A TREATISE ON PETROLEUM B 429661 SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD BART. D.SC. FR.S.E. TN 870 R321P 1913 IOA C.GRIFFIN & CO.LTD. DUPL ARTES LIBRARY 1817 SCIENTIA VERITAS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN لس TUEBOR 45 PETINGUIAN AMI NAM ACUMSPICE RM Gillowy 1/41/50 TN 870 R3216 1913 здва 1 Į PETROLEUM. NET BOOK.-This book is supplied to the Trade on terms which will not allow of Discount to the Public. CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY, LTD. ALEPLETONOVE THIRD EDITION. In Medium 8vo. Illustrated. 8s. 6d. net. A HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. For Inspectors under the Petroleum Acts, and for those engaged in the Transport, Distribution, and Industrial Uses of Petroleum and its Products, and of Calcium Carbide. BY CAPT. J. H. THOMSON AND SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, BArt. REVISED THROUGHOUT AND ADDED TO BY MAJOR A. COOPER-KEY, H.M. CHIEF INSPECTOR OF EXPLOSIVES, AND SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, BART., D.Sc., F.R. S. E. In Pocket Size. Strongly Bound in Leather. THE PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGIST'S POCKET BOOK. BY SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, BART., D.Sc., ETC., AND ARTHUR W. EASTLAKE, M.I.M.E., A.M.I.MECH.E., ETC. A concise statement of elementary facts about petroleum for the non-technical man, and a compendium of information for the petroleum technologist. A book of reference for Directors and Secretaries of Oil Companies, Investors, and others having interests in the petroleum industry, as well as for those professionally engaged in the industry as engineers, geologists, chemists, managers, field superintendents, drillers, etc. SECOND EDITION, Revised. In Crown 8vo. Fully Illustrated. 2s. 6d. net. THE LABORATORY BOOK OF MINERAL OIL TESTING. By J. A. HICKS, Chemist to Sir Boverton Redwood. "Should be on the shelves of every analytical chemist in practice."-Chemical Trade Journal, SECOND EDITION. In Large Crown 8vo. Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 6s. net. OIL FUEL: ITS SUPPLY, COMPOSITION, AND APPLICATION. BY SIDNEY H. NORTH. THOROUGHLY REVISED AND ENLARGED BY ED. BUTLER. CONTENTS.-The Sources of Supply-Economic Aspect of Liquid Fuel-Chemical Composition of Fuel Oils-Conditions of Combustion in Oil Fuel Furnaces-Early Methods and Experiments-Modern Burners and Methods-Oil Fuel for Marine Purposes-For Naval Purposes-On Locomotives-For Metallurgical and other Purposes-Appendices-INDEX. "Everyone interested in this important question will welcome Mr North's excellent text-book."—Nature. With 130 Illustrations. 6s. net. In Demy Svo. Handsome Cloth. Pp. i-xi + 176. CARBURETTORS, VAPORISERS, & VALVES, used in Internal Combustion Engines. BY EDWARD BUTLER. "Mr Butler writes with an intimate practical knowledge of his subject, and the book is one we have every pleasure in recommending."-Mechanical Engineer. 18s. net. JUST PUBLISHED. In Medium Svo. Cloth. Profusely Illustrated. MODERN PUMPING AND HYDRAULIC MACHINERY. BY EDWARD BUTLER, M.I.MECH.E. (Author of “Carburettors, Vaporisers, and Distributing Valves," etc. etc.) LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. OIL FIELDS OF THE WORLD Frontispiece Voll 60° 40 20° South Latitude North Latitude 20° 180° Herald L Wrangell L C. Lisburne 160° 140° 120° Great Bear 100° Victoria L Gulf of Boothia Pr.Albert Land Dease R Great SlaveL. Back ASIA Russian Gulf of Gulfofu Anadyr S.Lawrence I. S&Matthews L U.S. U.S. Bering Sea Pribyloy Is Aleutian Islands to U. States Arctic Circle R.Yukon JAL ALASKA to U.S. Alaska Penina MtSt Elias Mackenzie R Athab BRITISH COLUMBIA MFairweather New Archangel Queen Charlotte Is VANCOUVER P A Sandwich Ids Marshall Ids German Gilbert Ids Br Ellice rds Br Rotuma Br. FIJI ISLANDS New Hebrides Br. Numed New Caledonia 40° Fr. Cook Str Alps Baker I US 10 Palmyral Victoria Columbia R. NORTH M.Shasta C.Mendocino San Francisco Pt Concepcion AMERICA Tropic of Cancer 0 Washington L Br Fanning I. < Christmas I. Equator Br Phoenix Idsarvis1 Br Br L Tokelau or Union Is Malden I. Br. Br. Starbuck I. Br. Hermosa DudoralBr Carolinel. Marquesas Fr Navigator Ids 7Samoa G. & U.S Friendly Idsunder Dr. U.S. Br. m Low Islands F Rarotonga Br.. Cook or Society as Fr Hervey Is Austral Ids Br Kermadec Ids Br. Auckland NEW ZEALAND WELLINGTON Christch Dunedin S Tropic of Capricorn Pitcairn Duc 1.Br. Br. Chatham IS (Warekcauri) Br. Stewart I. Bounty I Br. Antipodes I. Br. Auckland I Br. Campbell I. Br. 180° 160° Fr Marie Theresa R Sask PETROLIFEROUS DEPOSITS MARKED RED. 80° 60° 40° Disko I. Davis Str. Black LeadI. 20- 0° 20° GREENL Danish Land C.Brewster Denmark Str Egedes Land C.Nord Hudson Strg LABRADOR Baffin Lands Rae Isth Churchill chewan New We muster R Fremont Platte R Great Salt L UNITED орело Hudson Bay Nelson R. A L.Winnipeg T L Quebec Montreal OTTAWA Forgnto L.Superior Michigan Chicas STATES M California Norte Gulf of California ColimaVo Clipperton I. C Fr E A Pop MEXICO Alleghany 40* 60° Scoresby Sa Jan Mayen North Cape Hammerfest D Lofoden Is C.Chudleigh C.Farewell SCOTLAND Reikiavik ICELAND Danish M.Hekla Farce 1 Shetland Danish Trondhjem &rds Orkney 1 A The Naze Edinburgh IRELAND Vardo Varanger Fiord Lapland EDEN Gulf of Bothnia FINLAND White Sea Kolguer L Archangel P S Ural M Moscow Novgorod Nijme enburg R Lawrence NEW BRNS Str. of Belle Isle NEWFOUNDLAND St Johns Gulf of S.Lawrence C.Race Cape Breton Halifax Bos. Cod derickton NOVA SCOTIA New York SHINGTON C.Hatteras Bermudas Br. New Orleans Florida Gulf of Mexico Veratriz Tehuantepec GUATEMALA Belize LEON SAN SALVADOR Galapagos P to Ecuador Easter I. to Chile ana Bahama Idsr WEST INDIES JAMAICA BT. Caribbean Sea COMAYAGUA SAN JOSE Isthumus & Colon of Panama CARACAS Leeward I Br TLA Windward Br. Barbados Br Trinidad I. Br. Georgetown Orice R. Paramaribo ENEZUELA Cayenne COLOMBIA ChimborazCUADOR Truxilla SOUTH LIMA R. Amazon Madeira Para Christiania North C Sea Dublin AND LONDON English Chan Brest Bay of Biscay Pyre C.Finisterre PORTUGAL PARIS MADRID STOCKHOLAT Baltic Hamburg BERIN GERMA AWSTYDAM MSSEL Corsica ROB Riga R Warsaw Cracous STRIA Adriatic Sardinia 心 ​SPAIN LISBON Azores Ids M EDIT Str.of Gibraltar P Br Madeira I P MAROCCO ALGERIA MAROCCO Canary I Sp. C.Blanco THE Cape Verd I sLouis TIMBUCTOO P. Paranahyba R.Gambia Bathurst SIERRA Sierra LeoneRCONE C.San Roque Frasco Pernambuco BRAZI Illinani Vol L.Title BOLIVIA AMERICA 140° 120° 100° LE Valparaiso Juan Fernandez SANTIAG Concepcion H Chiloel. Mountai CHUQUISACA ARGENTINE Parana Santa Tee JENOS AYRES GONIA CONFED Bahia LIBERIA C.Palmas Sicily BUG Madoga S.PETERSBURG ROU dessa P.Don Caucasus Dambe Black Sea CONSTANTINOPLE TUR Smyrna Malta ANEAN SEA TRIPOLI K CAIRO Suez S Candia Alexandria RIPOL FEZZAN Murzak EGYPT NUBIA Khartum SAHARA AIR LTchad Sokoto Niger ПАНОМЕТ GOLD COAST зобо NOERIA Cape Coast Castle Gulf of Guinea Ascension I. Br. SHelena I.. Br. Victoria S.Paulo Frio RIO JANEIRO PARAGUAY ASUNCION Tonon Po Alegre URUGUAY MONTE VIDEO R.de la Plata C. Corrientes R.Negro G.of S.George Falkland I Br. 70 Tierra Aurora Is Br. Strait of Maghalhaen del Fuego Staaten I. C.Horn 80° 60° 40° South Georgia L. Br. E AN Ogowai R R.Congo StPaul de Loando Benguela Mossamedes R.Nourse Walvisch B Orange R CAPE TOWN WADAI DARFUR hary So L.Albert BELGIAN E Liths Caspian Sea TEHERAN R.Euphrates D-SE Re CONDAR S Gulf of Obi Obi 80° 100° 120* 140 160* R. Fenisei B E R R. Lena fudigirka R. SA Kolima E Stanoroz Okhotsk Tobolsk N Omsk E M I R LABaikal Sablonoi Irkutsk Nentelinsk Kiachta A Aral R.Irtish L.Balkash Sea Tashkent Khiva Kokan Bokhara Amu R PERSIA Ispahan Persian Go rein B Mecca Aden I itai Thian Shan Mts Hind Yarkand CABUL AFGHANISTAN KELATO BELUCHISTAN MUSCAT Karachi Ras al Had us Simlo Delhi MONGOLIA NESE H Suchow TIBET Mts Allahabad Patha Nerbudda Bares CALCUTTA INDTA Chittag Arracan Bombay haba Bay of Auria Muria I Br. ABYSSINIA Gulf of Aden SUGANDAY Galla Victoria L. SOMALI BEAM Kenia Socotra I. Br. Laccadivel C.Guardafui Br. C.Comorin Maldive I Br. CONGO Kilima Njaro Seychelles Br Tanganyika BECHU ANA LAND CHURI EMPIRE PEKING ang R Amur Mukden Had PAthur Naaiwei Nanking Yellow Sea Shanghai Hankow Yang tse kan MANDALAY Bengal Merg BANG Madras Andaman Is CEYLON Nicobar Colombo Chagos Br INDIAN ZANZIBAR Aldabra I Amirante Is Br. Comore CAmber Blantyre ANTANANARIVO Mauritius I.Br. Reunion I. Fr. MADAGASCAR abes Bulawayo Limpopo TRANSVAKL NATAL Darban ORANGER CAPE COLONY East London Port Elizabeth Cape of Good Hope Tristan da Cunha Br. Gough I. Br. Bouvet Is Br. PrEdwardI...Crozet Marioni. Br.. Br.. Br Amsterdam I. Br. Br O rostok Japan Sea of 1 Sea of Okhotsk Saghalien I sa 'ISI 180* Penjinske Wrangell L 60 Bering Sea C.Lopatka Aleutian I to U. States Eurile F to Japan TONIO (YEDO) JAPAN to Japan Riu kiu Canton boy Formosal. Hong Kong Br Hainan I China Sea SIAM BANGEOK UDONG Saigon Cochin Br. Chi Zaban Mala Penin Malacca S Lughatra Cocos or Keeling I Pr StPaul I. Fr Kerguelen 1. Fr. Heard I. Fr. Br. SARAWAK Singapore Batavi Born Java Sea Java I.D -PHILIPPINE Manilla ISLANDS M UT.S. BRITISH NORTH BORNEO Christmas 1.Br. OCEAN Flores Bonin-1 to Japan Ladrone A N E 15 Guam US C R 0 NES Marshall Eap! Caroline I Pelew Is Gilolo D. Ceram ch "Timorl ME A New Guinea German Pabinerstory ictoria Brizon Torres Str Gof N Lds - Jaluit German Gilbert Tes German E Solomon Is British Louisiade St. Crux 15 Br.4 New Hebrides Carpentar Reef. Burke N.W.Cape DeGrey R. LAmadeus Murchison R AUSTR LEyre PERTH Swan R C.Leeuwin Albany ADELAIDE Australian Bight Spencer Gulf mders R. Gladstone LIA BRISBANE GHET Fiji Is Br. A New Caledonia Pr. Lord Norfolk I. Howe I. Beastle Br SYDNEY Kosciusko MELETAME CHowe Bass Str TASMANIA HOBART 20° West Gr. 0° East Gr. 20° 40° 60° 80° 100 120° 140 P PART NEW ZEALAND Cook St MCook 4 40 20 O 20 Auckland 40 PRELLINGTON Christchurch Dimedin Stewart, aty Antipodes 1.Br Auckland's Campbell I Macquarie L. Judge & Clerk Br Br 160 PASE 180 Petroleum deposits shown in red. London: Charles Griffin & Co.Ltd. Stanfords Geographical Estab London PETROLEUM: A Treatise on THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS; THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, PRODUCTION, AND REFINING OF PETROLEUM AND OZOKERITE; THE CHARACTERS AND USES, TESTING, TRANSPORT, AND STORAGE OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS; AND THE LEGISLATIVE ENACTMENTS RELAT- ING THERETO; TOGETHER WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE SHALE OIL AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES; AND A FULL BIBLIOGRAPHY. BY SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, BART., D.SC., F.R.S.E., Assoo. INST. C. E., F.I.C.; PAST PRESIDENT, SOC. CHEMICAL INDUSTRY; HON. MEM. AM. PHIL. SOC.; HON. MEM. IMP. RUSS. TECHN. SOC. Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, the Home Office, and the India Office; Consulting Adviser to the Colonial Office; Consulting Adviser to the Corporation of London under the Petroleum Acts; Adviser on Petroleum Transport to the Port of London Authority and the Thames Conservancy. THIRD EDITION. REVISED THROUGHOUT AND LARGELY ADDED TO. In Three Volumes, with Numerous Maps, Plates, and Illustrations in the Text. ES GRIFFIN CHARLES 1820 LIMITED ND COMPANY LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY, LIMITED, 12 EXETER STREET, STRAND. 1913. [All Rights Reserved.] THE PRESENT EDITION OF THIS WORK Has been partly rewritten, added to, and revised throughout by the author in association chiefly with- MR. W. H. DALTON, F.G.S. late of the British Geological Survey (Section II. and the Bibliography); MR. LEONARD V. DALTON, B.Sc., Lond., F.G.S. (Sections I., II., and IV. and the Bibliography); MR. ARTHUR W. EASTLAKE, M. Inst. M.E., A. M. I. Mech. E. (Sections V. and VI. and Appendix A); MR. JOHN WISHART, Managing Director, Oakbank Oil Company, Glasgow (Section VII.); MR. ROBERT REDWOOD, F.C.S. (Section VIII. and Appendix B); PROFESSOR VIVIAN B. LEWES, F.I.C. (Section X.); and MAJOR A. COOPER-KEY, H.M. Chief Inspector of Explosives, Home Office (Section XI.). Gen hab. 011-30-4 mogle 11-29-40 41929 PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. THE Comparatively rapid sale of the large second edition is gratifying alike to the author and to the publishers, as indicating that the work continues to meet a want; but it is, no doubt, in great measure due to the expansion of the industry, and especially to the attention which is being directed to the use of petroleum as a source of power in internal combustion engines. The world-wide developments which have occurred within recent years have necessitated the revision of the entire treatise. Some sections have been largely rewritten; others added to; and the book now appears in three volumes. It is increasingly difficult to deal adequately with every branch of an in- dustry of such magnitude, but it is hoped that this third edition will be found to give a comprehensive account in a form which will facilitate further study of special features. The maps have been revised and added to. They now include one of Trinidad prepared by Mr. Leonard V. Dalton in consultation with Professor John Cadman. Many new illustrations have also been added, especially in Section X. For assistance in rewriting Sections I. and IV., and in making the neces- sary additions to Section II., I am specially indebted to Mr. Leonard V. Dalton ; and Mr. W. H. Dalton has participated in this work in respect of Section II. In the revision of Sections V. and VI., Mr. Arthur W. Eastlake and Mr. William Sutton have performed similar services. The Section III. contains much new matter, including the results of recent in- vestigations. At the suggestion of Professor Vivian B. Lewes, Mr. Brame was good enough to determine the specific heats recorded in this section of some typical samples of petroleum products from the author's collection, and Mr. S. Lister James has afforded help in abstracting some of the references. Director of the United States Government Department of Commerce and Labour, Bureau of Standards, has kindly furnished particulars of the basis adopted in that country in the conversion of specific gravity into degrees Baumé. The additions include the particulars of results obtained in the ex- amination of samples in the author's laboratory. For the third time, Mr. John Wishart has kindly undertaken the revision of Section VII., and the author's brother, Mr. Robert Redwood, has again given help in dealing with Sections VIII. and IX. vi PREFACE. For the second time, the author is indebted to Professor Vivian B. Lewes for some of the important additions which have been made to Section X. Since this section was rewritten it has become evident that what is known as the Bonecourt system of surface combustion, invented by Professor William A. Bone and Mr. C. D. McCourt, is not only available for use with combustible gases, but may afford great economy in the employment of liquid fuel for steam-raising and in furnace operations generally. Accordingly, some brief particulars of it are given in an addendum. The author has been fortunate in inducing Major A. Cooper-Key to under- take the very considerable labour of bringing Section XI. up to date, and thus to follow in the footsteps of his predecessor at the Home Office, the late Captain J. H. Thomson, who revised this section for the second edition. As on the former occasion, the author owes the revision of Appendix A to Mr. Arthur W. Eastlake, and of Appendix B to Mr. Robert Redwood. The recent American statistics included in the former of these appendices are taken from the valuable reports of Dr. David T. Day. The Bibliography published in the second edition has been greatly expanded by Mr. W. H. Dalton, with the assistance of Mr. Leonard V. Dalton, Mr. S. Lister James, and Mr. E. S. Ward. Once more Miss E. Evelyn Burford has assisted in preparing the matter for the press and in reading the proofs. The Index has been compiled by Mr. Tom F. Burton, who has had consider- able experience in such work in connection with the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. To all those whose names are mentioned as having given help, and to many others who have made suggestions or afforded information, the author tenders his grateful thanks; and he desires also to express for the third time his deep sense of indebtedness to the publishers for the liberality with which they have met all his proposals, the assistance which they have given him in proof-reading and otherwise, and the manner in which the work has been produced. B. R. March 1913. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. THE circumstances in which the first edition of this work was written, the value of the assistance afforded me by Mr. George T. Holloway, and the nature of the services rendered by many other contributors, are fully recorded in the preface to that edition, and are again referred to by the reprinting of the preface in this issue. The decade which has since elapsed has been so fruitful of development in the industrial conditions under which petroleum is produced, refined, and distributed, and in the applications of the commercial products, that complete revision of the work has been necessary. Some portions have been rewritten and largely added to, provision being made for this without rendering the volumes inconveniently bulky by an increase in the size of the pages and by condensation of the matter. The maps have been brought up to date, and many plates and illustrations. have been added. For some new figures I am indebted to the Oil Well Supply Company of Pennsylvania; the Brün-Königsfelder Maschinen-Fabrik (manu- facturers of plant for petroleum-distillation); the Galizische Karpathen- Petroleum-Actiengesellschaft (vormals Bergheim & MacGarvey), Galicia; Messrs. A. Fauck & Co., Vienna; the American Well Works (Mr. G. Young Murray); and the New Calyx Drill Company. Radical changes have been made in the classification of the subject-matter of Sections I. and II., with the object of facilitating reference. The whole of the general, historical, and descriptive information is now given in the first section, whilst the second is devoted solely to the geological and geographical data, which have been very largely added to by Mr. W. H. Dalton, with the help of Mr. Leonard V. Dalton, and will be found to constitute an exceptionally comprehensive record. In Section III. I have, with the aid of Mr. Jas. A. Hicks, included particulars of many additional interesting specimens of crude petroleum examined in my laboratory within the past ten years, and Mr. Watson Smith has assisted me in making such additions to the account of the chemical and physical properties of petroleum as recent researches have rendered possible. In the revision of Sections V. and VI. I have had the great advantage of the experienced co-operation of Mr. Arthur W. Eastlake, and I have to vii viii PREFACE. express my thanks to Mr. D. M. Chambers for particulars of the Raky system: of drilling. Mr. John Wishart has, as on the former occasion, been so good as to revise the proof-sheets of Section VII., and my brother, Mr. Robert Redwood, has rendered a similar service in respect of Sections VIII. and IX. For the revision of the portions of Section X. which relate to the use of petroleum as an illuminant and as a source of gas, I am under obligations to Professor Vivian B. Lewes. The largely extended employment of petroleum as fuel and as a source of power in internal combustion engines has necessitated considerable additions to this section, and in writing these I have received help from my son, Mr. Bernard B. Redwood. Section XI. has been revised and added to by Captain J. H. Thomson, who has spared no labour in obtaining, through official channels, all available information, and I desire to express my appreciation of the high value of these services. For the revision of Appendix A, Mr. Eastlake has most kindly made himself responsible. The American statistics have been mainly taken from the official reports of Mr. F. H. Oliphant to the United States Geological Survey, whilst the Russian figures are derived from the Annual Review of the Baku Petroleum Producers and from the Neftiannoie Dielo. The statements of the world's production of petroleum have been compiled by Mr. Eastlake from various independent sources. I have to thank Mr. Robert Redwood for the revision and extension of Appendix B, which includes a complete list, with full particulars, of tank steamers employed in the petroleum trade. Information on various matters has been given me by many other authorities whose names are mentioned in the text, and to these contributors collectively I tender my thanks. For generously undertaking the heavy labour involved in the verification of the whole of the references, the correction of the proofs, and the duty of general supervision, I am under great obligations to Mr. Dalton, who in turn wishes me to acknowledge, on his behalf, the important help cordially given him by the respective librarians of the Geological, Chemical, and Royal Geographical Societies, and the Patent Office. Mr. Eastlake and Mr. Robert Redwood have, in respect of some of the sections, participated in the work of correction of proofs. I am also indebted to Miss Evelyn E. Burford for valuable assistance in preparing the matter for the press and in proof-reading. The compilation of such a Bibliography as that which forms part of this second edition is an undertaking the onerous character of which can only be fully appreciated by those who have been engaged in similar work. As far as PREFACE. ix possible the entries have been taken from, or verified by reference to, the original sources, and this has involved several years of work on the part of Mr. W. H. Dalton and his nephew, Mr. L. V. Dalton. I am most grateful to these gentlemen for enabling me to carry out so effectively an intention which I had with some reluctance to forego in connection with the first edition; but I wish to include in this expression the publishers, without whose liberal and enterprising action in agreeing to bear the largely enhanced cost involved in the printing of the Bibliography the labour of compilation would have been in vain. I have, in addition, to thank Mr. Dalton for preparing the Index to the entire work. In respect of the maps, plans, and other illustrations, and generally of the production of the work, the publishers have accorded to me the same generous treatment of which I had occasion to express my appreciation in the preface to the original edition. B. R. PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. IF the experience gained in a quarter of a century's consulting practice in connection with the Petroleum industry may be regarded as a qualification for the authorship of this treatise, I need offer no apology for having, somewhat reluctantly, it is true, acceded to the request of the publishers that I should prepare such a work for them. During the period named I have had occasion to visit the principal petroleum fields and refineries in the United States, Russia, and elsewhere, to report upon the occurrence of petroleum in almost every country, and to study the conditions under which petroleum products are transported, stored, and used in Europe, Asia, and America. In addition, my daily duties have necessarily led me to devote special attention to the numerous methods which have, from time to time, been devised for testing the various commercial products. Inasmuch, therefore, as my close association with the industry has extended over the period within which the greater part of its growth has occurred, the reluctance to which I have alluded may need a few words of explanation. In the first place, it arose from the impossibility of my giving, unaided, the necessary time to the classification and abstracting of the very large amount of matter, in the form of notes and otherwise, which I had gradually collected; and in the second place, it was largely due to apprehension of the difficulty of dealing, in a single comprehensive treatise of moderate length, with an industry which, though still youthful, has developed in such a phenomenal manner. The first obstacle was removed when Mr. George T. Holloway very kindly consented to assist me in preparing the matter for the press, and in correcting the proofs, and I cannot too strongly express my gratitude for the painstaking and remarkably able manner in which he has, at the sacrifice of a large amount of his time, steadily persevered with this labour for the past three years. Even, however, with this invaluable help, the treatise would have been incomplete without the cordial co-operation of a large number of friends, most of whom are eminent experts in certain branches of the industry. To many of these I express my acknowledgments by name in succeeding remarks; to others, including those who have preferred to assume, in these pages, the role of the anonymous donor, I tender my sincere thanks. The second difficulty proved more formidable, and was only eventually met xi xii PREFACE. by a very considerable increase in the number of pages within which it was originally intended that the work should be comprised. I proceed now to comment upon the various sections into which the treatise is divided :- Section I., which deals with the History of the Industry, has been condensed as much as possible, but the references given indicate where further information may be obtained. Section II. is one of the longest, and in some respects one of the most important. The value of the geological portion is largely enhanced by the circumstance that the late Mr. William Topley, F.R.S., of the Geological Survey of England, who is well known to have given special attention to the geology of petroleum, was so good as to revise the manuscript. To the part dealing with the less-known oil-fields and undeveloped deposits, I have devoted much anxious consideration, and I hope I have succeeded, without any breach of confidence, in setting forth all that is needful to convey a correct impression. In respect to the occurrence of petroleum in the United States, the exhaustive reports of Mr. Carll, Professor Lesley, Dr. Orton, Professor Peckham, Mr. J. D. Weeks, and others, have been freely utilised; and in writing the description of the Canadian oil and gas deposits, various reports of the Geological Survey of Canada have been referred to. I am indebted to Mr. H. A. Drury, of the Imperial Oil Company, St. John, New Brunswick, for information relative to petroleum in the Athabasca district. In preparing the account of the Russian oil-fields I have received much assistance from Mr. M. Rydèn, who has enabled me to epitomise the valuable reports of Mr. Conchine, Mr. Barbot de Marny, and Dr. Hjalmar Sjögren, more effectively than would otherwise have been possible. I have also made some use of the writings of Professor Mendeléeff, the late Mr. Charles Marvin, and others; and I have, in addition, to express my acknowledgments to Mr. Goulishambarow and Mr. Wagstaff for assistance. For many important particulars of the Galician petroleum industry, I have to thank Mr. Giusel, of Ustrzyki, and Mr. Perutz, of Jaslo, as well as Mr. Julius Noth, who has closely studied the geology of petroleum in Austria-Hungary. The publications of Mr. C. M. Paul, Mr. Heurteau, Mr. Rateau, and others, have also been consulted, and I am indebted to Mr. George Adams, a well-known authority on petroleum in Galicia and elsewhere, for correcting portions of the proofs. For much of the matter embodied in the account of the Roumanian petroleum industry I am under obligations to Mr. Edwin R. Blundstone, who has spent some time in the oil-fields of that country. As regards Burma and Assam, the sources of some of the information I have given are the instructive reports of Dr. Noetling, Mr. Mallet, and Mr. Oldham. I have also been favoured with many particulars in respect to the industry in Upper Burma and in Assam, respectively, by Mr. Kirkman Finlay (Burmah Oil Company), and by Mr. J. PREFACE. xiii Berry White (Assam Railways and Trading Company). The description of the Peruvian oil-fields is largely based upon information given me by Mr. C. B. Rosenplaenter, the late Mr. George Scott, and others. Various publications, specified in the section, have also been referred to. The account given of the oil-fields and oil deposits of the Eastern Archipelago, which are rapidly assuming great industrial importance, is partly founded upon reports by Mr. Warren, Dr. Seelhorst, and others. To Mr. Raymond Warner, Mr. R. Nelson Boyd, and others, I am indebted for particulars relative to the occurrence of petroleum in the West Indies. In respect to Alsace, Mr. Paul de Chambrier and other officials of the Pechelbronn Company, as well as Mr. G. S. Crosbie, an ex- perienced driller, have furnished me with interesting details, and I have been favoured by Mr. L. Poock with corresponding information relative to the Hanoverian district. For some of the particulars concerning the occurrence of petroleum in Persia my thanks are due to Mr. Lewis Hamilton, and I am similarly under obligations to Mr. G. Stockfleth in respect to Mexico. In Section III. a description is given of the large number of typical specimens of crude petroleum, from different parts of the world, which I have in my possession. Many of these specimens have been brought by myself from the districts in which the oils occur, and among the others, I have included only those of undoubted authenticity. The great extent of the matter which has been published on the Chemistry of Petroleum rendered the preparation of this section somewhat laborious. It was necessary to exclude a great deal that might have been of interest, but as an unusually large number of references have been given, it is easy to follow up any branch of the subject upon which further information is desired. In Section IV. the Origin of Petroleum and Natural Gas is discussed, and the aim has been to present fairly the various theories which have been pro- pounded rather than to adduce evidence in support of any one particular view. In Section V. the Production" of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Ozokerite is described in great detail. The account of the methods of drilling adopted in the United States, Canada, Russia, Galicia, and Alsace is principally founded upon the results of my personal observation and inquiry in those countries, but in respect to Russia, Canada, and Galicia, Mr. G. Stockfleth, Mr. Elgin Scott, Mr. R. Nelson Boyd, and Mr. Arthur W. Eastlake have given me additional information. In Section VI., which treats of Refining, numerous references will be found to articles by Engler and others, in Dingler's polytechnisches Journal, the Chemiker Zeitung, and other publications, including the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, as well as to the works of Peckham (Census Report on Petroleum), Crew (Practical Treatise on Petroleum), Folger (Petroleum: Its xiv PREFACE. Production and Products), and others. To Mr. Stockfleth and to Mr. Rydèn I am also indebted for details of Messrs. Nobel Brothers' refinery at Baku. Section VII. has, so far as it relates to the Scottish Shale Oil Industry, been carefully revised and added to by Mr. John Wishart, of the Oakbank Oil Company, to whom I tender my cordial thanks for this valuable service. I am also indebted to Mr. John Fyfe (Young's Company) and to Messrs. Kennedy and Love (Broxburn Oil Company) for particulars of the yield of commercial products at their respective works. The account of the French Shale Oil industry is largely founded upon the description given by Mr. Chesneau, and the greater part of the matter relating to the Brown-coal Tar Industry is derived from Schädler's work (Technologie der Fette und Oele der Fossilien). In Section VIII. (Transport, Storage, and Distribution), which will, I think, be found of special interest, the arrangements adopted in conveyance from the wells to the refineries, and thence to the retail distributors, are fully described. From the account thus given, coupled with the statistics which are contained in the first appendix, the world's supplies of petroleum may be systematically followed from their sources to the districts in which the products are consumed. This section includes particulars given in the report by Mr. Folger already referred to, and in personal communications from the Hon. Lewis Emery, Jun., of Bradford, Pa., Mr. S. Y. Ramage, of the Mutual Oil Company, Oil City, Pa., Mr. W. L. Mellon, of Pittsburg, Pa., the Paragon Refining Company, of Toledo, Ohio, and others, respecting the pipe-line system of transport in the United States; and from Mr. Stockfleth as regards transport in Russia. In the description given of tank steamers, the papers by Mr. Martell, Mr. Eldridge, and Mr. Flannery have been quoted, and information given me by Mr. Swan (Sir Wm. G. Armstrong, Mitchell & Co.) and by Mr. Alfred Suart has been incorporated. To the section on Testing (Section IX.) special attention has been paid, and I believe that it furnishes particulars of all the principal instruments and processes employed in this country and abroad in the testing of crude petroleum, petroleum and shale-oil products, ozokerite, and asphalt, as well as of the method of ascertaining the presence and proportion of petroleum vapour in the air, by means of a hydrogen flame. An account is given of the investigations of Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B., which led to the adoption of the Abel system of testing, and particulars are added of the modifications which have been made in the original form of the instrument employed. I have to thank Professor Dr. C. Engler, of Karlsruhe, for a personal communication descriptive of the method of fractional distillation which he is accustomed to adopt, and Professor Dewar, F.R.S., for various suggestions. My brother, Mr. Robert Redwood, has done me the service of reading the proofs of this section and the previous one. Some difficulty has been experienced in dealing adequately with the Uses of PREFACE. XV Petroleum and its Products (Section X.) within the space available, and this will be readily understood when it is borne in mind that in this portion of the work it was necessary to describe not only the ordinary uses of mineral burning oils, mineral lubricating oils, paraffin, vaseline, etc., but also the important applica- tions of some of the products in the manufacture of gas, as liquid fuel, and as a source of power (in petroleum motors). As a section of such a work, the information given will, I believe, be found sufficiently full, and the references appended indicate the sources of further details. The last Section (XI.) is devoted to Statutory and other Regulations relating to the Testing, Storage, Transport, and Use of Petroleum and its Products. The material for this section has been principally collected by Mr. Charles Salter, who has ably discharged a somewhat laborious task. Information has been furnished for this portion of the work by Mr. H. J. Chaney, of the Standards Department of the Board of Trade; Mr. James H. Gough, Secretary to the Conservators of the River Thames; Mr. Alfred Spencer, Chief Officer of the Public Control Department of the London County Council; the Librarians of the Colonial and India Offices and the Colonial Institute; Her Majesty's Representatives at Accra, Antigua, Berne, Bremen, Cape Town (Colonial Secretary), Christiania, Constantinople, Copenhagen, Durban, Geneva, Genoa, Isle of Man, Rome, Rotterdam, Tokio, Stockholm, Trieste, Vienna, Zanzibar, and Zurich; also by the British Chamber of Commerce of Turkey, and by Mr. J. de Bernière Smith. In some instances particulars have been taken from a report on the subject by Colonel Sir Vivian Majendie, K.C.B. The Statistical Appendices contain information derived from various sources. Many of the tables relative to the United States petroleum industry are taken from Mr. Folger's report, and a number of those referring to the Russian industry have been supplied by Dr. Dvorkovitch. For some of the statistics of the Galician industry I am indebted to Her Majesty's Consul- General in Vienna. The classified tabular statement of shipments from the United States has been compiled by my brother, Mr. Robert Redwood. Mr. George Henry Funck has supplied me with information on some points, and has corrected portions of the proofs. For the list of vessels employed on the Caspian, I am indebted to Dr. Dvorkovitch. In drawing up the list of import duties, I have been assisted by Mr. Salter and others. The Index has been prepared by Mr. Salter, under the direction, and with the assistance, of Mr. Holloway, and will, I am confident, be found full and correct. I have to express my cordial thanks to Mr. H. G. Graves for the service he has rendered me by reading the whole of the proofs and suggesting alterations which have, in nearly every instance, been made. Many thanks are also due to Mr. C. E. Morris for the able manner in which he has carried out my instructions in preparing the maps. xvi PREFACE. Among other publications which have been consulted, in addition to those mentioned on p. xiii, are the following:-Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Transactions of the Federated Institute of Mining Engineers, Journal of Gas Lighting, Journal of the Society of Arts, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, American Manufacturer (Pittsburg, Pa.), Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter (New York), Oil Trade Review, Oil and Colourman's Journal, and the Annales des Mines. The illustrations have been mainly prepared expressly for the work; but several are borrowed from the Society of Chemical Industry, the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Society of Arts, Messrs. W. H. Bailey & Co. (Salford), Mr. B. H. Thwaite, and others. The illustrations of petroleum engines in Section X. are from Mr. Bryan Donkin's work (Gas, Oil, and Air Engines); whilst some of those of drilling appliances in Section V. are from the reports of Mr. Carll, and from the catalogue of the Oil Well Supply Company, of Oil City, and Bradford, Pa. The illustrations of refining plant in Section VI. are taken from Dingler's polytechnisches Journal, Veith's work (Das Erdöl), Crew's work on petroleum, and other sources. It was my intention to add a Bibliography, compiled by Mr. Holloway and Mr. Salter, in which a number of references collected by the late Mr. William Topley, F.R.S., and his son, Mr. W. W. Topley (and kindly placed at my disposal), have been incorporated; but the length to which the work has grown has necessitated the abandonment of the project. This I regret the less, as the copious references given throughout the book answer to a large extent a similar purpose. Finally, it is my pleasing duty to record my sense of the generous manner in which practically all the suggestions I have made, in respect to the illustra- tions, and otherwise, have been adopted by the publishers, and of the great care with which the work has been produced. BOVERTON REDWOOD. LONDON, December 1895. CONTENTS. VOL. I. Section I.-Historical Account of the Petroleum Industry. Earliest references, PAGE PAGE 1 New Brunswick, 65 Russia, 3 Newfoundland, 67 Austria-Hungary, 16 United States, early history, 67 Rumania, 20 Italy, 23 Zante, 28 Pennsylvania and New York, West Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee, 75 79 80 Germany, 28 Ohio and Indiana, 81 Great Britain, 32 Illinois, 85 France and Switzerland, 37 Kansas and Oklahoma, $6 Spain, 38 Texas and Louisiana, 88 Algeria, 38 Colorado, $9 Egypt, 40 California, 90 Persia, 41 Minor fields, 93 Turkey, 43 Mexico, 95 India: West Indies : Baluchistan, 43 Cuba, 98 Punjab, 45 . Hayti, 99 Assam, 46 Barbados, 99 Burma, 17 Trinidad, 100 · The Eastern Archipelago : South America: Java, 54 Venezuela, 102 Sumatra, 51 Brazil, 102 Borneo, Timor, Philippine Islands, China, Japan, 10 10 10 10 10 56 57 58 58 1- 00:00 ON Canada: Ontario, Alberta and Mackenzie, 59 Australia, 61 Africa: 63 65 Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina, Peru, New Zealand, Gold Coast Colony, 102 103 103 104 106 108 109 Nigeria, 109 • Nova Scotia, Section II.-The Geological and Geographical Distribution of Petroleum and Natural Gas. Range of bitumen, 110 Ozokerite, Natural gas, 110 Asphalt-rock, Oil and gas reservoir-rocks, 111 British Islands, • Conditions affecting accumulation, 114 • Portugal, Oil lines, 116 · Spain, Oil in fissures and pockets, 117 France, Association of salt with petroleum, 118 Belgium, Pressure in wells, 119 Holland, Association of mud-volcanos with Switzerland, petroleum, 122 Italy, Duration of oil and gas supplies, 122 Algeria, Affinity of clay for petroleum, 123 Tunis, 124 124 125 127 127 128 130 130 131 131 132 133 xvii b xviii CONTENTS. PAGE Egypt, 133 The Eastern Archipelago : Arabia, 134 Philippine Islands, Borneo, Turkish Empire, Asiatic, 134 Sumatra, Java, Samaauw, PAGE 160 161 Turkish Empire, European. 135 Greece, 135 British America: Montenegro, 136 Timor, New Guinea, Celebes, Moluccas, 161 Yukon, British Columbia, 162 · Bosnia and Herzegovina, 136 Alberta, Athabasca, Mackenzie, 163 Servia, 136 Manitoba, Ontario, 164 • Rumania, 136 Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Austro-Hungarian Empire : Scotia, 165 Dalmatia, 138 Newfoundland, 166 Istria, Carniola, Styria, Croatia, Greenland, 166 Slavonia. 138 United States: Hungary, . 138 Connecticut and New Jersey, New The Banat, Transylvania, Bukowina, 139 York, 166 Galicia, 140 Pennsylvania, 167 Silesia and Moravia, 141 West Virginia, 171 Bohemia, L. and U. Austria, Tyrol, 142 Maryland, Virginia and North German Empire : Carolina, 173 Bavaria, 143 Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 173 Württemberg, Baden, Elsass, Tennessee, Kentucky, 174 143 Lothringen, Rhenish Bavaria, Ohio, 175 139 Rhenish Prussia, Hesse, Hesse- Michigan, Indiana, 178 Nassau, Westphalia, Illinois, 180 145 · Hanover and Brunswick, . Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, 180 146 Schleswig Holstein, Saxony and Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, 181 Thuringia, 147 North-eastern Provinces, Colorado, 182 147 Denmark, 147 Wyoming, Nebraska, 183 Norway, Dakota, Montana, Alaska, Washing- 148 Sweden, ton, Oregon, 184 148 Spitzbergen, 148 Idaho, Utah, Nevada, California, 185 Arizona, 188 Russian Empire : New Mexico, Texas and Louisiana, 188 Finland, Northern and Central Pro- Mexico, 190 vinces, Ural Mts., 149 Honduras, 191 Southern Provinces, Crimea, Taman, 149 West Indies: Kuban and Terek Territories, 150 Cuba, 191 Daghestan, Kutais, 151 • Hayti, Porto Rico, Barbados, Grenada, 192 Tiflis, Elizabetpol, Erivan, Baku, 152 Trinidad, 192 • Uralsk, Siberia, Turkestan, 155 South America : Transcaspia, 156 Guiana, Venezuela, 193 Persia, 157 Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, 194 India : Chile, Argentina, Brazil, 195 • Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Punjab. 158 • West, South, and East Africa, Mada- Assam, Burma, 159 196 gascar, Siam, Malay Peninsula, 159 Australia, 197 Anam, Thibet, China, Japan, 159 New Caledonia, New Zealand, 198 • Section III.-The Physical and Chemical Properties of Petroleum Early views as to the nature of petro- leum, and Natural Gas. 199 Heat of vaporisation, Boiling-point, 221 222 • Physical properties of petroleum : Colour, specific gravity, and flashing- Characteristics and results of distilla- point, 201 tion of crude petroleum, Lubricating oils, characteristics. 224 • 234 Odour, 211 Capillary power of kerosene, 234 Refractive index, 211 Viscosity of lubricating oils, 236 Optical activity, 212 Properties of various commercial pro- Radio-activity, 213 ducts, 237 Coefficient of expansion, 213 Calorific power, 218 Chemical properties and composition: Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, 237 • Specific heat, 219 Sulphur, 239 · CONTENTS. xix PAGE PAGE Chemical properties and composition : Sulphuretted hydrogen, Metallic impurities, 240 Oxygen and oxygenated compounds, 2:2 Composition of residuum, 253 240 Bromine absorption 253 • Arsenic and phosphorus, 240 Vaseline, 254 Hydrocarbons: Solid hydrocarbons (paraffin), 254 Paraffin or methane group. 241 Ozokerite, 257 Olefine or ethylene group, 245 Asphalt and asphalt-rock, 258 Acetylene group, 246 • Natural as, composition, 262 Benzene group, 246 Natural gas, calorific power, 267 Naphthenes, 247 Section IV.-The Origin of Petroleum and Natural Gas. Introductory remarks, Inorganic origin, 268 269 Vegetable and animal origin. Summary of opinions, Section V.-The Production of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Ozokerite. Early methods: Russia: 272 280 Japan and China, 284 General description.. 334 Burma, 288 Dimension of wells. 334 Italy, 290 Drilling tools. 335 The United States: Casing, 330 Introduction, 290 Pressure in wells- ontrolling ent- Drilling plant, 292 flow, 337 Derrick. 293 Yield of wells. 337 Drilling tools. 204 Present practice. 337 Sand pumps, 297 Bailing wells, 339 Fishing tools, 997 Raising oil by compressed air. 339 Drilling the well. 300 Galicia: Well record, 307 Introductory remarks, 341 Oil saver, 308 Hand drilling. 341 Evolution of present system of drill- Modern methods of drilling. 342 ing in Pennsylvania. 308 Kind's free-fall system. 347 Depth of wells, 309 Fauck's free-fall system. 348 Rate of progress in boring, 310 Rapid system. 351 Rotary system of drilling, 310 Express system. 353 Portable well-drilling machines, 315 Fauvelle water-flush system. 353 Drilling in California, 315 Fauck's water-flush system. 355 Cementing wells, 317 Raky system, 355 · Electrical treatment of crude petro- Davis-Calyx drill, 358 leum, 318 Diamond-boring system, 360 Casing, 319 Pumping, 361 Danger of fire, 319 The ôzokerite industry: Yield of wells-Inducing flow- Separating ozokerite from the Pumping. 320 matrix, 363 Torpedoing wells, 323 Conditions and cost of working. 364 Gas wells. 325 Germany, 365 Canada : The organisation of petroleum field- 366 General description, 329 Cost, 333 Concluding remarks. Comparison of drilling systems, 367 VOL. II. General description, Cylindrical still, Cheese-box still, · Section VI.-The Refining of Petroleum. 1 : Use of steam. 3 Vacuum process, Condensers.. 1 Continuous distillation, Waggon still, Russian and Galician stills, Dephlegmators, • Cracking" process, Fractionation of crude naphtha. Chemical treatment, 7 Agitators, 13 15 15 18 24 19 19 26 XX CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE Vaseline, 30 Testing refined oil, 52 • Anthracene, etc., 37 Continuous distillation plant, 53 • Obtaining lubricating oils, 62 Refining in the United States : Treatment and nature of distil- Delivery of crude oil, 38 lates, 63 Description of a refinery, typical Refining "perfumery” and “mixing" methods of treatment and de- oils, . scription of products, 38 Classification of products, Separating and refining paraffin, 42 Removal of sulphur compounds from Refining petroleum and ozokerite in Austria-Hungary, oil, 46 Ozokerite picking and extracting, 28 88 65 66 66 (6 Sunning" and "reducing" oils, 46 Refining in Canada, 47 Removing sulphur-compounds, 48 Chemical treatment, Filter-presses and extractors, Manufacture of ceresin, 68 Bleaching the oil, 49 Refining in Rumania, Refining in Russia, 49 Refining in Germany, 69 71 76 76 · Chemical treatment, 52 Refining industry, France and Spain, . 2888 Early history, Section VII.-The Shale-Oil and Allied Industries. Output in the United Kingdom, 83 Obtaining gasoline by compressing 84 gas, 105 Properties of Scottish shale, 84 Treatment of ammoniacal liquor, Particulars of Scottish companies, 85 column stills, 106 Production in New South Wales, 86 Properties of crude oil, 107 Shale in New Zealand, 86 Refining: The French shale-oil industry, 87 Intermittent distillation, 107 Deposits in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Servia, and Spain, 91 The Scottish shale-oil industry : Crude naphtha, Geological formation, 92 Mining or winning oil-shale, 93 Distilling shale : Early systems, Bathgate retort, 96 · Intermittent retort of Young and Brash, Henderson retort (earlier form), 97 97 2* 18 5 94 Continuous distillation, Chemical treatment, Separating and refining paraffin, Refrigeration and pressing, Naphtha treatment, Sweating process, 109 110 115 117 • 117 • 119 · 120 • Yield of commercial products, . 124 • The Brown-coal tar industry: General description of brown coal or Pentland retort (Young and Beilby), lignite, 125 98 Composition of brown coal, 127 Brown-coal tar : New Henderson retort, 100 Bryson retort, 101 Composition and yield, 129 • Distillation and treatment, 132 Young and Fyfe retort, 101 Researches on brown-coal tar, 136 Condensation, 104 • Scrubbing, 105 Kimmeridge shale, 138 • Section VIII.-The Transport, Storage, and Distribution of Petroleum. Early methods, Burma and Russia, The United States: Early history, • Pipe-lines, Pumping oil through pipe-lines, Storage-tanks for crude oil, Railway tank-cars, Tank barges, •· Barrels, manufacture of, • Tins and cases, manufacture of, Mexico, transport, Canada, pipe-lines and tanks, Russia, transport and storage, Tank steamers: Early history, 140 Construction; isolating the oil, Ventilation, 163 • 163 140 · Description of the Narragansett, 165 141 Regulations for transport through 147 the Suez Canal, . 167 • 149 Construction of steamers for the Suez • 150 Canal traffic, 168 152 • • Explosions due to ignition of petro- 154 leum vapour, 172 155 Experiments on the formation of an 155 • explosive atmosphere, 178 156 Conditions regulating the formation 156 and ignition of an explosive at- mosphere, 185 161 Precautions for preventing explosions, 188 CONTENTS. xxi The United Kingdom: London, Liverpool, Barrow, Hull, and Bristol, Storage and distribution, Water finders, PAGE Road-waggons, 189 Barrel-cleaning, glueing, drying, 190 and filling, 190 Steel barrels, · 193 Tanks for domestic storage,. PAGE 194 194 196 197 Section IX.-The Testing of Crude Petroleum, Petroleum and Shale-Oil Products, Ozokerite and Asphalt. General remarks: Crude petroleum; petroleum spirit and shale spirit; kerosene and paraffin oil; lighthouse oil, Effect of variation in barometric 229 pressure, Effect of tropical climate, 230 198 Abel tester, directions for use in Mineral colza (or sperm) oil; lubri- cating oils, temperate climates, 231 • 199 Paraffin; petroleum residuum; fuel oil; vaseline; crude shale oil; ozokerite; asphalt, Abel tester, employment in India and other countries, 232 • Abel-Pensky tester, 238 200 Braun's modification of the Abel- Crude petroleum : Pensky tester, 246 Qualities required by New York The use of a stirrer in flashing- Produce Exchange, etc., 200 point testers, 246 Specific gravity, 201 Letheby's electric tester, 247 Fractional distillation test. 202 Pease's electric tester, 247 Dephlegmators, 203 Engler's electric tester, 247 Engler's distillation test, 204 Heumann's modification of Eng- Regnault's distillation test, 206 ler's tester, 249 Other distillation tests, 206 Victor Meyer's tester, 249 Calorific value of crude petroleum, Haass's modification of Victor petroleum residuum, and oil fuel, 206 Meyer's tester. . 249 Petroleum spirit and shale spirit : Tagliabue's closed tester. 250 Qualities required by New York Pro- Wisconsin tester, 251 duce Exchange, 207 Elliott tester, 251 Fractional distillation test, 207 Granier's tester, 253 Volatility test, 207 Luchaire tester. 254 Kerosene and paraffin oil: Parrish's naphthometer," 254 Qualities required in America, Parrish-Engler naphthometer," . 254 Canada, and Russia, 209 • Phlog-elaio-mètre.” 255 Distillation test, 210 Foster's automatic tester, 255 • Burning quality test, 212 Bernstein's tester. 256 Saybolt's testing lamp, 212 Ehrenberg tester, 257 Canadian lamp test, 212 Braun's tester. 257 Redwood's apparatus for testing Beilstein's, Liebermann's, and wicks and oils, 212 Stoddard's methods, 257 Illuminating power,, 213 Beilstein's tester, 257 · • Colour; chromometers, 214 Millspaugh's tester, 258 Odour, 215 Mann's tester, 259 Flashing-point and fire test: Vette's tester, 259 Tagliabue's open tester, 216 Gawalowski's tester, 259 Early legislation in the United Salleron-Urbain tester. 260 Kingdom and France, 216 Rosenbladt's tester, 261 • Early legislation in the United Test tube method, 262 States, 217 Comparison of various testers, 262 Squire's open test, 217 Testing for petroleum vapour (Red- Arnaboldi's tester, 218 wood's apparatus), 262 Saybolt's electric tester, 218 Phillip and Steele's apparatus, 266 Indiana State tester, 219 Lubricating oils : Minnesota State tester, 219 Specific gravity, 266 Danish tester, 219 Colour-Lovibond's tintometer, 266 Defects in the English test of 1868, 220 Flashing-point and fire test : Keates's close tester, 220 Pensky's tester, 267 English Act of 1871-Select Com- Pensky-Martens tester, 267 mittee of 1872-Reference to Gray's tester, 269 • Sir Frederick Abel, 220 Treumann's tester, 270 Abel tester-Construction and use, 222 United States fire test. 271 Testing petroleum mixtures, 226 Volatility test. 271 xxii CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE "Carbonisation constant,' >> 271 Woodbury's tester, 295 Lubricating value, 272 Deprez and Napoli's tester, 295 Fluidity or viscosity testers : Bailey's tester,. 296 Nasmyth's, 272 Thurston's tester, 296 Albrecht's and Phillips's, 273 French railway tester, 298 Viscometers : Ingram and Stapfer s tester, 300 · 4 Pipette (Veitch - Wilson's, McIvor's, Boult's tester, 300 • Sacker's), 274 Cold test, 300 Napier's and Mason's, 274 Tagliabue's apparatus, 302 Redwood's, 275 Schultze's apparatus, 302 Engler's, 277 · Lamansky-Nobel, Conditions imposed by the German rail- 279 ways, 303 Saybolt's,. 279 Fuel oil, 306 Comparison of results, 280 Engler-Künkler's, 280 Gas oil, 307 Engler-Künkler-Martens', 282 Paraffin testing : Künkler's for low temperatures, 282 Künkler's grease-viscometer, 283 Künkler's viscometer for small Melting-point (English test, Ameri- can test, capillary tube method, Tagliabue's tester), 308 samples, 284 Estimation of oil, presses, 309 Comparison of Künkler's and Engler's water, 310 viscometers, 286 dirt, 310 >> Arvine's viscometer, 287 Scottish methods of testing, 310 Barbey's viscometer, 287 Petroleum residuum, 313 Lepenau's "leptometer," 287 Chemical examination, 313 Gibbs' viscometer, 287 Bromine test, 313 • Bubble viscometer, 288 Determining source of oil, 314 Napier's and Cockrell's paddle visco- Estimation of ash, 315 meters, 288 Alkali test (Russian), 316 Doolittle's viscometer, 288 Sulphur compounds, estimation of, 318 Value of viscosity test; friction-testing Compound oils; estimation of fixed machines : oils, 319 Prof. R. H. Thurston's views, 290 · Acidity, estimation of, 320 Investigations of Prof. Ordway and Rosin oil, 320 Messrs. C. J. H. Woodbury and Beauchamp Tower, General tests for burning and lubri- 292 cating oil, 321 • Studies of Dr. C. B. Dudley and Mr Vaseline and ozokerite, 322 Waite, 293 Shale oil, 322 MacNaught's tester, 294 Solid hydrocarbons in oil, 323 Duske's modification of ditto, 294 Asphalt and asphalt rock, 325 328 332 Section X.-The Uses of Petroleum and its Products. General review of uses of petroleum products (pharmacy, illumina- tion, fuel, power, lubrication, ore-concentration, waterproofing, glazing, laundry-work, perfum- ery, electric insulation, photo- metry, dyeing, solid and soluble preparations, westrumite, paint- solvent, dry-cleaning, purifica- tion of alcohol), Mineral-oil lamps : Early forms, Illuminating power and oil con- Kerosene-vapour lamps, 340 · Spiel's incandescence lamp, 340 sumption, . 340 Comparison of cost of lighting by mineral oils and coal gas, 342 • Globes, 343 Extinguishers, 343 Oil supply, 345 Safety appliances, wicks, incombust- ible wicks, 345 Lamp accidents, 346 Hinks's duplex, 333 Ship's lights, 349 Rowatt's "Anucapuic," 333 Spray or blast lamps, "Lucigen" and Defries's (Sepulchre's), 335 Wells, 349 46 Lampe Belge," "Mitrailleuse '' Kitson incandescence lamp, 351 CC lamp, Lampe Veritas," and Mineral-spirit lamps, 353 ཐ "Rochester" lamp, . 335 Lamps for solid paraffin, 353 Wanzer," Aria's, and "Sunlight Concluding remarks on lamps, 353 lamps, 337 Air gas, 354 German and Russian lamps, 338 Carburetting coal gas, 358 xxiii CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE Air-gas machines and carburettors : General considerations, Brandt's, Lenz's, Sandgreen's, 391 358 Brandt's (locomotive), Urquhart's, Müller's "Alpha," Weston's. 358 Maxim's, . 358 Rusden-Eeles, Oil City Boiler Works', W. N. Best's, 394 Maxim and Sedgwick's, 359 Curle's "carbogen," 395 46 Simplex," 361 Kermode's, 396 > 362 Meyer's system, 399 Legge incandescence table lamp, 363 Swensson's, 399 Oil gas: Körting's, 400 General description, . 363 Thornycroft's, 400 Pintsch plant, 365 Gordejeff's, 402 • Keith plant, 365 General remarks on the advan- Mansfield plant, 365 tages of liquid fuel, 403 Thwaite plant, carburetted water gas, Brünler system, 405 Lowe and Springer processes, 366 Metallurgical furnaces, 407 Young and Bell or Peebles process, 371 Petroleum engines: Tocher's experiments, 372 General account, 407 Lewes's process, 373 Hock, 409 66 Hydro-oxy oil-gas." Tatham's, 373 Brayton, 409 Priestman, 410 Natural gas, 378 Westinghouse regulator, Hornsby-Akroyd, 412 380 Trusty, 414 Lampblack manufacture, 380 Tangye, 414 Petroleum as fuel, 381 Diesel, 415 Calorific value, 385 Burners : Road carriages, Daimler motor for, Aeroplane engines, 416 416 • Nobel's, Aydon, Wise and Field's, Launches, Zephyr" vapour engine Donald's, Holden's, 388 for, 417 • VOL. III. Section XI.--Statutory, Municipal, and other Regulations relating to the Testing, Storage, Transport, and Use of Petroleum and its Products. British: General remarks (Acts of 1862. 1868. and 1871), Abel test (Act of 1879), Hawking petroleum, etc. (Act of 1881), Standardising testing apparatus, 0 a South Australia, Tasmania, Austria, Trieste, Bahamas, Barbados. Belgium, 00 00 00 00 00 31 32 32 32 34 31 34 Keeping petroleum for use in motor- Bermuda, 34 cars, 10 British Baluchistan, Burma, Guiana, and Honduras, 35 Municipal regulations : Canada, 35 London County Council, report on use of petroleum in various trades. Cape Colony, 13 Ceylon. China. London County Council, abstract of regulations, 15 Cyprus, Denmark, London County Council, licenses, 1s Thames Conservancy (Port of London Authority), . Specification for tank barges, Antigua, Australian Commonwealth, New Zealand, . 25 Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, Bristol Docks Committee, 26 26 Model Harbour Code, Acts of 1871- Gambia, Germany: Berlin, 1881, 27 Bremen, Home Office, suggestions for manage- ment of lamps, 29 Colonial and Foreign : 29 30 30 19 19 19 19 Dominica. Falkland Islands, Fiji. France, 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 36 36 36 37 37 3S 3S 38 38 12 £3 45 Bremerhaven, Hamburg, Hanover, Gibraltar, Gold Coast, 46 • 44 +7 48 48 49 Greece, 49 CONTENTS. xxiv PAGE PAGE Colonial and Foreign : Grenada, Guernsey, Holland, · Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hong Kong, India, Isle of Man, Switzerland, 65 49 Appenzell, 65 • 49 Canton of Berne, 66 50 Geneva, 67 50 Lucerne, 67 50 Zürich, 67 51 Trinidad and Tobago, 67 • 51 Turkey, 68 52 United States: Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jersey, 53 Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Cali- 54 • fornia, Colorado, 68 54 Columbia, Connecticut, Delaware, 55 Labuan, Malay States, Malta, Mauritius, 56 Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Indian Territory, Iowa, 69 56 Kansas, Kentucky, 70 56 Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, 57 Massachusetts, 71 Montserrat, 57 Natal, 57 Newfoundland, 57 New Brunswick, 58 Nigeria, 58 North Borneo, 58 Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York State, North Carolina, North Dakota, 72 • Norway, 59 • Portugal, 59 • Rumania, 60 Ohio, Oklahoma Territory, Pennsylvania, Russia, 60 St. Christopher and Nevis, 61 St. Lucia, 62 Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, 73 74 Oregon, 75 77 St. Vincent, 62 Seychelles, 62 Sierra Leone, 63 Spain, 36 Washington, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Zanzibar, · Straits Settlements, 63 Sweden, 64 Table of Standard flash-points and methods of testing, West Virginia, 78 79 79 79 81 • Concluding remarks, Appendix A.-Statistics. Introduction, 83 United States: Production of crude petroleum, 1859 to 1910, 84 Position of petroleum-producing States in 1909 and 1910, products exported, 1871 to 1910, Price per barrel received at the wells for crude petroleum produced in 1909 and 1910, Production of crude petroleum in Pennsylvania and New York, by districts, 1892 to 1904, . Production of crude petroleum in Pennsylvania and New York, 1905 to 1910, Pipe-line runs in the Appalachian oil- field, 1893 to 1904, Pipe-line runs by the principal pipe- line Companies in the Appala- chian oil-field, 1905 to 1910, 85 1910, Quantities and values of petroleum 86 Natural gas: 87 88 89 888888 90 Russia: Production of crude oil in the Baku field, 1899 to 1910, 98 91 Amount and value of crude petro- Production of crude petroleum in Russia, 1905 to 1910, 98 leum produced in Ohio, 1889 to Condition of wells in Baku field for 1910, 92 1909 and 1910, . 99 Amount and value of crude petro- leum produced in West Virginia, 1889 to 1910, Exports of crude petroleum and petroleum products, 1892 to Consumption of fuel oil by the rail- roads, 1906 to 1910, Values, 1888 to 1910, 93 94-97 98 120-122 123 Record of natural gas wells, 1908 to 1910, Records, 1897 to 1910, for Pennsyl- vania, Indiana, West Virginia, Ohio, New York, and Kansas, 124-129 Records, 1906 to 1910, for Okla- homa, Kentucky, and Illinois, . 130 CONTENTS. XXV and 1910, 101 Exports of petroleum products, 1902 to 1905, 101 Imports and exports, 1907 to 1910, 101–102 Deliveries to refineries, 1907 to 1910, 102 Russia: PAGE Production in Grozni, 1896 to 1910, . 100 Particulars of the wells in the Grozni field, 1907 to 1910, Production and value of ozokerite, 1900 to 1908, Production by fountains in Grozni, 1899 to 1910, Austria: Peru: Production, 1905 to 1910, Production of Zorritos field, 1896 to PAGE 109 109 Production and value, 1880 to 1910, 110 100 1910, Germany: 132 • Canada: 100 • Production in Galicia, 1886 to 1910,. 100 Output of the various fields in 1909 110 Production and value, 1901 to 1910, Production in Ontario, 1900 to 1910, 111 Amount of oil inspected, Canadian and imported, 1881 to 1910, Production of oil refineries, 1896 to 1909, Values, 1892 to 1910, 112 • 113, 114 131 Production in Ontario, 1902 to 1910, 131 Natural gas: Bukowina, 102 Italy: Production and value of ozokerite, 1898 to 1910, 132 Production and value, 1860 to 1909, Natural gas: 115 Eastern Archipelago : Production, 1903 to 1910, 131 Production in Sumatra, Java and Hungary : Rumania: Borneo, 1900 to 1910, Production, 1890 to 1910, 102, 103 Production and value, 1898 to 1909, 116 United Kingdom: 103 Crude petroleum: Records of the petroleum industry, Production and value, 1886 to 1910, 116 1905 to 1910, 103 Natural gas: Output of the various fields, 1900 to Production and value, 1900 to 1910, 132 1910, 104 Barbados, 116 Condition of the wells, 1910, 105 Trinidad, 116 British India : Newfoundland, 116 Production and value, 1891 to 1910, 106 Production in various districts, 1908 and 1909, . 107 Mexico : Production, 1907 to 1910, 107 Imports from United States, 1900 to 1910, 107 • Japan : World's production 1908, 1909, 1910, and 1911, Asphalt (Austria, Barbados, Colombia, Cuba, German Empire, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Mexico, United States of America, Russia, Spain, Switzerland, Trinidad, Turkey, Venezuela), 117-119 132-137 Production, 1875 to 1910, 108 Formosa: Production, 1906 to 1910, 108 Oil-shale, United Kingdom, France, New South Wales, New Zealand, Spain, 137-139 Appendix B.-Marine Transport of Petroleum. 140-157 Tank steamers employed in the export of petroleum, Appendix C.-Import Duties levied on United States Petroleum. Tank sailing vessels, Vessels fitted for liquid fuel, 158-159 160-163 Algeria, 164 British Guiana, 166 • Ambriz, 164 British Honduras, India, New Guinea, Antigua, 164 Argentine Republic, 164 • and North Borneo, Cameroons, 167 167 Aruba, 164 Canada, 167 Australian Commonwealth, 165 * + Cape Verde Islands, 168 Austria-Hungary, 165 Ceylon, 168 Bahamas, 165 Chile, 168 Barbados, 165 China, 169 Barotziland, 165 Colombia, 169 Belgium, 166 Comoro Islands, 169 Bermuda, 166 Congo Free State, 169 Bolivia, 166 Costa Rica, 169 Bonaire, 166 Cuba, • 169 Brazil, 166 Curaçao, 170 British Central and East Africa, 166 Cyprus, 170 xxvi CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE Denmark, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Dutch East Indies, Dutch Guiana, Ecuador, Egypt, Erythrea (Massowah), Ethiopia (Abyssinia), Falkland Islands, Faroe Islands, Fernando Po, Fiji, Finland, France, French Congo, French Guiana, French Indies, French Oceania, French Somali Coast, Gambia, 170 Mozambique, 176 170 Nevis Island, 177 170 Newfoundland, 177 170 New Caledonia, 177 170 • New Zealand, 177 · 170 Nicaragua, 177 170 Niger Territories, 177 171 Norfolk Island, 178 • 171 Norway, 178 171 Panama, 178 171 Paraguay, 178 171 Persia, 178 171 Peru, 178 • 171 Philippine Islands, 178 171 Portugal, 179 172 Portuguese Congo, 179 172 Portuguese Guinea, 179 172 Portuguese India, 179 172 • Reunion Island, 179 · 172 Rumania, 179 172 Russia, 179 Germany, 172 Saba, 179 • German East Africa, 173 Salvador, 180 German Southwest Africa, 173 Sarawak, 180 German Territory Kiaochow, 173 Servia, 180 Gibraltar, 173 Seychelles, 180 Gold Coast Colony, 173 Siam, 180 • Greece, 173 Sierra Leone, 180 Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, 173 • 173 174 Somaliland Protectorate, Niger Territories), 180 Southern Nigeria Protectorate (See 181 • • Guernsey, 174 South African Customs Union, 181 Haiti, 174 Spain, 181 Heligoland, 174 Straits Settlements, 181 Honduras, Republic of, 174 St. Christopher, 181 Hong-Kong, 174 St. Croix, 181 Iceland, 174 St. Eustache, 181 • Indo-China, 174 St. Helena, 181 Italy, Jamaica, 174 St. Lucia, 181 • 174 St. Martin (Dutch part), 181 Japan, 175 St. Pierre and Miquelon, 182 Jersey, 175 St. Thomas, 182 Korea, 175 St. Thomas' and Princes' Islands, 182 Labuan, 175 St. Vincent, 182 . • Lagos, 175 • Surinam (See Dutch Guiana), 182 Liberia, 175 Sweden, 182 Loanda, Benguela, and Mossamedes, 175 Switzerland, 182 Macao, Madagascar, Malay Protected States, British, 175 Togoland, 182 175 The Netherlands, 182 175 Trinidad and Tobago, . 183 Mexico, Malta, Martinique Maskat, Mauritius, Mayotte and Comores, Montenegro, Montserrat, . Morocco, 176 Tunis, 183 • • 176 Turkey, 183 176 Turks and Caicos Islands, 183 176 Uganda Protectorate, 183 176 United States, 183 176 Uruguay, 183 176 Venezuela, 183 176 Virgin Islands, 183 176 Zanzibar Protectorate, 183 Appendix D.-Thames Conservancy. BIBLIOGRAPHY, ADDENDUM, 184-186 INDEX. Byelaws for the regulation of petrol motor launches on the River Thames, 187-349 350 351-383 * LIST OF TABLES. VOL. I. TABLE PAGE TABLE PAGE 1. Rumanian Oil Production, 1900, 2. Rumanian Oil Production, 1908– 1910, 22 25. Products from the Crude Petroleum of Sumatra and Cebu, 234 22 3. Well-section at Khatan, Baluchis- tan, 45 4. Crude Oils of Bemé, Burma, 50 26. Particulars of Lubricating Oils, 27. Capillary Power of Kerosene, 28. Particulars of Rumanian Lubricat- ing Oils. 2341 234 235 5. Gas-Well Section, Welland County, Ontario. 66 6. Principal Oil-fields of the United States, 29. Viscosity of various Lubricants, 30. Properties of Burmese Lubricating Oils. 236 236 75 7. Oil and Gas, Pennsylvania, 171 31. Physical Properties of Commercial Products from Petroleum. 237 8. Oil and Gas, West Virginia, 172 9. Rocks of Colorado and Wyoming, 182 32. Composition of American Petro- leum, 238 10. Specific Gravity of Crude Petro- leums of Rumania, 33. Paraffins from Pennsylvanian Pe- 201-202 troleum. 242 • • 11. Physical Properties of Crude Pe- troleums, 34. Paraffins from Pennsylvanian Pe 202-210 troleum. 243 · 12. Refractive Indices of Petroleum- Distillates, 211 35. Pennsylvanian Hydrocarbons, 36. Ohio (Trenton Limestone) Hydro- 211 13. Coefficients of Expansion of Crude Petroleum, carbons. 211 213 37. Canadian Hydrocarbons, 241 14. Relation of Coefficient of Expan- sion to Specific Gravity, 38. Californian Hydrocarbons. 245 214 • 15. Coefficients of Expansion of Pe- troleum-Fractions, 214 16. Effect of Instrumental Errors in the Determination of the Coefficient of Expansion. 39. Naphthenes from Petroleum, 39a. C.H……. Hydrocarbons, 40. Bromine-Absorption of Crude Pe- troleums, 248 249, 250 253 215 41. Solid Hydrocarbons (Pennsylvania), 255 42. Hydrocarbons in Commercial Par- 17. Calorific Value of Texas Crude Oils. 17a. Specific Heats of Hydrocarbons, 218 affin, 256 219-221 43. Specific Gravity of Parafins from Boghead Coal, 256 176. Specific Heat of Crude Oils, etc., 221 17c. Heat of Vapour, 221-222 44. Relation of Specific Gravity TO Melting-point of Paraffins, 256 17d. Specific Heats between 12 and 45. Composition of Trinidad and Cuba 250 C. Asphalt. 258 223 224-225 227-229 229A ་ 230-231 18. Calorific Power of various Pe troleums, etc.. 19. Boiling-points of Crude Petroleums and Amounts of Distillate at various Temperatures, 20. Results of Fractional Distillation of Galician Crude Petroleum, 225–227 21. Commercial Products of Crude Pe- troleum. 22. Composition. Physical Properties, etc., of various Descriptions of Petroleum, 23. Physical Properties, etc., of Pe- troleum from the Apscheron District. 48. Composition of Asphalt-rocks, 49. Composition of French and German Asphalt-rocks, 46. Comparison of Trinidad and Cuba Asphalt, 259 47. Comparison of Trinidad with Ber- mudez Asphalt, 259 260 261 50. Composition of Natural Gas. 51. Composition of Natural Gas 263 (American), 264 52. Composition of Natural Gas (Ohio), 53. Composition of Natural (Russian and English). 54. Composition of Natural Gas 265 Gas 266 (Russia), • 266 24. Physical Properties, etc., of Russian Petroleum, 55. Composition of Natural Gas 232.233 (Pechelbronn), 266 xxvii xxviii LIST OF TABLES. 296 61. Log of the Lucas Well, Spindle Top, Texas, 314, 315 TABLE PAGE TABLE 267 • 289 56. Calorific Power of Natural Gas, 57. Wages of Burmese Well-diggers, 58. Daily yield of Burmese Pit-wells,. 59. Pennsylvanian Driller's Outfit, 60. Weight and Dimensions of String of Drilling Tools, 289 296 PAGE 61a. Average daily Initial Production per Well in Barrels of 42 U.S. gallons, 320 62. Cost of Canadian Drilling Rig, 333 63. Diameter of Wells in the Baku District, 64. Cost of Working one Shaft per Day of Twenty-Four Hours, 365 334, 335 VOL. II. 65. Vaseline Oils, Galicia, 31 106. Appalachian Pipe-Lines, 146 66. Vaselines from Galician Oil, 31 67. Composition of Galician Vaselines, 32 107. Specifications of Storage-tanks, 108. Experiments with Petroleum 151 68. Vaseline Distillates, 32 Spirit, 182, 183 69. Paraffins in Vaseline Distillates, 33 70. Viscosity of Vaseline, 34 71. Oxidation of Vaseline, 35 72. Petroleum Products, . 40 110. Explosion of Pentane and Gaso- line Vapour, 109. Experiments with American Crude oil Vapour, 184 • 184 73. Petroleum Products, etc. 74. Petroleum Products, United States, 75. Petroleum Products, Canada, 40 111. Baumé and Specific Specific Gravity Eastern Equivalents, 202 45 112. Fractions of Benzine 209 48 113. 76. Petroleum Products, Baku, 49 Fractions of Kerosene and Solar Oil (Biel) 211 77. Products from Crude Oil, Baku, 50 78. Yield from various Crude Oils, 114. Fractions of American and Russia Oils (Biel), 211 Baku, 50 79. Results of Continuous Distilla- tion, Baku, 115. Fractions of American and Russian Kerosenes (Redwood), 211 56 116. Photometric Comparison of Kero- 80. Fractions of Russian Oil, 63 senes, 213 81. Proportions of Distillates, Baku, 63 82. Percentages of Products, Baku, 63 117. Relation of Flashing-point to Barometric Pressure, 230 83. Products of Galician Oil, 67 84. Rumanian Products, 76 118. Correction of Flashing-point to Normal Pressure (inches), 233 85. Elsass Products, 76 86. Products from Residuum, Han- over, . 77-79 119. Initial Temperatures for Abel- Pensky Test at various Pressures 241 120. Correction of Flashing-point to 87. Lubricants from Elsass Residuum, 88. Oil Shale raised in Great Britain, 1907-1910, 80 84 89. Particulars of Scottish Oil Com Normal Pressure (millimetres),. 242 121. Salleron-Urbain Tester, 260 122. Relation of Density to Vapour- Tension, 261 panies, 85 123. Flashing-points in Rosenbladt's 90. Analyses of Kerosene Shales, New South Wales, Test, 261 87 91. Composition of New Zealand 124. Comparison of Systems for Testing Flashing-point, 262 Shales, 87 125. Philips' Fluidimeter, 273, 274 · 92, 93. Shale-oil Industry, France, 94. Yield per Hectolitre of Crude 88, 89 126. Comparison of Viscometers, 127. Comparison of Künkler and Engler 280 Oil, 90 Viscometers, 286 • 95. Yield of Scottish Oil Shales, 124 128. Bromination of Oils, 315 96. Composition of Brown Coals, 97. Ash Constituents of various Brown 127 129. Bitumens of Trinidad and Ven- ezuela, 325 Coals, 128 98. Products of Distillation of Brown Coal, 99. Tar, etc., from Brown Coal,. 130, 100. Leaf-shale Products, 129 131 131, 132 101. Products of Bentheim Jet Tar, 102. Lignite-Tar-Oil Fractions, 103. Saturated Hydrocarbons Lignite-Tar-Oil, 104. Yield of Dorsetshire Shale, 105. Pennsylvania Pipe-Lines, • • 132 133, 134 in 137 139 143, 144 : 130. Comparison of Lamps and Oils, 131. Pentane Evaporation, 132. Gasoline Evaporation, 133. Petroleum Spirit Evaporation, 134. Petroleum Spirit Evaporation, 135. Crude Petroleum Evaporation, 136. Products yielded by various Oils, 137. Products yielded by various Hydrocarbons, 138. Oil-gas and coal-gas in various proportions, 341 355 356 • 356 · 357 357 374 374 376 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. VOLS. I. AND II. Frontispiece, vol. i.-Oil-fields of the World. Frontispiece, vol. ii.-Petroleum Vapour Flame-caps. PLATE 1. Rumania, TO FACE PAGE TO FACE PLATE PAGE 139 16. California, 185 2. Galicia, Bukowina, and North Hun- gary, 3. North Germany, 4. The Caucasus, 5. Baku and Bibi-Eibat District, 6. Balakhani, Sabuntchi, Romani, 17. Texas and Western Louisiana, 189 139 • 17a. South Mexico, 191 139 18. South America, 193 149 18a. Trinidad, 193 149 19. Derrick or Carpenter's Rig, 293 149 20. Drilling Rig, 293 7. Cross-sections in the Baku District, 8. Assam, 149 159 21. Principal Drilling Tools, Pennsyl- vania (H. M. Chance), 295 11. Canada,. 9. Japan, • 10. Eastern Archipelago, 12. United States of America, 161 161 22. Sections of Three Oil-wells, showing Variations of Style of Drilling, 303 163 23. Russian Drilling Tools, 337 167 24. Modern Galician Drilling Plant, 342 13. Section showing the various Oil Horizons of New York, Pennsyl- 25. Tools used for "Rapid "System of Boring, 351 vania, and Canada, 167 26. "Rapid" Drilling, 352 14. Sections in New York, Pennsyl- vania, Ohio, Indiana, and On- tario (J. F. Carll), 26a. Design for Standardising Oil-field Buildings, 367 167 15. Oil and Gas Fields and Wells (sec- tions) in McKean McKean and Elk Counties, Pennsylvania, 27. Battery of Galician Stills, Vol. II. 28. Henderson's Shale-retort, 67 111 29. Tank-steamer, 161 167 VOL. I. FIG. PAGE FIG. 1. Petroleum Zone of Emilia, North 22. Casing-cutter, Italy, 25 23. Valve-rope Knife, 2. Oil-fields of Elsass, 30, 31 24. Sucker-rod Spear, PAGE 299 300 300 3. Yenangyaung Oil-fields, Burma, 48 4. Irawadi Oil-fields, Burma, 52 5. Arakan Islands, Burma, 52 6. Oil Regions of Pennsylvania and New York, · 25. Mouse-trap; Hollow reamer Grab; Bailer-grab: Tubing spear and socket: socket, Jar 76 26. Grab for rubber; Hook for 7. Schodnica-Boryslaw Section, 141 8. Ohio Rock Series, 176 bit; Alligator grab; Rasp; Twist drill; Twist drill Fishing Tools. 301 10. Chinese Drilling Tools, 9. Dilatometer, . 11. Winged Substitute, 12. Sand Pumps, 13. Horn Socket, 14. Slip Socket, 15. Pin Socket, 16. Jar Latch or Boot Jack, 17. Spud, 18. Mandrel Socket, 19. Casing-spear, 20. Rope-grab, 21. Rope-spear, 217 287 295 298 27. Sinking Drive-pipe, 28. Tool-joint Wrenches, 298 29. Oil-saver, Fishing Tools. 302 304 306 309 298 30. Derrick for Rotary System, 311 298 31. Revolving Table and Gearing, 312 299 32. Fish-tail Bit, 313 299 33. Adamantine or Shot-Drill, 313 299 34. Californian Rig, 316 299 35. Californian Calf-wheel, 316 • 299 36. Graham's Perforator, California, 317 299 37. Californian Casing Elevator, . 319 spear: Grab for valve-cap; Rope-worm, xxix XXX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 38. Pump-valves, 39. Pumping Power, 40. Rivet-catcher, 41. Sucker-rod Elevator, PAGE 321 FIG. PAGE 69. Improved Under-reamer, 344 · 322 70, 71. Eccentric Bit, 345 323 72. Galician-Canadian Drilling Plant, 346 323 73. Kind's Free-fall Borer, 347 42. Pumping a Well, 324 · 74. Fauck's Under-reamer, 348 43. Oil-well Torpedoes, 326 44. Canadian Derrick and mission, Trans- 75. Fauck's Under-reamer secured for introduction to casing, 348 330 45. Clay Auger-rod, 46. Bits, 47. Under-reamers, 48. Auger-stem or Sinker-bar, 49. Jars, 50. Temper-screw, 51. Boring-rods, 52. Rod-connection, 53. Rod-guide, 54. Substitute-connection 55. Wrenches for Tool-joints, 56. Fork to hold up tools 57. Screw-jack • 58. Casing-clamp, 331 76. Fauck's Under-reamer: Section, 77-79. Fauck's Free-fall Borer, 348 350 Plate 23. Facing page 337. 59-60. Swedges. 80. Fauck's Self-acting Free-fall Borer 81. Fauck's Boring-rod, 82. Transmission, Fauck System, 83. Transmission, Fauck System, 84. Rapid Boring System, e >" 85. Crown for Core-boring, 86. Express Drilling-gear, 87. Express Under-reamer, 88. Fauck's Water-flush, 89. Raky Derrick, 90. Raky Rig (Side view). 91. Raky Rig (End view). 92-93. Slipping-out Devices, 94. Davis-Calyx Drill, 350 350 350 350 352 352 353 353 354 354 355 355 357 359 61. Mud-augers, 95. Davis-Calyx Drill: Section, 359 62-63. Sand-pumps, 96. Davis-Calyx Bit or Cutter, 64. Bailer, 65. Lentz Anvil for Riveting Anvil, 336 66. Boiler Installation, Baku, 338 98. Pumping-rig, Galicia, 97. Davis-Calyx Drill, Gripping the Core, 360 • 360 362 67. Galician Hand-drilling System, 341 68. Under-reamer, Galicia, 344 99. Old System of Ozokerite Mining, Galicia, 364 VOL. II. 100. American Horizontal Cylindrical 132. Alexéeff's Continuous Still, 58 Stills, 101. Cheese-box Still. 102. Waggon Still, 103, 104. Russian Still, 105. Dephlegmator, 106. Separator, 6 QQQAWN 2 3 133. Ostatki Still with Dephlegmator, 134–137. Lubricating-oil Stills, 60 61 4 138. Galician Distilling Apparatus, 68 5 139. Dehne Ozokerite Filter-press, 70 6 140. Thorn's Extractor, 71 141. Wegelin Hübner Extractor, 72 107. Russian Horizontal Cylindrical 142-145. Merz Universal Extractor, 73 Still, 7 108. Benton Still, 10 146. Engler's Fractionating Apparatus, 147. Continuous Shale-retorts, 81 95 109. Dewar-Redwood Still, 11 148. Intermittent Shale-retort (Young 110. Cracking Still, 12 and Brash) 96 111. Russian Distilling System, 14 149. Henderson Retort (1873), 97 112. Vacuum Still, 15 113. Worm Condenser, 16 150. Pentland Composite Retort (1882), 151. Pentland Gas-producer, 99 99 114. Parallel-tube Condenser, 17 152. Shale-retorts, Bryson and others 115-117. Continuous Still (Stombs & (1894), 102 Brace), 18 153. Shale-retort, etc., Young & Fyfe 118-120. Continuous Still (Tait & Avis), 20 121, 122. Continuous Still (Hill & (1897), 154. Young's Improved Retort (1899), 104 155. Henderson Improved Retort-gear 103 Thumm), 22 (1901), 105 123. Heckmann Still (Horizontal), 23 124. Heckmann Still (Vertical), 125. Heckmann Still Gauge, 126. Agitator, 127. Gas-trap, 24 • 25 156. Henderson Ammonia Still (1885),. 106 157. Shale-oil Still and Condenser, 158-160. Henderson Continuous Still 107 27 (1885), 108, 109, 110 38 161. Intermittent Refining Still, . 111 128. Inspection-boxes, 39 162-166. Henderson Refining Still 129. Ramdohr Paraffin-mixer, 43 (1883), 112, 114 130. Ramdohr Paraffin-filter, 131. Continuous 43 167. Oil-cooling Apparatus, 116 Distillation (Nobel 168. Oil Refrigerator, 117 Bros.), 54 169, 170. Henderson Cooler (1884), 120, 121 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxxi PAGE FIG. 171. Henderson Cooler, Scrapers, 172, 173. Henderson Sweating Process, PAGE FIG. 121 226. Mann Tester, 258 227. Gawalowski Tester, 259 122, 123 228. Salleron-Urbain Tester, 259 174. Profile of Country along New York Pipe Line, 229. Redwood Vapour-testing Instru- 142 264 ment, 175. Tank-cars in Railway Siding, 152 230. Testing-lamp and Collecting- 176. Tank-cars-Loading Rack, 153 cylinder (Redwood), . 264 177. Baku District Pipe Lines, 157 231. Lovibond Tintometer, . 267 178. Nobel System of Storage of Oil in Russia, 232. Pensky Tester, 268 158 233. Pensky-Martens Tester, 268 179. Clay-lined Oil-reservoir, Russia, 159 234, 235. Gray's Tester, 269 180. Timber-lined Oil-reservoir, Russia, 159 236. Treumann Tester, 270 181. Manhole Fittings, 160 237. Albrecht Tester, 272 182. Water-level Gauge, 160 238, 239. Redwood Viscometer, 276 183. Water Extractor, 160 240. Engler Viscometer, 278 184. Clack-valve, 160 241. Saybolt Viscometer, 279 185. Ventilation of Screw-shaft Tunnel of Tank-steamer, 164 242-244. Engler-Künkler Viscometer, 245. Martens Viscometer, 281 282 186. Air-trunk for Tank-steamer, 172 246. Künkler Grease-viscometer, 283 187. Dirt-tank for Settlement of Water, etc., 191 • 247. Künkler Small-sample Viscometer, 248. Lepenau Leptometer, 285 287 ་ 188. Delivery to Storage-tank, 192 249, 250. Napier Viscometer, 289 189. Horley-Sedgley Water-finder, 190. Redwood - Barringer Registering Water-finder, 193 251. Doolittle Viscometer, 289 193 252. MacNaught Lubricant Tester. 253. Deprez-Napoli Tester, . 294 295 191. Glue-lining Barrels, 194 254. Bailey Tester, 296 192. Barrel-cleaning Plant.. 195 255, 256. Thurston Tester. 297 193. Barrel-cleaning and Glueing 257. Thurston Recording Tester, . 298 House: Plan, 195 258, 259. French Lubricant Tester. 299 194. Barrel-cleaning and Glueing 260. Ingram-Stapfer Tester, 300 House: Section, 196 261, 262. Boult Lubricant Tester, 301 195. Barrel-filling Arrangement. 196 263. Tagliabue Cold Tester. 302 196. Automatic Filling Cock, 197 197. Linnemann's Dephlegmator, 203 264. Screw Press for Testing Paraffin. 265. Lever Press, 309 309 198. Linnemann's Dephlegmator: Gauze Baskets. 266, 267. McCutchon Press, 310 203 268. Hydraulic Press, 310 199. Le Bel's Dephlegmator, 203 269. Distillation Flask for Scale 200. Tervet's Dephlegmator, 203 Analysis, 311 201. Young's Dephlegmator, 203 270-273. Hinks's Duplex Burner. 333, 335 202. Engler's Fractionating Flask, 205 274. Anucapnic Burner, 336 203. Regnault's Fractionating Instru- 275. Lorne Burner, 336 ment, 205 276. Sepulchre Burner, 336 204. Saybolt Testing Lamp, 212 277. Mitrailleuse Burner. 336 205. Redwood Wick-tester, 213 278. Lampe Veritas, 337 206. Redwood Camera for Variations of 279. Rochester Lamp, 338 Flame, 213 280. Aria Lamp, 338 207. Wilson Chromometer, 214 281, 282. Sunlight Lamp. 338. 339 208. Stammer Chromometer, 215 283. Victoria Lamp. 31 209. Tagliabue Open-test Instrument, 216 • 284. Victoria Lamp (Extinguisher) 344 210. Saybolt Electric Tester, 218 285. Postlethwaite Extinguisher, 345 211. Keates's Close Test, 220 286, 287. Lucigen Lamp, 350 212. Abel Test Apparatus, 223 288. 289. Wells Lamp. 351, 352 212a. Modified Abel's Cup with Stirrer, 213, 214. Abel-Pensky Testing Appar- 290. Evaporation of Hydrocarbons, 354 291. Weston's Carburettor, . 359 atus. 239, 240 292. Maxim's Carburettor. 360 215. Pease's Electric Tester, 248 293. Coal-gas Carburettor, 361 216, 217. Engler's Electric Tester, 248 294. Simplex Carburettor, 362 218. Heumann's Modification of the Engler Instrument, 295. Pintsch's Oil-gas Plant, 365 249 296. Keith Oil-gas Plant, 366 219, 220. Tagliabue's Closed Tester, 250 297. Mansfield Oil-gas Producer, 366 221. Foster Automatic Tester, 255 298. Thwaite Oil-gas Plant, 367 222. Bernstein Tester, 258 299. Thwaite Gas Plant, 370 223. Braun Tester, 224. Beilstein Tester, 225. Millspaugh Tester. 258 300. Peebles Oil-gas Plant, 371 258 301. Westinghouse Gas Regulator, 380 258 | 302. Liquid Fuel Firing, 384 xxxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 303. Oil-fuel Injector (Holden System), 389 304. Oil-fired Locomotive (Holden Sys- FIG. PAGE 329. Curle's Burner, 397 330. Kermode Hot Air Burner, 397 tem), 389 331. Kermode Steam and Induced Air 305. Oil-firing of Locomotive (Holden Burner, 399 System), 390 • 332. Kermode Pressure Jet Burner, 399 · 306. Holden Burner, 390 333. Meyer Burner, 400 307-310. Russian Ostatki Burner, 391 334. Swensson Burner, 400 • 311. Brandt Burner, 391 335. Körting Burner, 401 • • 312. Application of the Brandt Burner 336. Thornycroft Burner, 401 to a Cornish Boiler, 392 · • 337. Gordejeff Burner, 402 313. Lenz Ostatki Burner, 392 338. Brünler System, 406 • 314. Sandgreen Burner, 392 339. Brayton Oil-Engine, 410 315-318. Lenz Larger Burner, 393 340. Priestman Oil-Engine, 411 319, 320. Brandt's Locomotive Burner, 393 321. Brandt's Burner as fitted, 393 341. Priestman Oil-Engine, . 342. Priestman Spray-Maker, 412 * 412 322-325. Urquhart's Ostatki Burner, 326. Rusden-Eeles Burner, 395 , 343. Priestman Vaporiser, 412 • 396 • 327. Orde Burner, 396 344. Hornsby-Akroyd Oil-Engine, 345. Trusty Oil-Engine, 413 414 328. Oil City Boiler-works' Burner, 397 A TREATISE ON PETROLEUM. SECTION I. HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. GENERAL. THE natural product referred to under the names of petroleum, rock oil, earth balsam, earth oil, mineral oil, bitumen, maltha, asphaltum, pissasphaltum, pisselæum, mumia, carabe, brea, oleum Medeæ, St Quirinus's oil, Seneca oil, Rangoon oil, Persian naphtha, Trinidad pitch, Barbados tar, etc., and equivalent terms in other languages, has been known from very remote times. Of the two general terms used to denote these substances, bitumen is older than petroleum, the latter not being found in classical Latin. At the present time petroleum, in its widest sense, may be considered to embrace all the hydrocarbons, gaseous, liquid, or solid, occurring in nature, a list of the modern names of which will be found at the beginning of Section II. oil Earliest References. In the Scriptures this product is frequently mentioned, the word translated "salt "having been used indiscriminately for common salt, nitre, and bitumen. The following passages are of especial interest :-In Genesis ix, 3, in the description of the building of the tower of Babel, we are told that "slime had they for mortar," a statement which receives an interesting confirmation by the historian Herodotus, who, writing about the year 450 B.C., refers to the use of the bitumen brought down by the Is, a tributary of the Euphrates, as mortar in building the walls of Babylon (Hist., i, 179). Diodorus, Curtius, Josephus, Bochart, and others also speak of this use of bitumen, and Vitruvius tells us that it was employed in admixture with clay. "The Vale of Siddim was full of slime-pits " (Gen. xiv, 10); here the word which is translated slime in our version appears as bitumen in the Vulgate. In Job xxix, 6, we find," and the rock poured me out rivers of oil," and in Deut. xxxii, 13, out of the flinty rock"; though both of these expressions may be merely oriental hyperbole for olive oil, produced in the most sterile regions. In Maccabees II, i, 18-36, it is stated that the priests hid the fire which they took from the altar in a deep pit without water. After many years, Nehemiah sent some of the posterity of the priests who had hidden it, and “ they found no fire but thick water." This was poured by Nehemiah upon the sacrifices and upon the wood and the altar, and when the sun appeared from behind a cloud it burst into flame, and there was a great fire kindled." And Nehemiah called this thing Nephthar, which is as much as to say, a cleansing; but many call it Nephai. In the New Testament the expression (Matt. v, 13) referring to salt losing its savour is supposed by some to relate to petroleum, which, on exposure, loses its volatile parts, and leaves asphalt, good only to be" trodden VOL. I. 1 2 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. 66 under foot of men." Herodotus (vi, 119) thus describes operations which were carried on at the pits of Kir ab ur Susiana (Kirab, 57 miles N.W. of Shuster): Near Ardericca is a well which produces three different substances, for asphalt, salt, and oil are drawn up from it in the following manner :-It is raised by a swipe [balance-beam], to which, instead of a bucket, half a wine- skin is attached. Having dipped down with this, a man raises it and pours the contents into a reservoir; it is then poured from this into another, and assumes these different forms; the asphalt and the salt immediately become solid, but the oil they collect, and the Persians call it Rhadinance; it is black and emits a strong odour." He also describes (iv, 195) the collection, in the island of Zante, of bitumen having the smell of asphalt, but, in other respects, “better than the pitch of Pieria.” As the district of Pieria in Macedonia does not fur- nish mineral bitumen, the alternative reading "pine-pitch," which appears in one Codex, is probably the more correct. For a modern description of the pitch spring in Zante to which he here refers, see post. Vitruvius, Strabo, and others refer to the working of extensive asphalt- deposits, which are not yet exhausted, in the vicinity of Selenitza in Albania. These have been described in some detail by M. Coquand, who has collected many references to them from ancient authors (Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2, xxv, 20). Dioscorides (i, 100) describes a pissasphaltum obtained at Apollonia near Epidamnos, in Albania, which was thrown up by the river, and was found concreted into pitchy masses on the banks. The last-named, Strabo, Pliny, and other authors also mention the use of "Sicilian oil" from Agrigentum for illuminating purposes. Plutarch, in his Life of Alexander, describes how, in the district of Ecbatana (Kerkuk), Alex- ander was particularly struck with "a gulf of fire, which streamed continually as from an inexhaustible source. He admired also a flood of naphtha not far from the gulf, which flowed in such abundance that it formed a lake. The naphtha in many respects resembles the bitumen, but it is much more in- flammable. Before any fire reaches it, it catches light from a flame at some distance, and often kindles all the intermediate air. The barbarians, to show the king its force and the subtilty of its nature, scattered some drops of it in the street which led to his lodgings, and standing at one end they applied their torches to some of the first drops, for it was night. The flame communicated itself quicker than thought, and the street was instantaneously all on fire. . . . Still there remains a difficulty as to the generation of this naphtha, whether it derives its inflammable quality from [word missing in the original], or rather from the unctuous and sulphureous nature of the soil." He also mentions the discovery of petroleum "having the gloss and fatness of natural oil," by an attendant of Alexander, while digging on the banks of the Oxus. Among other ancient authors who make interesting reference to this product. are Ctesias, 450 B.C.; Aristotle (De mirabilibus auscultationibus); Pliny (Hist. Nat.), and Agricola. The bitumen of the Dead Sea (anciently known as Lacus Asphaltites), and of the East generally, received considerable notice from the early travellers. Diodorus, a celebrated historian of the time of Julius Caesar, says that the inhabitants of the surrounding parts collect the asphalt and sell it in Egypt for embalming purposes (Hist., ii, 29). Pliny (Hist. Mundi, v, 15, 16), Shaw (Travels, 1738, p. 374), and Volney (Travels in Egypt and Syria, i, 310) also refer to this subject. In the ancient records of China and Japan numerous references to petroleum are said to occur, natural gas having been employed as fuel, and for illuminating purposes, centuries before the Christian era. RUSSIA. 3 t As the earliest references to petroleum are chiefly connected with the western part of Asia and the eastern part of Europe, a commencement will be made with the description of the districts which border on the Caspian Sea. RUSSIA. (Plates 4-6.) Unlike the Governments of the United States and Canada, the Russian authorities have not yet caused a full survey of their oil lands to be made officially, even the Caucasus having been but incompletely explored; and although private enterprise has resulted in the acquisition of much information on the subject, the ample capacity of the Baku fields to provide for all present requirements had, until recently, acted as a discouragement to prospecting work. There exist evidences, however, in the neighbourhood of Baku and elsewhere, as pointed out by Professor Mendeléeff, of many outlying and isolated fields like that of Bibi-Eibat, which can be drawn upon when required. The total petroleum-producing area of the Russian Empire has been officially estim- ated at 14,000 square miles. In respect to this estimate, Mr. Marvin (The Region of the Eternal Fire, 1888, p. 186) makes the following statement :- The compiler of Spon's Encyclopædia of the Industrial Arts, an authoritative work of reference, speaks of the Russian official estimate of 14,000 square miles composing the area of the petroleum territory of the Russian Empire as obviously exaggerated.' I do not see what grounds exist for such a sweeping statement. Petroleum abounds in the Vistula province, in the Governments of Samara and Saratoff on the Volga, in the Petchora region of the distant north, and in the territory of Ferghana, on the confines of Afghanistan. But, excluding all these, and restricting ourselves entirely to the Caucasus and Caspian, we have there oil strata running direct from the Crimea, across the Caucasus and under the Caspian, to the Balkan hills beyond-a distance of 1500 miles—which, with a hypothetical breadth of 10 miles, would alone give more than the area referred to." >> Although the oil of Baku has been known and worked from the earliest times, and was of more than local celebrity, there appears to be no direct evi- dence of its exportation from the Apscheron Peninsula prior to the tenth century. Marco Polo, writing at the end of the thirteenth century, says of the Baku petroleum : On the confines towards Georgine there is a fountain from which oil springs in great abundance, inasmuch as a hundred ship-loads might be taken from it at one time. This oil is not good to use with food, but is good to burn, and is also used to anoint camels that have the mange. People come from vast distances to fetch it, for in all countries round there is no other oil (see The Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian, ed. by Col. Yule, London, 1871, i, 4). In an account of a journey with an embassy from Germany to Persia, pub- lished in 1656, Olearius states that he saw over thirty petroleum springs near Scamachia, in Persia. This is the modern Schemakha to the west of Baku, which was then Persian territory. Dr. Hyde (De Veteri Persorum, Medorum ac Parthorum religione historia, London, 1760) has described the ceremonial of the Fire-worshippers of the district, and Kinneir (Geog. Memoir of the Persian Empire, London, 1813, p. 359) informs us that Baku was annually visited by thousands of pilgrims as the principal city of the Fire-worshippers, previous to the Saracenic Conquest of A.D. 636, while, according to the U.S. Consular Report for 1880, the Temple 4 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. of Surakhani, on the western shore of the Caspian, at which the Sacred Fire was formerly maintained, was attended by priests from India as late as that year. The temple now standing, which resembles one in the Punjab, is considered to be of Hindu origin, and to have been erected within the last two centuries. When the author visited it in 1884, the Fire was no longer burning, but the gas was still issuing and could be readily ignited. Jonas Hanway gives, in 1754, the following interesting account of the petro- leum of Baku :-"What the Guebers, or Fire-worshippers, call the Everlasting Fire is a phenomenon of a very extraordinary nature. This object of devotion lies. about 10 English miles northeast-by-east from the city of Baku, on a dry rocky land. There are several ancient temples built with stone, supposed to have been all dedicated to fire. Amongst others is a little temple at which the Indians now worship. Here are generally forty or fifty of these poor devotees, who come on a pilgrimage from their own country. A little way from the temple is a low cleft of a rock, in which there is a horizontal gap, 2 feet from the ground, nearly 6 long, and about 3 broad, out of which issues a constant flame, in colour and gentleness not unlike a lamp that burns with spirits, only more pure. When the wind blows, it rises sometimes 8 feet high, but much lower in still weather. They do not perceive that the flame makes any impression on the rock. This also the Indians worship, and say it cannot be resisted, but if ex- tinguished will rise in another place. The earth round the place, for above 2 miles, has this surprising property, that by taking up 2 or 3 inches of the surface and applying a live coal, the part which is so uncovered immediately takes fire, almost before the coal touches the earth; the flame makes the soil hot, but does not consume it, nor affect what is near it with any degree of heat. Any quantity of this earth carried to another place does not produce this effect. Not long since, eight horses were consumed by this fire, being under the roof where the surface of the ground was turned up, and by some accident took flame. If a cane or tube even of paper be set about 2 inches in the ground, confined and closed with earth below, and the top of it touched with a live coal, and blown upon, immediately a flame issues without hurting either the cane or paper, provided the edges be covered with clay; and this method they use for light in their houses, which have only the earth for the floor; three or four of these lighted canes will boil water in a pot, and thus they dress their victuals. The flame may be extinguished in the same manner as that of spirits of wine. The ground is dry and stony, and the more stony any particular part is, the stronger and clearer is the flame; it smells sulphurous, like naphtha, but not very offensive. Lime is burnt to great perfection by means of this phenomenon, the flame communicating itself to any distance where the earth is uncovered to receive it. The stones must be laid on one another, and in three days the lime is completed. Near this place brimstone is dug, and naphtha springs are found. Baku supplies Ghilan and Mazanderan and other countries contiguous with naphtha" (Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea, Lon- don, 1754, i, 263 and 381). says: CC The natural gas is still used for burning bricks in this neighbourhood. As regards the petroleum of the island of Wetoy (Sviatoi or Holy Island), lying a little to the north of the extremity of the Apscheron Peninsula, Hanway The Persians load it in bulk in their wretched vessels, so that some- times the sea is covered with it for leagues together. When the weather is thick and hazy, the springs boil up the higher, and the naphtha often takes fire on the surface of the earth, and runs in a flame into the sea in great quantities, to a distance almost incredible. In clear weather the springs do not boil up above 2 or 3 feet; in boiling over, the oily substance makes so strong a con- BAKU OIL-FIELDS. 5 10 sistency as by degrees to almost close the mouth of the spring; sometimes it is quite closed, and forms hillocks that look as black as pitch, but the spring which is resisted in one place breaks out in another. Some of the springs which have not been long open form a mouth of 8 or 10 feet diameter. The people carry the naphtha by troughs into pits or reservoirs, drawing it off from one to another, leaving in the first reservoir the water or the heavier part with which it is mixed when it issues from the spring. It is unpleasant to the smell, and used mostly among the poorer sort of the Persians, and other neighbouring people, as we use oil in lamps, or to boil their victuals; but it communicates a disagreeable taste. They find it burns best with a small admixture of ashes. As they obtain it in great abundance, every family is well supplied. They keep it at a small distance from their houses, in earthen vessels underground, to prevent any accident from fire, of which it is extremely susceptible." Hanway also describes a "white" variety of naphtha, collected on the peninsula of Apscheron, as " of a much thinner consistency than black naphtha. The Russians drink it both as a cordial and medicine, but it does not intoxicate. If taken internally it is said to be good for the stone, as also for disorders of the breast, and in venereal cases, and sore heads; to both the last the Persians are very subject. Externally applied, it is of great use in scorbutic pains, gouts, cramps, etc., but it must be put to the part affected only; it penetrates instan- taneously into the blood, and is apt for a short time to produce great pain. It has also the property of spirits of wine to take out greasy spots in silks or woollens, but the remedy is worse than the disease, for it leaves an abominable odour. They say it is carried into India as a great rarity, and, being prepared as a japan, is the most beautiful and lasting of any that has been yet found." Further notices of the Baku district will be found in John Cook's Voyages and Travels through the Russian Empire, etc., ii, 382; in Kaempfer's Amanitates Exotica, 1712, ii, 262–286; in Gmelin's Reisen durch Russland, 1784, iii, 63–88, and in the French Histoire des Découvertes Russes, ii, 215. Baku was annexed from Persia in 1723 by Peter the Great, who was aware of the value of the produce, and made arrangements for its collection and trans- portation up the Volga. A few years later it was restored to Persia, and although it was noted for its exports of naphtha and rock-salt at that time, the petroleum-deposits were not systematically worked until its re-annexation by Russia in 1806. A monopoly of the production was then granted to a merchant named Mirzoeff, who held it until 1872, when the monopoly was abolished, and was replaced by a Governmental tax. The production of petroleum in the Apscheron Peninsula is confined to an area of about 12 square miles, consisting of the oil-fields of Balakhani, Sabuntchi, Romani, Zabrat, Binagadi, Surakhani, Holy Island, and Bibi-Eibat. The Balakhani-Sabuntchi territory has an area of about 4 square miles, and it lies on a level plateau at an elevation of 175 feet above sea-level, about 8 miles northeast of the town of Baku. Oil is found in quantity at widely different depths even in closely adjacent wells; but very few wells have been sunk to 700 or 800 feet without proving largely productive, and the yield usually increases with the depth. The dis- turbed nature of the deposits, which is described in the following section, gives rise to a large number of practically independent portions, each of which, as a rule, supplies but one well. The neighbouring district of Romani (in which the deposits lie at a greater depth than those at Balakhani-Sabuntchi) also furnishes prolific wells; and the Bibi-Eibat field, 2 to 3 miles south of Baku, has given some of the highest producing capacity. The oil of Bibi-Eibat is of slightly less density than 6 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. that of Balakhani-Sabuntchi; while the light amber-coloured oil found at Surakhani, 11 miles northeast of Baku, is of the low specific gravity 0-780. Colonel Yule (The Book of Ser Marco Polo, i, 4) estimated the yield of the Baku wells in 1819 at about 4000 tons, most of which went to Persia. According to Rees's Cyclopædia (1819), the revenue obtained by the Khan of Baku before the annexation of the country by Russia amounted to 40,000 roubles annually. The following statistics show the position of the Baku petroleum industry when the monopoly was abolished:-Annual production, 24,800 tons; number of pit wells, 415; number of drilled wells, 2; price of crude oil, about £3, 10s. per ton; Government revenue, £17,000; number of refineries, 50; quantity of oil refined, 6450 tons. The production then rapidly advanced, until in 1877, when the Governmental tax was removed, the output was 242,000 tons. In that year there were 130 drilled wells and 150 refineries, which turned out 74,000 tons of refined oil. In 1880 Stack (Six Months in Persia, London, 1882, ii, 209) estimated the production at 160,000 tons. In 1884 there were about 400 drilled wells, of which about 100 were producing. The output during that year amounted to 90,000,000 poods (one pood being equal to about 36 lbs.). Accord- ing to Vasilieff, the average yield of the active wells at Baku in 1885 was 32 tons per well daily. In 1890 the production reached 239,000,000 poods. In 1898 a great development took place, the production showing an increase of about 15 per cent. over that of the preceding year. The production reached its maxi- mum in 1901, when it had increased to 671,706,147 poods, of which the Bala- khani-Sabuntchi field yielded 413,000,000, Bibi-Eibat 133,600,000, Romani 124,000,000 poods. Although this rate of output was not maintained, the production in 1904 was greater than in 1900 or any of the years of the nineteenth century. At the close of 1904 began a series of disastrous riots amongst the workmen in the Apscheron peninsula, and these helped to reduce the quantity of oil raised in 1905 to 414,762,000 poods. Some increase has taken place since that time, but the figures for 1910 are still behind those of 1898. The production in 1910 was as follows: Balakhani-Sabuntchi, 263,292,625 poods. Romani, Bibi-Eibat, 118,832,040 poods. 96,068,390 Other fields, 19,649,157 Total, 497,842,212 poods. "" The earlier wells being all dug, there were at first no flowing wells; in fact, of the 417 wells existent in 1872, only 2 were drilled. The earlier of the flowing wells were completely unmanageable, and resulted in immense waste and damage to the surrounding property. In the case of one well, 16,000,000 gallons was sold at 7d. to 8d. per ton, while 600,000 gallons from another was sold for £80. In the majority of cases, however, the oil was entirely wasted, the owners being often called upon to pay heavy compensation for damage. After a time it was found possible to cap the wells, and thus preserve their yield for future use. Mr. Marvin (The Region of Eternal Fire, 1888) collected much valuable information regarding the petroleum fountains of Baku. The first fountain was struck in July 1873, by the Khalify Company, and resulted in a fall in price from 45 to 5 copecks the pood, and in wresting from Mirzoeff his supremacy as a producer. In 1875 a great fountain, which yielded 600,000 gallons every twenty-four hours, was struck on the property of the Company of Petroleum Participators when deepening a well whose output was decreasing. In the following year another well was completed on the same property at a depth of 280 feet. It flowed for about three months at the rate of 270,000 gallons daily, the whole of the oil being wasted. BAKU OIL-FIELDS. 7 Mirzoeff's No. 5 well, in Group IX, commenced to spout in 1877, and, having been capped, gave a continuous supply which amounted, up to the end of 1883, to about 16,000,000 gallons. In 1881 a well belonging to Mnatsakanoff commenced to spout at a depth of 434 feet, and ejected 3,320,000 gallons of oil in less than seven weeks, after which it was capped. None of this oil was lost. In the same year the No. 9 well of Lianozoff Bros. threw up 7,200,000 gallons in three months, the greater part of this being collected and sold. The No. 2 well of Orbelovi Bros. at Shaitan Bazaar was bored to a depth of 490 feet, and resulted in a yield of 4,000,000 gallons in a week, the greater portion being wasted. In 1883 several large fountains, including the renowned Droojba, the Two of these were on the property of an Armenian Company, were struck. Lianozoff estate, and were successfully capped. The No. 14 well of Mirzoeff spouted at a rate varying from 20,000 to 400,000 gallons daily. During the summer of 1883 it yielded about 10,000,000 gallons, none of which was lost. Nobel's No. 9 well spouted nearly 30,000,000 gallons in four weeks, while their No. 25 well yielded nearly 2,000,000 gallons daily. Marvin thus describes the Droojba fountain, which, on the 1st September 1883, commenced flowing at the rate of 1,600,000 to 2,000,000 gallons, valued at over £11,000, daily : "The fountain was a splendid spectacle-it was the largest ever known in Baku. When the first outburst took place, the oil knocked off the roof and part of the sides of the derrick, but there was a beam left at the top against which the oil burst with a roar in its upward course, and which served in a measure to check its velocity. The derrick itself was 70 feet high, and the oil and the sand, after bursting through the roof and sides, flowed fully three times higher, forming a greyish-black fountain, the column clearly defined on the southern side, but merging in a cloud of spray 30 yards broad on the other. A strong southerly wind enabled us to approach within a few yards of the crater on the former side, and to look down into the sandy basin formed round about the bottom of the derrick, where the oil was bubbling round the stalk of the oil shoot like a geyser. The diameter of the tube up which the oil was rushing was 10 inches. On issuing from this, the fountain formed a clearly defined stem about 18 inches thick and shot up to the top of the derrick, where, in striking against the beam, which was already worn half through by the friction, it got broadened out a little. Thence continuing its course, more than 200 feet high, it curled over and fell in a dense cloud to the ground on the north side, forming a sandbank, over which the olive-coloured oil ran in innumerable channels towards the lakes of petroleum that had been formed on the surround- ing estates. Now and again the sand flowing up with the oil would obstruct the pipe, or a stone would clog the course; then the column would sink for a few seconds lower then 200 feet, to rise directly afterwards with a burst and a roar to 300. . . . Some idea of the mass of matter thrown up from the well could be formed by a glance at the damage done on the south side in twenty-four hours a vast shoal of sand having been formed which had buried to the roof some magazines and shops, and had blocked to the height of 6 or 7 feet all the neighbouring derricks within a distance of 50 yards. Some of the sand and oil had been carried by the wind nearly 100 yards from the fountain. Standing on the top of the sand shoal we could see where the oil, after flowing through a score of channels from the ooze, formed in the distance on lower ground a whole series of oil lakes, some broad enough and deep enough to float a boat in. Beyond this the oil could be seen flowing away in a broad channel towards the sea." · GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. 8 The well was capped on the 29th of December 1883, after giving an amount of oil variously estimated at from 220,000 to 500,000 tons. On 13th August 1887 a well on the Balakhani field belonging to the Baku Mining Company commenced to spout at the rate of 7000 to 8000 tons daily. The well flowed unchecked for over six weeks, the yield at the end of that period being about 2000 tons daily. It was finally capped, after about 50,000,000 gallons of oil had been wasted. The first great well at Bibi-Eibat was struck at a depth of 714 feet on 5th October 1886, by Tagieff, and resulted in a flow which exceeded the maximum daily output of the Droojba well. The Baku Isviestie thus describes this fountain :— From the town the fountain had the appearance of a colossal pillar of smoke, from the crest of which clouds of oil sand detached themselves and floated away a great distance without touching the ground. Owing to the prevalence of southerly winds, the oil was blowing in the direction of Bailoff Point, covering hill and dale with sand and oil, and drenching the houses of Bailoff, a mile and a half away. . . . The whole district of Bibi-Eibat was covered with oil, which filled up the cavities, formed a lake, and on the fifth day began flowing into the sea. The outflow during three days was estimated at 5000 or 6000 tons daily. . . On the eighth day the maximum was reached, the oil then spouting at the rate of 11,000 tons, or 2,750,000 gallons a day. . . . After the tenth day it began to diminish, and by the fifteenth day the engineers had so far got it under control that the outflow was only 250,000 gallons a day. Altogether over 10,000,000 gallons of oil came to the surface, and most of this was lost for want of storage accommodation." In the same field, on 20th March 1887, Well xv in Group XIX, known as the Zubaloff," commenced spouting when the drill reached 679 feet, and the oil rose to a height of 350 feet above the casing. It was estimated that in ten days the flow amounted to about 2,640,000 poods, almost all of which was wasted. In the same year Well xix in the same group proved a fountain at 735 feet, and gave about 2,000,000 poods in six days, after which it was controlled, and subsequently yielded 20,000 to 30,000 poods an hour, reaching a total outflow in 1888 of nearly 9,000,000 poods. In 1893 another well in this group became a fountain at a depth of 1150 feet and supplied an average of 30,000 poods a day for some time, the yield amounting to 25,000,000 poods before bailing became necessary. In 1897 Well xxxiv, from a depth of 1073 feet, supplied 250,000 poods a day, and Well xxiii spouted forth over 22,000,000 poods in two months. These, however, have all been eclipsed by Wells xxxi and xxxii, the former of which in 1896, from a depth of 1043 feet, yielded 190,000 poods in three hours; and the latter, from 1505 feet, sent up about 34,000,000 poods in 1898. A very productive well was that mentioned by Mr. P. Stevens, H.M. Consul at Baku, in a communication dated 1st March 1893. This well was drilled between a quarter of a mile and half a mile eastward of the existing wells on the Apscheron Peninsula, and yielded at the rate of about a million poods (17,742 tons) daily. Much of this oil, however, ran to waste owing to the impossibility of controlling the flow. In 1899 a fountain in the Balakhani-Sabuntchi field produced over 17,000,000 poods; and in the Romani field one well spouted 16,000,000 poods in 1899–1900, from a depth of 1442 feet, and another 15,000,000 poods in 1900, from a depth of 1659 feet. The largest well in 1900 was struck in June, and flowed for two months, averaging over 300,000 poods a day, and another yielded about 33,000,000 poods in forty days. BAKU OIL-FIELDS. 9 A fountain started in the Romani field on 17th April 1901, from a depth of 1750 feet, erupted 500,000 to 800,000 poods per day. After several days it caught fire, but fortunately became choked, and the fire was extinguished. The well then started again, and in three days discharged 500,000 poods of oil, after which it stopped. In June of the same year a very large well was struck, and in seven weeks produced about 17,000,000 poods, its average during July being about 30,000 poods a day. Another well in the same year yielded about 34,000,000 poods in less than six weeks. In November a very prolific spouter was struck in the Bibi-Eibat field by the Baku Naphtha Company at a depth of 1800 feet. For a few days it gave about 1,500,000 poods a day, and continued flowing till it had produced nearly 17,000,000 poods. Shortly afterwards another large one was struck in the Romani field, which produced over 8,000,000 poods in a month. In 1903 a well in the Bibi-Eibat field belonging to the Schibaieff Company started spouting at the rate of 1,000,000 poods daily, but after a few days moderated to about 300,000 poods a day. It then stopped for about two months, and subsequently renewed its activity for a short time at the rate of 200,000 poods a day. In the same field a fountain of Zubaloff's in June 1903 commenced erupting about 400,000 poods a day, and in two months had furnished 16,000,000 poods. Another belonging to the Baku Naphtha Company furnished about the same time 100,000 poods a day to the extent of over 1,000,000 poods; and one drilled by the Tiflis Company yielded 10,000 poods in ten to fifteen minutes, when it became choked. One of Asadulaieff's yielded 3,000,000 poods in May and June 1903, and one of the Shikhovo Company's 1,500,000 poods. In the Romani field two fountains were struck in January 1903 about 790 feet apart, one of which gave 400,000 poods a day, and the other 500,000 poods. Despite the continued occurrence of flowing wells, the production from these in 1905 showed a total decrease since 1901 of 85 per cent. In 1907, however, the ill effects of the labour disturbances and Galician and Rumanian competition. were to some extent counterbalanced by the completion of several spouters of phenomenal size. In 1909 there was a very considerable increase in the pro- duction from flowing wells, principally in Bibi-Eibat, but concurrently there has been a decreasing activity in drilling. In addition to these developments, there have been successful operations in the fields of Holy (Sviatoi) Island and Surakhani, both of which began to be prominent in 1903. On Holy Island, at the eastern end of the Apscheron Peninsula, a well, which spouted for some hours, until it was plugged, was drilled in September of that year to a depth of 1386 feet; since that time several spouters of heavy oil have been struck by the firm of Nobel Brothers. At Surakhani gas has long been used locally in limekilus, but a great in- crease in production in 1903 led to its adoption as fuel on the Balakhani oil- field. In 1906 the attention of the outside world was called to the production in several wells of the so-called "white" oil, with a specific gravity ranging from 0.769 to 0.785. In a deeper well a dark-coloured oil of specific gravity 0-820 was also found at the depth of 1585 feet. A great development took place in 1909, and many new wells were drilled, one commenced at the time striking a flow of light crude oil early in 1910. The total production for 1910 is estimated at 223,706 poods of white oil, and 10,492,474 poods of the heavy variety, in addition to a large volume of gas. Exploratory borings in the northern part of the province of Baku, at Kiliazi and Khidirzindi, have met with varied results. At Kiliazi, oil of good quality, 10 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. with specific gravity 0-850, was found at 853 feet in 1901. The Schemakha field, of such promise in the seventeenth century, has been practically ruined by repeated earthquakes, fissuring the rocks, and discharging their stores of petroleum, the inflammation of which added further horrors to the scene of destruction. Recently attempts have been renewed to develop a field in this district. The oil-fields of Daghestan require but a brief mention. Petroleum has been collected in the region in small quantities from very early times for local use, but practical exploitation commenced in 1898, though a few years previously the oil had been analysed and found to be of good quality, and a company had been formed. During the next two years many trial-borings were made, the results of which confirmed the opinions previously formed. In December 1902, about 4 miles from Bereke, 80 miles from Petrovsk, oil was struck at a depth of 1365 feet, and spouted to the top of the derrick. The flow was not continuous, and varied from 5000 to 15,000 poods a day. These promising results were, however, followed by the appearance of hot salt water in 1904, and later de- velopments have so far failed to indicate more extensive stores of petroleum. To the northwest the petroleum deposits of the Terek Province are more important, stretching from west to east in three parallel lines, which are called by M. Konschin the Black Mountain zone, the Sunja zone, and the Terek The petroleum-bearing beds crop out between 30 and 40 versts east of the Vladikavkaz railway, and similar outcrops occur at a distance of 120 versts towards the Caspian. zone. The Grozni oil-field lies in the Sunja belt, in 43° 30′ north latitude, and 44° 45′ east longitude, 90 versts from the town of Vladikavkaz in a north- easterly direction, and 12 versts northwest of the town of Grozni. It is about 300 miles northwest of Baku. In consequence of the proximity of the town of Grozni, and of the land belonging to the Terek Cossacks, the field is known as "the Grozni Military Naphtha Springs Group "; while another petroleum- field situated in the Mamakai valley, 3 versts to the west of the Grozni field, is called "the Mamakai Military Naphtha Springs Group." The principal part of both fields is the property of the Terek Cossack Army, although there are large estates in private hands. The deposits belong to the Tertiary system. The petroleum, which comes. to the surface in small quantities in the Mamakai field, has a specific gravity of 0.950. The Grozni field has been worked by means of dug wells, from which the oil was bailed, since 1823; and a small refinery has been in existence for many years; but it was not until the autumn of 1893 that the first two drilled wells were completed. The first is situated on the grounds rented from the Alkhan- Yurtov Cossack Corporation. It was commenced with a diameter of 14 inches, and at a depth of 105 feet this was reduced to 12 inches. On the 6th October 1893, at a depth of about 434 feet, a fountain was struck, which gave from 50,000 to 80,000 poods daily for the first ten days. The bore was then carried about 60 feet deeper, and another fountain struck, which, in July 1894, yielded nearly 10,000 poods per twenty-four hours, of oil of specific gravity 0.880 to 0.900. The second was drilled in the neighbourhood of the old wells on the grounds of the Terek Cossacks. It was commenced on the 19th October 1893, with a diameter of 16 inches, and work was continued day and night until, at a depth of 198 feet, on the 18th November, the oil spouted to a height of over 200 feet. On the first day the yield from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m. was estimated to have been not less than 800,000 poods, and to store the oil, a dam was con- structed which formed a reservoir of 15,000,000 poods capacity. On the second day the flow decreased, but it continued at the rate of nearly 500,000 TEREK PROVINCE, MAIKOP. 11 poods for five or six days. In July 1894 the yield was stated to be 30,000 poods a day. The crude oil is reported to have a specific gravity of 0-873 to 0.875, and to yield 18 per cent. of benzine and about 20 per cent. of kerosene. A sample of crude petroleum from the Grozni district, examined by the author, had a specific gravity of 0·884 at 60° F., and a flashing-point below zero F. In 1894–95 four wells were put down in the Mamakai field, and each proved a fountain. In April 1895 the property changed hands, and the new owners put down two more wells, Nos. 6 and 7, both of which were likewise fountains. In No. 7 oil was obtained first at a depth of 294 feet, but this was shut off, and second oil was struck at 462 feet, the yield from which was estimated at about 1,000,000 poods a day for a short time. In October 1895 one of the largest fountains ever struck was reported, the flow from which was stated to be so prolific that in a month it had formed the neighbouring valley into a vast lake, in which steamers could easily float. In October 1902 another remarkable fountain was struck, which in three hours filled an ambar holding half a million poods; the flow continuing, the oil formed a stream down the Neftianka, which was filled with oil for several miles, to the river Sunja, despite all efforts to stop it by erecting dams. The daily yield of oil was estimated at the enormous total of upwards of two and a half million poods. The total production of the field had increased from 27,500,000 poods in 1897 to 34,000,000 poods in 1902, and of this quantity nearly half was due to spouters. In 1905 it was over 41,000,000 poods, but 1906 and 1907 showed a decrease, owing chiefly to the decline in the output of flowing wells. In the two following years a great development took place, at first due to fountains, but later to a large increase in the output from pumping wells. In 1910 a still greater advance was mainly due to the drilling in of several prolific spouters, but there was also an increase in the amount of oil pumped to the surface, whilst the extended use of natural gas as fuel on the field has greatly diminished the quantity of petroleum consumed as fuel in the drilling operations. Marked features in the Grozni field have been the increase in output of paraffin-base oil, and the greatly augmented depth of the borings. As a petroleum-producing territory, Grozni is more favourably situated than Baku. The distance by rail to Novorossisk on the Black Sea coast is more than 100 versts shorter than that from Baku to Batum, and the gradients are easier. About 25 versts east-northeast of Grozni, on the northern slope of the Terek Range, facing the Terek River, is the Braguni field, where are found considerable quantities of petroleum exuding from the soil, and forming deposits of pitch which are worked for asphalt. Boring for oil has taken place, and good results are reported to have been obtained at depths of 250 feet and 1050 feet. Other places in this district where indications of petroleum occur are mentioned in the following section. The oil-field of Maikop, in which a large amount of English capital is now being expended in drilling operations, is situated in the Kuban territory, about 300 miles westward of Grozni, and about 50 miles northeast of the port of Tuapse on the Black Sea. In 1907 a flowing well was completed at Shirvansk, and this led to the for- mation in 1909 of the Black Sea Oil Fields, Limited. In the following year, owing to the strike of a very prolific gusher, a large number of other English companies were formed for the exploitation of areas in what is now known as the Maikop oil-field. The drilling operations which have since been carried out have not been uniformly successful, and some of the principal companies, in 12 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. combination, have arranged for the drilling of deep test-wells. Nevertheless, several highly productive fountain wells have been obtained, and sufficient encouragement has thus been given to bring about the laying of an 8-inch pipe- line, 70 miles in length, from Shirvansk to Ekaterinodar, which is now in operation. A refinery is in course of erection at Ekaterinodar, and it is proposed to transport the refined products by railway to Novorossisk, or by the Kuban river to Temriuk, on the Sea of Azov. The developments at Maikop have caused increased attention to be directed to the other petroliferous localities of the Kuban District, known and worked long ago by the wandering Tcherkesses of the region. Here the earliest work in modern times was done by Colonel Novosiltzoff, who, having acquired the monopoly of the Cossack lands, commenced in 1864 to sink wells near the Black Sea coast. In 1873 he had a number of wells drilled in the valley of the Ili, near Ilsky; but failing to make the venture a commercial success, in 1879 he leased 1,500,000 acres of the property to Dr. Tweddle. The property was ultimately acquired by the Standard Russe Company of Marseilles, by whom the work was carried on, but the oil principally obtained is comparatively viscous. and of high density. Altogether over 100 wells have been drilled at Ilsky, to depths varying from 1200 feet upwards, and most have yielded petroleum. The greater number have yielded oil of about 0-985 specific gravity, at depths of from 150 to 350 feet, but some light oil has been found at from 650 to 900 About 14,000,000 poods of petroleum was obtained between 1880 and 1894 from an area of about half a square mile. In the summer of 1893 some borings were made at Glinoj Balka, about 4 miles northeast of Ilsky. From two of the bore-holes, one 110 and the other 170 feet in depth, 3000 poods of oil daily was pumped. The oil had a specific gravity of 0.970. Important results were obtained at Kudako, near Krimskaya, where Colonel Novosiltzoff commenced drilling in 1866, and at 123 feet struck the first flowing well in the Kuban. After yielding at the rate of 5000 gallons daily for a short time, the bore became choked; but it again flowed at double that rate when the depth was increased to 242 feet, and the outflow became uncontrollable. It is stated by Mr. Peacock, British Consul, to have flowed for eighteen months, and the oil, which was wholly wasted, is said not only to have formed a large lake, but to have reached the Kuban river, 9 or 10 miles away. In 1886 another well became a fountain at 183 feet, spouting to a height of 40 feet, and giving about 25,000 poods of oil a day of a specific gravity of 0-860. The oil from one well of a depth of 600 feet resembled the light-coloured oil of low density already mentioned as being found at Surakhani, while a very heavy oil was obtained from a shallower well 40 feet distant. It was said that no well at Kudako proved unproductive. The Paul well, sunk in 1872, with a depth of 398 feet, still yielded 150 gallons daily in 1896. Another well, sunk to a depth of 420 feet, yielded from 600 to 700 gallons daily; while a third well, 512 feet deep, yielded 200 gallons daily, of a specific gravity of 0.815. The average yield from the three wells was estimated at 12 barrels each daily. The Kudako petroleum zone covers about 5000 acres, and extends in an almost straight line running N. W. by S.E. It is 8 miles from the railway station at Krimskaya, about 35 miles distant by rail, or 22 miles in a direct line, from the Black Sea port of Novorossisk. A sample of oil from Kudako, examined by the author, had a specific gravity of 0-869 at 60° F., and freely ignited at the ordinary temperature. Mr. Rydèn informed the author that at Kudako small quantities of an exceedingly volatile description of petroleum of CRIMEA, KUTAIS, TIFLIS. 