. I have sent breeding-pens of them to all parts of the world, chiefly
on account of the attraction they invariably possess in a greater or lesser
degree."
With most of Mr. Rice's remarks Mr. Weir agrees, though he never
found the Japanese to be good layers; on the contrary, he found them not
quite up to the average.
The chickens of the Japanese are small, but very lively; the head and
neck are large in comparison to the body. When very young, they are
tender and difficult to rear, but more hardy at six weeks old. There can be
no question as to their beauty. They are an adornment; as a flower is
to a garden, so are they among poultry.
A photograph of the world-celebrated fowl of Herr Hugo de Roi
is reproduced herewith through the kindness of F. Broomhead.
From a photograph by Thomas Gates, Sudbury
COLORED PHOENIX YOKOHAMA COCKEREL
Eight months old. Bred and owned by Mr. Frank Rice
BANTAMS IN GENERAL *
THOMAS F. MCGREW, NEW YORK
W
RITING of Bantams, Harrison Weir says: There seems
to be some confusion of nomenclature with these beautiful
and delightfully interesting birds. The smaller varieties
of poultry ought, in my opinion, to be divided into at
least two families or divisions, one to consist entirely of
small breeds of which there are no large representatives, and the other
of pigmies,' which are but dwarfs of larger breeds. The Pekin is the
pigmy Shanghai, the Black Rose-comb Bantam of to-day is the pigmy of
the Black Hamburg. The Game fowls, the Polish, Malay and Azeel, are
all simply pigmies, and not distinct breeds like the true Bantams which
have no large-sized representatives. Even as far back as the time of
Columella, nearly two thousand years ago, dwarf fowls were kept, and they
are noted by him as not profitable.
When the first were imported into England is a matter of controversy,
also whether they came direct from Java, and the city or town of Bantam,
or were brought by the Dutch into Holland, and came thence to England.
Certain it is that the pert, feather-booted, falcon-hocked, tiny though valor-
ous birds were named Bantams from the place whence they were shipped.
They are to this day a distinct race, like some still to be found in China,
Japan, India, and elsewhere, and are not pigmies of any variety.
"Of the original Bantam, the bird from which the name has been
transmitted, few if any of the true breed now exist, though it was common
in our farmyards fifty years ago. The cock was most pugnacious, rivaling
the old English Game cock in this respect, neither the size, form, nor
weight of the opponent being any deterrent to his vigorous attack. Nothing
daunted the courage or the impetuosity of the assailant, no matter how

((
*This chapter on Bantams has been entirely rewritten by Mr. McGrew, who has
for many years given this highly interesting group of fowls most careful study. Much
valuable information is here printed for the first time. Only such parts of Mr. Weir's
article have been quoted as would be of interest to American fanciers.—EDITOR.
1033

1034
The Poultry Book
he was over-matched and beaten down. Again and again he would rise
to renew the contest, never giving in as long as he had the power to move.
Unable to stand, he would lie and peck until, from sheer exhaustion, the
fight ended in death."
Mr. Weir's description of these Bantams tallies to a nicety with what
were formerly known in America as "Crow Chickens," except in one par-
ticular. He describes the Bantam cock as being "a Black-breasted Red,
rich in color, heavily
booted, with falcon
hocks, full and round
breasted; short and
thick in neck and
body; upright in car-
riage, haughty and
defiant; tail large and
full but rather short
in sickle, almost,
if not quite, touching
the back of the neck
or head, which last
was small; eyes large,
round and full, of a
dark brownish black;
comb single, serrated,
upright and medium
in size; the wattles
round and full size;
deaf ear, rather small
and red; thighs and
legs short;
short; shanks
short; beak short, in
color a greenish
brown, as were the shanks, feet and toe-nails. The hen was partridge brown
in color, short in neck; short and plump in body, with a full breast; tail
large and carried very upright, almost touching the neck, which had
rather a backward curve, making a graceful line throughout; thighs, legs
and shanks short, booted, well feathered, with falcon hocks, so incurved
Photograph by C. F. Ross
GOLDEN DUCKWING BANTAM COCK
First at Madison Square Garden, 1904. Bred and owned by Oak & McNeal, Canada
Bantams in General
1035
that the points would touch under the belly; comb and wattle, small, and
very bright red; beak, short, and of the same brownish-green color as the
shanks; eye, large, round, and full, and the same deep brown as the cock's;
the smallest hen weighing but fourteen ounces, the majority considerably
The Booted Bantams are the only true representative of the old
true Bantam of more than a century ago."
more.
This description shows that the early Booted Bantam had the black
Red-Game color. Our old-time Crow Chicken had the same coloring, but
no feathers on shanks or toes. This variety, together with the Nankin
and the Rose-comb Bantams, were the early day Bantams, known to the
fanciers of the world. The true Bantams, as we now have them, are the
result of matings made to reduce size and maintain form and color.
Mr. Weir describes the following early day Bantams which, with few
exceptions, are unknown to us:
"Another variety of Bantams, called Nankin, were very neat, compact
and beautiful. They were clean in the shanks, and in form, character and
general appearance much resembled the old English Game fowls of that
period, though rounder in body and fuller breasted. They had a lively
carriage, and an odd, vain and conceited air in all their actions, but pos-
sessed indomitable courage. Though very small, they never hesitated to
attack fowls four or five times their weight, and by their rapid movements
bewildered their larger antagonists, whom they would sometimes tire out
so that they fled. This variety came originally from Java and some parts
cf India. In color they were a clear, pure, rather lemon-colored buff, the
hackles of both cocks and hens being a canary yellow; the large feathers of
the tail were black, as were the inner webs of the primary and secondary
feathers of the wings; the beak and shanks were a soft azure blue, with
white toe-nails; the eyes were large, full, and dark hazel. They possessed
the true rose-comb, which was small, round, full of spikes, and without
that peak at the back which is usually found in all breeds excepting the
true Redcaps. These combs, terminating in a long peak, were then called
rosebuds, and the others designated 'full roses.' This beautiful variety is
seen now only occasionally at shows, and the color is generally redder than
the soft, harmonious yellow of the old style. Three or four years ago I saw
a cock and two hens, which were rather large, but fairly good in color.
These were originally imported from India-I think from Bengal. They
did not carry their tails so high as the old-time birds, nor were they so
1036
The Poultry Book
struttingly vain and haughty in their mien. They also lacked the trim
rotundity of body, and their combs, being single, detracted much from
their beauty.
"Of the same form and character, style and shape, there were, and
still are, many other colors, the Black-breasted Red, with his bright
coral-red rose-comb, being a great favorite some fifty years ago; and so,
too, were the black, the speckled, the white, and other colors. All had
red deaf ears.
"A handsome Bantam cock, possessed of all the family properties
in perfection, is one of the prettiest of domestic birds. He should have
a rose-comb, a well-feathered tail, full hackles, a proud, lively carriage,
and ought not to weigh more than a pound. The Nankin-colored and the
black are the greatest favorites.
",
MODERN BANTAMS
THE Bantams of to-day rival the fowls they miniature in public favor.
The Game, Cochin and Rose-comb Bantams are more prominent at our
larger exhibitions than are those they imitate in form and color. The
Bantam clubs are quite as active in their work as are those that foster
larger breeds. Bantams of to-day stand upon an equal footing with other
fowls in America and in popularity yield place to none. In quality they
equal the best; in value they rank with others. They have been known to
change hands at several hundred dollars per pen. No more are the fanciers
of Bantams classed with children; nor are their pets called "banties."
The American Standard of Perfection recognizes eight varieties of
Game Bantam: The Malay Bantam, seven breeds of variety Bantams and
their sub-varieties; in all, twenty-five varieties, bred to standard demands.
The requirements for excellence in these, when compared in the show-room,
are fully as rigid, if not more so, than in the larger breeds they miniature.
Superior excellence in Bantams is their real value. Mediocrity, or in-
feriority, with them means worthlessness. This is one of the causes that
confines the successful breeding of Bantams to experts, who alone are able
to produce the most desirable quality. While the Bantam is a lovely little
fowl at all times, one that gives pleasure to the amateur, who may foster
it from affection and for the eggs, it should be understood in advance that
the production of the highest quality is only to be accomplished through
the greatest care, resulting from experience and a study of the bird selected.
Bantams in General
1037
Of all varieties, the Game Bantam has long been the prime favorite.
The Black Red Game Bantam, though the most generally kept, is seemingly
but little understood. The tendency in life is to consider the best we have
seen to be the best of its kind. The observance of this rule is naturally
quite general among fanciers, with whom the "prize-winner" is the object-
lesson of perfection. Ofttimes these idols are soon broken with the
coming of their betters. One of the most difficult lessons to learn is how
to bestow speedy recognition upon better than we have or have seen when
it comes between us and the much-coveted prize awards. To be successful,
we must be able to recognize true merit, to grasp its value quickly, and to
apply the lesson learned from its presence to our own future benefit.
GAME BANTAMS
THE Game Bantam, as recognized in the American Standard, consists
of eight varieties. Of these the Black-breasted Red is by far the most
popular. The only other Bantam that approaches it in being generally
kept is the Buff Cochin Bantam. Without question, there are more
Cochin Bantams and Black-breasted Red Game Bantams than there are
of any of the other breeds or varieties.
Several writers have several theories about the origin of the Game
Bantams. The majority of fanciers, however, agree with Mr. Entwisle,
who gives John Crossland, of England, the credit of having produced the
first Game Bantams of quality. Mowbray, in his early writings, states
that there has just been obtained a new variety of Bantams, extremely
small and smooth-legged, as are the Game fowls. The records as early as
1850 described beautiful Game Bantams of very small size, weight con-
sidered, but no mention is made of their possible origin.
With Game Bantams, as with the large Game fowls, form, type and
station are of the greatest importance. The Game type, as it is termed, is
distinctively their own. No other fowl has the carriage of the Games; and
what are known at present as the exhibition type of Game Bantams are
quite different from any other style of fowl. They are tall, upright in
carriage; the head rather long and narrow; very slim neck, especially at
the front where it joins with the head; broad at the shoulders between the
wing-butts; and body shaped like an egg, the larger end at the shoulders,
tapering down to the tail. The best of the present day are so delicately
1038
The Poultry Book
bred as scarcely to show any wattle, and very little comb. This may be
caused by the continual “dubbing" of fowls.
One of the most attractive peculiarities of the Game fowl is that it
should have very long shanks and thighs upon which the bird is placed in
an upright position. The neck is long, slim and tapering, when it stands
or is poised in an exhibition position. The eye should be almost directly
over the hock joint. Specimens that have short legs, short, heavy necks
and a non-erect carriage should be excluded from the Game classes entirely.
In a recent letter (October 12, 1904) James Glasgow, the well-known
fancier and breeder of New Jersey, writes of Game Bantams as follows:
"Of the many varieties of Bantams, none appeals to the average
fancier so much as the sprightly little fowl universally known as the Game
Bantam. Being an exact counterpart of the large exhibition Game, it
easily finds favor in the eyes of all Game fanciers. Take a 'dyed-in-the-
wool' Game man and, no matter whether his ideal shape is placed before
him in the form of a large Game or a diminutive Bantam, he admires it
just the same. Many a fancier of the large Games has, from lack of ac-
commodation, transferred his affection to the little fellows, and by scientific
breeding has produced specimens that have had all the characteristics of
the up-to-date Game fowl. The Black-breasted Reds have for years
held their own in popular favor. Consequently more birds of that variety
than of any other have been bred nearer to the ideal. The Golden and
the Silver Duckwings are next in order. Their beautiful coloring, on the
black body ground, forms a contrast that is very pleasing to the eye.
The Red Pyles have many admirers. The chief difficulty in breeding them
is to get a creamy white body and surface color entirely free from dark or
smutty-colored features, which plainly show the infusion of Black Red
blood at some time or another."
Then we have the Brown-breasted Reds and the Birchen Game
Bantams, which to my mind are the most beautiful of all.
The only difference between the two varieties is in the coloring. The
Brown Red males should have lemon-colored hackles, saddle and breast-
lacing; and the females, lemon hackles and breast lacing, but both should
be entirely free of coloring on the back and thighs.
The Birchens are the same, except that the coloring should be silvery
white instead of lemon, as in the Brown Reds.
White Game Bantams have made remarkable strides in the past few
Bantams in General
1039
years. Some of the specimens exhibited at our leading shows have com-
pared favorably with birds of the more popular varieties.
Blacks, strange to say, have not shown much improvement. The
majority of birds exhibited
look like poor Rose-comb
Black Bantams with their
combs cut off.
Space will not permit me
to go into an exhaustive trea-
tise on the breeding of Game
Bantams, but a few remarks
upon each variety will not be
amiss. The fad for extremes
in the matter of coloring has
compelled fanciers to resort
to what is generally termed
double-mating systems,
which enable them to produce
males and females of the color
that the Standard demands.

It is this double mating
that has proved a stumbling-
block to many an enthusiastic First at Madison Square Garden, 1904. Bred and owned by Oak & McNeal, Canada
beginner.
Photograph by C. 7. Ross
BLACK-BREASTED RED-HEN BANTAM
In Black Reds it is absolutely necessary to have separate cockerel and
pullet breeding-pens if a breeder wishes to produce an average number of
birds of the correct color.
The male bird is considered the main factor in producing the proper
color in both males and females.
For cockerel breeding, the male selected should be very sound in his black,
rich, solid-colored diamonds, short bodied, and as near perfect in carriage as
it is possible to get him. For pullet breeding, a darker-colored bird should be
used. One very important item in this selection is to get a bird that has
perfect black flights in the wings-one that is entirely free from rust in fluff.
Male birds that have red edging on their short-flight feathers, while
suitable for cockerel breeding, are rank failures when mated up to produce
exhibition colored females.
1040
The Poultry Book
They are the cause of what is generally termed foxiness on wing and
shoulders, a fault shown by many of the Black Red females of to-day.
A perfect-colored Black Red female is a scarce article nowadays, and
the writer feels safe in saying that the best-colored birds that have been
shown can trace their breeding to a yard where the double-mating system
has been employed.
Just a word as to the qualities needed in the females that go to make
up a cockerel-breeding pen. First as to shape:
Our experience has been that without perfectly shaped females it is
impossible to breed high-class Game Bantams. In color they should be
as rich as possible, the back showing a distinct lacing. Foxy color on
the wing is to be desired rather than avoided, also plenty of reach and
style, good heads and eyes; in fact, with the proper color get everything
else that goes to make up an ideal specimen. Try to avoid mating two
birds that have the same faults. Endeavor to see in the combination of
male and female the making of a bird superior to his parents. If the stock
is line bred and properly mated, there is no reason why an average num-
ber of high-class birds should not be produced.
In the selection of females for pullet breeding, the nearer you can get
them to the standard color the better. Avoid all shaftiness, reddy tinge,
etc., as an even color all over the body is to be desired, and the breast-color
should not be too dark. A number of fanciers use Wheatons to enable them
to produce rich-colored Black Red cockerels, but our experience has been
that the gain in brightness of color in the males is balanced by ruin to the
color in the females.
Golden Duckwings are a variety that have to depend on the Black
Reds to keep them up in all their glory. A medium-colored Black Red
male mated to a light-colored Duckwing female produces fine Golden
Duckwing cockerels, with a percentage of Silvers.
Some of the pullets from the cross will be rusty-colored Black Reds,
but these mated to one of the Silver cockerels produce very good Black
Red females.
Breeding a straight pen of Golden Duckwings, in a year or two the
majority of the youngsters become poor Goldens and Silvers.
It is necessary to add from time to time a Golden Duckwing male from
the Black Red cross to enable one to keep up the color. The same rule
applies to the breeding of Red Pyles.
Bantams in General
I041
A Black Red male, very sound in his black, mated to a very light lemon
Pyle, produces grand-colored Pyle males, but the females from the cross
are Pyles with willow legs.
These females bred back to a light-colored cockerel produce very fine
colored females, with a good percentage of yellow legs, a few being Black
Reds with yellow legs.
Pyles can be bred straight for several years with good results, but it is
always advisable to have a Black Red cross on hand, to keep up the color
when needed.
The one all-important thing is, to select a male that is black, entirely
free from breast-lacing, rust in fluff, etc. The blacker the bird is the
whiter the Pyles will be from the cross.
In Brown Reds and Birchens the double-mating system also comes
into play. For cockerel breeding, select a male rich in color, and with a
goodly share of breast-lacing. There is no objection to coloring on the
short-wing flights. The females should have abundant lacing on the breast
that extends well over the back.
The pullet-breeding male should be more moderate in his breast-lacing;
and the pullets be of the color required by the Standard.
Whites can be produced by single matings. Being a solid color, there
are no problems to solve other than that of getting them as white as possible.
The American Game and Game Bantam Club has been the chief means of
advancing the breeding of high-class Game Bantams in this country.
Their annual meet at New York is looked forward to by the fanciers
of America as the gathering of all that is good in Game Bantams.
NON-STANDARD GAME BANTAMS
In addition to the regular and well-known varieties of Game Bantam,
there are the old English Game Bantam, the Malay Game Bantam
and the Cornish Indian Game Bantam. Of these, the Black-Breasted
Red Malay Bantam is recognized in our Standard. The demands for
these are that they shall be the same in color and shape as the large Malay
fowls; that their weight shall be the same as the Cochin Bantams. We
scarcely believe that any of the Malays will be reduced to the required
weight for some time, although very beautifully shaped and marked speci-
mens have been shown. This applies also to the Cornish Indian Game
Bantams. They are small Indian Game fowls of Bantam size, and some
1042
The Poultry Book
of them are quite as beautiful in shape and color as the large Cornish Games
themselves.
OLD ENGLISH GAME BANTAMS
THE revival of the Old English Game fowl in England has aroused
wonderful activity in the production of Bantams from its several varieties.
Some very beautiful specimens of the Spangled Bantam have been shown
during the past two winters in this country. We learn that in England
they have these in pale red, spangled with white, also in black red of the Old
English Game type. Some breeders of this country have imported them,
and we shall not be surprised to see the several varieties of Old English
Game Bantams become very popular with us in the exhibition pen.
The wheaten color in Game Bantams is highly valued when it is
needed to use for special matings. The Pyle Wheaten hen has a breast of
very pale fawn, at times almost cream color, with thighs and upper part of
body light buff or lemon color. The back and wings are the color of old
wheat; primaries, white; secondaries, upper web wheaten, inner web
white. They have a white tail, the upper feathers edged with a wheaten
color; while yellow legs and feet yellow are preferred.
The Red Wheaten has a golden hackle; fawn or cream-colored breast;
thighs and upper part of body, light buff; back and wings, pale cinnamon;
primaries, black; secondaries, upper web wheaten color, inner web black;
tail, black, upper feathers powdered with the wheaten color; legs and feet
willow.
The Duck Wing Wheaten hen has the hackle and head color white or
white slightly striped with black; breast, light fawn; back and wings, pale
cinnamon; primaries, black; tail and legs, same as the Red Wheaten.
ASEEL GAME BANTAMS
THERE have been bred a very few miniature Aseel Games that are
called Aseel Game Bantams. Most of these are entirely too large to be
placed in the Bantam class. The same is true of some other types of
Bantams that have been presented under names that have been used for
many years among the Pit Game breeders.
THE SEABRIGHT BANTAM
JUDGING from unauthenticated dates, Sir John Sebright began producing
the breed of Bantams that are known as "Seabrights" almost one hundred
Bantams in General
1043
years ago. Mr. Moubray (1834) mentions Sir John Sebright, M. P. for
Herts, as one of the chief amateur fanciers of this breed. As to the
origin of the Seabright Bantam, Mr. Weir writes:
"It is seventy years, if not more, since Sir John Sebright, of Beech-
wood, conceived the idea of producing a Bantam, hen-tailed, without the
pointed hackle, back, or saddle feathers, which should have instead those
of an obovate form, gold color, with a complete black lacing' throughout.
Not a few of his pigeons were rare color combinations, especially his Arch-
angels, all black, with the exception of the whole of the wings, which were
a bright, metallic, orange red. As far as I know, this variation from the
ordinary Archangel is now 'lost.' Various statements have been made as
to how Sir John evolved the new Bantam breed. The following, from the
Poultry Chronicle (1854), seems at once possible and truthful. It is written
by Mr. Hobbs, who was with the late Sir John Sebright upwards of forty-
five years, and, therefore, may be relied upon: 'The last object that Sir
John Sebright aimed at was to improve the Bantam to a clear, blue-legged
(shanked), penciled (laced) bird, with proud, erect carriage. To effect
this, Sir John, about five and forty years ago, obtained a buff-colored
Bantam hen (possibly that known then as the Nankin) at Norwich; she
was very small indeed, with clear slate-colored legs (shanks). On the
same journey he purchased a cockerel rather inclined to red in color,
destitute of sickle feathers, with a hen-like hackle (this bird, an aged
friend of mine told me, was a 'henny' Game, for he knew the person from
whom it was bought. This, no doubt, had the permanent effect of mak-
ing the Seabright' hen-tailed), and (at Watford) a small hen resembling
a golden Hamburg. After this, by drafting for five or six years, he gained
the very penciled (laced) feather he so anxiously sought, by ‘in-and-in'
breeding for about twenty years. He afterward had a white cockerel
from the Zoological Gardens from which he developed the Silvers.'
The following notes are from Mr. Atherton, of Massachusetts: "It
is generally conceded that the Seabrights are the prettiest of the Bantam
family, the clear ground color with the well-defined lacing giving them
an attractive appearance, which is not possessed by the other varieties.
This breed was brought out by an English fancier, Sir John Sebright, who,
it is said, obtained his first specimens from India, and crossed them with
the Polish Bantam. It required years of careful breeding to perfect them,
and at the present day great care must be exercised in mating them to
"""

1044
The Poultry Book
keep up the standard type. One of the peculiarities of the breed is that
the cock's tail is similar to the hen's, and he does not possess the flowing
hackle of other male birds of the fowl family. There are two varieties of
Seabrights, the Golden, the plumage of which is a rich golden yellow, with
a narrow, distinct, even black lacing around each feather; and the Silver,
whose plumage is silvery white
with the same lacing as that
of the Golden. The comb
should be rose, and it is quite
difficult to get a neat, well-
formed comb on the males, the
tendency being to coarseness.
The utmost care and study
must be given to the breeding
of these birds in order to get
small size and the distinct
lacing around the feathers.
Vigorous breeding stock must
be used, for at best there will
be many infertile eggs. They
are quite hardy unless too
closely inbred, and there is
little difficulty in bringing
them to maturity if they are
properly started. Damp
quarters should be avoided,
and for the first week or two
the chicks should have no
water, oatmeal, bread-
crumbs and Spratt's food
being the ration. To those who contemplate breeding Bantam fowls we
have no hesitation in recommending this beautiful and attractive breed."
Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Radford
BLACK-TAILED JAPANESE BANTAM COCK
Prize-winner at New York, Chicago, and Wisconsin shows, 1903, 1904. Bred and
owned by Frank W. Radford, Wisconsin
ROSE-COMB BANTAMS
THE original of the Rose-comb Bantam was likely among the most
ancient of the Bantam family. The early day Black Bantam, with the proud
strut and the rose comb, was the ancestral groundwork upon which has
Bantams in General
1045
been built the present-day Rose-comb Bantam. It has been brought to the
present perfection through crossing and intermingling so much with the
blood of the Hamburg that it now seems a real Black Hamburg in minia-
ture. The term Black is used here because there does not seem to have
been in the early day a White Bantam with the same characteristics as
the Black variety.
The standard for the Rose-comb Bantam demands an upright carriage
of tail, but not a squirrel tail; the back, very short and tapering to the tail;
saddle feathers, abundant and long. The present-day Rose-comb Bantam,
one of the prime favorites of the show-room, has the concave shape of the
back from the comb down the neck, well up on the saddle; and the tail
gradually inclining backward, full and flowing, but not in the least upright
in carriage. The formation of the female follows the same general lines,
and the droop of the wing, which does not fall below the hock joint, gives
the proper Rose-comb formation for body and carriage of tail and wings.
The comb, head, wattles and ear-lobes on both male and female are identical
in formation and color with those of the Hamburg. Ofttimes is seen at
present upon the female a beautifully shaped white ear-lobe, larger than
that which used to be met with among the males. The males have white
ear-lobes fully twice the size of those formerly grown. The eye of the
Black Rose-comb is very full and prominent. This, with the bright,
quick, active motion, stamps the. general make-up of a most beautiful
little Bantam. The comb, ear-lobe and carriage of tail in the male are
among his most attractive features. Where the comb is perfectly formed,
not too heavy and elegantly made; the ear-lobes, large, full, soft and
enamel-white in color; the tail, long and full; sickles and hangers, long and
very full, and the tail carried with a gentle inclination backward, you
have the ideal for the exhibition pen. The color of the Black Rose-comb
is lustrous black throughout. The more sheen the better, provided there
is an absence of purple barring or foreign color of any kind.
In mating the Black Rose-combs for the production of the best, it is
not unusual to practise double mating to a certain extent. That is, the
finest and richest colored males are paired with females of equally rich,
brilliant color; also with some of a very dull or plain black color. The finest
cockerels are usually produced from the duller-colored females; the richest
and most brilliant-colored females from the very rich-colored females.
Many of the male birds from the very rich-colored females are badly colored,
1046
The Poultry Book
considerable red or brownish tinge showing in the hackle and sometimes
in the back and saddle plumage.
Another feature of great importance in the Black Rose-comb is the
pure, unblemished color of the plumage. Ofttimes there is a tendency
for gray or white to show in the flight feathers of the wing, also just above
the hock joint among the feathers of the thigh. These are the weak
points of color in both the Black Rose-comb Bantam and the Black Ham-
burg. Very often the white will show itself on the plumage of the thigh
when entirely absent in all other parts of the plumage. When Black Rose-
combs are desired for exhibition, wonderful care must be given to their
shanks, to keep them smooth and free from roughness; for so soon as the
rough formation comes upon the shanks of the Rose-comb Bantam, the
white or grayish surface color is present. This is very objectionable
indeed. Great attention should be paid to it at all times, so as to have a
perfectly smooth shank, no matter how old the specimen may be.
Size is another feature of vast importance in the Rose-comb Bantam.
The standard weight is twenty-six ounces for the cock bird, twenty-two
for the cockerel and hen, and twenty ounces for the pullet. Two ounces
over weight in any of these is a disqualification. We have seen some
beautiful little pullets at the winter shows that weighed less than eighteen
ounces, and one of the most beautiful cockerels that we have ever met
weighed about twenty ounces. It is not always best to select the very
smallest specimens for breeding purposes, but it is most desirable to have
them just as small as they can be for exhibition, provided they display all
the breed characteristics.
WHITE ROSE-COMB BANTAMS
Up to within eight or ten years ago, the White Rose-comb Bantams
were of a very poor quality in England. At a much later date the quality
was poor in this country. Writing of the quality of the White Rose-
comb Bantam, R. Fletcher Hearnshaw, of England, states that the veteran
fancier, G. H. Pickering, has had much to do with improving them within
the last few years. The best, he states, always come from Yorkshire, and
it has been hinted that the best results have been gained through the
infusion of Black Hamburg blood into the Whites, as well as into the
Blacks themselves. The great trouble with this crossing has been that the
progeny would be afflicted with blue legs. Breeders are therefore strongly
Bantams in General
1047
advised not to follow such a method, but to select the very best obtainable,
mate them with care and selection, and in this way improve form, color and
head qualities.
The greatest drawbacks with the Whites have always been their delicate
constitution, defective ear-lobes and badly colored shanks. The shanks of
the White Rose-comb Bantam should be yellow or white. We prefer the
white shanks with the pinkish tinge on the back of them and between
the scales; toes the same color as the shanks. These are far more beautiful
upon the White Rose-comb and more natural to it than are the yellow or
darker-colored shanks.
In selecting both the White and the Black Rose-comb Bantams always
strive for good constitutional vigor, nicely formed bodies and good plumage.
When you have these characteristics, you must add to them the highest
quality obtainable in comb, wattles and ear-lobes. Remember that experts
very often are tempted to use the knife in tampering with, or "improving,'
the shape of comb. Examine carefully for this when selecting a breeder,
for ofttimes miserably shaped combs have been trimmed into presentable
perfection.
To produce the highest type of Black cockerel, they would select a
male bird, free from red or straw-colored feathers, with good, sound, black
legs, especially fine head points, lobes as large and perfect as possible, and
with such a male the most elegant hens or pullets would be mated. Never
select the females with the most lustrous plumage for the production of
cockerels. It is always best, if possible, to use females in their second year,
rather than to depend upon pullets, for producing the young stock. On
the other hand, when mating for the production of exhibition pullets, the
females showing the most brilliant sheen in plumage should be selected. A
short back in the female is considered of great value. The same caution is
applied to selecting the breeding-stock for the White variety.
""
The only difference is that it is necessary only to have one pen for
producing both the males and the females. All of these, however, must
have very strong comb and head points; fine, large, clear-white ear-lobes;
perfectly pure-colored plumage, and nice, clean, smooth, pinkish-white
shanks and toes. Such matings, if bred in line from good producing stock,
are bound to bring exhibition specimens of a quality that will go on improv-
ing from year to year.
Above all things, avoid red in the ear-lobes of your breeding-stock.
1048
The Poultry Book
It would be far better to have one pure-colored pair than to waste your
time on a large number that have this defect. To produce the beautiful,
pure-white ear-lobes is a task well worth the attention of the best fanciers,
for even these would not have any hope of success if their stock were branded
with any considerable amount of red in the ear-lobe. The breeding of
Rose-comb Bantams may become a profitable pastime, provided one is
supplied with a good quality of stock from which to produce, but it is
certain to prove a disappointment if the quality of the stock gathered for
production is of an inferior grade or bred from a poor-quality stock.
BOOTED BANTAMS
THE most popular and the best-known breed of all the Bantams was the
early day White-booted Bantam. This and the black variety are still
largely bred in many parts of England. Quite a number of the Whites are
bred in this country, but few Blacks have ever come among us.
The early
day Booted Bantam was of diverse kinds. Some of those with crests and
beards are met with up to the present time, but the non-bearded variety,
as they are commonly called, have always been the most popular.
Booted Bantams are considerably larger than other Bantams, though
the Standard demands the same weight in Seabrights, Black Rose-comb and
Booted Bantams. Seldom, if ever, is seen a pair of Booted Bantams that
will not considerably outweigh either of the others.
The Booted Bantam stands rather erect upon shanks of a fairly good
length, both shanks and toes being heavily feathered, the hock plumage
full and extended. Ofttimes the plumage of the hock will be as much as
four or five inches in length. When this is very heavy, and the specimens
are heavily booted on shank and toes, if in fine, presentable condition, they
are most attractive specimens. The Blacks are the more desirable if they
can be had in a good quality, because they are more easily kept in good
show condition. The early day White-booted Bantams had yellow shanks
and beak. These have gradually changed until, at the present time, white
shanks, toes and beaks are demanded. They have single combs, red ear-
lobes, and the feathers on shanks and toes are of heavier growth, naturally,
than the same feathering upon the Cochin Bantam. The wings of the
Booted Bantam are long and extend out behind the body. Often the end
of the wings and the feathering on the hock joint reach almost to the ground.
The male of the Booted Bantam has a long, full, well-finished tail.
-
Bantams in General
1049
BRAHMA BANTAMS
ALL who are familiar with Asiatic Bantams are unanimous in granting
the credit for the early production of Light Brahma Bantams to Mr.
Entwisle of England. The first seen in this country are said to have come
from his original stock, but
the type of Brahma Bantam,
as well as of the large Brahma,
bred in England, would not
meet the requirements of this
country. The early day
Brahma Bantams were marked
with the disqualifying scourge
of vulture hocks, which cannot
be tolerated here.

The Brahma Bantams, as
we sometimes have them, are
an exact miniature of the
large Brahmas. They have
the Brahma shape, the
Brahma color and markings,
and the close-rounded hocks
as demanded in the Brahmas
themselves. The great trouble
has been that, to reduce size,
the Brahma Bantams and the
White Cochin Bantams were
crossed until the influence of
the blood of the White-booted,
the shape and short legs of
the White Cochin Bantam had almost utterly destroyed the form and
color of the Light Brahma Bantams, as they first came to this country
from England.
Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Radford
BLACK-TAILED JAPANESE BANTAM PULLET
Winner of many prizes, 1903, 1904
Bred and owned by Frank W. Radford, Wisconsin
A determined effort at improvement demanded the introduction of the
blood of our large-sized Brahmas into the Light Brahma Bantam. This
has been successfully accomplished, and we now often see in the exhibition
room specimens of the Light Brahma Bantams that are very creditable
1050
The Poultry Book
to the breed in form, size and color. In all of these there is still room for
improvement, more perhaps in color than elsewhere. There is entirely
too little of the rich black marking upon the pure white, and the wings of
the Brahma Bantams are quite defective in color. When we stop to con-
sider that in the breeding of the early day Light Brahma Bantams the
Gray Aseel blood was used, as well as Brahma and Cochin, the union of
these with other crosses that have been made would naturally bring about
an admixture of blood that will be at war for some time to come.
Another matter of vast importance is the well-formed pea-comb of
the Brahma, which has been interfered with by the many crosses.
Care
and selection have improved this so much that scarcely any trouble will be
needed in the future to have the comb of the Brahma Bantam almost as
well defined as that of the large Brahma.
As stated before, it is absolutely necessary that the Light Brahma
Bantam of the future shall be a small Brahma in its entire make-up. In
mating to produce the best, always select the finest form, the smallest size,
and the best color possible. Even should the male bird be considerably
darker than would be admissible in the exhibition pen, do not hesitate in its
use, because from such a one you are more than likely to build up and
improve the color of the offspring. The time is almost past when it will
be permissible to have simply fairly good specimens of the Brahma
Bantam. The few good ones that have been produced have taught the
experts and the general public that it is possible to have them of the
proper quality. The striping in the hackle must be improved; it must be
brought to the quality of the large Brahmas in both males and females.
It is only necessary to study the description of the Light Brahma in the
first volume of this publication to be fully informed as to the shape and
color that is demanded for the Light Brahma Bantam. Added to this is
the positive demand for standard size, which allows only thirty ounces
for the cock bird, twenty-six for the cockerel and hen, and twenty-four
ounces for the pullet. The proper size and form, color and markings must
be retained or the Light Brahma Bantam will deteriorate so much in
quality as to be set aside without consideration.
DARK BRAHMA BANTAMS
PERHAPS the best Dark Brahma Bantams that have ever been pro-
duced are those that originated in America from the union of an Entwisle
Bantams in General
1051
male bird with a small-sized Dark Brahma female from Newton Adams'
pullet-breeding strain. None of those we have bought from England
have ever equaled the American strain produced by the above crosses.
This having been done by the writer, he willingly describes the plan fol-
lowed, so that it may be adopted by any who are interested in
the breed.
As before stated, the Entwisle stock was crossed upon a female of
the Adams pullet-breeding strain. A double cross was successfully made
the first season. In other words, chicks hatched in March from this
cross were set in September upon their own eggs, from which they hatched
chicks and reared young during the winter months. Through this method,
some comparatively small females were produced, and these were made
use of the second season. Five years of continual selection of the smallest
females and the smallest and best of the males made it possible within six
years to produce a strain sixteen of which were entered in the Boston
show and won all the prizes excepting one third and one fourth in the
four classes.
All the males and females of this strain have come from the one line
of breeding. No double mating has been applied for the production of
males. The production of females was kept up from the start to finish,
and the best males produced in this way were selected. This strain of dark
Brahma Bantams passed into the hands of D. Lincoln Orr, President of
the American Poultry Association, and from him to the Lone Oak Bantam
Yards, of New York. We do not know that any one has ever produced
their equal up to the present time.
Dark Brahma Bantams have increased largely in popularity in the
last few years.
Formerly few were seen, but recently large classes of
them were shown both at fall fairs and winter shows. The Dark Brahma
Bantams are identical in shape and color with the Dark Brahmas them-
selves. To the rich white top color of the male bird, striped with black,
the black breast and body are a striking contrast. The beautiful steel-gray
of the female is penciled with a darker shade. We doubt if any fowl has
ever been shown more elegant in form and color than the handsome, well-
finished Dark Brahma pullet.
In mating the Dark Brahma Bantams for producing the finest and
richest color and markings, much depends upon the line of breeding from
which your stock is selected.
stock is selected. If you select from a stock that is strong and
1052
The Poultry Book
rich in the pullet-breeding blood, you may usually depend upon the quality
of the females that are produced. Whenever blood is introduced that comes
from a line that produces the dark, rich-colored males, it is almost certain
that this will destroy the fine coloring, and also the penciling in the females.
It is almost impossible to produce fine-penciled Dark Brahma females
from the mating that will produce the rich dark-colored males. The fine,
steel-gray color of the female will not stand the distinctive influence of the
very dark color of the male-producing strain.
COCHIN BANTAMS
THE original Cochin Bantams came from Pekin in the early sixties, and
for many years were known as Pekin Bantams. Those that came from
China were a deep, dark cinnamon shade of color. In fact, the male bird was
almost a reddish-brown, the female several shades lighter than the male;
but few of these came into England or this country. To improve and
strengthen the constitutional vigor, and avoid the danger of inbreeding, a
cross was made with these and the Nankin Bantam. While the Nankins
are much the same color as the original Pekin Bantams, they had the
greenish color in shanks which was transmitted to the product of this
cross. From this, or some other, influence the fifth toe was added to a
large proportion of the early day Pekin Bantams.
We are rather inclined to believe that only two colors ever came from
China, the buff and the black, and that the white and the partridge were
produced in this country through crosses with the large Cochin fowls.
The first importations from China were buff. Several years later some black
ones were brought into England. The black males were crossed with the
darkest of the buff females. Some of the lightest Lemon-colored Buffs
were mated with the White Booted, and an intermingling of several of
these produced the lighter of the Partridge Cochin Bantams. All of the
varieties we have at the present time are the result of crossing some of
each of these Bantams with a large-sized Cochin of the same variety.
Through selection, mating, late hatching and other methods, proper size,
with true Cochin form and color, has been gained.
It required many years of constant care and attention to rid the
Buffs of their green shanks; the Whites of white shanks and vulture hocks;
and it was equally difficult to eliminate from the Blacks the white under-
color in plumage that came from crossing with the Buffs and the Whites,
Bantams in General
1053
and to establish a good color in the Partridge Cochin Bantam.
Even to
the present day, the undesirable reddish-brown color will crop out in the
Buff Cochin Bantam.
In the matter of shape, the long back, the long shank and thigh and
the pinched tail are most undesirable. All three defects should be carefully
guarded against. It is unfortunate that the Cochin Bantam does not
reach its maturity and best shape before the second year.
For this reason,
it is desirable to select only the best hens for producers, and with these use
the finest-shaped males it is possible to obtain, no matter what their age
may be. Form, feather and color in the Cochin Bantam are even more
important in the large Cochin. There may be some use for a large Cochin
of bad color, but no possible value can be placed upon a Bantam that is
defective in shape or color. Perfection is an absolute demand in Bantams
of all kinds.
Of recent years, many Cochin Bantams have been seen in the buff,
black and white varieties that fully equal the other Cochins in all require-
ments of form and color. In size they have been all kept about the same.
Some very good Partridge Cochin Bantams have been seen, but so few of
them are of noticeable quality that it would be scarcely within bounds to
say that they equal the others. When you consider how recent their origin
is, they certainly have been greatly improved in the last five or six years.
BUFF COCHIN BANTAMS
THE original Cochin or Pekin Bantam was the ancestor of our
present buff variety of Cochin Bantams. The fanciers of America at first
showed great ability in producing these little Bantams of the proper size and
color. These early day specimens were long in the leg and quite deficient
in Cochin quality, shape and feather, but within the last ten years many
Buff Cochin Bantams have been produced of the true golden buff shade
that equal any of the Cochins in breed characteristics, color and feather.
Even yet there is considerable difference between the manner of
breeding these Bantams in England and in this country. The specimens
that come from England are darker in the shade of surface color, carry
considerable black in wing and tail, and are not so true either in surface
or under color as we have them at the present time.
Naturally, the Buff Cochin Bantam male will be considerably darker
than the female. This was so when they came from China; and when
+

1054
The Poultry Book
naturally mated, as they were on first coming to us, they always produced
the dark cinnamon males and the lighter-colored females. This has been
changed through the mating of our standard Buff Cochin females with some
of the Bantam males, and
by selecting and reducing
the size fine color has been
obtained. To aid in this,
some have crossed the buff
and white varieties, select-
ing those from this cross
which showed the purest
buff in the plumage color.
In crossing and recrossing
from both these lines, shade,
color and feathers have been
greatly improved.

In the mating of Buff
Cochin Bantams for shape,
always select the most
perfect Cochin type you can possibly obtain. For color, select a good,
even, true shade of buff throughout in the females, and mate them
with a male that has the breast plumage one or two shades darker or richer
in color than their own. Never make use of reddish-buff, brown or cinnamon-
colored males if you hope to produce good exhibition color. One absolute
rule in the production of buff is that the truer and richer the color of the
specimens you breed from the more likely will you be to produce well-
colored offspring. Whenever black is prevalent or present in the plumage,
you are certain to obtain darker-colored specimens than the ones you
breed from. When white is prevalent, or present, in the under-color or
plumage of the producers, you are certain to have a lighter-colored plumage
in the offspring; and as sure as light- and dark-colored birds are paired
together, just so sure are you to have offspring with a mottled, or mealy,
surface color.
Photograph by courtesy of" American Agriculturist"
SILVER SEABRIGHT BANTAM HEN
First at New York State Fair, 1902. Bred and owned by A. E. Blunk, New York
The shade, fluff and heavy cushion of the Cochin Bantam depend
largely upon the very heavy underfluff of the feather. The heavier and
denser the underfluff, the more full and rounding will be the formation of
the specimen. The web of the feather of a Cochin or Cochin Bantam is
Bantams in General
1055
only one-third of the whole feather, when properly formed, the balance
or two-thirds being fluff, or the underpart of the feather. The very short-
feathered, scantily fluffed plumage is usually present upon the close-
feathered specimens.
-
The Buff Cochin Bantams of to-day are as distinctively an American
breed as are the Plymouth Rocks or the Wyandottes. They have been
gradually built up by great attention in the mating paid to true Cochin
shape, pure buff color, soft, round hocks, profuse fluff, and heavy leg and
toe feathering. No specimens that have come from abroad have equaled
our own, and if ours were sent to other countries they would be considered
deficient in the qualities most desired there. These differences in form,
feather and color in the Bantams and other poultry between this country
and England had much better be removed for the future interest of all.
BLACK COCHIN BANTAMS
NO MATTER What the variety color may be, all Cochin Bantams must
have the true Cochin shape. The standard demand is identical in the large
Cochin and in the Cochin Bantam; in fact, the Cochin Bantam is simply
a miniature imitation of the true Cochin. It must have the form, the
feather, cushion, the fluff, and the shank and toe feather as prominent as
in the large Cochin. The old-time Black Cochin Bantam was produced
from a cross between the imported black Cochin Bantam and the domestic
Buff Cochin Bantam. Many of them were also infused with the blood of
the Nankin Bantam.
Remember in the handling of Black Cochin Bantams that the male has
the greater influence over color. It would be almost useless to hope to
produce good colored males from a sire having bad color in surface and
underplumage. A male bird showing white in the undercolor is almost
certain to produce bad-colored cockerels. On the other hand, a male bird
of a rich, lustrous black plumage throughout and rich, dark underplumage
is the correct one to use for the production of well-colored cockerels. Pro-
ducing the proper surface color and undercolor in the females is not so
difficult. Many good females were produced and shown prior to the time
that males were seen with a good solid undercolor.
With these, as with the large Cochins, there is a tendency to show
white in the shank and feathering; but even this has been almost entirely
driven out by a determined effort to have a perfect black color. One of
1056
The Poultry Book
the first, and perhaps one of the finest, of the early day Black Cochin males
was produced with the rich, lustrous, bottle-green surface color and a
black undercolor. He had yellow shanks and yellow-shaded feet and
toes, and was considered a wonderful specimen. The most advantageous
change for the benefit of the variety has been the recognition of the fact
that black, or black gradually shading into yellow, is the most desirable
color for the shanks and toes of a Black Cochin Bantam. With these it
became more possible to have a true color throughout. In the mating it
is of vital importance that none but those having the soundest color should
be used.
In mating the Black Cochin Bantams, it is not unusual for a double
process to be followed. This, however, is not necessary, because both
kinds of females may be used in the same mating. Always select the
most perfect Cochin type for the specimens to be used as producers in all
varieties of Cochin Bantams. The Black Cochin male that heads the pen
should have the Cochin characteristics to the greatest possible extent, and
in addition should have the richest, most lustrous, bottle-green plumage
on the surface that it is possible to obtain. The undercolor should also
be as dark as you can get it. With such a male, the rich, glossy females
will produce the best male birds, while the more somber, or plainer-colored,
black females will produce the best pullets. Some make use, even at the
present time, of the male birds with the light or gray undercolor for the
production of pullets. It is scarcely advisable to do so, nor is it necessary,
provided you have females both of the rich, lustrous, surface color and of
the plain, soft or dead black color to use in the mating.
We should not advise nor encourage yellow shanks in the Black
Cochin. One defect that must always be avoided in the Black Cochin
and also in the White is the tendency to white in the ear-lobes. Just why
these should occur there does not seem to be any plausible excuse, but it
is said that at times some of the large Cochins show so much white in the
ear-lobe as almost to disqualify them from the exhibition room.
WHITE COCHIN BANTAM
WE incline to the opinion that the first White Cochin Bantams that
came to this country were brought here by J. D. Nevius, of Pennsyl-
vania. A. P. Groves, of the same State, was one of the first to take hold
of this variety and to attempt the establishment of a strain that would
Bantams in General
1057
be pure Cochin in type and feather. Mr. Groves states that his strain
came from white sports of the buff variety that he was breeding. These
were carefully selected, mated and cared for with a determined effort to
have a strain that would equal the other Cochin Bantams. In this Mr.
Groves succeeded remarkably well. Following him came Charles Jehl,
now of New Jersey, who worked somewhat along the same lines and pro-
duced perhaps the finest specimens of the early day White Cochin Bantams.
PARTRIDGE COCHIN BAntams
THE origin of all the Partridge Cochin Bantams must be credited
to Mr. Entwisle, who produced the first as the result of a cross between
a Black and a Buff. These, mated with very small Partridge Cochin
females, were reduced and bred down to Bantam size. Some of them were
imported into America early in the nineties. H. S. Babcock, of Rhode
He was not,
Island, also produced a strain of Partridge Cochin Bantams.
however, fortunate in the continuance of the variety. In 1895 the writer
From the
imported from England a trio of Partridge Cochin Bantams.
offspring of this trio, mated with small Partridge Cochins from Mr. Mitchell's
stock, was built up the present strain of Partridge Cochin Bantams that has
done so well in this country. Nine years' experience has taught the
importance of absolute certainty in the blood lines for producing pullets.
It is quite as necessary that this should be strong and true in the large
Partridge Cochin. Nothing is of more importance than to have male
birds for pullet production that have been bred in line from the female
strain. The introduction of the dark-colored males demanded for exhibi-
tion is almost certain to destroy the surface color and also the markings.
The greatest fault in the English Partridge Bantam is caused by a marked
difference in the color demand there and here. The English standard
calls for light brown or yellow, finely penciled, in the female. The neck
is to be a golden yellow, each feather striped with greenish-black down the
center; while our standard calls for mahogany red, distinctly penciled with
brown or with black. The male bird, according to the English standard,
It is much easier to
is very much lighter than is permissible with us.
produce both males and females of exhibition quality in the English type
from single matings than it would be to produce the same from single
matings with us.
In producing a quality of this variety fit for exhibition, we had to

1058
The Poultry Book
establish a double line of matings. Using only the direct descendants of
the beautiful three-and-a-half-pound pullet, and the four-pound cockerel
from Mr. Mitchell's yards, we started a strain of pullet-breeding Partridge
Cochin Bantams through the double use of these with our Bantams.
Even with close attention, not so much progress has been made as we
hoped, though considerable has been gained. It has been easier to produce
good-colored males through the use of the darker females, mated with the
best-colored males that we possessed. Many male birds have been pro-
duced and sold to the show-room as winners.
One of the best that we ever
produced won at the New
York, Boston and other
prominent shows continually
for four years, and was, up to
the show season of 1904, the
best of his kind that we have
ever met with.

In proof of the quality
that has been produced in the
Partridge Cochin Bantam, one
of these a few years ago won
the special for the best Cochin
Bantam in the Boston show,
all four varieties competing.
This ability to gain the prizes
over imported birds, winners
at the Crystal Palace and in
America also, speaks volumes,
but it is a most difficult task
to produce them of such
quality. Size is very hard to
obtain and control in a strain
that has descended from the
large variety. It is best con-
trolled through the selection
of the smaller-sized females, but it often happens that the larger ones
have the finer color and penciling. To make use of these, it has been
found advantageous to hatch the first clutch of Bantams as early as
Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Radford
BLACK JAPANESE BANTAM COCKEREL
First at Wisconsin, 1904. Scored 9434 points
Bred and owned by Frank W. Radford, Wisconsin
Bantams in General
1059
March, and then so soon as the pullets show an inclination to lay, to mate
them back to their own sire and hatch the late-laid eggs, raising the chicks
during the fall and winter months. In this way have been produced some
of the smallest and best exhibition specimens both in Partridge Cochin
Bantams and in Dark Brahma Bantams.
One winter, nineteen of these two varieties were housed in a small
coop out of doors, the two Bantam hens that mothered the chicks remain-
ing with them for almost three months during the winter. It is surprising
how well the little Bantams stood the winter, and came out in the spring
with great vitality and constitutional vigor. It is a mistaken idea that
Cochin Bantams are not hardy. They will stand almost as much ex-
posure as the large Cochins, if kept out of the damp, and well fed. It
should always be borne in mind that length of feather is quite as important
in the Cochin Bantam as in the Cochins themselves. Length of feather
and very heavy under-fluff are the desirable features to obtain, for with
these go the rotund form so desirable in the Cochin, and the heavy fluff
which fills out the cushion of the back, as well as about the hocks, giving a
well-set appearance. In the Partridge Cochin Bantam every attention.
possible should be paid to selecting the proper mahogany surface color in
the female and the very deep, rich hackle and top color in the male with
the rich black breast and under-body color. All of these features must
have the same attention as in the large Cochins; and it is well to remember
that all Cochin Bantams ought to have the true Cochin shape, with plenty
of fluff and feather and the most exquisite color demanded for each variety.
In the Partridge Cochin Bantam male and female must be equally brilliant,
as lustrous and attractive as the large Cochins.
-
CUCKOO COCHIN BANTAMS
THE Cuckoo Cochin Bantam is the variety that has the true Cochin
form, but the shape and color of the Barred Plymouth Rock. They were
produced originally by crossing the pure White and the pure Black Cochin
Bantams. By selecting and carefully mating these, offspring have been
produced of fairly good color, presentable in quality. Many of them,
however, are disfigured with bad surface color, and considerable of a red
or brownish cast in the plumage. Like the Scotch Gray, the Plymouth
Rock, and the mottled Bantams, known as the Ancona Bantams,
these are only desirable in the very finest quality, and they demand
1060
The Poultry Book
more care and attention in production than any one of the other
four varieties.
The Cuckoo Cochin Bantam can be described as a Bantam having the
true Cochin Bantam shape and the very best obtainable Barred Plymouth
Rock color and marking. These, together with the usual demands for the
Cochin Bantam, are the requirements for this variety, and while not
recognized in the Standard, occasionally some specimens are seen of very
good quality.
NANKIN BANTAMS
THIS variety of Bantams is one of the very oldest of the breed.
Formerly, they were very plentiful, but at the present time are seldom
seen. They are ofttimes described as a small, buff-colored Bantam, having
green-colored shanks and black tail feathers. This description would
scarcely fit the Nankin in its purity. The male is of a rather deep cinnamon
or reddish-buff, except the tail, which shows more or less black. The less.
black there is in the tail plumage the better. The legs and feet are blue;
comb, face and lobes red; comb single; eyes red. The hen is a lighter
shade of buff throughout, and the main tail feathers are shaded with black;
at times the whole main-tail plumage black. Those that have been seen
in recent years differ from this in having a tendency to the Rose-comb
type or form, with the lighter buff color throughout, both in male and
female. Both have black main-tail feathers, the furnishings and coverts
of the male being often striped with black.
It has been stated that the Buff Rose-combs have been produced
through crossing the White Rose-comb Bantams with the Nankin. In
this way some showing Nankin color have been used to breed in with the
true Nankin, thus bringing these two non-standard varieties more nearly
alike in shape.
POLISH BANTAMS
SEVERAL times in the history of poultry, Polish Bantams of all the
colors and varieties of the large Polish fowls have been bred. The success
with these several varieties has been limited. We have read of the Black
Polish Bantam with the white crest and the White Polish Bantam with
the black breast. We have seen the Golden and Silver Polish Bantams,
and the White-Crested Black Polish Bantam of fairly good quality. In
Bantams in General
1061
this country there was produced and admitted to the Standard a Buff
Laced Polish Bantam for which the requirements were the same for shape
and color as in the large Buff Laced Polish. They were to be a rich buff,
the edge of each feather laced with pale buff. A few of these were shown
throughout the East for several years, beginning about 1887, but during
the last four years I have not known of a single specimen having been
shown.
Perhaps Doctor Phelps, of New York, has imported more varieties
of the Polish Bantam than any other American fancier. He has been
known to have the Buff Polish, the White-crested White Polish, White-
crested Black Polish, Chamois Polish, Golden Polish, and Silver Polish.
All of these might be termed quite rare, and classed entirely with the orna-
mental fowls.
The crowning success in Polish Bantams, however, has been gained by
F. B. Zimmer, of New York, who originated the White Polish Bantam,
known as the "White-crested White Polish Bantam." These he has
evolved in Bantam size with all the Polish characteristics, having the blue
or semi-blue shanks with and without the beard. The best of them are
fully equipped with fine, handsome, well-shaped crest and beard. These
are without doubt the finest of all the Polish Bantams that have ever been
produced.
In writing of them, Mr. Zimmer states that some twenty years ago
they originated in Massachusetts. At that time they were in a very
crude state. Mr. Zimmer procured the whole of the stock and became the
sole owner, it might be said, of this variety of Bantams in the world. After
many years of care and attention in selecting and mating, with the de-
termination to have the blue legs, the V comb, the crest and the beard of
the most perfect quality, he now possesses a flock which is most attractive
Not long ago we saw some twenty-five or thirty of these in a
quality that would rival the best of the White Polish breed. The standard
demand for all the Polish Bantams is the same as that called for in the
large Polish. The only difference is that the weight of the Polish Bantam
runs below twenty ounces-hen or cockerel, twenty-two ounces; cock bird,
twenty-six ounces. When larger than this, they cannot be classed as
desirable Polish Bantams.
to see.
The several varieties of Polish Bantam mentioned indicate the kind
and quality by the name. Each of these has the variety color that con-
1062
The Poultry Book
forms to the title by which it is known. They are classed as non-standard
Polish varieties, and need no further description than the mention of the
name.
THE SULTAN, OR WHITE-BOOTED POLISH
IT may not be out of place to mention here what is known as the Sultan
fowl. Perhaps there is no Bantam or fowl of any kind or character that
has so many distinctive traits. It was described as early as 1854 as a
"Bantam." Those shown at the present time are quite as large as some of
the Polish fowls. They are a booted Polish, pure white in color, having
crest and beard and, in addition, the long-extended hocks and very
heavy shank and toe plumage. In our Standard they are not classed as
Bantams, but in some of the older works they are so described, and it is
thought that the smaller specimens, called Bantams, were the result of a
cross between the Sultan and the White-booted Bantam, These were a
very small White-booted Bantam with the crest and five toes like the
Sultan, but differing from the latter in size.
THE JAPANESE Bantam
ART in Japan is not only of a very fine, poetical and finished order, but
the love of it is almost universal. The common people appreciate the
line, form and color of the beautiful, and also in a greater or lesser
degree are able, with varying success, to produce it in the growing animal,
bird and flower. By selection and cultivation they bring these subservient
to their will, and make them their models, from which by artistic com-
bination they reproduce Nature in many lovely fabrics, paperings, carvings,
lacquerings, metallic, and fictile elegancies. All are true in form, perfect
in arrangement, and each possesses harmonious individuality, quaint,
beautiful, attractive, or comic, as the case may be, but always in good
taste, and ever ornamental. As a people endowed with natural observation,
they accomplish equally wonderful results in the higher branches of pictorial
art, in beauty of decoration with flowers-the pæony, the iris, the lily, and
the chrysanthemum. Their poultry, one and all, testify to their skill as
well as their fine feeling both in form and color arrangement. In all variants
of Nature, the Japanese, as a nation, are inimitable. It is from their
incarnated fancies that we derive those charming and ever - enjoyable
things of beauty," their vases, tazzas, plates, and dishes. So pure is a
66
Bantams in General
1063
Japanese work of art that, wherever placed, it never over-asserts itself or
seems out of its element.
The Japanese Bantam cock is very small, with upright body and tail,
carried so as to touch one another (according to the most approved style,
the tail is devoid of sickle feathers), and their place is supplied by two of
sword shape, the curve being perfect, and corresponding to that of the
back of the neck, where the hackles are full and graceful, also curved to
the shape of the body, which is broad, short and rotund. The wings are
large for the size, carried low, and the points almost touch the ground, as
do the “side hangers," meeting behind under the base of the tail, which is
full and incurved to the shape of the body, the whole making a ball-like
or compact, yet elegant, ovaled form. The legs are very short; the head
small, somewhat broad at the base of the skull, and tapering toward the
beak, which should be of medium thickness and have a somewhat down-
ward tendency; comb of medium size, spiked, thick at "the setting on,”
gradually thinning upward, but firm and upright; the wattles, elongated,
yet rounded and broader at the lower part, the front edges recurved against
the centers; face, naked; the eyes, large and full; the whole habit, bright,
lively, and quaint in appearance. The hen should be smaller than the
cock, upright in carriage of body and tail, in some varieties very much so;
the tail, long and full, larger and lesser tail coverts incurved, so as to meet
under the belly, etc.; body, short, round, and fleshy; legs, very short;
head, small; comb, serrated, middle size, and upright; beak, rather short
and somewhat down-curved; eye, large and full; whole form a peculiar
obtuse oval, but, like the cock, charming and attractive.
They are of every color and markings: white, black; black, with white
tips to their feathers; brown, with black and white tips; white, with black
stripes on the hackle; black tails; the sword-feathers and side, larger tail
coverts black, edged with white. In the feathered-shanked birds, the
larger feathers on the toes are black, the rest white; dark, silvery gray with
black breast in the cock; the hen gray, as in the silver-gray Game fowls,
and Black-breasted Reds. Some of the same have white spangles on the
black breast, or are brown breasted; black-breasted dark reds with par-
tridge-colored hens; light silvery grays; brown and bronzy blacks; brassy-
winged blacks; buffs with black tails; also cinnamons. All these colors
are made in Japan," and during the last century have been imported.
Their evenness of size and form would be surprising did they not come
(C

1064
The Poultry Book
from a country full of art, where neither trouble nor time is spared in the
attainment of perfection. They are not good layers, seldom laying more
than from twenty to twenty-five eggs a year, though sometimes the pullets
will far exceed that number. They will hatch their eggs in twenty days,
and often in less. The chickens are small, delicate, and difficult to rear,
but when once full-grown
they are hardy.
Henry Hales, of New
Jersey, an old and ardent
fancier, writes of this breed
of Bantams as follows:
"The Japanese were not
slow in discovering the varia-
bility of Gallus bankiva.
There are few, if any, species
of feathered beings which in
their nature are so suscep-
tible to environment.
Theodore Sternberg writes
me that they vary in color
very greatly in the Philip-
pine Islands; all colors, in-
cluding white and black, are
bred up to a fair-sized Game
bird. The Japanese appear
to be foremost, with their
keen eye for the beautiful
in nature, to take advantage
of these natural traits of our
little Bankiva, and to breed
by selection their beautiful long-tailed Phoenix fowl, Fan fowl, and
the funny little birds we call Japanese Bantams. They must have
used much skill in selection before they arrived at these grotesque
little lumps of conceit, with their long, full tails reaching to their heads,
and their full, long wings often sweeping the ground and covering what
in other fowls we call legs. As they are the first sports from the little wild
birds, it is natural there would be great diversity of color. In no other
Photograph by courtesy of Mr. Radford
BLACK JAPANESE BANTAM PULLET
First prize winner at Chicago and Wisconsin, 1904
Bred and owned by Frank W. Radford, Wisconsin
Bantams in General
1065
single breed of poultry could we put together black-white, black-tailed
white with one gray cock, and throw out all of these original colors,
besides buff, silver-gray, golden, laced, mottled, birchen color, red, and
spangled. Some have patches of black and white placed as I never saw
on any other fowl. The patches were angular, such as are sometimes seen
on a tame black-and-white rabbit. The Japanese did not seem to care
about breeding to a line of color so much as they did for shape, size, etc.
Some have feathered legs and some clean legs. I was tempted to breed
together the lot I have described, from having seen pictures of a variety of
colors in Japanese drawings. I was much surprised at the result. I
selected the gray and golden, as I had no room for more varieties. I am
sure there is a fine opening for American and English breeders to breed
them in lines of color to many varieties. The only colors in our Standard
of Perfection are white, black and black-tailed white. Although they
have long wings and know how to use them, they can be made very tame
by petting. They are contented with a limited range and quarters. I
have kept many varieties of Bantams, but never had any so hardy nor
such good layers."
Mr. Weir and Mr. Hales differ somewhat as to the laying qualities of
these Bantams. Both may be correct, for the fanciers of America have
paid considerable attention to improving the laying qualities of all Ban-
tams. Under the American Standard we describe but three varieties of
these Bantams: the pure White, the solid Black, and the Black-tailed
Japanese. Two of these, as indicated by their names, are solid colored,
the one pure white throughout, with yellow shanks, toes and beak; the
other lustrous black throughout, shanks, toes and beak, yellow shaded
with black. The Black-tailed variety is pure white with the exception of
wing and tail markings. In the male these are as follows: primaries, dark
slate or black, edged with white; secondaries, dark slate, with wide edging
of white on the upper web, lower web, white; coverts, white; tail, black;
sickles, black edged with white; tail coverts, same as sickles. In the
females, the wings are marked the same as in the male; main tail feathers,
black, the balance, white; shanks and beak, yellow. When the wings are
folded, little, if any, of the dark shadings are perceptible. In the finest of
the present-day specimens the dark shanks are quite black.

1066
The Poultry Book
NON-STANDARD VARIETIES
THE craze for the production of numerous varieties of fowls, including
Bantams, has given us of late years many kinds of these little pets, which,
though attractive, have little value outside of their beautiful appearance

Ten
897
Drawn by Mr. Weir
WHITE-BOOTED BANTAMS, 1897
as ornamental poultry for the pleasure of those who have them. Of
these, the most prominent is known as the "Barred Plymouth Rock Ban-
tam." There is little difference between it and the Scotch Gray, excepting
that the Plymouth Rock variety has the yellow shanks while the Scotch
Gray has white shanks. There is an effort being put forth to bring this
variety true to Plymouth Rock shape, but at the present time they are
more of the Scotch Gray type, in shape and length of sickles and shape of
tail, than of the Plymouth Rock type. They are quite attractive and give
promise of being brought to the true shape and characteristics demanded
by their name.
Of the Mediterranean Bantams, we have the Rose-Comb Brown Leg-

Bantams in General
1067
horn Bantams, the White Leghorn Bantams, Black Minorcas, the Anconas,
and the Single-Comb Brown Leghorn Bantam. All of these are very
small fowls, many of them within the proper size for Bantam, but with the
color and markings of the larger fowls for which they are named. In
addition to these, there is the Black Langshan Bantam, the Buff Rose-
Comb, Whiskered-Black Booted, White and Black Frizzle, the Black
Orpington Bantam, and several added colors of the Frizzle and Japanese
which come rather as sports from cross matings than from true breeding.
SCOTCH GRAY BANTAMS
ONE of the most prominent of the non-standard varieties of Bantams
at the present time are the Scotch Gray Bantams. These have attracted
considerable attention of late on the other side, but very little has been paid
them with us. The description calls for a ground color of pale slaty gray
on white, and a very thick barred stripe across the coloring, like our Barred
Plymouth Rocks. As stated before, they are fashioned somewhat after
the type of a Rose-Comb Bantam, carrying their wings somewhat drooped.
The male has a long, full, sweeping tail, resembling the Rose-Comb. They
have single combs and whitish shanks, mottled with the darker color.
RUMPLESS BANTAMS
RUMPLESS Bantams have been bred, also made. Those who make
the Rumpless Bantams to order find it necessary only to dislocate the
"pope's nose" from the young chick as soon as it is hatched. In this
way there is created a rumpless specimen of any desired breed or variety.
While it is contended that there are varieties of rumpless fowls and rump-
less Bantams that reproduce of their kind, we are rather disposed to ques-
tion this statement with regard to the Bantam at least, though willing to
be convinced by having some of their eggs to hatch.
FRIZZLED BANTAMS
SOME of the most beautiful Bantams that we have seen are of the
frizzled varieties. Of these we have seen pure black, pure white and some
in mixed or broken colored. When they are small, nicely feathered and in
good plumage, they are an attractive novelty, but, like all ornamental
Bantams, they are valued only in accordance with their quality. To
attract, they must be perfect in form, feather and condition.
1068
The Poultry Book
BLACK SPANISH AND BLACK SEABRIGHT BANTAMS
ANOTHER variety of Bantams, a few of which have been shown, are the
Black Spanish Bantam and the Black Seabrights. The Black Spanish
Bantams are simply small Black Spanish fowls. The Black Seabright
Bantams are shaped like the Seabright Bantams and are pure black
throughout. They are neither so beautiful nor so desirable as are the
Black Rose-Comb Bantams, and we are very much disposed to think that
they are much the same, perhaps the product of intermingling with the
Seabrights.
SILKIE BANTAMS
THE Silkie fowl is often spoken of as the Japanese Silkie, presumably
on account of its having originated in that country. Writers seem to
think that for many years it has been bred both in China and Japan.
Bantams under this name have been bred in several colors-white, yellow
or golden brown, and black. Some of these have single combs, while
others have the walnut comb. Whether these are the true Bantam or
only the product of crossing the Silkies with other fowls has not been
authentically stated. One peculiarity of the Silkie is the formation of the
feathers, which are more like cotton or hair than feathers.
(6
There can scarcely be any doubt that the Silkie is native to some of
the Eastern or Asiatic countries. Very early writers mention it as the
woolly hen." Some of the Cochins that came from China in the early
day were called Silkie Cochins. Their plumage was quite like the plumage
of the Silkie fowl.
Another peculiarity of the Silkie fowl is the color of the face, comb
and wattles, which is purplish. It is stated that the very dark color
of skin and flesh prevails clear to the bone, and shows plainly when the
fowl is cooked. The best of the Silkie Bantams have five toes.
BELGIAN BREEDS
In his report* (July 15, 1893) to the State Department at Washing-
ton, John B. Osborn, United States Consul at Ghent, Belgium, says that
with the exception of the Ardennes there is a fixity in the Belgian breeds,
and that they "are not new nor artificial, but ancient and natural;
* Mentioned in American Fancier of December 16, 1893.
Bantams in General
1069
hence they are eminently stable, and the same type reproduces itself."
The reproduction proves more than anything the purity or antiquity of
breed, either among animals or birds, as exemplified by the continual de-
generation of any new-made breed or that which is asserted to be one.
"Approximate, practical purity is certainly obtained from all the Belgian
breeds." Approxi-
mate will scarcely
do, as impurity
will assert itself
again and again
after it is deemed
to be totally eradi-
cated. The
Coucou of Malines
is historically a
cross, but to-day
its characteristics
are so fixed that it
is practically a
pure race. As a
result of the extent
to which its breed-
ing has been
carried, there is
no kind in the
world from which
it would be pos-
sible to obtain
yearly a larger
number of subjects, all equally pure, and to all intents and purposes
identical.

(C
ROSE-COMB BLACK BANTAM
From a photograph
"This breed is an illustration of how quickly a cross may become fixed
and stable. The introduction into Europe of the Cochin China dates
from the Dublin exposition of 1844, when a male and female were exhibited
by Queen Victoria."
The Coucou of Malines, whatever its origin, appears to me very like
some of the early imported Shanghais, now called Cochins. Her Majesty's

1070
The Poultry Book
were possibly real Cochins, not being like Shanghais in carriage and habit,
nor were they feathered-legged. As far as I can see, the Coucou has already
largely reverted to the Shanghai, and is wonderfully like some shown as
Cuckoos in the early fifties. The United States Consul is strong again
when he writes of the breeds as "sitters." "The Campine hen sits little,
as is the case with a first-class egg - producer. The Brackets are good
sitters, but do not sit often. The Coucous are excellent sitters; the tendency
to incubate is very great. Each hen can hatch eighteen eggs.
""
THE CAMPINES
THESE appear to differ from the penciled Hamburg in but few respects;
in fact, they are single-comb fowls that have the color, marking and gen-
eral make-up of the penciled Hamburg. They are, however, deficient
in the fine distinctive color outlines of the most perfect Hamburgs.
The colors of the Silver variety are white marked across the feathers with
black bars; the white is described as silvery white, the neck and hackle
silvery white without bars. The Campines are accredited with producing
both single and rose-comb specimens.
The Golden Campines are the same as silver variety, except that the
color should be golden yellow in place of silver white in males, and golden
yellow in females, with a darker yellow in body color in place of white in
both sexes. This tallies with the old golden Mossies.
THE ARDENNES
THIS is a recognized breed about Seige, and it is said to resemble the
wild Bankiva in size with more yellow in color, and they do not breed
true. Although admitted to the continental expositions, I do not consider
it possesses enough individuality to be included as a distinct breed.
THE BARBER DWARF OF ANTWERP
THESE are the Bearded Dwarfs of Antwerp, and are said to be a pure
breed, similar to the Scotch Gray, though somewhat smaller than that breed
at the present time. The color is either black or cuckoo, but occasion-
ally they vary in color. They are about the size of the ordinary Bantam.
The cock has a double comb, red but sometimes dark; wattles small
and regular in size; ear-lobe red; well-developed beard and cravat; tail,
rather large, full and black, sometimes with light tip to the sickle feathers,
Bantams in General
1071
without any sign of red; shanks pinkish or light gray, and four toes. The
hen is similar to the cock in general coloring, with smaller crest and flat, hen
tail. In some respects these resemble what are known as the Burmese
Bantams, with the exception that they have not feathered sharks nor
feet, and not a few are very small.

BURMAH BANTAMS, 1896
1396
Drawn by Mr. Weir

Harris wen
1962
TOULOUSE GEESE.
The property of MR. F. G. RAWSON,
THE DOMESTIC GOOSE *
THEODORE F. JAGER, Connecticut
"A team of twenty geese, a snow-white train,
Fed near the limpid lake on golden grain,
Amuse my pensive hours."—Pope.

II
OW long the goose has been domesticated is not definitely
known. Certainly in England, until the last few centuries,
the duck was either wild or was reared from the eggs
procured in the fens and elsewhere. In the opinion of
Buffon, entertained also by Mr. Weir, there was and,
in some cases there is now, much more difference between the tame goose
and the wild goose than between the tame duck and the wild duck. The
domesticity of the goose is less complete than that of the fowl in many
ways. The goose not infrequently indulges in long or short flights.
The number of eggs produced by the domestic goose in a given period
is often less than those laid by the fen goose in the same time. The fowl,
in this respect, has passed its natural production. It is impossible to
trace the time when the goose became even semi-domesticated. It was
kept about the household in the time of Homer ("Odyssey," XV., 161,
174; XIX., 532, 536). The flesh of the goose was considered a dainty
dish by the Greeks. Some writers assert that the fatted fowl mentioned
in 1 Kings iv. 23 were geese, abounding as they do throughout Palestine.
Herodotus (i.e. 37) speaks of the Egyptian priests being supplied with
abundance of beef and goose. It is asserted that ganders were given a
course of training in the Russian Capital for the "goose pot.
goose pot." This
became a frequent source of amusement to the Petersburghians. Mr.
Weir says it is possible that the ancient Britons may have kept and used
their geese for amusement and not for food.
"If we inquire as to the origin of our breeds of geese," says Charles
O. Flagg, in “Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station Report" for
*This chapter on geese has been entirely rewritten by Theodore F. Jager, of
Connecticut, formerly of Pennsylvania, the well-known waterfowl judge and secretary
of the Waterfowl Club of America.—EDITOR.
1073
1074
The Poultry Book
(C
1897, we find that there are one or two writers who contend that the
wild prototype of the domestic goose does not now exist, and cite the
camel as an analogous case. They give as a reason, therefore, the
fact that the domestic goose is the only bird of its tribe systematically
polygamous—all the known wild varieties mating in pairs for breeding;
this applies even to the wild Canada goose now in domestication.
The large majority of authorities, however, is united in the belief
that the common domestic goose is descended from the indigenous wild
goose of the British Islands, known as the gray lag goose. The name is
sometimes given as "gray-leg" or "grey-legged" goose, but lacks point as
to the bird's plumage, while the legs are yellowish in color; at the same
time the term lag had no reasonable explanation until in 1870 Professor
Skeat suggested that the appellation was given because this goose lagged
behind when other varieties of wild geese migrated, which was the case
in early times.
Hewitt says: "My opinion is that the gray lag is probably the
original stock from which all or at least most of our common varieties
sprang, my idea being based on the fact that frequently we see the most
unquestionable tendency to breed back, a bird having all (or nearly all)
of the traits of character of the Gray Lag, even when the parent birds
did not exhibit the slightest resemblance.'
The Gray Lag goose is thus described: "The bill is pale, flesh-colored
yellow, somewhat lighter than the legs; the nail, at its extremity, being
white. The neck and back are ash-gray; wings, a light brown, the edges
of the feathers running into a lighter tint, while the lesser wing-coverts
are of bluish-gray in contrast to the darker tint of the wing generally, a
peculiarity that often serves to distinguish this species in both adult
and immature specimens; the breast and front of the neck light ash-gray,
the former being lightly barred with transverse markings, tail coverts,
and under part of body white, tail-feathers a dull-brown with a white
margin. The 'curl' of the neck-feathers, so remarkable a feature in the
domestic goose, is strongly marked in this species.
Darwin in his "Animals and Plants Under Domestication," Vol.I.,
page 304, says: "Although the domestic goose certainly differs somewhat
from any wild species known, yet the amount of variation which it has
undergone, as compared with that of most domestic animals, is singularly
small. This fact can be partially accounted for by selection not having
""
The Domestic Goose
1075

Photograph by courtesy of the Rhode Island Experiment Station
A TRIO OF OLD EMBDENS
Bred by the Rhode Island Experiment Station
been taken much into account. Birds of all kinds, which present many
distinct races, are valued as pets or ornaments. No one makes a pet
of a goose; the name, indeed, in more languages than one, is a term of
reproach. The goose is valued for its size and flavor, for the whiteness
of its feathers, which adds to their value, and for its prolificness and
tameness. In all these points the goose differs from the wild parent
form, and these are the points which have been selected. Even in ancient
times the Roman gourmands valued the liver of the white goose; and
Pierre Belon, in 1555, speaks of two varieties, one of which was larger,
more fecund, and of a better color than the other. He expressly states
that good managers attended to the color of their goslings, so that they
might know which to preserve and select for breeding."
Charles O. Flagg also considers white as evidently a color developed
by domestication and selection, an opinion that all poultry-keepers of
to-day will stand by.
"Geese have a long tenure of life, far exceeding any other domestic
fowl in this respect. In former times it was not uncommon for the farmer's
daughter on her wedding day to receive, among other gifts, a goose from
1076
The Poultry Book
the old homestead, which she would take to her new home. Sometimes
these geese were kept for many years, perhaps far beyond the life of the
young lady to whom they were presented.
William Rankin,* a veteran goose breeder, cites the instance of
a goose owned in Boxford, Massachusetts, which was the property of one
family for 101 years, and was then killed by the kick of a horse. She
had laid fifteen eggs and was sitting on them when a stray horse approached
too near the nest; she rushed off to defend her eggs, seized the horse by
the tail, and was killed by a kick from him.
Some goose-raisers say that geese seldom get too old to be good
breeders, while occasionally one prefers geese from two to five years old.
Barring accident, good geese may be profitably kept until twenty-five
or more years old; ganders of the domestic varieties, however, are less
useful after seven or eight years, and should be replaced with young
birds. While the young gander often mates with three or four females,
he usually has one particular favorite among the number, whose nest he
guards more jealously than those of his other mates; and after some years
he is liable to grow so inattentive to all but the favorite that many of the
eggs produced prove to be infertile, and it is more economical to replace
him with a younger bird. The Canada gander is, however, a pretty sure
and valuable breeder for many years.
Ganders occasionally take very peculiar freaks, such as conceiving a
violent attachment for some inanimate object, as a door, a stone, a cart-
wheel, a plow, or something of a similar nature, when they will spend the
greater part of their time sitting beside it or in its company. Morris
relates a number of instances where ganders have become the inseparable
companions of their masters, following them about the fields, on hunting
expeditions, and into the streets of a town, like the most devoted dog.
He also narrates how faithfully a gander discharged the self-imposed duty
of guardian and guide to an old blind woman. Whenever she went to
church, he led her by taking hold of her gown with his bill, and during the
service he nipped the grass in the cemetery close by until she required
his services to return home.
Geese are peculiar, in that both sexes are feathered exactly alike.
Consequently, there is considerable difficulty in distinguishing ganders
from geese, especially when young. Some experienced breeders determine
* Report of R. I. State Board of Agriculture, 1896, page 423.
The Domestic Goose
1077
the sexes by the difference in the voice, but that is a knowledge gained
only by considerable acquaintance with geese. The form, size, length of
neck, and size of the head, are some indication as they approach maturity,
the gander being heavier, with a longer neck and larger head than the
goose. A critical examination of each bird is a pretty sure method, but
even this fails at times when made by a novice. On this subject Bailey
says: "Much difficulty is often experienced in selecting the sexes, and
although practised men are seldom mistaken, yet even they can lay down
no rule that is easy to follow. Close examination may always be depended
upon, but that is not easy to the uninitiated. There is a curious plan
adopted in Cambridgeshire. All the geese are shut in a stable or a pig-
stye; a small dog is then put in. It is said, and we believe with truth,
the geese will all lift up their heads and go to the back of the place, while
the ganders will lower and stretch out their necks, hissing all the time."
GEESE FLOCKS DRIVEN ON ROADS
In England, Daniel, in his “Rural Sports" (1810), records that “vast
numbers of geese are driven annually to London from distant counties
to supply the market, among them all the superannuated geese and ganders,
which, by a long course of plucking, prove uncommonly tough and dry.
In 1783, one drove of about nine thousand passed through Chelmesford;
others of two or three thousand are common." The flocks are generally
the largest about harvest time, when they travel from county to county
in the south of England, being bought by the farmers to turn into the
wheat, oats, rye, or barley stubble, and in a few weeks they are sufficiently
fat for market.
In western Europe similar methods are practised in moving and
selling geese, and it is not an uncommon sight to see flocks of several
hundred head being driven from town to town. The writer has noticed
that owners of such flocks secure pastures near the market places in
order to give the birds the necessary green food. A small quantity of
whole oats mixed with barley at night is the only grain the birds receive.
Inquiries developed the statement that birds thus moved will remain
in good condition even if driven eight miles each day. The only loss is
sustained at the beginning, and then only until the geese have strengthened
their leg muscles and become accustomed to their new mode of life.

1078
The Poultry Book
EARLY HATCHING
It is best and most advantageous to breed goslings as early in the year
as possible. This is sometimes promoted by the mildness of the winter
or by a dry and genial spring, but more often when aided by proper and
warm, clean goose-houses, generous diet, attention, and care of the breeding
stock, during the later or winter months of the year preceding. This
induces both earliness in laying and fertility, thus giving time for a
second, and not infrequently even a third, brood-often the case with some
of the "common" bred geese, but rarely if ever, with the large and "show"
varieties excepting the Tou-
louse. Such fecundity, how-
ever, in any particular strain
renders it more valuable,
though as a rule, late hatch-
ing is seldom very successful.
For the feeding of the
stock at this season it is best
to use grain of some kind,
such as oats, wheat, barley
(it is not advisable to use
Indian corn-maize), which
being varied or differently
are found to be of great value, each
mixed day by day. Two bushels per goose is about the annual
average allowed. If the weather is unusually cold, the grain is put into
scalding water a short time to warm it. Ground oats with bran, cabbage,
potatoes, beetroot, turnips, and beets boiled, is also good for a change of
diet, with plenty of rough grass run, weather permitting.

Photograph by Thomas A. Barrett, 1904
"ON THE WARPATH"
Safe and quiet nesting-places must be in readiness, and the birds
should be accustomed to them before the time of laying arrives; this
generally becomes apparent by the goose's carrying about pieces of stick,
straws, etc. She should then be coaxed and shut into one of the brood-
ing places for an hour or so. This will probably be adopted by her to nest
in, and, if the materials are there, she will doubtless place them in the
required order. When laying commences, the eggs are produced in ir-
regular succession to the number of ten, twelve, or sixteen, but seldom
I once saw a goose with seventeen goslings that were all from
more.
The Domestic Goose
1079
her own eggs.
Some poultrymen take away the first few eggs, which
they put under a hen, and this often induces the goose to lay a greater
number, besides having two or more chances of the hatching being suc-
cessful, instead of one. It is well also to set two birds at the same time,
when possible, sọ that in the event of some of the eggs not being fertile,
the two broods may be united. This must be done at night.
The nest should be so made that the eggs will not roll about when
the goose passes into or from it. In Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, the huts
are usually made with hazel or willow benders, twined into the form of a
large beehive. These are turned over, and an opening left large enough
to admit the goose easily, with a hollow space of at least twenty-four
inches in diameter inside. Sometimes these nesting huts or baskets are
placed in a shed, outhouse, or the scullery, for the first hatching.
While the goose sits, the gander generally watches near the door or
opening, to guard her from any disturbance, intrusion of rodents, or acci-
dents. It is not unusual to take each egg away as it is laid, and mark
it and put it in some fresh hay until the sitting time; the dust of bran
which is sometimes used is apt to fill the pores of the shell and therefore
should be avoided, and I have found that this practice of removing the
eggs occasionally delays the goose (especially a young one) from nesting
and laying. The nest should be of oat-straw, or short, dry, and clean
litter, though some prefer beaten ferns, which is better, it being a good
insect preventive. An egg should be left in it unless the weather is cold.
THE SITTING OF THE Goose
The places where the geese are to sit, if out-of-doors, should be near
water, yet dry, warm and well-exposed to the sun in the early part of
the day. In hatching, sometimes the "gull" or gosling requires a longer
time for incubation than at others. Extreme patience is not only necessary,
but is of the utmost value.
The sitting goose should be fed regularly, and clean water should be
placed near her, with fresh sand and gravel, though she rarely quits her
nest for any length of time until the incubation is complete. Interfere as
little as possible during the time of hatching, as the mother in the
defense of her young, by her strength and resoluteness, too often
destroys some of the eggs and unhatched young, as well as those free of
the shell.
1080
The Poultry Book
William Cobbett, writing of geese in 1828, says, in his blunt way:
“They can be to advantage only where there are green commons, and
there they are easily reared, live to a very great age, and are amongst the
hardiest animals in the world." (There is much truth in this statement,
though they may be reared with profit in other places besides "commons.")
"If well kept, a goose will lay a hundred eggs in a year. The French
put their eggs under large hens of common fowls, to each of which they
give four or five eggs; or under turkeys, to which they give nine or ten
goose eggs." In England goose eggs are now hatched by incubators and
hens; when the latter are used, the best for the purpose are Langshans,
Lincolnshire Buffs, Brahmas, half-bred Cochins, and the old Kent, Sussex,
and Surrey fowls; these are all large and feathery-therefore, they
possess much animal heat. They are excellent substitutes for hatching
goose eggs. With these, seven eggs of the common geese is not an un-
usual number to set, four or five being the maximum of the larger kinds.
If the weather is favorable and not cold, and the incubation goes on in
sheltered or warm places, either of these numbers might be increased
according to the size of the fowl and the goose eggs.
When hens are the incubators it is necessary to moisten the eggs daily.
They should be freely sprinkled with tepid water when the hen is absent
feeding. The last few days they may have more moisture, this representing
artificially that of the goose returning to her nest after swimming. If
this is not attended to, the shells not infrequently become so dry and hard
that the gosling is unable to emancipate itself, and becomes shell-bound.
When this occurs, sometimes a little help is needful to enable the gosling to
emerge or to break the shell sufficiently to clear itself. This must be
done very carefully and gently, and not until it is absolutely imperative,
as only too often by premature interference injury of a fatal character
occurs, and therefore artificial help should only be adopted as a last resource.
The hen should have food at regular intervals.
HATCHING
The length of time necessary for hatching varies—the food, the house,
the nest, the age of the parents, and the weather, having much to do
with it. Some hatch in twenty-eight to twenty-nine days, while I have
known one large goose to take thirty-two to thirty-four days, and then
have good results. Leave the gulls in the nest for the first twenty-four
The Domestic Goose
1081
hours. They should be well protected from rats. These animals will
come a long distance to carry off both young goslings and ducklings.
The first food
should be bread-
crumbs, oatmeal,
and barley-meal,
wet with milk and
mixed until fine,
grits, rice crushed
small, wheat
soaked, chopped
clivers, fine grass
and lettuce, with a
little sand or grit
added, and clean
water to drink.

If any of the
gulls or goslings
must be taken out
of the nest through
unequal hatching,
they should be put
into a flannel or
wool-lined basket,
covered with
flannel and placed near a fire; if food is needed, give them new
milk and water, chopped clivers, and, after a short time, a sod of
grass to pluck at; but in all cases return them as quickly as possible to the
goose, or she may reject them as strangers.
The grass around the nest huts should be mown a week to two
before the hatching, as then the growth will be tender and young for the
new-comers to pull and feed on. Besides this, chopped lettuce and onions
and goose-grass or clivers, are useful to vary the food. The common net-
tle, a plant of the genus Urtica, is the best of all greens for goslings, and
the successful goose culture of Russian Polanders is mainly attributable to
the fact that one-third of the entire soft food mixture consists of finely
chopped nettles moistened and softened with tepid water.
By courtesy of the Rhode Island Experiment Station
WHITE CHINA GEESE
Bred by Rhode Island Experiment Station

1082
The Poultry Book
Though the goose hatches her eggs with great assiduity, it has been
noted that the gander not infrequently assists her in the duty of incu-
bation. Nor is his affection for his offspring when hatched less conspicuous,
though it has escaped the observation of almost every naturalist. The
demonstrations of joy manifested by the gander whenever he sees the
young goslings eat are very remarkable; the bird expresses his satisfaction
by raising his head with dignity, and trampling with his feet in a manner
that makes him appear to be dancing. This dance continues for a con-
siderable time, and if interrupted by any object, such as dogs, cats, or
fowls (which he takes care to drive away from his young brood), he resumes
it with renewed ardor.
REARING THE GOSLINGS
When the goslings are a few days or a week old, it is no uncommon
thing in England to tether the old goose on some good feeding spot where
shade can be had if the sun's rays prove too hot, as they not infrequently
cause sudden death. The tethering prevents the old goose from wandering
far, and thus tiring and exhausting her newly-hatched family. Should
they be unable to follow her home and get housed for the night, they
would be liable to attack from foxes and rats.
The number of goslings, ducks, chickens, young pheasants, etc., that
are annually destroyed by rats, is almost incredible, whole broods being
too often carried off in a night; on one occasion I lost sixteen, all of which
were found dead in an unused rabbit warren some distance away, and there
lay in a heap.
Much of this is owing to the wholesale destruction of the farmer's,
gamekeeper's, and "poulterer's" greatest friend, the barn owl-the rat's
greatest enemy, as is also the weasel, which seldom takes poultry if it can
get rats and mice. I have seen stoats or weasels running about my coops,
and have never lost a chick, duckling, or gosling.
THE GOOSE ON THE FARM
There is an old and well-known saying that “nothing can eat after a
goose," meaning that it will feed or crop so close. In a meadow a horse
can feed after a cow, and a sheep after a horse, but after a goose—nothing.
It is not generally known how very useful to pastures or grazing
ground geese may prove, many farmers having an antipathy to them. I
The Domestic Goose
1083
When
will give a case in point. A relative of mine kept dairy cows.
these fed off a certain meadow or pasture, the butter was so acrid that no
one would eat it; it was, therefore, unsaleable. On looking at the field,
and finding it full of Ranunculus bulbosus and acris, I advised that
twenty or thirty geese, or more, should be bought and turned in, knowing
they were particularly partial to these plants. "What?" said my relative,
"to foul the ground where I keep my cows! No, not one!" "Then,"
said I, “eat the butter as it is." On going again twelve months after, I
heard the “clanging" of geese, and my relative said, "How about the but-
ter?" It is good," said I. “Yes, thanks to the geese who have ‘fed
out' the buttercups," added the converted farmer. And so it is where a
number of geese have foraged, the grass comes juicy, close, and better,
and stock will graze on it with avidity.
More than fifty years ago Mr. Hammond, of Penhurst, Kent, noted
how closely the cattle fed on the pastures occupied by geese, and that
they actually pushed aside "the soil" with their noses to feed off the
grass on which it was lying, evidently showing their preference for the
grass grown under such conditions. My own Jersey cows, which were
kept for dairy purposes, fed off grass so benefited.
""
EMBDEN GEESE
It is a well-known historical fact, and attested to by many that the
white fronted, or, as we would say to-day, the white breasted goose, would
occasionally throw an entirely white specimen, and as variety has always
been the spice of life, our forefathers could not help giving this albino
variety a good trial, and as subsequent years sustained the trials, the
white goose had a solid footing. Remember our recent productions, the
White Plymouth Rocks, for instance; future generations may be just as
much in the dark about this now leading breed as we are to-day in regard
to the Embden. As geese are naturally well fitted to stand colder climates,
people compelled by force of circumstances to reside there, were not slow in
adopting them. Among this class of people we find the north Germans and
especially those inhabiting or living near the province of Westphalia, a part
and parcel of the domain of that twentieth century war lord, William Hohen-
zollern. The city of Embden, being the main market for country produce
of all kinds, soon established a reputation for the excellence of the white
geese, which were sold there in large numbers. "Geese from Embden" were
":

1084
The Poultry Book
synonymous with quality; and from "geese from Embden," the birds soon
were known as "Embden geese"-and that is the long and the short of it.
How must we mate in order to get the best out of them? Select for a
gander a bird that is from two to five years old, from parent stock known
for its hardiness, activity, and general commendable breeding qualities;
a bird that has never been
hampered with any sur-
plus amount of fat, and
that never was compelled
to go hungry. Let the
eyes be large, bright and
light, and bright blue in
color, indicating vigor and
watchfulness.
The neck must be
rather long and massive,
without being clumsy.
You like to see muscles
there strong and free
from fat. The back must
be slightly arched, and
the breast round, deep,
and full. The body should
be square, very compact,
and deep-in older speci-
mens almost touching
the ground. The bill
should be orange in color,
(flesh-colored spots are objectionable), nicely rounded, and, considering
the size of bird, delicately pointed. The shanks must be short and stout,
in order to be able to carry the weight they are intended for; thighs
strong and well-proportioned; toes straight; in short, the whole leg must
indicate massiveness and weight-carrying characteristics. The plumage
should be pure white.

Photograph by courtesy of the Rhode Island Experiment Station
YOUNG BROWN CHINA
The breeding gander should be watchful and observing. Beware of
the dull members in selecting your breeders. Pick the bird that is anxious
to chase the dog if he should dare to draw too near, and you have the
The Domestic Goose
1085
bird that will produce hatchable eggs for you. This much for the gander;
now for the goose.
Let her be of not too closely related blood. Pick a clean bird-for
cleanliness will indicate to you the healthiest and best breeding specimen.
A weak or ailing bird will always be in need of an ablution. Bear this in
mind. Read over the requirements as stated to be desirable for ganders,
and you read the points a breeder ought to seek in his geese. If you can,
pick the most compact-the geese with medium long necks and broad
fronts; they are good ones to go with the ganders described above.
Regarding the time to mate up, I desire to say that fall or early
winter is best, in fact, the only proper time; this will give the birds a chance
to get acquainted with each other before the egg-laying season sets in. Pen
the pair together in a field, and do not allow any other geese to come near
until they are perfectly satisfied with each other. Whenever they are,
they are immune against the temptations of others, and will remain loyal
to the gander given them. Geese are profitable breeders up to their
twelfth year; in fact, will lay more eggs as they get older, and these will be
more fertile.
The only drawback to keeping them that long is their
tendency to become masters of all; they have no mercy on man, woman, or
beast, and this abominable characteristic, coupled with great strength
oftentimes causes their earlier walk to the butcher's bench. One gander
is well able to take care of two or even three geese, especially if he is one,
two, or three years younger than his mates.
A nice meadow, with a brooklet running through, is an ideal place
for them to roam. Not all people have meadows. A field sown to rye
the fall previous is the next best place. Provide water in some manner,
that the birds may partake whenever inclined to do so. Galvanized iron
pails, fastened with four or five sticks to the ground, so that the geese
cannot upset same, are sufficient if filled once a day and kept in a shady
place. They are not in actual need of water to swim in. If the vegetation
is somewhat scarce, or the drain of producing eggs too much for the birds,
feed them once a day with wheat and hulled oats. Do this at night; use
V-shaped troughs, and keep them at the farthest place in the pasture, so
that the birds when starting for their quarters may yet have a chance to
hunt some choice morsels of grass.
The nests should be made in out of the way places; in old barrels,
hidden under brush, and laid sidewise, or in covered boxes near the water,
1086
The Poultry Book
where nature has grown willows, etc. In short, aim to have the laying
places dark, and not in the way of constant traffic. The Embdens prefer
to be left alone when laying. Fill the bottom of the nests with dry sand,
and on top of this place plenty of dry straw cut in two-inch lengths—for
they like to cover their eggs as soon as laid. Keep three or four nest eggs
the size of hen's eggs in the nest, that the goose may not contract suspicion
whenever she finds her place of concealment robbed of the genuine deposits.
Care must be taken to gather the eggs as early as possible each day, as they
are very susceptible to chilling. Keep them in a room the temperature of
which is between 45 and 60 degrees and whose atmospheric condition is
neither too dry nor too damp. Turn them every day until you have
the required number to set under the-by this time-broody goose, or
hens, or goose and hens. If it is early in the season, and you desire to keep
the goose for another batch of eggs, break her of the sitting habit. This
is easily accomplished if her favorite laying place is changed, or if she is
disturbed three or four times while occupying it.
Goose eggs take thirty days to incubate. A hen, if she is large, is
able to cover four, but three is more like the average capacity of a sitter.
Be on the lookout when pipping time comes, as not all hens take kindly
to the little yellow-downed fellows. Their eyes and bills seem to them too
large. Watch the hens close, and give all the goslings to the true and
gentle sitter; if she takes them without any fuss, no danger need be ap-
prehended for the future.
Confine the hen and her brood for the first four or five days to a
limited space well covered with choice and short grass, gradually enlarging
the run as they get older. Three boards forming a triangle make a good
runway for a starter. It is otherwise with a hen and goslings than with a
hen and chicks; the goslings do the leading, and the old lady has to follow.
It is her duty, pure and simple, to be near in case the charges feel like
warming up. She is the protector and heat generator, nothing else.
Feed four times daily till they are fourteen days old; after that feed three
times. For the first eight days use nothing but stale bread, crumbled fine;
then mix with it a little, very little, corn meal and bran, and moisten the
whole slightly. Goslings do not like a sloppy food; it does not agree with
them, so do not give it. Another good feed for a starter is one-third each
of corn meal, middlings, and bran, baked in an oven. Add a little fine
grit to the mixture, and heat it thoroughly; do not bake it to a crisp state.
The Domestic Goose
1087
Water must be given in one of the "doing the work fountains," now on the
market, so that their down and feet do not come in contact with the wet
element whenever they take a sip. Keep the goslings from taking a bath
in a pool or wherever water has gathered; they enjoy it, but to their sorrow.
Water to swim in must be withheld until they have their new coat of
feathers.
If a gosling has a broken wing, cut the broken joint off, bandage it,
and soon all will be well again. The best and largest birds are sometimes
affected in this way, and it is the presumption, therefore, that it was
caused in the egg.
Grass is the main and most beneficial food; old and young alike need
it; so do not prevent their roaming in search of it. Remember our western
friend, Mrs. Walcott, who says: "If you wish to turn grass into green-
backs, I say decidedly, raise geese." I might add, if you wish to com-
bine the useful with the ornamental, raise "Embden geese." Wheat and
oats for a morning, and cracked or whole corn for a night ration, may be
given when the birds are large enough to swallow it.
I tried last year to raise the goslings in a brooder, and found it suc-
cessful beyond expectation. I used one of the low-down-in-front brooders,
so that the birds did not need to learn to climb the run-board, and had no
trouble in having them walk in whenever they were cold. I raised all,
and they did well. I have to smile when I think that one of the leading
raisers once advised not to attempt the raising of geese artificially. In
this age of progress and enlightenment, of study and research, you can do
anything. We raise ducks without water, goslings without a natural
mother, and, maybe, some time we shall all raise "poultry without a loss."
When and how must geese be marketed? Goslings, when eight to
ten weeks old, should weigh from twelve to fifteen pounds; of course, this
means that they must have been treated to the best of fattening food.
Treat them as Rankin does his ducks when he wants to surprise the people
in Boston, and you have hit the nail on the head. It does not pay
to raise and hold them for the holidays, as the general farming populace
bring down the price when delivering their old and mixed lots. Sell them
when your birds are ready, and when the city folks return from abroad,
from seaside and from mountain, and you will not fail to get the best prices.
To kill them, hang up each bird separately with a weight attached
to its till by a little wire hook. Draw a sharp knife diagonally across the

1088
The Poultry Book

By courtesy Cyphers Incubator Company
THE VALUE OF ANIMAL FOOD (Plate I.)
Two pens of ducklings, containing an equal number of birds of the same age, were used in the experiment. This picture shows the
surviving members of pen that was never fed any animal food in its grain ration. All ducklings poor with weakened constitution.
roof of the mouth, starting way back in the mouth, thereby severing the
main artery, causing a clean bleeding and rapid death.
Steam, dry, or scald-pick, as preferred, and remove the down by
rubbing a little powdered resin over it. Steam the fowl again, and the
remaining down will come off. Lay the birds, back down, on clean
boards to shape up, or in warm weather plunge them and leave them three
or four hours in spring, or ice water. They are then ready for shipment.
I cannot help quoting what Brown once remarked on the fattening proc-
esses of geese: "Like other fowls, geese may be brought by proper
management to a great degree of fatness, but the period at which they
are the fattest must be chosen in which to kill them, otherwise they
will rapidly become lean again, and many of them will die."
Geese may be fattened at two different periods of their lives-in the
young state, when they are termed "green geese," and after they have at-
tained their full growth. The methods at each period are very nearly
the same. Steamed potatoes with a gallon of buckwheat or ground oats
to the bushel, mashed up with the potatoes, and given warm, are recom-
mended. This, it is said, will render geese, cooped in a dark, quiet, cool
place, fat enough in three weeks.
M. Parmentier gives very copious details of the French methods of
fattening. The whole process, he says, consists in plucking the feathers
from under the belly, in giving them abundance of food and drink, and in
cooping them up more closely than is practised with common fowls, clean-
liness and quiet being, above all, indispensable. The best time is in the
month of November, or when the cold weather begins to set in; if it is longer
The Domestic Goose
1089
delayed the pairing season approaches, and prevents them from becoming
fat.
The Romans, who were fond of enlarged goose livers, were very careful
to keep the birds quiet and in the dark. In some places on the continent,
they nailed their feet to a board, burned out their eyes with a hot iron,
and kept them before a large fire, allowing them, however, as much water
as they chose to drink; but these barbarous practices are now seldom
resorted to.
Wherever Embden geese have been tried once, they generally remain,
for no other variety is able to come near them as to fattening and
marketing characteristics.*
Mr. W. J. Haycroft eulogises Embdens in "Farming," Toronto, 1896,
where he says: "Embden geese are the largest white geese in existence.
Their plumage should be pure white, black or colored feathers being a dis-
qualification. The color in my estimation gives them a superiority over
the Toulouse or any other kind of geese that have colored feathers, for
the Embdens when dressed for market do not show any pin feathers."
Herein I quite agree with Mr. Haycroft as to the flesh presenting a
brighter and, therefore, more marketable appearance, but to continue:
'Another feature," he says, "in their favor, as I think, is the absence
of 'keel.' Their keel I consider a very useless appendage to either geese
or ducks." (It is to be supposed that he means by this that the keel of
the sternum or breastbone does not project beyond the flesh as it does in
*The above is taken from my article on Embden geese in Farm Poultry, 1901.-T. F. J.

By courtesy Cyphers Incubator Co.

THE VALUE OF ANIMAL FOOD (Plate II.)
Pen of ducklings fed on animal food, all birds strong and active
1090
The Poultry Book
some breeds. All geese, more or less, must have a "keel.") They are
hardy, they mature early, and are good layers; while they do not lay so
many eggs as the Toulouse, they lay a good sitting and at once sit. This
is one of their general characteristics, and they are mostly good and steady
sitters.
(6
"For quantity and quality of feathers, the Embden among geese are,
as the Pekin among ducks, the leaders.
“I used to think that the Toulouse were the heaviest variety of geese,
but experience has taught me differently, for a pair of young Embden
ganders which I killed on the 16th of December, dressed, weighed forty-
one and a half pounds. So much in favor of keelless geese.
Embdens are very quiet, and require no more attendance than other
geese, and geese I consider the easiest sort of fowl to raise.
""
With Mr. Haycroft's article there are some very excellent portraits
of three of his birds, and they appear to be of a very fine strain, one
point being particularly noticeable the absence of the dewlap under the
bill, and of the large abdominal fat folds that now so often disfigure our
Embdens of late years. In form they are particularly deep and square,
the English breed being somewhat longer.
My own Embdens I had from Mr. J. K. Fowler, of Aylesbury, Mr.
F. G. S. Rawson, of Thorpe, near Halifax, and others, the gander from
the latter being tall and long in the neck, while the goose from Mr. J. K.
Fowler was short and square. This proved to be a "happy" combination,
and some of the produce were startlingly large, one goose killed at Michael-
mas weighing nearly twenty-two pounds, and a young gander at a year
and nine months of age, weighing while alive, twenty-seven pounds five
cunces, and this without being penned and fed to fatten.
The writer agrees with Mr. Weir and Mr. Haycroft, as well as all
breeders knowing the true Embdens, that entire absence of keel and
dewlap must be demanded of all breeding fowls and show specimens. An
animated discussion with Mr. McGrew and others during the past year,
while viewing Embden geese on exhibition at the Allentown, Pa., and other
fairs, developed the fact that a minority of American breeders are fast
loosing the true and only Embden type. Whenever birds with loose
skin are shown, they should under any and all circumstances be out-
classed by tight-meated birds, as the abdominal pouch, dewlap and general
loose outline is a Toulouse characteristic that must not be tolerated on
The Domestic Goose
1091
an Embden. Opinions seem to differ as to how low down the body is
allowed to reach, some preferring it even to touch the ground. My ex-
perience proves, that the medium low bird is the best market producer
and last, but not least, the only true Embden in type.
TOULOUSE GEESE
The Toulouse goose is, as the name imports, a true French breed, and
it is just possible that it may be of different origin from that of the English
goose, which is said to be a domesticated variety of the grey-lag wild goose
(Anser ferus). It is decidedly of a different conformation when pure bred;
having kept both it and the Embden, I have come to the conclusion that
it is not of the same ancestry. Although of a dark grey with white belly,
etc., it by no means infrequently has white feathers around the base of
the bill like the markings of the wild white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons).
This, combined with other variations, tends, in my opinion, to show that
not only has it a different parentage, but that it is a domesticated white-
fronted goose, enlarged and somewhat differentiated by selection and other
conditions of treatment. But be this as it may, it is in every way an
improvement on the old grey goose whose feathers winged the flying
shafts of the bygone time English, French, and other bowmen.
It has long been distinguished in France as possessing rare excellence
in fattening and other qualities, being profitable and preeminently hard
and well-fleshed, and, therefore, a good marketable variety.
In a "Treatise on the Breeding and Fattening of Poultry," trans-
lated from the French in 1810 (page 32), this variety is thus spoken of:
"It is in Upper Languedoc especially that geese breed well, and are
as large as swans; their distinctive mark is in having under the belly a
lump of fat, which hangs on the ground the moment these birds walk.
The fat is not very prominent until the month of October; it increases as
the bird gets plump, and is called in the language of the country panouilhe.
Proceeding from Toulouse up toward Pau and Bayonne, this lump dimin-
ishes, the species become feeble and inferior, but in return they are better
and more delicate when potted, doubtless owing to the salt used, which
comes from the salt fountain of Salies, in Béarn.
"Two species of the tame goose are known, the large and the small.
The former is almost always reared, as it is the more profitable, especially
the white one, for those whose plumage changes color are generally reck-
-
1092
The Poultry Book
oned of a bad race, but it would be possible to find among the wild species
ganders which would couple with the tame geese, whence would result a
sort of mixed breed whose flesh would, perhaps, be more delicate than that
of the common goose. It appears that, in Spain, where the rivers and lakes
are everywhere covered with wild ducks and geese, these crossings have
been attended with great success.'
As will be seen from this record, written as it was in 1810, the Toulouse
was not at that period universally grey in color as it is now required to be,
and as the early importations to this country were, and as it is advised.
Is it not possible that the Toulouse goose at that time might have been
crossed with the white-fronted wild goose? There is a possibility that
it was one, at least, of its ancestors, and, as I have before mentioned, that
white feathers about the base of the bill are not uncommon, no Toulouse
goose at the present time being of other colors—it may be a case of atavism.
The thirteenth Earl of Derby was the first to discover, and to import
to England, some of the breed under the name of the Mediterranean as
far back as the forties of the last century; also Messrs. Baker, of Beaufort
Street, Chelsea, and Mr. Nolan, of Dublin: the latter sent a pair of fine
birds to the poultry show held by the Zoölogical Society in their gardens
in 1845, at which time I made a drawing of them which appeared in the
Illustrated London News on June 21, 1845. These birds were awarded
the prizes, and were then known as the Mediterranean, Pyrenean, or
Toulouse, and were, no doubt, a very valuable addition to our domestic
poultry. They were sold to Lord Saye and Sele. In 1846 Mr. Nolan
again forwarded a pair for exhibition, and they also took the prize, and were
afterward sold to His Highness Ibrahim Pasha and sent to Egypt. Mr.
J. J. Nolan, writing of the breed in 1850, says: "With the exception of
their great size, they resemble our own common domestic geese," as,
indeed, these did to a greater degree than the more modern, loose-skinned,
heavily dewlapped bird. He says: "But they have a much more mild
and easy disposition, and, what is more important to a farmer, they
never pull the stacks in a haggard." With this last opinion I do not agree,
finding them precisely as destructive in their habits as the Embden and
the common goose.
1:
"
"Their prevailing color is a blue-grey, marked with brown bars,
the head, neck (to the beginning of the breast), and the back of the neck,
as far as the shoulders, of a dark-brown, the breast steely-blue, the belly
The Domestic Goose
1093
white, as also the under surface of the tail; the bill is of orange red, and the
feet flesh-colored." He might have added that the sides of the breast just
over the legs are marked with strong color, almost black, while the tips of
the feathers are a very light grey. "The London Zoological Society have
pronounced them to be the unmixed descendants of the 'grey-lag'
(with this I differ). "These birds were successful whenever shown in
Ireland. It may be well to remark that the abdominal pouch, which in other
geese is an indication of old age, exists in these from the shell. Their flesh
333

Photograph by Prof. W. G. Johnson, 1904
A BUNCH OF TOULOUSE GEESE ON A FLORIDA FARM
Bred and owned by F. A. Lewter
is tender and well-flavored." This coincides with the description already
given in 1809-10. Mr. J. J. Nolan advocates a cross with the Embdens;
with this I entirely disagree, as did also Mr. John Baily, of London.
It is better to keep the two separate, as each has its distinct advantages,
and pure breeds are always superior and, in the end, more certain.
Although the Toulouse goose is said to be short-necked and square,
yet there are variations of form in this as in the Embden. One of the
tallest ganders I have seen was a Toulouse in the possession of Mr. Charles
Leney, of Hildenborough, Kent (1887). This, with either of two geese
that he had when shown as a pair, was almost a certain prize-winner, the
weight of the gander being "said" to be between five and six and thirty

1094
The Poultry Book
pounds, and both geese over thirty. This large size had been arrived at
from high and generous feeding, and many years of careful selection of
the breeding stock, or what is usually denominated as "store geese.'
Although a goose of this breed from Mr. Charles Leney was mated
with my own, I never could succeed in rearing any goslings equal in size to
those of the Embden, nor could I discover any difference in hardihood
between the two varieties; neither was it apparent that the Toulouse was
a non-sitter, mine being exactly the same in their habits as their white
congeners.
>>
True it is that they are somewhat more numerous egg-producers, but
even in this they differed considerably, some being far better than others;
this was also the case with those belonging to a neighboring farmer.
By some it is contended that the Toulouse goose originated in Spain
and is there called the Mediterranean; but, however this may be, Toulouse
is now the accepted name under which they are recognized and shown.
The gulls or goslings of the Toulouse are a dull-grey when first hatched,
but after a few days become of a darker and deeper brownish hue. It is
a remarkable thing that the skin on them hangs loosely, and looks as if
it were a size too large for their bodies. This peculiarity does not disappear
as they get older, but continues with the growth to the adult bird. This
bagginess is peculiar to the breed, and is now much more marked than
in either of those of the Earl of Derby, in 1846-7, or the exhibits of Mr.
Nolan at the Zoological Society's Gardens, neither of which showed any
pendant-like skin under the bill.
It has been affirmed that the goslings grow faster than those of the
white variety, but under the same treatment the difference, if any, to
me was not appreciable. But it is certain, that the flesh is darker, and the
grey stubbs make them less marketable when sold as green geese, with
some of the down left on the breast and legs, as is the custom. As to
weight, years ago the Toulouse was the heavier bird, but now there is little
or no difference between the two colors, while sometimes it is in favor of
the white. In the latter the feathers are of more value. Having kept
both, I am in favor of the Embden.
Although the common and accepted color of the Toulouse is a blue-
grey ground with richly colored darker grey and black markings, there are
sometimes curious and beautiful "sports." I have seen more than one
xanthus variety in which the blue was eliminated, leaving only a reddish-
The Domestic Goose
1095
V
brown, yellowish-red, and buff color in its place; and in another case all
of the dark colors were substituted by light and dark bluish-ash color,
the white in each case remaining as in the ordinary birds. Both of the
above were very beautiful, and, as varieties, desirable.
Is it correct to have dewlap? Is it a disqualification or is it irrelevant?
We believe all ganders more than four years old should be allowed dewlap,
as it is only a sign of age. Let us not cut a bird for characteristics that are
mile-stones for the age and the usefulness of the same. All natural phe-
nomena should be allowed, as long as they remain in conservative lines.
The American Fancier sometime ago published an article on this subject
from the pen of L. van der Snicket in Chasse et Pêche :
"We have just received a new number of the journal Le Bulletin
avicole de l'Association des Élèveurs de France, and read with pleasure a
second article on the subject of the dewlap of the Toulouse goose by
M. des Essarts. His first article made some commotion among breeders.
L'Élèveur reproduced the article in full, with the following preliminary
note:
66 (
It is evident the dewlap has been imposed on us as characteristic of
the Toulouse goose by rogues desirous of getting rid of their old birds, but
everybody in the North has not been convinced, as will be shown by the
following article:
This," says M. des Essarts, "is the absolute confirmation of my
views, and I have only to thank M. P. Megnon (Editor, L'Élèveur) for
giving me the support of his great authority. The second journal which
has been so good as to extol my views with regard to the dewlap of the
Toulouse goose is the famous Belgian breeders' journal, Chasse et Pêche,
etc."
66666
66 6
It is really too good of M. des Essarts to attribute to us more science
and experience than we possess, since we must confess our ignorance, and
conclude that the question of the dewlap can only be decided by practical
experience.
66 6
That the dewlap is a sign of old age we willingly admit, but large
size is also a sign of old age amongst birds; nevertheless, large size is
no defect amongst young birds; on the contrary it is a most recherché
quality.
66 C
'In his account of the poultry at the last Smithfield show, M. de
Loverdo, as to whose competence there can be no doubt, wrote, “as to

1096
The Poultry Book
Toulouse geese, their general condition is perfect; English geese can not
be compared with them." "It appears to me," says M. des Essarts, "that
such judgment is unquestionable." We have weighed the best birds in
company with M. de Loverdo, but, unfortunately, we have not the results
with us. However, our impression was that the English geese and poultry
in general were larger than, but not so fine as the foreigners.
"The average weight of a Toulouse gander of this year, killed and
plucked, is somewhere between nine and ten kilos. Exceptionally fine
birds exceed twelve kilos. It is not always in the largest birds that the
liver is the most developed (one still ignores the laws which follow the
fatty degeneration of this organ).
Its average weight is about 950
grammes, but it sometimes weighs
1 kilo, 200 grammes. The Tou-
louse goose is the foundation of
the kitchen of the southwest.
A correspondent says that, if
Toulouse geese have no dewlap, it
is bad for them. The Toulouse
goose has a bag of fat, and the
larger and more elastic this bag
is, the better for the bird. When
the skin hangs under the bill and
over the neck like a bib, the bird
will more readily fatten.

By courtesy of the Rhode Island Experiment Station
"ON GUARD"
"The senior of all French aviculturists, M. Ernest Lemoine, of Crosne
(Seine-et-Oise), wrote in 1886: "The amateur who tries to make you
believe that the Toulouse goose ought to have a glandulous swelling under
the head is surely an amateur who has geese of this kind for sale. The
glandulous swelling ought not to exist among the pure Toulouse breed.
They have never had a glandulous swelling, only a simple hanging fold of
the skin. This is not like a bib, but is an even fin from under the beak
between the two jaws. An emerited amateur for some time past has bred
geese of which the bib only began to show toward the age of four years
and became larger every year."
"A more experienced amateur, M. Firmin de Smet, breeds Siam and
Guinea geese, of which the dewlap is developed from the first year.
333
The Domestic Goose
1097
(C
AFRICAN GEESE
Samuel Cushman's article in the Reliable Poultry Journal gives a
precise statement of this excellent goose. It is produced here in detail:
African geese are as large as most Embden and Toulouse geese, and
are more prolific and profitable. They lay the largest eggs of all varieties,
and as many of them as the best Toulouse. Goslings from old Africans
are the strongest and hardiest of all, and after the first two days one is
rarely lost except by accident. They grow faster and larger up to the
time they should be marketed. Africans have large size and great strength
without the sluggishness of the other large varieties, and are very docile
compared with the Chinese Geese. The ganders are active and sure
breeders and mate promptly with any geese. They can be mated with
five times as many geese as can a Toulouse gander, and twice as many as
an Embden gander. The females are good sitters and mothers, and there-
fore do not lay as steadily as the Toulouse. It takes a few days to break
them up and to get them to laying again.
"A drawback with this breed (so highly prized by eastern market
goose raisers) is its dark bill and skin, and the fact that it is harder to pick
than are the Embdens and Toulouse. Young African goslings pick easily
in summer, but are harder to pluck in the fall and winter, although they
are not as difficult to prepare for market as the Brown or White Chinese.
You can raise many more African than Embden goslings and grow them
larger early in the season; but they do not look as well nor sell as well
when dressed as the white goslings with yellow bills.
((
Africans, we are led to believe, were brought to this country before
the Brown and White Chinese varieties. They are no newly-made variety,
as some suppose. Old poultry books published back in 1840, illustrated
and described them as a variety distinct from the Brown Chinese, and gave
their weight, shape, and markings as we have them to-day. A reprint
of the goose illustrations and matter relating to them from some of these
old books would be a benefit to the public. Africans were at first called
India, Guinea, and African geese, because it was understood they were
brought from there by the whalers and other ships engaged in the trade
with Asia and Africa, being thus brought into several New England ports.
Probably the modern Brown and White Chinese came by way of England.
Although the public interested in poultry have known little about Africans
1098
The Poultry Book
all these years, owing to lack of publicity given them in modern poultry
literature, and although they have rarely been seen at poultry exhibi-
tions, they have been so highly valued in the greatest goose-raising sec-
tions of the east for crossing for market goslings, that they have been
maintained in all their purity by a few breeders.
"They seem to have been unknown in England, although they have,
as with us, Brown and White Chinese. The Brown variety with them
is bred with a dewlap, but it is small in size, like our Brown Chinese. Span-
ish ganders are sometimes mentioned by English writers as having been
used for crossing, for table or market purposes. Lewis Wright in his
latest work reproduces an illustration of American-bred Africans (drawn
by George Howard from photo engraving from Rhode Island Agricultural
Experiment Report), and uses it to illustrate his description of English
Brown Chinese geese.
Africans are large geese, while the Chinese are more on the bantam
order. Africans have the great reserve power and docility of the large
breeds, and are as smart and intelligent and stirring as any of the smaller
varieties. They do not easily get overfat. Although Africans resemble
Brown Chinese in some respects, both having similar markings and black
and knobbed bills, the shape of knob bill and head is different. The
dark markings in Africans are lighter, and the Brown Chinese have more
dark in the plumage altogether. Where the stripe on the back of the neck
of a Brown Chinese is a rich dark-brown, that on the African is a lighter
brown, inclining to gray. The Brown Chinese is a creamy, light-
brown or white where the African is gray or light-drab. The bars on
wings and back are more regular and distinct, and present greater
contrast in the African. Bright, clear colors are preferred to muddy
or dingy tints.
"The knob of the Brown Chinese is like a round ball resting on the bill
and projecting forward from under the feathers of the top of the head.
The knob of an African is like a half-globe or dome, broader and larger in
proportion, resting at the base of bill and projecting upward above the top
of the head. These knobs in either variety should be free from orange or
flesh-color. Their eyes are rich hazel in color. The Africans' bills are
thicker, stouter, and more curved, and their heads are wider and deeper
than those of the Brown Chinese and they have heavier jaws. A line
of white feathers clean cut and distinct, close to the base of the bill, is
، ،
The Domestic Goose
1099
Their necks are shorter,
considered a desirable feature in show birds.*
thicker and stronger, and are less curved. Their voice is many times as
strong, showing great chest power; not shrill, sharp, and rasping, but
more on the fog-horn or ocean steamship whistle order, the sound being
more mellow, and rich and pleasant to hear.
Africans carry their bodies almost level like Embdens and Toulouse,
but they are longer and very wide and deep, especially in chest. They
have a steady, dignified and noble walk and carriage, and show much grace
in their movements. They stand higher from the ground than Embdens
or Toulouse, and have very stout, orange-red shanks with black nails.
Brown Chinese have a very different carriage. Their whole body is slend-
erer; their bill straighter, the neck thinner, the feet and legs smaller and
darker in color, and the neck more arched. Their body is carried upright,
almost as if it would go over backward, in somewhat of a "cake-walk”
attitude. They are more hurried and nervous in their movements. Young
African ganders weigh fifteen to seventeen pounds and the females eleven
to sixteen pounds the first season, and some several pounds over. They
get their full weight when about three years old. Ganders weighing
twenty to twenty-four pounds are not unusual and geese run from sixteen to
nineteen pounds each."
(C
*
HISTORY OF AFRICAN GEESE †
A veteran goose breeder, William Rankin, says of this breed: “I think
the most perfect goose is the pure-bred African, as they lay more eggs,
mature earlier and make more pounds of flesh in the same time. They
are very vigorous and hardy, and you will nearly always raise all you
hatch." African geese have a more erect carriage than either the Toulouse
or Embdens, but not so erect as the modern Brown and White Chinas.
The body should be large and long, well-developed through the shoulders
and breast; the neck moderately long, of fair size and gracefully curved,
head rather large, with moderately long, stout bill, and a knob or protuber-
ance at the base of the upper mandible. There should be a heavy dewlap
* We cannot agree with this statement. The American Standard of Perfection
demands an all-gray head, and the fact that many birds have a line of white feathers close to
the base of the bill proves nothing but the impurity of breeding of the specimen thus
shown. All knowing judges will cut a bird for white feathers on any part of body;
light gray being the lightest tint required for neck and underparts of body.-T.F.J.
†The Rhode Island Experiment Station Report has been used liberally in the prepa-
ration of this section.-EDITOR.
IIOO
The Poultry Book
or pendant fold of skin under the throat. The bill and knob should be
black, and the eyes hazel or brown. The color of the plumage of the
back, wings and tail is dark-gray, shading to light-gray on the breast
and under parts of the body. A dark-brown stripe extends from the
head down the back of the neck. Legs, dark-orange in color, with black
claws. The notes of this goose resemble those of the Brown and White
China much more than those of the Toulouse and Embden breeds.
The utmost confusion prevails in poultry literature regarding the
name of this variety. Saunders says, "The principal breeds of geese
are the China goose, Toulouse goose, and the Bremen or Embden goose.
Under the name of China goose, he gives a fairly good but very brief
description of the African goose. It is true that his description might
apply to the Brown China, but he makes no mention of a white breed
under "China."
""
Bement, under the heading of Guinea or African Goose, says: "This
is the largest of the goose tribe which has fallen under our notice; it is the
size of the swan, and it often weighs more than twenty-five pounds. We
have now in our possession one pair
which will weigh, in common,
ordinary condition, more than twenty pounds each. We once owned a
gander that weighed twenty-four pounds." His description of this goose,
colors of plumage, knob and dewlap, agrees well with that of the African
goose of the present time. He says, "Africa, and perhaps the other
southern countries of the old continent, seems to be their native abode,"
and quotes authorities to prove the identity of the so-called Siberian,
Russian or Muscovy goose with the Guinea or African goose. The above,
published in 1845, is, as far as we can learn, the first application of the
name African to this goose.
Kerr has a chapter on the China goose, accompanied by an excellent
cut of the African goose, entitled "The Hong Kong, or China goose,
which says: "Of this variety three beautiful specimens were exhibited
at the late agricultural show held in the county of Philadelphia (Penn-
sylvania)."
In introducing this variety to the reader, Mr. Dixon
says: 'There is a venerable joke about a Spanish Don who knocked
at a cottage door to ask a night's lodging. 'Who's there? What do you
want?' said the inmates. 'Don Juan José Pedro Antonio Alonzo Carlos
Geronimo, etc., wants to sleep here to-night.' 'Get along with you,'
was the reply, 'how should we find room here for so many fellows?'
((
""
The Domestic Goose
IIOI
'The China goose is in the same position as the Spanish Don. It has
names enough to fill a menagerie. China goose, knob goose, Hong Kong
goose, Asiatic goose, swan goose, Chinese swan (Cygnus sinensis, Cuvier),
Guinea goose, Spanish goose, Polish goose, Anas and Anser cygnoides,
Muscovy goose, and probably more beside." (We can add to the list,
knobbed goose, African goose and Indian goose.)
"Confusion, therefore, and perplexity are the certain lot of whoso-
ever attempts to trace this bird in our books of natural history. Its place
of birth has excluded it from all monographs or limited ornithologies.
In very few systematic
works is it mentioned
remarkable of a
in its appear-
is every
at all, which is
bird so striking
ance.
There
reason to be-
have been
cated for a
The uncer-
has existed
CL

Photograph by courtesy of "Farm Poultry"
TOULOUSE GOSLINGS
lieve it must
domesti-
correct name,
long period.
tainty that
as to its
and really
may be one
Like the Jews
it has not been
claim a place
natives of any
native country,
cause of this.
or the Gypsies,
allowed to
among the
one region, and, like many others furnished with a variety of aliases,
it ends by being altogether excluded from society. The older writers
call it the Guinea goose, for the excellent reason, as Willoughby hints,
that in his time (1635-1672) it was the fashion to apply the epithet
'Guinea' to everything of foreign and uncertain origin."
Kerr adds, in a footnote, "The epithet 'Indian' has also answered
the same accommodating purpose." After stating the fact that Cuvier
calls this goose and the Canada goose true swans, Dixon continues: "A
goose, however, it decidedly is, as is clear from its terrestrial habits, its
powerful bill, its thorny tongue and its diet of grass. And, therefore,
we have determined to call it the China goose, concluding that Cuvier is
right about its home, and other authors about its goosehood."
One of the best authorities upon poultry subjects in England, in a
I102
The Poultry Book
recent work, after naming and describing Toulouse and Embden geese,
names the "Chinese," and says:
"This variety is not very common in this country, and, though
classed with geese, it is really more like a swan. It is known as the Oie de
Guinea (Guinea Goose), of Buffon, and is distinguished especially by its
long neck, and a large knob at the base of the bill. From this latter point
it has been called the knobbed goose, and also the Hong Kong, from the
place of its origin. Although first brought over from China, it is well-
known in many parts of both the continents of Asia and Africa. It is a
very prolific layer, and the quality of the flesh is regarded as superior to
that of the common goose.
"The semi-swanlike appearance gives it a great advantage over the
ordinary goose, which is not to be regarded as highly ornamental, but it is
smaller in body. In color, the bill and legs are orange, the knob being
black. The usual color is a grayish-brown on the back and upper parts,
passing to white or whitish gray on the abdomen. The fore part of the
neck and breast are a yellowish gray, and a very dark-brown stripe runs
down the back of the head to the body. Some birds are white, with
a pale stripe, but in all specimens of the Chinese goose this stripe is present.
Another important point must not be omitted; namely, the folded skin
attached to the throat, forming a kind of dewlap. As an economic breed
this can be recommended, though neither the eggs nor the birds are as
large as in the common goose." Mr. Brown does not mention the African
goose, and it evidently has not been bred as a variety distinct from the
Chinese, as in the United States. The reader will notice that the dewlap is
made an important characteristic of the Chinese geese in England, while
in this country it applies to the African, and not to the Chinese varieties.
Another English authority, writing upon the breeding of geese, de-
scribes only two breeds-Toulouse and Embden-but in an article upon
Breeding Geese for the Table or Market Purposes Only," says, “Spanish
or Canadian ganders may be used for crossing with other varieties, and
such crosses are generally very successful." This mention of the "Spanish"
goose is the only reference he makes to the English relative of our African
goose. As before stated, in 1845 is the first record we find of the use of
the name African, although under numerous other names the goose had
long been bred, probably to about the same type. Felch, in a personal
letter, writes: "The African goose, I believe, has been credited to Africa
<<
The Domestic Goose
1103
-the region near Zanzibar. It is a goose as heavy as the Embden or
Toulouse; has a shorter, thicker neck, and darker gray color than the
Brown China; knob and bill are black, with a prominent dewlap—a kind
of feathered throat wattle; and a voice harsher and heavier than all others.
My own belief is that it is a species indigenous to Africa. We cannot say
it is like the Brown Chinas, or the domestic goose of India, all of which
have longer and more swan-like necks, while the African weighs all of six
pounds more than the Chinas. I think that they were imported to this
country long before the White and Brown Chinas were received.”
A breeder of this variety, with more than thirty years' experience,
writes that he first knew of them in 1859, when some were landed at Essex,
Massachusetts. What he learned from persons who had them led him to
believe that they came from Hindustan, and he called them India geese,
and all pure-bred ones were known by that name. He next found geese
landed by a Provincetown (Massachusetts) vessel, which were said to have
come from Africa. These birds were scattered about the section west of
Boston, and were called Africans, and exhibited by that name.
In 1879
they were exhibited under both names, but the name African being adopted
about that time in the American Standard of Perfection, the breed has
been known by that name ever since. He finds very few pure-bred Africans
in Rhode Island, many specimens showing admixture of Brown China
blood. He has, since 1859, known the African or India goose to be
a distinct variety, with a fixed type and breeding, without particular
variation.
The American Standard of Perfection requires that the adult African
gander shall weigh, at least, twenty pounds, and the goose, eighteen
pounds, the young gander, sixteen pounds, and the young goose, fourteen
pounds. This is exactly four pounds heavier in each instance than is
required by the standard for either Brown or White China geese. As
to their laying qualities, doubtless considerable difference exists between
different families of the breed. At the Rhode Island station the average
egg production has been less than in the case of either of the other
four breeds.
For three successive seasons-care and feeding being the same in
each case-Mr. William Rankin, who has bred African geese for many
years, kept careful records of the production of eggs by the individuals
of his flock, and always preserved for breeding purposes the best specimens
1104
The Poultry Book
from his most prolific geese whenever any birds were required to replenish
his flock, has found them better layers than either Toulouse or Embdens.
Under date of
February 17, 1898,
he writes in reply
to an inquiry: "In
1888 I kept twelve
African geese, and
the flock averaged
37.42 eggs each. I
also kept, the same
year, six Toulouse
geese which aver-
aged 30.68 eggs
each, while ten
Embdens, kept the

24 00
ออสกา
Photograph by Theo. F. Fager
FLOCK OF YOUNG GEESE AFTER A SWIM
Bred by Mr. Jager
same season, aver-
aged 28.12 eggs per
goose. I have
since done better with the Embden; I think one goose laid 68 eggs in the
season of 1895. The product of geese depends largely upon their liberty
and food. My African average has always been the largest." In regard
to the development of special qualities by breeding, Mr. Rankin says:
"Thirty years ago I rarely had a bird that would lay more than thirty
eggs; now they often lay sixty, and occasionally more.
When
I was a boy my father used to say, 'If you raise ten goslings from a goose,
you are all right. Now we feel that we ought to raise from twenty-five
to thirty."
THE CHINESE, OR SWAN Goose
This is also known as the Spanish, Guinea, Cape, and I have seen
some imported from Japan that did not appear to have any distinctive
differences. It is generally more than three feet in length, and the size
varies according to the locality in which they are bred. The smallest
coming under my immediate observation were those from Japan, while
those from Spain were the largest. In carriage or deportment it differs
widely from the goose tribe in general, being upright and stately, sometimes
exceedingly so, with its long crane-like neck erected to the utmost.