13 pale yellow colour were obtained, especially after the shallow wells had been pumped for some time. Some of this crude petroleum had a density of 0.650, and evaporated instantly on the hand. Many other wells have been drilled in the vicinity of Kudako, and a flowing, well has recently been obtained by an English company operating near Krim- skaya. Trial borings have been made in the valleys of Psiph and Nepitel, which are parallel with the Kudako valley and of similar geology, and a superior quality of oil has been obtained. In 1867 wells were bored in the Tchekups valley, above Varenikov, and two flowing wells which yielded light oil were struck. The Anapa district on the shore of the Black Sea has not yet been exploited to any great extent, though shallow wells have yielded oil on the Suvorovsk and Michaelsfeld fields. Some oil of high quality has also been obtained in borings in the Kapustina Balka and at other points on the Taman Peninsula. In the Crimea the existence of petroleum has been long known. In 1864 Colonel Gowen, an American, put down several borings. In one near Kertch, at 70 feet deep he met with a considerable issue of gas, and some oil, the yield being stated to have amounted to 25 poods a day. In another boring at Tchongelek, 16 miles south of Kertch, on the shore of the Tobetchik Salt Lake, he met with a fountain of considerable violence, which covered the lake with oil, and did much other damage. In 1883 a French Company was formed to exploit the district. One well gave for a time a yield of about 240 poods daily. This well had a depth of 910 feet, according to Mr. Chambers, or 930 feet, according to Colonel Stewart, and is said to have been the deepest which had been sunk at Tchongelek up to that time. It soon became choked and was abandoned. In 1890 another company put down a boring to the depth of 1200 feet, and were rewarded with a yield of 30,000 poods a day. In 1901 a fountain was struck at a depth of 840 feet which gave promise of considerable supply, but was spoiled by breakage of the casing. Since 1907 drilling operations have been resumed by Anton Raky and others, but the field is still undeveloped. The crude oil from this district is of good quality, with a specific gravity of 0.864, giving 36 per cent. of kerosene, and 30 per cent. of heavy oils. Increased interest has recently been manifested in the districts south of the Caucasus, principally in the central part of the region. The Guri district in Kutais, northward of Batum, exhibits many indications of the presence of oil, and that the existence of surface oil has long been known is demonstrated by the numerous names of streams of which "Kupra,” the native word for petroleum, forms a part. Moreover, the peasants have been accustomed to collect the oil which oozes out into the ditches and utilise it for lighting purposes. Trial borings have been carried out, notably near Supsa, Jacobi, and Omparete, but hitherto without much success. In the Imeretia district, the chief sources are at Tedeleti, 6 miles from Kvirila station, where for many years the inhabitants have been in the habit of using the oil for cart-grease. The first dug well was begun in 1882, and sunk to a depth of 30 feet, at which oil to the amount of 70 poods a day was obtained. Other wells were subsequently put down, and gave a yield of 50 to 80 poods a day. In the Tiflis Province there were in 1874 fourteen wells which yielded about 124,000 poods of oil. The Signakh field, eastward of Tiflis, produced 55,296 poods in 1889. In the summer of 1902 exploration took place in the district between the rivers Iora and Alazan, 40 to 50 miles northeast from Tiflis. One boring in Kakheti 14 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. became a fountain, and another near the village of Gambori, at a depth of 140 feet, struck oil of good quality, with a specific gravity of 0-850. The quantity, however, was not great, and the drilling was continued to 345 feet, when such a strong issue of gas was met with that work was stopped until storage-accommodation could be provided. At Matau-Marelis, about 12 miles. southwest from Tionet, oil was reported to have been found in the autumn of 1903. At 370 feet there was a flow of about 30 poods a day of greyish-green. oil with a considerable percentage of paraffin, and a specific gravity 0-885 at 9° C. The Tchatma field to the south of the Kur river is somewhat difficult of access. About twenty-five years ago an Armenian named Paatoff was granted leave to dig asphalt and bore for oil. He put down five-and-twenty shallow wells, from which he annually extracted about 30,000 poods. In 1903 a com- pany was formed for the purpose of further exploitation, but neither has this nor have later ventures in the Tchatma and Eldar fields hitherto been attended with decisive results. In the province of Elizabetpol, in the Geran or Naftalan district, some 35 versts southeast of the capital, oil of exceptionally high quality has for many years been collected and sold for medicinal purposes. It is reported that a well drilled recently in the district began to spout with considerable force, the flow of oil breaking the casing, so that the boring soon became choked. .. The Transcaspian Province seems to be rich in petroleum, and has recently attracted considerable attention as a source of petroleum. Tcheleken Island, off the coast, consists almost entirely of cliffs saturated with petroleum," and is hence called "Naphtonia." Of this island Captain Woodroffe (1743) says:- We weighed, and came in close under the east side of Naphtonia, as the Russians call it. The Persians call it Cherriken. The coast is difficult of access, being high. It contains about thirty-six families, who have twenty-eight large boats, with several wells of naphtha. The people exist entirely by piracy. To remedy this evil, Nadir Shah some years ago offered to forgive all that was past, and to receive them into his favour, if they would come and settle about Astrabad Bay, where they might have lands, and sell their naphtha to the inhabitants of that quarter. This they accepted, and carried on a brisk trade for about two years, selling their naphtha to the Persians, Turkomans, etc.; but, getting tired of this way of living, returned to their trade of piracy." The island is now being actively exploited with the drill, and spouting wells have been obtained. Ozokerite is also being obtained here in commercial quantities. : On the mainland, which has long been known to yield petroleum, the oil has been used as fuel on the Transcaspian Railway since 1881. In 1883 Napthnia Gora, or " Naphtha Hill," situated about 100 miles inland of Krasnovodsk, and 16 miles southwest of the Tageer wells, which had been noticed as a promising territory by a party of engineers in 1881, was inspected by M. Konschin, who estimated the petroliferous land around the hill at 20,000 acres, and its produc- ing-power at 1,000,000 tons annually. The value of this petroleum and of the ozokerite which also exists there in large quantities, has been estimated at £35,000,000 (Marvin). The hill, which is about 3 miles long by about a mile and a half wide, appears to be due to a short anticlinal fold. In consequence of the compression in- ducing this flexure, petroleum mixed with sand and ozokerite escapes at the surface. Mud-volcanos also exist, and constantly throw out mud, water, petroleum, and ozokerite. It is said that fragments, and even layers 3 inches. thick, of ozokerite have been found in the mud and sand-hills surrounding these volcanos. The collection of petroleum on the hillside in olden times is proved URALSK, FERGHANA, ARCHANGEL, VOLOGDA. 15 by the existence of many abandoned wells on the northwestern slope. Trial- borings for petroleum have also been made by the Government, and these, at a small depth,” are reported to have given a daily output of from 500 to 700 poods. In the Uralsk Province a large oil-field is believed to exist in the Gurieff district on the northeast shore of the Caspian, occupying several thousand square miles on the Emba, Sagis and Uil rivers. In 1900 the Doppelmeier Company obtained a concession from the Government, and started borings at Karachungul and Karaton. At the former place sixteen holes were put down, and oil found at 37 feet and 126 feet. Ozokerite is said to have been met with at depths of 109, 136, 148, and 210 feet. At Karaton oil was found at 38 feet and 112 feet. It is described as of dark brownish colour, full of paraffin and having a specific gravity of 0.850. During the current year (1911) a spouting well has been obtained in the district. Early in the eighties some hand-dug wells were put down by Colonel Herman in the Ferghana Province, near Tchimion, to a depth of 70 to 80 feet, and about 100 poods of oil a day obtained from them. He also erected a small refinery, and for some years the town of New Marghilan was lighted with the kerosene produced. In 1898-1900 further exploitation took place, and oil was obtained in small quantities from a depth of 175 feet. In 1901 trial-borings on a more extended scale were made in this district, which are stated to have resulted in 1903 in the discovery, at a depth of 1015 feet, of rich petroliferous strata, producing an oil of high quality, with a specific gravity similar to that of the oil of Bibi-Eibat. About 400 poods were produced in an hour. In December 1903 it was announced that borings at Maili-sai had produced a fountain at 550 feet, which spouted to the height of 60 feet, and produced 20,000 poods daily. In many places where petroleum exudes from the soil, it is gradually modified into "kir," which is largely used in the district for paving, etc. In 1907 and 1908 flowing wells were obtained here, one of which is said to have produced 7000 poods daily down to the end of 1910. The pro- duction of the province during that year is estimated at over 600,000 poods. In the provinces of Archangel and Vologda, the presence of petroleum has been long known. In the time of Peter the Great, operations were carried on at Nabatnov's refinery, mentioned by a traveller as existing on the Uchta in 1805. During the sixties, Sidoroff engaged in some explorations, but died before he had completed them. There remain tubes and pits sunk by him, at which traders fill their barrels, and the peasants on the Ijma collect oil for cart- grease and domestic use. About 12 poods is said to be thus collected annually. The trial-holes were situated on both banks of the river Uchta, separating the provinces of Archangel and Vologda, and about 400 miles east-southeast of Archangel. The district was geologically explored in 1889 by order of the Minister of Crown Domains. A boring of 40 feet 4 inches in depth penetrated a stratum of blue marl, from which petroleum flowed in a continuous stream to a height of 14 inches above the casing of the well. Another boring to a depth of 10 feet, at a point three-quarters of a verst higher up the river, gave a similar result. The oil from the bore-holes was officially analysed, and was stated to yield over 41 per cent. of kerosene. It was pronounced superior to that of the Baku district. In 1896-97 explorations were carried on by von Vangel and A. M. Galin, but without any successful results. The distance from the field to Moscow is 1553 versts, as compared with 3402 versts from Baku to the same centre. Recently further boring has been carried out, but the field is still undeveloped. 16 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. The presence of petroleum in the Russian (i.e. northern) half of Sakhalin Island has been known for over a quarter of a century, and in 1880 a concession was granted to Mr. Ivanoff to explore. Subsequently concessions were granted to other parties, and in 1889 Mr. Batsévitch was sent there to report. Several borings were said to have yielded from 20 to 30 gallons of oil daily at depths of 20 to 30 feet. In 1898 Mr. Kleye visited the Nutovo and Boatasin rivers, and obtained oil in a boring on the latter. In the Nutovo district there are several lakes covered by a more or less constant flow of oil, and a little gas in places. Mr. W. H. Dalton's investigations in 1903 confirmed and extended these observa- tions. In company with Dr. F. Andersson, Mr. L. V. Dalton visited the island in the autumn of 1909 and found that preparations were being made by Mr. Kleye on behalf of a Tientsin group of capitalists to commence drilling, but no definite results have yet been reported. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. (Plate 2.) After that of Russia, the petroleum-industry in the districts of the Car- pathian range next claims attention by its importance and antiquity. On the northern slopes will be found the oil-fields of Galicia; while on the south- eastern and southern slopes of the Southern Carpathians or Transylvanian Alps lie the important deposits of Rumania, and the less-known fields of Bukowina and Hungary. Galicia. As far as it has yet been defined, the Galician oil-belt extends for a length of about 220 miles by 40 to 60 miles, in a general northwesterly and southeasterly direction, along the northern slopes of the Carpathian mountains. The hitherto little-worked deposits in Bukowina and in Hungary, and the important Rumanian oil-fields occupying the southeastern and southern slopes of the Southern Carpathians or Transylvanian Alps may be looked upon as forming an extension of the Galician deposits, and be considered with them. The petroleum industry in this country is of considerable antiquity. The earliest historical records show that oil was collected in a primitive fashion and used as a cart-grease from very early times, and old timbered oil-wells still existing in Galicia and Rumania indicate that this practice prevailed to a considerable extent. As "earth-balsam," Galician petroleum was known as far back as 1506, and in local records it is mentioned early in the seventeenth century. Mr. Nelson Boyd has pointed out that no reference is made to it in the Austrian Mining Laws of 1786-in fact, the first official notice appears in a Governmental decree of 1810 relating to the registration of mining rights. In 1810, or between that date and 1818, oil from the Drohobycz district is said to have been distilled by Hecker and Mitis at a small refinery at Kabicza, and to have been used for lighting the Alstettering in Prague. These operations, however, soon ceased, and refining does not appear to have been again practised until 1852, when a manufacturer of cart-grease, Schreiner by name, took some of the liquid con- densed on the cover of a vessel in which he had heated the crude oil to an apothe- cary of the name of Mikolasch. His assistants, Lukasiewicz and Zeh, treated the distillate with sulphuric acid and caustic soda, and obtained a product of such excellence as a burning fluid that renewed attention was directed to the subject. The following year Galician petroleum replaced candles for lighting the station of the Emperor Ferdinand's North Railway, and in 1854 obtained a footing as an article of commerce in Vienna. At one time the most important of the Galician oil-fields was that of Sloboda Rungurska, about 3 miles from Kolomea, with an area 1500 metres in GALICIA. 17 length by 350 to 500 metres in breadth. Two brine-wells which were dug in this district in 1771 are said to have continuously yielded petroleum. One was deepened to 25 metres in 1859 and to 50 metres in 1865, giving a larger yield each time, although the production does not appear to have exceeded 7 quintals daily. The depth was increased to 150 metres in 1875, and was finally carried to 213 metres by boring, in 1884, the yield then rising to 10 barrels a day. Although exploration had been carried on since 1867, active development in this district only commenced in 1881, but by 1883 the production had increased to about 550 barrels daily. At one time it yielded as much as 1600 barrels daily, and formed the chief oil-producing district in Galicia. Since 1887, how- ever, the production has greatly diminished, and in 1894 averaged only about 42 tons a day and in 1901 about 32 tons a day. In 1910 the total production from this field was estimated at about 4000 tons. Owing to the regularity of the petroleum-bearing series, the drilling of wells within the demarcated oil-zone in this district was attended with comparatively uniform success, and the wells, the depth of which usually ranged from 215 to 330 metres, but in some cases exceeded 400 metres, usually yielded from 3 to 5 tons of oil a day. The borings, which were confined to a clearing in a valley surrounded by the State forests, passed through a series of shales and sandstones of Eocene age. Babu gives the following particulars of the strata pierced by a well drilled to a depth of 245 metres, in the Sloboda-Rungurska field :- Green and red shales alternating, Unimportant beds of shale and sandstone alternating, Hard shale, Metres. 85.00 35.00 13.75 Hard sandstone (1st petroleum-horizon). 15.00 · Shale, 2.50 • Hard sandstone, 10.25 Alternate layers, 1 to 10 metres in thickness, of sandstone and marl, Sandstone (2nd and more important petroleum-horizon), 51.87 44.38 It was, however, in the Bobrka district, on the left bank of the Jasolka, between Krosno and Dukla, that the earliest systematic development of the petroleum-industry in Galicia took its rise in 1854. Here, after unsuccessful attempts to collect the petroleum by digging trenches and shallow wells, Lukasiewicz and Klobassa completed, in 1861, a well which yielded 6000 kilogrammes per hour at a depth of only 14 metres. Additional wells were soon sunk by the same proprietors and others, and in 1870 the total yield of the field was estimated at upwards of 800 tons a month. In 1885 drilling was commenced, and from that date the production rapidly increased. The development of the Wietrzno and Rowne properties, to the southeast of Bobrka, was commenced in 1886-1887, and from the commencement the first of these two districts afforded remarkable results, flowing wells with a large output of oil being struck, while Rowne became an important producing district during the second year of its development. At Weglowka, about 7 miles north of Krosno, oil has been found in con- siderable quantity at no great depth, and after this field was opened up in 1888, drilling was actively carried on. Potok, in the Krosno district, about 8 miles north-by-west from Bobrka, and 4 miles from Krosno, the development of which was not commenced until 1890, came most rapidly into prominence. When the author visited this field in 1894, he was impressed with the character of the results achieved. Some- what deep drilling was necessary here, but oil and gas were met with under great pressure, and spouting wells of a remarkably productive character were VOL. I. 2 18 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. not uncommon. One well was drilled to a depth of 2140 feet, and was at the time the deepest producing well in Europe. In 1901 the total production of this field amounted to 68,000 tons, but has since greatly decreased. Further westward, about 18 miles from Bobrka, is the Gorlice field, in which the industry began to be developed shortly after it had been commenced at Bobrka. The places where petroleum was first worked were Siary, Kryg, and Kleczany, at which latter place a small refinery was built as early as 1858. The wells were all hand-dug, and were from 100 to 180 metres deep. At Lipinki the first oil was struck in 1865, but no considerable development took place until 1882, when the Canadian drilling system was first introduced into Galicia at Kryg by Messrs. Bergheim and MacGarvey, and this field became for some years a very important centre of the industry, but its annual production now is only about 27,000 tons, out of a total production for the country of over 1,700,000 tons. The Sanok-Chyrow field has made comparatively slow but steady progress, the production having increased from 13,000 tons in 1894 to 36,000 tons in 1901. None of the first forty wells drilled at Ropienka flowed, though yielding fair quantities of oil by pumping, but, subsequently, flowing wells were obtained. Three wells drilled in 1884 on the Brelikow property yielded but little oil, but a bore-hole put down in 1894 to a depth of 300 metres was reported to have furnished about six tons of oil a day. Considerable development has taken place in the neighbourhood of Ustrzyki, where the author, in 1887, found the industry already firmly and very favourably established. 66 The chief centre of the petroleum industry in Galicia to-day (1911) is the rich Boryslaw-Tustanowice field, which produces over 90 per cent. of the total output of Galicia. Boryslaw has had its petroleum springs, locally known as kipiaczka," from time immemorial, and pits were dug for oil as early as 1850. In 1896 Canadian drilling was introduced, and borings to a depth of about 1500 feet were put down, which proved very successful, every well being productive. In 1902 still deeper drilling was tried, and wells of 800 and 900 metres in depth were sunk, resulting in yields of 30 to 50 tons a day. One well is said to have produced 200 to 250 tons daily for a considerable time, and an- other of a depth of 1000 metres was a flowing well. Many of the wells now exceed 1000 metres in depth, and are costly to drill, but flowing wells are frequently obtained, and the production of these is so large that heavy ex- penditure in drilling is justified. The crude oil is of good quality, and yields all the usual commercial products, including a large percentage of paraffin wax. In 1894 development began in the district round Schodnica. Oil had been produced here for twenty years previously, but it was only in 1894 that sys- tematic attempts were made to develop this territory by drilling. Some of the earlier drilled wells were dry, but the position of the oil-belt was soon deter- mined, and the district for many years occupied a very important position. Every well proved productive, and continued to yield for about seven or eight years on an average. In August 1895 the well known as the Jacob well was struck here at a depth of 985 feet, and commenced to flow at the rate of about 900 tons a day, but in a month had dropped to 150 tons a day. In 1897 a flowing well with a daily production of 120 tons was brought in at Muchowate. in this district. Three oil-horizons were found at about 300, 400, and 500 metres respectively, but the uppermost one had not a large yield. The growth of the industry in Galicia may be seen from the following statistics. The total production in 1878 is said to have been only 600 tons; in 1884 it was 38,000 tons; in 1890, 91,600 tons; in 1895, 202,000 tons; in 1898, 330,000 tons; in 1902, 576,000 tons; in 1903, 727,971 tons; in GALICIA. 19 The 1909, 2,076,740 tons. In 1910 the production fell to 1,762,560 tons. specific gravity of the crude oil varies considerably, as does also the colour from very light green to dark amber and black. As regards the future of the Galician petroleum-industry, all the indications point to the conclusion that the production may not improbably be very largely increased by the general adoption of deeper drilling. It is by no means un- likely that some of the older oil-fields of this country may be found to have been insufficiently tested, and a large amount of presumably oil-bearing territory remains undeveloped. The principal seat of the Galician ozokerite industry is in and around Boryslaw, where it has been carried on since 1860. It is first mentioned in the Mining Laws in 1854. Ozokerite is also found in Dzwiniacz and Starunia, south of Stanislau, at Slanik in Moldavia, and at other points on both sides of the Carpathians. At Truskawiec, near Boryslaw, occurs a deposit of native sulphur, galena, and blende, intermingled with gypsum, ozokerite, and petro- leum, in a greyish-blue clay-shale with sand and marl. Ozokerite was at one time considered a "Crown mineral" in Austria- Hungary, but was declared free in 1865—a measure which resulted in an im- portant increase of activity in the industry. The Boryslaw ozokerite-field was originally worked by scores of proprietors, who sank many thousands of shafts; but the majority of the owners had only a small holding, the greater part of the richer interior portion being held by a few large owners. The district is pear-shaped, its major axis trending E. 15° S. from Boryslaw in the broader portion to Wolanka at the narrow end. The richest part of the field occupies an area of about 52 acres, with a length of 1000 metres and a maximum breadth of 350 metres; but an outer zone of less productive territory increases the workable field to about 150 acres, 1500 metres long by 550 wide. The ozokerite occurs in well-defined veins, and is worked by the pick, as in ordinary mining. It has been largely extracted in very primitive fashion by small proprietors; but a French company some years ago commenced mining near Wolanka by a system resembling that employed in getting coal. As, how- ever, the site selected did not lie within the most productive area, the operations were not very successful. Many accidents occur from the caving-in of the galleries, or from the influx of gas or of semi-solid ozokerite. In the case of one mine, the perforation of a thin layer of sandstone by a miner's pick resulted in the gradual appearance of a stalk of ozokerite, which for a long time was forced out as fast as it was removed. This curious appearance of growth gave the name of the "Asparagus" Mine to the shaft. The surface of the valley-slopes is covered with drift, of clay, sand, and gravel, several metres in thickness. The shafts sunk by the early workers traversed these water-bearing deposits to the ozokerite beds, which are alter- nating sandstones, blue shales, and marls, with rock-salt and gypsum. They were 8 or 10 yards apart, and each worked an area of 9 to 64 square yards, drifts being carried from the shafts into the ozokerite-veins. The veins vary from extreme tenuity to a thickness of some feet, from 2 to 8 per cent. of the excavated matter being ozokerite. The productive width of the marl rapidly diminishes as the depth increases, and at 100 metres down is but 200 metres in place of the 350 at the surface. The wax has evidently been forced up from underlying beds by lateral pressure. through fissures resulting from local yielding of the marl to the compressive strain. The pressure which still exists is attested by the viscous flow of the ozokerite in the mines, as mentioned above, and by the frequent distortion or 20 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. collapse of the timbering, much enhancing the difficulties of mining- operations, which in turn tend to increase the instability of the mass of ground affected. At the present time only two firms are mining ozokerite. Modern plant has been erected, and upcast and downcast shafts have been sunk, which are properly ventilated. The stringent regulations of the mining law of February 1901 could only be complied with by the large owners, and all the holders of small pieces of land were compelled to abandon work. The production amounted to about 9000 tons in 1874, and in 1885 to 13,000 tons. It is now about 2000 tons per annum. In Bukowina, oil has been found in the Watra Moldawitza district (where several wells were drilled to depths ranging from 170 to 340 metres), and elsewhere. The oil-fields of Hungary geologically resemble those of Galicia, but the petroliferous area on the Hungarian side of the Carpathian range is compara- tively narrow, and has not as yet assumed any great industrial importance, though recent drilling has met with good results. In the neighbourhood of Bereczk, in the county of Haromszek, numerous outcrops of petroliferous strata occur, and shallow wells at Sösmezö, Gelencze, and Zabola have yielded oil, those at Sösmezö dating as far back as 1774. A well sunk to a depth of 137 metres is stated to have yielded at first as much as thirty barrels of oil a day. Westwards, in the southern part of Zala county, oil has long been known to exist, and within the last ten years over thirty wells have been drilled with encouraging results. Natural gas has recently been discovered in considerable quantities in Eastern Hungary, during a search for sources of potash salts. In one of the borings undertaken by the Hungarian Government in 1908, near Kissármás in the county of Kolozs (Klausenburg), gas was encountered under considerable pressure at about 575 feet, and at 995 feet work had to be stopped on account of the force with which the gas was escaping. The yield was over 1,000,000 cubic feet per hour. Another very productive gas well has been obtained more recently in the district, and exploration with the drill is proceeding, but as yet no commercial use is being made of the product. RUMANIA. (Plate 1.) The petroleum-deposits of Rumania are continuous with those of Galicia ; they are also of much the same age as, and are connected under the sea with, the petroleum-bearing beds of the Caucasus. The outcrop of possibly petro- liferous formations is from 15 to 20 miles in width, and runs for a distance of about 400 miles, with a few unimportant breaks, from the Iron Gates to the Galician frontier, as shown on the sketch map (Plate 1), which also indicates the principal localities wherein petroleum is produced. The traveller Raicevich reported, in 1750, that the " liquid bitumen" of this country was used as a medicinal agent in treating the diseases of cattle, in lighting the courtyards of the "boyars" (large landowners), and as a cart-axle grease. At this time the most abundant spring appears to have been one near Pacureti in the Prahova district, and from this and neighbouring sources about 20 tons annually appears to have been obtained. Petroleum has, however, been known in Rumania from remote times, as is shown by the number of places named Pacureti, "pacura pacura" being the Wallachian word for this sub- RUMANIA. 21 stance, and by the existence in the districts of Bacau and Prahova of numerous pits or hand-dug wells similar to those met with in Galicia; and it may be added that in no country has the digging of wells for petroleum been more successfully conducted, surprising depths being reached in many cases. For the last forty years there have been refineries, more or less satisfactorily conducted, in the principal towns, where the oil collected by merchants has been treated; while still larger quantities have passed over the frontier to be dealt with at the more complete works at Kronstadt and other places in Transylvania and Galicia. During this period, and especially shortly after the Government redistribution of land in 1866, various larger enterprises have been started with the object of extracting the petroleum in a more rational and systematic manner, and in some cases have met with very considerable success. Contrasting Rumania with Galicia, we find that in the former country the entire production was from dug shafts long after such wells had in the latter country been replaced by bor- ings made by steam-power. It is, in fact, only within the past twenty-five years that drilling has superseded digging in the Rumanian oil-fields. Fore- most amongst those who were prominently associated with this development was Prince Cantacuzino, who obtained the first flowing well, and carried out extensive drilling-operations at Draganeasa between 1880 and 1887. The pro- duction of the well in question was far in excess of any yield of which there had been previous experience in Rumania, and adequate provision not having been made to store the oil, great quantities ran to waste. Concurrently, similarly successful results were obtained by others at Sarata and Solonti-Moinesci, and this led to the introduction of foreign capital into the business. The attempts which were then made to develop the oil-fields of Bustenari, Baicoi, Campina, Glodeni, and Poiana were not, however, attended with encouraging results, though subsequent experience has shown that it was more the management than the territory which was at fault. Since 1890 many properties have changed hands, a number of the smaller interests have been amalgamated, modern refineries have been erected, arrangements have been made for the export of the products, and the business generally has been placed on a sound footing. The first company which sought to acquire a commanding position in the industry. secured the control of the greater part of the production, which was at that time centred in Glodeni, in the district of Dambovitza; Campina, in that of Prahova; Sarata, in that of Buzeu; and Solonti-Moinesci, in that of Bacau— the aggregate output being about 60,000 tons annually. The company refined this oil at Bucharest, Monteoru, Campina, and Moinesci, and possessed pipe- lines for its transport from Glodeni to Doicesci and from Bustenari to Doftana. In 1895 the business thus founded was acquired by the Steaua Romana, other companies were formed, and under new auspices the production was soon very greatly increased. Realising the necessity for fostering the export trade, the Steaua Romana constructed a tank-storage at Giurgiu (Giurgevo), with arrange- ments for conveying the oil by tank-barges thence to Ratisbon, where another installation was erected, with a view to the supply of the markets of Southern Germany and Switzerland. An installation was also provided at Constanza for the loading of tank-steamers to carry the oil to the Mediterranean ports. and elsewhere. The home-consumption of the ordinary commercial products exhibited steady growth, and a beginning was made in the use of liquid fuel. In 1908 the Rumanian railways used 180,000 tons of this fuel mixed with lignite, and the number of locomotives burning petroleum had increased in 1910 to over 600, while nearly all the sugar-refineries, distilleries, breweries, engineering works, limekilns, electric generating stations, gas-works, hospitals, and other public buildings with central generating stations use petroleum as fuel. The GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. 22 estimated production of crude oil for the years 1895 to 1899 (accurate statistics not being obtainable) was as follows:- 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, about 76,000 tons. >> 80,000 110,000 55 >> 180,000 => 250,000 وو 1899, In 1899 the progress of the industry was arrested by industrial depression and other causes, as is shown by the following figures, which give the production. for 1900:- TABLE I.-RUMANIAN OIL PRODUCTION, 1900. Prahova, District. Dambovitza, Bacau, • Buzeu, Locality. Campina-Poiana, Bustenari, Telega, Baicoi, Tintea, Matita, Aposto- lache, Poiana-Verbileu, Ocnita, Glodeni, Resca, Colibasi, • Moinesci, Solonti, Casin, Campeni, Piatra, Sarata, Berca, Tega, Waggons (of 10 tons each). 9,000 11,000 1,400 21,400 1,400 1,400 800 25,000 In 1901, however, matters improved, and since then there has been a steady growth in the total output. Within recent years the expansion of the industry has been rapid, and bids fair to outstrip that of the corresponding industry of Galicia. The principal producing areas are in the districts of Prahova, Dam- bovitza, Bacau, and Buzeu, and of these the first-named has hitherto been the most important. The following table shows the production of oil in the different districts and principal fields in 1908, 1909, and 1910- TABLE II.—RUMANIAN OIL PRODUCTION, 1908-1910. District. Prahova, Dambovitza, Bacau, Buzeu, Totals • Field. 1908. 1909. 1910. Tons. Tons. Tons. Bustenari, 473,106 393,242 318,269 Moreni, 337,763 369,784 438,475 Campina-Poiana, Others, 233,825 311,147 333,382 51,127 147,469 155,177 26,272 30,288 43,295 14,866 19,084 23,974 10,768 25,389 39,717 1,147,727 1,296,403 1,352,289 pro- The oil is found at no great distance from the surface, the depth of the ducing wells, including the dug shafts, ranging from 100 to 400 metres. Drilling is, on the whole, easy, the strata perforated consisting of soft clay, shale, 23 ITALY. clay-shale, sand, and sandstone. The Canadian system of drilling has been usually employed, but latterly various water-flush systems have been largely substituted for it. The difficulties which attend boring-operations resemble those encountered in Galicia, and arise partly from the high angle of inclination of the strata, which tends to deflect the boring tools, and partly from the alternation of porous and relatively impervious strata, but more especially from the occur- rence of layers of water-bearing, or sometimes oil-bearing, quicksand, which are liable to cause caving" of the well. CC The colour of Rumanian crude oil is for the most part brown, of various shades, except that from Predeal, which is of a light reddish tinge, and that of Campina-Parjol, which is light yellow. The specific gravity varies consider- ably, not only in the same field but even in the same well, the lightest being 0.770 and the heaviest 0·935 (L. Edeleanu and I. Tanasescu, Monit. Int. Pétrol. Roumains, iv, 19 (Supplement), 1903). Typical specimens of Rumanian petroleum collected by Mr. Blundstone and examined by the author had the following characters :-Colour very dark brown by transmitted light, with only a moderate amount of fluorescence. Odour not disagreeable. Specific gravity from 0.839 to 0.896. Flashing-point (Abel test) from below 20 to 123° F. With one exception the samples re- mained fluid when exposed to a temperature of zero F. ITALY. The petroleum-industry in Italy and Sicily dates from very remote times, the oil obtained from the neighbourhood of Agrigentum having been used for illuminating purposes about 2000 years ago. In the year 1226, according to a report published by Signor Zoppetti in 1883, Frederick II constituted a municipal body at Salsomaggiore, which took for its emblem a salamander surrounded by flames, in allusion to the emanations of inflammable gas in the neighbourhood. In 1400 the collection of the petroleum of Miano di Medesano formed the subject of a concession granted by the Ducal Chamber. M. de Montaigne, during his journeys in 1580 and 1581, visited Barigazzo and Pietramala, and described the indications of petroleum which he observed there. The cele- brated petroleum of Modena, at one time largely used for lighting and medicinal purposes, and in the preparation of varnishes, paints, etc., was discovered in 1640 by Ariosto, a physician of Ferrara, at Monte Festino, about 12 miles from Modena. This product was subsequently examined by Boulduc (Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris, 1715, 15). The wells were dug to a depth of from 40 to 60 feet, and the water that collected in them was found covered with a light reddish petroleum, which was skimmed off fortnightly. Three kinds of petroleum were collected at these pits, one being as clear as water. According to Psilanderhjelm (Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris, 1736, 56), the naphtha of Monte Chiaro, near Piacenza in Italy, was superior to that of Modena. It was obtained by piercing the horizontal beds of gypsum and clay, drawing off the water and oil which collected, and separating the latter by skimming once a week. The petroleum of Montechino was apparently not discovered until the be- ginning of the eighteenth century, while the deposits of Ozzano and Rico di Fornovo did not attract attention until early in the nineteenth, and those of Neviano de' Rossi, Salsomaggiore, and Lesignano de' Bagni were found still later. 24 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Petroleum from the wells of Amiano, on the Taro, was used for lighting the cities of Genoa, Parma, and Borgo San Donnino as early as 1802, but the pro- duction at that time does not appear to have exceeded from 200 to 300 kilo- grammes a day, and the wells seem to have been speedily exhausted. The districts in Italy in which petroleum has been found in quantity are― (1) the Zone of Emilia; (2) the valley of the Pescara, in the province of Chieti ; and (3) the valley of the Liri, near San Giovanni Incarico, about midway between Rome and Naples. The Zone of Emilia occupies the southern parts of the provinces of Piacenza, Parma, Modena, and Bologna, as shown on the map (fig. 1), which is reduced from that in the annual Government report Relazione sul Servizio Minerario nel 1890 (Florence, 1892). In 1866 Professor Stoppani, the geologist, described the petroleum-wells of Montechino and the burning fountains or fires of Velleia, the latter of which occurred in two groups on the banks of the Chero, extending over an area of about 250 square yards. The gas issued from calcareous rocks associated with beds of bluish clay of the Subapennine formation. It burned with a flickering flame a few feet in height, and emitted a strong smell of petroleum. The wells of Montechino, on the right bank of the Riglio, were described by this authority as from 19 to 63 yards deep, lined with large bricks cemented together, and perfectly cylindrical. The wells were then yielding from 160 to 180 lbs. of petroleum daily. An artesian well drilled at Montechino in 1866 by a Genoese company was said to be yielding, at a depth of 50 metres, half a barrel daily of straw-coloured, very volatile petroleum. Stoppani notes that petroleum was plentiful on both banks of the Riglio, and had been collected by sinking in the bed of the stream a number of empty barrels, which became filled with the oil by infiltration. The petroleum-deposits of this district have also been described by Mr. E. St. John Fairman (A Treatise on the Petroleum Zones of Italy, 1868). The territory of Miano di Medesano is distant about 25 kilometres (about 15 miles) from Parma, and is bounded on the southwest by the River Taro, two streams, the Campanara and the Dordone, forming portions of the northern and southern boundaries respectively. The surface is hilly, and the ground slopes sharply in places to the watercourses. The whole area is also intersected by the beds of numerous rivulets, forming deep ravines. During rainy weather, and when the atmospheric pressure is low, the characteristic odour of bitumen is stated to be observed in the valleys, and at certain seasons of the year the oil itself is often found on the surface of stagnant water. In many places on the property, and especially on the banks of the Campanara and its tributaries, there are remains of dug wells. The usual depth of such wells is not more than 40 to 60 metres, though some are said to have been as much as 100 metres deep. The depth to which such wells can be sunk depends upon the quantity of gas met with, and in some localities-Ozzano, for instance-where gas is abundant, it is said that a depth of 25 metres cannot be exceeded. The wells are usually 1.3 metres in diameter, and are lined with bricks 2 inches in thickness. All those wells that came under the author's observation when he visited the district in 1894 had become filled with sand and water, but in and around several of them petroleum-gas was rising through the water in bubbles, and could be ignited. There appeared to be only one well (the Galetta well) in the field from which oil was then being obtained. In 1869 a company was established at Parma for the development of the petroleum resources of Miano, and two artesian wells were drilled on the American system to the respective depths of 124 metres and 203 metres. In these wells, gas, water, and petroleum of a greenish-yellow colour were met with. Unfortunately the wells were not ITALY. 25 3º West of Rome. Castel San Giovan Borgonovo Piacenza R. Tidone 43 N. Voghera .Retorbido Ghiaja Hivanazzaлo Volpedo R. Staffora Rivergaro R. Trebbia San Sebastiano Rocchetta Bobbio Borbera San Stefano 30 Scriv Torriglia R Bisagios Nervi Cicagna R Lavagna Recco R Borzonasca Rapallo Chiavart Lavagna Sestri GULF OF GENOA R.Nure Montechia echiaro Pontenure B.Chero Fiorenzuola 2°30' R. Po R.Stiron Rochia Dorino R. Ter 2° Casalmaggiore Viadana & md R. Enza Guastalla R. Crostolo 1° 30' Mirandola Reggio Carpi▪ Secchia 1° Map showing Occurrences of PETROLEUM AND GAS in the EMILIAN PROVINCES, ITALY. Oil - Wells. ▲ Emanations of Gas. Kms.5 10 20 Scale. 30 40 50 Ponte dell'Oglio Castell'Arquato & Montechino Vellera R. Arda Bardi Borgo Sar Salsomaggiore Pellegrino B. Leno Medesano miano Tarma Ozzano [Neviano de Bossi Bivolta R. Taro Baganza R. Parma Bedonia Borgotaro Varese Pontremoli Corniglio R. Scagli lano Auffa Levanto Vozzanoj Pozid 3º West of Rome Fivizzano Traversetolo Torre San Polo Canossa Casola Querzola Scandiano απο Modena Nonanta Sassuolo Nirano, Castelvetro Bazzano Monte Pijanello Istelnuovo Romanoro R. Dolo R.Secchia Roccasuolog Parigazzo R.S Schistenna Sassostone Pavullo R.Venola Tole. Vergato Gaggia Biola Montecreto Pievepelago 2" 30 FIG. 1. 2º 1° 30 R. Reno Bologna R.Settu R.Savena Idice udtio 30 Bledecina από B.Sillaro Sassuno Imola Bisano Bergullo R.Santerno Hiolo Casola Valsenio ietramara Piet R. Senio Firenzuola R. 26 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. properly cased, and they caved in after having yielded by pumping several barrels of petroleum, which was sold in Parma at 100 francs the 100 kilo- grammes. The work commenced by this company was continued by Achille Donzelli & Co., who, as concessionaires, completed three dug wells lined with brickwork, and thus collected the surface-oil. Three petroliferous localities. were proved to exist. The first, to the north of the Rio Campanara, yielding a straw-coloured oil; the second, known as the spring of the Rio della Fontana, 400 metres to the southwest of the first, producing a greenish-yellow oil; and the third, known as the spring of the Rio Lombasino, about 1000 metres to the south-southeast of the second, giving a reddish-brown petroleum. The yellow surface-oil was met with at a depth of about 50 metres, and the brown at less than 20 metres. The petroleum property known as Neviano de' Rossi lies but a short distance to the southeast of Miano di Medesano, on the opposite side of the river Taro. In the general character of the surface, and of the geological formation, it closely resembles the Miano territory. The shallow wells which have been excavated in this locality are described as having perforated a bluish clay, interstratified with beds of sandy rock and thin bands of sandstone. The surface-deposits. were charged with water. According to the official report previously referred to, wells having a diameter of a metre and a half, and a depth varying from 45 to 50 metres, have been dug in this district for many years past, and the majority of these wells have yielded oil. In 1877 a French company drilled a well in which the first oil-bearing formation was met with at a depth of 42 metres, and according to Zoppetti ( Ann. Agric., 1880, 227), a second and more. The oil obtained was described productive oil-horizon was found at 52 metres. as being very pure, and of a straw-yellow colour. In a well at Neviano, which the author saw when it was being drilled, oil was said to have been found at a depth of from 54 to 60 metres. No sandstone or other compact rock was met with in drilling this well to a depth of 110 metres, but the clay was interstratified with bands of sand at a depth of 50 to 60 metres, and at a greater depth was sandy in character. In a well drilled on a neighbouring property at Ozzano Taro, nothing but clay was encountered down to a depth of 130 metres, below which bands of hard rock occurred. This well, which had at the time of the author's visit a depth of 200 metres, was stated to yield from 250 to 300 kilo- grammes of oil a day. According to Zoppetti, natural outflows of petroleum have been observed at Ozzano, on the right bank of the Taro, for a very long time, and in 1880 two wells were dug here, both of which yielded oil. Subse- quently three wells were drilled on the property by Deutsch & Co. The first gave at the commencement about one barrel of oil a day, the second was unproductive, and the third was abandoned unfinished. Specimens of petroleum collected by the author in the districts referred to had the following characters :- Miano-Sample from Galetta Well.-Colour, dark red by transmitted light. Considerable fluorescence. Odour very slight, and not disagreeable. Specific gravity 0-908. Flashing-point 190° F. (close test). Remains fluid at zero F. Neviano-Sample from Drilled Well.-Colour, amber by transmitted light. Exhibiting very marked fluorescence, causing the oil to appear green by reflected light. Odour resembling that of benzol. Specific gravity 0-805. Flashing- point 44° F. (Abel test). Remains fluid at zero F. Ozzano-Sample from Drilled Well.-Colour similar to that of the Neviano specimen. Odour characteristic of petroleum of good quality. Specific gravity 0.807. Flashing-point below zero F. Remains fluid at zero F. In 1885, when it was expected that there would be a large produticon of ITALY. 27 petroleum at Salsomaggiore, a refinery was erected at Borgo San Donnino, and the petroleum produced at Salsomaggiore, Montechino, Velleia, and other places. was refined there. In 1889 the amount so refined was 589 tons of crude petroleum. Subsequently another refinery was erected at Fiorenzuola d'Arda, and another near Velleia. There is also a refinery at Milan. Many wells, from 14 to 22 metres deep, have been dug at Rivanazzano (Pavia), and artesian wells have been drilled to depths of 120 to 180 metres. In the latter, salt water was met with at a depth of 20 to 30 metres, while at a depth of 70 to 80 metres an outburst of gas occurred which ejected salt water, mixed with petroleum, from the bore-hole. The strata perforated are said to have consisted mainly of calcareous tufa and beds of sandy clay. The wells at first yielded several barrels of oil daily by pumping, but the output diminished to 20 or 30 litres daily. The property passed into the hands of an Italo-French company in 1880. Three wells were then drilled by the Canadian system to depths of from 200 to 300 metres, and these were asserted to yield regularly five or six barrels of oil a day. In 1883 Zoppetti (Riv. Serv. Min.) stated that there were in Rivanazzano four wells of over 200 metres in depth, and a fifth in course of boring. The rocks met with were, according to this authority, principally limestone, marl, and clay-sand. The oil appears to have been comparatively heavy, and to have been found in a soft, sandy bed, with salt water and much gas. In the vicinity of Salsomaggiore, much gas has been met with in drilling, one well, of a depth of 120 metres, yielding such large quantities that the gaseous product was conveyed to the village by piping and used for lighting the roads. At Salsominore, on simply disturbing the surface of the ground, the gas issues in places in sufficient quantity to admit of being ignited. A similar phenomenon was observed by the author in the neighbourhood of Pietramala across the Tuscan frontier. The statistics of the production of petroleum in Italy, given in an appendix to this work, indicate that from 1860 to 1870 the principal production was in the Zone of Emilia and the valley of the Pescara, the oil from the latter district being entered under the heading of Chieti, while in the succeeding similar period the oil produced (602 tons) was mainly from wells at San Giovanni di Incarico, entered under the heading of Caserta, the industrial activity in the two former localities having almost ceased. After 1880 the yield of the wells at San Giovanni di Incarico diminished greatly, and at the same time fresh developments were commenced in the valley of Pescara, but the results were inconsiderable, the production in 1883 not exceeding 125 tons. In the Zone of Emilia, on the other hand, the production was maintained. In the latter part of 1889 the average yield was at the rate of about 120 tons per annum, but in 1890 it had increased to 360 tons, the efforts of producers being stimulated by the protection of the native industry afforded by an increase in the import duties on foreign petroleum. Towards the end of the last century considerable activity was shown by Zipperlen & Co., in drilling in the valley of the Chero, near Velleia. In this company's report for the year 1892, published in the Paris L'Argus, it is stated that the production of petroleum from the company's wells, which was 928,000 kilos. in 1891, had increased in 1892 to 2,391,666 kilos. There were seventeen productive wells, and six more in course of drilling. A Decauville railway had been laid to the wells, and telephonic communications had been established, by means of a line 8 kilometres in length, between Velleia and the furthest point on the concession, where the pipe-line delivered the petroleum from the wells on to the Chero. In 1893 the production of petroleum had increased to 2,648,803 kilos., the smallness of the increase, 2.8 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. as compared with that of the previous year, being ascribed to the exploiting of a new zone. Four new wells were in course of drilling. The production of petroleum has always been largest in Emilia, most of the oil coming from the province of Piacenza. From 1893 to 1903 the output remained practically stationary, but there was a great increase in 1905, the amount for that year being more than double that for 1904, or over 6000 tons. In 1908 the production was over 7000 tons, but in 1909 had fallen to 5895 tons, of which 5888 tons was derived from the provinces of Parma and Piacenza. ZANTE. The tar-wells of Zante, mentioned by Herodotus and other ancient writers, are situated near the south coast, in the Keri valley. The chief well is at the present time a shallow excavation of irregular oval form, about 8 feet by 5 feet in dimensions, filled with clear water to a depth of about 18 inches. The stones at the bottom are covered with a layer of viscid, black petroleum, and there is a constant formation of bubbles of gas, accompanying the upward flow of water. This action is said to be most energetic at the approach of earthquakes. The air in the neighbourhood is strongly impregnated with the odour of petro- leum, and the surface of the sea is stated to be covered at times with a film of oil extending up to the coast of Greece. Near the wells, on both sides of the valley of Keri, are deposits of tar, which the country people amuse them- selves by lighting. The material is collected by the fishermen, and used in pitching their boats. Repeated attempts have been made to secure a commercially-valuable yield of this petroleum by boring, but all have proved futile, the frequency of earth- quakes in this region having, apparently, so shattered the limestone in which the oil originally existed, as to have caused the loss of all but an insignificant and widely-dispersed residuum. A specimen of the oil, collected by the author during a visit to the island in 1890, had a density of 1.02, while the oil since obtained by the boring- operations, a specimen of which the author has also examined, had a specific gravity of 1·006. Both samples were of black colour, of tarry character, and had very little odour. GERMANY. (Plate 3.) The earliest mention of petroleum in Germany is in the year 1436, when petroleum from the Tegernsee district of Bavaria was employed under the name of St. Quirinus's oil as a medicinal preparation. ( دو There are three principal groups of oil-territories, viz. :-(1) Wietze, Steinförde, Oelheim, and elsewhere in the kingdom of Prussia; (2) Lobsann, Pechelbronn (pech-pitch), Schwabweiler, and elsewhere in the neighbourhood of Hagenau (16 miles north of Strasburg), in Lower Elsass, including Altkirch (20 miles westward of Basle in Upper Elsass) (see fig. 2); and (3) the Tegernsee district in Bavaria. In Prussia (see Plate 3) the existence of petroleum has been known since the middle of the sixteenth century. In 1889 drilling was introduced in the Wietze-Steinförde district, and oil was found in sufficient quantity to be of commercial value. In 1894 the average production was about 40 barrels daily, and one well was reported to have yielded, for a short time, at the rate of 250 barrels a day. A sample of the oil, taken by the author from a well which was stated to be yielding about 20 barrels daily by pumping, was found to have a specific gravity of 0-951 at 60° F., a flashing-point of 200° F., by the ELSASS.. 29 Abel test, a cold test of 15° F., and a viscosity (taking that of rape oil at 60° F. as 100) of 986-6 at 70° F., and of 67·56 at 140° F., as determined by the Redwood viscometer. In 1897 there were 80 wells in operation, each yielding on an average 20 barrels a day. In 1899 wells were sunk to depths of from 140 to 200 metres, and a more abundant supply reached, as much as 400 barrels a day being obtained from a single well. The oil was of a dark reddish-brown colour, with a specific gravity of 0.930, and was rich in lubricating oil. In 1901 the Celle- Wietze Petroleum Producing Company drilled yet deeper and found another oil-bearing stratum containing oil of a greenish colour, with a specific gravity of 0.890. From that time the production in the Hanover district increased rapidly, and in 1904 was over 67,000 tons. In that year, out of sixty wells drilled in the Wietze field, twenty-eight were producing, the depth of these wells ranging from 450 to 1400 feet. A great increase in production took place in 1907, and continued in 1908, the total annual production in Prussia in 1908 and 1909 being over 113,000 tons. A good deal of work has been done in the Oelheim field, and in 1881 there were here twelve wells, producing 1250 barrels of oil a week from an area of about 20 acres. Great difficulty was, however, experienced in excluding water from the wells, and in 1886 the production had declined to 60 or 70 barrels a day. Subsequently the wells yielded far more water than oil, and could not be profitably pumped. The oil-fields of Elsass were at one time by far the most important in Ger- many, apart from their possessing much historical interest. The petroleum of Pechelbronn (see fig. 2) was discovered in a spring in 1498, and was skimmed off the water and used by the peasantry as a lubricant and in lamps. In 1735 Dr. Eryn von Erynnis detected the outcrop of oil-sand 150 metres from the spring, and distilled the oil from it in a small cast-iron retort. In 1745 a formal concession was granted by Louis XV to M. de la Sablonnière, who had bought Dr. Erynnis's rights, and proved the ground by several borings, erecting also a small refinery. Operations on a large scale were delayed till 1785, and from that time to 1870 the bituminous sand was systematically mined by shaft and gallery, and the oil extracted by displacement with boiling water, but, losing its volatile elements by evaporation in the process, the product was a viscid, barely- fluid tarry substance. Gas-discharges had caused several accidents, and with the increasing depth of the mines, fluid petroleum appeared. For the next decade, work consisted in removing oil and sand from the galleries and shafts of the mines. In 1881 boring was introduced, the Fauvelle (water-flush) system being employed, as giving satisfactory results in the soft strata encountered. The wells in many cases overflowed, yielding large quantities of oil, generally with 30 to 50 per cent. of water. In some of the wells much gas, with a slight odour of sulphuretted hydrogen, accompanies the oil, but the latter is said to be free from sulphur-compounds. The yield generally continues for several years from each well, with but slight diminution, and the mining process was finally abandoned in 1888. On the property there is a refinery of considerable capacity, part of which is modern, and the usual commercial products are manufactured there. On the adjoining concessions of the Elsass Petroleum Company, drilling was commenced in 1889, and subsequently the Canadian system was successfully introduced, the impervious clays making it easy to shut off the surface-water completely. The Company erected a refinery at Biblisheim for the product of the wells in that commune, in Oberstritten adjoining it on the east, 30 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. 49° N OIL FIELDS OF LOWER Niederbronn 25° E. of Ferro Oberbro Reichshofe We ELSASS. Offweiler Grindershofe CRothbach Bischholz Uttenhofen Mühlhausen Engweiler Sparsha Schillers dork Untweiler Frkartsw Mietesheim Weina NGWELLER Merchhofer Zutzendorf Kindweiler Bitschhofen Pfaffenhofen Weitersweil Ober Uberach Uttweiter Nieder-Sulzbach Obermodern Niedermodern Schalkendorf Ringeldorf NEUWEILER BUCHSWEILER Ο O Morschweiler Griesbach Busweiler Dosservier Biedheim Ringendorf Hütteldorf Hattmatt Ernolsheim Prinzheim Geisweiler Zöbersdorf Alteckendorf Mivversheim Johann Kirweiler Grassendorf Biedheim Issenhauseno Ettendorf Imbsheim Bosselshausen Lixhausen bei Zabern Steinburg Gottesheim Wickersheim Bossendorf Gattenhausen Furchhausen Wittershrim Scherlenheim Hochfelden Mommenheim Schwijdratzheim Canal Mutzenhausen Wingersheim Gingsheim Hohytzenheim Friedolsheun Dunzenheim Gugenheim о Roh Mittelhausen Gimbrett Eckartsweiler, Dettweiler Monsweiler Melsheim o Waldolisheim ZABERN Typstein Ingenheim Ottersweiler Olittenheim Schaffhausen •Altenheim Schweinheim Hägen Wolschheim Thal Doc Dockweiler pler Mannolsheim Klingoft Dimbstha Knorsheim Durningen Berstetto Truchtersheim Schnersheim Kittolsheim OBehlenheim DossenheimWiwersheim enheim Noraheun Fessenheim Quatzenheim Landershein Kienheim Rumersheim •Westhause MAURSMUNSTER Ο Kingrist Zennacker Zeinheim Avenheim Salenthal O Jettersweiler Krastatt Q Ranger Hohengoft Neugartherm Titelnheim tt WASSELNHEIM 25° 20' 'E. of Ferro. 48° 36' N Scale = 1:250,000 FIG. 2. ELSASS. 31 25° 20' E. of Ferro. 49° N. Windstein acherbr "Mattstall o Reidselz oBremmelbach Birlenbach Langensulzbach Nehweiler Lampertsloch ins Lobsann Keffenach Ingolsheim örsdorfo Mitschdorf Fröschweiler Preuschdori oMemmelshofen Retschweiler Hurspa Sulz Schönenburg Pechelbronn Wörth •Hermersweiler Diefenbach Hofen Oberdorfo Hohweiler Eberbach Gunstett Reimersweiler Leitersweiler Kühlendorf Surburg Forstheim Morsbro Biblisheim Rittershofeno Griesbach Dürrenbach Schwabweiler Ober Wieder- Hatten Hegenero betschtdorf Laibach Walbury Eschbach Merzweiler Hagenauer Wal d 25° 40′ E. of Ferro Schweighan • Uhlweiler Ohlungen Wintershausen Berstheim • Batzendorf 。 Hochsteft Wallenheim HAGENAU Kaltenhausen Nieder Sufflenheings Schirhofen Schirrheim Spechback Mafurt BISCHWENER Schäffolsheim. Rottelsheim Kriegsheim Heidweiler Tanisheim Bernolsheim Gries Weitbruch Walherm Krautweiler Aspach O BRUMATH tersdor Geudertheim Weyersheim Betterheim ALTKIRCH Carspach Hirzbach Olwisheith Hördt Ewersheim 24°50'E Vendenheim Canal Lampertheim Mundolsheim Suffelweersheim Mittelhausberger Wanzenau Reichstett Schiltigheim To Strassburg in e Rhiz 48° 36' N. Scale = 1:250,000. FIG. 2. Hirsingen Bettendorf Heimersdor Grenziragen о Largitsen Bisel Ruderbuch Respachat Feldbach UPPER ELSASS 47° 30 N 24°58′E 32 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUnt. and in Ohlungen and Uhlweiler, 12 kilometres southwestward. The Schwab- weiler field, 7 kilometres east of Biblisheim, had a brief period of prosperity under the old system of mining the oil-charged sands, but with the thinning away of the lenticular beds this came to an end in 1883, and subsequent borings proved fruitless. Equally short-lived were operations in the Altkirch district. of Upper Elsass, from 1782-1785 and 1817-1820. Pari passu with the direct production of petroleum, operations, commenced in 1785, have been carried out in the asphaltic limestone and sandstone of Lobsann and Kleeburg, northwards of Pechelbronn, the rock being distilled for illuminating and lubricating oils. The belt of asphaltic rock lies close to the foot of the Vosges Mountains, and in consequence of the steep slopes which are everywhere prevalent, the outcrop of the nearly horizontal asphalt series is comparatively narrow, and it is followed under the thick superjacent clay by adits, the original shafts. serving for ventilation. The impervious cover practically prevents the access of water to the mines, which have not yet been carried back to the older rock which forms the mountain immediately to the northwest. Dr. Engler states (Dingler's polyt. Journ., cclxvii, 555 and 592: and celxviii, 76) that the Pechelbronn oil has a specific gravity of 0.878 to 0.885, while that of the Tegernsee district, which otherwise resembles it, has a specific gravity of about 0-812. A specimen of petroleum from the wells at Ohlungen, on the Rudolph concessions near Hagenau, examined in the author's laboratory, had a specific gravity of 0.873, and a flashing-point of 37° F. (Abel test). It contained a very considerable proportion of solid hydrocarbons. The oil, which exhibited very little fluorescence, was of black colour by reflected light, but by trans- mitted light in a thin layer it was dark brown, and it had neither a strong nor a disagreeable odour. From information supplied to the author by Mr. J. Berg, in 1902, it appears that there were at that time 248 producing wells in Elsass, with an aggregate output of 24,000 metric tons per annum. The production in 1908 was nearly 29,000 tons, and in 1909 somewhat in excess of that amount. GREAT BRITAIN. 66 In England, attention was directed to the petroleum and bituminous deposits of certain districts at an early date. In 1667 Thomas Shirley (Phil. Trans., ii, 482) mentioned the escape of an inflammable gas from water in a spring near Wigan, and in 1739 Dr. Clayton (Ibid., xli, 59) described the same or an adjacent spring. Mr. Shirley dammed off the water, and found that the gases escaping from the earth at that place could be ignited by a candle, and that the not to be flame burned to a height of a foot and a half. The flame was found discoloured like that of sulphurous bodies, nor to have any manifest smell with it." Dr. Clayton referred to the locality as a ditch two miles from Wigan in Lancashire, the water in which would seemingly burn like brandy, the flame being so fierce that several strangers boiled eggs over it." Noticing the proximity of coal, Dr. Clayton distilled some of the coal and, with the " spirit," he filled a good many bladders . . . . almost as fast as a man could have blown them with his mouth, and yet the quantity of coals distilled was incon- siderable." Camden, in his Britannia (ed. 1722, p. 971), also describes this place thus : Within a mile and a half of Wiggin, is a well which does not appear to be a spring, but rather rain-water. At first sight, there is nothing about it which seems extraordinary; but upon emptying it there presently breaks out a sulphurous vapour, which makes the water bubble up as if it boyl'd. 66 CC ENGLAND. 33 When a Candle is put to it, it presently takes fire, and burns like brandy. The flame, in a calm season, will continue sometimes a whole day, by the heat whereof they can boyl eggs, meat, &c., tho' the water itself be cold. By this bubbling the water does not increase; but is only kept in motion by the Halitus of the vapours breaking out. The same water taken out of the Well, will not burn; as neither the mud upon which the Halitus has beat [Phil. Trans., N. 26]; and this shews, that it is not so much the water that takes fire, as some bituminous or sulphureous fumes that break out there." Dr. Plot, in a " Discourse on the sepulchral lamps of the Ancients " (Phil. Trans., xiv, 806, 1684), says, that at "Pitchford, in Shropshire, there is a naphtha or liquid bitumen that constantly issues forth with a spring there and floats on the water." The late Mr. Topley and the author, in the year 1894, inspected this spring, which is in the grounds of Pitchford Hall, and collected a small quantity of semi-solid bitumen from the surface of the water. Martin Eele (Phil. Trans., xix, 544, 1697) states that “in Brosely, Bently, Pitchford, and other places adjacent in Shropshire, there lies over most of the coal pits or mines a stratum or layer of a blackish rock or stone of some thickness, which is porous and contains in it great quantities of bituminous matters." Eele describes the separation of the tar by treatment with boiling water, and the distillation of the stone for obtaining an oil which may be used for oil of Petre or turpentine, and has been used by divers persons in aches or pains." In conjunction with T. Hancock and W. Portlock, this observer obtained a patent (dated 1694, No. 330) for A way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a kind of stone." The petroleum of Pitchford acquired considerable celebrity, for we read in Rees's Cyclopædia (1819, article Bitumen ") that the sandstone strata of this district are saturated with it, and that the oil obtained by distillation was sold at that time as "Betton's British Oil" for curing strains and rheumatism. The following reference to Pitchford occurs in Camden's Britannia (ed. 1722, 649) — A little village call'd Pitchford, which formerly gave name to the ancient family of the Pitchfords, is now the possession of the Otelies. Our ancestors gave it the name of Pitchford from a spring of pitchy water; for in those days, they knew no distinction between pitch and bitumen. And here is a well in a poor man's yard, upon which there floats a sort of liquid bitumen, although it be every day scummed off after the same manner as it doth on the lake Asphaltites in Judaea, and on a standing pool about Samosata, and on a spring by Agrigentum in Sicily; but the inhabitants make no other use of it than as pitch. Whether it be a preservative against the Falling-sickness, or be good for drawing and healing of wounds (as that in Judaea is), I know no one yet that has made the experiment. Here, and in the adjacent places, there lies over most of the Coal-pits or Mines, a Stratum or layer of blackish rock, of which, by grinding and boiling, they make pitch and tar, and from which also a kind of Oil is distill'd." The same authority gives interesting descriptions of other deposits. Re- ferring to Fife (p. 1232), he says:-" After this, upon the shore, is Dysert, situate on the side of a rising ground, with an open heath of the same name stretch'd out before it. Here is a good large place, which they call the Coal-plot, that hath great plenty of an earthy Bitumen, part whereof (ann. 1607) is on fire, not without damage to the neighbours." In his description of Lancashire (p. 969), he speaks of " Formby, where, in the mossy grounds, they cast up Turves, which serve the Inhabitants both for fire and candle. Under the turf there lies a blackish dead water, which has a kind of oily fat substance floating upon it." VOL. I. CO 3 34 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Dr. Black (Lectures on Chemistry, 1803, ii, 377) records that a hard variety of bitumen was discovered in sandstone in cutting a level to a coal-mine on the bank of the Severn, and that St. Catherine's Well at Liberton yielded petroleum more than a century before his time. A variety of bitumen, known as mineral indiarubber," on account of its elastic properties, was found at an early date in the Odin Mine, near Castleton, Derbyshire, and was called elaterite by Hausmann (Aikin's Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy, 1807, Article "Bitumen "). A considerable number of other districts where petroleum similarly occurs are known, and although it has been suggested that some, at least, of the deposits may have been produced, by a natural process of distillation, from coal or bituminous shales, there is no reason to doubt that most of them are true petroleum, and quite distinct from the oils which are obtained by known pro- cesses of distillation from either coal or shale. An intermittent flow of petroleum, mixed with its own volume of water, occurs at the rate of from 70 to 100 gallons daily at the Southgate Colliery, Clowne, near Chesterfield. The rock from which it issues lies at a depth of about 320 yards, the strata being much broken by faults, and the dip being about 1 in 12 east. Petroleum also occurs at Worsley, and at Wigan and West Leigh, in the Lancashire coal-fields; at Longton, in North Staffordshire; and at Coalbrook- dale and Wellington, in Shropshire. In 1874, a small refinery was erected at Cobridge, in North Staffordshire, for treating the oil found in the Mear Hay colliery, the yield being about 5 tons per week. The operations only continued for a few years. In 1811 Dr. Richard Bright (Trans. Geol. Soc. (1), iv, 199) described a Liassic limestone in the neighbourhood of Bristol, from which petroleum sometimes exuded. The rock contained large quantities of the remains of crustaceans, corallines, and encrinites. In the same year Mr. Arthur Aikin (ibid. (1), i, 195) described the occurrence of petroleum in the coal-field of Shropshire. He states that the strata are two coarse-grained sand- stones, having a total thickness of 15 feet, but separated by a sandy slate-clay 4 feet in thickness. These sandstones supply the petroleum of Coalport, of which Dr. Prestwich (Trans. Geol. Soc. (2), v, 438, 1836) says: The well- known tar-spring at Coalport, which had its rise in one of the thick sandstones of the central series, formerly yielded nearly 1000 gallons a week, but it now produces only a few gallons in the same time. In sinking a shaft at Priorslee, the 20-yard rock was so charged with petroleum that the shaft was converted into a tar-well. It formerly yielded 2 or 3 gallons a day. In a pit at the top of the same dingle, petroleum exudes in so great abundance from every crevice in the little coal,' and from the shale forming the roof, that the colliers are obliged, in the latter case, to have large plates of iron suspended over them. More rarely, petroleum is found in cavities of the Pennystone nodules." × The occurrence of petroleum in the Broxburn shales has been described by Mr. D. R. Steuart in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, vol. vi, pp. 128, 352 (1887). 66 The indications of petroleum at Down Holland were thus described in 1843 in a paper read by Messrs. Binney and Talbot before the Manchester Geological Society The whole of the moss is in cultivation, either under the plough or in grass, and has been so for at least forty or fifty years, and all, or the greater portion of it, lies at a lower level than the high-water mark of the sea at Formby. On approaching the place where the peat containing petroleum occurs, from Down Holland, the authors soon became aware of its presence by an empyreu- matic smell, resembling that yielded by Persian naphtha, and the water in the ENGLAND. 35 ditches was also coated with a thin film of an oily iridescent fluid that floated upon its surface. In walking over some oat-stubble fields, and thrusting their heels through the black decomposed peat forming the soil, they felt a hard pitchy mass of 3 or 4 inches in thickness, which yields no smell unless it is burned. On exposure to the atmosphere for a time, the pitchy mass lost the greater part of its inflammability, and was finally converted into black mould. This substance also occurred under the roots of the grass in old swardfields, but it then yielded an odour similar to the petroleum that floated on the surface of the water and pervaded the moist peat. Attention was again drawn to the subject of the occurrence of petroleum in England, by the reported influx of a considerable quantity of petroleum into a water well at Ashwick Court, near Shepton Mallet in Somersetshire. The circumstances of the case were carefully investigated by the late Mr. Topley and the author, but the discovery, though perhaps of scientific interest, is of no commercial importance. The principal flow of oil into the well occurred im- mediately after the occurrence of an earthquake-shock in 1892, and it is stated that several barrels of oil were collected at the time. Ashwick Court stands on the higher beds of the Carboniferous Limestone on the northern slopes of the Mendip Hills, the elevation being about 670 feet above the sea. The central line of the Mendips is formed of Old Red Sandstone, reaching to elevations of over 900 feet. From this ridge the strata dip to the north on the northern side, the dip being 50° or more in many places in the neighbourhood of Ashwick. It is not easy to determine the dip of the limestone in the well itself. There are two lines of division traversing the rock; one dips to the north at an angle of from 70° to 80°, and contains red clay, from 1 to 2 inches in thickness, which yields distinct traces of petroleum. In appearance the clay resembles the new red marl of the district, and it has probably been introduced from the surface by the downward percolation of water. Other lines of division-probably joint-planes-dip to the southeast at an angle of from 35° to 40°. The bands of shale with their limestones (the "Upper Limestone Shales "), which occur occasionally between the Carboniferous Limestone and the overlying Millstone Grit, appear to be absent at Ashwick. At Giddy Lane, 1 miles east of Ash wick, and at Stoke Lane, rather over 2 miles E.S.E. of Ashwick, similar indica tions also occur. The oil obtained at Ashwick Court was straw-coloured. transparent, and practically free from fluorescence. It had an odour resembling that of refined, rather than crude, petroleum. Its specific gravity at 60° F. was 0-816, and its flashing-point was about 175° F. (Abel test). When cooled to 28° F.. separation of solid hydrocarbons commenced. The oil was found to be free from sulphur compounds. Wells at Rose Hill, Ruabon, and at Erbistock Lodge, 1000 yards west of Rose Hill, are also contaminated by petroleum. The well at Rose Hill, 35 feet deep, which was examined by the late Mr. Topley and the author, appears to be sunk mainly through red marls, but in the lower 3 or 4 feet the strata are slightly sandy, and from there the water comes. That at Erbistock is said to be 90 feet deep, and the bottom would probably be about 900 feet above the top of the Coal Measures. In the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, vii, 701 (1888), will be found a note stating that petroleum had also been discovered in a well at Anderton, Northwich. In a paper read in November of last year (1911) before the Yorkshire Section of the Society of Chemical Industry, Professor Cohen and Mr. C. P. Finn described a spring of oil found in the Hemsworth Collieries, northeast of 36 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. F Barnsley, which has been flowing for about ten years, though only in small quantities. Renewed attention has recently been directed to the occurrence of petroleum in England by discoveries at Kelham, near Newark, and in the neighbourhood of London, at Willesden. In the former locality, a flow of petroleum amount- ing to five or six gallons a day was obtained from a bore-hole which had been made in searching for coal. The oil, which was met with in porous sandstone at a depth of between 2400 and 2500 feet, was examined by the author, and was found to have a specific gravity of 0.914. It was a moderately viscous oil of dark reddish-brown colour, and had a flash-point of 146° F. It yielded no benzine, and only a little kerosene, but it contained 7 to 8 per cent. of solid hydrocarbons. At Willesden, traces of oil, accompanied by gas, are reported to have been met with at a depth of 1600 feet. The occurrence of Natural Gas near Wigan has already been described. It occurs also in Scotland and Wales, as mentioned in the following section. During the construction of the Thames Tunnel inflammable gas was met with in such quantities that it exploded on coming into contact with the lights used by the workmen. Natural gas is mentioned also in Mr. H. Willett's 13th Quarterly Report of the sub-Wealden Exploration, 1875, as occurring at Netherfield. But it is at Heathfield, in Sussex, that the chief source of it, as at present discovered in Great Britain, is found. Here it was first discovered in the year 1893, in a bore-hole sunk for water in the yard of the Heathfield Hotel, close to the Heathfield Railway Station, at a depth of 228 feet. As no water was found, and the gas was considered dangerous, the well was sealed. In 1896 the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway Company made an- other boring for water near the mouth of the tunnel about 100 yards distant from the former one. At a depth of 312 feet gas was met with in considerable quantities, and, becoming ignited, a flame sprang up some 16 feet high. The bore was carried to 377 feet, and then abandoned, as no water was found. The well was capped, and the gas utilised for illuminating and heating purposes. The pressure is stated to be about 150 lbs., although about 1000 cubic feet have been used daily since 1896. It is said to be much richer in hydro- carbons than American natural gas, and to burn with a more brilliant flame. Other wells have been bored in the neighbourhood by the Natural Gas Fields of England, Ltd., in which gas is said to have been met with at a depth of 400 feet with a pressure of 200 lbs. to the square inch, and the aggregate output for the year 1904 is officially reported to have been 774,800 cubic feet. In 1909, 236,800 cubic feet were obtained, the gas being used by the East Sussex Gas and Water Company, and to light Heathfield Railway Station. < ¢ The manufacture of "tar, pitch, essential oils, volatile alkali," etc., by distilling pit coal, was made the subject of a patent by Archibald, Earl of Dundonald (No. 1291, A.D. 1781), and H. Haskins (Patent No. 619, A.D. 1746) obtained "a spirit of oyl" out of tar by distillation and repeated rectification. Reichenbach, in 1830, found paraffin in the products of the destructive distilla- tion of wood (Schweigger's Jahrbuch der Chemie und Physik, xxix, 436-460); and in 1838 Selligue obtained a patent in France for the production of oil by distilling bituminous schist (No. 9467, A.D. 1838). Gesner used lamp-oil distilled from coal, at public lectures in Prince Edward's Island, as early as 1846, and patented in 1854 (U.S. patents No. 11,203, 11,204, and 11,205) the production of "kerosene " by distilling "bitumen wherever found." In 1847 James Young, the founder of the Scottish Shale Oil Industry, commenced working a petroleum deposit in the Riddings Colliery at Alfreton, FRANCE AND SWITZERLAND. 37 in Derbyshire, and in 1850 secured a patent (No. 13,292) for obtaining" paraffine oil or an oil containing paraffine, and paraffine from bituminous coals.' In 1853 and 1854 Warren de la Rue obtained patents (No. 1897, a.d. 1853, and No. 2719, A.D. 1854) for preparing paraffin, etc., from petroleum. His process was formerly worked by Price's Patent Candle Company and Messrs. Chas. Price & Co., who operated on the "Rangoon oil" imported from the Yenangyaung district of Upper Burma. A white or yellow waxy substance found from time to time in some of the Irish (and Scotch) bogs received the name of " bog-butter" or butyrellite, and was so described as a mineral in Dana's System of Mineralogy, 5th edition. Professor W. I. Macadam, however, submitted samples to chemical analysis, and obtained results demonstrating that the substance, if not ordinary butter, was of similar composition. In a paper giving the results of his experiments (Mining Magazine, vol. vi, p. 175, 1885), he thus sums up the evidence: "Taking all the above results into consideration, I am decidedly of opinion that Butyrellite has no claim to be called a mineral," or to appear in text- books of mineralogy. The fact that a large number of the samples of this substance were found, and still exist in barrels, and can be seen by anyone who takes the trouble to visit the Museum of Antiquaries of Scotland, Edin- burgh, or the Dublin Museum, or the Belfast Museum; that samples have been wrapped in cloth, or bearing the marks of woven cloth, with rushes or other plant fibre; that the substance is only found in peat bogs (noted for their powers of arresting decomposition); and, lastly, that tradition speaks of the butter-dyke or butter-safe being dug in bogs, all point to the material being of veritable animal origin, and having nothing in common with the mineral kingdom. "But outside all this mass of evidence, chemical, circumstantial, and traditional, the butter-for butter it is-has its own story to tell. One and all of these samples, on being broken across, or, still better, when treated with ether, yield to the observer a number of hairs, which on being examined under the microscope can be readily identified as resembling in all respects cow's hair, and in one case at least the very same bog has furnished not only bog- butter, but heads of oxen-these heads having still attached to them hairs exactly corresponding to those embedded in the butter. 66 As to how these kegs and masses of butter found their way into the positions from which they are now obtained we cannot here discuss; it is sufficient for our purpose to show that the material is not of mineral or even of resin origin, but of undoubted animal derivation. The material should therefore be erased from mineral lists.” FRANCE and SWITZERLAND. In France and Switzerland, although petroleum and bitumen have been known to exist in many localities for at least two centuries, being mentioned in the Mém. Acad. Paris as early as 1715, no commercially profitable deposits of oil have yet been found. The various places at which it occurs are mentioned in the following section. The shale deposits of France are of some importance, as is pointed out in the section describing the shale oil industry, and the celebrated asphalt of the Val de Travers occurs in the Department of Ain. The petroleum indications at Limagne, Puy de Dôme, have been described. by M. Alfred Arbaux (Notice sur le Pétrole d'Auvergne, 1890). The plain of Limagne lies between the mountain ranges of Puy de Dôme and Forets, and is 38 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. watered by the Allier and its tributaries. A trench cut in a field at Limagne is filled with water, on the surface of which oil occurs, especially in summer. Wells have been sunk to depths of 42, 50, 60, and 140 metres. At the greatest depth there was a violent disengagement of gas from a grey marl, so rich in bituminous matter that, when thrown on a fire, it burned briskly with a smoky flame characteristic of petroleum. The following are the results of an analysis made at the École des Mines, Paris, in 1886, of a sample of very thick “liquid bitumen," said to have come from the neighbourhood of Clermont-Ferrand (Puy de Dôme) :-Bitumen, 89.8 per cent.; water, 6.95 per cent. ; ferruginous ash, 3.25 per cent. The deposits of Clermont-Ferrand, Puy de la Poix, Malintrat, and Cœur were also examined by Mr. P. Juncker in 1890. The Tramway Company at Clermont-Ferrand sank a water-well to a depth of 165 metres, and found salt water, with which were associated drops of petroleum. At Puy de la Poix a well was sunk to a depth of 50 metres, at Malintrat to 42 metres, and at Cœur to 60 metres, but the work was abandoned for want of funds. A sample of liquid bitumen, which was associated with salt water im- pregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, was taken by Mr. Juncker at Puy de la Poix. The bitumen yielded 52 per cent. of "crude oil." Distillation commenced at 125° C., and was carried to 200° C. 66 >> A boring at Macholle, near Riom, was carried down in 1896 to a depth of about 1170 metres. Bitumen was met with in the clay at 638 metres, and a few litres of heavy sulphurous petroleum obtained. At 1115 metres brine and petroleum were found, and a few gallons of oil, of a specific gravity of 0·950, brought to the surface. SPAIN. In this country petroleum occurs in several localities. At Huidobro, about 30 miles north of Burgos, numerous surface-indications are observable, and a gallery driven for a distance of 56 metres into the side of a hill has shown the existence of heavy oil in the sandstone which was penetrated. A sample of this oil, examined by the author, was dark reddish-brown in colour by transmitted light, and had a slight and not unpleasant odour. Its specific gravity was 0.921, and its flashing-point 270° F. (Abel test). It contained solid hydrocarbons. Two wells have been drilled here, one of which was carried to a depth of about 500 metres, and traces of oil were met with. At Conil, near Cadiz, an outburst of petroleum occurred in 1894 at a depth of 40 metres in a shaft sunk for mining sulphur. The oil was mingled with water, having a disagreeable, sulphuretted odour, and inflammable gas, also of sulphuretted odour, escaped. The outflow continued for three or four days, and from 15 to 20 litres of the oil was collected. A specimen of this oil, received by the author, was of pale reddish-brown colour, and not unpleasant odour. It had a specific gravity of 0.837, and a flashing-point of 110° F. (Abel test). In 1907 renewed interest began to be manifested in the various possibly petroliferous districts of Cadiz. Three wells were drilled near Villamartin to a shallow depth, and in subsequent years trial borings were carried out in other parts of the province. ALGERIA. The existence of petroleum in Algeria has been known at least since the time of Strabo, who mentions its occurrence at Aïn Zeft, in the Arrondissement of Mostaganem, in the department of Oran. ALGERIA. 39 In 1877 operations were commenced here by driving headings into the out- crop and collecting the oil which flowed out. A considerable quantity of oil was thus obtained, but the difficulty pertaining to such a method of working, and other reasons, led to the abandonment of the attempt. From an official report made in 1881 by M. Baille, ex-Chief Government Mining Engineer for the Province of Oran, it appears that a heading driven into the hillside at Vieux Jardin, passed through grey, blue, and blackish marls and a vein of sulphur, into a stratum formed of blocks of gypsum cemented together by a blackish marl. M. Baille estimated that 56 cubic metres of petroleum had flowed out during the eighteen days preceding his visit, and states that there was then 238 cubic metres of crude petroleum stored in reservoirs at the springs, and 150 cubic metres at Djidiouia, where a refinery existed. In 1887 M. Jules Delecourt-Wincqz, Ingénieur Conseil de la Compagnie Internationale de Recherches des Mines et d'Enterprises de Sondages, et Secrétaire de la Com- mission des Mines, Bruxelles, reported on the property and recommended its development by modern methods. In 1891 the district was examined by the author, and subsequently reported upon by him in consultation with the late Mr. William Topley, F.R.S. In 1892 some trial-borings were made. In one oil was struck at 420 feet, and gas occurred at 680 feet, but neither was considered of value, and at 975 feet the boring was abandoned, as were also others which were put down in the same locality. In 1895, however, a well drilled to the depth of 1348 feet was more successful, and oil is said to have been obtained to the amount of about 7000 litres a day for a time, but subsequently the yield was only about 1600 litres a day. The productive series along the Dahra range consists of alternations of marl, clay, etc., with bands of gypsum, alabaster, and limestone. A thin band of sulphur also occurs, and can be traced from Aïn Zeft to above Vieux Jardin. Above the marls in which the petroleum is found, there appears to be an impervious bed of hard blackish marl about 5 metres in average thick- ness. A sample of the oil obtained at a depth of 12 feet was examined by the author. It was of a very dark brown or brownish-black colour, had a sulphur- etted odour, a specific gravity of 0.921 at 60° F., and a flashing-point of 60° F. (Abel test). It ceased to flow at 32° F., and was found to contain about 5 per cent. of solid hydrocarbons. A company was formed to work these deposits in 1902, and drilled a well to the depth of 1550 feet. At 1400 feet oil was found which rose 1000 feet in the bore-hole. At Port-aux-Poules, near Arzeu, are further evidences of petroleum. Off the fishing port of Port-aux-Poules, about 2 or 3 miles out at sea, the author observed gas, which had the characteristic odour of petroleum, rising through the water. Drilling operations have been carried on in this neighbourhood, but oil has not yet been found. According to a report published in 1894, a bore-hole 10 centimetres in diameter was drilled by M. Lainé in the valley of Oued-Ouarizane, to a depth of 74 metres. During the progress of the work several springs of water were struck, and at the depth stated, the water, which had a temperature of about 40° C., spouted intermittently to a height of more than 15 metres above the top of the casing. The outflow resembled an intermittent geyser, and was ac- companied by the emission of much gas, which, on being ignited," burned with an immense flame." In the province of Constantine, about 25 miles north of Aïn-Beida, oil has also been discovered, and in places bitumen oozes from the rocks. Boring operations are being conducted in Oran at the present time by the Algerian Oil Fields, Limited. 40 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. EGYPT. The oil-deposits of the Red Sea, known from time immemorial, as the Roman name, Mons Petrolius, connotes, have excited fresh interest of late years. Some thirty years ago, the explorations of M. de Bay indicated the occur- rence of workable deposits at Jebel-Zeit, on the western borders of the Red Sea, about 160 miles from Suez, and at Gemsah, 13 miles south of Jebel-Zeit, and Dr. Tweddle was engaged by the Egyptian Government to drill wells, which, however, gave no satisfactory result. The deposits have been reported upon by Mr. H. L. Mitchell (Ras Gemsah and Gebel-Zeit: Report on their Geology and Petroleum, 1887) and Colonel C. E. Stewart (Report on the Petroleum Districts situated on the Red Sea Coast, 1888) for the Geological Survey of Egypt. Colonel Stewart quotes the following record of the strata perforated by a well (No. 2), drilled by the American system to a depth of 2120 feet, at Gemsah: 1. Gypsum. 2. Indurated limestone. 3. Bluish-drab clay; sulphurous. 4. Gypsum. 5. Limestone, with sulphur. 6. Bluish-grey marl; sulphurous. 7. Dark brown indurated limestone, with a little petroleum. 8. Bluish-grey indurated limestone, with traces of petroleum. 9. Blue clay, with gypsum specks and nodules; some traces of oil. 10. Gypsum, with some asphalt. 11. Very dark fine grey sandstone at 740 to 760 feet; no petroleum. 12. Gypsum. 13. Blue clay, with petroleum. 14. Gypsum, with petroleum. 15. Light-coloured gypsum, sometimes highly indurated, approaching alabaster in char- acter; more or less impregnated with petroleum and gas. Petroleum oozed into the bore-hole at several points between 975 and 2012 feet, the flow being greatest at 1310 feet. There was no sign of oil at the depth at which boring ceased, but gas was found. No. 1 gave a somewhat similar section, but was only 370 feet in depth. Ozokerite was found in layers at 265 and 370 feet. The petroleum from Gemsah and Jebel-Zeit has been examined by Weil (Mon. Sci., xix, 295, 1877), Irvine (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., vi, 130 and 276, 1887), and Kast and Künkler (Dingler's polyt. Journ., cclxxviii, 34, 1890). The last-named report that it is a dark brown oil of specific gravity 0-935, yielding on distillation products of disagreeable odour, containing sulphur compounds. It furnishes a good lubricating oil, but practically no kerosene. M. Pappel, of the Khedival Laboratory, Cairo, has reported on two samples. of Egyptian crude oil, which had respectively a specific gravity of 0.908 and 0.933. The first was very fluid and possessed but little smell. A sample of crude Egyptian petroleum, examined in the author's laboratory, had a specific gravity at 60° F. of 0·945, a flashing-point (close test) of 146° F., and a viscosity of 173.0 at 70° F. In 1905, the Egyptian Petroleum Company, Limited, was formed to acquire and work a licence from the Egyptian Government to prospect for petroleum in the neighbourhood of Gemsah, and in 1907 the Egyptian Oil Trust, Limited, was registered to take over the former Company's rights. Two productive wells having been successfully drilled on the shore of the Gulf of Suez, the Red Sea Oil Fields, Limited, was formed in 1910 to take over from the Egyptian Oil Trust, Limited, an area of 50 square miles on which the wells referred to are situated, and continue the drilling operations. The work of the two companies. PERSIA. 41 has been attended with continuous success, a number of highly productive wells having been drilled. The first met with a prolific oil-sand at the depth of 1290 feet early in 1909, while no. ii also began to flow from a somewhat greater depth (1644 feet) in October of the same year. In July 1910 well no. iv commenced to flow from a depth of 1720 feet, yielding 285 tons of oil and 30 tons of salt water in twenty-four hours, and well no. vi was reported as "a gusher" at the depth of 746 feet. The Anglo-Egyptian Oil Fields, Limited, the management of which is vested in the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company, Limited, has been formed to acquire the licences and assets of the Egyptian Oil Trust, Limited, with a view to the active development of the field. Drilling operations are also being conducted on the Sinai Peninsula, and elsewhere. PERSIA. In Persia the existence of petroleum springs has been recorded by various writers from the time of Herodotus. One of the most celebrated of these springs was at Kirab, as already mentioned (page 2). The petroleum of Persia has been very fully described by Ritter in Die Erdkunde von Asien, vols. vii-ix, 1837-1840. The petroleum-deposits of Persia extend in a general southeasterly direction from the Turko-Persian frontier, about 100 miles north of Bagdad, to the Persian Gulf. 6 Some experimental boring was carried out many years ago by the Persian Bank Mining Rights Corporation at Daliki, on the Persian Gulf, 35 miles from Bushire. In this locality, petroleum, in various states of consistency, is found, both on the surface and at different depths. In a well sunk to a depth of 124 feet, the principal strata pierced were alternations of sandstones and rock," with blue clay, and black semi-solid bitumen was encountered, together with small quantities of liquid petroleum. Two samples of the oil from Daliki, which is collected from the warm springs and sold by the natives, were examined by the author. One sample was viscid and dark brown in colour, and, like the water with which it was associated, possessed a strong odour of sulphuretted hydrogen. Its specific gravity was 1·016, its flashing-point (Abel test) was 170° F., showing that it contained none of the more volatile hydrocarbons, and its cold test was 45° F. The other sample consisted of a dark brown, semi-solid, bituminous mass, resembling some descriptions of crude petroleum which have had a lengthy exposure to the air. Its odour resembled that of the first sample, but was less marked. Indications of petroleum are also found on the island of Kishm, in the Persian Gulf, where the same company bored without result. The oil-territory here is situated about 2 miles inland from the southern shore of the island, between Salakh and Namagdan, in an extensive basin. The island consists of a broad, fairly flat arch, with dips varying between 5° and 30°, and having its axis parallel with the general trend of the island. The friable rocks at the top of the island have been so denuded as to form a crater-like basin, in the lower portion of which the oil indicatious occur. The lowest oil-bearing stratum is a greyish-green sandstone. A sample of oil from Kishm, examined by the author, had a not unpleasant odour, and possessed a brownish-red colour by transmitted light. Its specific gravity was 0-837, and its flashing-point (close test) was 190° F. In the course of recent surveys, specially favourable indications were found in two districts, one at Zohab, in lat. 34° 18′ N., long. 45° 55′ E., and the other near Shuster and Ahwaz, on the Karun River, at the head of the Persian Gulf, 42 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. in lat. 31° 36′ N., long. 49° 22' E. Near Kasr-i-Shirin, in the Zohab district, a number of shallow pit-wells were seen, which are said to have yielded oil for the past forty years in undiminished quantity. The crude oil collected from these wells is transported to Kasr-i-Shirin, where it is subjected to a primitive. process of refining, the local demand in the surrounding villages and along the main caravan route as far as Kermanshah being thus met. According to report, the petroleum springs of this region have been commercially worked for the past three hundred years. In 1903-1904 two wells were drilled at Tchiah Sourkh, near Kasr-i-Shirin, by an English company, under a concession held by Mr. W. K. D'Arcy. One of these was completed as a productive flowing well at a depth of a little over 800 feet, and the other, at a greater distance from the crest of the anticlinal, reached oil at about 2100 feet. The crude petroleum has been subjected to examination in the author's laboratory. Its specific gravity is 0.815, and it evolves inflammable vapour at common temperatures. Its colour is brown, with strong fluorescence, and it has an agreeable odour, although it contains a small quantity (0.4 per cent.) of sulphur. On fractional distillation it yields, without cracking, 57.6 per cent. of kerosene of excellent quality, nearly water-white in colour, of a specific gravity of 0.792, and a flashing-point (Abel) of 75° F., besides 9.4 per cent. of benzine. It is a crude oil of paraffin base. The Loristan deposits lie between the towns of Shuster and Romez, in lines parallel with the Bakhtiari mountains. The Musjid-i-Suleiman petroleum- springs are situated about 24 miles east-southeast from Shuster. The oil oozes from a bed of yellowish-white marl of Miocene age, rich in gypsum, and containing native sulphur. The three principal springs are said to yield a total of not more than 30 gallons daily of a dark green oil, which is collected by the Seyds of Shuster, who appear to sell it mainly for external use upon camels, as a cure for the itch. The oil is said to have a specific gravity of 0-927, and to yield 27 per cent. of illuminating oil, and 45 per cent. of lubricating oil. The white oil" springs occur at a distance of 40 miles to the southeast of Shuster. The oil-bearing strata dip at high angles, and the oil oozes from a thin seam. of sand between two thick beds of blue clay. Some pits, dug to a depth of about a yard in the bed of a brook, receive the oil, which collects upon the surface of the water. As much as 34 gallons of oil is said to be obtained from a single pit daily. This so-called white oil is of a light straw colour by transmitted light, and is fluorescent. The oil is stated to contain sulphur compounds, but has no offensive smell. Its specific gravity is 0.773. Near the village of Shardin, 8 miles eastward from the town of Romez or Ram- Hormuz, there are said to be at least ten springs of a dark oil, the three principal springs yielding at the rate of 25 gallons daily. In this district there are also deposits of solid " bitumen," varying in thickness from 3 to 30 inches. 66 وو Several wells were drilled in this district under Mr. D'Arcy's concession, and in 1909 the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Limited, was formed to take over the rights. The field which is the scene of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company's present (1911) active operations is situated at Maidan-i-Naphtun, about 50 miles northeast of Ahwaz, on the river Karun. On this field twelve wells have been completed, four are in process of drilling, and twenty more are ex- pected to be drilled at an early date. The tested area amounts to 1800 to 2000 acres, and on this it is anticipated that 350 to 400 wells can be advantageously drilled. The company has laid an 8-inch pipe-line, 160 miles in length, from the field for the conveyance of the crude oil to a refinery, the construction of which is approaching completion, on Abbadan Island, at the head of the Persian Gulf. The pipe-line, which was completed in August 1911, has only one pumping station. TURKEY, BALUCHISTAN. 43 It may here be mentioned that the Persian petroleum deposits extend into Turkey, and that very promising indications are met with in Mesopotamia, where the oil is collected by the inhabitants in pits. TURKEY. In addition to the Mesopotamian deposits just referred to, indications of the occurrence of petroleum have been found in the western part of the Turkish Empire. Boring for oil has been carried out at Alexandretta, and near Ganos, Myrio- fito, and Hora, on the Sea of Marmora, with results which are reported to be of an encouraging character. INDIA. Baluchistan.—In Baluchistan, a deposit which promised to be of consider- able importance occurs at Khátan, in the Mari Hills, about 40 miles directly east of Sibi Station, on the Quetta branch railway. Borings made in the cold season of 1884-5, by Mr. R. A. Townsend, on behalf of the Indian Government ("Report on the Petroleum Explorations at Khatan," Records Geol. Surv. India, xix, 204, 1886), indicated that large quantities of petroleum were obtainable at moderate depths. From the disturbed character of the strata, drilling is extremely diffi- cult; the conglomerate is fractured in all directions, and through the fissures "the oil finds its way upwards, borne on the top of the warm waters which accompany but while these fractures afford a ready means to the miner of * striking oil,' they sadly interfere with his progress in boring, as the drilling tool in descending must inevitably enter many of these crevices at an acute angle to their planes, and it is almost impossible to prevent the tendency of the tool to follow the vagaries of such crevices, and thus produce a crooked hole,' which is fatal to further progress, unless straightened." it; Mr. Townsend visited the Mr. Oldham thus describes the operations place in January 1884, reported favourably on it, was deputed to obtain men and material from Canada, and began work in the cold weather of 1884. All through this cold weather, and well into the hot weather of 1885, work was carried on, and only abandoned on account of the sickness of the staff, sickness which, brought on by hardship, heat, and the want of pure drinking-water, resulted in the death of one of the staff, and very nearly in the death of Mr. R. A. Townsend himself. The result of this first season's work was the sinking of a bore-hole to the depth of 524 feet, which found oil at 28 feet from the surface, and again at 370 and 390 feet, whence 5000 gallons were raised in thirty-six hours. In the following year a second boring was put down, and between April and July 1886, 27,700 gallons of oil were sent to Sibi, and tried on locomotives of the North-Western Railway. The result of these trials showed that the evaporative power of the fuel was 9.82 lbs. of water against 6.91 lbs. evaporated by Welsh coal, for each pound of fuel. During 1887 the exploratory works were continued, and 1888 opened full of hope. It was believed that the Khatan oil-field was going to supply fuel for the whole North- Western Railway system up to Khanpur or Multan, and it was determined that the oil was to be used on the Khojak tunnel works instead of coal. During 1889 the sinking of wells was pushed on, but though 218,490 gallons of oil were despatched during the year, the beginning of the end was already apparent. The heavy rains of June and July flooded the wells, and reduced the output from 39,000 gallons to 2500. By dint of heavy pumping the water was gradu- ally cleared out, and the yield of the wells slowly improved, till, in June 1890, GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. 44 it reached 20,000 gallons. The rains of 1890 again flooded the wells, and reduced the monthly output once more. Small quantities of oil were produced in the winter months of 1890, but by the beginning of 1891 the wells had ceased to be able to produce more than enough to supply fuel to the works. at Khátan. In October 1889 I had been sent to Baluchistan to commence a geological survey of the oil-bearing tracts, and, after spending eighteen months in examining all the regions likely to produce oil sufficiently near the railway for it to be of any value, reported in June 1891 in favour of a final trial at a place called Siah Kach, about 5 miles from Khátan proper, recommending that if this proved a failure, as subsequently proved to be the case, all further expenditure should be stopped. This recommendation was adopted, and after the expenditure of over 51 lakhs of rupees, the attempt to work the Khátan petroleum was abandoned. But though the experiment has proved a failure, it must not be rashly assumed that it should never have been tried. The oil-springs of Khátan are separated from the nearest point on the railway by 45 miles of broken and hilly country, barren, except for a few small patches of scanty cultivation on the hill-tops, and supporting nothing but some scattered. herds and a sparse population of cattle raiders and cut-throats. Under these circumstances it is evident that only a rich field would repay the cost of opening out, and we will see how far the local conditions were such as to hold out any prospect of a sufficient supply of petroleum to make the experiment worth trying. The Khátan oil-springs are situated at the end of a great bare hog- shaped hill, formed by limestone beds bent into an anticlinal. At its western extremity the crest of this anticlinal bends downwards, and where the valley turns round, the extremity of the hill is much broken up by faults and fissures, from which there flow numerous springs of hot sulphurous water accompanied by a thick, viscid, tarry maltha. Here there is not a porous stratum whose pores could become clogged by inspissated oil, but a compact rock traversed by open fissures, and, moreover, with a constant stream of heated water traversing it and assisting the escape of the oil. Under such circumstances one might have predicted, what afterwards was proved, that there was no large accumulation of oil, and that after what might have accumulated in the fissures near the surface had been pumped out, nothing more of importance would be got. In spite of this, however, the shows are so abundant at Khátan that we may feel sure that an experimental boring to test the value of the oil-beds would have been recommended in any case, and by anyone, though the ultimate cost of the experiment would have been materially reduced had the geological survey of the country preceded, and not followed, the purchase of machinery and sinking of trial bore-holes" (Records Geol. Surv. India, xxiv, 83, 1891, and Journ. Soc. Arts, xlii, 151, 1894). The Khatan wells were some years ago reported upon by Colonel Conway Gordon, who stated that, at the time of writing, any one of the four existing wells was capable of yielding "the entire supply of 50,000 barrels of oil, which is estimated to be the amount required for the Sind-Pishin section of the North- Western Railway" (Administration Report on the Railways of India for 1887-88). The oil employed as fuel in the construction of the Khojak tunnel was carried a distance of 42 miles to Baber Kuch by camel, and was thence con- Accord- veyed by waggon tanks to Shelabagh, at the eastern end of the tunnel. ing to the Times of India (30th September 1893), a Mr. Eady received per- mission from the Local Government to resume the working, and to sink new wells within a four-mile radius. The following record of one of the borings indicates the nature of the strata pierced by the drill (Table III) :— • PUNJAB. 45 TABLE III.-WELL SECTION AT KHátan. Nature of Rock. Thickness. Depth. Feet. Feet. 1. Gravel, with boulders and bitumen, 12 12 • 2. Jointed blue limestone, 20 32 3. Hard, marine conglomerate, with abundance of flint, 195 227 4. Alternating bands of soft, bluish shales and hard flinty limestone with iron pyrites, 30 257 5. Rather hard shale with pyrites, . 6. Dark grey limestone without fossils, 217 474 2 476 48 524 7. Soft grey shales, The Khatan oil examined by the author has nearly the same density as water, only separated with difficulty from the water with which it issues from the wells. It is black or very dark brown in colour, and is almost odourless. Owing to the large amount of asphaltum which the oil contains, it is extremely viscous, and at the low temperature to which it would be sometimes exposed, could not be transported by pipe-lines of the usual diameter, with ordinary pumps. Punjab. The Punjab oil-springs have been reported upon by several observers. They were described by Mr. A. Fleming (Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xvii, 1848, and xxii, 1853), by Mr. Maclagan in 1862, by Mr. A. Fenner in 1866 and 1869 (Proc. Punjab Govt. Public Works Dept.), and by Mr. B. S. Lyman more fully in 1870 (Reports on the Punjab Oil Lands, Lahore, 1870). Mr. Lyman reports that the Punjab oil-region lies between Kashmir and Kabul, and forms a nearly square area about 100 miles long east and west, and about 90 miles wide. He states that in the Rawal Pindi district there are some six- teen spots at which petroleum-indications occur. The oil-deposit always appears to cover only a small horizontal area, "sometimes only a few feet, seldom as much as a few hundred yards." Several natural springs occur in the neighbour- hood of Gunda, some of them yielding from a gill to three quarts daily. In 1887 a concession was granted to the Punjab Oil-Prospecting Syndicate, and many wells were drilled, but without yielding sufficient oil to be worth working. A boring at Gunda, 75 feet deep, is said to have started with a yield of 50 gallons daily, and in five months yielded about 2000 gallons, but the output had then fallen to about 10 gallons daily. Mr. Lyman gives the density of the oil as 25° B. (0·907), but there appears to be some variation in the oil, for that of Gunda is said to be burned by the natives with a simple wick resting on the side of an open dish, while that of Panoba is described as more inflammable. and as requiring a tube for the wick. In 1891 the yield of oil in the Punjab was 1812 gallons, and in 1902, 1949 gallons; whilst 1064 gallons was produced in 1910. The oil-deposits near Mogalkot, in the Sherani or Suleiman Hills, have been described in the Records of the Geological Survey of India by Messrs. R. D. Oldham, 1891 (xxiv, 83), T. H. Holland, 1891, 1892 (xxiv, 84; xxv, 175), and T. H. D. La Touche, 1892 (xxv, 171). The oil-springs occur near the village of Mogalkot, in a deep narrow gorge cut by the river Toi through a ridge of hard, fine-grained, quartzose sandstone, overlain by massive limestone. The flow is most copious near the base of the quartzose sandstone, the points of outflow being apparently determined by the existence of beds of shale inter- stratified with the sandstone. The oil is limpid, slightly yellowish and opales- cent, and it has been calculated that one hole yields a gallon of oil in four and a half hours, while another yields a gallon in fourteen hours. The yield appears to be restricted to this gorge, although the ridge of rock which bears it extends 46 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. for 30 miles north of the river. Mr. Oldham considers that the indications are not sufficient to justify the expense of trial-borings, as communication is so difficult that only an abundant yield could result in a profit. A sample of the oil collected by Sir Thomas Holland was deep yellow, mobile, and slightly turbid. Its specific gravity was 0.819 at 60° F., and its flashing-point (Abel test) was 75° F. The oil was said to contain 87 per cent. of illuminating oil. Another sample was of a rich straw-colour, and clear. Its specific gravity was 0-811 at 60° F., and its flashing-point (Abel test) 64° F. It contained 84 per cent. of illuminating oil. A trial-boring was sunk in 1894 in the neighbourhood of Rohri, on the Indus, a place to which attention was first drawn by Mr. H. B. Medlicott (Records Geol. Surv. India, vol. xix, 202, 1886). South-east of Rohri there rises a low, gently-sloping anticlinal of the Upper Nummulitic Limestone, and in 1891 Mr. Oldham recommended the sinking of a well on its crest. The site actually selected was at Sukkur, near the railway workshops, and not on the actual crest of the anticlinal. Assam. The points at which petroleum occurs in Assam are indicated on Plate 8. As long ago as 1825, Lieutenant Wilcox, in an expedition up the Dihing River, observed a place in the bed of the Buri Dihing at Supkong, in Upper Assam, where petroleum rises to the surface (Edinb. Journ. Sci., vii, 63, 1828). In 1828 Mr. C. A. Bruce observed petroleum-springs in more than one locality; and in 1837 Major White discovered several springs of petroleum close to the camp on the Namrup River, which had hitherto been unknown to Europeans, and apparently almost unused by the neighbouring Singphos, as reported by Mr. H. Bigge (Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, vi, 243). In 1837-38 Captain S. Hannay noticed petroleum rising from some of the coal outcrops, and in 1845 he described his search in the neighbourhood of Jaipur for petroleum. He also visited the Namchik River, and of this locality he writes" At Namtchuk Pathar, near the mouth of the river, the petroleum exudes from the banks, and a bed of very fine caking coal runs across the bed of the Namtchuk. The hills here are also intersected by ravines, and in one spot an extensive basin or hollow is formed at some height, which contains muddy pools in a constant state of activity, throwing out, with more or less force, white mud mixed with petroleum. This is, indeed, a strange-looking place, and I am told by the Singphos that at times there is an internal noise as of distant thunder, when it bursts forth suddenly with a loud report, and then for a time. subsides" (Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xiv, 817). In 1865 a brief account of the petroleum-springs in connection with the coal-fields in Upper Assam was given by Mr. H. B. Medlicott (Mem. Geol. Survey of India, iv, 4, 14). The most abundant springs visited were those near Makum, where Mr. Medlicott recommended that trial-borings should be made, the copious discharge of gas being regarded as a favourable indication. In November of the following year, Mr. Goodenough, a member of the firm of McKillop, Stewart & Co., having been granted certain rights over a large tract of land on both sides of the Buri Dihing, extending from Jaipur to the effluence of the Noa Dihing, commenced boring at Nahor Pung. In addition to several holes drilled by hand, one of which was 102 feet in depth, a well was carried down to a depth of 195 feet by the use of a Mather & Platt's steam boring machine; but, according to the account published by Mr. T. H. Hughes in 1874, no good results were obtained in this locality, though a few signs of gas were noticed (Rec. Geol. Surv. India, vii, 55, 1874). While these borings were in progress, others were begun at Makum, in lat. ASSAM, BURMA. 47 27° 18′ N. and long. 95° 40′ E. Oil was struck in one hole on the 26th March 1867, at 118 feet, and it immediately rose 74 feet in the bore. After about 300 gallons had been drawn, the flow became intermittent, a condition which it was hoped would be remedied by sinking deeper. Eight holes were put down in the Makum district, and they were nearly all successful in tapping oil, though the yield varied in each. In January 1868, 100 to 125 gallons a day was col- lected from No. 4, while No. 5 yielded from 550 to 650 gallons. The action of No. 5 bore was intermittent; water was spouted for three or four hours, then oil for fifteen to thirty minutes, after which all action ceased for an hour, or sometimes longer, and then activity set in again. The discharge from No. 5 bore was at times so copious that there was not storage-accommodation for the oil, and the flow was accordingly diminished by fixing a valve on the well- casing. The pressure exerted by the oil during the flow was 30 lbs. to the inch. In one period of thirty-five hours this well yielded about 3500 gallons of oil. The development of the petroleum-industry of Assam has been mainly due to the initiative of the Assam Railways and Trading Company, Limited, though some drilling work was also carried out on adjacent lands by the Assam Oil Syndicate, Limited. The concessions held by these companies were taken over by the Assam Oil Company, Limited, which has actively continued the drilling operations at Digboi with uniformly successful results, and has erected a refinery equipped with modern appliances for the manufacture of the usual commercial products. At Makum the outcome of some test-drilling has been disappointing. Petroleum of the natural lubricating oil class was met with. but only in small quantities. The Assam Oil Company, Limited, has now a considerable number of producing wells at Digboi, many of which flow. The westerly extension of the Assam oil-field has not been traced, and Mr. F. R. Mallet (" On the Coal Fields of the Nagá Hills, bordering the Lakhim- pur and Sibsagar districts, Assam," Memoirs Geol. Surv. India, xii, part ii, 269–363, 1876) has enumerated the districts where oil has been noticed in the districts mentioned. Thick soft sandstone is the principal rock traversed by the drill, but blue clay also occurs. The oil always rises on or near the outcrop of the coal-bearing group, usually near the outcrop of a seam or seams of coal. Mr. Mallet records an instance in which the oil oozes from the coal itself, though, as he points out, this may have been merely due to the fact that the coal is the last rock through which the oil passed to the surface. Petroleum is found in rocks of the same age on the southern margin of the Khasi, Garo, Sylhet, Cachar, and Tipperah Hills. Mr. Oldham has observed in one of these localities an abundant discharge of gas, accompanied by a light mineral naphtha, along the outcrop of a highly-inclined bed of sandstone. Since 1894 the amount of petroleum obtained from Assam has largely increased. In that year it amounted to 167,000 gallons, in 1898 it was 598,000 gallons, in 1900, 753,000 gallons, and in 1903, 2,500,000 gallons; by 1907 it had increased to more than 3,000,000 gallons, and the quantity recorded in 1910 was 3,320,680 gallons. Some drilling has recently been undertaken near the ancient fire-temples. in Chittagong, but no definite results have been reported. Burma. It is in Burma that the largest sources of petroleum in India are found. About one hundred and ninety years ago (1724) Boerhaave stated that the Oleum Terrae of India was in his time so scarce, as to be kept by the Princes of Asia for their own use," and was not imported, except as a rarity, into Europe (see Shaw's translation of Boerhaave's Chemistry, 1753, i, 117). But at the end of the eighteenth century, Major Symes was able to describe the petroleum-wells 5 miles east of Yenangyaung, on the Irawadi, as those which 48 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Frrawa raw a di Rainanghong (a name said to signify a "town through which flows a river of earth oil") had then (1797) 520 active wells producing petroleum free from water, and amounting to 400,000 hogsheads annually (Asiatic Researches, vi, 127, 1799). Rainanghong is one of many variants of the name Yenangyaung. A further description by Captain Cox is contained in An Account of the Petroleum Wells in the Burmese Dominions, Calcutta, 1826. Major Symes (loc. cit.) thus describes the scenes he witnessed :-" The mouth aung Stone Pagoda DZyat aung Pyn fyi Daying ungban of Sketch Map Yenangyaung Oil-Fields. Theodolite survey stations. Houses and huts.... Fencing.. Cart-tracks Boundaries of native reservations no mug og pmit jo J Drilled Oil Wells Native Oil Wells. Scale 0201 005 1503 2000 2500 Feet. Cemeter Twin winmodar Yo Taungri gales Potha Pago Tawngni qur Cemeter Bent From Thitabre Shan bya thongwa T& Natrany, Tama Daung ra Tank Tánk Ko Aung myat Tank Linga Pugeda Pagoda wingôn East honmin Magy gyat Mena Doing Thit tu Yo Maung Aung Gyaw The lo Thit chobin kor (That chobin Yo From Tritabwe FIG. 3. Tank saungmye ¡Yagyi gôn Yo To Nathan is leingan Saing the Yo Taungle Myet than gon Chaung mand Yo C. E. MORRIS, Del. ' supply the whole Empire and many parts of India with that useful product. (Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1795, London, 1800, 261 and 442), a statement supported by Captain Cox, who declares that the Burman Empire gave the greatest supply of petroleum in the world. He states that the district of BURMA. 49 of the creek was crowded with large boats waiting to receive a lading of oil, and pyramids of Eastern jars were raised in and around the village disposed in the same manner as shot and shell in an arsenal. We saw several thousand jars filled with oil ranged along the bank." He also thus describes the operations at the wells he visited :-"Walking to the nearest, we found the aperture about 4 feet square, and the sides lined, as far as we could see down, with timber. The oil is drawn up in an iron pot fastened to a rope passed over a wooden cylinder, which revolves on an axis supported by two upright posts. When the pot is filled, two men take hold of the rope by the end and run down a declivity which is cut in the ground, to a distance equivalent to the depth of the well. Thus, when they reach the end of the track, the pot is raised to its proper elevation; the contents, water and oil together, are then discharged into a cistern, and the water is afterwards drawn through a hole in the bottom." A fairly productive well was said to contain oil up to the waist of a man. The wells were dug in beds of sandy clay resting on sandstones or shales, beneath which coal was said to occur. Crawfurd (Account of the Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1826, London, 1834, i, 93, and ii, 23, 206) similarly describes the working of these wells, and states that the oil is of a dirty green colour, and of a thin watery consistency when raised, but that it thickens on keeping, and even "coagulates" in cold weather. Writing in 1858, Captain Yule (Mission to the Court of Ava in 1855, 19 and 316) gives the number of productive wells in this district as about 80, and states that all are contained in an area of half a square mile. Those wells which were measured varied in depth from 180 to 306 feet. Most of the petroleum at present produced in Burma is obtained from three oil-fields, all near the Irawadi River, and situated at (1) Yenangyaung (Magwe district), (2) Singu (Myingyan district), and (3) Yenangyat (Pakokku district). These fields are respectively about 275, 300, and 325 miles from Rangoon. Over 300 wells have been drilled by the Burmah Oil Company at Yenang- yaung since 1891, but the developed area does not exceed two miles by three- quarters of a mile. In the Singu field, the Company has since 1901 completed about fifty wells. The oil in this field is met with under strong gas-pressure, and flowing wells are obtained. A number of wells have been drilled in the Yenangyat field, some of which gave a large initial yield, but the production has steadily declined. In the Minbu field, flowing wells have been obtained near the town of that name, some 18 miles southward of Yenangyaung, on the west bank of the Ira- wadi, but on the whole the results have, so far, been disappointing, the initial yield of the wells having rapidly fallen off. Recently a successful well has been drilled near Yethaya, some ten miles south of Minbu. Drilling in the Thayetmyo district, at Padoukbin and Bonbein, was carried out some six years ago, but the results were unsatisfactory. Fig. 3 shows the general configuration of the Yenangyaung district, the ground being much broken and intersected with ravines, some of which are from 200 to 250 feet in width and from 100 to 150 feet in depth. These ravines have been produced by the action of water upon strata of unequal durability, mainly consisting of ferruginous conglomerate and soft sandstone. Contrary to the general experience in other countries, the drilled wells in the Yenangyaung district do not invariably yield oil having a lower specific gravity than that of the produce of the dug wells. The Yenangyaung oils are opaque in bulk and of a dark greenish colour by reflected light. They are almost odourless, and in many samples are solid at the ordinary temperature. The great variation in the character of the oils from VOL. I. 4 50 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. native wells, even when contiguous and of the same depth, is shown in the following table (IV) relating to the wells of Beme. TABLE IV.