The Domestic Goose
1105
It differs also from the ordinary goose in having a knob at the base
of the upper mandible, and a pouch-like appendage almost devoid of feath-
ers, something like a wattle, under the lower mandible and at the top of
the throat. In some this appendage is so much larger than in others
that it is almost a deformity. There is a white line, extending from the
ending of the mouth along the base of the bill, and continued behind
the frontal knob. This knob is black, while the color below and nearly
surrounding it is orange; irides reddish-brown; a dark-brown, or nearly
black, stripe runs down the hinder part of the neck, from the occipital bone
to the back; the fore part of the neck and the breast are of a yellowish-dun
brown; the back and all the upper parts, brownish-grey, edged with a
lighter color; the sides and feathers which cover the thighs are clouded
and nearly of the same color as the back, though sometimes darker, and
edged with white; belly white; legs orange generally, though not always,
being occasionally of a somewhat sooty brown.
They are common in many places, both of warm and cool temperature,
and breed freely in all. This, as the Spanish, is said to be one of the species
used to produce the French large-sized goose known as the Toulouse, the
frequency of the white line at the base of the mandibles being pointed to
as one of the indications of sure cross-breeding, and the dewlap or under-
bill wattle another; but then the carriage, general appearance, and other
variations render this supposition a particularly doubtful one, though the
cross between this and the common domestic goose is said to be fertile.
In domestication the species varies considerably both in feather,
bill, and shanks. I have seen them of a soft buff where the darker colors
usually are, and also with a tint of red or yellow, but of a silvery gray with
darker and lighter shadings, with bill, shanks, and feet a bright orange.

Photograph by courtesy of Reliable Poultry Journal
MUSCOVY DUCKS IN OPEN YARD
Bred and owned by Maplewood Farm, Connecticut

1106
The Poultry Book
In Bewick's time, at the beginning of the last century, he says: "They
are kept by the curious in various parts of England, and are more noisy
than the common goose." (This is saying a good deal, but possibly even
these last vary as regards the almost constant conversational cackle and
other sounds more or less loud.) "Nothing can stir in the night or day
without their giving the alarm by their hoarse cacklings and shrill cries.
They breed" (says he) "with the common goose, and their offspring are
as prolific as those of any other kind. The female is smaller than the
male. The head, neck, and breast are fulvous, paler on the upper part;
the back, wings and tail dull brown, with pale edges; belly white; in
other respects like the male, but the knob over the bill is much smaller.”
As a useful, hardy, ornamental variety, they have long been known,
domesticated, and bred both in England and other countries, and are
valuable as early and prolific layers of dull whitish eggs; their flesh is
excellent both in flavor and texture, and they are easily fattened.
I am indebted to Mr. J. Selwyn Rawson, of Thorpe, Halifax, York-
shire, for the following notes:
"I have kept Chinese geese for three or four years, and have always.
found them to breed freely. They are good layers, much more so than
the Embdens or Toulouse. My geese have at the present time (March
12, 1898) been laying more than a month, and only one has yet shown
any signs of becoming broody, and that within the last three or four days.
When keeping Toulouse and Embdens, the latter breed was much later in
commencing to lay, and did not lay so many eggs. Up to the present
time my Chinese geese have laid about ninety eggs (I have six geese). I
have not kept an accurate account in previous years of the number laid,
but think they will lay on an average about thirty-five to forty eggs each
per year.
They are excellent sitters; but as a rule I do not let them sit, pre-
ferring to hatch their eggs under a hen or incubator. I find if the geese
are not allowed to sit, they will take a clutch of goslings, which have been
hatched in an incubator or under a hen, and bring them up as if they had
hatched them. The gander is also very attentive, and during the time
of incubation (if the geese are allowed to sit) will rarely leave the neigh-
borhood of the nest, and when the young are hatched will follow them
about and protect them from danger.
"I cannot say for certain how many broods a year they will bring up,
،،
The Domestic Goose
1107
but, as a rule, my geese lay about twenty eggs and then become broody; if
not allowed to sit, they then lay again about fifteen or twenty more eggs.
Of course, some individual birds lay more than this number, and some less.
"As to the number of geese to one gander, I usually run three, but I
have found four by no means too many; and, I think, with a young gander
the eggs would be fairly fertile with even five. I would not advise so many
under ordinary circumstances. With three geese I have found very few
unfertile eggs, and the goslings hatch out strong and healthy.
"As to the question of white sitting longer than colored I cannot give
any opinion, not having kept the former.
“The colored ones, as far as I can judge, take from one to two days less
to incubate than the Embdens or Toulouse. When full grown, the ganders
weigh about twelve to thirteen pounds, and the geese one or two pounds
less. They are very close feathered, and, thus, to a casual observer they
do not appear so heavy as they actually are.
"They are somewhat noisy birds, and, like all geese, soon give the
alarm at night if anything unusual occurs, or anything disturbs them.
'They lay a comparatively large egg for the size of the bird, each
one weighing from six to six and a half ounces.”
66
Coupled with the above interesting description of the colored Chinese
goose, Mr. J. S. Rawson sent me some admirable photographs of his birds,
which are given as excellent illustrations of the breed. I may here remark
that many prefer the Chinese goose, though small, to the ordinary goose,
the breast meat being tender and of delicate flavor. Though they have
a few of the characteristics of the Toulouse goose, they far surpass it in
quality, the latter having a coarseness not noticeable in the colored Chinese.
THE WHITE CHINESE GOOSE
The white variety of the Chinese goose is a truly beautiful bird, pos-
sessing an elegance of contour and a style of carriage all its own. When
they are seen to advantage on the borders, banks, or waters of a lake or
large pond, they strike the observer as being, at least, the most beautiful
of the domesticated goose family. In their motions they are particularly
graceful, and their long necks, well-formed and compact bodies, add to
rather than diminish their beauty. This is enhanced by the contrast of
the pure white plumage with the brilliant orange-red of their bills and knob,
and with their not less bright-tinted shanks and feet; while the blues,
1108
The Poultry Book
being surrounded by an orange or golden setting of delicate skin, add
another charm to those already possessed.
It is some sixty years ago since I first saw a group of these both useful
and ornamental birds, and then, as now, I was deeply impressed with
their peculiar attractions. They were on the bank of a large pond, en-
joying the warmth of a fine summer day, while, running about them, were
about a dozen fluffy, yellow-coated goslings. These and the old birds,
with a background of green rushes reflected in the water, completed
the picture.
A
The white variety is somewhat larger than the colored Chinese goose,
and does not lay so many eggs; it is said to sit from one to two days longer,
seldom hatching a large brood; and the goslings are also less hardy.
Having watched their habits at various times, I have come to the
conclusion that the length of neck is particularly useful to the bird, en-
abling it to seek much of its food below the ordinary surface-weeds of the
water.
Although such a beautiful variety of the goose, it is somewhat scarce
from the causes above mentioned, but, when profit is of no consequence,
it seems, from its many physical attractions, to deserve more attention.
It has, however, deservedly or otherwise, the credit of being quarrelsome
when other water-fowl are kept, and, when it takes a dislike, of being
destructive. But, in this respect, as far as I can learn, it is neither better
nor worse than its colored relatives; or even those more distant-the
common," the Embden, and the Toulouse geese, all of which should be
kept separate from other poultry.
Mr. Sagendorph, of Massachusetts, an old breeder of China geese,
says of them in the Water-Fowl Guide:
66
"This variety is sometimes called the Knobbed goose, and Hong
Kong goose, owing to the protruberance or knob at the base of the bill,
like that of the African goose. In appearance it resembles the swan.
In range, it is known throughout China, the greater part of Asia, and in
portions of Africa. It is stated, on the best authority, that the common
domestic goose of India is a hybrid between this goose and the Gray-Leg.
In size it is bteween the common goose and the swan; pairs average about
thirty pounds. They are very prolific-more so than any other variety
of their family. They lay about thirty eggs before desiring to sit, and
sometimes lay three or four litters in one season. Their eggs are about
The Domestic Goose
1109

www
EMBDEN GEESE ON THE MARCH
Bred and owned by Mr. Jager
Photograph by Theo. F. Fager
two-thirds the size of those of the common goose. The color of their
plumage is a grayish-brown on the back and upper parts, passing to white
or whitish-gray on the abdomen; fore part of the neck and breast a yellowish
gray, and a very dark-brown stripe running down the entire back of the
neck from the head to the back. The white variety is pure white through.
out.
"It is only necessary to see the White China goose to become its ardent
admirer, for, with its fine form, graceful carriage, long slender neck,
large orange knob and soft dove-like purity of plumage, it does not require
a great stretch of imagination to see the most beautiful bird extant.
'When dressed, there are no colored quills to mar their beauty; they
always look inviting and tempting. I am sure that all will agree with me
when I say that the most profitable fowls are those that properly com-
bine table, market and egg producing qualities. In all these requisites
I think they are a little superior to any breed of geese.
66
Hardiness, activity and vigor are traits peculiar to the breed. By
carefully managed tests made upon my own farm, the Chinas have the
highest number of eggs to their credit. They are very prompt to mate
and the ganders will mate with more geese and the eggs will be more
fertile than in the case of any other breed.
"I have raised and am now raising all the leading breeds of geese, but
prefer the Chinas every time. I am prepared with records, and also with

ILIO
The Poultry Book
stock, to fully substantiate my statement that, of all breeds of geese, the
China stands at the head as a money maker. The larger geese will not,
can not, lay the eggs because of inclination toward laziness, and when we
lose the egg quality we lose the practical side."
EGYPTIAN GEESE
These pretty but rather quarrelsome geese are at home where pyramids
and fantastic dances are in fashion. Purely an ornamental breed, they
have not been able to gain a foothold in all sections. We often see them
in the more prominent shows, where large string men are apt to put in an
appearance. In size they are smaller than the rest of the goose family.
The adult gander weighs only ten pounds, the adult goose eight pounds,
the young gander the same as the old goose, and the young goose is happy
if she tips the scales at six pounds.
The wings are large and powerful and, in lieu of the ordinary hard
knobs on the wing joints, there are strong, white, horny spurs, about five-
eighths of an inch long.
Head is black and gray, chestnut colored spot around the eyes. Gray
and black is divided over neck and back. Centre of breast is chestnut,
the rest silver gray. Body same as back, and on under parts pale-buff,
breast finely pencilled with black lines; shoulders are white with a small,
black metallic bar. Shanks are reddish-yellow.
The Egyptians are mated in pairs, and, if the goose is allowed to follow
her natural instinct, she will successfully hatch and raise a good-sized
cluster of young ones. They are very hardy.
SEBASTOPOL GEESE
These, though small, are particularly attractive. They were first
imported into England by a well-known Water-Fowl fancier residing at
Biggleswade, about the time of the Russian war, now some fifty years ago.
Coming as they did, from the neighborhood of Sebastopol, they were
accordingly so named by their owner. If not ornamental, at least they are
peculiar, having the wing coverts much twisted, curled, and elongated,
while the primaries and secondaries are singularly formed. This abnormal
formation, of course, precludes all possibility of flight, though they can
run, partly aided by their wings, along the surface of the ground with
considerable speed. This so develops the pectoral muscles, and those of
The Domestic Goose
IIII
the thigh and leg, that it renders them excellent as table birds, rivalling,
as they do in that respect, our own lesser variety-known as the common
goose. In color they are mostly of a mottled grey, with more or less white.
They are neat and compact in form, hardy in constitution, but not over-
prolific. Though scarce in England at present, they are said to be fairly
common in some of the northern parts of Russia.
The white are those most fancied, and certainly on a lake or pond
with varied verdant surroundings, and in the meadows or tangled bush
environments, they thus present a most pleasurable appearance. The
best and most useful hitherto seen have been some owned and others
bred at Dangstein, the late beautiful home of the Honorable Lady Dorothy
Neville, where, though a striking adornment, they were grown for table
purposes. When fat, they usually weighed ten to twelve pounds, while
in flavor the flesh was remarkably rich, and of the highest quality.
Sebastopol geese are very rare in America, and while many efforts
have been made to breed them, thus far all trials have proved futile. The
only way the young have been raised is in crossing them with Embdens,
and the progeny thus produced again with the parent line. Mr. Smith, of
New York, has been very successful in producing large flocks by using
Embden blood to impart additional vigor.
The feathers of American-bred Sebastopol are, unlike frizzle feathers,
very weak and partially destitute of adhesion in the barbules. They
resemble in a considerable degree those of a silky fowl, and are in part
midway between the silky and the frizzled. According to Wright, the
feathers split themselves up into narrow filaments.
THE SPUR-WINGED GOOSE
This species is related to the semi-palmated goose, which is a large
striking-looking bird, glossy, greenish-black, with the shoulders, rump,
breast and abdomen pure white. Its voice is said to be a loud whistle.
The Spur-Winged goose, as its name indicates, is provided with a
long spur; the legs are rather high, and placed well under the body. There
are three or four species of the genus.
Dr. G. Bennett, in a letter to Mr. Gould, says:
“The semi-palmated goose I have seen domesticated in Sydney in a
poultry yard, having been hatched by a common hen. This bird in anatomy
and habits evidently approaches the cranes. Especially when you see it

1112
The Poultry Book
running about the yard, it resembles a crane more than a goose. The
black and white plumage imparts to the bird a very handsome appearance
as it walks with a stately tread (not with the waddling gait of a goose) like
one of the waders. They are easily tamed, and are very friendly to other
poultry, but require company in order to thrive. The flesh, however, is
coarse and not well-flavored. It inhabits southern, southeastern and
northern Australia, but seems to have been driven away from the southern
parts by the progress of cultivation. In Doctor Lichardt's time they
were numerous and the flocks so dense in the north that the natives were
enabled to procure numbers of them by spearing them when flying."
LO

Photograph by courtesy of "Commercial Poultry"
GROUP OF TOULOUSE GEESE ON THE WAY TO CREEK
Bred and owned by Charles McClave, Ohio
The knobless variety, which inhabits the western and southern por-
tions, Mr. F. Ayres says, "is rated as the commonest of wild geese. The
flesh of this species is by no means good eating, as the flesh is coarse and
tasteless, and the young birds have scarcely any meat on them. Some-
times they are very shy and at others absurdly tame; as a rule, it requires
heavy shot to kill them.
"They come out early in the morning from the swamps and reeds to
feed on the grass seeds, and are often seen on the farmer's corn lands.
If stalked in the long grass, they will invariably creep away, instead of
taking to wing, as they run at a good pace; and by the time the hunter
is on the spot expecting them to rise, he sometimes sees the head of one
a couple of hundred yards off examining the situation. If the hunter
squats when the birds are flying, they will often come and have a look at
him, and this curiosity costs many their lives. As a rule, they are gre-
The Domestic Goose
1113
garious, but are sometimes seen singly, and at others in pairs; they breed
away from the water in thick, grassy or rushy spots, and lay a number
of white eggs, with thick, glossy shells.'
""
THE HUTCHINS' GOOSE
This breeds in the Arctic Regions, and abounds about the Columbia
River. The head is small, oblong and compressed; the neck long and very
slender; the body full and plump. The head and about two-thirds of the
upper part of the neck are of a glossy black; a patch of white on each side
of the head and neck; the general color of the upper parts, brownish-grey,
the feathers being edged with a lighter shade; those of the lower parts,
pale greyish-brown, with yellowish-grey edgings; abdomen and lower tail-
coverts, white; rump, brownish-black; primaries and tail, dark-brown;
eyes, brown; bill, feet and claws, black. Weight, about four and one-half
pounds. The female is smaller than the male. The eggs measure about
three by two inches, and are pure white in color. The flesh is of an ex-
cellent flavor.
-
THE SNOW GOOSE
This species has a wide range, spending the winters in the western
and southern states, and breeding in the Arctic regions. The bill is car-
mine-red; unguis, white; iris, light-brown; feet, dull lake; claws, brownish-
black; plumage, white, with a yellowish-red tinge upon the forepart of the
head; brownish-gray primaries, blackish-brown at the ends. Weight of
male about six and three-fourths pounds; female, smaller. When young
and fat, they are very good eating; when old, tough and stringy. The
young are of a blue-gray color until after a year old. The neck then begins
to acquire its white color, the upper parts remaining of dark buish-grey
for some time longer, when the bird suddenly becomes white all over.
The age at which the full white plumage is attained is not definitely known,
and probably varies in individuals and according to surroundings.
THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE
The American Stockkeeper says: "This species deserves mention,
not only because it is found in this country, but because by some it has
been supposed to have had something to do with the make-up of the
domestic goose. It is found in the western and southern states during
1114
The Poultry Book
winter, and along the coast from Massachusetts to Texas. It breeds far
to the north. It is also found in England.
'The bill is carmine-red; unguis, white; edges of eyelids, dull-orange;
iris, hazel; feet, orange; claws, white; head and neck, rich greyish-brown,
the upper part of the former being darker; on the anterior part of forehead
a band of white with a blackish-brown margin behind; general color of
back, deep gray, the feathers of the anterior portion having broad tips
of greyish-brown, the rest grey-white tips; the rump, pure, deep grey;
wings, greyish-brown, ashy-grey toward the edge; primary coverts and
outer webs of primaries, ashy-grey; secondaries, and inner web of primaries,
greyish-black; breast, abdomen, lower tail coverts, sides of rump, and
upper tail-coverts, white, but breast and sides patched with brownish-
black, and the latter sprinkled with greyish-brown. Weight of male
about five and one-fourth pounds; female about four and one-fourth
pounds. The female resembles the male in plumage, but the white margins
of the wing-feathers are more indistinct. The flesh is palatable, being
of excellent consistency and flavor. Audubon states that such is their
winter plumage, 'feeling pretty confident that in summer the lower part
of the body becomes pure black.'
"We may add that there is testimony to prove that the Barnacle
and the Brent geese are also found in this country.”
(C
CANADA GEESE
The wild, or Canada goose is bred pure in a domestic state perhaps
more extensively than brown or white Chinas, says Mr. Flagg in Rhode
Island Agricultural Experiment Station Report. "In fact, these three
breeds are in demand as ornamental water-fowl for parks and private
grounds. The Canada gander is also used for mating with the African or
the Toulouse goose—the former is preferred-for the breeding of the “mon-
grel," or "wild mongrel," as it is sometimes called, and it has the reputation
of being second only to canvas-back duck in quality and flavor when
prepared for the table. For this purpose, Canada ganders of good size
and tested breeding qualities are highly prized. They vary in price from
ten to fifty or more dollars each.
The importance of size in the production of mongrels has doubtless
had its effect in the selection of the largest Canada birds for breeding pure.
This course has resulted in more than doubling the size, as is seen by com-
The Domestic Goose
1115
paring the weights required for this breed in the show room and the
weights of adult wild specimens, as given by Audubon.
The mating of the Canada and the African geese produces a mongrel
strongly resembling the Canada goose in color of plumage and distinguish-
ing marks. In dressing for market, the feathers of the head, two-thirds or
more of the neck, the wings and tail are left on the bird, and serve to
identify and guarantee the genuineness of its breeding. When Canada geese
are crossed upon white domestic geese, the color of the progeny is very
uncertain, and, although genuine wild mongrels, their doubtful color causes
distrust on the part of the purchaser, and injures their market value. The
Canada goose lays usually from six to eight eggs, but occasionally lays more
in a domestic state. One breeder of experience has known a wild goose to
lay eleven eggs in a single season, but such productiveness is very rare. He
also states that, with extra care and feeding, the wild goose may be per-
suaded to lay two settings of eggs in a season, but ordinarily she lays only
one. The Canada female likes a secluded place for nest-making, where
she will be free from disturbance, and, like the wild or wild-cross hen
turkey, is liable to steal away to some unfrequented spot which she can
utilize for that purpose. In the spring of 1897, the writer, walking across
a pasture, was much startled by the sudden screaming, hissing outcry of a
wild goose, as she departed, half running and half flying, from her secret
She was sitting upon six eggs, all of which she hatched. She was
about a fourth of a mile from the house of her owner. The goslings are
hardy little fellows, imbued with some of the independence and self-reliance
born of an ancestral life in the woods and fields not many generations
back. They are of a muddy green color, with dark bill and legs. After
hatching, their care and feeding does not vary materially from that given
to goslings of the domestic breeds.
nest.
A HUNTER'S WORD
'The Wild Canada goose has a number of other names given it by
gunners along the north and south Atlantic Coast, such as Honker Goose,
(Old Honker), Black-Headed Goose, Common Wild Goose, Bay Goose,
etc. These birds breed in the Arctic regions of the far north Hudson
Bay, Victoria River, etc. I have seen them on the Behring Straits, in
Labrador and Nova Scotia, during their fall migrations, feeding on the sand
bars in such large numbers that when they rose, on being disturbed in
(C
1116
The Poultry Book
some way or another, there were simply clouds of them; then they would
separate and shape their course southward, following the coast line. On
the coast of Maine and Massachusetts, large numbers of them are shot on
their flight southward. A great many gunning camps are erected
and maintained by gunning clubs and private parties, where some of them
have from a dozen to three and four hundred of these birds staked out and
harnessed, thoroughly trained to decoy their fellow species as they come
along. This is from the middle of October to the middle of December
and sometimes later. I generally break camp on the 20th of December,
coming out on the ice, bag and baggage, ducks and geese. I usually have
fifty or more of the geese decoys. Some wild birds are usually disabled
every fall, and these I keep and breed with others which have been bred in
confinement previously. Infusing the wild stock into them makes them
better decoys. Usually, they will not mate or breed till the fourth year,
but sometimes they will mate on the third year. I am speaking of young
birds. Old birds I have had mate up in the next year after being
captured. I have some this year which have done so. They are a very
intelligent bird, easily domesticated after being captured." Thus speaks
Mr. Woodman, of Massachusetts, one of the pioneers of decoy gunning
in the country.

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Would
A GROUP OF WHITE CHINESE GEESE


Aarin Wen
De 1962
MALLARD AND WILD DUCK.
The property of HARRISON WEIR.
1
DUCKS *
THEODORE F. JAGER, Connecticut
66
It would be curious to know when the duck was first domesticated, but the
solution of such a question is a task on which I shall not venture."-AUDUBON.

HE origin of ducks is shrouded in mystery. Varro and
Columella first speak of them to their (Roman) readers.
Columella advises basins covered with netting for their
keep, showing thereby that ducks, at that time, were
either better winged than at present or were of the orna-
mental varieties. Dr. A. Maar states that the Romans valued their
duck-pond next to their bath-room, and if a grandee failed to offer his
caller a bath and an opportunity to admire his nessotrophium-duck-pond—
it was considered a slight, that often led to bitter calumnies. The Chinese
also have been known as duck-breeders as far back as their records date;
and to them we must grant the palm for having been the first to attempt
the domestication of ducks for ordinary purposes. Our Pekin, the market-
duck for the million, raised by the million, is nothing but a Chinese product,
transplanted and improved under American conditions, and with true
American energy.
All varieties of ducks fall into one of two great classes:
1. Varieties that are, or can be, profitably raised for general market,
to use for culinary purposes.
2. Varieties that are purely ornamental, or kept for decoying purposes.
Either class can be again subdivided into standard and non-standard
varieties.
Mr. Weir states many valuable truths in his article on duck-raising.
It is quoted as follows:
"For many a year, it has been with me a matter of speculative surprise
* This chapter has been entirely rewritten by Mr. Jager, who is considered one of
the best-informed duck breeders and judges in this country. Records and reports from
State experimental stations have been used liberally. The experiences of individual
breeders have been incorporated, and quotations from Mr. Weir's latest work have been
used to make this part up to date in every respect.-EDITOR.
1117
1118
The Poultry Book
that the duck has not received more attention as a profitable, productive
industry, as a natural article of superior marketable value when compared
with other poultry, with the possible exception of the goose.
Both re-
quire, after their early life-stages, but little attention; both are rapid
growers, and realize good prices, being in general demand; both are partly
self-sustaining, and of considerable utility in many ways on pasture and
other lands.
"On all hands, it has been freely admitted that no fowl on the farm
better repays its keep than the duck. As an egg-producer, it has long been
recognized as almost equaling, if not surpassing, the ordinary hen. The
record of some ducks is so extraordinary as to become almost amazing,
being more than 100 eggs in as many days, and this with ordinary usage,
runs, and food. Good as this is, it is not of so much consequence as duck-
rearing for the market, which still is a neglected quantity in the economy
of our agricultural and farm produce. Even the market-gardener, with the
profuse waste that daily occurs in fruit and vegetable growing, might
utilize in spring and summer much green and other refuse as provender,
and thus realize an income apart from his main business.
“On occasions not a few, when inspecting the poultry stock of the
farm, the homestead, the poultry fancier, or that of the cottager who keeps
'a few birds,' I have found on inquiry that, where ducks were kept as well
as poultry, in most cases, if not in all, ducklings were eulogised as paying
better than chickens. They require infinitely less trouble and attention
after the first week or two from the hatching, the rapidity of their growth
making them fit for the market, while the chickens are still in 'troublous
times.' Some few years ago, in going over a poultry farm that had been
a failure, I learned from the owner that, though he had lost largely on eggs,
turkey, and chicken raising, his ducks and ducklings had been highly
remunerative. The varieties kept were the true white Aylesbury and the
Pekin. This being so, it seemed a little odd that the hen and chicken
farming had not been abandoned in favor of the duck and duckling. I
was told that this farmer persisted in keeping to the former through having
read and heard glowing accounts of the ultimate realization of a consider-
able income when the subject was thoroughly mastered. The poultry
farm was an entire failure, while the duck-keeping was a success, and he
was free to admit that, had he kept ducks only, he believed that his farming
would have exceeded his highest expectations.
-
Ducks
1119
"Especially of late years, practice and experience have proved to the
many, what has long been known to the observing and discerning few, that
the better and more appropriate the food, and the more rigid the regularity
of feeding, the greater the success. Some ducklings will thrive better than
others on a certain kind of food. This the feeder quickly notes, and
places them in a separate pen, but, as a rule, the rations provided prove
suitable to the majority. In America, 'the revised' Pekin at present rules,
though the Rouen is gaining in favor rapidly, on account of the darkness

PRIZE WHITE AYLESBURY DUCK
Owned by Mr. Gillies
From a photograph
of its flesh and the richness of its flavor, though it is less delicate, and the
feathers are not so valuable.
DUCKLINGS AND CHICKS
"Edwin W. Fly, of Chalfont, Pa., has prepared a tabulated comparison
of the growth of ducklings with chicks. He writes expressly for the American
Reliable Poultry Journal, Vol. XXXI., page 359, from which I take the
liberty of transcribing, almost verbatim, at the same time complimenting
both author and editor on the trouble taken in elucidating a problem by
II20
The Poultry Book
actual figures that has long been known broadly and commonly accepted
as fact. Here is the comparative statement:
66 6
"It requires about three months (on the average) for a chick to reach
two pounds, while a duck (averaging a number) arrives at that weight in
less than half that time, and is ready for the market (weighing three
pounds) in seven weeks, thus giving a really larger profit in the summer
months, though prices rapidly decline after July. The following are the
weights of some young ducks not extra fed, and which were taken in lots of
IOO. The weights are for pairs and not single ducks, and are the average:
'One day old, per pair, 4 ounces; eleven days, 15½ ounces; twenty
days, 2 pounds, 1 ounce; thirty-two days, 3 pounds, 6 ounces; thirty-nine
days, 4½ pounds; forty-three days, 5 pounds; forty-five days, 5 pounds;
forty-nine days, 63 pounds; fifty-four days, 7 pounds.
(((
'It will be noticed that they grow faster at some times than at others,
which is due to the warm or damp weather at the case may be. After the
fourth week, they should gain from eight to twelve ounces per week, though
they have been known to gain fourteen ounces per week' [after the second
week I found that my white Embden goslings gained two pounds a week
for several weeks, some weighing at Michaelmas more than twenty pounds],
'but,' adds Mr. Fly, and too much emphasis cannot be applied, 'everything
depends upon the food and care bestowed upon them.'
"Now follows, to my thinking, the most interesting part, one that
should be thoughtfully considered by every duck and poultry raiser,
whatever be his country.
CCC
COMPARISON WITH CHICKS
Compared with chicks, the growth forced on high feeding with a lot
of ten ducklings and chicks for experiment, with the same amount of food
for producing one pound of flesh (usually a cost of five cents for each pound
of carcass), the following is presented:
(0 C
One week old..
Two weeks old.
Three weeks old.
Four weeks old...
Five weeks old..
Six weeks old.
•
Duckling.
lbs.
O
OZS
4
о
9
I O
I
2
2
9
2
II
Chick.
lbs. OZS.
O
2
0 4
O
0
IO
O 14
I
6/1/2
21
Ducks
II2I
Seven weeks old..
Eight weeks old.
Nine weeks old.
Duckling.
lbs.
3
4
4
ozs.
5
O
8
Chick.
lbs.
OZS.
I 711
2
I 12
2
O
"As they approached maturity (after the eighth week), the ratio of
gain begins to become proportionately less, while some are heavier than
others' [this would, naturally, be a certainty]. 'The ducks were kept in a
small coop, and fed to demonstrate the highest point they could be made
to attain, the pure-bred Pekins being used for the experiment. The ten
ducks sold for twenty-eight cents a pound, or $12.60. After paying the
expenses of shipping, commission, etc., the receipts were $9.68. The food
cost $2.36, leaving a profit (on ten ducks sold June 5th) of $7.32. The
chicks sold for twenty-four cents a pound, the receipts being $3.74, cost of
food being eighty-two cents, leaving a profit of $2.92. They were sold
alive, but should have been sold dressed. The difference in profit in favor
of the ducks being $4.40.'
"There is here an omission, and that an essential one. It is stated
that the ducklings were pure Pekins, but the breed of the chickens is not
mentioned, though it is well known that some varieties of fowls grow and
fatten faster than others. As the chickens were sold alive, there was not
the cost of dressing, etc., which was doubtless added in with the expenditure
for the ducklings.
THE DOMESTIC DUCK
"The domestic duck and its varieties have all originated from the wild
duck (Anas boschas, Latham), which is distributed over the British islands,
though in much less numbers than formerly. They are also spread far
and wide into the northern and temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and
America, where they are mostly migratory birds.
"Columella speaks of the duck only as a wild fowl that must be con-
fined to prevent its flying away; and it appears that within the last few
centuries the wild has always been resorted to for the replenishing of tame-
bred birds or for adding constitutional vigor to some of our larger and less
natural varieties.
“Ducks have always been considered peculiarly profitable adjuncts to
the farm, costing a mere nothing for food, if only a few are kept, and these
have the run of the meadows and arable land. Taking their ease during

1122
The Poultry Book
the day, sleeping more often than not, they seek and find their food mostly
at sundown. So on through the night to the early dawn, when they
return home, sometimes with their crops so full, and themselves so tired,
that they find it necessary to stop every hundred yards or so. When at
last the haven of rest is reached, there is a general rejoicing.
"The Mallards and wild ducks would sometimes take flight of an
evening, to visit friends about half a mile away, but they always returned
in the morning. Even the wild Mallard may be so increased in size, by
generous feeding, as to be fat when mature.
"At one time many of the fen ducks were cross-bred, as were those
that came from Holland,
being often much splashed
with white. They were
white, or black with white
breasts, and light grayish
blue and white; but it is
many years since I have
seen such in the London
markets, to which they were
formerly sent in flat crates
by the hundred, or more.
Now our household ducks
are larger in frame, but
whether or not of a higher
quality as food is extremely
doubtful. A fat, wild Mallard, in my opinion, far surpasses in flavor any
tame duck yet produced, or ever likely to be. At the present time, the ill-
considered craving for size in our poultry is perfectly inimical to high flavor,
plump breasts, and general short-fibered yet rich quality of flesh. That
our forefathers were of this opinion is evident from their setting a higher
market price on the wild rather than on the farmyard, or tame species.
"Ducks are well known to be extraordinary layers when properly
fed. I have already illustrated this by the best of all breeds, the white
Aylesbury, which is occasionally followed by the Rouen, that lays a green
egg. Some of the more common, or barn-yard Sussex and Kent breeds,
have been known to lay more than 160 eggs in a year, besides hatching
and rearing ducklings.

7
If
Photograph by Thomas A. Barrett
PEKIN DUCKS IN RANGE
Bred and owned by F. A. Lewter, Florida
Ducks
1123
LAYING HABITS
"The wild duck does not lay so many eggs as the ordinary tame or
Dutch duck; while the latter will often, before wanting to sit, drop the eggs
about the feeding ground. When the wild duck builds its nest, it generally
chooses a spot far from water, and in a wood, shaw, or hedgerow, in a patch
of bushes, nettles, or other weeds, according to the surroundings. I have
known it to build in oak and willow trees; in pollards, in a fork of the
branches; but I have never known this to be the case with any kind of
tame duck. When left to themselves, these will hatch out, and after a few
days bring home, in most cases, a full complement of beautiful, strong,
little things. On the other hand, the tame duck generally requires at-
tention. Some of the eggs should be removed during the time of laying.
A sufficient number of eggs must be left only when the nest is well-feathered,
as that is a sign the duck has nearly completed the number she will lay
before taking to incubation. Before that time, at one place or another,
she will sometimes lay more than 100 eggs, most of which, if gathered
unfrosted and if there are sufficient drakes, will prove fertile. These
collected eggs may be either put under hens or incubated artificially. The
duck sits from twenty-eight to thirty-one days, but mostly hatches in
twenty-nine to thirty days. Comfortable and somewhat secluded nest-
boxes should be placed about the pond, and, where possible, should be
wired in, with two or three openings. These should be closed every
evening about five o'clock, and not opened till ten the next morning.
This prevents the ducks getting on the water and there dropping their
eggs in the night, which they will do very often, unless means are taken
to stop them. On cleaning out a small pond of mine, more than five dozen
eggs were found in the mud, but this number was far exceeded by those
discovered in another pond in the neighborhood, where a number of ducks
were kept. When the water was let off to catch the fish and eels, there
were discovered more than 500 eggs, mostly in a good state of preservation.
Unlike geese, ducks may be kept profitably without water, and I have
found their progeny equally strong and healthy, and the eggs as fertile as
those that had ponds.
"When a duck steals away to make her own nest, and a large number of
eggs are not desirable, it is well to leave her to her own resources for incu-
bation. Often her first eggs are laid in a simple hollow in a bank, or among
1124
The Poultry Book
weeds or bushes. As the eggs increase in number, she daily adds sticks,
straws, weeds, grass, fern, and feathers, and by the time fourteen or fifteen
eggs are laid, the nest has become of considerable dimensions. Even from
day to day as she sits, she is continually adding grass, sticks, and other
substances, mixing in both down and feathers, and when she leaves the
nest for food she covers the eggs. I have put my hand under the down
when a duck had been off the nest for more than an hour, and have found
the eggs quite warm, so can readily believe they would not cool for some
hours, if the duck were away for that time, and that the hatching would be
successful. When incubated, the ducklings usually stay in the nest fully
twelve hours, and sometimes more, unless they are disturbed; by that time,
they are dry, strong, and tolerably active. They are seldom led to water by
the old duck before the second or even the third day; if they are, they over-
swim themselves, and many perish; therefore, this should be prevented by
cooping. Very wet weather, and liberty among long, coarse grass or herb-
age often proves fatal also; cold does not affect them nearly so much as wet,
or as hot sunshine; being exposed to the full noontide heat without ample
shade is the worst of all. I have known whole broods, several days old,
that were quite healthy and strong before they were out under the sun's
direct rays, die suddenly. They turned over on their backs, and after a
few kicks and struggles were dead. Nor, on reflection, can this be con-
sidered at all unexpected, when it is remembered that the duck naturally
is among the grass, etc., sleeping during the day, and only going forth as
the sun sets and the air is cool, to seek her food. When the mother duck
is left to herself, or cooped, it will be observed that she gathers her ducklings
in during the day, though occasionally they will dart forth after a fly or
other insect, and then scramble back into cover. Where there are many
insects, slugs, snails, or worms to be got, it is surprising how fast the duck-
lings grow. They should be fed at least three times a day, and five times.
the first few days. Thin oatmeal put into a small, low trough is good, also
small rice, bread crumbs, or whole-wheat meal and oatmeal mixed with
bran, all well wetted. They are voracious feeders, like goslings, and
should have the trough kept well supplied, as it is their practice to eat as
much as possible, then collect in a group, sleep, wake up, eat again, sleep,
and so on during the day. When small they must be shut in for the
night, but when half grown they may be allowed to roam the meadows
'slugging and worming,' which helps their growth very considerably.
<la
Ducks
1125

MUSCOVY DUCKS
At this age, they are most useful in gardens, soon ridding them of slugs and
snails. Caterpillars also disappear rapidly before them from the cabbages,
and also from the gooseberry bushes.
"To the farmer, the keeping and rearing of ducks is both lucrative and,
from an agricultural point of view, of great service, because they feed so
largely on ground insects and caterpillars. They also clear the ponds of
duckweed and much other vegetable matter; thus about maintaining
themselves in the summer time. Where foxes are not preserved,
ducks, like geese, will fatten rapidly when turned into the wheat, oat,
and other stubbles after the grain is carried, if a trough of water is
provided, which should be washed out and refilled every day. Ducks
kept in houses at night are more expensive to rear, and never thrive so
well as those that enjoy perfect liberty. Never have more than the land
will carry'-to use the farmer's phrase-because they will be unable to
find all or nearly all their food, and some must be provided. It is
dangerous to put ducks into bean and especially into pea 'grattans.'
If the peas or beans are dry when eaten, and the ducks gorge, as they
sometimes will, they get hard-packed in their crops, and then the peas
or beans swell in the water taken afterward. A large Rouen duck
of mine found a gallon measure nearly full of gray peas in the store-
1126
The Poultry Book
house, and ate so voraciously of them that on her going to the pond
and drinking, the peas swelled and burst her crop. Through the
opening thus made I emptied the contents, sewed up the rent, and she
entirely recovered.
"Ducks are best kept in small numbers, and, when ready for fattening,
sold to the higgler, unless they are wanted for home consumption. If
for sale, they should be sold just before they molt their first feathers.
In rearing ducklings simply for the dead market, those that are layers
and quick in early growth are to be desired—-none better than the Ayles-
bury in this respect. Being large in frame, they look to be older than they
are, for they seldom get their growth and ripen before the age of nine
months; but are mostly fatted and killed at three, when there is little
flesh on their breasts and the skin is loose. I have seen rows of the modern
'table ducks' that were little else than clear whitish skin, a little flesh, and
large frames. These are the present-time early ducklings, but, crossed
with old English or Dutch, they carry more breast-meat, though it is not
so well colored. If you can raise this class of ducklings in the incubator,
let them dry well after hatching before removing them to the artificial
brooders, which should not be too hot. When they are hungry and begin
to feed, they will take almost any kind of food with avidity. Bran, or
pollards, mixed with one-third of oatmeal, is good; with water to dabble in.
After four or five days, gradually strengthen the food by adding more
ground oats and a little ground maize; then, at the end of six weeks, add
meat scraps, of about 5 per cent. on the whole; this may be used up to the
time of killing. One thing to be remembered is, that as long as the ducklings
feed well and thrive fast, do not vary their food frequently. Much time
is lost by the changing of diet suddenly, and it sometimes causes a check
to the growth. The slightest observation will prove this advice to be
correct—even in shifting from ground oats to ground barley. If you
begin with suet, or fat, instead of meat, continue it to the end, unless
the flocks show symptoms of nausea. Every change of food should be
gradual. If the stock is to be kept over to the second molt, it is a good
practice to introduce gradually a little pea-meal, as it has more substance.
Store ducklings are best hardened with a gradual mixture of oats in the
water, so as to give bone and stamina. Ducks are generally killed by
bleeding, and plucked directly after. If for market, the fine, small, fluffy
feathers on the breast are generally left on ducklings. If these are removed,
Ducks
1127
it is done with a blunt knife and the thumb. Duck feathers grow evenly
all over the breast, while in a fowl they are in sections; therefore, when all
the feathers of the duck are removed, the skin presents a smooth appearance.
The head and primary feathers are not usually drawn, but the wings are
crossed and tied, as are the legs, to the back. Some feeders use iced
rooms to cool the bodies, and fit them for travel. In America, they are
plunged into cold water to make them close and plump. If they are
to travel a long distance in hot weather, they are packed in crates, with
straw and ice. One great point is to get them into the market before
it is glutted. Never to send a poor sample to a full market is a good maxim;
when the demand is more than the supply, then send up those that were
the 'culls.' If a cold-storage house is provided, the birds can be kept back
until a telegram from the salesman calls for them.
"The tame duck lays a large number of eggs if she is prevented from
incubation. The best for market are the Aylesbury—a clear shining white,
while all others are various shades of green. The egg of the duck is not
generally so pointed in shape as that of the hen. Though preferred by
some when boiled, it is not often held in such high estimation, but is used
more for culinary purposes. Custards of duck eggs are said to have a
peculiar richness in substance and flavor; but much depends on what food,
if any, the old ducks are supplied with, besides what they forage for. It
has been found profitable to keep ducks almost entirely as 'layers,' the
eggs being large, and in number sometimes exceeding 200 during the
year. The egg-production often commences in the winter months, when
good prices can be obtained.
ENGLISH IDEA OF SELECTING AND CROss-Breeding
"The duck does not lend itself so readily to crossing as the fowl, nor
are there so many suitable varieties with distinct peculiarities; but as a
factor lending towards improvenent, if not to perfection, selection is pre-
eminently valuable. Where success is achieved, it is far more enduring,
there being no strife for supremacy of alien blood intermixed, yet scarcely
mixing; for a cross-bred, bred inter se, uncared-for and unmatched, soon
degenerates back to the most prepotent, both in proportion and habit.
This theory is the outcome of general observations carefully noted, ex-
tending over many years of a long life that has afforded exceptional
<

1128
The Poultry Book
opportunities for testing the accuracy of this belief as a fact, and not a
mere supposition.
"As to duck selection, perhaps the most successful experiment is that
made by Mrs. Campbell, of Uley, Gloucestershire. There may not be
an entire fixity of form and color, but the strain, if it may be so called, is

PRIZE ROUEN DRAKE
Owned by the late Mr. J. Partington
From a photograph by neuges
certainly of more than ordinary fecundity, and therefore profitable both
for the production of eggs and ducklings, good alike for home consumption
and for market purposes. The Campbell breed of ducks originated through
Mrs. Campbell's observing that one of her ducks was a profuse layer of fine
eggs, and with various matings from time to time, the present prolific
breed has been attained. From a fancier's point of view, there is a uni-
formity that unquestionably tends toward fixedness. Mrs. Campbell has
Ducks
1129
ducklings from her flock every month in the year; and, what is more
singular, it matters not at what season they are bred, they invariably
begin to lay at the age of six months. To obtain her desire for ducks'
eggs all the year round, three different ages are kept: some a year old, some
early hatched in the current year, and some very late. Mrs. Campbell says:
"My plan of feeding is as follows: For the first eight weeks, I give
three meals a day of soft food, consisting of boiled green vegetables (this
they must have) mixed with sharps, boiled rice, or bran and sharps mixed'
[in Sussex we used pollard instead of sharps] 'as much as they will eat at
one meal. At eight weeks, I separate those that are to be kept for stock,
and give the same breakfast of vegetables and sharps, adding meat three
times a week; discontinue the midday meal and give good wheat and
barley at night. Those left for killing are still fed on three meals of soft
food a day till killed. None are ever allowed to swim. With this treat-
ment of "the Campbell duck," for the past three years, I have not been
one single day without eggs, only keeping twelve to fifteen stock ducks.
The "original duck" quoted was the layer of 182 eggs in 196 days, and at
the present time the Campbell average is 210 eggs per annum.' As to
the value of such a breed, comment is unnecessary; the results are sufficient
testimony.
"Good as the above breed is, I do not think that it surpasses the old
and true white Aylesbury, a marvelous layer of pure-white eggs. What the
color of the Campbell duck egg is I know not, but presume it is the ordinary
green.
"The old Sussex and Kent farmstead ducks laid well, but, unless
selected for excellence in that particular, were a long way behind the
Aylesbury. For good shape and quality of flesh, these ducks are specially
good, being mostly plump, thick, and short-breasted. The long breast is
a decided mistake, for the meat on it is never so deep and juicy as on the
shorter, thicker bird, nor is the appearance on the table so inviting. I
very much prefer the short breast in geese, ducks, and fowls. The amount
of flesh is no greater, but the short and thick is far the best, even in ap-
pearance; nor does it cook so dry, especially toward the end. The old
black, white-breasted Kent and Sussex duck was good, but still better
crossed with the white Aylesbury, and a much-mottled flock presents a
very gay appearance. When grown large for a few generations, they not
infrequently have small, compact top-knots. The wild Mallard, crossed
1130
The Poultry Book
with Aylesbury, makes a very excellent table duck, being plump, full-
fleshed, rich and fine in flavor. They are mostly Mallard color with white
neck and breast, though occasionally a white, and even a black, is bred.
These deteriorate if inbred, and gradually become less and less prolific;
they also lose in size.
"The Indian-runner is said to be much improved as a table duck by
crossing with the Rouen, and to be also a prolific layer; but of this I have
no experience. When the Indian-runner has been crossed with the ordinary
farm duck, I have observed that it is not so good for the table and that it
does not fetch so high a price in the market, nor from the higgler or fatter.
"The old-fashioned Dutch ducks of fifty to sixty years ago left little
to be desired as table ducks except size, and even in this respect some were
quite large enough for quality, and for the higher class of epicure's duck.
Crossed with the Aylesbury, the size was increased, though the fibre of
the flesh was longer and of lighter color. The black East Indian with
white Aylesbury is excellent, and fine in flavor, the legs and thighs being
full and rounded. The first, crossed with the Mallard, makes a larger and
heavier duck without losing in flavor or quality; but I am no advocate for
the mixing of breeds or strains, having always found the pure and old
sorts far the best, and seldom disappointing in results.
"Perhaps the most satisfactory blending is that of the white Aylesbury
with the Pekin, but, if either is of the best strain, there is no gain in this.
The tree white Aylesbury is a very early and prolific layer, and the Pekin
is a larger-bodied, narrower bird and yellow-fleshed, so that the produce
varies much both in form and tinting. It is a common practice to mix
these in the belief that the ducklings grow more quickly than those of either,
bred pure; but this is not my experience, though much depends on the
season, food, and locality. In marsh land, the large old Dutch is an ex-
cellent duck, and the white Aylesbury also prospers, but the Rouen, as far
as I can learn, deteriorates. It is now seventy years since I had my first
ducks kept for me. Then I thought well of the white Aylesbury, and after
long years of trial with many kinds, I still think them the best of all, both
for laying and for the table."
AMERICAN METHOD OF SELECTING AND BREEDING
Against the foregoing statements of Mr. Weir, I cannot refrain from
giving the experience of James Rankin, of Massachusetts, as recorded in

WHITE
AYLESBURY DUCKS.
The property of MR. JOHN GILLIES.
Ducks
1131
his "Duck Culture": "The Pekin duck is my favorite. I have experi-
mented carefully during the last thirty years with all the larger breeds,
crossing them in every conceivable way to obtain best results, and am
perfectly satisfied with the Pekins. I have finished experimenting, and
as I raise nearly 12,000 ducklings yearly, can hardly afford to lose time
guessing. One cent per bird makes a difference of over $125 in my receipts
-one cent per pound, a difference of more than $700. It is readily seen
that I can afford to use only the bird that will grow the greatest number of
pounds of flesh in the shortest space of time. Nor is this all. The bird
must be the one that will give the first eggs of the season, thus enabling me
to get my birds on the market when they will command the highest price.
There is more clear profit from one early bird than from three later ones.
The maximum price paid for early birds is thirty-seven cents per pound in
Boston or New York; the minimum price for late ones, thirteen cents, and
the cost of production is the same for both.
((
The Pekin is the only bird that covers all these points. It has two
slight drawbacks—its extreme timidity and its heavy, coarse voice, which
it does not scruple to use when congregated in large numbers. The
former can be easily overcome by careful handling. To off-set these
defects the Pekin will not only produce the first eggs of the season, but by
far the greatest number. They mature earlier than most ducks, are more
hardy and domesticated in their habits, never wandering far, and always
returning to the coops at night. They are not mischievous, and require
less water than other breeds.
"My birds have for generations been bred in dry yards, with water
simply to drink, and all desire for swimming seems to have been bred out of
them. When allowed their freedom in the fall, the flocks never visit the
brook, fifteen or twenty rods distant. Driven there occasionally for the
purpose of purifying their feathers, they get out again as soon as possible.
Indeed, after a water bàth, their feathers cling to their bodies, and they
present the same bedraggled appearance that the old hen did many years
ago after having been immersed in a water-barrel to cure her propensity
for sitting."
Mr. Rankin says of the Aylesburys: "A very pretty bird to look at,
and the feathers are more valuable, but there the advantage ends. The
strain we obtained was a trifle smaller than the mongrels we had been
breeding, rather more delicate to rear, and, worst of all, we found it almost

1132
The Poultry Book
impossible to pluck them. In all our experience, before or since, we have
never seen anything to equal those birds. The tenacity of their feathers
was exasperating. Every
one was bound to retain
its complement of flesh.
Of course the birds were so
disfigured that most of
them had to be retained
for family use. To scald
them would not only
seriously injure the
feathers, but would com-
pletely spoil the birds for
Boston market, as scalded
birds are rejected at once,
being classed with cheap
Western fowls.

"I had expected great
things from the Ayles-
burys. I procured the
best ducks in the country,
and imported drakes from the best prize-winners in England. I have
never yet seen those drakes equaled in size. I was unusually careful
in this experiment, because I knew that the English breeders claimed
for their birds a superiority in all the points essential to a good
market-bird, namely, delicacy and flavor of flesh, size, precocity, and
greater egg production, laying special stress on hardiness and vitality.
I bred those birds clear and crossed them, carefully noting the result.
Our first batch of Pekins and crosses numbered about 300, nearly equally
divided. These were mixed and confined in two yards. For the first two
weeks, there was no perceptible difference, but gradually the young Pekins
began to outgrow the crosses, the difference increasing with age. The
former were very even in size, the latter irregular, while the mortality was
six to one in favor of the Pekins. When we began to kill those birds, the
Pekins were all in the market at the end of eleven weeks, while the crosses
remained in the yards fully one week behind. The weight was in favor of
the Pekins, about one pound per pair. The same difficulty existed as in
Photograph by H. M. Carpenter
COLORED MUSCOVY DUCKS
Bred and owned by River View Poultry Farm, New York
Ducks
1133
former years—the tenacity of the feathers. The pickers grumbled, while
the birds were more or less disfigured. I notified the dealers of the breed
of those ducks, and of the claim made by the English breeders, wishing
them to ascertain, if possible, if there was any difference in favor of the
Aylesburys. They said their customers displayed no preference, and for
themselves they preferred the Pekins on account of the larger size and
finer appearance of the dressed birds. It made a vast deal more difference
than that to me. One pound per pair on 2,000 pairs of ducklings, at an
average price of twenty-five cents per pound, made a difference of more
than $500 to me. The extra ten days required to mature the Aylesburys
cost more than the feed for the extra pound of flesh grown upon the Pekins.
I do not keep Aylesburys now, and have not since that experiment; I never
shall again."
From the above, it is evident that America cannot grant the Aylesbury
the palm of being the best market-duck. My personal experience endorses
Mr. Rankin's statements. Aylesburys, seemingly, are harder to pluck than
Pekins, are a trifle more delicate and often break down, when forced heavily
for the market. The Atlantic Farm, of Speonk, Long Island, after ex-
perimenting with Aylesburys for a number of years, has also discontinued
their breeding in favor of pure-bred Pekins. Not one farm can be found
on the continent to-day that makes Aylesbury market-ducklings a specialty.
SELECTION OF STOCK DUCKS
The first requisite to success in market-duck culture is good, not closely
related, breeding stock, i. e., birds that have not been weakened with
forced feeds. Deformed or debilitated birds are dear as breeders, if
presented to you in a gilded cage. Mr. Geo. Pollard, after a season of
duck-raising with weakened breeders had shaken his confidence in the
duck business, wrote in the Reliable Poultry Journal:
“We got together another flock, avoiding as much as possible all blood
nearly related to the blood lines of our first flock, and began again. We
stopped the fussy care, but fed and watered them out of doors, storm or
shine. We cut off all the fancy variety of food, gave them a mixed feed
of wheat, bran, and meal, with beef scraps, and stopped the noon feed of
grain, giving in its place chopped cabbage. They were let out on the snow
and into the snow water. We encouraged all the out-door exercise possible.
There was no pampering and no mathematics. They were fed what
1134
The Poultry Book
they would eat clean, whether a pint or a peck, and no more.
They had drinking water at all times when the temperature was above
freezing, but only at feeding time when below. In cold weather, the food
was scalded and given to them slightly warm; in warm weather, it was left
cold. The result was that we got a slightly less egg-yield, but a better
fertility. We had good hatches and the ducklings were strong and lively.
We lost fewer old birds and had fewer cripples. The hatches were good and
the death-rate low, when properly managed. At the end of the season,
we felt that we had learned a little. We knew for a fact that we could get
good hatches with very little, if any, moisture, and that our breeders did
not need mufflers and rubber boots. We had also learned that we could
dispense with a professional cook, and feed only simple, plain foods with
good results.
"The next year we added fresh blood from non-related stock and tried
to get larger and fresher runs for the breeding stock. We began to feed
more meat and to force the laying, thus getting earlier eggs and more of
them. Things looked promising, and we began to revise the $40-a-duck
yarn and to locate our savings bank. Alas! We got early eggs, but the
fertility was poor, and the hatches were not good. The young lived far
longer than was to be expected from the conditions of the hatching, but we
were not running very fast in either direction. The savings bank was
just out of sight around another corner, and a bill collector was in the fore-
ground.
"Still dissatisfied, with weakened faith in the business, but determined
to hold our grip if possible, we looked about for a farm where we could get
running water and grass range for our breeding ducks. We knew our
Pekins could not, and would not, go into the water, for the authorities said.
so; still we wanted to see what they would do. We found our present
location, and started our plant by building a house for the breeders. The
ducks were allowed long yards and swimming pools, were out in all seasons
and weather, were given less scraps, and were fed outside at all times except
when a storm was too heavy. The house was of the simplest shape and
style. The eggs were carried in wagons five miles over rough roads to our
home place for hatching. The result was, '5,000 ducks and 800 chickens
on two acres of land,' a statement of facts that went all over the country
in the leading poultry and farm papers.
"This experience taught us the value of water for breeding ducks,
Ducks
1135
and the need of careful introduction of fresh blood. To produce strong,
healthy ducklings, one must have vigorous, hardy, breeding ducks that
have been selected and fed to that end, and not, as in many cases, merely
chosen from a haphazard lot of forced market-birds, thrown out as being
good enough for breeders."
The above shows that, slowly but surely, all breeders are recognizing
the fact, that water, while not absolutely necessary, may prove a great
help in producing good, fertile eggs, "strongly vitalized yellow balls" that
are bound to evolve a weight of 5 or 6 pounds eleven weeks after hatching.
FEEDING AND CARE
"Pollard gives for a first meal two-thirds wheat bran and one-third
Indian meal, wet to a crumbly mess with milk, either skimmed or whole,
but not cooked. He says in Ducks and Geese: 'Cover floor under hover
with chaff or fine shavings, and in front of the hover for two or three feet,
with fine gravel or sand. Six or eight inches from front of hover place small
troughs or dishes containing food-slightly sprinkled with sand the first
time and a fountain of lukewarm water. The fountains are galvanized
iron cans, eight inches in diameter and twelve inches deep, and the water is
kept near the top of the pan. After this, simply keep the ducklings warm
and let nature work. If they are worth raising, they will gradually get from
under the hover, and it is astonishing how quickly they will begin to stow
away the food and water. Beyond watching for the first few hours that
none get away from the hover and become chilled, do not fuss with them and
do not try to fill them up with boiled eggs and bread crumbs.
"Mr. Moss, who taught Kansas City citizens that a Pekin duckling
is a good morsel even during the dog-days, says on the other hand: 'The
nursery feed consists of one measure of cracker or stale bread-crumbs, one
measure of middlings, one-half measure of bran, five per cent. of grit, wet
with water or milk to a dry, crumbly state. I fail to see why any one should
recommend hard-boiled eggs, unless they assume because the yolk is the
first food supplied by nature that the entire egg boiled hard must be an ideal
food. There is a vast difference between the digestibility of a raw yolk and
the hard-boiled albumen and yolk. The one can be safely eaten by an
invalid, while the other might kill him; keep it away from the ducklings.'
"Most of the larger farms adhere to the above mentioned rations,
substituting only smaller ingredients, as these may be had cheaply in the
1136
The Poultry Book
local market. Generally speaking, we would favor the ration given by Mr.
Moss, as more of a help to the weaker-constitutioned birds, in which Pol-
lard's ration, containing excessive bran, will cause bowel trouble. Crackers
or stale bread, if free from too much soda, are a valuable addition, as trials
at the well-known market farm of E. O. Wilcox, New York, have proven.
Strange to say, Mr. Newman, of Staten Island, advocates the feeding of
hard-boiled eggs.
Here are his own words: 'The first eight or ten hours
after coming out of the shell, they receive no food, then I give them hard-
boiled eggs. Mix these with a little cornmeal and fine bran. For the
first week give light food, consisting of potatoes, turnips, beets, cabbage,
etc., green rye, clover, and green corn, which has been sown in drills and
cut with the cutting-machine. These should be mixed with stale bread and
beef scraps. Mix dry wet.'
"While I cannot refrain from admitting that Mr. Newman has made
a success out of Pekin ducks, I am compelled to think that other causes have
been chiefly responsible. An improved mode of feeding ducklings would
have brought him still more success.
"The McFetridge bill of fare is a good one, and I give it herewith, as
far as my memory allows me to do so:
'First week: One measure cornmeal, one measure middlings, one
measure wheat bran. Use grit and water. Feed crumbly, but not sticky.
Second week: One and one-half measure cornmeal, one measure middlings,
one measure bran, one-eighth measure beef scraps, one measure roasted
bread and one-half measure green rye or clover. Third week: Two
measures cornmeal, one-half bran, one-sixth scrap and one green food.
Fourth week: Two measures cornmeal, one and one-half bran, one-half
middlings, one-half scraps and one and one-half greens. Fifth week:
The same, only two measures of green food. Sixth week: The same, only
three-fourth measures of scraps. Seventh week: Three measures corn-
meal, one measure bran and one-half measure middlings, or enough to
make the food binding. One measure of beef scraps and two measures of
cut green food. Eighth week: Leave out bran and add cornmeal and
middlings, as this mixture will color the carcass up.
"The use of green food to excess will make the carcass flabby, or, as the
market man says, "the ducks will not stand up." Avoid therefore the
greed stuff prior to killing, and feed cornmeal and middlings as much as
possible. Fresh fish are excellent as an appetizer, but care must be taken,
CCC
C
Ducks
1137
or the meat will have the flavor when dressed. It should be discontinued
at least fourteen days before killing. Fresh fish are fed best in a raw state
at noon, when they may be thrown in the water to the enjoyment of the
duck tribe. If too large to be consumed raw, boil in a feed-cooker and mix
the entire mess with the feed. If fish can be had regularly, it is a very
desirable addition to the ration, especially as the beef-scrap bill is saved,

OLD VARIETY OF BLACK EAST INDIA DUCKS
6C
rrum a photograph by C. Reid
but if fed only once in a while, it is better not commenced, as the ducks will
worry and long for their fish and lose their taste for meat.
'Celery seed is a great flavor-giver. The Atlantic Farm and others
have tried it and found it a paying venture. The seed is purchased from
the wholesale seed stores and can be had for about 17 to 20 cents per pound.
Celery stalks, chopped fine, are claimed to impart also the desired mellow
flavor peculiar to the wild duck, the canvasbacks especially."-From
Jager's World Market Ducks.
HOW TO CARE FOR DUCKLINGS
Mr. C. C. Richards says: "After the ducklings are hatched, they should
remain in the incubator for twenty-four hours." [Here I would remark
1138
The Poultry Book
·
that I have found the best temperature for ducks hatching was 101° at
first, rising slowly to 104°, and I have hatched strong birds at 105°.] “They
should be removed in brooders, about 100 in each, after which they are
fed and watered for the first time. They must not be allowed to become
wet or chilled, and, after feeding, must all be driven back into the brooder.
In the course of a few days, they become accustomed to their surroundings,
and give no more trouble in this respect. Their food during the first week
consists of equal parts of cornmeal and wheat bran, mixed to a crumbly
mass with either water, whole milk or skimmed milk. They should be fed
on this mixture every two hours, no more and no less than they will eat up
clean. During the five following weeks, they should be fed four times
daily on equal parts of wheat bran, cornmeal, and ground oat feed; five
per cent. beef meal, five per cent. grit (these last two are highly essential),
and some green stuff, such as cut rye and chopped cabbage.
“The seventh and eighth weeks they should be fed three times a day
with equal parts of cornmeal and wheat; ten per cent. beef scraps, five per
cent. grit, and plenty of green stuff. From this time forward until the
tenth week, they should be fed three times daily, two-thirds cornmeal, and
one-third wheat bran; ten per cent. beef scraps, five per cent. grit, and very
little green stuff.
stuff. At this age, with the above method of feeding, the young
ducks should weigh from five to six pounds each, and be ready for the
market."
Here, it will be observed that both meat and grit form part of the
duckling keep, and it has been abundantly proved that when ducks, or
even chickens, are reared in a confined space and in numbers, they are most
essential factors in their well-doing; but when grown on the farm and
allowed to range, they are seldom resorted to, as it is thought, and perhaps
with a degree of truth, that from such feeding the flesh is not so delicate
in flavor. Still, meal and grit are used with great effect in producing both
fowls and ducks of a larger and a quicker growth, though this kind of diet
often has a peculiar effect in forcing cockerels into abnormal or premature
fecundity, and enlarging the wattles and combs beyond the limits of
beauty.
In the American Reliable Poultry Journal, Vol. VI., page 49, a re-
markable experiment is described as proof of the value of animal food, and
the size and vigor obtained by its use. Two pictures are given of duckling
pens, by which the results are at once apparent. (See pages 1088 and 1089.)
Ducks
1139
S. Fred Haxton, in the first place, gives an account of feeding on
whole or ground grain, which was the farm-plan in England as long ago
as my childhood, and which I have unceasingly advocated-in most cases
with little or no effect. But, later, Mr. Haxton shows that there was a
difference in favor of the ducks fed on meal over those reared on grain.
He gives an example, also, of two pens, one fed on grain, etc., only, and
the other with the addition of animal matter. It is of such value that I
do not hesitate to give it, believing that he will courteously pardon my
transgression. He says both lots were the same in number and size, but
pen one was fed on no animal food except the little contained in skimmed
milk, which was fed to both lots. Pen two was given a good portion of
animal matter in the form of animal meal in its ration. Both lots were
fed all the grain they desired, and were given alfalfa clover in abundance.
The result was: "That a smaller number was seen in pen one, due to the
fact that the lot had been very unhealthy, and several had died, while
those of pen two remained healthy to the end. This would be likely,
because the duck feeds largely on worms, insects, grubs, etc., which it
finds while ranging at dusk and after dark."
The value of meat in the food given to poultry kept in confinement is
so well known as to need no further proof; but one was scarcely prepared
for the same testimony in regard to ducks. But even this process, good
as it is, must be regulated by experience and discretion.
DRESSING AND SHIPPING
The following up-to-date manner of dealing with scalded ducks is
described by G. A. McFetridge:
"Young ducks should be kept up in weight until ten weeks old, and
should weigh at least four and one-half pounds, dressed, at that age. With
proper care in feeding they will weigh six pounds apiece. Separate those
which you wish to kill from the rest. Do not feed anything the day before
killing.
"How to Kill Ducks.—Plant two posts in the ground, about ten feet
apart. Either mortise the posts or saw a notch in them near the top,
five feet from the ground. Then spike a rail in these notches, and fasten
strings to the rail with loops to hold the feet of the ducks. Drive as many
pegs in the ground underneath the rail as there are strings. To these
fasten a short piece of wire. Bend the top of the wire in the shape of a
•

1140
The Poultry Book
hook, and put this hook in the duck's nose. By doing this you prevent
the duck from swinging its head around and soiling its feathers with blood.
Then, with the large blade of a pocket-knife (the blade should be three
inches long), make a cut crosswise back in the throat, and another up through
the roof of the mouth to the brain.
"As soon as the ducks are dead, have a pail of water ready, and wash