-CRUDE OILS OF BEME. No. of Well. Depth. Daily Yield. Oil at 60° F. Specific Gravity of Remarks. No. of Well. Depth. Daily Yield. Specific Gravity of Oil at 60° F. Remarks. Cubits Viss Cubits Viss 12000 122 10 .900 Colour very dark. 45 50 140 880 Very rich in paraffin. 102 10 .869 46 45 150 890 • 6 112 15 890 Rich in paraffin. 48 60 150 872 8 155 30 .882 49 5 110 905 9 156 80 .877 50 10 110 • 926 10 148 15 860 51 20 145 868 "" Little or no paraffin. Rich in paraffin. 11 117 4 .867 53 5 57 900 12 140 5 -862 54 140 155 875 Very rich in paraffin. 13 150 60 .875 Little paraffin. 55 25 140 .872 14 150 70.890 Rich in paraffin. 56 25 140 874 19 15 150 20 .885 57 25 120 871 17 145 50 872 • Moderate quantity of 58 25 120 872 paraffin. 59 90 140 874 18 155 50 877 • Very rich in paraffin. 60 19 157 20.880 61 >> 20 155 45 .880 62 >> 23 150 15 890 • 25 50 50 890 63 26 140 10 915 Little or no paraffin. 27 120 8915 >> 28 110 2 .920 29 31 100 8 .925 32 160 110 882 Rich in paraffin. 33 130 34 110 2 .925 10.892 Little or no paraffin. 74 Rich in paraffin. 35 100 25 902 Small quantity of paraffin. 36 80 20 890 Very rich in paraffin. 77 37 65 10 .890 "" 38 30 160 883 Rich in paraffin. 39 40 150 .881 BILL FINNAAP8 8288 >> 10 130 .870 45 110.873 4 30 ·956 5 30 ·919 64 4 30 65 5 83 66 210 120 • 950 919 No paraffin. Oil of high viscosity. Little or no paraffin. 886 Very rich in paraffin. 72 80 140 881 73 80 140 881 19 40 140 ·890 75 5 80 940 + 76 3 50·956 40 140 894 No paraffin. Oil of high viscosity. Very rich in paraffin. rich'in 79 70 137 ·904 80 60 145 890 • 81 60 140 .880 31 "? 40 10 100 900 84 30 110 884 · Rich in paraffin. 41 67 160 880 Very rich in paraffin. 86 40 80 890 Very rich in paraffin. 42 120 145 890 88 • 40 100 876 Rich in paraffin. "" 43 15 90 -882 89 7 120 880 44 40 120 875 • Small quantity of paraffin. 1 cubit (attaung)=19 inches. 1 viss = 3.65 lbs. These results indicate that there are at least two descriptions of oil, one having a high specific gravity and viscosity, but containing practically no solid hydrocarbons, while the other has a comparatively low specific gravity, but contains a large proportion of paraffin. Thus, wells 26, 27, 28, 31, and 33, whose depths range from 100 to 140 cubits, yield oils ranging in specific gravity from 0.915 to 0.925, and containing little or no paraffin; whilst wells 54 to 61 inclusive, the depth of which is from 10 to 140 cubits, yield oils of specific gravity 0-870 to 0-875, which are very rich in paraffin. Wells 62, 64, and 76 yield oils of 0.950 to 0·956 containing no paraffin, but these wells are so shallow BURMA. 51 that they probably yield only surface oil, though it may be pointed out that well 49, which is of about the same depth, gives an oil of specific gravity 0-905 which is very rich in paraffin. To a large extent, no doubt, the lower density of the oils containing paraffin in large quantity is due to the fact that the specific gravity of the solid hydrocarbons is not as great as that of the oils in which they are dissolved; for it has been shown by Beilby, that paraffin in solution in a mineral oil has practically the same specific gravity as when in the molten condition. The occurrence in this field of oils containing practically no paraffin is an important fact, in view of the usual statement that the Yenangyaung oil is extremely rich in paraffin. Specimens of the heavy crude oil from this district have, however, been subjected in the author's laboratory to a temperature of 0° F. without the slightest separation of solid hydrocarbons. Most of the wells are drilled by the American (cable) system, though Canadian pole tools have been employed to a small extent. The specific gravity of the Yenangyaung crude oil ranges from 0-737 to 0.899, that of the Singu oil from 0-731 to 0-904, and that of the Yenangyat oil from 0.770 to 0.890. A pipe-line, for the transport of the crude oil, has been laid from Yenangyat and Singu to Yenangyaung, a distance of 48 miles, and another, 10 inches in diameter and 275 miles in length, from Yenangyaung to Syriam, on the left bank of the Pegu River, about five miles from Rangoon. This main line has two pumping stations. The Company has two refineries, one at Dunneedaw, on the bank of the Rangoon River, about a mile from the town of Rangoon, and the other at Syriam, on the left bank of the Pegu River, about five miles from Rangoon. These refineries cover over 400 acres of ground, and have an aggregate capacity of ten million gallons of crude oil per month. There are two pipe-lines each five miles long for the delivery of the refined oil from the Syriam refinery to the tank-steamer loading-berths on the Rangoon River. The Company owns six tank-steamers of an aggregate cargo capacity of 15,000 tons. The production is being largely augmented; from about 4,000,000 gallons in 1890, it had in 1895 increased to 13,000,000 gallons. In 1899 a very con- siderable development took place, and the yield showed an increase of about 76 per cent. over that of 1898, whilst in 1901 it had grown to half as much again, and was not far short of 50,000,000 gallons. In 1904 it was over 100,000,000 gallons, and since that time has more than doubled, the output in 1909 being over 230,000,000 gallons, though in 1910 it fell to 211,507,903 gallons. In the Arakan Islands (fig. 5), petroleum occurs in the Barangas, in Ramri, and in Cheduba. Much information regarding these deposits and the oil industry of these islands has been given by Mr. F. R. Mallet (Records Geol. Surv. India, xi, 1878, 188-207). He describes two types of wells, one appearing to communicate with a reservoir from which the oil, usually accompanied by large quantities of gas, rises rapidly, and the other type receiving thin oil by slow percolation from a rock more or less saturated with petroleum. The wells. of Létaung, on the southwestern coast of Ramri, are stated to belong to the former class. One of them, 25 feet deep and 4 feet square, contained water covered with the oil, which was drawn twice daily. A similar well 40 feet in depth existed about 200 yards to the northwest. The oil was of a pale yellow colour. These wells are said to have existed without diminution of their out- put, which, however, amounted only to a few gallons daily, since the Burmese 52 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. 122 U d d CYOW E Hunter Bay Owky Phaitu ChaN. Changdamma Chur AKYAB, B UR MA Myin-mu OMANDALAY Storage['m's R Trawadi 20. LeAY Baranga BARANGA ISLANDS Paulangs R Chindwin R Pokoka Pagan Yenongyoung Minbu Magwe Minhla 20 yards square. The oil rises to the surface of the water which collects during the rainy season, and is skimmed off at intervals, just as the Indians formerly collected it in Pennsylvania. In the eastern of the Baranga Islands, which lie just south of Akyab, there are many productive wells. In sinking one of these wells, when a depth of 66 feet had been attained, "the workmen were surprised and terrified by a sudden outburst of gas and oil, accompanied by loud subterraneous sounds as of distant Inayet-myo0 Allan-myo - a k a U คา 。 Sandoway 0 E Cambermere 21 R PROME P e 20 60 Sil-laung R. Bay KYAUK PHYUQ Limau ip ན་ཁྱ་ བར་བས་པ། ཆ R domination. Considerable quantities of gas issued through the water and oil in both the wells. In the islands of Ramri and Cheduba, where the industry is of long standing, it is the practice of the villagers to occupy their spare time after the rice harvest in digging shallow wells in which the oil accumulates. Captain Halsted states that petroleum is obtained in Cheduba by turning up the soil to a depth of 2 feet, and raising a bank of earth so as to form a shallow pond about oma. Anor Aeug ፈ K A N Sandoway King TID JUDI Yanthak RAMRI RAMRIC Chraung JUDY καλά την CHEDUBA Larawa vjpg! в TIDA. Amherst [sound PyMall ofaleed JTLY O FIG. 5. n Sketch Map Showing relative positions of OIL-FIELDS on IRAWADI RIVER. Scale of Miles Sketch Map of ARAKAN ISLANDS. Showing known. Petroleum Localities marked P. Scale & Miles. BURMA 00 Myan-aung FIG. 4. # BURMA, EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. 53 thunder." The oil and gas poured in considerable quantity into the well, the yield averaging 1000 gallons daily for seven days, and then falling to 120 gallons. In another well oil was struck, and a violent escape of gas occurred at 68 feet, the yield amounting to 150 gallons daily. oil") Much of the Arakan oil has the appearance of brandy or sherry, and may be burned in ordinary lamps in its crude state. Specimens of petroleum from the Eastern and Western Barangas, examined by the author, were dark brown in colour, of pleasant odour, and of a specific gravity of 0-835 and 0-888 respect- ively. Mr Mallet has compared the Arakan oil with that from Upper Burma ("Rangoon oil ") as follows:-" In this connection the difference between the petroleum of the Irrawadi valley and of Rámri may be noticed. The mud volcanoes of the former region have been described by Dr. Oldham as very sluggish, and as never exhibiting the fiery paroxysms to which those in Ramri are subject. At the same time the oil is dark coloured, is as thick as treacle, or even solid at 60° F., being indeed often spoken of as ' Rangoon tar,' and contains paraffin to the extent of sometimes more than 10 per cent. The Ramri oils are associated with much gas, and are themselves sometimes as transparent and light coloured as brandy. They have a lower specific gravity than the above, and at 60° are perfectly mobile. Without venturing to assert that the above differences are due to a difference in the temperature at which the oils have been produced, it may be noticed that at Baku, on the Caspian, where there are mud volcanoes subject to fiery eruptions, similar to those of Ramri, the oil is in part of the same pale transparent kind, and is accompanied by immense quan- tities of gas" ("The Mud Volcanoes of Rámri and Cheduba," Records Geol. Surv. India, xi). A sample of light-coloured oil from the mud-volcanoes at Kyauk Phyu was found by the author to have a specific gravity of 0-818, and to consist almost wholly of kerosene. Test boring was carried out many years ago on the Arakan Islands by the Baranga Oil Refining Company. In 1880 a well sunk on the Outer Baranga Island to a depth of 800 feet was reported to yield at first 30 barrels daily, but the production soon declined to 4 or 5 barrels. Another well near to this yielded at an estimated rate of 6 barrels daily at 600 feet, and was subsequently deepened to 1200 feet. At this depth the well was flooded by water, and large quantities of inflammable gas escaped. A considerable number of un- productive wells were also sunk. At Minbain, on Rámri Island, fourteen wells were drilled, eight of which were productive, and at the close of 1881 were said to be giving a total yield of from 100 to 140 barrels weekly. THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.¹ (Plate 10.) Petroleum is largely produced in the islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. It also occurs in Timor, and in the Philippine Islands. The author is informed by the Asiatic Petroleum Company that the Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij, of the Hague, now owns or controls all the petroleum production in the Dutch East Indies, and that the aggregate pro- duction since the constitution of the latter company has been as follows: In 1906, 1,331,499 tons; in 1907, 1,330,649 tons; in 1908, 1,254,838 tons; in 1909, 1,413,741 tons; and in 1910, 1,435,240 tons. The Dutch company has refineries at the following places :-in Java, at 1 The Dutch use of oe for u in place-names is here abandoned, except where it occurs in the names of operating companies. 54 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Tjepu, Samarang, and Surabaya (Wonokromo); in Sumatra, at Pankalan, Berandan, Rantau Pandjang, Pladju, and Bagus Kuning; and in Borneo, at Balik Papan. New fields have been developed both in Borneo (notably in the island of Tarakan) and Sumatra within the last five years, and details of earlier develop- ments will be found below. Java.—In 1904, Mr. Adrian Stoop, director of the Dordtsche Petroleum Maatschappij, furnished the author with the following particulars of that Company's properties in Java. The petroleum industry of Java after 1886 gradually acquired consider- able importance. The fields at present worked by the Company are situated at a distance of 10 kilometres due south and southwest of the town of Surabaya, and bear the names of Kutei pool and Lidah pool. The latter of these has proved highly productive for the past fourteen years. In addition to these the Company owns two prolific deposits in the residency of Rembang, known as the Tinawun pool and the Panolan pool. The depth of the wells ranges from 500 to 800 feet, and the drilling is chiefly done by the water-flush system. The average production of the wells is not large, but the yield is satisfactorily sustained. The crude oil has a density ranging from 23° to 40° Baumé (0-916 to 0·825 specific gravity), and although it contains a considerable percentage of asphalt, it yields a large proportion of paraffin of unusually high melting-point (60° to 62° C., American test). The Company has three refineries for the manufacture of kerosene, situated in Surabaya, Rembang, and Samarang, a refinery for lubricating oils, and a paraffin refinery with a daily output of 6 to 7 metric tons of paraffin of high melting-point, in connection with which is a candle-factory where paraffin candles suited for use in a tropical climate are made. For the past ten years (1894-1904) the annual output of kerosene in Java, which is entirely consumed on the island, has been between 1,450,000 and 1,900,000 cases, and almost the whole of this has been delivered from the Company's refineries. Sumatra. In 1883 a concession of oil-bearing territory in Langkat, North Sumatra, was granted, and in 1885 a boring was completed on these lands which produced a small quantity of oil as a spouter. In 1900 the concession was transferred to the Royal Dutch Company, which continued the drilling- operations and erected two refineries. In 1890 the Royal Dutch Company was formed. The Company first acquired a concession of 891 acres situated along the course of the River Lepan, in the district of Langkat, in the Deli section of the East Coast Residency, North Sumatra. Nearly two years were occupied in the construction of a refinery on the Bay of Aru, the laying of a pipe-line from the field to the refinery, and other work. Meanwhile a well was drilled at Telaga Baru, and a second was put down near the first in 1892, the collective yield of the two being nearly 50 tons of oil a day. A third well drilled subsequently yielded at the rate of half that quantity. In 1893 and 1894 additional wells were drilled, and in 1895 one at a depth of 471 feet proved to be a spouter yielding over 60 tons a day. In 1896 eight more wells were drilled, of which only one was unpro- ductive, one yielded at the rate of about 60 tons a day, one nearly 20 tons, and the remaining five over 6 tons in the aggregate. In 1895 the Company acquired three more concessions, not far distant from the first one, viz. :-Besitang, with an area of 21,600 acres; Aru Bay, of 108,000 acres; and Bukit Mass, of 97,200 acres. 55 SUMATRA. In the first instance it was thought that four wells would suffice to furnish sufficient crude oil for the refinery, which required 80,000 to 100,000 tons per annum, and sufficient attention was not paid in the earlier years of the Com- pany's existence to keeping up the supply. In 1898 a great decrease in the Company's production occurred, and this was accentuated in the following year, when the production decreased by two-thirds. In 1890 the Royal Dutch Company commenced drilling (1) at Perlak, in the Atchin Residency, where three wells were sunk to the respective depths of 420 feet, 770 feet, and 350 feet, all of which were spouters; (2) in the Palembang Residency, at eleven different. places in the basin of the rivers Musi and Lalang, where wells to the aggregate depth of 24,850 feet were put down, which were either unproductive or gave but the small daily yield of 2 to 10 tons each; (3) in the Langsar district, in the Atchin Residency, where 882 feet were drilled without obtaining oil; (4) on the old fields at Perlak, where wells were drilled to a greater depth than had previously been reached in those fields. At Telaga Said six wells were drilled to an average depth of 1260 feet, only two of which yielded oil, at the rate of about 5 tons a day, but this production soon declined to about 13 tons a day. At Babalan one well, 2240 feet in depth, yielded 10 tons daily for several days, but in a short time ceased production altogether. Seven other wells were sunk here to depths ranging from 2240 feet to 2380 feet, but without result. In 1901 boring was continued with great energy. In Perlak 4200 feet were drilled, and all the wells proved productive. This property yielded, in 1901, 150,000 tons of oil. At Langsar one new well proved successful. On the Telaga Said field, 8190 feet were drilled, but the results were very discouraging. At Palembang, though 29,820 feet were drilled, the operations were not attended with success. The construction of a pipe-line from the Perlak field to the refineries contributed materially to improve the position of the Company's business. The first refinery of the Royal Dutch Company was erected in 1891, at the village of Pangkalan Brandan, on the Babalan River, not far from the sea, and a tank-steamer loading station was built on the island of Sembilan, in Aru Bay. The distillation was conducted on the intermittent system. In 1897 a second refinery was constructed not far from the first, at the village of Besitang. The crude oil contains from 30 per cent. to 40 per cent. of benzine, and yields from 40 per cent. to 50 per cent. of kerosene of specific gravity 0-809. In 1897 the Sumatra Palembang Petroleum Company was formed to work an area of 54,000 acres, situated in the residency of Palembang, south of the river Lalang. Drilling was commenced in the north-west part of the con- cession, in the district of Meliamun, and in 1898 and 1899 more than thirty wells were drilled to an average depth of 595 feet, but of these only five yielded oil. In 1900 an additional twenty-three wells were drilled to an average depth of 700 feet, but of these only eleven were productive. In 1901 seventeen more wells were drilled to an average depth of 945 feet, most of which were at Liaman Lului. In 1900 fourteen of the wells drilled at Meliamun, which had ceased yielding after an earthquake in January of that year, were deepened by about. 455 feet, and of these twelve began to spout again. The crude oil has a specific. gravity of 0.765 to 0.775. In 1898 a pipe-line 20 miles long was completed from a station near the Meliamun plot to Bajung Lentjir, on the left bank of the river Lalang, where a refinery was built. In 1897 the Moeara Enim Company was formed to work a concession of about 180,000 acres in the residency of Palembang in South Sumatra, at the mouth of the river Enim, which falls into the Lematang, a tributary of the Musi. Another concession, embracing what is known as the Kampong Minjak field GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. 56 lying between the rivers Enim and Niru, was subsequently transferred to the Company. On the latter concession a spouting well of great productivity was completed at a depth of 651 feet. During the two succeeding years fifteen more wells were drilled on the Kampong Minjak field, with depths ranging from 490 to 700 feet. In 1900 fourteen additional wells were drilled, of a depth of 630 to 910 feet, and the aggregate daily production of crude oil was then about 400 tons. In 1901 seventeen new wells of an average depth of 1120 feet were completed, two of which were in a distant part of the concession, the production being thus augmented to 430 tons a day. The wells were drilled by the Canadian system with round iron rods, the later ones having a commencing diameter of 10 to 12 inches and being finished with 7-inch or 8-inch casing. The drilling of each well occupied from 2 to 3 months. Up to 1904 about fifty wells had been drilled on the Kampong Minjak field, and ten on the other part of the concession, but about one-third were abandoned as no longer sufficiently pro- ductive. Nearly all were flowing wells, and some spouters yielding from 400 to 800 tons daily have been obtained, but the average production has been from 18 to 20 tons a day. The average specific gravity of the crude oil is 0·792. In addition the Company owns the Babat concession, situated on the left bank of the river Musi, and the Bandjar Sari concession, lying between the rivers Enim and Lematang. The Babat field was at first very promising, but has proved disappointing. On the Bandjar Sari concession an abundant flow of a very light crude oil was obtained in two or three bore-holes, and in 1902 the laying of a pipe-line 14 miles in length from this field to Kampong Minjak was commenced. The Kampong Minjak field is connected with the Company's refinery on the right bank of the Musi, 3 miles below the town of Palembang, by a 4-inch pipe-line. The capacity of the refinery is about 1600 tons of crude oil a day (twenty-four hours). The distillation is conducted on the continuous principle. In 1901 the Moesi Ilir Petroleum Company was formed to work an area of 135,000 acres situated on the right bank of the Musi, in the residency of Palembang, not far from the Babat field. Eight wells were drilled to a depth ranging from 245 to 350 feet, all of which proved to be spouters. The specific gravity of the crude oil ranges from 0.812 to 0-889. A 4-inch pipe-line, of a length of 164 kilometres, has been laid from the field to Palembang, where a refinery similar to that of the Moeara Enim Company, and of a capacity of 250,000 tons of crude oil per annum, has been constructed. The Mines and Forests Exploitation Company of Lower Langkat, otherwise known as the Langkat Shanghai Company, which has been in existence for several years, has its own oil-field and a small kerosene-refinery in the village of Gebong, near the town of Tandjong Pura, in Langkat. The Sumatra Petroleum Company possesses oil-fields and a refinery near Gebong. Borneo. In 1904, Messrs. M. Samuel & Co., managers of the Shell Transport and Trading Company, Limited, furnished the author with the particulars on which the following account of the Company's properties in Kutei is based. The area over which the Nederlandsch - Indische Industrie en Handel Maatschappij has exploitation-rights is roughly between 500 and 600 square miles. This territory is situated on the southern half of the east coast of Borneo, and may be described as a strip of the mainland 6 to 8 miles in width, running almost north and south. It is bounded on the northeast by the Kutei or Mahakkam River, and it extends towards the south to Balik Papan Bay, but it embraces also a strip of land on the south of the bay. The northernmost point is approximately 0° 30″ south, and the southernmost about 1° 20″ south. BORNEO, SARAWAK, LABUAN, TIMOR. 57 Preliminary inspection of the territory was carried out in 1895, and the first trial-boring was commenced on 31st December 1896, but boring on a working scale was not undertaken until a year or two later. The earlier wells, which tapped the upper strata, gave heavy oil of an asphalt base. Deeper wells yielded a light oil of the same asphalt base, but still deeper ones have given a large supply of paraffin-base oil of high commercial value. The Company's refinery is situated on the northern shore of Balik Papan Bay, where there is ample depth of water for the largest steamers which can navigate the Suez Canal to lie alongside the Company's wharves. In Sarawak, the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company has drilled two wells, and is drilling two more. A large tank storage installation is being erected, but as yet no arrangements have been made for shipping the oil. Petroleum has long been known to exist in the island of Labuan, on the northwest coast of Borneo. Some prospecting was undertaken in 1866, and a well bored to a depth of 19 feet 6 inches, at a distance of about 100 yards from the shore, and 3 miles along the northern coast from a place known as Reffles Anchorage, gave a small flow of oil. This well was found to be still flowing in 1879, at an estimated rate of 12 gallons daily. A sample of the oil examined by the author had a dark brown colour, very little odour, a specific gravity of 0·965 at 60° F., and a flashing-point of 216° F. (Abel test). It remained fluid at the temperature of zero F. The belt of petroliferous rocks extends westward to Sarawak. According to the statistics furnished by the Dutch Secretary-General to the Department of the Colonies, the production in Borneo has increased since 1900 as follows:-1900, 59,352 metric tons; 1901, 85,554 metric tons; 1903, 105,102 metric tons; 1904, 215,109 metric tons; 1905, 439,487 metric tons; 1908, 511,049 metric tons; 1909, 411,506 metric tons; in 1910, 633,472 metric tons. Timor. In 1891 a geological survey of Timor was made by Dr. G. Seelhorst, from whom the author has received much interesting information respecting the occurrence of petroleum on the island. Oil was found oozing out in the bed of a river named the Mota Mutika at the estimated rate of about 15 gallons a day, at a place called Pualaka, in the kingdom of Laculubar, whilst in the jungle, at a spot about 2000 yards distant and at about 1000 feet higher level, natural gas issuing from a calcareous rock was found burning. Both the oil and the gas appear to have been known to the natives from the earliest times of which there are any records. The fire, which is said to burn more brightly during the rains, is regarded by the natives as sacred, and the oil is collected by them for use in lamps. Access to the oil-field is difficult from the north, as the Casa Baucu mountains, which are from 3000 to 4000 feet in height, have to be crossed by narrow and precipitous paths, but it is easy from the south, one point at which oil occurs not being more than 1000 feet above sea-level, and being easily approached up the River Mota Sahe, of which the oil-creek Mota Mutika is a tributary. There is, however, no port or landing- place on the south coast at present. Subsequently to Dr. Seelhorst's visit, a hole was drilled by a hand-machine to a depth of about 30 feet from the bottom of a pit 5 or 6 feet deep, dug in the spot where the principal surface outflow had been found, and between 2000 and 3000 gallons of oil was collected. A sample of this oil examined by the author was of dark brown colour, and exhibited considerable fluorescence. The odour of the oil was not strong, and was free from any disagreeable characteristic. The oil was very mobile, its viscosity at 70° F. being only 5-86 (rape oil at 60° F. = 100). It had a specific 58 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. gravity of 0.825, a flashing-point of 105° F. (Abel test), and a solidifying point of 10° F. It yielded about 68 per cent. of kerosene, and was rich in paraffin. The Philippine Islands.—For about thirty years petroleum has been collected to a small extent in these islands. The most promising areas are said to be in Luzon, Panay, Negros, and Cebu, but many of the other islands contain oil. The oil of Panay is of a dark greenish colour, and is obtained at a depth of 100 to 150 metres. In the island of Cebu there are considerable surface indica- tions, and two wells have been drilled by hand to a moderate depth. Oil was obtained in both, but from the second it flowed continuously, and much gas was also emitted. The oil was found by Mr. Warren to have a specific gravity of 0.809, and it contained so much paraffin that at a temperature of 73° F., or a little below, it ceased to flow. A specimen of this petroleum, which the author received from Mr. Warren, is of brown colour, with some fluorescence, and disagreeable odour, and at common temperatures is filled with crystals of solid hydrocarbons. The strata in which the oil occurs have been much disturbed. CHINA. Reference has already been made to the antiquity of the use of petroleum and natural gas in China and Japan. From the description of the Szechuen "fire-wells" by Père Imbert (Ann. Assoc. Propag. Foi, iii, 369, 1828), it appears that the borings for natural gas usually extend to a depth of 1500 or 2000 feet, and the gas is conducted to the desired places through pipes. The largest, and one of the oldest, of the springs of natural gas is that at Tse-liu-tsin, close to the mountain of the same name; while that of Chu-pai-Ching had been in operation day and night for forty years. As much as 400 or 500 lbs. of fetid oil, which burns on water, may be obtained from a well in a single day. When a well produces petroleum alone, the oil is conveyed to special reservoirs, but where it is found mingled with the brine, it floats on the top of the liquid in the brine reservoirs, and is skimmed off. The colour of the oil varies from skim-milk white to greenish- white, yellow, and black, the latter oil being viscous, and burning with little light but much smoke. The Chinese do not refine the oil, but burn it as it comes from the well, in tightly closed lamps, permitting only the passage of the wick. The oil is also used in medicine for certain skin diseases and rheu- matic affections. About thirty or forty oil-wells are worked in the salt district, fifty or so being the total number in the whole province. Where gas is the chief product of a brine-well, all the other products are neglected. The gas appears to come from two separate horizons, one comparatively near the surface, and the other at a depth of about 200 tchang (about 720 yards). The gas from the former is not very abundant, and burns with a white flame, while that from the deeper source comes up in strong jets, burning with a blue and yellow flame. When a gas-vein is tapped in drilling, the tools are frequently blown out of the well, wrecking the derrick and apparatus, and if any light or fire is near, the escaping gas ignites. Moreover, the gas percolates through the adjacent soil, so that a conflagration sets in round the well. To prevent this, the Chinese, before sinking a well, arrange reservoirs of water all around, so as to flood the region of the well when occasion arises, and thus extinguish the flame. The gas is utilised for heating the brine pans, and is conveyed from a reservoir erected round the mouth of the well, through prepared bamboo pipes into other reservoirs underground, and thence to the evaporating-sheds. Varia- tions of weather affect the flow of gas from the wells. When it is fine and JAPAN. 59 calm the jets are strong, but they become weak, and almost cease, in windy or foggy weather. The deeper wells are less affected by these changes. In eastern Shensi, at Yenchang, oil-wells are worked with rudimentary plant under Japanese supervision, and a Chinese company has recently (1911) obtained a concession in the district, proposing to develop the industry on modern lines. JAPAN. (Plate 9.) In Japan, as already mentioned, petroleum and natural gas have been known for many centuries. The oil-fields extend from the western shore of Sakhalin or Karafuto in the north, through the western part of the highlands of Yezo or Hokkaido, and along the coast of the Sea of Japan, and thence, traversing the provinces of Mutsu, Ugo, Utzen, Echigo, and Shinano, reach the coast of the Pacific Ocean in the province of Totomi in the south. There is also an oil-field in the northern part of the west coast of Taiwan or Formosa. The chief centre of the industry is in the province of Echigo, which produces about 99 per cent. of the total output of petroleum in Japan. The usual depth of the wells is from 600 to 1200 feet, and the American system of drilling is employed. Mr. Lyman, in his First Report of the Geological Survey of the Oil Lands of Japan (Tokio, 1877), p. 17, speaking of a visit to Kusôdzu, says: It is said that the oldest oil wells of Echigo were here, and they are supposed by the inhabitants to have been dug several hundred years ago. It is said in the Japanese history, called Kokushiriyaku (I am told), that rock oil (or 'burning water') was found in Echigo in the reign of Tenjitenno, which was 1260 years ago, or about A.D. 615; and that was probably at Kusôdzu, where there are still very old natural exposures as well as dug wells. The name of the place, Kusôdzu, is the name given in the country to rock oil, and means stinking water; and the very fact that the word is by contraction so much changed from its original form Kusai midzu, shows of itself considerable an- tiquity. Natural gas even is called Kazakusôdzu, the first two syllables meaning wind' or 'air, and evidently identical, etymologically, with our very modern western word gas." Prof. S. Takano, however, gives the date as A.D. 674, and the Emperor's name as Tenchi, and says that the burning water" and "burning earth" (asphalt) were presented to him for use in his palace. In 1613 a man named Magara obtained oil in the vicinity of Niitzu, in the Echigo Province, and attempted refining it on a small scale for the purpose of illumination; but not till about 250 years later did the modern development of the industry commence, when Ishizaka Shuzo put down some wells at Zenkoji, in Shinano Province. He was unsuccessful, but made another attempt in Echigo Province. This also proved a failure, but his efforts led to other persons engaging in the search for oil, and by 1866 there were numerous wells and refineries existing in at least fifteen districts. In 1876 Dr. B. S. Lyman, of Philadelphia, was appointed to make a geological survey of the oil-lands, and his reports in 1877, 1878, and 1879 show the progress then made. following particulars are condensed from these reports :-In the Miyôhôji and Kusôdzu (Echigo) oil-region, there are (beside a larger number of old abandoned wells) about 178 productive wells, which altogether yield about 4 barrels a day, making an average of about 1 gallon a day for each well. The best well is at Machikata, and yields about half a barrel a day. The best of the former wells was at Kitakata, and for fourteen days (in 1871) it yielded a daily average of 19 barrels, but after that it gradually ceased to yield. Reviewing all the Echigo oil-fields, we find that there are in all 522 productive wells, of The 60 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. which the deepest is 122 fathoms (732 feet) deep, the greatest yield is about 1.2 barrel a day, and the total yield about 22 barrels a day, giving an average of about 2 gallons a day for each well. Such a yield, if kept up through the whole year, summer and winter, would amount, for all the wells together, to 9500 barrels a year, worth, at 12 gallons to the dollar, $31,650. At Shinano, on the other hand, the total is far smaller. There are in that province, in spite of the numerous traces of oil and gas, only twenty-two productive wells, of which the deepest is 57 fathoms (342 feet) deep, and the best has a yield of 2 barrels a day; and the total yield is a little over 5 barrels a day, or an average of 91 gallons a day to each well; or in a year, less than 1900 barrels altogether, worth about $6250. The whole yield of the two provinces, then, is about equal to that of two average Pennsylvania oil-wells. Yet two or three cases have occurred in Echigo of a yield of 15 to 19 barrels a day for a few days when the wells were new. At Miyôhôji they talk of having had a profit of $70,000 to $80,000 from a single well, and the general estimate of the yield of that field has been high. In 1888 Professor Fesca observed a water which had a strong odour of petroleum, in Mabana, in the Province of Kadzusa, but although he was able to ignite the film of oil on the surface, he states that he could not collect enough for testing in the laboratory. In 1886 the Japan Oil Company was formed, and introduced the American system of drilling with considerable success, though it has not yet superseded the primitive method of collecting the oil by means of timbered shafts. In the Amaze district flowing wells were struck, some of which furnished large quantities of oil. Early in 1899 this Company discovered a rich field at Ñagamine, 15 miles southwest of Amaze; and a few months later another very rich field was found at Kamada, not far distant. In that year these two fields alone yielded about 28,000,000 gallons of crude oil. Echigo, the centre of the industry, contains the following fields:-Niitzu, the oldest and richest, the production having increased from 634,000 koku (1 koku =39.7 Imperial gallons) in 1905 to over 970,000 in 1907, followed by a decline in 1908 to about 800,000 koku; Nishiyama, which embraces Nagamine and Kamada, and has steadily increased its production from 271,495 koku in 1905 to 492,393 koku in 1908; Higashiyama, which, like Niitzu, showed an increase from 1905 to 1907, but declined to 263,667 koku in 1908; Kubiki, which has decreased from over 97,000 koku in 1905 to less than 63,000 in 1908 ; Amaze, at one time the most important field, but which produced only 12,447 koku in 1907, a considerable increase over the two preceding years; and Ojiya, the production of which has fallen from 14,000 koku in 1905 to 7000 in 1908. Totomi Province, in which the industry has been carried on since 1888, has also several oil-districts, of which Sagara, an important and promising field, is the chief. In October 1903 a notable strike of heavy oil was reported to have been made by the International Oil Company at Hachemancho in Hokkaido, at a depth of 1780 feet, the oil being stated to have spouted above the surface of the ground; and a second well is said to have given a similar result. About 2000 koku was produced in 1909. The total output of refined oil in Japan, which in 1886 was about 1,600,000 gallons, increased steadily to about 3,600,000 gallons in 1893; in 1894 it amounted to about 6,000,000, and in 1901 had risen to nearly 40,000,000 gallons. In 1909 the production was about 65,000,000 gallons. Formosa. In this island a field of some importance has been developed at JAPAN, CANADA. 61 Byoritsu, on the northwest coast, and trial borings have recently been carried out at several places in the southern part of the island. The recorded output in 1909 was 5664 koku, and in 1910, 3208 koku. CANADA. (Plate 11.) The oil and gas-deposits of British America have been somewhat fully described in the various reports of the Geological Survey of Canada, more especially in the Summary Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada for the years 1888 and 1889 (Montreal, 1890), in the reports of E. D. Ingall (Report for 1889 to the Division of Mineral Statistics and Mines of the Geological Survey of Canada, Montreal, 1890, and Report for 1898, Montreal, 1899), of H. P. Brumell (Report on Natural Gas and Petroleum in Ontario prior to 1891, Ottawa, 1892), of R. W. Ells (Report on the Mineral Resources of the Province of Quebec, 1890); also in a Bulletin of the Imperial Institute in Part I of the article on The Principal Petroleum Resources of the British Empire, pp. 183 and 399. Much of the following account has been derived from these sources. Most of the petroleum produced commercially in the Dominion is yielded by wells in the province of Ontario, though recently a certain amount has been obtained in New Brunswick. A review of the Canadian petroleum industry is given in the 20th annual report of the Canadian Bureau of Mines, recently (1911) issued by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. According to this report, a gradual decrease in production has reduced the annual output to less than one-third of the quantity obtained twenty years ago. The output of the producing districts is given as follows : Lambton, Tilbury, Bothwell, Dutton, • Onondaga (Brant County), Leamington, Barrels. 205,456 63,057 36,998 7,753 • 1,005 141 314,410 The falling-off has been general, though more marked in the newer Tilbury and Leamington districts than in the older Lambton field. The presence of oil in the swamps of the township of Enniskillen, in the county of Lambton, at the extreme west of Ontario, was noticed at an early date, the occurrence of a thick dark-coloured oil in the water of the district, and the presence of a gummy substance intermingled with the soil in parts of the swamps, forming the so-called "gum beds," seriously detracting from the value of the land for agricultural purposes. A liquid, known as "gum oil," was formerly extracted from these deposits, but it was not until the sinking of a well by a Mr. James Shaw, in 1861, that practical attention was attracted to the district as an oil-country. The two distinct oil-pools of Lambton county are known as the Oil Springs and the Petrolea fields. The latter, and larger, field has an area of about 26 square miles, and extends W.N.W. about 8 miles, and E.S.E. about 4 miles from the village of Petrolea, while the Oil Springs field covers about 2 square miles, and includes the southeastern part of the village of Oil Springs. The output from these two pools amounted to over 600,000 barrels annually for some years. In 1894 the production in Canada reached a total of 829,104 62 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. barrels, the highest figure attained. In 1900 the yield was 692,650 barrels, and in 1903, 481,504 barrels. In 1909 it was 414,185 barrels. In the Oil Springs field the depth of the wells is from 370 to 400 feet, in the Petrolea field from 460 to 480 feet. The oil is chiefly refined at Sarnia. 66 6 The first flowing well of Oil Springs was struck in 1862 by Mr. Shaw in what is now known as the Upper Lime, at a depth of 160 feet. Mr. Henry describes this flowing well as a huge fountain of what seemed to be black mud, bursting with great violence from the hole where he [Shaw] had been digging. The 'mud' emitted a very offensive odour. The jet,' when he first cast eyes upon it, was, as nearly as he could judge, about a foot in diameter, and it every moment increased in volume, frequently shooting high up into the air.. Upon examination the substance proved to be crude petroleum. The well con- tinued to flow, with occasional brief cessations, for upwards of sixty-seven hours, and this in a large and swift stream which poured into the adjoining creek... Though Western Pennsylvania has produced numerous flowing wells of wonder- ful capacity, there is no quarter of the world where the production attained such prodigious dimensions, as in 1862, on Black Creek, in the township of Enniskillen. The first flowing well was struck there on 11th January 1862, and before October not less than thirty-five wells had commenced to drain a storehouse. . . . Some of these wells produced 300 and 600 barrels per day. Others yielded 1000, 2000, and 3000 barrels per day. Three produced, severally, 6000 barrels per day, and the Black & Matthewson well flowed 7500 barrels per day." Owing to the low price of petroleum at the time, there was no sale for the oil, but production was still pushed to the utmost. Prof. A. Winchell estimates. that during the spring and summer of 1862, not less than 5,000,000 barrels of oil floated off on the water of Black Creek (Sketches of Creation, New York, 1870). The same authority gives the following as the daily output of some of the principal wells of Black Creek, in the vicinity of Oil Springs-The Jewry & Evoy, the Sanborn & Shannon, the Wilkes and the Allen, 2000 barrels each ; the McLane, the Bradley, and the Petit, 3000 barrels; the Webster & Shepley, the Swan, and the Fiero, 6000 barrels each. Shortly after the excitement at Oil Springs, another large oil-deposit was struck at Bothwell, in Kent county, about 30 miles to the southeast, and soon after, in 1865, a third at Petrolea, about 7 miles north of Oil Springs. In 1867, the celebrated King wells were struck at Petrolea, and the latter district quickly became so productive as to lead to the desertion of Oil Springs, although the wells at that place were shortly afterwards drilled to a greater depth, and produced from 10,000 to 12,000 barrels monthly in 1886. Petroleum was also subsequently worked at Euphemia, 17 miles from Bothwell. It is estimated that 15,000 wells were sunk in Canada prior to 1886, and that 2500 were then producing at an average rate of three-fourths of a barrel daily. The following is extracted from the evidence given by Mr. J. H. Fairbank, of Petrolea, before the Royal Commission on the mineral resources of Ontario (Toronto, 1890) :-" In 1859 or 1860 the first attempt was made at utilising Canadian petroleum. This consisted in extracting a liquid from the gum oil that found its way to the surface at what then was known as the gum beds 'at Oil Springs. Then surface wells were dug to a depth of 40 to 60 feet; they were not flowing wells. Near the surface rock was a bed of gravel, and on reaching that the oil would press into the well, and rise in it quite a number of feet. The well was usually a shaft of 4 or 5 feet in diameter. This was done both at Oil Springs and here (Petrolea), and was the first development. The first drilling in the rock was at Oil Springs, about 1861, and soon after rock ONTARIO. 63 wells were sunk here. After a few had been put down at Oil Springs, they struck the great flowing region. At that time they cribbed a 4-foot shaft down to the rock, and most of the drilling was done by hand power. In the winter of 1861-62 flowing wells were struck which produced very largely, some of them reaching into the thousands of barrels in twenty-four hours. The great bulk of that oil went into the creek and was lost. Quite a number of such wells were put down, and I think at one time there must have been twenty flowing wells ; there was hardly a pump operated. . . . Between the striking and the control- ling of the flowing wells there was a period of great waste. I think these wells did not continue more than two years after they were struck; they changed to pumping wells, the supply seeming gradually to become exhausted, and water took the place of the oil. Between that time and the end there were two periods of excitement, and some years after that Oil Springs became practically deserted. About 1865 developments were made at Petrolea within the present Corpora- tion, but no flowing wells were struck till a later period. The flowing-well period in Petrolea was about 1866; that was in what is known as the King district, a little west of the present town. We have had wells there which yielded as much as 400 barrels a day. At Oil Springs the flow was very much stronger; I think the Black & Matthewson well at Oil Springs gave as much as 6000 barrels in twenty-four hours. . . . That great flow was only of short duration, lasting a few days until it was controlled. Here the greatest flow was from 400 to 800 barrels, and not much was wasted. These wells continued to flow a good while, and then it became necessary to pump them; some of them are pumping wells to-day. Some small flowing wells were found beyond the King district, but that was the great centre. Flowing wells were generally found where there were crevices. I would estimate the number of new • • wells last year here and at Oil Springs at 400." The Bothwell field in Kent county again attracted attention at the beginning of the century, and in 1902 produced about 50,000 barrels. In that year the flowing well, known as the "Gurd gusher," was struck at Chatham in this field, and yielded at first 1750 gallons per hour, but this declined in the early part of 1903 to 3500 gallons a day. Another well at Thamesville is stated to produce 1225 gallons of oil a day. The depth of wells in this field is about 400 feet. The production in 1909 was 38,707 barrels. In the Dutton oil-field, in the township of Dunwich, in Elgin county, near the shore of Lake Erie, there were in 1901 thirty-two wells, mostly about 435 feet deep, producing upwards of 35,000 gallons a month. This field produced over 10,000 barrels in 1909. In 1901 the development of the Tilsonburg field in Oxford county, in the valley of Big Otter Creek, was commenced, the first well yielding 840 gallons a day. Oil is also found in many other parts of Ontario, particularly where the territory is occupied by the Hamilton and Corniferous formations. In the township of Collingwood, the Utica Shale which there outcrops was distilled in 1859 as a source of oil, and similar oil-shales occur in the Devonian formation in Bosanquet, Lambton county. In December 1891 oil was found in the Medina Sand at a depth of 750 feet, near Sherkston, Welland county. Other localities are mentioned in the following section. The largest area over which indications of petroleum occur in Canada lies in the Province of Alberta and the Mackenzie Territory in the northwestern part of the Dominion. Of the valley of the Athabasca, then known as the Elk or Elbe, Capt. Sir G. Back writes in 1833, on the authority of Mr. John Richardson, under Sir John Franklin (Second Expedition, 1828, vol. i), as follows : There is a peaty bog whose crevices are filled with petroleum, a mineral that 64 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. CC exists in great abundance in this district. We never observed it flowing from the limestone, but always above it, and generally agglutinating the beds of sand into a kind of pitchy sandstone. Sometimes fragments of this stone contain so much petroleum as to float down the stream" (Journ. R. Geogr. Soc., iii, 65). The bitumen of the Athabasca region was also noticed by Sir Alexander Mackenzie (Voyages through North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, 1789, 1793), and by Sir John Richardson (Arctic Searching Expedition, 1851). Later exploration in the region caused the Select Committee of the Senate of Canada to report as follows: The evidence submitted to your Committee points to the existence in the Athabasca and Mackenzie Valleys of the most extensive petroleum field in America, if not in the world. The uses of petroleum, and consequently the demand for it by all nations, are increasing at such a rapid ratio that it is probable that this great petroleum field will assume an enormous value in the near future, and will rank among the chief assets comprised in the Crown Domain of the Dominion. For this reason your Committee would suggest that a tract of about 40,000 square miles be for the present reserved from sale, and that as soon as possible its value may be more accurately tested by exploration and practical tests, the said reserve to be bounded as follows: Easterly, by a line drawn due north from the foot of the Cascade Rapids on Clear- water River to the south shore of Athabasca Lake; northerly, by the said lake shore and the Quatre Fourche and Peace Rivers; westerly, by Peace River and a straight line from Peace River Landing to the western extremity of Lesser Slave Lake; and southerly, by said lake and the river discharging it to Athabasca River and Clearwater River as far up as the place of beginning" (Report of the Select Committee of the Senate appointed to inquire into the resources of the Great Mackenzie Basin. Ottawa, 1888). The Dominion Government subsequently decided to have a trial-boring made near Athabasca Landing, and selected a site 70 miles north of Edmonton. Operations were commenced in August 1894. Strong flows of gas were met with at 245 feet and 334 feet, but no oil, and at 1770 feet the boring had to be abandoned owing to the caving-in of the bore. The Tar Sand was not reached, but it was believed that it would have been if the drilling had been continued a short distance further. In 1897 another trial-boring was commenced 90 miles lower down the Athabasca River, at the mouth of the Pelican River. The Tar Sand was reached at a depth of 750 feet, and a strong flow of gas ensued, but no oil was obtained. Another boring was also commenced in 1897, at Victoria, on the Saskatchewan River, but though gas was met with at 1030 feet, a depth of 1840 feet was reached without any indications of oil or of the Tar Sand, and the undertaking was abandoned in 1899. In 1902 a boring was made on the Belly River, in Alberta, but unfortunately just as the oil-bearing beds were reached at a depth of 1200 feet, the drilling tools stuck, and the experiment failed. An attempt near Calgary, however, met with more success, and oil of a good quality was reported as having been obtained at a depth of 1020 feet. Near the boundary between British Columbia and Alberta, petroleum occurs in the South Kootenay Pass, near Waterton Lake, on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, and in small tributaries of the Flathead River, between the South and North Kootenay Pass. The best indications are in the valley of the Kettle River and around Grand Forks. On the eastern side of the mountains oil was said to issue from the surface to such an extent that a farmer made money by skimming it off the ponds on his farm and selling it for lighting purposes and as a cure for cattle-diseases. A well drilled on the South Kootenay in 1904 is said to have produced 12 barrels a day. NATURAL GAS, ONTARIO. 65 In Nova Scotia, several shallow borings have been made on the shores of Lake Ainslie, Cape Breton Island, within the last forty years, but the results obtained were not followed up. Recently renewed interest has been manifested in the region as a possible source of petroleum. In New Brunswick, small quantities of petroleum were obtained several years ago from shallow wells near Memramcook, Dover, and other points. The Maritime Oil Fields, Limited, which acquired the property of the New Brunswick Petroleum Company, Limited, are carrying out drilling operations under a concession of an exceptionally favourable character, granted by Royal Charter in 1900, which gave the right to search for oil and gas over an area of 18,000 square miles, and to select 10,000 square miles (more than one-third of the area of the province). The area selected is situated in the counties of West- moreland, Albert, King's, Queen's, Sunbury, Kent, Northumberland, Gloucester, Restigouche, and a portion of York, and is traversed by several anticlinals, on which wells have been drilled successfully, a large yield of natural gas, in addition to oil, having been obtained. The crude petroleum is of excellent quality, with a paraffin base, and yields, in addition to 34 per cent. of kerosene, a fuel oil of high calorific value, contain- ing 0.14 per cent. of sulphur. A variety of asphalt known as albertite has been mined in Albert county. Natural Gas has long been known in Ontario, the Gas Spring at Caledonia Springs, in Prescott county, and the Burning Spring on the Niagara River, below the cataract, having been known at the beginning of the last century, but it received practically no commercial application until within the last twenty years. It then, however, rapidly came into use, and Mr. Brumell has given the following estimate of the available output of all the wells which were yielding at the close of the year 1889 :— Ruthven, Essex County, Welland county, Collingwood and Delphi, Small wells in Ontario, • 4 • Cubic feet per diem. 10,000,000 15,050,000 Total for Ontario, Quebec, North-western Territories, Total, · 9,000 11,000 25,070,000 55,000 75,000 25,200,000 As regards the natural-gas industry of Ontario, Mr. Brumell reports that in August 1888 seven wells had been bored on the Niagara peninsula, three of which were at Port Colborne, two at Niagara Falls (South), and one each at Thorold and St. Catherine's in the Township of Bertie. The first well drilled for gas in Ontario was sunk in July 1885 at Port Colborne, in Welland county. It had a roughly-estimated flow of 50,000 cubic feet daily, and was followed by two others which struck gas at 762 and 764 feet. Small producing wells were sunk at Collingwood and Delphi in 1887 and 1888; while in the Essex field, the Coste No. 1" well, in the Township of Gosfield, near Ruthven, had in 1889 a measured daily flow of 10,000,000 cubic feet. This well is believed by Mr. Brumell to be supplied from a vesicular dolomite, probably of the Clinton division. The well was sunk to a depth of 1017 feet, when the first strong flow of gas was obtained. It was continued to a depth of 1031 feet, when the pressure of gas became so great as to necessitate a stoppage of the boring. The important gas-field situated in the Townships of Bertie and Humberstone, in VOL. I. 5 66 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Welland county, lies near the northern shore of Lake Erie. Out of seven principal wells, four had a daily output exceeding 2,000,000 cubic feet, and one reached 6,900,000 cubic feet. Mr. Eugene Coste furnished the following record of well No. 1 of the Pro- vincial Natural Gas and Fuel Company of Ontario. The well yielded 2,000,000 cubic feet daily in 1889 from the lower white sandstone at a depth of 836 feet TABLE V.-GAS-WELL SECTION, WELLAND COUNTY. Character of Beds. Thickness. Formation. Surface deposits, 2 feet. Drift. Dark-grey limestone, 25 "> Drab and grey dolomites, black shales and gypsum, Grey dolomite passing into brown,. 390 "" 240 "" Black shales, 50 "" White crystalline dolomite, grey towards bottom, 30 Corniferous. Onondaga. Guelph and Niagara Niagara. Clinton. "" Red sandstone, 55 Red shales, 10 ་ Blue shales, 5 "" Medina. White sandstone, 5 Blue shales, 20 White sandstone, 15 • At Forest a small and short-lived supply of gas was obtained from the gravel and shales which lie beneath the Erie Clay. The various productive wells of Ontario struck gas at greatly varying depths, from 95 feet at Delphi (Field's Crossing) and other shallow depths in Simcoe county, to 2394 feet in the Thorold well in Welland county. It is said that in 1894 gas was piped from Canada to Buffalo, in New York, to the value of $91,637. Extensive boring for gas has been carried out in Quebec since 1885, and wells have yielded small supplies at Beausejour, in Nicolet county, apparently from the Medina formation, at Maisonneuve and other localities near Montreal, and at Louisville (Rivière du Loup en haut). Mr. Obalski observes that, as the heavy flow of gas at the base of the Medina in the Beausejour well corresponds with that from the same deposit in the Ohio wells, it would be advisable to bore down to the Trenton Limestone, a total depth of 2800 feet, in the hope of a yield from that formation, as in Ohio (Rep. of the Commissioner of Crown Lands, Quebec, 1885, 116). He remarks that "An all-important consideration in connection with the probable occurrence of these reservoirs is that of the geo- logical structure of the district; and while, for reasons in connection with this, I have never had any faith in their occurrence on the north side of the St. Lawrence, I consider that the probability of such reservoir existing on the south side, in the country between Lake St. Peter and St. Hyacinthe, is very great, especially along, or in proximity to, the central part of the line indicated by Sir W. E. Logan as the course of the Deschambault anticlinal." The Albert county gas-field in New Brunswick assumed importance in 1909, and the product is now being used in the town of Moncton. The value of natural gas produced in Ontario in 1899 was $440,904, and in 1903, $196,535; in 1909 it had increased to $1,188,179. In 1909 a small fraction of the total production (valued at $1,207,029) of natural gas in Canada came from wells near Medicine Hat in the Province of Alberta; at the beginning of the year there were twelve producing wells in that field. NEWFOUNDLAND, UNITED STATES. 67 NEWFOUNDLAND. The existence of petroleum on the west coast of Newfoundland has been known for a century, for it was in 1812 that Mr. Parsons, after whom Parsons Pond is named, used the crude oil of this district as a cure for rheumatism. In 1867 Mr. Silver of Halifax, Nova Scotia, sunk a well, which is said to have been about 700 feet deep, on this property, and obtained slight shows of oil, but owing to lack of capital, further exploitation was abandoned. In June 1890 a Mr. Pippy obtained concessions from the Government, and his operations led to the formation in 1894 of the Newfoundland Oil Company, Limited. The first well was begun in 1895, and struck oil at 700 feet and again at 900 feet, and a still larger source at 1230 feet, but the total production was incon- siderable. A second well struck oil at 900 feet, and a better supply at 1160 feet, but at 1176 feet the tools were lost, and the well had to be abandoned. A third well was started, but when it had reached a depth of 120 feet a fire took place, and operations ceased. In 1901 another attempt was made at a spot about 500 yards to the west of these wells, and drilling was carried to a depth of 1500 feet, slight shows of oil being met with at 810, 1130, and 1440 feet. A boring was also undertaken near the original well put down in 1867, and was carried to a depth of 1210 feet, when the tools were lost, shows of oil being met with at 65, 505, and 1210 feet. During 1903 a well was drilled near Parsons Pond in which what is described as a good flow of oil was met with at 1204 feet. In 1898 some trial-borings were put down on the shore of Port-au-Port Bay, about 100 miles southwest of Parsons Pond, in some of which there were evi- dences of petroleum in small quantities, with a paraffin base. More recently oil is said to have been obtained at St. Paul's Bay at a depth of 1700 feet. THE UNITED STATES. (Plate 12.) Although the petroleum industry of America is of recent origin, the crude oil has undoubtedly been long used by the Indians. Ancient oil-pit heaps, some- times supporting trees of the growth of centuries, have been found in the vicinity of Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. The earliest mention occurs in a letter dated 1629, and published in Sagard's Histoire du Canada, 1632, which describes a visit of a Franciscan, Joseph de la Roche d'Allion, to the oil-springs of what is now the State of New York, and states that the Indian name of the place signifies "there is plenty there" (Peckham, The Production, Technology, and Uses of Petroleum and its Products. Washington, 1884). In 1748 North America. was visited by Peter Kalm, a Russian naturalist, who on his return published his travels, together with a map on which the oil-springs of Oil Creek were indicated. The existence of asphaltum and semi-solid bitumen in Santa Barbara, California, is said to have been known since 1792 (Gesner, A Practical Treatise on Coal, Petroleum, etc., 1865, 17). In the first edition of this work a paragraph appeared in which it was stated that in 1750 the Commander of Fort Du Quesne (Pittsburg) wrote a letter describing the religious ceremonies of the Indians as witnessed by him. It is now known that this was a fictitious production, and owed its origin to the eminent jurist, Judge J. Thompson, and the noted divine, Dr. Cyrus Dickson, who conjointly published in 1830 an imaginary history of N.W. Pennsylvania in a Franklin weekly paper (J. J. McLaurin, Sketches in Crude Oil, Harrisburg, Pa., 1896, p. 17). The extract was as follows :-" I would desire to assure you that this is a most delightful land. Some of the most astonishing natural 68 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. wonders have been discovered by our people. While descending the Allegheny, 15 leagues below the mouth of the Conewango and three above the Venango, we were invited by the Chief of the Senecas to attend a religious ceremony of his tribe. We landed, and drew up our canoes on a point where a small stream entered the river. The tribe appeared unusually solemn. We marched up the stream about half a league, where the company, a large band it appeared, had arrived some days before us. Gigantic hills begirt us on every side. The scene was really sublime. The great Chief then recited the conquests and hero- ism of their ancestors. The surface of the stream was covered with a thick scum, which, upon applying a torch at a given signal, burst into a complete conflagration. At the sight of the flames the Indians gave forth the triumphant shout that made the hills and valleys re-echo again. Here, then, is revived the ancient fire-worship of the East; here, then, are the children of the Sun." The site is Oil Creek, Venango county, Pennsylvania. Petroleum was formerly used in America as a cure for rheumatism, burns, coughs, sprains, etc., under the name of " Seneca oil," found near Lake Seneca, Allegany county, New York, the vicinity of which provided the earlier supplies. This oil-spring was thus described in 1833 in the American Journal of Science (1), xxiii, 97, by Prof. B. Silliman, sen. :—“ The oil spring, or fountain, rises in the midst of a marshy ground; it is a muddy and dirty pool of about 18 feet in diameter. The water is covered with a thin layer of petroleum, giving it a foul appearance as if coated with dirty molasses, having a yellowish-brown colour. They collect the petroleum by skimming it like cream from a milk- pan. For this purpose they use a broad flat board, made thin at one edge like a knife. It is moved flat upon and just under the surface of the water, and is soon covered by a thin coating of the petroleum, which is so thick and adhesive that it does not fall off, but is removed by scraping the instrument on the lip of a cup. It has then a very foul appearance, like very dirty tar or molasses; but it is purified by heating and straining it while hot through flannel or other woollen stuff. It is used by the people of the vicinity for sprains and rheumatism and for sores on their horses, it being in both cases rubbed upon the part. It is not monopolised by anyone, but it is carried away freely by all who care to collect it, and for this purpose the spring is frequently visited. I could not ascertain how much is annually obtained; but the quan- tity is considerable. It is said to rise more abundantly in hot weather than in cold. Gas is constantly escaping through the water, and appears in bubbles upon its surface.” Although the existence of petroleum over a large area in the States was known at a very early period, there are no records of the systematic collection of the oil prior to its being obtained in comparatively large quantities from the brine-wells or springs which were worked for the extraction of salt. Such wells were extensively bored on the banks of the Kanawha River in West Virginia. Many of these wells were drilled to a great depth, and nearly all yielded oil and natural gas to a greater or less extent. So noticeable, in fact, was the associa- tion of oil and brine, that surface indications of the occurrence of petroleum often led to the selection of the locality for boring a brine-well. The presence of the oil was. however, invariably regarded as objectionable, and often resulted in the closing of the works. The petroleum was collected and sold by a few as a curiosity, and for medicinal use. Writing in 1833, Dr. S. P. Hildreth thus refers to the early use of petro- leum :-" From its being found in limited quantities, and its great and extensive. demand, a small vial of it would sell for 40 or 50 cents. . . . In neighbourhoods where it is abundant it is burned in lamps in place of spermaceti oil, affording UNITED STATES. 69 a brilliant light, but filling the room with its own peculiar odour. By filtering it through charcoal, much of this empyreumatic smell is destroyed, and the oil greatly improved in quality and appearance. It is also well adapted to prevent friction in machinery, for, being free of gluten, so common to animal and vegetable oils, it preserves the parts to which it is applied for a long time in free motion; when a heavy vertical shaft runs in a socket, it is preferred to all or any other article. This oil rises in greater or less abundance in most of the salt-wells of the Kanawha, and collecting as it rises in the head of the water, is removed from time to time with a ladle " (American Journal of Science (1), xxiv, 63). ،، Prof. S. F. Peckham, in his monograph on petroleum, quotes a paper written by Dr. J. P. Hale of Charleston, West Virginia, for the volume prepared by Prof. M. F. Maury and issued in 1876 by the State Centennial Board, on the resources and industries of the State. It contains an account of the drilling of “the first rock-bored brine-well, west of the Alleghanies, if not in the United States," by the brothers Ruffner, about 1806. This, "the legitimate precursor of all the petroleum wells of the country," was bored on the bank of the "Salt Lick," or Great Buffalo Lick," to a depth of about 58 feet, and was followed by the drilling of large numbers of wells, the Muskingum and Duck Creek Valleys soon becoming noted. Nearly all the Kanawha salt wells have contained more or less petroleum, and some of the deepest wells a considerable flow. Many per- sons now think, trusting to their recollections, that some of the wells afforded as much as twenty-five to fifty barrels per day. This was allowed to flow over from the top of the salt cisterns to the river, where, from its specific gravity, it spread over a large surface, and by its beautiful iridescent hues, and not very savoury odour, could be traced for many miles down the stream. It was from this that the river received the nickname of Old Greasy,' by which it was for a long time familiarly known by Kanawha boatmen and others. At that time this oil not only had no value, but was considered a great nuisance, and every effort was made to tube it out and get rid of it." 66 A well bored in 1814 to a depth of 475 feet at Duck Creek, periodically discharged from 30 to 60 gallons of oil, together with large quantities of natural gas, at intervals of from two to four days. The following account of the American" well, bored in 1829 for brine at Little Pennox Creek, is from Niles's Register (3), xiii, 4 :—¨ Some months since, in the act of boring for salt water on the land of Mr. Lemuel Stockton, situated in the County of Cumber- land, Kentucky, a vein of pure oil was struck, from which it is almost incredible what quantities of the substance issued. The discharges were by floods at intervals of from two to five minutes, at each flow vomiting forth many barrels of pure oil. . . . These floods continued for three or four weeks, when they sub- sided to a constant stream, affording many thousand gallons per day.' This well yielded plentifully until 1860, and the oil was largely sold as “The American Medicinal Oil, Burkesville, Kentucky" (Burkesville Courier, 11th October 1876). About the year 1849, S. M. Kier, a druggist of Pittsburg, noticed the close similarity between the "American Oil" prescribed for the sickness of his wife, and the petroleum obtained by his father from a brine-well at Tarentum, and commenced to bottle and retail the latter oil for medicinal use, soon bringing up the sale to about three barrels daily. Finding that the production far exceeded the sale, Mr Kier began about 1855 to refine the oil in a roughly-constructed still. The "light, wine-coloured" distillate, which first came over, was found useful for illuminating purposes, while the heavier product was employed at a factory in Cooperstown for cleansing wools. 70 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Oil from Coal and Shale.-Shortly after the introduction of Young's process for obtaining paraffin and paraffin oils by the distillation of coal and shale, a considerable number of refineries were erected in the United States, and were worked under licenses from Young's Company. At some of these imported coal was distilled, but most of them received their supplies of raw material from the extensive shale and coal deposits of Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri. Near Boston, Mass., the large works of Downer were erected at a cost of half a million dollars, and at Portland, Mr. Downer erected a smaller works for dis- tilling imported coal. The manufacture of oil from coal and shale continued to increase until there were not less than fifty or sixty establishments devoted to this industry in the United States, one of which was in Portland, one in New Bedford, four in Boston, one in Hartford, five in the environs of New York, eight or ten in western Pennsylvania, twenty-five in Ohio, eight in Virginia, six in Kentucky, and one in St. Louis. Many, if not most, of these were of small capacity, how- ever, and the greater part of them were not more than fairly started when the discovery of petroleum prostrated the whole business, and threatened its pro- jectors with overwhelming loss, from which they were happily rescued by con- verting their oil factories into refineries, which was done with very little trouble (Henry). Development of the Petroleum-Industry.-Having been shown some petro- leum obtained from the Cherrytree Township of Venango, Mr. George H. Bissell, a lawyer of New York, joined Mr. J. G. Eveleth of the same city in organising a company, which was incorporated at the end of 1854 as the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company. Some of the oil from the Cherrytree de- posits was sent to Prof. B. Silliman, jun., whose report, dated 16th April 1855, is referred to in the section of this work dealing with the Chemistry of Petroleum. The operations of the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company were not very suc- cessful, and in March 1858 Bissell and certain other members of the Company formed themselves into the Seneca Oil Company, which leased a plot of land on Oil Creek from the parent company, and started operations at Titusville under the control of Mr. E. L. Drake, for obtaining the oil by means of artesian wells. After many vexatious delays Drake engaged two drillers who had been em- ployed in boring salt-wells at Tarentum, and at the beginning of 1859 work was commenced. Finding all attempts at digging through the surface-deposits to the rock, which was to be penetrated by the drill, to be futile on account of the caving-in of the shaft, Drake successfully adopted the expedient of driving an iron tube through the quicksands and clay to the rock, a system which has since been largely employed. After drilling to a depth of 69 feet, the drill suddenly dropped, on 28th August 1859, into a crevice, and on the following day oil was found to have been struck. At first the well yielded about 25 barrels daily to the pump, but its production rapidly diminished, until, at the close of the year, it did not amount to more than about 15 barrels daily. The total yield during 1859 is said to have been under 2000 barrels. The success of the Drake well led to the rapid development of the petroleum. industry. Bissell immediately secured all the available leases down the creek and along the Allegheny, and largely bought up the stock of the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company. Others also secured many valuable leases, usually no rent being charged, but a royalty of one-eighth to a quarter of the oil obtained being paid by the lessee. Cone and Johns (Petrolia, N.Y., 1870) and Henry (Early and Later History of Petroleum, 1873) have collected a large amount of interesting information on the development of the industry along Oil Creek and its vicinity. "Commencing at Titusville in 1859, the tide of development swept over the UNITED STATES. 71 valley of Oil Creek and along the Allegheny River, above and below Oil City, for a considerable distance. Cherry Run in 1864 furnished the first subsequent The excitement. Then came Pithole Creek, Benninghoff and Pioneer Run. Woods and Stevenson farms on Oil Creek, near Petroleum Centre, came in like succession in 1865 and 1866. Tidioute, or rather Dennis Run and Triumph Hill, was a promising candidate for public favour in 1867, and in the latter part of the same year Shamburgh, on Upper Cherry Run, made its brilliant début. For 1868 the Pleasantville oil-field furnished the chief excitement" (Cone and Johns). The next well after Drake's was that of Barnsdall, Meade, Abbott, and Rouse, who struck oil almost within a stone's-throw of Drake's well, at a depth of 80 feet. At that depth, however, a supply of only about five barrels was obtained; but in February 1860, at a depth of 160 feet, a second supply was struck, which yielded 40 to 50 barrels daily. Most of the early wells on Oil Creek were sunk by means of the "spring pole," which was used even to a depth of 400 or 500 feet. During the early days of the petroleum-industry in America, drilling was carried on in an unsystematic manner, without regard to any geological or other features of the country, save such delusive indications as were furnished by superficial outflows of oil, the rising of gas and oil in wells drilled for water or brine, or the appearance of exudations of oil and semi-solid bitumen. The appearance of gas and oil in the brine-wells at Tarentum and elsewhere, and the subsequent drilling of wells for the express purpose of obtaining the oil, were the most potent factors in the early development of the industry in America, and the successive boring of neighbouring wells, together with the energy displayed by the "wild-cat" prospectors, who drilled wells in unknown. territory, and in many cases regardless of any indications whatever, soon led to the mapping out of a large area of producing country in Pennsylvania and New York. The drillers in Venango county quickly discovered that the oil was contained in a series of sandstones imbedded in shale; three of these deposits, respectively termed the first, second, and third sands, and all included under the general name of oil-sands, being known. In June 1861 the first flowing well was struck. This was the Fountain well, and was sunk on the Upper McElhenny or Funk farm, to a depth of 460 feet, being the first well drilled to the Third Sand-rock. It yielded 300 barrels daily for six months, and then suddenly ceased to produce, having, it was said, been choked by the solidification of paraffin. The Empire well, drilled to the same depth on the same farm, was completed in September 1861, and com- menced to flow at the rate of 2500 barrels daily. The yield even after six months was maintained at 2200 barrels, but in about eight months the flow suddenly ceased. The well was ultimately cleaned out, and yielded 300 barrels daily to the pump for some time. The Lower McElhenny farm gave, amongst others, the Davis & Wheelock well, flowing at the rate of 1500 barrels daily, and the Densmore wells, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, which daily yielded 600, 400, and 500 barrels respectively. The Maple Shade well, struck in August 1863, on the Hyde & Egbert farm at Petroleum Centre, produced 800 barrels daily, and is said to have given a million and a half dollars profit to its owners. The J. W. McClintock farm, afterwards covered by the city of Petroleum Centre, consisted of 207 acres, and was the site of not less than 150 wells, nearly 80 per cent. of which were re- munerative. At a depth of 491 feet, the Phillips well, on the Tarr farm, was struck in November 1861, and gave a stream of 3000 barrels daily, the yield being 72 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. maintained at nearly that amount for months. The well, which is estimated to have yielded 750,000 to 1,000,000 barrels, flowed for a year, and was then pumped. It produced largely for twelve years, but was finally shut down in 1873. The Woodford well, a few rods from the Phillips, yielded 2000 barrels daily, and was found to be connected with that well, for, when either ceased working, only water could be obtained from the other. On the Farrel farm was the Noble & Delamater well, which flowed at the rate of 3000 barrels daily. It was sunk in 1863, and continued to yield until 1865, having, it is estimated, produced $3,000,000 worth of oil. Sherman well, on the opposite side of the creek, commenced flowing at the rate of 2000 barrels in 1862, and it is said to have yielded 900 barrels daily for two years. The excitement at Pithole commenced in January 1865, when the celebrated United States or Fraser well was struck on the Thomas Holmden farm in a ravine on Pit Creek. This well, the property of the United States Oil Company, commenced to flow at the rate of 650 barrels daily; but the yield gradually diminished, and in November of the same year came to an end. On the same farm were the Twin wells (800 barrels daily), the No. 54 well (800 barrels), the Grant well (450 barrels), and the Eureka well (800 barrels). Other flowing wells were struck on the adjoining Rooker farm, and on the adjacent Hyner and Copeland farms; but, although all gave excellent results at the com- mencement (the Holmden farm producing from three to four thousand barrels when at its best) none of the wells yielded for more than a few months. Pithole was a typical oil city. Built up in an incredibly short time, it had a population estimated at twelve to sixteen thousand before the end of Sep- tember 1865; its post-office ranking next in importance in the State to those of Philadelphia and Pittsburg. As, however, its production fell off, its prosperity rapidly declined, and within two years of its foundation it was practically deserted. Borings in the valley of the Muskingum, in Ohio, and on the little Kanawha, were also attended with success. The development of the Mecca field in Trumbull county, Ohio, dates from 1860, when boring operations were started on a large scale. Several thousands of barrels were taken out yearly for some time, but the greater number of the wells, which were very shallow, rarely exceeding 100 feet in depth, were soon abandoned, and subsequent operations did not result in any large increase. In 1860 an old brine-well at Burning Springs, West Virginia, was re-opened, and yielded about 50 barrels of oil daily; and the following year the Llewellyn. well, with a depth of only 100 feet, flowed over 1000 barrels daily, and sub- sequently at the rate of 1400 to 2000 barrels daily for some months. Oil was also obtained in 1860 and 1861 at Oil Springs, on the Hughes River. The occurrence of petroleum in brine-wells in Washington county is referred to by Hildreth (American Journal of Science, 1833, xxiv, 63; and 1836, xxix, 87), and several wells were drilled from 1860 to 1865 at Cow Run and elsewhere in this district. Although wells had been drilled near the junction of the Clarion and Alle- gheny Rivers as early as 1863, the development of the "lower country" lying in Butler, Armstrong, and Clarion counties did not commence until 1868. The following statement roughly indicates the early growth of the American petroleum industry-In 1859 the total produce, which was wholly obtained from Oil Creek, was 2000 barrels. In June 1860 the wells along Oil Creek yielded about 200 barrels daily, and in September about 700. The yield then rapidly increased, owing to the discovery of flowing wells, until during the UNITED STATES. 73 winter and spring of 1861 to 1862 it amounted to about 15,000 barrels daily. The price obtained for the crude oil then fell so low that production was largely arrested, until the production of 1863 was scarcely half that of the beginning of 1862, and that of 1864 still less. In May 1865 the production had declined to less than 4000 barrels a day, the valley of Oil Creek being the only producing locality at that time" (Cone and Johns). It is estimated that some ten million barrels ran to waste in Pennsylvania in and prior to 1862 owing to the absence of a market. The Oil City Register for May 1862 gives the following estimates for the Oil Creek valley at that date :-Daily production, 5717 barrels; flowing wells, 76; wells sunk and in process of being drilled, 358; amount of oil in hand, 92,450 barrels; total production prior to May 1862, 1,000,000 barrels; cost of sinking wells, $498,000; and cost of machinery, buildings, tanks, etc., $509,000. After the middle of the year 1864 the industry began to expand, and the production has since steadily increased. For some years the Pennsylvanian fields remained the principal source of supply, but a small quantity soon began. to be raised in the States of Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and California. After 1884 the production of Ohio rapidly increased, and that of West Virginia after 1890; from the same date that of California also increased steadily to nearly 30,000,000 barrels in 1904, and Colorado and Indiana began to contribute appreciable quantities to the total supply. Very small produc- tions were also recorded from Illinois, Kansas, Texas, Missouri, and Indian Territory at the beginning of the last decade of the nineteenth century, but towards its close, Kansas and Texas began to develop their petroleum resources to a fuller extent, and Wyoming also appeared on the list of producing States. From 1901 to 1904, while the eastern fields showed a decline, California, Texas, and Louisiana, with the Indian and Oklahoma Territories, Kansas, and Indiana, increased their production to a remarkable extent. Down to the end of 1904 the entire output of petroleum in the United States since its discovery in quantity in 1859 was estimated at 1,382,815,006 barrels, which sold for $1,363,069,897, an average price of 98-6 cents per barrel (Oliphant, Mineral Resources of the United States for 1904). According to the annual reports of the United States Geological Survey, the most important features in connection with the production of petroleum in that country during the five years 1904-1909 have been as follows:- In 1904 there was a continuance of the remarkable increase in the pro- duction of an inferior grade of petroleum in California, Texas, and Louisiana, and of the increase in Kansas and Indian Territory of the production of a fair grade of petroleum; for the first time in the history of the petroleum industry the quantity produced west of the Mississippi River was greater than that produced east; there were new fields developed in Texas, California, and Kan- sas; the regularity of the sum of production of the older fields continued to be remarkable; there was an increase in the demand for refined petroleum throughout the United States, especially for the lighter grades used in internal- combustion engines, and there was an increased quantity of the heavier crude petroleum produced in Louisiana, Texas, and California consumed in fuel. In 1905 the development of the Mid-Continent field, and the extension into Illinois of the Lima-Indiana field indicated a great increase in the future pro- duction of the lighter grades of oil, whilst the production of the Eastern fields showed signs of permanent decrease. The completion of the pipe-line from Humboldt, Kansas, to Whiting, Indiana, marked another step in the trans- portation of oil. In 1906 there was an extension of the area of the Mid- Continent field, and an increase in the daily production of oil in that region; 74 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. an expansion of the area in Illinois from which oil was being produced; con- siderable growth in the consumption of fuel oil in California; decline in the production from the Coastal Plain district of the Gulf States; and further decrease in the average daily production from the Appalachian field. Addi- tional transport facilities were provided by the laying of a second pipe-line from the Mid-Continent field to Whiting, Indiana, and the building of a pipe- line across the Isthmus of Panama for the delivery of the oil from the California field to the Atlantic Ocean. In 1907 there was a total output of crude oil far in excess of that of any previous year, with an unparalleled accumulation of stocks; and great increase in production in the new Illinois field, in the Glenn pool in Oklahoma, and in California. In 1908 there was a steady growth in the production in Illinois and California, and a decline in the production in the Glenn pool and in various Texas and Louisiana pools. In 1909 California was the chief centre of attraction, the production increasing to the extent of 21.35 per cent., but Oklahoma and West Virginia also showed some gain. In 1910 a further increase of 31.62 per cent. was recorded in California, and Louisiana more than doubled its output; the production of oil in Wyoming also began to assume importance. According to Dr. Day, the average yield per well per day in the United States was 3-3 barrels in 1909 and 3-7 barrels in 1910. Speaking of the gas-fields of the United States in 1890, Mr. Weeks remarks:- "In a general way it may be said that natural gas has been found in varying quantities all through the territory from the Hudson River on the east to California on the west. In Alabama, California, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming, its existence is reported. In some of these States, however, it has not been found in commercial quantities. . . . In 1889 gas in commercial quantities was reported as having been produced in Arkansas, California, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, and Utah. At the present time the important gas-fields are those of western Pennsylvania, eastern-central Indiana, western New York, and northwestern Ohio. . . . The most important gas-fields in these territories are those in the gas district in Pennsylvania, in the neighbourhood of Pittsburg, including the Murraysville and Grapeville fields of Westmoreland county and the several Washington county fields. In McKean and Venango counties. there was also a large production of gas, and considerable from Elk county. In Ohio, the most important field is what has been called the Findlay, situated in Hancock county, while in Indiana the chief fields are in the neighbourhood of Anderson, Kokomo, Murion, and Muncie " (Eleventh Census Report of the U.S., 1890). The production of natural gas has reached enormous proportions, and although the older fields are evidently becoming exhausted, new pools are being continually opened up. In December 1889 there were 2247 wells reported as producing gas in the United States. This number was made up as follows:-Pennsylvania, 999; Indiana, 576; Ohio, 448; New York, 119; Missouri, 13; Kansas, 25; Cali- fornia, 6; Illinois, 10; Kentucky, 37; West Virginia, 4; Texas, 1; Arkansas, 2; Utah, 2; South Dakota, 1; New Mexico, 1; Tennessee, 1; Wisconsin, 2. In 1902 it was estimated that no less than 205,784,453,333 cubic feet of natural gas was utilised in the United States. At the end of 1903 there were 15,689 wells producing gas, distributed among the States thus :-Pennsylvania, 5915; Indiana, 5514; Ohio, 1523; PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW YORK. 75 West Virginia, 1099; New York, 707; Kansas, 666; Kentucky, 123; Illinois, 43; California, 38; Missouri, 22; Texas, 18; Indian and Oklahoma Territories, 7; South Dakota, 5; Colorado, 3; Tennessee, Arkansas, and Wyoming, 2 each. At the end of 1908 there were 22,709 wells producing gas, distributed among the States thus :-Pennsylvania, 8831; Ohio, 3691; Indiana, 3223; West Virginia, 2511; Kansas, 1966; New York, 1211; Illinois, 400; Oklahoma, 350; Kentucky, 218; California, 62; Arkansas, 55; Missouri, 45; South Dakota, 33; North Dakota, 15; Alabama, 11; Wyoming, 9; Iowa, 6; Tennessee, 5; Michigan and Colorado, 3 each; Oregon, 1. The production of natural gas in the United States in 1909 was estimated at 480,706,174,000 cubic feet, valued at $63,206,941. Plant has recently been erected in various States for the extraction of gaso- line from natural gas, this branch of the petroleum-industry having been principally developed in Pennsylvania. The description given in the following pages of the various oil- and gas- producing districts is largely founded on Geological Survey Reports and other official publications, the exhaustive reports of Mr. J. F. Carll, Mr. J. D. Weeks, Dr. E. Orton, Profs. J. P. Lesley and S. F. Peckham, Mr. F. H. Oliphant, and Dr. David T. Day having been particularly consulted. The matter is arranged according to States, but this classification corre- sponds generally with the division into oil-fields, as may be seen from the following table:- TABLE VI.-PRINCIPAL OIL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES. Field. Appalachian. States. Pennsylvania, New York, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Southeastern Ohio. Western Ohio and Indiana. Lima-Indiana. Illinois. Illinois. Mid-Continent. Gulf. Colorado. California. Kansas, Oklahoma, and Northern Texas. Texas and Louisiana. Colorado. California. PENNSYLVANIA and NEW YORK. (Plate 15.) This oil-field was conveniently divided, in the Eleventh Census Report of the United States, into the Bradford, Middle, Lower, and Washington or South- western districts. The last-named, though insignificant in 1885, subsequently became so productive as to be one of the most important of the Pennsylvanian. fields, and contained the richest pools ever known in the State. One of these pools, that of Washington, yielded in 1889 nearly one-fifth of the production of Pennsylvania and New York, and was only surpassed by the Clarion and Butler and the Bradford districts. The Bradford district (see fig. 6) lies chiefly in McKean county, but extends into New York State, and includes a pool lying in Carrolton Township, in Cattaraugus, the outlying district of Kinzua, in the southwest, and the Windfall- run field, near Eldred. The oil from this district is amber, green, or black, and is usually heavier than that of the Lower field. The development of this highly productive field was at first attended with results of a very discouraging character. In 1866 the Barnsdall well, which had been drilled to a depth of 200 feet and then abandoned in 1862, was deep- ened to 875 feet without success; and in 1865 a well was drilled in the Valley of Tuna Creek to a depth of 900 feet, but again without finding oil. A well, 76 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. however, sunk by the Foster Oil Company on the Gilbert farm, reached" slush oil" at a depth of 751 feet, and the owners, thus encouraged, continued boring. until, in November 1871, the oil-sand was reached at a depth of 1100 feet. This well only yielded about 10 barrels daily. At the close of 1874 the same firm bored a well (the Butts well No. 1) on the Archy Buchanan farm, and obtained a daily production of 70 barrels. From this time boring was rapidly carried on in the district, until, in 1879, no less than 2536 wells, only 3 per cent. of which were dry," were sunk. In December 1878 the Bradford field yielded an average of 23,700 barrels daily, which was about four-sevenths of CC E R R Erie W FOR CHAUTAUQUA CATTARAUGUE W New York R. R R FORES CTA BRADFORD DISTRICT MC KEA-N } A LaL E GANY. ALLEGANY DISTRICT POTTE. R' Coudersport W. VIRGINIA H 0 MERCER LAWRENCE BEA BEAVE B UTLE FOhio DISTRICT,№3' Pittsburgh huaybany ER Clarion VARIOIN -ARMSTRONG River Ricer E K CAMERON JEFFERSON Ridgway INDIANA CLEARFIELD Sasquch anns River ALLEGHENY WESTMORELAND, Jolinstown WASHINGTONE Washington River CAMBRIA The Allegheny, Washington and Greene District lies south of Pittsburgh. MAP of the OIL REGIONS of PENNSYLVANIA and NEW YORK, BY John F. Carli & C. A. Ashburner.) Connellsville SOMERSET FAYETTE GREENE Monongahe WEST VIRGINIA FIG. 6. 1886. Developed Oil Pools, the total production for the State of Pennsylvania; and in December 1880 the yield was 63,000 barrels daily, out of a total for Pennsylvania of 72,214 barrels. Dr. Ashburner estimated the area of the field at 135 square miles, and its total production up to January 1885 at 109,000,000 barrels, an average of 820,000 barrels per square mile (Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., xiv, 419, 1886). Between 1876 and 1889 it yielded, in the aggregate, over 5,000,000 barrels more than all the fields combined (Carll). It is usually grouped with the Allegany district of New York, which has an estimated area of 31 square miles, and includes the Richburg and several smaller fields. Dr. Ashburner estimated that the Allegany field had yielded 419,000 barrels per square mile up to January 1885. The Middle field. The oil-fields between Oil Creek and the Allegheny River soon extended to Warren county, and formed the well-known Warren district, PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW YORK. 77 which includes the oil-pools in the east of Warren county and the northeast of Forest county, with a total productive area of 35 square miles. Up to January 1885, this district produced no less than twelve million barrels of oil. It was in the Warren district that the celebrated Cherry Grove flowing well was completed in 1882, the result being to lower the cost of crude oil from 85 cents. per barrel to 49 cents. in a few days, thus, it is estimated, reducing the value of oil in stock, and of oil-territory, to the extent of $30,000,000. This well (No. 646) was commenced in the spring of 1882 by a band of four prospectors in the hitherto untried district of Cherry Grove, and was boarded up and guarded to prevent any knowledge of its character being gained by the public. Notwithstanding these precautions, however, it was soon ascertained that the well was a flower, and that a new oil-field had been discovered. Before the end of June (the well having been completed on the 17th May) two towns had been partially built, and by the end of September, 320 producing wells had been sunk in a clearing two miles long by half a mile wide. The great 646" well yielded 4000 barrels the first day, and others were bored with almost equal success. In August 1882 the field yielded 40,000 barrels daily, but the supply soon diminished, and by October had fallen off to less than one- tenth of that amount. 66 The pools of Cherry Grove, Balltown and Cooper, Stoneham, Clarendon, Tiona, Kane, Grand Valley, and others in Warren and Forest counties constitute the Middle field. The oil from the different pools varies considerably, but is generally described as amber" oil. The Lower field includes a few fields in the southwest of Warren and the west of Forest county, and all the pools to the south, comprising those of Venango, Clarion, and Butler, the field on the Ohio River in Beaver county, and the fields of Lawrence county. The oil of the Venango division is obtained from the First, Second, and Third Sands, and is generally green or black, but is occasionally amber in colour; it varies in density from 30° to 51° B. The Butler division includes Butler, Clarion, southeastern Venango, and Armstrong counties, while the Beaver division comprises the Slippery Rock and Smith's Ferry fields, which yield heavy oil from the Pottsville Conglomerate, and amber oil from the Pithole Grit. A well drilled at Thorn Creek, Butler, in 1884, is said to have produced for some hours at the rate of 9000 to 10,000 barrels a day. Dr. Ashburner estimated the area of the Venango district at 65 square miles, and that of Butler at 76 square miles. The important Smith's Ferry field of Beaver county extends over an area of about 2500 acres into Columbiana county, Ohio. In 1889 it produced 29,000 barrels of heavy, amber-coloured oil, yielding much lubricating oil. The cele- brated Heavy-Oil" district of Franklin, Venango, comprises a few square miles of French Creek, 7 miles from Oil City. All the wells require to be pumped, but are long-lived, although not of great productiveness. In 1889 the output was 65,276 barrels. The oil is obtained from the First Sand, which in Franklin reaches a thickness of 35 feet. It is a dark, brownish-green oil, of density 31° to 33° B., and is totally different in appearance and properties from the oil yielded by the same stratum in other parts of Venango, and in Warren and Washington counties. The Washington or Southwestern district yields oil similar to that of the Lower district, and comprises the pools of Allegheny, Washington, and Greene counties. The Allegheny pool includes the Shannopin and Brush Creek districts, the former of which derives its oil from the lower part of the Venango oil group, and is characterised by the large proportion of dry wells which have been drilled into that group. 78 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. In December 1884 the Citizen's Fuel Company drilled a well for natural gas on the Gantz farm, near Washington, and at a depth of 2200 feet obtained a small yield of oil, but no gas. In August of the following year the famous Gordon well commenced flowing; while in March 1886 the Pew & Emerson Manifold well, and in April the Thayer well, flowing at the rate of 2000 barrels daily, were completed. In August 1886 the Washington field gave an output of 16,000 barrels daily, but the production subsequently diminished, and in 1887 was but 4800 barrels daily. The Greene county field is practically an extension of the Washington field, and yields oil of a similar character. Further developments in the Washington county field comprised the McDonald pool in 1890, and, if the field be considered to extend into West Virginia and eastern Ohio, the Sistersville pool, lying 137 miles south of Pitts- burg in 1891. The McDonald pool lies on the borders of Washington and Allegheny counties, about 18 miles south of Pittsburg, and has yielded as much as 40,000 barrels in twenty-four hours, an output only exceeded by that of the Bradford pool. In September 1891 it had been proved over an area of about 3 miles by 1 mile, though the area actually under the drill was not above 2000 acres. Much of the oil is obtained from the Gordon Sand, but many wells have been drilled to the Fifth Sand. ' In August 1892 the Sistersville field had thirty-six completed wells (only one of which was dry "), and gave a yield of 4510 barrels daily. In the last week of that month the Sistersville and McDonald fields gave over one-third of the total production of Pennsylvania-i.e. about 30,000 barrels daily. In April 1894 it was stated that, in the McDonald field, 1266 wells had been drilled, over an area of 10,000 acres, and had produced over 22,000,000 barrels in less than three years. The total cost of drilling, royalties, etc., was estimated at over $12,000,000. The oil-sand group largely changes to shale in passing from western Allegheny eastward into Westmoreland, so that the promise. of new oil-pools in that direction is not great (Carll, Seventh Report on the Oil and Gas Fields of Western Pennsylvania, 1890, p. 8). The Pennsylvania fields have been popularly divided into the Southern and Northern oil-fields, and the "White Sand" and "Black Sand" districts. The White sands embrace all the oil-horizons south of McKean county, including the Warren and Forest sands. The Black sands include the Bradford and Allegany districts. Prior to 1876 all the production may be accredited to the white sands, although a few of the Bradford wells had then been drilled. In 1886 the white sands gave their highest yield, 13,066,740 barrels, or 35,000 barrels daily. Though the output of the black sands never reached two figures in the thousands until 1875, their value soon became manifest, the yield rapidly increasing to 382,768 barrels in 1876, 6,208,746 in 1878, and 13,914,509 in 1879. In 1869 Pennsylvania produced 4,215,000 barrels, and in 1879, 19,685,176 barrels; the States of Ohio, West Virginia, and California bringing up the total for the United States to 19,914,146 barrels. In 1889 the Pennsylvania fields yielded 21,486,403 barrels; while Ohio, which ten years previous had only yielded 29,112 barrels, produced 12,471,965 barrels. In 1891 the pro- duction of the Pennsylvania fields had risen to 33,009,236 barrels, and that of Ohio to 17,740,301 barrels. From that date the Pennsylvania fields have declined, and in 1902 produced only 12,518,134 barrels, while in 1909 the output had fallen to 9,299,403 barrels, and in 1910 to 8,794,662 barrels. In that year New York State produced 1,053,838 barrels. PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW YORK, WEST VIRGINIA. 79 According to Dr. Ashburner, natural gas was probably first obtained commercially in America at Fredonia, Chautauqua Co., N.Y., where in 1821 a well was sunk, which supplied gas for thirty burners; the inn was illuminated by it when Lafayette passed through the village about 1824. In 1903 the value of the output of natural gas in New York State was $493,686. The counties producing this gas were Allegany, Cattaraugus, Erie, Livingston, Niagara, Onondaga, Ontario, Oswego, Seneca and Steuben. In 1909 the value of the gas consumed in the State was $3,286,523, most of this being utilised for domestic purposes. This was derived from 1279 wells, situated in the following counties:-Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Erie, Genesee, Livingston, Monroe, Niagara, Onondago, Ontario, Oswego, Seneca, Schuyler, Steuben, Yates, Wyoming. Mr. A. Cummins has given a very full description of the Pittsburg Gas Fields (Eng. Min. Journ., 1892). The most important of these are the Murrays- ville, Grapeville, and Canonsburg, the two first occurring on parallel anticlinals. The Murraysville field has an area of about 25 miles, and lies about 18 miles east of Pittsburg, while the Grapeville has an area of 12 miles, and lies 26 miles east of Pittsburg. The Canonsburg field lies 20 miles southwest of Pittsburg, and is continuous with the Hickory and Washington fields. The principal gas-producing rocks are the Gantz Sand (5 to 10 feet); the Fifty-foot Sand, separated from it by a few feet of shale, and acquiring a thickness of 25 to 100 feet; the Gordon Sand (10 to 20 feet); and the Fifth Sand, which attains a thickness of 10 to 30 feet, and lies 100 feet below the Gordon. The rock-porosity varies so much that neighbouring wells give highly different yields, the closed pressures also varying from 300 to 800 lbs. per square inch. In 1891 the Murraysville and Grapeville fields are said to have yielded about 80 per cent. of the gas obtained in the Pittsburg region, Canonsburg yielding 10 per cent., and the other wells, of which the Belle Vernon was the chief, the remaining 10 per cent. Pennsylvania is still (1911) the largest gas-producing State in the Union, and in 1909 the value of the product consumed (chiefly for industrial purposes) was $21,639,102. This gas was derived from 9313 wells situated in the following counties -Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Cambria, Clarion, Craw- ford, Elk, Erie, Fayette, Forest, Green, Indiana, Jefferson, McKean, Mercer, Potter, Tioga, Venango, Warren, Washington, Westmoreland. WEST VIRGINIA. This district, in part, forms a continuation of the Pennsylvanian field, and of the Macksburg or Eastern field of Ohio. It may be divided into four districts. -the Turkey Foot district, in Hancock county; the Mount Morris district, including Monongalia and Marion counties; the Volcano and Eureka districts, in Wood, Ritchie, and Pleasant counties; and the Burning Springs district, in Wirt county. The Sistersville field has already been mentioned in connection with the Washington county oil-territory of Pennsylvania. Certain districts, such as the Sistersville and Eureka fields, lie on both sides of the Ohio river, and the oil which they produce is run indiscriminately into pipe-lines and storage- tanks, in a manner which renders it impossible to accurately allot the produc- tion between West Virginia, western Pennsylvania, and eastern Ohio. The Mannington region also developed into an oil-producing pool of some value. Although for three years it had yielded oil from the Big Injun Sandstone, it was not until the Gordon Sand was reached, in the summer of 1892, that the output became of any importance. 80 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Most of the oil of the Volcano and Burning Springs districts is found near the top of the Carboniferous rocks. The oil-strata and the product of the Mount Morris and Turkey Foot fields resemble those of the Pennsylvanian Lower field, while the Eureka field resembles the Macksburg region described under Ohio. The density of the West Virginian oil varies from 27° to 45° B., but is usually below 33°. The heavier oil, which is chiefly obtained from the shallower wells, is suitable for lubricating purposes. Up to 1876 West Virginia is estimated to have produced 3,000,000 barrels. In 1889 the output from its 623 producing wells amounted to 544,113 barrels, of which the Turkey Foot and Mount Morris fields gave about two-thirds. In 1892 the production was 3,810,086 barrels, while in 1893 it amounted to 8,445,412 barrels, and in 1903 to 12,899,395 barrels, after having reached. upwards of 16,000,000 barrels in 1900. From 1903 to 1907 the production steadily declined, and was somewhat in excess of 9,000,000 barrels in the last of these years. During the following two years there was a slight increase to 10,745,092 barrels for 1909. The development of the natural-gas industry dates from 1893. Previously to that year the output had been small and fluctuated very considerably, but after 1895 it increased continuously from a value of $100,000 for that year to a value of $6,882,359 in 1903. Many of the wells are of immense volume, as much as 26,000,000 cubic feet being recorded for one well. The wells are from 2700 to 3200 feet deep, with a pressure of from 1000 to 1250 pounds to the square inch (Oliphant). Between 1903 and 1909 the value of natural gas produced was very nearly trebled, and in the latter year, the volume was estimated at 166,435,092,000 cubic feet, valued at $17,538,565. The number of gas wells at the beginning of 1910 was 3074. A large quantity is employed in the manufacture of lamp- black. KENTUCKY and TENNESSEE. In Kentucky much prospecting was carried on prior to 1890 in Barren, Clinton, Cumberland, Pulaski, Russell, and Wayne counties, but the only production reported in 1889 was from Boyd's Creek, in Barren county, and this amounted to 5400 barrels. In 1891, 9000 barrels was produced, but the output then declined, until in 1897 only 322 barrels was obtained; the production then began to increase very rapidly until 1905, when the output from the two States was 1,217,337 barrels, of which Tennessee only produced about 10,000 barrels. The operations in Tennessee date from 1893, but for ten years the only important results were those obtained in the Bobs Bar well, drilled in 1896, which at first yielded 5000 to 6000 barrels annually; practically all the oil produced in Tennessee came from this well down to 1904. In that year some development took place at Poplar Cove, Fentress county, a few miles north of Bobs Bar, and several good wells were obtained, leading to the extension of the Cumberland pipe-line into the new district in 1905. In spite of this the production declined rapidly, and since 1908 no production has been recorded from Tennessee. te A well drilled in 1829, in Cumberland county, Kentucky, yielded oil which, American Oil." At one time the largest as already mentioned, was sold as oil-field in western Kentucky was in Barren county, the Glasgow pool proving very persistent since work was commenced there in 1866. The oil of Cumberland county is green, and closely resembles that of Oil Creek in Pennsylvania, in appearance, odour, and density, while that of Barren KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE, OHIO AND INDIANA. 81 county is more like the Lima oil in character. Professor W. Dicore reports that a greenish-brown oil, obtained from a sand at a depth of 85 feet, near Somerset, Pulaski county, had a specific gravity of 0·870. A well which flowed 300 barrels a day for a month was struck in May 1901 in Wayne county, near the Tennessee line, at a depth of 878 feet. The oil was dark green in colour, inclined to amber. This led to a good deal of drilling in the vicinity, and though the results were at first insignificant, Wayne county in 1908 produced about 460,000 barrels out of a total for the State of 727,767 barrels. In that year the next largest production came from Wolfe and Bath counties. The production of the whole State in 1909 was only 639,016 barrels, and further declined in 1910 to 468,774 barrels. Most of the Kentucky gas formerly obtained was from the Brandenburg district of Meade county, where the Ohio Shale is well covered. In 1889 the value of the gas produced was $2580, Meade county contributing all but $100 worth; in 1900 the value was $286,243, and in 1903 it was given as $390,601, but this amount included the value of a small quantity produced in Tennessee. The production of Meade county has since declined, but some of the wells have yielded as much as 2,000,000 cubic feet daily. The Moreman well in Meade county, which produced gas in almost unvarying quantity for over a quarter of a century, is estimated to have yielded over 2,000,000,000 cubic feet. The value of the gas produced in 1909 was estimated as $485,192, the supply being derived from wells in Knox, Meade, Clay, Hardin, Menifee, Powell, Wolfe, Morgan, Logan, Muhlenberg, and Martin counties. A small quantity was produced in Tennessee in Franklin and White. OHIO and INDIANA. Although the output from the Ohio oil-fields had steadily increased for ten years previously, the important position of the State as an oil-producer only dates from 1885. Drilling was then pursued with great activity, and the yield was enormously increased, until in 1889, no less than 12,471,965 barrels of crude petroleum, valued at $2,174,219, was obtained. The total production in 1896 was 23,941,169 barrels, the highest recorded. In 1900, 22,362,730 barrels was obtained, but since that time the output has steadily declined to 10,632,793 barrels in 1909, valued at $13,225,377. The oil-fields of Ohio are divided in Mr. Weeks' Eleventh Census Report, 1890, into the Macksburg or eastern district, including Washington, Noble, Belmont, and Harrison counties; the Mecca-Belden field; and the Lima or north- western field, including Allan, Auglaize, Hancock, Sandusky, and Wood counties. Of these three districts, the first two now constitute, with the States previ- ously described, the great Appalachian field, the northwestern region of Ohio forming part of the Lima-Indiana field. The Southeastern district, corresponding to the first division of Mr. Weeks, now includes the counties of Belmont, Harrison, Guernsey, Jefferson, Monroe, Morgan, Noble, Perry, and Washington, as well as others of minor importance. The chief pools are in Washington and Noble counties. The region was ex- ploited as early as 1860, but acquired no importance until 1884. In 1886 the production was over 700,000 barrels, and, after some variable years, the outp began to increase steadily, being 5,585,858 barrels in 1903. Since that time it has decreased to 4,717,069 barrels in 1909. The Mecca-Belden pool in Lorain and Trumbull counties produces a small quantity of very high grade lubricating oil. At the close of 1892 there were VOL. I. 6 82 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. only thirteen productive wells in the whole of the Mecca-Belden district, which yielded for that year about 3000 barrels; in 1903 the total production was. 575 barrels; in 1909 it was 367 barrels, valued at $2325, and in 1910 only 41 barrels was produced. The Lima district obtains its oil from the Trenton Limestone, and first came into prominence in 1885, the first large yield being from the Hume well in the spring of 1886. In The discovery of oil in the Trenton Limestone was made early in 1885 in the Paper Mill well at Lima, although gas had been obtained from this for- mation some months earlier at Findlay (November 1884) and Bowling Green (February 1885). This well struck oil at 1247 feet, but although it was tubed and pumped, only 200 barrels was obtained during the first six days. the summer of 1885 the Citizens well was bored, and by 20th April 1886 had yielded 5000 barrels. All the earlier wells required to be pumped, but the Shade well No. 1, sunk in February 1886, and others on the same farm, were flowing wells. Writing in 1887, Dr. Edward Orton, State geologist of Ohio, thus describes the production and promise of the Lima field :-Drilling in the Lima field was begun in the spring of 1885. It was a year, however, before the oil-pro- ducers entered vigorously upon its development. The wells on the Shade farm, south of the town, made the first significant departure from the day of small things with which the work was begun. All these were flowing wells. The early summer of 1886 marked the beginning of rapid development. The production of single wells increased from 60 and 70 barrels to 100 barrels a day, and presently, in the Hume well, to 250 barrels a day, and a little later to 700 barrels in the Tunget well. To the southward, great wells were presently found. The Ridenour farm, the Hueston, Moore, Ditzler, Ballard, Lehman, Goodenow, and Spear farms all became centres of large and certain production. By October 1st the character of the field had come into clear view as second to none yet found in the United States in volume of production. During September 1886, 33 wells were added to the 128 previously drilled. Of these one was dry. The total production of the new wells was 2455 barrels daily, showing an average of 75 barrels to the well. Six of these wells were credited with an aggregate production of 1300 barrels daily. In November a number of other great wells was brought in, and the Douglas, Crumrine, Boop, Mechling, McLain, and other farms were added to the prolific areas. A well drilled during this month on the Alonzo McLain farm, Section 13, Shawnee township, reached a production for its first day of nearly, or quite, 1000 barrels. This well is still flowing (1887) at the rate of 150 barrels a day. The largest pro- duction in the Lima field for a single day is that of a well on the J. W. Ridenour farm, Section 18, Perry Township. It put into tanks in the first twenty-four hours 2760 barrels of oil. . . . On the 1st of May 1887 there were 444 wells in the Lima field" (8th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv., 1890). In 1889 and in 1896 the field yielded over one-third of the total production of oil in the United States. It includes the counties named above, and is usually divided into the Lima, Findlay, North Baltimore, Saint Mary's, Gibson- burg, Upper Sandusky, and Spencerville fields. The oil was obtained at a depth of about 1300 feet, and the wells commonly yield from 50 to 75 barrels a day, although the output of several has amounted to hundreds of barrels daily, and a total of even 1500 barrels has been reached. The proved oil-territory of Lima comprises a tract 8 or 10 miles long and 2 or 3 miles broad. The oils are dark and heavy, resembling those of Canada and Tennessee, and on account of the sulphur compounds in them, which were only removed with difficulty, they OHIO. 83 were formerly principally employed as fuel. In fact, of the total production of Ohio in 1889, no less than 12,153,188 barrels was used as fuel, only 317,037 barrels being utilised for illuminating purposes, and 1740 barrels as a lubricant. But in recent years a process of refining has been adopted, by means of which a good illuminant is produced, and the crude oil is now largely used in this way. Dr. Orton gave, in the First Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, 1890, a very complete account of the production of oil and gas in the most important districts of Ohio. In 1890 more than half the total oil output of northwestern Ohio was produced in Wood county, the oil-territory covering the eastern parts of Henry and Liberty, and parts of Portage, Montgomery, and Bloom townships. Another important pool occurs to the eastward, and extends for a width of about 1 mile, and a length of about 6 miles, through Bloom and Portage. Dry gas, followed in a few days by a strong flow of oil, characterises these wells. In the Findlay district (Hancock county), gas-wells have given place to oil- wells. In 1890 a well drilled in Allen township for gas yielded 1965 barrels of oil in two days at 450 feet below tide level, and led to a considerable de- velopment of the district as oil-producing. In later years there were numerous wells from which a good supply has been obtained, particularly in Marion township. The Gibsonburg field, and the adjoining Helena field in Sandusky county, were opened in 1887, and much activity afterwards prevailed, nearly a thousand wells being drilled in 1895. Since 1896, when 20,575,138 barrels was obtained, the production of the Lima field has steadily declined, and in 1910 the output was only 5,094,136 barrels. Gas is obtained in Ohio from the Berea Grit, the Ohio Shale, the Trenton Limestone, and the Clinton Limestone. At East Liverpool gas was employed as early as 1874 for domestic purposes. At the close of 1893 there were 207 gas-producing wells in Ohio. The Ohio Shale yields low-pressure gas with great persistency, and is an important and trustworthy gas-horizon. The closed pressure of the wells appears never to exceed 100 lbs., and seldom rises even to 30 or 40 lbs., whilst the daily output is always below 100,000, and rarely exceeds 20,000, cubic feet. The wells are usually not more than 400 feet in depth, and the supply is very regular. The gas is largely used by small consumers, but is not obtained in sufficient quantity for manufacturing purposes. Dr. Orton has suggested that the gas of the Berea Grit is derived from the Ohio Shale, which everywhere underlies it to a minimum thickness of 600 feet. In the Trenton Limestone, high-pressure gas was first tapped at Findlay in November 1884, and this discovery was followed by the drilling, in 1885, of twelve wells, the best of which yielded 3,500,000 cubic feet daily. It was not, however, until the opening of the Karg wel! on the 20th January 1886, with a daily yield of 14,000,000 feet, that the new gas-horizon attracted great atten- tion. From that time the great Findlay field rapidly increased in productive- ness, the gas being obtained in such abundance that, according to the estimate of Dr. Orton, about 1,500,000,000 feet was lost by wilful waste "during part of 1886. The daily consumption of gas in Findlay in the year 1890 was not less than 30,000,000 feet, of which only from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 feet was employed for domestic purposes. Though even then on the decline, the Findlay field gained some of its larger producers in 1888 and 1889. the Tippecanoe well was drilled at Findlay, and yielded, largest volume of gas obtained at that time in the State. In the former year after torpedoing, the The open pressure on 84 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. the first day was 38 lbs., falling on the third day to 11 lbs., and the yield was 32,000,000 and 19,000,000 cubic feet for the first and third days respectively. The well, however, proved short-lived. In 1889 the Mellott well, near Stuarts- ville, 6 miles north of Findlay, started with a yield of 28,000,000 cubic feet daily, at an open pressure of 28 lbs. ; and one drilled near Bairdstown, Wood county, yielded about 33,000,000 cubic feet daily, at an open pressure of 45 lbs. In August of the same year the Kagy well started in Allen township, Hancock county, at a closed pressure of 460 lbs., falling by May 1890 to 285 lbs. The chief fields of Ohio supplied in 1889 from the Trenton Limestone were in Hancock, Wood, Auglaize, and Mercer counties, the two first-named giving by far the highest yield. Nearly all the eighteen townships of Hancock county have supplied gas. By 1890 the township of Allen gave the highest yield, Cass, Washington, and Marion ranking next. The most productive well ever drilled. was sunk about the middle of May 1894, on the James Wallace farm, in Fostoria, Hancock county. It is said to have yielded at the rate of 50,000,000 cubic feet daily, but the whole was lost by fire. The flow only lasted for three days, and it is stated that at the end of that time there was not enough gas issuing to ignite on application of a flame. In Wood county the principal centres of production are Bloom, Perry, Henry, Portage, Plain, and Centre townships. The wells have shown a good average yield, most giving over 3,000,000 cubic feet daily, and one (the Simons well) over 12,000,000 cubic feet. The Clinton Limestone has acquired considerable importance as a gas- producer. It first yielded to the shallow wells of Fremont, and then gave large supplies of high-pressure gas at Lancaster, Newark, and Thurston. So far as is known, it has not supplied either oil or gas on a commercial scale except in Ohio. Its value as a source of gas was first ascertained by drilling at Lancaster and Newark in search of gas in the Trenton Limestone. It has thus far been defined as a gas-rock in a line extending from Lancaster to Newark in a north- easterly direction, its length being about 25 miles, and its breadth 2 or 3 miles. Owing to the irregular character of the stratum, its yield and the pressure at which the gas issues vary considerably. The maximum closed pressure observed has been 800 lbs., and the maximum yield (in the vicinity of Lancaster) 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 cubic feet daily. No supply amounting to less than 100,000 cubic feet daily has yet been struck. The gas contains less sulphur than that from the Trenton Limestone, and is said to burn with a more luminous flame. In the Lancaster district, which was opened in 1887, the Sugar Grove field was tapped in 1899 with an original pressure of 750 lbs. to the square inch, but this soon dropped to less than 10) lbs. Of 72 wells drilled, only 4 were dry holes, and the average flow was about 4,000,000 cubic feet in twenty-four hours. One well started at 14,000,000 cubic feet, but fell off to about 9,000,000 cubic feet (Oliphant). At the end of 1903 there were 1523 producing gas-wells in the State of Ohio, and the approximate value of the gas yielded in that year was $4,479,040. In 1909 the number of wells had increased to 4042, their ouptut being valued at $9,966,938. The oil industry of Indiana developed with remarkable rapidity between 1891 and 1904, but since that date the production has declined with even greater speed. In 1871 Dr. T. Stery Hunt (Amer. Nat., v, 576) states that a well sunk at Terre Haute for water was carried to a depth of 1900 feet, and yielded about two gallons of oil da ly. A second well, a quarter of a mile east-by-north from the first, yielded 25 barrels daily, at a depth of 1625 feet. INDIANA, ILLINOIS. 