PRIZE MODERN ROUEN DUCK
Bred and owned by the late Joseph Partington
From a photograph by Hedges
all clots of blood from their mouths, a corn-cob being the best thing to do
it with. Wash their feet clean. Have the water for scalding, which should
be at the point of boiling, ready at hand. Ducks are much harder to
scald than chickens. Take hold of the head with one hand, the feet with
the other hand. Do not allow the beak or feet to get into the hot water,
as it will take the color from them. Do not wrap them in blankets as some
advise, as it will give the flesh a pale, sickly appearance, but go to picking
as soon as the feathers are cool enough.
Ducks
II4I
"Begin on the breast-feathers and get them off as soon as possible.
Leave the feathers on the head and about three on the neck; also leave
flights in wings and the tail-feathers on. In picking, try to catch the down
and feathers at the same time, and pick clean as you go.
(C
When done picking, plunge the ducks in the hot water to give them
a plump appearance, and then put them in ice-water having some salt in it.
Leave them in this water until they are thoroughly chilled through; then
pack for market.
"A flour barrel is the best thing to ship them in. Weigh the barrel
first, then pack the ducks, and weigh barrel and all. Crush ice fine and put
that on top of them. Put burlap over the top of the barrel and fasten
with a hoop. In packing, keep the feet straight back and turn the head
under the wing. By putting the ice on top, the cold water passes down
through the packed ducks and keeps them all cool.
"Ducks dressed and packed in this manner can be shipped 400 miles.”
All of Long Island's ducks are scalded, as New York has no preference
for dry-picked over scalded products. Boston inclines to favor dry-picked
ducklings, and they are preferred where storing is often resorted to.
STANDARD VARIETIES OF UTILITY DUCKS
THE CHINESE OR PEKIN DUCK
It is now (1905) nearly thirty-five years since the importation of
these ducks from China. Anything new always attracts, and there was
at that time a grand flourish as to the unusual culinary properties that
the Pekins possessed. As "egg-machines," they were said to be wonderful;
their habits domestic, and their flesh of fine and good quality. This was
their character on arrival in this country, and so, of course, the Aylesbury
and the Rouen were put aside, comparatively speaking, for the new comer.
When first imported they were not white, but a beautiful light color,
between canary and nankeen; and, furthermore, many of the drakes had
manes, giving them a very novel and pretty appearance, which I myself
greatly admired. But this novelty did not meet with the approbation
of some who were set up as judges of ducks, and these crested beauties
were continually passed over, until it was found there was nothing to be
gained by exhibiting them. Thus this rare variation was bred out, and it
is difficult to find any of the old and true, as imported.
1142
The Poultry Book
The Pekin, as generally known, thanks to the "Fancier Judge,” has
now no crest. It is upright in carriage, long and narrow in the body, in
comparison with our grand, old white Aylesbury, with which it has been
so crossed and intermingled that it would be difficult to find a stock that
is pure. Not only have the mane and crest been eliminated, but the lovely
yellow tint of the plumage is by no means what it was.
Much of this may
be attributed to locality; on some soils, even the common English white
ducks assume a kind of primrose-yellow plumage.
It is claimed for the Pekin that it is an earlier and more prolific breed
than any of the British, but even its greatest admirers assert that it lays
100 to 150 eggs in the season-by no means an unusual number, as will be
found by reference to the number proved to be laid by the white Aylesburys
and Rouens, given in the description of these breeds. It has been creditably
stated that some white Aylesburys have not only begun to lay very early,
but have, during the laying months, exceeded the number of 200 eggs.
Still the Pekin duck is deservedly popular, for it is very profitable, the
ducklings growing fast, though not more so than the Aylesbury, as already
shown. Pekins should weigh at least four to five pounds when nine weeks
old, but, if the strain be good, will far exceed that weight. As a rule they
are not so plump and full breasted as the true, pure white Aylesburys
with which they have been crossed-much to the detriment of the latter.
Both are good table birds, both grow to a large size and are of fine quality,
though different in flesh and flavor, and are far better, therefore, kept pure,
each breed having its own points of excellence. I am loth to admit that
the true, old white Aylesbury has its equal; being one of our oldest, and to
my thinking, though opinions differ, the best of domestic ducks, all things
considered.
The Pekin is the favorite duck of America, where it is reared in large
numbers; one reason being that the color of the skin and flesh is somewhat
yellow, and therefore considered to have a richer and fuller flavor. They
are non-sitters-another point in their favor. They begin laying in Decem-
ber, and continue to lay till August or even later. [As a proof of the early
fecundity of Pekins may be cited a case on the Edelweiss Farm of New
Jersey, where the writer saw on December 2, 1903, forty-seven little
yellow balls four days old. The owner had two more machines full of
fertile eggs, and was getting from 10 to 16 per cent. of eggs every day
from his flock of 160 females. The ducks had been bred for years for
Ducks
1143
early eggs and early returns, and the rewards seemed to be in sight.] Five
ducks are matched to one drake. During the laying season, they should
be kept housed in an inclosure until about nine or ten in the morning.
If let out, the eggs will be dropped as the birds walk about, and thus be
scattered far and wide.
It is not necessary for them to have a pond to resort to daily, though
one is of great service for enabling them to wash and cleanse themselves
occasionally. They must, however, have plenty of pure, clean water for
drink, so placed that they can only drink and not foul by getting into it.
When laying, they must be well fed morning and night. Liberal treatment
is found to be the most remunerative.
Care must be taken that they do not get fat or infertile, as fewer
eggs will be the result. Some will be found to "take on fat" much more
readily than others.
Pekin eggs require the same number of days for incubation as those
of the ordinary duck; and the hatching is chiefly done by hens or incubators,
the former preferred.
With the young ducks, one rule must be observed: avoid putting them
in the full glare of the sun, as great heat is generally fatal. When twenty-
four hours old, begin feeding. They may be fed on the same kind of food
as the old ducks, with the addition of skimmed milk to drink. For the
first two weeks, feed five times daily, beginning early in the morning, at
such regular intervals as will allow equal space between meals; the next
two or three weeks four times daily; then three, and so on until ready for
market, which will be when about twelve weeks old. Feed in troughs with
high divisions; give as much as will be eaten, but remove any food left.
Green food, such as chopped clover, cabbage, carrots (boiled), lettuce, and
grass, should be, when possible, mixed with the soft food. See that there is
plenty of straw for bedding in the houses. Ducks cost much less to raise to
a market value than fowls, and sooner realize a profit. It has not been found
so advantageous to keep ducks for their eggs as for "duckling" raising.
At the time of writing, the two largest duck-farms in America are
those of James Rankin, in Massachusetts, and Mr. Newman, on Staten
Island, where the birds are managed and kept on scientific principles,
economy combined with the best results. From these duck "manufac-
tories," many tons of duckling are placed on the market, and realize re-
munerative prices.
1144
The Poultry Book
Near Kansas City is another large duck-farm of about twenty acres,
the proprietor being H. E. Moss. The duck-yard is well sheltered with
large trees, having a good grass run besides. Here again the Pekin duck
is kept to the exclusion of all other breeds, and gives the utmost satisfaction.
Mr. Moss started with sixty ducks and twelve drakes, of the Rankin and
Newman stocks. He made his own brooders and he uses incubators that
have a capacity for 1,500 eggs, and his intention is to hatch about 5,000
to 6,000 ducklings during the season. His incubators hatch about 350 out
of 400 eggs. He has a thermometer at each end of the incubator and
keeps the temperature at 101 degrees for the first seven days, and during
the second week at 103 degrees. Some of his ducklings at five weeks old
weigh three pounds, which may be considered somewhat above the average.
Cleanliness is one of the essentials both in chicken and duck rearing. With-
out it, or without constant attention, and regular times of feeding, it is
vain to look for success. The last few items have been taken from the
Kansas City Packer, in which the operation of Mr. Moss's duck-farm are
given at considerable length.
Pekin ducks, to be considered eligible for showing purposes, must
have clean yellow bills, free from black spots or streaks. The "bean" of the
old duck is an exception to this rule, although black on the same will
receive a severe cut, under the score-card system. The adult weight of
the drake should be eight pounds, and of the duck seven pounds; the young
of either sex are allowed to weigh one pound less. Black, red, or other
colored feathers in plumage are disqualifying, and if feathers on shanks
are found, these also prevent the bird from competing.
THE WHITE OR AYLESBURY DUCK
Formerly, these were called the English white, in contradistinction
to the Dutch grays, blacks, browns, and the wild ducks, or Mallards. The
neighborhood of Aylesbury was found to be so suitable for the breeding
and rearing of ducks that gradually the name became associated with the
variety, and they were generally known as "white Aylesburys.”
The true white Aylesbury is in reality an albino variety of the ordinary
duck in every way except the color of the eye, which is dark; but I have
noted in some a decided red tint, when seen under certain conditions of
light, and in others an opalescent gleam, both of which are consistent with
the eyes of an albino. Though I have carefully observed upon every

Ther
PRIZE
52
Awanawe
WHITE
PEKIN DUCKLINGS.
The property of the late MR. HENRY DIGBY.
Ducks
1145

PEKIN DUCK AND MIXED BREED DUCKLINGS
From a drawing by Harrison Weir
opportunity, I have never yet seen the pink eye of the albino, properly so
called, but in all other respects the Aylesbury is one. The feathers are pure
white; the skin, unlike all the colored ducks, is a delicate, light pink or
white, with white fat; the bill has a white spot on the tip, and is a light,
rose-tinted white; so are the shanks and the feet with their white toe-nails.
It is hardy, an early breeder if properly tended, grows fast if well fed, has a
good shape, an excellent flavor, and its white feathers are very saleable;
in fact, it is the nearest to perfection of all our duck water-fowl. To these
qualities must be added the whiteness of the eggs, which makes them
more desirable for the table than the green eggs of colored ducks.
In and about the neighborhood of Aylesbury, some names have been
known as duck rearers for generations. One of these is Weston, whose
descendants still exist. In Rees' Cyclopædia, Vol. XXVIII., under the
heading "Poultry," we find the name, and we still find it among the prize-
1146
The Poultry Book
winners of the present time. In 1819, Mr. Weston advises the fattening
of ducks on malt—a very old method. He says, "it is to be used of some-
thing less than a gallon per duck.". It has amazing success in fattening the
birds when young, and causes the flesh to be very delicate. At Aylesbury,
this breed is kept to the exclusion of all others, and is bred by every cottager
or farmer. Eggs laid late in the year, or the very early ones, are eagerly
bought up and set under hens, under ducks, or put into incubators. The
outhouses, and even some parts of the house, are full of ducklings, when
other kinds of ducks have scarcely begun to lay. The rearer collects
worms, slugs, snails, and other insect food for his ducklings, which are fed
with scrupulous exactness as to time and food. All those to be “fed on'
for market are kept from the water, and given sloppy food-oatmeal and
potatoes mixed in milk, and some boiled mangold-and they thrive fast.
In this vicinity, some years ago, a duckling was considered good
if it weighed three pounds, but that weight has long been surpassed, and
five and six pounds is now by no means uncommon. A single drake has
weighed more than eleven pounds, and a duck ten pounds; but in such
cases they are heavily fattened for the show, or shows, and not in stock
or in store condition.
""
The show white Aylesbury is not such a compact, plump, tight-
feathered bird as it was, having now a bagging of the skin that did not
exist some thirty years ago. There is not infrequently a dewlap and loose
skin on the breast and belly so large as to touch the ground, to the manifest
inconvenience of the bird when walking. In some cases, this loose breast-
skin gets so much in the way as to be actually trodden upon. I think, with
proper judgment, the breed would never have arrived at a condition so
opposed to utility and natural formation. In such cases, it is well to get,
if possible, from some farm where the stock has been well kept, but not
for "fancy showing," a drake or two of the old, close-feathered type, and
breed in with the show ducks. In the first broods, the advantage will be
apparent, the ducklings being not only large, but growing and putting on
flesh quickly.
→
The Aylesbury ducker seldom keeps many breeders, twenty to twenty-
four being the usual number, and the proportion of the sexes is three ducks
to a drake, with an odd duck or two thrown in "for luck," as an old ducker
once said to me.
I have had Aylesbury ducks lay what I thought was "well," but the
Ducks
1147
following record, taken from the Cottage Gardener, 1853, put mine entirely
into the shade:
"Mr. Edwards, station-master at the Lyndhurst Road Railway
Station, Hants, has a couple of ducks of the pure-white Aylesbury breed,
which have laid this season (October 16th) the prodigious number of 261
eggs. One of them laid in daily succession 146 eggs, and she is now running
about with a brood of twelve young ones. The other laid 115 altogether,
and she has her second brood, having brought up her first brood of thirteen
early in the summer."
For hatching purposes, the hens are put into nest-boxes and baskets.
of all shapes and makes, from the cheese-box to the divided tea-chest,
from the vegetable to the fish-basket; but all are kept carefully clean, and
attention is given to rid them of any insect life. Incubation takes about
thirty days, and sometimes less. When the eggs are under a hen, they
must be slightly sprinkled with water every day from the twelfth to the
sixteenth day; if the nests are on the damp ground, this is not needed.
The young, when hatched, should be left with the hen to dry and
strengthen. The ducklings are first a primrose-yellow, which soon changes
to a dirty white. After the little ones are a few days old, they feed well;
then two or more hatchings are put together under one hen, who broods.
them all.
>
When ready for fattening for market, the ducklings are put into rooms,
sheds, or some kind of shelter, but are not allowed to go to water. Each
The
lot of about thirty is separated either by tarred canvas or boards.
floor is covered with barley or oat straw, and kept as clean and dry as pos-
sible, the straw being often shifted and a fresh supply put in. The food
consists of boiled rice, oatmeal, and bullocks' liver, cut small. This is
11sed for the first week or two, after which tallow grease, barley-meal and
ground malt, all boiled, are put into the troughs. The birds are fed fre-
quently and regularly, but are given no more than they will eat up at once.
Horse-flesh and carrion are used by some, but not by the best class of
feeders.
If reared for exhibition, where large size is required, the same routine.
is observed, but, when a month old, the ducks are allowed to go into water,
and the food is varied with oats and barley, sometimes with maize; but
the last should be avoided when raising for store or show, as it affects the
liver, often tending toward disease or enlargement. The trough of water
1148
The Poultry Book
should have grit or fine gravel in it, so that the ducklings, when dabbling,
may get some to assist digestion. The drake is generally rather longer in
the neck and body than the duck, and less broad. The second year he has
two or more curled feathers on the upper part of the tail. The sex may be
ascertained by the voice, which is faint and somewhat sharp in the drake,
while the duck quacks.
As stated, the true white Aylesbury is nearly, if not quite, an albino,
and as such lays a white egg. Those that occasionally produce eggs
slightly green-tinted, usually, if not always, have light orange shanks and
feet, while those of the pure breed are flesh-colored or a light pink, the bill
being of the same, with a semi-opaque, waxy texture. Years ago it was
contended that the bill might be a primrose pinkish color, but this was
finally denied by the evidence of several of the old Aylesbury duckers,
published in the Poultry Chronicle, 1855: “The reply from one and all is,
that the pure duck should be long and broad in the body, the breast full,
the legs strong and of a pink color, head large, and bill long, broad, and
flat as possible, free from spots, nearly flesh-colored in the young birds,
and more of a white in the adult; feathers close and white as snow all over.
This account is from men whose opinions in this matter may be depended
upon.-W. H. G.”
The American Aylesbury requires a weight of nine pounds to the adult
drake, one pound less to the adult duck, and one pound less again to the
young of either sex. In all other points, we hold closely to the require-
ments of the English law, possibly excepting the color of legs and toes,
which should be bright light orange.
THE ROUEN DUCK
This has been called the Rhone, and the Roan duck. Its origin is
somewhat doubtful. Whether or not it is a hybrid, a variation of the
ordinary wild duck or Mallard (Anas boschas), a cross with the large wild
duck, which the Germans style Grosse Ente, Grosse Wild Ente, or a pure and
simple being of the same color as the common wild duck or Mallard, only
larger, has not been determined. One thing is certain, that it has been
known and appreciated in France for more than a century, as the following
will show: "This large, fine species answers so well in the environs of
Rouen * on the banks of the Seine, only on account of its being in the
* "A Treatise on Poultry," 1810.
Ducks
1149
power of its keepers to feed with earth worms taken in the meadows.
These are portioned out to the ducks three times a day under the roofs
where they are cooped up separately; this is what makes those early
ducklings so large, fat, and white, that are seen in the month of June."
The above was written in the early part of the present century, and clearly
points to the fact that the Rouen duck was merely "the wild duck enlarged
by domestication and high feeding."
"It is usually from the month of November till February that they
are brought to Paris, plucked and drawn, in order to keep better." This
is contrary to the method of marketing in England, where the ducks are
fasted only eighteen hours, killed, plucked, shaped, cooled, and then
packed as they are. With the offal the bird is heavier, and unless well
trussed by the French mode, it would not command such a high price; but,
undoubtedly, by the "drawing," the body is better kept and in a sweeter
condition for a longer time. In some parts of America, the fowls are sent
thus to market; and in France this custom existed more than a century ago.
"The ducks of the large species," says a writer in the last century,
"are finer in Normandy than in any other Canton in France. The English
come often to purchase them alive in the environs of Rouen, to enrich their
farm-yards and improve their degenerate or bastard species; they put them
in inclosures in order to afford excessive luxury to opulence."
Edward Hewitt, of England, an excellent poultry fancier, whom
I had the privilege of knowing intimately, was one of the first to
draw public attention to the table qualities of the Rouen duck, which
he considered a very remunerative breed to keep. He thus writes
in the Poultry Book, 1853: "I am confident that, when purely bred,
the Rouen is the most profit-producing of the duck tribe. They are the
most lethargic, consequently the most speedily fed of any; but they lay
great numbers of large eggs, an average weight of which would be three
and a half ounces-always above three ounces. The color of the egg is
a blue-green, the shell being thicker than that of the Aylesbury breed.
The flesh is of the highest possible flavor." I may here remark that this
depends upon the food with which the birds are fattened. If much animal
food is used, the flesh is very dark, and in some cases unpleasant. But to
resume: The drake and three ducks belonging to the writer (Edward
Hewitt), which were so successful for several consecutive seasons at the
Midland Poultry Show, when weighed by the judges reached twenty-six and
66
1150
The Poultry Book
three-quarter pounds; and this at a time when they were simply taken
from the pond, without any previous preparation. On another occasion,
when purposely fattened, they attained the almost incredible weight of
thirty-four pounds. I have frequently known young drakes only nine
or ten weeks old to weigh (when killed) twelve pounds the pair, and in
some instances even more than this.
(C
In the color of the plumage in either sex, the Rouen closely assimilates
to the common wild duck. The eyes, however, are very deeply sunk in the
head; and the ducks especially, even when young, have the appearance
of old birds, the abdominal pouch being developed, as in the case of the
Toulouse goose, at a very early age. In some cases this enlargement of
the lower part of the body causes it to rest partially on the ground-not
infrequently to the destruction of the feathers. The whole appearance
of the Rouen duck is certainly ungainly, but the most casual observer
can hardly fail to be struck with the size of really good specimens of this
family. Their dull, monotonous call is distinct from that of any other
variety. A great diminution in size is the invariable result of any attempt
at crossing, and this becomes apparent in the first generation. They are
hardy as any other kind, and rarely evince disposition to wander from the
immediate vicinity of the homestead." The editor adds, "Rouen ducks
have been our own favorites for some years, and our entire endorsement
is given to the above observations of Mr. Hewitt."
Mr. Punchard, who, with J. K. Fowler and E. Hewitt, was among
the first in England to call attention to the larger size and excellent
qualities of the Rouen, possessed a fine drake and ducks as far back
as the "forties," and it was a pair of his birds that I pictured
for the Poultry Book in 1852. They were kept on the farm at Haverhill,
and treated quite as ordinary ducks. They were found to be early in egg
production, beginning to lay even in the autumn months, and more or
less often through the winter. Young ducks hatched in March com-
menced to lay about the end of August (1853), and gave three or four eggs
a week until and after October.
The young of the Rouen when hatched have a yellowish-brown body,
with patches of yellow upon the face, breast, and wing; a dark line passing
along the side of the face above the eye. In fact they very much resemble
young wild ducklings, though the markings are not so dark and rich. In
a fortnight these colors become dull and indistinct.
Ducks
1151
In purchasing Rouen ducks, avoid light markings on the bill, face, and
breast, and endeavor to obtain the plumage of the wild duck, but richer
and darker if possible. Lastly, Charles Punchard observes, "I believe the
plumage of the Rouen duck will become lighter as we breed 'in-and-in.""
(To this I dissent.)
Such was the Rouen duck about forty-five years ago. Since then it
has risen and fallen both in the fanciers' estimation and in that of the
public, who has, like the sailor, "one foot on land and one on sea, to one
thing constant never." Yet the Rouen is a grand duck, and, as grown
now, a still more wonderful bird than it was even thirty years ago. Careful
selection, both in color and size, has worked wonders, and there have been
fat drakes that have turned the scale at twelve pounds and ducks over
ten pounds. This large size has been purchased at the expense of
fecundity, and though still fairly good layers, they are now surpassed by
other and more common varieties.
One noticeable thing is that like the Toulouse goose, the bagginess of
the skin has been increased to such a degree, in both drakes and ducks of
any age, and even in young
birds, as to amount to positive
ugliness. This is regrettable
for the reason that, with
proper selection of the breed-
ing stock, it might have been
avoided entirely, or at least
not so grossly developed as it
now is. As to color, there is
a decided advance, the ducks,
especially, being much deeper,
richer, brighter and better
marked. In rare instances
the old claret patch on the
breast of the drake has become
far finer in tint, being almost
a crimson, flushed with car-
mine; while on some speci-
mens it has extended much
the gray sides are now almost azure.

Photograph by the Rhode Island Experiment Station
SHOWING STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF HEAD AND
MOUTH
nearer the belly than formerly, and
Therefore it must be admitted that
1152
The Poultry Book
an advance has been made both in beauty of coloring and in size, even if
the fecundity is lessened, which it may not be in all cases. Taking the
Rouen as it now is, it can be highly recommended as possibly the best
large colored duck in existence.
In conclusion, I have noticed, not only with my own birds, but among
those belonging to others, that the Rouen duck is by no means such a good
forager as the white Aylesbury, and far less so than many of our ordinary
farmyard breeds, being naturally dull, lethargic, and inert. Now that
the frame is increased in size, the bird takes much longer to come to a meaty,
marketable condition; even at nine or ten weeks old, being often little more
than skin and bone. To have a Rouen in perfection, it should not be
fatted until at least five to six months old. It must not be forgotten that
in France this variety of duck was, and is, raised more for the growth of
the liver than for the flesh of the bird itself. All other considerations have
been set aside for the production of the largest size. In England it is
valued almost as much for exhibition as for utility.
The American breeder requires Aylesbury weights in his Rouen ducks,
and, for showing purposes, desires golden-bay colored, richly laced females.
So far little progress has been made in the establishment of this noble
breed at the head of the list as excellent market birds. The demand for
show purposes and for individual kitchen consumption largely exceeds the
supply. Few farms cater exclusively to the perfection of Rouens. Indeed,
I remember but one that has found it profitable to replace Pekins with
Rouens for the betterment of the city trade. At the exhibitions white
in primaries or secondaries disqualifies, and any approach to a white
ring on the neck of females also debars specimens from winning.
THE CAYUGA DUCK
The variety of duck to which this name has been applied is remark-
able for its size, hardiness, color, the weight it attains, and the excellent
quality of its flesh. Its origin is not positively known. "We first saw
it," says the Boston Cultivator, 1862, “fourteen or fifteen years ago in
Cayuga County, New York, where it had been bred in considerable numbers.
In general appearance, except in being of a larger size, it closely resembles
the Ceylon or East India duck, which we have seen in Europe. It is
larger, on the average, than the Aylesbury, and nearly or quite as large
as the Rouen. J. R. Page, of Cayuga County, New York, who has
Ducks
1153
bred these ducks many years, states that he has had them weigh sixteen
pounds the pair at six months old. About the first of December Mr. Page
killed some, the weights of which were as follows: Young drakes, eight
pounds each, dressed; a young duck, seven pounds; five yearling ducks,
from seven pounds to seven and a half pounds each. Mr. Page observes
there is usually more or less white on the breast of these ducks, but
he thinks they could be bred perfectly black. The quality of their
flesh we know is excellent. They are unquestionably a very valuable
variety."
This is the opinion of the Cayuga duck in America, 1862, and, judging
from those that arrived in England many years ago, the property of
J. K. Fowler, of Aylesbury, it is fairly correct, though the imported birds
had much white on the throat and part of the breast, the rest of the body
being a rich brownish black. The head, neck, and back, especially of the
drake, was lighted by a brilliant, iridescent, emerald green, though not
of the intensity that makes the East India duck so resplendently beautiful.
But the Cayuga is much the larger, and it is well known that the smaller
the bird the more brilliant the color. Smallness has been set up by some
breeders as a point of excellence, when it is, as a matter of fact, a fault.
Between two ducks of equal color, one the size of our Mallards and the other
less, there would be no hesitation on my part in giving the prize to the
former; but as now judged—more by color than by size-the lesser birds
gain the honors, though what they have gained in coloring they have lost
in utility.
By careful selection and in-breeding with the East India duck the
color of the Cayuga duck has not only been improved, but the white has
disappeared, and it has now the appearance of the latter's larger and
longer form. To gain this end, size has been considerably sacrificed, and
now, instead of being one of, if not the very largest of domestic ducks, it
has become smaller than the ordinary farmyard duck.
The variety was evidently not unknown in 1855, for that eminent
poultry fancier, B. P. Brent, writing in that year, mentions the larger
Buenos Ayrean or East India duck. Even longer ago than the "forties"
of last century, a large, black, white-fronted duck was well known and
much valued in the south of England. When matured, it was of consider-
able weight, though by no means approaching that of the American
variety. It was particularly hardy, a good forager and layer, and the
1154
The Poultry Book
eggs of the usual duck-green. Crossed with the Rouen, or the larger,
colored duck, they were not so good, but with the Aylesbury they main-
tained their size. In some instances they were blacker, in others nearly
white, but mostly splashed black or white. In the feather competition
that follows the poultry shows this variety has completely disappeared.
In contour the Cayuga is elegant, being longer than the East Indian,
but carrying a fine full breast, small in bone, and having but little offal.
The bill of the drake should be orange green, with a black spot at the tip,
and the shanks and feet blackish purple, with an orange tint as an under-
color. The bill and shanks of the duck, dark greenish orange, almost
black; also orange as under-color. The ducklings are hardy.
The old birds are apt to fly of an evening, and when this is the case
they are generally robust, strong, and healthy, and may be relied on for
producing the best breeding stock.
C. W. King, one of the oldest breeders of this variety, gives in
the following extract from Water Fowl Guide the reason why English
breeders had to contend with white feathers on breast and neck. He also
states truthfully, that the demand is now for a black bill, both in drakes
and ducks:
"I have been a breeder of these noble birds for thirty-one years, and
have shown them since 1871. The first show that had them was at Farmers-
ville, N. Y., when the standard called for a full white breast free from a
mottled appearance. The demand for a white breast at that time is the
reason why we rarely find a bird that is entirely free from white on neck
or breast. Let us persevere, however, and we shall get the breed as it
now should be, a glossy all-black bird, that is a joy forever when the sun-
light plays on its green sheen.
"The wild Cayugas stop in this section one month, on their return in
the fall from the North, and again in the spring, when migrating from the
sunny South, they remain with us for about the same length of time, feeding
on bugs and grasses that abound in the adjoining fields. The wild birds
are, of course, much smaller than the tame. They have a smutty, black
appearance, a very long, graceful neck, short legs, and the drake has a
green bill, as we often find in the tame variety. Now the majority desire
black bills both for drakes and ducks."
In New York the Cayuga is also known as the "Black River Duck"
and the "Lake Duck.”
Ducks
1155
THE INDIAN RUNNER DUCK
This graceful and elegant variety, in its head, neck, and body some-
what resembles the Penguin duck, but it is less upright in carriage, longer
in the thighs, legs, and shanks, and is a sort of intermediate form between
that and the light almost lemon-colored Pekin duck, though of far less
sturdy proportions. So much is it in general habits and appearance like
the Penguin, the supposition naturally arises that the line of demarcation
is but slight, and that the Indian Runner is but a variant, strengthened by
selection from Penguin and Pekin. All three varieties have the same
fecundity, all lay early, and produce a considerable number of eggs which
are of a more delicate flavor than, though not so large as, those of our
common domestic duck. Mr. Donald, of Cumberland, dates the intro-
duction of the Runners about fifty years ago, and says that they were
brought to Whitehaven from India by a sea-captain who presented them
to some friends farming at that time in west Cumberland. He also states
that another consignment was imported by the same gentleman some years
later, and that it is from these that the present stock of Indian Runners is
descended. This may be so, but they bear a remarkable resemblance to
some that Mr. Cross had among his singular and scarce varieties in his
rare collection on the lake in the Surrey Zoological Gardens about the
"thirties" of last century, which were said by young Cartmel, the keeper,
to be remarkably prolific. About the same time, some were in the possession
of the Earl of Derby at Knowsley. But the perfection now attained by
the breed is doubtless due to the persistent energy of Henry Digby, of
"The Cosy Nook," Grimscar, Huddersfield. Writing in Feathered Wings,
April 6, 1900, he tells how their beauty and usefulness were made known,
and with what unmistakable favor they were welcomed as a profitable
novelty and permanent gain among our small family of domestic ducks:
During recent years Miss Wilson-Wilson, James Swales, myself,
and others, have made special efforts to trace the origin of this variety,
and if possible to import fresh birds of the original stock, but all
in this direction proved futile until the end of the year 1898, when
I succeeded in procuring and importing a trio from a fancier friend in
Calcutta, which I am pleased to say has made a marked improvement in
the quality of the stock. No serious organized attempt was made to popu-
larize the species until the end of the year 1895. Before that, all endeavors
،،
1156
The Poultry Book
had failed to give it that attractiveness and popularity which its most
sanguine supporters believed it deserved."
Toward the close of the year mentioned, Miss Wilson-Wilson and
Henry Digby brought the variety under the notice of the Water-fowl Club
with a view to drawing up a standard of excellence, and thus inducing
a classification for them at the poultry shows.
The credit that first-class Indian Runner ducks were seen at any of
the leading shows for many years belongs entirely to the lady named,
for it was mainly through her instrumentality and generosity that twenty-
one pairs of "Runners" were drawn together in November, 1896, at
Kendal. From that time they seem to have pressed gradually forward
in public estimation, for the reasons already assigned.
Henry Digby not only claims recognition for the beauty of the
breed, but declares that they "surpass all other species of ducks as egg
producers,” and that experience proves their laying season to begin earlier
and last longer than that of other ducks.
In this respect there appears to be some variation, a few being extra-
ordinary layers, many very good, and others not above the average—220
per annum being the maximum, and about 100 being the minimum.
This excellent record was often exceeded by the true old Aylesbury, which
was also an early winter layer, with an annual maximum of 240 to 250 pure
white eggs, and these of larger size. The present improved breed seldom
exceeds 100, which are mostly green in color; while the common domestic
barn-yard duck has been known to lay nearly 200 in the same time. It
may be taken as a rule that an enlarged breed both of geese and ducks is
almost sure to lose in fecundity, though there are exceptions.
Henry Digby, in drawing attention to their merits further says:
"No claim is made for the species on the ground of their fitness for market-
able purposes," and no doubt with respect to the way they are bred in
England he is right; but in America they seem to have improved in this par-
ticular, and are here and there considered a choice delicacy, with flesh and
skin firmer in texture than those of the majority of species. The "Runners
are very active in their habits, capital foragers, and on an extensive run are
able to find about three-fourths of their required food. They are not good
sitters, nor are they often inclined to incubation, so that their eggs are gen-
erally put under hens for hatching, or into incubators. The ducklings are
not more difficult to rear than the young of the wild duck and Mallard.
""
Ducks
1157
It should here be observed that the duck does not usually, if at all,
brood or cover its young like a fowl. The latter has spaces or feather
channels up which the chickens creep, to have the advantage of the bare
warm breast of the hen, while they are divided from each other by lines and
walls of feathers through which air percolates and gives a natural ventila-
tion and breathing space. The breast of the duck, being uniformly covered
first with down, then with feathers, does not afford the same facilities for
hovering or breeding the young, so that the ducklings are mostly grouped
beside the mother duck, or under her outstretched wings. They also
wander farther than the hen and chickens usually do. This is especially
the case with Indian Runner ducklings, that quickly roam far and wide in
search of insect life, which, if plentiful, materially contributes to their
growth, health, and welfare.
The golden hue of flesh and skin in the Indian Runner duck is rather
against it in England as a table-bird, but in America it is considered a
point in its favor. Consequently in the latter country it is gaining a
reputation for this particular quality, coupled with more than ordinary
high flavor. R. B. Dayton, of New York, makes a specialty of the Indian
Runner. He has much improved the breed in size and hardihood and
has raised it to the profitable position of a good market duck. In the
American Reliable Poultry Journal for April, 1900, page 207, he gives his
opinion: "The 'Runners' are particularly adapted to the market poultry-
man's needs, as their wonderful laying qualities insure an almost constant
supply of eggs. Their small size, when first introduced into this country,
was against them; this, however, by careful selection, has been almost
entirely removed, so that now a pair ready for table, or rather, dead and
plucked, will weigh ten and a half pounds, with rich yellow flesh very firm
in texture, and full deep breast." This, it must be admitted, is not only a
good marketable weight, but quite large enough for the ordinary diner,
and, furthermore, the flesh is of a finer quality than in the larger, which are
erroneously considered better on that account.
The form of the Indian Runner is peculiar, the head being narrow
and very long, while the bill is of unusual length, somewhat straight, and
nearly the same width throughout. There is no indication whatever of a
dewlap, now so common in most domestic breeds. The throat, on the
contrary, is contracted to an unusually small size, until about half the
length of the neck, where it gradually enlarges in graceful lines towards the
1158
The Poultry Book
breast and shoulders. The girth at the latter is about the same as that of
the body throughout. The legs to the hocks are short, the shanks are of
medium length, and the walk and carriage much resemble that of the original
Pekin duck, though the Indian Runner is far more refined in character and
habit. Now that the size has been sufficiently increased to make it of
marketable value, not only useful but desirable, it deserves, and possibly
will receive, greater attention than its former limited merits claimed.
As they generally breed true to their markings, or with slight variations,
these being in bright colors, a flock out foraging, trooping across a green
meadow, or lying close together to bask in the sun, is both attractive and
charming. As ornamental water-fowl they take precedence over some
species that have hitherto been the most admired.
In America, experiments have been made as to which it is the more
remunerative to rear, chickens or ducklings, both hatched in incubators
and then placed in the same class of brooders. The results achieved by
R. B. Dayton are described in the Reliable Poultry Journal of the date
and page before mentioned.
He says:
"After a close study of the
Indian Runner ducks it seemed feasible to us to grow them with broilers,
and a trial was made. The brooder used was one in constant use in a broiler
house, with a capacity of 1,700, the heating apparatus being of the regula-
tion type of hot-water heater, regulated to a temperature of about eighty-
five degrees. One hover was used for the experiment, and the temperature
was regulated solely with regard to the broilers, of which the house con-
tained at the time about seven hundred. The temperature of the room
outside of the hovers varied from seventy degrees on clear warm days, to
as low as forty degrees on others. The results obtained were far above our
expectations. The same food was given to the little Runners as was fed
to the chicks next door, and a fountain, such as was in use with the chicks,
served them for drinking. In fact, as far as it was possible, the same
conditions were observed in all parts of the house. It was soon an evident
fact that the chicks were beaten on their own ground, for the little ducks
demonstrated that whatever might be the requirements of the ordinary
ducks, these Runners had just what they wanted, and they proceeded
to grow. It is too early as yet to say what the market price will be, but
they are now much heavier than chicks of their age, and they are still
growing. So far as we have been able to observe, they eat no more than
chickens of an equal age, and from present indications they will weigh
several times as much when dressed for market."
Ducks
1159
E. Briggs, of New York, sums up the American breeders' views in
stating: "After two years with the Indian Runner ducks, I find them
great layers, beginning in January and keeping it up until August. They
are truly named Leghorn layers of the duck family. I find them very
quiet and harmless on lawns, and they do much better running at large, as
they do not stand confinement well. The young thrive much better if
given free range after three weeks old. They are a fine table duck, far
surpassing the noble Pekin in this respect. They weigh from eight to nine
pounds a pair at ten weeks old, have a very heavy breast, similar to that
of a chicken, and are much sought after in our private trade. In beauty
they cannot be surpassed. They consume one-third less food than the
Pekins. I specially recommend them as layers, and a grand table duck.”
BLUE SWEDISH DUCKS
This is one of the rarest of colored varieties. It was lately admitted
to the American list of standard birds, and I here give a reprint from
the Exmoor catalogue, which contains all that is known of its history:
"The Blue Swedish Ducks are so called from the fact that German
poultrymen first saw them in Neuvor Pommern, which at that time
was a part and parcel of Sweden. In consequence they have a perfect
right to their name, especially as it has the sanction of age. Living
witnesses bear testimony that the Blue Swedish Ducks were bred
there as far back as 1835, a great many years prior to the introduction of
Rouens or Pekins. German poultry shows have had classes for Swedish
ever since the fanciers assembled to compare birds. Is it not, therefore,
somewhat amusing to read the statements of Belgian poultry writers who
claim the Swedish to be a product of the Dutch? More probable is it that
the Dutch, recognizing the great market value of Swedish ducks, imported
them in olden times, and have been so busy making money out of the
quick-growing ducklings ever since that they now think this good duck
must be their own make. It is human, we admit, to claim a good thing,
but for the sake of truth let the originators have the credit. We all,
Dutch as well as Americans, are reaping the profits. The name has been
given, and the name alone is not worth one copper; therefore let the Swedish
be Swedish. People differ regarding their origin, but the generally accepted
view at the present day is that German farm ducks crossed with the old-
time French Rouen and recrossed with wild Blue Teal drakes have produced
1160
The Poultry Book
them. Mr. O. Henning of Germany thinks them an old and pure breed,
as they were bred and used long before Rouens were known. His father,
a large land-owner, bred them in the fifties, and he received the old stock.
from his father during the first years of the last century. Later on, to
enlarge the carcass, he crossed the females with the largest drakes, pure
Rouens, that he could buy in France. From this fact may have come the
saying that the Swedish contain Rouen blood."*
That the Swedish are or were well known in other countries is proven
by a letter received from H. R. Nelson, of Minnesota, who says: "I noticed
I have
that you [Theo. F. Jager, Connecticut] breed the Blue ducks.
for many years been a great fancier of rare breeds, and have wondered
often why we never see this beautiful duck here, which thirty-five years
ago I remember was quite common among the farmers of Denmark. Both
the blue and the buff were nearly as plentiful as the common gray are
here, and I think the same must abound in many parts of Europe.”
Against the claim of several Belgian breeders to the origination of this
variety, I cannot refrain from placing the accounts of residents of Sweden,
who actually have known and bred the Blue ducks. I myself have seen
them in that country, while hunting near the fjords and mountain streams.
A New Yorker, born in Sweden, at a recent show in his adopted city, was
delighted to behold the ducks of his old home, the Blue Swedish. He
had bred them when a boy, and as far as he was able to state, his grand-
parents had also bred them. It may be true that Belgium leads to-day
in their breeding, but as to their origin, Sweden's claims rank first.
Let America do with them what it has done with other breeds, and
ere long more Swedish ducks will be found in the States than in the balance
of the world. We are apt to recognize the good points in a thing, and
we have the ability to make it our property, if not already our own.
Our
twentieth century enterprise will soon launch the Swedish or Belgian
duck upon the public as an American favorite.
Swedish ducks appear in several shades of coloring: a dark or navy
blue, which is called "steel blue," the "sky blue," and lastly the "jet
black."
-
A pair of these steel-blue birds were shown at a recent New
York show and created much attention. The sky blue specimens
* I imported the first of these birds into America from Germany and Den-
'mark.-T. F. J.
Ducks
1161
are in great demand in Germany, while Belgium has them in all shades,
no particular color being favored. The jet-black are to some extent like
the Cayuga. If it were not for the white bib, that always must be there,
and the plump, distinctly Swedish type, they might be misnamed Cayuga.
The latter has so far a very weak hold on our home fanciers.
I give here the German standard, in vogue there for over twenty
years, and now accepted by American breeders:
SCALE OF POINTS
Typical Carriage .
Weight..
Condition..
•
Head..
Neck...
Back.
Breast.
Body.
Wings.
Tail...
Toes and legs.
•
•
IO
Adult Drake.
25 Young Drake
IO
Adult Duck . .
Young Duck..
5
5
IO
15
ΤΟ
5
2
3
REQUIRED WEIGHTS
IOO
..8 lbs.
.6 lbs.
7 lbs.
•
SHAPE OF DRAKE AND DUCK
•
•
5 lbs.
DISQUALIFICATIONS
Wry tails, crooked backs, twisted wings, entire absence of white in
breast, feathers of any other color than the ground color covering more
than one-fourth of the plumage, yellow legs.
Head.-Long and finely formed.
Bill.—Medium size, the outline nearly straight when viewed sidewise.
Neck.-Long, slightly curved.
Back.-Long and broad, a slight concave sweep from shoulder to tail.
Breast. Full and deep.
Wings. Short and carried closely.
Tail.—Slightly elevated, curled feathers in that of the drake.
Legs and Toes.-Thighs short and stout, shanks stout, toes straight,
connected by web.
Carriage. Nearly horizontal.
1162
The Poultry Book
COLOR OF DRAKE AND DUCK
Eyes.-Dark hazel.
Legs and Toes.-Red brown to gray black, the first color preferred.
Bill.-In drakes green-blue, in ducks black.
Breast. The front part covered with pure white feathers, called the
bib, forming a heart-shaped spot, about three by four, often extending
to the bill.
Head.—In drakes, dark lead-blue, approaching black, having a green
sheen. In ducks the same as ground color.
Plumage.—Even steel-blue all over.
Wings. The two main flight-feathers pure white, balance of wing in
uniformity with general plumage.
The following, from Mr. Dunmire, of Iowa, explains why this variety
has grown so rapidly in public favor from the Atlantic to the Pacific:
(C
'It is a well-known fact that Western fanciers are on the eager outlook
for any new and meritorious breed of fowl. The readiness with which they
have taken up the Swedish duck is further proof of this. The acknowl-
edged hardiness of the breed was attractive to them, as their trade called
for a utility fowl, and one that could stand hard conditions if need be.
The novel and striking beauty of their plumage was another strong point
in their favor. The pleasure and reward of sharing in the moulding of a
new breed, bringing it up to a standard form, and placing a fowl of such
merit before the public that its acceptance would be certain, appealed to
several breeders who are now backing the Swedish in the West.
"The Western breeder is buying the best of the East, is throwing his
skill and effort equally into the upbuilding of the breed and the advertising
of it with all the spirit called 'Western push.'
"To the fancier, breeder, or farmer no duck offers such chances for
money making. The excellent quality and flavor of the flesh makes it
a prime market fowl which will be sought in the stalls so soon as the public
is fully acquainted with it.
"Breeding stock is being eagerly sought. Let every breeder of water-
fowl add this duck to his yard with a certainty of profit to come from a
growing demand. Let him also add his name to the list of members of our
specialty club, and take up the development and promotion of this most
promising of new breeds."
A
Ducks
1163
THE MUSK, OR MUSCOVY DUCK
""
'The epithet 'Musk' has been given to this duck because it exhales a
strongish musky scent, owing to a humor that filtrates from glands placed
near the rump. To take away this musky smell from the flesh, the rump
must be taken off, and the bird decapitated as soon as it is killed. It is
then very good eating, and as succulent as the common wild duck.
Barbary or Guinea duck,
Marggrav has observed
It perches in tall trees,
Although this species is commonly called the
it appears in a wild state in South America only.
it in the Brazils; but it is also a native of Guiana.
builds its nest there, and when the young are hatched the female takes
them one by one and throws them into the water. The laying takes place
two or three times a year, and each is from twelve to eighteen eggs, quite
round and of a greenish white. Their moulting begins in September, and
is sometimes so complete, as with our Mallards, that the ducks find them-
selves destitute of feathers, are unable to fly, and are thus taken by Indians.
When domesticated, they have peculiar habits, mine not infrequently
taking flight to the top of the house, where they range themselves along
the roof-ridge in a row, and doze for an hour or so; or they perch on the
hay-ricks, barn, cow-houses, or trees. Being strong and quarrelsome, they
are scarcely fitted for mixing indiscriminately with other poultry, though,
if home reared, there is much difference in this respect.
The drake will pair with the common duck, but the mixed breed does
not again breed inter se, though they are said to pair with the common
species.
Mr. Carpenter, of New York, gives an interesting description of both
varieties here recognized, the colored and the white:
"The drakes are much larger than the ducks, weighing ten or twelve
pounds, while the ducks weigh six to eight. They are more like a
wild duck or goose in flavor than any other duck, and will also hold
their condition longer than any other. They will be found always
ready for the table without extra feeding. There are two standard varie-
ties, the colored and the white, the colored being the more popular and the
handsomer. They should conform to the following description. Head
rather long and in the drake large, the top covered with long crest-like
feathers, which are readily elevated or depressed by the bird when it
becomes excited or alarmed; in color the head should be glossy black and
1164
The Poultry Book
white, with dark horn-colored bill, rather short and of medium width, head
and face should be covered with bright red carbuncles, the larger the better.
Neck of medium length and well arched, color black or black and white,
black predominating. Back should be long, broad and somewhat flat, with
long, lustrous blue-black feathers. Breast broad and full, and body long
and broad, in color lustrous blue black, and black and white. Wings
very long and stout, coverts with lustrous green black. Tail rather long,
with an abundance of stiff plumage, and in color black or white. Thighs
should be very short and large, and black or white. Shanks short and large.
Toes straight, with strong nails and dark lead or black in color. The
white variety should be a pure white throughout, free from any yellow tinge;
pinkish flesh-colored beak, blue or gray eyes, and pale orange or yellow
shanks and toes. If those who want the finest duck there is for the table,
as well as one of the oddest and most ornamental, select the grand old
Muscovy they will rejoice."
NON-STANDARD UTILITY DUCKS
The Penguin Duck. This is one of the most peculiar and remarkable
of the duck tribe. Its long, thin head on a long, thin neck is set on a long,
thin body. The extraordinary uprightness of its carriage is accounted for
by the thighs, legs, and shanks being excessively short and placed so far
back that the bird is obliged to carry itself erect to enable it to walk, and
it can run with some degree of rapidity. Thus in shape, color, and action it
much resembles what is now called the Indian Runner duck. It is a good
layer, and interesting as an ornamental variety, but like the Indian Runner
it is far surpassed for table purposes by the true white Aylesbury,
the Rouen, and the Pekin. Many of the last-named have somewhat
of the upright carriage and the quick waddling gait of the Pen-
guin, but the latter, though long, is of thicker girth and shorter in the
head and bill.
The Duclair Duck.-Duclair ducks have the size and shape of Rouens.
The plumage is reddish black, even throughout. A red sheen covers head,
neck and shoulders. The breast is pure white, and this color sometimes
extends to the lower body. Colors must be always distinct; a running over
and mixing of red, black and white is not permissible in a show bird.
The two largest flight feathers should be pure white.
Ducks
1165
ORNAMENTAL VARIETIES
The Black East Indian in shape and habit closely resembles the English
wild duck (Anas boschas), but will bear confinement in moderately small
runs or inclosures, in this respect differing from the English race. They
have the meaty breast combined with the delicious flavor of the Mallard
and are abundant layers.
The head is small and neat, the neck slim, the body rather short,
but full and boat-shaped; the bill of the drake is a deep orange green

GROUP OF COMMON DUCKS
From a photograph by C. Reid
with a purple bloom over it and a black spot at the apex; the shanks
and feet are purplish black. The whole color is an intensely rich brown-
black, covered throughout, but particularly on the head, neck, back, wings,
and tail, with a brilliant metallic luster and sheen. The duck is some-
what less bright in color, with the bill, shanks, and feet black.
Americans value the East Indias mainly for their smallness. With
Englishmen it is a purely ornamental, and, owing to its rareness, a very
high-priced variety.
They can be kept without a pond if a good-sized earthen pan is pro-
1166
The Poultry Book
vided for them to dabble in. The eggs may be hatched under a hen, or
in an incubator.
THE CRESTED WHITE DUCK OR THE TOP-KNOTTED DUCK
This specimen is of very ancient origin, and doubtless was a freak of
nature in the first instance. They may be seen in many of the old Dutch
paintings, some almost black, while others are pure white-splashed mark-
ings on a white ground being most common.
Some of the best I have seen were in my own possession, having very
large top-knots-the drakes especially so-well covering the head. These
top-knots were composed of long, full-sized, rounded feathers growing
from a considerable fatty excrescence on the top of the head, though
somewhat toward the back. In not a few cases this was loose, almost
pendulous in character, while in others it firmly adhered to the skull. In
no instance was the bone in any way altered from that of the ordinary
duck. The eyes were somewhat larger, and the bill rather shorter
than that of the Mallard, also broader and more rounded at the tip.
They were of medium length, thick in girth, lively and quick in
their movements, the ducklings especially being excellent fly-catchers.
They were plentiful layers of fair-sized eggs of a light bluish-green. My
birds were very handsome in color, the drakes being of the bright Mallard
hues, splashed with white; the ducks mostly dark gray, with white about
the head, neck, and breast, some being black with white fronts.
Only one color-white-is recognized among American breeders, and
other colored feathers in any part of the plumage disqualify the specimen.
The color of legs and bill should be a rich orange and the "bean" of the
duck should be free from black spots or stripes. In weight, the Crested
White Ducks equal Indian Runners. To the detriment of the variety, it
must be said that a large crest, evenly carried, generally heads the winner,
even if other more highly counting body points are lacking.
THE DUTCH DWARF DUCK, the Call Duck, the DECOY DUCK
The English Decoy duck differed but little from the ordinary Mallard,
either in color or shape. Those that were a cross between the wild
and the tame farm duck varied in color, many being splashed with
white, and others fawn color, while some few were ash color, and
thus easily recognized by the fowler if they accidentally got netted. To
Ducks
1167
such an extent did this inter-breeding occur that the Dutch "invented"
a smaller and different-shaped variety, which was imported to this country
and known as the "Dutch Call Duck," chiefly in two colors, that
of the Mallard and the pure white. They prefer nesting out, and
make a large pile as they incubate, until the duck is almost hidden by the
continuously collected materials. The young, when first hatched, are very
small, but they grow quickly, and after the first two or three days are par-
ticularly active. They must be kept from water, and on dry ground, wet
and damp proving highly detrimental, if not fatal, while equally so are the
glare and heat of the mid-day sun. Though small, they are undeniably of
the highest quality for the table.
The Mallard-colored Dutch Call Ducks are charming both in form and
size, but the white, when really good, with full Dutch boat-shaped bodies,
short necks, short, rounded heads with short bills of a deep bright orange,
and short, equally bright-colored shanks and feet, have a truly lovely
appearance.
Cathy
Their food should be the same as that of the wild duck, and similar
localities are suitable for their well-being. They will and do, however,
thrive almost anywhere, even with only a small pond to bathe in. They
are good foragers, eat much vegetation, especially the softer parts of many
of the marsh or water plants, and in this way gain almost sufficient food,
especially during the spring, summer, and autumn months. Unless con-
fined by fences and pinioned, they are somewhat likely to get lost by
wandering or by joining flights of Mallards or wild ducks that chance to
be passing
THE WILD DUCK OR MALLARD
The following excellent description of the wild duck, or Mallard, is
taken from "The Ornithology of Francis Willoughby," translated by
John Ray, 1678, Book III., page 371:
"It weighs thirty-six to forty ounces, being about twenty-three
inches long, measuring from the top of the bill to the end of the tail.
The wings stretched out reach thirty-four inches. The bill is of a
greenish yellow, from the angles of the mouth is two and a half inches
in length, and about one inch in breadth, not very flat.
"The upper mandible has at the end a round lip or nail, such as is
seen in most birds of this kind.
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The Poultry Book
The lower eyelids are white; the legs and feet are saffron color; the
claws brown, but that of the back toe almost white; the inmost fore toe
is the least.
،،
"The membranes connecting the toes are of a more solid color than the
toes. The windpipe at its divarication has a vessel we call a labyrinth.
The legs are feathered down to the knees. In the Mallard the head
and upper part of the neck are of a delicate shining green; then follows a
ring of white, which yet fails of being an entire circle, not coming round
behind. From the white ring the throat is of a chestnut color down to the
breast. The breast itself and the belly are of a white ash color, bedewed
or sprinkled in like manner with spots. The middle of the back between
the wings is red, the lower part black, and still deeper on the wings, with
a gloss of purple. The sides under the wings and the longer feathers on the
thighs are adorned with transverse brown lines, making a fair show; in
them the white color seems to have a mixture of blue.
"
"The lesser rows of wing feathers are red. The long scapular feathers
are silver-colored, elegantly variegated with transverse brown lines. In
each wing are twenty-four quills, the outermost ten of a dusky or dark
brown; the secondary have white tips, and their outer webs are of a shining
purplish blue color; but between the white and the blue intercedes a line of
black. The tip of the twenty-first is white, the exterior web of dark
purple; the middle part of the twenty-second is a little silver-colored; the
twenty-third is wholly silver-colored, yet the edges on each side are black;
the twenty-fourth is likewise of a silver color, only the exterior border
being black. The outermost covert feathers are of the same color as the
quills; but those immediately incumbent on the purple-blue quills have
black tips, and next the tips a broad line or crossbar of white, so that the
blue spot is terminated with a double line, first black, and above that,
white. The tail has twenty feathers ending in sharp points; the four
middle of these are reflected circularly toward the head, being black with
a gloss of purple; the eight next to these on each side are white, especially
the outer ones; and on their exterior web the nearer to the reflected ones
the greater mixture of brown have they. The covert feathers of the inside
of the wing and the interior bastard wing are white.'
The female has neither green head nor ringed neck, but is parti-
colored-white, brown, and dark red. The middle parts of the back
feathers are a dark brown, the edges a pale red.
""
Ducks
1169
The wild duck generally builds its nest some distance from the water,
and seldom leads its young to it until they are a few days old, and sufficiently
strong to swim without tiring.
THE WHITE WILD DUCK
In response to my inquiries, Mr. Charles Ambrose gave me the following
valuable information regarding the variety: "On our Fen farms we bred a
great many duck and Mallard, and about seven years ago I managed to get
a white drake (Mallard) in the same way that a white sparrow, or blackbird,
or starling, occurs now and again. I put this, pinioned, with two Mallard
ducks and bred from them, getting only two per cent. white the first year.
This year (1899) I have got them to breed all pure color for the first time;
but during the previous breedings they did not breed any odd colors, they
were either the old Mallard color or pure white. I have now 200 pure white.
The duck is rather smaller than the ordinary kind and of the
same form; feathers and down clear white. But it is not an albino, for
the bill is a light orange, showing a slightly gray transverse mark between
the nostrils and the end; the sides rather inclined to carmine tint, especially
on the lower mandible, the "bean," at the point, whitish. The shanks,
feet, and toes-the latter long and fine in form-are orange color, and
the toe-nails also orange, but with a darker stripe down the centers; the
webs of the feet are thin and delicate, and of the same color as the toes.
Its flesh is very much lighter in color than that of the common Mallard,
being a delicate pink, and when cooked the flavor is delicious.
""
THE WOOD DUCK
This duck is sometimes called the Carolina Duck; in the North it is
called the Summer Duck. It is found in nearly every section of North
America, in the southern portion in the winter, migrating to the north
in the summer. It is bred for its wonderful beauty. Its name is derived
from the characteristic of building its nest in a hollow tree. Its eggs are
small and smooth on the surface, like polished ivory.
The drake is about twenty inches long, with a green head, glossed with
purple and surmounted with a pendent crest or plume of green, bronze and
velvet; the upper part of the throat is white, the breast chestnut, the sides
yellowish, with black, white, purple and blue in bands, spots and shadings.
Wilson says: "The Wood Duck seldom flies in flocks of more than
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The Poultry Book
three or four individuals together, and most commonly in pairs or
singly. The common note of the drake is peet-peet; but when, standing
sentinel, he sees danger, he makes a noise not unlike the crowing of a
young cock-oe-eek oe-eek! Their food consists principally of acorns,
seeds of the wild oats and insects. Among other gaudy feathers with which
the Indians ornament the calumet or pipe of peace, the skin of the head
and neck of the drake is frequently seen covering the stem.”
This beautiful duck is easily tamed so as to take food out of the hand
of its keeper.
THE MANDARIN DUCK
The Mandarin Duck is one of the most beautiful birds among water-
fowl. It is sometimes called the "Fan-winged Duck," from the peculiar
shape of a portion of its wings, which rises over the back in the shape
of a lady's fan. The head has a crest, falling back on the neck; the color of
the body plumage is very fine and uniform in this curious variety-con-
sidered in China the prettiest of the duck class.
Mr. Haight, an observant traveler in China, says: "We in America
call the ducks of China by names unlike those used by the Chinese. What
we call the Pekin Duck is called by the Chinese in the north the Mandarin
Duck, from the fact that they are kept in large numbers by the Mandarins
at Pekin and throughout the northern provinces. What we call the Man-
darin is a wild duck, large numbers of which are found in the north of
China and called by the Chinese simply 'wild ducks.' They perch on trees,
except in the moulting period, when they rest among the leaves on the
ground. They are capable of being domesticated, and large numbers are
sent to southern China for this purpose.
"It is said that they dwell mostly in pairs and are so greatly attached to
their original companions that they do not usually mate a second time if
either be killed."
In regard to this, Mr. Davis furnishes the following particulars:
"From an aviary containing a pair of these birds at Maçao, the drake
happened one night to be stolen. The duck was perfectly inconsolable,
like Calypso after the departure of Ulysses. She retired into a corner,
neglected her food and person, refused all society, and rejected with disdain
the proffer of a second love. In a few days the purloined drake was
recovered and brought back. The mutual demonstrations of joy were
Ducks
1171
excessive; and what is more singular, the true husband, as if informed by
his partner of what had happened in his absence, pounced upon the would-
be lover, tore out his eyes and injured him so much that he soon after
died of his wounds.
Ja
(6
"We lately saw a pair of Mandarins and a pair of Carolina ducks
reveling in luxury. They were tenants of a washing-tub sunk in the ground.
We do not advise too small a pond. Few people are content with
only one pair, although the pond may be made for that number only. A
round pond, four feet in diameter, is quite large enough for one or two
pairs of any kind of wildfowl, but if possible it should be made larger.
It need not be more than two feet deep in any part. It may be that
depth everywhere except in two places, which will serve as landing-places
for the birds, and scours on which they may be fed. These will be cut
through the bank, so that the ducks can swim out. When they are tired
they cannot always climb up a bank, and they drown. The inclosure
around the pond must depend on the space that is available, but for one or
two pairs, or three, three feet clear from the pond all round will be enough,
but if there is more, so much the better. It should be greensward; and
we mention here that the scours or landing-places should he pitched or
floored with large gravel stones, well rammed down. If this is not done it
becomes a dirty, muddy place. As the food will always be thrown here,
it is economical, for the bird can see and find every grain, whereas, if
thrown in mud, much of it will be lost.
"Ducks do not require a shady place, but they like one, and, in common
with nearly all animals, they like a shelter from heat and from wind. If,
then, some low-branching shrubs can be inclosed, so much the better.
Some contrivance should be adopted to enable the pond to be emptied and
refilled, that the water may be kept clean. It is very amusing to watch
divers in clear water when they dive after grain that is thrown to them.
The fence that surrounds the pond should be three feet high, not less-a
properly pinioned bird cannot get over this. An inexpensive and safe
fence is a wattled hurdle hedge all round. If looked after, it will last for
years. The grass in the inclosure soon forms a covert enough to hide any
duck. The Carolina and Mandarin are the handsomest of all we have in
England; both have their admirers.”
1172
The Poultry Book
THE SPOONBILL
"The Spoonbill is the pariah of the wildfowl world. It is of solitary
character, but its solitude is enforced. Other ducks will have nothing
to do with it. They seem to feel that it is a degraded being, and that
association with it acts as a slur upon themselves." So writes a corre-
spondent of the Sun.
Often the Spoonbill seeks in unobtrusive fashion to worm itself into
the company of a flock of Sprigs or Mallards, but they will have none of it.
Either they crowd together around it and seek to bury it in the water under
their weight, or they rise with loud squawks of contempt and wing their
way to other waters, leaving it alone but not discouraged.
Their reason
can be nothing save radical dislike and disapproval of the Spoonbill's
mode of gaining a livelihood. The quail has a call when scattered, but
the Spoonbill has very little voice at any time, and none to waste in
seeking lost companions. If there are ten thousand ducks on the lake
when the sun sets and only ten of them are Spoonbills, the Spoonbills will
be together in the morning, only to go out again to be separated and put
in the day in lonely mud-shoveling or in attempts to associate with their
betters.
A marked trait of the female Spoonbills is motherliness. Other duck
matrons desert their brood as soon as their youngsters are able to take care
of themselves, or have arrived on the southern feeding-grounds. The
Spoonbill will stay with her young all the season and seems unable to make
up her mind that they have outgrown the need of her instructions. It is
not an uncommon thing for a whole brood of them to be killed by gunners,
when other game is scarce.
COMMON SHELDRAKE
In French, Tadorne commune, in German, Brand Ente, this is a very
pretty variety. Head and neck are black, while a broad white band
encircles the neck, lined off nicely with red. A black broad line runs from
neck to tail. Wing coverts are black, flight feathers are white and black.
Back and lower body is pure white, Bill has a knob and is carmine red.
Legs are flesh colored. The duck has not as brilliant coloring as the
drake.
Ducks
1173
In wild state this variety is found on the beaches of Europe, Asia and
East Africa, always migrating to Africa for the winter.
The nest is made in a hole in the ground. The duck lays from seven to
twelve eggs twice during a season, and of course does her own hatching
and raising.
For public parks and private country places, where the enlivenment of
water-ways with beautiful aquatic birds is desired, Sheldrakes are always
found. They are hardy and stand our severest winters well.
RUDDY SHELDRAKE
This is one of the oldest of all varieties. The Sanscrit law of the East
Indies has a description of them, calling them the "Tscakravaka," after
their call. The plumage is mainly reddish buff. Two flight feathers are
white, the coverts green, and tail black. Their size is about the same
as our Mallards, but they have a longer body, longer legs and neck. They
appear more like a Bantam Goose. Habits are the same as the above-
mentioned Common Sheldrake.
At mating time the drakes become vicious, and for this reason it is not
found advisable to have them in a common inclosure with other varieties.
THE BOW-BILLED OR HOOK-BILLED DUCK
This is said to have been of Indian origin. The first that I remember
seeing were on the lake at the Surrey Zoological Gardens; they were of
the ordinary colors, mostly white or splashed with red, yellow, and brown
or gray.
The carriage was somewhat upright, the necks and bodies long
and narrow. They were in no way more desirable, except as a curiosity,
than the common duck.
Years afterward, some far better birds were shown at Birmingham.
These were white with clear orange-yellow bills, shanks, and feet, and
differed from the foregoing in having a top-knot toward the back of the
skull. On inquiry of the owner I was told they were active foragers and
prolific layers. They were not large, being, when full grown, about six
pounds. Of these I made a sketch, considering them interesting from a
naturalist's point of view.
1174
The Poultry Book
THE EIDER DUCK
، ،
A valuable wild bird which, if taken care of systematically in its wild
state, grows twenty-five inches long and is remarkable for its soft down.
It is found throughout northern Europe and North America," says
T. G. Goodrich.
ocean.
"It always builds its nest on the rocky precipices which overhang the
The down, so much valued, is plucked off the breast by the female
to line her nest. The down taken from the dead bird is greatly inferior,
and it is rare that so valuable a bird is now killed for that purpose. To
augment the quantity of down from the same bird, the eggs, which are very
palatable, are sometimes taken and eaten; the female again stripping herself
to cover the second and smaller hatch. If the nest be a second time
plundered, as the female can furnish no additional lining the male now lends
his aid and strips the coveted down from his breast, which is well known
by its paler color. The last laying of two or three eggs is always left to
keep alive the hopes of progeny, for if this be taken they will abandon
the place. Indulged so far, they continue to return year after year,
accompanied by their young. One female during the whole time of
laying gives about half a pound of neat live down, and double that quantity
before cleansing."
All efforts to domesticate this valuable breed have so far been un-
successful, as the change from purely fish and animal food in freedom to
narrow quarters and balanced rations have in all known cases killed their
breeding instinct.
The keeping of birds, if taken in hand when young, has often been
successful, but never yet is an instance on record where they have bred.

Narus T
1200
PRIZE BLACK-BREASTED SILVER-GREY DORKINGS.
The property of Mr. HERBERT REEVES.