85 For many years only very small results attended the efforts of prospectors. The output during 1889 from the districts of Terre Haute in Vigo county, and Montpelier in Blackford county, the only fields included in the Eleventh Census Report, was 33,375 barrels. In 1890 the output from the whole of Indiana was 63,496 barrels; in 1891, 136,634; in 1892, 698,068; in 1893, 2,335,293 barrels. and from that time it steadily increased to 5,757,086 barrels in 1901, and 11,339,124 barrels in 1904. The production in 1909 was only 2,296,086 barrels. In 1891 the number of wells completed was at the rate of 11 per month; in 1904 the number completed was 3766, or an average of 314 per month; in 1909 the total number completed was 305, or a little over 25 per month. The rapid development of the oil territory which raised Indiana to the position of fifth among the oil-producing States, and the equally rapid decline to ninth, are here clearly shown. Of the wells completed in 1902, more than one-third (1050) were in Grant county, which proved a very rich district, though in 1893 the four wells drilled in it were all dry holes. The principal developments in 1904 were in this county and in Delaware. The gas-territory of Indiana included formerly not less than 2500 square miles, according to the estimate of Dr. A. J. Phinney. The largest field is in the eastern-central portion adjoining Ohio, and extends from Wabash to Decatur, and from Randolph and Jay to Howard, Tipton, and Hamilton, but in 1908 a new field was developed in Pike, in the southwestern corner of the State. At the end of 1889 there were 576 gas-producing wells, whose output was valued at $1,362,472, Madison county being credited with nearly half of the total. At the end of 1893 there were 498 producing wells, the yield during that year being valued at $5,718,090, as against $6,188,000 from 841 wells in Pennsylvania, and $1,510,000 from 207 wells in Ohio. At the end of 1903 there were 5514 producing wells, with a yield of the value of $6,098,364, but the price being only about half that obtaining in Pennsylvania, the actual output of the two States was probably nearly equal. In 1909 the number of producing wells was only 2938, the value of the gas from them being estimated at $1,616,903. The most important of the Indiana wells was one drilled at Fairmount, in June 1887, yielding 11,500,000 cubic feet daily, but a few others, yielding from 5,000,000 to 11,000,000, and several yielding 1,000,000 to 5,000,000, have been struck. The city of Chicago has for some years been supplied with gas from Indiana to the extent of from 18,000,000 to 20,000,000 cubic feet a day. Dr. Orton observes that the conditions prevailing in the Indiana gas-fields are similar to those met with in the Findlay district, the upper surface of the productive gas-rock lying from 65 feet above to 90 feet below sea-level. When the rock is over 100 feet below sea-level, the bore-holes almost invariably yield salt water. The brine from the Indiana wells resembles a bittern rather than ordinary salt water. ILLINOIS. Down to 1902 the only production of petroleum in Illinois was near Litch- field, Montgomery county, where some 1460 barrels was obtained in 1889, and several hundred barrels each year till 1902, when 200 barrels was obtained. The whole of this oil was used as a lubricant, but no production was recorded in 1903 or 1904. During the early "oil-rush" in Pennsylvania, some wells were drilled in Clark county, Illinois, a few miles north of the town of Casey, at a place called 86 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Oil Field, and these were reported to have met with small showings of oil. In 1904 a Pittsburg group drilled a well very close to these old tests, obtaining a slight showing of oil and gas. A second boring resulted in a 35-barrel well, and in 1905 some 300 wells were drilled, extending the field through Clark to Cumberland and Crawford counties. There were three principal areas, one between Casey and Westfield in Clark, another southeast of Casey, and the third near Robinson in Crawford. The first of these was in 1905 connected by pipe-line to the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railroad at Oil Field Station. The production in 1905 was 181,084 barrels. In 1906 the producing area was extended to Bridgeport in Lawrence, and the production of the whole field was collected by the pipe-lines of the Ohio Oil Company, the total amount obtained in 1906 being 4,397,050 barrels. Additional pipe-lines were laid down in 1907, and active exploration with the drill was undertaken. According to Dr. David T. Day (Mineral Resources of the United States, 1909) 4988 new wells were sunk in 1907, of which 4260 were productive: these were situated in the following counties :-Crawford, Clark, Lawrence, Cumberland, Coles, and Edgar. The total production for the year was more than five times that of 1906, or 24,281,973 barrels. The output increased to over 33,500,000 barrels in 1908, but, owing to the decrease in Clark, Coles, Cumberland, and Edgar counties, without the finding. of very prolific wells in other counties, the total for 1909 showed a decline to 30,898,339 barrels. In spite of this, Illinois maintained its position in the list of producing States, having advanced from non-inclusion in 1904 to third place in quantity and second in value amongst the States of the Union in 1908. An increased output was recorded in 1910, when over 33,000,000 barrels was raised. Though of minor importance, the natural gas industry of Illinois has also developed greatly of late years. In 1894 the value of the output was $15,000, and in 1903 only $3310. In 1906 there were 200 wells, and the value of the gas was estimated at $87,211. In 1909 the total quantity produced was 8,472,860,000 cubic feet, valued at $644,401, which was obtained from 414 wells in the counties of Bureau, Clark, Crawford, Cumberland, Lawrence, and Pike. KANSAS and OKLAHOMA. These two States, with a comparatively small area in northern Texas, con- stitute the Mid-Continent field, which has acquired its present importance since 1904. Operations have been carried on in Kansas since 1865, when two wells were sunk about 10 miles east of Paola. In 1873 a boring, seven miles from Paola, near a large tar-spring, met with a strong flow of gas at 320 feet, and was abandoned. In 1888 a very heavy black oil was found, and in May 1889 a good oil-sand was struck at 330 feet. In 1890 thirteen producing wells were in operation in the Russell tract, and in 1894 the output amounted to about 40,000 barrels. More active development then commenced, and in 1896 the production was 113,571 barrels, though it declined in 1899 to 69,700 barrels. After 1900 the industry began to develop with the discovery of new sources of oil at Chanute in Neosho county, and at Humboldt in Allen, the previous pro- duction being almost entirely derived from Neodesha in Wilson county. In 1903 the output had risen to 932,214 barrels, and the fields had extended over a stretch of territory reaching from Miami county to the Arkansas River in Indian Territory, an area of nearly 12,000 square miles of productive but un- developed territory. KANSAS AND OKLAHOMA. 87 In 1904 the first notable advance took place, the production being more than four times that of the preceding year, or 4,250,779 barrels ; but, owing to the lack of transport facilities, this great increase of output at first tended to depress the industry. With the completion of the pipe-line from Humboldt, Kansas, to Whiting, Indiana, in 1905, the outlook changed, and the Mid-Con- tinent field began to engage the attention of petroleum producers to the ex- clusion of nearly all other fields. The developments extended into Indian Territory and Oklahoma, and the total production for the united fields was 12,013,495 barrels in 1905 and 21,718,648 barrels in 1906. From that time the production of Kansas decreased to 1,128,668 barrels in 1910, while that of the new State of Oklahoma has increased with great rapidity. The development of the natural gas-fields in Kansas has made great pro- gress. Mr. F. H. Oliphant thus describes it in Mineral Resources of the United States for 1902 (Washington, 1904):-" The present development begins at Paola and extends in a series of pools southwest across the southeast portion of the State to Indian Territory, embracing the counties of Miami, Allen, Neosho, Crawford, Wilson, Montgomery, and Labette. The principal pools of high- pressure gas with large volume have been developed at Iola, Gas City, and La Harpe, in Allen county; at Chanute in Neosho county; and near Cherryvale, Independence and Coffeyville, in Montgomery county.... The volume of many of these wells is as high as 5,000,000 cubic feet in twenty-four hours, and a few have gone as high as 10,000,000 cubic feet. The original rock The original rock pressure, which was 325 pounds to a square inch in a number of the pools, has decreased somewhat. CC The early history of this district dates back thirty years, when the Acres Mineral well was completed at Iola, which gave a small flow of natural gas. After several wells had been drilled near this location a vigorous well was found in 1893 which flowed about 3,000,000 cubic feet in twenty-four hours. In 1892 gas began to be introduced successfully in a small way. In the year 1899 it was successfully applied to the reduction of zinc ore, and began to be used by many of the large towns in southeastern Kansas, and it began to be used also in the manufacture of brick and hydraulic cement, and in numerous other manu- factories. Development in the last year has been active, and numerous natural- gas wells have been found." The value of natural gas produced in this State in 1903 was $1,123,849, an increase of $299,418 over the previous year; in 1909 the State was third in the Union as a gas-producer, the quantity being estimated at 75,074,416,000 cubic feet, valued at $8,293,846, an increase in value, but a decrease in quantity, from 1908. Prior to 1907, Oklahoma was known as the Indian and Oklahoma Terri- tories, and until 1904 the oil resources of the region remained practically un- touched, partly as a result of the conditions imposed by the Government in respect of leases. Down to 1903 the only field in the Indian and Oklahoma Territories which had been developed to any extent was one belonging to the Osage Nation, which yielded 37,000 barrels from 13 wells in 1902. In 1897 a well 4 miles southwest of Red Fork, in the territory of the Creek Nation, struck petroleum of a green colour at 600 feet, and some of a black colour at 1223 feet. In 1901 an oil of light olive colour, capable of being used in a lamp without refining, was stated to have been obtained at Red Fork at a depth of 537 feet. In 1902 a light oil of amber colour and good illuminating quality was reported to have been met with in this territory; black oil, with a specific gravity of 0-915 to 0.875, had also been found in the district of Cherokee Nation. A heavy lubri- 88 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. cating oil was found at Granite at a depth of 165 feet; and near Lawton, Comanche county, in a well sunk in 1901, oil was met with at 137 feet, which gave the following analysis in the hands of Dr. William B. Phillips, of the University of Texas :-Naphtha, 9.32 per cent.; burning petroleum, 46.6 per cent.; heavy petroleum, 36-8 per cent.; black asphaltum and loss, 7-28 per cent. The field as a whole began to develop with very great rapidity after 1904, though for 1905 and 1906 the production was included with that of Kansas. In 1906 the Glenn Pool was discovered in the Creek Nation, and at the end of that year there were 110 wells in a proved area of about 7000 acres. In 1907 Oklahoma State produced 43,524,128 barrels, and the output increased to 47,859,218 barrels in 1909, when the Preston pool was developed to the north of Okmulgee in Creek county. In that year 3279 wells were drilled in the State, of which 2742 were producers; these were situated principally in Cher- okee, Cleveland, Creek, and Osage counties. In 1910, 52,028,718 barrels was produced in Oklahoma. The natural-gas industry of Oklahoma has developed with great rapidity of late years. A well with a capacity of 500,000 cubic feet a day was reported in 1901 near Bartlesville in the Osage Territory, and at Blackville, in the Creek Nation, two more of similar capacity were announced in 1902. In February 1906 a well was drilled four miles south of Caney, Kans., one mile from the State-line in Cherokee Nation, which at 1500 feet was completed as a very prolific gas well, described as one of the most spectacular known. This gave a great impulse to the development, and the value of the output rose from $247,282 in that year to $1,743,963 in 1909. TEXAS and LOUISIANA. (Plate 17.) As already stated, the comparatively small area producing petroleum in northern Texas is generally considered to form part of the Mid-Continent field, but with this exception the oil-bearing districts of Texas and Louisiana constitute what is known as the Gulf field. The northern Texas fields include those of Corsicana, Henrietta, and Powell. The first development of the petroleum industry in Texas was in the sixties. when oil was found near Nacogdoches at a depth of about 100 feet, and a few wells flowed to a very limited extent. A pipe-line was constructed, and storage- tanks built; but the industry remained in a stagnant condition for many years. In 1895 the amount of oil obtained was only 50 barrels. In 1893, however, petroleum had been found at Sour Lake, at a depth of 230 feet, and in 1894 it was discovered near Corsicana, from which neighbourhood about 1000 barrels was obtained in 1896. In 1897 the output had increased to nearly 66,000 barrels and the next year to 546,000 barrels. On the 10th January 1901 the noted gusher known as the Lucas well was brought in at Spindle Top, near Beaumont, at a depth of 1050 feet, and during the nine days that elapsed before it could be shut in it was estimated to have yielded about 700,000 barrels of oil. When first tapped the pressure was so great that it shot 1000 feet of 4-inch iron tubing from the bore-hole, completely wrecking the derrick, and then poured forth a solid column of oil, 6 inches in diameter, to a height of 160 feet with unabated force till it was closed down. A sample of the oil submitted to the author had a specific gravity of 0.922, and contained 1.33 per cent. of sulphur. Great activity immediately pre- vailed in the neighbourhood, and a large number of wells were drilled, but the TEXAS AND LOUISIANA, COLORADO. 89 production quickly declined, and the field proved most disappointing. Pro- ductive areas have also been opened up at Sour Lake, about 20 miles to the northwest of Beaumont, and at Saratoga, Batson Prairie, and Humble. The output from Texas rose to 4,393,658 barrels in 1901, and to 18,083,658 barrels in 1902. In 1903 it declined to 17,955,572 barrels, but increased in 1905 to 28,136,189 barrels; in the following year the quantity obtained was only 12,567,897 barrels, and the output further decreased to 8,899,266 barrels in 1910. Natural gas is obtained in Clay and Navarre counties, and in small quantities in many of the coast fields. A considerable amount is derived from oil wells, some of those in the Beaumont field showing a pressure of 250 pounds to the square inch. According to Mr. H. S. Kneedler (Through Storyland to Sunset Seas, 1898) the settlers knew of the existence of petroleum in Louisiana as far back as 1820, " and they resorted to the places where it oozed from the ground as a black and pasty mass to gather it, though their only use for it was to grease the axles of their waggons, and to protect their implements from rust." Louisiana first came into prominence as an oil-producer in 1902, yielding in the last eight months of that year 548,617 barrels, all derived from the Jennings. field, where a flowing well was brought in at a depth of 1822 feet in August 1901. The Welsh field, 12 miles to the west, began to produce in 1903, and Anse-la- Butte, 40 miles east of Jennings, in 1905. A "big gusher was brought in here on 14th November 1907, which led to considerable increase in output in the following year. The Caddo field near Shreveport showed great develop- ments in 1908, and in 1909 the production was 1,028,818 barrels, increasing to over 5,000,000 barrels in 1910. The production of the State increased from 548,617 barrels in 1902 to 9,077,528 barrels in 1906, but with the decline of the Jennings field, the total output fell to 3,059,531 barrels in 1909. The greatly increased output of the Caddo field and the rise of that of Vinton brought the production in 1910 to 6,841,395 barrels. Enormous quantities of natural gas are obtained in the Caddo field, though much is wasted; and it is considered that the great capacity and high pressure of the wells in this district make it one of the greatest gas-producing fields known in the United States (Hill, Mineral Resources, 1909). COLORADO. The development of the oil-industry in Colorado dates from 1886, and this State was at one time the sixth in the order of production, but its output is declining, for whereas in 1892, 824,000 barrels was produced, in 1903 the output was but 483,925 barrels, notwithstanding that great activity in prospecting prevailed in 1901 and 1902. In 1909 the production was only 310,771 barrels, and in 1910, 239,794 barrels. The greater part of the output is obtained from the Florence field, in the valley of the Arkansas River, west of Pueblo, the remainder, about 27 per cent. of the whole, being obtained from the Boulder field. The oil from the Florence field is of a dark green colour, and has a density of about 31° B., yielding from 35 to 44 per cent. of illuminating oil of about 120° fire-test. The oil from the Boulder pool, which is obtained from a depth of about 2000 feet, is of great purity, with a specific gravity of 43° B. Although not largely productive, the wells yield very regularly, and in many cases the output increases for some days or weeks after the wells are completed. 90 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Though the decline of the Florence field was somewhat arrested in 1904, the output has steadily decreased in recent years, while that of the Boulder field. rose from 18,167 barrels in 1904 to 85,709 barrels in 1909. In 1910 the output of this field also declined to 42,186 barrels. Some prospecting in other parts of the State has been attended with good results, notably in the Rangely field. CALIFORNIA. (Plate 16.) Until 1881 the production of petroleum in California was not large, the output in 1880 being but 40,552 barrels, mainly derived from Ventura, Los Angeles, and Santa Barbara districts. Since that time it has rapidly increased, and California became first in the rank of petroleum-producing States, the yield in 1903 being nearly 24,382,472 barrels. In 1907 and 1908 Oklahoma. produced more petroleum than California, but in 1909 the latter again held first place with 54,433,010 barrels, and in 1910 the production was over 73,000,000 barrels. 66 In a memorandum on the subject of the duration of the supplies of Cali- fornian petroleum, addressed to the Secretary of the Interior, Mr. George Otis. Smith, the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey, estimates the quantity of petroleum remaining underground at about 7,000,000,000 barrels. After discussing the probable demand for fuel oil, he expresses himself as follows: With the market possibilities as now seen, I am inclined to agree with the belief of Mr. Requa, that 100,000,000 barrels may be the ultimate maximum annual consumption, and that a market for this amount of Californian oil will be found within five years. This brings us to the question of duration of supply. At this rate of consumption, which, it will be noticed, is over 50 per cent. in excess of the present rate, the life of the California field may be esti- mated as follows: At about thirty-seven years, according to Mr. Orcutt's minimum estimate for California's petroleum resources-his own estimate of life being fifty years at an annual rate of 75,000,000 barrels; at from forty-five to eighty years on the basis of the Survey estimates of quantity; and at over a century on Mr. Requa's own maximum estimate. Of course the production will not keep up to the maximum the whole life of the field, but during the later decades will be in amounts unequal to the industrial demands. Mr. Requa's latest word is that he believes the assertion warranted that Californian oil will dominate the fuel market of the Pacific, at least through the present century.' Although this statement may represent the extreme of optimism, I would hesitate to discount his estimate more than a third." The oldest wells are in the Pico Cañon, about 6 miles west of Newhall, Los Angeles, where the Pico well was drilled in 1869. In the autumn of 1886 the defined area of this field was about two miles by a quarter of a mile, and about 16 wells, producing a total of 500 barrels daily, were then in operation. The oil is usually described as jet black, though occasionally greenish or brownish. It varies in density from 22° to 45° B., that of Santa Barbara having the highest density. Although the oil yields comparatively little kerosene, it finds a ready sale for fuel. The Santa Clara oil was formerly employed as a source of paraffin wax by the Pacific Coast Oil Company. Kern River Field. The development of the Kern River field was commenced in the year 1899, and for some time this field was the most productive one in the State of California. In the beginning of 1904 there were 860 completed wells. The oil-bearing formation varies in thickness from 200 to 500 feet. The gravity of the oil produced ranges from 11° to 16° Baumé (specific gravity 0.9930 to 0.9594). The average depth of the wells sunk on the eastern border CALIFORNIA. 91 of the field is about 600 feet, and that of those on the western side about 1200 feet. When finished the wells are tubed with 3-inch tubing, and are provided with a 3-inch working barrel. In the majority of cases the pumping of the wells is effected by steam-power, and, as a general rule, the wells yield sufficient gas for use as fuel in raising the steam necessary to work the engine. In a large number of cases the oil is accompanied by considerable quantities of sand, and the system of collecting the oil from the wells yielding sand is almost identical with that adopted in Russia. An open earth- or sand-reservoir is excavated in the vicinity of the well for the purpose of receiving the oil. In this reservoir, which is sometimes rapidly filled up by the sand, the oil is allowed to settle, after which it is either pumped, or flows by gravitation, to storage-tanks. Coalinga Field.—This field, the development of which was commenced in 1890, had a daily production at the beginning of 1904 of about 6000 barrels, the number of completed wells being 137. In 1909 it produced more oil than any other Californian field, the output being 14,795,459 barrels, and in 1910 this increased to 18,387,750 barrels. One of the most important events of that year was the bringing in of the Silver Tip well on Section 6, said to have been the largest producer ever drilled in the State up to that time, with the exception of the Hartnell well of the Santa Maria field. Both these wells were subsequently eclipsed by the famous Lake View gusher of 1910. The gravity of the oil ranges from 11' to over 40° Baumé (specific gravity 0-9930 to below 0.8251). The depth of the wells varies from 800 feet to over 2000 feet, and in a few instances wells of over 2500 feet have been drilled. Sunset Field. The Sunset field is the oldest field in Kern county, and for many years past asphaltum of high grade has been manufactured locally from the oil obtained there, and shipped to all parts of the world. After 1899 the field was gradually extended, and at the end of 1903 the proved petroliferous. area was about 3000 acres, with 113 completed wells, varying in depth from 500 to 1500 feet. In 1909 the field produced 1,712,771 barrels, and in 1910, 7,157,030 barrels. The oil obtained is heavy, the average gravity probably being about 13° Baumé (specific gravity 0-9791). This district is in the south- west corner of the San Joaquin Valley, and is distant about 30 miles southwest from the town of Bakersfield, or about 25 miles from the McKittrick field. Midway Field.-The Midway field may be regarded as practically an extension of the Sunset field in a northwesterly direction. At the beginning of 1904 it had a proved oil-bearing area of about 4000 acres, upon which there were 51 completed wells. Great development took place in this district in 1909, the production for that year being 2,019,952 barrels, an increase of 1,609,559 barrels over that for 1908; in 1910 the output was nearly five times as large as in 1909, 10,436,137 barrels being produced. The wells are some- what deeper than those of the Sunset field, as they have been drilled further from the crest of the anticline. The oil has a gravity of 17° to 18° Baumé (specific gravity 0-9530 to 0-9466). The McKittrick District. This district is situated on the edge of the desert at the eastern base of the coast range of mountains, about 35 miles west of Bakers- field. The length of the district is approximately 25 miles. The productive. area is confined to a belt the general trend of which is north 60° west. width of this belt varies from less than 200 feet to nearly a quarter of a mile. This district was opened up in a small way towards the close of last century, and at the commencement of the year 1904 there were slightly over 100 com- pleted wells, varying in depth from 200 feet to 1500 feet. The oil is found at a shallow depth in the centre of the field, which has a proved area of a little 92 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. over 2000 acres. The daily production per well ranges from a few barrels to 700 barrels. The gravity of the oil obtained varies from 11° to 17° Baumé (specific gravity 0-9930 to 0-9530). In 1908 the McKittrick field produced 2,517,951 barrels, an output which was increased in the following year to 5,077,362 barrels. Summerland Field. This field is situated on the shore of the Pacific Ocean, and extends about a mile in front of the village of Summerland, which is about five miles east of Santa Barbara. The oil in this district is found at shallow depths, there being a productive oil-sand at a depth of 80 to 120 feet, and a second oil-horizon 40 to 50 feet deeper. Many of the wells, however, have been sunk to 500 feet. The oil obtained contains a considerable quantity of water. The gravity of the oil yielded by the upper and lower productive formations is about 10° and 14° Baumé (specific gravities 1·0000 and 0.9722) respectively. The wells are small producers, yielding only a barrel and a half to two barrels per diem. The field has been worked for a number of years, and in 1909 produced over 71,000 barrels. In Ventura county there were in 1897 about 400 wells yielding 368,228 barrels, or about 20 per cent. of the total output, but the development since then has not been great, the yield in 1908 being 379,044 barrels. The bringing in of the Hartnell gusher in the Santa Maria field, Santa Barbara county, led to great development in 1905, and the total production. rose from 789,006 barrels in 1904 to 7,816,682 barrels in 1908. There are now three fields in the county, Santa Maria and Summerland, already mentioned, and Lompoc, opened up in 1906. In Los Angeles county the output in 1897 amounted to 1,327,011 barrels or about 70 per cent. of the total output in the State; in 1901 it amounted to 2,188,633, and in 1908 to 4,692,495 barrels. Extensive developments have also taken place in Orange county, raising the yield from 12,000 barrels in 1897 to 724,565 barrels in 1901, and to 3,358,714 barrels in 1908. Oil-fields have also been developed since 1904 in San Mateo, Santa Clara, and San Luis Obispo counties, the combined production in 1909 amounting to over 70,000 barrels. Transport in California.-One of the most important events in 1903 was the opening of a pipe-line, constructed by the Pacific Coast Oil Company, from Bakersfield to Point Richmond, a distance of 278 miles. This transport of heavy oil by pipe-line was a new departure, and as the petroleum produced in Kern county has an average gravity of 151° Baumé, some difficulty was at first experienced in pumping it, but this was overcome by heating the oil with exhaust-steam, and insulating the line by coating it with a non-conducting material. The pumping of the oil was also facilitated by mixing with it some of the lighter petroleum produced at Coalinga, and in some instances by the admixture of water. The more viscous descriptions of crude petroleum are now transported by means of the rifled pipe-line described in Section VIII. Asphalt and maltha occur in many parts; according to Mr. Hanks, formerly State mineralogist, the following are the principal localities in California where they are found :-Santa Ynez and Kayamos [Santa Maria] Valleys; near Mission, San Buenaventura; at the Goleta Landing, 7 miles west of the town of Santa Barbara; near Dos Pueblos and Carpinteria, in Santa Barbara county; at the oil wells near Sulphur Mountain, Ventura county; Rancho La Bréa, Los Angeles county; on the Corral de Piedra, San Luis Obispo county; about Buena Vista Lake, Kern county; and on Sargent's Ranch, Santa Clara county. The deposits are found at varying altitudes. They MINOR FIELDS, UNITED STATES. 93 show no uniformity of structure, and are of various periods. The asphalt of San Luis Obispo and Santa Cruz is a sandstone saturated with bitumen. That of Ventura county, which was largely mined in 1888, contains about 24 per cent. of bitumen, and has nearly four times the market value of that of Santa Cruz and San Luis Obispo. In 1888 California produced 50,000 tons of bituminous rock. Natural gas occurs in many parts of California, and at the end of 1889 there were in California six producing wells. In that year the gas obtained was valued at $12,680; in 1903 the amount obtained was valued at $104,521, and in 1909 at $446,933. FIELDS OF MINOR IMPORTANCE IN THE UNITED STATES. Alabama.—The existence of petroleum in Alabama has been known for a century. In the Tennessee valley in the northern part of the State, there are tar-springs, oozings, and other indications of the presence of petroleum. Near Decatur is a spring which was used by the Indians for rheumatism and other complaints. Oil has so far not been obtained in commercial quantities in the State, but a considerable quantity of natural gas is produced in Madison and Fayette counties. Arkansas. Since 1902 natural gas has been obtained in Sebastian county, and is utilised in the towns of Mansfield, Van Buren, Fort Smith, and Hunting- ton. The wells vary from 970 feet to 2380 feet in depth, and the pressure from 160 to 225 pounds. Asphalt sands are mined near Pike City. In Missouri only 20 barrels of oil were reported as produced in 1889. The product resembled that of Paola, in Kansas, and was all obtained from one well in Boone Township, Bates county. Much prospecting for gas has been carried on in the State, but the only commercially available supplies have been obtained in Bates, Cass, Clay, and Jackson counties. The wells are about 480 feet deep, and are supplied by a reddish sandstone from 10 to 40 feet thick, which sometimes also contains a thick black oil. Gas to the value of $35,687 was produced in 1889, but only to the value of $2154 in 1902, which was, how- ever, more than in any year since 1895. In 1902 oil of good lubricating quality was found at Belton, Cass county, together with natural gas which is utilised. for heating and illuminating purposes. The gas was obtained at a depth of 366 feet, and the oil from 340 to 490 feet. The quantity of gas produced in the State in 1909 was valued at $10,025. Michigan. In 1909 some gas was produced in the State from artesian wells in Macomb county, the whole being used locally. In Wisconsin about 120,000,000 cubic feet of natural gas was produced in 1889, practically the whole being obtained in Oak Creek township, Milwaukee. Minnesota. Considerable prospecting for gas has been carried on at public expense in the State of Minnesota, and the result has been published in a report by Professor N. H. Winchell (Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, Bulletin No. 5, St. Paul, 1889). The work was undertaken on account of the discovery of gas in a sandy layer in the drift about 75 feet below the surface at Freeborn, but no permanent supply has been obtained. South Dakota.-Gas is produced from artesian wells in Hughes, Lyman, Sully, Stanley, and Walworth counties, and the towns of Pierre and Fort Pierre are partly supplied from these sources. The value of the gas consumed in 1909 was $16,164. North Dakota. In 1909 gas was piped from wells in Bottineau county to 94 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. the town of Westhope, and some is also obtained in Lamoure county. The value of the product consumed in 1909 was $3025. Montana. Only a few test-wells have been drilled in this State, but a bed of petroleum-shale, similar to that found in Utah, from 6 to 12 feet thick, and extending over 3 to 5 miles, has been discovered 60 miles northeast of Helena, and pronounced to be of great commercial value. Wyoming. Remarkable promise is given by the oil-fields of Wyoming, and the industry appears destined to assume great importance when adequate transport facilities are available. Operations have been carried on at Salt Creek since 1889, and the production of the field for 1903 amounted to 8960 barrels. This field is 50 miles north of Casper, the nearest railway station, where a refinery has been erected. In the Lander district a number of flowing wells have been drilled. At Spring Valley, in Uinta county, the Union Pacific Railroad in boring for water in 1901 came across a remarkably pure petroleum, olive-green in colour, with specific gravity 0-8329, yielding naphtha 27 per cent., water-white kerosene 25.5 per cent., lubricating oil 40.5 per cent. Some 2500 barrels were obtained. A great deal of development work was carried out in 1909 and 1910, but the production amounted only to some 100,000 barrels in the latter year. V New Mexico. Near Bernalillo large deposits resembling the "gum-beds " of Enniskillen are found in the valley separating the Sandia and Tuerto mountains, and in many localities in the vicinity oil oozes from the outcropping sandstones. An oil-well was sunk many years ago near Gallup, in the same county, but was abandoned at a depth of 400 feet. The oil-stratum is said to be a loose grey sandstone overlying bituminous shale. A considerable amount of prospecting has been carried on in the State, and a flowing well is said to have been obtained in 1910 near Dayton, in Eddy county, yielding about 15 barrels per day. Gas has also been struck in Bernalillo and Eddy counties. In Utah both ozokerite and asphalt occur. A variety of the former product, somewhat resembling the ozokerite of Galicia, occurs near Thistle Town, while a mineral containing 90 per cent. of bitumen, and known as gilsonite, uintahite, or uintaite, occurs in the northeastern part of Utah, near Fort Duchesne, east of the Uintah Indian reservation, and in the Umcompahgre-Ute reservation, near the Colorado State line. Another substance, known as wurzilite, occurs in Wasatch county, about 113 miles east of Salt Lake City. Seal (Journ. Franklin Inst., cxxx, 402, 1890) describes the Utah ozokerite as a dark brown, waxy deposit, containing crystals of gypsum. During 1902 much prospecting was carried on, and a small quantity of lubricating oil of excellent quality was obtained in Emery county, on Green River; oil was also obtained at Sinbad, 25 miles southwest from Green River station; and near Bluff in San Juan county. Petroleum has been discovered in three other counties, namely:-near Dragon in Uintah, in Sanpete, and in Washington, where there are several wells from 500 to 700 feet in depth, in what is known as the Virgin field. Utah for a few years produced some natural gas from wells 12 miles north of Salt Lake City, the yield in each of the years 1895 and 1896 being of the value of $20,000; but the wells became choked and have yielded no gas since 1898. Nevada has not yet yielded any oil in commercial quantities, but opposite to Elko, on the Humboldt river, there is a bed of shale, said to be rich in hydro- carbons and paraffin, from which oil has been obtained for fuel for domestic purposes. It is stated that it contains 16 per cent. or more of the more volatile hydrocarbons and 15 per cent. of paraffin. MINOR FIELDS, UNITED STATES: MEXICO. 95 Washington. In 1902 a number of test-wells were drilled in various parts of this State, but no petroleum in paying quantities was found. In Chehalis county, north of Gray's Harbour, a considerable amount of gas was met with, but only slight indications of oil; at Lapush, above the Hole River, some oil is said to have been found. Alaska. Petroleum occurs (1) at Cape Yaktag, (2) near the mouth of Copper River, in the Controller Bay district, (3) on the west shore of Cook Inlet, and (4) in the region of Cold Bay. A distance of 75 miles separates (1) and (2), a distance of about 320 miles (2) and (3), and a distance of about 160 miles (3) and (4). Oil rights at Katalla, in the Controller Bay district, were secured by a group of American operators about ten years ago and were transferred to the Alaska Development Company, by whom the property was leased to the Pacific Coal and Oil Company, a Canadian Corporation. In turn the Canadian company granted a lease to the Pacific Mines Company, Limited, and the author, who had been consulted, deputed his colleague, Mr. H. T. Burls, to make a geological survey of the property, and locate sites for wells. Four wells were drilled, one of which was named the Redwood well, and oil was found in quantity. In 1910 the Amalgamated Development Company was formed for the active exploitation of the property, a pipe-line was laid, and tankage erected. According to a statement made in the Canadian Mail for 3rd June 1911, on the authority of Mr. William Whyte, Vice-President of the Canadian Pacific Railway, the Redwood well spouted to a height of 110 feet for three. days before being capped, and the aggregate production of the four wells, the deepest of which was 1500 feet, was 2100 barrels a day. The oil is said to have a specific gravity of about 0.828, and to give a large yield of gasoline and kerosene. Some drilling has been carried out in the Cook Inlet region, and both oil and gas were found. In the Cold Bay region, three wells were commenced in 1903, and in one of them a heavy oil was met with. MEXICO. (Plate 17A.) The author is indebted to the Mexican Eagle Oil Company, Limited, for many of the particulars on which the following account of operations in Mexico is based. Surface indications of petroleum have long been known to exist in the Gulf States of Mexico, but exploratory drilling was not carried out before the early eighties. The fields may be considered in three main groups, namely :— the Northern fields, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and those of Chiapas and Tabasco; some prospecting has also been carried out on the Pacific coast of Mexico. In the Northern field, a shallow well was sunk in 1882 or 1884 at Cerro Viejo, west of Tuxpam, and a small quantity of oil was obtained. In 1902 another well was drilled on the same property, to a depth of 950 feet. This well is reported to have flowed, but owing to want of storage-accommoda- tion it was capped. The production was estimated at 16 barrels daily. At Ebano, 40 miles west of Tampico, on lands owned by the Mexican Petroleum Company, producing wells have been in operation since 1893. The petroleum from that district has a specific gravity of 1-012. After separat- ing the water present, it was found to yield 42.5 per cent. of heavy distillate, and 49-5 per cent. of asphalt. The product has been sold principally as fuel 96 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. to the National Railroads, but a small quantity has also been supplied to a local refinery at Tampico. Eastward of this, near Los Esteros Station on the Mexican Central Railroad, test-wells have been drilled by the American International Fuel and Petroleum Company, but these operations have not as yet resulted in payable production. At the present time (end of 1911) the most active development is taking place in the territories northwest of Tuxpam from the Casiano to the Tierra Amarilla and Potrero del Llano fields, as most of the recent spouters have been situated in this region, which has a length of 50 miles from north to south, and extends from the Gulf Coast inland to the foothills of the Sierra Madre Oriental. Some good wells are also reported to have been drilled in the valley of the Panuco River near Topila and the town of Panuco. An illustration of the difficulties and disappointments met with in the exploitation of oil lands is furnished by the following particulars of a well drilled at Dos Bocas in 1908. This well had reached a depth of 1824 feet, when a petroliferous formation charged with oil under immense pressure was suddenly and unexpectedly penetrated. In less than twenty minutes the ground round the well began to tremble and fissures appeared, some at a distance of as much as 250 feet from the well, from which oil and gas were discharged. One of these fissures extended under the boiler, and the gas was ignited. The well burned for fifty-eight days, during which time the oil con- sumed was estimated to have amounted to three million barrels. The flame reached a height of nearly 1500 feet, and at the broadest part had a diameter of nearly 500 feet. So bright was the light that a newspaper was read by it at a distance of 11 miles. In addition to oil and gas the well discharged immense quantities of water, at times at the estimated rate of one and a half million barrels a day, and with the liquid about two million tons of solid matter was ejected, a crater being thus formed which ultimately had an area of 117,600 square metres. The fire was eventually extinguished by pumping sand into the crater with centrifugal pumps. In January 1911 there were some thirty British and American companies. operating in the northern fields, the most important of them being the Mexican Eagle Oil Company and the Mexican Petroleum Company, with its affiliated enterprise, the Huasteca Petroleum Company. The last-named has obtained a good yield of oil from wells at Juan Casiano, and has constructed a pipe-line from the field to Tampico. The Mexican Eagle Oil Company, Limited, owns large areas of proved petroliferous lands, and three fields are at present being exploited at Tanguijo, Tierra Amarilla, and Potrero del Llano, in Northern Vera Cruz. In the latter field, at the end of December 1910, a gusher was brought in with an initial yield of 10,000 barrels a day. Within twenty-four hours the flow was doubled, and continued to increase until the yield was estimated as 160,000 barrels daily. Seven and a half weeks after the oil was struck, the well was brought under control, and the flow directed into earthen storage reservoirs; the daily pro- duction was then measured and was found to be 100,000 barrels. Although some of the Russian "spouters have produced for a short time more than double this quantity of oil, there seems little doubt that for permanent yield this well is the largest producer yet obtained in any field. Here a storage reservoir with a capacity of 3,000,000 barrels has been constructed, and a pipe-line 87 kilometres in length has been laid to Tancochin, in order that the oil may be shipped to Tampico. An 8-inch pipe-line about 50 kilometres in length, with a transport capacity of 35,000 barrels a day, and a narrow-gauge railway connect these producing fields with the Company's main shipping "" MEXICO. 97 station near Tuxpam, where extensive tankage and sea-loading lines have been constructed to deal with the Company's general export business and enable them to export either from Tampico or Tuxpam. Fuel oil from these fields is now being supplied to the Mexican Railway, the Tehuantepec National Railway, and various steamship companies, and the crude is also shipped to the Company's refinery at Minatitlan. Further south, in the Papantla Canton of Vera Cruz, the Oil Fields of Mexico have been operating for some years; the Furbero field is at present (1911) producing about 5000 barrels a week, and some 25 wells have been drilled on the property. The Mexican Eagle Oil Company has built a pipe-line and railway from the port of Tuxpam to this field, the future output of which, in respect of Mexico, it largely controls. Oil is reported to have been met with in some wells in Chihuahua in 1907. In the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, numerous indications have been met with in the basin of the San Juan, Coatzacoalcos, and Tancochapa Rivers. The Mexican Eagle Oil Company has recently acquired the oil interests of the London firm of S. Pearson & Son, Limited, who for some years have systematically explored the Isthmus region, where they have drilling rights over several hundred thousand acres of petroliferous lands. The Company is at present exploiting two pools at San Cristobal and Soledad on the Coachapa River, a tributary of the Coatzacoalcos River. The oil is pumped through a pipe-line to a refinery which has been erected in Minatitlan 20 miles above Puerto Mexico. This refinery is connected by a branch line with the Tehuan- tepec National Railway, and is primarily intended for the export trade, its situation giving it easy access to the Pacific ports through Salina Cruz, while tank-steamers on the Atlantic side can be loaded at its own wharves. At present it is treating from 8000 to 9000 barrels of crude oil daily, and its capacity is to be further increased, when it will rank among the largest and best equipped of the refineries on the American continent. Other oil deposits at Ixhuatlan and Tecuanapa, on the Coatzacoalcos and Uspanapa Rivers, are being developed by the Mexican Eagle Oil Company. In the Macuspana district of Tabasco, indications of oil have led to trial wells being drilled, the result of which has been generally to show that here the strata are in some respects like those met with in some of the southern Louisiana fields, but at present no exploitation is being carried on. In Chiapas the operations of the Anglo-Mexican Oil Fields, which are at present suspended, appear to have proved the existence of oil in the Tertiary deposits of that region, the age of the petroliferous beds being believed to be Eocene. In the neighbourhood of Port Angel, Oaxaca, where borings have been made by Mexicans to a depth of about 100 feet, the late Mr. G. Stockfleth obtained samples of light oil of good quality. A sample of crude Mexican petroleum from a surface-deposit, examined by the author, was a somewhat viscid liquid at ordinary temperatures, showing the usual fluorescence by reflected light, and having a chestnut-brown colour when viewed in thin layers by transmitted light. It was practically odourless when cold, but had a slightly balsamic smell when warmed. Its specific gravity at 60° F. was 0.970, its flashing-point 300° F. (close test), and its viscosity by Redwood's viscometer 198.7 at 140° F. Generally speaking, Mexican petroleum is very heavy in the northern fields, ranging in density from 10° to 14° Baumé at Ebano, but in the south lighter varieties are found. Thus the oil of the San Cristobal field varies from 26° to 30° Baumé, while in Tabasco it ranges from 32° to 43° Baumé. The heavy oils of Ebano give about 1 per cent. of gasoline and 10 per cent. of VOL. I. 7 98 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. illuminating oil, but by the cracking process this yield can be increased. In the Minatitlan region the oil yields 11 per cent. of gasoline and 25 to 27 per cent. of illuminating oil of excellent quality, besides a considerable quantity of gas oil and lubricating oil. The oil from Tabasco resembles the Pennsylvanian oil in its character, and in the products which it yields in refining. The amount of sulphur in Mexican oil is high, ranging from 4 per cent. to 5 per cent. in the Ebano region, and is approximately 3 per cent. in the San Cristobal field. The petroleum production of the Republic during the fiscal year 1908 to 1909, as given by the Finance Department, from information supplied to them by the various oil companies, was 425,000 tons, of the approximate value of 2,800,000 pesos. WEST INDIES. In some of the West Indian Islands petroleum occurs abundantly, especially in the forms of " asphalt asphalt " or " pitch," and "tar.” t Havana, in Cuba, was in early days known to sailors as Carine, for there they careened their ships, and pitched them with the tar of the locality. Petroleum has not yet been found in sufficient quantities to be produced commercially, although it occurs in many places. The asphalt of Cuba, how- ever, is a well-known article of commerce, of which 7252 tons was exported to the United States in 1902; in 1909, 10,796 tons was exported. A very complete account of the petroleum-deposits of Cuba is given in H. C. Brown's Mineral Resources of Cuba in 1901, in the Civil Report of Brig.-Gen. Leonard Wood, Military Governor of Cuba, 1902, vol. v, pt. 2, from which the following information is gathered. In the province of Matanzas, about 10 miles west of Cardenas, is a well, from which 100,000 gallons of oil is said to have been taken. To the southeast, about 8 miles south of Cardenas, are a number of wells, formerly small producers, but now abandoned. In the adjoining province of Santa Clara there is the San Juan well, sunk in 1881, in which petroleum was found at a depth of 300 feet. Salterain thus describes the product: "It is colourless, transparent as the clearest water, easily inflammable, and leaves no sensible residuum after its complete com- bustion; its density is 0.754; it boils at a temperature of 85°, dissolves asphaltum and resinous matter, and possesses the characteristics of naphtha.” The boring was continued to a depth of 900 feet, and then abandoned, although the supply continued. Before the Americo-Spanish War this deposit yielded more than 20,000 gallons. The oil has been used successfully in the engine of a steam-launch, and for automobiles; and the gas from the well is used for domestic purposes. A considerable quantity of gas issues from the ground in the neighbourhood. A similar well was bored at Lagunillas, in the province of Matanzas, from which at a depth of 82 feet a supply of 181 gallons a day was obtained, but this also was not worked. Near Santa Clara is Sandalwood Spring, in which oil appears on the surface. Dr. H. N. Stokes, of the United States Geological Survey, who examined it in 1890, says :- "The oil, which is about as viscous as strong sulphuric acid, is somewhat turbid from suspended water, but when dried over calcium chloride, it is perfectly transparent, amber-coloured, and shows the merest trace of bluish-green fluorescence. Its odour is agreeable, and in no way suggestive of even refined American petroleum, but rather of cedar wood. The specific gravity at 33° is 0.901." Oil of a specific gravity 0-754 has also been obtained from a well at a depth of 285 feet. CUBA, HAYTI, BARBADOS. 99 In the province of Santiago de Cuba there are several undeveloped deposits of oil, samples of which are said to have given the following analytical results :—Water-white oil, 50 per cent. ; very small percentage of benzine, no gasoline, an extremely small residuum, with a loss of 21 per cent. crude oil is said to be amber-coloured, with specific gravity 0·74. The The chief deposits of asphalt or chapapote are the following:-Extensive beds near the Harbour of Cardenas, 70 feet thick; in Pinar del Rio, near Havana, 18 feet thick; at Canas Tomasita, 105 feet thick; and a specially pure deposit near Vuelta. The average analysis, as given in R. C. Taylor's Statistics of Coal (1848), p. 244, is-Carbon, 34.97 per cent.; volatile matter, 63 per cent.; ashes or cinders, 2·03 per cent. In a In the Santo Domingo (or Dominica) portion of the Island of Hayti, boring for oil was undertaken in 1865, but negative results were obtained. communication to the author, Mr. Nelson Boyd states that when on the island in 1886, he was told that large quantities of oil were found on the surface over a considerable area, at a point on the coast beyond a place called Santo Cristobal, about 10 to 15 miles west of the town of Santo Domingo. A sample of this oil, analysed at the Ecole des Mines in Paris, was described as very liquid and free from water. The West India Petroleum Mining and Export Company acquired oil rights over an area of about 344 square miles at Azua, within a few miles of the harbour in Ocoa Bay, on the southern shore of the island. According to a contemporary report, the Company began drilling on the 21st September 1904, on a site about 7 miles northwest of the harbour, and on the following 15th November, at a depth of 940 feet, obtained a "gusher," with an estimated production of 2500 barrels a day. The well was finished with 6-inch casing, and is stated to have spouted to a height of 180 feet. The oil is reported by Professor A. H. Gill, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to have a specific gravity of 0.917, a flash-point of 133° F., and to contain 2-5 per cent. of sulphur. The yield of burning oil (distilling between 150° and 300° C.) is given as 15.5 per cent. No commercial production is as yet recorded from the Dominican Republic. Barbados. Under the name of "Barbados tar," the dark green or black petroleum of Barbados early held an important place in the Materia Medica of this and other countries (see Neumann's Chemistry, translated by Lewis, 1759, p. 231; James, Medicinal Dictionary, 1745; Chambers Universal Dictionary, 1738). Griffith Hughes, in his Natural History of the Island of Barbadoes, 1750, says: The most remarkable fossil of bituminous kind is green tar. It is obtained by digging holes or a trench, and it rises on the water. It issues from hills, and is gathered in the months of January, February, and March, and serves to burn in lamps. The deposits which yield this tar occur in the Scotland district, which includes the parishes of St. Joseph and St. Andrew. The rocks in the district consist of thick-bedded sandstones, coarse grits, bituminous sandstones and shales, and dark grey and mottled clays. The strata are much disturbed, and are broken by many faults, being in some places vertical, while close by they may be seen at an angle of 13° to 15°. In many places the oil is found in pools on the fields, and in a little valley about 1000 yards east of the Lloyd wells, at St. Andrews, the oil trickles out along the foot of a hill. In this district there is also what is known as the boiling spring, which consists of a pool of water through which inflammable gas bubbles. The Lloyd wells formerly numbered twenty-one, but in 1895 only five. These were dug wells 5 feet in diameter, and from 80 to 140 feet in depth, Un 100 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. lined with pinewood. They all yielded oil, and it was estimated that one or two barrels could be obtained daily from each well. Specimens of the oil from three of these wells, examined by the author, were of black colour, tarry character, and free from disagreeable odour. Their densities ranged from 0·946 to 0·971, and their flashing-points from 248° to 300° F. (close test). One of the destroyed wells is said to have yielded a light green oil. Drilling operations have been carried on for some years by the West Indian Oil Syndicate and subsequently by the West Indian Petroleum Company, and oil has been obtained in some quantity at a moderate depth. Trinidad. The "Pitch Lake" of Trinidad, the most important, if not the largest, deposit of solid or semi-solid bitumen known, has been described by many writers. Sir Walter Raleigh visited it in March 1595, and records that he saw there" that abundance of stone pitch, that all the ships in the world might be laden from thence; and we made trial of it in trimming our ships, and found it to be excellent good, and melteth not with the sun as the pitch of Norway." 66 In 1789 Anderson (Phil. Trans., lxxix, 65) thus describes it :— It is of circular form, about 3 miles in circumference. At my first approach it appeared a plain as smooth as glass, excepting some small clumps of shrubs and dwarf trees that had taken possession of some spots of it; but when I had proceeded some yards on it, I found it divided into areola of different sizes and shapes : the chasms or divisions anastomosed through every part of it; the surface of the areola perfectly horizontal and smooth; the margins undulated, each undulation enlarged to the bottom till they join the opposite. On the surface, the margin or first undulation is distant from the opposite from 4 to 6 feet, and the same depth before they coalesce; but where the angles of the areola oppose, the chasms or ramifications are wider and deeper. When I was at it all these chasms were full of water. . . . The truest idea that can be formed of its surface will be from the areola and their ramifications on the back of a turtle. Its more common consistence and appearance is that of pit coal, the colour rather greyer. It breaks up into small fragments of a cellular appearance and glossy, with a number of minute and shiny particles interspersed through its substance; it is very friable, and, when liquid, is of a jet-black colour. Some parts of the surface are covered with a thin and brittle scoria a little elevated. Ì . . . could make no impression on its surface without an axe; at the depth I. of a foot I found it a little softer, with an oily appearance, in small cells. Besides this place, where it is found in this solid state, it is found liquid in many parts of the woods; and at the distance of 20 miles from this about 2 inches thick in round holes of 3 or 4 inches diameter, and often at cracks or rents. This is constantly liquid. • 66 Dr. Nicholas Nugent (Trans. Geol. Soc., i, 63), in 1811, in an account of a visit paid by him in 1807, gives a very similar description. In 1832 Capt. J. E. Alexander (Edinb. Phil. Journ., xiv, 94) gives the size as about a mile and one-half in circumference; and in 1855 Mr. N. S. Manross (Amer. Journ. Sci. 2, xx, 153) describes it as a black circular plain of pitch, one half mile in diameter," but gives the entire surface covered by the pitch as 3000 acres. Other writers who have written accounts of this remarkable deposit are Wall and Sawkins (Report on the Geology of Trinidad, 1860), Rojas (Lago de Asfalto en la Isla de Trinidad, Caracás, 1869), Hon. W. P. Pierce, U.S. Consul at the Port of Spain, who has given a very complete report in Rep. Cons. U.S., xl, 169 (1892), Mr. S. F. Peckham ( Amer. Journ. Sci. 3, 1, 33, 1895), and Peckham and Linton (ibid. 4, i, 193, 1896). These authors differ widely as to the area of the "lake," but the most trust- TRINIDAD. 101 worthy estimates place it at 99 to 100 acres. A constant outflow is going on towards the sea, the stream of pitch averaging 15 to 18 feet in depth. The pitch, which is sufficiently firm for the most part to support a team of horses, is worked with picks to the depth of a few feet, the excavations soon becoming filled up again by the fresh plastic material rising from below and hardening. The working of the deposit is in the hands of the New Trinidad Asphalt Company, who pay the Government a royalty of $1.60 per ton, as compared with $1.20 paid by the owners of "village" lots at La Brea and elsewhere outside the lake. The concessionaires have secured mining rights subject to a minimum payment of royalty of £10,000 a year till the year 1930. A circular line of tramway has been constructed on the lake, supported upon palm-leaves, to facilitate the removal of the asphalt, the cars being run in groups of four, with a gross weight when loaded of 6000 pounds. Very large quantities are exported annually for paving and other purposes, amounting to about 130,000 tons from the lake and 30,000 from other properties; in 1901 a total of 171,000 tons was shipped, and under 142,000 tons in 1909. Messrs. Wall and Sawkins estimate the amount of pitch in the lake at 158,400 tons for each foot of depth, which, with an average of 20 feet, would give a total of 3,168,000 tons; but though about two-thirds of that quantity has been removed in the last forty years, but little impression has apparently been made on the amount. According to Mr. W. H. Delano (Natural Asphalt, London, 1893), the raw bitumen from the Trinidad lake contains 33 per cent. of fireclay, sand, and vegetable matter, and 33 per cent. of water. This writer considers that the term asphalt should be applied solely to the bituminous rock, such as that of the Val de Travers. Mr. Peckham describes what the workmen call a "blowhole," such as is of frequent occurrence in the lake. This was a circular hole about 6 inches in diameter, from which bitumen more fluid than any he saw elsewhere in the island was ejected to the amount of perhaps a barrel. It was so soft as to flow readily, of a brilliant black colour, and apparently contained little, if any, mineral matter. Fluid bitumen also oozes from the bottom of the sea on Loth sides of the island. At Guapo, a few miles southwest of the lake, there are said to be large springs of maltha or liquid asphaltum. Springs of liquid petroleum are also abundant in Trinidad. Messrs. Wall and Sawkins (op. cit., p. 145) state that “nothing is more common in the La Brea district than to observe it [the oil] exuding from the soil or issuing from the fissures in the cliffs." The oil contains sulphur, and a sample examined by the author yielded solid paraffin among the products of distillation. It is of interest to note that solid paraffin does not, apparently, exist in Trinidad asphalt. The same authors also mention (p. 94) that in 1858 an American company established a refinery at La Brea for the manufacture of burning and lubricating oils, and it is said that the former oil was extensively used in the colony. The company was not commercially successful, but it appears probable that the material distilled was not the fluid petroleum, but the solid or semi-solid bitumen of the district. It may be noted that it was from Trinidad asphalt that Mr. Gesner first prepared kerosene by distillation (Gesner, Treatise on Coal, Petroleum, etc., New York, 1861). Petroleum apparently occurs over a great part of the southern half of the island. The first important concession of oil-bearing territory was granted some years ago, on the initiative of Mr. Randolph Rust. It embraces an area of more than 50 square miles at Guayaguayare in the southeastern corner of the island. Although the early drilling operations were attended with success, very little progress was made in the work of development until the ¹ See Map (Plate 18a.). GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. 102 concession passed into the hands of the General Petroleum Properties of Trinidad, Limited. Among a large number of other companies recently formed to participate in the exploration and exploitation of the oil-lands of Trinidad, one of the most important is the Trinidad Oil Fields, Limited, which acquired the rights over areas in the Guapo and La Brea districts on which successful results had already been obtained by the Trinidad Petroleum Company, Limited. It is, however, in the neighbourhood of the Pitch Lake that the greatest progress has been made. There, through the enterprise of the American concessionaires of the lake and their associates, the Trinidad Lake Petroleum Company, Limited, a number of wells have been drilled, a refinery has been built, and the first shipment of the oil was made in May 1911. There are grounds for hope that Trinidad may become an important source of oil- fuel for the British Navy. The Trinidad Oil Fields, Limited, recently (8th November 1911) obtained a very prolific spouter in their well No. 13, which is estimated to have produced. 25,000 barrels in three and a half hours, before it became choked, and drilling operations have been actively pursued on the neighbouring properties. SOUTH AMERICA. (Plate 18.) The deposits in South America appear to possess great potential importance, but only those of Peru have been systematically worked. In Venezuela, both petroleum and asphalt occur, the deposits in the eastern. part of the republic being a continuation of those of Trinidad. A contract was entered into with the Venezuelan Government in November 1909, for the exploration and exploitation of the oil-fields of the northern part of the country, but previous to this the only active work had been carried out by a local company in the State of Táchira, where oil was for some years pro- duced from shallow wells, and refined and sold in the neighbourhood. 66 The Bermudez" asphalt lake, so called from the old name of the State, is situated near the coast of the Gulf of Paria, and is said to have a much larger area than that of Trinidad, while the mineral contains only 2.14 per cent. of earthy and vegetable matters; the deposit is, however, not as deep as that of the adjacent island. In 1908, 37,588 metric tons of asphalt was exported, of which 37,549 tons was from the Bermudez lake, while the re- mainder came from the Maracaibo region. .. Brazil.-Large quantities of a rich, dark brown, laminated, bituminous deposit, locally known as turfa," occur in the Camamu basin in the Province. of Bahia. No signs of plant or animal remains have been found in it, but it has been suggested that it was produced by the aggregation and decomposition of vegetable matter in mangrove swamps, such as still exist in the locality. Small quantities of asphalt have been found in conjunction with the turfa. Mr. Wallace has obtained by distillation 58.48 per cent. of volatile matter from turfa dried at 212° F., and estimates that 1 ton would yield 68 gallons of crude oil of specific gravity 0-888, and 6 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia. In Colombia, asphalt is reported to occur on the northern shores and along the Magdalena River, in large quantities. Petroleum is reported from Tubera, near the mouth of the Magdalena, and thence westward all the way to the Mulato River. On the east coast of the Gulf of Darien are extensive escapes of oil and gas. A heavy oil exudes in considerable quantities along the rivers San Juan and Vulcan. In the delta of the Sinu River also a heavy petroleum with much sulphur is found. To the east of the Sinu River oil of good quality (specific gravity 0-858, viscosity 0.98, flashing-point 101° F.) with paraffin base COLOMBIA, ECUADOR, ARGENTINA. 103 is met with, the analysis of which gives naphtha 2.92 per cent., kerosene 31 per cent., lubricating oil 30 per cent., paraffin 3 per cent., and residuum 27.08 per cent. Very favourable reports have been made as to the richness in oil of Colombia. No less than forty petroleum springs have been found, from 1 to 3 miles from the Gulf of Uraba, near the Arboletes, one of which has a crater about 12 inches in diameter, and yields sufficient oil to fill a 6-inch pipe. A large pond of petroleum 60 feet in diameter, and from 3 to 10 feet in depth, occurs near this spring. The oil passes through a bed of coral, and is said to be very pure. Other springs are reported to occur on the plain of Medina, at the foot of the extinct crater of Guaycaraime, within that part of the Southeastern Cordilleras which terminates in the plains of Medina, about nine miles from the River Upia, a tributary of the Meta. The oil exudes from sandstone, and is free from water. Its rate of flow was estimated, by noting the time taken to fill a ditch of two cubic metres capacity, at two barrels per minute. A specimen of this oil examined by the author was dark brown in colour when viewed in a thin film by transmitted light, exhibited but little fluorescence, and had a slight odour of not unpleasant character. Its specific gravity was 0.926, its flashing-point 310° F. (Abel test), and its viscosity at 70° about two and a half times that of rape oil. It solidified at 5° F. The existence of petroleum in Ecuador has been known for more than two centuries, being mentioned in Velasco's History of the Kingdom of Quito, published in 1700, which contains an account of the operations carried on for the production of pitch at Santa Elena. The petroleum fields of Santa Elena lie about 64 miles west-by-south of the port of Guayaquil. The principal surface indications occur at San Raimondo, on the coast; at Santa Paula, about 3 miles inland; at Achagian, 2 miles north- east of Santa Paula; and at a place midway between the villages of Santa Elena and San Raimondo. At the latter place, "gum "beds, or deposits of thickened petroleum, are numerous, and the beach is found to be saturated with oil when the tide is out. In places oil oozes from the outcrop of sandstone. At St. Paula, where sufficient oil is obtained for local use, about forty wells, varying in depth from 3 to 8 metres, have been excavated. They vary in diameter from about four metres at the surface to one at the bottom, and pass through shale, from which the oil trickles out, and is collected by skimming it off the water. It is carried in barrels, holding about 20 gallons, to the coast, on mules or donkeys. It is said to be of a very heavy character, with specific gravity from 0.97 to 0.985. A number of old dug wells also exist at Achagian, but these are no longer worked. Argentina. Consul Baker reported, in 1882, that the eastern slopes of the Sierras of the Andes, and the upper parts of Argentina, were said to be rich in petroleum. The oil of the province of Jujuy is black, and has no disagreeable. odour. An analysis by the Government chemist is stated to have given the following result:-Light oil, of a specific gravity 0-74, 5 per cent.; kerosene (specific gravity 0-814), 30 per cent.; lubricating oil, 52 per cent.; fixed carbon, 11 per cent.; gases, 2 per cent. The province of Salta has long been celebrated for its oil-springs and bituminous slates. One bore-hole is said to have yielded 300 barrels daily at a depth of 115 metres. At the close of the year 1889 there were said to be five producing wells near Mendoza, and between that time and 1893, when the number of wells had been increased to twelve, the output of petroleum in this district was reported to have been 1500 tons. The oil was used partly as fuel in the locomotives on the Argentine Great Western Railway, and partly as a 104 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. source of light in Mendoza. A specimen of the crude petroleum was found by the author to have a specific gravity of 0.935, a flashing-point of 178° F. (Abel test), and a setting-point of 32° F. Recent prospecting in the district has not been attended with very favourable results. On the Atlantic coast near Comodoro Rivadavia, Chubut Territory, petro- leum was discovered in 1903 in boring for water, and a considerable amount of prospecting has been carried out. The oil, which is of a heavy asphaltic character, is found at a depth of about 1800 feet some of the wells have flowed. Peru. The following account of the Peruvian petroleum deposits is mainly based upon information supplied to the author by the late Dr. H. W. C. Tweddle, by Mr. C. B. Rosenplaenter, and by other petroleum experts who have visited the country. The northern petroleum district may be said to extend about 250 miles north and south, between the town of Tumbez on the Gulf of Guayaquil and Point Aguja, and about 150 miles east and west, from the Pacific coast to the slopes of the Andes. The more recently developed southern district is in the departments of Cuzco and Puno, and its extent is not yet known. The northern district includes the three fields of Zorritos, Lobitos, and Negritos. A French company has been operating in the vicinity of Tumbez since 1897, and has drilled a number of wells, from which, in 1901, about 8000 barrels was obtained. In 1867 Mr. Prentice, a Pennsylvanian petroleum producer, visited Peru, and subsequently drilled wells at Zorritos. The first is said to have yielded, by pumping, 60 barrels of oil a day at a depth of 146 feet. The second well, which was 220 feet deep, was less productive, but Mr. Prentice was satisfied of the valuable character of the territory and took steps to obtain the necessary rights with a view to its development. In 1876 the second well was deepened to 500 feet, and is stated to have then spouted to a height of 70 feet above the top of the 6-inch casing. Mr. Prentice erected a refinery, but the outbreak of war prevented further operations. This property passed into the hands of the Faustino G. Piaggio Petroleum Company, who in 1901 had twenty producing wells, yielding about 75,000 barrels a year. The wells have a depth ranging from 600 to 850 feet, and are cased with 10-inch drive-pipe, 81-inch, 61-inch, and 41-inch casing. About one-third of the wells have not yielded oil. The wells have been drilled in a line along the coast for a distance of about 3 miles, and are situated so close to the shore that at high-tide the sea flows under the derrick floor. This position was determined by the proximity of the slopes of the Andes mountains, over which it was found difficult to move machinery. Efforts to overcome this obstacle have, however, been made, and a test-well was drilled about a mile further north, which is said to have yielded 60 barrels a day. The crude oil of Zorritos has been described by Mr. L. Weinstein (Chem- iker Zeitung, xvi, 195, 1892). The oil examined had a specific gravity of 0-810 to 0.840, and was rich in the more volatile hydrocarbons. It yielded no solid hydrocarbons when cooled to -30° C. Its elementary composition was found to be-carbon, 84.9 per cent.; hydrogen, 13.7 per cent.; oxygen, 1.4 per cent. The heat of combustion was 10,672 calories. The production of the Zorritos field in 1903 was about 50,000 barrels, and in 1910, 107,000 barrels. At La Cruz a well was drilled to a depth of over 1000 feet by the Peruvian Syndicate in 1894, but was unproductive, though at the Heath ravine, between Zorritos and La Cruz, the Heath Company had a well which yielded some oil at a depth of 830 feet. A sample of crude petroleum from the latter well, PERU. 105 examined by the author, had a dark brown colour, with but little fluorescence. It possessed an agreeable odour, and did not solidify at zero F. Its specific gravity at 60° F. was 0.859, and its flashing-point 38° F. (Abel test). CC The claims of the Mancora Syndicate were principally situated on the hacienda Mancora, which extends along the coast from the valley of the Pariñas River, forming the northern boundary of the hacienda La Mina Brea and Pariñas, to the Quebrada Secca (Siches), embracing the so-called ports of Cabo. Blanco and Puerta Mancora. Two wells were drilled in 1891-92 for this syndi- cate at Tucillal, 2 miles inland from Zorritos. The first was abandoned as un- productive when the drill was passing through "dark loam with broken shale. and slate "at a depth of 826 feet, although at 324 feet a very heavy vein of gas was struck, and at about 500 feet a yield of oil amounting to about 20 gallons a day was obtained. The second well was carried to a depth of 390 feet, when the breakdown of the boiler caused a stoppage of the work. The first in- dications of oil were met with in this well at a depth of between 72 feet and 124 feet, and a larger quantity between 345 feet and 375 feet. When drilling was suspended the well contained 75 feet of oil. A specimen of this oil examined by the author was of a very dark brown colour, and had no unpleasant odour. The specific gravity was 0.9140. At Siches, which lies in the centre of the hacienda Mancora, about 6 miles from Cabo Blanco, an excavation made in a "black slate, at the base of an oil-bearing sandstone of the district," quickly became filled with a pure green oil.” A specimen of the surface oil from Siches, examined by the author, was dark brown in colour by transmitted light, and fluorescent. Its odour was slight and not disagreeable; its specific gravity at 60° F. was 0.920, and its flashing-point (Abel test) was 122° F. It did not. solidify at zero F. At 70° F. its viscosity, measured by Redwood's viscometer, was 69.41 (rape oil at 60° F. =100). Between Zorritos and Negritos, both in importance and geographical position, is the Lobitos field, which has acquired its present standing within the last seven or eight years. The total production of the field increased from 162,000 barrels in 1906 to 129,195 barrels in 1909, followed by a slight decrease in 1910. The Lobitos Oil Fields, Limited, is a British company, formed in 1908 to acquire the properties of the Peruvian Petroleum Syndicate, Limited. The company's Lobitos property comprises an area of about 25 square miles, on which a large number of productive wells have been drilled. The company has also drilling rights over a further 4560 acres in the Punta Restin oil-field, about 13 miles north of Lobitos. The petroleum found in the hacienda La Mina Brea and Pariñas, which includes the Negritos field, was utilised by the Incas, probably for centuries, and in the time of Pizarro it was collected in trenches, and converted, by boiling it down, into a pitch of excellent quality, employed to line the porous earthen jars in which the Peruvians kept and transported their fermented liquors. At one time the Government is said to have derived a revenue of as much as $39,000 (Peruvian), or about £1000, per annum. for the right to collect the petroleum. The remains of these trenches are still to be seen. The development of the Negritos field is said to have been commenced by a Peruvian firm in Lima in 1874, and in the following year the management of the drilling operations was entrusted to Mr. E. Fowkes, who drilled three wells. The first produced, at a depth of 330 feet, 400 barrels daily, and continued to flow at this rate for seven months, when it became choked. The second well spouted when a depth of 60 feet had been reached, and at 330 feet produced 70 barrels a day. The third flowed freely at the same depth as the other two. 106 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. From one of these wells oil and water were still flowing in 1896, and gas was being emitted. In 1888 the hacienda La Mina Brea and Pariñas was acquired, together with certain exceptional rights, by Dr. H. W. C. Tweddle, from the Alguerra family, and the London and Pacific Petroleum Company, Limited, was formed. The area of the property is 600 square miles, divided into ten pertenencias of uniform size. Probably about one-fourth of the area may be regarded as oil territory. Although there was reason to believe that the richest formation would be found at La Mina Brea, drilling was commenced at Negritos, which is 6½ miles from Talara. Up to 1901, about sixty wells had been drilled, and few, if any, proved unproductive. The wells are distributed over a fan-shaped area, extending outwards from Negritos towards the interior of the country, and they are sufficiently near together to admit of a number being pumped by one engine, but not so close as to drain each other. The wells, which have an average depth of 500 to 600 feet, were only drilled to what was believed to be the top of the oil sand, and supplied about 1000 barrels a week. The cap of one of the wells was forced off by the pressure of the oil, and about 750 barrels of oil was ejected in ten hours. At the same time, at an adjoining well, the oil was forcing its way through the ground to a distance of 120 feet. The crude oil is of brown colour, with marked fluorescence, has an aromatic odour, and is free from water. Its specific gravity ranges from 0-834 to 0.848. Owing to the character of the " cover," the petroleum of Negritos has been better preserved than that of Zorritos, and contains a larger pro- portion of the more volatile hydrocarbons, the oil when taken from the wells frequently containing as much as 18 per cent. of benzine. On the other hand, the Negritos oil yields far less kerosene than the Zorritos oil. The pitch ob- tained by the evaporation or distillation of the Negritos petroleum is said to be quite tasteless and odourless. Peruvian oil appears usually to contain little or no paraffin. The production of the Negritos field in 1909 was 740,070 barrels, and in 1910, 773,025 barrels. ( The petroleum district of southern Peru has been developed since 1906, and though some oil has been obtained in the department of Cuzco, the princi- pal yield is from that of Puno, near Lake Titicaca, on the frontier with Bolivia. The Titicaca oil-field is near Pusi, province of Huancane, where the American Titicaca Oil Company obtained oil at a shallow depth in 1906. Prospecting has been actively carried on, and while the recorded production in 1907 was 15,000 barrels, the estimated output for 1910 was about 50,000 barrels. NEW ZEALAND. The existence of petroleum and natural gas in New Zealand has long been known, and has been the subject of many reports; notably those by Dr. J. M. Bell, late Government Geologist in the Dominion, and Mr. E. de C. Clarke. Mr. J. D. Henry's work on the Oil Fields of New Zealand, published in 1911, gives a full account of the localities in which petroleum occurs, and of the drilling operations which have been conducted. The principal indications occur at New Plymouth, on the west coast of the north island, and on the Sugar Loaves, islands off the coast of New Plymouth, about 200 yards south of the breakwater, known as the Taranaki district; on the opposite side of the same island, along a belt of country extending from Horoera Point, near the East Cape, where a film of oil is said to be sometimes observed on the sea, to the Okahuatin Block, which is about 30 miles west of Gisborne (Poverty Bay); and at Kotuku, near Lake Brunner, South Island. In November 1865 two companies were formed to work the Taranaki NEW ZEALAND. 107 CC deposits. The Taranaki Company drilled two wells, the first, "close to the main Sugar Loaf," to a depth of 300 feet; and the second, on the island off the north headland," to a depth of 145 feet. In these wells," a few oil-patches were passed through, but no appreciable quantity was obtained." The Alpha Company's well was situated a short distance from the north headland, and in this the most oil was obtained. In drilling this well a shaft was first sunk to a depth of 60 feet, and at a depth of 44 feet oil oozed from the sides. From the bottom of the shaft a bore-hole was carried to a depth of 180 feet, oil being obtained at 80 feet, and again at the extreme depth. The well was pumped regularly for two or three weeks, and yielded about 50 gallons of oil a week, together with a considerable quantity of water. When the pumping was dis- continued, gas issued from the bore-hole. In 1888 Mr. Henry A. Gordon explored the Taranaki district for the Mines Department of the New Zealand Government, and reported that the indications were numerous, both inland and along the shore. In his report it is stated that there are small quantities of petroleum, with numerous jets of carburetted hydrogen gas bubbling up here and there along the ocean beach on the north side of the breakwater, for a distance of about 300 yards. These can only be seen at low water, as the fore- shore is covered with a thick deposit of iron sand. Wherever the shore is clear of this sand, traces of oil can be seen on lifting the boulders, and also in sinking down in the soft volcanic deposit, the ground is saturated to some extent with oil. The harbour engineer informed me that in carrying on dredging opera- tions for the foundations of the breakwater, petroleum was found until the end of the breakwater was reached, and that it can always be seen on the surface of the sea between the Mikotahi and Moturoa Islands in fine weather." In 1890 the author examined, for the New Zealand Petroleum and Iron Syndicate, which had recently been formed, a sample of petroleum collected on the beach at New Plymouth. It was of dark brown colour in a thin stratum by transmitted light, exhibited the characteristic fluorescence, and had a slight odour of a not unpleasant character. Its specific gravity was 0-971, and its flashing-point 236° F. (close test). It was found to contain no appreciable quantity of solid hydrocarbons. Subsequently a well was drilled by this company, with Canadian plant, close to the beach at New Plymouth, and at a depth of 915 feet a yield of petroleum estimated at about 4 barrels a day was obtained. This oil, on being examined by the author, was found to be quite dissimilar from that obtained on the surface. It was of a chestnut-brown colour, and was free from any disagreeable odour. Its specific gravity was 0·840 at 60° F., its flashing-point was 62° F. (Abel test), and it contained so much paraffin (solid hydrocarbons) that it solidified at 60° F. The well appears. to have been drilled principally through dark sandy clay, in which petroleum occurred, and light-coloured sand, described by the New Zealand Geological Survey as trachytic. Part of a boulder of trachyte was also brought up from the bore-hole. A specimen of oil taken from this well by Mr. F. Brooks in 1893, and submitted by him to the New Zealand Geological Survey, gave, upon examination, results similar to those which the author had obtained, except that the flashing-point was higher, which was no doubt due to evaporation. Later drilling met with varying, but, on the whole, disappointing results, which were due in the first place to repeated mishaps. In 1906 interest was again aroused by the strike of a flow of oil at Moturoa, but no commercial pro- duction had been recorded down to 1909. The operations which had been carried on in the Poverty Bay district were described in a report by Mr. H. A. Gordon, Inspecting Engineer to the Under- Secretary of Mines, dated Wellington, 20th January 1888. The first workings 108 GENERAL HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. where oil was discovered were situated on the top of a flat range between the Waingaromia Creek and the Waiporoa River, about 1450 feet above sea level. Several excavations had been made in this locality, the whole of which were full of water, with a thick film of oil on the top, through which carburetted hydrogen was bubbling up. On one of these pools being ignited, the oil and gas burned for a considerable time. The surface soil in the vicinity of these pools is described as "intermixed in places with paraffin, which forms a con- sistency having the appearance of antifriction grease." Unsuccessful attempts had been made to put down a bore-hole in this locality, but gas appears to have been found under considerable pressure at a depth of 110 feet. Three com- panies have at various times been engaged in drilling operations in this district, and much money has been fruitlessly expended. The South Pacific Company was formed in 1874, but went into liquidation without having obtained any satisfactory result. A new company, formed by some of the original share- holders, then drilled nine wells, only one of which was carried to any consider- able depth. In this, oil was found at 1321 feet from the surface. Sandstone with gas and oil was met with at 470 feet, and again at 780, 1119, 1260, and 1307 feet. The Minerva Company, which had been recently formed, had one well in course of drilling, and at a depth of 221 feet had struck fine sandstone bands (corresponding with those found in the South Pacific Company's bore- hole at 470 feet), which gave off a large quantity of carburetted hydrogen gas. The Southern Cross Company's workings were situated on the northern and western side of the Waiapu River, about 45 miles in a northeasterly direction from the South Pacific Company's lands. This company was formed in January 1881, and drilled seven wells to depths ranging from 150 to 1820 feet. In all the wells a considerable quantity of gas was met with, and in the deepest, a little oil. In the deepest well kerosene shale was passed through at 36, 85, and 115 feet; gas was met with at 171 feet; sandstone with gas and a little oil at 1006 and 1260 feet. Prospecting is still being carried on in the Poverty Bay district, and further shows of oil have been met with in the borings. In Wairarapa North County oil shows were reported by Prof. Park in 1888, but no drilling has yet been carried out. The Kotuku oil district was first discovered in 1867, though it was not generally known till 1900, since which time a considerable amount of prospect- ing has been carried out. Oil has been truck, and further drilling operations are now being conducted. AUSTRALIA. But little is known in respect of the occurrence of petroleum in Australia. Petroleum exudes from the ground near the mouths of the Warren and Donnelly rivers, and inland on the Fly brook and Lake Jasper, West Australia. At Albert Flat, in the Coorong district, South Australia, deposits of an elateritic nature have been known for more than half a century, but it is stated by botanical experts that this "elastic bitumen," "mineral gamboge," or "coor- ongite " is in truth a form of lichen. Oil oozes from the ground along the Coorong lagoon, though a boring in Albert Flat (1890) reached the Paleozoic rocks under 880 feet of Miocene, and 42 feet of recent marine deposits, without encountering any trace of oil or gas. Some inland borings near Meningie, where the Murray enters Albert Lake, have met with traces of petroleum. Indications of oil are also reported to have been met with at York Town, at the extreme end of Yorke's Peninsula, between Gulfs Spenser and St. Vincent, and AFRICA. 109 it is said that gas has been found at a depth of about 2000 feet, after boring through sandstone and conglomerate, at Narrabeen, near Sydney, New South Wales. The Australian shale deposits are referred to in the section dealing with the shale-oil industry. AFRICA. In the Gold Coast Colony, large quantities of solid bitumen, and deep holes filled with petroleum, are said to exist within a mile or two of the sea, in the Apollonia district. The coarse sand is in places saturated with oil, which is easily collected by making a shallow excavation. In a series of four wells drilled at Takinta, lying between Ajubanso and Ehboaso, and extending from the coast to the Tano River, three oil-horizons, all yielding a heavy description of petroleum, were encountered at depths ranging from 115 to 223 feet. Well No. 2 gave 5 barrels a day at 115 feet. A specimen of the surface-oil examined in the author's laboratory was of dark brown colour, and was almost free from smell. It had a specific gravity of 0.979, and a flashing-point of 370° F. (close test). Drilling operations were conducted near Half Assinie in 1909, and a flow of oil was said to have been obtained at a depth of 60 feet. Since 1905 drilling operations have been conducted in Southern Nigeria, in an area containing many surface indications of petroleum. In accordance with the policy recently decided upon by the Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, Limited, the drilling of three deep-test wells is now being carried out. In one of these a good show of light oil was met with at a depth of 1643 feet. The oil has been analysed by the author with the following results: The specific gravity of the sample was 0.872 at 60° F., whilst its flashing- point was 115° F. (close test), which, coupled with the specific gravity, demonstrated the presence of the moderately volatile hydrocarbons of normal crude petroleum, and indicated that the oil had been obtained from a petro- liferous formation, in which it had been to a large extent protected from loss by fractional evaporation. The crude oil contained 0.35 per cent. of sulphur. From the more volatile fractions 26-8 per cent. by volume of the crude oil of excellent kerosene," water-white" in grade, of specific gravity 0-790 at 60° F., and flash-point (Abel test) 94° F., was obtained by re-distillation on the Engler principle up to 300° C. The sample may be described as a crude petroleum of good quality of paraffin base, yielding the usual commercial products, with the exception of the most volatile, and being exceptionally rich in solid hydrocarbons (paraffin). Probably in practical working such crude oil would yield from 5 per cent. to 7 per cent. of paraffin (according to melting-point). In South Africa the numerous indications of oil in the Orange River and Cape Colonies have led to some prospecting with the drill, and a well near Barkly East, in the latter State, met with indications of oil and gas. In 1908 some exploratory drilling was carried out in the petroliferous region of Madagascar, on concessions granted in the Sakalava valley, and in- dications of oil were met with. SECTION II. THE GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM, NATURAL GAS, AND OTHER FORMS OF BITUMEN. In the solid, liquid, and gaseous forms, bitumen is one of the most widely- distributed of substances. It is found in greater or less quantity in almost every part of the globe, and its geological limits include the whole range of strata, from the Laurentian rocks to the most recent members of the Quaternary period. The various forms of natural hydrocarbons have received many names, of which the most important are the following:-natural gas, petroleum, rock oil, mineral oil, maltha, asphalt, mineral pitch, and ozokerite. Local names have also been given to varieties of asphalt or solid bitumens, and these will be referred to in describing the occurrence of the substances. Deposits of oil-shale will also be mentioned in this section. As early as 1822 Knox detected the presence of "bitumen bitumen" in a large and varied series of rocks and minerals, including greenstone from Newry and Carlingford, basalt from the Giant's Causeway and Disco Island, hornblende from Schneeberg (Saxony), augite from Arendal, and felspar from Killiney and Aberdeen. Among the few rocks in which he failed to discover this substance, Carrara marble deserves particular mention, but this only because extreme metamorphism has locally converted a once bituminous rock into pure car- bonate of lime. Some graphitic granite may once have been clayey oil-sand. Silvestri found a crystallisable paraffin in a basaltic lava at Paterno, near Mount Etna, and in the lava from that mountain. The occurrence of bitumens has been noticed in the melaphyre of Scotland, of Bohemia, of Oberstein in the Palatinate, the granite of Cornwall and Scandinavia, the traps of Connecticut, the greenstone-trachyte of Hungary, the Laurentian gneiss of Sweden, and many other of the more ancient and metamorphic rocks. Oil and gas are also distributed almost universally through unaltered, and but little-altered, strata of all ages, though their presence is less marked in the oldest rocks, which have been more disturbed and metamorphosed, and in the most recent superficial deposits, which are generally irregular and discontinuous. Natural Gas.—The strata yielding oil and gas are geologically identical, the gas usually accumulating in the domes of the arches in the strata, or in other elevated parts of the deposits. Thus in the Trenton Limestone the gas is found in the upper portions, sometimes at a depth of 15 or 20 feet, and some- times at three times that depth. The wells are thus supplied by a large super- ficial area rather than by a great depth of rock. In the almost horizontal deposits of Lima, Ohio, a well, having its bearing stratum even as little as 5 or 6 feet above that of neighbouring wells, is found to yield gas rather than oil. The most productive wells of the United States have obtained their gas from Palæozoic rocks, through a vertical range of many thousands of feet, 110 OIL AND GAS RESERVOIR-ROCKS. 111 from the Carboniferous to the lowest Silurian, whilst in Russia it occurs in the Tertiary series. It is worthy of note that none of the great gas wells of Pennsyl- vania have been struck until the oil-field in which they are found has been at least partly developed, the disturbance of the equilibrium by such develop- ment and by torpedoing giving rise, it has been suggested, to conditions which allow more perfect communication between several rich portions of the strata struck by the drill. Although gas is the invariable accompaniment of oil where conditions favour its accumulation, the latter is frequently found almost unaccompanied by it, on account of its collection in the higher portions of the strata, as already stated, or of its escape through imperfection of the covering layers. Mr. Topley thus summarises the geological conditions under which petroleum and natural gas occur :-(1) "They occur in rocks of all geological ages, from Silurian upwards. The most productive areas are Paleozoic in North America, Miocene in the Caucasus." (2) " There is no relation to volcanic action." (3) The most productive areas for oil in great quantity are where the strata are comparatively undisturbed. Oil, but in less abundance, frequently occurs when the strata are highly disturbed and contorted; but gas is rarely so found." (4) · The main requisites for a productive oil- or gas-field, are a porous reservoir (sandstone or limestone) and an impervious cover." (5) Both in comparatively ** undisturbed, and in highly disturbed areas, an anticlinal structure often favours the accumulation of oil and gas in the domes of the arches." (6) “ Brine is an almost universal accompaniment of oil and gas." ( t Oil and Gas Reservoir-Rocks.-Most of the porous oil and gas rocks, parti- cularly the sandstones and conglomerates, may be regarded as merely reservoirs whose contents have been generated from the underlying strata, frequently fossiliferous and highly compressed shales, or from some other source; but in the case of many others, more especially certain limestones, the oil and gas have usually been regarded as indigenous to the containing strata. This belief as to the origin of the oil in many of the strata in which it is now found is almost universally accepted. From observations made near Buffalo and at Chicago, T. Sterry Hunt concludes that the oil is indigenous to the Niagara, Corniferous, and Trenton Limestones. Lesley asserts the same as regards the sandstones and conglomerates of Kentucky; and Orton considers that this is the case with the oil of Northwestern Ohio. Similar observations are made as regards the asphalt of Trinidad (Wall), the oil of Shropshire in England (Höfer), that of Upper and Lower Elsass (Andreae), the bitumen of Seyssel (Davies), the asphalt of Limmer (Credner), the bitumen of the Lias clay and of the Wealden formation in Northern Germany (Eck), and the oil of the Punjab (Medlicott) and of Khátan in Baluchistan (Townsend). In fact, for every field of which the detailed composition and structure is known, it may be asserted that the oil has originated within, or in immediate proximity to, the strata whence it flows, the yield varying chiefly with the porosity of the rock, the limpidity of the fluid, and the pressure under which it exists. The admixture of salt water with the oil in the more compact rocks seems to facilitate the flow of the more viscous varieties. The formation of large deposits of oil depends as much upon the presence of suitable strata to receive and retain it as upon an adequate source of supply. So common is the occurrence of petroleum in stratified rocks, that wherever a close-grained shale occurs, there is almost always at least a small accumulation. of oil directly underneath it. The same thing occurs when an impervious. stratum of any other composition than shale occurs in the series" (Orton). The principal deposits which possess the necessary porosity for the free 112 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. discharge, if not for the original accumulation of the oil, are sandstones, con- glomerates, and limestones. Shaly sandstones and slaty shales also serve as reservoir-rocks in a less degree. În limestones, a natural porosity, as in the case of the crinoidal or coarsely crystalline varieties, or a certain amount of change resulting in the formation of interspaces capable of receiving the oil, appears to be necessary for the formation of a true reservoir-rock." Such change is usually dolomitic, and consists in the conversion of the calcium carbonate forming the limestone, into the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium, known as " dolomite," which occupies less space than the unaltered limestone. It is, therefore, characterised by the production of such numerous spaces between the dolomite crystals that the rock becomes capable of retaining a large volume of oil. This dolomitic change appears to be incapable of occurring, save in the purer limestones. The Trenton Limestone, for instance, is thus modified only where almost free from silica, the changed parts showing about 54 per cent. of calcium carbonate, and 44 per cent. of magnesium carbonate. The major portions of the Trenton Limestone are too impure to permit of the change, and are found destitute of oil or gas. Even in rich oil-fields the dolomite has only been formed in a small propor- tion of the stratum. When followed northward in Ohio and Indiana, the Tren- ton Limestone is found to have become dolomitic through a small thickness only of its upper beds. The changed and unaltered portions occur at short intervals, but only the former contain the oil and gas. The change usually affects from 10 to 50, and, in some cases, 100 feet of the stratum, and has occurred along a line passing into Indiana through the principal oil- and gas-fields of Ohio. In addition to possessing a porous structure, the reservoir-rock must be entirely covered by an impervious layer, the commonest and most perfect cover being a fine-grained shale, whose imperviousness and freedom from fracture. exert the most important influence on the capability of the reservoir-rock to retain its liquid or gaseous contents. Continuity of the impervious cover is essential, and the broken nature of the deposits of central and eastern Pennsyl- vania readily accounts for the absence of oil and gas in those districts. 66 In oil-bearing territory the occurrence of a porous rock beneath such a cover usually results in the formation of an oil-field. Almost every important mass of shale in the Ohio series has been proved to be somewhere the cover of accumu- lated petroleum, as, for example, the Cuyahoga and Berea shales covering the Berea grit, the Ohio shale covering the Corniferous limestone, the Niagara shale covering the Clinton group, and, finally, the Utica shale covering the Trenton limestone (Orton). "" If not charged with oil, porous beds are found to contain water, which may be fresh when near the surface, but is salt and often sulphurous at lower depths. As the oil is removed from a stratum, it becomes replaced by water. In the case of gas wells, however, the flooding by water does not invariably occur, many wells having been pumped for years to such an extent that a vacuum of as much as 12 lbs. per square inch is registered without any appearance of water. In gently-dipping strata of sufficient inclination, such as the Bradford sand, the gas, oil, and water form distinct horizons, the gas being uppermost and the water lowest. As regards the capacity of the various oil strata to serve as an oil reservoir, experiments performed on the rock itself have shown that an oil-bearing pebble rock may contain one-tenth, or even one-eighth, of its bulk of oil, while the pores of the rock would permit of the ready removal of the largest supplies ever obtained, without the necessity for the channels which were at one time sup- OIL AND GAS RESERVOIR-ROCKS. 113 (6 posed to exist. The dolomitised portions of the Trenton Limestone have been found to possess about the same capacity. Dr. Orton has pointed out that if a stratum a few hundred feet in thickness carries but one-tenth per cent. of petroleum, every square mile of such territory would contain more oil than has ever been removed from a like area of the most productive field; and taking Dr. Sterry Hunt's calculation of the oil contents of the petroliferous dolomite of Chicago as a basis, he has determined the probable contents of the almost. universally petroliferous Waterlime stratum of Ohio. "Estimating its petroleum content at one-tenth of one per cent. and the thickness of the stratum at 500 feet, both of which figures are probably within the limits, we find the petroleum contained in it to be more than 2,500,000 barrels to the square mile. The total production of the great oil-field of Pennsylvania and New York to January 1885 is 26,000,000 barrels. It would require only three ordinary townships, or a little more than 100 square miles, to duplicate this enormous stock from the Waterlime alone. The oil-sand of the region of Baku is estimated to contain about one-fifth of its volume of oil. These estimates would account for a yield far exceeding the amount that has actually been obtained, although, as pointed out by Ashburner, small areas of the best fields of Pennsylvania have yielded as much as 900,000 barrels per square mile. As regards the capacity of gas strata, Mr. Carll has made the following interesting calculations :- Although large quantities of gas had been allowed to go to waste in the Murraysville field, comparatively little had been piped from it prior to 1st. November 1884. If we take this date for the commencement of the general pipe- line deliveries, the field has now (1st January 1889) entered upon the fifth year of its exhaustion. It is said by those who are qualified to judge of the matter, that an average of at least 300,000,000 cubic feet of gas per day has been drawn from the pool during the last four years. To get some conception of the enormous storage capacity of a rock capable of making such an output, let us look at the following simple calculations and comparisons :- A standard oil barrel of 42 gallons [American] contains (42 × 231) 9702 cubic inches, or 5.6146 cubic feet. Under a rock pressure of 900 pounds or 60 atmospheres to the square inch, every cubic foot of storage room in a gas sand should contain 60 cubic feet of gas. Hence a rock chamber capable of holding a barrel of oil would be able to hold sixty times that amount of gas or (5.6146×60) 336·8760 cubic feet; consequently, a gas well flowing 3,368,760 cubic feet of gas per day would, theoretically, relieve as large a space in the rock-reservoir as an oil well flowing 10,000 barrels per day, and a gas well of 33,687,600 cubic feet (some wells have been estimated as high as that) would equal an oil well of 100,000 barrels. เ Multiplying the daily average by the number of days in four years, we have (1460 300,000,000) 438,000,000,000 cubic feet as the total output of gas. Reduced under 60 atmospheres, this would occupy a storage space of 7,300,000,000 cubic feet, a chamber which would contain 1,300,181,669 barrels of oil, almost four times as much as has been produced in the whole oil regions of Pennsylvania and New York since the discovery of oil in 1859. A reservoir capable of holding this enormous quantity of fluid would require to be a little over 13 miles long, 2 miles wide, and 10 feet deep.` Where the oil and gas strata are comparatively undisturbed, as in the principal districts of the United States, it usually happens that each well draws. its supply from a considerable area; indeed, so much is this the case that the owners of wells are usually compelled to continue to raise the oil without regard to the conditions of the market, to prevent its being obtained by the neighbour- VOL. I. S 114 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. ing leaseholders. In Northwestern Ohio, for instance, wells separated by intervals of over half a mile have been found to affect each other, and a single well has been known to draw the gas from an area of several square miles. On the other hand, certain rich wells, notably the "Manifold " well, in the Washington field, which appeared to be totally unaffected by its numerous neighbours, and the great Hutson gas-well, struck early in 1890 in the Allen. Township of Hancock Co., Ohio, have been wholly or comparatively free from such interference. The wells of Baku, which derive their oil from an extremely loose and friable sandstone, are, to a great extent, independent of each other, so that less. necessity for immediately raising the oil to the surface exists in that district, and a considerable number of very productive wells, belonging to the firm of Nobel and others, have been kept capped until the oil was required for The great Droojba well, before described, showed no appreciable action. on other wells in its vicinity while it was flowing; although, when it was closed, a great disturbance occurred at Nobel's No. 14 well. use. At Bibi-Eibat, near the village of Strikhoff, four wells have been producing. within a few yards of each other and all from different depths. In the same district a well was sunk within a few yards of an old well, 70 feet in depth, which had furnished oil for centuries. The new prospectors, however, failed to obtain any oil until they reached a depth of 420 feet. From one of his wells at Surakhani, Mirzoeff obtained no oil until a depth of 700 feet had been penetrated, although other wells in close proximity were yielding at 100 feet. There is, however, an evident connection between many of the wells of Baku. Three wells, for instance, belonging to Messrs. Awakoff, Palashkowski, and Nobel were found to invariably spout periodically at about the same time. Direct communication has also been found to exist between the Ararat and Sun wells in Group V of the Balakhany plateau. The practical independence of the Baku wells, and the enormous yield of many of them, have led to a widely-spread opinion that this oil-field is divided into a number of oil-containing cavities, or, as they were described by Mr. Marvin, "subterranean lakes," yielding only to those wells which happened to directly pierce them. They may, however, be attributed with greater reason to original irregularities of deposition, lenticular sand-masses being enclosed in impervious shales, whilst subsequent deforming pressures and fractures have enormously increased the complexity of the structure, resulting in the sub- division of the field into a number of almost independent sections. This view is supported by the records which have been kept by the Nobel firm of the appearance and geological character of the strata pierced by their wells. The hypothesis that cavities exist is quite gratuitous, as the natural porosity of the strata is sufficient, as already noted, to account for a far greater yield than is practically obtained. The existence of fissures or cavities in such matter and under strong compression is inconceivable. Professor Lesley suggested that the gas areas, which are evidently small, and are irregularly scattered and hemmed in by water and oil areas, shift their position slightly, partly on account of the pressure of the oil and water and partly from seismic changes. He considers that this movement tends towards the producing wells, and will become increasingly rapid as the gas is removed. Structural Conditions affecting the Accumulation of Oil and Gas.-The strata from which the main oil and gas supplies have been obtained are usually unbroken and nearly horizontal, and but little disturbed. per Dr. Ashburner has found a maximum dip in the Bradford region of 69 feet mile for the short distance of 2 miles; while Mr. Carll has shown that the ANTICLINAL AND TERRACE-STRUCTURE. 115 dip of the oil-sands in the Venango belt, and the southern end of the Butler belt, rarely exceeds 34 feet per mile. A dip of even 75 feet per mile is extremely rare, even for short distances The extensive oil-fields of Ohio and Indiana have a dip of only 1 to 10 feet per mile, those of Ohio dipping towards the north and northeast, and those of Indiana towards the northwest. Whole areas of 1000 square miles of oil land in Ohio have a dip of less than 100 feet. At Lima the dip is almost nil. In Baku the dip of the oil strata is said to range from 20° to 40°. These angles, although slight, exert the most powerful influence on the accumulation of oil and gas, as is particularly exemplified in the anticlinal or terrace-structure of the principal oil districts of the world. Owing to the con- tractile movement of the earth, the outer crust has become creased into folds which extend for long distances and with great regularity. This creasing action has in some cases been sufficiently marked to give rise to mountain chains, but usually results in the formation of broad, low curves, whose arches are known as anticlinals or anticlines, and whose troughs are termed synclinals or synclines. This anticlinal structure has been found markedly to influence the power of strata to accumulate oil and gas, and, given the requisite porosity and cover, forms a most important factor in their occurrence. The anticlines are them- selves often crossed by subsidiary anticlines, which again largely influence the distribution of the oil and gas. Owing to difference of density, the oil and water present in the strata separate into two layers, the upper consisting of oil, which fills the anticlines, while the water remains in the synclines. Any gas which may be present rises to the summits of the anticlines. When the slow folding of the strata has been effected chiefly along certain lines of weakness, with little flexure of the intervening areas, a modified or " arrested" anticlinal structure, known as a terrace," has resulted. The terraces may thus be regarded as flat and extended anticlines. ¨ The terrace-structure was first observed by Mr. Minshall (chap. vi. of Dr. Orton's Rep. Geol. Surv. Ohio, vol. vi, 1888) in the Macksburg field of southern Ohio, where the terrace is almost horizontal, and is bounded on the rise by gas, and on the descent by brine. According to Dr. Orton the terrace structure is a "frequent if not a universal element in oil production." Even in Pennsyl- vania and New York, more especially in the Bradford field, he considers that the oil is gathered in terrace-like expansions of the reservoir rock. In the Findlay (Ohio) field, the gas and oil are found in two terraces, separated by a monocline for an interval of about 150 feet. The upper terrace gives dry gas, and the lower yields oil and water. The anticlinal structure of productive oil-wells was noticed at an early period, the "oil-break" of Burning Springs, West Virginia, whose principal wells were confined to the White Oak anticlinal, attracting particular attention. Mr. Minshall also showed that the fact of a number of wells sunk along the anticlines being unproductive, could be explained by the occurrence of subsidiary undulations along the anticlines. The productive wells were those which struck the arches of these undulations, while those which were drilled in the troughs were dry. As early as 1863 Dr. Sterry Hunt pointed out that the petroleum of western Ontario is derived from a low, broad anticline running nearly east and west. Professor I. C. White states, as the result of an extensive inquiry concerning the great gas-wells which had been struck in western Pennsylvania and West Virginia, that “ every one of them was situated either directly on or near the crown of an anticlinal axis, while wells that had been bored in the synclines on either side furnished little or no gas, but in many cases large quantities of salt water. Further observations showed that the gas-wells were confined to a 116 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. narrow belt, only a quarter to one mile wide, along the crests of the anticlinal folds. These facts seemed to connect gas territory unmistakably with the disturbance in the rocks caused by their upheaval into arches; but the crucial test was yet to be made in the location of good gas territory on this theory. During the last two years I have submitted it to all manner of tests, both in locating and condemning gas territory, and the general result has been to confirm the anticlinal theory beyond a reasonable doubt." After pointing out that, though all great gas-wells are located on the anticlinal axes, such axes do not always provide great wells, he formulates the limitations to the theory as follows:- (C (a) The arch in the rocks must be one of considerable magnitude. (b) A coarse or porous sandstone of considerable thickness, or, if a fine-grained rock, one that would have extensive fissures, and thus in either case be rendered capable of acting as a reservoir for the gas, must underlie the surface at a depth of several hundred feet (500 to 2500 feet). (c) Probably very few, or none, of the grand arches along mountain ranges will be found holding gas in large quantity, since in such cases the disturbance of the stratification has been so profound that all the natural gas generated in the past would long ago have escaped into the air through fissures that traverse all the beds. Another limitation might be added, which would confine the area where great gas flows may be obtained to those underlaid by a considerable thickness of bituminous shale.' Where the terrace-structure prevails, as is particularly the case in north- western Ohio and central Indiana, the oil and gas are naturally found over large areas, though a slight local elevation usually gives rise to a considerable accumulation, as is notably exemplified in the case of some of the wells at Lima, where the general dip of the strata is practically negligible. In the districts traversed by anticlines, however, the yielding portions of the strata are mainly confined to the anticlines, the gas accumulating on the summit of the curves. In western Pennsylvania these gas areas are seldom more than a mile or two wide and a few miles in length. Dr. Ashburner has pointed out that though many of the largest gas-wells have been found along anticlinal axes, the exceptions, including many wells which have produced gas along the synclines, are numerous and important. It may be pointed out, how- ever, that a synclinal between two anticlinals is equivalent to a continuous arch, in that its contents of oil and gas are equally sealed against the intrusion of water. As regards the Eastern hemisphere, the anticlinal theory is also found to apply everywhere, evidence having particularly been collected in the case of the Caucasian and Carpathian fields, and of those of India, Persia, and Algiers. Abich has shown that it applies to the Apscheron peninsula; and Sjögren believes that the oil-producing districts visited by him at Neftjanaja and Buya-Dagh, in the Transcaspian region, both lie on anticlinals. Zincken has found that Khokand, in Russian Turkestan, yields its oil along anticlinal axes. The Carpathian deposits have also been shown to possess a complex anticlinal structure, in which oil is found at the tops of the folds, as at Boryslaw, Bobrka, and Ropienka, rather than at the lower parts. Bruno Walter has shown the application of the theory to the deposits of Bukowina; and Paul and Olszewski have found it to apply to those of Rumania. Its application to the deposits of Khátan has been shown by Townsend, and Lyman remarks that it applies to many of the oil-fields of Japan. Oil Lines. In the History of Human Error an extensive chapter is requisite in connection with petroleum. OIL IN FISSURES AND POCKETS. 117 Various inconsistent and incompatible hypotheses as to the origin of the several hydrocarbons will be dealt with in another section established prin- ciples (and, antithetically, exploded fallacies) relating to modes of occurrence may be appropriately dealt with at this point. There is a prevalent tendency amongst minds of a certain calibre to gauge the value of hypotheses by their magnitude. By such, preference is at once accorded to views that embrace all the universe (except the relevant facts). In other words, extremes are more congenial than any compromise that involves the mental exertion of weighing evidence in each particular case presented. Hence arises the favour with which have met the wildest assertions as to under- ground “rivers or "lakes" of oil, the allegations of close resemblance, gen- erally in certain adventitious and wholly irrelevant details, between areas that have no essential points in common, e.g. the presence of similar superficial detritus, inducing kindred vegetation, etc. In many cases the most elementary acquaintance with geology is palpably wanting, and technical phraseology most ludicrously misapplied: geological structure and orographic form are confounded, anticlinal valleys referred to as basins or troughs, and synclinal ridges as uplifts. The "oil-belt" hypothesis, originating with Mr. C. D. Angell in 1867, was based on a very limited range of data, and was only approximately true even for the Appalachian oil-field. Its truth lay in the geological axiom that the same composition (i.e. that of oil-bearing sandstone) might be expected at the same horizon for a considerable distance. Its value lay in the comparative regularity of strike in the Appalachian range, so that the productive horizons reached attainable positions along approximately parallel lines. The error lay in assum- ing, contrary to all observation of structural detail, that such lines were rigidly straight, instead of being somewhat sinuous, and in the purely gratuitous supposition that all the world had, in its secular contraction, undergone flexures parallel to those of Pennsylvania. This superstitious belief in the productive- ness of such fields only as, irrespective of their original composition, have suffered subsequent deformation by compression along lines at 45° to the meridian, has been extended to deposits of vastly more recent date, including some of which the prevalent strike is at right angles to that of the Appalachian field. Even there, this cult of 45° has led to location of wells by compass (with or without regard to magnetic deviation), in complete disregard of the local structure. Whilst every developed oil-field has a more or less clearly defined margin, outside of which the productive horizon has either proved inaccessible or of inadequate yield, and whilst, for areas not minutely examined, the general strike of the surrounding region may be taken as approximately that of the fields in question, it cannot be too emphatically declared that the location of wells should in all cases depend upon local structural conditions, and not upon any theoretical considerations of those conditions even at a short distance. The accurate delineation of the axes of flexure shows in most fields constant bifurcations, inosculations, and sinuosities, the ignoring of which results in disappointment, and often in abandonment of areas which have not been tested along the lines indicated by local details of structure. Oil in Fissures and Pockets. Some writers have laid considerable stress on the occurrence of petroleum in fissures and other cavities, deducing therefrom its derivation from deeper-seated sources, as a general law. It may, however, be doubted if such fissures and caves exist for any lengthened period under normal conditions. At any considerable depth below the surface, the rocks are everywhere under great compression, incompatible with the existence of 118 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. any such spaces, except as eroded through rigid rock by the passage of water, or temporarily produced by differential movement along irregular lines of fracture. In the latter case, such cavities are generally soon filled up, either with detritus from the sides, the inequalities of which are reduced by crushing, or with mineral matter from circulating fluids. Even close to the surface, rock in cer- tain positions is often known to expand laterally, when set free by natural or artificial removal of a portion of the mass. It is just conceivable that in some rare cases of flexured strata, parts may be in a state of tension, and that when the equilibrium maintained by the weight of superincumbent rock is disturbed by denudation, relief from the strain may be effected by the opening of fissures from the surface, but in such instances readjustment will generally consist in speedy closure of the crevices. The records of earthquakes in which men have been caught waist-deep in fissures opening under their feet, or thrown out living by a second shock, illustrate the transitory nature of such openings. Where such crevices penetrate petroliferous rocks, they may, of course, be partly filled with oil before the closing action is far advanced, and in impervious beds the oil may be able to remain in its new position under the restored pressure. The pockets in the Hamilton Shales, which furnished the earlier supplies of the Ontario fields, were doubtless filled from the subjacent Corniferous Limestone during the existence of temporary openings of the nature indicated, but borings through this to the deeper-seated Silurian limestones have not resulted in find- ing any larger supplies, and have thus effectually demonstrated the absence of connecting passages between the Corniferous and the lower beds. The structure of this region, looked at broadly, is a synclinal trough, the productive areas being subordinate anticlinals and domes, in which the oil has been concentrated, water occupying the surrounding depressions, and preventing its escape. It has been gravely suggested that such synclinal curves must tend to open in fissures downwards, the lower beds being in a state of tension, and that the presence of oil under these conditions" proves " its derivation from yet deeper- seated strata. Study of exactly similar flexures on reduced scale in strongly- contorted rocks affords no support to this gratuitous assumption. The com- pact seams in such cases are sometimes broken into discontinuous masses, between which the softer beds are crushed, but the whole evidences intense compression, the separate blocks having been thrust apart only by the flow of the more mobile strata. Geo-synclinals are not precisely analogous to the sag- ging of a ceiling when the lath-nails lose hold on the joists, and the plaster develops cracks opening downwards. On the other hand, when, in a mass of strata under compression, which has determined a line of minimum resistance by the formation of an incipient anticlinal, continuance of the strain accen- tuates the flexure, the removal, by denudation, of the superincumbent weight at any point of the line, or (as is more commonly the case) along the course of the fold, will allow of the more rapid rise and temporary expansion of the upper- most beds so relieved, with the production of more or less short-lived fissures, which may penetrate to petroliferous deposits previously without access to the surface. Hence we find that exudations of oil almost invariably occur in valleys. and on anticlinal axes, and that by far the greater number exist in the con- junction of these conditions. But these trivial oozings from shallow and tem- porary crevices demonstrate nothing in favour of the original charging of porous. rocks with petroleum obtained through hypothetical fissures from visionary crucibles in the plutonic regions. The Association of Salt with Petroleum. The peculiar relations between salt and petroleum and natural gas were noticed at an early date. The petro- leum industry of the United States originated in the drilling of wells for brine, ASSOCIATION OF SALT WITH PETROLEUM. 119 and the observation that gas and oil were usually found with it; and through- out the globe the association of gas and petroleum with salt, either in solution or in the solid state, is almost universal. The occurrence of salt in the oil districts of America, Russia, Galicia, and India is too well known to need remark; while in Japan and China it is equally noticeable, many of the salt-workings of the latter country having been lighted with natural gas from time immemorial. The salt mines of Szalino in Hungary are similarly illuminated. An early article by Dr. S. P. Hildreth on the saliferous rock in the valley of the Ohio, now known as the Pottsville Conglomerate, is of interest in this con- nection : "All salt wells afford more or less of this interesting gas-an agent intimately concerned in the free rise of the water, and universally present where salt water is found. Indeed, so strong is the evidence afforded by the rising of this gas to the surface, of the existence of the salt rock below, that many wells are sunk on this evidence alone. It is, without doubt, a product of the saliferous formation, as it rises in many wells without any appearance of petroleum. . . . In many wells salt water and inflammable gas rise in company, with a steady flow. In others the gas rises at intervals of ten or twelve hours, or perhaps as many days, in vast quantity, and with overwhelming force, throwing the water from the well to a height of 50 or 100 feet in the air. A well on the Muskingum, 10 miles above McConnelsville, at 600 feet in depth, afforded such an immense quantity of gas, and in such a constant stream, that, while they were digging, it several times took fire from the friction of the iron on the poles against the sides of the well, or from the scintillations from the auger, driving the workmen away and communicating the flame to the shed which covered the works." . The district of Baku was formerly highly esteemed for its rock-salt, and the Miocene oil-fields of Galicia and Rumania include valuable salt deposits. On the other hand, extensive masses of salt often exist without the appearance of oil or gas in commercially noticeable quantity, as is particularly the case with the rich beds of England and Salzburg. The earlier attempts of chemists to explain the origin of petroleum frequently included the consideration of salt as a factor in the process, but modern theories usually ignore it, the brine which is present in most fields being regarded as merely the normal state of water traversing deep-lying strata, whilst the absence of salt from porous beds of marine origin is a natural result of the continual lixiviation by percolating rain- water. Petroleum can only occur in undiminished quantity where the structure precludes its escape or replacement by water, practically the same state of protection as is essential to the existence of masses of rock-salt or of concen- trated brine. At the same time, the frequent connection of petroleum, salt, and dolomitised rock, suggests some obscure chemical reaction as essential to the formation of the oil from its parent organic matter, involving the presence of magnesian salts, such as concentrated sea-water would furnish. Pressure in Wells.