THE COMMON WHITE OR MUTE SWAN
THE SWAN

HE swan, for its elegance, its usefulness, and as a standard
dish at Royal and civic banquets, has from an early period
been held in the highest esteem. It is an ornament to
our lakes and rivers, the admiration of young and old.
Human beauty is said, when fair, to be "as white as a
swan," the well-carried form "as graceful as a swan," while that which is
delicate to the touch is called as soft as swans' down." Our best-loved
poet and master-mind was not inaptly called "the sweet swan of Avon."
46
The swan was ever a royal bird, and in the twenty-second year of
Edward IV. (1483) it was enacted that "no person who did not possess a
freehold of a clear yearly rental of five marks," was permitted to keep them.
In the eleventh year of Henry VII. (1496), it was ordered that anyone
taking or stealing a swan's egg should have a year's imprisonment and be
fined at the King's will. Stealing setting nests or placing snares for
catching gray or white swans was punished more severely.
The swan was protected, as to ownership, by marks or cuts made on
the bill, a practice in vogue to the present day.
The Junior Warden of the year is called the Swan Warden, and models
of swans form conspicuous ornaments of the Vintners' hall. The first
proprietor of the well-known inn that once stood in Gracechurch Street,
London, "The Swan with Two Necks," with its sign of a bird so delineated,
was a member of the company.
In the language of the swanherds, the male swan is called a cob and
the female a pen. The black tubercle at the base of the bill is "the berry."
Although the swan appears to be, and is, a large bird, it is surpassed
in weight by many of our domestic geese, the Embden gander often weighing

1175
1176
The Poultry Book
as much as thirty pounds. Willoughby gives the weight of the swan at
twenty, Yarrell that of an old swan at thirty pounds, which is almost un-
precedented, while the goose has ranged to as much as thirty-four pounds.
and a half. In former times the owners of swans, their marks, and
swanneries were registered in the book of the King's swanherd, and in the
time of Elizabeth there were more than nine hundred swanneries. At the
present time the Earl of Ilchester owns a famous one at Abbotsbury, on
the west coast. This is said to be more than eight hundred years old, and
it is the largest in England, possessing a great number of thriving semi-
wild swans that nest and breed freely.
"It is a most interesting sight," says Mr. Yarrell, "when several of
these large birds are on the wing together." At Lewes, in Sussex, I have
often seen a flock of full-grown cygnets led by the old birds, suddenly rise
from "the pells" where they were bred and, with outstretched necks,
slowly make their way to the near-by river, softly uttering broken, melodious
sounds.
At the time of incubation, the male swan or cob is particularly pug-
nacious, attacking fiercely any animal or even a human being who ap-
proaches the nest. It is recorded that at Lewes, some years ago, a man
had his thigh broken when inadvertently walking too near the swans'
adopted home.
Swans pair, and the same birds continue together for life. They make
a large nest of any rushes, etc., at hand, and mostly on an island or very
near to the water. During the time of incubation the nest is being continu-
ally enlarged, and is often double the size that it was when the "sitting
commenced. I have seen one nearly three feet high, and as wide through.
Willoughby says they lay seven to eight eggs and sit two months, while
Mr. Yarrell states the number of eggs to be "six or seven. They are of a
dull, greenish white, four inches in length by two inches nine lines in width.
Incubation lasts six weeks, and during this time the male is in constant
attendance on the female." This time for incubation is two weeks less
than that given by Willoughby.
Mr. Yarrell agrees that the average number of eggs is seven. What
is more worthy of notice is the fertility of all the eggs laid, or nearly all.
Mr. Nolan, in his "Ornamental and Domestic Fowls," 1850, page 132,
states that "Two females have been known to associate for years together,
hatching and bringing up their young from the same nest, sitting by turns
M
The Swan
1177
"
without quarreling. The cygnets when hatched are covered with down of
a sooty color, and do not leave the nest for at least twenty to twenty-four
hours. They are carefully taken to the water by the female, who fre-
quently lowers a portion of her body below the surface that the newly
incubated young may get on her back and rest. I have seen the male or
cob also do this. He is most assiduous in his attentions both to mother
and family, often fighting desperately in their defense, killing other birds
and even animals." Mr. Nolan relates an instance of a female, who
perceiving a fox swimming toward her nest, darted into the water and
succeeded in drowning him before she returned in triumph.
Each family of swans has its own district on the river or lake which it
inhabits. It will not allow intrusion, but drives off others with the utmost
impetuosity. The family associate throughout the winter, but on the
approach of spring the old birds drive off the young to care for themselves
in water apart from that in which they were hatched. The food of the
swans consists of water plants, soft roots, and aquatic insects, much of which
is sought for at some depth, their long necks enabling them to do this with
ease. Swans have been known to take small fish, but this is rare, their
conformation not being adapted to such purposes. Mr. Yarrell positively
states that a swan has been seen to eat a small roach; but adds, "they
also eat grain and bread. The whole length of an old male is from four
feet eight inches to five feet.” Mr. Nolan gives it "upward of five feet,
and more than eight in the expanse of the wings, which reach, when
closed, along two-thirds of the tail. The female is distinguished from the
male by being smaller, the neck more slender, and she swims deeper in the
water," because, says Mr. Yarrell, according to a well-known anatomical
law, “females have less capacious lungs than males, and the body is less
buoyant." In the male the black tubercle is larger, the neck is thicker,
and the bird swims higher and with wings raised higher.
"The young male swan, in July" (I again quote Mr. Yarrell), "has
plumage of a dark bluish, almost a sooty gray; the neck and the under
surface of the body, rather lighter in color; the beak, lead color; the nostrils
and the basal marginal line, black. The same birds at the end of October
have a beak of a light slate-gray, tinged with green; the irides dark; head,
neck, and all the upper surface of the body nearly a uniform sooty, grayish
brown. Young birds at the end of October are nearly as large as the old
birds. After the second autumn moult, but little of the gray remains.
1178
The Poultry Book
When two years old they are quite white, and they breed in their third
year." A cygnet that was hatched at the Lewes "pells" many years ago
was a deep buff in color, but as it was killed for feasting there was no
opportunity to learn what might have been its ultimate tint. The swan
is said to be a very long-lived bird. The female will breed when upward
of thirty years of age, and males have been known to exceed sixty years of
age, even, it is asserted, to live to be one hundred. Yarrell quotes a marked
male as known to be over fifty.
The flesh of the old swan is dark and ill-flavored, but a well-fatted
cygnet is very good, if a first year's bird.
The swan has been a representative bird at our feasts since the Middle
Ages. The following is a copy of the verses usually sent with each pre-
sented bird by the Corporation of Norwich, more than fifty years ago:
..
TO ROAST A SWAN
Take three pounds of beef, beat fine in a mortar,
Put it into the swan-that is, when you have caught her;
Some pepper, salt, mace, some nutmeg, an onion,
Will heighten the flavor in a gourmand's opinion.
Then tie it up tight with a small piece of tape,
That the gravy and other things may not escape,
A meal paste, rather stiff, should be laid on the breast,
And some whited brown paper should cover the rest,
Fifteen minutes at least ere the swan you take down,
Pull the paste off the bird, then the breast may get brown."
1
THE GRAVY
"To a gravy of beef, good and strong, I opine,
You'll be right if you add half a pint of port wine;
Pour this through the swan; yes! quite through the belly,
Then serve the whole up with some hot currant jelly.
"N.B.-The swan must not be skinned."
Mr. Ablett, Her late Majesty's swankeeper, says that the annual
small number of cygnets, considering the large number of swans, is to be
attributed to the fact that more than half of the old birds are barren, and
further, that sometimes brooders pair with "the companies birds, and
then the produce is divided. About the age at which the Thames swans
breed he is uncertain, but there is a pair at Bray who build a nest every
As
year and generally but one egg is laid in it, though sometimes two.
the parents never bring off any young, he has come to the conclusion that
999
The Swan
1179
they are too old. With this, however, I scarcely agree, believing that
with a young male the pen swan would be productive; such being the case
both with geese and ducks. Mr. Ablett continues: There is one bird
near Windsor known to be more than thirty years of age. We lose a
number each year through accidents of various kinds, and often through
wanton mischief, but the smallness of the number of cygnets reared may
not be entirely due to outward circumstances. At Abbotsbury, one of
the oldest and best preserved swanneries, perhaps the only one where the
birds are in a state of semi-wildness, the rearing of the young in some
seasons is particularly disappointing, according to an article which ap-
peared in Country Life Illustrated, October 7, 1899. This states that
although the broods of cygnets are often very large, they are very sus-
ceptable to cold and wet, and are killed off by an inclement spring as easily
as young pheasants. In the very wet summer of 1893, out of 800 hatched
and left with the parent birds all died but one. Only 150 were reared by
6
66

th
BLACK-NECKED SWAN WITH A WHITE BODY
This picture is of a comparatively rare species
1180.
The Poultry Book
hand.' This mortality shows that even in a locality well adapted to the
wants and requirements of the swan, the difficulties in the natural rearing
of the cygnets are almost beyond control. The Abbotsbury birds seem
to differ from those on the Norfolk Broads and on the Thames in their
methods of nesting. They occupy in numbers a very limited area and live
in perfect harmony, while in the former places, each pair selects and
maintains as its own a certain tract of water or land, a right they will
defend even to the death of themselves or the intruders. At Abbotsbury,
the swanherd visits the nests and provides rushes, reeds, etc., for the swans
to build with. The writer of the article alluded to says:
'The way
of building is unlike that of any other bird. The swan, usually the female,
sits on the nest and stretches out her neck, to gather every morsel of portable
stuff of any kind that she can reach, which she piles round her in a kind
of wall.' The swan is not the only bird that so builds her nest, the common
duck acts in precisely the same way; one duck in my possession so raised her
nest about her as to be invisible at a little distance. Both the duck and
the swan will continue unremittingly this adding process throughout the
whole time of incubation.
> > >
The scene at Abbotsbury during the months of April, May, June, and
July must be exceedingly interesting and delightful to a naturalist, or
even to an ordinary lover of nature. Such a flock of swans, old and young,
must be a sight worthy of any journey, however long and tedious.
Mr. Weir refers above to the Mute Swan, Cygnus olar, as it is the
chief variety domesticated for the purpose of enlivening waterways on
private estates or parks. The fact that swans often attain to an age of
more than 100 years, and remain good breeders to the last, offsets to some
extent the frequent infertility of their eggs. As the purchase price in
America is rarely less than $50 per pair for mated birds, it is easily seen
that it pays to breed swans, if the environment allows it.
In addition to the Mute Swan we have the Hooper or Whistling Swan,
C. ferus of Ray, C. musicus of Bechsbein, an all white bird of large size,
which derives its name from its loud cry of hoop, hoop, hoop, repeated many
times. Northern Europe is its summer, and Africa or Asia its winter
home. We find it domesticated often in France and Germany, but rarely
in the States.
Other varieties are the Becorcks Swan, almost four feet long, and
pure white in plumage; the Polish Swan; the Black Swan, originally from
The Swan
1181
Australia, deep black in plumage, except a few white feathers in each wing;
and the American Swan, C. americanus, five feet five inches long, pure
white in plumage, which breeds in the high northern regions of this
continent. It is said to have been abundant on the Pacific Coast
thirty years ago.
The Trumpeter Swan has a harsh trumpet-like voice, is pure white in
plumage, and furnishes the bulk of the skins imported into England by
the Hudson Bay Company. Its main haunts, however, are from the
Mississippi westward. All of these species have been domesticated, and,
with good care and the proper breeding environment, they will reproduce
themselves.
All swans are perfectly hardy and will stand well our severest winter,
if a small shed, open to the south, is provided for shelter from heavy storms.
I would suggest that all who can should raise swans, as nothing more
beautiful and edifying can well be imagined.
THE COMMERCIAL VALUE OF SWANS
Swans' down as a decorative trimming on ladies' dresses is of ancient
date. “Throat ties" and "tippets" were made of its breast skin with the
down on, the bird being skinned as soon as possible after death, the feathers
removed, and the down left adhering. This was then nailed to a board
with the fluff inward, the part exposed being scraped so as to remove all
fat or fleshiness, then cured, mostly with alum water, though other means
were often employed.
"A chest protector" was made by cutting the skin square or oblong
and leaving the feathers on entirely. This, after drying and curing, was
lined with silk, and kept in its place by a ribbon round the neck. Swans'-
down "boas" were once in high repute, and even now are not entirely
despised by the fair sex. Though becoming, they are not considered quite
"the mode."
Pillows of swans'-down are a luxury in winter, and are by some
preferred to those stuffed with down from the goose. Of all the swans'
featherings commend me to the quill which can be used for a pen. Properly
prepared, seasoned, and well made, what a pen it is for large and bold
lettering, for full, clear, black lines. It lends itself to light or vigorous
touch in a way that leaves nothing to be desired. There seems to be a

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finger fitness about its naturally elastic curve, and yet, despite its lasting
and holding capacities, it is never seen now in pen form. In old-time
offices clerks would be busy at ledger and other work with a swan's-quill pen
stuck behind the right ear, and a goose-quill at the left, or two goose-quills,
one for red ink, the other for black. These were superseded by quill
"nibs" for metal holders, and then came steel or gold pens, latterly with
fountain holders.
The artist still knows, deftly handles, and fully appreciates the sable
or the camel's-hair brush tied in the swan's quill. It makes the brush
light and easy to work, which holds its own against newer forms and
fancies. For ten long years I have had a swan's quill brush in use, and
still it is the best. A swan's quill is also used to contain messages, written
on thin paper, tied to a carrier-pigeon, for when corked it is light, dry, and
a security from damage.
"Emblem of modest grace, of unaffected dignity and rose of pure
and elegant simplicity," so sings Eudosia of the swan.

WHITE SWAN NESTING
From a photograph by C. Reid
PIGEONS*
J. C. LONG, New York
ROM time immemorial, pigeons, like dogs, cats, and domestic
fowls, have been the companions of man. History, as far
back as we have any written record, mentions them, usually
under the name of doves. Their beautiful form and coloring,
together with their attractive ways have endeared them
to emperors, kings, queens, merchants, professional men, even to the
humblest laborers, all of whom have found recreation and delight in
breeding them and in caring for their wants and comfort.
Every European traveler knows of the pigeons of Piazzi di San Marco
of Venice. The Bible, in Genesis, Leviticus, and Isaiah, speaks of them.
Pliny tells of them in his time, and says that the fanciers can reckon up
their pedigree and race.
"The dove or pigeon is associated with all that is holy in Christianity,
and with much that is sacred in mythology. Its very name in Hebrew,
Jona, is derived from a word signifying gentleness, and, from the day it
brought the olive-leaf to the Ark, both the plant and its winged bearer have
been esteemed emblems of peace." In many eastern countries, the pigeon
is to-day a sacred bird, and to kill or mutilate one is an offense followed by
condign punishment. The Brahmins of India tell of their deities assum-
ing the shape of doves, and the Mahomedans believe that Mahomed had
an attendant spirit in the same form, while the dove among Christians
is an accepted emblem of the Divine Spirit.

ORIGIN OF FANCY PIGEONS
The origin of fancy pigeons is veiled in mystery. Eminent natural-
ists, among whom is Charles Darwin, attempt to prove that the Blue
* In his recent work, entitled "Our Poultry," Mr. Weir did not include the pigeons.
In America pigeons occupy a very important place at our poultry shows, and the industry
is rapidly gaining in prominence. There is an awakening of interest among fanciers for
the fancy breeds, while squab-raising has become an important business in many
sections. This chapter has been prepared by J. C. Long, of New York, one of the oldest
and best-known pigeon experts in this country. All the illustrations of pigeons in this
chapter are from photographs by A. Radclyffe Dugmore.—EDITOR.
1183
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Rock and the common Dove House Pigeon of Europe are their progenitors.
Other breeders and writers favor the idea that some, at least, of the numer-
ous varieties had a distinct and separate origin. Certain it is, that not
within the past 200 years has any fancier been able to produce, from the
two varieties above mentioned, anything that could be pronounced a dis-
tinct type, like the Pouter or the Barb. If the ancients knew how it could
be done, it has become a lost art. Perhaps in the days when Babylon
and Nineveh were in their glory, and "Time had not begun to over-
throw those palaces and piles stupendous"; when the valley of the Eu-
phrates was the seat of a wonderful civilization, breeders knew how to
produce from the common pigeon of the fields those beautiful varieties
that came to Europe, and thence to America. I am thoroughly convinced,
from reading and reflection, that those ancient peoples had their pigeons
in as great variety as our own.
Persia, India, and Arabia still cherish the pigeon, and some of our
most beautiful varieties have come to us from those distant countries. If
neglected, they tend to revert back into a resemblance of the common Dove
House Pigeon. Careful selection from these reversions brings them up
again to the standard of the original stock. This cannot be said of the
common bird, for no amount of selection has so far been able to produce
any variation from it. Many varieties when crossed produce mules,
which should prove that they sprang from an original source-a type of
their own.
It is an important question for the fancier, and it may interest
the lay reader, to quote from "Brent," an eminent English writer on the
subject:
"The precise species from which our domestic pigeons have descended
has long been a matter of doubt. One distinguished naturalist supposed
them to proceed from the admixture of our three native doves, as the
Ring Dove, the Stock Dove, and the Turtle Dove. In this way, he accounted
for their diversity of form. But, as these doves are of different species, it
is very difficult to procure a cross between them, and, when obtained, the
offspring are sterile hybrids. I think nothing more need be said about
them. The second hypothesis was that they descended from the Stock
Dove (Columba aenas), and that the Blue Rock (Columba livia), and the
Dove House Pigeon (Columba agrestis) were the intermediate states of
the same birds in their approach to domestication. But this theory evi-
dently had its rise in the confusion that long existed respecting the identity
Pigeons
1185

A LOFT OF FANCY PIGEONS STIRRED TO INDOOR FLIGHT
of the Stock Dove and Blue Rock Pigeon, which are now acknowledged
by all naturalists to be distinct species.
"I have found, also, by experiment that the produce of the Stock Dove
and the domestic pigeon are mules.
"It then remains to be seen whether the Blue Rock or Chequered Dove
House Pigeon has the greater claim to being the progenitor of the race.
"I believe that the Blue Rock is a distinct species from the Dove House.
I have not, however, had any opportunity of trying to what extent the two
will breed together, nor whether their produce would be productive inter se.
I have never been able to procure the Blue Rock in all its purity; but its
wild, unreclaimable nature, and its shunning so completely the abodes or
neighborhood of man, lead me to suspect that such is the case.
"The Dove House Pigeon is, on the other hand, a bird eminently
susceptible of domestication, and is everywhere found in that state. A
great many of the varieties of 'Toys,' or the lower-class fancy pigeons are
evidently of this sort, little or nothing changed except in the color of
their plumage, while many others appear to be derived from the same
source, but crossed with the other fancy kinds, or showing more or less
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the effect of careful breeding and selection. Thus far I am willing to admit.
their descent from one original stock, viz., the Chequered Dove House
Pigeon, Columba agrestis (Columba affinis of some). But, when we come
to examine the varied forms and distinct properties of many of the higher-
class fancy pigeons, I feel a great disinclination to assign them a common
origin. I do not think that even the admission of the Blue Rock (supposing
that that pigeon will produce fertile offspring with the Dove House Pigeon)
is sufficient to account for the many varied and marked peculiarities, or that
domestication could so alter the form and even the nature of the differ-
ent breeds which have continued to present the same peculiarities through
so many generations. Of course, I do not deny the possibility of such a
thing, but I think it very improbable, and I cannot divest my mind of the
idea that, at least, some of the so-called varieties are something more. I
allude to the Wattled Pigeons, the Fantails, the Trumpeters, the Jacobines,
the Croppers, and the Tumblers. All these birds have certain peculiarities
by which they may be known and distinguished under whatever circum-
stances of form or color they may be bred. These properties are fixed,
and do not appear among other varieties; nor are they liable to be lost,
unless cross-breeding is resorted to. Neither have I ever heard of their
sudden appearance from any particular plan of breeding, which we might
expect if they were, as some suppose, due to taking advantage of some
freak of nature or accidental malformation. I should incline to the be-
lief that the various fancy pigeons owe their origin, not to one particular
stock, but to the domestication and mingling of some five or six varieties,
or nearly allied species. These original families have long since become
lost and obliterated, while, from their mixture, our present numerous
varieties arise, as the result of long domestication and careful selection."
There are no true pigeons indigenous to America. To be sure, we
have what is known as the Wild Pigeon, once very abundant, now almost
extinct. But this bird is arboreal in its habits, roosting and building its
nest in trees, making its home in forest or swamp. It is more properly a
dove, being larger than the common pigeon, and with a longer tail. It shuns
human habitations, is migratory, and does not brook confinement. There-
fore, it should not be crossed as a pigeon. The birds that cluster about
our town and country houses are all aliens, having come to us from Eu-
rope. They are descendants of the Blue Rock, Columba livia of the nat-
uralist, and the Chequered Dove House Pigeon (Columba affinis). Of
-
܀
Pigeons
1187
these, the former is domesticated with difficulty, the latter with ease.
Both are true pigeons, do not frequent trees, are sociable, live in communi-
ties, are not migratory, but have a fixed abode, and can bear confinement.
As our fancy pigeons have all these characteristics, they are, by some
naturalists, supposed to be descendants or offshoots from this common
stock; but it still remains a mooted question what was their origin.
The date at which pigeons were introduced into America and encour-
aged to take up their abode here is not upon record, but they were prob-
ably brought with the poultry, swine, and other domestic animals of our
early settlers. I have traced the introduction of fancy pigeons back about
one hundred and forty years. No doubt they were here much earlier, as
both the English and the Dutch settlers were accustomed to have them
around their homes in Europe, and, on emigrating to a new country, would
still desire to have some of their pets about them.
Fanciers of pigeons were not numerous in those days, for people had
other things to think of than the dissemination of pigeon-lore. Their
writers make no mention of so humble a denizen of the farm and home-
stead. In later days, fancy pigeons came to us from various portions of
Europe, Asia, and Africa. America now boasts as fine specimens of the
genus Columba as can be found anywhere in the world.
The term pigeon is derived from the Latin word pipio, a young piping
or chirping bird, known among pigeon fanciers as a squealer. The pigeon
belongs to the family of birds called Columbide, which comprises all the
different varieties of doves as well as pigeons, forming the genus Columba.
They are generally classed among gallinaceous birds, but as they resemble
both the orders Rassones (scrapers or scratchers) and Incessores (perchers),
they have, by some naturalists, been constituted into a distinct order be-
tween the two. While, in many respects, they resemble the order Galli-
naceæ, they differ in the fact that, instead of cohabiting promiscuously, they
are monogamous, live in pairs, and the male shares with the female the
duties of incubation and the work of feeding and caring for the young.
In the Gallinaceous family, young birds are able to run and, in a measure,
to provide for themselves as soon as hatched; but those of the Columbida
are born blind. These helpless little creatures must be fed by the parent
birds. By a wonderful provision of nature, about the time for the young to
be hatched, the food taken into the crops of the older birds is changed to a
chyme-like fluid, white in color and known among fanciers as "pigeons milk.”
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The parent bird takes its offspring's bill into its mouth, and, by a
spasmodic action of the crop, injects this milky fluid into the young one's
crop, and so its life is sustained. This manner of feeding is kept up until
the young birds are able to care for themselves—when about six weeks old.
As the young increase in age and size, the milky substance ceases to be
formed. Whole kernels of grain, eaten by the parents are injected into
their crops, and digestion takes place as in adult birds.
BREEDING PIGEONS AS A PASTIME OR FOR PROFIT
•
It has been said that a man without a hobby is a miserable being; but,
before any one in the pursuit of happiness takes up the breeding of fancy
pigeons, he must consider whether or not he has patience to await the
development of plans for the increase and perpetuation of a flock. The
same hope, perseverance, and persistence are called for which the gar-
dener exercises in planting seeds and bulbs. One must await the mating,
the production of eggs, the incubation, the growth of the squab in the nest,
and the moulting, before the final development into full feather and beauty
is attained. Success is not always assured, for, as Burns says, "the best
laid plans of mice and men gang aft aglee." The breeding of fancy pigeons
is a pursuit beset with difficulties; but, as in all undertakings, careful
study and persistent effort will overcome the difficulties. If the fancier
learns to love his birds, the time passed among them becomes full of enjoy-
ment, a welcome change from the cares and turmoil of business, from the
harrassing perplexities of study or office, and a relaxation from the labor
of shop or bench. It is a particularly interesting and profitable pastime
for boys, keeping them from evil ways and companions, teaching them
those principles of patience and perseverance so necessary to success in
life. In my long experience, I never knew a boy who had been an ardent
pigeon fancier to grow up a bad man.
Every fancier observes, after keeping pigeons for a time, that they
are no exception to all else earthly in thriving and improving just in pro-
portion to the study, care, and attention they receive. A flock of common,
or one of fancy, pigeons will flourish and increase with little more attention
than a supply of food, but they will not progress. There will not be any
improvement in those qualities which make fancy pigeons so interesting and
attractive, and the attainment of which should be the aim of every breeder.
It is the only way in which he can get the full measure of delight to be
Pigeons
1189
derived from the keeping of these beautiful pets. Their beauty will be
denied by no one who has ever ridden this hobby. Many of the birds have
features that the unitiated might deem positively repulsive, but to the
fancier, when these are combined with other necessary points, the appar-
ent ugliness helps to complete the perfect and desirable whole. For in-
stance, the breeder of that king of pigeons known as the English Carrier
demands as an element of perfection a long snaky head and beak, together
with an enormous development of eye and beak-wattle. The Pouter
fancier sees beauty in its monstrously inflated crop, its long, stilt-like legs,
and slender girth. The Barb fancier admires a short, bullfinch-like beak
and enormous development of eye-cere. So, throughout the whole cate-
gory of pigeons, that which seems an imperfection to those without the
pale of the fancy is in reality necessary to make a standard bird.
The intending fancier will naturally ask: "What breed or variety
shall I keep? What would you recommend?"
"First of all," I would say in reply, "go slowly; do not aspire to too
great a variety, nor too large a flock.”
Of course, much depends on the means, circumstances, and location
of the beginner, but it is safe to recommend to all intending fanciers, as a
variety to start with, the pretty, interesting Flying Tumbler. They are
hardy birds, eat little, require but a limited space for nesting and breeding,
are prolific breeders, easily tamed, and not expensive to keep. They can
be allowed their liberty, and, when carefully bred and trained, are a con-
tinual source of enjoyment. There is an infinite variety of coloring and
marking among the Flying Tumblers, and they are also plain, and feather-
legged, or "muffed." A little experience with these will fit any one to
take up the breeding of higher-class pigeons and more expensive varieties,
a description of which will be given as we proceed with this work. Next
to Tumblers, can be named Magpies, Nuns, Helmets, Homers or Antwerps,
Spots, and Dragoons or Dragons, as they were once called. Experience
with Tumblers is better than with the more delicate varieties, to prepare
one for careful breeding.
The question is often asked, is pigeon keeping profitable? If a person is
naturally adapted for the work of breeding pigeons, it can be made profit-
able; but, like any business, it takes time to learn. The habits and char-
acteristics of the birds, how to mate, feed, and care for them, must be
studied in order to insure success and the hope of profit. I have known
My
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men who made a good income from breeding fancy pigeons, but I fear the
majority of fanciers find their only reward in the pleasure derived from
tending and admiring them. Squab-raising for market is largely being
practised at the present time, and, I believe, with a good margin of profit.

RED-CHECKED MALE HOMER
Nine months old. From imported parents
While this work will treat more particularly of the breeding of fancy
pigeons, the rules laid down will be found just as applicable to the squabs
bred for market, as to the higher-class birds. Whether they have been
reared for their feathers and standard qualities or for the table, many of
the higher class will be found fit only for pot or broiler.
Having determined upon entering the ranks of pigeon fanciers, and
Pigeons
1191
having settled on the variety or varieties (even though, as I have advised,
they be Tumblers) which one wishes to breed, procure, if possible from a
well-known, reliable breeder or dealer, good, well-mated specimens. Do
not be satisfied with inferior birds, for, in pigeons, as in other stock, like
is apt to produce like, and there can be little hope of reaching perfection
if one starts on a poor foundation. There will be discouragements enough,
even if one begins with the best, but, as often quoted, "the best is none
too good." They will cost more at the outset, but be more satisfactory
in the end. With a few good ones, the first step to success is assured.
Experience will teach how to make proper selections to obtain best results
in breeding, and, with good stock as a nucleus, the fancier can soon collect
a flock that will be a "thing of beauty and a joy forever." Let the fancier
learn to love his birds and to do his utmost, by precept and example, to
encourage all that is lofty and noble in the keeping of pigeons.
THE AVIARY, OR LOFT, AND ITS APPLIANCES
Having decided to start the keeping of pigeons, attention must first
be given to quarters for their accomodation. These can be suited to the
convenience and means of the fancier, as the pigeon is a cosmopolitan in its
habits. It adapts itself to circumstances and is apparently as happy and
as much at home in a soap box nailed to the gable of a barn, as in the
luxurious quarters provided by a wealthier fancier. Consequently, pigeon-
houses are as diversified in construction as are the habitations of their
owners. First of all, they should be thoroughly dry, well-ventilated,
have plenty of light and, where possible, a southerly exposure or one at
least that the sun will strike during a portion of the day. The gable-end of
a barn or the upper portion of any outbuilding can be utilized to good
advantage. Even an upper room in a dwelling-house is often used in
cities. Whatever the location selected, one of the first steps toward pre-
paring it for occupation is to see that it is well guarded against the in-
trusion of rats and mice, one of the evils with which the breeder has to
contend. Floors, walls, and partitions, should be so tight that none of
these pests can work through them. Openings for ventilation can be cov-
ered with fine-meshed wire to ward off danger in that direction. An
entrance-door for the inspection and examination of the nests and young is
necessary, but it also should close tightly. A large window to the south will
give the necessary light and air. Holes about six inches high and four
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wide may be cut for the entrance and egress of the birds. If possible, a
large cage made of one-inch meshed wire, or an even coarser variety, should
be placed on the outside, in front of the window and entrances, as an area
or trap, so that the birds, when necessarily confined, may have a place for
exercise.
On the front of this cage should be a door, say two or three feet long
and twelve inches wide, hinged at the bottom and arranged so that it can
be raised or lowered. When lowered it should rest on supports so that
it lies on a level with the floor of the cage, which should be of slats with
spaces between of three-eighths of an inch. Opened, this answers as an
alighting-board for the pigeons at liberty. At night, or whenever it is
desirable to confine them, it can be closed. The open slats at the bottom
allow the rain and offal to pass through without collecting in a mass. On
either side of this falling door should be two holes or openings, four by six
inches, with an alighting-board projecting from them eight to ten inches
long by four inches wide. Suspended from the top of each opening should
be two stout wires, about one and one-half inches apart, inserted in a
round piece of wood at the top and hung on pivots at the sides, so that
the wires swing loosely, allowing any pigeon that may be shut out, to walk
in by pressing against them. A cleat placed at the bottom allows them to
swing inward, but prevents them from swinging outward, so that, once
inside, the pigeon cannot get out. These are known as bolting wires, and
pigeons soon learn their use.
This arrangement having been completed, attention is directed to the
nesting shelves and apartments. These should be arranged on one side, or
on both sides of the room, according to the number of pairs to be housed.
The shelves should be about fifteen inches wide, and from twelve to fifteen
inches apart, held in place by upright boards of the same width, and of a
length according to the size of the room. These can be subdivided into
spaces, eighteen to twenty inches long, by upright pieces, extending out
flush with the front and back edges of the shelf. This affords a breeding
place for each pair. Another subdivision, by a low partition fourteen inches
long and five inches high, allows places for two nest pans, and permits the
hen to make a second nest and lay another pair of eggs before the first
young ones are ready to leave the nest. It also prevents the young birds.
from annoying the older ones during incubation by teasing for food, as they
always do when the parent bird is near. In front of the middle partition
Pigeons
1193
and extending entirely across the front of the apartment, place a strip
three inches wide. This keeps the nest pan in place and prevents the
young from falling out, after leaving the nest pan. Fitted to the front of
the apartment should be a movable frame, covered with two inches of
wire netting, made of inch stuff. It is not necessary to have one for each
apartment. Half a dozen will be enough. These can be held in place
by buttons when necessary to keep a pair confined, in order to accustom
them to the particular nest you wish them to occupy. It will also be use-
ful in keeping a pair secluded, when desirable to do so. It is advisable to
have this tier of nests movable, not fastened to the wall, so that, in clean-
ing the room or loft, they can be pushed aside, and the wall behind them,
as well as the nests themselves, be thoroughly cleansed and whitewashed.
Although pigeons will live and breed in dark, dingy, and dirty rooms,
they like cleanliness. Their room or loft should be whitewashed before
they occupy it and once again during the year, after the breeding season
is over.
A necessary adjunct to the breeding-room is one or two mating cages.
These should be about thirty inches long, made of framework and wire
netting, with doors in front. They should be subdivided by a partition
through the center from front to back, also of wire netting. Wishing to
pair two pigeons of whose sex you are uncertain, confine one in each of
the apartments. As soon as they have become accustomed to the sur-
roundings, they will show if they are male and female, and congenial.
They can then be placed in one of the nesting apartments with a door or
frame in front, and, if ready for breeding, they will settle down contentedly.
The door can then be removed, and the birds given the liberty of the room.
By having two or more mating cages, several pairs can be mated at a time;
and as fast as one pair is mated, they can be removed to make room for
another. For successful and systematic breeding, these cages are very
necessary, in order that you may select such birds as you believe will pro-
duce best results in breeding and keep them together. It is best to have
these mating cages outside of the breeding-room, away from the other
pigeons, because many times a hen will take a fancy to a certain cock, and
as long as they are in a room together, it will be difficult to induce her to
take up with another.
The floor of the loft should be covered with sawdust, sand, or hay-seed
chaff. Of these, I prefer sand, as either the sawdust or the chaff when
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dry blows about, into the corners and along the sides, unless there is a
heavy layer of it. The sand can be wet occasionally with diluted disin-
fecting fluid, and thus kept in place and deodorized. A fine-toothed rake
run through it occasionally will take up the droppings and so keep it
clean.
A large pan made of zinc or of galvanized iron should be provided
for bathing. Pigeons are fond of the bath, and require it to keep them
clean and also to aid in freeing them from lice. Twice a week is often
enough, where pigeons are kept confined. If allowed their liberty, the
pan will not be necessary for they will find a bathing-place themselves.
I have given a general idea of how a loft should be constructed, but
the fancier can build to suit himself, his circumstances, and location. My
instructions can be enlarged and elaborated as taste and fancy may dictate.
Certain it is, that a handsome pigeon-cote, conveniently arranged, adds
much to the pleasure of pigeon-keeping.
-
Another necessary article is a feeding-box or hopper. In such a fix-
ture, the food is kept clean, and the birds can supply themselves from it
at will. Such a box can be made of inch and half-inch material, say, from
eighteen inches to two feet long, twelve inches high, eight to ten inches
wide at the top. The sides slope inward toward the bottom until they
At
are two inches apart; the end-pieces correspond to this inclination.
the bottom should be a trough five or six inches wide and two inches deep.
Into this the narrow portion of the hopper should be placed, raised about
one and one-half inches from the bottom of the trough. The food placed
in this hopper feeds into the trough as fast as it is used, thus keeping up
the supply till the hopper is emptied. If permitted, the pigeons will throw
much of the grain out of the trough to the floor with their bills, wasting a
large portion of it. To prevent their doing so, place wires from the front
of the trough to the sides of the hopper, about two inches apart. This
will permit them to get all they need to eat, and stop the waste. The top
of the hopper should be covered with a movable lid, so that the grain may
be kept clean, free from dust and dirt. There are other devices and recep-
tacles used for feeding purposes, but the one described is about as practical
as any.
It is often necessary to catch the birds for examination or for other
purposes, and, in a large aviary, a scoop or landing-net is a useful article.
This can be made by taking a piece of round rattan, half an inch in diameter
Pigeons
1195
and eight to ten feet long.
Bring the two ends together and fasten them
with binding cane or twine for about three feet, to form a handle, the
remainder of the cane making a loop. To this should be attached a bag
made of inch and a half meshed cotton netting, a light affair that can
easily be cast over the bird you desire to catch, without injuring it.
For the convenience of the birds, perches of some kind should be
placed in different parts of the loft, made so as to accommodate a single
bird. Begin by placing, about two feet apart, upright strips, two and
one-half inches wide and an inch and a half thick, from floor to ceiling. The
strips should be fastened to the side wall not occupied by breeding-pens.
Attach to these, by wooden brackets, boards, eight or ten inches wide,
dressed on one side, running horizontally at an angle of 45 degrees, about
two feet apart, one above the other. On the upper edges of these horizon-
tal boards, perches made of strips of wood should be fastened at right
angles and about a foot apart. The perches may be about five inches
long and two and one-half wide, running from the edge of the board to the
wall. Quarreling is avoided by the separation, and the slanting board pre-
vents the droppings of those above from falling on those below. Another
form of perch is made by taking two pieces of half-inch material, dressed,
four to five inches wide and five or six inches long. Nail two ends together,
making a V-shaped affair, which can be inverted and suspended on rails
driven into the upright pieces previously named. As they will accommo-
date but one bird, these also prevent quarreling and avoid the droppings
from other birds. Another plan is to have a bracket made of quarter-
inch iron, the lower part screwed to the upright. On the upper portion
of the arm, a square or round block of wood, four inches in diameter, can
be fastened. There are other forms of perches, but those mentioned are
practical and generally used.
The earthen pans for nesting purposes are made of the same material
as the flower-pots used by florists and gardeners. They are usually found
at any pottery where flower-pots are made. Wooden bowls can also be
used, but the earthenware are considered the best. These can be had from
six to ten inches in diameter, and suited to the size of the breeding birds.
Pigeons left to themselves build a nest of twigs and rough material, which
becomes a filthy mass by the time one or two pairs of squabs are raised.
Consequently, fanciers of experience take this matter of nest-making into
their own hands, and, instead of twigs, furnish dry, coarse sawdust. If

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The Poultry Book

Much care should be exercised in the
choice of drinking vessels. Where an open
vessel is used pigeons will bathe in it
and foul the water. Consequently, a
closed vessel must be provided with just
enough water for them to get their bills
into. Pigeons do not drink like birds and
fowls, but insert their bills in the water
and drink as a horse does. Hence, a
water-filled space, two inches wide and
two deep, is all they require. Agricultural,
poultry, and hardware stores keep various
kinds of closed drinking receptacles, or
fountains, as they are called, made of
metal and stoneware. But one can be
made of a large bottle suspended in a
BLONDINETTE ORIENTAL FRILL
The Frills are exquisitely penciled and laced with color frame, neck downward, emptying into a
deep saucer. To fill it, stand the bottle
on its base, fill it full to overflowing, place
the saucer, bottom up, on the top of the
neck. Then quickly invert both saucer
and bottle, setting them on the floor.
The water will flow until it is above the
outlet of the bottle and ready for use. As
it is exhausted, a fresh supply runs into
the saucer, and so it is kept pure and
fresh. In winter care must be observed
that fountains do not freeze. To prevent
THE JACOBIN
Whose hood, mane and chain combine in a fluffy erection
to rob it of side sight
cedar sawdust can be procured it is
considered the best, but good pine saw-
dust is also used. This can be changed
several times while the young squabs are
growing by substituting a clean nest pan
for the one in use and lifting the squab
from the dirty to the clean one. In this
way no vermin can gather to annoy the
young.


THE BARB
One of the great races of fancy pigeons. A wattled
beak and heavy muzzle
Pigeons
1197

this they should be filled several times
a day and emptied at night.
Lofts must be kept clean, and for
this purpose scrapers are necessary, as the
droppings will adhere closely to whatever
place they fall upon. An ordinary ship-
scraper, or paper-hanger's wall-scraper,
answers the purpose for perches and
nesting-places. For the floor, a scuffle-
hoe, such as is used in gardening, or a
toy garden spade, with a long handle
attached, does the work well. Other
scrapers may suggest themselves, but
these have been found practical and easy
to manipulate. Nothing conduces more
to the many different forms of disease in
pigeons than dirty lofts, foul feeding and
drinking vessels. See that they are kept
clean, and the birds will thrive. The loft
will be an attractive place to visit, and
one you never need fear to show your
friends.
In this chapter I have described a
single kind of cote, supposed to be an
upper room in a dwelling or barn, but a
building can be purposely constructed in
the dwelling-house yard or garden and be
so built as to be readily enlarged when
desired. This will need a concrete floor
to prevent rats working under it, but in
other respects it can be laid out as the
one already described. In this arrange-
ment a large space can be inclosed with
wire netting for a fly, and the pigeons be
kept constantly confined. A trap can
also be constructed, so that they can
be given more extended liberty. A room
A BLUE COCK TURBIT
Shortness of feather, frame and beak, and a "cobby"
build are desired

THE PYGMY POUTER
The "globe" of the chest and length of body and legs
are beauty points

THE NUN
This bird is classed with the Rock Pigeon because
its variations are not radical
1198
The Poultry Book
or building fifteen by twelve by eight feet high will easily accom-
modate forty or fifty pairs of birds. In keeping this number of birds,
a second room is desirable, where the young birds may be placed
when old enough to feed themselves. They are thus kept from annoying
the breeding pairs, and the cock birds are prevented from abusing the
young when they tease for food, as they often do even after they have
learned to feed themselves. The second room is a convenience when
cleaning-time arrives, and also for separating the males and females
after the breeding season is over. It is really a necessity for successful
breeding of large numbers.
-
FOOD AND Feeding
In the matter of food for pigeons, we must be particular if we would
be successful. "The best is none too good." It is no economy to feed
cheap grain, for its very cheapness denotes its impurity and imperfection.
Many opportunities are offered the fancier to buy this low-priced grain,
and when the temptation comes to cut down expenses in this way, it is
hard to resist, but a close examination will show the imperfections
that must certainly exist to render it so much cheaper than sound
grain. A little experience will convince one that the pigeons know
the difference between good and poor food. If fed the latter they
will eat no more than they are actually obliged to, to sustain life,
and, in seeking for palatable morsels, will waste the greater portion of
the cheaper quality. While flying at large, pigeons undoubtedly eat
much grain that, if fed to them under artificial conditions in which
most fancy pigeons live, would produce disease and sickness; but, as
the pigeons treated of here are fancy birds and supposed to be in
confinement, we must cater to them accordingly. No parents would
expect their children to thrive on the refuse of the grocer, the baker, or
the butcher, and why should our pets be expected to do well on the refuse
of the mill and elevator. With the best of grain, there will be some waste,
but when the health of the birds is considered, it is cheapest in the end.
Good, sound red wheat, small Canada peas, buckwheat, small kerneled
Yankee corn, also what is known as Kaffir corn, millet, and hulled oats,
and, if possible to procure them, tares and Dari; these last are foreign
grains, and, while not absolutely necessary, help make a variety. As a
special treat, a little hemp, Canary, and rape seed can be given. I never
Pigeons
1199
found pigeons take kindly to barley and rye unless actually starved to it.
Place a mixture of rye, barley, wheat, and Kaffir corn before them, and
the wheat and corn will all disappear, and the barley and rye be left.
Where they can do it, these grains will both be thrown out of the feeding-
pan or trough. In addition to having the grain of the best, care should
be taken to have it dry and hard. New grain but a short time from the
fields will scour and purge, and, naturally, cause weakness and emaciation.
While pigeons at large visit the grain fields and seem to feed with impunity
on the newly harvested grain, those in confinement show its bad effects
almost immediately. Stale bread soaked in water, mashed and then
mixed with wheat bran until all the moisture is absorbed, is very much
relished, and a little cayenne pepper sprinkled on it occasionally is
beneficial. One writer tells of making a corn-bread loaf once or twice a
week, and, after baking well and adding a plentiful supply of red pepper,
crumbles it up and feeds it to the pigeons. They like a change, and these
mixtures all come in as a substitute for the grains. Large kerneled corn
should always be avoided, especially for the smaller varieties, for they
often choke from trying to swallow the large kernels. I have frequently
seen small birds like owls and Turbits running about the loft with mouths.
open wide, and, on examination, found a large kernel of corn lodged in
the throat, which had it not been removed would undoubtedly have killed
them. I have occasionally found the mdead from this cause on the
the floor of the loft.
-
The manner of feeding is a disputed question. While some advocate
the use of hoppers and feeding-pans, where food can be kept con-
stantly before them, others prefer to feed from the hand, scattering it
about the floor or, if a fly is attached, on the ground. Where one is
able to visit the loft several times during the day, the latter method,
to my mind, is the best, as the birds can more easily be fed the variety
desirable to be given them at the time, and they are not so liable to be-
come excessively fat. But where one is able to visit the pigeons only
morning and night, then a hopper becomes a necessity, especially during
the breeding season. To supply the variety desirable, several hoppers
should be used, with one or two kinds of grain in each: then the birds can
choose which they prefer. When feeding soaked bread, a shallow vessel
is best, because it cannot be easily upset. When practising feeding by
hand, instead of feeding directly on the floor, a platform can be constructed
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The Poultry Book
from four to six feet square and raised about six inches from the floor,
the supports being well under the platform, so that, if mice infest the loft,
they cannot reach the grain. The hoppers can also be placed here if
desirable, when it is necessary to use them for feeding. The food of
pigeons should be varied according to the time of year and the locality. In
the North, where the cold of winter is severe, more nitrogenous food should
be given, such as corn, peas, and buckwheat; while in warmer climates,
less corn, peas, and buckwheat, and more wheat, millet, and less heating
food. In cold weather, the pigeons should go to roost with full crops,
thus enabling them to withstand the cold of the long winter nights.
While pigeons are supposed to be strictly granivorous, they relish an
occasional ration of green food, are fond of lettuce, young onion tops,
and young peas just starting from the ground, as I have found many
times to my discomfiture. I am inclined also to believe they have a taste
for animal food, having often observed pigeons kept near the ocean fly
to the beaches and work industriously for a time, picking up something
very gratifying to their taste. I have never opened the crop of such a one
to examine it, but am convinced that they feed at such times on diminutive
shell-fish or mollusks found among the stones on the shore.
They will
also eat fat bacon and the fat of ham when furnished them cut in small
cubes, and, I am inclined to believe, when flying at large they pick up
small grubs and worms.
In connection with good food, pure water is a necessity. Many
fanciers have running water in their lofts which would seem to be
all that could be desired, and yet at times I have seen the pigeons
drink from a stone fountain standing near, which suggested the idea
that the running water was too cold for them. However, except in
freezing weather, I believe that, where possible, running water is the
most desirable, as a pure supply is then always assured. Observation
will suggest to the fancier the best manner in which to supply it, whether
in a trough, a shallow tank or pool, or a succession of small vessels leading
one into the other. I believe the pigeon is the only one of the gallinaceous
family that is fond of salt: to gratify this taste, some fanciers tack a piece
of salt codfish to the wall of the loft near the floor, so that it can be easily
reached, and it is astonishing how eagerly it is sought and how soon it will
disappear. Some keep a lump of rock-salt convenient for their use. This
should be occasionally moistened to enable them to peck it more easily.
Pigeons
1201
The old fanciers counted much on what is known as the "salt cat," made
by mixing one peck of dry loam, one handful each of flour, ground cloves,
fennel seed, dill, cumin, fenugreek, and powdered asafetida, three
double handfuls common salt, and one double handful bay salt: mix this
well together and then add water enough to make it into a stiff dough.
Divide into cakes, allowing it to dry and harden in the sun, care being
taken to keep it dry, or it will disintegrate and crumble to pieces. One
or two of these cakes placed in the loft will be eagerly welcomed, and its
rapid disappearance will indicate how fond of it the birds are. Gravel is
also one of the necessary articles to provide for pigeons in confinement;
when at liberty they can procure it themselves, but, when confined, it
must be provided for them, being necessary to assist in preparing the food
for digestion. Ground or crushed oyster shells and very coarse sand
mixed together will answer the purpose; a little broken charcoal mixed
with it will be found an acceptable addition. Broken bone, of the size of
wheat, can also be furnished. Old lime mortar is another article they
appear to be fond of. Not that taken from inside walls, because that
contains hair, but such as is taken from foundation walls. What it con-
tains that is so acceptable it is hard to explain, but, as no ill effects seem
to arise from their using it, it may be fair to conclude it is of service to
them.
While I have mentioned this varied "menu" for their use, it is not
necessary that all should be continually before them, but it can be varied to
suit the judgment of their keeper. By giving the careful attention that
pigeons in confinement require, he can soon decide under what manner
of treatment and with what bill of fare they succeed the best. In this
connection, it might be added that many fanciers keep pieces of iron in
their drinking vessels, thinking it adds a tonic effect to the drinking water.
Some keep a piece of roll sulphur in the water, and others occasionally
add a small piece of quick-lime to the same. I have found what is known
as the "Douglas mixture" an excellent tonic where birds are debilitated
and out of condition, and a little added to the drinking water occasion-
ally has a good effect upon all. It is made as follows: add one-half ounce
of sulphuric acid to five-eighths of a pound of green vitriol or copperas,
dissolved in two quarts of hot soft water; when cold, add two quarts cold
water, making in all a gallon. Use in proportion of a tablespoonful to a
pint of water. It should be kept in a stone jug or glass bottle. It
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The Poultry Book
imparts a slightly chalybeate taste to the water, and is especially
beneficial in the spring.
MATING AND BREEDING
Having determined on the variety or varieties of pigeons one desires
to breed, the first thought that arises, after providing comfortable and
convenient quarters for them, is, how they shall be mated to produce
the best results and to attain a high standard. Every true fancier has
for his object the achieving of perfection in the particular breed or variety
which is the subject of his choice. He sets before himself an ideal which
he desires, if possible, to attain, and the more difficult it is to reach, the
more interesting is the pursuit of it. Let us suppose that the amateur
has acquired a fair knowledge of their leading points of excellence and
has decided on about what he wants to begin with. He can now visit
other breeders or attend some of the leading exhibitions of the country,
and here select single birds, or well-mated pairs (trusting to the good
judgment of the exhibitor or breeder in the mating). If single birds are
selected, he should be sure that he has the right proportion of males and
females, and from these get the foundation of his flock. In making
selections, he should be careful to have the cock bird as near the desired
color and markings as possible, and the hen as near to perfection in form
and feature as can be had. The reason for this is that it is generally known
and admitted among pigeon fanciers that the cock transmits to his progeny
the required coloring, and the hen the beauty of form and feature. The
birds should as far as possible be unrelated to each other, although it is
a known fact that pigeons will stand closer inbreeding than almost any
other domestic bird. Glaring faults must be carefully avoided, for, even
with the best of judgment in mating, imperfections enough will appear,
especially during the first year's experience, unless one has been unusually
lucky in first matings. After a year's breeding, a lot of youngsters will
probably have been gathered together, and as the mating season approaches
—early in February (in New York and vicinity)—it will be necessary to
distinguish cocks from hens. This is a difficult thing for an amateur to do
with young birds. An old fancier can, by a certain intuition, select males
from females quite correctly, but even the best of these sometimes fail.
The cock has a bolder look, a stouter beak, is fuller in appearance about the
cheeks; he has also a stouter neck and his breast-bone is thought to
Pigeons
1203
be longer than the hen's, and the bones of the "os sacrum" or vent
are closer together: this, however, varies with age. A professional judge
will examine with the first fingers of the right hand this formation
of the abdomen. If he finds the bones wide apart and the cavity
quite large, he will pronounce the bird a hen; if close together, a male. But
experience teaches me this is not a reliable test, although seeming to
be on the face of it a reasonable one. I have found the following a
more reliable test: Seize the bird by the bill with the fingers of the left
hand and the feet by the fingers of the right; draw them apart, extending
the bird to its full length. If it throws the tail up, you can almost surely
rely on its being a female; if it hugs its tail down close to the body, it is
supposed to be a male, provided the specimens are matured. While I
have tested this many times and found it correct, even this has sometimes
failed me; from which I conclude it to be a difficult matter to choose male
and female from a lot of young birds that you are not well acquainted
with. But in one's own loft, it is not necessary to apply these tests, as by
being among them daily you can tell by their actions, whether male or
female. The cocks, as soon as their sex begins to assert itself, strut about
with erect head, cooing loudly and frequently, with lowered wings and out-
spread tail, sweeping up to some other inmate of the loft, as if to invite
companionship. The hens, unless desirous of mating, stand quietly
about, or, if approached by these lively males, coo softly, at the same time.
moving their heads back and forth, and if approached too closely, will
strike with beak and one wing at the intruder, thus warning him to keep
cff, for his attentions are not acceptable. But should the amorous little
fellow in his parade about the loft meet a "congenial spirit," she will
reply to his attentions by bowing her head, winking her eyes, showing
a trembling action of the throat, as if swallowing, fluttering her wings
slightly, courtesying, raising the shoulders, and spreading her tail-some-
times even reaching out the bill as if seeking to be caressed. After a
liberal exhibition of this pretty coquetry, they seem to come to a mutual
understanding to unite their destinies, she accepts his caresses, and the
match is made. Then comes the search for a nesting-place: the cock
usually makes the selection and seeks to induce his mate to join him. If
she is coy and not ready to go to nest just then, he attempts to drive
her to the work, and they go trotting about the loft, the hen in advance,
the cock following, and, whenever possible to reach her, striking her with

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The Poultry Book
his bill and sometimes punishing her very severely. Although seemingly
mated, they do not appear ready to commence breeding, and at this stage
it is better to separate them,
since, in his persistent mood,
he will abuse her and fre-
quently batter her head so it
is a mass of bruised and bleed-
ing flesh. The conditions I
have named are where pigeons
are left to themselves, to pair
as they are inclined and not
with a view to perpetuate
and improve certain distinc-
tive points or characteristics.
On the other hand, knowing
the origin of the stock of
young birds and having deter-
mined in your own mind
which, if mated together, will
be likely to produce the best
results, the following method
is suggested: As soon as it is
definitely decided which are males and females, select such males as you intend
to breed from and place them in one portion of the mating-cage, allowing them
to stay there alone for a few days, to become accustomed to the situation.
As soon as they begin to show signs of feeling at home, place the hens
you have selected for them in the adjoining apartment, feed and water
them regularly every day, at same time giving them a little hemp and
canary seed. In a few days you will, if all goes well, note the same actions
I have previously described when they were at liberty. They will kiss,
as it is termed, through the openings between the partition wires and
show every evidence of satisfaction with each other. At this stage, you
can select the apartment in the breeding-room you desire them to occupy,
place a nest-pan therein for them, as described in a previous chapter.
Should they, upon being liberated, seem to prefer some other apartment,
if it does not conflict with original plans, they may be allowed to retain it,
as they will work more contentedly than if they are changed. When once
A WHITE MALE DRAGOON
Six months old
Pigeons
1205
they select a satisfactory location, it is hard to get them to accept another.
Some pairs will select a corner on the floor and, although you may confine
them for days in a location you think suitable, when liberated back they
will go to their old location. In about ten days or two weeks after mating,
the hen will show indications of laying.. The cock will seek the nest,
calling to the hen, with a deep, heavy coo, after which she will join him;
after billing and love-making for a time, he will start out looking for
material to construct a nest. To gratify this natural demand, I usually
keep a little coarse hay, cut in pieces three or four inches long, scattered
about. He will carry these to the hen, and she will adjust them in
the pan to suit herself. Whenever she leaves the nest, he will follow her
about, attempting to drive her back to her duties, and it is at such times,
as I have previously remarked, that he is sometimes very severe. The
breeding-room should contain nothing but mated pairs. Any surplus
cocks or hens are sure to make trouble. For this reason, it is always
convenient to have two or even three separate rooms; one for odd males,
one for odd females, and another for young birds as soon as they are able
to care for themselves.
The hen usually lays two eggs, one day elapsing between the first and
second. After having laid her first egg, which is generally between five
and six o'clock in the evening, she and the cock alternately stand over it,
to protect it from the intrusion of other birds. The second is laid usually
between two and three o'clock in the afternoon of the third day, when
they settle down to hatching in real earnest. The hen sits from three or
four o'clock in the afternoon until about ten the next morning, when she
is relieved by the cock who sits till afternoon, when he is again relieved
by the hen, and so they alternate until the day of hatching arrives, which
is the seventeenth day after the second egg is laid.
When the time arrives for the eggs to hatch, the little stranger makes
his presence known by a chipping sound within its prison, which can be heard
if the egg is placed close to the ear; also a crack will appear. The shell
will be found entirely broken and the little biped a free bird the next day,
provided it be strong enough to get out of the shell. When first hatched,
they are covered with a yellow down, or fine hair, and are ugly-looking, help-
less little things, totally blind. The old birds begin feeding them about three
or four hours after hatching, taking the bills of the young in their mouths
and injecting from their own crops the predigested food into that of their
1206
The Poultry Book
young. By a peculiar provision of nature, about the time the young birds
will require food, the food taken by the old birds is changed into a milky
fluid, and this is what the little "squab" is fed upon until large enough
to take the grain whole from the parent birds. At first they grow slowly,
until about the fourth day, when they become stronger and gain very
fast. By the seventh day, the pin-feathers will appear and the yellow
down disappear; after ten or twelve days, they are quite large and the
pin-feathers partially broken, and by three weeks the youngster is able to
walk, but can seldom feed itself before it has reached the age of five weeks.
From this time on, it can, if left to its own resources, look out for itself.
Even after being able to feed itself, it will run after the old birds whenever
it can, teasing to be fed by them. It is not uncommon when young birds
are running about the floor of the loft, to see two or three after one old
cock, squealing and teasing to be fed. A good-natured cock will stop
and feed them, but an ill-natured one will often turn on them and punish
them severely, pecking their heads and backs terribly. For this reason, I
would again advise a separate room to place the young birds in, thus
preventing them from annoying the old birds and from being in turn
abused. Where many breeding pairs are kept, each apartment should
be plainly numbered; then when the first egg is laid, it can be taken away
and in its place a dummy egg can be placed, made of plaster or marble, or
a natural egg, hard-boiled. This first egg should be numbered the same
as the apartment. This should be kept in a moderately warm room until
the second egg is laid, when the dummy can be removed and the first
egg returned to the nest. In this way, both eggs will hatch at nearly the
same time. If the first is left in the nest until the second egg is laid, it
will hatch two days before the other and there will be such a disparity
before many days in the young birds that the larger bird will get the most
of the food and the last-hatched suffer accordingly. Removing the first
egg is troublesome where there are many pairs, but it pays for the trouble.
It is singular, but match birds at any time you may, the first egg will come
between five and six in the evening, and the second between two and three
o'clock in the afternoon of the third day. By keeping a book record, the
breeder can tell the hour of hatching, and, when expected, look at the nest-
pan about six o'clock in the afternoon. If the egg be laid on time, note it in a
book, inscribing the number of pen and date of day. For instance, suppose
the first egg is laid on the first day of the month and the second on the third,
Pigeons
1207
add seventeen days for sitting from the last egg, making it the nineteenth
from the first. It sometimes happens that only one egg is laid, and then again
there may be three; but this is very rare. If, after the third day, you find
no additional egg, you can then give the hen the first egg laid and if you
have an extra egg, laid about the same time, this can be given her; otherwise
I would advise letting the dummy egg remain in the nest. Should there by
chance be a third egg, allow only two to remain, as, if two birds are hatched,
it is about all the old pair can attend to successfully. Some young hens,
when laying the first egg, lose the use of their legs, but it is only temporary.
While going the rounds to look after fresh-laid eggs, look at eggs ready
to hatch that day, and see whether they show signs of the shell's cracking,
for often a little judicious assistance rendered at such a time will save the
life of a valuable bird. Particularly should this be done in the early
spring, when the young in the shell are more delicate and weakly than
later. If an egg does not chip by the time it ought, namely, in the course
of seventeen days, the fancier should hold it to his ear and, if the young
one makes a crackling noise and that pretty briskly, he may conclude it
will soon break through the shell. When it has so chipped, if the young
one should not succeed in its endeavors to break the shell as much as the
fancier thinks it ought to have done in the time it has been working at it,
and does not show as much energy as when first heard, it is a sure sign
that the young bird is weakly and almost exhausted, and requires assistance.
In this case, he should gently tap with the finger-nail or the head of a pin
in a circle around the egg, in the same manner as it had been done from
within by the beak of the young bird itself, remembering to let in a little
air, which may safely be done at the place where the beak lies-no blood
will issue from it. In this way, the little fellow will be greatly assisted
in extricating itself from its prison-house and its little life preserved.
Particular care should be taken not to prick a hole in any other part of
the shell than in the place above mentioned, as it would make the youngster
bleed, which would be dangerous in the extreme. If it has been moving
about in the shell so long that all the moisture or blood in it has been
absorbed, and has, by its circuitous motion, rolled up the little caul or
membrane in which it is enveloped whilst in the egg, it may safely be set at
liberty, taking care to return it to the care of its parent as soon after as
possible. When it is disengaged from the shell, a portion of the yolk will
be seen to be attached to its body, which will nourish it for a day or two,
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if the old ones should not happen to feed it immediately. After pigeons
have been sitting four or five days, it is easy to tell whether the eggs are
fertile or not, by holding them between the eye and the light; if dark and
opaque, they are fertile, and you can, after the usual time, expect good
results; if clear and light-colored, they lack the life-germ, and you can, if
you have other eggs, exchange them for fresh eggs, throwing those that are
infertile away. If one is fertile and the other not, and you have no eggs
to exchange, it will be best to leave both eggs in the nest until the fertile
egg hatches, when the other can be removed. Sometimes two pairs due
to hatch about the same time have each one infertile egg. In this case,
both infertile eggs can be removed, and the fertile one of one pair given to
the other, and one pair broken from sitting entirely. These will soon lay
again, and thus time be saved by one pair doing the work of both. In
making the exchange, if one pair is known to be better feeders than the other,
the fertile eggs should be given to them. Many fine birds, after a few days'
nursing, refuse to feed their young, a seemingly unnatural and certainly
unaccountable condition of affairs. The novice is at a loss what to do,
but the man of experience takes the place of nurse, chews up some stale,
dry bread until it becomes soft and chyme-like, then taking the bill of the
young bird in his mouth, by the aid of the tongue injects this fluid into the
young bird's mouth and so saves its life. It is astonishing how quickly
the squab learns to eat in this way, and, as it grows, how eager it appears
at the approach of its feeder. As it increases in age and size, he chews
corn, peas or wheat, and the little fellow takes it and thrives on it as well
as on the bread. This, to some, would seem like rather an unpleasant
and not very neat performance, but the true fancier, in his desire to raise his
little pets, sets all squeamishness aside, and practice soon causes him to forget
any of its disagreeable features. If the breeder cannot bring himself to
this, a small syringe with a good-sized opening can be used, the food being
first made into a fluid mass and then injected into the mouth, and should
be fed luke-warm. Farina or any of the fine cereals prepared for family
use can be used. Experience will tell which are the best. Some fancy
birds are notoriously bad-feeders and, where large numbers are kept, many
breeders use varieties that are known to be good feeders and to be relied
upon to act as wet-nurses. In this way, many valuable birds are reared
that, if left to their own parents, would be neglected and die. Hatching a
little wonder is one thing, and rearing it is another. When you consider
Pigeons
1209
how early some pigeons begin to decline sitting on their young, careful
shifting becomes quite important to successful rearing of what is hatched.
They begin to get restless as early as the sixth day; the ninth or tenth day
they will be off the nest for an hour or more at a time and get calling to
nest again. The young ones, left exposed to the air before they have
a feather upon them, die of cold with their crop full, and in no way can
the old birds be induced to resume their care once they have deserted them.
To obviate this, the fancier should shift them under another pair that have
not hatched so long. He should kill the young ones he takes away from
such other pair, if he has not a shift for them. In doing this, he gets these
transferred young ones an additional supply of warmth from being sat on and
also a fresh supply of soft food from the foster parents' not having hatched
or fed so long, their soft feed not being yet exhausted. This changing should
be done only where the deserted birds are the most valuable. If both are
of same variety and of equal value, there is some risk to be run in making
the change, and nothing really to be gained. But it is practicable and
beneficial when ordinary birds are employed as feeders. Barren females
are quite common among pigeons, and nothing can be more disappointing
than to find, after paying a long price for a fine pair, that the hen does not
lay. Sometimes the pair will go through all the amatory performances of a
fine breeding pair, and the hen sit regularly on the nest, but there is no ap-
pearance of eggs. If an old hen, there is no hope for any different results,
but if a young hen, we have sometimes found that, by giving her a fresh
pair of eggs when the desire to sit shows itself, and allowing her to feed
and raise the young birds, which the pair will often do, the egg-laying
habit returns to the hen, and she will breed as well as any other. When
the old birds show a desire to build again for a second pair, place a clean
nest-pan on the opposite side of the apartment occupied by the first nest,
preparing it like the first, whereafter the old birds will continue to feed the
young, if good nurses, and they can be allowed to stay in the nest until able
to care for themselves, when they should be placed in the room set apart for
young birds. The nest-pan and apartment they occupied should be
thoroughly cleaned and thus made ready for occupancy when the old
birds are ready to lay the third pair of eggs, and so on through the season.
Whilst incubation is progressing, the less pigeons are disturbed the greater
are the chances of success. It is well enough to move among them quietly,
so that they may become accustomed to one's presence; but, until hatching
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is due, there is no necessity for handling the birds except to ascertain
whether eggs are fertile or if some other necessity arises. Sometimes during
incubation or while the squabs are too young to help themselves, a nest will
become infested with vermin: in such a case, a new nest must be prepared,
which can be quickly done by providing a clean nest-pan with a fresh
layer of sawdust and transferring eggs or squabs to that. A thorough
sprinkling of the apartment holding the nest-pan with disinfectant, or,
what is better, with some one of the various vermin exterminators, will soon
drive away the pests that have many a time caused the loss of a valuable
pair of eggs or squabs. Instances occasionally occur where a strong
male will desert his own mate and coax away the hen of another pair;
it may be a very undesirable mating, and the only way to break it up is to
remove the unfaithful hen and her original mate to another room, for, ast
long as the offending pair are kept within sight of each other, they will
seek each other's company. In mating pigeons for improvement, pairs
should be brought together in which the characteristics desirable to improve
are strong in each individual. When it is not possible to have both of
the qualities desired, good results may be expected if the one deficient is
descended from good parents. But nothing good can be expected where
both are deficient in good qualities, even though they may be descended
from good parents. Many fanciers purchase poor specimens known to
be descended from good stock, flattering themselves that they will raise
good birds from these and so be able to lay the foundation of a high-class
flock at small cost. This is a fallacy, and poor economy as well. While
color is an important feature in the breeding of pigeons and requires much
judgment in mating to produce perfection, it is still secondary to other
features that go to make quality in pigeons. For instance, a good Carrier,
a good Barb, a good Pouter, or a good Fantail, may be of any color, as long
as they possess in a high degree the qualifications required in good birds
of these kinds. Possessing these fine qualities in perfection, color then
comes in as a finishing touch. The colors ccmmon to pigeons are black,
dun, blue, red, yellow, and white, in various shades and mixtures, and to
produce these in all their variations satisfactorily, requires thought, study,
and a thorough knowledge of the breeding of the birds you mate together.
For instance, blacks and duns produce a better black when mated together
than two blacks, and the duns from this mating will be better than when
two duns are bred from. So reds and yellows together make richer colors
Pigeons
1211
than reds and yellows alone. Blacks and reds often produce a richer red,
and the red progeny of this cross bred to a yellow will make a deeper, richer
yellow. Duns bred from blacks crossed with yellow improve the color.
To breed yellows together too long, with no other shade introduced, will
produce a pale, washed-out shade. So with reds, it needs occasionally a
cross of black to keep the color from fading out. Blues will bear a cross
of black, or dun bred from black, once in a while, but reds and yellows
should never be crossed with blue. White, of course, must be kept to