-The oil and gas frequently issue from the wells at great pressure, more especially when first liberated. This pressure is sometimes so great that, when the oil stratum is reached, the boring tools are expelled from the bore-hole, and the oil escapes in a fountain rising high above the derrick, and frequently resisting all attempts to control its flow. Such "spouting wells or fountains" of oil have been particularly frequent in Russia, and have often resulted in great waste, and even in ruin to the owners of the well, as described in the previous section (p. 7). In the gas-wells of the United States the gas-pressure has in many cases been very carefully measured. It may be ascertained either by placing a 120 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. pressure-gauge in the freely-escaping gas as it issues from the casing, in which case the pressure is described as" open pressure," or by measuring the actual pressure in the closed well, when it is termed the "closed pressure." The latter method alone, which measures the true rock-pressure, yields data which assist researches into the conditions under which the oil and gas are contained in the earth. The strongest pressures occur in the deepest wells. The closed pressure in the Trenton Limestone in Ohio and Indiana is about 200-300 lbs. per square inch, although a much higher pressure has been registered in many wells, notably the Loomis & Nyman well at Tiffin, which showed over 600 lbs., and the Pioneer well at Findlay, which yielded its gas at 450 lbs. closed pressure. The gas-wells of Pennsylvania indicate about double the pressure of those drilled in the Trenton Limestone, 600-800 lbs. not being unusual, and even 1000 lbs. having been recorded. Cause of the Pressure. Three theories have been propounded as to the cause of this pressure: 1. That it results from the weight of the overlying strata. 2. That it is due to water pressure, as in artesian wells, the percolating water which enters the stratum at its outcrop forming the head." t 3. That it is caused by the gradually accumulating gas having had no opportunity for escaping, and being thus brought into a highly compressed condition. The first theory is evidently untenable, and is now practically abandoned. Even the most friable of the reservoir-rocks is capable of resisting the pressure of the overlying deposits; thus, the weakest portions of the Trenton Limestone have been shown to withstand a crushing weight of 720 tons to the square foot, whereas the pressure on the stratum at the bottom of a well of over 1000 feet in depth would only be about 80 tons. The rocks are also found perfectly compact at all depths reached by the drill. t t or artesian The second theory, generally known as the "hydrostatic " theory, has many distinguished advocates, and has been particularly upheld by those who have closely studied the great gas-fields of Ohio and Indiana; while, on the other hand, it appears to be quite inapplicable to the fields of Penn- sylvania and New York, where, if not in all other fields, the third theory is evidently perfectly tenable. This was brought into prominence by Professor I. C. White in 1887, but is strongly controverted in the reports of Dr. Orton on the oil and gas-fields of Ohio and of Kentucky. As a general rule, the water in the wells drilled into the Trenton Limestone in Ohio and Indiana rises to about 600 feet above sea-level, when the gas and oil have been exhausted. Thus, in a well at Lindsey, Sandusky county, Ohio, the water rose to 600 feet above tide-level when the well became dry," while at Huntington and other districts in the Wabash valley, a rise of 615 feet above tide-level has been observed. These observations coincide with the outcrop of the Trenton Limestone on the shores of Huron and Superior, at about 600 feet above tide-level. Dr. Orton has calculated the pressure which should be found in wells at certain depths, if produced by a head of water equal to the depth of the well below lake-level, and has found remarkable agreement with the actually- measured pressures in many wells of Ohio. He considers that his results dis- tinctly prove that "the rock pressure of Trenton limestone gas is due to a salt- water column measured from about 600 feet above tide, to the level of the stratum which holds the gas. "" A notable exception to this general rule is furnished by the Simon's well PRESSURE IN WELLS. 121 in Wood county, Ohio, where a pressure of 520 lbs. has been noticed, a greater pressure than has been observed in any other part of the field. It corresponds. to a head of 1090 feet of water, and cannot, apparently, be accounted for on the artesian theory. According to Dr. Orton, the great rock pressures in Pennsylvanian gas-wells may be also explained by the artesian theory. Professor W. J. M‘Gee explains the pressure of the gas of Indiana on this hypothesis as follows:-" The cause of this enormous pressure is readily seen in Indiana. The Cincinnati arch (in which the gas of the great Indiana field is accumulated) is substantially a dome about 50 miles across, rising in the centre of a stratigraphic basin fully 500 miles in average diameter. Throughout this immense basin, the waters falling on the surface are, in part, absorbed into the rocks and conveyed towards its centre, where a strong artesian flow of water would prevail were the difference in altitude greater; and the light hydro- carbons floating upon the surface of this ground water are driven into the dome, and there subjected to hydrostatic pressure equal to the weight of a column of water whose height is the difference in altitude between the water surface within the dome and the land surface of the catchment area about the rim of the enclosing basin. Accordingly the static pressure is independent of the absolute altitude of the gas-rock and of its depth beneath the surface, except in so far as these are involved in the relative altitudes of the gas-rock and a catchment area, perhaps scores or even hundreds of miles distant. Gas-pressure and oil- pressure may, therefore, be estimated in any given case as readily and reliably as artesian water pressure; but whilst the water pressure is measured approxi- mately by the difference in altitude between the catchment area and well-head, that of gas is measured approximately by the difference in altitude between catchment area and gas-rock, and that of oil is measured by the same difference, minus the weight of a column of oil equal to the depth of the well. It follows that the static pressure of gas (as indicated at the surface) is always greater than that of oil, particularly in deep wells. It follows, also, that the pressure, whether of gas or oil, is not only constant throughout each field, but diminishes but slightly, if at all, on the tapping of the reservoir, until the supply is ex- hausted; and hence that pressure is no indication of either abundance or permanence of supply." The artesian theory is somewhat supported by the fact that water rises in the wells of Ohio and Indiana as they become exhausted, for, says Dr. Orton, the cause which raises the oil and gas must be the same which operates upon the water, and can be only of artesian origin. It is, however, strongly opposed by Prof. J. P. Lesley, Mr. J. F. Carll, and others. In his letter of transmittal of Carll's Seventh Report on the Oil and Gas Wells of Western Pennsylvania, 1890, Lesley states his belief that the hydraulic pressure head at the Trenton outcrop in Canada could never account for the well-pressure one or two hundred miles to the south, and adds :- Considering all the local underground obstacles to free flow, I cannot think that even the highest gas pressure should maintain itself against rock friction for even so short a distance as 20 miles." In that report (p. 13) Mr. Carll remarks that he has never witnessed or heard of a single circumstance to support the artesian hypothesis, and states that "the theory, as applied to Pennsylvanian oil and gas wells, is delusive and untenable, and the cause of the great rock pressure witnessed must, therefore, be sought for in some other direction." He further points out that if oil-wells are subject to hydrostatic pressure. the flow should be constant while it lasts, and dependent on the speed with which the water enters the oil-rock reservoir. After displacing the oil, water ought to follow. Yet it is found that the output decreases gradually, and 122 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. sometimes rapidly, and the wells may be pumped for years, even with gas- pumps, without being flooded by water. Gas-pumps have been used in the Triumph district since 1869, and the exhaustion is such that a vacuum-gauge at any of the wells registers a vacuum of 12 to 13 lbs. per square inch. As regards the low pressure from the Ohio and other shales, Dr. Orton observes that the artesian theory does not apply. The Association of Mud-Volcanos with Petroleum.-In Russia and India the relation between petroleum and mud-volcanos is very noticeable. In the former country the presence of these volcanos is usually considered a favourable indication of the presence of petroleum, as has been asserted by Prof. D. I. Mendeléeff and others. They are found in the neighbourhood of the Balakhani and Binagadi fields of the Apscheron peninsula, and are frequent in the Crimea. and the Taman peninsula, Venezuela and northern Colombia. The oil of Minbu and of the Island of Rámri in Burma also occurs in the immediate neighbourhood of mud volcanos. Wall has described the mud volcanos of Trinidad, whilst Ansted and others have described those of Pescara in Italy. In the copious literature of the subject, Galicia is not credited with any such, but Mr. W. H. Dalton observed a very fine extinct specimen, a few miles south- east of Sloboda Rungurska, and on the prolongation of the axis of that once famous oil-field. Such mud volcanos are not found in the United States and other petroleum-districts where the oil strata belong to early geological periods, chiefly, if not entirely, because of the absence of incoherent material in those older beds. Prof. S. F. Peckham regards the occurrence of these volcanos, and of hot springs generally, as merely the natural accompaniment of meta- morphic change, and as not possessing any significance in regard to the occur- rence of petroleum. Höfer has expressed a similar opinion, and has pointed out that their ejecta are only obtained from the shallower deposits. There is less real than apparent conflict between these views. Epigenic metamorphism may, and frequently does, occur in the absence of any trace of petroleum, giving rise to thermal springs of no commercial significance. Simple hydro- static pressure, in what may be termed natural artesian wells, produces similar mud-cones in soft material, easily removed by the rising water, a condition less common among the more compact beds of the older geological periods. But in any case such cones indicate the lines along which fluids under pressure are seeking release, and eroding their upward passage. When oil is present, such indications are not to be disregarded as guides to the structure of the region. These phenomena have but a superficial resemblance to those of true volcanic action, fluidity and pressure being the only elements in common. The "bonds" of the Plain of Bière, Vaud, and the mud-volcanos of the Mekran coast are instances in which no trace of petroleum exists. Duration of the Oil and Gas Supplies. As to the probable length of life of the various oil- and gas-fields, considerable doubt still exists, new districts being continually opened up and adding to the production as the older-worked fields become exhausted. The history of the oil-districts of the New World, where many celebrated fields are now rapidly on the wane, or are totally deserted, points conclusively to the steady exhaustion of all the oil- and gas-strata which have yet been worked; and the famous fields of Baku have within the last decade shown signs of decreasing productivity, as have less important areas in other parts of the world. There can be no doubt that the production of petroleum, whether of organic or mineral origin, is still going on in strata where the conditions are favourable ; but the oil-districts which have been most largely worked, and of whose geo- logical nature we know most, appear to have long since passed from that stage, AFFINITY OF CLAY FOR PETROLEUM. 123 and to be now merely reservoirs, which, when denuded of their present contents, will remain barren. t Prof. J. P. Lesley, in an address delivered before the American Institution of Mining Engineers in Pittsburg in 1886, says :- I am no geologist if it be true that the manufacture of oil in the laboratory of nature is still going on at the hundredth or the thousandth part of the rate of its exhaustion. And the science of geology may as well be abandoned as a guide if events prove that such a production of oil in western Pennsylvania as our statistics exhibit can continue for successive generations. It cannot be. There is a limited amount. Our children will merely and with difficulty drain the dregs. I hold the same opinion respecting gas, and for the same reasons, with the difference merely that the end will certainly come sooner and be all the more hastened by the multiplication of the gas-wells, and of the fire-boxes and furnaces to which it is led." Mr. Carll thus reviews the position of the oil industry of Pennsylvania and New York at the beginning of the year 1889 :—“ Glancing over the chain of oil pools which now extends entirely across the western part of the State, and over- laps both into New York and West Virginia, one cannot fail to be impressed with the fact that very few fresh or undepleted fields of production are in sight; and no very wide untested areas where others of promise may be concealed remain within the limits of the productive rocks as defined by the drill and verified by twenty-nine years of persistent investigation. . . . We have seen that all the old districts are on the decline. The drilling of many wells in developed territory, and the discovery of occasional pools of small capacity, may keep up present production, or even increase it temporarily, but there is nothing to warrant the hope that these old fields may be resuscitated and their production brought up even to that of 1886." On page 12 of that report he states that "it is highly probable that the northern gas mains, delivering from the older and more moderately taxed rocks, will be in successful operation after the southern have practically exhausted their accumulated supplies." Affinity of Clay for Petroleum.-Dr. Orton, Mr. Topley, and others have referred to the peculiar power possessed by clay of absorbing petroleum. The first observation on the subject appears to have been that of Prof. Joseph Leidy, quoted by Dr. Orton, that :— On the bed of the Schuylkill River, for some distance below the Philadelphia Gas Works, a deposit of clay impregnated with the petroleum-like oils that are produced in the manufacture of coal gas is in process of formation. These oily substances, which would otherwise be found on the surface of the river, are absorbed by the particles of fine clay in the water, and gradually sink to the bottom with them, there forming a petroliferous clay on the river bed.” It Mr. Topley (1891) says: "Some clays seem to have a curious affinity for petroleum, which enables them to contain more oil than we should expect. has often been noticed that petroleum which runs to waste down a river-bank will generally float on the water, but if the banks consist of soft clay, the oil trickles down under the water, and soaks into the clay." Dr. Orton observes that oil-bearing shale might be produced by the absorption by clay of the petroleum rising through water from sub-marine or underground springs, "such as occur in Central and South America. Skey (1875) maintains that the absorption is not of a mechanical nature, but a true chemical combination, a conclusion opposed by the varying pro- portions of oil imbibed by clay, as found in his own experiments. The absorptive process is probably facilitated by the spontaneous separa- 124 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. tion, in water, of the constituent oils present in all crude petroleum. Coquand thus describes the phenomena of the historic pitch-spring of Zante :-"From the bottom rise every instant bubbles of the size of lentils or peas, producing a patch of naphtha-film on the surface. Directly afterwards, threads of coffee-brown tarry petroleum radiate through the patch of opalescent film, forming an irregular aureola. Finally the bubble bursts, making a circular space of water free from film. These floating islets, consisting of three zones, and of 3 to 5 centimetres in diameter, follow the current to the mouth of the gutter. In the marsh they cling to the reeds, covering the surface with an iridescent, kaleidoscopic film. The pitch, having lost its naphtha, sinks to the bottom." Ozokerite.—Although the liquid and gaseous petroleums may be regarded as formed in, or received shortly after their formation by, the strata in which they are found, the solid and semi-solid varieties (such as the ozokerite of Galicia, Utah, etc., and the bitumens and asphalts of Germany, France, the West Indian Islands, and parts of the United States) may be considered as formed precisely as mineral veins are produced, primarily, by oxidation and evaporation of liquid petroleum, which continually oozes from deeply-seated or better-covered deposits, into other strata or into fissures where atmospheric influence or evaporation are free to act. Where oxidation has proceeded far, a tar-spring or asphalt-rock is produced, whilst, when such change is prevented, and evaporation alone takes place, the solid constituents are merely concentrated, with the production of the substances known as ozokerite, albertite, gilsonite, grahamite, etc., of which the more important are described in the next section. Ozokerite and allied products occur in many formations, though chiefly confined to the Tertiary and Cretaceous. Ozokerite is found in Scotland, Northumberland, Wales, Spain, Belgium, Italy, Servia, Rumania, Transylvania, Galicia, Moravia, Bohemia, Upper Austria, Thuringia, Westphalia, East Frisia, Finland, Kuban, Terek, Daghestan, Kutais, Tcheleken, Trans-Baikal, Ferghana, Persia, Egypt, Great Manitoulin Island (Canada), New Jersey, Oregon, Utah, Arizona, Texas, and apparently Brazil. In many cases, but chiefly in the Tertiary deposits, ozokerite is associated with rock-salt, and often with gypsum. Asphalt Rock.-This is usually a sandstone or limestone charged with the indurated tar, generally to the extent of less than 10 per cent. It is invariably an out-cropping stratum, and is never found in borings which extend below the level of the valleys. The typical "Chester asphalt rock" of western Kentucky is produced by the slow passage of the oil from the St. Louis Limestone into an overlying stratum of sandstone about 80 feet in thickness. The body of the rock is usually found to be formed of fine, unconnected particles which become separated when the asphalt is removed by solvents. In the case of the European asphalts of Val de Travers, Seyssel, Forens, Lobsann and Limmer, the base is limestone, whilst the Californian and Kentucky asphalt-rocks are formed in sandstone. General Distribution. On referring to the frontispiece and other illustrations, it will be seen that whilst petroleum exists very generally distributed throughout the world, the principal deposits occur along well-defined lines, often associated with the principal mountain ranges. This relation is partly due to the necessary coincidence of lines of upheaval and strike, but chiefly to the production, in the elevatory process, of minor folds, which have arrested and collected the oil in richly-productive belts, between more or less barren areas. As fields of little or no importance alternate with, and form connecting links between, the larger and more valuable regions, the occurrence of oil will be dealt BRITISH ISLANDS. 125 with in this section on a purely geographical basis of arrangement, irrespective of commercial relations. Although carburetted hydrogen, as the first term in the hydrocarbon series, logically calls for mention in this work, emanations from coal-seams, whether natural or the result of human operations, are too universal to admit of reference in detail, except in cases where the yield is such as to be of commercial utility. The same rule has been observed in respect of the petroleum gases arising from wells or natural outlets in recognised oil-fields. Where, however, such gases, simple or complex, are evolved from rocks not containing coal-seams, or independent of known stores of petroleum, the fact is worthy of record, either for its bearing on the problems connected with the origin and distribution of bitumens, or as a guide in the search for new oil-fields. On the other hand, the occurrence of bituminous rocks is so frequently associated with the presence of petroleum, asphalt, or other bitumen, that where- ever the amount of such impregnation is exceptional, the fact should be noticed, whether commercial utilisation has yet been commenced or not. The exterior of such deposits is generally somewhat impoverished by its exposure to oxidising influences, and does not afford an adequate criterion of the quality of the unaltered mass within. References, in the most condensed form, to the voluminous literature laid under contribution for the remainder of this section, would occupy more space than the text, and are perforce omitted, being replaced by the Bibliography (in vol. iii). BRITISH ISLANDS. Numerous indications of petroleum in England and Scotland have already been mentioned in the preceding section of this work, and need but the barest reference in their geographical order. In Ireland the only occurrences seem to be in the pores of igneous rocks that have traversed more or less bituminous strata, and absorbed and modified volatile hydrocarbons in their progress. Instances are recorded at the Giant's Causeway (Antrim) and Newry (Down). Modification into dopplerite and kindred substances of the deeper-seated peat of some of the Irish bogs has occasionally given rise to reports of the occurrence of petroleum in those situations. The so-called butyrellite, or "bog-butter," has been demonstrated to be normal butter, with interspersed hairs from the cow, and remains of the wrappers in which it was enclosed for storage in the antiseptic peat. In Scotland the beds of the Old Red Sandstone are highly bituminous in some parts of the Orkney Islands, Caithness, and Inverness, containing in places as much as 30 per cent. of volatile matter, and petroleum is alleged to have been found on the Orkney Mainland. Albertite occurs in the same series on Hoy, whilst in Ross-shire, over a considerable area around Dingwall, veins of this mineral occupy many of the joint-fissures of the conglomerates, sand- stones, and shales. In a basalt-dyke in these beds at Cupar, Fife, the freshly- broken surfaces are found to be quite moist with naphtha, which quickly evaporates. Apparently the bitumen is due to the fish-remains abundant in these beds. In the succeeding Carboniferous system, the localities of Dysart (Fife), Broxburn (Linlithgowshire), and Liberton (Edinburghshire), have already been mentioned, and the oil-shales extending from West Calder to Burntisland will be described in a subsequent section. Thin seams occur in Fife at Crail, Markinch, Kinglassie, and St. Davids. Liquid petroleum and gas occur in the shale at Broxburn and Pumpherston, and ozokerite in the associated sandstone at Binny. In connection with the abundance and 126 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. variety of bitumens in the Carboniferous rocks of the Forth basin, it may be remarked that the igneous rocks which traverse them have taken up some of the hydrocarbons, impoverishing the strata in their immediate vicinity. The absorbed matter exists partly as fluid petroleum in the fissures of the basalts, chiefly as ozokerite occupying the gas-blown vesicles of the amygdaloidal dolerites. Similar phenomena are recorded at Kinghornness, on Inchkeith Island, and on Calton Hill, Edinburgh. Ozokerite has also been found in the peat of Loch Fyne, Argyllshire. In England petroleum and mineral wax occur in the Coal-measures of Whitehaven, Cumberland, and carburetted hydrogen is discharged in the adjacent hæmatite mines in the Carboniferous Limestone of Cleator Moor. Ozokerite is found in the Coal-measures of Urpeth, Northumberland, and carburetted hydrogen in the Triassic salt series of Middlesbrough, North York- shire, with petroleum in the subjacent Permian and Lower Carboniferous (Yoredale) rocks. The Cleveland Middle-Lias ironstone is locally charged with oil-gas, and the Upper-Lias shales often contain visible oil in joints and hollow fossils. Good illuminating oil has been distilled from them to the amount of ten gallons per ton. In the West Riding Coal-measures, petroleum has been found at Hemsworth and Dinnington, and oil-shales yielding twenty to twenty-four gallons per ton occur in the measures above the Flockton Thick" coal. In the southward extension of the coal-field, petroleum has been collected at Clowne and Riddings in Derbyshire, the short-lived flow being in some cases of commercial value as a lubricant. Recently, in a boring carried out to prove the eastward extension of the field, petroleum was met with near Kelham, in Nottinghamshire. The elaterite of Castleton exudes from the Carboniferous Limestone as a pale-yellow tar, passing to the better-known condition of dark-brown elastic "mineral india-rubber" by evaporation of vola- tile ingredients and oxidation. In the same region and series, discharges of carburetted hydrogen, and masses of more or less liquid bitumen have been met with in the lead-mines. The Lancashire Coal-measures yield petroleum at Wigan, West Leigh, Worsley, and Swinton, whilst the peat-oil of Down Holland Moss, Formby, as described in the previous section, is of very recent formation. "" In Staffordshire oil occurs in the Coal-measures of Longton, and bitumen in Triassic sandstone, at Bearwood Hill, near Burton-on-Trent. Gas is present in the Triassic salt-beds of Cheshire, and oil in the same series at Anderton, near Northwich. The petroleum of Ruabon, Denbighshire, previously mentioned, is of Permian age, whilst gas and bitumen occur in the Carboniferous Limestone of the Flintshire lead-mines. The Shropshire Coal-measures yield the oil of Wellington, Coalbrookdale, Coalport, and Pitchford, already described. Occur- rences of bitumen in the Cambrian rocks, of Haughmond and Pontesford Hills, 3 miles east, and 7 miles southwest, respectively, from Shrewsbury, and in the lead-veins of Snailbeach Mine, some 3 miles further in the latter direction, and in Lower Silurian rocks, are probably the residue of the Coal-measures once covering the area, but now removed by denudation. A discharge of in- flammable gas in the Van Mine, Llanidloes, Montgomeryshire, in Lower Silurian beds, is less easily explained. An alleged discovery of petroleum in the Tregaron district of Cardiganshire has had no verification. Ozokerite has been observed in ironstone nodules of the Merthyr Tydvil Coal-measures at Dowlais, Glamor- ganshire. The Liassic petroleum of the Bristol district, and that in the Carboniferous Limestone near Ashwick, Somersetshire, call for no further remarks than those made upon these localities in the previous section. In the Upper Devonian shales of Barnstaple, North Devonshire, a vein impregnated with mineral oil was found in 1874, and oil is said to have PORTUGAL, SPAIN. 127 contaminated a well in the Torquay district. The Eocene lignite of Bovey Tracey contains retin-asphalt. In the Carharrack copper-mine, near Gwennap, Cornwall, at a great depth, a quantity of bitumen occurred in the veinstone and surrounding granite, and mineral pitch has also been found near St. Agnes. Early in the present year (1912) a boring near Willesden was reported to have met with traces of petroleum in the Devonian series. The gas encountered in the Thames tunnel, as mentioned on p. 36, was probably derived from organic remains in the alluvial deposits. The Kimmeridge Clay, as described in a later section, has been mined in Dorsetshire for distillation, and the same beds were found to be more or less saturated with petroleum in the deep sub- Wealden boring near Battle, Sussex. Not far from this, at Heathfield, sufficient gas for local illumination is obtained from borings in the Purbeck beds, somewhat higher in the Jurassic series. Two or three miles eastward of this, these beds have been found, by distillation, to yield a wide variety of hydrocarbons, but not to com- mercial advantage, whilst in the yet higher Hastings Sand series a discharge of gas is recorded at Mayfield, some 4 miles north of Heathfield, and in West Sussex gas has been found in the Weald Clay at Hawkhurst, 3 miles to the east of Pet- worth. A discharge of gas of high-illuminating power took place from a recent boring in the Oxford Clay, near Calvert station, a few miles southward of Buckingham. PORTUGAL. Bituminous deposits occur in Rhætic strata, accompanied by ophite, near Monte Real, Leiria; in the region westward of Alcobaca; and near Torres Vedras. The calcitic amygdules of the basalt of Sicario, near Cintra, are partly charged with petroleum. SPAIN. Asphalt occurs at the port of San Lucar de Barrameda, Cadiz, probably exuding through alluvial deposits from Triassic rocks which lie at no great depth below. The same series affords traces of petroleum at St. Elmo, near Jerez; at Conil, 25 miles southward; at Arcos, Rubi, Espera, Villamartin, and Algar. Trial-borings at Conil and Algar have as yet failed to obtain oil in commercially-valuable quantity. Bituminous sandstone of Liassic age is mined near Grazalema. Extensive deposits of oil-shale occur in the Ronda district, Malaga. Asphaltic sandstone is worked in the Upper Jurassic beds west of the Guadiaro, opposite Gaucin. The Eocene of Manilva, 18 miles northward of Gibraltar, is charged with asphalt. In Almeria asphalt is found in the Pliocene of the Sierra Alhamilla, northeastward of the capital, and in the Miocene of Tijola, Bayarque, and Cobdar, some 30 miles northward. Petroleum occurs at Cueva de la Pez, near Bayarque. The Miocene marls of Lorca, Murcia, contain asphalt, and dysodile and elaterite occur in the highly bituminous Miocene of Hellin, Albacete. In Guadalajara, asphalt and petro- leum are recorded in the Triassic sandstone of Siguenza and Molina de Aragon, and oil-shale at Valdesotas and Retiendas, 25 miles northwestward of the capital, at the contact of the Carboniferous and Cretaceous series. Petroleum is vaguely reported from the Triassic rocks of Soria, and asphalt is found in the Lower Cretaceous at several points between San Leonardo, Casarejos, Fuentetoba, Villaciervos, Villaverde, and Toledillo, lying west and northwest of Soria. Petroleum and asphalt saturate the Neocomian sandstones of a small isolated field at Huidobro, 30 miles north of Burgos, and similar conditions obtain over a considerable area on the border of Burgos and Santander, from Hoz de Arriba to Santa Gadea and Rozas. The northern extension of the 128 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. same series contains oil and asphalt at Resconorio, near the top of the Luena valley, 40 miles northeast of Reinosa; at Puerto del Escudo, a few miles east- ward; at Purbayon, south-southwest of Santander; and at Suances, north of Torrelavega. Westwards the Devonian sandstones of Corrada, near Pravia in Oviedo, are charged with bitumen. In Alava, asphaltic sandstone of Lower Cretaceous age occurs south of Penacerrada, 15 miles south of Vittoria, and oil has been distilled, though unprofitably, from the Oligocene limestones and sandstones lying to the northeast of Penacerrada. Asphalt is mined in the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene limestones of Maestu and Atauri, the deposits extending northeastward by Encia, Urbasa, and Salvatierra, to Bacaicou, Navarre, 23 miles westward of Pamplona. The asphalt of Torrelapaya, on the Zaragoza-Soria border, is probably of Cretaceous age. In Teruel, the Upper Neocomian contains beds of highly bituminous shale, those of Rubielos de Mora yielding, upon distillation, as much as 32 per cent. of oil. The Neo- comian marls of Ribesalbes, 11 miles west of Castellon de la Plana, are of similar character. Tarry bitumen is found in the Miocene of Margalef, 30 miles west- northwest of Tarragona. The Eocene marls at Santa Catalina, near Manresa, and on the Montseny range at Campins, 34 miles eastwards, are sufficiently bituminous to have induced brief and unsatisfactory attempts at distillation, as is also the case at Vilada, Baga, and Broca, east and north of Berga. The Cretaceous limestones are charged with asphalt at Valldan, west-southwest of Berga, at Broca, and at Saldes, west of Baga. In Gerona, asphaltic shales and ozokerite are found in the Eocene of Campdevanol, 17 miles west-northwest of Olot, and petroleum at San Juan de las Abadesas, 6 miles east of Campde- vanol. Oil also occurs at San Lorenzo de la Muga and Pont de Molins, west and north of Figueras. FRANCE. Hitherto no commercial yield of fluid bitumen has been found in France, although oil-shale and asphalt-rock constitute the basis of important industries. The former deposits will be described in a later section, the localities being briefly mentioned here. In the western parts of the Basses-Pyrénées and Landes, traces of petroleum, and more or less valuable deposits of asphalt, occur at Dax, St. Pé de Leren, Castagnède, Cassaber, Saliès du Bearn, Bérenx, Salles Mongiscard, Ste. Suzanne, Orthez, St. Boës, Gaujac, Bastennes, Caupenne, Mont de Marsan, and Cazères. The Cretaceous rocks are the principal producers of the bitumen, which is believed to be really derivative from the subjacent Trias, whilst Eocene and Miocene occupy much of the surface, and it was from Miocene sands, charged with 9 per cent. of asphalt, that Bastennes at one time enjoyed a large export- trade. At several points in the district local epigenic modification of the rocks has, as in southern Spain and Algeria, produced a misleading superficial re- semblance to Triassic strata. Bitumen occurs at Limoges, Haute Vienne, in quartz-veins traversing Archæan gneiss, etc. Oil-shales are found in a narrow strip of Coal-measures at Faymoreau, near Puy de Serre, La Vendée, and elaterite in Lower Carboniferous beds at Montrelais, on the Loire, about 30 kilometres westward of Angers. Carburetted hydrogen issues from Archæan schists and diorite at Pontpéan, Ille-et-Vilaine, probably derived from adjacent lignites of Oligocene age. An ozokerite-like matter can be extracted by solvents from the peat of the Aven valley, Finistere, and from that of the Somme valley. Discharges of carburetted hydrogen are recorded from Eocene pottery clay at Vanves and Malakhoff, southwestern suburbs of Paris. A discovery of petroleum at Beuvry, near Bethune, Pas-de-Calais, was reported FRANCE. 129 in 1908, and asphalt is said to occur in the Coal-measures of Aniches, Nord. Inflammable gas emanates from Triassic rock salt at St. Laurent, Meurthe-et- Moselle, and a bituminous spring is recorded from the Lias of Fraine-on- Saintois, 11 km. south of Vézelise. Carburetted hydrogen is discharged from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of the Giromagny mines, Haute-Saône, and from many of the Triassic salines" of the Franche-Comté. Highly bitu- minous shales of Liassic age occur at Saulx, Haute-Saône, at Châtillon-le-Duc (8 km. north of Besançon) and Mouthier, Doubs, and at Thizy, 14 km. north- east of Avallon, Yonne, and asphaltic limestone of the same series exists at Vassy, 9 km. east of Thizy. Extensive operations in oil-shales of the Permian or Upper Carboniferous series at Autun, Saône-et-Loire, and Buxière, Allier, will be described in a later section. t In the Puy-de-Dôme the Miocene limestones and sandstones, and the volcanic tuffs and lavas which traverse them, are saturated with viscid oil at many points around Clermont Ferrand, chiefly at Menat, Prompsat, Pont Battu, Lussat, Malintrat, Pont du Château, Cebazat, Lempdes, Coeur, Chamalières, Royat, and Flat. It may be mentioned that at some points the bitumen has filled crevices in the basal granite of the district, forming veins which would have been singularly problematical, had the parent Tertiary deposits been entirely removed by denudation. The metalliferous veins of the Archæan gneiss of the adjacent district of Pontgibaud have occasional traces of similar infiltration. Bitumen is found in Oligocene beds in the Haute Loire south of Le Puy, at Coubon, Malhac, Lausanne, Monastier, etc. The valuable oil-shales of Vagnas, Ardèche, are of Miocene age. Carburetted hydrogen is discharged in the Jurassic iron-ore mines of La Voulte, and bitumen occurs in geodes of the somewhat older ore of Privas. In Gard, a wide range of formations yields more or less asphalt, viz., the Carboniferous, Triassic, Liassic, Jurassic, Neocomian, Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene. Traces of petroleum occur in the hollow fossils of Liassic limestones at Avelas. The Eocene lacustrine limestone, with seams of lignite, is highly asphaltic at St. Jean de Marvejols, Auzon, Hyeuset, les Fumades, Servas d'Olivier, and other points round Alais, and the bitumen of Barjac is from a somewhat higher horizon of the same series. At Servas the Neocomian limestone is also bituminous. Bituminous matter is associated with the Eocene rock-salt of Saliès-du- Salat, Haute-Garonne, and of Camarade, Ariège. The Upper Cretaceous of Taurignan has traces of bitumen, which also impregnates the Eocene clays of La Bastide de Boussignac, Ariège, and colours the black Jurassic dolomites in several parts of the Pyrenees. The "burning fountain near the Salles d'Aude, Narbonne, is due to an emission of carburetted hydrogen from much-disturbed, apparently inverted Oligocene beds. It is odourless, devoid of sulphur compounds, and burns with a red smoky flame. In Hérault, Gabian has been known since 1711 to possess a petroleum-spring, but a boring to 413 metres yielded no satisfactory result. The rocks have been assigned to the Trias, but are probably Miocene, as are also those showing traces of oil at Gaboux, Vendres, and other places southward of Béziers. Emanations of inflammable gas have been observed in the Eocene fireclay of Bollène, Vaucluse. Asphaltic sandstones and limestones of Oligocene age, yielding 10 to 13 per cent. of asphalt, are found northwestward of Manosque, Basses-Alpes, and oil-shale has been mined and distilled on a small scale in the same region. Oil-shales of the Permian series were once worked in the Boson field, near Fréjus, Var. Jurassic shales of bituminous character form part of Mont- Braisier, between Serres and Laragne, Hautes-Alpes, and explosions, ac- companied by flame, are recorded as resulting from the firing of gas, either 9 VOL. I. 130 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. accidentally or by the heat of oxidation of pyrites. By analogy with pheno- mena elsewhere known to be connected with petroleum, its presence here may be suspected, possibly in valuable amount. Gas and asphalt occur in Liassic marls northwest of Buis les Baronnes, on the Aigues above Nyons, Drôme. The "burning fountain" of St. Barthélemy, near Grenoble, Isère, is due to oil-gas emanating from Liassic marls and limestone, and utilised, as described by Tardin, in 1618. A fruitless boring was here carried to 198 metres. "of Carburetted hydrogen is evolved from Miocene rocks at Prêle, near Chât- illon, Haute-Savoie, and is utilised for domestic purposes; a little oil has also been found here. On the western side of the department, in Ain, and in the adjacent parts of Switzerland, occur asphalt-rocks of varying value. On the left bank of the Rhone they extend from Chavanod, by Frangy, Lovagny, Bourbouges, Volant, Challonges, and Chavornay, to Chavaroches. These (some nearly worked-out) are in the Neocomian (Urgonian) limestone, which is said to be devoid of bitumen in the rest of the Faucigny Alps. Crossing the Rhone into Ain, we find asphalt in Jurassic limestones around Belley, at Orbagnon, Lutézieux, Charencin, Cormaranche, and Pontnavey. Ascending the right bank of the Rhone, the Urgonian limestone recurs, with the famous" Seyssel" asphalt of Pyrmont, extending by Perte du Rhone and Bellegarde, to Thoiry, and up the Valserine valley from Bellegarde by Lancrau to Lelex and Forens, near Chézery. The rock of Lelex is said to have too much petroleum to be worked for asphalt, an indication of imperfect oxidation of the original oil. The Lower Miocene of this region is occasionally petroliferous, and contains three workable seams at Boge, just above Lancrau. The explor- atory operations carried out by M. Pochon in 1892 consisted of a cross-cut and several galleries, with a tunnel following the slope of the principal seam. dip is eastward, at 60° to 70°, and but little timbering is requisite. Near the surface, the sands are brown and loose, having lost the hydrocarbon they once held, but at a depth of 7 metres they are black and coherent, being protected from further oxidation. The workings present a strong resemblance to the Pechelbronn mines of Elsass, and the similarity is further observable in the character of the impregnating oil, which is blackish, semi-fluid, and (when taken from near the surface) of a density of 0.975. At Pyrmont the Miocene also is bituminous. BELGIUM. The Hatchettite, sometimes accompanied by traces of petroleum, occurs in many places in the Belgian Coal-measures, especially at Strepy-Bracquegnies, east of Mons; at Fontaine l'Evêque, west of Charleroi; and at Chokier, Seraing, and Flemalle Grande, southwest of Liège. It occupies in some cases the interior of hollow concretions of iron-ore, but more generally the cavities of fossil shells or crevices in the rocks. Traces of oil are alleged to exist at Bour- lers near Chimai, 45 kilometres southward of Charleroi, but whether in the Eocene or in the subjacent Devonian rock is not stated. Traces of oil are also recorded in the Liassic shales of Jamoigne, 55 kilometres westward of Luxem- burg. HOLLAND. Apparently the sole record of native petroleum in Holland is that of its detection in the Chalk, underlying a brickfield in the neighbourhood of Maes- tricht. In the morasses of South Holland, North Holland, and Friesland, emissions of spontaneously inflammable gas have frequently been observed, and in some cases the supply is utilised. SWITZERLAND, ITALY. 131 SWITZERLAND. In the canton of Neuchâtel, asphalt-rock occurs in the Upper Jurassic lime- stone of Purgots, near Les Brenets. At Noiraigues in the Val de Travers, Vallorbes in the Val de Joux, and Epoisats under the Dent de Vaulion, the Lower Jurassic (Bathonian) limestone is asphaltic, and was worked at the last place in the eighteenth century. The far-celebrated asphalt of the Val de Travers occurs in the Urgonian (Neocomian) limestone, of which from 10 to 12 per cent. consists of bitumen at the mines of la Presta and Bois de Croix. Similar, but less valuable, deposits in the same series occur at Auvernier, Bevais, and St. Aubin, and at Mathod, Vaud. The Aptian (Cretaceous) sandstone is also asphaltic at la Presta. The Miocene has more or less bituminous lime- stone at Boudry, and in the canton of Vaud this is the case over a wide area from Yverdon to Lausanne, along the northern shore of Lake Leman from St. Sulpice to Rivaz, and also at Bernex, Sattigny, and Dardagny, in the canton of Geneva. Petroleum exists in these beds near Mathod, Orbe, and Chavornay, Vaud. Inflammable gas occurs in the Liassic rock-salt of Bex, and at Mon- treux, Vaud. Bitumen and ozokerite are said to occur on the Neuschelbach, some 14 miles southeast of Friburg, and bituminous rock at the foot of the Gastlosen. A deposit of dysodile has been observed in the Eocene beds of Oberdorf, 2 miles northwest of Soleure. ITALY. Though the Italian petroleum-industry is of only local importance, the deposits possess considerable historic interest, as has been mentioned in the previous section. Northern Italy. The Triassic dolomites and shales of Lombardy are. frequently bituminiferous, yielding oil and asphalt upon distillation. Beds of this character extend from Morgorabbia in Valcuvia to Ghirla and Brusimpiano, and round the southern part of Lago Lugano from Bisuschio and Besano to Melide and Arogno, recurring in Val Camonica at Esino and Vello (on Lago d'Iseo) in Val Trompia, at Sant' Eusebio in Val Sabbia, on both sides of Lago d'Idro, and thence across to L. Garda, extending over the Austrian frontier to Storo in Val Giudicaria. At Laveno and Porto Lavello on Lago Maggiore, Pellio and Viggiu on L. Lugano, Brontino near Bergamo, and Tignale on L. Garda, the Liassic shales contain a notable amount of bitumen. At Caprina near Bergamo, and Benaco on L. Garda, the Cretaceous shales are more or less bituminous, and the Miocene marl of Staghilione, 15 miles south of Pavia, contains above 16 per cent, of bitumen. The only traces of fluid petroleum in Lombardy are found in the Pliocene at Rivanazzano, 60 kilometres south- southwest of Pavia, and at San Colombano, 24 kilometres eastward of Pavia. In the four Emilian provinces petroleum and natural gas exude, or are obtained from wells, in greater or less quantity, at more than a hundred places within the area shown in the map, fig. 1 (p. 25). The belt, embracing part of the Florence district of Tuscany, is composed of Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene deposits, in rather complex recurrence, and it would be futile here to attempt to assign an age to the oil or gas of each locality, especially as, along the axial lines of anticlinal folds, oil-wells may derive their yield from a concealed formation, while gas may be evolved from great depths by fissures in this much-disturbed area. The ozokerite of Montefalo, near Savigno, in the Bolognese, occurs in Miocene rocks. Carburetted hydrogen has caused acci- dents in the Monte Catini mines of the Lucca district, in Cretaceous rocks. 132 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The Miocene of Sassoferrato, Urbino, has bituminous shales of doubtful value. The hot springs of Abano, southwest of Padua, evolve carburetted hydrogen, probably eliminated by the decadent volcanic heat from bituminous beds of the Cretaceous, or of a more recent period. The oil-shales of Monte Pulli, near Valdagno in the Vicentin, are of Eocene age. Artesian wells in Venice have at their first boring discharged much marsh-gas from the estuarine deposits traversed. Central Italy. In the Abruzzo, oil and asphalt occur in Eocene beds at Tocco, Sta. Elia, and Manopello in the Pescara valley, and in Pliocene at Lanciano. Hydrocarbon gases are evolved from the site of the classic Fucine Lake, now drained. Between Rome and Naples bituminous limestones of Cretaceous age, and petroliferous Eocene shales, with, occasionally, Pliocene deposits charged with hydrocarbons by infiltration from subjacent beds, range southward from Filetino (about 70 km. east of Rome), by Collepardo, Veroli, Fontana, Atina, Ripi, Arce, Terelle, Roccasecca, Castro, San Giovanni Incarico, Pastena, Pico, Pontecorvo, and Cervaro, to Venafro, 90 km. northward of Naples. Bituminous shales occur in the Eocene of Laviano and Silento, Campania, and in the Triassic of Giffoni Vallepiana, northeast of Salerno. Cretaceous rocks furnished the asphalt of Puglietta, Campagna di Eboli, mined some forty years ago. The ancient Balneum Olei Petrolii was situated near the Stufe di Nerone, between Pozzuoli and Baiae. Emanations of petro- leum occur at Cape Sorrento, and a smell of oil is at times perceptible at sea in the Bay of Naples, 9 or 10 km. northwest of Sorrento. The asphalt of Tra- mutola, 120 km. westward of Taranto, is of Eocene age. Sicily.—The Tertiary rocks of Sicily are petroliferous at several points, and the oil has been used for illuminating purposes for many centuries, but no extensive industry is based thereon. Beside the historic wells of Agrigentum (Girgenti), traces of oil occur at Lercara Fridda, Polizzi, Petralia, Nicosia, Paterno, Mineo, Ragusa, and the Val di Noto (Lago Naftia). Asphalt-beds of some importance exist near Leonforte, but the most valuable deposits both of oil and asphalt lie in the districts of Ragusa, Modica, and the Val di Noto. The Cretaceous limestones of Ragusa are bituminous as well as the Miocene. The vesicles of the basaltic lava of Etna are sometimes filled with petroleum, sometimes with crystalline paraffin, taken up by the molten rock in its passage through, and partial absorption of, the Tertiary (or lower) carbonaceous strata. Parallel instances have been already mentioned, and others will fall to be noticed subsequently, of this appropriation of hydrocarbons by intrusive igneous rocks. The collection of asphalt on the volcanic Lipari Islands was an industry of importance with the ancient Carthaginians, and some of the Lipari obsidian contains traces of vaseline or a kindred paraffin. The salt-marshes of Sardinia are covered from time to time with sheets of sea-weed, decomposing into an oily substance akin to petroleum. Parallel instances to this significant fact will be mentioned in due course. ALGERIA. As the Mediterranean Sea is, from a geological point of view, merely a picturesque incident in a region of the same general character, the oil-fields on its southern shore may appropriately be noticed here as an extension of those last mentioned. The petroleum of the southern flank of the Dahra range, midway between. Orleansville and Mostaganem, in the province of Oran, has long been known. This occurs in the lower part of the Miocene, from Mazouna, on Oued Ouarizane, ALGERIA, TUNIS, EGYPT. 133 for 116 kilometres westward, by the Tamda, Taghria, and Ain Zeft ravines, and Oued Yehir, to the Cheliff at Sidi Brahim, and the coast from La Stidia to beyond Arzeu. Several wells and horizontal tunnels at Aïn Zeft and Sidi Brahim have yielded considerable quantities of dark, heavy, sulphurous oil, from a series of alternating marls and limestones, largely converted into gypsum by epigenic action. There is said to be an oozing of oil on the shore at Cape Ivi, further westward, which is probably from rocks of similar age. In the vicinity of La Stidia and Port-aux-Poules there are frequent indications of petroleum, as emanations of oil-gas at sea and inland, and oil-films on water, over a very considerable area, the most westerly point being some 8 km. southward of Arzeu. All are apparently derived from Miocene rocks. Traces of petroleum have been found in the same series at Bel Hacel, 40 km. E.S.E. of Mostaganem, and the Miocene of Oued Mebtone, 40 km. S. by E. of Arzeu, shows stains of oil. Frequent indications are seen on the Oued Kalaa, 46 km. eastward of the last- mentioned point, and the Tliouanet district, yet further eastward, has oil in many places, pits and borings having been sunk within the last fifteen years at several points of more or less promising structure, but with no very important result. Similar oil-shows recur intermittently as far as Zemora and Mendes, south of St. Aimé (Djidiouia) on the Cheliff, and oil-gas is alleged to emanate at Kefeldjir (a name connoting the occurrence of gypsum), northeast of Inker- mann. The known length of this southern belt is about 136 km. There are vague reports of similar traces at Blida, 40 km. southwest of Algiers, and bands of bitumen traverse the marls of Boghar, some 60 km. south of Blida, both localities being on beds of Miocene age. A tar-spring is reported to exist near the tomb of Oulad Sidi Aïssa, about 120 km. southeastward of Algiers, in the Lower Eocene rocks. Traces of oil are also announced as found in the province. of Constantine, as follows: at Beni-Ziar, southeastward of Djidjelli, in Upper Pliocene deposits; in the Lower Eocene of Ferdjiouah, midway between Setif and Constantine; in Middle Cretaceous limestones and shales in the Chebka na Sellaoua range, some 70 km. east-southeast of Constantine; and in rocks of about the same age at Claire-fontaine (Aouinet el Diab), 50 km. southward of Souk Ahras. TUNIS. A recent official summary of Tunisian economic minerals alleges undeniable evidences of petroleum to exist at several points near the capital, from Tebourba westward, to Grombalia, southeastward; also near Testour and Biserta. EGYPT. The existence of petroleum at Jebel Zeit, near the mouth of the Gulf of Suez, is matter of ancient history, and is implied in the name, which signifies Oil Mountain, the Mons Petrolius of the Roman geographers. The ground consists. of limestones, gypsums, and clays of the Upper Miocene series, more or less impregnated with oil and gas. The series extends from Ras el Gharib on the north to Abu Shaar on the south, and deep borings have been made at Jebel Zeit and Ras Gemsah, meeting with heavy discharges of gas, and finally with a fair yield of petroleum. To the westward the Upper Cretaceous sandstones and limestones give similar indications along a range of hills parallel to, and about twenty miles distant from, the coast. A boring near Zafarana met with oil under great pressure of gas, and natural emanations have been noticed on Jebel Atakah, southwest of Suez. The coral reefs of the Red Sea are charged in places with recent petroleum, formed in that torrid climate from the swarming 134 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. organisms occupying the shallow pools. A precisely similar mode of formation has in fact been suggested for the older petroleum and gas just described, viz., the saturation of the Cretaceous surface, and of newly-deposited beds, with organic matter, throughout the period extending from the Miocene to the present day. But since traces of petroleum occur in the Eocene limestone of El Hammam (Mokattam), as well as in similar rocks to be dealt with below, it would appear that in this region conditions favourable to the production of petroleum obtained throughout the Tertiary epoch, or recurred again and again during that vast lapse of time. Petroleum has been reported as found in the hills 20 miles inland of Suakin, and in the Farsan archipelago. ARABIA. The bitumen of Wadi Gharandel, in Arabia Petræa, 40 miles southward of Suez, is in Eocene limestone, and traces of oil occur in the Cretaceous (Nubian) sandstones of Wadi el Arabah, 30 miles further southward, though this may be due to recent infiltration, as has been suggested above for the adjacent Egyptian petroleum. The same may be predicated with great probability of the in- dications near the southern end of the Sinaitic peninsula, and on Tiran Island, at the mouth of the Gulf of Akabah. Petroleum is said to occur at many points in the interior of Yemen. On the eastern side of Arabia, traces of petro- leum occur at Benaid el Oar near Koweit, on the Persian Gulf, on the waters of which also films of oil often appear, after earthquakes or storms, between the islands of Kubbar and Garu, and again near Farsi Island (28° N., 50° 10′ E.). Deposits of bitumen are also reported as found on Bahrein Island, and oil is said to rise in the sea off Haulal Island (25° 40′ N., 52° 25′ E.), eastward of Bahrein peninsula. TURKISH EMPIRE. Syria. The asphalt of the western shore of the Dead Sea has been known from time immemorial, having been extensively exported to Egypt for embalm- ing. The word "mummy" is, in fact, derived from the Coptic mum, bitumen. The "slime-pits of the vale of Siddim," so fatal to the warriors entrapped by their adhesive contents, were fed by oozings from soft Cretaceous limestones, sometimes dolomitic, sometimes gypseous, and always charged with chloride. of sodium and other salts. These extend from the southern end of the Dead Sea throughout the Jordan valley to Lebanon. The chief localities are Wadi Mahawat, W. Sebbeh, and Nebi Musa, on the Dead Sea, Hasbeya, on the Upper Jordan, Sahmur and Ain-et-Tineh, on the Nahr Litany, and another Ain-et- Tineh, near Magluda, some 28 miles northeastward of Damascus. Sulphuretted hydrocarbon gases are discharged at many points on the line. The regions eastward of the northern end of the Dead Sea, and of the southern end of the Lake of Tiberias, consist in part of similar rock. On the Jebel el Dahr. between the Jordan and the Litany, the Cretaceous sandstones also yield bitumen, and oil shale, suitable for distillation, occurs in the same series at Zehalta, Haidura and Djezzin, in the Machada plain. Large deposits of asphalt are reported to occur near Latakia, in the villages of Kferie, Cassab, Ghoman, Chmeisse, Khorbe, and Sonlas. Both Antioch and Aleppo have been credited with producing bitumen, possibly from a single site. Petroleum is known to exist at Alexandretta. Mesopotamia. An extensive oil-field ranges from Hit on the Euphrates, for 200 miles upward to El Deir, and thence as far to the northeast, to Herboul near Zakhu, and eastward from this line to beyond the Persian frontier. At TURKISH EMPIRE, GREECE. 135 many points in this vast area petroleum and gas exude with their usual con- comitants, salt and sulphureous waters, often thermal, from the Miocene saline gypsiferous marls and limestones. The oil-wells of Hit, Jibbah, and Kerkuk are of great antiquity; those of Herboul, Hammam Ali, Tel Kiara, El Falha, Tuz Khurmatli, Kifri, and Mendeli are of less celebrity, but possibly of greater ultimate importance. Armenia. A spring of bitumen rises from the Eocene limestone within the citadel of Van, and oil is reported at Parghiri, whilst in the Muzurdagh range, on the Upper Euphrates, the Cretaceous limestones are locally charged with asphalt, and at Samosata or Someisat, 70 miles southward, Pliny mentions the occurrence of maltha or rock-tar. Petroleum is reported as found near Sur- meneh, in Trebizond. = Asia Minor. At Janartasch, on the Gulf of Adalia, Lycia, the "eternal fire" of the Chimæra has been burning for possibly 3000 years, giving rise to the legend whence our present use of the term chimæra is derived. The name is thought to be of Phoenician origin, chamirah burnt. One observer records. a perceptible smell of “naphtha or iodine," and soot is deposited from the flame, and utilised as a pigment, as a remedy in ophthalmia, and in other ways. The emanation is from decomposed serpentine, intrusive in Eocene rocks, and is probably oil gas. A similar, but intermittent, discharge has been noticed on. the western side of Samos, at a considerable elevation. Specimens of earth, impregnated with petroleum, were some years ago submitted to the author as coming from the neighbourhood of Smyrna, and a combustible rock, capable of yielding gas, occurs at Calamitza, Crete. A sample of Cretan petroleum was shown in the Vienna exhibition of 1855. Traces of oil are recorded at Cherkose Deli, above Lake Isnik, southeast of the Sea of Marmora. European Turkey.-A few years ago petroleum was detected in a belt of sandy deposits, apparently of Miocene age, fringing the coast of the Sea of Marmora for several miles westward of Ganos. A westward extension of this series is believed to occur near Feredzik on the Maritza. A vague report of the presence of petroleum in the Miocene beds under the Jewish quarter of Con- stantinople requires confirmation, but Count Marsigli, in 1681, records sub- marine exudations in that vicinity. At Selenitza and Rompzi, on the Voyutza, in Albania, extensive asphalt beds, of historic fame, occur in the Pliocene con- glomerates. Dioscorides describes the bitumen of Apollonia (Avlona) as found floating on the River Aous, now Voyutza. Carburetted hydrogen is evolved. in places, suggesting that the intermediate petroleum compounds may also be present. Petroleum and bitumen also occur on the island of Koraka, in the Gulf of Arta, opposite Salagora. Asphalt is said to be mined at Salonica. GREECE. Oil-springs with asphaltic deposits exist on the Island of Antipaxos in Miocene rocks. At Dremisou-Maurolithari in the Parnassid, and at Galaxidi near Delphi, traces of petroleum are reported as present on the water of springs from the Cretaceous limestones. Possibly the utterances of the ancient oracle were evolved under the toxic influence of petroleum vapour. At Lintzi, the ancient Cyllene, opposite Zante, oil and bitumen exude from lignitiferous Miocene strata, and traces have been noticed on the waters of a spring near Vrochitza, in the Pyrgos district. Pausanias states that natural fires exist at Bathos, the modern Karytaenia, in Arcadia, and bitumen oozes from the Cretaceous limestones of Nauplia in Argolis, and of Maratho in the peninsula. of Messenia. Occurrences of petroleum in several places on the Island of Milo 136 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. are evidently the effect of the prevalent volcanic activity of the region upon bituminous strata. The classical pitch-springs of Zante occur on the eastern side of the southern promontory of that island, in the Keri valley. A majority of authors regard the area occupied by the springs and wells as Pliocene, but there can be no question of its being of older Tertiary beds, probably Oligocene or early Mio- cene. Traces of oil and pitch, with bubbles of gas, are frequently observed at certain points of the bay between Keri and Cape Hieraka, and more rarely at greater distances from shore, towards the Strivati islets. Inland from Keri, temporary discharges of pitch and oil from earthquake fissures occurred at Musaki and Romirion. On the northeast coast, in and near the town of Zante, traces of petroleum occasionally appear in the Pliocene beds, and the author observed one such exudation on the shore. The Miocene rocks of Mt. Scopos are reported to smell of bitumen in places. MONTENEGRO. Petroleum of 0.874 specific gravity, accompanied by saline water and gas, exudes from Triassic shales at Bukowik, 11 kilometres southwest of the head of Scutari Lake. The series is penetrated by porphyritic rocks, and the formation. of the oil may be due to the action of the heat of these intrusions upon organic matter in the shales. At Ploca and Gradac, respectively 2 and 13 kilometres northward of the lake-head, asphaltic shales of Eocene age occur in small patches amongst the Cretaceous limestones. BOSNIA and HERZEGOVINA. { t Asphalt of like age to that just mentioned occurs in crevices of the Cretaceous limestones near Metkovich and Drazevo on the Narenta. Probably the com- bustible rock" of Polog near Gradac, some 54 km. northward, is of the same nature. The extension of these beds in Dalmatia will be described subsequently. SERVIA. Ozokerite-shales of Lower Miocene age occupy some 67,000 hectares of western Servia, on the river Kolubara, about 70 kilometres south-southwest of Belgrade. In lithological character they closely resemble the contemporaneous ozokerite-shales of Galicia. Similar beds, being accessible by railway, are extensively mined for distillation near Alexinatz in eastern Servia, 174 km. southeast of Belgrade. RUMANIA. The Rumanian oil-fields (Plate 1) may be regarded as practically continuous from the Servian frontier on the Danube to that of the Bukowina, although the most westerly point at present known to be petroliferous lies 120 km. from the Iron Gates, and the most northerly nearly as far from the Stulpikani and Braiesti districts of Eastern Austria. The chief centres of operation have been mentioned in the preceding section, and, with minor points, form a nearly continuous belt from the Jalomita valley to that of the Trotush, whilst natural exudations, and a few wells and pits, extend the area known to be petroliferous across the counties of Muscel and Arges, to Valcea, westward of the Allt valley. The petroleum occurs principally in the Miocene and Pliocene series, but the Eocene and Oligocene contribute largely to the total production, and the RUMANIA. 137 Neocomian and Cretaceous rocks may eventually prove to contain valuable stores of oil. These beds form a zone of hilly ground fringing the Transylvanian Carpathian Mountains on their southern and eastern flanks. They have been thrown by lateral compression into a series of anticlinal flexures, with interven- ing synclinals, bifurcating and inosculating in complex fashion, but parallel upon the whole to the trend of the chain of which they constitute the flanks. As a general rule, it may be said that the northern and higher-lying portion is of Cretaceous and Palæogene age, and the southern of Neogene, probably extend- ing far beneath the alluvial plain of the Danube. But in consequence of the irregular foldings of the series, newer rocks sometimes enclose uplifted areas of older, and sometimes constitute tongues of isolated patches in the synclinal hollows beyond the general course of their continuous margin. It is believed by some observers that a certain degree of disturbance and of erosion occurred between the periods of deposition of the several members, producing unconform- able superposition, and thus enhancing the difficulties of determination of the age and structure of the obscure regions. The recurrence of somewhat similar lithological characters, the generic community of the fossils, the frequent neglect of detailed observation during the progress of sinking or boring operations, and the want of accurate maps of adequate scale, are further hindrances to full scientific comprehension of the geology of this most interesting and important country. Fortunately for both science and industry, the region includes large areas, the structure of which can be read at a glance by the trained eye, being "written broad upon the landscape, and as structure is the point of primary importance in respect of petroleum, the more purely academic problems of correlation with deposits of western Europe and Russia may be left for future solution. At present the Pliocene of one author is the Miocene of another, and this, with other similar conflicts of terminology, renders it as undesirable as it is unnecessary to attempt to tabulate in strati- graphical categories the localities at which oil has been found. It may, however, be pointed out that whilst in Wallachia the Miocene and Pliocene yield the greater part of the present output, the Moldavian oil, as in the Austrian fields, is almost wholly obtained from the older Tertiaries, which occupy there a much broader area than in the southern kingdom. The want of facilities for transport may be another factor in this respect, for the Eocene belt in Wallachia is crossed by a railway but once, and at right angles, viz., in the Prahova valley, where its width does not exceed 10 km. In Moldavia, on the other hand, the Moinesci branch railway runs parallel to the strike, and between productive folds, for over 20 km., a most palpable advantage. >> The strata of the oil-fields consist chiefly of marly shales alternating with beds of sand or sandy clay, and occasional seams of pebbles. Limestone and compact sandstone are less frequently found. Gypsum and rock-salt are com- mon, and apparently present in every part of the series. To some extent the gypsum is of recent formation by the combination of the calcareous element of the marl with sulphuric acid, due to the oxidation of pyrites. The many sulphur springs," mostly cold, but a few thermal, result from the same action. Rock salt most commonly, though not invariably, exists in anticlinals as the position most favourable to its preservation, protected from the direct access of surface water by the compressed marls above, and from any lateral percola- tion by the structure. In synclinals, partial solution may result from casual access and accumulation of water, which, however, cannot rise into the closed anticlinals. Where, on the other hand, as at Baicoi, a bed of rock salt is raised by the dip to the surface, its dissolution, proceeding until the insoluble cover descends to seal up the remainder of the mass, leaves a more or less pronounced 138 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. ઃઃ hollow. At Baicoi, a lake marking the site of the former outcrop of salt was described in 1878 as 11 hectares of eternal" fire: "the peasants, making a hole with a stake, fire the stream of gas that issues, and use it to boil woad." AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE. Dalmatia. Asphalt-limestone occurs in several parts of Dalmatia, and has for a century past formed the basis of a considerable industry. The Neocomian and Cretaceous series yield the greater part, but some of the overlying Eocene limestones also contain asphalt. It is worked at many points on and near the coast from Ragusa to Zara, the deposits ranging inland to near the Bosnian frontier. Istria. The prolongation of the Dalmatian asphalt rock is traceable on the east of the Canale dell' Arsa, southwest of Albona, and it is worked at Carpano and Pinguente. The description of the material as "coal," not only occurring as lenticular seams, but as filling hollows and fissures in the limestone, seems to indicate natural segregation of more or less pure asphalt, probably an inspissated and oxidised petroleum, and (from the conditions of formation) largely, if not wholly, of animal origin. Similar deposits, but of minor value, and chiefly utilised as fuel, occur at Herpelje, Divazza, Opschina, Sistiana, and other points in the neighbourhood of Trieste. Carniola. A peculiar bitumen, distinguished by the name of idrialine, occurs as veins and nodules in the cinnabar-bearing shales, probably of Car- boniferous age, of Idria, and with the copper-ore of Hrastenza and Kraxen. Styria. Tar exudes from Miocene sandstones (Second Mediterranean stage) at Wiesmannsdorf, near the Hungarian border, between the Mur and the Drave. The series extends with northeasterly strike into Hungary, where it yields petroleum, as described below. Croatia and Slavonia.—At Ludbreg, some 60 km. northeastward of Agram, the Pliocene Congeria-marls are charged with oil, which exudes in springs. The same series yields a greenish-black oil of 0.845 specific gravity at Lepavina, about 15 km. southward, and a scanty yield was obtained by borings at Ribejak, between Kreuz and Glogovnica. Gas was discharged for several days from a well in these beds near Ivanich, 30 km. E.S.E. of Agram. Thick tarry oil exudes from marls of Sarmatian (Miocene) age near Kutina in the Moslavina hills, some 22 km. eastward of Sissek. Rock-tar is said to occur in the vicinity of Novska, where both Miocene and Pliocene beds are present. At Bacindol, northeast, and Petrovoszelo, southeast, of Neu-Gradiska, the Sarmatian marls yield small quantities of petroleum, and rock-tar is reported in the Brod district a little further eastward. Hungary.-Oil is stated to occur in the border hills between Styria and S.W. Hungary (Zala county) at Lopatinec and Zaszadfalu, probably arising from the Pliocene shales. At Szelnica and Peklenica, in the Murakoz peninsula between the Mur and the Drave, north and east of Csaktornya, the Congeria beds yield thick, tarry oil, of specific gravity ranging, between 0·910 and 0-960. A light, limpid, green oil is found by boring in the deeper-seated Miocene marls at Szelnica. At Recsk, in the Matra range (Heves county), traces of oil are common in the Miocene rhyolite-tuffs, but a commercially-valuable yield is improbable. under such conditions. In the Carpathian Mountains, Eocene beds, ranging from Turzofalu in Trencsin, through Saros, Zemplin, Ungh, Beregh and Marmaros counties, yield oil at various points of favourable tectonic structure among the compli- RUMANIA 22° 24° 26 28° 48 Egghaza Varda Namen Munkaes Beregiszasl Koros mezo Theiss Huszth Tecso Szathmar Nemethi Paleszczyky Kolomen Sniatyn Studeniza Markovka Mohilev 30° Golovanevske Plate 1 Pruth Kuty Chotin utz Ataki bodovka Sereth Vispitze Czerniz Jaruga Lipkany Jampol Vigoda Buy Savran Glinnoie Soroka Olgopol Putilla Hertza Dorogoje Bratusha Ketros Szigeth Sereth Kamenk Rashkov Balta Jeshioro Wikow Radutz Solka Merkuleshti Retcha Erava Kipik Banya Borsa racsab Stephanesh Bouchany Resina Faleschti Bieltsi Orda schi Kokovka Konezpole Strovo Ananiev Novo pavlovka 48° Waleguzube zava Kimp Hirlau Teleneshti Bihar Bodonos Tasnad Szlagy Bouilvo iba Falisheni ster Shishkova Issaievo Jagorlik Javorova Radna Baja Orgeier Dotna Watra Tirgul Skulan Formos Bachmuti Niamtru Pachlane Kords B Kaszta Wardein Feketetu Bistritz Dees Szamos var Larga Zab Banti Hunyad Leave Vaskoh Buttyen TRANSYL Bicazul Gyergy S7 Miklos NLA Bak Levinez Maros Vasarhely Mares Pictra Moldava Tusora Krulany Pemerorka Dubosary JASSY Grigoriopol Byk Katarshi Potropesti Roman Diffo Bistrit KISHENEV Leucheni Untzesti Husch Bender Gura Galbind Malashti Tiraspol kittshaugan Sharaijevo Bankovskaia Janovskaia Severing skaia Wash Kaushany 3. Leova Moinesti Thrud arva arlsburg Mediasch 46° R Udvarhely Schossburg Rens Erik Streda Sereth Pudjesti Gidirin Dalnik Oloneshti Odessa Berlat Berlat Faltsi Lieka Komrat Boredina Kulm Roshtda Ovidiopol Beresina Kongas Akerman Adjud Rakos Malojaroslavitz 46 Sarvari Dobra Mittenbach Kez Deva Broos Leschirche Vaida Hunyad Szaszvaros HERMANSTADT Matzeg Westeny Anta R. thenthurm Pass Fol Zeiden antelia & besci Folchany Telutch Pruth Kagul Formoza O Tatarbunar Valhoneshfi Pekia Bolgrad Katlabug Kunduk L. Aronstade Martinesti North Latitude Karan Thes Zsil Vajde Portelter Berbesu Salatrug Rukar kimpolung Pass Baistbetje, zat Maximeni Galaz mikesirkot Barbosh hi puch kilia Br Milneu desti Braila sake Leili Mehadu Schyl R Krivelnik W Bonchitza Ber Tchernetz Zinzeren Danube 44 Satchar Arzer Palanka Nisava Isnebol Firstrik Tehiprovalz Zibritza English Statute Miles 20 40 60 шот Citate Widin Scripetz Kalafat Girma Dom Smoropeni Zibr Saval Corabia Islacz Belgradchik Visedrina Wagim Ostrava Dimoyatzy Milkovitz Beratz D.Dubnik menopol Lukaviza felche Plevne Osma Beja de Ramargoshyl Ada Kalesi Gladoy Fulauk Radigerac Negotin Hinova Jablonitza Motru Baja Pisku Podesti Flemund Sitjane Mare rajova Radova L Pitesti Korbukamar tish Kasanesti Slatina Mirlesh Karakal Senoga Gindeni Gredina Ostroveni Hahova R Goyanesti Detata Vesirului Matchin Barbarasi Telitza Branco 8 Satanov Dumbovicza besti Tirgsora Royesti Kikinetz Intchu I Doian Yalomitza Milesti Pyrli Moldoveni Slobodzie Urzicheni Madeyi Hirsova Ottez R Poutare Bobertin Min Na Lada Svinizesti Draganesci Babils Kreatza BEKHAREST Fadiri Jalomnitza Bardujani Paragan Baltadchy Futesti Kopotni Kohana Olanitza Rusvede Vede Mogar Samovi R Glava R omni Lubnited Githe Putine Lissa Vichora, Մատու Bimnitza Veraska Krimi sot Lom Opertenik Arcopolis Sistova Bulgaken Studien Sara Kazelevo bat Giurgevo Baba Losova Rustchuk Kanara Halvakoi Obilesti Budest Kalarash Sulina Mouth of the Danube Babadagh Pranova St George's Mouth Kasimtchi Sitiskoi Tchernavoda tassova Myrlan Porticha Boghasi Cara-orman Kagharlik Roman Wa Kustendji (Constanza) Kuzgun Bechtirko Silistria Firtukai uteluk Kainardi Bojule Tusta Tusta Burun Avjilar Mangalia Ismael Tel Taltcha Tuschkow Letti Id Kilia Mouth Mouths Serpents I. DunavelS.George's I. 44 Kosovo Kadi Vetova Tehabansu Jusentcha Taban Mansikoi Tchabler Burun Rasgrad Hambarlik Basardjik Kavarna Biela Senovza Nikopi Jantra R Kubadin Yeni Bazar Shumia Speltok shot Esla Piand Baltjik Kosludchi Varna C.Kaliakra Sub. Tel. from Constantinople 80 100 24 Longitude East of Greenwich London: Charles Griffin & Co.Ltd. 26 28° 30 Stanford's Geog! Estab, London. Petroleum deposits shown in red. UNIL OF CH. MIC 0 10 UNIL MICH OF Plate 3. 89 NORTH GERMANY Heligoland Sandy I. 9. Garding Tönning R.Li len Henstedt Weddingstedt Wesselb Dorp ling Tellingstedt CANAL Bovenau Jeverstadt Bramerau ย Henstedt Heide N.Hadstedt Start Bordesholm Büttel Nordtort Büstan Albersdorf Hadengeschen Meldorf GBornholt wumstedt rumstatehom Hohenhom Schönefeld Pult Schaufsted Friedrichskoog 54 SAL NE Melbels SMickedom Freib urg Weg Pelens Meme Stade Bur have Elavanden Oldendorf Hogonal ings Geestend! Blearn Wilhelmshaven Atenso Wuled Glinde Abbehausen Wald Seefeld Neuen Daught Bodchon Dales Varel Rodenle Schureyb Bund Stotel R-bune S Wiefelstede Oregönne Jade rake Wergebe Asfleth Hagen Bramstedt fum Broda spory Nauenkirchen Brocka oxstedt Beverstedt Visted T Mael Bremervörde Asian Remuste Horneburg Bevent Schif Canal Farven D Kuhstor Sasing on g -stedt Harborgen Rahde Heslinge Zeven Oste Furchting Scharmbeck Osterholz Elsdorf Wehld Facsade Hamnic Stemmen OLDE NECRO Edewecht Lilienthal Torpe Mulms Steat Lewarde Grambley Burg Dehnen Rocht Valle R Minune 2 Rotenburg fhausen Sandlerule Hund Garl Botal Walsede SUB TEL RIVER Vogel Sand Chan white's Buoys red RIVER WESER North Sand RIVER Key Buoy 000 Minsen Tettens JADE Horn ht Hohe Hoole Schl S.Chan! Neuwerk Knecht Sand 12 Premer Light ELBE 0 Ritzelyütt el Cuxhaven Altenbruch ottemdo Aten valde Spileka Scharnste Midlym Doume Bremerh Sengarden Langwarden Jeyer Federwarde Kniphaus Sandy SWIG HOL Manenhandiek Bumstel Wilsde Splummeter Behan Balie Neuhaus hot Neuentwaldo Bederkesa um opstedt Neue Frug Groenas Broclatan Wederquart Hattinghusen Krempe Barmstedt Selstedt Neers lückstadt Wischhgver Gr.Colmar Waste Drodugsen Jostasbeck Hechthau Lamstedt Armstorf estoquinde Ringstedt Geeste SCIL Han alpforten Moor Tlzb Nahe Elmshom Seth Sester Tetersen innebe Fidelste Work hory Моргоши elmyle Bansa Morfiedt H With bed AMBURG Trittau Schönb Korver Kirch Stemb Friedrichsrye Berdorf Harburg Elstorf Sinstorf Collenspiele Paten Breitenfelde Medrow Boggend Ratzeburg Salit M UENBERG Schwarzenbeck Sterler Zarr Catun Leeston 1813 Younker Rolan Bichen Binnien Boizenburg Lauenburg Artanburg Brickingen Bleck ede Vectre ahrens Dobb crsens Cammin magenow Dusse Barskamy handhaw Dahlen bir Narendorf die Gohrde Dannenber Lentzer Hohenzeiten Grabau Biestede Gaud Krogaspe Remes Hohenstedt Diasau Rendsbug KAISER Holstein יונלי. 10° Friedrichsort Canal Kiel Schönberg Holtena Lütjenburg Raisdor König sec Nettelsee Selent Preetz Lebrade Kakad Heiligenhafen 11° Grama Naar chen Lensand Halendorf Gr.Brode Oldenburg Cismar Graube Grimiz Dalane Eutin Neustadt In Neus ter Ilenstedt humer Susel Sierksd TE Bom Damsd! Sarau To Schar hoved N Oldenburg beutz Rilding R Stor zehoe fellau Verienod Horst Hörmerk Hami Bramstedt Fuhlenruhe Leezon tenk Oldesloe Flmen horst org Am Himmels -beck Segeberg Kuni Sawaray Strukdo Stokesd LÜBECK Hambergen Reinfeld Bårnit hald forst münde Klütz 54 Pathil Danshagen Schle asson Siepote Greves dungen Schoenb Rice horst Crun Carlow Rehna Kasdol Thohldorf Ocharzoll Arynsk Cana Lingen Siek Nuss Wedd Alto Tamfelde Blanker Sichenei diena Harsefeld Trust Kteste Eschenb mumenbeck Gillzon Apson T Steddor Totensen hacht free gaga Holler Hfeld Steinbe Wise Rattorf Sittensen Schessel Tunzen Hassel Langwedel Sage Fahrenhorst Alhom Waile Gr. Schlac erden Eitzen Witton Stellachte Moc Campen Budoend Hassa Rethe Didden R.Haase Auc Sident Borstel unlingen Liebenau Steyerb R.Leine Winston Alin Schlech Rehme Perenh Goytreld Enger gholzhausen Forther BockB ASSEL Hamelu Borry 10 Detmold Barn ge TAI OI Blomb Lugde Pyrmont was Boden werder E 9° Beckhan Moorselhaupan Fehne R.Lohe Hulstede Rastle Gristede altumor Na ort Neuro Wardenburg 53 Friesoythe North Latitude Ostendung thenesd Bummer stede Sanders ho Dingstedt Bosch Hengsterhol Muching Brinam Lethe Wildeslf Harstadt Thalstedt Visbak Golden mstede artgrörden-step Vechte R. Starhath Lohne Hanfeld Bagrane Damme Dümme Vonlor Huntab Engter Oster- Cappeln Bissend Lesed Abu Glane Dist Vers W Cornau Drebbe Syke Helgerfeld Collenade Bassum A New Bruch Shausen wistrigen Barnstorf Worpswede Winkelsdor Ottersberg Sottrum ahrberg Theding rean Asendor Ehres hurg Barchorst Barve Bahr Diepholz Haselingen. Lehmbruch Hude Lemforde Diclinaci Wonderg Rah dan tit Lem Oldendorr BRO Bassen chim Waterbaden Schwarme Alt Bruchs hausen Vilsen Hova Balgudan Hademdo Lembod Rodewal Erichshagen ienburg Widg Linst Landsbergen Stolzenau ilhamst Uchte Schlüssel Piepenau Richburg Vocain Windham Ha Peterslagtede Wiede Lübbecke MINDE Hille Harn Buc Melle Ric Bunde Bimtohe Halle ehen G Bard Herford Hielefeld mold 52 Brokduga R.Ems Harswinke 8 10 5 Totho Foster Satz Tren 1762 Haus berge Stadth Eylvese Steinhuder Mee Sachhagen Sprochor Hel Mellen Basse Neustadt Langen Kirchhorst hagen tod Bohield Linden den Wetberge Bückena Steinbergen Münde Rinteln arnhol Bösung fela LIPPE Tengo Avelissenders Longitude East of Greenwich English Statute Miles 10 15 20 Stadt Oldend Deister Garder Heyrahassen HANOVER L Wulret Patten -slen Holt esen Reden wie Springe Hachmühlen Fischbeck Hohnsen Coppen ge Voru Mizel Bispe ode Grohde Halle Hamme dor Wallen sen shaus Ladde Bumage Adding Sende leidingen canarbede Malond Mtamp Wethausen Weren Bodentad R Grube Sprakascht Hankensbutte Eldingen Bedenbostel Hohne R Bergen Langenbrück Diesdorf Witting Ga Deringen Wachd F Schwarze Muiden Lang tingen Brokel Vetz Sars Ham Nord Menemen Escande GrLaurent desheim Betmar Crona G Bruggen Tunger Sohld Manjersen Betorar Chrdor Zazenba nesebeck WarendBolz Wiswedel Zollhaus Vesador Barwedd Westerbed Wolfsburg Gamsen Fallarida Giffo Rotger büttel Schwill per Thie Wolfen hous Barge nymfend ELS Waryena H Wrisberghn Sale Depute Balent Bonnien Alfeld Bockenem Lamspringe Whiten 10° London: Charles Griffin & Co, Ltd. Lut Beiram ster Shiaden Hoh Amgar Lohre Tollaserode SNSWICH BRANSCHWEI ter Weddings Salhal Peckenson Betzend Vorsfelde Bisdorf Königs lutter bisfelde Ret Bardelingen Garsleben Supping albeds Helmsted urg oo Leben Wefenst hoppens teat Groningen Rom ara mara Horab essen Rimbeck en Ausleben Gr. Britch Graber 452 Eisdeedsiene Dundesh Will Schwanchest 11° Stanford's Geog! Estab, London. Petroleum deposits shown in red. Ramelstoi Fattens Torted rade Schier hom Moor WeTle Undeloh R.Luhe Finerhof Bardowied Blücher Quassel Neuhaus LÜNEBURG K.Gallen Breitenst Elbe Kognit GrWede Haseman shaus Rolfsen Melbeck Finnar Hitzade Bienenbüttel melingh e WHaber Neuenk Hilla spingel Valgen Thiebed Bevensen Wide Ebsto 53 Visselhovele Soltau Hamster Gerda Triesede Ketlingen Genze Mainholz 0 Wart շավո Holdensted zen Wustrow Osterhol Hardemühten Dortmark Muda Reddingen Hamany Fallingboste Walsrode Wietendor Suhland Schnega Salzwedel Schafstale Bergen Mess பா Rebbalah idkeloh Eschode Winseo hausn Garssen tordan Wiskenburg Ceffe Neu Fulab Fubar Prati Brohne Parsin scallerslage anal Immensen Flechtor Meerd Winden Pein Wat en bitte GALICIA, BUKOWINA AND NORTH HUNGARY. Plate 2. UNIL OF MICT CH. 19 22° Mysl with Nicola Dzeczko Berun Ples 50 Oswiecim Winslow Sabierszow omiex Bradla Offasz Gaworyno Natiora Chizalon Kraszowice KRAKOWY Iwanowice! Nowe Brzesko Ozicka zeclaw Rzochow or Zochow Kolbuszow Klo Mildaszewice Partyn Sokolow Glogow Stobienia Czarna Wislol Hucisko da Lezaysl Grodzisko Sina Lolynia Monasterz Ozana Jawiszowice Zator Listky Podopie Shaw ma Rudlow Dried at Kenty Brzeznica Ko Bielitz Jourek Biala Pordbica Sleawee Byson Sywiec Weichsel are Raycza kow Mutne elesnia Skawica Ciecina vzawa Jordanow Milowka Wadowice Kalwaria debnik Vinarycho Landskrona Kocier Kolen Krzywood Mogilani MYSLENICE Gindana Wisnice Lapanow Lipnica Uszew Woynic? Slanice Pilsno Podgrodic Jaworze Brasna RZESZOW Cruded ycu Bastel Prochnik Jawornik Zembrzyce Stare Rybie Peim Kolaczyc Ciezkowice lanice Dubiecko Krzywce Babice Zuranic Tymkarl Grodek Jaslo Domarg Dynow Krzecio Mszana Bobow Biecz Holna Nienia Mogalicza byszyce Chryzna Biercza St B. abo Gortical Grybow Bistra NEL ebonte OsickTok Kro skorzynia Magura Czer Mutne Ossuskov Podvlk Pothora Lipnicza Rapera Namiesto Sanicza Chabowka Rdzawka Jablonka R Neumarkt Zabrze Jazows Manion Vitanov Chocholow Kroscienko 23 Tvrdosi Altendorf O.Falu or Pilyhe Javorine Relvo Guezda Patolinci Luble Play Lomnitzer Jakubia Spitz Bela Bringh R.Bela Matzdor от 49° Matejocz B. Kesakt Durand Vielebdna dibe oprad Hranovnicza Polemka Benyus Granus R Pohorella Telgart Gelmet Berharth Smizsan Stran Horka entschau Gotortol Vepor Sumjacs North Latitude abora R.Gran Diel Murany Dobsina E.Sago Podmurany Gocs Tiszolez Rocz Keveres Csetnek Nyustya Jolsva Rosenau Tima Bany Ratio Raho 26 Pel Peloc Szen Poltar Gömör Baloge Aatelel Car Tornallva Krupina R tenna Losonez Fulel Gede Varkony Peterfalva T Sa R Kazincz Csepa Sajo SPeter Dios Gyor cie 48 Czershat M. Andrastalva Petervasura Terenve Javany aszto ERLATX1506 Parad Egeri Ostoros Matra M. 27 Tand grad Kallo Hort Hatvan od rokszallas OPEN Kuru 1684 River Abad erkevi Lagvv Ki Er MoStvorgy Burt Kun Roir Hegyes ti Tapio Szele Besztercze Dunajov Vain Erdodka Tverhova Lokeza Arv Arva Veli Kubin Szaczon Rosenberg sztend Rodbiela Hurti Donajes Bela Bialka Bealy Donafetz Koscieliso Tatra Gr. Kriwan Szielnicz Wang PAS Miklos 24 Pribiling sampokret Nem Lipse 22 Jikolinecz Karoliralva Mosocz M Rivit R Felso Pentendor Hrad M.Dyn Verbicze Szoliszko Oszada B. Porubla B. Vazsfec colesna Bocza 1ptau Sova Swadha Ramga Jaraba Herrgrund Lope Bartasle S Brezno Bany mank Medzibrod Polho Krist EU SOU Tot Lipe Medzibrod Bodrany Bucsa Alt Sont 15 Granks Tabeth Banya Pojnik Polana B Beczov Visoka M N.Szlatna Miklosfata Dobrona Babas Szasz Podvigles vigles Fures ntosfalva Zelene Karpfenor Podrecsan Szenohrad Bupina Gacso Nemet Bozok ShanDalyka Bozoh Kello Esabreg Csab Pylart Batorralu poly Sagh Zalusany Kalno M Felka Lucsivna Rina Szombat sgyan Feled Rima Secs Sz Kiraly Pamok Fadna Litke Szakal 14 Lapuito Malves Zabar Nadakat Posteny Salgo Szecseny Nagyralva apelo Tra Vamath Locz Dregely Orosa Magusta Jeho B Neograd &Endre Veresvar Vroom Buda Mohon Wadkert Recsag Szecsenke Berczel Sendehely Naszal Guld Szurdol-Puspol Pata Apt Waitzen spol Hatvan yougyos Variz Macsa Duna Keszi Godollo Kerepes PEST Bagh Zsambole Baszeg Howes Stur of Boal Vecses oksar Koka Mende Ullo Tapio Monor Penzam N.Kata Domokos pathralva Tapolaza Derecske Szyasko Harsany Varpelet Mezo ovesta Halmaj Kerecsend Eor Kapolna Tarna Webro R- T Berenyo Heves SIstre Czath Heresy Mezo Keresztes Aroklo Eger R. Babna Poroszlo Komlo Jakshalpha Jasz Apati Jasz Bereny Slista Aured Nanas Dorog Kallo Sanjat Veres Nad Marsh irddony Encsencs Boszormeny adhaz Luges Omboly Fenerze Nagy Karoly DEBRECINOS.Peres velics Triny Tilmanowa Labowa Rytro e rosie Ander Via Hale tow gro Swietkowa Dukl Rymanowotarszyn ma Woloska Snbeinica Piwniczna zby Konie nal Krepme r Tyland TGrabh Dero Bukowsko Plastiskaa SAXOR Nowow Dobronnl Monsterzec Chyro Lisko 20° Skalmier Slomniki Opatowice 21° Szezigh Miele Przylek Raniszow Starydwor Owino Dombrow Radgost Nście Radwan Zielichow Koszyce inowr Szczurowa Uscie Soue polomice Szczepanow Wich czica Salt mBOCHALUSKO Mogilani Vigorice Gdow Dobczy Droginia Raba Zalmo fiadomys Zassow Bobowa dasonLauem gazne kie Lisia Gora TARNOW Wola Tuchow Lipnica irchow Buczi odlowka Lososzing Limanow Klodie Szczawg R.Don Dembiga Switc Ropczyce Wielopol Brzeg op Przeworbi Zabalowka Kanzugd Blazowo Blow Lawn Fivs Niebylec Waree Wallowa Brycz Rool Mrzyglo Lesze Zawky 23° Kozienka bublinace Gieszanow Lubac Potok Rawa Przystayni Reta 24° Bolanjec Radasz Potelica Kami Bota Magierow Tresciante Huctsko kowiec Pouby Pleska Wysznia Tochi Szehinie Rogo mo Masciska Sklo Jano Malczyce Mosty Wielkie or Augustow Kamionka Radziechig RS 25 Szczurowice Lesznow piec Radziwilow Grabowa Janikowice BRODY Buczyna Cholojow orodor Stanislawczyl Polonicana Toporow Bug Derewlany Sokolo asienow Podkamien Markopol busk Olesto Podhore Bialyamien Tinlikow Grzybowice Jaryczow losio Pussy Talent Wenbergen Glimay Miasto or Lagorz Komarno Szczerze Olchowie Bolna SUFLOW Bug & Harbutow Mszanica oczow Dunaiowe Lipiza 26 Adamowka Brusno Stare Milkow baczow Kremenetz Oleszy Niemow Babrosz Strzanilowa Zapalow Krowica Szczerzec ZOLKIEW Tadanie macro Wielkie Oczy Klodno Wielkic Jarosla Radymne Rokietnica Bary Mielts Gorin 50 Krakowsky Nahaczow Stary fazow 92 Lelechowka Mylatayn Nowe Miasto Olerynie Lanowce LEMBERGE Ozomla Laude Partalo sichor Sadowa Gale Nawagia Gasiczyn Fredropolizankowice Krukienice Hussaków Mystyce Wiszina Davido Kurowice Redhavezvia Lacki Gologory Pluchow Zalosce Bzowica Gatowa Mszaniec Nowila Zaskowice Nowe Koniuszki Rudla Mildura Wodniki Swire Zarudzie Zborow Przemyslany Poor Wiszgrudek Aubianki Lozowlat Zbaraszissze Czasniowka Orzechowce zaury Hrowce Raytorowice Felsztyn Torleswig Stara SAMBOR Dniest Mosty Kolodrb Dennia Brodki wybranosh Choderowce Mikolaiow Strzeliska Bruchowice Jezierna Placza Klebanowka Dorofiowka LARNO POR Trman Chodgerow Stopki Kannoni Woloszyska Nardiow Vighina Piasecz Papra Tylic Friesla Komarnik Ortik Cromomka Szczawne Seredie Solu Muszyna Palocsa abolto zboro Rolito Csures Bartfeld Mirolic Swidnik Gribova eskia Banca MLabora Cisna wice Jablonbi Busovisko ani zylki luzek Drohobycz Aniestry bolow Stare Miasto Holzanys Poczatowice Zydaczow Stronna R. San Deres co Boryslanica Solec Wollich Ther sho Volica Lutowo Isaie uc Turima Siebentenden Hertel Diether's Usiko Tarcza Czervonicza R. Gekeso Zeben Karotnok Lipocz Berthot 25 Szepes Varallya Siroka Richno Imrichsd Iglo Olaszi prompach Wagendrüsel Margitfalva Golnicy Hinder eller Remete Szomolnok Arany Thonia Hantor Idka to Metzensat Kasznahorka Moldau Varallva Toma 29 Do Osya Stropko H.Csebinye Terny Karacsiruld Minyocz Kajak Sovar Member Enyiczke alt SprHlynne Somos Varano Lene Habsan Csemernye Bogdeny Szacsur Opoka Budamer Banko Szinve Dargo Kaschau Galszec Jaszo orkassovia va Homona Desi Sztaca Mon Hocsa Firard R.Labore Rostoki Juontac Wetlina Olyka any-mez 31 Kapi Hrabocz Zsalobina Polend Zahorb Sebes Peries Numsalva Udwa Szlake sin Szingua Oculus Ties Stavna Kostrina Duhe Ormezo Tablonka Zabna Berely Tarawa 1 Szeremk B Shy Dolhe Hurnic Ruda Zurawna Typczyce Sokolow Mielnica Tinka Krus zel elosate Ihile Niz nica Synowicko Wyzs Korostow Zulu Morzyn Bolechow Czerter Soka Zawadka Hruszow Rozdol Krynica Bizozdow Mora Firicion Podkamien holovo Roliaty Knihüce Konusdi Babul Binazowe Famil bniki Burszivn Myszkowce Krasowka Mikulince Biariar al Struzow Podliaceotraki Clunietowica A Dobrapole Czortkow Turowka Grzymaloe Touste Chorosco Satanow Tybuchowce Mihord Nowy Husiatyn Kopczyna Plotycza hodackow BRZEZANY Rozowa A lota Lipa Kalne Skalab Skoromod Krowinka Treicbowla Tamoruda O R.Stripe R. Sered Janos Budzanow Kalisz Skole LSSOW Holv Wockie Vitezow Vitorlat Berecslce & Envice Varos Esecs Ida Kecked Nemethi Terebe Mocsa Myhaly Wosurkely Batki Szobrancz Perecseny Karesva Szeretva 33 Ungh zirgka Klonowa Sninski Kamen F.Remete Hankocz Mircse Lyutta Szolya N.Berezna Kis Borlezna Rovna Bukocz Paskoci Kariese Polonina Elrabanicza Picay Rostoka Wyste Koxiow Smorza Na Kliemiec Hrebenow Boa Mizun Tuckla Spas Weldzie Cynlawa Tuk a VM Wolostanka Lipowica Krasne Rosulna Slim ALYT Senec Rosmato STANISLAWO Lanny Lesiowica Liri Bolorgdczany Tysmniczany Makowetz Kemete Kamencre Poresky Hrabova Unglivar Telki Belet 32 Goenez Tesztreb Kapos Hluboka Szuarte Bacsara Szedro Bodva Basenyo Garadna Nova Ruszka Zempling Lelesz Vistoly UJBELY Edelény Ferg Say Aszal Hernad Varallya Patak Szanto Sziksz Tallya Liszka KPatal Bodrog R Skirmly dimeer Zahong Paridhay R.Latorcza Bodrokonyvar Malok Mick Besenyo Miskolcz Szerencs estar zigand Orma Kaszony Zom Gesztely solcz Balsa Theiss R. Taktakoz Tokay KisVarda Vamos Berglyszasz Back Aranyos Takos Abranka Tog aras S. Marton 34 Nvivesfalva Zadnya Gath Kisfalud Janos Berghofath Deregnyo Bajanhaza Szerenye Holubina Sutivan Wyszkowk szka Lopusn Popadia, Szolyma Biszira Neping Okormeo F.Vinicze szko Ravaszmezo Szinever Mitos Kusznica Vucdrome o Imsad Przysup Voloc M Pelin Polena Polonyas Polvandiss Polyand Lomnica R.Bist Starupia Slotwina Manjawa Hawrylowa Oberta Bisztra Zielona strica Nadwoma Lacy Kamionka Wielka Delatvi Rafailoya Dora MCsorna Nemet Moln bamna Wogrod Japan Gwozdzielaczkowe R.Pruth lomea Pynisme law B. miles Dolha NagyA Mikuliczyn Zablotow Ispas Rosniow Brusthird Orosz Mokra Jablonow ystin Rakamaz Halasz 28 mod Lok Koron Dob Keresztut Kiralytelek Berkes Bogdany Karusz Nameny Clev N.Szollos Mysay Szollos Var Ardo R. Olyves Vereszth Theiss Siektene Fipcse Bereznd Drahova Talabor M. Korosmez 2307 Monica Tarbata B. Krasznahora Kricsfaba Dombo Talabor Kalva Szeles Lonka f Tagy Tarna Tarpa Ujlak alic Szalonta Maal Nyaregyhaze? Teth Senyo Baktu Mada 36 Nevetlenila Fishe Fejer Halui Tuoz Tecso Paly Hodds Sima Napkor Mate Szalla Tur Apus Viraly Sapiente 20 Polgar N.Kallo Nyir Meda ves Sarka Vilak Batiz Felso Falu Remete Ecsed Fejerto Nyir Bator Fabianha Gelse Fallay Kraszna Csenger Bagos Domahida Sole Uvaros 48 Penesziek Soulson Piskolt Gende Darocz Kiraly Majtony Erled Erdod Szada Szalcasz Sz. Imre B: Karus soy Beltek N.Jeany Madaras 333 Szoboszlo Scand Dolna Buck B Bereszo omk Egerbat Tohat Er Semyen K.Peros Almosd Selind Tasnad Pele Szalac Mutos Czik Szop Sauraer Gaura Hadad Kardszag Jalany Dereske Margitta Szolnok NDersida Szeplak Rolese yarmat Pulesid Matocsik 37 Nembhi Ujvaros Aranyos Wegies Sathumar Esadany Tersmart Pretro Farkasrer Sah minis Sziver Vanilly Toba Miss Toulu Bardralva Sugatag Sunlo Szilva Bulfalva, Rosallve Mateda Naty Felso frama Botiza Banya Rapnik Banya Konyhagome Moleza Barala apnik Mesin meteKapolrok Banva apolnok Olah Lapor MLapos Domekos Szaldobos abolya Polvania 1 ANyereshaza Ροϊναμίας Stopurka R Koszova R Tybiscus maci Banille Slobodka Wisdinitza Lulawetz SBerho B. Rusky Hoszumezo Holowa Dichtenietz 35 Boco Warhovati Kruszar Grob Jablonita Patilla Szigetl Phonasze Theis Barlabas B Pop van Cze Hrynion Gora M M Nannilva F.Fermezely Leording Ruskova Farkut Tolvan Pietroze B. Czeramos R S Alliso Borya M. Szessual Szaczal Mojszin 177 Goldava Gallatz B Tokes Stoce Prebles Romol Szupla Teles Bertolez Rohi 19 20° Longitude East of Greenwich 21° 22° 23° Hollowco 24 Barva Mavor Kurlibaba Golden Bistri Cokaneschtic You Roding Vid Radna Radua Pass Jokobeny Waynalow Halioro zanka Jesujol Marvann Mavilan Puscieczna ezow Rozniow scie Horosciatyn Nivttons Tyshemica Caroloszce Kamiena Pietros Jezierzany Luka stirezko Korolon Niwerkca Kanenetz Cornelica Stemakoupe Daveniacz Choci Niediska nnerzo Otynia R Kinty Raszkow Rybaca OZALEZ CZY Howdenka Soroki Kadobie Szparka Brzywcze Drosdien Luschan Si Prelec Swiaty formann Kutsduurmik Zalucz Waskoia Unlimitwa Z ICHERNOWITZ Kossow Solowk Jasienow Uscierikastia Putilla Supika Plosko Kabestie Por Czernowitz Kutsdurmare! rosdionits Panka Daviden atz Serth Grudin Tomechtie Krsna Schipot Strascha Nessipitul Puttna Ropotschel or Seletin Schipot Moidowi Muschenitza WeFradautz Serey Moldawitza Frulaut Radautz Solka Rus Holdawitza Humora Ruspe Boul Fam Granitschetie Romanesti Hatna Jacobestic Sutschawa Litten Plavalar Parfeschtie Em mom kumpolung Poks hoja schorita Kapkodrulu le Putni Kiralla Chilischer Masanajerve Baja Moldava R Buszowice Zawalow Korzowa Monaster wska Barist Buczacz Dairyn Pamorce Jagienia Lazlowiec Probunde Czarnokonce 49 Potok Cluste Zesic lezicizu Zoxyz Sala Capowce Thunnac Duiestr Slone ODOL Rodhorce Hankowe Stecora ch Podolsky Kudrynce Mielnice Okopy Ive Onth etz Sastawna Davinogrod Chotyn Rakitna Sadogura Bojana Zarea Horil Gertza Terescheny Oprischeny Rakitna Novoselica 48 niza kop R. Posen Marching 25 0 5 10 Scale of English Miles 20 30 London: Charles Griffin & Co.,Ltd. Petroleum deposits shown in red Dorna Watre andrea Pornd Krutse 26 Stanford's Geog! Estab, London 40 50 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 139 cated folds into which the vast thickness of strata present has been compressed in these and in the far more important oil-fields of Galicia, as described here- after, the Hungarian side of the range being a comparatively narrow linear portion of the massif. The geology is less definitely ascertained on this side, partly from the minor importance of the region, and the earlier determinations of the age of the beds in which oil occurs are sometimes inconsistent with later pronunciations. In some districts, more than one series is petroliferous, as at Dragomer in Marmaros, where Miocene beds, occupying a hollow denuded in the older rocks, are also petroliferous, and perhaps parallel in respect of age. with those of Boryslaw in Galicia. Carburetted hydrogen is evolved from the Miocene rock-salt, mined at Szlatina, Marmaros. At Zsibo and Szamos- Udvarhely, ozokerite and petroleum occur in sandy clays and soft sandstones of the lowest member of the Eocene group, here rising in a gentle arch through the surrounding Miocene deposits. In Bihar county, asphalt is found in sandy, lignitiferous Pliocene beds at Hagymadfalva, Tataros, Upper Derna and Bodonos, from six to eight leagues northeastwards of Grosswardein. Analyses indicate between 15 and 24 per cent. of asphalt. The Lias of Steierdorf, Doman, Uterisch, and Reschitza (in the Banat) has valuable seams of coal and ironstone, interbedded with bituminous shales, from which an attempt was made in 1860-1866 to distil oil and paraffin. The yield, however, was too slight to be profitable, ranging from 2 to 10 per cent., with an average of 4.2. Traces of oil occur in the igneous rocks traversing the series. Asphalt occurs in the coal-bearing beds, Upper Oligocene or Lower Miocene, of Zsil-Vajdei, in the southwest corner of Transylvania. Inflammable gas is evolved from the Miocene salt-marls of Vizakna, Tövis, Thorda, and Des, and from Eocene and Miocene beds at many points in the basin extending eastward to the Hargitta range, and drained by the Maros and its tributaries southward, and by the Szamos northward. The gas-wells and emanations of St. Benedict near Des, Sarmas, Ugra, Maros-Ujvar, "Zugo," Baassen, Kis- Kapus, Maros St. George, Szasz Regen, and the Sajo valley lie upon the principal minor anticlinals traversing the broad synclinal, the discharge of gas at Kissarmas being phenomenal. The petroleum of Kovacs and Monostor, some 50 km. northward of Des, is in Eocene beds. Oil-films occur on the water of thermal springs at Korond, at Szejke near Szekely Udvarhely, and at Bugyogo near Malnas. Traces of petroleum, not as yet subjected to systematic investigation, occur over a large area of Neocomian strata at Rakottyas, Zabola and Gelencz, near the Rumanian frontier. The oil-wells of Sösmezö, in the Ojtoz valley, date from a period prior to their inclusion in Austrian territory by the modification of the frontier-line about 1774. They appear to commence in Oligocene shales, but these are so feebly petroliferous in the greater part of their range, as to suggest the recurrence of Neocomian beds, at least at the wells, to within a small distance from the surface of this much-disturbed region. Some of the associated sandstones are charged with paraffin. The Bukowina.-A broad belt of Neocomian and Cretaceous rocks, thrown into a series of folds, crosses the Bukowina from southeast to northwest. The Neocomian shales have proved petroliferous in each of the three major anticlinals which bring them up between synclinal folds of the Cretaceous sandstones. The first of the anticlinals extends from Stulpikani, by Kimpolung and Briaza, to the junction of the Sarata with the White Czeremosz. The second passes from near Brusturosa, by Watra Moldawitza, Roszina, Seletin and Dichtenitz to Stebne. Then follow two or three minor folds, one showing oil at Szipot near 140 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. the source of the Sereth, and the last main fold runs from near Braiesti by Sucawitza and Straza to near Kuty. Galicia. As far as it has yet been defined, the Galician oil-field extends for a length of about 220 miles by 40 to 60 miles in breadth, in a general north- easterly and southwesterly direction, along the northern slopes of the Carpathian mountains. The hitherto almost unworked deposits in Bukowina and in Transylvania, and some of the important Rumanian oil-fields occupying the southeastern and southern slopes of the Southern Carpathians or Transylvanian Alps, form an extension of the Galician deposits. The Galician oil-field is perhaps the most difficult in the world for a brief yet adequate description. It consists of no less than five different geological series, four of which are petroliferous in degrees varying with tectonic structure and lithological com- position. The sequence of the series is rendered inconstant by unconform- abilities of greater or less importance. The same lithological conditions recur at widely-separated periods, whilst synchronous deposits offer great differences of composition in closely-adjacent regions. Characteristic fossils are of rare occurrence, almost the only forms being Foraminifera, of no determinative value. Lastly, the vast thickness of this heterogeneous mass of strata has been folded in a series of gigantic waves, extending from the Carpathian watershed to the border of the Podolian plain, many of the folds being overthrust, so that both flanks of arch or trough show a dip in the same direction, whilst in some places serious faulting is believed to have increased the complexity of the structure. of Warm controversy has taken place between the several geologists who have examined adjacent districts, and formed mutually-incompatible views as to the sequence and age of the strata undeniably common to both, and the progress investigation seems to exacerbate the dispute. It is amply demonstrated, how- ever, apart from the determination of particular areas, that the Carpathian range consists of Neocomian, Cretaceous, Eocene, Oligocene and (marginally on both the Podolian and Hungarian flanks) Miocene beds. Of these the Neoco- mian, at the base, is an important oil-producing series. In Central and East Galicia it is always followed by Cretaceous rocks, apparently devoid of oil, but these are sometimes absent westwards. The Eocene, often very thick, is the richest oil-bearing group, and seems to extend throughout the kingdom. The Lower Oligocene affords petroleum in but meagre amount in proportion to its enormous superficial development. These four groups constitute the mountain- range, whilst on its margin northward and eastward follow the Upper Oligocene and Miocene groups. It has been a matter of debate whether the oil present in the Miocene beds is indigenous to that deposit, or due to infiltration from immediately-subjacent rocks of one or other of the earlier groups. In the Boryslaw district the Miocene, with native oil and ozokerite, overlies the richly petroliferous Upper Oligocene, without any migration of the valuable fluid from the lower to the upper series, save through human operations. From the frequent recurrence of lithological characteristics, as already mentioned, any general description of the several series is impracticable, each consisting of shales and sandstones in beds of very variable thickness and coarse- ness of grain. Limestones are very rare, and considerable thicknesses of rock Conglomerates, are devoid of more than mere traces of calcareous matter. though not uncommon, are seldom thick or of great extent, except those of the Upper Oligocene in the Nadworna-Sloboda district. Nor would it be less futile to attempt description or delineation on a map (of the small scale admissible) of the complex foldings of the rocks, sometimes running parallel GALICIA. 141 for many leagues, often bifurcating or terminating abruptly. The axial areas. are occupied on the surface now by one series, now by another, dependently on the erosion effected by the longitudinal and transverse streams of this region of copious rainfall. Frequently the belt of oil-bearing rock is of but a few metres width, the high dip producing on either side an excessive thickness of non- petroliferous beds. As a general rule, such belts constitute the floor of longi- tudinal valleys, the only situation in which natural escape of the oil is impossible. Where the petroliferous seams outcrop on the mountain-slopes, access of water tends to displace the oil, and exhaust the store. Copious natural out- flow is consequently an unfavourable indication, proving progressive diminu- tion of the quantity present on the site. The subjoined section, fig. 7, may be taken as typical of the Carpathian range, in which similar folds recur with constant variety in the mode of repetition. The orography being determined by the geological structure, the general trend of the folds, curving from S.E.-N.W. in the eastern and central parts to E.-W. in the western, is indicated to a great extent by the orographical maps. The more regular the parallelism for great lengths of the strike of the rocks, the more uniform are the ridges of harder strata between the valleys eroded in the Mielniczna. Mraznica. Boryslaw. Tustanowice. Sea- Schodnica. f defe edefed efedc 庭園 ​1 T @ Miocene. 万 ​d € c Lower Oligocene. é Cretaceous. b Upper Oligocene. d Eocene. ƒ Neocomian, level. FIG. 7.-SCHODNICA-BORYSLAW SECTION, 1: 125,000. softer beds, whilst, conversely, the regions of frequent change of strike, with bifurcations of flexures, and possibly complex faulting, are marked by similarly heterogeneous drainage, in which no common direction is perceptible. In the Miocene area, however, where drainage is unaffected by marked variations of texture, the streams meander indifferently along or across the strike. Besides yielding large quantities of petroleum, the Miocene marls are charged in places with ozokerite. The principal seat of the Galician ozokerite industry is at Boryslaw, 12 km. southwest of Drohobycz, and 70 from Lemberg. Work- able deposits occur in the same series at Dzwiniacz and Starunia, 30 km. southwest of Stanislau, and traces are found at many points in the older oil- bearing beds, the residuum in most cases of evaporated petroleum. In addition to the discharge of oil-gas from most of the Galician wells, natural emanations occur in places, Iwonicz and Turosowka being note- worthy instances. The Miocene rock-salt of Wieliczka also evolves carburetted hydrogen. Plate 2 shows the position of the chief oil-yielding districts of Galicia, but its scale compels the omission of many well-known names. Silesia and Moravia.—On the border between these provinces, “conchoidal rock-pitch" is said to occur at Palkowitz and Chlebowitz near Friedec, and rock- tar at Baschka, Friedland, Wermsdorf, Stramberg, Hotzendorf and Blauendorf. Cretaceous and Neocomian rocks predominate in that region, but in the absence. of detailed information, the bitumens in question cannot be definitely assigned 142 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. to either series. Between Neu-titschein and Libisch are found ozokerite-marls, probably of similar age. Brownish-black viscid petroleum oozes from Creta- ceous sandstones between Mallenowitz and Zlin, about 75 km. eastward of Brünn. The Eocene rocks extending from Ungarisch-Brod, by Boikowitz, to Bohuslawitz in the Vlara Pass, are fairly petroliferous. Tar is distilled from the Miocene lignites of a wide area, of which Czeitz, 40 km. southeast of Brünn, is the approximate centre. In the Carboniferous rocks of the Rossitz-Oslawan coalfield, 15 km. southwest of Brünn, hydrocarbon gases, petroleum, hatchettine, and valaite are recorded as of more or less frequent occurrence, and the over- lying Permian shales are highly bituminous. Rock-pitch fills veins in Permian sandstone at Wiseck and Drbalowitz, near Lettowitz, 30 km. north of Brünn. Bohemia. The occurrence of petroleum, asphalt, graphite, hatchettine, and valaite, filling the cavities of fossils in the Silurian limestone and dolomite of Kuchelbad and other places in Bohemia, is of academic rather than of com- mercial interest, from its bearing on the problem of the origin of those minerals, as their amount is merely ancillary to that of the fuel requisite in the limekiln. Retinasphalt occurs in the Pilsen Coal-measures, and sufficient bitumen is present in some of the Permian shales of the Rakonitz, Böhmisch-Brod, and Hohenelbe districts to render them combustible. Tar is distilled from some of the Oligocene lignites occupying discontinuous basins from the Silesian to the Bavarian frontier, parallel to the Erzgebirge, along the southeastern foot of which a chain of lakes extended in Tertiary times. Lower and Upper Austria.-Tar is extracted from the Miocene lignites of Thallern, on the Danube opposite Krems, large masses of pure pitch occurring in the seams. In the Erlauf Valley, scanty traces of petroleum and ozokerite occur in the Liassic coal-bearing beds of Gresten, and scanty dribblings of oil have been recorded from the Middle Triassic limestone below Nestelberg. The gas obtained by boring in the Lower Miocene clay of an area of some 850 square kilometres, extending from Linz and Eferding on the Danube. southwestward to Bad Hall and Grieskirchen consists principally (79.7 per cent.) of marsh-gas, CH4, and is odourless. The chief points at which it has been found are Wels, Eferding, and Grieskirchen, but similar gas is evolved from the historic saline springs of Bad Hall. Traces of petroleum are said to have been found at Grieskirchen, Ebelsberg near Linz, and Kleinmünchen. Carburetted hydrogen is discharged in the Hallstadt salt-mine, but the rock. here is of Triassic age. Tar-yielding lignites of the Miocene period are mined at Wildshut, in the angle between the Bavarian frontier and the border of Salzburg. The Tyrol. Asphaltic shales of Triassic age occur intermingled with dolomitic limestones in several places northeastward of Seefeld, the chief seat of the resulting industry; also at Leibelfingen on the Inn; above Aschbach on the southern flank of the Wanneck; on the Birg Lake near the Fern Pass; in the Gurgl valley at Upper Tarrenz; in the Lech valley between Stög and Ellebogen; and between Reutte and the Plan Lake. The dolomites and lime- stones also contain asphalt in nests and veins between Leibelfingen and Telfs ; on the Lamsen north of Schwaz; on the Geltenbergel at Wörgl; and at Häring. The ready fusibility of the asphalt causes it to flow from the rock-faces in hot weather. From the high percentage of nitrogen, and the abundance of fish- remains (with few traces of vegetation), Murchison suggests that the shale- bitumen is principally of animal origin. At Häring, Oligocene lignites, resting on the Triassic beds, are suitable for distillation of tar. The asphaltic Trias of the Italian frontier has already been mentioned, p. 131. GERMANY. 143 GERMAN EMPIRE. The principal oil-fields of Germany are in Lower Elsass and Hanover, as shown in fig. 2 and Plate 3. Distillation of oil, paraffin and other products, from lignites and bituminous shales, also constitutes a widespread and important industry. Bavaria. Asphalt occurs in the Eocene limestone of the Kressenberg, about 18 km. west of Salzburg, and petroleum in Eocene marls and sandstones on both sides of the Tegernsee, that of the western slope having been famous for its medicinal properties in the fifteenth century, under the name of St. Quirinus's Oil. Although the associated water is not perceptibly saline, it has been suggested that the true source of the oil is in Triassic rocks, which are believed to occur at no great depth below the surface. This hypothesis is the more tenable since the Triassic shales and dolomites are frequently charged with similar malodorous oil and asphalt a short distance southward, on the Reitbach at Kreut, as also further westward at Vorderriess in the Isar valley, and thence by Wallgau, Krün, and Mittenwald, to Garmisch on the Loisach. The Posi- donia-marls of the Lias yield oil by distillation at Aschach near Amberg, Mistelgau near Bayreuth, Geisfeld near Bamberg, and Banz near Lichtenfels. In the Höhe Rhön, separating Bavaria and Hesse, Miocene lignites, from which tar, etc., are distilled, occur beneath a protective sheet of basalt, and are worked on the Bauersberg at Bischoffsheim, and at Weissbach, Unter-Weissen- brunn, Roth and Fladungen. An isolated extension of the Oligocene lignites of North Bohemia, mentioned above, exists at Arzberg, in the Fichtelgebirge, 14 km. westward of Eger. The peat of Redwitz, in the same range, contains in the crevices of pine-trunks modified resins, of which fichtelite is a typical variety. at Württemberg. The Miocene limestone of Ehingen on the Danube is charged with viscid asphaltic bitumen. The Lias shales at Gross-Eislingen, Boll and Ohmden, near Göppingen; between Dusslingen and Ofterdingen: Reutlingen; at Hechingen in Hohenzollern; and at Erlaheim, Rosenfeld and Spaichingen, yield oil by distillation. Carburetted hydrogen is evolved from the iodine spring of Heilbronn, rising from Middle Triassic rocks. Baden. The Lias of Niedereggensen, 22 km. northward of Basel, has its hollow fossils charged with petroleum, and the shales of the series are again productive at Badenweiler, 5 km. beyond this and at Langenbrücken, 16 km. to the northeast of Karlsruhe, whilst between these points, the stream flowing past Baden, over Permian, Trias and Lias, bears in the older maps the name of Oelbach. On the Upper Trias, 22 km. eastward of Karlsruhe, occurs the significant name of Oelbronn, and the Lower Lias limestone of Roth-Malsch, 7 km. northward of Langenbrücken, contains oil in its hollow fossils. Petroleum oozes from the Lower Triassic sandstone of Reichartshausen, near Amorbach in the Odenwald, whilst a hill of Permian, capped with Lower Trias, bears the name of Oelberg, some 6 km. northwards of Heidelberg, and a vein of asphalt, occurring in the quartz-porphyry of Dossenheim in that vicinity, is probably due to infiltration from deposits formerly covering the area. Elsass. In Upper Elsass, emanations of carburetted hydrogen are on record in the iron-mines of Winckel, 27 km. west-southwest of Basel. The ore is granular hydrous peroxide of iron, probably of Eocene age, resting on Lower Jurassic rocks. Borings in the Oligocene clays of Nieder-Sept, 11 km. north-westward, found traces of petroleum, which is alleged to occur also at Ueberstrass, 2 km. northwest, and Bisel, 3 km. east, of Nieder-Sept; at Köstlach, 5 km. southeast, and Rüderbach, 5 km. northeast, of Bisel: and at 144 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Bettendorf, 2 km. north of Rüderbach. The name of Oelbach for a brook falling into the Ill at Hirzbach, 4 km. west-northwest of Bettendorf, and 3 km. south of Altkirch, is due to films of oil, which led to brief and unprofitable operations in 1782-1785, and 1817-1820. Mineral pitch occurs in hollows and fissures of the Lower Jurassic limestone (Great Oolite) of Sentheim, 21 km. west of Mulhausen. Gas discharges have caused accidents in the copper-mines of Mollau and St. Amarin, 30 km. northwest of Mulhausen, where highly- metamorphosed Lower Carboniferous sandstones are traversed by veins of granite. Traces of oil are reported in the Coal-measures of Roderen, 17 km. north of Colmar. Bitumen occurs in a vein of barytes, traversing granite at St. Pilt (Hippolyte), a short distance to the northeast, and the gneiss of Eschéry, near Markirch (Ste. Marie-aux-Mines) is bituminous. Oil is said to flow from an abandoned mine near Markirch. Globules of asphalt occur in dolomitic concretions with silver-lead ore in gneiss near the Coal-measures at Lalaye (Grube), 17 km. northwest of Schlettstedt. On In Lower Elsass, the Middle Trias limestone of Molsheim, 20 km. westward of Strassburg, contains viscous petroleum in crevices and hollows. Traces of oil have been found in the Trias, Lias, and Lower Jurassic rocks in the much- disturbed area between Wasselnheim, Zabern, Ingweiler and Wörth, on the west, and the Tertiary oil-field bordering the Rhine valley, on the east. the margin of this region, fringing the Vosges range, bitumen occurs in the Middle Trias limestone at Weitersweiler, Rauschenburg (north of Ingweiler), and Rothbach. About half the area of the map, fig. 2, pp. 30, 31, is on Secondary rocks, and here most of the occurrences of bitumen are in the Lias, but few in the Upper Trias and Lower Jurassic. At Gundershofen iron-ore mines, in Eocene beds resting on Lias, outbursts of gas have been experienced, probably emanating from the Liassic shales. The only profitable operations for oil are those in the Oligocene belt between Molsheim, Wörth and Weissenburg, on the west, and the Rhine on the east. The boundary of this belt on each side is a fault of great magnitude, letting down the Tertiaries as a strip of soft easily-denuded land between the harder rock-masses of the Vosges and the Black Forest of Baden, a drop of probably 2000 metres in the Hagenau district, but somewhat less northward, about Weissenburg. Between the opposing masses of older rock, the Lower Oligocene clays and the sandstone have been compressed into a series of anticlinal and synclinal folds, of slight curvature, but sufficient to constitute a factor of the first importance in concentrating the petroleum present in the beds into alternating belts of productiveness and sterility. All but an insignificant fraction of the output of crude oil is obtained from thin seams of sand, sand- stone, or sandy shale, distributed through a thickness of several hundred metres of impervious clays and marls. These oil-bearing seams are very in- constant in extension and thickness, and in their yield of oil. They appear to be lenticular in section, and rarely to cover any large areas. Consequently, lying at considerable depth, and having a low angle of dip, they rarely crop out at the surface, and thus are usually free from access of water and from loss of oil by evaporation or displacement. A condensed account of the four-hundred-year-old industry established in this region has been given in the preceding section. Lying almost horizontally on the upturned and denuded edges of the petroliferous Lower Oligocene of Walburg, Pechelbronn, Kleeburg, etc. (a marked unconformability observed by Mr. W. H. Dalton, and not heretofore recorded), there follows, from Gösdorf near Wörth to the neighbourhood of Weissenburg, a belt of Middle Oligocene beds, consisting of fresh-water limestones, conglomerates, sandstones and clays, NORTH GERMANY. 145 overlaid by purely marine clays of great thickness. The limestones and sand- stones are locally saturated with asphalt, especially at Lobsann, the product of which ranks among the leading European asphalts. Conglomerate of some- what similar character occurs southwest of Morsbronn, extending to Laubach. That of Uhlweiler, though equally consisting of pebbles and boulders of the neighbouring Jurassic rocks, is of Lower Oligocene age, and has been pierced in some of the Ohlungen borings in a position approximately that to which the dip seen in Uhlweiler would carry it. Lothringen. The oil-springs of Sturzelbronn and Walschbronn, 11 or 12 km. east and north-northeast respectively of Bitsch, rise in the Lower Triassic sandstone composing the bulk of the northern Vosges. Rhenish Bavaria.—The Oligocene clays of Frankweiler, 5 km. northwest of Landau, are reported as petroliferous, and a recent boring at Bückelberg in the Bienwald, between Lauterburg and Kandel, met with traces of petroleum and a powerful discharge of gas. Oil is stated to occur in the same series at Böhl, midway between Neustadt and Mannheim, and also near Offstein in Hesse 9 km. southwest of Worms. An oozing of oil from Lower Triassic sandstone has been alleged to exist at Ramsen, 18 km. higher up the valley of the Eis. Northwest of this, at 10 or 12 km. distance, traces of bitumen have been noticed in the vesicles of amygdaloidal melaphyre at Bastenhaus, on the eastern side of the Donnersberg, also in the cinnabar-veins of the Stahlberg, on the north- western side, and in like veins on the Spitzenberg, near Kriegsfeld, 10 km. northward. In the melaphyres of the Alsenz valley, the Lauter valley, and the Saar-Nahe region generally, traces of bitumen are of frequent occurrence; and the associated sedimentary rocks being of Permian age, hopes have been entertained that these were indications of subjacent Coal-measures, although there is also the possibility of their being infiltrations from Tertiary lignitiferous deposits, since destroyed by denudation. Rhenish Prussia.-Asphalt occurs in the Lower Trias sandstone of Aussen, near Saar-Louis, and oil-yielding Miocene lignites near Brockscheid, 14 km. northward of Wittlich; in the Siebengebirge between Linz and Bonn; at Stockheim, 6 km. southward of Düren; and on the Bensberg, 12 km. east of Cologne. Hesse and Hesse-Nassau.-Borings at Heppenheim have found oil in the Lower Oligocene sand, and the asphalt of Mettenheim, 25 km. south of Mainz, is probably desiccated petroleum of the same period. Tertiary lignites, yielding various oils, etc., by distillation, occur at Messel, 10 km. northeast of Darm- stadt; in the Lahn valley; in the Wetterau, Vogelsberg, Westerwald and Höhe Rhön; and in the Cassel-Meissner-Münden district. These range in age from Oligocene to Pliocene, their precise position, in the frequent cases of isolation, being matter of controversy beyond the scope of this work. A dis- charge of carburetted hydrogen is recorded from a boring in the Lias shales of the Lickweg, Schaumburg, an outlying portion of Hesse-Cassel, sometimes. called Westphalian, in distinction from Schaumburg in the Lahn valley, Hesse- Nassau. Hatchettite (or ozokerite) is said to occur in these beds. At the northwest end of the Deister range, the Wealden beds are saturated with oil at Rodenberg and Nenndorf, the asphaltic and sulphurous mud-baths of the latter being much used in the first half of the nineteenth century. Westphalia. The Wealden shales of Werther, 6 km. northwest of Bielefeld, are highly bituminous, and the Upper Cretaceous rocks are charged with asphalt at Appelhülsen and Buldern, 16 and 22 km. respectively southwest- wards of Münster, at Hangenau, and on the Baumberg, some 12 km. north- wards of Appelhülsen, whilst petroleum is said to occur at Olfen, 17 km. south VOL. I. 10 146 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. of Buldern, and at Walstede, 10 km. north of Hamm. The Schöppingerberg, 30 km. northwest of Münster, has veins of asphalt traversing Upper Cretaceous rocks, as has the Weseke hill, 7 km. north of Borken, and at Frankenmühle, near Ahaus, the Gault is petroliferous. A brine-well in this series at Gottesgabe, near Rheine, emitted brilliant illuminating gas for over sixty years prior to 1828. Hanover and Brunswick.—In this region petroleum, and its inspissated residuum, asphalt, constitute extensive and valuable deposits in beds of widely- varying age. The Devonian rocks of the Harz range contain bitumen on the Iberg near Grund, and the Rammelsberg near Goslar. Commercially important beds of asphaltic limestone occur in the Upper Jurassic series on the south- western flank of the Hils range at Holzen, about 45 km. south of Hanover, the product of the Wintjenberg and Waltersberg mines being sometimes known as Vorwohle asphalt, from the point at which it reaches the railway. The Lower Jurassic has here thick beds of bituminous shale. The Triassic potash-salt of Alfeld is contaminated with traces of petroleum. To the northwest, asphaltic limestones of Upper Jurassic age occur on the northeast side of the Ith range by Duingen, Brunkensen and Weentzen, and the Neocomian clay of the Elligser Brink is also asphaltiferous. Beyond these, the Deister range has asphaltic limestone again at Springe, and the overlying Wealden is reported to smell of petroleum at Bennigsen (eastwards). Petroleum is said to occur, in beds probably of Cretaceous age, at Wülfel, a southern suburb of Hanover. Between Badenstedt and Linden, the Cretaceous clays are asphaltic, and oil has been found in the Upper Jurassic, and also, it is alleged, in the rock-salt of the subjacent Trias. Northwest of this, between Harenberg and Limmer, the far- famed Limmer asphalt occurs in Upper Jurassic limestones at Ahlem and Belber. East of Hanover, at Sehnde, the Neocomian beds, charged with asphalt and ozokerite, overlie petroliferous Rhætic and Triassic deposits. To the southeast, at Hoheneggelsen and Oberg, oil occurs in the Wealden, whilst at Oberg there are also traces in the Jurassic, and at Oelsburg in the Lower Trias. Southeast of Brunswick, the Lower Cretaceous and Neocomian, and the Lower Jurassic on which they rest, are petroliferous at Dibbesdorf, Essedorf, Hordorf, Kremlingen, Hötzum, Siekte, Monche-Schöppenstedt and Klein Schöppenstedt. The Trias is said to contain oil at Schöningen, 33 km. east-southeast of Brunswick, and it yields asphalt at Velpke, 17 km. north of Schöningen. Traces of oil occur in the Wealden at Horst and Wipshausen, 18 km. northwest of Brunswick. Westward of this, at Oelheim or Eddesse, is the chief centre of the production of oil, which fills crevices in the Cretaceous clay, saturates the Wealden sandstones, and occurs scantily in the Lower Jurassic, upon which these rest. Across the up- turned edges of these beds lies a sandstone of Upper Tertiary age, charged with tar, and known as the Tarpits rock (Theerkuhlenfels). About 15 km. to the northwest of Oelheim, at Hänigsen and Obbershagen, the lignitiferous Tertiaries are impregnated with tar, and oil occurs in the subjacent Trias, the newer Secondary rocks being absent here. The same conditions obtain at Steinförde, Wietze, Hornbostel, Winsen and Eickeloh, northwestward of Celle. Petroleum is alleged to appear as films on water at Sulze, 15 km. north of Celle; at Verden, 30 km. east-southeast of Bremen; at Soltau, 38 km. further eastward; at Beispingen, 15 km. northeastward; at Barrl and Wintermoor, 18 and 23 km. north of Soltau; and at Bienenbüttel, 12 km. southward of Lüneburg. In all these cases there is a total absence of geological evidence as to the age and nature of the beds underlying the superficial drifts, peat, and alluvium that cover the wide plain of North Germany, with but rare oases where a remnant of the older rocks still resists denudation. A discharge of gas at Neuengamme, near Hamburg, may arise from the same source. A deposit of ozokerite is NORTH GERMANY, 147 DENMARK. alleged to have been found in East Frisia, and retinasphalt at Osnabruck. The well-known asphalt of Bentheim, 60 km. to the westward, occurs as a vein in Neocomian sandstone. Schleswig-Holstein.-At Holle, 4 km. south of Heide, Dithmarschen, the superficial sands are saturated with tar. Borings have proved that under a varying thickness of alternating sands, gravels and clays, probably in part Upper Tertiary in age, and throughout more or less charged with bitumen, the Chalk is full of petroleum, with sufficient gas-pressure to produce temporary "fountains." In 1881, an artesian well at Apenrade, in North Schleswig, is reported to have encountered a discharge of gas, supposed to be carburetted hydrogen. Saxony and Thuringia.—In the Höhe Rhön, the extension of the Bavarian and Hessian lignites, already mentioned, affords material for distillation at Kalten Nordheim, and also in the Werra valley at Kirschhof, near Niederndorf (Vacha district). The petroleum reported as found at Sulza proved to be refined oil. Asphalt is yielded by the Permian of Kamsdorf, 6 km. east of Saalfeld, and the bituminous shales of this series, richly charged with copper and other ores, are extensively mined along a belt fringing the Carboniferous area from Gross Leinungen, 20 km. southwest of Mansfeld, eastwards to Blankenheim and Wimppelsberg near Eisleben, and thence past Mansfeld to Burgorner. Ozokerite occurs in the Coal-measures of Wettin-on-Saale, and bitumen in the Permian of Löbejün, respectively 16 km. northwest, and 18 km. north-by-west, of Halle. Between Halle, Leipsic, and Zeitz on the Elster, is a wide area of Oligocene beds, the lignites of which are chiefly of the "schwälkohl' variety, and constitute the basis of the Saxon paraffin industry of which this district is the principal seat. Eastward of Gerstewitz, in the centre of the field, the seam attains a thickness of 22 metres. Small isolated portions of the mass exist at Börnstedt and Helbra, 13 and 4 km. respectively southward of Mansfeld, and a larger fragment at Aschersleben, 18 km. north of that town. Permian shales of Weissig, 10 km. east of Dresden, are strongly charged with bitumen. Carburetted hydrogen emanates from the saliferous Trias of Stass- furt, and petroleum has lately been reported as present in the rock-salt of Sondershausen, of the same period. The North-eastern Provinces.