RUFFLED MOORHEADS
A "German toy" pigeon-the toe feathering is unusual
itself, for any admixture of color leaves a stain it is difficult to get rid of.
I speak now of solid colored birds. Of course, where the white and other
colors are found in one bird, like the Turbit, the swallow, the Nun, etc.,
the same principle will apply to them as to solid colored birds. Birds
with black wings and heads can be crossed with reds and duns, and reds
with yellows, and so on. What are known as silver-colored can be occa-
sionally crossed with blue to deepen the color. There are so many parti-
colored pigeons that it is hard to lay down a law for them. The proper
mating of them requires a knowledge of their breeding and to know where
a dark or a light strain can be best used.
The other features besides color that go to make up a perfect specimen

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in fancy pigeons are the eyes, the bills, the feet, the crests, the frills. Each
separate variety has some one or two of these features peculiar to itself
that must be perfect in form, shape and color to be right.
Take the Turbit, for instance: it must have in connection with its
colored wings, a short, thick bill, a shell-crest, or a pointed arrangement of
feathers springing from the base of the skull and turning forward, and a clus-
ter of loose feathers extending down the front of the breast, known as the frill.
The Swallow should have the shell-crest, colored wings, a long bill, and its
feet and legs covered with long feathers, colored same as the wings and top
of the head; and so, through the whole list, each variety has some qualities
aside from color that distinguish them one from another, and the matings
should be at all times made with a view to producing these fancy points in
perfection. If, after a fair trial, you find pairs do not breed well together,
they should be separated and given new mates that in your judgment will
be likely to produce what you require. It is, after all, much of a lottery,
and only made successful by patient study and experiment.
CLASSIFICATION OF PIGEONS
The varieties of fancy pigeons are very numerous, and for a time no
attempt was made to distinguish them one from another, but with the
advent of pigeon and poultry shows it became evident that they must be
divided into classes to be more properly displayed and judged. Experi-
ence has taught those interested that some varieties possess points and
properties in which color and markings play no part in making them
distinct breeds. They should therefore be separated from those which
differ in color and markings alone from the common pigeon of the street
or fields. These specially distinguished pigeons have always been con-
sidered the lords of the fancy, and when classification became necessary,
they were placed at the head of the list as High-class Fancy Pigeons. They
are the English Carrier, the Pouter, the Barb, the Short-faced Tumbler
in all its varieties, and some authorities count the Runt also in this class.
Following these we have a class of pigeons noticeable not only for
their markings, but for certain peculiar arrangements of the feathers on
head, neck, and breast that distinguish them from one another in the same
way as the qualities do among the high-class pigeons. This second lot are
designated High-class Toys, and include Turbits, Jacobins, Owls, Trump-
Pigeons
1213
eters, Fantails, Dragoons, Scandaroons, Frillbacks, Priests, Brunswicks,
Oriental Frills, Antwerps and Florentines or Hen Pigeons.
Then we have a third class in which color and markings are alone the
distinguishing characteristics, and bereft of these the varieties would appear
so much like the Dove House Pigeons as to lose their identity entirely.
To this class belong the Nuns, Magpies, Swallows, Helmets, Spots, Arch-
angels, Suabians, Shields, Ice Pigeons, Starlings, Breasters, Moorheads,
Long-faced Tumblers, in all varieties, Porcelains, Hyacinths, Quakers,
Lahores, Mookies, and many others known in Europe and Asia that have
either never been introduced into America or have become extinct. Most
of these varieties are clean legged, but a few are feathered on the legs and
some show both plain-legged and feathered-legged specimens. These
appendages do not constitute a property, although they add in many cases
to the attractiveness and beauty. Again, some are smooth-headed; others
have a cap or shell crown at the back of the head, and still others a tuft
of feathers rising to a peak at the same spot. Without the special coloring
peculiar to the variety none of these attractive points would be a distin-
guishing feature.
In breeding for pleasure this classification is of little moment. As in
the case of floriculture, each fancier chooses the variety he admires,
without regard to its class; but in arranging for exhibition, classification
is of great importance, as the high-class pigeons could not reasonably be
expected to compete with the second class or Toys, as they have no prop-
erties in common. A brief description of the favorite varieties of American
fanciers will now be given, with the features that distinguish them at the
present time.
FAVORITE VARIETIES IN AMERICA
The English Carrier has long been considered pre-eminently the king of
fancy pigeons. Its distinctive traits are so far removed from those of the
common mongrel pigeon that it seems impossible they should both spring
from the same source; and these qualities go far to substantiate the belief
that the many varieties of pigeons could not have been accidental variations,
produced by domestication. In size the Carrier is known as large, measur-
ing from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail, when extended,
about sixteen inches. In carriage it is bold and upright. It has a long
head and beak; upper and lower mandibles of equal thickness, and the
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length from the center of the eye to the tip is from two to two and one-
quarter inches; eyes, large, prominent, bright and surrounded by a carun-
culous substance known as the wattle. This should be large and as near
a true circle as possible, with the wattling evenly distributed. At the base
of the beak should be an accumulation of carunculous matter, similar to
the eye wattle. This also should be large and full, separated from the eye
wattle, tilted slightly forward, and in form resemble a cauliflower. The
greater the development of both eye and beak wattle, so long as even dis-
tribution and symmetry are maintained, the more highly the birds are
prized. What is known as the "Jew wattle" is a similar formation under
the beak, and this must conform to the shape of the upper wattle.
The
neck should be long and slender, from the head to the shoulders, and cleanly
cut at the gullet; breast broad and full; back, broad and slightly hollow be-
tween the shoulders, the wing butts standing well out from the body;
wings and tail, long, of equal length and closely folded; thighs, long, prom-
inent and muscular; legs, long and stout; feet large, and furnished with long
nails. The color is solid, that is, clear and even, without admixture.
The colors peculiar to the variety are Black, Dun, Blue, Red, Yellow, and
White. The Blacks should be a rich glossy black. The Duns vary in
shade but should be even, whether dark or light. The Blues should be a
bright, clear, even blue, with jet-black bars across the wing coverts; a
black band near the end of the tail feathers; flights dark in color, and neck
a darker shade than the body but glossy and brilliant. Yellows and Reds
should be deep in color, clear and rich. The white should be spotless. The
eyes of Blacks and Blues should be dark red; Duns, Reds and Yellows a
clear pearl; Whites dark or what is known as bull-eyed. The color of legs
in all varieties is coral red. A peculiar feature in Carriers is that the Black,
Dun and Blue always exceed the Red, Yellow and White in development
of wattling. No amount of careful breeding and selection has been so far
successful in bringing the three last-named varieties up to the standard of
quality produced in the three first. While the colors named are recognized
as standard by the judges, a bird will frequently be bred with a mixture
of white in it, that possesses all the other distinctive features of a standard-
bred Carrier, and as such would be selected from any promiscuous crowd
of pigeons.
The Carrier has a strong love for home, and in earlier times was used
for messenger service, but the birds of to-day, on account of the great
Katalo
Pigeons
1215
development of eye and nose wattle, would be ill-adapted for long-continued
flights. They are shy, rather unfriendly birds, but fairly good breeders
and nurses, although many fanciers, in raising them, prefer to set their eggs
under other varieties, known to be good feeders and nurses, that can be
given their liberty, thus insuring stronger and more vigorous progeny.
THE POUTER
The variety of pigeon known as the English Pouter is believed to
have been produced by a cross between the old Dutch Cropper, or Pouter,
and a Carrier, and then bred back to the Pouter until no trace of the
Carrier remains. This bird might well be called the Beau Brummel of
the fancy, because of its jaunty, foppish manner. Others of the pigeon
family have pretty ways, but none are so stylish and showy as the Pouter.
Its head and beak should be of medium length and its head smooth.
Its chief property, the one from which it is named, is the crop, which it
can inflate at pleasure. It should be large, reaching to the beak, passing
round the neck and resting on the shoulders, and, when inflated, should
be as round as possible. When extended it should measure, from end of
beak to tip of tail, not less than eighteen inches and be as much longer
as possible. The body should be slender and not coarse; the legs, long and
plentifully feathered with short, soft feathers to the ends of the toes. They
should measure, from hip joint to the end of the toe nail, at least seven to
seven and one-half inches, and the longer the bird the longer the leg should
be, to give the required style and station. Wings and tail are long and
closely folded; carriage, erect and stately, at its best when the bird is
strutting or playing. When it inflates its crop, spreads its tail and struts,
with a dainty mincing gait, it makes itself very attractive. A good Pouter
can be of any color, but the preference is for pied. Hence we have Blue,
Black, Red or Yellow Pied, as well as pure White. In a pied bird, on the
front part of the crop should be a white crescent-shaped marking, extend-
ing from one eye to the other, wide at the center and narrowing to the
ends. The nearer to perfection the shape is the better. On the wing bows.
should be a few white feathers, disposed in a crescent or circular form
called the rose. The thighs and legs, as well as the ten flight feathers of
each wing, should be white. The tails should be the same color as the
bodies, but in Reds and Yellows, white tails are allowable, in consequence
of the difficulty of producing them the same color as the body. It is no
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easy matter to evolve a specimen perfect in every respect, especially in
coloring. When one such is produced it is considered a great achieve-
ment in breeding, and the bird is very valuable. As the Pouters are rather
indifferent breeders and nurses, the fanciers find it best to keep a number
of foster parents that are known to be reliable in this respect.
THE BARB
This is one of the oldest varieties of fancy pigeons, being among those
mentioned by Aldrovandus, one of the earliest writers on pigeons, about
the year 1600. Some writers claim that they originally came from Barbary
and that hence they derive their name, but, like many another feathered
pet, their origin is lost in obscurity. They are an attractive variety, but
have only a few admirers and are not so generally bred as some. Their
being rather poor nurses makes it difficult to breed specimens up to the
standard. They are medium in size, weighing about twelve to fifteen
ounces. The head should be large, with square skull, of equal width from
front to back, and as broad as possible. The eyes should be pearl-colored
in all the colored specimens, and dark or bull-eyed in the white. Around
the eye is a cere, or circular collection of carunculated flesh, similar to that
in the English Carrier. This should be evenly proportioned all around
and stand well out, slightly above the skull, be quite thick on the edges
and free from spouts or irregularities. This forms a very attractive
feature if the bird is in perfect health, when it should be bright red. In the
White specimens, this feature is very striking. The beak is short and mas-
sive, both mandibles of nearly equal thickness, and with a slight drooping
tendency called "down-faced." The beak wattles are small, fine in texture,
evenly divided, flesh-colored and free from stains. The neck should be
short and stout, tapering gracefully from the head to the shoulders; breast,
broad and full; back also broad; legs, short, free from feathers, well set on
the body and coral red in color; feet, medium in size; wing butts, standing
well out; flights, medium in length; tail, also of medium length and well
folded. The favorite color is Black, although Duns, Reds, Yellows and
Whites are as often bred. The Blacks exceed all others in the desirable
properties that distinguish the variety. Many attempts have been made
to breed Blue Barbs, but none to my knowledge have so far been pro-
duced. Nature has baffled the fancier in this direction, as she has the
gardener in his attempts to produce a blue tulip.
Pigeons
1217
SHORT-FACED TUMBLERS
This variety of high-class pigeons, unlike those already described, is
noted for its diminutive size; its delicate formation and dainty, attractive
manners. As in the case of the Barb, few attempt to breed it because
many obstacles present themselves; but, like all other high-class pigeons,
when a fine specimen is produced its value is inestimable. The standard
points are the head, the beak, the eye, the carriage or shape, and lastly
the color. A truly good Short-faced Tumbler may like a Carrier be of any
color. The chief distinctive point is the head, which should be round,
broad and high; the forehead very full and prominent, overhanging the
beak to form something like an acute angle where the head and beak join,
making what fanciers call a good stop. It is very difficult to produce this in
perfection. The beak should be short and fine, the upper mandible slightly
the thicker. In length it should not exceed five-eighths of an inch, from
the center of the eye to the end of the mandibles. The wattle about the
nostrils should be fine and in no way prominent. There is a tendency
in the beak to grow long and spindling. Some fanciers make a practice
of trimming it for exhibition, so that it may appear shorter than it really
is, but an expert can soon detect the fraud. The eye should be bright,

SWALLOWS
These birds approximate the old Rock Pigeon type
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full and prominent, and a clear pearly white. This is another feature in
which it is hard to arrive at perfection, as there is a tendency to produce
an eye of a reddish tinge, known as a gravel eye. In form this variety
should be small, compact, well rounded in body; the neck, short, tapering
gracefully to the head; the chest, full, broad and prominent; back, short;
tail, short and closely folded; wings, short, with pinions or flights carried
slightly below the tail and nearly touching the ground when the bird struts,
with head erect, and chest thrown out, stepping on its toes. No prettier
sight can be witnessed in the loft, than a well-bred Short-faced Tumbler
parading before its mate.
The Short-faced Tumbler is of many colors, plain and mixed, but the
Almonds, the Mottles and the Baldheads are the favorites. These are
all difficult to breed to perfection, and are valued in the order named. The
Almond, the most admired and most difficult to breed to feather, should be
a rich bright yellow, mixed or broken with jet-black and white. Each
feather, particularly those of the tail and wing flights, should contain the
three colors as clear as possible. As may be imagined this is hard to obtain,
but therein lies one of the pleasures of breeding the variety. The name
is supposed to be derived from resemblance in the main color to the inside
of an almond-shell. The Mottles are solid in color, with the exception of
a cluster of white feathers on the wing bows, called the rose, and a triangu-
lar patch of white feathers between the shoulders, known as the handker-
chief. The nearer to perfection these can be produced, the more valuable
the specimen. Mottles are found in all the colors known to pigeons, but
black, red, and yellow are the favorites. The Bald Short-face has all the
Short-faced properties combined with the white head, from which it derives
its name. It has also white flights, white tail, white thighs and vent;
the balance of the body, colored.
The Beard, another variety of the Short-face, seldom seen, has as its
distinguishing feature a crescent-shaped patch or marking of white on
the throat just below the bill. The points of the crescent extend from
eye to eye. The tail and flights are also white; the balance of the body
solid colored. All of these varieties, when produced in perfection, show
the acme of high-class breeding. Where white appears in any of them it
should be clear and spotless, free from any foul feathers or blemishes.
One advantage in breeding Short-faced Tumblers is the limited accom-
modations they will put up with and still thrive and do well.
Pigeons
1219
THE RUNT
This pigeon has little beyond its great size to attract the attention
of the fancier. In this feature it exceeds all other domestic pigeons and
for that reason finds some admirers, though being difficult to breed it has
never become a general favorite. It is long in body, and when extended
frequently measures from twenty to twenty-one inches from end of beak
to extremity of tail. The body is thick and well rounded; head, large; eyes,
sunken; beak, of medium length, but thick, upper mandible being a trifle
heavier than the lower; neck, short; breast, full and round; carriage upright;
feet, large, coral red in color; tail, short; wings, carried close to the body;
flights, meeting and carried just above the tail, reaching nearly to its
extremity. If they could be successfully bred, this would be "par excel-
lence" the pigeon for the squab-raiser, as the squabs, when mature, weigh
from one pound to one and one-half pounds each. On account of their
scarcity and high price, the squab-breeder would not be warranted in invest-
ing in them for this purpose. Eaton, an early English writer on pigeons,
mentions some that weighed four and one-half to four and three-quarter
pounds per pair. They are found in all colors, but those most common
in American show rooms are Blacks, Blues, Silvers, and, occasionally,
some very good Whites. In breeding them, it is customary to use foster
parents for the young, as the Runts are poor sitters and nurses. Contrary
to the usual custom, I have in this classification placed them among the
high-class varieties, on account of their scarcity and the high price at which
they are held, and also because they could hardly be classed as Toys.
-
THE HIGH-CLASS TOYS
This class of pigeons, usually placed second to the Carriers, Pouters,
and Short-faced Tumblers, have features that make their title appro-
priate, be their color what it may. Certain markings, peculiar to each
variety, have become so fixed that the offspring never vary from the original
stock. Excepting some of the very shortest-billed specimens, they are all
good breeders, feeders, and nurses, and need no assistance from other
varieties in rearing their young. The ease with which they are bred, as
well as their beautiful appearance and lower price, make them more gen-
eral favorites than the high-class pigeons, and, consequently they are
found in larger numbers. They must, however, be watched and properly
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mated, to produce the best results, for there is a tendency to deteriorate.
A lot of mediocre and unsatisfactory birds result from carelessness and
neglect, so that thought, selection and watchfulness must be exercised and
a thorough knowledge of ancestry and breeding obtained if good specimens
are to be produced. Heading this list, and coming very close in high-
class properties to the varieties named in that class is
THE TURBIT.
This charming member of the pigeon family is one of the brightest
and most active of the Toys. Close and compact, it is slightly below the
medium in size, but cannot be classed as small. It is a very old variety,
being mentioned by Willoughby as far back as 1678. The origin of the
name is unknown, although it may be a corruption of the word "turban,"
suggested by the shell crown usually found at the back of the head On
the other hand, the peculiar arrangement in coloring of the wings may
have suggested to the old fanciers that much-prized edible European fish,
the turbot. Brent says the English name is probably derived from the Latin
word Turbatus, which refers to its frill, or ruffle. Its head should be broad,
rather angular, and, according to some authorities, should resemble in
shape the head of a frog. Its full, bright eye is the kind called bull's eye.
The bill is short, of about equal thickness, and has a tendency to droop,
making what is known as a "down" face. Beneath the beak, and extend-
ing down the front of the throat, is an extra development of the skin known
as the gullet. This relieves the angular junction between the beak and
the neck and causes the beak to appear shorter. Below this, and extend-
ing down the breast, is a curious formation of soft feathers, that reach
from a central line outward each way, called the purle, or frill. This
varies in size in different specimens and the larger and broader it is, the
more the bird is prized. At the back of the head, in some specimens, is
a shell-like formation of stiff feathers turning to the front, called the shell
crown. In others, the feathers form a point, and these-known as point-
headed-are to-day the most esteemed.
The colors are varied, some having the body entirely white, with
exception of the wings to the primary feathers, which may be black, blue,
red, yellow, silver, dun, or checquered. The ten flights of the wings, and
tail are also white. Then we have Turbits of solid colors with not a speck
of white, and some again are all white with colored tails. The legs should

Pigeons
1221
be clean, or free from feathering, feet small and coral red in color. The
desirable points bred for are shortness of face and development of crest
and frill. The constant tendency to retrograde calls for unceasing watch-
fulness and good judgment in
mating to keep up a high standard.
They are naturally good breeders,
sitters, and feeders, but the short-
ness of beak in some specimens
interferes somewhat in the last
particular, and it becomes neces-
sary in such cases to employ
feeders.

THE JACOBINE
The Jacobine Pigeon is
doubtless so called from its white
head, and the peculiar arrange-
ment of feathers about its head
and shoulders, suggesting a resem-
blance to the Jacobine Monks,
who shaved their heads and wore
a cowl or hood to their cloaks. It is one of the most attractive of High-
class Toys, and was in earlier times classed among the smallest of
pigeons, but at present it comes nearer to the medium size. The desire to
produce birds with the large development of feather about the head and
shoulders, known by fanciers as the hood, mane and chain, has resulted in
an increased size of body, necessary to the carrying of this greater length of
feather. The head, as I have said, should be white. The eye, what we
call pearl; the beak, flesh color. At the back of the head is a growth of
narrow, soft feathers, which turns to the front, forming the hood, and the
longer and more close-fitting this is, the better. Extending from the hood
down the side of the neck, is a growth of this same kind of feathers, which
divide as they go downward, a portion turning to the front, the remainder
to the back. Those at the back which meet from either side above the
neck, are known as the mane; those at the front, joining on the breast, are
called the chain. These feathers, parting from a common center, form
the rose, and the greater the development of all these marks the greater in
A SADDLE FANTAIL
The head is always invisible with the forward carriage

1222
The Poultry Book
value, from a fancier's standpoint, is the bird. When these feathers are
too soft to stand well up on the back, there is a great objection to the speci-
men and its value is decreased proportionately. A compact, rather close-
feathered bird, with long chain, upright mane, and close-fitting hood is
our ideal of a Jacobine. In the nearest perfection, among the birds that
we see, the rose is well developed; it has a good pearl eye, a short bill, and
a "down" face, that is, one in which the bill has a tendency to droop
instead of standing straight out from the head.
In color they are the same as most fancy pigeons, black, red, yellow,
white, dun and blue, the body being of a solid hue which extends from the
head to the thighs and vent, while the ten flight feathers of the wings, the
tail and head are all clear, spotless white. In the five first-named colors,
the development of the essential Jacobine qualities is not difficult, but
nature so far has seemed to balk all attempts at perfection in blue, though
breeders have for years been attempting to bring it up to the high standard
of the other varieties. I have so far seen but little advancement beyond
the birds I knew and owned twenty-five years ago. A blue Jacobine with
the fine development of chain, mane, and hood, as seen in blacks and
Reds, would be a beautiful bird. Jacobines are fairly good breeders and
feeders, and I have known couples to raise as many as six pairs of young
in a season. This is uncommon, but a result of careful attention to the
wants and requirements of the birds. Mottled, strawberry tinted, or others
off colored have often good Jacobine qualities, and are, therefore, useful
in crossing, when their antecedents are known. The legs of the Jacobine
are short, coral red in color, and should be free from feathers; feet, small
and clean with flesh-colored toe-nails. The Jacobine is a very old variety,
but interest in it never seems to wane, and, as it improves in quality, it
awakens a stronger love in the hearts of its admirers.
THE OWL
The Owl Pigeon is a small bird which probably derives its name from
its round head and short, curved beak suggesting a resemblance to "the
Bird of Night." Its head should be as nearly globular in form as it can
possibly be, and in the larger, or English variety, it should have what
fanciers call a massive appearance. The beak should be short, stout, with
a strong, downward tendency, and overhanging at the tip. The eyes should
be full, bright, as near as possible to ruby red in color, and surrounded by
Pigeons
1223
a small, light-colored cere, very fine in texture. The wattle about the beak
should be small, fine in texture, and should fill up the space between the
head and the beak, thus completing the rotundity of the head. From the
lower mandible of the bill down the front of the neck is an extension of the
skin of the throat termed the dewlap or gullet, which adds to the apparent
shortness of the face, and a liberal development of this is considered an
acquisition. Where the dewlap ends, a row of short, soft feathers begins,
opening outward and increasing in size as they extend, until they form on
the breast an almost complete circle, called the rose. The larger and more
perfect this formation, the more is the specimen prized. The body of the
Owl is short, plump, and broad-chested, the breast being full and promi-
nent. They should be solid in color, that is, entirely free from spot or
blemish. They display the usual hues-black, blue, red, yellow, dun,
white, or silver, and white with colored tails. These last are very attractive
pets. In addition we have them in the colors termed powdered blue, and
powdered silver. Silvers and Blues alike have two bars, either black or
red, across the coverts of each wing. The tails of all varieties are short,
and the ends of the wing flights meet above the tail. The legs are free
from feathers and coral red in color.
Distinct from the English variety of Owl, is that called the Chinese
Owl, which has all the owl properties, with the addition that the frill of the
breast spreads out below the jowls or cheeks, and extends along up the
side of the neck nearly to the back of the head, giving the bird a unique
appearance. Then there is a variety, one of the smallest of fancy pigeons,
known as the African Owl. This also shculd have all the marks of the
Owl family, though not in quite so pronounced a degree as the English
Owl. It is rather delicate in this climate and consequently not so success-
fully bred as the English. Owls are usually good breeders and nurses,
although some of the shortest-billed specimens find it difficult to feed well
and feeders have to be employed for them.
THE TRUMPETER
This variety of the domestic pigeon is supposed to have come originally
from Egypt or Arabia, although of late years some of the finest and largest
specimens have been brought to us from Russia. It derives its name from
its prolonged, gurgling coo, that seems more like water flowing from a long-
necked battle, than even the distant sound of a trumpet. It is above

1224
The Poultry Book


A SATINETTE ORIENTAL FRILL HEN
The Frills belong to the Turbit and Owl race of pigeons
A RUNT HEN
The Runt is the largest of domestic pigeons
medium size and the larger specimens are the more valued. They are
short necked, broad-chested, and low of stature. Their other peculiar
properties, besides the voice, are the shell crest and the rose. The former
is composed of a row of rather short, stiff feathers, starting from the base
of the skull, curving forward and extending from one side of the head to
the other in resemblance to the form of a shell. This should not be set
close to the head, but must be regular and well formed. The rose is a tuft
of soft fine feathers, springing from the head at the base of the beak, and
radiating from a common center outward, as its name implies, somewhat
in the shape of a rose, the larger the better. It gives a singular appearance
to the bird, and is often large enough to obscure the sight so that it has to
be trimmed, that the pigeon may find its food. The feet and legs are
heavily covered with feathers, those on the toes being so long and stiff as
to interfere somewhat with locomotion, but still they are considered requi-
site to a perfect Trumpeter.
In color the birds are solid black; black with shoulders mottled with
white; dun, and dun mottled; pure white, and white spangled with black.
Blues and Reds have been exhibited, but neither have shown such fine
Trumpeter qualities as the other colors. The eyes should be pearl, bright
and prominent. They are fairly good breeders, but their heavily feathered
feet are apt to break the eggs or throw them from the nest, and for this
reason foster parents are usually employed in hatching and rearing the
young. The Trumpeter is heard to best advantage during the breeding
season, when salacious and calling to nest, but, like other performers,
some are better than others. The variety just described is known as the

Pigeons
1225
Russian Trumpeter, but there is a smaller one known to fanciers, in
which the properties so much admired in the Russian are less finely de-
veloped. But the latter, while interesting in its way, has not the voice of
the larger variety and finds no place in the exhibition room.
THE FANTAIL
The Fantail, or, as the older fanciers called it, the Broad-Tailed
Shaker, derives its name from the peculiar arrangement of the feathers of
the tail which resembles an unfolded or open fan. The tail should be car-
ried erect, and consist of no less than twenty-four feathers, but one of
thirty or thirty-two is better still, especially if the feathers are broad and
the tail carried well up and expanded. Thirty-six and even forty-two
feathers are sometimes seen, but they are apt to make a tail too heavy for
the bird to carry erect, and a drooping tail shows to no advantage. The
fan is about medium size, but the smaller the bird, so long as it carries a
fine tail, the more desirable it is. The neck is long, the head small, and the
beak of medium length. The neck should be slender and swan like, curving
backward, so that the head rests on the cushion or base of the tail, while
the neck trembles in a vibratory motion, and the breast is elevated and
well thrown out. The back should be short, the wings carried close to
the sides, with flights below the tail and close together. Legs short, and
either clean or feathered. In the latter case they should be well supplied
with short, soft feathers. While the smooth, or plain headed, variety is
the kind most generally fancied and bred, there is another in which the



THE CARRIER
The king of fancy pigeons. He is cut on racing lines,
with great neck length
ALMOND SHORT-FACED TUMBLER
Small and trimly built, with shortened beak
1226
The Poultry Book
feathers at the back of the head are raised into a point or peak, curving
slightly forward. These are known as crested Fans and when, provided
with large, well-spread tails, booted or feathered feet, and pure white
plumage, they are things of beauty that would attract the attention of the
most unsophisticated in pigeon lore. The colors common to the variety
are white, black, blue, red, yellow and dun, and these should be solid, that
is, free from any mixture of other coloring. The Whites, Blacks, and Blues
take the lead generally in tail qualities, although the Reds and Yellows,
after years of careful breeding, are gradually working up to the same high
standard. While the solid colors are the general favorites, there is bred
also a variety called Saddle Backs, in which the body and tail are white,
the wings alone colored. Then we have a variety in which the body is all
white, the tail colored; and again one in which the whole body is colored
and the tails white. With so many from which to choose, the admirer of
the Fan can find a great field to work in. The eyes of all those in which
white predominates, have the hazel or bull eye, while the colored kinds
have the red eye common to colored pigeons. The Fans are good breeders
and nurses, although it is often necessary in the breeding season to secure
perfect copulation, to clip the tails of the largest tailed specimens.
THE DRAGOON
This pigeon is described by all the old writers as originally a cross.
between the English Carrier and a common Tumbler. By careful selec-
tion and occasional crosses back to the Carrier, the shape has been pre-
served, likewise the distinctive length of beak and the development of
wattle. An over-frequent resort to the Carrier cross is apt to render them
too stout and too bulky in the wattle. The name, though spelt Dragoon,
is pronounced Dragon by the majority of fanciers, but that is evidently a
corruption, as the old breeders gave the name Dragoon to exemplify their
idea of a mounted Messenger. Fanciers aware of this fact pronounce the
name as it was originally given, and one can readily see how much more
fitting and appropriate it is than the unpleasantly suggestive one of Dragon.
The bird is nearly as large as a Carrier, but much more slenderly and deli-
cately built. It should have the symmetry and hardness of feather of the
Carrier, the same alert, watchful attitude, the long box beak, but not the
great development of eye and beak wattle. The formation of the wattle
should also be different. Instead of being rough and divided into three
Pigeons
1227
parts it ought to be in one piece, slightly raised at the back and tapering
off sharply to the nostrils. The eye-wattle should also be small, but
smooth, and all specimens should be free from that appearance of wattle
under the beak, called "Jew wattle." The head should be long; the skull
broad, slightly rounded and tapering to the front; affording room for a
large brain and the consequent development of that much-prized faculty,
the homing instinct. Dragoons are seen in every variety of coloring,
known to the pigeon family, but they should be solid colored. The blue
should be all blue with no admixture of white; even white rumps not being
tolerated. The back should be quite broad; wing bows, prominent; body,
full and round in front, tapering nicely to the tail, which should be rather
short and carried well up from the ground; wings, broad and strong, the
flights reaching not quite to the end of the tail. The legs should be rather
long and placed at such an angle as to give an elastic, gamey appearance
to the bird. The Dragoon, possesses all the qualities of a good flyer, and
is capable of doing long distances as well as the Antwerp, but it is more
often kept and bred now as a show bird than a homer. They are excellent
nurses and so productive that a few pairs soon increase to a large family.
THE SCANDEROON
This is a variety of pigeon but little known or admired in the United
States, and consequently not often seen, even at our most prominent
exhibitions. It belongs to the wattled variety of pigeon, although the
wattles of eye and beak are never developed to the extent that they are in
the English Carrier. They are large birds, very close feathered and pied
in color, that is, white broken by black, blue, red or yellow. The color
extends from a point at the back of the neck, down the back, including the
tail and scapulars of the wings. From this same point of the neck it
separates and extends gracefully down the sides of the throat, meeting
again on the breast and covering the whole of it nearly down to the thighs,
where it should be clean cut across the body. Head, neck, thighs, and
vent are white; legs long and strong, ending in large feet all coral red in
color. The neck should be long, slender, and slightly curved. The head,
which is the most marked feature of the bird, should be long and narrow,
ending in a long, curved beak. The curve begins at the back of the head
and sweeps gracefully from this point to the end of the beak, which should
be stout and close fitting. The longer and more curved, the more its owner
1228
The Poultry Book
is prized. The eyes are large, prominent, and surrounded by a large,
bright red cere or circle of carrunculous flesh, that should extend into the
beak wattle and along the sides of the beak itself, which should be flesh-
colored. While the pied birds are most generally fancied, there are solid-
colcred specimens in black, blue, red, and yellow. These birds, like most
pigeons, are of eastern origin, coming from Persia and Turkey, originally.
They are good breeders and nurses, raising their young without the aid of
foster parents and are an attractive pigeon for those who delight in novel-
ties.
M
FLORENTINE OR HEN PIGEON
This pigeon derives its name, Hen Pigeon, from the peculiar manner
in which it carries its tail, which is erect, but not outspread, like the Fan-
tail. It is a large pigeon, with long, swan-like neck, which is carried well
back, frequently when excited and while hastening to nest, touching the
tail; its breast is full and carried well up and out, its wings quite short,
the flights meeting beneath the tail. Its legs are long, free from feathers;
they carry the body well up and make it appear larger than it really is.
It has a peculiar gait different from any other variety of pigeon, especially
at nesting time when the cock is following the hen about the loft, trying
to induce her to go to nest. They walk on tiptoe and remind one of a
dainty lady crossing a muddy walk. They are no doubt an improved
variety of the Leghorn Runt mentioned by early writers and are much
esteemed by the few who breed them in this country. In color they are
as varied as other pigeons, but are chiefly bred in solid colors. The head
is quite heavy, the beak straight and of medium length, the eyes of the
solid and broken colors-orange, red, of the pure white, hazel or bull. They
are hardy and good breeders and nurses, and to one looking for oddities
in this line fully answer the purpose.
THE FRILL BACKS
This pigeon is about the size of the common Dove House Pigeon, and
is so named for the curling feathers covering the back and wings. This
feature extends also into the neck feathers, but not in so marked a degree
as on the back and shoulder, where the desire is to get them to attain as
complete a curl as possible. There are plain head and shell crowned
varieties, and all should be plain legged or with legs free from feathering.
Pigeons
1229
Colors can be as varied as desired so the peculiar characteristic of curling
feathers is retained. Eyes should be orange-red.
THE PRIEST
This variety is of medium size, and according to Brent, an old English
writer, "derive their name from being hooded or capped and having the
crown of the head white, bearing some resemblance to the shaven tonsure of
the Catholic priests." The head is quite long, the beak of medium length,
the back of the head is surmounted with a shell-shaped cap of colored
feathers corresponding with prevailing color of the body; the top of the
head should be white to a line running from the back of the head
through the eye to where the upper and lower mandibles of the bill
unite. At the base of the bill rises a tuft of soft feathers, which should
separate and fall in equal quantities toward back and front. This is a
distinguishing feature of the priest. Sometimes this falls equally on all
sides, forming a perfect rose, but when in this form is apt to lead one to
class them as English Trumpeters. The body is of one general color, with
exception of the wing secondaries, which are white, sometimes edged with
a reddish tinge; this, when the wings are closed, shows two white bars across
the wings and is a very attractive feature. The legs are short and should
be well furnished with soft feathers to the end of the toes. The colors
run as usual. Those with white bars are the most desirable; they are often
seen without the bar. The upper mandible of the bill should be white, the
lower dark horn color. The eyes are dark or bull-eyed. They are good
breeders and nurses and altogether an attractive pigeon.
THE BRUNSWICK
This variety possesses all the peculiar characteristics of the Priest,
with the exception that the cap at the back of the head is white, like the
top of the head and the tuft at the base of the beak of the Priest; in addi-
tion to this the ten flight feathers of the wings are white and sometimes the
tail. In this variety the feathers of legs and feet should be a little longer
than those of the Priest. They are a very attractive variety of pigeon,
but for some reason are not popular and are rarely seen even in our largest
exhibitions, and many fanciers, and even judges, at exhibitions would
not know it from a Priest at first sight because of its rarity.
1230
The Poultry Book
ORIENTAL FRILLS
G
This is one of the most beautiful and attractive variety of pigeons
known to the pigeon fancier. Their origin, like that of all fancy pigeons,
goes back to the Far East. Smyrna is said to be the spot from which they
were first introduced to England and from England to the United States.
There the climate is most favorable for their production, and they un-
doubtedly attain to greater perfection than they can in our variable climate,
although they seem to be hardy. There is quite a numerous variety of
them and each has its own peculiar coloring, and by this coloring they are
distinguished one from another. Thus they are known as Satinettes,
Sulphurettes, Brunettes, Silverettes, Bluettes, Blondinettes. These latter
being subdivided into Browns, Blacks, Blues, Sulphurs, and these again
into Arrow Pointed, Spangled, Laced and Tipped. Added to these is an-
other variety known as Turbiteens, having its own peculiar markings
distinguishing them from the others. In form and general characteristics
they all much resemble the Turbit, excepting that their legs are feathered or
muffed, they are also a trifle larger. In head properties they also resemble
the Owl, as well as the Turbit. The head should be of good size, round and
of one continuous curve from back to front, and from eye to eye, with no
inequalities; the cheek or jowl full, thus completing the rotundity of the
head. The beak should be short, thick, tending downward in conformity
with the curve of the head. The dewlap, a very important feature, should
commence as near as possible at the point of the lower mandible of the beak,
be well developed and extend down the front of the neck to the commence-
ment of the frill, an arrangement of soft feathers extending down the front
of the breast and opening outward from a common center each way, like
that of the Turbit and Owl. The shoulders should be broad, breast broad
·and full, neck quite long and nicely arched, the whole carriage proud and
erect. The legs quite long and covered thickly with short soft feathers.
In coloring the Satinettes have only wing covers and tails colored, the rest
of the body pure white. The ground color of the wings is a pinkish brown,
graduating to a lighter shade; over this the pencillings of purplish black
are formed, being darkest at the butts and growing lighter as they extend
downward. There should be at least seven of the ten flight feathers of the
wings white. The tail should be of a purplish blue, each feather ending
with an oval-shaped white spot, which forms when the tail is closed a white
Pigeons
1231
bar across it. The more perfect this particular feature is, the more the bird
is prized, and it is a feature and point of beauty found only among Oriental
Frills. The Satinette is bred both plain and point headed and it rests with
the fancier's taste to make the selection of his choice. The Brunettes
are of same type as Satinettes, differing only in coloring, which is a delicate
grey tint mixed with pencillings of a darker grey. Sometimes these pen-
cillings take sulphur or orange tint, when they are known as Sulphurettes.
Bluettes have light-blue shoulders with darker blue rump and tail with
same spots as the Satinette. Across the wings are two light bars composed
of the three colors of the Satinette, white shading into a pinkish brown and
this edged with black; they are a beautiful variety, but by many would be
taken for a white-barred, feather-legged, blue-winged Turbit. The Silverette
has wings of a light silver-grey color with darker grey tails and the white
spots. They also have the light tri-colored wing bars of the Bluette. The
Blondinette is said to have been made by crossing a Silver Owl with a
Satinette and then again with the Satinette, then by careful selections and
judicious crossing of their progeny all the beautiful variations of color
have been produced. The Turbiteens are found both with smooth and
crested heads, and are distinguished from Turbits by being feather-legged
and by having on the forehead between the eyes an oval spot of color and
under the eyes along the jowls an oval spot of same color; this must be of
similar color to the wings. The eyes of the Satinettes and its kindred
varieties, also those of the Turbiteens, are dark or bull-eyed. In the Blond-
inettes they are orange-red. Allied to the Oriental Frills are two other
varieties known as Capuchins and Damascenes, but as little is known of
them in America I shall not attempt to describe them.
G
THE ANTWERP OR HOMER
As its name indicates, the origin of this pigeon was Belgium and their
progenitors the native pigeons of the country who make their home in
church steeples and other lofty, unoccupied towers. These were crossed
with the Cumulet, a species of Tumbler noted for its flying qualities, again
with the Dragoon and yet again with the Smerle, a variety of the Owl pigeon,
very intelligent and with excellent homing qualities. These three crosses
have given us the bird we know to-day as the Antwerp or Homing pigeon,
one of the most interesting and practical of the pigeon family, and more
generally admired and bred than any other of the race. Strong, hardy,
1232
The Poultry Book
brave and intelligent, with a fondness for its home unequaled and powers
of endurance that are marvelous, no wonder that it is so much admired
and so carefully tended. While in the main it closely resembles the pigeons
of the street, a little closer examination will show a more upright carriage,
a broader skull and a brighter, more alert eye. Place the two together
and the difference in quality is quickly discernible, so that a man of ex-
perience, purchasing a promiscuous lot of birds, can soon select the Homers
from the mass. They are found in all the solid colors peculiar to common
pigeons, but while color has been proved to have no influence on flying
qualities, fanciers, as a rule, select for breeding all the darker colors, dis-
carding the white and parti-colored; they undoubtedly fly quite as well,
but they are more conspicuous marks for hawks and other birds of prey,
one of the great evils Homers have to contend with. This homing instinct
is more strongly developed in some than in others, for while some will
fly to their home when liberated 500 miles away, others, although having
the same training, will lose their way and never be heard of again. It
must not be supposed that an unpractised bird would find its way home
without experience. To teach them to accomplish such feats a long system
of training is carried on, by liberating them first ten miles from home, then
twenty, again thirty, and so up by longer intervals to 500 miles. While
instinct, intelligence and a strong love of home has much to do with this
ability to find their home from greater distances, their remarkable power
of vision has much to do with their finding their way over the route they
are obliged to travel. Flying as they do at a great altitude, they can see
below them the rivers, lakes, towns, cities and prominent objects that
mark their way, and having become familiar with these while training, they
have little difficulty in finding their way to their home. The rate at which
Homers fly varies according to the weather conditions and the condition
of the bird. While forty to forty-five miles an hour is about the average
rate, instances are related where birds have traveled at the rate of a mile
a minute. According to a modern French writer, "pigeons never make
as good time over the sea as over the land, and in fact rather seemed
to dread water, either because it feels lost on account of the absence
of marks on its surface, or because the saline exhalations have an unfav-
orable influence on its nervous organism, or finally because it is afraid
of not being able to stop in case of accident or of finding food during
a long journey." Pigeons released at sea make at once for the
Pigeons
1233
nearest land, but should they be so far at sea that no land is visible, like
the proverbial bird of Noah, they return to the ship, "because they find no
resting place for the sole of their foot." Distinct from the Homer, or flying
Antwerp, is another variety known as the Short-faced or Show Antwerp.
This variety no doubt sprang from the same source as the Homing variety,
but contain properties of the Owl cross showing more prominently, have
been encouraged, until we have the correct type of an exhibition Antwerp.
As bred to-day they are much larger than the flying variety, having a
large skull development, very short, stout beak, with well-developed beak
wattle and a high forehead to such an extent that the outline from the
back of the head to the end of the beak forms a segment of a perfect circle.
Besides the varieties already mentioned, there are the Toy pigeons,
whose distinguishing characteristics are their beautiful plumage and
accurate feather markings. Lack of space prevents a description of the
sixteen varieties of Toy pigeons. They are the Swallow, the Nun, the
Magpie, the Helmet, the Spot, the Archangle Breaster, or White Arch-
angle, the Suabian, the Shield, the Litz, or Shield Trumpeter, the Cres-
cent, or Swiss, the Ice pigeon, the Starling, the Lahore, the Tumbler,
and the Fireback.
A PRACTICAL HOUSE
The type of pigeon-house I have evolved as a result of the experience
described in the April, 1904, number of Country Life in America is twelve
by forty feet, and costs, made of the best material, with a good shingle

·Barge fx 3
Alley way
entire length
of house.
Door at
each end
2
8×10
35½"
eache
Window in each
side made to slide
Wired on outside,
Inside
Lighting- board
End View of House and Fly.
Outside
lighting-board
Tx5°
Window-sill
11
".
Angle Hunning board
2 full length of fly
~
Gate hung
with spring
hinges.one
to each fly
END VIEW OF PIGEON-HOUSE AND "FLY
↓16 ft. —-
½ Brick
""
3ft Poultry-wire.
4 ft Poultry-wire
Stake
.35°
47"
.8 ft.
......
'2 Brick
under post.
Brace [x4]
Stake to hold
bottom post.
2 Brick
fx4' brace nailed across
fly from post to post.
Walking-board along
each side and across
brick side.
Cross section of
fly through A,B,
A
WHERE THE BIRDS MAY EXERCISE
1234
The Poultry Book

Ix 3 strip full
length of house
at top of doers
to coops.
Alley way
Tx6"
Along floor
Opening in
each partition
covered with
wire.
2 fj
Lighting
board
1x 5'
sill
window-
2 ft.
Gate
t
Fly partition
SECTIONAL VIEW THROUGH CENTER OF COOP, SHOWING
PARTITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF NESTS
(X4°Cut between rafters
up tight to eave board.
Bft.
1x 12 board nailed across rafters
at peak to strengthen thèm
I partition
between coops..
in to fit sash
lirs
Trant stringer.
Cone stringe full
length of back side
8ft.
Front stringer
פנוי
ས་བ་ ་་་ས
་
I partition
„Copter post on front
sdug between windows,
|hank appoarte en bask.
117-
{Stop up with Frough beards between
ex front sida along fly
$i][‚ 3˜- 4″ Havn.
Coop Nº 1
Coop Nº 2
SOUTH SIDE OF COOP NO. I PARTLY
ENCLOSED. COOP NO. 2 SHOWING
ARRANGEMENT OF FRAME
sirt £44°Nam.
sut 2ft en centera
roof and two coats of paint, two hundred and fifty dollars. This price
includes the attached fly. Much of this expense can be cut down, if the
owner can do all or part of the work of construction.
Dry, warm and comfortable quarters must be secured for the birds,
or there will be no success. The house should occupy a well-drained, level
site on porous soil, and should face the south. My houses rest on eighteen
brick piers. These should be not less than twelve inches high. The front,
center and back sills are three by four inch hemlock, resting on the three-
inch face, and the joists over them are two by four inches, set two feet apart
in the center. The flooring is the best quality of Carolina or Florida pine,
tongued and grooved, nailed directly to the joists. The sides and ends are
boarded with first quality South Carolina pine stuff, six inches wide,
tongued, grooved, beaded, and placed vertically.
A small sliding window is in each gable, two larger ones on the north
side, and two each in the coops on the south side. There are five coops or
pens in the house. These are of equal size, divided by four partitions of
inch stuff, running from floor to roof and made solid, except an opening,
corresponding in size and location to the gable windows. These openings
in the partition are covered with poultry netting, as are all the windows
on the outside. An entry-way, three feet wide, runs the whole length of
the house on the north side. Wire-netting doors, hung with spring hinges,
are at each end of the entry, and, outside of them, are doors made of siding
boards. Access to the pens from the entry is furnished by a wire-netting
door on spring hinges, in the center of the side of each pen. It is best to use
spring hinges for all doors, as they are self-closing and birds cannot escape.
Pigeons
1235
Connected with the south side of the house is the fly, or gymnasium,
highly necessary for the sunning and exercise of the pigeons. When
space permits, the fly should be not less than thirty-two feet long, and,
always, eight feet high. The frame-work is made of two by three inch
hemlock posts, and one by four inch boards, for tops, ends and braces.
The latter are nailed on the sides in such a position that a four-foot-wide
netting at the bottom, and three-foot netting at top, will neatly cover the
whole. Netting over the top completes the outside of the structure,
making a large, airy space, through which air and sun can freely enter.
The birds pass to and from fly and coop through holes, six by six inches,
rounded at the top; an alighting board being placed both inside and out.
Sunning and exercise-boards are placed in the fly and against the side
of the house. Outside entrance to each fly is provided by small doors,
making it possible for the owner to pass from one fly to another without
entering the pens and disturbing the birds.
Before building, the earth of the whole space occupied by the fly
should be excavated at least four inches, and nice clean sand substituted,
which should be removed four times a year.
The inside of the
house, nests and all,
must have two coats
of good lime whitewash,
in which a teaspoonful
of crude carbolic acid
has been mixed with
every gallon, before the
birds are permitted to
occupy their quarters.
The drawing on the
previous page shows two
kinds of coops. The first
has two windows, made
to slide. All windows
are covered with wire on
the outside. The house
can be built with the number of coops desired. Studs, stringers, plate and
rafters are two by three inch hemlock; sills, three by four inch hemock.
Gate
2 ft
Rier
-Pier
End
sill
3x4'
Pier
3 x4
Joists
8284-844
2 ft.
C.to C
3"x4"
3 x 4
Fly posts 2'x3"
Fly
12 ft.
8 ft.
•
I'x6' Board bottom fly.
Pier
Pier
Pier
-Gate
Stud 2×3″
North Side
Alley-way full length of coop
6' board along floor wire above
Stud 2x3
24/5"x12.
2 ft wire door
center cach door
hung with spring hinges
8 ft.
Upright partitions between
nests nailed to partitions of
Coop Bottoms of nests made
to slide out on cleats nailed
to uprights Size, 12"x 12"
Stud 2**3*
South Side
Stud between windows!
Fly
-Pier

Stúd
2"x3"
2'x3'
Stud
Gate
Pier
between each
I partition
coop
Pier
Studika
3'x4'
Back sill
Sill 3'x4'
Center
FLOOR PLAN SHOWING FOUNDATION SILLS AND JOISTS.
ALSO FLOOR PLAN OF ONE COOP SHOWING
ARRANGEMENT OF NESTS
Front Sill
1236
The Poultry Book
There are two windows in a forty-foot house of five coops, or one window
to about every two coops.
I do not claim that this is the only kind of a squab-house in the world,
but I do believe it is thoroughly efficient, durable and cheap.
Make the floor about eight feet square, twelve inches from the ground,
four feet high in the back and six feet high in the front, the roof to pitch one
way. The roof can be made of rough boards, covered with felt roofing
paper or shingles. The most important point in the roof should be per-
fect tightness. It has one eight-light window with eight-by-ten panes
in front, about eighteen inches from the floor. The door should be placed
on the side, near the front of the coop. Put four rows of nests in the back,
and five rows on each side. This will give fifty nests. There should be
two exit holes, with a six-inch lighting board inside and outside of the
house, as in illustration. Make the fly eight feet in width, fourteen feet in
length and eight feet high; the lighting boards to be arranged similar to
illustration. Such a house will accommodate twenty-five pairs of birds
very comfortably, and will cost twenty dollars.
Make the floor of a house for forty pairs ten by twelve feet, about one
foot from the ground, five feet high at back and seven feet in front, the roof
to be built of the same material as the twenty-dollar house. Arrange the
door on the side, near the front. In this house two sashes with nine-light
windows eight by ten, should be used, about eighteen inches from the
floor. Put a board, twelve inches wide across the inside, just under the
window. This gives the birds an opportunity to enjoy a sun-bath, which
is necessary for their health. Put five rows of nests in the back, and as
many on each side as the house will accommodate. This will give about
eighty nests. Make the nests in both of these cheap houses ten inches
square.
Pigeons
1237
SUCCESSFUL SQUAB-RAISING *
Behind my house, in a New Jersey town, is a half-acre lot where I have
three large and two small houses in which I keep pigeons and raise squabs.
In 1898 I did not have a bird, but I invested fifty dollars in purchasing
twenty-five pairs of extra-choice Homing pigeons, and in remodeling a
poultry house for their accommodation. With this initial expenditure I
determined to raise squabs for the market. I had kept pigeons for pleasure
for five years, previously, and felt that I knew a little about them. In these
six years I have not invested another dollar excepting those which the
birds have earned, and my present establishment of five houses and
fifteen hundred pigeons, which has cost me $2,000, is all paid for. In
addition, for the last three years I have paid out from five to seven dollars
each week in the wages of a helper, to dress the squabs and clean the
houses, for my regular business would not permit me to attend to these
duties myself.
When I first became interested in pigeons, I sought advice from
every source, freely purchased all publications on the subject, and visited
all squab breeders within reach. I am indebted to the latter for some
helpful suggestions, but I found very little published information suffi-
ciently explicit and detailed to assist a novice, and I learned most in the
school of experience, chiefly at a heavy cost.
At one time I lost heavily from cholera, but I discovered some causes
of the disease, and, after much experimenting, the proper remedies. At
another time, unsound food caused sickness and death, but I learned to
avoid all except pure and sound grains. Lice also threatened to over-
whelm my birds, but now I can snap my fingers at these pests.
Rats, cats and even mice, in my early experience, caused much damage,
but I no longer permit them on my premises. Setting the house on piers is
an effectual barrier against rats; the self-closing doors prevent the entrance
of cats, and I keep away mice by leaving no places in my houses behind
which they can hide. The last-named pests cause many cold eggs and
dead squabs by making their nests in the bottom of a pigeon's nest, where
their squirming causes the birds to forsake the nest.
M
* This splendid account of successful squab-raising, as well as the part on practical
houses, was written for Country Life in America by William E. Rice, of New Jersey, and
is reproduced herewith with illustrations by courtesy of the editor of that magazine. The
article has been revised somewhat by Mr. Long and adapted to the present chapter.—
EDITOR.
1238
The Poultry Book

A MALE BLACK SPLASHED HOMER WITH SQUABS ON NEST
The successful keeping of pigeons requires a house that is suitable for
their shelter, and convenient in the daily care of the birds. My first
houses were built directly on the ground, but a disastrous experience with
rats taught me to set the house on piers and put a good floor in it. My
present houses are all five-roomed, built according to a plan that I have
worked out, and which I prefer to the unit plan, because it is less expensive
and much less time is required in the daily task of watering and feeding.
The consensus of opinion of all experienced squab-breeders stamps
the Homer as the best pigeon for this purpose. The variety is strong and
vigorous; a hearty feeder and good worker; bright-eyed, alert and active;
stocky, symmetrical and with the full breast, which counts so much in
squabs. It is also prolific, and the squabs are full-feathered and fit for
market in four weeks. The colors vary from pure white, black and red to
all shades and mixtures.
My own flock of fifteen hundred birds is full-blooded, nearly all being
Homers, and the balance Dragoons. When it is impossible to secure
sufficient Homers for a flock, a very good cross may be had by mating a
Pigeons
1239
full-blooded Dragoon with a full-blooded Homer and mating the progeny
with full-blooded Homers again. This gives a bird three-quarters Homer,
to one-quarter Dragoon blood, and it is nearly as good as the Homer.
The full-blooded Dragoon requires five weeks to rear a squab fit for market,
against four weeks for the Homer.
I was very fortunate in my first twenty-five pairs of birds. These
were Homers, full-blooded, with established records for flying, having
taken first honors in several contests. They were splendid birds, hardy
and vigorous. I got them at a bargain rate, and they were undoubtedly
the beginning of my success, for they not only averaged seven and one-half
pairs of squabs a year, but stamped their vitality on the birds I selected
from their young.
As my profits increased, I purchased straight Homer stock, picking
from the best near-by breeders, as well as from those of established reputa-
tion at a distance; my object being to get none except strictly first-class

A PAIR OF SQUABS READY FOR MARKET
Homing pigeons require only four weeks in which to rear squabs fit for the market
1240
The Poultry Book
birds of good blood and excellent health. By drawing from different
sources, I secured strains of good stock, not akin. In addition to my
purchases, I selected from my own pens the best and most prolific
breeders, and mated these with the stock purchased. Now I have
seven hundred and fifty pairs of as good, choice and healthy Homers
as one can find.
I always put a lot of new birds in a clean coop by themselves, give a
generous supply of feed and water, and have plenty of nesting materials in
the coop. If they have come from a distance I put a good poultry powder
in their feed for the first meal, and let them alone for a few days. If they
are strong, healthy birds, they ought soon to begin to carry materials and
build nests. When nest-building is fully under way, I transfer each
mated pair to permanent breeding quarters.
Young birds selected from my own stock I treat in the same way. I
am never in a hurry to put young pairs in their permanent breeding quar-
ters, but wait until they are well established, for sometimes a match is
declared off by mutual consent, and another courtship pursued. For
catching the birds, I use a net similar to a crab-net, but with bows about
three feet across, and a handle a yard long. I don't run after nor chase
the birds, as I used to do, having acquired more sense.
When I find a pair of birds mated, I tell my assistant which bird to
keep his eye upon, and not lose sight of for a single instant. At the same
time, I note the other bird, and, net in hand, go to the center of the fly.
When my bird flies past me, I take it in the net by making a quick pass in
the direction in which it is flying. A sudden turn of the wrist brings the
bag of the net against the bows, so that the bird cannot escape. I pass the
caught bird to my assistant, who points out the other one, and it is soon
caught. I never try to catch a bird as it flies toward me, for, by a sudden
swerve, it may strike some portion of the net and bruise its head or wing.
A little practice quickly makes one expert in catching with the net.
I "band" all purchases, as well as those I raise, and keep a simple
record, giving the band number, sex, color and marking of the bird, and
from whom purchased, unless raised. If not banded when bought, I
band those purchased when transferring them to the breeding-quarters.
The birds I raise, however, are banded when young squabs, before leaving
the nest. The sex can then be determined, for the larger is almost always
the male bird.

Pigeons
1241
By means of banding I am able, when any bird dies, to find its mate
and remove it from the breeding-quarters until remated.
A further record, to show the working of each pair of birds, I would
recommend. I would number each house and each nest thus: House
number one, nests one to one hundred and twenty, and let the record show
the number of squabs marketed from each nest. I have not, personally,
had time to do this in my own pens because my other business prevents it,
but I know the percentage of squabs would be raised by doing it. The
record would show at a glance the non-producers, which could be weeded
A GOOD KIND OF "FLY"
The birds have ample space and sunlight
out after a fair trial, and this scheme would also cut off some of the weekly
rations.
The weekly expense of feeding my flock of fifteen hundred pigeons
during the month of December, 1903, was eighteen dollars and thirty cents
for the following: Three hundred pounds of cracked corn; three bushels
each of wheat, peas and Kaffir corn; one and one-half bushels of millet;
one bushel of hemp, and half a bushel of cracked rice. The rice I do not
feed regularly. Feed is much higher than it was that year.
Of the seven hundred and fifty pairs I kept in 1903, five hundred pairs
only were mature birds, producing squabs; the remaining two hundred and
fifty pairs were young birds, selected from my best stock to increase my
number. The mature birds cleared me one dollar and twenty-five
cents per pair, with the handicap of feeding and caring for the two

1242
The Poultry Book

A GROUP OF HOMING PIGEONS
The best for squab-raising. The white bird is a Dragoon
hundred and fifty pairs of youngsters, which will not come into profit
for a few months.
Pigeon-keeping for squabs may fitly be termed a twentieth-century
industry, for only during the last five years has it, by rapid development,
attained to the dignity of a special business. Previously, a few pigeons
were kept on the sides of barns, in lofts and similar places; but, lately,
houses have been specially designed and built for the sole purpose of squab-
raising. Many breeders have a thousand pairs of birds and not a few
double that quantity.
The business will surely increase still more during the first decade of
this century, for several reasons. Firstly, game-birds are becoming scarcer
each year. Secondly, no bird or fowl has yet been discovered which fur-
nishes so acceptable a substitute for game as the squab of pigeons. Its
rapidity of growth is remarkable-in six weeks after the eggs (two in num-
ber) are laid, the squab is full-sized, and fit for the table. Thirdly, the
price of squabs has been strongly maintained during the last five years,
notwithstanding the marvelous increase in the business. Fourthly, the
Pigeons
1243
business furnishes a way by which either men or women (for many of the
latter have successfully taken up squab-raising) can embark in an enter-
prise which does not call for severe bodily exertion and which, if intelli-
gently managed, will yield good dividends.
Watering and feeding are attended to punctually twice a day by my-
self, as my place of business is only five minutes' walk from my pigeons.
For drinking troughs, I use glazed earthen fountains of two gallons capacity
-one in each pen. Every morning I make the round of my houses, collect
the fountains, and take them to the hydrant, where they are thoroughly
scrubbed, rinsed, refilled with pure, clean water, and then taken back to
the coops. After the fountains are all in place, I proceed to feed the birds.
The barrels in the feed-room are filled weekly with sifted cracked corn,
red wheat, Canada peas, Kaffir corn, German millet, hemp, and cracked
rice. Filling a pail with assorted grains, I visit each house in turn, feeding
first the farthest pen in the house, and the others in order. This method
does not disturb the birds. As I pass out of the house, I give a pen of
fifty pairs of birds three quarts at each feeding.
When there are many
squabs, at least a pint extra is required for their needs.

SECTION OF BREEDING HOUSE, SHOWING EGGS, SQUABS OF DIFFERENT AGES,
AND BIRD ON NEST

1244
The Poultry Book
I do not believe in keeping a large supply before the birds all the time,
as it is liable to become foul. I prefer to supply a little more or less, as the
birds eat up clean, or leave some
in the feeding trough.
The daily watering and
feeding I attend to with the
most precise regularity; in the
summer at half past six, and an
hour later in the winter. I al-
ways fill and place the fountains
first, and, after feeding, lock the
doors of the houses and put the
key in my pocket. Under no
circumstances do I allow the
birds to be disturbed after be-
ginning to feed. I do this for
two reasons: first, the young
have to be fed, and the old birds
must not be disturbed at this duty or irregular feeding will ensue;
secondly, if anyone passes along the entry while the birds are busily
feeding, the whole flock flies up
and tries to escape through the
exit holes. Bruised wings are a
probable result, and a bird with
a bruised wing may as well be
dispatched at once.
AFTER THE WEEKLY CLEANING
A most important duty
ROY
On Thursdays, after water-
ing and before feeding, I go
through all the houses with my
assistant, carefully selecting the
squabs which are fully feathered.
These are fit for selling, if from
good stock, when four weeks
old, and should weigh eight
pounds per dozen. These birds
are put in hampers, taken to the picking room, and prepared
for market.
THE PROPER WAY TO CATCH A PIGEON

Pigeons
1245
On Friday and Saturday every week, I have the houses thoroughly
cleaned; all the old nests taken out; the floors scraped and swept; lime,
strongly scented with crude carbolic acid, scattered at the edges and cor-
ners of the nests and in all damp places; each floor re-sanded with a bucket-
ful of clean sand; tobacco stems and short hay placed in each coop. Then
all is ready for another week.
Aside from the directions
already given, it is as difficult
to instruct a novice how to
select birds as to tell him how
to pick out a good horse. The
difference between Homers,
Dragoons, Duchesse, and com-
mon birds is easily learned,
and a little experience will tell
one if a bird is in good health.
How to decide in a given lot of
Homer, or other variety, which
particular birds will make the
best breeders is not so easy, as
much depends on the pedigree
or past record of the birds.
Homers are so full breasted and
erect, that if a specimen be
deficient in these points, or lack Five pens in a forty-foot house. Each pen has a capacity of fifty pairs of birds
symmetry, he should be rejected.
INTERIOR OF A BREEDING HOUSE
Of course lameness of either wing or leg should be considered a fatal
blemish. If the eye lacks lustre, or shows indication of canker, the bird
should not be permitted in the coop. The mouth should be closely
inspected for cankerous indications, and the specimen rejected if such
exist. A hawk-billed bird should never be selected, as such a bill
is a hindrance in feeding. Short-bills, short legs, erect carriage, a stocky,
symmetrical build, well-moulded head and shoulders, with bright eyes are
good points in Homers. If these be present, with a good pedigree, the
purchaser may feel safe in his selection.