-Asphalt occurs in the Neumark district of Brandenburg, and at Dlugimost, in the district of Strasburg, West Prussia, near the Polish frontier. Here it is an infiltration into the drift sand from subjacent beds, probably Miocene, as is also the case with oil appearing as films on the surface of water at Gross Aplingen on the Vistula opposite Marienwerder, and with the gas recently reported as found at Dirschau. A belt of sandstone. charged with asphalt is reported to extend between Lissen and Weigmannsdorf, in the district of Fraustadt, Posen. The region consists of Miocene beds, generally buried deeply under glacial and alluvial deposits. Bituminous shales and "pitch-coal occur in the Cretaceous sandstones of Bienitz on the Queis, in Silesia, westward of Bunzlau. DENMARK. Bergmann (Sciagraphia, 1782) mentions Denmark as a source of asphalt, apparently referring to the Schleswig-Holstein deposits, noticed above. The veins of asphalt in pebbles of granite, etc., of Scandinavian origin, occurring in the Danish Glacial Drift, could hardly have been held, even at that period, to be a source of supply, or evidence of the proximity of the parent mass. 148 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. NORWAY. The native-silver veins of Kongsberg, 50 miles westward of Christiania, contain masses of asphalt. Gas-discharges in the Oedegard apatite mines, near Bamle, 80 miles southwest of Christiania, are probably partly of phosphoretted hydrogen. Asphalt occurs in pegmatite veins at Narestö, Arendal. In each case the surrounding region consists of Archæan gneiss. SWEDEN. A A discharge of carburetted hydogen is recorded from a boring in the Trias of Helsingborg, and similar emanations are said to be common in the drifts of southern Sweden. Where these overlie the coal-bearing Lias, such discharges are easy of explanation, but this is not always the case. At Nyhamn, several miles northwest of Helsingborg, the Lower Silurian slates, full of fossils, are traversed by igneous rocks, some of the vesicles of which are charged with petroleum. This is also the case with similar rock on the Hünneberg near Wenersberg. Some 20 miles southwest of the latter, at Torpa salt-wells on the Göta, much marsh-gas is evolved from marine driftsand, overlying a floor of gneiss. In Wermland, asphalt permeates the micaschist of Nullaberg and Gammelskroppa, and fills veins in the gneiss of Warmskog and Horrsjöberg. Bitumen in a fluid or solid state is very frequently found in the veins of copper and iron ore of the Falun, Norberg, Orebro, Upsal and Dannemora districts. like source may with every probability be assigned to the pebbles of granite and pegmatite, veined with asphalt, that have been found at Kiel and elsewhere, south of the Baltic, as elements of the Scandinavian Drift. The bitumen was presumably derived from overlying beds, since removed by denudation, but the time of such impregnation cannot be determined, as the area has been the scene of deposition and erosion, ever since the primeval Archaean epoch. The Silurian, Liassic and Miocene periods, all rich in bitumen-forming conditions, may each have contributed, or the whole may be of one period. Such accessions, whether absorbed by vertical porous strata, or penetrating by fissures, would escape the erosion that subsequently removed the deposit whence the infiltration descended. The frequent presence of carburetted hydrogen in these mines has been attri- buted, rather too sweepingly, to the decay of timber, but this, though a vera causa in some cases, is not so in mines where no timber is used. An alternative and more generally satisfactory explanation is offered by the presence of mineral bitumens, from which the more volatile constituents are being gradually set free, in consequence of alterations of temperature and pressure, due to the mining-operations. Misled by the frequent presence of petroleum and solid bitumen in the hollow fossils and other spaces of the Lower Silurian limestones of Dalarne, a number of borings were effected in 1867-1869 in the neighbour- hood of Osmundsberg, an isolated hill about 35 miles northward of Falun, by some victims of the then epidemic oil-fever. The failure of these to obtain any sort of yield was a foregone conclusion from the geological structure of the region. Petroleum is being formed at the present time, though probably in very limited quantity, on the shores of the Sound near Lund, by the decomposi- tion of seaweed in sand. It is, however, unlikely that much, if any, remains unoxidised or unevaporated. SPITZBERGEN. Traces of petroleum occur in the highly bituminous shales, of Rhætic age, at Capes Thordsen and Staratschin in the Ice Fiord. THE CAUCASUS Plate 4. 46° 44 46 44 Golovinskat Archentchu FNavaginski Constantine P via Dukha Gagri Brih R 38° Merdiansk Berdiansk Dolga P 5 36 Nagaisk Eisk Berdiansk Spit Obitochna Spit Kamisheva SEA OF A Z 0 V Fentkale Kerto Akkoz Takli Kertch Strait Yenikale Strait & Sub.Tel. Taman B Aktarsk L Achuev Temrink B. Fanayorit Taman Kuban, Anapa Alexandrovka Biskobisk R. Karpov Teherbinovka Jassenskaia Kushtchowsaia Kisliakovskaia Albashskaia Umanskaid Deperuanskaia LACKSEA roshichanaig Tereliev skaia THE chelba Beisugshaia 40° 42° Metchetinskaia Andrievka Sarinov Jegorlyk Ekaterinovka Novo Jegorlyk I Pawlowskain Srndne gorlykoi K Manitch Boltchoy L. Pechanokopoi Lietnikoie L Leushkovskaia Pregradnoi M Ternovka Medviezie R. Uspenskaia Archangelskaia Korenievskaia Novo Alexandrovskaia Donskaia Kalaus Kavkazskain Kasanska Tifliskaia Nova Troitskoi Grigoripods Ust Labinskoe Tenginskaia binsk Georgie fipstoe Protcho Okopskoc Armavir Kurgannoe Moskovskaia Staro Marevskaja Kuba Nikolaevskaia STAVROPOL Pokrovsk Novo Georgievske Metanoimits Bielo Metohetskaia Severnoia Stever C Bielie Kolodezi Striventes Petrovskata SACKS OF Kirpilskaid Medviedo Skaia Ivanovskaia Kepylskaia uban Varemkovskoe Nikolaevslett Revski Novoros shoe B I Sugak Kale Bay R. Kabardisk Ghelennk Novo Troitskoe Donsgia Kopanskaia VEKATERINODAR K Alexievskoe Tegenskap Bielogorie- telinskoe Maikop shish Tuapsetaminovskoc FLazarev Bielgia Zassovskie 44° 46° 48 50° ASTRAKHAN Krasnie Kopany Kurotchkina Bagmatchagovskaia Zinsitinskaia Salt Marsh Batgalinskaia MOUTHS OF THE VOLGA Salt Lakes do Alagan Ferny Alabuga Bielozerskaia Blagodernoi Burgon Madzar Kuma R. Sviatago Kresta Khuduckaia 2 Kumsk Laba R Sergierskot Vladimirovka Sand Steppe Alexandrovsk Alexandrov Privolnoie Tarakania Gulf of Kuma Sablia Akhmetovskoe Girei Tamovski Nadejinskoe Kuban R Vorovskolieskata Tachtamitchkoj Piatigorsle Nikolaevsk, Kislorodsk Kumarinskoe Woronkovka Alandria Georgievsk Kurskoi Pavlovskskaia Ekaterinograd Nikolaievskaia L Sand sovskaia Ppe Kolpitchia Gorkinskaia Gruzinskig Kisliar Mozdok erek R Alexandra grakhan Baksanskee Noyo Baksan Nerttchil C Kurzut a M. Elburz SUKHUM Bombor Pitsunda Tcherek R artchnoe E androvskaia Nourskoie Terek Ꭱ . Novo Gladkovskaia Kombulat Utch Spit R Groznaya Naranekoe K Umakhun Lurt Gerzel Aid Kasurt Kozte Kelentchi Indonskava Terek Atchkoevskoe Fozvijenskoe Maramba Madikardkaz B Ꮮ A C K S E A Sukhum Kale Drandi Rodor R Kvilauli llori Dargo Yurtoyshoe Evgen Teckne Petrovsk Tarki CASPIAN S Ingur R R Jerakhovskoe az zbek Holyo Dariel Sillur emir Khan Shura Gel Buinaki SE A C.Bulak Om 42 ups Gunich Makrialos Beda Anaklia Redert Kale Poti Zugdidi Hausdi Khon UT KU RiR Chai Mukhakrua Ft St Nikolaiazurgeti Shef Katil Kintrishi Zikhedziri Makhenjoure Batum Mcha kuten Khotevi Shatil Satch heri KUTAIS Khant IS Korbuli Clavskoe So Kerbul Orievi S Sharopan ebskaja GOLT Rushen Pasimam Kavato D Zirani Grole Aimalmskoe Whodhal Makhnsloc jakend Batlyg Dushet Tchalskala Kwaka Tilleti Kodosko Kabuki Detagar Megrin end DERBEND 42° klameti Kital shti Gartiskarskaia Kur Borshom Manglis TIFLIS Surtachali Akhaltsikh Khram Khertvis North Latitude Termeh Unich 40% Nella Tokat Demirlu Polis Kargyn Ipsala Vehikchan Kangal Longitude East 38° of Greenwich English Statute Miles 50 50 40 30 20 10 0 Karluk Gerdyanis Meliksher ERZING Kangon Komayor Karan Kara Su Palantaka R Parmak Z Bardakiel Bash-koi Ewijan Beipungy Kethur Mataklo, Melikhan M Merian BeliaR Gringot Su kigi Gemakh SIVAS (Sebasteia) mis Yarbasan Zimarra Ishla Deliklutash Divrigi Torus Pingan Eginy Ekree Sogutl Baradsor Dagh Keshuur Dag Sheikh Musu Bingol Ordu Aptar Bulantzak Tripoli Uria Kerason Karali E Isali Kurshot D. Fol Fiera Adabu Sarybaba Zuria Moadin egh Ardasa Geliverd Gumush Khaneh Kurukli Balakhon tryi Habya Lorrylagdeng Khopa Arkhava Majkchalar Dighwir Kataghing C.Yasun Faliza Bahadur (Yeros Platana Mulua aji Jevizluk Tarabuzun, TREBIZOND Of Sumeneh Rizeh B N Ortukoi Heinshin D Ukoi Ermeniko Kassaba Gumbet Merpropri KolatM su Melet Varu Tamzara Zileh Khad Khart Choruk R Ispir fisher oilu Hissar Bathys Baiburt Norklingh Karaghatch Karahissar Kosse Kett Enderes Plun Kelkid Karikalak Hunnsk Tara Aghanis kopsegalan Sipiko Pekeri Yenikou Mamakhatun Vabi ERZERUM Das Tatos Botchka Katsh Khal Akkalkalak T Tshkhan Bashkitchet Samiskoi Lambe Ardanufchdahan Shadyan Sun Sursuna Tchaldy Vorontsovka leverdinskij Chaldyr mut Tilan S Jamushly Mazra Fagnil Karajun O Daratchitching O Nijou Achti Temran 40° Aras R. Fondshalt Pathos Ardjish 42° 44 100 ondon: Charles Griffin & Co. Ltd. Vitzch Atina Laros Artashu Artviny igen Balkha but y Fertakrak Oshnakh Kishang Karmenik Okhar Bhanget Tavuski Mortum GOL Pennek Olti Nariman Bardez His Yeni koi ar Beght Kars s Ish Buluk Amamli Alexandropol Be Delint Guuri Tudja D. Kizilkilis Ahmed Maghari otarli Haji Bazy Bhatil i Kamish Sha ar D. etido Zeving Meji gird Kara Orghan Cetchevan Maghisman Delilahi la hilissa Hassan Ardost Klorgrsan Kalch Khurd Mopri Ko Eshekkhalins Avnik Ala Goz Bashabaran €1 Lutchekskoe Khurakh Kabir Kimo Nukha piaglinskaia Samikhe Shamkhorskaia Dzejamskata ELIZABETOPOL Ganjal Gokchaor Sevanga L. Distaral Noro Bavazid Etchmiadzin Kulps Sardar d Dagh Toprakkotch Mila Suleiman feligolasigirdo Verano Abas Kerti Has Got ERIVAN Akshaya Karanik Kannarlin Davah Sabaral Aralikh M Ararat Ꭱ . Main Khamur Chihiman Goksu Su Bash Yuyashi Ala Dagh Khynus Kunduz h Divadin Bayazid Whori Vol Kunduk Tendarek Bagh Gumgum Chaim Mele gerd Kilisakand Tall Boyon LIZABETO Tchemak Valama R Akhunsko Thate Gotchaiskaia Puuzi Kuba Kuzana S Velveli skaia Divitchinskaid Terfa Kiurdamir Kurpikiend B Alven Arbat Giumeshinskaia Sabad Diuinshaia Sumgait Naaginskaia Baku Apsheron Peninsula C.Apsheron Beliasuvarski Moghan Privolnoe Getgerski Bartch Sallyskaia Saliana Sieverovo stotchnü Nakhitchevau Alendjitchaisk Juta Urdabad 0 46° Kurdash Sarietakh Aras R Araxes iglan 48° Petroleum deposits shown in red Dimanski 40 Telav Bejanian Borem Tchirakh Karthag Yalama Kary Signal Isar S Kolodisui Bielokan Zakhata Elistusko Beganlinskata Khae Hass mskaia Zeivanskaia Terter R. Terterskaia Karabalak Bazn Jevat Gotl Sheik Bulakskaia Buz Khan Khendi Gindlbas Shusha Kurgan Kala Tepe Karadorainskii Kalakoni Ale Oglan Engelia Yurt Betchenalh Kiuvrak Vank's Tativ Steppe Shakauz Kara Su Kizilagatch Arkey in Zevirs Saral. Lenkoran Kizil Agatch P Gulf of Kizil Agatch Kizil Burun Thattan Toutch Kiliazi SHEMAKHA Aksu 50° Stanford's Geog! Estab, London. UNIV OF H. ICH MI فع 67°29′E. of Ferro. 30' 31' 40 241 N. 23 22' 21 20' 4019 100000 0000 BARU 00 ODIC 0000 0000 0000 X x X X Χ x XX xx + + Xx ++ Xx X + t X XX BIBI-EIBAT " FIELD XX חה OOU 0000 # 00000 I Kanni Tapa Hill 900 080 יור. 0.0 35 пло Sta Market g吕 ​נם 0 D 0 吧 ​32' 33' to Petroys to Batur to Surakhani 34' 561. 18 20 Kischte Salkhum Hil 0 14. Vuthan Refinery Black Town ୬୦୦୦ 00000 13 222 Nobel Bros. Tseturoff Koschtcheev Kolecnikoff Kaplan Drujin Co. Artemev Casp. Assoc. Baku Oil Co Russ. Oil Co. Baku Co Russ. Oil Co. Nobel Bros. "Kavkaz & Merkuri" Co. Trans-Cauc. Rly Wharf 28 ܕܵܐ 6.9 6. 10 8 Villa Petrolea 100.0 9 7 62 4 2 3 08 PLATE 5. & 67°35′E.of Ferro. 30 140°24 29 127 7 White Town COM 0 65/66 112 67 aa " East. Co.. Buniaboff Krasilpikoff Bros. Casp. Black S. Co. Tchiknoveroff Schibaieff Russ. Cauc.Co. Mantascheff Nobel Bros. COLD N. 23' 22' CASPIAN SE A 21' 25 26 27 28 29 000 3058 380 C.Bailoff 20 21 22 19 23 24 1838 17 ·d 37:36: 39 40 16 34 41 33 42 15 48 43 3231 47 14 50 49 55 P 51 Buiss.Out 54 XIX &lig fuel 44 46 45 52 13 3 5 2 50 A helof Mar aschen 6 TO 7 Caspi Nobel Blac •Seali Russ. Oil & liquid fuel ZabaloffC Naphtalan XX Schub cien Zubaloff & Co. Rischar Casp. Black Sea Co Gas Tankan Refinery Nobel Bros N 67°29' E. of Ferro. 30' Scale 1: 42000. (1″= 1 verst.) 31' 32' 33' 34' 20' 67°35′E. of Ferro. 4019 N. Versts 1 2 3 4 5 Sajens 100 200 300 400 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 67°25' E. of Ferro. 26' 27' 28' 40°31 N. 30' 1 1 1.05 114 Masazir Lake 0 29' 30' Mirda-labi 20 21 Lake 19 Lake • 31' 118 89 88 29' F87.• 12 10 8 44 Masazir i. 28 36. +35 24 £34 38 42 ་་ 41 46 65 4 180 14 36 193 Beur Dag Hill A 44 4 42 53 74 39 47 51 178 177 8 6 172 195/1 Binagadi 59 5 6 7 76 601 54 49 82 169 55 ...b 173 58 1681 57 167 XXV 63 Mud volcano 65 XXVI 7723 165 35 126 124 103 81 30/19 (78 J04/102) 76 28 A 63 Keurski (mud volcano) 138. 25 95 96 /27 62 137 106 68 61 98 88 119 50 144 128 129 16! 93 16 94 [1201 141 16 52 XXIV XXII XXIII 130 1 156 131 №58 159 157 153 154. 27 to Petrovsh & &C. Khirdalan -9 40°26 8 N -9 6 5 Zigil-piri Hill Dilwell XXXIII 67°25' E. of Ferro. 26' 15 54 16 Wells to Batum 27' 28' Sta. toj တင် PLATE 6. 32' 33' 34' 35' 36' 37' 38' E. o Ferro. 67°391 140°31 N. 30 Maamedli 30' 192 28 25 31 26 27 32 30 Digia 134 33 3534 37 38 16 3 مة 2 25 11.pa 18. 15 129 130x128x 26 Zabrat 124 118 120% 108 31 -A- 49 52 13 XXXVII Kir-maki Hill 50 107 106 19:18 29' 90 65 2021 34 114 110 113 87-98 105 (221 66 100. 75 77 38, 64 180 97 1/2 \ 102 55 61 37 65 ·7887 96 67 69 78 74 103 54 56 62 68 73 68 73 2 57.60 7/ 93055 57 5333 29 61 940 24 74 72 64 48 71 20 ∞ 2 2 4 4 70 19 I A 87 145 148 147 122 150 146 152 14 a 47 II 2 18 5 46 12 7 3 ↑ 13 15 لموت 43 /17/ VI DI IV 18 14 №6 10 9 42 40 Balakhani 17 X 10 27 28' VII 16 17 21 22 23 20 251805 12 781 115 45 44 41 14 15 44 179% 39 12 13 18 19// 22 13 14 15 12 13 Bog-boga 16 14 VII 26 178 175 15 // 10 XII 3 Romani 16 14 36 Hill 15 228 72 32 22 9 $29 15) 12 13 5 6 8 30 378 7 42 43 6177 40 44 36 167 168 1 37 24 I 47-415456 34 35 4 XIV XV XVI 166 155 of. 33 7 9 110 5758 ا 172 مم | 32 XI 3 $51 XVII 50 252 60 158 14 8 XII 2 69 28 67 70 66 29 7 6 4 3 2 65 طلا 20 17 26 76 25 91 24 Sabuntchi 196 124 22 23 34 Darnagul 77 83 162 165 159161 163 151 -470 1978 77 22 37 21 173 18 18 19 Romani Lake 129 131 £130. 21 23 00- 20 24 19 25 396- 27 89 ¦79 178 ཡིན་ 8788 1 16 Baladjari 29' 30' 25 37 26 2 27 37 5 3 39. 6 4 31'. 32 33' 34' 650 saj Nobel BrOS. Oil Storage Scale 1:42 000. ( 1″ = 1 verst.) Versts 1 2 3 4 5 + Sajens 100 200 300 400 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 MAP OF THE BALAKHANI, SABUNTCHI, ROMANI, ZABRAT, AND BINAGADI OIL-FIELDS. } -- (80) 35' 36' 32 34 33 98 118 84 10228 101,2 100 105 9492 104.96 103.957 115 # : 40 36 113 112] s 39 37 ط Bulbul 18% 40°26 N. 15 38' E. of Ferro. 67°39' • --་བའ་པ་་ S.W. S.S.W. I * 6 a tu m 16.1 --- - -- T T S.W. 4.4Ç. 1.n.es CROSS SECTIONS IN THE BAKU DISTRICT. عكزية --- . WESTERN EXTREMITY OF THE BALAKHANY FIELD AND PART OF ZABRAT FARM. I IN ANTICLINAL BETWEEN PUTA (TRANS-CAUCASIAN RAILWAY.) AND PERIN-AGIT HILL. 1 1. } SYNCLINAL CROSSING THE VILLAGES OF KHURDALAN AND HEKMALI. 1 Inch-1Verst. Sagenes 500. top spa 200 2 3 4. Versts Limestones, Clays and Sands Schistose-Clays, Maris and Clay-Sands. Soft Quartz Sands and drift Sandstones. Clays and Marls Petroleum-bearing sonds lying at depths down to 200 sagenes. Part of the same beds at depths below 200 sagenes. Existing and projected boreholes 1:23 mm to write mehr egy vasha # N.E. NE. 2005 d -am-nh --- - } NNE. PLATE 7. RUSSIA. 149 RUSSIAN EMPIRE. Finland, Esthonia, and Livonia.-Ozokerite was discovered in 1901 on the Kemi river in North Finland, possibly the same deposit as that investi- gated in 1743, when a sample was doubtfully referred to the mineral kingdom. Pitch ("mumia ") had been found yet earlier in the adjacent Gulf of Bothnia. Bituminous marls and limestones of Lower Silurian age form a narrow belt, parallel to the Gulf of Finland, from Odensholm Island, at the northwest angle of the Esthonian coast, to Djatlizy, about 53 versts southwest of St. Petersburg. The name of Pungernite was given in 1851 to a sample from this horizon, derived from a corruption of the name Paggar, the village whence it came. Discharges of inflammable gas (? carburetted hydrogen) are recorded from an artesian well at Riga, and on Kokschar Island. Archangel and Vologda.-Indications of the presence of petroleum have been reported to exist along a line of 280 versts in a south-southeasterly direction from the Tsilma-milva, tributary to the Petchora, to beyond the Ukhta, 30 versts within the province of Vologda. These occur in Upper Devonian marls, sandstones and limestones, and have been most fully studied at the southern end of the line indicated, on the Tchuti, Ukhta, Yarega, Nepyule, Goryule, and Liyayule, western feeders of the Ijma. Evidence has recently been found of the existence of petroleum in Devonian rocks on the shores of Tchekin Bay, Novaia Zemlia. The Permian series is reported to include oil- sands near the town of Vologda. Central Provinces and Ural Mountains.-Asphalt is reported to exude from Devonian rocks on the north side of Lake Escha, Rositen district, Vitebsk, and ozokerite, or a kindred substance, occurs in the peat-mosses of Kaluga. Subordinate shale-bands in the Carboniferous Limestone of Perm are sufficiently bituminous to burn, especially on the Kosva, about 33 versts south of Alexan- drovsk, and on the railway 50 versts further south, and 22 north of Tchusov. Combustible earth" in Orenburg, and in Orenburg, and "a remarkable rock-fire a remarkable rock-fire" in Ufa, are mentioned by eighteenth-century writers, and may refer to the Permian asphalt of Subowka, and the exudations of oil at Schakitau, both in the Sterlitamak district of Ufa, formerly included in the province of Orenburg. Petroleum and asphaltic tar impregnate the Permian gypsum and sandstone of a large area in Kazan, Simbirsk and Samara, from Syukieeff on the Volga and Lower Karmalka on the Scheschma to Kamischla on the Sok and Upper Orliaci on the Kinel. Gas is reported at Novo Uzensk, in Samara. Northward of this, around Sizran, the Carboniferous Limestone is charged in places with asphalt, and at Kaszpur, 7 versts south of Sizran, the Jurassic series contains seams of oil-shale. The locally-prevalent belief in the presence of petroleum in Volhynia (with alleged "greasy spots on water " and traces of "ozokerite "), chiefly in the districts of Kremenetz and old Constantinov, is assigned by Prof. Lazarev to bituminous elements in the Silurian and Miocene limestones, and to dop- pleritic peat, no commercial value attaching to the bitumen in either case. On the other hand, traces of true petroleum, although equally scanty and value- less, occur at Zalutcha, in Kielce (Poland), in Cretaceous marls and the over- lying Miocene. This is probably derived from a more deeply-seated horizon, as neither formation is known to be petroliferous in Poland, nor, in respect of the subdivisions represented, in the adjacent Galician oil-fields. Southern Provinces and Caucasia. The reported discoveries of petroleum near Odessa, Perekop and Berdiansk respectively may be fact or fiction. The Miocene beds in the first two cases rest upon older Tertiaries, in the last they abut against an uprising massif of ancient rocks, a structure by no means 150 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. favourable for copious yield, even if oil be present in the series. Owing to the extraordinarily prolific character of the oil-fields of the Apscheron peninsula, some notice of the principal portions of which has been given in the brief historical sketch of the Russian petroleum-industry in the previous section, comparatively little experimental drilling has until lately been undertaken else- where in the Caucasus, but there is ample evidence that petroleum exists along the whole range, extending from the Crimea to the Caspian Sea, and beyond it far into Asia. It is practically confined to the Tertiary deposits, and conse- quently the area occupied by older rocks, constituting the axis of the range, separates the petroliferous ground into two belts, united at either end. On both belts, oil and gas occur at many points, as is shown by the map and sections, Plates 4-6. The Kertch peninsula at the eastern end of the Crimea has long been known as an oil-field, but hitherto no great yield has been secured, although the entire peninsula consists of petroliferous Oligocene and Miocene beds at the surface or within accessible depth, and often with the most favourable structure for copious yield. Petroleum is already recorded from Zamorsk on the coast of the Sea of Azoff, from Misir and Karalar near Tchokrak, from the mud-volcanos of Bul- ganak, Enikale and Djerjaff near Kertch, from Temesch, Karmisch Keletcha, Djermai Kaschik and Tchuburtma Sart in the interior of the peninsula, and from Kaschelar, Kop Kotchegen, and Tchongelek in the southern hill-range. The Taman peninsula, practically a prolongation of that of Kertch, offers a series of sharp ridges, rising between swampy plains. Along these ridges, mud-volcanos are of frequent occurrence, and the plains consist largely of the mud which they have ejected, levelled by aqueous action. Petroleum is a constant accompaniment of the mud, but no large yield has yet been secured by the few borings carried out. The region is one in which three directions of compressive force have simultaneously or consecutively prevailed, producing anticlinal ridges with northeasterly, easterly, and southeasterly strikes re- spectively. The first, or Crimean, thrust affects the southern coast only, the second the central and northern portions of the peninsula, whilst the third, or Caucasian, is predominant at Temriuk and east of Anapa. A Passing to the northern foothills of the Caucasus, the commencement of oil- production is found at Suvorov-Tcherkess, 10 versts north of Anapa. Traces occur in this interval, and northeastward by Michaelsfeld to Varenikoff. long narrow belt of petroliferous ground extends thence southeastwards through- out the Kuban province, oil being found on the rivers Tchekups, Schugo, Khops, Psebeps, Psiph, Kudako, Abin, Akhtirk, Azips, Ili, Ubin, Less and Greater Tchibia, Il, Pschepheps, Tsits, Pschekha, Tsekotch, and Belaya, a range of about 200 versts in length from Varenikoff to Maikop. The principal opera- tions are at Kudako, Ilski, Khadijin, Nephtiannaia, and Schirvan. Probably future explorations will extend the line into the Terek province. The rivers named follow approximately parallel courses at right angles to the strike of the beds, which are of Miocene age, dolomitic limestones at the top of the series, The actual thickness of the group, as far as oil shales and sandstones below. is concerned, is less than 1000 feet, and there is a persistent northeasterly dip of 45° to 60°, so that the width of the outcrop rarely reaches, and nowhere exceeds, the thickness. The oil-horizons can of course be reached by borings on the northeast side, but at less than half a mile distance from the outcrop of the lime- stone, they would lie too far below the surface to be accessible with the drill, apart from the probability that at such a depth the oil would be replaced by water to a large extent, if not wholly. These conditions obtain over a consider- able length of the line indicated, but towards its eastern end the belt widens to NORTH CAUCASIAN FIELDS. 151 more than 10 versts, by reduction and reversal of dips, constituting a much more favourable structure. Ozokerite is reported as found at Ekaterinodar (possibly meaning an adjacent point on the above-mentioned belt) and at Kalatchin on the Little Laba, seventy versts southeast of Maikop; its occur- rence in the Khadijin district is well established. It is probable that petroleum will eventually be found in the province of Stavropol, as rich deposits were reported in 1901 as existing near Karras and Nicolaevsk, north of Piatigorsk, and not ten miles within the Terek Territory. The interval between these and the nearest evidences of oil southeastward is about 150 versts, to the recently recorded exudations near Bataschev and Astemirova, the former on the railway, the latter some 13 versts east of it, 50 versts northwest of Vladikavkaz. At 28 versts eastward of Astemirova, and 35 north of Vladikavkaz, oil-traces are noticed at Upper Atchuluk, and others at Voznesensk or Mahomet-yurt, 25 versts to the north, and again on the Arkhon, 4 versts west of Vladikavkaz. The latter point is on the line of a series of exudations of oil, some of which have been exploited for local use, extending along the flank of the Black Hills from Datikh to Dilim, respectively 50 versts southwest, and 80 east-southeast, of Grozni, approximately on the parallel of 43° north latitude. On the opposite side of the Sunja valley, the Bataschev- Atchuluk line is continued at Karabulak and Mikhailov, 58 and 38 versts respectively west of Grozni, on the southern flank of the Grozni range. This is here single, but bifurcates a little further eastward, and terminates near the town. Its northern limb constitutes the important Grozni oil-field, inferior only in value to those of the Apscheron peninsula. The most productive part lies on the northern brow, from 10 to 20 versts west-northwest of Grozni. Across the Nephtianka valley lies the Terek range, with the river of the same name beyond it, after a most circuitous course from Vladikavkaz. On the Terek range, no trace of oil seems to have been noticed on the surface between Voznesensk and Goryatchevodsk, 13 versts northeast of Grozni, where a deposit of kir has been recorded. Further east, on the Terek above Braguni, and 25 versts east-northeast of Grozni, oil again appears, and also at Istisu, 40 versts east of Grozni. The age of the beds from which the oil is derived has been demonstrated as Miocene by irrefragable palæontological evidence. The Grozni range is a sharply-folded anticlinal, between the synclinal troughs of the Nephtianka and Sunja valleys, whilst the Black Hills range, south of the Sunja, is a monoclinal of strong northerly dip. There is in the latter case another anticlinal axis at some distance southward, but it brings to the surface Cretaceous rocks, in which no petroleum is known to exist in the North Caucasus. Ozokerite occurs on the Black Hills line, on the Tchenti-Argun, due south of Grozni. Daghestan Territory.-Petroleum appears about 3 versts east of the Sulak, and 15 south of the Tchiryurt railway station, aligning with the Black Hills range, mentioned above, at a distance of some 16 versts from Dilim. At 28 versts east-southeast of these, and 22 westward of Petrovsk, are the Kumterkale oil-springs, on a tributary of the Schura-ozen. At 15 versts above these, oil is reported as appearing at the surface in Temir-Khan-Schura. Ten versts east- ward of the Kumterkale springs are the Atlibuyun oil-wells, and about the same distance beyond, and as far to the south of Petrovsk, are the exudations of Giik Salgan. Ten versts southeast of these, oil again appears at Kara-budakh-kent springs, at the same distance northward of that village. There is an interval of 60 versts to the Kaya-gent wells, 15 versts beyond which are those of Bereke, 25 versts northward of Derbent. Lastly, oil exudes from mud-volcanos on the Rubas, at Khosch Menzel, 15 versts south of Derbent. Borings have been 152 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. carried to considerable depths at several of these points, but, except at Bereke, no great yield has hitherto been secured, probably on account of unfavourable structural conditions at the points selected. The structure of the region is very clear as far as concerns the beds forming the surface, but, as these rest uncon- formably upon lower beds of discordant strike, the anticlinal and synclinal axes of the newer series furnish no criterion of the effect of the later compression upon the subjacent masses. The surface rocks have a strike parallel to the coast, but the same cannot be asserted of the more deeply-seated beds, nor the coincidence of their axes of flexure. Kutais. Returning to the west-end of the Caucasus, in order there to trace the Tertiary belt on the southern flank of the range, we find the evidence of the presence of petroleum less continuous than on the northern side, largely, no doubt, on account of the limited extent of investigations effected in the less- civilised districts. No trace of hydrocarbon, except in the form of coal, is recorded in the 180 miles between Anapa and Gagri, where asphaltic limestone of Cretaceous age is said to occur. Asphalt is reported from the Donetz coal- field (? Miocene), several leagues eastward of Gagri, and an interval of some 60 miles separates this from Anaklia, at the mouth of the Ingur, where petroleum is reported, apparently in Miocene rocks. Twenty-five miles further south is the Supsa oil-field, in Miocene marls and sandstones, with a large admixture of pebbles of older rocks. Oil exudes at many points in Omparété, Maghélé, Tchotchkhati, Guliani, Guriamti, Tchapeturi, Mikhel-Gabriel, Samkhto, Jacobi, Narudja and Notanebi. The asphalt of the last, being on the railway, is worked, but no large yield of oil has been secured in any part of the field. The severe dislocations of the strata, and the high angles of dip prevailing, promote waste by natural outflow, whilst enhancing the difficulties of access to intact stores of oil. Asphaltic Cretaceous limestones occur at Nagarebi, near Kutais, and the Lias of Akhokrua near Dzmuisi, 25 versts northeastward of Kutais, contains asphalt and ozokerite. Petroleum is found in the same series at Kheiti, Khirkhonis and Somitso, in the Ratcha, and near Tedeleti in the Kvirila basin, 70 versts east-northeast of Kutais. Ozokerite also is said to occur in the vicinity of Tedeleti, and petroleum a few versts up the Tchikarula from Satchkeri on the Kvirila. The Neogene at Kvirila railway-station is stated to be petroliferous, and the Eocene rocks of Korischi, on the Khanis-tskhali, 30 versts south-southeast of Kutais, show traces of oil. Tiflis.—In the Tiflis Government, petroleum occurs in the Middle Jurassic series, a few versts southwest of Tsona, on the Kutais border and not far east- ward of Tedeleti. South of the Kur, about 25 or 30 versts below Gori, the Sarmatian limestones, in a vertical position, contain traces of petroleum, which is also reported as found near Rodionovki on the eastern shore of Lake Toporo- van, possibly impregnating some absorbent igneous rock. Eastward of Tiflis, the Tertiary belt assumes a more regular course, and presents a practically- continuous oil-field, extending over 150 versts southeastward, its northern edge being near the 42nd parallel of latitude on the 45th meridian, and its width at least 50 versts. Petroleum is yielded in this belt by both Oligocene and Miocene beds. The compression to which the strata have been subjected between the older rock-masses on the northeast of the Alazan and the southwest of the Kur, has produced dislocations and flexures of complex character, and the practically- certain continuity of petroliferous character in the intervals between points of natural escape as oil-springs, renders it unnecessary to load this account with the names of casually-noted localities, only indicated in maps of large scale. The chief centres of operation are Navtluga, two versts southeast of Tiflis; the Signakh and Tsarski-Kolodtsi district, from 15 versts northwest to 40 versts TRANS-CAUCASIAN FIELDS. 153 southeast of Signakh, and extending southwestward to the Tchatma and Eldar fields beyond the Yora; and the Scherak Steppe. Elizabetpol and Erivan.-There is apparently but little petroleum in these provinces. The Geran field, 30 to 35 versts southeast of Elizabetpol, is the principal area, but traces occur also in the Kazakh, Djevanschir, Alexandropol and Nakhitchevan districts. All appear to be in Miocene rocks. Baku. The province of Baku, or rather a few square miles in the Apscheron peninsula, has furnished matter for more abundant literary reference than any corresponding area in the world, partly by its natural phenomena, inspiring every traveller to more or less fervent eulogy, partly by its abnormally copious. yield of oil. The bulk of the matter is, however, of statistical, chemical, com- mercial, or trivial character, and the geological structure of the region has but recently received the attention its complexity and importance merit. The age of the principal oil-bearing beds is Miocene, the deeper wells extending into the Oligocene, with much advantage. Yields from the Pliocene and newer deposits, which are unconformably superposed to the older series, are due to upward infiltration therefrom. The productive series consists of shaly marls and fine- grained calcareous sandstones, in very frequent alternations, the sandstones varying from hard rock to practically loose sand, in which compact masses of irregular size and form are more or less abundant. The oil-sands are so in- coherent as to be brought up in large quantities with the oil, sometimes con- stituting in “fountains" 25 or 30 per cent. of the mass discharged, and preclud- ing the use of ordinary pumps in wells that do not flow. The "sand-pump or "bailer " requisite in such cases will be described in a later section. Masses of compact rock are occasionally hurled forth by the fountains, or by the powerful jets of gas set free by penetration of the confining strata. It is said that stones are sometimes propelled to a height of 250 metres, and the ejection of the drilling-tools is of frequent occurrence. The upturned and denuded edges of the Oligocene are largely covered by Pliocene and later deposits, which have also suffered a certain degree of dis- turbance. As the movements which these later rocks have experienced were in a direction oblique to the normal strike of the older series, their undulations afford no criterion as to those of the much more disturbed beds below. The effect of the secondary pressure in a direction oblique to that of prior folds must have produced a resultant structure far more complex than the most intense action in a uniform direction. As the mass subjected to such diverse. consecutive compression consisted primarily of wedge-shaped deposits of varying dimensions and compactness, with irregular powers of resistance to deformation, the complexity of its ultimate structure is necessarily much en- hanced, and it is not surprising in consequence to find that wells within a few yards of each other penetrate very different sequences of strata, and strike masses of petroliferous sand wholly disconnected and diverse in depth, hydro- static pressure and other conditions. This complexity, however, does not involve the impossibility of ultimate explanation of the apparent chaos by calculation from properly-kept records of strata traversed, records equally serviceable to science whether a boring be productive or fruitless. Total depth and yield of oil are trivial data in comparison with accurate accounts of the overlying beds. There is a tendency to confound approximation in depth from surface with true equivalence of oil-seams, and to speak of "the second, third or fourth horizon as identical throughout the field, irrespective of surface-elevation, high dips, and faulting. It is evident that the topmost oil of one well may be really the deepest of another, or vice versa. Unless a definitely recognisable 154 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. stratum affords a datum for comparison, the petroliferous seams of each well can only be numbered independently of all others. Even hydrostatic connec- tion, evidenced by mutual relations of discharge, does not prove identity, since fractures and dislocations may have brought portions of different seams into such casual communication. Professor H. Sjögren, of the Upsala University, in his elaborately detailed description of the geology of the Apscheron Peninsula, published in the Pro- ceedings of the Stockholm Geological Society, considered that, on account of the disturbed condition of the oil-bearing series, no general deductions of practical value as a guide to the selection of the most suitable spots for boring, could be drawn from the then existing data, nor did he regard it as safe to predict which portion of the peninsula would ultimately prove to be the most prolific. At one time the rich Romani field was held to be of very small promise. Oil is found at widely different depths even in closely adjacent wells, and the yield usually increases proportionally with the depth, whilst owing to the dislocated state of the beds, little or no hydrostatic connection exists between the productive masses of sand, each constituting a practically-inde- pendent source of supply. There have been recorded, however, notable in- stances of direct communication between wells at some distance apart. Improvement in drilling apparatus and in technical skill, stimulated by indications of exhaustion of the uppermost oil-seams, has resulted in constant increase in the depth at which oil has been reached, accompanied as a general rule by a proportionally greater yield. In 1862 Abich assigned 70 feet as a maximum depth; in 1873 Trautschold extended this to 200; in 1884 Ragozine mentions 500; the first edition of this work, 1896, recorded 1450, and some recent borings have exceeded 2000 feet. Sections of the Baku fields, generalised to an extent making them merely diagrammatic, are given on Plate 7 from a report of N. Barbot de Marni. The gas-fields of Russia are co-extensive with oil-fields, and no attempts have yet been made to work them independently. The actual output of gas from the principal wells, and the exact pressure at which it issues, are not known, though it has been estimated that some of the Baku wells discharge their oil at a pressure of about 300 lbs. per square inch. દ In view of the identity of age of the oil-bearing series of the province, brief mention in geographical sequence, of the several fields or isolated occur- rences as yet known will suffice to indicate the extensive area within which oil is present, except in the occasional protrusion of Eocene or Cretaceous rocks. The most westerly points calling for attention are Kinalugi, on the northern slope of the Schah-dag, and Boscha, in the Gerdiman valley southeast of Baba- eternal fire." Oil is said to occur on the dag, where occur emanations of gas, Mugan Steppe, on both sides of the Persian frontier, but this is probably in Neogene strata, and newer than that of the rest of the province. At Schem- akha; at Khilmil, 17 versts northeast of Schemakha; at a point between Marazin and Kurbantchi, 28 versts east-southeast of Schemakha, and at Djevat on the Kur, oil has been found in fair quantity, but development has not reached an important stage. It is otherwise in the rest of the area, the petro- liferous ground of which is accessible by sea or railway, without prohibitive difficulties of transport, viz., in the coastal belt extending from the delta of the Kur to that of the Kuba. Petroleum is found on Kizil Agatch Bay, by Khan kischlag, Bojii Promysl, Salyani, Zubov, Navagi, Alyati, Pilpilla, Schuraga, Osmandag, Djengin, Karakischlag, Nopht, Maganna, Karaibasch, Kyurgez, Lok Botan, Puta, and the Jasmal Plain to Bibi-Eibat. Off the coast are several BAKU, ASIATIC RUSSIA. 155 islands formed by the ejection of mud by oil and gas rising in the sea-bed. One named Kumani, formed in 1861, has vanished, and others have had too brief an existence to receive the attention of cartographers. The most important of those still resisting the waves are Kurin, Pogorellaia Plita, Oblivnoi, Svinoi, Los, Glinyansi, Bulla and Duvani. These are collectively known as the Glinyanoi (Mud) Islands, and their positions are on the prolonged axes of the anticlinals of the mainland. On Apscheron, the oil-fields around Boog, Gekmal, Khurdalan and Serai, at the base of the peninsula, are practically continuous with the far-famed belt of Binagadi, Balakhani, Sabuntchi, Romani and Sura- khani; eastward at Kala and Sviatoi (Holy) Island are separated points, and recent exploration has met with a certain measure of success about Phatmai, Masazir, and other spots north of the Balakhani zone. Beyond Apscheron, the coastal plain has oil at Kilyazi, Khidirzindi, and Kizil Burun, but under less favourable structural conditions than those obtaining to the southward, so that no important development has yet been effected, and it is believed by some authors that some at least of the oil detected occurs in Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks, uplifted at high angles, and covered unconformably by the Tertiary deposits. Although these lower rocks, extending throughout the Caucasian range, exhibit, as already mentioned, traces of bitumen here and there, they are unlikely to furnish petroleum in amount of commercial value, and in the case of Kilyazi and Khidirzindi there is reason to assign the oil they contain to downward infiltration from the Tertiary beds, even where these have been locally removed by denudation. Of the submarine emanations of oil and gas, several occur on and near the islands already named, whilst on the northeast of Apscheron, about 3 versts off Busorna, an island was formed in 1892, and lasted a few weeks, leaving a shoal where there had previously been a depth of 50 to 60 feet. Some 5 versts eastward of this a shoal was then found to have risen from a depth of 80 feet to within 3 feet of the surface, having in its centre a hole 4 feet in diameter and 100 feet deep, full of mud in a state of ebullition from the escape of gas. 80 versts eastward of Baku, the "Naphtha-Bank" shows projecting rocks of petroliferous sandstone, and 100 versts thence to east-southeast, mud-discharge has reduced the charted depth by 150 feet. ASIATIC RUSSIA. Uralsk.-An extensive oil-field exists across the lower parts of the basins of the Uil, Sagiz, and Emba, ranging inland over 100 versts from the shores of the Caspian, and stretching from near Prorwa Island on the 46th parallel of latitude nearly to the 48th. Indications of a second oil-belt are said to occur at Port Uilsk and at some ill-defined points in the upper valley of the Emba. The geological age and structure of these (which for the present may be presumed alike in both, though not yet determined with any degree of precision) may be provisionally described as a complex of Cretaceous and Permian strata, the latter outcropping along the more pronounced anticlinal flexures. Much of the surface is masked by Quaternary deposits, and the rising land of the Ust- Urt plateau southward consists of Paleogene and Neogene rocks. The oil differs from that of the Baku field by its large percentage of paraffin, and associated seams of ozokerite, but these constitute no criterion of age, in the absence of trustworthy data for stratigraphical determination. Western Siberia. In the Turgai province, oil is reported to occur on the Djusie River, and in the Semipalatinsk dopplerite or tarry asphalt is said to 156 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. cover some 80 square versts to the thickness of an inch or two, around the Alagul salt-lake, southwest of Lake Balkash. on Eastern Siberia.-Petroleum is reported in Minusinsk, and "earth-fire the Lower Tunguska; the latter may, however, be of peat or coal, burning in situ. The Jurassic rocks on the Angara, 35 versts below Irkutsk, give rise to an oil-spring. Masses of ozokerite are cast up on the southeastern shores of Lake Baikal, and petroleum occurs in the Selengin district, but the complex geology of the region leaves the age and extent of the deposit doubtful. The oozings of oil near Koltsova, on the Amur river, 265 versts above Blago- veschensk, from amygdaloidal melaphyre, intrusive through granitic rocks, have a possible explanation in the Miocene deposits which at no distant period covered this region, and which are extensively petroliferous in the northeastern part of Sakhalin island. Traces of oil occur near the source of the Schemjetch, on the eastern side of Kamtchatka, about 55° N., 160° E., in Tertiary, and probably Miocene, beds. Springs of a fluid resembling crude oil are reported as frequent in the Tchukot region of the northeastern coast of the Yakoutsk province, and eastward on Baranov Bay and the Baranikha and Great Rivers. The source of these may be doppleritic tundra, or subjacent Tertiary rocks. Ferghana. Two distinct oil-horizons, of Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary age respectively, occupy a fairly wide area in common in the Andidjan, Namangan, Marghilan, and Kokand districts, the chief points of development being at Maili Su, Tchangir-tasch, the Tokebel Hills, the Sching and Unka valleys, Maili Sai, Kitchik-schai, Kanibad, Lyakan, and Kamisch Basch. The Tchimion oil contains a large percentage of paraffin, and ozokerite is mined at Kanibad and Lyakan. Traces of oil continue westward to the districts of Kostakoz and Kanibadam, on the border of the Syr Darya province. Zaravschan. Traces of petroleum are reported to exist on the northern slope of Khazret-i-Sultan, oozing from Tertiary clays, and in Bokhara the Shirobodi oil is used as fuel on locomotives on the Turkestan railway. It is not clear in what region Alexander's servant Proxenus discovered petroleum on the banks of the Oxus or Amu Darya, as recorded by Plutarch, but on the Syr Darya, about 35 miles from the Lake of Aral, is a region bearing the name Mailibashi, connoting the presence of oil (maili), either native or brought thither by the river. Transcaspia.-There are reports of the occurrence of oil near Merv and Sarakh Serakhs, at Derbent-nefte, a frontier-fort 35 versts from Duschak station, at Kaaka, and other points of the Kopet range. Exploitation is in progress on the Buyadag and Nephtedag, near the Caspian shore, and respect- ively 60 versts south-southeast, and 30 south-southwest, of Bala Ischem Strabo refers to oil occurring on the Ochus or Atrek, which is supposed to have formerly entered the Caspian 130 versts northward of its present mouth, and not far from the sites now under operation. To the west, the Island of Tcheleken is rich in petroleum and ozokerite. These Transcaspian localities have been thought to represent the Asiatic prolongation of the Apscheron oil bearing series, of Oligocene age, but this hypothesis is wholly untenable. Their approximate alignment therewith is more apparent than real, for their strike is markedly oblique to that line. It is stated also that the rocks constituting the surface are of Pliocene or yet newer age, equivalent to those which in Apscheron unconformably overlie the productive series, and contain only oil derived there- from by leakage. Similar derivation in Transcaspia cannot be held as an argument for equivalence of the subjacent series, and the different character of the oil, rich in paraffin, although not in itself a factor of decisive weight, is at TRANSCASPIA, PERSIA. 157 least significant in view of the facts already set forth, of Eocene and older petroleum occurring on the Asiatic side, whilst in Georgia and Mesopotamia the 6 Per- Miocene or newer deposits are the chief or only source of petroleum. petual fire," as recorded at Baschkiri-Ural, near Sulp-Oul on the Mangischlak peninsula, and black oil "on Mount Irnek, on the Kirghiz-Khiva frontier," would appear to be in the same region, but these local names are undiscoverable, and no mention of the fire or of oil is made by later students of the geology of the Mangischlak, in which Paleozoic, Secondary and Tertiary rocks present a complex mass of unconformities, foldings, and faultings. PERSIA. Petroleum in one form or another occurs in every province of Persia, but the principal deposits at present under exploitation are on the southwestern flank of the Zagros Range, extending into the Turkish territories already described. In most cases it seems to proceed from the Miocene rocks, a group of brightly coloured sandstones and marls, permeated throughout with salt, and traversed by veins and seams of gypsum, some probably original, others produced by epigenic modification of carbonate of lime, as native sulphur, sulphurous waters and gas are of frequent occurrence. The oil-field of the Mugan Steppe, already mentioned in the account of the Baku territory, extends across the frontier for some distance. Indications of oil occur at Guschschi, north of Urumia. Further east, on the western shore of the Caspian Sea, oil has lately been detected at Talisch Dulab, near Enzeli, and traces occur on the waters of Sachtisir, 90 miles to the south-eastward. Natural gas is found at a spot called Ateshkadeh in the forest a few miles southward of Khoremabad. Near the south-eastern angle of the Caspian Sea, black oil exudes at Schah-kuh-i-balae, 28 miles southward of Asterabad, and also at Gumisch-Tepe, northwest of that town, near the Russian frontier. On the margin of the Khorasan desert, dark, viscid, sulphurous oil, and ozokerite, are found at Semnan, 115 miles eastward of Teheran. The rocks here appear to be of Liassic age, but it has been suggested that the bitumen is an infiltration from much more recent deposits. In Kermanshah there is oil in the Miocene rocks near Zohab, and in the Cretaceous of Kuh Laktak (Goran), Cigar and Bibian (Singabi), Kashambeh (Mahidasht), Shian and Sia-Sia (Kalhur), and the Sambulak range (Gilan). The Miocene is again petroliferous in the Kabouti and the Naphot fields, respec- tively east and south of Khanikin. The Naphot field, situated on the undefined frontier, is often miscalled the Mendeli oil-ground, a name preferably retained for a petroliferous area eastward of that town. In South Luristan, the basement beds of the Miocene furnish the oil-wells at Kirab (the Ardericca of Herodotus), north of Dizful, and of Sir Godab, in Khuzistan, on the Karun, 40 miles east of Shuster, and a higher horizon supplies the springs of Musjid-i-Suleiman, Kala Darrabid, and Shardin, near Ram Hormuz or Romez. In Farsistan, the Miocene yields oil near Beibahan, Zaitun, Bashtikir, Daliki, Nareshin, and Ahram. Older rocks, probably Eocene or Cretaceous, produce oil at Yazdi Khast, Kheir, Mahalu, Fasa, Darab, and Kir Pushtra. Eastward of Darab in Kerman, the name Kuh-i-Sung-Atush connotes the presence of inflammable gas, whilst oil is found northward of Bunder Abbas, at Ahmedi, Rudun and Chanawallah, and southward in Kishm Island. Lastly, reports of petroleum come from the Sarhad range near the Baluchistan frontier. 158 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. BALUCHISTAN and AFGHANISTAN. Oil is reported as found at Shoran, 20 miles north of Gandawa, and traces occur in the sulphur-mines of Sunnee, a like distance further northward. In Sewestan, the Lower Eocene limestones are petroliferous at several points of favourable structure, especially in the Khátan, Harnai, and Spintangi districts. There are many similar evidences in the little known region between Shah Makhsud, on the Helmund, southwest of Kandahar, and the Khyber Pass. BRITISH INDIA. Northwestern India.-Traces of petroleum appear on water in the alluvial plain of the Indus, some 9 miles south-southwest of Sukkur in Scinde, where the underlying rocks are presumably Eocene. A boring in the same series at Sukkur found gas, but no yield of oil. On the western border of the Punjab, the Eocene sandstones of the Sherani Hills are charged with petroleum at Moghalkot, 12 miles southeast of Takhti Suleiman. On the Basti brook, west of the Indus, some 10 miles south of Isakhel, tar oozes from some anomalous strata, supposed to be of Triassic age. Thirty miles northeastward of this, oil flows from the upturned edges of the Eocene limestones at Barakutta or Jabba, and again some 28 miles southeastward of Jabba, at Duma, Hanguch and Chin- nur, and a dozen miles southeast of the last at Sulgi or Umb. A wide belt of Upper Tertiary separates this from the corresponding belt northeastward, which extends from Sheikh, near Kohat, by the Panoba gorge, 37 miles east- ward, by Dando Hill on the Indus, Dulla, Churhut, Boari, Japir, Gunda, Basala and Lundigar, to Chirpar and Rata Otur, respectively 6 miles southwest and 11 northeast of Rawal Pindi. As the Upper Tertiary area is interrupted by anti- clinal uplifts, the Eocene petroliferous series may be accessible at intervals be- tween the belts of continuous outcrop, and an alleged occurrence of oil near Makhud on the Indus appears to be an instance of such. The "sacred fire " of Jualamuki, 120 miles east-north-east of Lahore, is probably an emission of gas on a line of fault in Eocene beds. Bitumen is reported as found in the Serra mountains of the Hazara district, and at Iskardo in Kashmir. In Kumaon, asphaltic exudations occur scantily in Palæozoic limestones, some 25 miles. north-northwest of Almora. Traces of oil are alleged to exist in the Coal- measures of South Rewa State, some 80 miles southward of Benares. Peninsula. Films of oil have been noticed in the sea over the mud-bank at Calicut, and oily mud was found in constructing the bridge over the Kallai river. The mud-banks of Alleppy (Travancore) are also oily, and their changes of form and situation suggest an origin similar to that of the mud-islands of the Baku coast, described above, p. 155. Assam. In Assam, both Eocene and Miocene beds contain oil; the former, including important coal-seams, has been more fully explored in respect of its extent, whilst the Miocene is by far the richer in petroleum, a copious yield having been secured from nearly every boring. Operations have been re- stricted to limited areas in the Makum coalfield and at Digboi, respectively 16 miles east and 18 northeast of Jaipoor. East and west of this centre, evidences of petroleum have been detected over a long range, from near the junction of the Dapha brook with the Dihing river, down to the Disai, a small tributary of the Brahmaputra flowing past Jorhat (see Plate 8). Petroleum also occurs in the Miocene sandstones on the Barak and Surma rivers in Cachar, Jaintia and Sylhet, whilst inflammable gas is discharged from salses in the Tipperah hills. and furnished the "sacred fire" in Chittagong. M UN OF IV. CH. oDaphabim 15008 94° 92 11 28° Bhorou H Dihrang Pakkui R Jamuna B 26 D.Bo 6441 Umium I:B SHILLONG Maflong Mokana D.B Nongpata Narlang JOWAT 4422 AINT Kopili R Odalguri Ghagrapara Orang Majikuchi A Dalgaon Mangaldano Pahikhait GAUHATI Sonai R Desh Myung Kalaag UiBaru RRoad KAMRUP Nonckeow Nelli Kh Barnihat IB. Singimari Daimar R. Balipare R Rangapan OB okay obt Borjuh Balipara hagabru Sess L N То Shakomata Partabgarh p 7Z EHeless artys Dekaron G oGohpur Fuligaon Kamlabari Dolegaon Betali P Vigri Ting H Gosaigaon Jorha 319 O Biloleagoon L Borgaon TEZPUR HYswanath St Keunakhia G Rengura N mtul Dharam Chaparmukh G Dukhia Chogotong NOWGONG 221 Kothiatoligaon simpur Kapili Jamumukh Hojai Chorlokgaon Lanka Konkamar Phenbika Kiirpara Diyungmukh unggaon o Lumding Lakhupio Mokokchang Lungchung Hunder B Lalu Dilmur Kothalgurisist Khamagaon workshops B Pathaupam Sisi BRAHMAPUTRA Rohmoria abowal 405 M Chae Steamer Goto DIBRUGARH Gogah Mukh Lakhimpur Herignond Latinic Dotuni Barpazi Belgjik Talbha B Beomo Talap G Panitola Dining R Khowang Dehingia Disangmukh Disangmuth Tipuria Kothalagaon Badulip Chemmar Dhansiri O A H SU 460 Disting PSIBSAGAR Abhoypar Ghergong Chevideo Tamb G Dahingaper Titabar Mariani Golaghat 349 N G BorHaiming Mongsemdi B Tinsukia 群 ​Malon Funloo Dum Duma Bor Hapjan R Tingrai Bisa Digboi Bridg Noholia Makumo Jajpur R Powai Latoh Bisa Dibing Bridge Namphuk Maitim Watto Tikak Devureagaon aledo Namsang Long hanggoon hatag. Sanmas Chen or Than Ļaju Langchang 6290 96° Nijam Ghat Bomju Bamfor esioKompu Romkong esim R Dibang Diban 11660 Bismnagar Kerimpani Infuo Hai-imsong Riphu Chlard Brahmapura R Dikraud Seesiro Oknaro adrya Sellonimur Sailo Diri R Brakinakund Sanpura HHHHH MA Σ Longsa Wokha K Filagango Lunky King Lo 4766 O 0 Chosame Longkatha I Dimapu M Siduma Loxema A Kuromioumi Hovshagami Tessi 2477 Zybra G RI Cherra Pomlana Banda& Kapchong 毛 ​Thangnan I Amlitkhor Jakosing Nersi G Wakalai Choloma Kenomão Samaguting KOHIMA Khonoma Cheswejumg Zotisum Jeslani Maothano Hotspring Henema Chekwema Khayasom Shongshahg Josema Raimeh Gunjong Barong Poonjee Nungbir ASSAM English Statute Miles Nonguri Nongkem Lukah S Thaniagha Jaintiapur Gwthe Ghat Companyganj SYLHET SYLHET Jajpur Kustan Surina Karimganj Laty St Bhanga Barlekha Kangara SILCHAR O Balaghan CACHAR 92° Longitude East of Greenwich. Petroleum deposits shown in red. L Tufethang Haflong G Chawai 10 20 30 40 50 48421 Daibiram Takbai Nemothao 3035 Lalluch Kaitamabi Ngupung Lambai C o Khonjiran Pram Lakhi Rupaiballi MANIPUR 94 96° London: Charles Griffin & Co Ltd. 100 26 26 Stanford's Geog? Estab London. Plate 8. 28 INDIA, MALAY PENINSULA. 159 Burma.—The Burmese oil-fields form an inland series along the Chindwin and lower Irawadi valleys, and a coastal belt from Akyab to Ramri and Cheduba. The most northerly point, as yet known, on the former line (which exceeds 400 miles in length), is Yenan, on the Yu, near the junction of that river with the Chindwin, on the 24th parallel of north latitude. Indin, on the Myit-tha, some 75 miles distant to south by west, has similar exudations. Near Kalewa on the Upper Chindwin, on the Zanabok and Pinkadin brooks in the Lower Chind- win district, and at Yebyu, 10 miles northwestward of Pauk, are reported other discharges of oil. Feeble discharges have been noticed on the Yaw river below Kyinlin, and southward on some of the tributary streams of the Yaw and Salin rivers, but in no case is the structure favourable for a yield of commercial value, and the same with similar exudations in the southwest part of the Minbu, and the northern part of the Thayetmyo districts. East of the Chind- win, traces of oil are reported near Shwebo. The Yenangyat field is the most northerly at present in work, followed, to the south, by the Singu, and this by the Yenangyaung field, which is subdivided into the Twingon, Khodoung and Beme tracts. The Minbu, Yethaya, Banbein-Padoukpin, Prome and Yenandoung fields complete the chain, the last point lying about 12 miles southwestward of Myanoung, and near the 18th parallel. In the coastal belt, petroleum is found on the left bank of the Koladyn, opposite Akyab, in the Baranga islands, and at many points of Ramri, Cheduba, Round, Flat, and False Islands. There are also vague reports of the occurrence of some form of bitumen on the adjacent west coast of the mainland. In every case the pro- ductive rocks appear to be of Lower Miocene age, brought within reach, if not actually outcropping by sharp anticlinal flexures, forming inliers in the sur- rounding Upper Miocene and Pliocene areas. SIAM. A black, viscid oil is reported as occurring sparingly near Muang Fang, on the Mekhok, at the northern frontier of Siam. Traces of petroleum are reported to have been found in the province of Gerbi. MALAY PENINSULA. The existence of "large oil-fields in Kedah and Selangor is based on rumours as yet unconfirmed. ANAM. Traces of petroleum are found in the Miocene coalfields of Yenbai, about 170 miles up the Songka (Red River), Tonking. EASTERN TURKESTAN, THIBET, and CHINA. Traces of petroleum are reported from near Kutcha, from the hills north of the Barkul Salt Lake, and from Dikhon near Urumtchi. Oil is recorded also at the northern foot of the Nan Shan range, 70 miles southwest of Suchau in Kansu. Traces of petroleum occur in Carboniferous rocks in the Yen valley in Shensi, at and for some miles below Yen-chang-hsien, and thence to Tsing-kien, and again at a spot some 24 miles southeast of Hsia-hsien, rejoicing in the con- cise name of Hou-chia-yao-fu-kou. In the adjacent province of Shansi, petro- leum is reported at Kiang-tchu in the southwest, and Tai-tong-fu in the north. The historic brine-wells of Szechuen yield a certain amount of oil in the Chung- 160 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. king, Tse-liu-tsin, Kong-tsin, and other districts, and large volumes of gas at many points. The latter has been utilised from time immemorial for domestic and commercial purposes. The oil is found at a comparatively shallow depth, but the associated brine being of inferior strength, boring is generally carried to far lower horizons, from which are obtained copious discharges of gas, and a concentrated solution of salt. The deeper-seated gas is, however, chiefly sulphuretted, with little or no carburetted, hydrogen, and the same may be the case with the slighter yield from the higher strata, merely "enriched " by its contact with the petroleum. The age of the series is apparently Triassic. Oil is also alleged to occur at Tai-li-chen (Fu-chu-ku) and Haitha, in Kwangsi, and at Kyao-chau, in Shantung. JAPAN. Extensive oil-fields of Upper Tertiary age exist in both Yesso and Nippon. In the former island, four divisions-Kitami, Ishikari, Ifuri and Oshima-are known to be petroliferous, and there is reason to believe that Teshiwo, Hitaka and Nemoro will eventually be added to the list. A belt 250 miles in length, and reaching at the southern end the width of 50 miles, extends along the western coast of Nippon from the Ogasima peninsula (lat. 40° N.) to Itoigawa. A short interval divides the latter from a small area on Toyama Bay (see Plate 9). Another separated field occurs on the south coast around Sagara, and traces are recorded at Mabana in Kadsusa, southeast of Tokyo. In the north of Formosa, petroleum occurs on the Toakhohan river, from 22 to 42 miles south- ward of Tamsiu harbour, and at Byoritsu, while other deposits are reported in the interior further to the south. EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. (Plate 10.) Philippine Islands.-Traces of petroleum and gas are recorded in the Capiz province of Panay, southeastward of Dumarao, and again in the Masinao valley (Iloilo province), 40 km. northwest of the capital. Productive wells exist on the west coast of Cebu at Toledo, further evidence reaching to Asturias on the north and Alegria on the south, and recurring at Villaba on the west coast of Leyte. These probably indicate a more or less continuous oil-field, including the intervening islands of Guimaras and Negros, and presumably coterminous with the coal-bearing Tertiary series. Oil is also said to have been found at Macabebe and Manalan, province of Pampanga, and at Santo Tomas, province of Batangas, as well as on Manila Bay, in Luzon, and at Kotta Batu, in Mindanao. Borneo. The northern coast of Borneo, from Sampanmango point to Sarawak, consists of Tertiary coal-bearing beds, in which petroleum occurs at several points. The Sekuati river, near Ganda Head, is the most northerly at present known; then follow Gantisan, Timanam, Qualla Lama, the islands of Mengalon and Labuan, the shores of Bruni Bay, the Tutong and Miri rivers, and lastly the Sadong district of Sarawak. Probably future investigation will detect oil at intervening points. On the east coast, petroleum and gas are found in Upper Tertiary beds on Tarakan Island, at the mouth of the Sesajab, in Tidung, and in Kutei on Sangkuliran Bay, around the lower part of the Mahakkam, and in Balik Papan Bay. In southeast Borneo, oil occurs on the Negara below Tandjong; at Balangan, southeast of Amunthai; in the Riam Kiwa valley, 60 miles east-northeast of Bandjermasin; and at Warukin, Martapura. 144 148° Plate 9. 44 128° Mayen Mukal Kulkha Salbu 132° Ajeho Fei nel chan Khanton Keven Keim Chandachtst Ninguta Muren Fenech Grodeko Sun Odol Muren R Siakhir 136° Nuravies Amur Imma Emar R. UssurAkuli R Shulkhe L. Hinka or Kengka Talga Suifenho Suitin Pilten L' Aytan Yomta Fiumen Hun chun Hoci ning Meh tan shen PALSHAN Termur Teng Pass 6200 Hver San Yung tung Kapsem Chang jin 40% UNIL OF H. MICK На North Latitude 4215 M Shienlong Liang yung Mu-s D 0 Hupta Amur B Bruce Novgorod Spassk Dabaha Nikolsk S Dobiks R Sitiku Bus Tudzi R. Ed vya Roy Chuanin Gladivostok Arch Usur B Napon D'Auville Gulf ng-heung POSSIET BAY CLinden Chongchin C.Urusow Mong-chan SC.Kosakow (d'Apres Pt) Kilju Tan chon C.Bruat J Sieng-chin (Song chin) Puk dung Yallada B. C.Schwartz C.Veirach hyung-Tyung Broughton B. Port Lazaref Won san (Yuen San) & Yung-hing Bay Anyon Hot vang Sub. Tel. G. C.Disappointment 140° La Siranusi Notoro (Crillon) Dangerous R Perouse Romanzoff Bay C CNossyabakkanai Refunsiri akko C.Isya Bullock B. (Jigit B.) Sybille &Pique Bays (Plastun B.) Shelter B.(Oprichuik.B.) Vladimir B. S. Point Olga Bay Port Michael Seymour) Castle P Sunday L Nakodka s Islet P Hornet B. (American, B.) C.Povorotnoi of Peter the Great (Victoria B.) A P (C.Spanberg) Siretoko Soya Str. Sar Risiri Wakkasva C.Kamuiiroka C.Toimaki Tessio Vlakke or C.Yankesiri Teore Sawaki C.Tomamai or Shishkoff Nayor Moby C.Wofui or Mele spina or Okami Sakotan Straight B. M Matsumecifi E C.Notoro Abashiri Masi Sibets Akam b MPoronohor Ikeda Pporo C.Raitens M Makarabetz Saruto L Pico Yesso Str. Nisebets S.T. Tomari Channel Moimoto Kuna siri Sisio LaxmanB. Atkesi a fushiro 8.00 Sikotan C.Nossyam (C.Broughton) Nemuro Syonemosiri I. C.Usu Truri I Good Hope B. Sianuka Yubets M.Pallas R M.Tokatsi C.Novo sitzoff Strongonoff G R.Siribets C.Kautusotf MtVisibetshon C.Ohota& Volcano Oko-siri Ats Usimas Matsmai San av AN ang yang Argonaut I./Talca Shima) SEA C.Duroch 2.800 Kan-sang Yong phiyong Kang-neung Yo-ju Yong wol Pichon xem-choke 36 Yang kum Ochit Sunhing C.Pellissier ndung Yong-hai Sangju Kyong sang Unkofsky B, Song in Sonsan Kyang-ju Long chon Tarka Dosan Milyungs Willes Masanpo Tus an on Channel koje Brought Tsu lagelet I.Matsu Shima) hanne] n Hornet I (410 feet) Oki Islands Sum Nasino Nakano I Sufur Kumodsu C.Kinga misaki Yonogo C.Mor Kizuki Matsue Triu C Hamada Chan! Misima shima Oyumi S Korea Brude n Thi sima Simonoseki Strait fobanto Miyos Yasida Okayani Yesuki Promichi Hirosima Simonoseki Mey'r Fuchu Genkai ara Buzen Firando & Gall Timur Sasebo Timuriy Goto Islands C. Goto Kiu iu 38 Takeno Tottor Thyama Wakasa B. Fekura I Nanatsu 1: Noya Takamatsu Banazawa Tate vissi Bay Horobets Saru Firoro Tokats B. Tobul Syaman Yerimo or Froen C. Muroran Syaman C.Yetomo Kolatno Hakodate C.Yesan or Esarme Siwokubi Blunt or Strait C.Toriwisaki Siriya C. Foksan Sanger C Aomori Graig C. Hokuri or Gomali Nobeji Sitsinohe Aomori Nara C. Hatsinohe C. Taneitsi Hirosali Sannohe Kuzi B. Udatsi NosingR Oga-sima or Russian Prom Aki Wasi Sasi C Sado L Suids Sova C.ST Noto C. Voida Nosaki I. Toyama Bay Singn Yei ama Tobi I.. Tsiokai S Al Ivavast noka yama Merioka SC.Kurosaki Nambu Harb. Ohura C. Kiori Kasennuma Rameda Olotsuist Fonzin Istotoyosi sola Kama Sisyo Matsuyuma Awa Inmate Murmi Senday Farawa amagata Sibate umatsi Tuomaki Kinkwazan I. Senday B. Siogame Bhuroki Stra Arafama Tamano gawa Fukushima ga oka bura-siro Miharu Naga-oka Tomioka Kona C. uteya Torama Fanasono Nantan Mila Nikko Kokits Mito homas Asama-sama Outsu-noma aisiobzi kuwi Nagano Dono mpo Maytsi Maibas Furukawa Assabu Matsamoto OKIO Vida ega Crife isogo Biwa Zake Nagoya ikane Kutumi Kioto H Tatsing Kobe Isu Visu akamats Alcas Hiogo Osaka Kanbe Sakon Awadsi Uji Wakayama yamada Intan mabar Tolausima Suwo Sea Fukuokon Kabats Kurume Rymam Nagasaki Vita Usuki Muke Aso-san Sumbara C.Nomo Yatsushiro Nohoeka Pullas Rs Amakusabe 32 Meaci Kosiki Bingo anaku Indutsi Saitio Matsuyama Niwya MJane yama Ohesu Kochi Uma sima Chan abec.Chirikoff Noka I Kanasia Akune Kaobsima SATSU MA Chesme C Fo C C. Cochrane Okino Kukt T Kinomoda Singu Badsura Danebe Kii Channel Nibe Idsuma C. None Murodono C. Kofu Fusi YEDO Kumi-kami R Datho C./White C.) Salura Tako hotaki Yedg Gewi Yokohama B yama M Wodawara Kostna Azuoka Kariya Shid Tajea Okazaki Tang CIrako Moukasi I. Toba I Sima C. Oo.I.Active Volcano) SIKOKU I. Yotsu C. Asisurinomi C. KIUSIU I. D'Anville C. C.Nagaef Van Di Kaimon Chichakoff Str. Sta Clara Two 132° Longitude East of Greenwich Petroleum deposits shown in red. 1360 C. Blanco phatsura Falcone Yokosuka Fa I. Simoda Omae C Tocomin King C.Sirofima Oho or -sima (Volcano) Clasu L Redfield R London: Charles Griffin & Co, Ltd Nee I 'Kozo I. Meac Volcano) Mecura or Prince I **Broughton R Fatsicio I.Penal Settlement) Koso-sima AwoL (to Japan) Quango or South I 140° JAPAN 44° 40 36 32 English Statute Miles 0 20 40 60 80 100 200 144 Stanford's Geog! Estab, London. N. Latitude Korat Bassak Most Parquan Qanhor Phicen dron 115° Hong kong 1&Victoria C?(Br.) Pratas E A 120° Babu Islands Babuyan Dalupire PCaravallo CEngano CS.Vincente Malonoon Camiguan CBajadoreasi Apari Statalina Samolague adde PDille Bigan Stru Lingayen P.Bolinao Maria Davilacan Napacmac CSIldefonso S.Gruz Sant Matsinglo Toa Subis Scarborough Sh. Plaponesani Polillo Alabat apor Manimant Balang B&City of MANIL Mamla Str PCalavite d PHILIPPINE 95° Siichap BKvend Irrawadd Bhanto e Theim nee Burma Chittagong Bu Khong deo Aralcan 20 Akyab Borongo An Ramreel. aa R MANDALAY Tacaw Ferry Mone Molmay BARE ENNER Thayepoyo Toungoo SalweenR Shwegyn Henzada 100° Meko en ciang Pur Sx matu Kiang hing Ruang ting 0 S S hap Stay Chieng Mai Lampun Meping R Kokarit H Paklay Linggan Sien Kitc -Queme 105 Cai hoa Tim njal Meng-tze Kesnoe Tain noin Lung-chow ping Se ning Phi Trang Huong Lan-son Bacnin Sang koi Son TO Tar koan Luang Prabang es Me Khon g R Nong khay Lao Hut ΠΑΝΟΣ a Rokho RKe ga G K Haiphong 110° Pak hoi opinthe Kao-thou Kwang chan Johns I Prach Hawehune Hai lin chan Low thou NuTonquin Me hoa ở 70Ouke sima Sovel Tan Tchou Hainan Yai tchout Wall Kua-say SWatcher States Prom Tour Tiggs1 Muk Quan bine Bang M Maung phoom Kenmaret Thon Meuding cheinot Kiong Taya I tchou Tin-hosa Ling chora Roberts I SEsprit Amphitrite I Lincoln I. HUE9 Turon T&Harb Para cels Phome Stuthia Faito Cham Callao Canton Bombay Macclesfield Triton's I. Ste Bank D Khone Buffalo I Bien ho Linant Great Stung Treng Chantalion Tung you Kunnan Tieu Lake Port Xuandai Avarella Koh Chang doug chelong Nha Can-Trel 15 bedubalom Cheduba O Sandoway W e Basseng C.Negrais Bassein R Blort Mis Pegu Rangoon of the Irrawaddy alf of Marta T Nercondam Port Cornwallis Interview I.Stuarts Sa ANDAMAN Strait S.Centinel. I: Barren. Andaman Archip Port Blair Ridland L Lit Andaman B 2.- Mergui MOULMEIN Archipelago nasso e Bangloko Mergai Koh kah Kwip Tenasserim 10 degrees Chan? Car nicobar Bally Malve Pt P Victor Aladin I' IChance Sever I' Bandon Terressa Camorta Papra Pan Salang or Jinksevlon 0 Lontor Gulf of Siam Chowry Tillanchong Katchall Nicobar I Maroe Lit Nicobar I Brassel PRajah Cocos Rondo P.Wav Pedir Achen Soosoo E HogL Banjack L Nias S STR A Passier Jumbie Aver Paksa Telibon Trutoc Loncava Isthmus in Chaiya Queda Kokrah Tantalem CAMBODIA PANOM PENH PKris Kamput Koh Kong Way Hot Dudy Hastings Tanjang Cambodia P Sungora Lozin P.Pinang or Wellington 0 Patami Calantan R Redang L Itof Wales Prov. Tringangs Tringano R. OF Langka M Deli Batta Barra Sinkel Tappano Asarhan M Perak Dinding Salmon Callam CCA Lentuck Tingoran Brula R. Bloher HIN OWER CHIN Sagon 5 0° EQUATOR Padang Mentawei I Appo Sho B of S.Miguel Tabaco Tayabas Sorsogons). Marinduque Galop an Mindoro Simarara Busvagong Calamiane Coron, Linacapan Malampaya B Seahorse NWIsland. Two I South I Corrow allis Ganges Fanny Bombay Dhaulles, Investigator Port Camraigne Padaran B. &C. Phanry B. Spr Ceicer deMer Rega CS.James Months of the Cambodia R or Metho "Pulo Condore Sapata London Shoals Prof Wales Bank. • Amboina. Talomao Charlotte NNahmas SaddleL GNatunas Pahang Ambas Havock Malace Recon Rupat Siak Both Jahor Romania Singapore H London: Cornwallis S.Sh PBooleelooy an Investigator Balabac Vipar Balambangan P'Sampanmangf R? Charlotte Louisa, Mangalloon Friendship Sho Luconia pt Sirak, R Pt Santubong P Datu Flat I. Tioman Pdor Anambas I $Anambas Victory' SNatmas PApie S.Pierre Sanb Bintang SEsprit Burong I Mompava Banka Pontianak Dilbiton کی Batang SARAWAK Kubu Aba Ambong Palatan Labuan I BRUNEL pt Baram Whale I Knipel Tatan M R.Seri Spatusan B W Bang leopa Payah P R સામ Karo M BRUNEI po Borut RENE Murong R Banjermassin Matan Ooloogan B PALAW Bougrook Banguey -toa Buria Tablas PPobol Guyo I Tican Masbate Sibig an Capi Palomp Panay Too PNasog Dumaran Cagayand Cavilli Gramart Dronage PBombonon Mindoro or Sulu Sea P Balogonan Bancooran Cagayan Sooloo Sumaddal I. Pangootaran Labuk B Kimi BANDAKAN is an M BRITISH NORTH BORNEO 10 vel B. Reegetan I SLucia B. Tarakkan Bulongan s Gamong Tebur Tanjong ongulu Kubu R Sulu Caldera Arch Bohol Fuegos pitan C.Tagle pap samie MIN Samboangan 125 Catanduanes Bernardino Str. Plate 10. 130° ISLANDS (to U. States) Batacl & Palapa CEsp Santo Samar Cadvalonga Buruhan Zadovan Pangon Panguil Ilana B. Bambang Barilan -Belawn Seemersa Sulu Scepssee Hawee Tawee Celebes of Maratua I. Karaman pt CRivers Macassar Samarinda Pamarung I Passir Adang R Str. Pata nosters Palos Bool Se a Gignan Jemongol Linago T& Str of Surigao Barn L Surigao Blatuan Tandag Caglyan ANAO Catel Bungabun Selangor Mindanao Leno Sugud Bojan B Caraga Disappointment.B. CS.Augustine Davao. Hay cook Meangis I Tulour I Serangana.I Kalinga Saddlel Sangi Haroods Bejaran, Talisse Long L FortuneL Tominie or Goonong Tella B./ Possa Togia I CELEBES Tola B Zulla I Mangola Tallvabo Pitts Siao Limbe 2 9O S مة Riow Gillolder Morty Gof Crian Bancal Jelolo Tefore Mere Tange Orla Molucca 184 Lattal GILLOLO Tavally Wanja Batchi Berser Pas Manipa Burn Danoner Ol sag e gram The Tratoria Amboina 0 5 10 15 Macassar f. B S.Latitude Palembang a S e EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO English Miles a Benkulen J a Sunda Strait Krakatoa HATAVIA Bullerdor Surabaya 100 200 900 400 500 Bali подморить Lombok Flor Se UNIL OF ICH Petroleum deposits shown in red. 95 Long E.of Greenwich 100 S Joljokarta Sumbawa 1 a 105 u n d a I S 115° London: Charles Griffin & Co.Ltd. 120° e a Flor d Sandalwood S and a Se a 20 Serwatti 1 D.. Ombay TIMOR a 125 Stanford's Geog! Estab London. 10 is 5 DUTCH EAST INDIES. 161 Sumatra. Extensive oil-fields exist on the east coast of Sumatra, from Edi in Atjeh, to the Lepan river in Langkat, some 70 miles southeastward, the belt being some 10 miles in width. The series, consisting of coarse-grained loose sandstones and marly shales, is probably of Upper Tertiary age. Samples of the oil submitted to the author show a low specific gravity, and an unusually large proportion of the more volatile hydrocarbons, evolving inflammable vapour even at zero F. Oil is reported as found by boring in the kingdom of Siak, and a spring is noticed in the Eocene conglomerates on the Mahi, a tributary of the Kampar, 3 or 4 miles west of Kottabaru. In Palembang again is an extensive and valuable oil-field of Upper Tertiary age, ranging from the northern margin of the province, 100 miles westward of the capital, to the vicinity of Lahat, 80 miles southward, and eastward to the Ogan river. This includes the Lahat and Muara Enim wells. Traces of oil are recorded in the West-Coast province of Kollok, 11 miles east of the Sinkara Lake, in Eocene marls, and naphtha" is vaguely stated to occur in the Ipu region of Benkulen. province. (C Java.-Petroleum may be said to occur intermittently throughout the length and breadth of Java, though several provinces are devoid of any trace of it. The volcanic agencies in operation at many points of the island effect on the one hand the destruction of much of the oil within the sphere of their influence, doubtless accentuating their energy thereby, whilst on the other hand the adventitious distillation of oil from coal-seams, in regions of somewhat lower temperature, may give rise to delusive hopes of a commercially-valuable store in the rocks which have absorbed the condensed products of this local and casual action. It is scarcely necessary to add that the richest fields are those far remote from the volcanic foci. At the same time it must be borne in mind, that volcanic scoriæ and dust are distributed by winds far beyond the range of any detrimental action of volcanic heat upon oil-containing rocks, and that such may exist under a considerable thickness of deposits, igneous only in origin, and not in mode of accumulation. Equally, of course, explorers may disregard the proximity of eruptive rocks of prior age to the oil-yielding Miocene, except as marking the horizontal or downward limit of the series. The petroliferous area around Lebak in Bantam has as yet been little tested, and the occurrences in Cheribon, Tegal, and Pekalongan are apparently of no commercial value. The principal oil-field of Java may be said to begin in Samarang, ranging through Rembang and Surabaya to Madura and the smaller islands which represent the eastward extension of the latter. With the vigorous research of the present time, the already extensive industry will probably increase rapidly, and hamlets now unknown to the topographer may in the course of a year become important centres of production. Possibly the southern coast regions of Java may have a like future to that so favourably opening in the north, but at present there are reported only traces of oil in the districts of Bandjar Negara, Banjumas; of Grogol, Surakarta, and of Lodaijo, Kediri. Samaauw. Exudations of petroleum occur in a mud-volcano near Kawua, at the north end of the island. Timor.-In the Portuguese section of this interesting island, petroleum and gas have been noticed at four distant points, and future exploration will pre- sumably result in the discovery of intermediate places of discharge. At Okussi, some 25 miles southwestwards of Delli, asphalt exudes from porphy- ritic rocks, probably dykes traversing bituminous beds below the surface. Forty miles east of this, in Laculubar, perennial fires are produced by emana- tions of gas over 500 square feet. There is a strong petroleum odour, but the flame is without smoke, and no liquid oil has been detected. Half a mile south- VOL. I. 11 162 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. southeast, and 1000 feet lower, there are several oil-springs, some of large size, in the Samoro or Mutika valley at Pualaka. At Daifavassie, 20 miles further eastward, occur tarry exudations from highly bituminous shales, utilised by the natives as fuel. Ten miles beyond this, and two miles from the coast, at Bibiluto or Babelota, in the Raisute plain, oil and gas are discharged from the pseudo-volcano Korrara, an eruption of which in 1856 is said to have destroyed a village. The frequent recurrence of earthquakes in these regions removes such disasters from the category of the abnormal, but renders the continued existence of valuable stores of petroleum somewhat problematical. The mechanical ejection of inflammable fluids by seismic agencies is not to be con- founded with the thermal effect of true volcanic action. Some 17 miles north- eastward of this is the Quiarida oil-spring, on the shore between tide-marks, and oil again occurs at Ata-Lélé, 7 miles inland from Quiarida. Petroleum is also found at Alas, near the Dutch frontier on the south coast, and at Weinitas on the Fatu Kabun. In the complex series constituting the region, extensive Quaternary coral-reefs largely mask the Jurassic, Triassic and Permian rocks, recognised as such by local accumulations of fossils, and apparently abutting against the Archæan core of the island. The seat of the oil appears to be in the Triassic beds, but some may be of Permian origin. Celebes.-Petroleum is reported at Taguntolo, Bay of Tomori; at Baroko, in the Duri district of Masereng Pulu; and at Doda, in the Manudju district of Mandhar. The island of Muna, off the southeast coast, is also said to be petroliferous. Moluccas.—Asphalt impregnates Cretaceous shales on the west coast of Buru, at Fogi, Mai-Tai, and Bilkofan, and rock-tar is found in the Tertiary deposits of the north coast of Ceram, on Bula Bay, and in the Nif valley. The reported occurrence of oil in Batjan has not been confirmed. New Guinea.-Oil is alleged to occur at a short distance from the mouth of the Buti river, on the north coast near the 139th meridian. About 200 miles southwest of this, oil saturates parts of a coal-bearing series on the Iwaka river, south of the Nassau range, at lat. 4° 21′ 30″ S., long. 136° 52′ 30″ E., about 40 miles from the sea. Ladrone Islands.-Discharges of carburetted hydrogen are reported as occurring on Guam. BRITISH AMERICA. (Plate 11.) Yukon.-An alleged occurrence of oil at the mouth of Forty-mile Creek may be a trivial exudation from the lignitiferous Tertiary deposits, resting on the ancient gold-bearing rocks. British Columbia.-Bitumen is reported as oozing from coarse volcanic agglomerate of Miocene age at the Tar Islands, off the east coast of Moresby, Queen Charlotte Islands. Oil is said to have been found at Steveston and New Westminster, and hopes are entertained, though apparently upon not very adequate grounds, of the extension thence of a belt of petroliferous rocks, along the lower part of the Fraser valley, and to the region of the Tulameen and Similkameen rivers, whilst the existence of parallel belts in North Vancouver, and in the Cassiar and Cariboo districts, is a further vague anticipation. Exu- dations of oil from the lower Cambrian rocks of some of the eastern tributaries of the Flathead river, a few miles from the junction of the Alberta-Columbia border with the United States frontier, have been assigned with practical certainty to Cretaceous rocks, over which the vastly more ancient series has been thrust in an almost horizontal plane. CANADA 160° Tham Kowal 65 Intern Selawik L&R Ikpikp Colville R. Dalle 150° Harrison B. Beechey Pt Return Reef Felly M Snow Mts Franklin Mts Romanzo Ramparts Camden B. Beaufort B 140° 130° 120° 110° 90° 80° Finlay Id 100° N.Comwall Penny Strai Bram Martin Ch. EEN LO 30° S S H Grinnell Land Graham I 25 King Oscar Land North Lincoln Carey Is Clarence Ha Wellington Cobourg I. C.Fitzroy Philpot I. NORTH SOMERSET I. Lancaster Sound C.Hay BAFFIN C.Parry Atholl Granville Be C.York 70° 60° 50° MELVILLE BAY 40° Wilcox Pt Pr. Regent Inlet Port Bowen avy Board Inl C.Bathurst Ponds Bay Eclipse Sound Bellot Str K COCKBURN N COCKBURN LAND Silleml BAY C.Adair Scott Inlet Akud R.Clyde SC.Raper dnirn C.Kater Home B. C.Hooper Upernavik Northern Svarte Huk Peninsula Omenak Fiord Waigat Strait Noursock Noursoak Pen Disko acobshavn Baystianshaab D A Inspectorate N I Godhavn Disko Egedesminde BATHURST Bram Martin L C.Cockburn SOUND PARRY OR MELVILLE I. Russel I 2 Cornwallis Jones Sound NORTH DEVON BARROW STRAIT C.Cranford C.York iD Hecla & Griper B. MELVILLE ISL Liddon G C.Jas. Ross Winter H Dealy I Providence. STR. or Me Chure Str CMecham Crozier Eglinton Ch Kellet Russell B. of Mercy C.McClure Pr. Alfred C.. Burnett B. C.Kellett C.Bathurs C.Dalhousie Liverpool i MACKENZIE Herschel BAY British s Richards 1. Kitigagzont Fir Richardson Lower Up Ramparts Mt LaPieres Rampart FM Pherson Ho Birch Yukon R Yuk Red R Arctic Esquima Trading of Wales Str NKS LANA Prince Nelson Hd Franklin Bay M.Farlane Good Hope MS Mackenzie Ramsay inson In Glenelg B. PRINCE ALBERT LAND F CWollaston Curry Minto Inle Darnley Roncière Mauno Prince Albert Sound CBaring Colville Mts Dolphin&Enigus C.Krusenstern Copper M Lof the Confidence Woods Smith B. Dease McDonnel Keith B. Sherard Osborn PRINCE OF WALES L CLINTOCK CH PR VICTORIA STR. Victory Pt Franklin Str Gateshead BOOTHIA PEIsthmus KING Ra C.Collinson Q1 VICTORIA LAND Str Sambridge De G inde Wellington B WOLLASTON LAND CORONATION Coppermine GREAT BEAR LAKE Erebus Simpsons Melbourne T. BAFFIN LAND Grivel Plate 11. 20° Horn North C.) Isa fiord DENMARK STR. Kangerdlugsuak C.Hegemann Rothes Fiord 65 Breide Fiord Thingey Borg Faxe Fiord REIKIAVIK အာ 60% Committee Bay Melville Penin Spicer Tas C.Penrhyn ozen Str. Winter I. Fon Inlet FOX CHANNEL Narpaing Penny Highland Kangeakjung Keker Tukjuak I Searle DAVIS steinborg R E L... C.Dorchester Nettilling Kingua Irvine Inl Fox Land L. C.Dyer Exeter Sound STRAIT CWalsinghama Zukkertopperi Ukiadliving C.Mercy M Godthaaby Herrnhut Southern Inspec Angmagsalik Nansen, 1888 Kioge B. Gyldenlove Fd Skioldungen I. GREENLAND ra Udlosietit I. SEA Aneretok Fd Fury & Hecla Str. WILLIAM Adelaide Ben McLaughlin B Montreal Franklin Garry Macdougall Pelly Aberdeen L Dooba or L G.Fish K Baker Kazank! GULF OF (Lord Mayors B. Britannia agerR BOOTHIA Simpso Pen Rae Isthmus Hazard Hills Quoich FHope Repulse B Wager Inlet C.Fullerton ConneryS Chesterfield Rowe's Welcome C.Kendall Inlet Kent Penin Bathurst Inlet C. Barrow Arctic S Colville Hare-skin McTavish Franklin Bear R Norman Cicart Ba M Black R. K 333 F.Enterprise L.S.Cross BL.Fabre Grandin Knife R N Wrigley old arten FR Forty Mile T Sixty Mile Dawson Cr Blondyke R Stewart R. Macmillan R. 0 Pelly Lakes Felly Banks Finlayson L.Fran MLogan 9000 Simpson Bell LIA hanni 65° Yukik Yukon Hills R Yukon Nowikaka AL A Low! Ramparts Tanana (to U. States) K Forty o Mentasta Laskar Mon hitna 60 Copper liams ss Cudahy Up Rampart M. Wrange MBlackbur White colm Paro MS Elias Kayak I. Malaspina Middleton I. G Yakutat Bay ewes eslin R Tes Lebarge 19,514 White Rap M.Fairweather LLindenan White Pass Chillar bymitana 14,708 MCrillon Cross Sound 13,500 Chichagos 1 Sitk MEdgecumbe Baranov I. C.Ommaner C EAN Christian S 55 Back Z LI E ton Golden 55 501 45° Prince of Wales une au Dease Taketon Bowell Car Stephens graph Cr 5607 Dixon Entrance Portland Channeimpson Masset Metlaka Queen Charlotte Sidegate Islands CIF I C North Latitude P A 40 100 50 Kineolith Kitkata Prine Royal Deas R Cra s so Kuldo BR Hazel Skeena R Gardner Essington FConnelly M Liard FLiard Black Nelson R Peace R FSimpson Providen Ft Providence EN GREAT SLAVE St Peter's Mission Hay R Hood Rum L Mask O Aylmer L Walmsley L. LARE Artillery L. EF Reliance McLeod B. Christie B FResolution Salt R.Ho FVermillion Peace R.J FM Leod FJohn RITISH A Labine Francois du Tremble Fan Buffalo H Hills Slave F*Chipewyan A th a Lla Bich Rouge R finson Duntegan White Fish L Babine Marleod Stewart FFrasewart freerge PUMB Prevost I Bella Bella Bella Coola Queen Charlotte S C Scott FRuper Alert Bay Takes his Nootka Sa VANCOUVER IP 494 Contact Shide andrmos StJuan de Fuca C.Flattery ICTOR MOlympus Fraser Quesnelle Antler Alexandria 3 Chitco Lillooe Quesnelle Thompson Yellow Smoky Lesser Slave Fr Athabasca B McLeod Pembina Saghyfel R. Jasperli Hen Ho FM. Moray Smath/r Thetina Boyd L. G Daly L Selwyn. Fond du Lac Stone ASC ATHABAS S Water S Cree Cree Portage la Loche Methy.F Buffalo L La Grosse F La Biche O Beave Saskatchew R. BERT A Edmonton Pit Paul Brown Hooker Ho Seymour Kamloops Lytton Douglas Yale Columbia Shuswap Vernon Prince New Westminster Whatsom Seanle Puget Sound Tac Rainier Columbia R! ceton Okanaga olumbiral SHINGTON OLYMPIA MS Helens Astoria Portland SALEM Eugene Umpqua C. Empire C. C.Blanco Rogue R. Crescent C. Klamath R Trinidad Willamente Wincheste Preko Jacksonville Mt Shashta 14440 Eureka & Walle Pacific C. Mendocino Red Bluffe Mendocino PArena Cloverdale erl Shasta Orovill Marysville SACRAMENTO San Francisco Golden Gate 12360 Vancouver Dalles M Hood 11225 Summit P Klamath GTON Rocky Mount HO BATTLEFORD Tail Cree Co Murchison Banff ALGARY Bagianasta Shepherd Sarree Res Mlead MeLead Whotengy P Kootenay Kalispelm Spompe Cocur{! Snake R d'Alene Hellgate Lewiston Clearwater Wallawalla Baker C. Silver L. L.Harney ♡ Goose L. N Pueblo C. PitLake City Eagle L. 120° English Statute Miles 100 200 Virginia CARSON C. 300 Pierce R Florence almon Salmon C Silver Bon Blackfoot Crossing b خبرات Black L. &R. Ice Wollaston L. Geikie R Churchill & English La Ronge Green L. Ho N Stanley Frog Port Rapid R.Bo Beaver Doobaant L. Kasbak. ре Island JL. Indian or BigL Nelson Bo DuckB Burntwood Ho PineldL Sers Moose L H Repastagchewan Gumberland o ALBERT Nepowewin PRINCE FCarlton The Deron Fla Corne H Pasquia Elbow Saskatoon Eagle Hills The Moore Livingstone Hand Hills Lethbridge Watertoni hief M Pass Mamas Pa ashatchetan Woods Touchwood Hills ssin llo o ia Thunder breeding Cypress Hills Milk R J Tills Wood f Marias Ophir Missouri R. Mathead Ft Benton Great Falls HELENA Hellgate Butte C. Marke Siller C Gallat Bigllorn Virginia Banna National Park Yellowstone MHayden BOISE 385 Shake R Silver C. Smak American E Mountain C. Austin Elko R FH Fremont Frankling Touno GREAT SALT LAKE 4200 &R. 13576 Big Lorn Big Horn s Qu'Appelle Qu'Appelle R. REGINA Chaplin s Yellowstone Powder B FReno OMIN Sweetwater Haramic Plains South Pass Coal Basin Benton Green River aromies Ogden C. intah s GT SALT LAKE CITY LUintah Provo 110° NS Sherman 1s Swank Pelly W Seal R. C.Eskimo EggL Marble I. Tom I. SOUTHAMPTON Fisher I. King's C M.Mints 200 Seashore Str. C.Southampton Pt Salisbury 1. TINAND BAY Talirpia Amadjuak Ward Inl fordon R BAFFIN BellL.Nottingham I. Evans Inler Wolstenholme Charles 1. Mansfield I. Smith L. Mosquito HUDSON Churchill Harbour FChurchill Churchill R Points Ho. Nels C.Churchill Beacon R Limestone E. Oxford Ho Leiths Ho Cross.L. Rossville Norway HoHo. Grand Rapids Bike L: Port Nelson C.Tatnam athon Hole Fork Factory Hill Rayes Knee L Merry L Gods Ho Lo Beerens Family L. F Fairford MANITOBA Riding Mtn Ho Achigo Severn Severnillo Trout L Beaver L.Ho Ottawa The Sleepers $2000 ft Kovile Portland WoC.Murchison Lichtenfels MKunnak 4400 Lichtenaw Julianeshaab Lindenow F Nennortalik Christian Sa C. Farewell C. Desolation kernæs Nunataks Frederikshaab Resolution I. C.Chidley Eclipse H Blunt Perina FROBISHER LAND Saddleback 1. HUDSON STRAIT Eskimo Vil BAY C.Dufferin Promontory Ce nist Ft Sutton Mill Concord Weenisk Ho Ho The Belchers Trout R. Maria Englands R C.Hope's Best BAY C.Best Advance Tuvalik Akpatok I. باکیر Payne Leaf R. L.Minto Big Seala Rastapoka Clearwater Little Whale R. Richmond Galf C. Henrietta C.Jonies Equan R Attahwahpiskat R. Albany HoCatL.Ho Martin Falls Ho RedL.Ho FAlexander Englis Peter'sslington FEllice Westbourne WINNIPEG Ook lovers Moose MBrand Roche Perces Melita Union Missouri R. Little N.Fork use Berthala BISMARCK Fork F&Rice Shyenne R Pierre Prairie Portage Boniface Morris Emerson Turtle Pembina SViacent MO L.Miniwakan T Worthington Jamestown Gloucester Ho S. Joseph JAMES Agoomska Post شکورا G Ungava GeorgeR Whale Koksoal Great Apish a garish FGeorge Mistasibbi Ramah & Nachvak B. lebron C.Mugford Okkak Port Manvers Vain Zoar North Ukasilcsalik & Davis Inlet West Webeck H BulldogI Esquimaux Bay Hamilton Inlet arrows Sandwich B. Cartwright Mealy M Hopedale Aillike Table Land 7 Michikamow Rigolet The Summit or Hamilton R Grand Falls N.W.River P Winokapon BL. Ashwanipi Burnt JL. Romaine R. L. L. Petitsilapow Sand Girts Osokmanow 408 Fox 1750 Big R Nitchiquan L. Straight R. Mistassim Ruperty. Marten R. Lake R Hannah Bay Big L. Ho Albany any R Henleyllo BA Charlton Moose F South R.Ho. shaburgh Ho R. $3 C Seul Nipigo Keewatin Wabigoo Nipigo Long Lake Pike L brate Woods Thousand Lides Rain Rainy Athar William FFrancis Itasca Gyndg Red L Missabeyleights Duluth Charlotte MINNESOTA Superior Breckenridge Braind BigStone Full Kampeska d's Thompson White R. Bule. Bad Lan Laramiepk Randall Dakota Sauk Centre Royale Gr. Portage LAKE Bay Port 5. Croix Chippewa Minneapati PAUL Minnesota Leavenworth A Medary Moose N New Brunswick Ho L SUPERIOR Keweenaw P &Bay Ontongon M R ~0 Marquette Onola Escanaba Chelsea Menominee WISCONSIN Wausau Chippewa Green Bay Red Wing Black Rives Grand Rapids Mankato SF. Owatonna SIOUX FALLS Winnebago Yankton Algona South Br Abittibi R Minissabe Matawakumme Michipicoten Mary R Ste Marie East Main R. Post Rupert R Noddawai R Be LAbittibi Sturcon Sudbury Spanish G.Manitoulin Mackinaw Petoskey Traverse C Blaire Grand Rapids Manistee Tawas Winnebago L. Mississip Winopa Austin Prairie du Chosa LaCrosse Fond du Lac MADISON Watertown aux Outardes Gull L. asparip Asapaouchon Temiscamingte Nepama Matta Cloche North Bay Fresh H Georgia Ottawa Nipissing Pembroke Parry Sound 1.Muskoka Southam Collingwood L.HURON Sagina L.Simcoe OTTAWA Perth nicouagan PNeur John Saguenay Ry Chicoutima Аспековий Kamburask Ankone John Magp Moisie R gpie E Ming Kenamo 1 Mingan Seven Is iver S. Lawre StAugustin Venison Tickle SLewis Sound Strait of Belle Isle Battle H ablons Bradore Blanc Sablon Wapitagun Bonne B Anticosti Bay of Islands Table GaspéB. S.George By GULF OF ST LAWRENCE Perce Bird Rocks Magdalen Miramichi R Couche Chalours Bay Rimouski Dalhousie Bathurst NEW Richibuctor CRay Bauld Hare B. St John White Bay Notre Dame B. NEWFOUNDLAND C.Freels Bonavista B Bonavista Decrta Fogo. Reploits Fortune B. North Miquelon Cabot Str PRINCE EDWARD ID CHARLOTTE T Shediac Woodstock BRUNSWICK QUEBEC Thomas Three Rivers Lexis LSPet Francis Montreal Sherbrooke Lawrence RaS Kingston St&E ohnst Champlain Burlingtons Adirondack JM Geor L.ONTARIO Watertown Rutland Kincardine Windsor Goderich Kalamazoo Detroit Chatham to Riv Oswego Rome bans MONTPEIR Caral FREDERICTON Monoton E Calais Bangor MWashington AUGUSTAC Howison NEW- HAMPSHIRE B. Portland CONCORD Portsmouth Bowell Salem Kingston Bay of Fundy Cape Cod Tanish Fictou Bras d'OrB. Piercel SYDNEY Louisburg CAPE BRETON IP Trinity Bay Heart's Content STJOHN'S Avalon Penin CRace Placentia B SMary B Trepasser B Hawkesbury Sherbrooke Sable I. Direct Cables to Land's End بس T 0 LA C NT EAN I C Newport RHODE ISLAND New Haven London Long L Yarmouth nobscot Nantucket 1869 (1874) GOTIA HALIFAX Lunenburg Liverpool Shelburne C.Sable (1884) (1879) Commercial Cable (1884) A Longitude West 70 of Greenwich Petroleum deposits shown in red. Sale Cambridge BOSTON WEMASSACHUSETTS Syracuse Saratog Rochester LBANY Tro Buffalo NEW L. ERIE YOR K Catskill HART FORDO PROWDEN CONNECTICUT Elmira Binghampton Kingston Dunkirk Erie Painesvilly Cleveland Toronto Ludingten Sagina Hamilton Muskegan Gr Flint Milwaukee Haven Grand Wisner KA DES MOINES 100° Frespon Koledar Lawa Co Cap. Dions Jamesville Rockford Chicago Rapids LANSING C Huron London P.Sarnia Nit Windsor 90° Niobrara R. R. Niobrara Laramie Sand Hill NEBRAS NPlatte R. OCHEYENNY: Cherokee Cedar Sioux C. Dodge Dubuque Galena Niles Jackson Adrian Michigan Toledo London: Charles Griffin & Co.Ltd. Seranton Newbury Williamsport Maraille Franklin 80° PNNSYL P Wilkesharre ANLA ewark New York Cable 60° Stanford's Geog! Estab, London. UNIV 50 45 40 3.9% CH. NORTHWESTERN CANADA. 163 Alberta. In the vicinity of the last-mentioned indications, but upon the eastern side of the watershed, the Cambrian rocks are again apparently petro- liferous on a feeder of Waterton Lake. A good yield of oil has lately been struck in the Cretaceous beds at Pincher Creek, some 30 miles north of Waterton Lake. At Cassil's, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, some 37 miles from the Saskatchewan border, gas is obtained from the Cretaceous shales, at horizons ranging between 900 and 1700 feet from the surface, and oil was reported as found in a fairly deep boring near Calgary. The drift-sands at Big Egg Lake, 25 miles northwest of Edmonton, are saturated with tar, presumably derived by filtration from the subjacent Upper Cretaceous (Laramie) sandstones. At Victoria and Athabasca Landing, the Cretaceous shales have yielded heavy discharges of gas at various depths. The Dakota sandstone at the base of the Cretaceous series is saturated, over an area of at least 1000 square miles, with inspissated petroleum, and is often mentioned as the Tar Sand. It rests unconformably on the Devonian lime- stones and shales, which are also petroliferous to a slight extent within the province, and abundantly so both northwards in Mackenzie, and southward in Ontario and the United States, so that the idea has found favour in some minds that the tar of the Dakota sandstone is derivative from the Devonian series. But the latter, where seen along the Athabasca and its tributary valleys, cut down through the soft Cretaceous rocks, is devoid of any trace of bitumen except in fissures recently filled by oozings from the overlying sandstones. It may be added that, as will be mentioned later, the Dakota beds are petroliferous in other regions, where no such derivation is conceivably possible. The area occupied by the Tar Sand is undefined on the south and west, where the higher Cretaceous beds cover it to a depth not yet pierced by boring. Eastward it is approximately bounded by the 111th meridian, whilst northward, on the Peace River, the overlying Clearwater Shales appear to rest directly on the Devonian floor, the limit of the Dakota being problematical beyond its disappearance near latitude 57° 45', 80 miles below Fort McMurray. Occurrences of petroleum in the Devonian are noticed on the Clearwater River at Methye portage; on the 59th parallel at 100 miles west of the mouth of the Peace River; and on Slave River 30 miles below the Peace. The Tar Sand comes into view at 30 miles above Fort McMurray, and extends to at least 80 miles below it, being also traceable from 10 to 20 miles eastward in tributary streams. Gas and tar are emitted from a spring in the Clearwater Shales on the Peace, 30 miles below the mouth of the Smoky River, and the nodules in the shales contain streaks of bitumen. Similar nodules occur on the north shore of Little Slave Lake, and another tar-spring is alleged to occur here near the mouth of Martin River. The discharge of tar and gas from a boring at the mouth of Pelican river on the Athabasca stopped operations at a depth of 837 feet, the Dakota series having been entered at 750 feet. Saskatchewan.-The Cretaceous shales discharged a heavy flow of gas for several years at Langevin, near the Alberta border, and a small yield of gas is locally used at Medicine Hat, 35 miles eastward, also on the Canadian Pacific line. Mackenzie. Tar and pitch occur on the north side of Great Slave Lake, a spring rising about a mile and a half off shore, some 27 miles westward of Pointe Brulée, and another on the shore of the bay eastward of the point. A third spring is reported on the long arm northeastward. These exude from cavernous dolomites, limestones, and shales of Devonian age. On the Mackenzie River, valuable pitch-springs occur at 70 miles above the mouth of the Liard, 164 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. and at the mouth of Hareskin River (Fort Good Hope). At 53 and 68 miles below the fort the shales and limestones are saturated with petroleum. The oil- field thus indicated is at least 650 miles in length; its width is a matter for future investigation. Manitoba. The Cretaceous rocks on the Assiniboine, 80 miles west of Winnipeg, are impregnated with petroleum, and oil is said to have been found in boring at Springfield, some 10 miles eastward of the city, in a region of Lower Silurian (Trenton) rocks. Near Dauphin, on the other hand, neither oil nor gas occurred in a boring through 422 feet of Cretaceous and 321 of Devonian rocks. The structure of the Palæozoic masses, where so concealed by indepen- dent overlying beds, must necessarily remain unknown till revealed by a long series of carefully recorded borings through the obscuring series. Ontario.-Gas discharges occur in the silver-mines of the Port Arthur district, Lake Superior, from veins in the Animikie (Pre-Cambrian) group. In the upper copper-bearing series of the same region, probably of Lower Silurian age, are chert masses, containing minute globules of bitumen, which have apparently formed nuclei for the aggregation of the silica. Veins of bitumen, traversing the mass, seem to be due to the discharge of such chambers as were intersected by the fissures. On Great Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, the Trenton Limestone yields petroleum at Pike Lake and Wequamakong, and the overlying Utica shales, from Cape Smith westward to Shiquinandah and the small island north of Maple Point, are highly bituminous, oil exuding in several places. Far to the north of this, on the Abittibe river, from 40 to 50 miles south of its mouth in Hudson's Bay, the Devonian limestones are reported to be petroliferous, and nearly as far to the southward lie the several oil-fields of west Ontario, occupying, with the associated gas-fields, a large proportion of the peninsula between lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario. The chief source of the petroleum is the Devonian series, of which the Corni- ferous limestone is the most productive member, though the earlier exploita- tions were confined to the overlying Hamilton beds, consisting of shales with variable limestones and dolomites. With the local exhaustion of the Devonian, deeper boring has found slight amounts of oil, but valuable supplies of gas, in the Middle and Lower Silurian, the following being the complete sequence :- Chemung group, Portage group, Hamilton beds, Corniferous Limestone, Onondaga Salt group, Guelph, Niagara and Clinton Limestones, Medina Sandstone, Hudson River beds, Utica Shale, Trenton Limestone, Devonian. Upper Silurian. Middle Silurian. Lower Silurian. The gas is principally derived from the Medina and Trenton, but rich yields have been met in the higher beds. The important production of oil is confined to Lambton county, of which Petrolea is at once the geographical and com- mercial centre, the field extending southeast to Bothwell in Kent, and northwest to Sarnia on the frontier river St. Clair. Minor yields of oil are obtained in Essex (including Pelee Island), Kent, Middlesex, Oxford, and Huron, and traces are found in the cavities of limestones in Norfolk, Haldimand, and Wentworth. EASTERN CANADA. 165 CC The production of gas is of commercial importance in Essex and Welland, but useful amounts are obtained in Elgin, Lincoln, Peel, York, Simcoe, Ontario, Hastings, and some other counties. Discharges of gas from drift-gravels during the sinking of wells are not uncommon, and have given rise to delusive hopes of valuable yield. The gravels serve as reservoirs to store feeble emanations from the subjacent rocks, the overlying Erie Clay preventing escape till pierced artificially, when a rapid delivery soon exhausts the small accumulation. The Burning Spring" below Niagara Falls is due to a flow of gas from the Niagara Shales, which underlie the limestone of the Falls. The Trenton limestone of the two isolated areas near Ottawa contains petroleum in its hollow fossils and other cavities at Pakenham, 30 miles west-southwest, and in Lancaster, 60 miles east-southeast, of the capital. A little gas has been found at Barnsville, east- ward of Lancaster, and glossy asphalt in Cornwall to the southwest. Oil has lately been found at Ramsay's corner, 8 miles from Ottawa. The gas-spring at Caledonia, Prescott, has been known for a century or more. Quebec.-Gas has been found at Maisonneuve, near Montreal, in the Utica Shale, and in considerable quantity in the Hudson River beds at St. Hyacinthe, 30 miles eastwards. Yet further east, at Actonvale, and north of this at Drummondville, the rocks of the Quebec group contain traces of the bitumen ungrammatically termed anthraxolite by Professor Chapman, in the form of minute globules casually distributed through the mass, and evidently an inspis- sated condition of some originally fluid hydrocarbon. At St. Justin and St. Barthélemi, near the head of Lake St. Peter, gas has been found at insignificant depth in the Trenton, and also at St. Pierre, a few miles northeastward. Some 20 miles east of this, borings at St. Grégoire and Beauséjour have found abun- dant gas in both Medina and Hudson River beds. At Lotbinière and St. Nicholas, the latter series again contains bitumen-granules, and at Pointe aux Trembles the Utica Shale is charged with petroleum. At Sillery, Quebec, and the Island of Orleans, the Lower Silurian slates and conglomerates contain traces of bitumen, and at Beauport, 4 miles northeast of Quebec, the Trenton limestone has large geodes of glossy bitumen, whilst petroleum occurs in the same rock on Rivière de la Rose, 20 miles northeastward, as is also the case over at least 170 square miles around Tremblay, on the Saguenay river, 100 miles northward of this. Intermittent attempts at economic development of the Gaspé oil-field cover some forty years, with no commercial success as yet. The Upper Silurian limestones and Lower Devonian sandstones and shales are both petroliferous, and in fairly favourable structure for commercial operations. The valleys of the Dartmouth, York, St. John, and Malbey rivers show exuding oil at many points, and the vigorous researches now in progress have every prospect of a successful result. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.-The Lower Carboniferous (?) rocks of King's, Westmoreland and Albert counties contain natural gas, petroleum, and veins of bitumen at Norton, Apohaqui, Elgin Corner, Baltimore, Albert mines, Shepody Mountain, Hillsborough, Dover, Memramcook, Beliveau, and Dor- chester, a range of 70 miles. Good yields of gas have been obtained in the neighbourhood of Moncton. At the Albert Mine a most valuable vein, which was the origin of the name albertite, was mined to a depth of 1500 feet before narrowing to the minimum width for profitable working. Many borings in this district, even to 2000 feet in depth, have failed to find more than mere traces. This was to be anticipated from con- sideration of the normal nature of fissures, resulting from the lateral strain of flexured rocks, when imperfectly counterbalanced by vertical pressure of overlying masses. The fissures open upwards, and collect fluid matter from 166 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. the fractured rocks, generally water, but sometimes, as in the case under con- sideration, petroleum, now mostly inspissated to albertite. The form of veins filled from below by molten rock whose upward pressure has fractured the overlying masses is necessarily the reverse, opening downwards. The exhausted vein of albertite was of very irregular width, passing rapidly from 10 or 15 feet to a few inches, and deviating, in consequence of renewed dislocation subsequent to its first formation, from verticality to a considerable angle of hade. Its length was 2800 feet. The grahamite vein of West Virginia, described on p. 172, is closely analogous. Traces of petroleum have been met with at Cheverie, Hants, Nova Scotia, and on Lake Ainslie in Cape Breton Island, both in Carboniferous rocks of an horizon slightly higher than the Albert Shale. Oil-shale of about the same age is reported from McAdams Lake, north of the east bay of Bras d'Or Lake, and in the yet higher Coal-measures of Pictou occurs an oil-coal. Newfoundland. The petroleum-bearing deposits of the western coast of Newfoundland range lower in the geological series than those of any other known oil-field, being in the Lauzon limestones and Levis sandstones of the Quebec group (Lower Silurian). These occur at Port-au-Port Bay, and from Bonne Bay to Sandy Bay (Parsons Pond). The series is overlaid from Port- au-Port to Bonne Bay by a group of volcanic rocks, predominantly serpentine, in which, opposite Fox Island, occur veins of bitumen, doubtless derived from the sedimentary rocks traversed. In the Carboniferous sandstones, uncon- formably following the Lower Silurian on the outer coast of the Port-au-Port peninsula, albertite occurs at Clambank Cove. Oil-shales are found in the lower Carboniferous rocks of the Humber river. On the east coast of the northern peninsula at Cap Rouge are black Devonian shales with nodules containing petroleum. GREENLAND. Petroleum is said to have been detected in McCormick Bay, a small inlet on the south coast of Prudhoe Land. UNITED STATES. (Plate 12.) Connecticut and New Jersey.-Bitumen is widely distributed in the amyg- daloidal trap rocks traversing the Trias of Connecticut at Hartford, Farmington, New Britain, Middletown, Meriden and Southbury, and elaterite occurs at Woodbury, north of the last-named. Bitumen also is present in the amyg- daloidal intrusives of the Triassic beds of Newark, N.J., and traces of a black waxy substance" in slates of the same series at Somerville. Ozokerite is found in the Cretaceous brick-earth of South Amboy, and asphalt in small amounts in the "Ash-marl," also of Cretaceous age, of Vincenttown. New York. The greater part of the State of New York, south-westward of a line from the foot of Lake Ontario to Saratoga, presents a number of more or less connected gas-fields, drawing their supply from various members of the Palæozoic series, but principally from the Devonian and the Lower Silurian formations. In not a few cases, where either the upper strata proved devoid of gas, or their yield was insufficient for the purposes of the owners, perseverance in drilling has been rewarded by striking further supplies in the deeper-seated rocks, and instances are recorded of gas being found in valuable quantity at Syracuse, Hastings and Ilion, in the Calciferous or Potsdam Sandstone, close to UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 130 Alert By Takes his Nootka Sa Victoria VANCOUVER I? C I 40° 7494 Conta 125° 60° 105° 100 95° 90° 85 80° 75° 70° Ho GreenL Orford Ho Knee L Beaver L BATTLEFOR &F Carlton ALBERT PRINCE Nepowewin Gumberland Ho Pinel L Moose L Leiths Ho. CrossL. C.Jones Mistasibbi Merry L Но Rossville Rossville Ichigo R Sutton Mill ods Devon Ho. Severnisto JAMES FGeorge Fla Corne 1s Ho. H Trout L Equan R Ft The www Elbow Pasq u ia a Concord Weenisk Ho Saskatoon Hand Hills M Ho. skatchewan R. Attawapiskat R. Albany Agoonska Straight R. BAY East Main R. BigR Nitchiquan L. 65° Li Hamilton Osokmanow L. Summit or Ashwanipi 2,400 Fox Burnt L. Romaine R. Post Charlton Mistassim Lake Touchwood Hills Pells Д. bany R Rupert R Cypress Hills Thunder breeding Fairford S.Joseph Hills REGINA Chaplin Is Qu'Appelle R. RedL.Ho Henley Ho Wood f Vaktivere Pers FElliceWestbourne Riding Mtn Has South R.Ho. Moose F Hannah Bay Ho Ho FAlexander WINNIPEGshington R. Seal Nipigon Dose Roche Perce Melita Morris Nurtle Pembina St Vincent MB Cheewatin Lake Emerson Porque Woods Thoug Nipigo Wabige Long Pike IS New South Br T Rain Rainy FFrangis Jakes Rainy Arthur William Pog FRed Li 1.Royale of the Missabey Heights Charlotte Itasca Glyndo Duluth Abittibi R Montreal Sturcon Noddawail Ruperto. Marten R. Big L. Gull L. Bell R Lbittibi Raux Lienes Three Rivers StReter S Francis Sherbrooke M 120° Quesnelle Thomas Son 115° Paul 110° ALBE Battle Edmonton Pill Rocky Mount Hooker Ho 18300 Murchison Columbia Shepherd Banff Ho Tail Cree Goo CALGARY Saree Res Head Bon MLead Kootenay Kootenay Kalispelm Blackfoo Bally R Sask Lethbridge Ratchewan Eagle Hills The Moose Livingstone 00 Swan R Winnipego Norway Ho rand Rapids Pike L Beerens Family L. Beaver Lo F wan sin illo o ia MANET OB A Qu'Appelle Moose M. Brandon Prairie Portage Boniface use L.Miniwakan Red R. Albany HoCatL.Ho Martin Falls Ho Gloucester Ho B shaburgh Seymour Shuswap Kamloops O Lillooets Waddingtong Vernon viton Douglas Yale Princeton Hope Vancouver Nanaimo New Westminster StJuan de Fuca St C.Flattery ACTORIA MOlympus Whatsom Columbra R Wanan kana HINGTON Puget SoundTac OLYMPIA Columbia RMS/Hele Astoria Portland SALEM Eugen Umpqua C. Empire C. C.Blanco Willamette MRainier 12360 Snake Marins Pass 31 Marine Ophir thead t M HELENA Milk R Missouri Great Falls Silver C. R. Union Clarke Lewis Powder R D Little Missouri N.Fork Bad L n Berthola BISMARCK FRice Shyenne R Pierr O T Worthing Jamestown TH 1e MINNESOTA Superior Breckenridge Brainard BigStone Full Kampeska d's Thompson White R. Brute C. Dakota Sauk Centre as Cloud Stanthong To Minneapoli Minnesota Gr. Portage N Brunswich Ho Minissabe Matawakashme Michip picoten LAKE SUPERIOR Bay Port Chippewa R. to Keweenaw &Bay Ontongon Marquette Onota M Escanaba Chelsea Menominee WISCONSIN Chippewa Wausau STPAUL Leavenworth Red Wings TAMedary Mankato Owatonna F Mississippi Winona Green Bay Black River Grand Rapids SF SIOUX FALLS Winnebago aramiel pk obrara R. Randall Yankton Algona Prairie du Chiens Niobrara Cherokee Cedar S Wisner NEBRA KA Pena Blanca Moqu Ft Defiance Desert Little Colorado Plateau S Pueb Zuni Albuquerqua NEW MEXICO FtSumner S.Platte R Suntaus Clifton t S.Juan Ft Union Canadian R SANTA FE AHO OKLA TER Winnebago Green &Ste Marie Mary Re Mackinaw Sudbury Spanish R Cloche Fresh GManitoulin Georgian L Petoskeype Traverse C Manistee & Tawas Austin La Crosse Fond du Lac Ludingten MADISON Watertown Sioux C. Dodge Dubuqueen Missour DES MOINES S Lawa Co Moines ledar Gr Saginaw L.HURON Saginor Temiscamingue Lesbama North Bay Mattawa Ottawa Nipissing Pembroke Parry Sorend Muskoka Southampton Collingwood L.Simcoe Kincardine Windsor Toronto Goderich Hamilton Wasparipi OTTAWA Perth Kingston Ashnapouchonan Montreal Laurence A Richelieu Johns's Champlain Burlington Adirondac ohn aux Outardes nagan 1 Chicoutima P.Neu av Ry Kamourash QUEBE L.ONTARIO Watertown lande Levis St John R. Magpie Moisie R E Seven IS er S. Lawren Rimouska Dalhousi fros Pistoles Thomas che Logan Mingan C Mingan StAugustin e. "gut White Ba Notre Dame B. 55 Hare B. St John Blanc Sablo Wapitasun Bonne B Anticosti I. Bay of Islands Table Gaspé B. S.George B GULF OF Bird Rocks ST LAWRENCE Perce Magdalen Miramichi R Chaleurs Bay Bathurst NEW Richabuctor PRINCE EDWARD diac I SHARLOTTE T Woodstock BRUNSWICKY Kingston Pictou Truro CRay Exploits Victoria R Fortune B. North Miquelon Cabot Str indsor S COTΙΑ FREDERICTON Monston INEohn Calais Bangor MWashington AUGUSTA Howison NEW- Oswego Ron Georg HAMPSHIRE Syracuse Saratoga Muskegan Flint pSarnia Niagara Rochesterburn Milwaukee Haven Grand LANSING Clear Rapids Jamesville Hur R&L.London Galena Disons Fremory Rockford Chicago Kalamazoo Z Detroit Zo Chatham Dibakir Windsor Buffalo NEW Dunkirk Erie Niles Adrian Michigan Rap Devon Aurora Muscatine Davenport Soudara Fort Wayne Burlington Bethany Kealak Galesburgh Peoria A Bloomington ILLINOIS Quincy Louisiana Lexington Sharles AS JEFFERSON C.O Emporia R. Ozark Hillos ittle Arkansas North Fork Red Fork Neosho Vinta Guthrie OKLAHOMA TALEQUAH Arkadisas Van Buren Washita Hills R port Jackson LITTLE ROCK 66 Loganspon Lavet Decatur DIANOS Terrela SPRINGFIEL Jackson Riv Toledo Maumee Sandusky Lima L. ERIE Mansfield Pim Mansfield Painesville Cleveland Akron ALBANY TRO OR K Catskills Mis Bay Fundy Tarmouths Penobscot B. Portland CONCORD Portsmouth Howell Salem BOSTON Silambridge MASSACHUSETTS Elmira Binghampton King for Williamsport PENNSY Alleghany ExAlleghany loca مر PROWDENCE HARTFORDO Seranton Newbury Wilkesborre NNECTICU Newark Pottsville ANIA TRENTON ttsburgh HARRISBURG 0 squehanna O New Haven ISLAND London Long L New York Brunswick Philadelphia York Baltimore Cineberland Fotom WASHINGTON Wilmington DELAWARE 670 Charlotte Mississippi Memphis Holly Spr. Chattanoogs Huntsville Walhalla O mess Rom Athens, ATLANTA Dallas Red Rive McKinney Jefferson dens Was Columbus Grenada Griffin Macon ALABAMA Milledgeville Columbus Monroe GEORGIA Granam Marshall Shreveport Vicksbur JACKSON MONTGOMERY Altamaha Eufala R. Natitoches Albany Fredricksburg Delaware B&R MARYLAND Cape Cod 17/5 70° Nantucket HALIFAX Lunenburg Liverpool Shelburne 1869) Sable (1874) (1884) (1879) Commercial Cable (1884) 170° Herald Bank 165° Bras d'OrB. SYDNEY Plate 12. 50° NEWFOUNDLAND Fogo C.Freels Bonavista B Bonavista Trinity Bay Heart's Content STJOHN'S Avalon Penin Placeutia B. St Mary Trepassey SPierrel Louisburg CAPE BRETON IP of Canso Sherbrooke 160° Pt Barrow or C. Belche ley Cape C.North Sable I. 15/5 Dease Inlet Race Direct U.States Cable Great Bank of Newfoundland Direct Cables to Lands End 2 German direct U.S. Cables (1900) 150° 145° 140° 35° RS Smith B. C.Halket Harrison B. Beechey Pt Return Reef Camden B. Beaufort B 40 45° Vancouver Palles Mt Hood 1225 Pierce Lewiston Clearwater R Waltiwalla Baker C C almon R Florence Alene HeHgate Benton T AN Salmon C Silver Hellgate Butte C. Virgina B Bannock Gallati BigHorn Yellowstone R. an National Park Big lowstone BOISE M.Hayde Milyons Silver C. Shak American E Shake R FHa Fremont R 13570 Big torn Slww.toH ds Pueblo C. Pit Rake City Mountain C. Frankling Toano, GREAT Elko R SALT LAKE Bear L &R. Ogden ab M's Benton Laramies Sherman' 4200 LUintah Prov U T Winchester Rogue R. Jacksonville Crescent C. Klamath R Trinidad Freko Mt Shashta 14440 Weareille Summit P Silver L. L.Harney Klamath GooseL. Eureka Shasta L. C.Mendocino Red Bluffs Pacific PArena Eagle L. GT SALT LAKE and 1.Humboldty Ruby THE GREAT BASIN Virginia CARSON Custin Eureka Wheeler NEVAD P Sevier L&R Fill Oroville Mendocino led Wada Marysville Grusg Cloverdale SACRAMENTO Walker L. Belmont Stockton Castlep Parowan StGeorge Painte PRESCOTT O eetwater Laramie South Pass Coal Basin Green River Uncompahgre M Plains Longs Leak Laramie Sand Hill N Platte R. OCHEYENNE E Greeley DENVER RAD Colorado Pueblo North Platte Datter's Ꭰ Omaha LINCOLN Kearney Nebraska C. Republican R Marysville Solomon P Atchinson Leavenwort Kas R 14,235 Ο 1438 MHards Sheridan C Joseph Chilicothe Jackson Hannibal vide Blanca Pl 44464 Arkansas R. Kit Carson Lakin Smoky Hill Fork KA Harker TOPERA Kansas Osage Louis Belleville pingfield INDIANA Dayton Columbus Vincenes Madison OH Norrk COLUMBUS ville Marietta Hamon Cincinnati Newport Portsmouth Albany, Louisville CHARLESTON Newton Dodge C. R Osceola Kaskaskia Evansville Wichita Humboldt Scott Folla Iron M Cape Henderson Arkansas C Elgin MVernon Springfield Girardeau Cairo een R Chio KENTU OFRANKFORE Lexington KY Danville Jonesville Paducah Hopkinsville New New Madi Uniontity Clarksville B NASHVILLE R WEST Wincheste Maysville VIRGINIA Alexandria Cum Knorville Clingman Staunton Fans RICHMOND Petersburg C.Charles BGINIA Newport News Sapeake Bay Roano Norfolle Danville RALEIGH Jackson NESSE BlackDong NORTH CAROLINA Mobile Saunders Mill Chattahooche Bainbridge O TALLAHASSEE Albemarle Sound Cape Hatteras Fayetteville NewBorne Pamlico Sound COLUMBIA S. CAROLINA Augusta te nnah R StMar C.Lookent Onslow B. ape Fear Wilmington C.Fear Long B. Georgetown Charleston Port Royal Savannah Darien Brunswick C. Beaufort C.Lisburne pt Hope Serdze C. Arctic Circle 65 EastC. Diomede IS Laurence BERI Nontak R hotham Kotzebue Sound Prince of Wales C.d P Rodney Peninsula PName Sledgel C.Nome StLawrenceI. Inlet Kowal Pelly M Colville R. elawik L&R Bugtalik Norton Bay Golovin Nulato Nuklit Unalakk Norton Sound Mouths of the Kwichpak or Yukon Vancouv 60 Andreevsl Cook Pastola Yukuk R Yukon Hills Micul Taliti RYukon Aniluklak kat Bloggmute FKolmako Kuskokwim R Nelson1. KuskokwimB. Yushagal Fikhanani Nowikaka A Frank Mts Romanof Snow Mts Low 70% British Mts Firth R Lower Up Ramparts Ramparts Birch Yukon R. Yukon Ramparts Tanana R S (to U. States) K Alaska Mon Chigmit Mts Clark tna Cudahy Forty Mentasta Pass 30 Sixty Mile Cr Up Ramparts MWrangell MBlackbur Scolor Pasa PrWalliams 0 MS Elias 18.010 Kayak I. Malaspina Gl Middleton I. 20.Montagu 1. Puget Bay 0 Cook or Kenal Benai Penin Haina Vol 4206 HaimaL Chugachik C.Douglas Wy, Afognak I. StPaul Kadiak I. Great Abaco I. Isanotski Strait Newenhame Port Moller 60° C. Krandchenko R.Nus Kwitchak R Haska Peninsula Ukak Kathi Alaska Str. Okeechobee C.Romano Thousand Isles C.Sable Tortugas Keys Pine Florida Strait Bahamal Florida NASSAU Providence dudros Semidil Ukamok I. 150° 145° W. of Gr. 85° 80° 75° 70° 65° Petroleum deposits shown in red. Stanford's Geog! Estab, London. Fernandina Jacksonville SAugustine L.George C.Canaveral Newmansville Cedar Keys Tampa B John's R. ORI D Tampa San Francisco Golden Gate 35 35 St Cr Monterey Bay Salinas &Th Soledad San Louis Obispo PtConcepcion Yosemiter 33000 M. Whithe 14895 Tilar Callville Tejon Pass Pinos Los Angel Sa Bernarding Sod S.Craz S.Catalina S.Clemente Initial P All Saints B. Diego Tha Juana ARZO Rio Gila Arizona Craz St Thomas OM Calanes Felipe S. Quentin B. Srientin Grant Goodwin Tucson Saquarra Tuba Cra Frontera S.Ignacio Arisper SF Magell Altar Ascuncion S.Luis B.La Libertad Bora Los Angeles Scammon Cedros I. E A 25 Alijos Rocks 112 Ignacios S.Ignacio Purissima onor Marcos S.Inez Rio Grande Sierra Madre Mowry Las Crucist Plateau Bliss La Soledad El Paso EL del Norte, Janos R.Bravo Caras Grandes Pilares Galeena Carmen Oposura Mactezuma Santuarip Hermosillo vm mas Mulege & Bay Juan Comandu Loreto Magdalena B S.Margarital Red River Llano Estacado T R. Pecos Apache Mts Davis Presidio del Nefer Eulalia Chihuahua aception Concho Mesis Marsh i bona R. Alantos RMay Topolobampo Loreto Fuerte R. Fuerte S Batopla Rosalias Ballora Pairal Timenes Allende Guadalupe El Oro me Sinaloa Pocorito .Ids S.Ignacio Maraz Bay La Paz S de S.Lazaro All Saints C.S.Lucas 115 Longitude West of Greenwich 110° English Statute Miles 100 200 300 Antonio Tamaul Culiacan sala Altatas SC.Palm 400 NIA Elota Novia Leaton Presidio Vicente EZBellanape FPhotom Hill Chudourne FM Kavett FTerret Boggy Sherman Colorad AUSTIN San Antonio FDuncan R.Grande del Norte Frio Laredo Brazos R. Palestin Trinity Intown Houston Victoria Alejandria Natche LOUISIANA Opelaisas Orange Donaldsonv Sabine Galveston Goliad Matagorda Rosa a Bolson" de Mapimi Villa de S.Mojada Salad Mondova Cerro Grande Coahuil R.Florida by Gordo IndeMapimi ador RNazas Nazas Bellville Rio Indianola Matagorda B. eces &1. Corpus Christi Padre I Grande Rancho Madre L. Brownsville Montere China Matamoros Bagdad Parras Saltillo Potos Papasquiaro Cuencame SJuan &L Din Durango Mazapis Durang 105° Nombre de Dios Leon Linares 100° Tigre Snando 95° Marsh I BATON ROUGE Ponchar Pensac ew Orleans SAndrews Mouths of the I.Dernière Mississippi R. C.S! Blas Apalachicola R &F Apalachee B GUL F OF Charlotte H M E X I C 0 90° London: Charles Griffin & Co.,Ltd. 30 C Guadalupe I. to Mexico) 4523 25 North Latitude 100 50 0 SLucie B. UNIL N/ OF MICH P 45 PLATE 13. SECTION VARIOUS Showing the OIL. HORIZONS OF NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA & CANADA. о 100 200 400 GREENE COUNTY GROUP, N° XVII 800 + 1200 FEET N°XII Limestone Upper Barren Coal Measures "B" Washington Upper Limestone /// WASHINGTON COUNTY GROUP, N: XVI. MONONGAHELA SERIES, Nº XV. PITTSBURCH SERIES, NO XIV. Upper Barren Coal Measures “A” Waynesburg S.S. Wanesburg Coal Upper Productive Coal Measures Great Limestone Pittsburgh Coal Lower Barren Coal Measures ALLEGHENY SERIES, N: XIII. POTTSVILLE CONGLOMERATE, N XII. MAUCH CHUNK, Nº XI. POCONO SERIES, Nº X. Mahoning Sandstone Freeport SS. 'Lower Productive Coal Measures Ferriferous Limestone Homewood Sandstone Connoquennessing S.S Mountain Sands Mean Conglomerate Limestone Sub Olean Conglomerate Pithole Grit Crawford Shales Berca Grit UPPER DEVONIAN CATSKILL NO IX. 3500' 1 S.S 2nd S.S. Venango Butler Oil Group Stray 3rd S. S. Shalas and thin Sandstone 300 600' Warren Sand Warren Group Clarindon Sand CHEMUNG. VIII g. and Cherry Grove Sand Mc Kean Group MIDDLE DEVONIAN 1200 1800' Cooper Sund Bradford Sand PORTAGE, VIII f. 1700 GENESEE, VIII .. TULLY, VIII d. HAMILTON, VIII C. LOWER DEVONIAN MARCELLUS, VIII 6. Elk Group Devonian Slates and Shales U. HELD, VIII a. 3275 3375 Corniferous Limestone Total 6875 Pret. Ly ناام OF CH. M SER Level Fort Wayne Connersville Casparidge Ottawa WEST VIRGINIA Duukard Creek NOTE. Figures under names of towns, denote elevations of R.R.Depots. 