A REEVES COCK
Largest and finest of the true pheasants. Tail feathers often five feet long
PHEASANTS*
HOMER DAVENPORT, NEW JERSEY
HE first question strangers ask when they visit my farm is:
"How many years have you been collecting these birds?"
I reply, "About five."
The easiest birds to get were the Golden, Silver, and
Ring-necked pheasants, and the hardest were the Gallus
varius, or Fork-tailed Jungle-fowl, Gallus sonnerati, or Gray Jungle-fowl,
and perhaps the great Argus pheasant. I have to-day thirty-eight varieties
of the pheasant family, not including the hybrids, the Golden and Amherst
cross, or the English Ring-necked, which is a cross between the China.
Ring-necked and the common old English Black-necked pheasant.
Of all pheasants, the great Argus is the rarest and most peculiar in its
habits. In the wild state they inhabit the dense forests of Sumatra, the
Javan Peninsula, and are also found in similar localities in Borneo. The
big birds are large and tender, and rarely take to wing. There is no record
of one ever having been shot. So shy are they that only a modern rifle
could reach one, even if a man could be found cruel enough to pull the
trigger. They are, however, trapped by the natives for their wonderful
*This chapter on pheasants, by Homer Davenport, is adapted for this book from
an article that appeared in Country Life in America. It is reproduced herewith, with
illustrations, by permission. Mr. Davenport's collection of pheasants exceeds that of the
largest zoological gardens in the world by almost a third. He has at present, December,
1904, more than thirty-eight different varieties. Fanciers the world over owe him a debt
of gratitude for bringing together and, in many cases, preserving varieties that would
possibly have become extinct had it not been for his keen foresight and enthusiasm. The
illustrations in this chapter are taken from photographs, by Mr. A. Radcliffe Dugmore, of
Mr. Davenport's fowls.-EDITOR.
1246
Pheasants
1247
wings, to which nature produces no equal in feathers. The male bird,
when fully grown, is about seven feet in length. He shows no beauty until
his wings are spread. He lives the life of a modern bachelor. He fans a
spot on the level earth with his wings, some ten or twelve feet square, near
his bachelor apartments. Here he comes frequently, except when moulting,
and displays his enormous wings, like a butterfly or a skirt-dancer, by erect-
ing them out and over past his head, where the peculiar argus eyes are
revealed in a diagonal position, at the slant when they show to best ad-
vantage. His marriage is a contract affair, and shortly after the courtship
the hen leaves him alone, while she strays away and rears her young. All
that the natives of Borneo know of his habits is that he barks like a dog,
and keeps out of their sight. If something wakes them in summer nights
by whistling loud and coarsely, they think it is a god. I have spent more
time studying my Argus pheasant than any other single variety. He
fools the dogs, and they answer his bark. When he displays his wings, he
carefully hides his head underneath the right one, and sometimes extends
or peeks out between the third and fourth flight feathers.
Besides his habit of gathering wing feathers which he drops in the
autumn, is his peculiar custom of uttering a calliope-like whistle during
the quieter hours of the night. Last summer I was awakened at two in
the morning by this loud, harsh whistle. It startled me so much that I
forgot to count the small notes. The bird seems to climb a scale, and at
the top he inverts the notes and descends until he reaches the bottom one,
which is so harsh and shrill that, on hearing it at two in the morning, you
are apt to have goose-flesh on the calves of your legs. The next night, at
the first note I awoke, perfectly calm and in possession of my wits. I
counted, in all, twenty-two notes, eleven up and eleven down the scale.
The bird, at the time, was roosting nearly a quarter of a mile away, so the
power of this whistle can be imagined. I never heard such echoes as
came from the mountain near the valley. I do not think I missed the
sound a night for most of the summer. It would be fatal to leave this
marvelous pheasant one hour out of a warm house on a winter night.
His soft, long feathers offer no resistance to the wind, and he would die
from pneumonia within twenty-four hours. They are the only members
of the pheasant family in which the male is not armed with spurs, but con-
sidering his delicate-winged plumage one can readily see why the Creator
has neglected his fighting utensils.

1248
The Poultry Book

LADY AMHERST PHEASANTS OFTEN HYBRIDIZED WITH THE GOLDEN
These specimens are of the purest type
Next in interest are the habits of the Vulturine Guinea-fowl, perhaps
the most beautiful bird inhabiting Africa. I have seen the male of my
present flock take a feather in his bill from the ground, hold it high up
and drop it, turn once around, and catch it in his bill before it reaches the
ground. He seems to do this for play. On other occasions I have seen
him circle around the feet of a child or a dog, finally lying down flat across
them, as if to be petted. He appears to be fond of human company. The
cry has a most beautiful rolling sound, like that of a kettle-drum. I have
had male birds with as many as five spurs on each leg. They are con-
sidered by many to be the finest of all the pheasant group, because of their
beauty and oddity. When the first whites went into Matabele Land, these
strange guinea-hens followed the procession of the king of the native tribe
who had come to welcome the explorers. These were the first seen and
recorded by white men. They have never bred as yet in this country,
though I believe they have done so in some parts of southern France.
Of the group called guinea-hens there are eleven varieties, all from
Africa, the birds commonly known as guinea-hens in this country having
been brought here by the first settlers. The family, or group, of pheasants
known as Tragopans, of which there are five varieties, are the most beauti-
ful, and also the most peculiar. They will stand in front of you, and
change from the bird family to some sort of a lizard or horned-toed species.
In February, 1902, on a snow-bank in their aviary, I saw Temmick's
Pheasants
1249
Tragopan begin to jerk his head quickly four or five times. Two green,
fleshy horns, about two inches in length, and smaller than a little finger,
rose out of the feathers on each side of the top of his head. At the same
time a bib or apron of skin four or five inches long, and nearly the same
width, dropped from under his throat. This was bright blue, with red,
diamond-shaped bars across it. Then, with his short, square-cut tail
spreading on the ground, and his wings down like a turkey, he puffed like a
pile-driving engine for about a minute. The horns then diminished and
disappeared, the bib drew up under his throat, and he resumed his position
as a bird, unconscious that he had been anything else. From a scientific
point of view, it is perhaps the most wonderful change any bird can make.
All the Tragopans display nearly the same actions, the horns and apron in
each breed being of different-colored skins. They become very tame, and
breed readily in confinement; and though cold-weather birds, are very
tender if not handled carefully in the winter. They inhabit the lower
ranges of the Himalaya Mountains, and favor evergreen trees.
The Impeyan, or Monaul, is very turkey-like when strutting, except
that he will jump six or eight feet at a time, and sometimes do nearly a
cartwheel. His plumage is perhaps the most brilliant and gaudy of all the
pheasant family. The metallic green, purple, and old gold that are dis-
played upon his neck are something indescribable in the sunlight. He is
built on the plan of a battleship, and is far from graceful. When the

THE COMMON GOLDEN PHEASANT
One of the most beautiful. It is easily secured at a low price. Hill country of China
1250
The Poultry Book
blizzards are at their height you find him frolicking in the snow. They
become very tame in aviaries, but have not as yet been bred in this coun-
try. They inhabit the extreme peaks of the Himalaya Mountains, the
hens only coming below the snow-line to nest and rear their young.
The pheasants of the Kaleege family, including the Silver, Swinhoe,
Lineated, Melanotus and Horsfalt, all have a fluttering of the wings, as do
the Firebacks. The Siamese Fireback deserves mention as one of the
most beautiful pheasants, and he will become so tame that he will run
about the lawns and farm-yards. His only drawback is that he is so
pugnacious he will attack women and children.
Perhaps the best and finest of the true pheasants are the Reeves,
inhabiting the mountains of China, their tail-feathers frequently reaching
the enormous length of six feet. They are hardy, standing any winter
weather and any degree of heat, but never become quite as tame as some of
the others. The male bird displays his plumage by swelling up and drawing
in his head as if ready to burst, and then jumping stiff-legged in a big circle
around his hen, his long tail held almost perpendicular. The Ho-ki pheas-
ant inhabits Thibet, and, owing to his rather tame, natural disposition,
will probably be the first of the pheasants now in existence to become
extinct, because he falls an easy prey even to bad marksmen. The plumage
of the male and the female is exactly the same, the only distinguishing trait
of the male being the spurs on his legs. Of the pheasants in captivity the
Ho-ki becomes the tamest. They are hard to keep out of the house and will
actually come into a lady's lap and peck at her rings.
The Fork-tailed Jungle-fowl and the Gray Jungle-fowl are perhaps the
wildest. There is much to be admired in these two species. Their beauty
and gamey appearance make them a most interesting bird. It is impossible,
owing to their wild nature, to handle them to any extent. They never
become tame, and grow restless, however large their aviaries may be. The
Fork-tailed Jungle-fowl inhabits the dense jungles of Java. The male
bird differs strikingly from all other Jungle-fowl in having a comb without
notches, and but one single pendent wattle, instead of two; and through
this comb and wattle run the colors of the rainbow. His hackle feathers,
instead of being pointed, like all other members of the family, are round-
cornered, broad, and dark-green. The Gray Jungle-fowl, coming from the
warmer regions of India, has his neck hackle covered with small, wax-like
spots, entirely different from any other bird known. The crows of the
Pheasants
1251
two varieties are more of a scream than a crow, and they are entirely differ-
ent from the Red Jungle-fowl, Gallus bankivus, whose notes are exactly
like those of his descendants, the barn-yard poultry. I have succeeded,
after two attempts, in rearing five hybrids, by crossing a Gray Jungle-fowl
with a Red Jungle-fowl hen. They are very peculiar, the males having the
gray
of their father, and the pullets resembling their mother. Dr. Jerdan,
in his travels in India, shot a jungle cock that he was certain was a hybrid

THE SO-CALLED "MONGOLIAN" PHEASANT, PROPERLY THE CHINA RING-NECK, OR TORQUATUS
The true Mongolian never reached this country alive. Eighteen Torquatus pheasants were turned loose in Oregon in 1884, and there are prob-
ably more now in Oregon than in China. This is the best species for naturalizing in American game preserves
between the two species just mentioned; but other scientists found the
Red and the Gray occupying the same jungles without ever being able to
find a hybrid.
Pheasants will in a few years be bred, by nearly everybody that
keeps fancy poultry, just for fancy's sake; as the study of wild bird life,
especially among such beautiful species, is rarely equaled, and it adds a
peculiar attraction to the home. Varieties that are very expensive now
will, in a short time, either become extinct or more plentiful. Pheasants,
if given the same care that well-bred poultry receive, will do well in any
state in the Union. They suffer from the same diseases that affect poul-
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The Poultry Book
try. If kept on a damp, wet ground, one finds them ailing from rheumatism
and the gape-worm.
I would recommend the beginner to get the Golden and Silver pheas-
ants first, and add to his
collection as his knowledge
grows. Nearly all varieties
are hardy when young, if
given the right variety of
feed and runs. Almost any
small hen answers the pur-
pose of a mother. Ring-
necked pheasants can be
bought for five dollars per
pair; Goldens for twenty-
five, and others among the
rarer species are more ex-
pensive, but they do not,
as a rule, cost as much as
fancy poultry.
Some people take pheasants of different kinds, mix them together,
and the males of the various breeds fight and kill each other. Again, when
the young are hatched, some one in charge tries to feed them on dry bran
first, and whole corn next; thus the young die, and those who would like
to keep pheasants say that they cannot be raised.
The main feature in breeding pheasants is to fix their aviaries as
nearly like their wild haunts as possible, and then to tame the birds by
careful treatment. Pheasants begin laying as early as the middle of March,
and continue at irregular times until late in the summer.

THE PEACOCK PHEASANT
HOUSING AND FEEDING
Selecting the ground and building the aviary for pheasants are of the
greatest importance in securing the birds' health, which is the main object
in captivity. Dry, sandy soil is better for pheasants of any kind than
clay soil. Side hills or slopes are good, as they drain quickly after rain.
If in laying out the aviary these points are borne in mind, they will greatly
benefit the general result. It is a question whether or not the sand and
gravel surface is better than grass. Old French breeders prefer the former

Pheasants
1253
in their aviaries, saying that the grass gets soured and brings on disease, and
this I am not prepared to deny. In the new aviaries that I am building
the grass plot is being made small, in the center of the aviary, and on a
mound, as thus it will be less trampled. If running water can be supplied,
it would of course be beneficial, as through water, more than in any other
way, disease is spread among the pheasant family. In feeding the old as
well as the young, no more should be left than they will eat up clean.
Most pheasants are fed to death. The rearing field for the young should
be high and dry and rolling. After the Cochin Bantam hen that hatches
the eggs is dusted with insect powder, she is taken to the field with the
little pheasants, usually carried in a tin bucket by the game-breeder. The
hen is put in a coop open on one side with up-and-down slats. A solid
board pen is set up against the front of this coop, making a little yard,
twelve inches high by two feet long, and the width of the coop. This is
kept there for four days, and during this time the little pheasants wander
out from under the hen into the yard and cannot stray away. They hear
her call and learn, in that time, her methods. Beginning at a little after
daybreak they are fed five times a day, on Spratt's Patent pheasant meal,
with now and then a hard-boiled egg chopped up in it. After they are
watered each time, the dish must be turned over so that no water is left
in it to stagnate. After
the fourth day, with most
varieties of pheasants, the
solid board run can be
lifted away and the young
allowed to wander out
over the field. They al-
ways come, when called,
to their foster mother's
box, where they are fed.
Hundreds can be kept in
the same field in this way.
Of course the English
Golden and Silver are the

THE MONGOLIAN PHEASANT
easiest to rear, but the Reeves, Amhersts and varieties of the Kaleege are
strong and healthy under ordinary circumstances. Crows are worse
enemies than hawks, and when many young pheasants are being reared a
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The Poultry Book
man must be constantly on the watch with them. As the young grow
older, Kaffir corn, hemp and millet can be added to their feed with slight
variation. When they begin to roost out nights on the coop, it is time
to catch them and bring them into the aviaries, which should be well
kept, sweet and clean, with a supply of sand, shells, and gravel in each.
Different varieties need different care. The Impeyan cock, if not
watched during the early spring, will kill his hen, because it was the custom
in the wild state to separate after the breeding season, she leaving him to
nest and rear her young. The male joined the party after the young
were hatched. The Soemering also is a pugnacious bird, and will kill the
hens if they cannot get away from him. The Lady Amherst and the
Elliot are treacherous at times. One hen will turn upon another some-
times and kill her in short order. But with proper attention they can
be reared and kept in fine condition and prove an interesting study and
I have found that even pheasants from Borneo can stand
our winters, if they are kept in a close house, absolutely without draughts,
and they will go through a winter more safely without artificial heat.
The Gray Jungle Fowl, if fed plenty of meat, winters in fine shape under
similar conditions.
amusement.
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES *
The Tragopans.-There are five species of Tragopans—the Crimson
(Tragopan satyra), Temminck (T. temminckii), Cabot (T. caboti), Black-
headed (T. melanocephalus), and Blyth's (T. blythi)-all beautiful birds, and
all easily secured, with the exception of the last named. In the display of
his plumage the Tragopan is more interesting than any other of the pheas-
ant family, because at certain times the male bird elevates a tiny pair of
flesh-like horns on either side of his ears at the top of his head. This gives
him a Satanic expression, bewildering and unparalleled in the bird family.
-
*All of the birds described below, except the Vulturine Guinea Fowl, belong to one
family-the true pheasants, Plasianidæ. They have a definite relationship with one another,
and have here been treated as distinct species and not varieties in the sense in which the
term is generally applied to poultry. The only varieties mentioned here are the Black-
Throated Golden Pheasant and the White Pheasant. It is customary to begin with the
Tragopans and end with the peacocks. Under the classification usually accepted (Sharpe's
Hand List of Birds, London, 1899), the genera are arranged in the following sequence:
Tragopan, Lophophorus, Lophura, Diardigallus, Crossoptilon, Gennæus, Catreus, Phasianus,
Syrmaticus, Calophasis, Chrysolophus, Gallus, Polyplectron, Argusianus and Pavo. The
Guinea Fowls belong to a separate family, Numididæ, and follow the peacocks at the close
of this chapter.—EDITOR.
Pheasants
1255
The Tragopans inhabit the high ranges of Eastern and Central China.
Tender in transportation, they are hardy after location, and breed readily
in captivity. The cocks are short-tailed and covered with peculiar spots,
a white spot in nearly every red feather, a black spot in most of the yellow
feathers. The females become very tame. They are not beautiful, and it
is hard to distinguish one species from another. They lay from fifteen to
twenty-five large eggs, pointed in shape and speckled.
LOPHOPHORUS
The Impeyan Pheasant (Lophophorus impeyanus). - The Monaul
or Impeyan Pheasant is one of the most gorgeous of birds. The

THE ARGUS
Most beautiful in its wing plumage of all pheasants. The male is seen at the right with wings closed
wonderful metallic brilliancy of the cock's plumage, gleaming in
purple and gold, baffles description. They inhabit the high ranges
of the Himalayas, a cold climate, and breed freely in confinement.
They are tough and hardy, and dig with their strong bills for
roots and worms. They become tame and frequently run with the poultry.
They are on the whole about the most satisfactory to keep, because of
their unsurpassed beauty, combined with a rugged nature.

LOPHURA
Vieillot's Fireback (Lophura rufa).-The most beautiful of Firebacks.
Its local color is blue with peculiar white and copper back. It inhabits
Borneo, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula.

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SWINHOE'S PHEASANT FROM FORMOSA
His color is like blue velvet, with bronze shoulders and white as seen in the picture
Bornean Fireback (Lophura nobilis).-This strange bird comes from
Borneo, and it is the largest of the family of Fireback Pheasants. Few
pairs have ever been brought to Europe, though they have bred there in
aviaries. They are hardy and get quite tame. They are very beautiful,
and I am certain they will become great favorites in the warmer districts.
of this continent.
DIARDIGALLUS
Siamese Fireback (Diardigallus diardi). This pheasant is almost the
favorite, on account of his grace, beauty, and his inclination to run the
whole ranch. They become too tame, and are always strutting about
one's feet. They inhabit Siam, and have to be shut in on cold days, but
in the spring they are allowed to roam about. They breed readily in
confinement. In Horn's book on pheasants he advises people not to at-
tempt to keep them, as they are wild and ill adapted to an aviary. In the
fall of 1904 I had three birds, one cock and two hens, running at large
around the lawn and barnyard, where five dogs and other pheasants run
with them.


Pheasant
1257
CROSSOPTILON
Manchurian or Eared Pheasant (Crossoptilon mantchuricum).—This
pheasant, a native of Northern China and Manchuria, has not gorgeous
plumage, although a fine bird. They run about my home with full
wings, and never attempt to leave. They roost out all winter and are
as hardy as Cochin chickens. They breed well in confinement and are
very interesting. The sexes are alike in plumage.
GENNÆUS
Melanotus, or Black-Backed Kaleege Pheasant (Gennæus melanonotus).—
This pheasant inhabits Sikhim, Nepal. They are hardy and interesting,
and possess a certain amount of beauty. All of this family are very
pugnacious.
Anderson's Kaleege (Gennæus andersoni). This native of the Himalayas
is as beautiful as any of the Kaleege family and as hardy. In color it is
between the silver and lineated, and it is especially adapted for show.
Lineated Pheasant (Gennæus lineatus).-The two species of pheasant,
forming the Kaleege group, of which the present is one, are very closely
allied to each other. This bird inhabits Burmese countries. It is very
hardy and a beautiful, graceful pheasant, breeding readily in confinement.
Silver Pheasant (Gennæus nycthemerus). This beautiful species,
among the best known of the members of this family, is a native of China.
—
ELLIOT'S PHEASANT, A NATIVE OF TIBET

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They are very interesting and hardy, and become tame enough to run with
farm poultry.
Swinhoe's Pheasant (Gennæus swinhoii).-This beautiful bird inhabits
Formosa. Its glossy feathers have the appearance of blue velvet. It is
very hardy, stands any climate, and the mother will rear her own young.
CATREUS
Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichii).-This large pheasant inhabits the
mountains of Asia. It is very hardy and loves roots, but seldom eats
grass. It breeds in confinement, and, while not handsome, is interesting.
The cock's color is blue gray; the hen's similar.
PHASIANUS
English Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus).-The Black-necked English
Pheasant is almost extinct. It was originally found in Persia, and was,
without doubt, the first pheasant introduced into England. Later the
Ring-Neck pheasant, Phasianus torquatus was brought to England from
China. These two were crossed and the well-known English Ring-Neck
was produced. It is in reality a mongrel, but a very fine bird.
White Pheasant.-This bird is beautiful, though it is a sport thrown
from the cross between the Torquatus and the English. They will breed
true to color and add to the attractiveness of an aviary very much.
A SILVER PHEASANT HEN

Pheasants
1259
MALE SILVER PHEASANT
A pugnacious species, but as easy to rear as the hardier chickens
Mongolian Pheasant (Phasianus mongolicus). This native of Asia
comes from the valley of Syr-Darya, and from as far east as Lake Saisan,
in the valley of the Black Irtish. An unfortunate misunderstanding re-
garding this bird has arisen in the United States, where it has been con-
founded with the Ring-Neck or Torquatus, bred in great numbers in Oregon
for sportsmen. There is little or no similarity between the two species,
the Mongolian Pheasant being twice the size of the other, with a rich
bronze copper color, instead of the yellow and pink of the Oregon bird.
In a recent interview with Mr. Carl Hagenbeck, he informed me that
he had shot a hybrid between the Mongolian and the English Pheasant
that weighed five and one-half pounds. The bird in question was less
than a year old. Therefore it is evident that the Mongolian Pheasant is
the best for crossing with the Torquatus and English. The results
obtained suggest its introduction into the country game preserves of
American gentlemen.

The cock's feathers have a beautiful purple sheen. He has light butts
to his wings and a broad white band around his neck.
Ring-Neck (China Torquatus) Pheasant (Phasianus torquatus).-This
handsome game bird, the common pheasant of China, is frequently miscalled
the Mongolian Pheasant. They breed wild in Oregon, where they were
1260
The Poultry Book
introduced in the early eighties.
Having been protected by law for ten
years, they are now very abundant and increasing rapidly. They are a
splendid game bird and are now shot during October and November.
Almost all the birds I have of this species were reared for me in Oregon.
They are far ahead of the English Pheasant as a game bird, as they become
much wilder and swifter on the wing. They are exceedingly hardy, and
can be raised by any amateur.
Versicolor or Green Japanese Pheasant (Phasianus versicolor). This
beautiful bird inhabits nearly all of Japan. Owing to its value for the
milliner, it is perhaps better known than any other variety, although the
pure specimens are very rare in this country. It is hardy and breeds well.
POLYPLECTRON
Peacock Pheasant (Polyplectron chinquis).—This strange pheasant is
one of the most peculiar, as well as one of the most fascinating. The hen
lays but two eggs. The young are hardy and easy to rear. The bird
inhabits the deep gullies of the southern Asiatic mountains. It has many
admirers, who think it superior in beauty to any other pheasant. One
of the peculiarities of this species, of which there are three different
varieties, is that when the two young are hatched they stay under the
spread tail of the father bird and never come in front of his legs. When
the eggs are hatched by the domestic hen, the young pheasants stand
behind her legs, where she kicks them about and scratches them.
ARGUSIANNUS
The Argus Pheasant (Argusianus argus).—Native of Malacca, Siam and
Sumatra, frequenting the jungles. Undoubtedly one of the most magnificent
of the pheasant family, it is so extremely shy in its habits that it is seldom
shot, even by native hunters, though many are snared. It measures five
feet in length, the tail being three feet eight inches. The prevailing color
is ochreous red or brown, without brilliant relief. There is a pronounced
harmony in the distribution of the tints, there being such a profusion of
small spots—sometimes lighter and sometimes darker than the ground
that they assume, apparently at will, the tones of their environment. The
broad, secondary feathers are covered in their entire length by a row of
eye-like spots, imitating half globes, and nothing from the brush of nature
is more artistic or more beautiful. It is from these spots that the Argus
Pheasants
1261
takes its name. The naked skin of the face and neck is bright blue, con-
trasting well with the bronze hue of the plumage. The female possesses
none of the male's characteristic markings of beauty and she is but twenty-
six inches in length. Although the Argus is remarkably wild in its native
state, it becomes unusually tame in captivity, returning to its aviary at
night after enjoying full liberty during the day.
I have had the Argus in my aviaries for more than two years, and,
though they have not as yet bred, I am satisfied that in the milder climates
of the United States good results could be obtained. They have been

MELANOTUS PHEASANT, OR HILL PHEASANT OF ASIA
known to breed in European zoological gardens on rare occasions. The
cock bird about midnight issues a loud, harsh, calliope-like note, eleven
double notes up, and eleven double notes down the scale. It can be
heard in still weather at the distance of a mile.
I have observed the Argus displaying his enormous wings for the
delectation of the female. His introductory performance consists of rush-
ing somewhat excitedly around the aviary, finally arriving in the center
and spreading his argus-eyed wings like a huge butterfly, entirely hiding
his head-a pose that greatly delights the female, because it displays to
the best advantage the magnificence of her mate.
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PEACOCKS
The Common Pea Fowl (Pavo cristatus).-Little need be said of these
beautiful birds. They are found all over the world, breed readily in any
climate, and are very tame.
Of the peacock family there are two "sports," white and pied. Both
have attained wide popularity owing to their delicate beauty. The white
peacock has reached its highest state of cultivation in India. They breed
readily and thrive in every climate. The Pied Pea Fowl is one of the
most attractive of the family. They are rare in America, and add greatly
to the value of any collection of birds.
The Japan or Black-Winged Pea Fowl (Pavo nigripennis).—The habitat
of this species is unknown, but it was supposed by Dr. P. L. Sclater, who
originally described the bird, to be Cochin China. It is among the really
beautiful varieties of the species. The male bird is the darkest of all the
peacocks, and, strangely enough, the female is the lightest, being almost
all white. They are hardy, and can be bred in any climate, requiring
little or no attention.
The Green Fava Pea Fowl (Pavo muticus).—Native of Chittagong,
in the eastern part of India, and occuring through Burma to Java. This
is the most beautiful of all known birds, possessing in its majestic
plumage every color of the rainbow, every tint and tone in the
prismatic scale. Its neck feathers, less rich in hue than the blue
of its rival, have a particularly beautiful effect, as if made of metal;
and the almost equal beauty of the hen places her far above the
dowdy mate of the common peacock. They are much larger than other
species, breed readily in any climate, and are a handsome ornament to any
country home. Most important, perhaps, is the fact that they do not
utter that shrill, ear-splitting scream which makes the common peacock a
rather unpopular bird.
GUINEA FOWLS (NUMIDIDE)
Vulturine Guinea Fowl (Acryllium vulturinum).-The most interesting
member of the family is this beautiful Guinea Fowl from Eastern
Africa. It becomes so tame that it feeds from the hand, and really
acts the part of a clown in the barnyard. They have never been brought
to this country in great numbers, but are desirable, owing to their peculiar
Pheasants
1263
beauty, the rich blue evident in every feather. Delicate in cold, they are
easily kept in warm weather. They have never bred yet in America, but,
I believe, have done so in France. There are twenty or more species of
Guinea Fowl, all from Africa, and they are usually grouped in five
distinct genera.
Acryllium contains only the present species.
Sammering's Pheasant (Phasianus sæmmerringii). — A native of
Japan, this bird breeds well in aviaries. It is very hardy and will thrive
in this country. The male is so pugnacious that he will sometimes fight
to the death with others of his own race. It is necessary to take the
precaution to clip one of his wings, while leaving those of the females
complete. He will kill them if the aviary is not one in which they can
perch out of his reach. The general color of the Soemmering cock is
copper, and it is sometimes called the Copper Pheasant. The cocks are
among the longest tailed, while the hen has the shortest tail of any of the
pheasants.
SYRMATICUS
Reeves's Pheasant (Syrmaticus reevesii). The largest of the true
pheasant family, and one of the grandest, breeds well in this country.
It inhabits the mountains of China, and is the swiftest of all on the wing.
Many prefer this pheasant to any of the others. It is very hardy, and can
endure any winter or any summer. The cocks are large, measuring some-
times as much as seven feet to the end of the tail. They are rich yellow
and black in color.
CALOPHASIS
Elliot's Pheasant (Calophasis ellioti).—One of the finest and least
troublesome of the pheasant family is Elliot's. The hen hatches and
rears her own young. Being very hardy, and becoming reasonably tame,
they are especially adapted to this country. They inhabit the moun-
tains near Ningpo, China. The Elliot cock is as proud and beautiful
as bird can be. His copper-colored shoulders glow in the sunlight. He
is cross sometimes, but if his wings are pinioned and those of the
females left long, and they have a stick to perch on out of his reach, he
can do no harm.
CHRYSOLOPHUS
Golden Pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus). These pheasants need no
description. They are hardy, tame birds and seen in every zoological
1264
The Poultry Book
garden. They inhabit the mountains of Western and Central China, and
are the popular favorites of the pheasant family. They breed as easily as
ducks, and are almost as easily reared. Red, yellow and old gold are the
local colors of the cocks.
Black-Throated Golden Pheasant.-The habitat of this beautiful pheas-
ant is not known. It varies slightly from the common species. The hens
are darker and handsomer, and the chicks, when small, have white throats.
They are as hardy as the other variety.
Lady Amherst Pheasant (Chrysolophus amherstiæ).—This magnificent
bird constitutes the second species of the genus Chrysolophus, and as a
striking ornament for the aviary it cannot be surpassed, even by its rela-
tive, the Golden Pheasant. This species requires little room for its
comfort, and breeds with success in any country. It inhabits China,
bordering on Eastern Tibet.
JUNGLE FOWLS
Natives of Southeastern Asia, India, Sumatra, Java and Borneo.
Four species are known, all bearing a striking resemblance to the common
domestic fowl, rather over Bantam size. They possess the carriage
of the pheasant, the tail being kept rather low. The cocks have single,
small-sized combs and long, sharp spurs.
The Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus).—This species, formerly called
Gallus bankiva, so closely resembles the old Red-black Game of the English
fighting type, that it is frequently mistaken for it. This justly gives rise
to the claim that they are the direct ancestors of all our domestic breeds
of fowls. They grow so tame as to come uninvited into the house.
The hen lays nine eggs and rears her own young. They are very hardy,
withstanding any climatic changes.
The Ceylon Jungle Fowl (Gallus lafayettii).-These are seldom met
with in captivity, nor are they in any particular so beautiful as the
Gray Jungle Fowl.
The Gray or Sonnerat's Jungle Fowl (Gallus sonnerati).—Although
rather sombre in general tone, these birds possess a peculiar hackle feather
tipped with a wax-like substance that greatly resembles burnished gold.
They are less hardy than the Red Jungle Fowl, particularly in captivity.
The Gray Jungle Fowl is one of the rarest of the pheasant family in
captivity, and it is unusual to find one even in the great zoological
Pheasants
1265
gardens of the world. It was two years before I succeeded in breeding
them successfully.
The Green or Java Jungle Fowl (Gallus varius).-Most distinct of all
the species. The cock's comb is plain edged, not serrated as in the
others. His face is very naked, and instead of wattles he has a dewlap
which expands and contracts like a turkey's, the face and dewlap changing
color when the latter is contracted. Under this condition the bird actually
blushes a bright red. The ruff, instead of being composed of hackles,
is made up of scale-like feathers which extend to the upper part of the
back. This plumage is a metallic purple and golden green. They are the
rarest of all the Jungle Fowls in captivity.

THE SIAMESE FIREBACK
A beautiful bird that easily becomes tame
THE PEACOCK *

HERE are three varieties of peacock, the most common being
Pavo cristata; secondly, the Javan Pavo muticus, while
the third is the black-winged Pavo nigripennis, well de-
scribed by Mr. Sclater. The following, taken from Mr.
Nolan's book on "The Domestic Fowl," describes the
ordinary well-known Pavo cristata: "They were first brought from the
East Indies, where they are still found in vast flocks in a wild state. The
head of the bird most familiar to us is adorned with a tuft of twenty-four
feathers, whose shafts are entirely bare, tipped with eyes of green and
gold (hence its name, Pavo cristatus); the head, throat, neck and breast are
a deep blue, adorned with green and gold; the greater coverts and bastard
wings are a reddish brown, as are also the quills, some of which are varie-
gated with black and green; the belly and vent are black, with a greenish
hue. The distinguishing characteristic of this singular bird is its train,
which rises just above the tail, and, when erected, forms a fan of the most
splendid hues. The two middle feathers are sometimes four feet and a half
long, the others gradually diminishing on each side; the shafts white, and
furnished from their origin nearly to the end with parted filaments of
various colors, ending in a flat vane, which is decorated with what is called
the eye; the real tail consists of short, stiff, brown feathers, which serve
as a support to the train. When pleased, or in the sight of his females, the
peacock erects his train, and displays the majesty of his beauty. All his
movements are full of dignity, his head and neck bend nobly back, his pace
is slow and solemn, and he frequently turns slowly and gracefully round, as
if to catch the sunbeams in every direction, and produce new colors of
inconceivable richness and beauty, accompanied with a hollow, murmuring
sound, expressive of desire. The cry of the peacock at other times is
often repeated, and very disagreeable. The plumes are shed every year,
and while moulting the bird, as if humiliated, retires from view.”
* The peacock is not a common fowl in this country, although it is found in most
large parks and on many country estates. It is rarely kept on the farm, except for show.
-EDITOR.
1266

Harre, on
1900
m
PRIZE DARK DORKINGS.
The property of Mr. HERBERT REEVES.
The Peacock
1267
It and the
The Javan, or Burmese, variety has even richer colors.
Black-winged are like the Cristata in being well known, and not having
varied through domestication, even the White and Pied being found in a
wild state. In Burmah the peacock is venerated, and in many places the
wild birds are preserved from the attacks of sportsmen. But the peacock,
its varieties, its haunts and habits, in the normal state, I leave to the
numerous books on natural history. My intention is to deal only with the
ordinary peacock, the bird known in England for centuries as a tenant
of poultry yards, or an ornament about the houses, parks and aviaries.
Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, writing nearly two thousand
years ago, says: "The education of peacocks requires rather the care
of a gentle householder who dwells in a city, than a crabbed, surly rustic;
but neither is this foreign to the business of the husbandman, who is always
endeavoring to procure to himself pleasure from all sides, wherewith all
the solitudes and irksomeness of the country may be softened and allayeð;
for the beauty and comeliness of these birds not only gives delight to the
owners, but also to strangers." He goes on to say that keeping the pea-
cock is a simple matter. "Because there is no fear of thieves, etc., it wanders
up and down safely without a keeper, and acquires for itself the greatest
part of its nourishment. The females, indeed, as if they were discharged
from bondage, bring up their young ones of their own accord, with greater
Nor ought he that has the care of them to do any other thing
but by giving a signal at a certain time of the day to call together the
whole flock near the manor house, and to throw a little barley before them,
when they come together, that the fowls may not be hungry, and that he
may review them, and count the number of those that come to the place."
This is excellent advice, and should be followed by everyone keeping
poultry about homesteads, stack and rick-yards, or on wide ranges, so
that he or she may each day look over the stock, note their healthiness, and
see if any are missing or injured.
care.
Columella also advises that at certain times or seasons, when the
peacocks become pugnacious and highly combative, there should be a
separate yard and sleeping-place for each peacock and his five peahens;
though at other than the breeding months they can be allowed to roam
and associate. By this means a large number may be kept, and a lucrative
progeny raised. He strictly insists "that their lodging-place ought to be
entirely free from moisture, and that the perches be made movable, so
1268
The Poultry Book
it
that they can be taken away for the time when it is necessary to sweep out
and cleanse the building and floor." Of the peacock in general he says,
This kind of fowl when fully three years old breeds exceedingly well,
and as it has the salaciousness of the common poultry cock, it requires
five females. At the time of the peahens laying, the aviary must be well
filled with a great quantity of straw, as they are apt to lay in the night when
perched, and by this means the eggs are preserved from injury. The eggs
must be collected daily. Their first laying is of five eggs; the second,
four; the third, either three or two."
Columella advises that which is contrary to modern practice, when he
says, "the largest common poultry hen should be prepared for sitting on
the peahen's eggs. If she be of middling size there ought not to be more
than three peahen's eggs and six of her own kind placed under her. After
she has hatched the young ones, those of her own kind ought to be trans-
ferred to another nurse, until a flock of twenty-five be made up.
"When the young ones are hatched in like manner to the chickens of
common poultry, let them not be removed the first day; the second day,
let them be transferred to a coop with the nurse that is to educate them,
and let them be nourished with barley-meal besprinkled with wine, also
with boiled pottage or gruel of any kind of corn, cooled. Then, after a
few days, to this food must be added some leek, cut very small, and soft
cheese out of which the whey has been squeezed with great force, for it is
manifest that whey is hurtful to the chicks. Locusts, with legs removed,
may be added, etc. After the thirty-fifth day from hatching, they may
safely enough be led out into the fields, and the flock follows the clucking
hen as if she were their mother. Shut up in a cage, she is carried to the
fields by the feeder, and, being let out, is secured by a long line tied to
her foot. The young ones fly up and down and around her, and when they
have fed to satiety, they are brought back to the manor house.” Thus
far Columella.
I now turn to Varro,* another man of supreme learning, much ex-
perience, and knowledge, especially of agricultural subjects in which as a
profitable study he included poultry. He was coeval with Columella,
but even then the peacock was kept in confined space, as a commercial
part of his villatic stock.
* Varro was born in the year of Rome 638, and his death occurred in 726, so that
he must have been in the eighty-eighth year of his age.

From a photograph by C. Reid
A PEACOCK IN ALL HIS GLORY

The Peacock
1271
<i
In Book III. of his writings on agriculture, Chapter IV., he says:
'I will not play a losing game: that is, I will speak of present times, rather
than of the past, for greater profit is taken from peacocks than from com-
mon poultry." By this it will be observed that poultry was kept, not only
for amusement, but for the increase of income. In a dialogue between
Axius and Mirula, Chapter VI., the latter replies: "In relation to peacocks,
stocks of them began to be raised in our memory, and to be sold at a great
price. M. Ansidices Lurco is said to make above sixty thousand sesterces
a year of them. The cocks ought to be fewer than the hens, if you regard
profit; if you have them for pleasure, it is otherwise, for the cock is the most
beautiful bird. Wild flocks of peacocks are said to be in islands in foreign
parts, in the grove of Juno, at Samos, and in M. Piso's of Planasia. For
raising flocks, these are procured at a good age and of a beautiful breed, for
Nature has bestowed the palm for beauty on this bird. They are not fit
for breeding when less than two years old, nor yet when they have become
quite old. They are fed with every kind of grain, especially barley, and
Seius allows them a modicus of barley each, every month, and they have
more when they breed and before they lay. He expects to have three young
ones from his keeper, and when they are grown he sells them for 'fifty
denarii,' so that no sheep turns to so good account. Besides, he buys
eggs and sets them under hens, and brings the young ones when they are
hatched into the building which he has for peacocks, which ought to be
made in proportion to the number of birds." Here it should be noted that
the breeding stock was kept in confinement, and not allowed to roam at
pleasure. "It ought to have a place before the building where they may
feed in fine weather. These birds wish to have each place kept clean, and
therefore the keeper ought to go about with a shovel and take up the dung
and lay it up, because it is useful for agriculture and for littering the young
brood." This last instruction seems contrary to cleanliness, though it
was a practice long known among pigeon fanciers of the present time.
The late well-known fancier, Mr. Bowler, advocated it, and his lofts fully
bore out his belief.
This shows that peacocks were early raised as farm products, not so
much for their beauty as for the absolute profit gained; and also that the
methods of breeding, as to age, number of the sexes, and food, were very
nearly the same as those in use at the present time. The old process of
rearing, keeping, and fattening poultry differs but little in the main from
that of to-day.
1272
The Poultry Book
The Rev. R. Warner* states that "the luxury of the English, as far as
it regarded the table, during the succeeding reigns from Rufus to the end
of Henry III., seems to have increased to a pitch of extreme excess.
It was about this time that the peacock became a favorite dish at the tables
of the great, where it was served up with many solemnities.
In
the thirteenth century it was sufficiently esteemed to be made the prize
of the conqueror at the game of quintain.
Peacock crests in ancient times were among the ornaments of the
kings of England. Ernald de Aclent paid a fine to King John “in a hundred
and forty palfreys, with sackbuts, lorains, gilt spurs, and peacocks' crests
-such as would be to his credit."†
""
The peacock held, and still holds, a place in heraldry, of which there
is an example in the church of St. Lawrence, Blackmore. On an altar
tomb of one of the family of "Smith" there is a slab with field argent, a
cross gules between four peacocks, close, azure. Crest: a peacock's head
erased, azure, ducally gorged or. In this church there are six other tombs
of the Smith family with similar armorial bearings and crests.
It was a favorite with the poets of the past as a bird of beauty, emblem
of pride and vanity, and notable at feasts as a special dainty, though often
declaimed against, not only as inferior diet, but absolutely foul and un-
wholesome.
It figured at most of the large feasts and royal banquets, merely
roasted, when two were put on a dish, but the "Peacock in Hackle" was
treated differently. Being an old bird, it was skinned, stuffed with hot
and strong spices, then roasted after being par-boiled, and when cooked
its skin and plumes were replaced, also the train or tail. This treatment
no doubt gave rise to the somewhat superstitious belief that, "Its flesh
is esteemed harder, colder, drier, and of more difficult concoction than
that of hens. Being boiled or roasted, it will not putrefie, but keep a year
or more, uncorrupt. This is commonly believed, and proved by an experi-
ment made by St. Augustine, who in his 21st Book of the 'City of God,'
Chap. II., writes thus: 'Who but God, the Creator of all things, gave to
peacock's flesh a faculty of not putrefying, which thing at first hearing
*The Rev. R. Warner's " Illustrations, Historical, Biographical, and Miscellaneous,
of Sir Walter Scott's Novels. Time of Ivanhoe."
† Madox, "Arch. Exch." I., 273.
Essex Review, No. 30, Vol. VIII.,
P. 81.
The Peacock
1273
seeming to me incredible. It happened that at Carthage there was set
before us a roasted peacock, of the brawn of whose breast we caused to be
kept so much as we thought convenient, which being produced after so
many days' space as any other roasted flesh would corrupt in, did not at
all offend our nose. Being laid up again, after more than thirty days it
was found the same as before, and likewise the same after a year, save that
it was somewhat drier and a little contracted or shrunk.' To us it seems
not so wonderful that the flesh of a peacock, which is of itself sufficiently
hard and solid, being rendered harder and drier by roasting, should con-
tinue a long time uncorrupted in a hot country such as Africa, especially
if care be taken that in moist and rainy weather it take no wet. I doubt
not that the same would happen to turkey's flesh, or even to pullet's,
boiled or roasted. Let them abstain (saith Aldrovandi) from eating pea-
cock's flesh who live a sedentary or idle life, using no exercise, for it is more
agreeable, or at least less hurtful, to those that exercise much (I mean the
flesh of young peacocks only, as being more tender). But in my opinion,
and to my palate, the flesh of young peacocks is very tender, delicate, and
well tasted, purely white, and deservingly held by the Romans of old in
high esteem; its price nothing inferior to that of hens or partridge."*
"The peacock (saith Aldrovandi) is a most beautiful bird to behold,
but pleasure to the eye is counterbalanced by many an ungrateful sound
stroke upon the ear, which is often afflicted by its odious noises. The
common folk of Italy say it has the feathers of an angel, the voice of a
devil, and the stomach of a thief." Shakespeare says that its vanity was
proverbial. In the "Comedy of Errors," Act 4, s. 3:
((
""
Fly pride says the peacock."
And he noted well the action of the bird, when he makes Thersites say:
Why he stalks up and down like a peacock;
A stride and a stand."-TROILUS AND CRESSIDA.
The bird's most curious action takes place when he is in his "pride."
Standing in full array among his hens, with tail erect, all gorgeous, glitter-
ing, and glowing in the sun, he turns, and turns again. Then facing the
full, hot light, he shivers, with a short, tremulous action, and utters a
low, pretentious noise. His scintillating, rich-eyed colorings appear like
live beauties on a feathery ground, as in shifting they catch and lose the
* Willughby's "Ornithology," translated by Ray, Book II., p. 159.
1274
The Poultry Book
rays. No other bird has such plumes, nor is any more conscious of his
charms. All birds are vain, in their nuptial plumage, but there is truth in
the old adage, "As vain as a peacock." Even Æsop knew this by observa-
tion, and he decked the would-be proud jackdaw in peacock's feathers.
In China the mandarin, who is a chief among chiefs, wears a peacock's
feather.
The peacock is often a vicious and troublesome bird to keep, especially
if there are other poultry. He often chases and kills whole broods of
chickens, even the hen herself, and if she be caught on her nest, the eggs
are destroyed and mostly eaten. A neighbor of mine at Brenchley, Kent,
kept peacocks, and, although they were housed and fed a quarter of a mile
off, one cock would fly nearly the whole distance to my poultry runs, where
he did much damage, killing several birds. Others belonging to my father-
in-law, J. F. Herring, were docile and quiet among his other poultry, and
roamed the pleasure grounds without doing any injury to the plants and
shrubs. I have known of others equally tame and peaceable, though such
cases are not general.
me.
The peacock is particularly shy at the nuptial season, although very
salacious, as my friend, F. Wilson, naturalist at the Crystal Palace, informed
The peahen seeks retired places for her nest, and avoids as much as
possible the intrusion of the male, who is apt to destroy the nest and eggs.
She lays from five to seven eggs of a whitish color. Mr. Wilson had one
peahen that laid at one clutch as many as twelve, out of which he was so
fortunate as to hatch seven chicks. The young are easily reared, especially
on a dry, fertile soil, where the peahen can have the shelter and range
of a shaw, hedgerow, or wood, as well as pasture land. The peachicks
will thrive on the same kind of food as young turkeys. When well grown
they should have a variety of grain, but about the breeding season more
barley, which has a tendency to make them salacious and to increase the
fertility of their eggs, as well as the number. The young keep with the old
birds throughout the year, and are seldom driven off until the next breeding
The peacock does not obtain his full adornments until the second
year, and is at his best in the fourth, fifth, and sixth. It is said to be a very
long-lived bird, one hundred years a possible age, but, although I have
made many inquiries, the limit so far has been from twenty to twenty-five
years, and even that has lacked proof. The flesh of the old birds is dark,
hard, harsh, dry, and, unless very fat, almost tasteless, while that of the
season.
The Peacock
1275
peahen, at about twelve months, is good and gamy, and the peachicks,
when properly cooked and served, are exceedingly palatable. As they
are by no means expensive nor troublesome to rear, it is surprising that so
few are kept for commercial purposes, particularly as Varro has expressly
said that he found them to be of exceeding profit.
The feathers of the peacock are of some value. The quills of both
cock and hen are still in demand for decorative purposes. The utmost
cleanliness is necessary for these fowls, and fresh water must be given them
at least once a day. If kept in confined runs, they require green food daily,
such as cabbage, lettuce, green oats and corn. Such weeds as cow-parsley,
etc., are good.
Alexander made a decree in which those who killed a peacock were
subjected to the punishment of death, as it was by him considered a divine
bird. The peacock in "his pride" was looked upon as the king of birds,
in beauty as well as in stately, arrogant bearing. In pictures, the wings of
angels were often decorated with the peacock's train feathers, because,
however useless for flying, they were splendidly gorgeous, and even
churches were thought to be beautified by their presence.
THE GUINEA FOWL*
HE Guinea hen, as it is sometimes called, is said to have been
brought to England by the Romans, at whose feasts it was
held in high esteem, but I can find no mention of it in any
of our early records. At present it is not kept so largely
as it might be, considering the excellent quality and high
flavor of its abundant breast-meat. The Guinea fowl is also a prolific layer
of somewhat small, prettily-colored eggs, but its roving disposition and
its habit of making nests away from the homestead, in tangled hedgerows,
close coppices, woods, and other places where they are difficult to find,
causes great loss. Much useless searching is required, so adept are they
in the choice of locality, and besides, unpaired hens will resort to the nests
of mated birds, and overload them with dozens of unfertile eggs, not dis-
tinguishable from the others. Thus it happens that few chicks are hatched,
and in many cases none at all. The Guinea fowl, being monogamous, must
be kept in pairs, though an odd hen or two may be allowed to run with a
flock of half cocks and hens. If allowed to sit, they are excellent mothers,
and when in a semi-wild state will not only hatch a full complement of
eggs, but tend and rear their chicks in copses, shaws, or woods, without
attention. On more than one occasion, I have known a covey "put-up
by the dogs, when pheasant shooting, at a considerable distance from any
poultry or rick-yard. The better plan is to collect the eggs, when possible,
and put them under a common hen. If fed in the same way as poultry,
and if the hen is cooped near a wood or rough, bushy, and tufted-grass
range, the young generally thrive, and give little trouble from the egg to
mature growth. The time of incubation is thirty days, and the hatching
should not be too early, as the chickens are tender of cold and more difficult
to rear if there be not sufficient insect life and weed seeds, on which they

>
*The Guinea fowl is widely kept in America. Like the peacock, it is most at home
where it has a free run of a wooded tract or access to brush lands. They are kept by
many farmers to ward off the attacks of hawks on chickens and other fowls. It is said
that hawks will not visit a yard where Guinea fowls are kept. However true this may
be, it accounts, nevertheless, for many flocks of Guinea fowls in the average farmyard—
EDITOR.
1276

The Guinea Fowl
1277

WHITE, SPLASHED, AND OTHER GUINEA FOWLS
From a photograph by C. Reid
feed and do well. Early birds are treated much in the same way as young
turkeys, though they are more easily raised.
Guinea Fowls are natives of Africa, in some parts of which they may
be seen in large flocks. Even in this country they retain much of their
native wildness, and roost on tall trees, often some distance from home.
Where there is food to be found in the woods, they sometimes are gone for
days, unless watched and driven in, and when the cover is extensive it is
not uncommon for the whole flock to wander away and so become lost
until the fall of the leaf. Even then, except for their continual call at
morn and night, "Come back! come back!" they would possibly remain
undiscovered, and so perish from hunger and cold on the approach of
winter. They are very combative, especially in the early spring and during
1278
The Poultry Book
7
the pairing season, and resolutely fight, not only their own species, but
they harass and worry the other denizens of the poultry yard.
The cock is distinguishable from the hen by a deeper and richer color
on the neck, and by being more compact in shape. His wattles stand
out wider than those of the hen, are a brilliant red, and somewhat hide a
portion of the beak. Those of the hen are more pendulous, and besides
there is a distinguishing difference in the "call," as the hen only uses the
curious, petulant cry, "Come back! come back!"
As they breed later than the common fowl, they are in season in
January, February, and March, and at that time they realize good market
prices, as a substitute for game, which is out of season, and are by some
preferred to pheasants. Their eggs, in March and April, realize more and
find a readier sale than those of either fowls or ducks.
The illustration so well delineates the form and character of the birds
as to render description needless, but they vary much in color, though all,
even the white, show the beautiful, round spots and markings, visible in
some lights. They are, occasionally, a deep purple in the ground color,
with a white petal on the heart, which is always present. The most
common have a gray ground, but there are also some dove color, others a
delicate fawn, and a few light, sooty brown; but of all colors the white is
the most valuable.
THE TURKEY *
F. E. DAWLEY, NEW YORK
LTHOUGH America has not contributed many varieties of
fowls to the world's store of breeds, those which she has
given are deservedly popular and profitable, and among
them her principal and natural gift-the turkey-holds
a remarkable place. Many writers have tried, unsuccess-
fully, to place the land of the turkey's nativity elsewhere, and to account
for the name by showing that it indicates other than an American origin.
The best evidence proves that when the turkey was first imported into
Spain and England it was confounded with the Guinea fowl, then often
called “turkey," and that as the people became acquainted with the
two birds, the term Guinea clung to one and Turkey to the other. No
matter how the name originated, it is perfectly clear that the Spanish
discoverers of America found the bird here, and that among their trophies
on the return voyage were a few turkeys.
، ،
The earliest description of the turkey is given by Oviedo, in his
Historia natural y general de las Indias," supposed to have been written
in 1527.
He calls both turkeys and curassows "Pavos" (Peafowls); but
distinguishes very carefully between them, saying among other things,
'that the Turkey makes a wheel of his tail the same as the Peafowl,"
although it is not so beautiful. The chief point of interest in his account
is that he speaks of the turkey as already having been taken from New
Spain (Mexico) to the islands of Castilla del Oro, where they had been
tamed, and bred in a domesticated state by the "Christians.”
Lopez de Gomara, whose book was printed in 1553, makes use of the
name Gallopavo, and says that the "animal" much resembles in shape the
peacock and the domestic cock, and that of all the fowls in New Spain

<<
*This truly American fowl is found in all parts of this country, and is a great
favorite. Its popularity as a delicacy on special occasions increases year after year. It
is difficult for the trade to supply the demand at Thanksgiving time and during the
holiday season. In writing this account, Mr. Dawley has drawn freely from the historical
sketch by Mr. Weir.-EDITOR.
7
1279
1280
The Poultry Book
its flesh is the most delicious. René de Laudonnière found them on his
landing in North America in 1564; Pedro de Ciesa saw them on the Isthmus
of Darien, and Dampier in Yucatan. Beckmann says: "These tes-
timonies are sufficiently strong and numerous to convince any naturalist
that America is the native country of these fowls, though this fact and also
the time of their importation to England were strenuously combated.
None were imported into England until after the discovery of America."
From all the data obtainable it is evident that the bird was pretty
well scattered over Europe by 1540; but as Mexico was discovered twenty-
two years before, the theory that Cabot, or some of his immediate successors,
took many of the birds to England would seem to rest on a firm foundation.
In 1541 we find the first documentary evidence of its existence in England,
in a "constitution" set forth by Cramer, wherein the "turkey-cocke" is
mentioned as one of "the greater fowles" of which an ecclesiastic was to
have "but one dishe." As the crane and swan are mentioned in the same
list, the supposition can be refuted that the guinea-fowl was meant. The
low price of "two turkey cockes and four turkey chicks" that were served
up at a feast of some serjeants-at-law" in 1555, would indicate that at
this time they were very abundant, and it is recorded by Tusser that as
early as 1573 they played a very "greate parte in the Christmas husbandrie
faire."
((
In 1555 both the cock and hen were drawn by Belon, in his Oyseaux
(page 249), and in the same year a cut of the cock was made by Gesner.
These appear to be the first representations made of the bird.
On the continent of Europe the fowl seems to have been fully as
popular as in England, and the tables of the nobility were often graced
with fine specimens; in fact it is recorded that the principal dish at the
wedding of Charles IX., in 1570, was "baste turkey." In the original
work the following appears:
"The first turkey was eaten in France on the 27th of June, 1570, at
the wedding feast of Charles IX. and Elizabeth of Austria. A number
of these birds had been sent from Boston to St. Malo, and when the ship
reached this port the provincial governor despatched a dozen of them to
the chief of the King's kitchen, thinking they would be a welcome addition
to the royal table. These twelve turkeys were stuffed and served on a spit
like so many larks, and the great dignitaries of the court, as well as the
Cardinal de Lorraine and the Queen Mother, ate so much of them that

The Turkey
1281
they had an attack of indigestion." A further account, which appeared
about the same time, says that " Turkeys were first introduced into France
in the time of Charles IX.,
1570, from Boston, in America.
The King commenced breed-
ing them in the forest of St.
Germain, and soon they be-
came by no means uncommon
on the tables of the court and
the upper classes. But it
took more than half a century
to render them popular."
From this it appears that the
French turkey came from
America direct, while the
English was said to be im-
ported from Spain, whence
it came from the West India
Islands, and this is now called
a different breed to the
American tame and wild
turkey.
They were known in Italy
in 1557. About the year 1570
Bartolomeo Scappi, cook to
Pope Pius V., gave, in his
book on cookery, several
recipes for dressing these ex-
pensive and much esteemed
fowls. That they were scarce
at this period appears from
the remark that the first
turkeys brought to Bologna
were some that had been given
as a present to the family of Buoncompagni, from which Pope
Gregory XII. was descended.
That these fowls were not known in England at the beginning of
Photograph by courtesy New England Homestead
BRONZE TURKEY
First prize at New York, 1902. Owned by Valley Farm, Connecticut
1282
The Poultry Book
the sixteenth century is very probable. They are not mentioned in the
banquet given by Archbishop Nevill, nor by Andrewe Boorde in his
Dietary of Helth," 1542-47, though he praises capons, hens, etc.; nor in
the regulations by Henry VIII. respecting his household, in which all the
fowls used in the royal kitchen are named; and turkeys were introduced
about that period-some say 1524, others, 1530, others again, 1532.
Young turkeys were served at a great banquet in 1555, and in 1585 they
were commonly reckoned among the number of delicate dishes.
in his “Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," ed. 1585, says:
Tusser,
66
Maister Thomas Cogan, in his book "The Haven of Health," 1697, gives
but scant notice and praise to the turkey, coupling it with the peacock,
thus: "Peacocks, if they are old, be hard of digestion, and so are Turkey
cockes likewise, but the chickens of either of them, about halfe a year old,
are good and wholesome."
Turkey cocks are commended by Archbishop Cranmer as part of a
bishop's dinner, with capons, etc. It appears that they were common,
from the following extract from the Denham Wills, published by the Sur-
tees Society, LXXIV., page 155. In the inventory made of the goods
of one William Sevison, dated July 24, 1587, one reads under the head of
Pullane":
(6
Beef, mutton, and porke, shred pies of the best,
Pig, veale, goose, and capon, and turkie well drest;
Cheese, apples, and nuts, jolie carols to heare,
As then in the country is counted good cheere.”
,
((
'One Turkye Coke, iij turkye hens, vj yong turkyes, 13s. 4d.," ten
birds in all. Of the other poultry, two house cocks and nineteen hens were
valued at 6s. 8d. ; one gray cock and three hens at 5s., and thirteen chickens,
5S. Here we not only get enlightenment upon the "commonness" of
the turkey at this time, but upon its actual value. In Shakespeare's play,
"I Henry IV," Act II., scene 1, there is the following dialogue between
carriers:
Ι
"Inn Yard, Rochester.
Second Carrier: I have a gammon of bacon and two razes of ginger
to be delivered at Charing Cross.
First Carrier: God's body! The turkeys in my pannier are quite
What, ostler! etc."
starved.
This play was entered on the Stationers' Company's Register, Feb-
((
((
The Turkey
1283
ruary 25, 1597-98. It not only appears that Shakespeare was well ac-
quainted with the turkey, but that they were so plentiful as to be in the
hands of "higglers." These carriers, at that time often dealers, were
bound for London, and the panniers they used were originally bread-
baskets.
Again, in the play of "Twelfth Night," Act II., scene 5, Fabian says in
reply to Sir Toby:
"Here's an overwhelming rogue!
O, peace! contemplation makes
A rare turkey cock of him; how
He jets under his advanced plumes."
And in "King Henry V.," Act V., scene 1 (Enter Pistol):
"Gower: Why, here he comes, swelling like a turkey cock.
"Fluellen: 'Tis no matter for his swelling like a turkey cock."
This play is not mentioned by Meres in his “Palladio Tamia,” 1598,
but it is said to have been acted in 1599, although the earliest edition in
quarto is that of 1600.
In that very interesting book, "The Annals of the Barber Surgeons,"
occurs the following item in the menu of a feast, July 27, 1676:
"Ffr 3 dishes Turkies and sas (sausages), 2 in a dish, 18 s.," and
in March, 1678, among the provisions were included "dishes of Turkies.'
At another feast (1684) poultry was cheaper, sixteen turkeys costing
but £1 14s. 8d.; and in 1685, fourteen turkeys, only £1 11S. 6d. From
that time the prices have gradually advanced, although more turkeys are
kept in England, and there are also occasional importations from France.
Mr. John Boys, in “A General View of Agriculture in the County of Kent,”
1805, remarks that "Geese, turkeys, fowls, and ducks, are bred in the
country sufficiently to supply the inhabitants, and a few to spare for the
shipping sailing from Gravesend." He goes on to say that “Poultry has
much increased in price within the last few years. Turkeys now sell as
high as 6s. and 7s.," and other poultry in proportion. Of course, the
price depended much, if not entirely, on the size of the birds. Since the
time of which Mr. John Boys wrote, the price of turkeys in Kent has
more than doubled, good turkeys at Christmas, 1898, realizing as much as
Is. per pound, while large, well-fatted superior birds were sold at Is. 3d.
per pound, and in good demand at that sum. Norfolk and Cambridge,
Sussex and Surrey birds, were as successfully marketed, but the French and
1284
The Poultry Book
Irish brought a little less, though the best quality of the former leaves
little to be desired. The Italian are not so large, though good in flavor,
and sell wholesale from 6d. to 9d. per pound. At the present time the keep-
ing, rearing and fattening of the turkey ought to prove an occupation of
considerable profit to the producer, where soil and climate are suitable
and the birds can receive careful and intelligent attention.
"The week preceding Christmas Day, 1810," says Daniel, in his
"Rural Sports" (Supplement 1813), "not less than thirty-three tons of
turkeys and game were sent from Norwich City and County to the Metrop-
olis, which, including the expense of package and carriage, averaged one
shilling and sixpence per pound, and amounted to more than £5,500."

TURKEYS AT HOME IN THE FARM YARD
In America the wild bird was pretty generally distributed, and we
have records of its having been found in large numbers by the early settlers
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Great Lakes to the southern
boundaries of Mexico. The wild turkey of Mexico differs somewhat from
the Northern variety. In fact, some ornithologists have classified them
separately, retaining the name Meleagris gallopavo for the wild turkey of
the East, while the Mexican variety is regarded as Meleagris Mexicana,
and the ocellated turkey of Yucatan, or Honduras turkey as Meleagris
ocellata. The last is considered the most beautiful of the race, having
feathers "pied" or with "eyes" like those of a peacock. It may be that this
variety was seen by some of the early writers who confounded the peafowl
and the turkey.
The Turkey
1285
According to Doctor Baird, the chief difference between the two
varieties of wild turkey native in the United States is that the tail and
many of the body feathers of the one found in Mexico have a band of
creamy white or silver gray across their tips, while in the Northern variety
this band is chestnut or chestnut brown. Those who are buying wild
blood to introduce into their flocks of domesticated turkeys should insist
on the birds having this marking, as it is the only guarantee, especially in
the East, that the stock is bred from wild birds. B. G. Elliott, in an
article written in the early sixties on "The Game Birds of the United
States," says of the wild turkey of the East:
((
The turkey may be considered as both migratory and gregarious.
The first of these circumstances depends upon the exhaustion of their
favorite food in any particular section of country, or upon the opposite
fact of there being a great abundance of it in some other place. When
the latter is the cause of their migration, they seem to be insensibly led
toward the land of plenty by finding the supply of food increased as they
advance, and not from any particular instinct of their own. Their food
consists of maize, berries, fruits, grasses, acorns, and, in that part of the
country where it abounds, the pecan nut is preferred to everything else.
When migrating, if they reach a river over which they desire to cross,
they generally remain near the bank for a day or two before making the
effort; seemingly either to consult upon the means of accomplishing their
intention or to recuperate their strength before undertaking the difficult
feat.
((
"While they are thus waiting, the males employ their time in gobbling
continually, or in strutting pompously about with lowered wings and
expanded tails, while the females sometimes imitate them in these move-
ments. When they consider that the time has arrived for proceeding on
their journey, the entire flock mount to the tops of the highest trees, and,
at a given signal from their leader, launch themselves into the air and fly
to the opposite shore. The old birds easily cross, but, should the stream
be wide, the young and feeble frequently fall into the stream, and proceed
to swim ashore, showing considerable dexterity in closing their wings,
using their expanded tails for support, and striking out rapidly with their
long and powerful legs. If the shore should be steep, some are unable to
ascend, and, falling back from their unsuccessful attempts, perish in the
water.
1286
The Poultry Book
Toward the latter part of February, what may be termed the love
season commences. The females separate themselves and endeavor to
hide from the males, while the latter with almost unintermittent gobbling,
seek for them in all directions.
CC
"At this season of the year I have heard the rolling notes of the males
in the early morning resounding from every side, as they stood upon their
perches. On the appearance of the rising sun, they ceased calling, and
silently sought the ground, where they began to strut about, evidently
hoping that the eyes of some watchful female observed their lordly bearing.
"Whenever the males meet while thus occupied, fierce battles ensue,
ending, generally, in the death of the weaker party, unless he is fortunate
enough to escape by flight. Of these flights Audubon says:
"I have often been much diverted, while watching two males in
fierce conflict, by seeing them move alternately backward and forward,
as either obtained a better hold, their wings drooping, their tails partly
raised, their body feathers ruffled, and their heads covered with blood.
If, as they thus struggle and gasp for breath, one of them should lose his
hold, his chance is over; for the other, still holding fast, hits him violently
with spurs and wings, and in a few minutes brings him to the ground.
The moment he is dead, the conqueror treads him under foot; but what is
strange, not with hatred, but with all the motions which he employs in
caressing the female.'
،،
The males do not always confine their attentions to one female.
Several hens may be seen accompanying one gobbler, until they commence
to lay, when they hide themselves for the greater part of the day in order
to save their eggs, which he would destroy if he obtained the opportunity.
The nest, a very simple structure, is generally placed in a thicket, to conceal
it from the prying eyes of its various would-be despoilers, and the hen
approaches it with great caution, rarely entering twice from the same
direction. The number of eggs deposited varies considerably, some nests
having ten, others as many as twenty. They are a dull cream color,
profusely sprinkled with red spots. The young, when first hatched, are
covered with a delicate hairy down, and are very tender, so susceptible to
the influence of the weather that, should the season be rainy, great diffi-
culty is experienced by the hen in raising them, for they rarely survive a
thorough wetting. To guard against such a catastrophe, the first night is
generally passed by the young brood in the nest, and the mother then
The Turkey
1287
leads them to elevated, dry places, sheltering them at night under her
outspread wings until they are two weeks old, when they roost upon the
broad branch of a tree, still covered by their watchful parent's wings.
"The turkey has many enemies besides man, among the most feared
being the lynx, the fox and the great-horned owl. The lynx sucks their
eggs, and seizes both young
and old birds, his stealthy,
noiseless progress enabling
him to approach even so
wary a bird unnoticed. The
owl is equally dreaded, his
soft plumage permitting him
to fly without a sound about
the roosting-place, like some
midnight sprite. The man-
ner in which his attacks are
met is ingenious and often
successful.

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"As soon as the warning
cluck of some watchful
turkey has placed the whole
number on their guard, they
immediately stand upright
upon the limb and observe
every movement of their
foe, who soon selects one
for his prey, and swoops
down upon it with the
velocity of an arrow. The
fate of that one seems
inevitable; but, rapid though the owl's movement was, still quicker is
that of his intended victim, who lowers his head, inverts his outspread
tail upon his back, and meets the enemy with this inclined plane, over
which he glides harmlessly, while the turkey drops to the ground and
insures his safety by running away.
"Any unusual object attracting the attention of the male seems to
throw him into a state of considerable excitement. He puffs himself up,
*UBE SU "Vigrah Khan a
WILD TURKEY
From an Audubon print
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1288
The Poultry Book
very much in the same manner as when strutting, and the wattles which
cover his neck become bright red from the sudden influx of blood. Some-
times a red cloth will excite his anger, and cause him to exhibit pugnacious
propensities."
ܕ
Although wild turkeys have become nearly extinct, they are not to
meet the fate of the buffalo. Many fanciers of thoroughbred fowls are
beginning to breed them, and to offer them to the farmers as stock im-
provers. Regarding these cross-bred birds I will give some facts later,
but it is really surprising that the wild birds have been so nearly wiped out
of existence in so short a time, little more than half a century. Audubon
states that when he moved to Kentucky, wild turkeys were so abundant
that the price of one in the market was not equal to that of a common barn-
yard fowl, and that he saw birds weighing ten to twelve pounds offered
for threepence each.
The average weight of the male bird is from fifteen to eighteen pounds.
and the female from nine to ten. Some gobblers weigh much more.
Instances are not wanting where individuals have weighed thirty to forty
pounds each. But such cases are rare.
When full grown, the male measures four feet in length, and nearly
five feet in the stretch of its wings. The naked skin of the head and neck is
blue, the wattles red, and the legs a reddish blue. The feathers of the neck
and body are a coppery bronze; the copper being much more marked than
in the domesticated Bronze turkey, and changing in some lights to a greenish
or purplish shade, margined with an opaque line of velvet black. The
back and rump are also black, with little reflection; while the sides, to-
gether with the upper and under tail coverts, are dark chestnut barred
with black near the ends, having metallic reflections of a rich purplish hue,
and the extreme tips are opaque chestnut. The tail feathers are dark
chestnut, barred with black and tipped with a light chestnut; near the end
is a band of black, broadest on the outer feathers and narrowing as it
approaches the central ones. Between the bars on the feathers, is a con-
fused sprinkling of black. Neither upon the tail nor its coverts is there any
white, and this is one of the surest indications of wild blood. From the
center of the breast hangs a long, coarse, hairy tuft, always found in the
males, and often in the matured females. The female differs from the
male principally in being smaller in size and less brilliant in coloring, in
having no spurs, and no small fleshy process at the base of the bill.
The Turkey
1289
BRUSH TURKEYS
In the Zoological Gardens of London the Brush Turkey, which is a
native of Australia, makes its nest, as it does in its wild state, by con-
structing a crude mound of earth, leaves, grass, sand, and other materials
at hand, which by fermentation become heated. The eggs are deposited
therein. Instead of a mother turkey upon her nest, the picture of patience,
she can be seen in apparent carelessness strolling about the inclosure.
The cock seems to be the more interested and by far the busier one of the
pair. Not a sign of herbage, nor even a straw, is to be seen on the ground
of their runway except what is contained in the mound. The male bird,
who constructs the mound nest and keeps it constantly in correct condition,
has apparently worn and torn every bit of herbage from the ground, in
scratching and dragging materials toward the huge pile, which is about
five feet high, and eight or more feet across the base.
The superintendent of the gardens, in a very interesting account of
the Brush Turkey, says that when the young are hatched they creep from
the mound, stout and strong, ready to care for themselves. On the
second or third day they are capable of flight, and quite unnoticed by either
of the parent birds. Each hunts his own food, and selects, regardless of
the others, his shelter or roosting-place for the night. It is not unlikely
that the ancient Egyptians, who are believed to have been the first to hatch
eggs artificially, caught the idea from reptiles or birds which hatched by
other means than the heat of their bodies."
THE BRONZE TURKEY
The most popular and profitable variety of domestic turkey is the
mammoth Bronze, which, without doubt, has been bred from the Mexican.
wild turkey, with perhaps top crosses of the Northern. It has been
developed by careful selection and good care into the heaviest and most
imposing of our domestic fowls.
To describe the Bronze Turkey in all its majesty is beyond my power.
The beautiful plumage of the male; the changing colors of the skin on
head and neck; his proud strut, with expanded tail and lowered wings,
jarring the ground; his elegant carriage, and the sheen of his feathers as
he turns in the sunlight are points to which all who live in the country
are accustomed. He must be seen to be appreciated.
1290
The Poultry Book
A full-grown typical specimen is over four feet in length, and more
than six feet in extent of wing. The head and half of the neck are clothed
with a naked skin covered with uneven warty elevations, changeable
red on the upper portion, and whitish below. This membranous, naked
skin extends downward into large wattles. A wrinkled, conical, fleshy
protuberance, capable of elongation, rises from the base of the beak, where
the latter joins the front. When elongated, under excitement, it covers
the beak and hangs several inches below it. The base of the body feathers,
which are truncated, consists of dark slate-colored down. This part of the
feather is succeeded by a darker portion, followed by a broad metallic
band, varying from the color of copper or bronze to that of burnished gold,
according to the play of the light; the tip is a black, velvety band. The
general plumage of the body presents a metallic lustre.
The wings are concave and rounded, but do not extend below the base
of the tail, there being twenty-eight quill feathers. The tail is fifteen to
eighteen inches in length and rounded at the extremity, with eighteen
feathers. It is broad, and capable of expansion and elevation into fan or
"wheel" shape. The general color of these feathers is brown, mottled
with black, with a broad black band near the tip; then a short, mottled
portion, and lastly a broad, whitish band. The bird stands rather high on
robust red legs, the scales of which have darkish margins, and the blunt.
spurs are about an inch long; the claws are dusky. The beak is a dark
horn color at the base, gradually yellowing toward the tip.
When the hen-turkey is two years old she has attained her full size
and coloring. The irides are similar in color to those of the male. The
bill and spurless legs are less stout. The head and neck have less of naked
skin, being covered to an extent with a darkish down. The short coruncle
on the front of the beak is incapable of elongation. The body feathers
at the base are darkish; approaching the end are brownish, with a metallic
band, followed by a white or gray edging, more distinct on the breast
feathers, and showing more plainly as the turkeys grow older.
The adult turkey, it is well known, is extremely hardy, and bears the
rigors of our coldest winters with impunity, even in the open air. During
the severest weather, flocks will frequently roost at night upon the roof
of a barn, or in the branches of tall trees, in preference to an indoor roost.
It is our experience that a change of blood will often make a weakly flock
more hardy. I would never breed from turkeys that are related in the
The Turkey
1291
least, and I fervently believe that one-half the trouble in rearing young
turkeys comes from using brother and sister, or parent and chick to breed
from. It is not wise to expose the hardiest to the severest weather, but,
on the other hand, I do not advise giving them warm quarters, as they
are very heavily feathered, and, when kept inside during the warmer
nights, an insensible perspiration dampens their plumage. They thus
more easily become the victims of roup, and come out in the spring in an
unhealthy condition, unfit for breeding.
With us, the Bronze is not so much given to wandering as some of the
lighter breeds. They seem to have more confidence in their keeper, are
more delicate in their movements, and do not stray so far. They stroll
off into the pastures and fields during the day, but are sure to be on hand
at feeding-time.
Besides the Bronze Turkey, there are five varieties which are recog-
nized by the American Standard of Perfection in poultry: The Narra-
gansett, the Buff, Slate, White and Black. There is also a variety, not
yet been admitted to the standard, known as the Bourbon Red, and there
is no reason why the original bird, the American Wild Turkey, should not
have been admitted years ago. This makes eight varieties of thoroughbred
turkeys that breed reasonably true, and are the domesticated successors
of the original wild bird. The distinguishing feature in all of these is
the difference in color of plumage and in size. The Bronze and the Narra-
gansett are the large birds. The Slate and the Buff are next in size. The
Bourbon Red is very much like the Buff, but larger, and many flocks of
the Buff are now being crossed with the Red. The White Holland and
the Black are the two smallest varieties. During the last few years much
improvement has been made in the size of the Slate and the White Holland.
and many birds of these varieties now rival the Narragansett in size.
THE WHITE HOLLAND
Next to the Bronze, the White Turkey is probably the most popular.
In England it has often been referred to as the Austrian White. In America
it is known as the White Holland. It is hard to trace the origin of
this variety, but possibly some of the early Dutch settlers brought it to
America with them; or it may have originated from sports of the other
kinds, perpetuated by selection and breeding. It was fairly well known
in England at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and in some of the
1292
The Poultry Book
earlier works described as delicate and small. A later infusion of new
blood from the sports, already mentioned, has increased the size and
vitality of these birds until
now some of the hardiest
and most profitable flocks
of turkeys to be found are
of this variety. An evi-
dence of crossing can be
found in the tendency of
some of the larger birds
to show shanks that are
not of the true pinkish
white called for by the
standard; and also to show
plumage that is not pure
white. This does not affect
their market value, but
breeders should keep as close
to the standard require-
ments as utility permits.
The standard weight
for the White is less than
for most other varieties,
ranging from ten pounds
for young birds to twenty-
six pounds for old males;
although some have
recently been exhibited that greatly exceed these weights. The
Whites are the most showy of any of our turkeys. The plumage
should be a beautiful snowy white throughout, with a heavy black
beard on the breast, and toes of a beautiful pinkish white. Their
magnificent carriage and bright red neck and head, showing at times all
hues of the rainbow, give them a striking appearance, fully as remarkable
when dressed for the table as when alive. Their skin is a good color, and
the freedom from dark-colored pin-feathers makes them most attractive.
Their size is very satisfactory to the market grower, as it is not always
the largest birds that command the best prices. Where turkeys are largely

A PRIZE WINNER
The Turkey
1293
grown, it is found to be an advantage to keep birds of the same color
instead of those which are common, and the White variety is one of the
most satisfactory.
THE NARRAGANSETT
The Narragansett has been perfected in the New England States, and
has done much to give Rhode Island and Connecticut their reputation
for first-class market turkeys. They come next to the Bronze in size and
are strong and vigorous. Their color is black underneath, each feather
ending with a point of steel gray, edged with black. This gives a grayish
cast to the entire plumage of the bird, while the black edging gives a black
or bronze cast. Very full breasted, with a proud and upright carriage,
they are beautiful birds. The female is a trifle lighter throughout her
markings than the male. The standard weights for this variety are
twenty to thirty pounds for males, and twelve to eighteen pounds for
females. In rare instances, old toms have attained a weight of forty pounds,
but there is no advantage in breeding these large birds, as the medium
sized are more apt to be true to form and marking, and not so likely to
show a decided bronze cast in the plumage. They are a little closer bird
than the Bronze, with legs not quite so long, and many breeders claim that
they mature at a much earlier age.
THE BUFF TURKEY
This is one of the rarer varieties, and in many sections wh´re turkeys
are kept it is almost unknown. The standard calls for a pure buff color
throughout the entire plumage, but I have never seen a bird that met
this requirement. They are more apt to be a reddish buff, or light chestnut,
with many shades showing on the same bird. The standard weight for
males runs from eighteen to twenty-seven pounds, and for females from
twelve to eighteen. My observation leads me to believe that these ex-
treme weights are seldom atta ned except in birds that show unmistakable
evidence of crosses with some other variety, to increase the size. From the
number of white feathers on the larger birds, it is evident that they have
been crossed largely with the Whites.
Buff is a very popular color for fowls at the present time, and those
breeders who have maintained their breeding stock in purity, and who are
endeavoring to produce standard Buff birds, are reaping a rich reward.
1294
The Poultry Book
THE SLATE TURKEY
The term "Slate" has always seemed to me a misnomer. The standard
calls for a solid or ashy blue plumage, but it is not a disqualification if
there are some black dots scattered throughout, though the fewer of these
the better. The female is lighter colored than the male. Since we have
Blue Andalusians, it would be better to have called these "Blue" turkeys,
as this more truthfully describes their color.
The standard weights range from eighteen to twenty-seven pounds
for males, and twelve to eighteen pounds for females. They are very
much like the White, Buff, and Black turkeys except in color.
THE BLACK TURKEY
Many of the common flocks of turkeys to be found in America resemble
the Blacks, more than any other of the standard breeds, in size and dis-
position. For many years this variety was sadly neglected and the flocks
were inbred to such an extent that the size and stamina were somewhat
reduced. During the past few years, interest in them has been reawakened
and, through proper selection, and probably some crossing, they have be-
come a very desirable variety. The weight for males runs from eighteen
to twenty-seven pounds, and for females from twelve to eighteen pounds.
They mature at an early age and are similar to the other varieties described,
except the Bronze and the Narragansett.
THE BOURBON REDS
This variety is not yet admitted to the standard, although they are
breeding fairly true to their color, a dark or brownish red, with white in the
wings; tail tips of some of the feathers bluish bronze, and an under color
that is almost white, although many breeders prefer buff.
This is one
of the varieties now being boomed, for it is claimed that it excels all others
in richness of color in flesh and skin and that it has the heaviest breast of
any bird. My observation leads me to believe that these claims, as others
made in booming many varieties of fowls and stock, are not substantiated
by facts, although the Bourbon Red is a profitable variety to keep, and
probably easier to breed than the Buff, which it resembles greatly. It is
about the size of the Narragansett.
As in all new varieties, many theories about its origin are propounded.
The Turkey
1295
Some say that it was found in a wild form in the Ozark Mountains, in
southern Missouri and northern Arkansas, but this is largely discredited.
The writer's father spent the years between 1868 and 1872 in that section,
and states that while he hunted wild turkeys in all portions of the Ozark
Mountains he never saw anything resembling these birds in the least.
They are known by the various names, Bourbon Red, Bourbon Butternut,
and Kentucky Red. They appear to have been developed in Kentucky
and southern Ohio. While they are worthy of consideration with our other
varieties of domestic turkeys, I am unable to assert that they have any
features of unusual excellence.
The chief advantage in keeping the various varieties of turkeys comes.
from the ease of identification in flocks, where large numbers are kept, and
the breeders are thus enabled to suit their fancy in selecting breeding
stock.
In addition to those described, in England there are bred the Cam-
bridge Bronze, which is grayer, smaller, less hardy and lacks the brilliancy
of the American Bronze; the Black Norfolk, dull black in color, a much
smaller bird, and considered somewhat hardier than the Cambridge; the
White Austrian, the smallest of all domestic breeds of turkeys and a beau-
tiful little white bird, though not bred to any great extent except by
fanciers, the White Holland having taken its place.
In France there is a little gray-black turkey, with feathers edged with
a clearer gray, that is called the "Dindon d'Italie," or Italian Turkey.
It is used especially for incubation, the hens being very good setters and
careful mothers, and it is said that they are made to sit whenever required.
They are kept sitting from three to six months, two dozen hens' eggs
being placed under them, and as these hatch out new eggs are substituted.
During the last few years a great many experiments have been made
of introducing wild blood into flocks of domestic turkeys. Some of these
have been very successful, while others have not achieved the best results.
My opinion is, that the chief advantage comes from the introduction of
new, unrelated blood, and that good, healthy, vigorous domesticated toms,
from healthy stock, will do as well as the wild.
Very few of those who advertise wild turkeys have the full blood wild;
it is chiefly crossed. In taking a male from any of these flocks, one is sure
to get some blood that is not related to the hens. The question of in-
breeding in turkeys is a most serious one, and probably is the reason of
1296
The Poultry Book
more failures than all other causes combined. The fact that one fecunda-
tion only is required for all the eggs that will be given during one laying
period has something to do with this. It certainly has been taken ad-
vantage of to such an extent that all the turkeys in some neighborhoods
are related, to a greater or lesser degree. The practice of getting toms
from near-by flocks should be discouraged.
According to the census returns, there are about 6,500,000 turkeys.
produced each year in the United States. The price ranges from twelve
to twenty cents a pound, wholesale, and the demand for first-class stock
is seldom met. During the holidays of 1904 some turkeys were sold as
high as forty cents a pound, and the average price was very close to twenty-
five cents. As turkeys can be produced at a maximum cost of eight cents
per pound, there is no reason why more should not be grown, and there is
no flesh produced on the farm which shows a better profit. It is not
necessary for one to rear the large, overgrown birds. Those that weigh
from ten to twenty pounds will bring a better price at Thanksgiving, and
give more satisfactory results than the larger ones. The demand for
turkeys at the holiday season is not confined to any one section. Farmers
living in the vicinity of a town can readily dispose of their entire crop to
private customers at retail prices, and need not depend upon shippers.
This is true with regard to all varieties of poultry, though not true of other
sorts of stock sold for consumption. The turkey raiser can completely
eliminate the middleman from his calculations.
-
MATING AND HANDLING
When the matings for turkeys are properly made, a large measure of
success is achieved. The hens selected should be of good size, all the smaller
or weakly ones discarded, as size is more influenced by the dam than by
the sire. Hens that are matured, or at least more than one year old, are
preferable, and if yearlings are used they should be early hatched, well-
grown ones. For a small flock the tom may be a strong, vigorous yearling,
but for larger flocks a mature bird should always be selected. In making
this selection, it should be remembered that color and finish are largely
influenced by the sire. Both hens and toms should be of the same type,
and the flock should be as uniform as possible throughout. I do not mean
by this that for success one must necessarily keep full-bloods of some one
of the varieties mentioned, but that each bird should be similar to all the
The Turkey
1297
rest. This not only gives a fine-appearing flock, but one which is more easily
cared for. If some of the turkeys are lean and lank, with long legs and a
disposition to roam and forage, they will take far more grain than those
of the short-legged, full-breasted type, which lay on fat readily. When
the flock is being fed, one lot may be doing its best, while the other lot is
being either starved or over-fattened, and in both cases egg-production
will be lessened.
Usually the hens lay from eighteen to thirty eggs, although an excep-
tion is often found of a hen that lays as many as seventy eggs before wanting
to set. If the turkeys have been well wintered, the first hens will usually
begin to lay while the weather is so cold that the eggs will chill at night.

WHITE HOLLAND TURKEYS
Bred and owned by J. A. Leland of Illinois
These should be gathered, and a nest-egg placed in their stead until five
or six eggs are laid. If the nest is allowed to fill with eggs, the turkey may
become broody too soon. As the nights grow warmer, and there is no
danger of frost, the eggs may be left out, provided no vermin can find access
to the nest.
The breeding flock should not be kept in a small pen. The most
successful practice is probably to have a large range for them, and to feed
them at night in a smaller inclosure, where the hens can be shut in until
after they have laid the next day. As the hen turkey is very nervous at
nesting time, it is a good plan to furnish covered nests in these runs. An
old barrel, or V-shaped coop, with some evergreen boughs thrown over it,
is very acceptable. During the laying period, foods rich in protein should
be fed, but as soon as the hens begin to set, the base of the ration should
1298
The Poultry Book
be whole corn.
each day.
Fresh water should be placed where the birds can get it
It takes twenty-eight to twenty-nine days for turkeys' eggs to hatch,
and though it may cause trouble to disturb them, it will pay to dust the
nest and eggs, as well as the hen turkey, very thoroughly with insect
powder two or three days before she is due to hatch. The young poults,
when first hatched, are very tender, and the large turkey lice, which may
have found lodgment on the hen, will immediately go to the young ones,
to their serious disadvantage. When the young poults are hatching, the
hen should not be disturbed. As soon as she seems willing to leave the
nest, place her in a pen made of three boards about a foot high, making a
three-cornered inclosure. Place a board across one corner for the hen to
hover under. She will not leave the inclosure for any length of time, and
this is a far better method than close cooping, which should only be resorted
to when there is trouble with skunks, weasels or other vermin. A shovelful
of coarse, sharp sand, or a dish of commercial grit, should be placed inside
the inclosure. The young turkeys may be fed on curds, boiled eggs, or
a plain custard made of eggs and milk, for the first few days. As soon as
they have begun to show feathers in the wings and tail, it will do no harm to
give them some oil-meal, cornmeal and stale bread, mixed up in milk,
later on adding a little meat in some form. It is of prime importance for
the turkey grower to remember that in a natural state the young poults
feed largely upon insects, and that, as they grow rapidly and feather out
at an early age, a large amount of protein should be given in the ration.
They must be watched carefully for lice, and any that make their appear-
ance must be destroyed; but prevention is far more effective than cure,
and in this case it is essential. In feeding, as much as will be eaten up
clean should be given at a time, and "little and often" should be the rule.
At the early period of growth, dampness is fatal, and the turkeys
should not be allowed to become wet, even if they have to be driven into
sheds and barns during a heavy rain. As soon as the youngsters begin
to leave the inclosure, they may as well be given wide range. A field
where the grass is short; a pasture, or a woodland that is pastured, so
that the weeds are kept down, are very acceptable. They should be kept
out of meadows and grain fields until after the crops are harvested, because
the poults become wet and drabbled by running through the wet grass and
grain and are often set back in their growth, or even killed. If regularly
The Turkey
1299
fed they will be sure to come back to the feeding-grounds at night. In case
any brood does not, they should be searched for and brought back. It is
necessary to guard against over-feeding, as the young turkeys can prac-
tically get their own living where insects and berries are plentiful. In
seasons when there is a good crop of grasshoppers, turkeys will live almost
entirely upon them. If they are properly fed, kept perfectly clean and
free from lice, with no temptation to eat stale food that is lying about,
they will grow very rapidly.
From the time they are hatched until they are six weeks or two
months old they need the most tender care, but after they have "shot
the red," that is, after the red begins to appear on the throat and neck
of the males, they are more hardy than young chickens, and practically
none should be lost. With wide range, they almost take care of themselves,
provided insects and berries are in season, but they should still be fed each
night regularly. Continue giving food that contains a large amount of
protein to grow the bone and muscle, up to the time when you wish to
prepare them for market. At this time, the future breeders should be
selected, taking as many of the best hens as required, with those of the
old flock which are not too old. Unless you have the other turkeys
marked, so that you can select males that are not akin, it is best to depend
upon purchased birds, which should be secured in the fall from a flock
that is not related, though typical specimens of the variety you are keeping.
These should be marked, and while it may not be practical to separate
them from those which are being fattened, it would do no harm.
In all stock breeding, the greatest profit comes from disposing of the
fattened product as early as possible. For this reason, and from the
fact that birds fatten more readily in warm than in very cold weather, the
most profit is probably derived from marketing at Thanksgiving. As
turkeys are very nervous birds, better results are usually obtained from
fattening them while still at large and not attempting to coop them, for
they often lose flesh instead of gaining it, when cooped. The best results
are probably obtained from feeding in the morning a warm meshed food,
composed of small boiled potatoes, Indian meal, cornmeal and barley
mixed together and seasoned slightly with salt and pepper, giving them
all that they will eat up clean. About four o'clock in the afternoon, feed
whole corn, giving as much as will be eaten clean. Plenty of water should
be provided, as no animal fattens profitably without it.
Accidental deformity, 44
Addled eggs, 122
African Geese, 1097, 1104, II15
Age, At what-to send hens to mar-
ket, 98
in-breeding, 978
Feeding according to, 184
Influence of hen's-on sex, 115
Mating for hens, 28, 45, 116, 336,
506, 509, 511
Right for fighting Game cocks,
341
Albinos, 454, 503, 634, 875
America, Game Fowls in, 405
Leghorns in, 790
Single, comb, Black Leghorns in,
828
INDEX
American breeds, 93
American Cochins, 537-44
America's Business Hen, 800, 801
Analysis of a capon, 150
of common feeds, 150
of an egg, 86, 122, 150, 188
of a hen, 150
of a pullet, 150
Anas and Anser Cygnoides, IIOI
Anconas, 21, 93, 840, 857–64
White, 857
Andalusians, 61, 93, 99, 859, 875-88
Blue, 875, 876-80, 883-86
Anderson's Kaleege Pheasant, 1250
1257
Antwerp or Homer Pigeons, 1189,
1213, 1231-33, 1321
Short-faced-Pigeons, 1233
Archangel Pigeons, 1213
Argus Pheasant, 1246, 1260
Asiatic Breeds, 59, 65, 85, 93, 200,
638
Goose, IIOI
Atavism, 776
in color, 30, 344, 540, 634
in combs, 638, 935
in eggs, 42
of the fifth toe, 767
Attic, 288
Australian Game, 395-97
Aviary or Loft for Pigeons, 1191-98
Appliances for Pigeons, 1191-98
Aylesbury Duck, VIII., 10, 54, 1118,
1122, 1127, 1129, 1130, 1132,
1133, 1142, 1144-48, 1149
Azeel or Indian Game, 37, 47, 50,
51, 200, 235, 237, 238, 377-84,
387, 413, 415, 1033
Bankiva, 411-14
Bantams, 1033-36
Ancona, 1059, 1067
Ardenes, 1070
Birchen Game, 1038, 1041
Black-breasted Red, 1037-40
Booted, 1035, 1048
Brahma,
Dark, 1050-52
Light, 1049
Brown-breasted Red, 1038, 1041
Burmese, 1071
Campines, 1070
Cochin, 1036, 1037, 1052, 1253
Black, 1055
Buff, 1037, 1053
Cuckoo, 1059
Partridge, 1957-59
White, 1056
Cornish Indian Game, 1041
Coucou de Malines, 1069
Duckwing,
Golden, 1038, 1040
Silver, 1038
eggs, 61
Frizzled, 137, 1067
Game, 1037-42
Japanese, 1062–65, 1067
Langshan, Black, 1067
Leghorn,
Rose-comb Brown, 1066
Single-comb Brown, 1067
White, 1067
Malay, 1033, 1036, 1041
Minorcas,
Black, 1067
White, 870-73
Nankeen, VIII., 781, 1060
Old English, 1041, 1042
Orpington,
Black, 1067
Pekin, 1033, 1052
Plymouth Rock, 1066
Red Pyles, 1038, 1040, 1041
Rose-comb, 1033, 1035, 1036,
1039, 1044-47, 1060, 1067
Rumpless, 1067
Scotch Gray, 1059, 1066, 1067
Seabright, 1042-44, 1068
Gold Spangled or Laced, 957
Spanish,
Black, 1068
Sultan or White Booted, 1062
White Rose-comb, 1046-48, 1060
Barbary or Guinea Ducks, 1163
1301
Index
Barbed Dwarf of Antwerp, 1070
Barb Pigeon, 1210, 1212, 1216
Barley, 161
Battle Royal, 349
Bay Goose, 1115
Beards, 906, 912–14
Belgian Games, 418-20
Black Games, 946
Black Pheasant Fowl, 929
Black-Headed Goose, 1115
Black-Throated Golden Pheasant,
1264
Bloodstain, 33, 37, 38
Blue Games, 940
Blue Rock Pigeons, 1184-86
Blue Swedish Duck, 1159-62
Blue Teal Drake, 1159
Bolton Bays, 939
Bolton Grays, 906
Bornean Fireback, 1256
Bow-Billed Duck, 1173
Bowel trouble, 167
Brackel, 1019
Brahmas, 7, 20, 49, 51, 66, 85, 93,
220, 233, 559-86
Dark, 20, 21, 563-66, 577-86
Light, 18, 20, 86, 93, 94, 97, 99,
102, 528, 559, 560-66, 571-77,
991
Brassy Wing, 536
Breaster Pigeons, 1213
Breathing, Diseases of-apparatus,
305
Breeding, Age in, 978
Andalusians, 879, 883-88
Brahams, 562
Dark, 563-66,
Light, 576
Buff Fowls, 547, 632
Chart (Felch's), 42
Cochins,
Black, 552-54
Buff, 547-51
Partridge, 557
White, 552
for color, 45, 53-57, 343, 544, 548
580
Condition of a hen for, 42, 113,
I 20
Ducks, 1127-35
Feeding-stock, 187-88, 506
to correct faults, 741, 779
Games 50, 333-46, 363-69, 420
Geese, 1076, 1085
for Head, 740
Houdans, 976-80
Javas,
578, 580, 584-86
Black, 725
Mottled, 729
Leghorns, 789
Black single-comb, 829, 831
Brown single-comb, 811
Dominique, 840
Pile, 836, 837
Lincolnshire Buffs, 784
Breeding, Minorcas,
Black, 869
Number of hens to a cock in, 290,
364, 741
Old Kent, Sussex and Surreys,
508-12
Out-yellow shanks, 56
Pigeons, 1202-13
Plymouth Rocks, 629, 631
Barred, 618, 629
Buff, 631
Pea-comb, 638
White, 634
Polish, 918, 922, 924-27
Golden, 919–21
Laced or Spangled, 923
for quality, 740
Rhode Island Reds, 739-44, 746-
51
Selection in, 27, 57, 580, 792
for size, 28, 333, 538, 675
Spanish, 892, 894, 900
Turkeys, 1296-98
for Utilitarian strain, 802
Variation of location in, 28, 41
Wyandottes
Black, 692
Buff, 697
Golden, 684
Partridge, 700
White, 688
Breeds, Eggs characterized by, 84-86
Bremen Goose, 1100
Broilers, 50, 51, 674, 842, 966
Bronchitis, 306
Brooder House, 290, 295
Cypher's, 299
Brooders, 146, 295, 296, 297
Goslings in, 1087
Broody, Breaking-hens, 189
House, 850
Pens, 272
Brown
Chinese Goose, 1097-99,
1103
Bruges Games, 1022
Brunswick Pigeons, 1213, 1229
Buckwheat, 162
Buff Fowls, 544, 547, 632, 781
Building paper, 283
to save steps, 248, 250
Bulbus aorta, 123
Bumble foot, 461, 850, 978
Burnham's Gray Shanghais, 532
559-61
Call Duck, 1166
Campbell Duck, 1129
Campbell strain, 564-66
Campine Fowls, 1019
Canadian Geese, 1076, 1114
Candling eggs, 69
Cape Geese, 1104
Capon, 150, 225
Caponize, How to, 238-42, 244
Caponizing, Best time for, 242
1302
Index
Caponizing, Breeds for, 233, 235,
238, 674
Cost of, 237
Mortality in, 233, 237
Table, 242
Capons, 234, 235, 237, 238, 242,
243-45
Capuchin Pigeons, 1231
Carolina Duck, 1169
Carrier Pigeons, 1210, 1212, 1213-15,
1219, 1226, 1227
Catarrh, 301, 305
Cayuga Ducks, 54, 1152-54
Chamberlain strain, 560, 571
Charcoal, 173, 195
Cheer Pheasant, 1258
Chequered Dove House Pigeon, 1185
Chick, Care of the, 132-34.
Checked development in a, 856
Development of a within the
shell, 121-32
Feeding a, 132–34, 139, 184, 983
Chicken mites, 310, 312
Chickens, Feeding, 155, 192–96
Raising, 119
Chicks, Andalusian, 879, 883
Brahma, 562
Game, 366
Hamburg, 934
Houdan, 968, 980-85
Langshan, 604
Leghorn, 789, 829, 830, 838, 854
Minorca, 869
Polish, 916, 921
Spanish, 894
China Ring-neck Pheasant, 1246
Chinese or Swan Goose, IIOI, II14
Chittagongs, 392-95, 414, 563, 660,
889
Chittiprats or Praters, 942
Cholera, 301, 304
Chorion, 125
Cicatricula or germ, 123
Cities, Best breeds to keep in, 588,
729, 809, 829, 842, 866, 892
Cleanliness, 260, 301, 302, 310
Clear eggs, 122
Coal ashes, 926
Cochins, 7, 53, 66, 85, 93, 187, 459,
586, 588-93, 603
Black, 537, 551-54, 589
Buff, 526, 539, 544-51, 766, 827
Partridge, 53, 233, 526, 551,
554-58
Red, 731
Seabright, 655-59, 665
White, 551-54
Cock bread, 369
in breeding, 28, 39, 45, 55, 113,
115, 337, 506, 509-11, 629, 632,
741, 746
Fighting, 5, 6, 287, 320, 325, 390,
418, 420, 422
Cockerel or sickel-tail hens, 880, 886
Cocking mains, 341, 348
Cocks, Alternating, 290
Carriage of the head in, 740
Conditioning game, 368
Predominance of-in hatching, 115
Colds, 263, 271, 274
Cold storage, 68, 70, 140, 141
Color, Effect of crossing on, 29
54-56, 342, 648, 814
Effect of food on, 52-57
Effect on market value of the-of
the skin, 215
Effect of shade and soil on, 52-57
in eggs, 62, 83-86, 88, 90, 158,
460
Combattant du Nord, 420
Commercial value of various breeds,
60, 101-03, 363, 407, 476,
674, 748, 811
Combs, 4, 548
in capons, 225, 231, 232, 244
Cutting game cocks', 367
in disease, 174, 303
Five pointed, 796
in health, 42
Leaf, 962, 963
Low, 841, 842, 848
Pea, 571, 638
Rose, 958
Stag-horn or antler, 962
Strawberry, 963, 964
V-shaped, 964, 974
Conditioning pills, 368
Coop, Hanging, 261
Coops, 15, 204, 210
Copheads, 957
Coppies, 908
Corals or Creoles, 940, 957
Corn, 159
Cornish Indian or Pheasant Malay,
18-20, 36, 49, 345, 397-405,
415
Corns, 850
Cost of keeping various breeds, 739,
797, 846
of producing eggs, 100
Cottonseed meal, 167
Coucou de Malines, 1021
Cramming machine, 204, 211, 217,
220
Crest, Washing a, 985
Crested White Duck, 1166
Créve-Cœurs, 18, 231, 916, 964, 997–
1000
Cropper Pigeon, 1186
Crossing, 7, 27, 29–38, 40, 510, 725
American and English systems of,
41-44, 50
for blue colored fowls, 648
for buff-colored fowls, 781
for capons, 235, 237, 238
Cock in, 55
Ear-lobes in, 819
for egg, production, 762, 847
for fattening, 220
on the flesh quality, 19, 467
1303
Index
Crossing, Improvement through, 48,
50
for market, 214
for size, 7, 50, 235, 467
in various breeds,
6, 49,
50,
220, 459, 467–75, 477, 480-83,
485, 554, 589, 590, 632, 762,
840, 842, 863, 867, 869, 873,
877, 879, 884, 1003
for yellow shanks, 235
Crow Chickens, 1034, 1035
Crowding as a cause of disease, 302
Culls, 714, 750
Curtains, 272, 279, 284, 290
Dalmatian or Persian Powder, 120
Damascen Pigeons, 1231
Dampness, 256, 362
Darby Red Games, 326, 327, 342,
344-46
Darbyshire Red Caps, 957
Darkings, 451
Dead chick eggs, 122
Decoy Duck, 1166
Deformities, 28, 44, 629
Dermanyssus gallinæ, 310
Desiccating eggs, 71
Dewlap in geese, 1095
Diphtheria, 306
Diarrhea, 303, 304
Domestique Fowls, 1, 5, 414, 425-43
Dominiques, American Rose-comb,
93, 674, 753-58, 840
Dorking Village, 443-46, 453
Dorkings, 19, 48, 49, 57, 200, 235,
238, 444, 447, 451-512, 767,
863, 884, 889, 947, 961, 1002
Black-Breasted Red, 383
Buff, 496
Colored, 460
Cuckoo, 472, 644
Dark, 53, 383, 454, 460, 472, 495
Gold, 384
Silver Gray, 34, 383, 454, 486, 493
Silver Gray Duckwing, 479
Spangled, 384
Speckled, 384
White, 469, 496, 498-500, 504
Doves, 253, 258, 265, 268, 274, 275,
276, 277, 279, 284
Double matings, 549, 556, 584, 618,
623-26, 678, 807, 836, 1041
Doubled eggs, 115
Dove House Pigeons, 1184, 1185,
1213
Drainage, 256, 266, 273
Dragoon or Dragon Pigeons, 1189,
1213, 1226, 1231
Dressing Capons for market, 234,
243-45
Ducks for market, 1139-41
Geese for market, 1087
Drinking Dish, 261, 276
for Pigeons, 1196
Dropping Platforms, 260, 267
Ducklings, 1119-21, 1126, 1137-39
Ducks, 1, 9, Io, 62, 88, 293-97,
III7-74
Duclair Ducks, 1164
Dumbartonshire Fowl, 521
Dunghill Fowls, 889
Dust Bath, 4, 259
Dutch Ducks, 1144, 1159
Dwarf Duck, 1166
Everlasting or Everyday Layers,
906, 929, 935, 936, 939, 942, 959
Ear lobe, 448, 819
Whitning, 947, 953
Easter eggs, 59
East Indian Duck, 54, 1130, 1153,
1154, 1165
Eaves, 275
Egg, Analysis of an, 86, 122, 150, 188
Development of the, 116
of the chick within the, 121–32
eating in hens, 172. 263
Influence of feed on-production,
95-97, 149-57, 166, 182
Influence of molting on-pro-
duction, 99
Influence of Vulture hocks on-
production, 20
Influence of shanks on-produc-
tion, 740, 747
Red pepper to stimulate—pro-
duction, 174
Retarding production, 168
Structure of an, 82-84
Tube, 117
Eggs, Andalusian, 61, 876, 887
Brahma, 51, 85, 87
American Light, 102
Cochin, 85
Buff, 102
Color in, 62, 83–86, 88, 90, 158, 460
Diamond Jubilee Orpingtons, 771
Duck, 62, 88
Exportation of, 73
Game, 326
Guinea Fowl, 62,88, 1276
Goose, 62, 88
for hatching, 74, 75, 98, 113-16
Hamburg, 102
Heron, 61
Houdan, 968, 971
Influence of feed on, 86-88
Importation of, 73
La Fléche, 56
Langshan, 56, 61, 102
Leghorn, 85, 855
Single-comb white, 101
Single-comb brown, 102, 796,
811
Rose-comb brown, 845
Minorca, 61, 85, 102
Black, 21, 102, 867
White, 873
Number of to a nest, 121
Plymouth Rock, 102
1304
Index
Eggs, Plymouth Rock
Barred, 102
White, 102
Polish, 21
for private trade, 73, 74
Turkey, 88, 1298
Wyandottes, Silver-penciled, 102
White, 102
Egg shells, 42, 152
Egyptian or Blue Poland, 906, 907
Goose, 128, 1110
Eider Duck, 1174
Electric regulator, 293
Elliot's Pheasant, 1263
Embden Geese, 1083-91, 1097, 1099,
I100, 1102, 1104, 1107, 1175
Embryo, 108, 126
England, Leghorns in, 793
Leghorns single-comb brown, 807
Leghorns single-comb white,792-94
Black-necked Pheasant, 1246, 1258
breeds, 200, 210
Golden Pheasant, 1253
Pheasant, 1258, 1259
Ring-neck Pheasant, 1246, 1258
Silver Pheasant, 1253
White Duck, 1144
Exercise, 178, 182, 183, 224, 249,
250, 258, 264, 484
Exporting, 71, 222
Eyes, 548, 631
Falcon or Vulture hocks, 20, 532-34
586
Fantail Pigeons, 1186, 1210, 1213,
1225
Fan-wing Duck, 1170
Farming, Requisites for poultry, 11, 12
Fasted Fowls, 210
Fat, Excessive, 187, 189, 191, 197,
198
Fattening, 201, 850
Coops, 201-13
Ducks, 1147
Feeds, 152, 153, 161, 162, 181, 182,
198
Formulas, 202, 203, 205-10, 212,
228
Houses for ducks, 297
Pens, 210
Turkeys, 1299
Faverolles, 991-95
Blue, 992
English Ermine, 992, 993
Salmon, 992-95
French Black, 992
Salmon, 992
Finished Fowls, 199
Feeding Capons, 237, 242
Cochins, 187
Ducklings, 1136
Ducks, 1125, 1126, 1133, 1135-37,
I 143
Games, 369-73
Goslings, 1081, 1086
Feeding, Henry's method of, 158
Improper, 301, 303
Incubator chicks, 139
Leghorns, 99, 186, 187, 850, 853, 854
pheasants, 1254
pullets, 185
Feeds, by-products and hay, 165-67
Condimental, 173
Cooked vs. uncooked, 176
Fattening, 152, 153, 161, 162, 181,
184, 198
For chicks, 132-34, 335
Grain, 157-65
Grit and Mineral, 171
Influence of-on color, 52-57, 552
Influence of-on egg production,
95-97, 99, 149-57, 166, 182
Influence of-on eggs, 86-88, 152
Meat, 168
Palatability in, 175
Variety in, 176
Vegetable, 169
Whole grain vs. ground grain, 181
Fencing, 850
Five-toes, 447, 452, 454, 461, 498
Fixtures, 15, 210
Flemish Games, 418
Flock, Size of a—of hens, 29
Small-better for laying, 250
Floors, 251, 256, 263, 264, 274
Florentine or Hen Pigeons, 1213,
1228
Food, How much-and when to feed,
177-80
Influence of temperature on-con-
sumption, 184
Fowls, Habits of, 4
French breeds, 93, 200
Games, 420-22
Frill Back Pigeons, 1213, 1228
Frizzled Fowls, 1015
Furness hen, 30
Game Fowls, 186, 326-30, 333-48,
359-64, 367, 369-73, 380, 396,
406, 797
Gape worms or gapes, 309
Gastritis or inflamed crop, 303
Geese runs and yards, 1086
Moving, 1077
Germ or cicatricula, 122
Gillikens, 1018, 1026
Gluten products, 166
Golden Pheasant, 1246, 1252, 1263
Goose, 62, 88, 211, 1073-1116
Goslings, 1081, 1082, 1086, 1087
Grain, 181
Gray Lag Goose, 1074, 1091
Great or Giant Games, 330
Grit, 171, 302
Box, 261
Guelders, 1020
Guinea or Barbary Duck, 1163
Guinea Fowl, 1, 7, 8, 62,`88, 116,
1276-78
1305
Index
Hackle drawing, 362
Half Moonies or Lancashire Crescents,
939
Hamburgs, 15, 21, 47,
102, 200, 753,
929-56, 957, 958
Black, 847, 929, 932, 946, 947, 953
Dutch Penciled, 946
Hen-tailed or Henny Penciled, 936
Golden Penciled, 945
Golden Spangled,
53, 932, 936,
85, 90, 99,
757, 880,
937, 938
Penciled, 929, 930, 931, 943, 955,
957
Spangled, 915, 929, 934-42, 955
Silver Penciled, 942-45, 95°
Silver Spangled, 937, 953
Tufted, 906, 908-10
White, 948-50, 953
Hatching, Eggs for, 74, 75, 98,
113-16
Seasons for, 120, 140, 190, 223, 297
Nurseries, 141, 142
Artificial-in Egypt, 142
Heads, breeding for, 740
Higglers, 134
Helmet Pigeons, 1189, 1213
Hen, Analysis of a, 150
Condition for breeding, 42, 113, 120
Feeding a setting, 188
Influence of color of a, 625, 747
Influence of shape and size of a,
45, 511, 558, 746
Mating age for a, 28, 45, 116, 336,
337, 506, 509, 511
Henny Games, 376
Hen's, Influence of-age on sex, 115
Hens, Best laying period for, 98
Cockerel or Sickle-tailed, 880-886
Egg eating in, 172, 263
Feeding to break up broody, 189
Feeding for molting, 190, 990
Feeding sitting, 188
Hawk-heads in, 740
Number of-to a flock, 290, 364,
741
Treatment of a sitting, 365
Size of a flock of, 29
Henry's Feeding, 158
Herculean Games, 330
Hock covering, 533
Ho-Ki Pigeons, 1250
Homer or Antwerp Pigeons, 1189,
1231-33, 1213
Hominy chops, 160, 165
Hong-Kong Goose, 1100, 110I, 1108
Honker Goose, 1115
Hook-billed Duck, 1173
Horsfalt Pheasant, 1250
Houdans, 17, 18, 93, 200, 961-90
House Martins, 46
Houses, Continuous, 288
Canadian, 277
Connecticut Experiment Station,
267
Houses, with double runs, 285
Duston's practical, 268
Duck, 293-97
General remarks on, 15
Hatch Experiment Station, 267
Maine Experiment Station, 270
New Idea, 273, 276
Pigeon, 1233-36
with scratching shed underneath,
264
with scratching shed having a cur-
tained front, 280
Simple forms of, 263
Spanish Fowl, 901
Square, 251
Transformed implement, 262
West Virginia Experiment Station,
265
Wyandottes, 15
Hover Pens, 291, 292, 296
Hova Games, 422
Hutchins' Goose, 1113
Hyacinth Pigeons, 1213
Ice Pigeons, 1213
Impeyan or Monaul Pheasant, I249,
1254, 1255
Importing eggs, 76
Impregnation, 47.
Inbreeding, 30, 41, 46, 450, 511, 618,
737, 749
in Barred Plymouth Rocks, 618
in Dark Brahmas, 566
Effect on egg organs of, 762
in Game Cocks, 335-42, 376
Loss of color from, 547
in Partridge Cochins, 549-51
in Pile Leghorns, 836
in Polish, 919
in Single-comb Brown Leghorns,
805
for stamina, 337, 338, 341, 750
Incubator, Feeding-chicks, 139
Houses, 295, 297
Incubating fever, 47
fever, To prevent, 565
Incubators, 119, 135-47, 295, 297
Care of eggs in, 138, 139, 145-47
Heating, 145
India Goose, 1097
Indian or Azeel Games, 37, 47, 50, 51,
200, 235, 237, 238, 377-84,
387, 413, 415, 1033
Runner Duck, 1155-59
Indigestion, 173, 176, 182, 195, 263
303
Interests, Table of Poultry, 78-80
Isolation, 304, 306
Italian Fowl, 21, 66, 788, 793, 860,
861
Jacobine Pigeon, 1186, 1212, 1221
Java, 93, 723, 729
Black, 611, 723-27, 729
English, 729
1306
Index
Java, Mottled, 727-29
White, 724
Jersey Blues, 647-49
Jew Wattle, 1214
Journals, Poultry, 67, 72
Judging eggs, 88-90
Jungle Fowl, 98, 315-18, 319, 388,
578, 1264
Ceylon, 1264
Fork-tailed, 1246
Gray or Sonnerat, 1246, 1250, 1264
Green or Java, 1265
Red, 1264
Kaleege Pheasant, 1253
Kent or Sussex Duck, 1129
Kentucky Blue Games, 54
Knob Goose, IIOI, 1108
La Bresse, IоIO
Lady Amherst Pheasants, 1254, 1264
La Fléche, 18, 61, 231, 947, 1006-08
Lakenvelders, 1023-25
Lancashire Crescents or Half Moonies
929
Moonies, 929, 935, 937, 938-40, 946
Langshans, 18, 20, 50, 56, 61, 66, 93,
99, 102, 587-608, 762, 1003
Black, 589, 764
Brown, 603
Laying, best period, 98, 255
Effect of exercise on, 249
Effect of weather on, 183
fertile eggs without contac with
a cock, 37
habits of ducks, 1123
Premature, 853
qualities of:
Anconas, 21, 93, 857, 860
Andalusians, 93
Brahmas, 20, 21, 85, 86, 93, 94,
97, 562, 578
Cochins, 85, 93, 551
Dominiques, 93, 957
Games, 384, 391, 395, 797
Hamburgs, 85, 90, 200, 767, 932,
934, 955, 956
Houdans, 93, 966, 971
Javas, 728
Jersey Blues, 647
Langshans, 20, 93
Leghorns, 21, 52, 85, 93, 95, 97,
790, 827,833, 839, 840, 842, 846
Minorcas, 93, 764, 789, 865, 868,
873
Orpingtons, 93, 767, 768, 771,
772, 774
Plymouth Rocks, 93, 94, 97, 645,
762, 763, 847
Polish, 93, 200, 916, 922
Rhode Island Reds, 96, 97,731,739
Shanghais, 523
Spanish, 93, 889
various breeds, 20, 21, 90, 93,
95, 97-99, 274, 774
Laying Qualities of Wyandottes, 93,
94, 97, 673, 688, 703, 706, 716
Laying, Short shanks best for, 740
Laying, Small flock best for, 250
Leeds or Shake-bag Games, 330-32,
889
Leghorns, 85, 93, 99, 186, 187, 288-90,
754, 787-856, 859-61, 863, 875,
876
Cuckoo, 796, 839
Dominique, 839-41
Duckwing, Golden, 831, 832
Silver, 831-34.
Mottled-, viz. Ancona
Pile, 834-39
Rose-comb, Brown, 848
Buff, 841
White, 841-46
Single-comb, Black, 828-31
Brown, 97, 102, 732, 745, 788,
790, 795, 805-12
Buff, 812-28, 837
White, 789, 799-805
Yellow, 813
Lice or Mallophaga, 309
Liège Games, 419
Lineated Pheasants, 1257
Linseed, 167
Livers, 1089
Location, 247, 262, 294
for game fowl ranch, 363
for pheasant ranch, 1252
Lord Hill's strain, 470, 508
Loft or Aviary for pigeons, 1191-98
Madagascar Games, 412, 421
Mandarin Ducks, 1170
Magpie Pigeons, 1213
Malayoid type, 412, 414
Malay Games, 332, 333, 385-92,
414
Malays, 47, 49, 414, 732, 889
Mallard or Wild Duck, 1122, 1129,
1144, 1148, 1169
Mallophaga or Lice, 309
Manchurian or Eared Pheasant, 1257
Mantes, 1009
Marchegiana, 859, 861
Market, age for hens, 98
Crossing for poultry, 214
dressed capons, 234, 243-45
dressed Ducks, 1139-41
dressed Geese, 1087
for Ducks, 293
Finishing for, 197-216, 221-24,
228-30
for Goslings, 1087
for Poultry, 215
Method of placing eggs on, 69
Plymouth Rocks for, 200, 674
Rhode Island Reds for, 747
Market Terms for eggs, 69, 70
Value of white and yellow shanks
for, 50, 966, 967, 968
Wyandottes for, 698
1307
Index
Markings, 414, 577, 622, 930, 943
Meat Foods, 168, 853
Mealy Gray Games, 338
Mediterranean Breeds, 47, 93, 200,
787, 857, 896, 902
Melanotus, or Black-backed Kaleege
Pheasant, 1250, 1257
Minorcas, 61, 85, 93, 102, 790, 857,
859, 865-73, 876, 941, 946,
947
Black, 21, 102, 764, 865-70, 883
White, 865, 870-73
Molting, 190, 933, 99º
Monaul or Impeyan Pheasant, 1254,
1255
Mongolian Pheasant, 1259
Monitor Top, 296
Minoshki Games, 414
Monstrosities, 115, 116
Mookie Pigeons, 1213.
Moorhead Pigeons, 1213
Mossies, 945
Muffled Games, 373
Muffles or Beards, yo6, 912-14
Muscovy Goose, IIOI
or Musk Duck, 1163
Naked necks, 1018, 1026
Negroes, 1003, 1004
Nesting rooms, 295
Nests, 119, 260, 263, 273, 276, 278
for Geese, 1085
Nettles, 1081
Nimble Lizard, 124
Non-incubating breeds, 21, 907, 909,
929, 932, 968
Nudes, 1018
Number of eggs to a nest, 121
Nun Pigeons, 1189, 1211, 1213
Nutriment, Eggs as, 2, 81, 103, 106
Oats, 160
Old English Black-breasted Blood-
reds, 53, 342, 344-46, 940
Games, 21, 35, 46, 139, 322,
329, 330, 346, 362, 396, 405,
916
White-legged Games, 940
Kent, Sussex and Surrey Fowls,
VIII., 6, 46, 49, 322, 431, 444-
48, 451, 459, 461, 464, 465,
467-75, 497, 503, 508-12, 1028
Old Muffled Chop Hen, 992
Oon eggs, 117
Oriental Frill Pigeons, 1213, 1230
Orpingtons, 18. 200, 761-79
Buff, 761, 766, 767, 773, 774, 777,
783
Diamond Jubilee, 768-71
Rose-comb Black, 765
Spangled, 773
White, 763
Single-comb Black, 762-64
Spangled, 771-73
White, 763
-
Oviductus, 117
Ovarium, 116-117
Owl Pigeons, 1212, 1223, 1230,
1231
Padua Fowls, 905
Pallasian doctrine, 413
Parkhouse Games, 341
Peacock Pheasants, 1260
Peacocks, 1266-75
Common, 1262, 1266, 1267
Japan or Black-wing, 1262, 1266,
1267
Javan or Burmese, 1267
Pied Pea, 1262
Pedigree, value of, 817
Pekin Duck, 10, 59, 102, 297, 1118,
1119, 1131, 1132, 1133, 1141-
44, II70
Pencilings, 577
Penguin Ducks, 1164
Perches, 260, 263, 271, 284, 335
Persian or Dalmatian powder, 120
Pheasant Malays or Cornish Indian,
18, 19, 20, 36, 49, 345, 397-
405, 415
Pheasant markings, 414
Pheasants, 1246-65
Phoenix Fowls, 1026, 1028-32
Pickling eggs, 68, 110
Pigeons, 1183-1245
Pigmies, 1033
Pit names, 347
Plucking, 213, 214
Plymouth Rocks, 15, 93, 94, 99, 102,
200, 233, 609-645, 674
Barred, 17, 20, 53, 97, 102, 610-13
618, 619, 622-26, 629, 640-45,
762, 763, 847
Buff, 52, 97, 629-32
Pea-comb Barred, 638-40
White, 53, 102, 633-38
Pneumonia, 307
Porcelain Pigeons, 1213
Polish or Polands, 21, 93, 200, 452,
889, 905-28, 947, 961, 963,
1033, 1060
Black, 916
Blue, 916
Buff Laced, 916, 924
Golden, 907, 912, 919-22, 924
Laced or Spangled, 913, 915, 916,
919, 923
Silver Bearded, 907, 913, 918, 922,
924, 927
White, 916, 1013
Booted or Sultan, 1062
Crested Black, 912, 913, 916, 918
926
Portugal Fowl, 865
Poultry,
Essential to success in the business,
247
Farming requisites, 11, 12
Journals, 67, 72
1308
Index
Poultry, Market for, 215
Statistics, 78
Pouter Pigeon,
1210, 1212, 1215,
1219
Praters or Chitty-prats, 942
Preserving eggs, 107, 113
Priest Pigeons, 1213, 1229
Prize winner,
Value of a-in breeding, 510
Pullets, 150, 185
Pure bred Fowls, 7, 10, 23, 29, 46, 53,
67, 98, 113, 214, 428, 708, 776,
777, 889
Quaker Pigeons, 1213
Queen Victoria's Cochins, 528-32
Race de Barbarie, 421
Raising Capons, 235
Games, 797
Goslings, 1082, 1087
Guinea Fowl, 1276
Hamburgs, 933, 942
Leghorns, 288-90, 849-56
Peacocks, 1268-71, 1274
Pheasants, 1253
Pigeons, 1188–91
Polish, 927
Squab, 1237-45
Turkeys, 1298
Ranches for Ducks, 293-96
Rations, Balancing, 180
Tables of Balanced, 154-57
Redcaps or Corals, 940, 957-59,
1035
Red Grouse, 53
Redheads, 957.
Red pepper, 174
Red Pile Games, 325
Reeves' Pheasants, 1250, 1253, 1263
Rheumatism, 263
Rhode Island Reds, 18, 731-51
Ring Dove Pigeon, 1184
Ring-necked Pheasant, 1246, 1258,
1259
Roofs, 251, 286, 290
Roosting Platforms, 280, 271, 284
Sheds, 15, 16, 247, 270, 271-72,
280-81
Rosetops, 957
Roubaix, Cockpit at, 420
Rouen Ducks, 10, 1119, 1122, 1125,
1148-52, 1159
Roup, 263, 305, 309
Ruffs, 913-14
Rumpless Fowl or Wallikiki, 1016
Runs, 15, 264-66, 285, 295-96, 868,
1086
Runt Pigeons, 1212, 1219
Rye, 162
Salt, 173
Sammering's Pheasants, 1263
Scandaroon Pigeons, 1213, 1227
Scotch Bakies, 519-21
Scotch Grays, 514-19, 644
Scratching sheds, 247, 258, 267, 271,
274, 280-81, 284, 287–88
Screens, 279, 293.
Seabrights, American, 654, 667, 668,
670,
Silver, 659-60, 667
Sebastopol Goose, 1110
Selling eggs, 101-03
Separation of sexes, 29, 113, 855
of varieties, 29, 80
Setting, Care of Goose, 1079
Care of-Hen, 365
Feeding-Hen, 188
Shade, Effect on Color, 52-57
Shake-bags or Leed's Games, 330-32,
889
Shamo Games, 412
Shanghais, 7, 49, 66, 459, 467, 523-27
586-90,
534-37, 563, 566,
592, 603, 781, 1003
Gray, 529, 532, 559, 562
Shanks, Black, 693
Blue, 949-50
Clean, 18
White, 50, 486, 489, 502, 948-50
Yellow, 50, 56, 235, 478, 692, 715,
747, 799, 829, 831, 966–68
Sheldrake Duck, Common, 1172
Ruddy, 1173
Show, Age at which to-Poultry,
506
Conditioning for, 902, 947, 950-54.
986-90
Shows, Poultry, 7
Siamese Fireback Pheasant, 1250,
1256
Siam Geese, 1096
Silkies, 1001-5
Silver Pheasants, 1250, 1252, 1257
Single matings, 585, 623-26, 639,
715, 807
Slips, 237, 240, 244
Soemering Pheasant, 1254
Soil, Effect of-on color, 7, 52
Effect of-on fowls, 53
Sonnerat Games, 412
Snow Goose, 1113
Sores, 901
Space, in houses, 264, 290
in roosting, 260, 265
in yards, 296
Spanish Games, 422
Geese, 1102, 1104-5
Red-faced Black, 865, 10IO
White, 870, 876-77, 897
White-faced Black, 21, 46, 93,
867, 876, 879, 889-903, 941,
942
Sparrows, To keep out, 280
Spermatozoa, 48
Spice, 303
Spoonbill Ducks, 1172
Sports, 376, 633, 642, 679, 680, 691,
763, 765, 883
1309
Index
Spot Pigeons, 1189, 1213
Spurs, Artificial, 322, 350-52, 355-58
Natural, 322, 337, 428
Spur Winged Goose, 111-13
Squabs, 1237-45
Squirrel-tail, 328, 900
Stamina, 35, 367
Inbreeding for, 337-38, 341, 750
Mating for, 28
Out crossing for, 28
Standards for, Anconas, 841, 863
Andalusians, 878
Blue Swedish Duck, 1161-62
Brahmas, American Light, 560,
755
Dark, 581-84
Cochins, 541-43
Dorkings, 488
Dominiques, American Rose-comb,
754-57
Eggs, 89
Faverolles, Salmon, 993-95
Games, 326-30, 359-63
Houdans, 965, 973-76
Javas, 725, 729
Mottled, 727, 729
Lakenvelders, 1024
Langshans, 591, 595, 598, 607
Leghorns, 795, 797
Pile, 836
Rose-comb Brown, 805, 808
Rose-comb White, 842, 845
Single-comb Black, 831
Single-comb Brown, 806, 808
Single-comb White, 799
Orpingtons, Buff, 767
Polish, 905, 917
Plymouth Rocks, 613–18
Buff, 631
White, 637
Rhode Island Reds, 733-37
Spanish, Black, 890, 892-94,
897-99, 902
White, 870
Wyandottes, 658, 673-77
Partridge, 704
Silver, 679-83
Silver Penciled, 711-14, 716
Starling Pigeons, 1213
Statistics of eggs, 71-73
Statistics of Poultry Interests, 78
Stock Dove, 1184
Strain, Breeding to retain purity of,
38, 57, 725.
Selecting a, strain, 21, 28, 777, 793
Stud Book, Keeping a, 817, 821
Suabian Pigeons, 1213
Sultan Fowls, 916, 1012-14
Sumatra Games, 414
Summer Ducks, 1167
Sun, Effect of-on fowls, 53
Sunflower seed, 954
Swallow Pigeons, 1211, 1213
Swan Goose, 1104
Swans, 1175-82
Swans, American, 1181
Becorck, 1180
Black, 1180
Hooper, 1180
Mute, 1180
Polish, 1180
Trumpeter, 1181
Whistling, 1180
Swinhoe Pheasants, 1250, 1258
Table of the average composition of
eggs, 104
Balanced rations, 154-57
By-products and hay, 165
Grain foods, 157
Poultry interests, 78-80
Meat foods, 167
Vegetable foods, 169
Table Fowls, 10, 19, 433, 462, 748
Best breeds for, 17, 49, 209
Various breeds as, 17, 18, 21, 52,
200, 380, 396, 431, 465, 467,
478, 483, 490, 496, 497, 562,
578, 587, '593, 601, 639, 674,
688, 726, 731, 739, 747, 758,
767, 773, 783, 796, 797, 841,
842, 869, 891, 911, 966, 968,
1007
Tail carriage, 945
Tasseled Games, 374
Temperature, 255, 270, 279, 293,
297, 849
Cause of disease, 302
Effect of-
on egg production, 255
Effect of-on food consumption,
184
Troughs, 210
Top-Knotted Duck, 1166
Torquatus Pheasant, 1258-59
Toulouse Geese, 1090-97, 1099, 1100,
1102, 1105, 1107
Toy Pigeons, 1219
Tragopan Pheasants, 1248, 1254
Tramway for food, 295
Trap door, 288, 292
Trap nests, 802
Trumpeter Pigeons, 1186, 1212,
1223-25
Tufts, 905, 908, 911, 916, 921, 926
927
Tumbler Pigeons, 1186, 1226
Flying, 1189, 1231
Long-faced, 1213
Short-faced, 1212, 1217, 1219
Turkeys, 1, 8, 10, 88, 127-99
Black, 1294
Black Norfolk, 1295
Bourbon Red, 1294
Bronze, 1289-91, 1295
Brush, 1289
Buff, 1293-94
Cambridge, 1295
Italian, 1295
Narraganset, 1293
Necks, 1018, 1026
1310
Index
Turkeys, Slate, 1294
White Austrian, 1295
White Holland, 1291-93
Wild, 1284, 1188
Turbit Pigeons, 1211-12, 1220, 1230
Turtle Dove, 1184
Underbarring, 622
Under color, 683
Valdarno Fowls, 859
Velvet Breeches Fowls, 958
Ventilation, 15, 253, 255, 257, 265,
270, 274, 280, 281, 287, 288
Versicolor or Green Japanese Pheas-
ant, 1260
Vermin, 120, 259, 260, 263, 302
Vertebra, 123, 127
Vieillot's Fireback Pheasant, 1255
Vulture or Falcon Hocks, 20, 532-34,
586
Vulturine Guinea Fowl, 1248, 1262
Walks for Games, 364
Wallikiki or Rumpless Fowl, 1016
Walls, 256, 272, 273, 282, 288, 295,
298
Washing White Wyandottes, 690
Water, 174
Yards, 1087
Wattled Pigeons, 1186
Wattles in capons, 225, 244.
Weather, Effect of-on laying, 183
Weight of Black Javas, 723, 729
Capons, 236
Eggs, 102
Jersey Blues, 647
Leghorns, 796, 798
Minorcas, Black, 865
Orpingtons, 763
Buff, 774
Rose-comb Black, 765
Spangled, 773
Wyandottes, Silver Penciled, 716
Wheat, 157
Bran, 165
Whiskered Black Booted Bantams,
1067
White in Buff Orpington Cocks, 778
Chinese Goose, 1097, 1100, 1103,
1107-10
Corn, 552
Fronted Goose, 1113
Pheasant, 1258
Plumage, 637
Wild Duck, 1169
Whitening ear-lobes, 947, 953
Wild Birds, 46
Canada Goose, 1114-16
Pigeons, 1186
Windows, 253, 267, 283, 284, 288
Winnebagoes, 683
Wing, Broken, 1087
Feathers, 855
Winter Laying, Breeds for, 99, 100,
587, 603, 696, 785, 867, 967
Wood Duck, 1169
Wyandottes, 15, 200, 651-722
Black, 691-93
Buff, 694-99
Buff Laced, 717
Columbian. 716
Golden, 53 560, 683-86
Partridge, 699-707, 714
Silver, 97, 102, 654, 655, 659, 660,
669, 679-83
Silver Penciled, 708-16
Violet, 717
White, 17, 94, 97, 102, 686-90
Wyckoff strain, 800, 801
Xanthus, 54
Yards, 15, 249, 264, 265, 266, 285,
295, 296, 868, 1086
Yellow Corn, Effect on color of, 552
Yolk Bag, 122, 126
Yolks, Eggs with double, 115
Yokohama Fowls, 1026, 1027, 1031
Yorkshire Ever Layers, 957
Pheasants, 929, 935, 937, 940
1311

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