19 above wells, denote elevation of well mouths. helow wells, denote depth below ocean, level. The top and bottom figures added, give depth of well. GREENE CO. Brownsville ON WONS MALM3 SAVESTONE OCEAN LEVEL LOWER BARREN COAL LOWER PRODUCTIVE MEASURES COAL MEASURE WASHINGTON CO. ALLE GHENY CO. ALIGNMENT OF SECTION. From Black Rock, Erie Co. NY. to Pittsburgh, Pa., 175 miles S. 20°W. Pittsburgh to Dunkard Cr. Greene Co., Pa., 50 وو S 3°E Findlay Muffton/ Fort Wayne Sea Grevd Plymouth Shelbyville Sea Lor? Greenfield Anderson City Alexandria Fairmount ny, Ind Pittsburgh 745 Brady's Berta Afiletinal 1508 Boyd Bill Kell GENERALIZED GEOLOGICAL SECTION FROM BLACK ROCK, NEW YORK TO DUNKARD CREEK, PA. SHOWING THE VARIOUS OIL HORIZONS OF PENNSYLVANIA NEW YORK AND CANADA. AND THEIR RELATIVE POSITIONS in the PALEOZOIC SYSTEM bv John F. Carll, Asst. Geologist P E N NS Y L V A N I A BUTLER CO. Sommit Millerstown Perrobia Parker 400: 300 IRRE -1890 New Custle Well CLARION CO. SECTIONS SHOWING GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE WESTERN OHIO OF AND EASTERN INDIANA. M. R. Campbell, del. Fairmount Sea Level Exton, Ind. Napoleon TRENTON LIMESTONE UTICA SHALE HUDSON RIVER SHALE SSS NIAGARA LIMESTONE MEDINA SHALE NIAGARA SHALE CAINTON LIMESTONE State Lino N. Baltimor Bagrus Sea Level Bellefontaine HORIZONTAL SCALE OF MILES VERTICAL SCALE OF FEET 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 50 90 100 1990 2000 5000 4000 6900 ແລ 7300 8000 9030 ¡EDCO STELS PATHO LOWER HELDERSEROS LIMESTONE UPPER SULZERBERG OHIO SHALE LIMESTONE Deshler N. Baltimore Bazrdstown/ Bloomdale ware Fostoria Stew level! Sea Level Indianapolis Napolem Greenfield Bowling Green išasina Cambridge Gły QUOUER Dichmond ODILY CIFIKAS 2243 Water Well Titusville WARREN AND VENANGO CO. MC KEAN COUNTIES BRADFORD SAND 76 1217 1240 NY STATE LINE NEW YORK President Tidioute Youngsville 1058 1112 1214 Brafford Denitis Well 2055 Jamestown Dayton Cattaraugus Cr. Hamburg Black Rock 625 £370 Fredonia N.Y. 640 2011 3/51 620 ess rather a Fell North Warra Corretock PELL What's Well Stearns N Benville Eme Des JeunestaPNIU WELL Jackson Sta LAKE ERIE FABETON OØRNIFEROUŠ E-QUONDAGA MAGARA CLINTON MEDINA Port Colborne 735 Coburn Well Fredonia FROM WHITBY, ONT. TO FREDONIA, N.Y. SECTION FROM HUDSON UTICA 1500 feet RIVER TRENTON Springhold Columbas, O. 2430-fest Thorold STATE LAKE ONTARIO Datum Line TIDE LEVEL 728 feet 1000 500 1000 20.00 3000 FEET ? Lake Erie +573 OCEAN LEVEL Whitby PLATE 14. OF Spring Creek River Orawer Creek H Split PHILADEL Qaaker River Corydor Z Corydon Creek. Allegheny Coruplanter Ran ORY orth. Branch Su RUA N Red Creek RE Little Red · R. House Salamauca. Great Valley Sta. D HOU$ Limestone Bruck W Limestone P.O " Bolivar Bradford Brook Dennis Well Bonnet Brook Marilla Cri Cramer B Bran Carrollton O ROL LT8) Baillet Brook RI Linn Branch B Br Degoller ara Haa Caster City Lewis Run OKinzua Dewdrop. Paines Summit Krshburg Big Windfall Remler HA M Mudlick Run Brivos Run North Root Ban dliek Fort OLEAN. BRADFORD Chappel Fork TON MC Union Kinzua Creek South Branch Fins Burn Turpin Bun Mile Ludlow Wild Cat Hup Mays Sidin Edel Branch Tivnesta Cr. Tronesia PITTSBUR Spring Pleon Run Bju Run Creek Creek dupe R. tmore PHILADELPHIA West Run Wind Run Kane Well WESTERN Spring C CF. Highland O Spring Creek Summit Bear Creek Kinza Kane City Glad L A Lewis Tantergree Layette Corners Pin Ra Crawlords 1 Alton 3 BRADFORD Howard Hill Beckwith Geyser well Sergeaur Goetz Rus Ray & Archer Carlburts Big Mile Creek Bolid Vein Buttsville -Wild Cat Brouk RADFORD Kerrine Swany Clermonto Pinalsturg Smith Dronk Charirool) Wilcox- Wells Clarion River Rocky Run Run 'Mile Run Ού Ilamayille Weidett Summit N Back County Wilson Run DWISTO Rum Wolf TRAY Well, OrWell Johnsonburg 0 Montinorgacy Wilcox Oil Creek & W R Bridgetow East Br. Run Swar Kun M Jokinon Straight Clarion River S Br. Middle New Flanders か ​Lin Irwing Mills Arroyo Bear Cr. Portlands R E K ROCK CLEARFIELO Ridgway Wen Leonard Brok Munk Creek GAlegany Olean RD WARRE Wermouth Rock City RIVICLE Portville tville SECTION OF OIL & GAS WELLS IN MCKEAN & ELK COUNTIES, PENNSYLVANIA Showing the thickening of the Pocono and Catskill Rocks to the South. By Charles A. Ashburner. Geologist in Charge. VENANGO-BUTLER 250 OIL GROUP State Line Babcock Tarport Bells Camp Frek Barilen Dalla Rixtur Riée's Duke Center Brook Creek Eldre'd DENNIS-WELL- Prentiss Vale ELD E Larabee Frisbee Borde South Brang Branch Cole Creek Farmers Valley POTTSVILLE NO. XII 50 NO. X. 250 Sunethport Well } I N N HASKELWELL- Haskill Well 200 . Cre Marvin Kasson P.U Long Brook Bran Robbins Brook Wulcuft Cerek Colegrove Colegrove Brook Brook Hamlin Norwich N Branch BOTTOM OF THE WILCOX-WELLS Rocky Bun Natural Gas Pools. Petroleum Pools. BEAR CR. WELL SILVER CR, WELLE: MERATE RED SHALE OONGLOM SANDSTONE NO. XL 520 & SLATE SHALE POOONO SANDSTONE 830? L TTSBURGH. Whistletow WAY Daguscahynda Elk Creek Johnsonburg Well, Pulbere Kuch K Siler Creek honda MAP OF THE OIL & GAS FIELDS IN MC KEAN & ELK COUNTIES, Marys PENNSYLVANIA. SCALE OF MILES 3 10 JOHNSONBURG RIDGWAT WELL WELL! OLEAN “MAUCH CHUNK GRAY 2 110 1 CHEMUNG 250 CATSKILL NO. IX 269 SLATE 875 S.S. 819 -- 822 834 198 678 1 1 NO. VIII. 330 -1305- 1 OHEMUNG RED 285 BANDS 100 837 SHALES, GLATES & S.S'S 210 460 480 20 495 C19 220 stu 82 HR GAS SAND 5 220 836 230 309 20 27 { 905 1 37 400 335 644 BRADFORD OIL SAND 006 I 2055 Feet 1552 ELEVATION OF TOP OF WELLS ABOVE OCEAN LEVEL 9901 " 1595 " 1815 ERCI Wilcox No. 3, Bear Creek, Silver Creek, Ridgway, Johnsonburg, Haskill, 18 6METHPORT OIL BAND Dennis, #21 100 200 300 400 500 VERTICAL SCALE OF FEET 600 700 800 900 1000 TATTO 100 0 1440 1. PLATE 15. NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA. 167 the fundamental Archæan granite. The pre-Carboniferous rocks consist of the following subdivisions:- Chemung-Portage Shales and Sandstones, Genesee Shales, Hamilton Shales, Marcellus Shales, Corniferous or Upper Helderberg Limestone, Lower Helderberg Limestone, Devonian. Upper Onondaga or Salina group, Niagara group, Middle Clinton Limestone, Medina Sandstone, Silurian. Oswego Sandstone, Pulaski or Hudson River Shales, Lower Utica Shale, Trenton Limestone, Calciferous or Potsdam Sandstone, Cambrian. It would be possible to schedule the areas or sites supplied with gas from. each horizon, but such classification would be merely ephemeral, as the places at present using gas only from the higher horizons may, at no distant time, be supplied from borings carried to a lower series. The Silurian rocks of the State yield no petroleum, and only slight traces are here and there present in the Lower and Middle Devonian, viz., in the Corniferous Limestone of Erie opposite Gowanda, the Marcellus Shale of Caledonia in Livingstone, the Genesee Shale of Canandaigua in Ontario county, and the Portage beds of Portland in Chau- tauqua. The Chemung group, however, at the top of the series is a fair pro- ducer of oil and gas in Cattaraugus and Allegany, being an extension, though not of great area, of the Bradford field of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania. With the progress of improvement in boring-appliances, and the increase in depth thereby rendered obtainable, the upper members of the Carboniferous system, even when devoid of oil, become of importance as guides to the position of the more deeply-seated productive rocks. Plates XIII and XIV accordingly exhibit the entire series of Carboniferous and Devonian rocks of this and the adjacent States, the area collectively termed the Appala- chian oil-field. The Catskill and Chemung groups are now authoritatively relegated to the Carboniferous series. Commencing with the uppermost of the strata there shown, we find the Upper Barren Coal-measures, comprising the Greene county and Washington county groups, the latter covering a small area of the southwest of Pennsylvania. Neither of these groups is oil-bearing. The Upper Productive Coal-measures, comprising the Monongahela Series, No. XV, also produce no oil. They cover only that portion of the oil region which lies south of the outcrop of the Pittsburg coal. The Lower Barren Coal-measures, now known as the Pittsburg Series, No. XIV, comprise a series of shales, sandstones, and thin beds of limestone and coal, measuring about 500 feet in thickness, and extending from the base of the Pittsburg Coal to that of the Mahoning Sandstone. Except in Greene county, only the latter produces oil or gas, but the series is of considerable interest to the driller, as containing beds of unstable red clays, which necessitate the casing of the wells, whilst the middle member, a crinoidal limestone, known in Ohio and West Virginia as the Ames Limestone, forms a most valuable key-rock" or standard datum, facilitating correlation of the associated strata. CC 168 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The Mahoning Sandstone, forming the bottom of the series, outcrops in Law- rence, Butler, Clarion, and Jefferson, and is productive of petroleum, to a small extent, in Greene, Fayette, and Westmoreland. Numberless wells have, however, pierced it without result over a wide area. It is a greyish-white sand, about 30 feet thick in the productive portions, and is the principal oil-bearer of the three sands in the wells on Dunkard Creek, in Greene, where great excite- ment temporarily prevailed in 1865. The Lower Productive Coal-measures, having a thickness of about 600 feet, outcrop in Butler, Armstrong, Clarion, Beaver, and Venango. They are now known as the Allegheny Series, No. XIII, which includes four seams of limestone and as many sandstones, yielding oil and gas in some fields. The sandstones are known in descending order as the Upper and Lower Freeport Sandstones, the Kittanning Sandstone, and the Hecla Sandstone which lies beneath the Ferri- ferous Limestone. The limestone is a most important member of the series, as it forms a "key-rock" to the driller in Butler, Clarion, and Armstrong, where it attains a thickness of 5 to 25 feet. The central member of the series, the Freeport Sandstone, possesses the general characteristics of an oil-rock, but is practically barren. Its drillings are white and milky, whence its popular name of "Buttermilk Rock." The Pottsville Conglomerate, No. XII, and the Mauch Chunk, No. XI, are sometimes combined under the trivial and inappropriate designation Mountain Sands, which has been inadvisedly extended down to the Pithole or Berea Grit in the middle of the Crawford Shales. The Mercer, Sharon and other coal-beds and the Upper and Lower Mercer Limestones occur in this series. The Home- wood Sandstone at the top of the Pottsville group is a fair gas-producer in Washington, and supplies some good oil-wells in that and Greene. In the northern counties it is too imperfectly covered to be a profitable source of oil. The lower part of this group is scantily productive in Lawrence and Beaver. (C The Pocono group, No. X, embraces the Sub-Olean" conglomerate or Shenango Sandstone (as it is called in Mercer and Crawford), and the subjacent Crawford Shales, extending for a thickness of 600-700 feet to the top of the Catskill group, and including the celebrated Pithole Grit, now usually known as the Berea Grit, which yields oil in Mercer, Lawrence, and Beaver. The Shenango Sandstone is an excellent producer both of oil and gas. It expands from a thickness of 30 feet in Warren into a massive sandstone of 240 feet in Greene, where it lies at a depth of about 2800 feet; and at Latrobe, Westmoreland, into the Big Injun sand-bed. Along its northern limits it is thin, and of but little value, though it has given some oil along the southern part of McKean, and has supplied several important gas-wells in Jefferson. It forms the oil-sand of the Mount Morris field, which extends from near the southern line of Greene southward into West Virginia. In Washington and Fayette, it yields oil and gas in considerable quantities. The Catskill or Venango-Butler Group, No. IX, includes the well-known "First," "Second," and "Third" oil-sands of the pioneers of the oil industry in Pennsylvania, comprising those of the principal fields of Venango, Clarion, Armstrong, and Butler, and yielding practically all the oil of the interval between Warren and Greene. It is continuously productive from Tidioute, in Warren, to Waynesburg, in Greene, a belt about 130 miles in length by 10 to 20 in width. Between these points no oil has been obtained below these strata, and very little above them. Along the belt the group ranges in thickness from 300 feet at Tidioute to 350 feet at Bullion, while towards the southeast it in- creases in thickness, and in places measures as much as 700 feet. Except for a little oil yielded by the higher sandstones, the Venango-Butler series supplies PENNSYLVANIA. 169 all the oil obtained in the Washington district, which includes all the territory south of the Ohio River, in Beaver, Allegheny, and Washington. Until 1880 the series was considered to be of Chemung age, but in that year Mr. Ashburner showed it to belong to the red Catskill formation, No. IX. CC The stratum shown as the "First Sand" in the geological section is called the Second Sand" in Butler, the "Third Sand is called the Fifth "in some parts of Venango, as at Pleasantville, and the "Fourth” in Butler, Armstrong, and Clarion. This confusion in nomenclature is the normal result of casual numeration, and is due partly to counting-in the Berea Grit of the overlying group as "First Sand "First Sand" at some places, and partly to the local splitting of the " Second Sand into two portions, which have been called the Second and Third Sands, and to the application of the name Fourth Sand to the "Stray or "Black Oil" Sand, which sometimes appears above the true Third Sand, the greatest producer of the group, widely known as the Gordon Sand, and also termed the "Green Oil" Sand. The Second Sand is also some- times called Gordon Sand. "" >> In the southeastern oil-fields the rocks are white, yellowish, or greyish, coarse-grained and friable sandstones, sometimes divided by irregular slates and shales, and frequently passing into a conglomerate of flat quartz pebbles. In the oil-producing Stray Sand, the pebbles are usually spheroidal, while those of the Third Sand are often lenticular in shape. Where the Third Sand is fully developed, the Stray is seldom an oil-rock, while towards the southeast, as the latter becomes more productive, the Third Sand gradually yields less and less, and finally thins away. From Thorn Creek, Butler, to Waynesburg, Greene, the sandstones are even more irregular, having apparently been deposited by currents frequently vacillating in direction and intensity. Nevertheless, some correlations have been definitely established. The first Sand is represented by the Gantz and Fifty-foot Sands (often collectively termed the Hundred-foot Sand), the Second by the Gordon and the overlying Stray; and the Third by the Hickory Gas, or Fifth Sand of Washington. Some highly prolific oil-pools have been found in the southwestern counties of the State, but the stores of natural gas, if not of greater, are here at least of equal, importance with those of petroleum. The gas from the Catskill Group in Venango and western Forest is too limited in amount to be of more than purely local utility, and though practically all the natural gas now being utilised commercially through the pipe-lines of McKean, Potter, Elk, Warren, Forest, and Venango comes from rocks of this group, the most important gas-fields are in and around the city of Pittsburg, in Washington, Allegheny, and Westmoreland, with outlying fields in Greene and Fayette. A small amount is also obtained in Indiana and Jefferson, but unsuccessful test-wells at Indiana, Black Lick, Saltsburg, Blairs- ville, Latrobe, Waltz's Mills, Layton station, and other places in Indiana and Westmoreland discourage the hope of finding any deposits of gas in these counties equal to those already discovered. There appears to be a considerable unconformity at the base of this group, which is partly composed of material derived from the destruction of the subjacent Chemung strata. This implies, however, no great interval of time, nor any serious change in the nature of the deposits of the newer and older series. The Chemung group, the lowest in which oil and gas have been found in Pennsylvania (except an alleged occurrence in the Silurian of Linglestown, Dauphin Co.), has several well-recognised oil-sands, separated by slaty shales, and occupying some 1700 feet of the upper part of the series, as measured from the line of erosion which marks the base of the Carboniferous Catskill rocks. The separation of these into sub-groups, in accordance with the position of oil- 170 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. producing sandstones with relation to this wholly untrustworthy criterion, cannot be regarded as scientific, since it is recognised that portions, at least, of such sub-groups are contemporaneous, and therefore not entitled to distinctive chronological appellations. Place-names for individual strata, permissible, and often unavoidable, in preliminary studies, are liable to become permanent as chronological terms, and by rash extension to distant areas, to connote correla- tions more hypothetical than sound. Had due record been kept of the countless borings that have been executed in and between the productive areas, there would have been no uncertainty as to the correlation of the oil-sands at any point of their range. Although continuously masked by the independent Carboniferous rocks, and accessible only by boring, the limits of each lenticular mass, and its relative position in the series, would in that case have been as thoroughly known as if laid bare on the surface, or traversed in mines. By the loss of such invaluable data, all that is now possible is surmise, based on the scanty and inadequate data recorded, as to the relations of the several oil-sands from field to field. For it has been found that " oil-pools" of both Catskill and Chemung groups rarely exhibit an overlap of two productive horizons, and that where a higher sand yields oil, lower members hold gas only. This may be partially explicable by reference to the improbability of conditions favourable. to the formation of oil and gas respectively, obtaining persistently at the same spots for long geological periods. These shallow-sea deposits of vast thick- ness imply subsidence, either continuous or spasmodic, and corresponding geographical changes. It has further been asserted that the productiveness of any horizon is depen- dent on its elevation above the present sea-level. The latter generalisation, however, appears rather empirical, and not explicable by any recognised physical law, the presence of oil and gas under pressure, and its rate of dis- charge into wells, depending on original and subsequent conditions, largely, if not wholly, beyond the influence of what is now the position of the region. Subaerial denudation may cause waste, but not increase, and elevation tends to reduce pressure, not to enhance it. In the McKean or Bradford district, there are three recognised oil-sands, the lowest being the most productive. The district includes parts of Cattaraugus and Allegany, New York. In Elk and Potter occur lower oil- and gas-sands than these, extending to 1700 feet below the Carboniferous rocks, whilst in Warren and Forest, petroleum ranges through some 900 feet of beds in at least six horizons, known as the Warren 1st, 2nd and 3rd sands, the Stoneham- Clarendon, Cherry Grove-Balltown, and Cooper Sands, the latter being believed. to be the equivalent of the Bradford Third Sand. Elaborate maps have been produced of the supposed or ascertained limits. of the Carboniferous oil- and gas-pools of the Pennsylvania and New York region, and two of these are reproduced on Pl. 15 and fig. 6 respectively. They are, however, rather out of date, for the tendency of modern operations appears to be in the direction of obliterating the intervals between recognised oil-pools, by the discovery of productive spots in what were supposed to be barren areas. In some cases, such correction of the limits has resulted from deeper boring than had previously been accepted as conclusive against hope of oil or gas, in others the condemnatory "dry-holes" have been shown to be situated in barren ground of no great extent. Even in the rich pools, there are occasional patches. in which boring has been fruitless, owing to some local conditions excluding the oil or gas from the spots thus affected. The progress of operations nevertheless is in the direction of reduced output, the rich areas lessening in yield and not being effectively replaced by new fields. PENNSYLVANIA, WEST VIRGINIA. 171 Various subdivisions of the Pennsylvanian oil-fields have been adopted for descriptive, statistical and other purposes. The eleventh Census Report of the United States made four such, the Bradford, Middle, Lower, and Washington or Southwestern. The Bradford, chiefly in McKean, included the Allegany and Cattaraugus districts of New York State. The middle division covered the eastern part of Warren and Forest, and the western part of Elk co. The Lower embraced the western fields of Warren and Forest, and the Venango, Mercer, Lawrence, Butler, Clarion, Armstrong and Beaver fields. The Southwestern or Washington division consisted of the Allegheny, Washington, Greene and Westmoreland fields. A more trivial method of division is that into Northern or Black Sand, and Southern or White Sand regions, the former being practically coterminous with the Bradford-Allegany district of the Census. The tabulation by counties in Table VII is submitted as a summary in which minor yields are ignored. TABLE VII.-OIL AND GAS, PENNSYLVANIA. Tioga, Potter, McKean, Warren, Erie, Crawford, Mercer, Venango, Forest, Elk, Clinton, Clearfield, Jefferson, Clarion, . Butler, • Lawrence, Beaver, • Allegheny, Armstrong, Counties. • Indiana, Cambria, • Westmoreland, Washington, Greene, Fayette, Dauphin, a Range of Petroleum. Chemung. Chemung. Pocono to Chemung. Catskill and Chemung. Chemung. Catskill. Pocono to Chemung. Catskill and Chemung. Catskill and Chemung. Chemung. Catskill and Chemung. ? Pocono to Catskill. Catskill. Pocono and Catskill. Pottsville to Pocono. Pottsville to Catskill. Catskill. Catskill. Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh. ? Pittsburgh to Catskill. Pittsburgh to Catskill. Pittsburgh. Hudson River beds (if true). Range of Gas. Chemung. Chemung. Pocono to Chemung. Chemung. Chemung. Catskill. Chemung. Catskill and Chemung. Pocono to Chemung. Catskill and Chemung. Pocono. Pocono to Chemung. Catskill. Pocono and Catskill. Catskill. Pocono and Catskill. Catskill. Pittsburgh and Chemung. Pottsville and Pocono. Pocono and Catskill. Pottsville to Catskill. Pocono and Catskill. Pocono and Catskill. West Virginia.-The oil-fields of West Virginia constitute the southern extension of those of Pennsylvania, and connect them with southern Ohio and Kentucky. The general sequence of strata is much the same as in Pennsylvania, but oil and gas both range to higher horizons, viz., to the Monongahela group. The Mauch Chunk changes much in its character southward, becoming the “ Big Lime" of the drillers' terminology, and its associated shales; it thins away altogether in the counties bordering on Ohio, bringing the Pottsville into direct superposition on the Pocono. It contains gas in Wetzel, Kanawha, and Mingo, with oil in the last. The Chemung appears to hold neither oil nor gas in West Virginia, but slight traces of gas have been observed deep in the Devonian Ohio Shales" in Pleasants, Mason, and Cabell, with a little oil at Wheeling, Ohio county. CC 172 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Asphalt, ozokerite, and grahamite occur in Ritchie; asphalt at Penns- borough, ozokerite near Cairo, whilst the celebrated grahamite of McFarland's Run, on the right-hand slope of the south fork of Hughes River, fills a fissure 3000 feet long, 1500 feet deep, and 5 feet wide in places, and a portion has been. lost by denudation. It traverses nearly horizontal beds of several divisions, and probably received the bulk of its contents from the Cairo oil-sand, at the base of the Pottsville group, under conditions precluding escape, whilst per- mitting evaporation of the more volatile constituents, and oxidation of the inspissated residuum, in close analogy with the albertite of New Brunswick, already described, p. 165. The Cairo Sand, notwithstanding this depletion, still retains a fairly large quantity of unaltered oil at no great distance from the vein, though rapidly impoverishing with approach to it. Its trend is nearly at right angles to the slight undulations of the strata, and it appears to be a master-joint, slowly forced open laterally by hydrostatic pressure, an hypothesis supported by the freedom of the infilling mass from fragments of the walls, such as must have fallen in, had there ever been a fissure of any magnitude open to their reception. The structureless character of the material also attests the continuity of its production. The geological range of oil and gas in twenty-five counties of the State is set forth in the following table (VIII) :— TABLE VIII.-OIL AND GAS, WEST VIRGINIA. Counties. Range of Petroleum. Pocono. Pocono. • • Hancock, Brooke, Ohio, Marshall, Wetzel, Monongalia, Marion, . Harrison, Doddridge, Tyler, Pleasants, Range of Gas. Pottsville and Pocono. Pittsburgh and Pocono. Pittsburgh to Catskill. Pocono and Catskill. Allegheny to Catskill. Pittsburgh and Catskill. Pittsburgh to Catskill. Pittsburgh to Catskill. Pittsburgh to Pocono. Pittsburgh to Catskill. Monongahela to Catskill. Catskill. Pocono. Pottsville and Pocono. Pottsville and Pocono. Pittsburgh to Catskill. Monongahela and Pocono. Pocono. Pittsburgh to Pocono. Pocono. Pocono. Pottsville to Catskill. Pottsville and Pocono. Allegheny to Pocono. Allegheny to Catskill. Monongahela to Catskill. Allegheny to Catskill. Allegheny to Catskill. Monongahela to Catskill. Pittsburgh to Catskill. Allegheny to Catskill. Pottsville and Pocono. Monongahela to Devonian. Allegheny to Catskill. Allegheny to Pocono. Allegheny and Catskill. Allegheny to Pocono. Pottsville and Pocono. Pittsburgh and Pottsville Pocono. Pottsville and Devonian. Hamilton. Pottsville. Pottsville, Pocono, and Allegheny to Pocono. Allegheny to Catskill. Pocono. Pottsville to Pocono. Wood, • Ritchie, Lewis, Braxton, Gilmer, Calhoun, Wirt, Jackson, Mason, Cabell, • · • • Pocono. • Putnam, Roane, Kanawha, Lincoln, Mingo, • The Monongahela group includes the Carroll Oil-sand, the Pittsburg or Elk River group, the Morgantown Sandstone (which may be identical with the "First Cow Run Sand" of Ohio) and the Mahoning Sandstone; and the MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, GEORGIA, FLORIDA, ALABAMA. (6 173 Allegheny group embraces the "Second Cow Run Sand" and the Freeport Gas-sand. The Pottsville or Salt Sand group has the Maxton or Cairo Sand at its base. The Mauch Chunk red shales and Mountain Limestone " are under- laid by the "Big Injun" and "Squaw," which, with the Berea or Macksburg, belong to the Pocono group. Lastly, the Catskill contains several oil-sands, known as Gantz, "Fifty-foot," "Thirty-foot," Campbell's Run, Whetstone Run, Flat Run, M'Donald, and Elizabeth, the three named after the runs or creeks on which they have proved productive being also called Gordon Sand, whilst the last three are often mentioned as Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Sands. Maryland. The retinasphalt of the Eocene beds of Cape Sable may be mentioned here, though merely of mineralogical interest. Virginia and North Carolina. The coal-fields of Virginia, of Mesozoic and probably Triassic age, contain beds of petroliferous character at several horizons, which may become of commercial value when the yield from the Paleozoic series fails. Six such horizons are recorded at the following heights above the base of the series :—190, 504, 532, 699, 786, and 821 feet. In consequence of the present insignificance of the deposits, no detailed record has been published as to the geographical range of these oil-rocks separately from that of the associated coal-beds, which occur in a number of isolated basins in a wide area of ancient crystalline rocks, coarse detritus from which forms a considerable element in the composition of the Triassic deposits. The most extensive of these basins are the Richmond field (from 10 to 20 miles west of that city), with its satellite, the Springfield or Deep Run field on the northeast; the Farmville, 20 miles further westward; the Dan River area, on the Virginia and North Carolina border, mostly in the latter State; and the Oxford-Wadesborough field, obliquely traversing almost the full width of North Carolina, from 8 to 16 miles westward of Raleigh. Georgia. Oil is reported as found in the Trenton Limestone of Dalton in Whitfield, but there is small probability of a yield of commercial value from the much disturbed strata of that region. The same may be said of Rome in Floyd. Florida. The Eocene (or Oligocene) beds of Juliette in Marion have, according to report, been found to be petroliferous, and traces of oil occur on the waters of Pensacola Bay, probably exuding from the Pliocene deposits. Alabama.—Exudations of oil and gas are reported from the Pliocene of Coden and Mertz, southward of Mobile, and the Eocene is believed to contain petroleum in Clarke. Cordova, in Walker, is said to have oil in a region con- sisting of deep-seated members of the Carboniferous series, and traces have been met with in that group in Calhoun and in Wills Valley in Etowah. At Markton, 8 miles south of Gadsden in Etowah, oil-shows have been found in the Trenton Limestone. Traces range yet lower in the adjacent Marshall county, having been found in the Knox dolomite by a wild-cat" boring in the War- renton Valley, some 7 miles southwest of Guntersville. Minute cells, charged with petroleum, occur in the vein-quartz of the same region. Borings deep in the Trenton Limestone in Fayette, and at Newmarket and Hazel Green, in Madison, found oil and gas, and the same may be said of the Hartselle boring in Morgan, in which the Upper Silurian also gave a small flow of gas. Here, however, the sandstones and limestones of the Lower Carboniferous or Missis- sippian series (a name which should replace the misleading term sub-Carboni- ferous ") are frequently saturated with asphalt, and in a few cases have yielded fluid oil. In Limestone again, this series has traces of petroleum, whilst Lawrence has both oil and asphalt in the Carboniferous on Town and Big Name Creeks, and oil in the Trenton Limestone, southward of Progress. The product of the wells here ranges from a dark-green odourless oil to one nearly black, 174 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. and of strong smell. In Colbert and Franklin the asphaltic beds of the Missis- sippian recur in considerable thickness, exudations of tar and viscid oil being fairly frequent. Tennessee. The petroleum- and gas-fields of Tennessee have as yet hardly passed the initial stage of commercial development, having been of little or no importance prior to 1896. At Shirleyton in Marion, a little oil has been obtained from deep-seated Lower Silurian rocks, whilst exudations of asphalt from the Nashville or Hudson River series occur near Mount Pleasant in Maury, and of petroleum at Leiper's Creek, on the northern border, and possibly also within Williamson. The same horizon shows asphalt-veins on Swan Creek in Hickman, 7 miles south-eastward of Centerville. Petroleum exudes from the Lower Helderberg Limestone on Piney River, 6 miles to the northwest of Centerville. The Siliceous Group " or " Knobstones," constituting the lower division of the Mississippian, yields petroleum on Jones's Creek in Dickson, and Spring Creek in Wilson, and the Carter's Creek (Trenton) Limestone of Lebanon, in the latter county, contains cavities charged with oil. The districts of Algood in Putnam, and Spring Creek, near it in Overton, produced at one time a little oil from the Knobstones. The Upper Silurian has afforded small quantities. of oil, and a fair yield of gas, along the Obey valley, in this and the adjacent counties, Pickett, Fentress, and Scott, where also occur exudations of oil from the Devonian Black Shale, which affords a further yield by distillation. Kentucky. In the First Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, 1890, p. 61, Dr. Orton states that "it is obvious that the total amount of petroleum in the rocks underlying the surface of Kentucky is large beyond computation, but in its diffused and distributed state it is entirely without value." Since this was written, much work in various parts of the State has resulted in the confirmation of the first clause, but reversal of the second, good yields having been secured, both of oil and gas. The geological range of productive horizons is wide, extending from the Pottsville or Great Conglomerate in the Carboniferous, down to the Trenton Limestone in the Lower Silurian series. The great unconformity between the Silurian and Devonian series, in consequence of which the latter rests from point to point on various members of the upturned and eroded folds of the former series, greatly enhances the difficulty of assigning to its true source the oil or gas found in deep borings, of which, in many cases, most inadequate records have been preserved. Even the accounts published by expert geo- logists are often totally deficient in indications of the horizons penetrated, as to which at least tentative correlations ought to be proffered. The asphalt of Logan, Butler, and Edmonson occurs in the Mississippian limestones and sandstones, sometimes being apparently the only cementing matter between the grains of quartz or crystals of calcite. In Allen and Barren, oil is found in the Knobstones division, in the underlying Devonian shales, the Upper Silurian and the Nashville limestones, great diversity of productive horizons occurring within short distances. In the Glasgow district of Barren, for instance, all these horizons yield more or less petroleum. Cumberland, Adair, Russell, Clinton, and Wayne, where were made the earliest oil-dis- coveries in the State, derive their entire supply from the Nashville group, the Burksville, Sunnybrook, and South Fork fields being the most important. In Pulaski, Casey, and Lincoln insignificant yields of oil and gas come, probably, from the same rocks. In Whitley and Knox the Carboniferous series is again richly petroliferous. The Burning Spring, 6 miles northwest of Manchester, Clay county, is derived from the Coal-measures, and is possibly due merely to emanation of coal-gas accompanying the water. KENTUCKY, OHIO. 175 In the eastern corner of the State recurs a combination of petroliferous horizons, the Pottsville Conglomerate, Lower Carboniferous limestones and sandstones, Devonian and Upper Silurian rocks. In Knott oil is reported from Carboniferous sandstones, and some from the Upper Silurian in Pike, Floyd, and Johnson. In Martin and Lawrence both series have afforded indications of oil and gas, and some of the deeper trials reached what may be the Lower Silurian. In Johnson and Magoffin the Pottsville Conglomerate is saturated throughout with petroleum. In Wolffe, Lee, Estill, Powell, and Menifee, small yields of oil and copious discharges of gas are reported. In Morgan some rather deep wells have proved fairly productive. In Elliott and Carter oil and gas occur in the Pocono and Niagara groups. The Ragland field in the Licking valley, Bath and Rowan, is one of considerable promise, the wells ranging between 300 and 400 feet in depth. In Montgomery, Bourbon, and Fayette a small yield of lubricating oil is obtained from shallow wells in the Lower Silurian Nashville and Trenton groups. In Jefferson, Meade, and Hardin fair supplies of gas, though already diminishing in quantity, are derived from the Devonian Shale. Asphalt from the Mississippian recurs in Hardin, Grayson, and Breckinridge, and gas from the Devonian in the latter, in Daviess and Henderson, whilst oil has been struck recently in McLean. Ohio. The oil-fields of Ohio are not confined to definite lines of elevation, but lie on flat areas of hundreds or thousands of square miles. All these areas have a definite rise or descent of from 1 to 10 feet per mile, the dip in Ohio being generally eastwards, except in the southwestern corner of the State, where there rises an anticlinal of Lower Silurian rocks, Trenton Limestone, Utica Shales and Hudson River beds (see fig. 8), continued northwards in the Upper Silurian series to the western end of Lake Erie, and overlaid more or less unconformably on either side by the Devonian, which, in the east of the State, is in its turn covered with slight unconformability by the Carboniferous, the whole being thrown into a series of parallel minor undulations, thus forming tectonic terraces, in which the oil and gas accumulate. The gas-territory of the State has been found to have the Niagara Lime- stone as the surface rock, while that of the oil-territory is the Lower Helderberg. This rule is very general, although the Gibsonburg oil-field forms a notable exception, having the Niagara as a surface stratum. Here, however, the terraces in which the gas and oil accumulate are at a lower level than in the Findlay and other fields. In eastern Ohio oil and gas are also produced from Devonian and Carboniferous series, the Ohio Shale and Berea Grit being the principal reservoirs for the oil of the more shallow wells, though the more deeply-seated beds afford larger and stronger flows of gas and oil in the north of the State, in consequence of their protective covering of Devonian and Carboniferous strata. The older deposits appear to have been produced under very uniform conditions, whilst the subsequent movements have been slight, and of such a nature as to result in the production of the terrace structure previously referred to, a condition which renders the rocks capable of accumulating oil and gas. over much more extended areas than is permitted by the more distorted, sharply anticlinal structure of the Pennsylvanian fields. The developed oil regions of the State lie chiefly in the eastern and north- western portions, the southwestern counties having as yet yielded but little oil or gas. In the extreme south, on the Churn Creek branch of Scioto Brush Creek, Scioto county, oil is found at the base of the Pocono series, also productive of oil in the adjoining county, Adams. At Gallipolis in Gallia borings have met 176 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. with oil and gas in small quantities in the Lower Productive Coal-measures, Pocono Group and Ohio Shale, all three horizons being found to be productive in the same well. At Pomeroy in Meigs, to the north, oil has also been found. 300 UPPER BARREN COAL MEASURES 200 UPPER PRODUCTIVE COAL MEASURES 500 LOWER BARREN COAL MEASURES 250 LOWER PRODUCTIVE COAL MEASURES 250 CONGLOMERATE SERIES 28 SUBCARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE [SHALE 150 11E LOGAN GROUP SANDSTONE [ CONGLOMERATE 11D CUYAHOGA SHALE 200 25 WAVERLY 500-800 110 BEREA SHALE 75 50 OHIO SHALE 300 300-2600 11B BEREA GRIT 11A BEDFORD SHALE 100 CLEVELAND SHALE 10B ERIE SHALE (10A HURON SHALE HAMILTON SHALE 25 75 DEVONIAN LIMESTONE 800 LOWER HELDERBERG LIMESTONE 50-600 200 NIAGARA SERIES 80 100 50 CLINTON SERIES 25 MEDINA SERIES 6D HILLSBOROUGH SANDSTONE 60 GUELPH LIMESTONE 6B NIAGARA LIMESTONE 6A NIAGARA SHALE. DAYTON LIMESTONE 600 HUDSON RIVER SERIES 500-1050 800 UTICA SHALES 0-300 TRENTON LIMESTONE LOWER SILURIAN FIG. 8.-OHIO ROCK-SERIES. Borings made in the Hudson River Series near Oxford in Butler met with oil and gas, but only in limited quantities. At Vinton station in Vinton county gas has been obtained from the Lower Productive Coal-measures, the source of the oil in the shallow wells of Athens county, where the Berea Grit has also UPPER SILURIAN DEVONIAN CARBONIFEROUS OHIO. 177 been found productive. At Macksburg in Washington large yields of both oil and gas are obtained, the former being at one time derived principally from the Berea Grit, but in the recent developments, which have shown this field to be continuous with that of West Virginia, the source has been the Big Injun and other sandstones which have yielded so largely in western Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Oil and gas also occur in the Berea Grit at Marietta and on Duck Creek, and in the continuation of that valley in Jefferson town- ship, Noble county. In the Buck Run branch of Wolf Creek in Morgan oil in small quantities occurs in shallow wells in the Lower Productive Coal- measures, and further west, at Corning in Perry county, oil is obtained from the Berea Grit. The Lancaster and Thurston fields in Fairfield and Hocking counties derive their gas from the Clinton Limestone, in which it has been found in large quantities at very high pressure. At Newark in Licking a large yield of gas is also obtained, with some oil, from the Clinton Limestone. At Zanesville, and near Otsego in Muskingum, oil has been found in the Berea Grit, which also furnishes the gas of Cambridge in Guernsey, and the oil of Newcastle in Monroe. The Woodsfield pool, in the latter county, is in the Keener Sand, or top member of the Pocono group, which is also the source of the oil found on the Ohio river opposite Sistersville, W.V., whilst the product of Sycamore Valley and Renard's Mills is from the Mountain Limestone. In Belmont oil is produced at Barnesville from the Berea Grit and on the Ohio from the Mountain Limestone, whilst gas is drawn from four horizons, the Trenton and Clinton Limestones, Ohio Shale, and Berea Grit. In Jefferson gas and oil are produced from the last-named rock, and gas alone from the Ohio Shale; productive wells have been sunk at Brilliant, Croxton's Run, and Steubenville, the first in the Berea Grit, the remaining two passing through it. Near Cadiz in Harrison gas and oil in considerable quantities are obtained from the Berea Grit, which is also the source of the oil and gas of Owl Creek in Knox; the Ohio Shale is productive of oil in this county, and in Morrow accidents have been caused in ordinary dug wells by the flows of gas from this series. In Columbiana and Stark counties gas is produced from the Berea Grit, in quantities large enough to be used for illumination at East Liverpool and New Lisbon, whilst the Pottsville Conglomerate yields some heavy oil on the Ohio River. Small yields have been secured at Homeworth and Leetonia. At Lowellville in Mahoning oil has been obtained from the Ohio Shale, and gas wells at Akron in Summit have met with a small yield. On Duck Creek in Trumbull oil has been met with in the Ohio Shale, and at Mecca oil and gas are found in this series, with oil also in the Berea Grit. The latter oil is obtained from shallow wells, and is drawn up with large quantities of water saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen, as much as a thousand barrels of water being frequently raised for each barrel of oil. The oil is employed entirely as a lubricant. The shale is productive of oil and gas at Conneaut in Ashtabula, and of gas at Harpersfield and Andover. At Painesville in Lake, gas and oil are met with in this series, and at points on the shores of Lake Erie in Cuyahoga. The oil of Grafton in Lorain is derived from the same horizon, but a certain amount is also produced from the Berea Grit, though this may be derived by infiltration from the lower series, as it is lighter than that of Mecca, and of high grade. At Sandusky in Crawford natural gas-springs from the lowest division of the Ohio Shale have been used for purposes of illumination. Oil is also produced from the Clinton Limestone in Wyandot, and gas from the Trenton Limestone in Hardin, Logan, Champaign, Shelby, Mercer, and Auglaize counties, with oil in the two last-named, the principal yield being from the St. Mary's field in Auglaize, including the townships of St. Mary's and Washington; 12 VOL. I. 178 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. the Buckland field, including Moulton and Noble townships; and the Criders ville field, including the township of Duchouquet. In Allen county, where a rich yield is obtained, the townships of Shawnee, Perry, Bath, and Ottawa are regarded locally as constituting the Lima oil-field, the oil of which is derived from the Trenton Limestone, which also furnishes a small quantity of gas. The oils are dark and heavy, and resemble those of Canada and Tennessee, and although formerly entirely utilised as fuel, are now largely purified from the sulphur-compounds present in them, and used as an illuminant. Oil is also produced at Jennings and Willshire in Van Wert. In Hancock a large yield of gas was formerly obtained at Findlay, and latterly oil has been obtained there. Allen, Marion, and Cass townships are also yielding oil where gas was at first obtained, both products being derived from the Trenton Limestone. This is also productive of gas at Hicksville in Defiance, and Jackson and Tiffin in Seneca. The Wood county field includes the North Baltimore and Freeport pools, the oil-territory covering the eastern parts of Henry and Liberty, and parts of Portage, Montgomery, and Bloom townships. Dry gas, followed in a few days by a strong flow of oil, characterises these wells. The principal centres of gas-production in this county are the wells of Bloom, Perry, Henry, Portage, Plain, and Center townships, which have shown a good average yield, many giving over 3,000,000 cubic feet daily, and one (the Simons well) over 12,000,000 cubic feet. Both oil and gas are, for the most part, derived from the Trenton Limestone, but a certain amount is also produced from the Clinton. In Sandusky the gas of Fremont is derived from the Clinton Limestone, and the oil of Gibsonburg from the Trenton. A fair yield of oil has also been met with in the latter series in Ottawa and Lucas, at Sandusky in Erie, and Delta in Fulton. Oil and strong gas have also been obtained in borings at Bryan in Williams. Michigan. The oil and gas yielded by the rocks of this State are of com- paratively small importance, the structure being unfavourable to the large accumulation of either fluid, even where the rocks are of the same age and nature as those elsewhere productive. Gas has been found in the Trenton. Limestone at the county town of Monroe, and in the Devonian shales in the northwest corner of that county and the adjacent part of Washtenaw. Oil and gas also occur in the Lower Carboniferous sandstones of Ann Arbor, Wash- tenaw. Gas has been struck in the Devonian of Norris, North Detroit, Wayne, in Macomb, and in the Coal-measures of Howell and Fowlerville, Livingstone. Oil and gas are yielded by the Devonian of St. Clair and Sanilac counties at the south end of Lake Huron, and this constitutes the chief productive area of the State. On the other side of the peninsula the Carboniferous sandstones of Muskegon yield oil and gas, and the Upper Devonian of Allegan has gas, whilst the Corniferous Limestone of Berrien yields oil and gas in the districts of Niles, Buchanan, and Benton Harbour. In the northern peninsula, asphalt is found in Delta county, and oil is reported to flow from the Lower Silurian (Chazy group) of Mass City and Rockland in Ontonagon. Indiana.—The principal surface rocks of Indiana are members of the Devon- ian and Carboniferous systems, the former occupying the whole of the central area of the State, while the more recent series covers them to the southwest The Silurian rocks underlie the whole, but outcrop only in the northwest and southeast. The Lower Silurian Trenton Limestone forms, as in Ohio, the principal gas- reservoir, and also yields oil at greater or less depth at various points in the State. The Niagara Limestone, Upper Silurian, supplies some oil and gas in the central and eastern counties, whilst in the southwest the Devonian lime- INDIANA. 179 stones are the principal petroliferous beds. The shales of the latter system and the Carboniferous rocks also supply oil and gas in a few localities. Petro- leum is found in greater or less quantities in nearly every county, the only exceptions being those in the east and extreme north and south of the State. In the northeast, at Auburn, Butler and Waterloo in Dekalb, deep borings have met with considerable quantities of gas in the Trenton Limestone, which has also furnished small quantities of the same product at Albion in Noble. Near Fort Wayne a fair yield of oil was obtained from the same source. In Wells also a little oil has been obtained from this series, but in Huntington, westwards, although the Niagara Limestone was found productive, wells bored to the Trenton met with no yield from that horizon, which has, however, produced both gas and oil at Lafontaine in Wabash, while in Miami oil has been obtained at Peru, and gas at Amboy and Xenia, from this rock. Pulaski has long furnished a moderate supply of petroleum, both oil and gas being found in the Niagara Limestone near Francesville, and gas alone in the Hudson River series. The oil of Jasper is Devonian, that of Carpenter's Creek being produced from the shales, and of Medaryville and Rensselaer from the lime- stones of that series; the gas of Kentland in Newton is obtained from the Black Slate of the same system. A little gas has been found near Oxford in Benton, in drift over the Carboniferous, and oil in fair quantities at Sharpsburg in White, from the Devonian limestones. At Delphi in Carroll a little oil occurs with albertite in fissures of the Devonian Black Slate, and gas has been found in paying quantities at Camden. On Pipe Creek in Cass a dark stone smelling of petroleum is found in the Corniferous Limestones; and a heavy lubricating oil is obtained at considerable depth from the Trenton Limestone at Walton. At and eastward of Kokomo in Howard gas and a little oil are found in the Devon- ian limestone, but the most productive gas-wells are in the Trenton. This horizon furnishes both gas and oil in Grant, the principal gas-wells being those of Marion, Jonesborough, and Fairmount, whilst oil is produced at Fairmount, Van Buren, Landesville, etc. The same series furnishes oil and gas in Blackford, the wells of Hartford City and Montpelier being the most pro- ductive. Borings at Portland, and in the western parts of Jay, met with gas in considerable quantities in this rock, which is also productive of gas and oil in considerable quantities at Winchester in Randolph, and at many points in Delaware. The northern part of Madison, at first the most productive gas- field of Indiana, derives its supply from the Trenton, strong gas flows being obtained, together with a little oil, at Alexandria and other points; both products are also present at Tipton, oil at Atlanta, and gas at Arcadia and Noblesville, in Hamilton. The Broad Ripple field in Marion obtains gas and oil from this series, but only gas is found in paying quantities. The Trenton is also productive of gas at Greenfield in Hancock and Middletown in Henry; and in minor quantities in Wayne, Fayette, Rush, Shelby, Decatur, Franklin, and Dearborn. In Brown a little oil occurs in the Black Slate on Howe's Lick, and borings near Vernon in Jennings found gas in the Niagara Limestone, while deeper borings in Jackson, the adjacent county, found a little oil in the Trenton. The Lower Carboniferous Limestone sometimes contains oil in Lawrence county. At New Albany in Floyd shows of oil have been met with in the Devonian shales, which are the source of considerable quantities of gas at Tobacco Landing in Harrison. From this series also is derived the gas which rises at various points in the Ohio River in this district, and the Knobstone group also yields a fair supply in a few wells in the south of the county. Near Marietta in Craw- ford gas and oil occur in sandstone in the latter series, and oil rises from the 180 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. same beds in other parts of the county. At Anderson and on Oil Creek in Perry a little oil and gas occur at considerable depth in the Devonian. Oil is found in the Trenton at Birdseye in Dubois, gas at Petersburgh in Pike, and asphalt in the Lower Coal-measures of Princeton in Gibson, and Spauldingville in Knox, whilst the Corniferous Limestone supplies the gas of Daviess and the oil of Martin and Vigo, although the yield of Terre Haute, in the latter county, may be partly derived from the Niagara Limestone. Illinois. The Carboniferous deposits of Illinois have of recent years proved highly petroliferous in certain parts of the State, but the existence of com- mercially-valuable stores of oil in the series remained long unsuspected, in spite of the small yield of oil and gas from it in one or two isolated districts. The Lower Coal-measures of Sparta in Randolph yielded for some years a moderate supply of gas, but the principal yield from this series was at Litch- field in Montgomery, where the Waverly sandstone yielded gas and a small quantity of lubricating oil. Gas occurs in Glacial deposits in Madison and Macoupin, in the Mississippian at Peters in Madison, and in the Lower Coal- measures in Macoupin, while Jersey, the adjacent county, produces oil from the Devonian. The important fields of Lawrence, Crawford, Jasper, Cumberland, Clark and Coles counties, derive their oil from various sands both in the Missis- sippian and Pennsylvanian divisions of the Carboniferous. The Trenton pro- duces a seepage of oil in Calhoun, and at Lowell in La Salle. The dolomitic limestones of the Niagara series, which have gas at Pittsfield in Pike and oil in Calhoun, are found to be full of oil in the neighbourhood of Chicago, and a boring there gave the following section of this and the subjacent Clinton series :- Niagara dolomite, filled with oil, . Joliet marble, no oil, Grey limestone, with oil-seams, Shale, saturated with petroleum, Reddish sandstone, abounding in oil, Depth. 40 ft. Thickness. 40 ft. 200 ft. 240 ft. • 200 ft. 440 ft. 156 ft. 396 ft. 71 ft. 667 ft. In making the Lake tunnel, gas was met with in the Glacial drift, but only in small quantities. Wisconsin. About 120,000,000 cubic feet of natural gas was produced in this State in 1889, practically the whole being obtained in Oak Creek township, Milwaukee, while asphalt occurs in small cavities of the Devonian Limestone in this district, and in Fond du Lac, eastward of Lake Winnebago. The lead- bearing series of like age also contains layers of highly bituminous inflammable rock at many points; but none of the deposits have as yet been commercially developed. Iowa. Discharges of carburetted hydrogen from the "forest-bed," inter- calated between the first and second Glacial boulder-clays, have been found in several parts of the State, and have supplied small demands for longer or shorter periods in Louisa, Muscatine, Polk, Dallas, Sac, and Hamilton counties, whilst in Nevada township, Story county, gas has been found in the Lower Coal-measures. Minnesota. Considerable prospecting for gas has been carried on at public expense in this State, and the result was published in a report by Professor N. H. Winchell in 1889. The work was undertaken on account of the discovery of gas in a sandy layer in the Glacial drift about 75 feet below the surface at Freeborn, on the southern edge of the State, but, as geologists predicted, no permanent supply was obtained. Similar temporary discharges are reported from other counties in the State, Faribault, Mower, Waseca, Blue Earth, Nicollet, Goodhue, Dakota, Washington, Ramsey, Hennepin, Chisago, Stearns, Bigstone, and MISSOURI, ARKANSAS, OKLAHOMA AND KANSAS. 181 Traverse; the source of these trivial emanations may be in some cases the underlying rock-beds, but is more probably the decomposition of vegetable remains in the superficial deposits. Oil and gas are, however, alleged to have been found, the latter in considerable quantity, in the Trenton and lower divisions. Missouri. The oil- and gas-fields of Missouri have not hitherto shown evidence of any great extent, the productive region being confined to the western counties, on or near the Kansas State-line. The principal sources of petroleum are the Middle or Lower Coal-measures, though heavy oil occurs in small quantities in some localities in the Mississippian Limestone. Jackson affords the principal yield of gas, wells near Kansas City being supplied therewith from a reddish sandstone in the Cherokee division of the Lower Coal-measures, which also contains small quantities of thick black oil. Near Blue Mill, in the same county, springs of tarry petroleum issue from a sandstone at the top of the Middle Coal-measures, and oil-shows occur in similar beds in Caldwell, Ray, and Carroll. At Higginsville, Lafayette county, the sandstones of the Lower Coal-measures are saturated with heavy oil, which, by evaporation, forms masses of asphalt, as does the oil of the Middle Coal-measures in Cass and Johnson; at Belton, in the former, a few shallow wells obtain some oil and gas from these beds, which also contain oil at Parkersville, and asphalt at Adrian, both in Bates, and the "Micaceous Sandstone" of the lower division is very bituminous in the southeast of that county, while the Mississippian Lime- stone has furnished oil in wells at a depth of about 200 feet. Tar and oil occur in Vernon, and gas is obtained in shallow wells from the Cherokee Shale, which is also productive of gas and heavy oil in Barton. In the lead mines of Jasper and of the Joplin district, Newton, the Mississippian Limestone is said to contain semi-fluid bitumen in its cavities. Arkansas.-Only one locality in this State, Fayetteville in Washington, has produced petroleum in quantity. This is found, with a considerable yield of gas, in a shale of the Carboniferous Limestone series. Asphalt is reported to occur in Madison and the eastern part of Scott, in rocks of the same age, whilst in the west of the latter, an albertite-like mineral, impsonite, occurs in the Lower Silurian shales of Fourche Mountain, 9 miles from the Indian Territory line, across which the series extends. The exploitation of the asphalt-sand of the Trinity (Cretaceous) series on Wolf Creek, near Pike City, is of recent develop- ment. Natural gas from the Middle Coal-measures supplies Mansfield and other towns in Sebastian. Oklahoma and Kansas.-The so-called Mid-Continent field occupies the territory near the boundary of these States, the oil being produced from two or more horizons in the Pennsylvanian Group: the chief oil-sand" is at the base of the Cherokee Shales immediately above the Mississippian Limestone, but other producing strata have been found higher in the group; southward the older Paleozoics are productive of oil. The heavy oil at Granite, Greer county, and near Fort Sill, in Oklahoma, may be in either Silurian or Permian rocks, probably the latter, as is the case with the asphalt of the "Tar Springs, 18 miles southeast of Comanche, Chickasaw county, of Wheeler, a like distance west-northwest of Ardmore, and of Robberson, 20 miles further northward. From Hennepin, eastward of the last, past Elk, to below Ardmore, the Carboniferous rocks are frequently rich in asphalt, whilst the Lower Silurian rocks between Davis and Dougherty are similarly charged, constituting a valuable asphalt-field. Petroleum is said to exude from the Trenton Limestone near Nebo, and again from the Cretaceous rocks at Marietta, Oakland, Emet, and Caddo. On the east of the Tishomingo L 182 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. granite area oil is found in the Hudson River sandstones of Wapanucka, and in the Carboniferous sandstones at Atoka. Twenty miles northeastward of Atoka, veins of a mineral resembling albertite, and to which the name of impsonite has been assigned, are quarried in shales of Carboniferous age in M'Gee Creek, Ten-Mile Creek, and Împson valley. Similar veins traverse like. rocks on the eastern side of the Territory, extending from Page Station to Fourche Mountain, Arkansas, as described above. The Pennsylvanian rocks outcrop in the northeastern part of Oklahoma and thence pass across southeastern Kansas into Missouri. The chief centres of production are in Cherokee, Cleveland, Creek and Osage counties in Oklahoma, and Chautauqua, Elk, Montgomery, Wilson, Neosho and Allen in Kansas. In the latter State, oil and gas are also found in small quantity in the Marion division of the Permian series in Sedgwick, Dickinson, Riley, and Marshall counties, and in the Cretaceous of Ellsworth and Mitchell counties. Colorado. The petroleum- and natural-gas fields of Colorado are situated chiefly in the western half of the State, the richest production being from those. of Florence and Boulder. The deposits are distributed over a wide geological range, no less than ten horizons being productive, viz., the Upper Carboniferous, the Dakota, Fort Benton, Niobrara, Fort Pierre, and Fox Hills groups; and three in the Tertiary, the White River, Green River, and Denver series. The subjoined table shows the sequence of the rocks of Colorado and Wyoming :- TABLE IX.-ROCKS OF COLORADO AND WYOMING. Loup Fork sandstone, White River series, Miocene. Green River series, Denver beds, Eocene. Arapahoe beds, Laramie group, Fox Hills sandstones, Fort Pierre series, Niobrara, Fort Benton, Dakota, Jura-Trias. Carboniferous. Silurian. Montana group Upper Cretaceous. Colorado group Cambrian. Archæan. In the southwest of the State, Archuleta produces petroleum in four localities from as many horizons; in the Rio Blanco basin, oil rises on a fault-line from the Carboniferous; west of Pagosa Springs traces of lubricating oil are found in the Dakota quartzites; nearer that town a strong flow of oil has been met with in the Niobrara limestones; while to the south the oil of Navajo Creek is derived from the sandstones of the Fox Hills group. At various points in the county the vesicles of the amygdaloidal-basalt dykes in the Cretaceous are filled with petroleum. Oil is obtained from rocks of the Montana group near Walsenburg in Huerfano, and at Aguilar in Las Animas, where also it saturates volcanic dykes traversing the strata. The Florence oil-field in Fremont derives both gas and oil from the Fort Pierre sandstones, but the Upper Jurassic COLORADO, WYOMING, NEBRASKA. 183 sandstones supply the oil-springs of Oil Creek, 8 miles north of Canon City. Near Irwin in Gunnison a strong flow of gas has been obtained from the Fox Hills sandstones, while oil occurs in Jurassic sands and shales at Vernal in Montrose. The gas of Grand Junction city in Mesa is supplied from a black shale in the Fort Benton group, immediately above the Dakota sandstones, whilst the Eocene is petroliferous in the Debeque district. The Dakota series is the source of the oil obtained on Turkey Creek, near Morrison, in Jefferson, and at Ralston, some miles northward. In Arapahoe, the oil of the Denver field is derived from the Tertiary series of that name. The chief yield has been obtained near Boulder, the source being the Fort Pierre sandstones, probably also the source of the oil of Lafayette further eastward, and possibly of the gas met with in a boring in the southwest corner of Weld. In the north of Garfield oil rises from the Denver Beds on Rifle Creek, and further north, in Rio Blanco county, near the junction of Piceance Creek with the White River, the Green River sandstones supply the gas which rises there at various points. Oil occurs at Raven Park near Rangely, and here, as again on the Rifle Creek branch of Green River, in Routt county, gilsonite veins are met with in the same series. This also yields gas at Steamboat Springs in the east of the county, and oil at Trull, and again on a tributary of Elk River, near the Grand county line. Asphalt resembling gilsonite is found on Upper Willow Creek, Larimer county, in a series believed to be the equivalent of the Denver Beds. Wyoming. Most excellent promise is given by the oil-fields of Wyoming, although the industry is at present in but an early stage of development. The oil is obtained principally from rocks of Cretaceous age, the series being similar to that of Colorado; whilst in some districts oil has also been met with in Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic rocks. : The Evanston-Hilliard, Cumberland and Twin Creek (or Fossil) fields, in Uinta, derive their oil from the Laramie Group, whilst in the Carter field wells have penetrated to the Niobrara Beds, finding that horizon productive oil- springs also occur at other points in the south of the county. In Sweetwater, petroleum occurs at several points in the Green River Valley in the neighbour- hood of Rock Springs. There are five fields in Fremont :-the Dutton, which obtains its oil from three horizons, ranging from the Niobrara to the Dakota, whilst traces of derivative oil occur in the overlying Tertiaries: the Lander, where the greater part of the oil is supplied by the Fort Benton series, though the only surface-indications, the springs at Washakie, 15 miles northwest of Lander, were in Triassic rocks; the Beaver field derives its oil from the Dakota, while the Popo Agie and Shoshone fields have oil in beds both of Triassic and of Permian age. The Bonanza field in Big Horn derives its oil from the Dakota, the surface-indications here being in the Niobrara clays. The Salt Creek and Powder River fields extend from Johnstone to Natrona, the oil of the former being from the bottom of the Fox Hills or the top of the Fort Pierre Group, while that of the latter is derived from the Dakota, and also from the Jurassic Como and Shirley Beds. In Natrona the Rattlesnake field is supplied by various horizons from the Fox Hills to the Dakota; while the fields of Oil Mountain, Arago, and Seminole find only the last-named productive. The Douglas field in Converse obtains oil from both the Fort Benton and Dakota groups, while the former supplies the oil of the Newcastle field in Weston, and the latter that of the Belle Fourche field in Crook. Nebraska.—In the report of the State geologist of Nebraska for 1903 mention is made of the occurrence of oil in minute quantities in Rock and Brown counties; other" discoveries of petroleum" in the State having proved 184 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. "" to be merely iridescent iron-films, floating on water. Presumably this condem- nation extends to the " shows of oil found in boring at Ponca in Dixon, at Dekatur in Burt, and on the North Platte river near the Wyoming border. South Dakota. Small yields of gas from Cretaceous rocks are reported at Ashton in Spink, at Pierre in Hughes, and in the eastern part of Sully, between those. The gas, together with a small amount of oil, is sometimes found in a black shale, and sometimes in a light-coloured sandstone immediately beneath the shale. North Dakota.-Gas is obtained from Cretaceous rocks in Bottineau and Lamoure counties, and near Crosby in Williams. Montana. Asphalt-deposits with gas-springs occur in the south of the State, a short distance east of Red Lodge in Carbon; at Butcher Creek, 20 miles west of that town, and beyond this in Sweetwater, whilst in Park the Laramie appears to be petroliferous, and there are vague rumours of oil in Beaverhead. Oil-shale is met with in the Cretaceous coal-bearing series of Cascade, southward of Great Falls, and similar beds are reported as occurring on the Big Blackfoot River. Indications of oil are also found in the Cambrian rocks at various points of the North Fork of the Flathead, and on Kintla Lake on the western side of the Continental Divide, whilst on the eastern side the same rocks are the source of oil-springs on Waterton and St. Mary's Lakes. As mentioned in the account of the adjacent British territory, this oil is derived from the Cretaceous rocks, over which the Palæozoic beds have been thrust laterally. Alaska.-Exudations of an oily matter have been observed in a small coal- field, of Upper Secondary, possibly Neocomian or Cretaceous age, lying to the east of Cape Lisburne. About the head-waters of the Colville, Noatak and Kowak rivers, are found masses of "a brown material, resembling powerfully compressed peat, recalling pitch in hardness and weight," but dull, infusible, and sectile. From the description there is little doubt that the substance is desiccated petroleum. Oil is reported as occurring near Port Clarence, 85 miles northwest of Nome. Petroleum occurs in Jurassic rocks on the west coast of Cook Inlet, between Chihitua and Enochkin Bays, a length of some 40 miles, with a width inland of about 10. A second area exists at Cold Bay, about 170 miles further southwestward. The oil-fields of Chilkat and Catalla, eastward of the Copper River, are in lignitiferous Oligocene beds. In the Yaktagi district, yet further eastward, oil oozes from marine beds of Miocene age, possibly derived by upward infiltration from the subjacent Oligocene deposits, but more probably indigenous. Washington.-Indications of gas and oil have been met with at many points in this State, and the deposits have, in some instances, been tested by boring; neither product, however, has as yet been obtained in commercial quantities. A boring of considerable depth at Happy Valley in Whatcom, is said to have struck three oil-sands in Miocene beds, while good indications of oil occur in rocks of the same age near Lapush, in Challam, at the mouth of the Solduck River. The best surface shows, however, are those seen on the coast between Gray's Harbour and Cape Flattery in Chehalis, and wells near Copalis Point in this county met with a fair showing of oil. Oil-springs are found near Puyallup in Pierce, and gas has been met with in Upper Cretaceous rocks on the Puyallup River, a few miles above the town. A considerable quantity is also alleged to have been found on the Columbia River, in Klickitat, at a point a mile west of Castle Rock (Oregon). In the east of the State petro- leum and natural gas occur in Miocene rocks near Colfax in Whitman. Oregon.-Deposits of petroleum, believed to be of considerable extent, are UNIL OF WICH 120 Albert Christmas or d Warner L 125° Rogue R Gold Beach Chilic (R Siskiyou M Mt Pitt Bague Pay Grard's Pass Illinois Kerby Lane Jacksonville Klamath L. Falls Pilot Rock Lower My Momath Wright Goose Lake e Rhett pekd S.George R.Klamath Crescent City ath FJones Gaston M.Shasta 11.000 IMGovic Sacramento Pitt R Red Weitspeck Cook ood O Weaverville S Madelin Pass Alaras Madelin Nobles Pass 45 Beading Trinidad Union Town Humboldt B. eka Eel R.Humboldt Bucksport C.Mendocino M.Peirce C. Gorda 40 35 North Latitude 35 Main Fork R.Kelseys Camp Bragg Mieggsville Mendocino City Ukrahear Pt Arena Trinity 00 R Shasta Fook eareF Red Bluff Minne Tehama MELLG Monroeville Willows MS. John MRiple Sache Cloverdale M. Patas FRoss Bodega Bodega B. PTomales PtReyes Sir EDrake B. M S.Joseph Termo Eagley Susanville Honey Lakes Meadows Big Wuincy Spanish Perky k Pilot From Hills Peak 7.500 Ordville, Downieville Hamikou Salmon Pyramid Lake Trout Fatton Wyandotte Reno Virginia O Marys Nevada ville FeNicholas Grass Valley Nicholas Aubur rican R Cadical Vermon Fremon Putas Spa Ros Vardville Ben Nev Tow PBoneta Golden Gate Palounez Was China Town CARSON Tahoe Genoa Coloma West Placerville SACRAMENTO Soner Pass Jackson B palumne Cast Makalumne M Diaboras Double Springs Peak 100 Oakland San Francisco lameda P.San Pedro P.Ano Nuevo Livermor Claira José Santa Cruz Monterey Bay PPinas Pa Sierra de Gilroy Stockton Sonora Montezumat Pachecos Pass Juan Gavilan S.de Carmel B. Mentor IP Տար Salinas Merged R. CALIFORNIA English Statute Miles 50 0 Aurora Bodie Mono L. emite Paya M.Lvell Kerced Mariposa M.Ophir Mariposa Guadalupe New Che Cellar Pass Hamptonville Lesup Cr. Paquin Madera Whate Br la Monte Diablo P Carmel Soleda S, de Salinas Santa Lucia M Pt Gorda Piedras Blancas Chelone Estero B. Pt St Luis King 10 Warthan R.de la R.Salinas Port Harfordy Mt Fresno Whitne 14,423 Woodville Hanford Tulare ue 50 Beatty Death Valle escope Me Owenyo Bayou Keeler Lake Owen's Haiwee Visalia Chelone Lake White White Pars strella Lais bispo P A CIF I 0 CEA N Petroleum deposits shown in red. P.Sat P. Purisima P.Arguello Pt Concepcion San Miguel nez Goose Bakersfeld mos Sierra Sh Nordhote She S.Barbara S.Barbara Santa Rosa I. Ventura Chan Kern Walkers Pass Tejon F Pass 5802 Johannesburg Huh-hah ya-map Bowl A Pass Mohave Tah-ee-chay-pah Pass New Pass Saus mma M SFernando Conge Pass SMonica Santa Cruz 1. S.Monica Barstowp Punch Qui qualmungo Cajon Bass LOS nge Wilmingto P.Vincent S.Barbara San Nicolas Q 120° S.Pedro B Cerritos Santa Catalina San Clemente 4640 Lave San Bernardino Antonio S Rrucero 115 Plate 16. 100 150 Vanderbilt Blaker Pah-Utah Ind Needles Cadiz Mountains Bernardino S.Gorgonio Riverside Temescal R S.Anna S. Juan Avalon Pass S.Jacinto M mesca M MS Temacula S.Luis Rev Luis Oceanside Buenavista Las Encientes Escondido Pacific Beach Fosters Loma Pt Colora A Salten Bitter Spr. Salton Sea Felipe-209! False B. San Diego Otway Jacumba ord San Diego Bay Oneonta Los Coranados Tijuana Descanso Pt Three Peaks Longitude West of Greenwich London: Charles Griffin & Co, Ltd. Flowing W Aubre De Centro e For Yuma L.dulu olorado 115 40 35 Stanford's Geog! Estab, London. IDAHO, UTAH, NEVADA, CALIFORNIA. 185 said to exist in Malheur and Crook, in both instances in Tertiary rocks; up to the present, however, there has been no extensive development in the State. Ozokerite is associated with the oil. Idaho.-Fuel oil is reported to have been found in fair quantity on the Snake River, near Warm Springs Ferry, in Neogene lacustrine deposits. The statement is directly traversed by later official reports, the Payette series being. notably free from organic matter, and heavily charged with water. Car- bonaceous matter, presumably a modified hydrocarbon, occurs with metallic ores in the Parker Mine, Wood River. Utah. This State produces an important amount of asphalt, while petro- leum is yielded in more or less considerable quantities at various points. Oil- springs are found on a tributary of Sulphur Creek, south of Bear River City, in Box Elder, exuding from the sandstones of the Colorado division of the Cretaceous, and gas occurs in the recent lake-beds on the northeastern shores of the Great Salt Lake, from Corinne to the Hot Springs, and further south in Weber and Davis; it was at one time led to Salt Lake City, but the yield proved insufficient. Oil occurs, with a little gas, in the Pliocene deposits of Ogden valley in Weber. In Utah county, oil and asphalt occur in the Spanish Fork Cañon near Thistle, both products being derived from Eocene shales. Eocene beds are the source of wurzilite, a form of asphalt, near Soldier's Summit and on Strawberry Creek in Wasatch, whilst ozokerite occurs, though largely worked out, over a considerable area in the same series in Carbon county. In Uinta a mineral containing 90 per cent. of bitumen, and known as gilsonite or uintaite, occurs at various points, veins of that substance being found in the Eocene sandstones of Fort Duchesne, whilst a somewhat lower horizon in the series yields asphalt near the junction of White and Green rivers, also in the Ashley valley, and at the head of the Sweetwater Fork of Twowater Creek in the south of the county. A reef of asphaltic sandstone occurs in beds of like age at White Rock, where a little oil is also present. The Cretaceous Fox Hills sandstones of Wonsits Ridge contain a considerable percentage of similar hydrocarbons. Eocene ozokerite recurs in Emery county, whilst a flow of lubricating oil is said to have been struck in Cretaceous rocks at Green River on the Rio Grande Western Railroad, and near Castle Dale. A rich oil-field is said to exist at Bluff, on the San Juan River. Nevada.—Exudations of an oil, rich in paraffin, were noted some years ago from Eocene shales, half a mile south of Elko. Veins of asphalt traverse Carboniferous rocks on Trout Creek, Pine Creek, and Willow Creek, in Eureka county, from 12 to 22 miles south of Palisade. Bitumen occurs in the ande- sites of the eastern shore of Lake Tahoe, on the Californian border. California. The rapid progress effected in recent years in the exploitation of the rich deposits of oil, gas, and asphalt has placed this State in the first rank as regards these products. Whilst the richest fields, as at present known, lie in the southern half of the State, evidence of the presence of the several substances has been found almost continuously from the boundary of Oregon to that of Mexico, nearly 700 miles (see Plate 16). Near Montagu, Siskiyou county, gas occurs in the Cretaceous (?) sandstone. Some saline sulphur springs at the mouth of Cow Creek in Shasta gave origin in 1891-2 to a petroleum excitement, but no trace of oil could be found." CC There are many shallow oil-wells in the Eel and Mattole valleys, Humboldt, in Pliocene beds, and at Point Arena, Mendocino, in Miocene, where valuable deposits of asphalt are said to exist. Oil is reported near Ukiah, and gas on Casper Creek, Willits. Emanations of gas from the Cretaceous rocks have been recorded on Grindstone Creek, also at Tuscan Springs and elsewhere around Red 186 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 6 4. Bluff in Tehama. Oil and gas occur near Norman in Glenn, in the same series. Gas is found, also in Cretaceous rocks, at Oroville in Butte, Buckeye in Yuba, Boca in Nevada, and Yuba city in Sutter, whilst that of Maryville Buttes, Sutter, is from the Eocene. In Colusa oil and gas exist in the much-meta- morphosed Cretaceous rocks, westwards of a line from Arbuckle through Williams to Sites, including the Sulphur Springs district, where, besides hydro- carbon gases, a peculiar bitumen occurs mingled with the cinnabar in the veins. This is nearly allied to the idrialine found in similar association in Carniola, and has received the name of aragotite (which is liable to confusion with aragonite). It occurs also in the quicksilver mines of Lake, Yolo, and Santa Clara counties. Gas is evolved at Bartlett's Springs in Lake, and at Kelseyville, and an oil-taste is noticeable in the waters of the Siegler thermal springs near Lower Lake. In the Knoxville district, at the junction of Lake, Yolo, and Napa counties, the presence of gas is a cause of danger in the quicksilver mines. Though sulphur- etted hydrogen predominates in these discharges, some hydrocarbons are present, suggesting an organic source of the emanations. The rocks are Neo- comian, in an advanced stage of epigenic metamorphism. In the Phoenix Mine, 8 miles E.S.E. of Middletown, occurs the peculiar waxy hydrocarbon napalite, CH₁. Oil and gas are found in the sandstones of the hills west of Napa and Yountville. On the western side of this range, in Sonoma, gas-discharges are recorded at Geyserville; at the junction of the Bennett and Rincon valleys near Santa Rosa; at a thermal spring 2 miles north of Sonoma; and at the mouths of Petaluma Creek and Sonoma River. Seams of asphalt and traces of petroleum are noticeable in the cliffs of Miocene shales in Bolinas Bay, Marin, and emanations of gas at Point Bolinas, and inland at Nicasio. In Solano the Cretaceous series is again the source of gas at Goodyear and Vacaville, and possibly of like issues in the Potrero hills eastward of Suisun, and near Davis- ville. On Capay Creek in Yolo, and around Sacramento, gas, probably of Cretaceous origin, is met with in porous Quaternary deposits, and the presence of gas was observed in a late-Tertiary series of tuffs alternating with coal, at the Blair gold-diggings, near Roseville, in Placer county. At Ione, in Amador, the Pliocene lignite contains a peculiar hydrocarbon described under the name of ionite. In the Stockton district of San Joaquin, useful supplies of gas are derived from Cretaceous rocks, either directly or after intermediate accumula- tion in Quaternary deposits. In Contra Costa, gas is evolved from the Byron hot springs, oil is reported to occur on Monte Diablo, and small quantities are raised between Lafayette, Bryant, and San Pablo, from beds provisionally placed with the Miocene, which series also yields oil in the Livermore and Haywards districts of Alameda. In the vicinity of Half Moon Bay in San Mateo, the Eocene is petroliferous, the deposit extending southward past the Pescadero oil-field to Valencia and Pajaro in Santa Cruz. In the latter county gas occurs at Highland, near Laurel, and asphaltic sandstone is raised in the Miocene series a few miles west of Santa Cruz city, and in the adjoining county of Santa Clara, where a small yield of oil and asphalt is obtained on the eastern flank of the Santa Cruz range about Alma, Gilroy, and Sargents. At Modesto in Stanislas a little gas occurred in a deep well, possibly from the same horizon as that in several wells around Merced City. A considerable oil-field exists along the Vallecitos valley, southeast of Panoche in San Benito. In Monterey the reported oil and gas at and near Salinas proved worthless, but there appears to be some near Gonzales, on the Arroyo Seco, and near Jolon. Asphaltic sands underlie the Miocene shales in the Gavilan range, eastward of King City, and the Pliocene sands of San Ardo, and of the lower parts of San Antonio Creek, southwest of Bradley, are similarly impregnated. The Cholame valley, CALIFORNIA. 187 north of Parkfield, has an extensive range of Miocene oil-shales. The prolific oil-field of Fresno county comprises the Oil City and Coalinga districts, lying 45 and 55 miles respectively southwestward of Fresno. The more northerly of these yields oil from Eocene, Lower and Upper Miocene beds, whilst the Coalinga field is productive from Miocene only. Tulare county has yielded a little oil and gas in its southwest corner, the field extending to Tulare Lake in Kings. The latter county has heavy viscous oil in Tar Cañon, about 16 miles south-southeast of the Coalinga centre. There are three rich fields of oil and asphalt in Kern county-the Kern River, about 3 miles north of Bakersfield, the Sunset, about 30 miles southwest of Bakersfield, and the Buenavista or McKittrick, 25 miles northwestward of Sunset. The Midway field is a recent extension of the Sunset towards the McKittrick. The Kern River field, once the most productive in the State, is in Lower Miocene conglomerates, sands and clays, resting on and abutting against the Archæan granite of the Sierra Nevada. The source of the oil of the western fields appears to be the Upper Miocene or Monterey Silica beds, but the San Pablo Pliocene conglomerates, unconformably overlying these, often hold bitumen derivative from the older series. The severe disturbances of the strata have produced rich veins of pure asphalt, by the desiccation of petroleum infilling fissures, but a rarer pheno- menon is that of Pliocene sand occupying a like position and charged with a large percentage of asphalt. The disturbances are clearly of post-Pliocene age, but the unconsolidated deposit has behaved as a fluid, descending into any space which the greater coherence of the older beds might cause to open under the deforming strains to which the region was subjected. Asphalt-rock is obtained from Pliocene beds at Edna in San Luis Obispo, and for some miles among the range westward, in the area known as the Corral de Piedra. Tar-springs occur in the Miocene above Arroyo Grande, and oil has been found therein by boring at Pismo. Petroleum is reported as found at Paso Robles, also in the Carisa plain, 40 miles west of McKittrick (Kern), and on Suey Creek at the southern margin of the county. There are several valuable oil-fields in Santa Barbara county: the Santa Maria in the north-west, the Sisquoc east of this, the Purisima (or Lompoc) on the northern side of the Santa Inez valley, the La Patera, the Summerland, and the Carpinteria, extending more or less continuously along the southern coast. The sources of supply are chiefly Lower Miocene, but in the Purisima and Carpinteria fields the Eocene is petroliferous, whilst the unconformable coverings of porous Upper Miocene, Pliocene, and more recent deposits contain. derivative oil and asphalt at many places in the Guyamas and Santa Inez valleys, and along the coast from Gaviota to beyond Carpinteria. The Ojai oil-field lies some miles northeastward of the town of Ventura, and is supplied from Miocene beds. The Silverthread field on Santa Paula Creek, and the Sespe field about 10 miles eastward, are situated on Eocene beds, extending along the northern side of the Santa Clara river to the eastern border of Ventura county. Their oil is derived from two horizons, of which the newer has been tentatively assigned to the Oligocene, as showing an admixture of Miocene with Eocene forms in its assemblage of fossils. The high dips prevalent in the Silverthread field have led to extraction of the oil by tunnelling. Oak Ridge and Santa Susanna range, on the south of Santa Clara valley, have also deposits of petroleum of considerable value in rocks of like age at Bardsdale, Torrey Cañon, and Eureka, the belt similarly extending into Los Angeles county. High-grade asphalt occupies fissures in the rocks in these fields, the Ojai in particular. The Newhall, Pico, and Fernando fields of Los Angeles are pro- longations of the Ventura belt, whilst to the south of the San Gabriel range of 188 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. granitic rocks, the Los Angeles, Puente, Whittier, and Santa Fé fields are an independent repetition of the same Miocene and Pliocene groups. The large quantities of asphalt found from 6 to 8 miles westward of Los Angeles are apparently derivative. In San Bernardino indications of petroleum are recorded in the southwest corner of the county near Chino, where asphalt rock occurs in the Miocene, in continuation of the Whittier field of Los Angeles. Orange has oil at Anaheim and Fullerton, doubtless an extension of the Santa Fé field of Los Angeles. Lastly, the districts of Del Mar, Morena and Otay, San Diego, are said to have indications of petroleum. Arizona.-Sandstone saturated with oil is reported to be found in Mohave county, and asphalt to occur on the Great Colorado Plateau, but no more precise information is furnished. The Mammoth district in Pinal is pronounced to be a large oil-field, and traces of petroleum are said to have been seen in water-wells at Douglas in Cochise, close to the Mexican frontier. New Mexico. The oil- and gas-deposits of New Mexico have not as yet undergone any extensive development, though indications of petroleum at many localities in the State are now leading to attempts at exploitation. Good indications of oil have been met with in Cretaceous rocks in San Juan, within 6 miles of the eastern border of the Navajo Indian Reservation, and in the streams of Union. The same series furnishes gas and heavy oil in Bernalillo, the chief centre of production being in the neighbourhood of Gallup and Manuelito, whilst there are reported to be fair indications eastward of the town of Bernalillo. At Raton, Barela, Trinchera, and near Springer in Colfax, oil and gas occur in the Montana beds, the basalt dykes traversing which are permeated with oil; the same division of the Cretaceous may also be the source of the oil found on the Rio Salado, 25 miles south of Santa Rosa in Guadeloupe, though here the reefs of Silurian limestone are also saturated with petroleum. Oil- springs also occur at a point 6 miles north of Santa Rosa. In the northwest corner of Socorro county indications of oil occur in the Cretaceous, near the head of the Little Colorado River. The oil and gas of Alamagordo in Otero are probably derived from Permian rocks, while the oil indications in Lincoln are again from the Cretaceous, as are those found near the junction of the Rio Pecos and Rio Ronda, in Chaves, and on the Pecos below Eddy. Texas and Louisiana (Plate 17).-Oil occurs in the Permo-Carboniferous of El Paso, 20 miles north of Van Horn; also around Pecos City, and near Toyah in Reeves. The asphalt oil found 5 miles south of Santa Lucia, and on the Comanche Creek, 15 miles below Fort Stockton, and the gas found about 21 miles southward of this, are of Upper Cretaceous age, as are the oil and asphalt of Terlingua in Brewster, and of Martin. The Carboniferous yields. gas at 4 miles south of San Angelo in Tom Green; oil and gas at Trickham in Coleman; gas at 3 miles south of Waldrip in McCulloch; and oil and gas at Brownwood in Brown. Traces of oil occur also in Concho, and at Lohn and Milburn in McCulloch. To the northeast Carboniferous gas is utilised at Thurber in Erath; at Palo Pinto, Gordon and Strawn, in Palo Pinto; at Canyon in Stephens; and at Belknap and Graham in Young; whilst oil is reported at Strawn and Graham, and at Jacksboro' in Jack, and asphalt rock near Crystal Falls in Stephens and at 10 miles north of Jacksboro'. The Neocomian Trinity Sands are a source of asphalt at Hurnville in Clay, and at several points between St. Jo in Montague, and Muenster in Cooke, with small quantities of gas near the county-line. The Cretaceous rocks have traces of oil near Denton and Fort Worth, and the Eocene at Sulphur Springs and Sulphur Bluff in Hopkins, and at Texarkana in Bowie; gas at Clarksville in Red River, and asphalt in Henderson. The Navarro oil-fields are supplied from two North Latitude 105° Ft Sumner Torrance Clovis Farwell Portales Bosque Grande Plains d. Tulia Plainview Paducah 100° Altos Red Paul's Valley Childress Duncan Frederick Quanah Vernon Wichita Falls Wichita R. Ryan Henrietta Archer Floydada Crowell Blanco Canon or White Llano Double Es Mountain tacado R Fork Gail Colorado Lubbock Tahoka Post Brownfield Rio Pinasco Seminole Lamesa R.Azul of Carlsbad Sacrament Snyder Brazos R Seymour W. Fork Jacksboro Aspermont Elm Cr S. Arm Brazos R Stamfor Anson Clear Fork Camp Copper Albany Phantom Hill Fort Sweetwater Abilene Camp Graham Sulphur Lehigh 95 Anther Biamichi R. Ardmore Tishomingo Antlers Gainesville Madill Marietta Atoka Hugo Durant Denison Red River Shermart Bonhar Clear Cr Decatur Trinity Weatherford Palo Pinto Denton Ft Worth Granbury Stephen ville Cisco Brownwood Socorro Mal Pais Carrizo Valverde Salna d Craig Fra Cristobal Jornado del Muerto, a Sierra Salina de Capitan S.Andres S&Blanco wor White Alamagorda Rincon Dona Ana Sacramento Tank Moun FFillmore Juarezo Norte Stanton Rosewell R.Bonito or Honda e Cox Cañon Canon del Perro Cornudos Guadalup de los Alamos Cerro Alto El Paso Ysleta Mesa S. Eleazario Guadalupe Candelaria Rio Felix Guadalupe Pass S.Ignacio Sierra Blanca Sierra Blanco T Chispa P Sierra Vieja Pecos Pecos Tovah Cr Apache M FDavis Valentine Presidio Rio Grande 30 Pilares del Norte Marta Chinati Mts Shafter Presidio del Norte Presidio Barstow Carson Emigrant Crossing Horsehead Urol Ind Leon Spring Santiago Mts Opinag Terlingo E Colorado Big Springs Castle M Live Oaker. FLancaster Alpine Pecos Spr. Marathon Howard Spring F. Terrett Sanderson Langtry Comstock Del Rio Spofford Jimenez Calde Monclova Viejo, eonar S.Jose de Piedras Eagle Pask Fuentes Zaragoza Chisos Mts Boquillas Brazos Cleburne Hillsboro Paris Little Lanesport Mount Ida Benton Hot Springs Rockport Pine Bluf Spring Raymond kadelphia Pichta blust Manfred borough Princeton Bawren Filles ddissi Poiro Niccorgo Yaes Napoleon Mount Abuz Bolivar Monticel Luga Markeville Red Para Anta Bostore Washington Camde Fulton isvitled The cartonna Champagno We Arkansas Swap Sulpiti tagren caoun El Dorado Mount Pleasant Angeling Cypress Linken Coad Greenwood Sureyeport Wa Columbiaville Trinity Providence Haburgant Worthington Torrent MKinney Greenville Spr Sulphur Retin Conway ranksville Histo Frinceton Rockwall Dallas Grand Emory Saline Jefferson Marshal Homer Bideaught Bellou Lebanon Marion Farmall Bashop Plea Sant Tallalala Mone Salmagund Canton Sa Waconachie Tyler guderson hens Springfie Turthage, Angista d Columbia Wifficult Meridian Corsicana Richland C Palestine Jacksonve Lemaysport Mansfi Spanish fitoches Fairfield Rus Waco Groesbeck Warlin Viesca Belon Teplein Madison Alle Groveton Little R Came Centre ville Trinity Grockett Rive Lu Sainetown Ches Burkeville New Colombia Corrigtin Bevils asper Huntsville Lone Oak Livingston Saten Smith and Phelous into Marion Jake C AL. Calcasieu Sabine R Mart Sterling City FChatbourne Coleman Colorado Dublin Hamilton San Angeloncho R R. Colado Paint Rock Gatesville San Saba Lampasas O PM.Kavett Bio San Mason Burnet Georgetown Caldwell Owensville Hearne Bryan AUSTIN anderson Washington Montgomer Brenham Plate 17. Wirsborough Vicksburg Raymond New Carthagartentes Joseph Payson Little Harrisonar Shellyville Nacogdoches Hamilton S.Annusting of Jesup Cotile Manny Cata Alexandria Woodville Berade Svette Malcolm Fanny Natchez ngston Meadvie Centre Plain Woodville Fortidarns linton Franc Yalim sri te Fille Plate la lavetter Now Iber РаСбиреси Lifferty Greensb ort Huson BATON Baton Rouge ROUGE Placem L. Chestorbicha Mermentou Salt Vermillion Mermentou Pass Calcasieu Pass Sabine Pass Cote Marsh Atchafalay Point aux Fer On 0 Mississ 30 Napoleon A Thildren's Caillou B Derniere Hoima 0 Presidio de S.Vincente CuidPorfirio Diaz, Piedras Negras Brades Brady Saba Rio Llano Fredericksburg B Hamator FMarlin Segu Pedernales Kerry Pittsburg Betro Guadalupe S.Marco's Conal Lockart Braunfel Secubr Coup Terde Vandenbu Castro Rio Fri Marelos Nava Carrizo Spe Cotilla Allende Guerrer Lagrang ville Futter ville Housto Gole Columbu Guadalupe R San Antonio Hallell Berar Atasc Quihi Petersbur Stockdale Quero Clinton avacca Helenatoria tonio Luvacca Ridumond Warten Texana Matagorda orial Bay Cisco Matoworda Peninsula LaSalle Cavallo Pass Matagorda Frio Golifidiane Oakville Refugio R.Nue F Merill Helston Aransas Matagorda 1. Paulinavill Tibe Beaumont Port Arthur Chambera Sabine La Forte Gabion Bolivar P Galveston Galveston I. L San Patricio Corpus Christi S. Josephs L ckport Mustang I. us Christi B. Gigedo Morica Rosales Colombia Grande S.Diego R.Salado Nuevo Laredo Laredo Sanche Olmos G Guerrero. O Carrizo Chapin TEXAS and WEST LOUISIANA English Statute Miles 50 105° Petroleum deposits shown in red. 0 50 100 Buffins B. Agualeguas Paras Trevito Cerralvos MierRio Grande Camaro Hidalgo Aldamas RSalinas Padre Island Laguna Madre SMiguel Reynosa Bravo Ensenada Matamoros China Mexquite 100° R.S Juan SPIsabel Brazos Santiago Baghdad Brownsville SUB. TEL. NIV. 3 % CH London: Charles Griffin & Co.,Ltd. 95 Longitude West of Greenwich Stanford's Geog! Estab, London. TEXAS, LOUISIANA. 189 separate horizons, in the Cretaceous and Eocene respectively, the former yielding light oil around Corsicana, the latter producing heavy oil in the Powell district, a few miles eastward. Oil-springs are alleged to occur at Kosse and near Groesbeck in Limestone; near Waco in McLennan; Gatesville in Coryell ; Belton and westward in Bell; around Burnet; near Ingram in Kerr; and Rock Springs in Edwards. These exude from asphaltic limestones of the Cretaceous series, and similar rock is exploited in the Cline district on the borders of Kinney and Uvalde. Oil and gas occur in the same series at D'Hanis and Dunlay in Medina. The Eocene of Webb Bluff on the Rio Grande, 3 miles below the western corner of Webb, is traversed by veins of grahamite. Small quantities of oil have been raised in the northwest of Starr, at Benavides and Piedras Pintas in Duval, and at Crowther in McMullen, from Eocene beds, and gas with these, as also at Tilden in the last county, and near Campbellton in Atascosa. Oil and gas are yielded by the Cretaceous of the southern parts of Bexar, and at Luling and Lockhart in Caldwell, and the same series affords tar in Fiskville, Duval, Watters, and other points in Travis, and oil at Elgin in Bastrop, at Liberty Hill in Williamson, and Rita in Burleson. Petroleum is reported from Hearne in Robertson, and asphalt and oil from Elkhart and Palestine in Anderson, in both cases from the Eocene, as are various slight oil-springs near Rusk, Graham's Lake and Tatum, in Cherokee, Rusk, Panola and Harrison. At Timpson in Shelby, at certain points in Sabine, and near San Augustine, occur similar unimportant exudations. The Nacogdoches field is of greater extent and value, occupying the southern angle of that county below Chireno and Melrose. Small quantities of oil are found with gas at Burke in Angelina, and in the southeast part of that county, in Houston and Trinity, at Keith in Grimes, and in Brazos county, and a valuable yield of gas was obtained at Greenvine in Washington. In Fayette, oil and veins of grahamite occur from 5 to 18 miles southwestwards of La Grange, and gas is recorded at Moulton in Lavaca. The same Eocene beds yield a little oil near Ottine in Gonzales, at Sutherland Springs and Floresville in Wilson, and around Oakville and Ramirena in Live Oak, and asphalt at Beeville in Bee. Oil is stated to have been found at Puerto Richard in Nueces, and at Guada- loupe in Victoria; gas at Red Bluff in Jackson, and at Rock Island near Columbus in Colorado; oil at Bellville in Austin, at Hempstead in Waller, and near Willis and New Musgrove in the northeast of Montgomery. Traces of oil and gas are reported in Polk, near Town Bluff in Tyler, and at Boler's Ferry on the Angelina in Jasper. The richest yields of Texas, though not proving equal to their earlier promise, are furnished by the Miocene beds concealed by the wide sheet of later deposits in the coast counties of the Gulf. The phenomenally rapid growth and decline of the petroleum industry in this field has been dealt with in the previous section. The wells pass through a varying thickness of clays and sands into a group of shales and thin limestones, the latter often containing small quanti- ties of petroleum, before they reach the main oil-producing horizon, an extremely porous dolomite of very variable thickness. Below this rock the deeper wells encounter a thick mass of gypsum or anhydrite, which is followed by rock salt to an undetermined depth. The principal points at which operations have been carried on are:-in Hardin, Saratoga, Batson and Sour Lake; in Jeffer- son, Spindletop, Big Hill and High Island; Dayton in Liberty; Barber's Hill in Chambers; in Harris, Humble, Hockley, Cross Timbers, Pierce Junction and Webster; Blue Ridge in Fort Bend; in Galveston, two or three points inland of West Bay; in Brazoria, Amsterdam, Hoskin's Mound, Damon Mound, Kiser Hill, and Bryan Heights; in Matagorda, a second" Big Hill"; and in 190 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Calhoun, O'Connorsport. At the last-named point petroliferous Eocene was reached below the more recent beds. There are frequent emanations of gas and oil through the overlying deposits, and some perhaps beyond the present shore, forming the alleged (but doubtful) "oil-ponds " on the surface of the sea near Sabine Pass, and giving origin to the cakes of sea-wax washed up all along the coast from thence to Corpus Christi. te In Louisiana, the Caddo field derives its oil from Eocene deposits, though borings at Negreet Bayou, Natchitoches and Colfax found only a little gas in the same series; similar results were met with in the Cretaceous at Winfield. The oil and gas in the coastal parishes of Sabine, Calcasieu, Cameron, Acadia, St. Landry, St. Martin, Iberia, and St. Mary originate in the Fort Hudson Quaternary deposits. The principal centres here are the Jennings, Welsh and Anse la Butte fields, where the deeper wells find oil in quantity in the Miocene beds. MEXICO. (Plate 17A.) The Petroleum is stated to occur in abundance in Lower California, chiefly on the eastern shore and on Carmen Island. The States of Durango and Chihuahua are vaguely reported to possess evidence of the presence of petroleum, presum- ably in insignificant amount. Springs of oil and deposits of asphalt occur on Lake Chapala in Jalisco. In the Guadalupe suburb of the city of Mexico, films of oil rise on a spring flowing from volcanic rocks, and 3 litres a day is sold for external application, a trade fully two hundred years old. A diatomaceous. earth, charged with petroleum, occurs at Salitre de Mendez in Toluca. Petro- leum and asphalt occur in the vicinity of Huauchinango in Puebla, probably a continuation of the Vera Cruz deposits presently to be referred to. deposits of Real del Monte in Hidalgo; of Matamoros, Azucar, Chiautla, and Acatlan in Puebla; of Tlaxcala; of Tlaquitenango in Morelos; and of Huetamo and Otzumatlan in Michoacan, described as "carbon-mineral," are presumably asphaltic matter. Highly bituminous shales, yielding on distillation a thick brown offensive oil, occur a short distance west of Tlaxiaco in Oaxaca. are shown by their abundant fossils to be of Middle Neocomian age. Port Angel and Pochutla, in the same State, a light oil is found in dug wells of about 100 feet depth. There is, however, little probability of a yield of commercial value, as the district consists of granite-gneiss, granulite, quartzite, marble, and other rocks, of probably Archæan age, covered by sandy and loamy matter, partly derived directly from disintegration in situ of the sub- jacent rocks, partly re-arranged as river- and lagoon-deposits. These appear to have been locally saturated with oily hydrocarbons from the decomposition of organic matter in the lagoons. . These Near Immense quantities of asphalt, known as chapopote by the Indians," occur mingled with petroleum in most of the eastern States of Mexico, and these have led to extensive and successful drilling operations. In Tamaulipas and northwestern Vera Cruz, the beds in the neighbourhood of the surface deposits of asphalt are found to be grey Cretaceous shales, or Tertiary sand- stones, often pierced by volcanic rocks and dykes. The borings have passed through some two or three thousand feet of these beds before encountering the main producing horizon in the dolomitised Neocomian limestone. In the Tuxpam canton some production has also been obtained at shallow depth in the Tertiary sandstones. Recent developments include large productions in the Tamesi and Panuco river basins, at Ebano, Topila and elsewhere; at San Diego de la Mar, on the Tamiahua lagoon, what was probably the largest UNIV OF H. MICK Plate 17A 25 20 North Latitude 15° 110° Zmera Guadalu de los Rey S.Dimas Papasquiaro Guarisamey 105° San Ignacio DURANGO Quelite Novia Verde Concordia Mazatlan Villal niof Nazas Neon GO Blanco Nombre de Dios Jestis Guadalupe S. MiguelS.Juan del Mexquatal Mezquital Somberete Chalchihiates Sain Alte Guazamota ama edro Atomico Rio Grande ZACATECAS Garcia ZACATECAS Tepetongo Guadalupe 100° Moctezuma S.José Mexquitic Huejucer Villanueva Ojocaliente Angeles Ahuahulco Colotlan Totatiche. Chimilitan Bolaños Apoelco años Da Morones Calpulalpan Asientos Mezquitic Refugio SanchezRoman Talpa S.Juan Si Juchipila Hora Chilcalote Soledad Ciudad delMaiz Burbarita Alagunes valles Cardenas Pio Verde S.Maria del Rio Bayon S.C Huehuetlon Sierra Gorda Tancanhuitz Tangrian R.Fernando Boquillas Cerradas Laguna Madre Tamalin ntamual C.Rojo Lobos I. 95' SUB.TEL. SU 90° 0 F 25 G U L F Topolobampo SCarlos Sinalba Port Stilwell Tamarala Nig Guasavey Tamala Playa Colorado Angostura Altamura lates СЕЛАСАН CELIACAN Soyatita Copaqqin Benito 3.Taas Gonzaga orito Badiraguato El Oro! Inde Descubridora Berghejillo L.Tlahumilla Treviñog Marin Bernardo S.Pedro Guanacert Mapimi L.Parras Garcia El Fara Ramos Escabe Karmen Juare Lerdo S.Pedro Juarez puche Altata Sataya Alaya LaRastra Signor Topia Birimea Canelas elmoldamazada 1 Chacala Hornos Matamoros S.Tuan de Camarones Rodeo Nare Teoriesca & Lake S.Carlos Parras Arispe MON REY Cadereyta front s.. R Salinas Bravo China Reynosa Ensenada Matamoros Baghdad Brownsville •Mexquite SALTILLO Lente Sunduan Patos Arteaga S.Grajuco Coneto Carneros San.de. Punta S. Elena Bonanza Allende Rayones Teran Montenorelos Mende Vaqueria igre Encarnacion Huathi Burgos Presas Linares Ceralbo I. Muertos B. S.Bartolo 6.507 San Lazar Santiago C.Pulmo Miraflores San Jose del Cabo CPalmas Cape San Lucas Altat Bay Grata R. Lorenzo Ceuta Contac Bay Flota Ceuta Remedios S. Juan del Cuencamé Cosala Canattu Rio Ocampo Galeana Gruillas S.Fernando Jose de Garcia Mazapil Canada Blanca Iturbide S.Nicolas Concepcion del Oro Limon Las Barras R.Quelite RE Piaxtla Codel Mercado Salado La Parida LaPinta SRosa Salto R lto Chavarria Panuco Nieves Cecial Catorce NUE Villagran S. Carlos Hidalgo Aramberr Zaragoza Casas Bozal Matehuala R.Soto Padilla Doctor Arroyo Guemez CIUDADO VICTORIA Timener Abasolo Soto la Marina Sotoa Marina Guadalupe Miquihuana R.Mazatlans AL Cacabotan Rosario Dolores Huajicori ON S. Andres del Teu Acaponeta Valpartase Quejuguilla Concepcion Rosa orada Tuxpan Isabel I Acatan San Juanito I. Santiago Maria Madre I Las Tres Marias Islands Magdalena I. 0 Cleopha I. Piedra Blanca del Maran Blas P.Blanca de Tierra Camaron P ta Cr Los Gustodios P Compostela Jaltemba B TEPIC S.Juan Hostotipug Ahuacanan Mita Pt Ameca Reyes R.Me Bustamante O Chamea &River Escuhapa Cos S.Domingo Fresnillo Yeta Grande Calera Ramos Salinas Noriega Lagina Seca Jaunave Llera CharcaCharcos Nenado Guadalcazar Eastern Palmillas Tula O Xrootencull Gomes Furias Magi Aldama P Zerez Ocampo TA M Sierra Tamaulipas Pinos SAN LUIS Calvillo AGUAS CALIENTES Gachupines Reyes Ledesma Ocampo Janul Encarnacion Lagos Lagos S.Juan de dos Lagos Leon Union POTOSI La Pastora Mojarras Ojuelos Co Cordo Juanacatlan Cape Corrientes Mascota meca Talpa Martin Ootan Penjamo Arandas Irapuato Salamanca Cuzco Celaya Papanla alle Real del lacuilotepec Tomatlan Union Jacotlan Tizapan Juosto Audano Guzman Zapotlan Purificacion Дарагра apalp Atoyac Samla Atoyac Jiqualpan Mascaniila Turpan Tonilas recatillan Uruapan COLIMA L.Cuitzeo Zamora Puruandiro Coeneo CoPatamban Zacapu MORELIA Reves! Periban Tancitaro Taneitaro Pl Acambaro Amealco Polotitlan Ma Jilotepeco Zacatianacapo Maravatio Charo panzo EhOro L.Patzcuaro Quiroga S.Felipe Leilaniac Tlalnepantl MEXICO Tetelao Weot netusco Aram Oumba zote Tlaxco B.Escand Juan Texcoco O Chalco Hnamantla San Perote Coffe de Perote Teoreld Amanalo Marcos Nev, deToluca Temascaltepee Cocoman R Jorullo Vol. Rio de Balsas Antonie Tempitco Carácuaro CUERNAVACAO Atlixco Tegally Tecama Jepeaca Espersen chalco Maltrata Chalchicom Mirador Huatusco Orizaba Pl Cordoba Cotasto Orizaba. Huekamo Jojititaonacate Tel Chietta Comca Auchitlan Taxco Iguala Tehuacan Acallin Tepantitlan Tlacotepec Tixtlao Quechultenango Atovac Totomistaa Avutla Mecca Aluacuolingo. Chilapa CHILPANCINGO Silacayopam Atlamajalcingo Maria Zapotitlan Teotitlan Tecomatlan Tecomaracaa Hatala Husamus titlan Huajuapam Пара Coletahuaca Teposcolila lahuacoTaxiaco Nochixtlan Penotes Predios tila OAXACA iones Mitla Juguet Sto Marta yo S.Marcos India Zimatlanacolla deTam SLuis Ocotlan Petapa SM Lachicio Eiftia Niltepec Boza Rocks Arias Shoal R.Santander or M E X I C 0 R.Indios Moralanes Tordo R. Quintero Nuzv&Morelos Morelos Tancasnequi Barra de Trinidad Barra de Ciega Alacran Reefs Perez Cerritos Pamest Altamira Panue Salto ejo Panuco Tampico La Barra Puebla Viejo Tamain Tamlajas oxuluana Xilitla Bank Cayo Nuevo English Banks Pear Bank New Bank Arcas Cay Arenas of Campeche Snake R R Pt Palmas Madagascar Sisal R Hungema Chocola Sisal Marcanu Becal Murd Calquini Tribalche P C Rio del Teul Teocaltiche Mesquital Nochistan Yahualico Jolo stotitlan 9 Grande de Mochiniltic Garabatos Barranco Amatian fitzaila Marcosequil Banderas Bay Penas C&Bula Ahuatulco Cuquto Santiago GUADALAJARA S.Pedro F Tlajomulco O Tepatifian Cocula Chapala La Barca La Piedad La Union de f Japan lala Rio Blanco Escanda S.Felipe S Diego de Stras Dolores Hidalgo GUANAJUATO SMigu Silad Allende Juchitlans Zacoalco Le Chapala Angamacutiro Salvatierra de Peltran Toliman. San Tamazunchale of Tantoyuca Tantima Tepetxinfla ta Haejulle Chicontepec C&Canjundo Molango Cadereyta Zinapan Inabide Chamacero PQUERETARO Cardonal Lonte Amacare Coatlan Macnaltym Tihuallan Mettition Maluapa+ wung Ternquisquiapan paseo HIDALGO Daniquilpan S.Juan del Rio Huchapa ActopamMonte Barra de Tanguijo Tuxpan Reef Trapan Cazones R. Cazones R.S.Pablo SUB. TEL. Tecglutla R.Nautla VegaPa Piedras RDomingo PACHUCA Huanchino Nautla R.Palmas Zerapholt pes Tula Tulancingo O PAEL Salto Cuentitian Misuntla Jalagordo Altotonca Acuitzio Zitacuaro TOLUCA Lerma &Lake TLAXCALA Paracuaro Ario Tepalcatepec Apatzingan Oracambaro Malpane expehimilco Texmelucun Itaccihuatlo Amecame lluexo Malinche Seco Tenanzaingo Popocatepetl thella PUEBLA Yautepec Cuautla Black Rock & Point Chamela or Perula B. Chamela Calima Vol PtFarallones Tenacatita & Bayg Navidad &Bay Tuxcaciesco Manzanillo & Bay Campos P COLL Cigutlan Lagoon gjithan R.Pascuales Coahuayana Boca de Apisa Tejupan Perias Maruata I F SOUTH MEXICO English Statute Miles 50 40 30 20 10 O 50 Petroleum deposits shown in red. 100 150 200 105' Catz imala Teloldapan Metelilla Chiavita Quetzalan? Balzas Coahuavula Orilla Zacatula Union Calpica Mangrove Bluff Petacalco B. Isla Grande Bay &ld. Situatanejo Petatlan B Morro de Petatlan S.Geronumito Coyuquita Tecpan Lernal Pt TALAPA PtZempoala Carlos Vera Cruz Sta Guilla Collot Pt mar Anton Lizardo Blanco Alvarado CAMPEACHY BAY Sta Anna B. Coatzacoalcos Tonala B. Barilla Dos Bocas Chaltepec Tupilco Barra de Tabasco R.S.Pedro Roca Partida Zongolica Tlacotalpam Tuxtla V PaMorillo pt Zapotitlan Santecompan Nicolas osamalo apam Tuxtla Caber Otatillany Tuxtepec R. Papaloap Cuicatan Tomeltin Ixtlan sechea Juan Fearan Mecayanam Jattipan Tuan Ancas Plava Vicente 10 Chapm Suchil Villa Alta Zempoaltepec than Hidalgoritlan Domingos Isthmus of Tehuantepec Jeronimo Coyuch Coyuca Acapulco Papagayo Lag &Harbour & River Nexpa carf D Nexpa Laga Gopala Zacatepee Maldonado Tecganapa Ometepec Pinotepa TecogomeR. aga Alot Tamilrep Calera R.Grande Chale B. Bays Colotepec R Where Juchatengo Inquaite Teotepec ravesadontalapa Zanatepec Miahumattan Carlos Juchian Chicap Tapana & Mateo Cimaltepec Co Siréna Tehuantepec Francisco Loxicha Mixtepee Pochutla Requasistlan Zapotlan Sta Maria S Tonala Tonala Bar S.Marcos Bar S.Francisco Bar Sacrificios H Port Angeles Morro Ayuca Salina Cru Chipchua Bay E A Cays Hecelchakan Pomuch 20 0 CAMPEACHYulam Timucay (Campeché) Lerma Seyba Hopelchen Sijohai Cahuichic Sabancuy Chicbu Champoton Nohbecan Di 0 S.Antonio Mamantel sumacinta R.de Comalcalco A B Halpas Carmen I.del Carmen Tosile Frontera de Tabasco Usumacinta Laguna de 2 Terminos Candelaria Concepcion Falizada & River Jonuta S.Pedro OBalancan Estapilla S.JUAN BAUTISTA Humanquillo R. Gri Macuspana Jalapa Montecristo Teapa Tacotalpatenque" Uspandpa Pichalco Rio Chacos Moyos Stare Simojovel Tumbala Chiapas TUXTLA Gutierrez Venta Chiapa H Catarina la Gronde Chiton Ococingo San Cristobal Tecoja Hucitepec P S.Bartolome Pedro Martir Lorillard City Menche dr.Beten La Libertad O Comitan BRLacant S.Mateo Latatan Chi M Soconuisco n R. Chiapas de Escuntl Moto cutla BAY O OF Puerta Tonala Sacapulco Bar Mapastepe TEHUANTEPEC Soconusco Bar Huehuetan Coban Huehuetenango S.Cristobal O aston TEMALA SCruz de Quiché Taruma.co O Cobulco Salama Marcos S.Pedro Totonicapan Agusti Quezaltenango Maria San Simon Bar Tapachula San Benito SUB. TEL. Zunio Solola Chimaltenango Suchiate Roatepeque aitland Antigua Ocos Retalhuleu Mazatenango Champerico San Luis Sesecapa Tecojate S. Jeronimo VFac 15° GUATEMALA VolAd Amatillan Escuintla Chiquimisilla 100° London: Charles Griffin & Co.,Ltd. Longitude 95° West of Greenwich SUB. TEL. R.Michatoya Papaturro R.Esclavos Stanford's Geog! Estabt, London. MEXICO, HONDURAS, WEST INdies. 191 production ever recorded came from the Neocomian limestone, although unfortunately the whole was lost by fire. Further south in the Buenavista valley, a tributary of the Tuxpam, a production of 60,000 barrels a day has been obtained from a well drilled to the main limestone. The surface shows extend southward into the valley of the Tecolutla and its tributaries, and a consider- able yield has been obtained from the wells at Furbero, west of Papantla, also drilled through the Cretaceous shales into Neocomian limestone. The asphalt and oil of Jalacingo, being on the southeastward extension of these beds, are probably of like geological source. Petroleum, accompanied with gas, is said to flow from Cretaceous limestones some 30 miles southward of the port of Alvarado, in southern Vera Cruz. Eastward of this, the wide Tertiary basin of the San Juan, Coatzacoalcos, and Tanchoapam rivers has surface-exudations of asphaltic oil along several well-marked lines at Sayultepec, Jaltipan, Trujillo, Ixhuatlan, Moloacan, Los Changos, San Cristobal, Pajapa, Sayula, Medias Aguas, etc. Several fields have been developed in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the conditions of occurrence approximating closely to those met with along the coast of Texas. The chief productive horizon is a dolomitic limestone associated with large masses of gypsum and rock salt. Petroleum is obtained from Tertiary beds in the districts of Macuspana in Tabasco, and Pichucalco in Chiapas, and extensive beds of asphalt are reported to exist on the upper course of the Grijalva, in Chiapas, probably in the Cretaceous rocks there predominant. Oil is alleged to occur also in Yucatan. HONDURAS. In the republic of Honduras, indications of petroleum are reported in limestone (presumably of Neocomian age) near Comayagua, in the Guare mountains. WEST INDIES. Cuba. Indications of petroleum exist in every province of the island of Cuba, the product occurring principally in the desiccated form of asphalt or chapopote. The deposits are found either in, or in close proximity to, ser- pentine and syenite masses, which occur at many points in the island, but it is probable that the oil is merely the product of distillation and absorption from bituminous beds traversed by these intrusive rocks. The most westerly occurrences are found near Bahia Honda, in Pinar del Rio province, where the serpentine massif is succeeded northwards by Eocene deposits. Asphalt is quarried in the vicinity of Mariel, the deposits being in some cases more than 50 feet in thickness, while similar beds also occur near Banes. In the province of Havana, chapopote is found occupying fissures in the metamorphic and magnesian rocks at various points in the neighbourhood of the capital, but the substance is now mined in only one locality, about 5 miles from Bejucal, where it occurs in Cretaceous limestone, whilst at Campo Florida, fluid asphalt oozes from the joint-planes of syenite, and the solid mineral occurs at the junction of Cretaceous marl and serpentine. Similarly in the province of Matanzas, it occurs at the junction of serpentine and lime- stone, some 9 miles northwest of the capital, and extensive deposits occur on the shores and beneath the waters of Cardenas Bay, extending for many miles. The asphalt is sufficiently brittle to be broken by pointed bars, suspended from lighters, and the fragments are collected by divers into scoop nets. In the 192 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Lagumillas district, some 9 miles southwestward of Cardenas, petroleum is found in small quantity, and asphalt occurs in serpentine some 20 miles east- ward of this, whilst shales impregnated with bitumen are recorded nearer the coast. A small yield of oil and gas has been obtained in the west of Santa Clara province, about 8 miles north of San José de los Ramos, the wells being sunk in beds chiefly of volcanic origin, though the supply of both products. appears to come from the serpentine rocks below. Springs of fluid asphalt occur in serpentine about 15 miles northwest of the capital, and solid deposits on the Sagua river near Ranchuelo, and again about 30 miles from Sagua la Grande southwestwards. At Camajuani, 18 miles eastward of Santa Clara, is another asphalt flow, and again far to the southeast on the province border near Santo Esperito, and northward of this near Mayajigua. In Puerto Principe, the continuation of the last-mentioned deposit occurs across the Jatibonico in the Moron district, whilst in Santiago the only spot described is about 8 miles southward of Puerto Padre, though fluid asphalt is reported as found between Holguin and Mayari. Rumours of the occurrence of oil near Manzanillo, Guisa, Guantanamo, and other points in Santiago are as yet unconfirmed. Hayti.—Indications of petroleum have been met with in two localities in this island, namely, at a point 3 miles north of Azua, where a heavy oil rises on a small stream, and further east, on the coast near San Cristobal, 10 to 15 miles west of the town of Santo Domingo. Recent successful operations here have been mentioned in the previous section (p. 99). The productive rocks are of Cretaceous age. Porto Rico.-Exudations of petroleum are said to occur at several points on this island, possibly derived from the beds of bituminous lignite which are found in the Tertiary beds at the southwest corner of the island. 2 Barbados. The petroleum-deposits of Barbados are almost entirely con- fined to the Scotland district, on the eastern side of the island, the petroliferous rocks being a series of Miocene sandstones and shales, known locally as the Scotland beds. The most northerly occurrence is that of the Morgan-Lewis estate, about 1 miles north of St. Andrews, where shallow wells have yielded a small quantity of petroleum, as is also the case on the Turner's Hall Wood estate, about 3 miles to the southwest. Tarry Gully, a short distance south of the latter, derives its name from the quantities of petroleum-saturated earth found here. Oil is also produced in the Baxters district from shallow wells, and on the Friendship and Groves estates, a short distance to the southwest. On the latter, a large quantity of “manjak or desiccated tar occurs at about 4 feet from the surface. A little heavy oil has been obtained on Barrow Gully, about three-quarters of a mile further south, while manjak and oil occur at Springfield, in the Lloyd oil-wells on the coast, and at St. Joseph, further in- land. Manjak is also found at Burnt Hill on Conset Bay, some distance to the south, outside the Scotland district, in shales of like age. Grenada.-Oil is said to rise in the sea round this extinct volcano, probably the result of distillation by volcanic agency from deep-seated bituminous deposits. Trinidad (Plate 18A).-Petroleum is found generally distributed over the southern half of the island of Trinidad, principally derived from Upper Miocene beds, though some of the occurrences are in earlier deposits-Lower Miocene and Cretaceous. Deposits of asphaltic pitch, and strong discharges of gas and oil, occur be- tween Point Mayaro and Guayaguayare Bay, in the southeast corner of the island, where the Upper Miocene rocks occupy most of the surface, the lower part of the series, which is the richer in these hydrocarbons, being visible only Plate 18. 60° 80° C A R B B 75° E A 70° Gallinas Pt The Druba I. NlaVela Riohacha C.de la Aguja Camarone Santamarta B. Mart Baranquilla Savanill Galera de Zamba B Cartajena Barbacoas S. Bernardo I Morrosquillo Goral of Bel Gulf of Darier del Norte Arenas Chagres Portobello Sub. Tel. to Kingston, Jamaica Cuba &New Sub. Tel. Mosquito Gulf 10° Limon Columbus Provision I. C.Valiente Chiriqui L. Chorer G.of S. Blas Panama IS David Panonon Pearl Santiago G. of Parita Jose S.Miguel S.Miguel Part of Panama Los Santos Paridita Montuosa era Secas Is Cebaco I Coiba L Montijo G PtMariato PMala Port Quemado PtMarzo Cupica Bioquin Soperant 57 ato Fuerte I PR.Nech mpo sas Monks LE Curaçao Dutch SER Paraguana Pen UAJIRO TERRI Spada PCS.RomanBuen AyreI. de Sant smart taracaibo Villa Duphar i Real der DD Yet Pasn Gulf of Buena Vista Gof Cordele Camarebo Coro Venezuela 65 ANTILLE SCarria Sorchilla 1. EBlanquilla A Bird Ic N Los Roques R.Tocuvo Lapara Tapatarula Capadare S.Juan B. alabar Altagracia Maracaibo Barquisimeto Federacion Ayou Chariguana Ocan Lagoon moles And Merida Tucacas Galf of Triste P. Cabello Jency Vittoria Siquistiqué Trachin lipe Barquisimeto Tocuyo SCarlos Ort Brusual Guanare Obispo Nevada Pichacho 15027 Pedraza Libertad S. Vincente Nutria SCristobal RMS Polvero Gruas dualito Arauca R.Casanarele Лірого Rinidad R R.Meta Zaragos Pamplont SAndres Amali Rost Zapataca The de cuesta Malaya Solano B Medellin Mariella Diba Charul Rionegro a Port Utria Quituto Saison Dbate prada Muxo Tunja Moreno C.Corientes L Lebranga R.Pauto Novitas Tortuga Guarings .... os Is Grenada St George Guiria WINDWARD ISLES Nueva Espartarestigos I Margarital Asuncion Sentinel Rubagus Coche Car Caribe! Codera Cariaco Metare Gurienice Shio Barcelona Chrines of Card Ohoto Mateo Be Fites Sombrero Chaquarganas Dragua Zarga Calabozosta Marta Barcelona Mir an da Camaghan Spata Pao Amiku Tre hal largo G. of Paria Tobago Port Spain cacos P Galera Pt Trinidad I ernando Galeota P Serpent's Mouth Baja Pt Great Delta Barrauric udad RO Placoa SDiego Soledad Bolivar Gur Fernando R0rifiedra R E Arauca Waviben B Maipure Mures R.Vichada Cascares. Pedro Ven ALTO ORING C sta Barbara Sun Feinapto Ungt de Inating Miame Loran I. Pastor Paragua Pedrosa Barbara Nueva Providencia ladiva Cura S.Rafael R.Choranna 10 North Latitude Malpelo I. Calbte Gorgona. I Isquande allata Garan Popavan Timana Tamaco B Almaguer C Mouths of the Honda Palma tiduriores grander Ansermaajo Mantles acho h Garagon Tolima Imbasimodal chith Ansermanus 18130-femal S.Juan R B.&T Buenaventura na Upia B Labuyaro Bugil Chopificación ca Guamo spinal Martin R.Arar Call Palmira Nezi Coco PtMilichon agua Silv Graph thero RAg Vua R.03 Fun R.Treviare Padavida Rio Guaya Cailla Barbaca Bolivar Timaima Pasto Yangratta Mocoa CS.Francisco Francisco Rio Cagn Tacumine Yanacuri Mangles P Ançon de Sardinas Verde Pt R.Guaillabamba Tola i Tuguerie Galera PESMERALDA 15620 [po Futdo Mangles Porter imi darg Catalaches 0° EQUATOR Pedernales Jama P C.Pasado Pichincha South Latitude 15918 IBARR Cayambe 9343 19188 QUITO Archidorio Cotopaxa Caracas Rolanoacra zou 19335) antisana viln Manabi Manta Bay C.S.Lorenzo Manta Puta Solang Puerto Concepcion xuja 25 Rafael de la coca Loreto Napo SANTA ROSA DE OTAS TACUNGA19613 Vilaud Llanbanato Napo Sung Plata I PORTO VIEJO Salango Lipapa Lucia Jampa P Thimborazo 204980BBAMBA Babako Daute S.Elena PT GUAYAQU Chanduy Gulf of Puna I Sta Clara I Guayaqui Malpelo Picos P Mancora C.Blanco Talara Pariña P Amotape, & Chira R 10 15° 20 25 30% 35 40 45 Alaus As Nurani Prena Bolau CUENC Machales nor tillo Pocheos Av Payta PPIURA tran Sechura1u Piura h Bay Sechura Sechura PAguja Desert supe Lobos I&Tuemy Lambayeque favo into Lobos de Afuera: Etene Et Sana Altar e Redouari Co claim Bro Cu Curar may21422 Aidans Moro stassa Cintano siya Samutimano Mesaya Arabara F R.Yoquerella amboya by Colony R.Nanay Rio T ambiri Santander Chito a O Batranca Barranca Amazon Playa Quaya Shanga Laguna Chica Tung Santa P CAMARCA Pascamayo Road Cinti Malabrigo B Sub. Tel. Yancos Maloche R GCascade GMC Sie de Cupar e OR. Anivé Hoga tum 80 Or R.Potae Ambira Chorococha Iquitos Tamchiyaca R.Su R. Anamiatus R.Huerari Pebas Bocon Inirid Atabapo R.Orinoco Yavita Maroa es Migital Tiriquin & AMAZONAS R. Guginia Porcos Gucuny Marakitanos Guia S.Vincente Santiqua Villa Karakan Parchitewan Parim Purota Ft S. Joaquim Sa Barbar Felipes Anna Pakana pixuna Thomar ura R. Marié Cancana Ronantos Tunanting or Yemi Ambiyasi Loreto Nahuapo Arautas Omagua oromorote Javari R Parinari Cipriano Tepisca Bapadero Casa Acuracova Tana Tacue Moyobamba CHACHAPUYAS Haimbayo SultarapotChasuta Playa Plancha Pacacuru Sarayaed PampaCashiboya Pampa choca (asamurquetta Conchuca el Roabova Calleria Choco Tambo Pati R.Chicama TRUJILLO Libertad Carongo Ниапаре Chao LdP Santa Mara Santa Ferrol B.Chine Casma Bay Cerro Mongon 3900 Anc P A C Guarmey B & Town Sacramento alomon Cash HUARAS Hanco 5800 Huanuco in Val Qrupua RASCO M. Dari Parma ca 16000 CERRO DE Supé B. Human Salinas Cacho Hitara T Canta B. Callao Port Prouty FEL ma LIMA Aus horrillos Cachacade Chilca P Chilea Pica Abajar ham Mala Vine Pico Ricar Frail Pervay Cerro Axa Huo Chincha B Trahuac R. Embira R.Purus turanja Caushi mashi Playa Caimito Schebuna Pacalla Pucani S.Rosa R. Camise Cummaha Tembo HUANCAVELICA PAYACUCHO Z K S.Antonio S.Paulo S.Cruz Tabatinga S. Pedro Javari RCursem M R Matura R.Jutahy R.Mutu ruhu Rapids Rio Forte Boa В. Тарана R.Conibua Cara atirimany DE Pa Sa Mama Felipe Rand Rio Branco Rio Janapin 0° Carvolirs Cabuquen Barcellos S. Antonio d'Immaripi R.Varira Caicara R. Teffe Z R.Tap Chucuriam Mainaria R.Mamoria BossMaloccu Ordcia uru 8 R. Hyuacu Teffe R.Catua auá R.Scpatingo R.Itux Paderneira Falls Falls Pedreira R.Jan Ayrao Rio Anavila Cupeiss L.Codajaz L. Manacapuru LTrucaja LTrocafy a B.Araua Matu Coary az O u cip PinheirParapary Florencio Freg.de Codry Urbano Castro Capello Boavista Strauss Raymundo Crato ir L.Autaz Freq de Mani Old Settlement L Mahic Giparano Machado R. Jaz R.Muparaua Rapids Faredug Calderão de Inferno bung Araras Falls Robeiran S.Antonio Falls Madeira Falls ana da Paca nova Soteri Farte da Beira Man (Madre de Deos S. Miguel Nova Mapandara Camuvip Manupart M Ms bea Morochyco Vilon Piti Trithemba Averna & Is Valley S.Gallan Sungalla Parracas Femin Vilhucur Carretas H Yea Amma PP Jud Yca R. 6 Port S. Nicolas Port S.Juane CLoma Tropic of Capricorn F S. Felix I. 0.. I C UZCO Antahuaylla Apurimac Paro Ayacucho Thiriqui www T Allca Taurima Pauza Apart Morro Chal Aliqi Caratin Sub. Tel. San Ambrosio I. (to Chile) Mas-a-fuera I. A. (to Chile) 0 C E A N 3740 Chabanea bari Pi Coporaques Ros Caitoma B R.Madidi Ysiamas Tumupasa Sandia Ayaviri Vellite Sicani Toropitha Juli Railway L. PUNO Atica com Huancane Vilgut Chica Atico P Pescadores PAREQUIPA 2030 Camana Pula Juan Fernandez I. (to Chile) vo Savinas Exaltacion Sta And 1. Rogagua Reyes Muchanis Santa Ana Titicaca or Clucrito, Sovata & Vol offaclacache Paz Huachd LA AZ Impianto Minan Misti Tuli chuna Lepita Nasafar Desgander MauroCoroco Islay Port Mollendo Moquegua Ylo Road P & T Morro de Sam Subtely Arica Madrid P Samas Tamb R.Camaroons Chisa Pisaqua Mejillones Penin Iquique Grueso P Potillos vend Humala Tapacac cuma Secure Magdale Conceicao Pedr 8. Red: Castan TRINIDAD richate Ascencion casa COCHABAMBA Desaguadendu Arqueable que Totoro ORURO Cosapa hop Chayanta Corque agenda Negrillo Mulliga Lends Savaya Loreto ba Rio sa www Simão Grande Jamari Juina Cordilheira Dest das Redras Pequeno S S. Joan Itenez Cance Bikosi Carlos Baures SPablo Antonio R.Verde R. Pachu Conceição S. 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Hornos praeseravaja C.Angamos Estacia Aacilla Salinas Mejillones Monto Blanco Antofagasta Salar del Carmen & La Chiniba,R Antofag Autodo El Cobreads - Panut Botija Varas Paposo Cleria Taltal 20997 Marquina Salinas Abarenda Save Victoria Bermejo Candados ORAN Ple Het youZentautas del S.Francisco Tilcara 2486 Har ing. Leon Ledesma Tatora La Vaca Pilcomay Marsh Pide la Estrella Central GRAN Flaco ca de Chaco Simblar Fernando Pesca Passage a a 8 Colmare Santiago de los Mocovie Hornilios Cachi Seclantas SALTA ampo Santo 25 Correllto El Cajon Rosario San Miguel Sout Marig Candelarid Bernardo thern જે Lampo del Losas Arenal Fass de Copiapa de los Cobres Llullaillag Rosmia Los Mojones Antofagasta Andon Lord Guasi S Pasto de uncal Ca Encantad entra Blanca Dona Ines Lujo Volcano SFrancisco Tres Puntas. Pass Caldera P. de S.Pedro Breadal C.Ballena Cachinal Pan de Azucar Chanaral Totoratilla P.Cabeza de Vaca Puerto de Copiap Pajonal Totoral Puerto de Carizat Puerto del Huascos Puerto de Chaneral Punta de los Choros La Higuera COQUIMBO or LA SERENA &h.Elqui Lengua de Vaca Lennes Tim Godoi Freirina Osall R.Limari de con quija Ramada INO R.TH INDIAN KULICHMAN Soledad Tintina Petacas Tres Posos Antonio haco Miravilla Cachipampa ERRITORY SANTIAGO DELESTEROLa Cañada Aconquira COPIAR020685 Frambala El Fuerte R.Hondo Zapata Timogasta t d'Andaala Copacavanas Santi Matara Ailpasinchi CATAMARCA Arauco Atomisqui Albigast Chilecito Chumbnicha Icans Salt Snip Navarro Vallencobre 18320 Palco Pass R-Blanco 14049 higista LA RIOJAorqueta Guandacol Ampatain Pagancillo Pertesa Saso de Choto Tala Aguango del Vento Pass achal Falle Hermososs 13491 Combarbalar a Asienta Hapel Corral &R.de Choapa Po de los Vilos u. à Jumial Bordo Catuna Baide de destero Salabina Esperanza Carmen Dona dings de Lorenza R.Sslado Moras los Pongo Rio Seco Tulumba Constituc 30 Colon Belgrano Cuz del Eje Mar Chiquita Canton Cheges Milagro Totoral Morteros SAN JUAN Ulapes S.RoquesURDOBA Quebrache Leonto 22303 mayagnas La Friquita Cordoba Corona Encon Cerro del Quilimari Pelgrea Mercedario Aconcagua Valle Hermoso ChanarJoaquin Rosa Cruz Villa Maria ermera Quintero Baigua mengual Valparaiso Camb ENDOZA VALPARAISO 10495 Juncal Cartagena SA SANTIAGO Santiago Melipilia Raneagua Colchagu Bucalemu Curico R.Mataquito Constitucion &Rio Maule Cauquenes Llico Maule José 20009 Volcán del Maip 17664 STERSASDO SNico Melingur SPedro Chandr Capilla delbe Sta Rosa Sunchale Herrado RosarioSTAT SPedro Bella Vista Arbol Los Talus Fraga Salto S.Martin S.RoseSAN LUIS 20 Cirarty Babder Villa de Mercedes Rosela xx Villa Nueva Fraile Benca Muerto SJose Los Leones Loboy Tunas Sarmiento Villegas Trumfo H S Tienel MPA S Butylilague •Ita lo Trenque Cerr SRafel Cameno del Portillo Tincumprica Vol CUBICO TALCA A mares Vila la Yeguas CHILLAN & R.Itata Talachuana Butnes CONCEPCIONE Colonia Alvear Tuel Butalagualor Cerro Payen NOB SOUTH INDIAN Tripague Concepien Nube Challan Corou Paicario Nena Core) ARAUCO Los Ampos Nacimiento Biobo Angol 9751 Mocha IS Antuco Fuerte Chacha Rio tordillera L 1820 Malla Bragdo 17 Jaladitto Julenegway aquen S.Lui Vigilancias Sade TERRITORY Nainco Lliguecatel Pa m P General Acha Belgra Sel Caramarat FArgenting hos Malal de Trilog Huitrin de Callaqui Vol de Lonquimai Potoco delainas. Traigu R.Cantin TEMICON Cautio R.Tolten S.Jose VALDIVI shilca Afrio eu qu Lyle Villarica Corral Valdivia hanco Veuquen e n Garaita R.Timeuquen Traro Lafquen 11 Colo Quillalangos GL.S. Martin mini Ris colorado Entre Rios del Sur Lagu Isla del Baile Fillaring Salto de Piedra Rio Valcheta Ro Calpe Salina de Nahuel Hanpi M.Trovador Gatchenkaik R.Bueno In Union Osorno Purehue Cancurd Usorno CQuedal L.Llang hu Calbuco ANCUChacao Ang NONT Chupdi corado MeMelunuy Chupat or Negro Toldeira N e ro Port S.Antonio Guardia Resistencia Mas Heras Belgrano Lo Din Si Bahia Blanca Bahia Blanca False B. Brightman B. Canada Creek Anegada B. Gamas (Deer/I. Paxopt Rubia de Patagones Viedma Redondo Posas B. de Rosas Bermejo Bahia de San Matias Quiroga or Geof San Antonio P.del Norte P.Sierra Sierra de Ichnequin L. Duquetico L. S. Antonio SJose B Chuma Madrynnevo Chara P. Ninfas Chubut (Rawson Rabat R Lobos Hd P Castro h u b. u t sel Me Triste P. Bajos Peninsula de S. José P.del Gada Nuevo Hd Engano B. S Carlo Chiloel Castro C.Quilan Huafo I Guaytecas Mellersh 1 Chonos Level 1 Ypn or Narborough Hyamblin Archipelago or Socorro Garrido 1. Anua Pink. C.Taytao Cornish Opening senyl MSValentin Tres Montes Peninsula & 12.697 Cape StEstevan Gulf of Peñas Ft Tombo Atlas PS.Helena SMontemayor Camarones B. Texa Melo Musters Pineda Paps Melaspina L.Colhue Marques Pt Buenes Hyres Cochrane Fondo Gulf of Beach St George Langara B. R.Deseado Desire Mazaredo B. River P 35 40° 45 50 OIL FIELDS OF SOUTH AMERICA 55 English Statute Miles 100 50 0 100 200 300 90' UNIV 30 OF MICH 100 95 Petroleum deposits shown in red. 85 C. Blanco Guanianeco 1 C.Dyer L Campaña Lion B Dyneley B Baker Chau Mesier Channe Martin Fiteror Volley 7000 P.Desire Cru Spring B. plyn Chico Bird I. P. ST Julian In R.de Sheven Viedma Salinas C.Francisco de Paulo Castle Hill 4600 Leona Santa Cruz R.S. Cruz Pt Sta Cruz th Lokes 6400 Argent B Feel Inlet entino C. Redondo singe Inlet CMontagues Picton Opening Wellington Falco Gulf of Trinidad Prince Henry Madre de Dios I Madrede Dios Archipelago D.of York I Concepcion St Hanover Cambridge STRAT 80° Nelson Sdelaide Arch OF MAGALHAENS OR MAGELLAN C.Pillar Graves 1 B Gallegos Moy Inlet P Gallegos Gallegos Possession C. Virgins B. STRAIT OF MAGALHAENS Disappointment Armand Obstrinition Skyring Water Ofway Catharine ESR MAGELLAN Santo Ha Water Punta Arenas S. Sebastian B. Teninsula FUEG MDarwin 2200 50 S FALKLAND Sebaldine 15 KS George Jason or Q Charlotte New I Weddell W. Falkland Pebble Port Stephens Falkland Sound C.S.Vincent Maire Strait Otway B Useless TIERRA Nose P I. Grafton 1 C.Sunday C.Peñas C.S. Inez C.Noir a Camden Is Stewart I Londonderry C.S.Paulo Sarm S Read Christmas S Darwin StrHoste New Year Sound 75 Naraicton Nassau Staten I. CGood Success Aguire B. New I Wallaston I. Hardy Herschel I. False CHorn George L 70 Longitude West 65 of Greenwich 55 60° Stanford's Geog! Estab London London: Charles Griffin & Co. Ltd. UNIL OF MICH Gallos Pt Icacos Pt Goose I. Chupara Las Cuevas B Maracas B Balata B La Vache B DRAGON'S MOUTH Boca Grande Maqueripe B. Huevos Monos IN ROAD Chacachare Gaspar Grande Five Is Diego Is PORT OF SPAIN TRINIDAD. REFERENCE. Main Roads R.W.D. Railways Do Proposed. Petroliferous Areas Scale of Miles 3 4 5 6 7 8 Fortin P Irois B. ROAD Cedros Pt Cedros B. Rouge PMAIN Islot B. Islot Pt. Erin PARIA O F Chupara Pt Blanchisseuse Pt Paria Pt Bank GUANAPO STA T. Tumpuna CUMUTO STA EAST APOUCA STA. TACARIGUA STA. CARONI STA. MAIN Arima DABADIE STA. ROADE ARIMA Cumuto Rd Aripo ASTERN Arima R Guanapo El Mamo Valencia R. anne Paria R Madama EASTERN MAIN Caroni R T.G.A. LAVENTILLE SWAMP JOAN ROAD ST JOSE Joseph TUNAPUNA STA. Barrancones Pt THE CARONI SAVANNA CUNUPIA STA Cunupia R CHAGUANAS MAIN CHAGUANAS STA ROA ONGDENVILLE STA. Waterloo Rd. COUYA CARAPICHAINA STA TODD'S ROAD STA Caparo Valley Rd CAPARO STA. Tumpuna R. Talpare R Cumuto R Gd Maletot P TOCO MAIN Turune R. GUAICO STA. Quare R SANCRE GDE STA MA Cunapo Mtamana Meloa R. ANCAE GOE REST HOUSE ROAD Sangre Grande Sangre Plate 18" Toco Bay Galera Pt Gr. Riviere B. Cumana B. Playas Pt Matura El Branche R Salibia Tampire Tompire ROAD Salibi Balandra B. Saline B. Matura B. Doubloo Cocos Bay Cush R Nariva R NARIVA LAGOON Charuma La Brea Pt Pitch L Guapo Pt D'Or GULF Savanetta P Couva Couv MAIN STA Couva R CALIFORNIA STA. Claxton B. Pt à Pierre Pr.A PIERRE SAN FERNANDO Godineau R Mosquito Cr Sable Pt. MAIN St Mary Siparia THE STA Cedar Hill CLAXTON'S BAY STA Rd ROAD Bonne Aventure UNION REFORM STA. STA. Road Naparima St.Mag Victoria S R. Cipers Read Road Inveco OROPUCHE LAGOON Vegal de R BRASSO WILLIAMSVILLE STA To Naporian Princes Town STA. Tabaquits Oropuche Rock R. Road Morug Baccus R TABAQUITE STA. Pool Nariva R r Monteau B Quara Road T.O. 4. Charuma P. Kill Deer R. are Trace HO. Guna Pool Ortoir R Erin Bay Road Erin Via Franca Read & Extension Taparo P Chagonary Pt. Quinam Siparia P Negro P La Lune Moruga REST Trace Moruga Pt Alcatras P Moruga C. Casa Cruz Guatacare R. Mayar Grandecaille P Ortoire R Guayaquayare B. R.C.C. Noir Pt Manzanilla Pt Mayaro Bay Mayaro Pt Galeota Pt Stanford's Geog! Estab, London. WEST INDIES, GUIANA, VENEZUELA. 193 on parts of the anticlinal axes. The upper division also yields asphalt at several points along the southern coast at a short distance inland, whilst about 12 miles north of Point Luna, oil and asphalt occur in the Lower Miocene marls. The asphalt of the Montserrat district, 6 miles northwest of this, is of Creta- ceous origin, while a spring of petroleum rises from beds of like age, a short distance further south. The Lower Miocene marl again yields oil and asphalt at San Fernando and along the south coast of the Gulf of Paria, the submarine springs in parts of which are probably derived from the same source. West of this, to Point La Brea, the Upper Miocene beds contain asphalt in considerable quantities, and liquid petroleum issues from this series near the famous Pitch Lake. This has been thought to be the largest and most important deposit. of solid or semi-solid bitumen known, but is said to be far exceeded in area, though not in depth, by one in Venezuela. It has an area of 99.3 acres, and is found to be sufficiently firm in places to support a team of horses. The deposit is worked with picks to a depth of a foot or two, and the excavations soon become filled up by the plastic material rising from below and hardening. The depth of the deposit is not accurately known, and in pits dug some little distance from the edge of the lake the flow of bitumen has been found too great for the depth to exceed 12 feet. The surface is not level, but is composed of irregularly tumescent masses of various sizes, each said to be subject to independent motion, whereby the interior of each rises and flows centrifugally towards the edges. As the spaces between these separate masses are permanently filled with water, they are prevented from coalescing. The softer parts of the lake constantly evolve gas, which is stated to consist largely of carbon dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, and the pitch, which is always found honeycombed with gas-cavities, continues to exhibit this action for some time after its re- moval from the lake. Springs of petroleum rise in the sea westward of the lake, and asphaltic deposits are found in many places along the shore, as far as Point Guapo, which is partly composed of highly bituminous Miocene sandstones. Similar rock occurs on Irois Bay and in the Erin district on the southern shore of the island. The name parianite has been somewhat unnecessarily assigned to the Trinidad pitch. SOUTH AMERICA. (Plate 18.) Guiana. Recently reported finds of asphalt near the coast have attracted some attention to the petroleum possibilities of British Guiana. A work of the eighteenth century refers to the bitumen of Surinam. Venezuela.—A large part of Venezuela is rich in asphalt, but the deposits have received but little scientific investigation. The Miocene series seems to be the origin of many of the indications, but the Cerro de Oro (Cretaceo- Tertiary) system is equally important as a petroliferous group. An oil-spring exists at the mouth of the Orinoco, and others are vaguely reported in the Delta; asphalt-deposits and mud-volcanos occur on the islands of Pedernales, Pesquero and St. Clair. The "Bermudez" asphalt lake lies on the north bank of the Guanoco river, near the mouth of the Cano San Juan, and other indications of petroleum occur on the lower part of the Guanipa. Mud-volcanos and other indications of petroleum are found in the neighbour- hood of Maturin on the Llanos. Petroleum also exudes at various points to the north; near Manicuare, opposite Cumana, on the island of Cubagua, and in Margarita an asphalt deposit is vaguely reported near Puerto Cabello. The States of Falcon and Zulia are rich in asphalt and petroleum, and the Andine States of Trujillo, Merida and Tachira have large stores of oil and asphalt. VOL. I. 13 194 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Colombia. The sedimentary rocks of Colombia correspond closely with those of Venezuela, but occurrences of petroleum seem to be limited to beds older than the Eocene. Deposits of asphalt, and emissions of oil and gas, prob- ably from the Guadas Beds (equivalent to the Cerro de Oro system of Vene- zuela), are more or less continuous from the mouth of the Magdalena to the Gulf of Darien, ranging inland for several miles. Large mud-volcanos and pools of oil have been described by Humboldt and later explorers of this singularly rich region. Southward, Cretaceous and Neocomian rocks provide oil shows at very many points in the Magdalena valley, and in the eastern cordillera of the Andes. There are asphalt deposits and petroleum springs near Simiti, in the department of Bolivar near the left bank of the Magdalena, and on the tributaries of the opposite side; the latter extend southward into the department of Santander, and near Pamplona on the Venezuelan frontier, a small local industry has long existed in the illuminating oil of the Villeta Beds (Cretaceous). Higher up the Magdalena valley in the departments of Cundinamarca and Tolima, there are many occurrences of petroleum, most noteworthy of which seem to be the extensive deposits of asphalt near Chap- arral, on the Saldano tributary. Springs of oil are also reported to exist at more than one point on the edge of the San Martin and Casanare Llanos. Ecuador. The oil-fields of Santa Elena lie between 50 and 80 miles west- ward of the port of Guayaquil. The principal surface indications occur at San Raimondo, on the coast; at Santa Paula, about 3 miles inland, and at Acha- gian, 2 miles northeast of Santa Paula; but traces exist for 30 miles eastward of Point Santa Elena, and southward to Puna Island. Oil is said to exude from dioritic rocks a day's journey northward of Quito, and on the east flank of the Andes an oil-spring is reported as found on the southern side of the Pastazza river, about 130 miles east-by-north of Guayaquil. Asphalt is raised on the Cojitambo hill, some 13 miles northeastward of Cuença. Peru. An extensive oil-field occupies the coast from the River Zarumilla (the Ecuador frontier), about 180 miles southward to Point Aguja, constituting a considerable portion of the provinces of Tumbez, Paita, and Piura. The operations at Zorritos, Lobitos, and Negritos have been already described, pp. 104, 105. The field is bounded on the east by the spurs of the Andes; its average width may be taken at 30 miles, and its westward extension is attested by emissions from the sea-bed at several points. The productive rocks are Lower Miocene shales, with a covering of variable thickness, consisting of sand- stones, conglomerates, and clays, of Upper Miocene and Pliocene age. Asphaltic limestone occurs north of Balza, and near Quemia, Cocabamba district, Luya province. Petroleum saturates limestone in the Huallanca region at Huacota, Huagta-huaru, Huata-guaro, and Colpa, and elaterite is associated with the cinnabar at the Chonta mines. Cerro di Pasco, again, shows traces of oil in several places, and asphalt forms dykes traversing the limestone of Huari and Soaro, Tarma province. Occurrences of petroleum are reported in the Angascaca ravine of Mito, Jauja province, and in the Sacsa- marca ravine of Huancavelica, whilst La Brea in the Chumpi district, Parina- cochas province, has an oil-spring of some dimensions, and an oil-field has recently been developed between Pusi and Arapa, in the Huancane province, northeast of Lake Titicaca. Bolivia.-Traces of oil are recorded in Chiquitos and Cordillera, at Sauces and near Santa Cruz. Further southward eleven copious springs of petroleum are mentioned as occurring within an area of some 40 square miles in the pro- vince of Tarija, close to the Argentine border at Piquirenda, Plata, and Guara- zuti. These are derived from the same Neocomian rocks as those immediately CHILE, ARGENTINA, BRAZIL. 195 across the frontier, which probably constitute, as there, a second belt about 100 miles west of that indicated. Chile. Petroleum has been met with in northern Chile, in the province of Tarapaca, south of Patillos. In the southern part of the republic an extensive area southward of the Maullin river is said to have indications of natural gas from Tertiary deposits. Oil is also reported to have been met with at Puerto Porvenir and Agua Fresca in the Magallanes Territory. Argentina. The Argentine provinces of Salta and Jujuy have large areas of petroliferous Neocomian rocks, chiefly dolomites and conglomerates. Oil and asphalt exude from these at Yavi Chico, on the Bolivian frontier, at 65° 30′ W.; Tejada, 60 miles south of this; Abra de la Cruz, 29 miles eastward of Tejada; Garrapatal, 21 miles east-northeast of Jujuy; Laguna de la Brea, 42 miles further in the same direction; Cerro de Calilegua, 30 miles northwest of the last; and Tartagal, on the frontier at 63° 44′ W. Near the Chilian frontier petroleum and asphalt have been produced by natural distillation in shales of the Rhætic series, extending for nearly 300 miles along the Andean slope, from about 40 miles north of Mendoza to the Neuquen district. In the Cacheuta mines, a few miles south of Mendoza, oil occurs in the veins of selenides of silver, copper, etc., and also at the Chalahuen copper mines, Neuquen. There are said to be petroleum springs rising in the Barrancas valley in the latter province. Eastward of this belt, the Lower Jurassic limestones of the upper part of the Salado river (about 35° south latitude and 70° west longitude) are charged with oil, and veins of asphalt traverse the Cretaceous beds of the Sierra de Loncoche, 20 miles southward. The oil of Comodoro Rivadavia in the Chubut Territory is apparently de- rived from Upper Cretaceous rocks. Brazil.—A barrel of a mineral resembling ozokerite reached Italy from Rio de Janeiro about 1850, but no record is preserved of its place of origin, presum- ably Brazilian. The recorded outburst of inflammable gas from the gneissose rocks of the Morro Velho gold-mine, Minas Geraes, is a further instance, anal- ogous to several already mentioned, of the appearance of hydrocarbons in anomalous, or at least unexplained, positions, although here it is just con- ceivable that there has occurred some infiltration from an inland extension of the deposit next to be described, furnishing organic material to be subsequently reduced, by hydrothermal metamorphism, to simple carburetted hydrogen. Impure bitumen exists at Morro do Taio, Santa Catharina, and at Piropora in São Paulo, probably in outlying portions of the great belt of bituminous shales. of Eocene age, that extends intermittently from Porto Alegre along the coast to near the mouth of the Amazon, a range of 18 degrees of latitude. The granite and other ancient rocks against which the system abuts landwards reach the coast in occasional spurs, between which the Tertiary deposits occupy bays of 20 to 50 miles in depth. Oil-shales suitable for distillation, and locally termed turfa, probably occur more or less throughout this vast area, but have been specially noticed at the following points. On the river Itahipe, northward of Ilheos, turfa deposits occur near the spur of crystalline rocks that here reaches the coast. The island of Joas Thania on the Marahu river, about 80 miles southward of Bahia, has rich turfa, and traces of petroleum have been noticed in dioritic intrusions through the shales, further up the river. Fifty miles northward of this, turfa of good quality is found on Tinhare Island. The next notable areas are in Alagoas, at Riachadoce and Camarajibe, respectively 25 and 45 miles north of Maceio. On the Parahyba del Norte, petroleum is alleged to occur below São Paulo, at Jesus de Tremembe, and oil-shales in the Sierra de Araripe, Ceara. 196 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. AFRICA. The oil-bearing regions of Algeria, Tunis, and Egypt have already been dealt with (pp. 132-134) in connection with the European areas of which they constitute outlying portions. West Africa. The occurrence of oil in the sea off Cape de Verde Islands is probably due to bitumen in the deep-seated beds traversed by the volcanic rocks which compose the group, and the reported indications in Madeira have. presumably a similar origin. Petroleum occurs in considerable quantity in the Cretaceous sandstones, shales, and limestones clinging, as isolated patches of varied extent, to the western flanks of the ancient crystalline massif which forms the bulk of the African continent. A vaguely-reported discovery of oil in the little Portuguese territory of Guiné, southward of Senegambia, probably belongs to this category, as do two separated petroliferous areas on the Gold Coast, viz., at Tachinta in the Apollonia district, and Commenda in Elmina, respectively 60 miles westward of Axim and 26 miles eastward of Sekondi, both covering several miles in length, and extending well inland. The extensive deposits of mineral pitch in the Ijebu district of Southern Nigeria have led to prospecting with the drill, and oils of both asphalt- and paraffin-base have been found. Petroleum is reported as found on the equatorial island of St. Thomas (a volcanic mass), also on the Mongo and Wuri rivers in the Cameroons, in the Fernand Vaz district of French Congo, and further inland on the Nguni and Ogowai rivers. The oil and bitumen of Dande and Libollo, in Angola, are of Cretaceous age, which is probably the case with those east of Mucula, and of the Congo region generally. Cape Colony.-Traces of petroleum occur in the Calvinia, Fraserburg, Carnarvon, Hanover, and Barkly East districts, where igneous dykes have traversed bituminous beds of Triassic age, and absorbed the petroleum distilled by their heat from the surrounding strata. The supposed existence of oil in the Bokkeveldt (Ceres district) is an error, though small discharges of gas are recorded. Presumably the same is the case with like reports as to Mossel Bay. Both areas consist of Lower Palæozoic rocks. In the Karroo, again, the an- nouncements of oil-discoveries are, in all probability, based on similar pheno- mena to those of Carnarvon, etc. Orange Free State.-Ozokerite is stated to occur on the Vaal near Chris- tiania, and reports of petroleum come from Boshof, Ladybrand, Ficksburg, Harrismith, Bethlehem, Lindley, and Heilbron, and of gas from near Kroonstad. All appear to be due to similar igneous action on feebly-bituminous shales. Transvaal.-Traces of oil are reported about 60 miles northwestward of Potchefstroom, and bituminous shales, of Lower Mesozoic age, occupy a wide area in the Wakkerstroom, Piet Retief, and Ermelo districts, extending to some 28 miles eastward of Middelburg, but the frequent indications of petroleum are. almost invariably in the vicinity of dykes or sheets of igneous rock, if not actually exuding from such intrusive masses. Rhodesia. There are said to be traces of petroleum near the confluence of the Umzingwani and Limpopo rivers. Portuguese East Africa. The occurrence of a recent vegetable substance on the shores of Lake N'hangella, inland of Inhambane, led to the report of a valuable deposit of elaterite, and later to boring for petroleum, but no true bitumens are known to occur in the district. Somaliland is very vaguely credited with the possession of indications of petroleum, detected in the course of military operations. Madagascar.-Petroleum is reported on the western side of Madagascar, on MADAGASCAR, AUSTRALIA. 197 the Ankavandra coast, consisting of Eocene deposits, and also in the valleys of the Ranobe and Manambolo rivers, and their tributaries rising in the Bemaraha range, the rocks of which are of various Mesozoic horizons. A petroleum- spring is alleged to exist north of the Betafo volcano, one of the newer series, and not long extinct. As the surrounding region consists of crystalline schists, granites, and earlier volcanic rocks, the report requires confirmation. The Jurassic coal-field of Ambavatoby, on the northwest coast, yields some small oil-springs. AUSTRALIA. West Australia.-Oil is reported as found on the coast of the southwestern corner of this State, near the mouths of the Warren and Donnelly rivers, between Cape Leeuwin and Point d'Entrecasteaux, whilst for some miles inland the Permo-Carboniferous shales and sandstones are more or less charged with petroleum, especially on Fly Brook and Lake Jasper, and with asphalt on the Fitzgerald. Large pieces of bitumen are cast up on the coast after storms. South Australia.-Petroleum occurs in the Miocene shales of Leigh's Creek (on the railway at 31° S.), and on the Gawler between Kapunda and Adelaide. On the Coorong, a lagoon extending some miles along Encounter Bay, there exist deposits of an elastic bitumen (which has been termed coorongite), raising expectations of the discovery of petroleum in an unaltered condition. There appears to be sufficient reason for suspecting this to be a recent vegetable substance, but, as a fact, small quantities of oil and gas have been found by boring on Salt Creek near Meningie at the mouth of the Murray, and at Border- town. Similar beds are said to yield oil at Ethel's Cove near Normanville; at D'Estre Bay; in the interior of Kangaroo Island; and on the coast of Kongorong. In the northern territory, kerosene shale has been found on the coast near Cape Wilberforce. Tasmania. Kerosene shale occurs in the Carboniferous of the northwest part of this State, some miles up the Inglis valley, inland of Table Cape. Oil- shales of similar age, occurring from the Don valley, past the Mersey River to the Tamar estuary on the east, are utilised for the production by distillation of kerosene and lubricating oils. Victoria.-Bitumen occurs in the Miocene of Portland and in the Pliocene of Western Port, while the Permo-Carboniferous is petroliferous on Coal Creek, and near Traralgon on a small tributary of the Latrobe River. Highly bitumin- ous shale or albertite occurs in the same series near Cape Patterson, and exudations of oil are found near Bridgewater, about 100 miles north-northwest of Melbourne. New South Wales.-Petroliferous deposits, in the form of Tertiary lignite saturated with hydrocarbons, occur on the coast northward of Cape Howe, at Twofold Bay and Boonda, and inland at Kiandra. A white mineral wax of kindred origin occurs on the coast about 40 miles north of Boonda. Kerosene- shale is extensively mined at various points in the east of this State, in a somewhat sinuous belt extending from Clyde, near Jervis Bay, northward by Joadja, Hartley Vale, Ilford, and Barigan to Ulan, along the western outcrop of the Productive Coal-measures, whilst on the corresponding eastward out- crop, kerosene shale is mined near Murrurundi and Greta. The shale has been termed torbanite and wollongongite, but, besides being needless, both names are open to the graver objection of erroneous connotation. The Torbane- Hill mineral is not identical with that of New South Wales, and the specimen described by Professor Silliman under the second name came from Hartley, 198 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. the kerosene-shale of Wollongong being of somewhat different nature. Ozo- kerite occurs at Coolah, and bitumen oozes from the sandstones of Coonabara- bran, respectively 150 and 190 miles northwestward of Newcastle. Elaterite. is found with the kerosene-shale of Reedy Creek, southeastward of Wallera- wang, and gas has been obtained at Narrabeen, near Sydney. In the northeast of the State gas has also been obtained in considerable quantity at Grafton from rocks of Triassic age. Queensland. Kerosene-shales, apparently similar to those dealt with above, are found on Widgee Creek, on the northern flank of the McPherson range, separating this State from New South Wales. Boring in the Triassic rocks of Roma secured a repetition of the Grafton gas-well. The Tertiary basin of the Dawson River has oil-shales on the Central Railway between Duaringa and Wallaroo. NEW CALEDONIA. Traces of petroleum occur in thermal springs (30° C.) at Koumac on the northwest coast, between Tonnerre Point and Cape Dewerd. These springs rise in magnesian schists of Silurian age, traversed by intrusive masses of serpentine and diorite, and the oily matter is due to decomposition of recent organisms, abundant in the tepid water. NEW ZEALAND. Oil-shales of Cretaceo-Tertiary age occur at Awatere, near Mongonui, and Waimate, Bay of Islands, Auckland. The Cretaceous series, but of a lower horizon, is also the productive rock, though not richly charged with oil, in a belt extending southwestward from East Cape for a length of at least 90 miles. Petroleum rises from the sea-bed off Horoera Point, westward of East Cape, and at many points on the inland course indicated. Operations have been confined chiefly to the vicinity of the Waiapu and Waiporoa rivers, the latter region being sometimes called the Poverty Bay district, though over 20 miles inland from the mouth of the river Waikohu, of which the Waiporoa is a tributary. The most distant point on the belt at which indications are re- corded seems to be about 25 miles west-northwest of Gisborne. Dopplerite and elaterite occur in places as results of evaporation and oxidation of the exuded oil. In Wellington emanations of carburetted hydrogen take place from the Cretaceous rocks of Blairlogie, Langdale, Ika, Aohanga, and Akitio, in Wairarapa North county. The New Plymouth oil-field in Taranaki consists of clays of Pliocene age, largely intermixed with volcanic detritus in the upper part, and with occasional beds of sand and conglomerate below. Inland, over a large area of Miocene rocks, extending past Egmont and Inglewood, evidences of the presence of petroleum are found in the contamination of water-wells, etc. In the South Island, petroleum is found at Lake Brunner in Westland in the Lower Tertiary series; and oil-shales at D'Urville Island in Marlborough, and at Blueskin, Kaikorai, Waikaia, and Orepuki in Otago. Similar material. is also reported from the Chatham Islands. SECTION III. THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. 66 1 Early Views as to the Nature of Petroleum.-Although our information re- specting the chemical composition of petroleum has been almost entirely gained within the last sixty or seventy years, a considerable amount of empirical knowledge of the substance was possessed by chemists at an earlier date, and there was much speculation as to its origin. In his Sylva Sylvarum (1627), Francis Bacon states that the original concretion of bitumen is a mixture of a fiery and watery substance, and observes that flame "attracts" the naphtha of Babylon afar off." Macquer ¹ defines bitumen as a mineral substance yielding on distillation a great deal of Oil very like Petroleum," and states that it is nothing but an oil rendered consistent and solid by being combined with an acid." In Chapter XVI of his work he says that bitumen belongs as much to the vegetable as to the mineral kingdom, and that the solid bitumen appears to be a vegetable oil combined with a mineral acid. In describing the analysis of vegetable bodies, Macquer states that bitumens (of which he regards amber as a type) are the resinous and oily parts of trees or plants modified by prolonged lying in the earth. Bergmann considered petroleum to be an instance of a small proportion of water combined, by means of an acid, with the principle of inflammability. He enunciates 3 the view, yet maintained by some, that the liquid bitumens are often, if not always, produced by the action of subterranean heat upon solid bitumens. The most explicit of the earlier publications on petroleum is that of Hatchett. At that time, he states, it was generally admitted that bituminous substances are not of mineral origin, "but have been formed from certain principles of substances belonging to the organised kingdoms of nature." He further observes that the elementary principles of bitumen" are carbon, hydrogen, sometimes azote, and probably some oxygen," and from the correspondence between this composition and that of the vegetable and animal oils and resins, he is of opinion that meta- morphic action has produced bitumen from them. 4 Hatchett divides bituminous substances into naphtha, petroleum, mineral tar, mineral pitch, asphaltum, jet, pit coal, bituminous wood, turf, and peat, and states that when naphtha, the light, thin, often colourless oil, loses its lighter parts by exposure to the air, it yields petroleum, which, on further exposure, gives mountain or mineral tar. Continued exposure produces mountain or mineral pitch or maltha, which in cold weather becomes brittle, but is soft and somewhat tenacious when warm. By further induration asphaltum is produced. These changes are ascribed to loss of hydrogen accompanying the evaporation of the material, and consequent disengagement of carbon." He refers to the occurrence of bitumens in the limestone of Matlock and other districts, Chemistry, i, ch. 11. 1764. 2 Physical and Chemical Essays, translated by Cullen, iii, 252. 1784-1791. * Trans. Linn. Soc., iv, 129-154. (1798.) Op. cit., iii, 283. 199 200 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. and to the bituminous odour of freshly-broken Portland stone. In his " Obser- vations on the change of some of the proximate principles of vegetables into bitumen, with analytical experiments on a peculiar substance which is found with the Bovey coal," 1 Hatchett gives further reasons for regarding bitumen as of vegetable and not animal origin. He considers that the Bovey coal of Devon represents an intermediate product in the conversion of vegetable matter into bitumen. Although petroleum was used to some extent by the ancients as fuel and for lighting purposes, its most important application was in medicine, the "white" naphtha being the most highly prized, although the less fluid descrip- tions, such as Barbados tar, and the solid or semi-solid forms known as Jews' pitch, mumia, pissasphaltum, and pisselæum were largely used in the prepara- tion of ointments.2 The intimate relation between the different descriptions of petroleum was well known to the earlier chemists, and Bergmann 3 states that the differences in colour and tenuity exhibited by petroleum depend for the most part on the degree of exsiccation" and on the various substances mechanically mixed with it. Prolonged exsiccation produces a mass thick and tough, or solid and dry. Hatchett, as quoted above, makes a similar statement. Kirwan 4 states that the fine, thin, fragrant, colourless oil, which issues out of white, yellow, or black clays in Persia and Media, and is as inflammable as ether, changes colour and thickens, and "degenerates into petrol" if exposed to the air, although it is not decomposed by distillation. He further observes. that this colourless oil or "naphtha" has a specific gravity of 0.708, and that it dissolves resins and balsams, but not gum-resins nor elastic gums, and is insoluble in spirit of wine or ether. 66 5 For many purposes petroleum was redistilled, but the product was regarded as inferior to the natural white" oil, and was looked upon by James about the middle of the eighteenth century as an adulterant. Kirwan 6 states that petroleum is rendered finer by distillation with water, a resinous residuum being left; and he refers to its distillation with a volatile alkali. Towards the close of the eighteenth century attention began to be directed towards the chemical examination of petroleum, but the researches were mainly confined to the ultimate analysis of the oil until the middle of the last century, and the result of such analysis indicated little beyond the proportions of carbon and hydrogen contained in petroleum from various districts. In 1788, Winterl? examined a brown petroleum from southern Hungary, and noticed the forma- tion of acicular crystals soluble in alcohol on exposure to the air. In 1791 von Martinovich 8 examined the oil of Galicia. The next publication of importance in respect to the chemistry of petroleum appears to have been that of de Saussure, who, in 1817,9 examined the naphtha of Amiano, then employed in street lamps in Parma. In 1837 Boussingault 10 gave an account of the properties of the bitumen of Pechelbronn, while in 1833, Professor B. Silliman, sen., described the petroleum of Pennsylvania. The first to under- take the systematic examination of petroleum, and some of the commercial 11 1 Phil. Trans., 1804, 385-410. 2 James, Medical Dictionary, 1743-1745, articles. Chambers' Universal Dictionary, 1738. 3 Op. cit., iii, p. 283. >" also Asphaltos" and Bitumen 4 Mineralogy, 210. (1784.) Aikin's Dictionary of 5 Encyclopædia Britannica, 3rd edition, 1797, article " Petroleum. "Bitumen." Chemistry and Mineralogy, 1817, article • Mineralogy, 211. (1784.) 8 Chem. Ann., i, 72. (1791.) 10 Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, lxiv, 141. י י 7 Crell's Chemische Annalen, i, 493. (1788.) 9 Bibl. Univ., iv, 116. 11 Am. Journ. Sci., 1, xxiii, 97. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC. 201 products obtained from it, was Professor B. Silliman, jun., who, in a report dated 16th April 1855, addressed to Messrs. Eveleth, Bissel, and Reid,¹ gave the results which he had obtained with the "rock oil or petroleum" of Venango county, Pennsylvania. He fractionated the crude oil by distillation, and on examining the distillates he came to the conclusion that certain of the bodies which they contained were products of distillation, and were not present in the crude oil. Prof. Silliman studied the action of the various reagents on the fractions, the behaviour of the distillates when cooled, the value of the different oils as illuminating agents and lubricants, and their suitability for employment as a source of gas. Physical Properties.-Crude petroleum varies greatly in character, some descriptions being of pale colour and highly mobile, while others are viscid and almost black. According to the author's experience, the specific gravity appears to range from 0-771 (Washington, U.S., and Sumatra) to 1.06 (Mexico). Höfer 2 finds that American crude oil varies from 0.785 to 0.936, but a sample from Wyoming was of as high a specific gravity as 0.945. Nawratil 3 states that the specific gravity of Galician crude oil varies from 0.799 (Kleczany) to 0.902 (Harklowa). The specific gravity of the petroleum from the flowing wells of the Baku district during the year 1889 ranged from 0.854 to 0.899.4 The oil from Petrolia, in Canada, usually has a density of 0.859 to 0.877. The lighter oils generally yield the larger proportion of kerosene.5 Mabery and Dunn find that Engler's conclusion that the specific gravity of petroleum varies inversely with the depth of the well is not supported in the case of the sandstone oils of southern Ohio, the oil from the 500-feet sand being nearly as light (specific gravity 0·7971) as that from the 1500-feet sand of the Berea Grit (0.7939). The latter sand also contains the heaviest oil of all (0·8274). Some descriptions of crude petroleum have undoubtedly been subjected to a process of selective filtration through porous strata, whereby they have been deprived of some of their original constituents, on the principle which has recently formed the subject of experimental investigation by Dr. David T. Day, of the United States Geological Survey. Tables X, A, B, C, give the specific gravity of crude petroleum from wells of various depths in the districts of Campina and Bustenari, Rumania. TABLE XA.-SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE CRUDE PETROLEUM PRODUCED AT CAMPINA, The samples of oil were taken direct from the wells. No. of Well. Depth of Well Specific Gravity in Metres. No. of at 15° C. Well. Depth of Well in Metres. Specific Gravity at 15° C. 1 302.00 0.8268 27 175.66 0-8291 7 384.90 0.8399 20 -4222 29 189.86 0.8299 8 175.00 0.8602 30 277.90 0.8204 12 396.00 0.8605 33 314.50 0-S260 158.10 0.8310 36 536.00 0.8540 304.38 0.8328 39 229.00 0.8223 Average 0.8360. Republished 1871 in Am. Chemist, ii, 18. 2 Petroleum-Industrie Nordamerika, 1877. 3 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., ccxlvi, 423. Mr. Ryden has informed the author that at Kudako (Russia) a description of crude petroleum is found, which has the low specific gravity of 0.650. 5 Amer. Chem. Journ., xviii, 215: J. Soc. Chem. Ind., xv, 533. 202 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XB.-SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CRUDE OIL PRODUCED AT BUSTENARI. No. of Well. Depth of Well in Metres. Specific Gravity No. of at 15° C. Well. Depth of Well in Metres. Specific Gravity at 15° C. 2 161.90 0.8580 22 171.00 0.8604 7 237.10 0.8510 23 151.10 0.8561 10 179.50 0.8460 24 226.20 0.8570 11 221.60 0.8542 26 145.00 0.8540 12 368.28 0.8410 27 236.71 0.9225 14 345.00 0.8564 28 168.15 0.8565 15 174.30 0.8520 29 171.50 0.8505 16 381.30 0.8281 30 173.80 0.8620 17 173.00 0.8550 31 200.30 0.8421 18 182.55 0.8450 33 159.00 0.8510 19 145.30 0.8540 37 198.00 0.8530 22 20 157.45 0.8534 41 283.80 0.8345 21 167.70 0.8600 Average 0.8541, or excluding Well No. 27, 0.8513. TABLE XC.-SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CRUDE OIL OBTAINED FROM HAND-DUG SHAFTS AT BUSTENARI. No. of Depth of Shaft Specific Gravity No. of Depth of Shaft | Specific Gravity Shaft. in Metres. at 15° C. Shaft. in Metres. at 15° C. 17∞ 87.00 0.8525 14 152.65 0.8555 140.00 0.8458 19 128.15 0.8518 8 178.50 0.8517 25 163.90 0.8480 10 135.50 0.8740 33 144.00 0.8438 10 152.00 0.8645 Average 0.8541. The following table, which records results obtained in the author's labora- tory, shows the specific gravity and colour of a number of crude oils from various localities, the flashing-point and viscosity being also given in some cases— TABLE XI.—PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRUDE PETROLEUMS. CANADA, ETC. Locality. Canada (Petrolea), Specific Gravity. Flashing-point (Abel Test). Colour. F. 0.858 • • New field, (Gaspé), 1, 2, 0.840 Below 60° Dark brown. Reddish-brown. • 0.881 180° Brown. 0.856 65° "" 3 (2057 ft.), 0.853 54° Dark brown. 4 (906 ft.), 0.877 90° 5, 0.939 280° Black. 6, 0.921 210° Brown. "" "" 7, 0.948 8, 9, 0.871 104° 0.894 • " "" 10 (2361 ft.), 0.847 46° • 11, 0.844 60° "" "" " 12' (1946 ft.), 0.861 183° • 13, 0.795 20° ?? 14, 0.828 Below 0° • "" New Brunswick, 1,. 0.857 40° • 2,. 0.852 Below 50° Reddish-brown. "" 3,. 0.862 95° 4,. 0.855 84° >> 5,. 0.838 Below 60° Dark reddish-brown. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC. 203 Locality. Specific Gravity. Newfoundland, 1, 0.843 2, 0.805 3, 0.798 TABLE XI.—continued. CANADA, ETC.-continued. Flashing-point (Abel Test). F. 134° 0° Colour. Very dark brown. Bright red. Below 50° Manitoulin Island, 0.870 60° Labrador, 0.914 274° Dark reddish-brown. Almost black. • Locality. Pennsylvania, Bradford, 1, >> Washington, 1, " • 2, · Parker (Clarion), Karns City, Thorn Creek, Stoneham, • 2, >> 3, 4, >> 5, 6, ་་ " 8, 9. > .. 10, 11. 12. 13, TABLE XI.-continued. 14. • 15, 16. AMERICA. Specific Gravity. Colour. Reddish-brown. 0.810 0.819 0.797 • 0.789 0.802 > 0.802 Dark amber. 0.790 Yellow. 0.777 0.798 Amber. 0.798 Yellow. 0.800 Amber. 0.804 0.792 Yellow. 0.819 ► Amber. 0.775 Yellow. 0.820 Amber. 0.801 0.816 Brown. 0.814 0.828 0.792 Dark brown. 0-788 Yellow. 0.771 " 0.801 Amber. • 0.799 0.780 • Dark Brown. 0.777 Yellow. 0.771 0.786 0.772 0.772 0.797 Amber. 0.792 0.814 0.808 0.820 Dark Brown. • 0.829 Reddish-brown. 0.839 Brownish-black. 0-912 Very dark brown. 0.912 0.912 0.910 0.944 Brownish-black. 0-911 Very dark brown. • 0.945 Brownish-black. 0.844 Dark brown. • 0.880 Black, 17, 18, 19, 55 20, >> 21. • • >> 22, 29 "" 23, 24, 25, 26, 27. 28. "" 29, 30, Ohio, Macksburg, Lima, Wyoming, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. California (Pico Cañon), (Puente), 204 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XI.-continued. Locality. Specific Gravity. Locality. Specific Gravity. California- Pico Cañon district, 15, 0.854 Pico Cañon district, 1, 0.827 16, 0.837 • "" 95 2, 0.835 17, 0.846 "" 3, 0.831 18, 0.853 "" 4, 0.838 19, 0.842 "" "" 5, 0.837 "" "" 20, 0.837 "" 23 6, 0.828 21, 0.841 59 "" 33 7, 0.844 22, 0.850 8, 0.839 23, 0.842 "" "" >> 9, 0.836 24, 0.844 • "" وو "" 10, 0.847 25, 0.840 وو 11, 0.827 26, 0.846 · • "" 12, 0.832 "" >> 27, 0.843 • 39 13, 0.828 14, 0.859 888 28, 0.865 29, 0.927 "" "" >> California, 1, Locality. Specific Gravity. The colour of all these samples was brown. TABLE XI.-continued. Flashing-point (Abel Test). Colour. F. 0.792 Below 50° 2, 3, "" 4, 0.976 270° 0.923 76° 0.852 Below 50° "" 5, (Coalinga district), 1, 0.895 55° "" 0.779 60° • 2, 0.940 59 3, 0.836 116° Below 60° "" 4,. 0.979 276° Colorado (Boulder district), 1, 0.806 Below 55° 2, 0.814 60° "> Yellow. Dark brown. Reddish-brown. Straw-coloured. Dark brown. Dark brown. Reddish-brown. Light red. Dark reddish-brown. Dark reddish-brown. Texas, 1, • 2, 3, "" 0.927 224° 0.923 178° • 0.911 60° Spindle Top, Hardin county, 0.876 Below 60° 1 0.970 240° Dark brown. • "" Sour Lake,¹ "" Saratoga, Louisiana, 0.964 250° 0.946 212° 0.829 101° • Kansas, 1,1 2, Indiana, 1, "" "" 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, • • Indian Territory, Chelsea, Chero- 0.852 55° Dark brown. 0.927 224° Black. • 0.917 260° Very dark brown. 0.922 264° "" 0.935 240° "" • 0.938 258° • • 0.949 206° • 0.848 130° kee Nation, 1,¹ 0.855 18° Dark brown. 2,1 0.862 25° Bartlesville,¹ 1, 0.859 30° "" "" Osage Nation, 2,¹ 1 0.886 210° 3, 0.877 64° • 1 >> "" "" (1420 feet), 4, 0.856 Below 50° (1750 feet), 5, 0.872 Muscogee,2 0.825 102° 35° Amber. 1 Fluid at 0° F. 2 Solidifies at 0° F. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC. 205 TABLE XI.—continued. Locality. Specific Gravity. Flashing-point (Abel Test). Colour. F. Wyoming, Salt Creek, Well No. 1,¹ 0.909 148° Reddish-brown. 7,1 0.905 125° "" 32 "" "" 0.826 Below 60° Black. >> >> "" "" Tisdale's Ranch,¹ Arapahoe, Lander, 1,. 2,¹. Bonanza, Iba shaft, • · 0-916 200° 0.861 128° Very dark brown. 0.935 110° 0.910 Below 50° 0.862 136° Reddish-brown. • 0.890 210° Very dark brown. Douglas Field, 0.959 260° • Alaska, Burls Creek, 0.942 234° Dark reddish-brown. Johnstone Creek, 1, 0.964 200° Dark brown. 2, 0.879 178° " 25 Poul Creek (lowest), 0.970 250° >> >> (top, west), 0.881 67° >> (upper), 0.914 156° >> Catalla Meadow, 1,. 0.929 240° 2,. 0.901 156° 3,. 0.874 156° >> >> 4,. 0.869 152° 5,. 0.961 266° " "" Bore-hole at Catalla, 120 feet (1902), . 0.802 Below 60° Dark red. Bore-hole at Catalla, 355 feet (1902), . 0-790 60° " Oil Creek, 0.855 108° Dark brown. Morrison Creek, 0.991 270° "" Argyll (Icy Bay), 0.962 310° >> >> Yakogelty, 0.937 246° Crooked Creek, 0-921 172° >> Mexico, 1,. • 0.975 200° وو * >> 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, • 10,3 11,4 12, • • 0.939 63° · 1.06 300° 1.04 310° 0.993 98 0.810 130° 0.874 111° 0.882 126° · Brownish-red. 0.942 294° Black. 0.946 262° 0.970 300° Chestnut-brown. 0.842 144° • 13, • 0.809 Below 50° Reddish-brown. >> >> 14, 15, 16,. 17,. 0.879 Very dark brown. 0.883 0-970 148° Black. 0.965 140° 18, 0.814 Below 60° Amber. 19, . 0.960 70° 20, . 0.992 100° Black. (Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 0.959 234° 2. 0.933 254° Columbia, 1,2 0.926 310° Dark brown. 2, 0.963 226° Rich red. Ecuador, 1,. 2,. 0.953 Deep brownish-red. 0.928 1 Fluid at 0° F. * Solidifies at 5° F. 3 Viscosity at 70° F. 73-11 (rape oil at 60° F. = 100); solidifies at zero F. Viscosity at 140° F. 198-7 (rape oil at 60° F. = 100). 206 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. Locality. Peru, 1, 2,1 "" "" وو 3,1 4, 5, 0.859 0.940 0.920 0.840 • TABLE XI.-continued. Specific Gravity. Flashing-point (Abel Test). F. Colour. Dark brown. Very dark brown. Dark brown. Reddish-brown. 38° 248° 122° Below 60° • 0.843 " 6, 0.860 " "" 7, 0.830 "" 8, • 9, "> 0.866 "" "" 0.841 "" "" "" 10, 11, Negritos, Argentina,2 "" Bolivia, 1, "" 2, 3, Garrapatal, Aybal, Venezuela, 1, "" "" 2, 3, 0.842 >" >> 0.870 0.843 · " 0.935 Black. "" 0.975 330° 0.995 270° 0.996 300° 0.808 78° 0.892 224° • Reddish-yellow. Dark reddish-yellow. 0.863 78° 0.868 Below 60° 0.878 Dark reddish-brown. 0.855 4, 0.887 1 Fluid at 0° F. 2 Solidifies at 32° F. TABLE XI.—continued. Light brown. Dark brown. 62° 194° RUSSIA. Locality. Specific Gravity. Flashing-point (Abel Test). Colour. F. Balakhani, 1, 2, Surakhani, Grozni, 1, "" >> Guri, 1, 2, Tiflis, 2, 3, 4, • 0.879 Dark brown. 0.873 93° 0.780 Pale yellow. 0.884 Below zero. Dark brown. 0.874 "" 0.894 • 52° 0.927 176° 0.955 82° Brownish-black. 0.968 274° 0.976 320° Ilsky, 1, 2, 0.853 0.942 Kudako, 1, 2, Kertch (Crimea), . Black Sea, 22 "" Maikop, Gurieff, 1, 2, 3, 4, Anapa, Suvorov, 0.860 • 0.936 "" Almost black. Dark brown. Brownish-black. Very dark brown. Brownish-black. 0.887 0.826 Below 30° 0.900 • Below zero Dark brown 0.914 36° 0.827 Below 60° 0.839 65° 0.869 • 0.903 210° Reddish-brown. Brownish-red. Reddish-brown. Dark reddish-brown. 0.908 240° • "" 5, 0.904 212° >> "" 6, 7, 0.876 Below 65° Brownish-red. 0.880 100° SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC. 207 Locality. TABLE XI.—continued. RUSSIA continued. Specific Gravity. Flashing-point (Abel Test). Colour. F. Tcheleken Island, 1, >> >> 0.839 Below 60° 2, 0.850 · 3, 0.873 82° "" 4, 0.841 Below 60° 5, 0-859 110° Dark reddish-brown. 6, " 7, "" &. Island of Sakhalin, 0.878 Below 60° >> 0.843 0.841 0.922 340° Dark reddish. TABLE XI. continued. Locality. GALICIA. Eastern end of belt, Sloboda-Rungurska, Intermediate portion of belt, Ustrzyki district, Western end of belt, Wietrzno district, Specific Gravity. Lowest. Highest. 0.830 0.868 0.835 0.844 0.846 0-859 Locality. Specific Flashing-point Gravity. (Abel Test). Solidifying- point. Colour. Potok, • Kleczany, Kobylany, 0.798 0-802 Below zero. Below zero. 0.853 28° 34° Dark brown. Orange. Dark reddish-brown. >> FIFTEEN WELLS IN THE DISTRICT OF SLOBODA-RUNGURSKA, No. Depth in Metres. Specific Gravity. No. Depth in Metres. Specific Gravity. ICC TOONS 1 213 0.842 9 202 0.863 2 194 0.868 10 280 0.837 3 189 0.835 11 305 0.839 164 0.850 12 280 0.837 5 225 0.838 13 282 0.864 6 275 0.845 14 250 0.830 7 282 0.844 15 311 0.839 8 274 0.833 FIVE WELLS IN THE USTRZYKI DISTRICT. No. Depth in Metres. Specific Gravity. No. Depth in Metres. Specific Gravity. 1 183 0.835 173 0.844 3 183 0.841 45 232 0.836 229 0-841 208 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XI.-continued. BURMA, ASSAM, AND BALUCHISTAN. Locality. Flashing- Specific Solidifying- point Gravity. point. (Abel Test). Viscosity by Redwood's Viscometer (Rape Oil at 60° F. = 100) at 90° F. Upper Burma (Yenangyaung)— "" Twinza wells, 1, 0.887 F. 82° F. 110° 10.21 2, 0.937 "" Fluid at 0° 150° "" 25.86 Drilled well, 0.869 80° 62° "" >> 0.870 78° 80° 0.875 82° 83° 10.07 (Pagan district), 1, 0.837 60° 5.91 " (Pakokku ), 2, 0.832 70° 70° 5.54 "" (Minbu), 0.999 35° 294° 703.06 Padoukpin (west of Thayetmyo), 1, 0.854 72° 80° 6.38 2, 0.859 76° 110° 7.81 "" 3, 0.870 80° 126° 8.78 Arakan I. (Ramri), mud-volcano, 1, 0.818 "" native pits, 2, 0.866 3, 0.890 Below 10° 125° 10.21 "" 4, 0.834 45° ,, 5, 0.825 20° 62° Baranga I. (Eastern), • 0.835 2, "" (Western), . Assam, 1, surface-oil, 3, from drilled well, Digboi, 0.888 0.933 • • 0.940 0.858 212° 43° 14.2 4, "" Baluchistan, "" ,, 2 Makum,' Khátan, 1.000 0.944 Fluid at 0° 180° • • 280° TABLE XI.—continued. MISCELLANEous. Locality. Specific Flashing- point Gravity. (Abel Test). Solidifying- point. Colour (by Transmitted Light). F. Rumania, 1, "" "" "" "" 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0.859 F. 123° Dark brown. 0.845 Below 20° 0.860 75° 0.861 72° • 0.839 87° 19 0.890 80° ?? 0.896 85° 35 8, 9, 10, "" 0.882 57° Dark brown. 0.846 0.899 24° "} " 11, 0.829 Below 65° • 12, 0.823 60° "" 13, 0.855 14, 0.884 Below 60° Dark reddish-brown. 15, 0.888 • >> " 16, 0.876 1 Dark reddish-brown; viscosity at 70° F. 44.5 (rape oil at 60° F. = 100). 2 A black viscid oil. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC. 209 TABLE XI.-continued. MISCELLANEOUS continued. Flashing- Specific Locality. Gravity. point Solidifying- point. (Abel Test). F. F. Hungary (Kriva-Olyka), 0.907 188° Germany (Oelheim), . 0.913 >> (Wietze-Steinförde), 1, 0.951 12T 200° 15° 2, 0.943 150° >> 3, 0.941 122° "" (Horst), 1,. 0.910 98° :12:: Colour (by Transmitted Light). Reddish-brown. Brownish-black. 12° · >> "" "" (Elsass), 2,. 3, • England (Derbyshire, 0.872 84° 0.918 128° 0.873 37° 10° 0.857 >> (Somersetshire), 0.816 175° • Spain (Huidobro), 0.921 270° (Conil, near Cadiz), . 0.837 110° Italy (Montechino), 0.787 13° "" (Miano,) 1, 0.867 36° 2, 0.832 21° دو (Neviano), drilled well, 0.805 44° Below 0° (Galetta well), . 0.908 190° Very dark brown. Dark brown. Very dark brown. Black. Straw-coloured. Dark reddish-brown. Pale reddish-brown. Straw. Bright red. Amber. Dark red (Ozzano), drilled well, 0.807 Below 0° Amber. Zante, 1, 2, 1.020 Black. 1.005 " Algeria, 1, 0.921 60° Dark brown. 2 (12 feet deep), 0.924 32° • >> J 3 (surface), 0.981 218° • 32° 59 4 (Ain Zeft, 1100 feet), 0.888 Below 50° 5, 0.879 36° ** པ 6, (Tliouanet), 0.820 50° 7, 0.825 80° "" Tunis, 0.965 260° Morocco, 1, 0.871 Below 60° Dark reddish-brown. 2, 0.849 3, 0.870 106° Gold Coast (Apollonia), 1, >> 0.979 370° 2, 0.972 350° >> Nigeria, 0.872 115° • Ivory Coast, 0.959 136° Red Sea, 0.945 146° Gemsah, 0.823 Below 60° Persia, 1, 2, 3, · 0.777 1.016 170° 45° Dark brown. Dark reddish-brown. Black. Dark reddish-brown. Straw-coloured. Dark brown. >> 0.846 69° 4, 0.900 154° 55 5, (Tchiah Sourkh), drilled well, • 0.815 Below 60° 54 6, 0.839 • 7, 0.863 67° Java, 1, 2, 0.881 90° 0.881 62° 3, 0.844 71° Sumatra (Langkat), 0.771 Below 5° • "" 2, >> 0.789 0° 3, 0-857 46° Below 0° Below 0° Reddish-brown. Dark brown. Light brown. Reddish-brown. >> (Iliran Palembang), 1, 0.964 >> 1234 236° 0.980 256° 3, 0.925 96° • 4, 0.934 112° : VOL. I. • • 14 210 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XI.-continued. MISCELLANEOUS-continued. Locality. Specific Flashing- Gravity. point (Abel Test). Solidifying- point. Colour (by Transmitted Light). F. F. Sumatra (Muara Enim), 1, 0.833 Below 10° 2, 0.923 338° 3, 0.813 Below 0° Borneo (Labuan), 0.965 216° Below 0° Dark brown. (Sarawak), 0.924 198° • (Kutei), 1, 0.859 • 2, 0.865 65° 99 3, 0.856 Below 60° "" "" 4, 0.856 • 5, 0.848 "" 0.851 Timor, 1, 0.825 105° 10° 2, 0.817 Below 60° Philippine Islands (Cebu), 1, 0.809 Dark brown. Reddish. Dark brown. 2, 0-838 54° 3, 0.819 80° (Leyte),. 0.926 166° • • Trinidad, 1, 0.980 330° Dark brown. • 2, 0.961 190° 3, 0.952 دو 4, 0.914 90° 5 (Aripero), 0.938 60° ,, 6 (La Brea), 0.971 76° • 7, 0.873 164° 8, 0.920 Below 60° 9, 0.912 Barbados, 1, 0.945 240° Very dark brown. Dark brown. Dark reddish-brown. Dark brown. 2, 0.957 • 3, 0.950 284° 39 4, 0.946 248° 0.971 300° 6, 0.951 280° "" "" 7, 8, 0.971 268° • 0.878 195° • · ་ 9 (600 feet), 0.872 100° • 10, 0.941 85° • 11, 0.895 100° New Zealand (Taranaki)- 1, surface oil, 0.971 236° • "" 2, drilled well, 0.840 62° 60° Brownish-black. Chestnut-brown. "" (Gisborne, Waitangi well) 0.885 124° TABLE XI.-continued. JAPAN. Locality. Specific Gravity. Colour. Locality. Specific Gravity. [Colour. Urase lease, 0.840 Kubiki Dark brown. Nütsu lease. 0.932 'Dark brown. 0.823 Dark reddish-brown Amaze 0.841 Reddish-brown "" (fluorescent). (marked fluorescence). Kamata 0.927 Dark brown Enshyu 0.792 Light reddish-brown. "" (marked fluorescence). Miyagawa 0.807 Brown. Akita 0.917 Dark brown. REFRACTIVE INDEX. 211 3 The odour of most of these samples is not unpleasant; that of some, e.g. the majority of the Rumanian crude oils (Edeleanu and Tanasescu ¹), and the Cuban oils (Stokes 2) is agreeable, but the oils of Lima (Ohio), Algeria, and Petrolea (Canada), as well as the heavy oil of Texas (Spindle Top), have an offensive smell, attributable to the presence of sulphur-compounds, and the Wyoming oils also have a somewhat disagreeable odour. It may be mentioned that Kast and Lagai ³ consider the unpleasant smell of some oils to be due to unsaturated hydrocarbons rather than to sulphur-compounds. Whilst finding 0.005-0.006 per cent. of pyridine bases in Caucasian crude petroleum and masut," Khlopin 4 does not attribute the poisonous action of crude petroleum on fish to the bases present, but rather to the hydrocarbons, the proportion of the former being too insignificant. Continuing this work, Kupzis gives very precise details in confirmation and extension. Some information as to the physical characters of various descriptions of crude petroleum will be found in the previous sections, especially as regards the less-known deposits. Dr. C. Engler 5 has devoted much attention to the examination of the power of refracting light possessed by petroleum, and states that the most characteristic physical properties indicative of the locality from which an oil was obtained are the refractive index and the specific gravity. In proof of this statement he gives the following table (Table XII), in which it is seen that the refractive indices of the oils of Tegernsee and Pechelbronn are near to that of Pennsylvanian oil, while the Oelheim oil affords results not differing greatly from those given by the oil of Baku :— TABLE XII.-REFRACTIVE INDICES OF PETROLEUM-DISTILLATES. Fraction 140°- Fraction 190°- 160°. 210°. Fraction 240°- 260°. Fraction 290°- 310°. Tegernsee, Pechelbronn Sp. Gr. Ref. Ind. Sp. Gr. Ref. Ind. Sp. Gr. Ref. Ind. Sp. Gr. Ref. Ind. 0.7465 1.427 0.7840 1.437 0.8130 1-451 0.8370 1.465 (Elsass), 0.7550 1.421 0-7900 1.440 0.8155 1.454 0.8320 1.462 • Oelheim (Han- over).. Pennsylvania Baku, 0.7830 1.435 0.8155 1.450 0.8620 1-480 0.7550 1.422 0-7860 1.439 0.8420 1.468 0.8120 1.454 0.8325 1.463 0.7820 1.436 0.8195 1.454 0-8445 1.467 0.8640 1-475 In determining the origin of a petroleum or its products, N. Chercheffsky 6 notes, inter alia, the refractive index. He gives the following illustrative results obtained with distillates below 300° C. :- 1 Monit. Int. Pétrol. Roum., 1903; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1903, 1287. 2 Eng. Min. Journ., lxxiii, 347; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1902, 541. ³ Dingler's polytechn. Journ., celxxxiv, 69, 1892. Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xxxiii, 2837 (1900); J. Soc. Chem. Ind., xix, 863 and 1098, (1900). 5 Verh. Ver. Beförd. Gewerbefl. Preuss., 1887, 637. Comptes Rend., el, 1338-1341 (1910); J.S.C.I., xxix, 681. 212 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XIIA.-REFRACTIVE INDICES OF PETROLEUM-DISTILLATES. Origin. American, American, American, Russian, Russian, Russian, Rumanian, Rumanian, Rumanian, • Galician, Galician, • Galician, Shale, Shale, Shale, • • Sp. Gr. at 15° C. Indices of Refraction at 15° C. 0.780 1.4345 0.800 1.4453 0.820 1.4564 0.780 1.4309 0.800 1.4419 0.820 1.4533 • 0.780 1.4334 0.800 1.4458 0.820 1.4572 0.780 1.4356 0.800 1.4466 0.820 1.4586 0.780 1.4373 0.800 1.4469 0.820 1.4568 The following results were obtained with lubricating oils and solid hydro- carbons: Russian spindle oil, ref. ind. at 15° C., American cylinder oil, ref. ind. at 15º C., Petroleum paraffin, ref. ind. at 15º C., Shale paraffin, ref. ind. at 15° C., Ceresin (ozokerite), ref. ind. at 15° C., • 1.4888 1.4954 1.4185 1.4161 1.426 With the Zeiss-Abbé refractometer, at the temperature of 15° C., G. A. Le Roy¹ obtained the following values:- American crude oil, American petroleum spirit (sp. gr. 0.720), American white burning oil, Russian crude oil, Russian petroleum spirit (sp. gr. 0·720), Russian white burning oil, Rumanian crude oil, • Rumanian petroleum spirit (sp. gr. 0·720), Rumanian white burning oil, . • Refractive Index. 1.4540 1.3995 1.4430 1.4595 1.4105 1.4530 1.4639 1.4055 1.4560 Optical Activity.-R. Zaloziecki and H. Klarfeld 2 examined a number of Galician oils and one from each of the following countries, viz. Pennsylvania, Russia, and Germany. They found that the last three named were inactive, and that of the Galician oils the light pale descriptions were generally inactive, whilst the dark heavy ones were usually active. C. Engler 3 has expressed the opinion that the optical activity of petroleum. is, in most cases, caused by the presence of an individual substance, probably the product of a destructive distillation of cholesterol or a cholesterol-like substance. 4 A. K. Koss made a number of experiments with Ledok and Gogor (Java) petroleum, and expressed disagreement with Engler's view that the optical 1 Ann. Chim. Analyt., xvi, 12–13 (1911); J.S.C.I., xxx, 122. 2 Chem.-Zeit., xxxi, 1155-1156, 1170-1172 (1907); J.S.C.I., xxvii, 16. 3 Z. angew. Chem., xxi, 1585-1597 (1908); J.S.C.I., xxvii, 932. 4 J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc., xliii, 697–707 (1911); J.S.C.I., xxx, 1104. COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION. 213 activity of petroleum is due to a product of the destructive distillation of cholesterol. M. Rakuzin¹ concludes that the crude oil is dextro-rotatory, the rotatory power being proportional to the depth of the oil-yielding strata, and that the rotatory power of the oil is due to the formation of the latter from compounds containing asymmetric carbon atoms. Out of ten Japanese petroleums examined by M. A. Rakusin,² only one was polarimetrically inactive. It had a specific gravity of 0-7877 at 15° C., and was described as a remarkable example of an inactive oil obtained at a great depth (2100 feet). The oil was from the Amaze field. The subject of the optical activity of petroleum in relation to theories of origin is discussed in Section IV. Radio-activity.-D. Hurmuzescu 3 found that the lightest varieties of the Rumanian oils examined were the most active, and that the activity decreased with time. The coefficient of expansion of petroleum, more especially in connection with the behaviour of heavy distillates and residues from petroleum, has been very fully treated by Dr. Holde. Dr. Engler 5 gives the following (Table XIII) as the coefficients of expansion of a number of typical crude oils. Generally speaking, the expansion varies inversely with the density, the exceptions which occur being attributable to the chemical nature of the oils. TABLE XIII.-COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION OF CRUDE PETROLEUM, Origin. Coefficient of expansion X 1,000,000, Sp. Gr. at? °C. X 1000, 840843 843 839 858 808 813 774 817 775 748 784 772 792 748 662 647 816 828 829 841 861 862 870 875 882 885 887 890 892 892 901 944 955 6 W. Markownikow and W. Ogloblin calculated the expansion-coefficient from the specific gravity of the oil-between 0 and 39.8° C.-the results. obtained with a sample of North American oil being as follows:- Density at 15° C. X 1000. Under 700 Coefficient of Expansion X 100,000. 700-750 750-800 800-815 Above 815 90 $5 80 70 65 ¹ J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Ges., xli, 483–500 (1909); Chem. Zentr., 1909, 2, 859-860; J.S.C.I., xxviii, 1028. 2 Petroleum Zeitschr., vi, 1068 (1911). 3 Ibid., iii, 235-236 (1907); J.S.C.I., xxvii, 16. 4 Mitth. k. techn. Versuchsanst. Berlin, xi, 45–68 (1893). 5 Loc. cit., 643. • Ber. deutsch, chem. Ges., xvi, (Ref. from J. Russk. Ph.-Kh, O., xv, 1, 237). 1883. 214 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. 1 Sainte-Claire-Deville's experiments were limited to temperatures between 0° and 50° C. As all researches hitherto show 2 that the coefficients of expan- sion of liquids vary as the temperature rises, the formula for solid bodies-viz., V=V。 (1+at)—is only of use to give an approximate result between agreed temperatures in conjunction with the specific gravity. Gintl's results, as recorded by Höfer,³ agree with those of Markownikow and Ogloblin in con- firming the relation between the specific gravity and the expansion-coefficient of oils. They are given in Table XIV. TABLE XIV. RELATION OF COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION TO SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Origin. Density × 1000 at Coefficient of Expan- sion X 100,000. 0° C. 50° C. West Virginia (White Oak), . (Burning Spring), 873 853 46 841 808 81 Canada, Pennsylvania (Oil Creek), Burma (Rangoon), Russia (Baku), 816 784 82 870 851 44 892 861 72 954 920 71 Eastern Galicia, 870 836 81 · Western 855 852 77 Rumania (Ploiesti 1), 862 829 2), 901 869 Italy (Parma, Neviano de' Rossi), 809 772 Hanover (Oberg), . 944 914 Elsass (Pechelbronn), 912 880 · France (St Gabian), 894 861 Zante, 952 921 GONALNO- 80 73 96 66 73 69 67 A. Bartoli and E. Stracciati 4 tested the fractions obtained from crude petroleum, including the saturated hydrocarbons from pentane, CH12, to hexadecane, C₁6 H34, and obtained the following results :- 16 TABLE XV.-COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS. Hydrocarbon. Boiling-Point. Specific Gravity. at 0°. Average Coefficient of Expansion between 0° and 30°. C6H12 C18H34 + 30° 0.64025 -+- 278-282° 0.82873 0.0015890 000! 0.0008045 5 With the exception of a few isolated cases, no thorough investigation had been made into the expansion of mineral lubricating oils until the experiments. described below were conducted by the Charlottenburg Versuchsanstalt, although the subject is of practical importance as facilitating the estimation. 1 Compt. Rendus, lxvi, 442, lxviii, 349, 485, 686. 2 Landolt and Börnstein, Phys. Tabellen, 99, 100 (1894). 3 Das Erdöl, &c., 1888. 4 Gazzetta Chimica, xv, 417 (1885). Albrecht, Annalen für Gewerbe und Bauwesen, xxx, 234 (1892); and Veith, Das Erdöl und seine Verarbeitung, 1892. COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION. 215 of the specific gravity at different temperatures, and the comparison of the relation between increase of fluidity and increase of volume. The question of fluidity has a direct bearing on the value of lubricating oils; and the co- efficient of expansion, besides its interest in this particular, also throws light on other peculiarities observable in mineral oils, particularly the part played by solid hydrocarbons. Experiments on expansion had hitherto been based upon the formula V = V¹ (1+at+bt² +ct³), the constants, a, b, and c, having different values at different temperatures, as shown by Kopp and others.¹ Preliminary experiments were made to ascertain the relative advantages of the determination of the coefficient, by weighing a constant volume at different temperatures, and by direct measure- ment of the increase in volume; the most suitable form and dimensions of dilatometers and pyknometers (specific-gravity bottles), and the method of applying heat so as to produce and maintain a constant and equable temperature throughout the oil under test, being also investigated. The use of a dilatometer with a bulb holding 30 cubic centimetres, and a tube of a diameter of 1.7 to 1.8 millimetres, was decided on, the thermometer for the experiments being graduated to 1° C. This made estimation to the fifth decimal place possible. Table XVI shows the effect on the coefficient resulting from error in the dilato- meter or pyknometer and thermometer. 10 TABLE XVI.-EFFECT OF INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS IN THE DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION. Difference in Instrument. Cubical Contents. Temperature between Error of Instrument. Error of Thermometer. Observations. Error of Coefficient of Expansion. c.cm. °C. 10 25 Dilatometer, 24 30 30 02222+ c.cm. 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 24 13 0 ....... °C. 0.000025 0.0000010 0.0000030 0-0000030 0.0000076 0.0000056 milligramme. 1.5 15 Pyknometer, 1.5 30 111 0-0000600 0 0.0000200 The formula used was 1 α a = V₁ −V +V₁[1 +c(t −20)](t, −t)c V[1 +c(t −20)](t₁ −t) c being the coefficient of expansion of the glass tube, taken as =0.000025, the dilatometer being calibrated at 20° C. This resolves into : a = V₁ - V 1 1 V 1 +c t-t V[1 +e(t −20)] V Of which the divisions. 1 and V 1 V [1 +c(t −20)] may be disregarded in making the calculations, bearing in mind that leaving ¹ Landolt_and_Börnstein, Physik. Tabellen, 1894. 216 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. V out V -- causes an error of 1 to 2 units in the seventh decimal, and that the omission of 1 [1 +c(t −20)] has the following effect :- When t-2010 the error is +1 to 2 units in the seventh decimal. t-20=20 >> t-20=40 ور +3 "" +6 "" 9 "" The formula, thus simplified, becomes 1 V₁ - V a (t₁ −t) V + c differing only slightly from that of Kohlrausch :- 1 V₁ - V 1 а 1 t₁ — t V +c. • V V 1 The experiments to ascertain the best form of apparatus for obtaining a constant and regular temperature were carefully and elaborately made, both water-bath and vapour-bath systems being tried. Preference was ultimately given to the former, the currents circulating in the vapour-bath apparatus, and the partial condensation on the dilatometers and thermometers preventing an equalisation of temperature, and resulting in incorrect readings. The water- bath was kept at an almost constant temperature by the vapour of boiling ether, carbon bisulphide, chloroform, etc., according to the heat required. In fig. 9, A is a cylindrical copper vessel, with a non-conducting jacket, for boiling the ether, etc., and B is an inner water-bath to contain the dilatometers c, and thermometer. A metal plate, d, protects the under surface of B from splashes from the boiling liquid, and by means of an Allihn's condenser, e, the vapour is condensed, the liquid flowing back into A. The whole is heated by immersion in an oil-bath, C. Ten dilatometers can be employed at a time. Uniformity in the temperature of the water is maintained by revolving the lid of the bath. When the thermometer has registered the same temperature for a quarter of an hour-the oil in the dilatometer being at a constant level during the same period—the increase in volume is read off, the bath-lid being raised for this purpose, and a slight correction made for the resultant cooling effect of the air. In transparent oils, the lower meniscus is read; in opaque oils, the upper meniscus. The dilatometer is filled with oil by suspending it upside down, as shown to the left of the figure, in a basin containing the oil, and exhausting the air from the inside by means of a fine tube connected with an air-pump, so that the oil rises steadily in the dilatometer without the production of air-bubbles. Any bubbles caused by the withdrawal of the suction-tube must be carefully removed by the aid of the air-pump. The inside of the dilatometer tube is cleansed by careful wiping with a plug of wadding. To empty the dilatometer, the above proceeding is reversed, the oil being expelled by air forced in through the capillary tube, ether being afterwards employed to remove all traces of the oil. The difference between the temperature of the vapour-chamber and that of the water-bath is only about 0.1°˚C., and this is reduced, by stirring, to a few hundredths of a degree. In order to avoid error, readings are taken before and after stirring, and the mean is taken for the subsequent calculation. The results given in the tables which accompany the paper by Holde show that the variations in the expansive properties of mineral lubricating oils of different origin are but slight. The rule that increase in specific gravity is accompanied by decreased expansion holds good in general. The presence of COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION. 217 paraffin (solid hydrocarbons) has the effect of reducing the specific gravity of the oil (owing, according to Dr. Albrecht, to its extraordinarily high rate of expansion on liquefaction in liquid hydrocarbons), the coefficient of expansion being raised at the same time. The German oils have a comparatively high rate of expansion at low temperatures, but do not expand more than the Russian oils at a higher Tube of A Air Pump d C ი B 100 FIG. 9.-DILATOMETER. temperature (between 30° and 50° C.); whereas the coefficient of expansion of the Scottish oils, and such American oils as are rich in paraffin, increases with the temperature, and exceeds that of the German and Russian oils. The thick blackish oils of various origins which were tested gave irregular results in the confirmatory experiments, the discrepancies being accounted for partly by the irregular distribution of the solid particles in suspension, and probably also by differences in consistency, especially in the case of one sample, which appeared to be solely composed of residues. It does not appear from the tables already referred to that any simple relation exists between change of fluidity and expansion. As was to be expected, the variations of fluidity were greater in oils containing paraffin (solid at low temperatures) than in the oils free from paraffin. The presence of solid paraffin and asphalt has a peculiar influence on the fluidity of the oil, particularly when the temperature of the sample is reduced, as these bodies require a long time to completely separate, and the establish- 218 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. ment of normal testing-conditions is consequently difficult. The general characteristics deducible from these experiments may be summed up as follows:- The heavy viscous mineral lubricating oils of various origins, of a minimum specific gravity of 0.908, show very little variation in the rate of expansion between 20° and 78° C., the coefficient ranging between 0.00070 and 0.00072. Those containing paraffin, and solid below 20° C., such as the German oils, have between 12° and 20° C., on the melting of the paraffin, a higher coefficient, viz., 0.00075 to 0.00081. Dr. Albrecht found the difference of the coefficients somewhat greater, viz., 0·0004 for German, 0.0007 for Russian, and 0.0005 for American oils. The less viscous oils, for lighter machinery, of specific gravity lower than 0.905 at 15° C., have a higher coefficient than the first class, viz., 0·00072 to 0.00076 between 20° and 78° C. The completely fluid oils exhibit, with rising temperature, a gradual increase in the rate of expansion. The oils containing paraffin have a decreasing coefficient with increasing temperature until fully fluid, when they follow the above rule. In the case of kerosene, the practice in the trade in the United Kingdom is to add to or subtract from the specific gravity at 60° F. 0·0004 for every 1° F. above or below that temperature. Tables founded on a formula of Gay- Lussac are in use in America for calculating the alterations in volume of crude petroleum under variation of temperature. According to the author's experience, the following corrections for each 1° F. should in practice be made :- For products lighter than kerosene, 0.00040 to 0.00048. kerosene, 0-00040. "" >> gas oils, 0.00036. ,, lubricating oils, 0-00034. The elaborate researches undertaken in 1869 by Sainte-Claire-Deville ¹ on the physical properties of crude oils from the principal oil-districts then in operation, showed that the oil of Baku possessed a higher calorific power than that of other districts, and that the practically ascertained heating-power was lower than that found by calculation from the known composition of the oil. Some of his results for crude oils are given in Table XXII. Determinations of the calorific values of various descriptions of Texas crude petroleums, made in the laboratory of the University of Texas Mineral Survey, have furnished the following results (Table XVII): TABLE XVII.-CALORIFIC VALUES OF TEXAS CRUDE OILS. Source of Sample. Calories.2 B.T.U.2 Lucas Well, Spindle Top, Jefferson county, 10,874 19,574 Higgins Oil and Fuel Co., Spindle Top, Jefferson county, 10,992 19,785 Sour Lake, Hardin county, 10,201 18,362 Sour Lake, Hardin county, 10,305 18,694 Northeast of Fort Stockton, Pecos county, 9,655 17,387 9,372 • • 16,807 8,531 • • 15,356 9,177 16,518 Near Dunlay, Medina county, Dullnig Wells, Bexar county, Walsh Tract, Bexar county, 1 Comptes Rendus, lxvi, 442; lxviii, 349, 485, 686; and lxxii, 191. 2 The calory or thermal unit is the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 0° to 1° C. The British Thermal Unit (B.T.U.) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of water from 50° to 51° F. Calories (gram-degrees C.) per gram multiplied by, or 1-8, give the calorific value in B.T.U. (pound-degrees F.) per ĺb. of combustible. CALORIFIC POWER. 219 Mr. William Macnab, who has had considerable experience of the calori- metric process in which the combustible material to be tested is burned in a close bomb, in presence of excess of oxygen, has pointed out that calculations based on the ultimate analysis of the sample are often quite misleading, the heat of combustion being dependent upon the state of combination of the elements in the substance. "Royal Daylight" petroleum oil, of specific gravity 0-797, has, according to Professor William Robinson, a calorimetric value of 20,100 B.T.U. per lb., as determined in the bomb calorimeter, and "petrol," of specific gravity 0·678, 19,800 B.T.U. per lb. Russian kerosene, of specific gravity 0-825, when similarly tested, gave a result of 20,286 B.T.U. per lb., and Russian ostatki, of specific gravity 0.906 and flashing-point 336° F., 20,100 B.T.U. per lb. According to the author's experience, fuel oils from Burma, Borneo, and Texas, kerosene and solar oil from Russia, and petroleum spirit from America, have the following calorific values (determined with the bomb calorimeter) :- Burma fuel oil, Borneo, Texas "" • 10,794 calories per gram. (second sample), 10,924 10,371 " (second sample), 10,340 specific gravity 0-919, 10,670 0.923, 10,755 >> 0.935, 10,748 * "" > >> 0.941, 10,957 >> Russian kerosene, solar oil, specific gravity 0-873, ་་ 11,260 10,920 99 American petroleum-spirit, >> 0.684, 0.694, 12,210 12,220 Mabery and Goldstein¹ have carried out a lengthy experimental investi- gation of the specific heat, and latent heat or heat of vaporisation, of certain petroleum hydrocarbons, and have published the following results and conclusions: Specific Heats.-It was found by the authors that impurities lowered the specific heat considerably. Although the paraffin series of hydrocarbons afford the best field for study of an homologous series, very little has been done in the direction of ascer- taining the specific heats of these bodies. In a study of distillates separated from Pennsylvania petroleum, by Bartoli & Stracciati, the specific heats of the following hydrocarbons were determined:- TABLE XVIIA.-SPECIFIC HEATS OF HYDROCARBONS. Hexane CH14. Heptane CH16. Octane CsH18, • Decane C10H22, • Tetradecane C₁₁H30. 14. Hexadecane C16H34' Temperature. Specific Heat. 16°-37° 0.5042 16°-37° 0.4869 12°-19° 0.5111 14°-18° 0.5057 0.4995 15°-990 0.4963 The following table shows the results of from three to six determinations for each hydrocarbon made at the temperatures 0° and 50° :- 1"On the Specific Heats and Heat of Vaporisation of the Paraffin and Methylene Hydrocarbons." C. F. Mabery and A. H. Goldstein, Amer. Chem. Journ., vol. xxviii, pp. 67-78 (1902). 220 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XVIIA.-continued. CH14 C₂H16, CH16, CgH18, C,H20, C10H22, C10H22. C₁₁ H24, • • C12H26, C13H287 C₁4H30. C15H32, C18H34, Commercial gasoline, Crude Ohio petroleum, • C8H129 C₂H14, C8H16, C9H18, C10H20, C₁₁H 22, C12H24, C13 H 26, C14H28, C16H307 • • Boiling Point. Specific Heat. 68° 0.5272 91° 0.5005 98° 0.5074 125° 0.5052 151° 0.5034 • 162° 0.4951 172° 0.5021 • 195° 0.5013 214° 0.4997 226° 0.4986 242° 0.4973 260° 0.4966 275° 0.4957 0.5135 0.4951 TABLE XVIIA.-continued. SPECIFIC HEATS OF METHYLENE HYDROCARBONS. Boiling Point. Specific Heat. 68° 0.5062 98° 0.4879 • 119° 0.4863 135° 0.4851 160° 0.4692 190° 0.4819 212° 0.4570 232° 0.4573 244° 0.4531 263° 0.4708 It appears from these results that there is generally a decrease in Specific Heat with increase in molecular weight. Furthermore, the normal hydrocarbons, such as heptane, C,H16 (b.p. 98°), and decane, C10H22 (b.p. 172°), have higher specific heats than their isomers, such, for example, as isoheptane, CH16 (b.p. 91°), and isodecane, C10H22 (b.p. 162°). The same variation also appears in the methylene series, with high values for certain members that probably indicate different structural relations. The authors call attention to the materially lower values given by the methylene hydrocarbons as compared with the values for the paraffin hydro- carbons; and question whether this is due to greater compactness in the methylene molecule or to some quality of its ring structure. TABLE XVIIA.-continued. SPECIFIC HEATS OF A SERIES OF HYDROCARBONS SEPARATED FROM THE HIGH-BOILING PORTIONS OF PENNSYLVANIA PETROLEUM AND BELONGING TO THE SERIES CH. C18H32, C18H36, C20H 40, C28H46, C24H489 Boiling Point. Specific Heat. 173° 0.4723 202° 0.4723 • 223° 0.4706 260° 0.4612 272° 0.4586 221 SPECIFIC HEAT. TABLE XVIIA.-continued. SPECIFIC HEATS OF SEVERAL HYDROCARBONS SEPARATED FROM TEXAS PETROLEUM. Series CnH2n−2• Boiling Point at 50 mm. Specific Heat. 127° 0.4447 142° 0.4439 • 162° 0.4426 C14H26, C15H28, 16 C18H302 Series CnHen-4. 218° C21H38, C2H467 273° 0.4560 0.4650 The latter results cannot be accepted as trustworthy, for the quantities of the hydrocarbons were very small, and the oil began to crystallise at 0°. There is no doubt that the specific heats of these hydrocarbons are smaller than those of the preceding series. TABLE XVIIB.-SPECIFIC HEAT OF CRUDE OILS, ETC. Pennsylvania, Berea Grit, Japanese, Texas (Lucas well), Russian, Wyoming, California, Texas, Ohio, • • Specific Gravity. Specific Heat. 0.8095 0.5000 0.7939 0.4690 0.8622 0.4532 0.9200 0.4315 0.9079 0.4355 ► 0.8816 0.4323 0.9600 0.3980 0.9466 0.4009 0.4951 | Shown 0.5135 / above. Commercial gasoline, These values show that the specific heat of the crude oils is an important property from a practical point of view. It also appears that there is no close agreement between specific heat and specific gravity. Pennsylvania oil stands at the head, and Berea Grit, with a much larger proportion of volatile constituents, is next. Of the heavier oils, it appears in general that the specific heats are much lower, but with no definite relation. Heat of Vaporisation. The authors remark that from a practical point of view the greatly extended use of crude petroleum and its constituents can only be economically continued with the aid of further information concerning the heats of vaporisation. Numerous inquiries from persons interested in these directions attest an appreciation of further knowledge on this subject. The following table gives the mean of several observations for members of the series C,H+2— TABLE XVIIC.-HEAT OF VAPOur. Hexane C6H12, Heptane C-H16' Octane C8H18 Boiling Point. Heat of Vapour in Calories. 68° 79.4 88° 74.0 125° 71.1 222 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE) XVIIc.—continued. DETERMINATIONS FOR CERTAIN METHYLENE HYDROCARBONS. Hexamethylene C¿H12, Dimethylpentamethylene C,H11, 14 Methylhexamethylene C,H14, Dimethylhexamethylene CH16 Boiling Point. Heat in Calories. 68°-70° 87.3 90°-92° 81.0 98° 75-7 118°-119° 71.7 These indicate rapid falling off in latent heat with increase in molecular weight. Mr. J. S. S. Brame, of the Royal Naval College, has, at the suggestion of Professor Lewes, kindly determined the specific heats of a number of typical samples of petroleum products handed to him by the author, together with that of a sample of Young's paraffin oil, and has obtained the following results:-— TABLE XVIID.-SPECIFIC HEATS BETWEEN 12° AND 25° C. Motor Spirit. Sp. Gr. (at 15° C.). Sp. Ht. Sp. Gr. x Sp. Ht. Anglo-American Oil Company, Ltd.-Heavy (“ Taxibus"), 0-7375 0.465 0.343 "" Light (Pratt's Perfection") 0.7240 0.483 0.350 Asiatic Petroleum Company, Ltd.- Shell," Heavy ("760 Benzine "), 0.7675 0.450 0.346 Asiatic Petroleum Company, Ltd." Shell," Light (“720 Benzine "), 0.7215 0.490 0.352 • Kerosene. Anglo-American Oil Company, Ltd.-Water white, "" Standard white, Russian, Rumanian, Shale oil (Young's paraffin oil), Fuel Oil. Russian, Burma, Texas, 0.799 0.457 0.365 0.8035 0.450 0.362 0.8248 0.435 0.358 · 0.8127 0.444 0.361 0.804 0.472 0.379 0.914 0.448 0.897 0.433 • 0.927 0.436 In reference to these results, Mr. Brame points out that for the heavy oils there does not appear to be any defined relationship between specific gravity and specific heat, which is in agreement with Mabery and Goldstein's experi- ence, but that with motor spirit and kerosene of the same grade there certainly does appear to be a good relationship; indeed, a factor for dividing into the specific gravity can be suggested which would give approximate values for the specific heat. This factor is for kerosene 0-362, and for motor spirit 0.348. It will be noted that shale distillate gives an abnormal value. 1 Veith ¹ gives the calorific values of various petroleums, etc., Table XVIII. The boiling-points of crude oils, and the amounts of distillate obtained at specified temperatures, differ considerably, as shown in Table XIX, the first. part of which is by Engler and Levin,2 the second by Engler,³ the third by Krämer, and the fourth by Gintl.5 4 The first part of Table XX relating to Galician crude petroleum is based upon results obtained in the laboratory of the author, while the other two parts are given upon the authority of Nawratil.6 1 Veith, Das Erdöl, 1892. 2 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., cclxi, 32 (1886). 3 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., cclx, 337 (1886). 1 Sitz. Ver. Beförd. des Gewerbefl. Preuss., 1885, 294. Karmarsch and Heeren, Technologisches Wörterbuch. Ed. iii, Kick & Gintl, 1876, 618. 6 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., ccxlvi, 328 (1882). CALORIFIC POWER. 223 Effect in Heat-Units. TABLE XVIII.-CALORIFIC POWER OF VARIOUS DESCRIPTIONS OF PETROLEUM, ETC. Chemical Composition. Description of Oil. Specific Gravity at 0° C. Coefficient of Expansion. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Amount of Water evapo- rated per unit of fuel. 7,500 6,500 4,500 3,000 2,800 Heavy petroleum from West Virginia, 0.873 83.5 13.3 3.2 0.00072 14.58 10,180 Light 0.8412 84.3 14.1 1.6 0.000839 14.55 10,223 "" "" " "" "" Heavy American petroleum, Petroleum from Parma, "" Pennsylvania, 0.816 82.0 14.8 3.2 0.00084 14.05 9,963 0.886 84.9 13.7 1·4 0.000721 15.30 "" 10,672 0.820 83.4 14.7 1.9 0.000868 14.14 9,771 0.786 84.0 13.4 1.8 0.000706 13.96 10,121 Pechelbronn, 0.912 86.9 11.8 1.3 0.000767 14.30 · 9,708 0.892 85.7 12.0 2.3 0.000793 14.48 10,020 " 99 Schwabweiler, 0.861 86.2 13.3 0.5 0.000858 15.36 10,458 "" 0.829 79.5 13.6 6.9 0.000843 "" Hanover, Eddesse, 0.892 80.4 12.7 6.9 0.000772 Wietze, 0.955 86.2 11.4 2.4 0.000641 ; "" "" East Galicia, 0.870 82.2 12.1 5.7 0.000813 14.23 10,005 West Galicia, 0.885 85.3 12.6 2.1 (N.O.) 0.000775 14.79 10,231 ?? >> Shale-oil from Ardèche, Vagnas, 0.911 80.3 11.5 8.2 (O.S.N.) 0.000896 12.24 9,046 Coal-tar from Paris gas-works, 1.044 82.0 7.6 10.4 0.000743 12.77 8,916 Petroleum from Balakhani, 0.822 87.4 12.5 0.1 0.000817 11,700 Light petroleum from Baku, 0.884 86.3 13.6 0.1 0.000724 16.40 11,460 Heavy 0.938 86.6 12.3 1.1 0.000681 15.55 "" 10,800 Petroleum-residues from the Baku factories, 0.928 87.1 11.7 1.2 0.00091 10,700 Petroleum from Java, 0.923 87.1 12.0 0·9 0.000769 15.02 10,831 Heavy oil of pine (Landes), 0.985 87.7 10.4 2.5 0.000685 14.75 10,081 SOLID FUELS. Description of Fuel. Coal, Coke, Peat, Turf (air-dried), Wood, · : : 224 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XIX.-BOILING POINTS OF CRUDE PETROLEUM, AND AMOUNTS OF DISTILLATE AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES. Oil from Distillation at-° C. commenced at 17° C. Specific Gravity 1. Per cent. by Volume distilling at ° C. Below 130° to 130°. 150°. 150° to 170°. 190°. 170° to 190° to 210°. 250°. 270°. 210° to 230° to 250° to 270° to 290° to 230°. Above 290°.❘ 300°. 300°. 5.75 4.75 6 4.75 6.75 6 co co co 4.75 2 40.75 3.25 4 2.5 33.5 3.5 0.5 26.5 5 5.5 3.5 1 39 74 7 7.3 4.75 5.5 1.75 52 76 10.3 4.5 47 5 LO 2 68 Pennsylvania, ( 1, 0.8175 82° 15 6 5 LO LO 5 5 LO 2, 0.8010 74° 24.5 7 4.5 4.5 6.5 Galicia (Sloboda Rungurska),| 0-8235 90° 16 10.5 10.25 6.5 6.5 Baku (Bibi-Eibat), 0.8590 91° 16 7 6.5 6.5 5 (Balakhani), 0.8710 105° 3.75 4.75 5.5 4.75 5.25 57 1O LO LO LO Elsass (Pechelbronn), Hanover (Oelheim), 0.9075 0.8990 135° 3 4.4 5.4 4.5 6.6 170° 4.75 5.25 6 2. Average Percentage Yield from Oil of Product. Pennsylvania. Galicia. Rumania. Elsass. Baku. Light oil, Burning oil, Residue, 10 to 20 3 to 6 60 to 75 55 to 65 4 60 to 70 5 to 10.6 5 to 10 30 to 40 25 to 35 35 to 40 55 to 60 32 to 53.5 36 to 60 BOILING-POINTS, ETC. 225 TABLE XIX-continued. 3. Distillates obtained below ° C. Oil from Specific Gravity. 150° 250° 300° Above 300° Residue and Loss. Per Sp. Per Sp. Per Sp. Cent. Gr. Cent. Gr. Cent. Gr. Per Sp. Cent. Gr. Tegernsee (Bavaria), 0.812 Elsass, 0.888 Oelheim (Hanover), 0.885 Pennsylvania, 0.814 West Galicia, 0.842 14.21 20.04 0.726 26-12 0-782 1.30 0.720, 16.37 0.778 0.74 0.750 11.05 0.805 14.34 0.725 25-35 0-811 16.93 14.02 0.825 35.910-856 17-07 0-824 47.88 0.903 9.75 0.852 73.91 0.910 13-75 0-820 3.07 16.28 3.92 40.99 0.850 5.57 12.30 47.58 8.95 · Wallachia, 0.857 14.32 22.59 13.86 39.51 9.72 Baku, 0.880 0.63 0.762 21-73 0-811 15.55 0.825 57.97 0.903 4.12 Kuban, 0.930 2.30 10.60 3.20 64.40 9.50 4. Burning Oil. Oil from Specific Light Gravity. Oil. Coke and Paraffin. Tar. Loss. I. II. Pennsylvania, Canada, Rangoon, Red Sea, Siary (Galicia), 0.824 15.00 47.00 20.00 12.00 6-00 • 0.845 20.00 50.00 19.00 3.00 5.00 2.00 0.885 4.01 40-70 36.99 6-07 4.61 7.62 0.912 2.50 30-0057·00 5.22 3.70 1.60 0.827 0.842 • 0.84 0.846 0.865 8.50 44.85 24-22 9-38 52-49 12-57 11.40 10.00 25-70 18.30 12.40 10.00 61.28 20-60 2.23 8.50 40-70 18.30 5.00 13.25 9.18 2.48 11.10 23.60 10.00 5.89 15.00 12.50 Boryslaw (Galicia), Bukowina, Rumania, Baku, TABLE XX.—RESULTS OF FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF GALICIAN CRUDE PETROLEUM. Sp.Gr. Specific Gravity of Distillate. Commercial Products. No. Locality. of Crude Oil. A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sloboda-Rungurska, 2 3 Ustrzyki district, 0.845 0-724 0.763 0-792 0-821 0.841 12.0 0-860 0.743 0.771 0·789 0-825| 0.835 0.846 0.764 0-782 0.803 0.823| 0-842 0-912 0-786 0-829 0-867 35.9 41.6 S.S 37.4 40.0 9.6 38.4 44.3 2.6 17.4 58.6 Harklowa, Lanczyn, A. First tenth by volume. B. Second C. Third 0-901 0·760 0-806 | 0·846 · 0·878 0-875 0.720 0-756 0-791 0-828 0.856 7.5 32.5 51.8 8.4 36.5 50.3 D. Fourth VOL. I. E. Fifth tenth by volume. F. Percentage by weight of petroleum spirit. G. * >> H. >> kerosene. intermediate and heavy oils. 15 226 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. Locality, Formation, Colour, Kleczany. Cretaceous, 189 metres. Ropa. Cretaceous, 63 metres. TABLE XX.-continued. Ropa. Cretaceous, 60 metres. Reddish-yellow. Brownish-red. Reddish-brown. Wojtowa. Libusza. Eocene, 160 metres. Eocene, 137 metres. Greenish-black. Greenish-black. Sekowa. Eocene, 114 metres. Greenish-black. Specific gravity, 0.779 0.808 0.800 0.835 0.837 0.837 Distillate, Specific Per- Specific Per- Specific Per- Specific Per- Specific Per- Specific gravity. centage. gravity. centage. gravity. centage. gravity. centage. gravity. centage. gravity. Per- centage. °C. 100, 12.30 1.90 9.30 1.60 4.30 2.00 100 to 150, 0.742 31.20 0.738 24.70 0.735 18.20 0.764 11.90 0.745 14.70 0.747 20.00 150 to 200, 0.775 14.60 0.773 18.00 0.773 12.80 0.792 14.60 200 to 250, 0.783 9.60 0.810 12.40 0.805 10.80 0.822 16.90 } 0.803 17.80 { 0.783 15.70 0.823 11.20 250 to 300, 0.802 9.30 0.841 11.60 0.838 10.60 0.849 18.80 0.841 11.40 0.857 10.50 300 to 350, 0.837 5.20 0.865 9.80 0.868 12.30 0.862 13.70 0.856 9.90 0.879 8.60 350 to 400, 0.852 9.60 0.885 15.90 0.878 20.80 0.907 10.90 0.880 24.60 0.895 20.40 Above 400, 0.895 8.00 4.60 1 0.915 15.70 0.914 18.50 Petroleum gum," 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.60 0.10 Coke, 0.05 0.60 0.80 1.10 3.00 1.50 Loss, 0.10 0.40 0.50 0.80 1.80 1.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 RESULTS OF FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION. 227 TABLE XX.-continued. Locality. Formation. Colour. Ropa, Cretaceous, Reddish-brown Per- Per- Per- centage. centage. centage. centage. 0.853 11.40 39.80 46.50 2.30 Per- Wojtowa, Eocene, 114 m. Greenish-black 0.820 12.40 43.60 41.50 2.50 Libusza, Cretaceous, 140 m. 0.842 13.30 32.80 49.40 4.00 • >> · Starunia, Salt-layer, 36 m. 0.845 10.90 34.90 50.90 3.30 • Lipinki, Eocene, 133 m. Greenish-black 0.850 20.90 30.30 44.00 4.80 Siary, 124 m. Brownish-black 0.853 11.30 31.90 52.30 4.50 • 189 m. Blackish-brown 0.847 20.00 31.20 43.30 5.50 Pagorzyn, Mecina, Kleczany, Kryg, Harklowa, 111 m. Brownish-black 0.849 9.80 45.40 40-60 4.20 >> 230 m. Greenish-black 0-853 19-60 33.10 42.90 4.40 " 57 m. Dark green 0.870 3.40 38.60 54.50 3.50 170 m. Brownish-black 0-876 8.00 32.60 53.20 6.20 >> 114 m. " >> 111 m. 0.898 6-70 0.902 5.70 6.90 28.20 58.20 30.10 56.70 7.50 Table XXI gives the proportions of some of the commercial products. obtained from typical specimens of crude petroleum, examined in the laboratory of the author. The process of distillation was in each case substantially the same, and the results are, therefore, fairly comparable, but on the large scale, an increased yield of kerosene, due to cracking," would in many instances be obtained. In the last column of the table the percentages of coke obtained on distillation to dryness are recorded, and it will be seen that these vary con- siderably, the extremes being 0-1 and 26.3. According to the author's experience, the largest proportion of solid hydro- carbons is found in the crude oils of Burma and in some of those of Borneo, whilst in others from the same locality in the latter country there is very little. A large proportion is also found in the oils of Assam, Java, Timor, Cuba, Elsass, Algeria, New Zealand, Maikop and Tcheleken. The oils of the United States usually give a moderate yield, in common with those of Canada, Galicia, Rumania, Persia, Egypt and Lower Burma, whilst those of Baku, Peru, Mexico and Trinidad contain, as a rule, very little. TABLE XXI.-COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CRUDE PETROLEUM. a, Specific gravity; b, Percentage of petroleum-spirit (benzine); c, Kerosene; d, Inter- mediate and lubricating oils, with solid hydrocarbons; e, Coke. a b C d e America :- Pennsylvania, Bradford, 0.810 20.0 50.0 25.3 1.12 Parker (Clarion), 0.797 21.0 74.1 1.36 دو Karns City, 0.787 32.0 64.4 Thorn Creek, 0.802 21.0 74.3 1.4 >> ?? Stoneham, Washington, Ohio, Macksburg, Texas, Lima, Colorado, Indian Territory, 0.802 15.0 75.0 6.6 1.8 0-788 18.1 71-1 0.8 0.1 0.829 11.0 49-0 35.7 1.8 0.839 83.0 6.9 4.1 0.923 • • 98.5 1.1 0.927 94.5 2.5 0.806 18.0 39.7 36.8 0.6 0.825 8.5 45.0 40.6 0.6 228 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XXI.-continued. a, Specific gravity; b, Percentage of petroleum-spirit (benzine); c, Kerosene; d, Inter- mediate and lubricating oils, with solid hydrocarbons; e, Coke. America-continued. Indian Territory, a b с d e 0.970 95.8 4.8 0.859 4.4 38.0 50.3 3.8 Wyoming, "" California, Pico Cañon, 0.911 2.5 27.5 53.0 11.0 0.862 18.6 79.0 0.8 0.910 1.9 24.4 56.3 11.5 0.844 15.0 45.0 32.0 Puente, 0.880 12.5 22.0 42.6 10.2 • Alaska, 0.869 19.0 78.6 1.7 0.914 9.0 87.6 2.7 0.800 24.8 53.9 16-7 1.2 Canada, Petrolea, 0.858 2.5 57.5 4.08 "" Gaspé, 0.847 8.75 48.0 40.0 2.75 • 0.795 22.1 34.3 42.0 0.8 >> 0.828 15.9 41.3 40.5 1.4 New Brunswick, Newfoundland, "" >> Mexico, 0.857 2.0 23.5 67.0 5.3 0.843 37.6 58.6 2.1 • 0.805 18.0 38.1 41.0 1.2 0.808 12.7 55.2 28.7 1.0 0.874 37.0 62.25 0.5 • 0.882 27.75 66.0 0.970 88.5 6.5 0.939 2.6 15.6 66.3 12.1 "" 0.986 81.7 15.7 "" Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 0.959 91.3 6.7 0.933 90.0 4.0 >> >> Barbados, 0.951 94.0 5.0 • Trinidad, 0.914 2.0 17.0 72.3 8.6 Colombia, Ecuador, • 0.926 91.3 7.45 • 1 0.928 2.14 15.61 70.89 8.82 Peru, 0.859 11.0 42.0 41.5 • Argentina, Russia :- Balakhani-Sabuntchi, Surakhani, 0.935 86.77 :: 0.873 6.3 32.5 57.1 3.0 0.780 48.9 43.9 Grozni, 0.884 20 20 50 5.9 • 0.874 19-2 16.4 56.7 5.9 Ilsky, "" 0.853 20-0 40.0 35.0 0.940 1.0 9.0 83.35 6.25 Kudako, 0.860 12-72 33.67 39.6 10.6 Kertch, 0.887 29.0 70.5 Black Sea, 0.826 23.7 43.8 32.8 2-1 Anapa, 0.900 11.2 15.2 61.2 5.8 Suvorov,. 0.914 9.5 8.8 71.0 5.7 Guri, 0.955 1.5 11.2 70-1 13.8 0.968 87.33 9.9 "" Galicia :- Sloboda-Rungurska, Lanczyn, 0.845 12.5 37.5 40.7 0.860 8.8 37.4 40.0 8888 8.3 7.0 0.875 8.4 36.5 50.3 • Ustrzyki, (Lodyna), Harklowa, Rumania, 0.846 9.6 38.4 44.3 3.13 0.840 17.0 30.0 45.5 4.0 0.901 4.0 23.0 58.6 8.75 0.859 18.9 80.6 0.5 0.845 28.85 26.3 42.5 1.6 0.860 1.75 54.6 38.3 2.1 • 0.839 57.25 41.2 1.3 0.890 27.5 64.15 2.6 >> 0.896 2.0 25.1 67.6 3.1 0.882 4.5 32.0 61.2 2.3 0.846 21.26 33.86 40.28 2.97 Elementary Composition. No. Description of Petroleum, etc. C. H. 0. 100° 120° TABLE XXII.-COMPOSITION, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, ETC., OF VARIOUS DESCRIPTIONS OF PETROLEUM. Percentage of Distillate at° C. 130° 140° 150° 160° 170° 180° 190° 200° 210° 220° 230° 240° 250° 260° 270° 280° 290° 300° [To face p. 229. Specific Gravity at ° C. Coefficient of Composition of Distillate. Specific Gravity of Expansion. Specific Gravity of Distillate at° C. Residue at C. Calorific Power. C. H. 0. 3 Light Pennsylvania petroleum (200 m.), 1 Heavy West Virginia petroleum, White Oak (135 m.), 2❘ Light 83.5 13.3 3.2 1.0 1.3 Burning Springs (200 m.),. 84-3 14-1 21221 82 14.8 1.6 1.3 3.2 4.3 4.3 10.7 11 17.7 25.2 28.5 16 23-7 28.7 31 10 CO 5 4 Heavy Ohio, Pennsylvania 84.2 13.1 2.7 : ::: : 0° 0.873 50-1° 0-853 0.00072 : : : : "" (200 m.), 84.9 13.7 1.4 12 6 Petroleum obtained from Paris, probably Pennsylvanian, 7 Heavy oil from gas coal, D 83.4 14.7 1.9 2.8 5.3 12 19.8 25.4 30.3 82 8 Parma petroleum, 84 7.610-4 13.4 12.5 1.8 1-1 9.3 33.3 39.5 60.5 69.3 9 Java (Rembang), 87.1 12 0.9 1.0 1.0 7.7 15 22.3 24.3 28.3 10 (Cheribon), 83.6 14 11 (Surabaya), • 85 11.2 2.14 0.8 2.8 3.0 9.3 16.3 22 27.8 2.3 13 14 16 23456 12 Pechelbronn (Elsass), 26.9 11-8 1.3 4.1 8.3 ww 4.0 17.7 28.3 0.8412 0.816 " "" 85.3 13.9 0.8 84 0-808 0-000839 14.4 1.6 0-784 0.00084 85.1 14.3 0.6 85.4 14.4 0.6 0.887 53° 0-853 0.000748 At 350° 13° 14.2° 0.762 13.6° 0.735 0-819 13.3° 0.864 10,180 14.8° 0.860 10,223 13.6° 0-845 9,963 14.8° 0-860 10,399 86-7 12.2 1.1 " 0.820 ! 0.886 50-1° 0-853 0-000721 53-3° 0.784 0.000868 85.4 13.8 1.044 "" 51° 1-007 0.00743 0.762 0.802 13° 0.875 10,672 0-736 13.6° 0.845 9,771 8,916 0.786 " 51.1° 0-747 0.000706 0.923 53° 0.827 0.972 13.3 25.01 85.6 9.6 24.75 tar product, 85-7 12 2.3 15 Schwabweiler, 86.2 13.3 0.5 • 5.3 7:7 10.3 20.7 30.7 37.3 12 17.3 23 28-7 "" ?? (French Petroleum Co.), 17 Gabian petroleum (Herault), 79.5 13.6 6.9 5.6 14.6 22 34.3 39.3 42.7 : 84.5 12.6 2.9 84.3 13.6 2.1 85.5 14.2 0.3 "" 0-888 0.000769 0-789 0-000923 0-945 0-000652 0.912 51° 0-879 0-00767 0.908 50-6° 0.935 0.000697 0.892 50° 0-857 0-000793 0.861 0-828 0-000858 0-829: 51-8° 0-795 0-000543 14° 0.8 13.2° 84.2 14.5 1.3 13.6° 85 13.7 1-3 13.2° 0.775 11.2° 0.850 10,121 86.2 12.2 1.6 0.811 13.3° 0.930 10,831 83.9 14.1 2.0 13.1° 0-778 13.3° 0-914 9,593 85-1 12-2 1.7 13.2° 0.762 13.22 0-942 10,183 85.1 13 14° 0-927 9,708 21-2 0-914 10,020 21.4° 0.816 22.2° 0.776 21.0° 0.882 10,458 20° 0.776 21.8° 0.849 =** 0-9 11-6° 0.825 86.1 12.7 1.2 At 292° 0.7 14 18 Hanover 19 "" (Eddesse), taken from the surface, from 50 m. (Wietze), 80.4 12.7 86.2 11.4 222 20 "" 12 m. (Oberg), 84.4 11.5 6.9 0.5 2.4 4.1 2.7 LO 5 14 19 0.894 50° 0.731 0-000087 0.892 48.2° 0-860 0-000772 5.4 7.8 16.3 0.955 "" 50-6° 0-925 0-000641 8.6 0.944 "" 21 East Galician petroleum, 82.2 12.1 5.7 2.1 4.6 8.7 13.7 14.3 21.7 25.3 32.3 >> 22 West 85.3 12.6 2.1 1.0 4.0 9.8 14.3 23.3 27.0 30.7 36.7 48-2° 0-915 0-000662 0.870 50° 0-836 0-000813 0.885 0-852 0-000775 23 24 black and viscid, >> 25 Caucasian thick black petroleum, Rumanian petroleum, black and viscid (Ploiesti), 85.3 11.6 3.1 1 1.3 2 2.7 10 21.3 20° 84.2 12.4 3.4 3.3 8.7 15.7 19.3 24 27 32-7 34.7 0.9405 58° 0° 0.887 82.6 12.5 4.9 5.4 11.8 17.8 23.8 29.2 34.6 41.6 >> 26 83 "" 27 Parma petroleum, 84.9 11.4 12.2 4.8 3.7 0.7 3.3 6 10-7 15.3 19.3 26.7 7.7 17.9 "" 28 Parma petroleum (Neviano de' Rossi), 60 m., 81.9 12.5 5.6 1.8 16.2 39.9 54.9 65.6 75.4 79.8 88.6 ** 29 Lombardy (Retorbido), from 35 m., 86-4 12-2 1.4 7.5 9 29.7 52.3 >> 30 Zante petroleum, black and viscid, 82.6 11.8 5.6 9.7 0.952 "" 31 West Canada petroleum (Great Manitoulin Island), 83 | 14.6 2.4 6 14.7 19.7 28.1 35.8 32 >> (Bothwell), 84.3 13.4 2.3 10.4 14 19.2 19.6 21.6 32 0·904 0.000696 0-850 0.000750 0.862 50-8° 0.828 0-000808 0.901 50-8° 0-868 0-000748 0.938 50-8° 0-905 0-000716 0.809 52-6° 0.770 0-000963 0.919 52-6° 0-884 0·000752 50° 0.921 0-000673 0.828 51.8° 0-801 0-000883 0.857 50° 0.838 0-000868 86.5 12.4 1.1 83.2 13.6 3.2. 21° 84.3 12.5 3.2 21° 84.1 13 2.9 21° 80.5 13.6 5.9 21° 83.S 12.9 3.3 21° 83.1 12.8 4·1 20° 83.5 13.5 3.0 20° 80.1 13.7 6.2 20 83.5 13.2 3.3 20° 83.8 12-6 3.6 21° 0-$30 21 83 : 13.1 3.9 20° 0-783 84.7 12.3 3 21° 0.880 222 82.7 12.8 4.5 21° 0-883 21° 83.3 16-1 0.6 19.4° 0.778 20° 85.3 14.2 0.5 21.2° 0.773 20.4° 0-879 20.6° 0.860 20.4° 0-888 0.775 22° 0.903 0-842 21° 0.959 0-830 21 0.778 21° 0-786 21° 22 0.857 0-787 22° 22° 0-773 0.804 22° 0.944 0.901 10.005 0-931 10,231 0·944 0.936 0.910 0.924 0.914 ၈၈၁ 0.874 0-936 0-942 0.846 At 125° 33 "" (Petrolea), 84.5 13.5 34 35 36 37 West Virginia petrolcum (Guthrie), "" Burmah oil (Rangoon), 82.7 13.5 83.2 13.2 2 3.8 10.0 15 15.7 22.9 27.1 32.1 37.1 0.870 50° 0.851 • 3.6 1.4 5:: 0-000836 { 3 9 14 20.2 28.2 0.844 51.8° 0.815 0-001 5.5 10.1 16.5 21.1 23.4 30.7 0.857 (Mecook), 83.6 12.9 3.5 8.9 0-897 83.8 12.7 3.5 4.3 5.3 38 China petroleum, 83.5 12.9 3.6 1.6 12.4 28 တိတ 8.7 13.3 41.6 51.6 60.8 0° 39 Crude oil (Ardèche), 80.3 11.5 38.2 4 7.7 20-0 28.3 42 79.7 11-8 8.5 4.0 6.7 12.7 17.3 24.7 31 38 44.7 40 Crude shale-oil (Autun), 41 Heavy oil from fir wood, 87.7 10.4 2.5 :: >> >> 28.2° 0.875 50-8° 0-824 0-000788 50-8° 0-866 0-000704 60° 0-855 0·000774 0.860 55° 0-822 0·000824 0.911 50° 0-874 0-000896 0.870 60° 0.829 0-000859 0.985 50-6° 0.952 0.000685 79.2 6-7 ì 14.1 0.781 20-8° 20.4° 0-896 79.4 6.5 85-2 14.1 0.7 19.7° 0.782 20.1° 0.864 81.9 13.8 4.3 20° 0-781 21° 0.874 84 12.3 3.7 21° 80.9 13.9 5.2 23° 83.8 12.9 3.3 82.3 11.5 56.2 77.2 12.2 610-6 84.8 10-5 4-7 0-$55 21° 0-893 0.795 28.2° 0-890 26.2° 0.884 30° 0.881 22.2° 0.862 21.8 0.912 22.6° 0.787 22.6° 0.921 9.046 10,081 This includes nitrogen and sulphur. 2 This includes nitrogen. * This includes nitrogon. • At 264°. 5 This includes nitrogen. • This includes nitrogen. VOL. I. PERCENTAGES OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. 229 TABLE XXI.-continued. a, Specific gravity; b, Percentage of petroleum-spirit (benzine); c, Kerosene; d, Inter- mediate and lubricating oils, with solid hydrocarbons; e, Coke. α b с d e Rumania, 0.899 12.8 23.1 55.3 7.0 0.829 26.2 19.4 48.7 2.7 0.823 9.0 47.4 41.9 0.8 "" Germany: Elsass, 0.886 4.0 31.4 52.7 7.9 0.873 10.0 26.1 57.1 5.7 "" Hanover, Horst, 0.872 1.94 35.1 59.0 2.0 Italy: Neviano, . 0.805 18.9 69.5 11.0 0.2 Ozzano, 0.807 37.3 40.4 19.9 0.3 0.787 43.9 46.5 5.5 :88 Spain :- Huidobro, 0.921 78-0 10.0 Zante, 1.02 76.24 18.44 Algeria, 0.921 0.75 28.25 60.75 9.77 0.879 3.8 32.4 51.8 7.1 (Ain Zeft), 0.888 6.2 20.4 61.9 8.0 Gold Coast, Apollonia, 82.7 12.8 0.972 80.9 11.9 Persia, 0.846 47.3 47.8 2.7 0.900 97.0 2.0 "" 22 (Tchiah Sourkh, drilled well), 0.815 9.4 57.6 31.4 1.1 East Indies :- Upper Burma (Yenangyaung), 0.869 1.35 25.78 67.98 Lower Burma, 0.834 9.0 57.5 32.0 0.2 0-825 9.25 69.25 21.25 0.1 • "> Assam (Digboi), Khatan, Eastern Archipelago Java, Sumatra, ""> 0.857 8.8 37.8 49.4 3.8 • 1.0 64.0 26.3 : 0.881 46.8 46.1 7.1 0.844 1.5 56.6 41.1 1.4 0-771 37-2 52.0 5.9 0.5 0.789 26.0 63.4 7-6 0.75 • 0.857 17.53 32.8 47.0 2.0 0.833 19.7 46.9 31.1 0.8 "" · 0.812 23.3 42.8 28.1 1.9 • 0.813 30-4 51.7 11.2 1.7 "" Timor, Borneo (Labuan), (Sarawak), (Kutei), Philippine Islands (Cebu), 0.965 97.1 2.6 0.924 94.3 3.3 0.859 17.4 46.0 33.3 1.3 0.865 4.6 43.3 50.7 1.6 0.825 67.5 30.7 0.5 0.838 12.6 34.5 46.8 3.1 0.819 18.4 29.6 47.1 2.9 New Zealand (Taranaki, surface), 0.971 90.0 9.75 ( drilled well), 0.840 :: 48.25 51.25 0.4 Sainte-Claire-Deville has furnished the information contained in Table XXII (folding sheet) regarding petroleum from various parts of the world, and Ragozine ¹ that given in Tables XXIII and XXIV. The first of these refers to the oil from particular groups of wells on the Apscheron peninsula. 1 A sample of crude oil from a well at Zabola (Transylvania), examined at the laboratory of the Imperial Geological Institute of Vienna, gave results which indicate that 5 per cent. of benzine, 70 per cent. of illuminating oil, 6 to ¹ Petroleum and the Petroleum-Industry (with Appendix of Investigations of Caucasian Petroleum, by Messrs. Markownikow and Ogloblin). St. Petersburg, 1884. (În Russian.) Pp. 124-127. 230 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XXIII.-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, ETC., OF PETROLEUM FROM THE APSCHERON DISTRICT. Description of Petroleum. Sp. gr. and Quantity. Flashing- point. Temperature of Distillation. Quantity of Distillate. Sp. gr. of Distillate at 12.5° C. Flashing- point of Distillate. Remarks. C. C. Grams. Per Cent. Up to 100° 25.7 12.85 0.7572 0.7852 Below 100° to 150° 81 40.50 0.7735 1. White Surakhani petroleum, 200 grams. 11.25° 150° to 200° 75.6 37.8 0.7790 Boiling commenced at 60° C. 200° to 260° 11.7 5.85 0.8267 Total, 260° 194 97 0.7843 Below 11.25° Up to 150° 34.7 13.88 0.7770 2. Balakhani petroleum from well of Group VIII, 0.8661 250 grams. 150° to 200° 35.5 14.20 0.8266 21.25° 200° to 250° 21 8.40 0.8489 250° to 305° 20.5 8.20 0.8588 Boiling commenced at 120° C. Sp. gr. of residue 0.9058 at 15° C. Total, 305° 111.7 44.78 0.8205 11.25° Up to 150° 17.8 7.12 0.7688 3. Balakhani petroleum from well of Group VIII, 0.8660 150° to 200° 32.7 13.08 0.8005 21.25° 250 grams. 200° to 250° 20.9 8.36 0.8199 250° to 305° 32.4 12.96 0.8511 Total, 305° 103.8 41.52 0.8175 11.25° Up to 150° 17.5 7 0.7662 4. Balakhani petroleum from well of Group III, 0.8756 250 grams. 150° to 200° 34 13.60 0.8024 25° 200° to 250° 18.2 7.28 0.8384 250° to 305° 30.7 12.28 0.8599 Total, 305° 100.4 40.16 0.8206 11.25° Up to 150° 22.7 9.08 0.7775 5. Balakhani petroleum from well of Group X, m} 0.8710 150° to 200° 23.1 9.24 0.8093 25° 250 grams. 200° to 250° 21.5 8.60 0.8356 250° to 305° 32.7 13.08 0.8556 Total, 305° 100 40 0.8224 11.25° PROPERTIES OF RUSSIAN PETROLEUM. 231 TABLE XXIII.-continued. Remarks. Sp. gr. of residue 0.9097 at 12.5° C. Sp. gr. of residue 0.9170 at 15° C. Sp. gr. of residue Description of Petroleum. Sp. gr. and Quantity. Flashing- Temperature of point. Distillation. Quantity of Distillate. Sp. gr. of Distillate at 12.5° C. Flashing- point of Distillate. C. C. Grams. Per Cent. Up to 150° 20.8 8.32 0.7750 6. Balakhani petroleum from well of Group XIV, 0.8706 150° to 200° 32.1 12.84 0.8103 25° j 250 grams. 200° to 250° 20.6 8.24 0.8400 250° to 305° 26.5 10.60 0.8552 Total, 305° 100 40 0.8209 15° Up to 150° 21.5 10.75 0.7718 7. Balakhani petroleum from well of Group II, 0.8773 200 grams. 150° to 200° 22 11 0.8187 28.75° 200° to 250° 11.5 5.75 0.8462 250° to 305° 19.5 9.75 0.8618 Total, 305° 74.5 37.25 0.8183 11.25° Up to 150° 24 9.38 0.7884 8. Balakhani petroleum from well of Group I, 0.8944 150° to 200° 25.7 10 0.8319 256 grams. 200° to 250° 26 10.16 0.8643 250° to 305° 18 7.20 0.8784 Total, 305° 93.7 36.74 0.8371 28.75° Up to 150° 12.5 LO 5 0.8050 9. Balakhani petroleum from well of Group IV, 0.9061 150° to 200° 16.3 6.52 0.8296 250 grams. 200° to 250° 21.7 8.68 0.8564 250° to 305° 21.3 8.52 0.8745 Total, 305° 71.8 28.72 0.8470 46.25° Up to 150° 9 3.60 0.7919 10. Petroleum from the works of Karadjeff, Petrovsk, 0.8824 .j250 grams. 150° to 200° 29 11.60 0.8128 42.25° 200° to 250° 27.8 11.12 0.8421 250° to 305° 23.5 9.40 0.8611 Total, 305° 89-3 35.72 0.8333 30° 0.9372 at 12.5° C. 232 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XXIV.-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, ETC., OF RUSSIAN PETROLEUM. Description of Petroleum. Sp. gr. and Temperature Flashing- of point. Quantity. Distillation. Quantity of Distillate. Sp. gr. of Distillate at 12.5° C. Flashing- point of Distillate. Remarks. Specific gravity of residue at 12.25° C. =0.9405. C. C. Grams. Per Cent. Up to 150° 7.8 3.115 0.8021 11. Petroleum from Meyerson's Works in Astrakhan, 0.8871 150° to 200° 25 9.960 0.8216 58.75° .J 251 grams. 200° to 250° 33 13.147 0.8440 250° to 305° 23.8 9.482 0.8614 Total, 305° 89.6 35.704 0.8405 46.5° Up to 150° 32.7 13.08 0.7707 12. Bibi-Eibat petroleum from well of Group XIX, 0.8746 150° to 200° 40.3 16.12 0.7990 15° 250 grams. 200° to 250° 26.5 10.60 0.8427 250° to 305° 25.5 10.20 0.8747 Total, 305° 125.0 50.00 0.8156 12.5° Up to 150° 12.7 5.04 0.7590 13. Binagadi petroleum from Prince Begtabegoff's well, 0.9136 150° to 200° 27.1 10.75 0.8069 25° • 252 grams. 200° to 250° 22 8.73 0.8686 250° to 305° 26.5 10.52 0.8925 Total, 305° 88.3 35.04 0.8405 11.25° Up to 150° 7.7 3.060 0.7914 14. Binagadi petroleum from Prince Eristoff's well, 0.9252 252 grams. 150° to 200° 17.7 7.023 0.8206 43.75° 200° to 250° 22 8.730 0.8664 250° to 305° 25.8 10.240 0.8921 Total, 305° 73.2 29.053 0.8549 31.25° Up to 100° 26.5 13.25 0.7321 15. Kuban petroleum from a well in Kapustin, 100° to 150° 42.5 21.25 0.7583 0.8140 Below 150° to 200° 32.3 16.15 0.7845 200 grams. 11.25° 200° to 250° 21.0 10.50 0.8248 250° to 305° 28.5 14.25 0.8713 Total, 305° 150.8 75.40 0.7890 Below 11.25° Specific gravity of residue at 15° C. =0.9390. PROPERTIES OF RUSSIAN PETROLEUM. 233 TABLE XXIV.-continued. Remarks. Description of Petroleum. Sp. gr. and Flashing- Temperature Quantity. point. of Distillation. Quantity of Distillate. Sp. gr. of Distillate at 12.5° C. Flashing- point of Distillate. C. C. Grams. Per Cent. 16. Kuban petroleum from a well 0.9449 Up to 200° 21.7 8.68 0.8246 65° on the River Tchekups, 200° to 250° 15 6.00 0.8645 250 grams. 250° to 305° 32 12.80 0.8911 Total, 305° 68.7 27.48 0.8665 43.75° Up to 110° 6.5 2.60 0.7304 17. Kuban petroleum from ai well on the River Kudako, 110° to 150° 26.7 10.60 0.7570 0.8952 250 grams. 11.25° 150° to 200° 26.3 10.52 0.8085 200° to 250° 12.7 5.80 0.8590 250° to 305° 24.7 9.88 0.8806 Total, 305° 96.7 38.68 0.8138 Under 11.25° Up to 100° 10.1 4.30 0.6923 100° to 150° 30 11.95 0.8730 Under 0.7303 18. Grozni petroleum (thin), 150° to 200° 251 grams. 29 11.55 0.7865 11.25° 200° to 250° 18.2 7.25 0.8401 250° to 305° 19.8 7.91 0.8763 Total, 305° 107.1 42.96 0.7865 Under 11.25° Up to 150° 3.7 1.48 0.9250 0.8044 150° to 200° 20.3 8.12 19. Grozni petroleum (thick), 250 grams. 200° to 250° 21.7 8.68 0.8471 250° to 305° 22.2 8.88 0.8776 Total, 305° 67.9 27.16 0.8424 31.25° 20. Crimea petroleum-Messrs. Į 0.9113 Up to 200° 6.7 2.68 0.8546 200° to 250° 20.5 8.20 0.8692 Sokhan & Co. 250 grams. 250° to 305° 34 13.60 0.8799 Total, 305° 61.2 24.48 0.8742 234 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. 7 per cent. of lubricating oil, and 12 per cent. of vaseline and paraffin-like products could be obtained from it. Another sample, from a shaft 28 metres in depth, was considered capable of yielding about 15 per cent. of benzine, 60 per cent. of illuminating oil, 10 to 15 per cent. of lubricating oil, and 5 to 6 per cent. of a vaseline or paraffin-like product. From Monsieur A. Pappel, the author has received the following results obtained in the examination, in the Khedival Laboratory, Cairo, of a specimen. of Egyptian crude petroleum. The oil was of dark brownish-red colour, and had a specific gravity of 0.908- Water, Spirit, Lighting oil, Heavy oil, Coke, Parts per 1000. 4.5 11.0 187.6 744.9 52.0 1000-0 Mr. William Warren has furnished the author with the following particulars. respecting samples of crude petroleum from Sumatra and Cebu, examined by him :- TABLE XXV.-PRODUCTS FROM THE CRUDE PETROLEUM OF SUMATRA AND CEBU. Locality. Sumatra, "" >> "" 99 Cebu, Specific Gravity| of Crude Oil. Spirit. Kerosene. Heavy Oil. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 0.765 22.9 49.1 12.5 0.769 30.0 45.0 16.1 0.777 28.0 49.0 14.5 0.800 27.5 52.5 14.0 0.897 Nil. 40.0 55.4 0.842 13.5 37.5 31.5 1 Künkler ¹ has published the result of the examination of various descrip- tions of lubricating oil, employed for the particular purposes specified (see Table XXVI). Particulars of the lubricating oils made at the Bucharest refinery of the Steaua Romana are given in Table XXVIII (p. 235). The specific gravity of Russian kerosene is higher than that of ordinary American kerosene, and still higher than that of American " water-white oil,' but the Russian oil has greater power than the ordinary American oil of ascend- ing a lamp-wick by capillary attraction, and affords in most lamps a better- sustained, though smaller and less brilliant, flame than the latter oil. The relative capillary power of three descriptions of kerosene, as determined by noting the quantity of oil withdrawn by ordinary lamp-wicks in a given time, from vessels of the same size, is shown by the following results obtained in the author's laboratory — TABLE XXVII.-CAPILLARY POWER OF KEROSENE. Best Wick. Inferior Wick. 205.0 104.2 202.6 94.2 146.0 69.7 American kerosene (water-white), specific gravity 0·790, Russian kerosene (ordinary), specific gravity 0-822, American kerosene (ordinary), specific gravity 0·800, 1 Dingler's polytechn. Journ. cclxxiv, 280 (1889). Source and Stated Use of Oil. Specific Gravity at 171° 0. TABLE XXVI.-PARTICULARS OF LUBRICATING OILS. Colour by Transmitted Light. Reflected Light. Distillation com- menced at° 0. Flashing-point ° 0. Burning-point * O. i Solidifying or Melting-point ° 0. Per cent. by Volume Volatile at 310' 0. [To face page 234. Viscosity at C. Water=1. 20° 30° 50° 60° 70° 100° 150° RUSSIA. For spindles and the like, 0.895 Bright fellow Greenish and blue 105 163 190 - 10° liquid 1 11.82 3.40 1.53 0.895 110 165 194 - 10° 99 11 1-5 10.96 3.15 1.40 .་ 0-893 105 "" "" "" "1 0.895 167 193 -10° 110 164 >> 10-0 11.82 3.44 1.55 • 192-10° 8.0 11.03 3.36 1.53 For steam engines, and for replacing olive oil, rape oil, etc., 0.909 Yellow 128 197 234 -10° 5.0 6.28 1.76 " 0.905 120 195 234 10° 5.5 "" "> "" 6.05 1.77 "" >> 0.906 120 180 220 -10° ") "" "" 4.0 5.86 1.71 " "" "" 95 0.903 125 195 235 - 10° 6.0 6.34 1.86 99 15 "" 94 11 0.905 123 185 230 -10° 5.0 6'05 "" "" For steam-engine cylinders, 0.916 Reddish yellow ** "" 130 215 265 - 10° 36.0 11.65 8.55 " 5.09 1.80 2.21 1.42 Greenish 0.923 Dark brown 118 208 235 8° solid 16:0 : "" ** 0.916 Dark red 19 19 without blue Greenish with little blue : 0.911 Reddish yellow 19 Dark red 0.916 19 14 ** transparent 14 0-912 Dark brown Greenish 130 227 283 110 218 267 130 238 280 110 188 7° 38.0 - 10° 27.0 10.14 7.13 5-67 7° 27.5 1.01 8.26 2.88 16.19 9.34 6.73 2.50 1.48 2.15 1.38 10.92 6.76 2.65 1.48 1.53 " 0.916 Reddish Greenish with ) little blue 142 218 225 264 - 10° 4.0 -10° liquid 10-5 12.40 8.51 5.78 2.30 1.44 10.23 7.00 4'44 2.07 1.36 "" >> For shafting and for general uses, 0.916 Dark brown Greenish 100 170 200-10° 5.0 8.73 2.03 "" "" machinery, locomotives, etc., 0.920 120 185 212 ** 8° solid 2.0 12.84 2.42 heaviest work, 0.909 ** shafting, 0.913 Bright red Dark brown Greenish and blue Greenish 127 187 233 -10° liquid 140 7.94 1-88 97 170 196 -10° 5.0 10.38 2.21 • • • " >> general lubricating purposes, 0.908 80 138 170 -10° 21.0 8.84 2.05 • "> "" machinery, transmission-gear, 0.906 Greenish and blue 120 191 231 -10° 45 6.40 1.78 11 19 27 shafting, 0.909 * gas-motors and light work, 0*900 Yellow Greenish Greenish and blue 82 142 180 180 -10° 13.0 7.30 2.09 115 175 207 -10° " 5.0 4.50 1*63 AMERICA. For spindles, etc., and to mix with animal oils, 11 spindles, machinery, 59 steam-engine cylinders, "5 "1 shafting, GERMANY. Hanover • 0.911 Bright yellow 110 "" 0.908 *" 0.920 Reddish yellow 11 Reddish 0.886 Greenish transparent 0.899 Dark brown 234 187 120 200 240 125 206 245 185 185 283 330 + 5° 280 344 + 4° ååò i + 2º + 0.0 9.23 4.80 0.5 10.96 6.46 3.32 3.0 4.23 8.90 3.13 1.46 1.61 • 1.65 35.0 11.73 4.17 1.78 30.0 12.61 4.82 1.92 0.884 80 190 | 222 3° 1.0 14.73 6.09 2.00 17 ** • 91 For machinery, transmission-gear, etc., shafting, transmission-gear, "" general lubricating purposes, 0.928 95 155 193 9° " 11 >1 0.916 100 164 193 -10° "3 " " 0.910 95 | 162 193 -10° 888888 5.0 15.48 2.69 3.0 8.65 1.73 3:0 3.S4 1.63 • 19 +4 19 Mзass. For general lubricating purposes, mixing purposes, 0.921 0.885 Brownish green Bright yellow 105 152 195 2° 9.0 4.55 1.60 >> 19 Greenish and blue 80 115 142 -10° 60.0 1.92 1.25 Saxony. For general lubricating work, mixing purposes, 388888888 %%% 20.0 3.17 1.40 (၂ဝ 50·0 1.86 >> 1.25 17:0 2-36 1.28 • 9" "" 0.994 0-897 0.904 Dark brown Bright yellow Dark brown Scarcely greenish Strongly green 80 135 168 80 126 150 80 126 150 >> VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL OILS. Rape oil, crude, 0.920 170 260 - 10° 9.03 4.0 1.78 1.34 19 refined, 0.911 185 305 - 10° 11.88 4.96 2.05 1:40 " 22 Earth-nut oil, 0.917 195 300 6° solid 10-17 4.03 1.82 · • • Sesame oil, Olive oil, 0.920 180 280 · - 10° liquid 9.80 4:03 1.82 0.914 145 205 -10° 1.30 3.78 1.80 ** Castor oil, 0.963 195 275 - 10° 16.46 3.01 • Linseed oil, 0.930 185 285 - 10° 6:30 3.21 1.76 • 11 • • Seal oil, 0.922 162 240 10° 8:07 3.50 1.76 · ་ • Neatsfoot oil. 0.916 215 305 · -10° ་་ 11.63 4.41 1.92 Tallow, 0.951 180 265 +42° solid 6.19 2-50 1.73 • VOL. I. UNIL OF LUBRICATING OILS. 235 TABLE XXVIII.-PARTICULARS OF LUBRICATING OILS MADE AT THE BUCHAREST REFINERY OF THE STEAUA ROMANA. Light-coloured Oils. Name. Purpose. Specific Gravity. Flashing-point (Open Test). Cold Test. Viscosity by Engler's Viscometer at 20° C. "Misch Oel," For light machinery and for adulterating vegetable oils, C. 0.875 120° C. Under -20° 2-2.5 Spindle Oel," For heavier machinery, 0.902 130° 3.5-4 "Dresch Oel," "Prima Oel," >> "" For threshing-machines, 0.913 145° ·12° 7-8 For general purposes, 0.921 155° 10° 13-14 "Extra Oel," Regal Oel,' "Imperial Oel," >> For electric motors, For electric motors, For heavy machinery, 0.926 160° 10° 23-24 0.929 180° 3° · 36-37 0.930 186° + 8° 43-45 Dark-coloured Oils. 0.923 150° Under -20° 40-45 0.921-0.928 155° -10° 25-40 0.948 -5° to 7° 40 at 50° C. 1 For the production of this oil Tega crude petroleum is employed. This crude oil has a specific gravity of 0.900, and a flashing-point of 50°-55° C. (Pensky-Martens test). On distillation it yields a small quantity of solar oil, and the whole of the residue is treated with acid and soda for the purpose of making cylinder-oil. "Vulcan, Maschinen - Bahn Oel (Valvoline)," For railway axles, etc., 1 "Cylinder Oel (Valvo- line)," 236 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. The viscosity of petroleum products increases with the density, but oils of the same specific gravity from different localities frequently differ in viscosity. This is especially noticeable in comparing the Russian and American oils, which are so widely different in chemical composition. Table XXIX shows the relative viscosity of water and various oils, as determined by the author. Table XXX records results yielded, in the author's laboratory, by lubri- cating oils manufactured by the Burmah Oil Company from the petroleum of Yenangyaung, in Upper Burma. The colour of the first sample (3) by Lovibond's tintometer, in a 2-inch cell, series 500, was 130; and of the second sample (4) was 224. TABLE XXIX.-VISCOSITY-SECONDS FOR 50 c.c. Results obtained with Redwood's Standard Viscometer. American Mineral Oil. Russian Mineral Oil. Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr. 0.885. 0.913. 0.923. 0.909. Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr. 0.915. 0.884.1 145 425 1030 2040 2520 105 2951 680 1235 1980 90 225 485 820 1320 73 171 375 580 900 • • 631/ 136 262 426 640 54 111 200 315 440 1015 50 891 153 226 335 7391 47 78 126 174 245 531 443 44 631 101 1351/ 185 3981 41 58 82 116 145 317 31 371 52 701 95 115 250 46 631 831 933 200 58 70 77 161 521 61 67 1341 47 563 61 • 115/1/ 42 483 54 991 40 85 38 77 701 641 591 54 50 7121 620 60 251 540 177 470 70 405 136/ 366 80 326 113 280 90 260 96 2191 4 100 2131 801 1742 110 169 701 147/ 120 147 601 126 130 1231 57 112 140 105/1/ 503 مت احمر 88/9/ 150 951 49 75/1/20 160 85 471/ 70 • 170 76 46 62 180 69 44312 5612 190 641/ 43 53 200 581 42 50% 210 54 403 481/ ارات السريع 543 220 50 39 47 230 471 363/1 45층 ​240 451 3531 44 250 434 343 44 40 260 333/1 431/ 270 323 43 280 3117 41/1/ 290 303 41 300 30 38 310 320 35 33/ • TABLE XXX.-PROPERTIES OF BURMA LUBRICATING OILS. Viscosity.2 Flashing Point. Rape Oil at 60° F. 481/ 461/ • 441 42 Sp. Gr. = 100. Description of Oil. at Cold Test. 60° F. Close. Open. At 70° F. At 140° F. F. ° F. Lubricating oil (3), 0.920 238 266 34.23 9.24 Ceases to flow at 30° F. Lubricating oil (4), 0.930 330 354 73.76 12.47 Ceases to flow at 30° F. Lubricating oil (5), 0.931 336 360 124.02 15.71 Ceases to flow at 42° F. "Valvoline" (6), 0.949 400 422 25.95 Ceases to flow at 45° F. 1 Semi-solid at ordinary temperatures. 2 By Redwood's Viscometer. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 237 Höfer gives the following particulars of some of the commercial products of the distillation of petroleum :- TABLE XXXI.-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS FROM PETROLEUM. Light Oils. Boiling-point. ° C. Specific Gravity. Petroleum ether (Keroselene, Rhigolene, Sherwood oil), 40 to 70 0.650 to 0-660 Gasoline, . 70 to 80 0.640 to 0.667 Petroleum naphtha (Petroleum benzine), 80 to 100 0.667 to 0.707 ,, (Ligroine), 100 to 120 0-707 to 0-722 (Cleansing oil), 120 to 150 0.722 to 0-737 Burning Oils. Kaiser oil, Illuminating oil (American), (Russian), Standard white oil, Prime white oil, Astraline, 18 Heavy Oils. Boiling-point 150° to 300° C. 0.780 to 0.800 0-800 to 0.810 0.820 to 0-825 0-808 to 0.812 0-800 to 0.806 • · 0.850 to 0-860 Solar oil, Mixing oil, Spindle oil, I. >> II., Machine oil, I., II., Cylinder oil (bright). (dark). وو Vulcan oil, 1 • 0.860 to 0.880 0-880 to 0-890 0.895 to 0-900 0.900 to 0.906 0-906 to 0.910 • 0.910 to 0-915 0.915 to 0·920 · 0.920 to 0.950 0.910 to 0.960 According to Veith, the American petroleum ether of commerce has a specific gravity of 0.63 to 0.65, while that obtained from Galician oil has a specific gravity of 0.65 to 0.66. Evers states that certain oils obtained during the compression of oil-gas, and known technically as "hydrocarbon," are sold as petroleum-ether. The "benzin " of the United States Pharmacopoeia is the portion of the distillate from American petroleum having a specific gravity between 0.670 and 0.675, and boiling between 50° and 60° C. The petroleum- benzin" of the German Pharmacopoeia consists of the colourless, non-fluorescent portions of petroleum, having a specific gravity of 0.640 to 0-670, and distilling almost entirely between 55° and 75° C. Petroleum-naphtha is required by the New York Produce Exchange to be “ water-white and sweet," and of density from 68° to 70° Baumé (specific gravity 0-707 to 0.690). Further information respecting the various products of petroleum met with in commerce will be found in the section dealing with the refining of petroleum. Chemical Composition.-As regards its ultimate composition, petroleum. consists essentially of carbon and hydrogen, together with oxygen, and usually with widely-varying amounts of nitrogen and sulphur. From the results of a large number of analyses by Sainte-Claire-Deville 2 and others, the carbon appears to vary between 79.5, for an oil from Schwabweiler, in Elsass, having a specific gravity of 0.829, and containing 13.6 per cent. of hydrogen (Sainte- 1 Das Erdöl . . . 1892, 369. 2 Comptes Rendus, lxvi, 442; lxviii, 485; lxix., 1007. (See Table XXII.) 238 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. Claire-Deville); and 88-7, according to Boussingault, also for petroleum from Schwabweiler. ¹ The hydrogen apparently varies between 9.6 for an oil from Pechelbronn, in Elsass, and 14.8 for an oil from Oil Creek, Pennsylvania (Sainte- Claire-Deville). Peckham gives the following as the composition of specimens. from districts in the United States :- TABLE XXXII.-COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM. Hydrogen. Carbon. Nitrogen. Mecca (Ohio), 13.071 86.316 0.230 Cumberland (W. Virginia), 13.359 85.200 0.540 Hayward Petroleum Company (California), 11.819 86.934 1.1095 Pico Spring (California), 1.0165 Cañada Laga (California), 1.0855 • Maltha, Ojai ranch (California), 0.5645 M. Delesse 2 found 0.154 per cent. of nitrogen in elaterite, and 0-256 per cent. in the asphalt of Trinidad. Mr. Beilby 3 states that he found in crude American petroleum, at least 0.008 per cent. of nitrogen, in crude Galician, 0-188 per cent., and in crude Baku petroleum, 0.05. He states that the nitrogen is present as bases which are removable by sulphuric acid, and that it tends to accumulate in the residues from the distillation. Mabery and Dunn ¹ find that the pro- portion of nitrogen appears in most cases to increase with the depth of the petroleum well. Weller 5 has found alkaloid-like bases in the petroleum of Saxony, and Bandrowski 6 has ascertained the presence of similar bodies in Galician oil. 4 In a paper on the nitrogen-content of Californian bitumen, read at the Congress of Chemists at San Francisco, 9th June 1894,7 Peckham refers to a case which came under his observation many years previously, in which a quantity of petroleum, estimated at two quarts, contained in a small cavity in the rock, was so filled with maggots that they crawled over each other precisely as they would in a pool of blood," 8 and he gives the results of some recent investigations, showing that this description of petroleum contains basic oils combined with an exceedingly viscous, feebly-acid tar. To the presence of these bodies, the difficulty which had been experienced in refining the oils was found to be due, and it is stated that the discovery led to very important changes in the techno- logy of this class of bitumens. Treatment of the distillates with dilute acid results in the removal of the acid and basic radicals of the compound ethers, and superior commercial products are obtained, the burning oil being of higher illuminating power, and the lubricating oils of increased viscosity in relation to the specific gravity. Peckham considers it probable that "not only pyridine and quinoline are present, but that also a large number, if not all, of the methy- lated compounds of these bases are associated with them." C. F. Mabery 9 has examined a considerable number of Californian oils, and finds that the nitrogen varies from 0.23 up to 0.88 per cent. by weight. A series of six bases ¹ Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, lxxiii, 442 (1840). 3 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., x, 120 (1891). 5 Berichte deutsch. chem. Ges., xx, 2098 (1887). 2 Ann. Mines, 5, xviii, 151 (1860). 4 Amer. Chem. Journ., xviii, 215 (1896). • Monatsh. Chem., viii, 224 (1887). 7 Amer. Journ. Sci., 3, xlviii, 250 (1894); also Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1897, 727. 8 During a visit to California, Mr. Eastlake saw in the crevices of rocks several small pools of oil which were alive with maggots." Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1900, 121, 123, and 505; see also Thiele, Ibid., 138, and Ibid. 1901, 795. SULPHUR IN PETROLEUM. 239 12 were found, ranging as to formulæ from C₁₂H17N to C17H₂N, and boiling between 130° and 275° C. They are quite unlike the members of the quinoline series as to properties. Clifford Richardson's testimony is similar, and he has also examined Texas oils, in which he finds both resemblances to and differences from California oils; in some respects also the Texas oils stand alone. According to this authority, those forms of bitumen which have been least exposed to the action of atmospheric oxygen contain the largest proportion of basic oils, analysis showing less nitrogen in the malthas, and still less in the asphaltums, than in the petroleums. It may be added that Beilby has found nitrogen, partly as bases and partly as salts of ammonia, in nearly all the speci- mens of American, Russian, and Galician oils which he has examined, and that Zaloziecki has also found pyridine bases in petroleum. Schestakoff ¹ treated a Caucasian petroleum distillate with acid, neutralised the extract with alkali, and obtained 0006 per cent. of a brown liquid smelling of pyridine, and distilling between 260° and 370° C. This was confirmed by Khlopin, who, operating on Baku" masut masut" and Caucasian crude petroleum, found therein 0.005–0·006 per cent. of pyridine bases of the general formula CH2-15 N. 4 2 1 In respect to the sulphur in crude petroleum much information has been published. Mabery and Smith 3 found an average of 0.5 per cent. of sulphur in a number of samples, and state that the oil of Ohio contains the sulphides of methyl, ethyl, normal propyl, normal and isobutyl, pentyl, ethyl-pentyl, butyl-pentyl, and hexyl, but that neither mercaptans nor thiophenes were found. They add that in the Lima oil, the sulphur is mainly concentrated in the 200°-300° distillate. Kast and Lagai state that the petroleum of Tegern- see is the only crude oil in which they have found no sulphur, and that the sulphur in other oils varies between 0.064, found by Markownikoff and Ogloblin in an oil of Baku, and 1·87, found in an oil from the Kirghiz Steppe. The Bibi- Eibat oil is stated to contain some sulphur. They do not confirm Mabery and Smith's statement as to the nature of the sulphur-compounds, and find that the Ohio oil loses only about 25 per cent. of its sulphur by treatment with sulphuric acid, followed by washing with an alkali, although its alliaceous. odour is destroyed. The odour is attributed by them to unsaturated hydro- carbons rather than to sulphur-compounds. Mabery and Smith, however, point out that the Ohio oil used by Kast and Lagai was obtained in Bremen, and contained 1 per cent. of sulphur; they state that Ohio oil never contains more than 0.6 per cent., and quote, in support of their assertion, Professors Orton and Lord,5 who found 0-553 per cent. of sulphur in crude Trenton Lime- stone oil; other analysts, who report about 0-5 per cent.; and the experience of commercial manufacture, which indicates on the average 0.55 per cent. Specimens of petroleum from the Texas oil-fields have been found by the author and others to contain from 2 to 2.4 per cent. of sulphur, in the form of sulphur compounds, and certain descriptions of Mexican crude petroleum contain an even larger percentage. Canadian sulphur-petroleums contain more sulphur than do the Ohio petroleums. Mabery found 0.98 per cent. in a crude Canadian oil, in addition to a quantity present as hydrogen sulphide. Mabery and Quayle have isolated the following sulphur-compounds from Canadian oil-C₂H₁S¸ 1 Jurn. Russk. Phiz. Khim. Obsch., xxx, 873; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1899, 260. 2 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., 1900, xxxiii, 2837 (1900). 3 Proc. Amer. Acad., xxv, 218 (1891). 6 • Dingler's polytechn. Journ., celxxxiv, 69. 5 ↳ Eighth Annual Report of the U.S. Gcological Survey, p. 624 (1889). 6 • Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1900, 505. 240 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. - a boiling-point 71°-73°; CH16S, b.-p. 79° 81°; CgH16S, b.-p. 97°-98° C,H18S, b.-p. 110°-112°; C10H20S, b.-p. 114°-116°; C11H22S, b.-p. 129°-131°; C14H28S, b.-p. 168°-170°; and C18H36S, b.-p. 198°-200° C. (all under 50 mm. pressure). Charitschkoff¹ finds that sulphur-compounds are always present in that petroleum-spirit from Grozni petroleum, which has specific gravity of 0.685, whilst the naphtha (ligroïn) distillates of specific gravity 0.75 to 0.77 appear to be free from it. Kast and Künkler 2 state that the sulphur of the petroleum of Gemsah, on the shore of the Red Sea, is also not entirely removable by treatment with acid. Krämer 3 found 0.134 to 0.138 per cent. of sulphur in the oils of Elsass, and 0.077 to 0.085 in those of Peine (Hanover), and expresses the opinion that the sulphur exists as thiophenes. 6 Böttcher separated from the 55°-65° fraction, obtained from Pennsylvanian oil, a white body of the composition C5H10SO3. Peckham reports the examina- tion of a Californian oil, which contained enough sulphur to form a deposit in the neck of the retort, and Otto Hesse found in Syrian and American asphalt as much as 8.78 and 10.85 per cent. of sulphur. Peckham 4 also found that Californian petroleums on distillation decomposed even at 100° C., with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen, more or less separation of carbon, and rise of boiling- point of the residue in the retort. Nawratil 5 found sulphuretted hydrogen in a sample of oil from Pagorzyn, in Galicia, while Hager asserts the existence of carbon bisulphide, but this statement has never been confirmed. In a specimen of Algerian crude petroleum, obtained at a depth of 12 feet from the surface, the author found 2-19 per cent of sulphur. In samples of the surface- oil from Gaspé, he found from 0·17 to 0.20 per cent., while in oil from a drilled well in this locality, there was only 0-09 per cent. Clifford Richardson and Wallace find besides combined sulphur in the Beaumont petroleum (Jefferson county, Texas) also free sulphur (the limestone in which the petroleum occurs also contains crystallised sulphur). This presence of free sulphur in the oil seems to be the cause of its great instability. (See also Thiele, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1902, 1271.) 7 Many other inorganic bodies appear to be present in traces in crude petro- leum, though some of the substances found are doubtless wholly or partly due to the solvent action of the oil upon the containing vessels. Markownikoff and Ogloblin 8 obtained 0·09 per cent. of ash from the oil from the Benkendorff well at Baku. In the ash, calcium, iron, aluminium, and copper oxides, together with traces of silver were found. Lidoff 9 obtained from another oil 0.11 per cent. of ash, containing 76.71 per cent. of iron oxide, 5.48 per cent. of lime, and 16.07 per cent. of “insoluble matter. Norman Tate has shown the presence وو of arsenic and phosphorus in certain oils, and it has been stated that metallic arsenic condenses in the necks of retorts in which the bituminous limestones of Lobsann are distilled.¹ 10 Very great progress has been made in the determination of the actual constitution of the various hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives of which 1 Trudi Bak. Otd. Imp. Russk. Techn. Obsch., xii, 272; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1897, 1009. 2 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., cclxxviii, 34 (1890). 3 Sitz. Ver. Beförd. Gewerbfl. Preuss., 1885, 296. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xxxvi, 10 (1897). 5 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., ccxlvi, 423 (1882). 6 Ibid., clxxxiii, 165, from Pharm. Centralb., vii, 193 (1866). 7 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., xxi, 317 (1902). 8 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xiii, 1, 179 (1881). • Ibid., xiv, 323 (1882). 10 Daubrée, Ann. Mines, 4, xix, 669 (1851). PENNSYLVANIAN PETROLEUM PARAFFINS. 241 petroleum is made up. Höfer¹ states that members of each of the following groups have been identified :- C₁, H₂n+2 C₁ Han C, H, -2 CH2-4 2 CH - CnH2n-8 C, H₂n-10 6 C₁ Han-12 8 9 The early and only partially successful attempts of Reichenbach and of Laurent 2 to separate petroleum into its constituent hydrocarbons by fractional distillation were followed by the important researches of Schorlemmer 3 and Pelouze and Cahours, 4 on American petroleum, and these again were followed by the work of Warren, and of Warren and Storer.6 5 The chemists last-named, as well as De la Rue and Müller, also examined "Rangoon" petroleum. It has been found that Pennsylvanian petroleum (generally described as American oil) consists mainly of the methane or paraffin series of hydrocarbons, the composition of which is represented by the general formula C,H+ while Caucasian petroleum consists mainly of naphthenes, which belong to the CH+H group, and are isomers of the ethylene (CH) or olefine group. Stokes has investigated a specimen of crude oil from Cuba, and finds that, like Russian oils, it consists for the most past of naphthenes. Its specific gravity is 0.901 at 33° C., and it has an odour like cedarwood. Paraffin wax is absent, and not more than 1 per cent. of unsaturated fatty hydrocarbons are present. Mabery ⁹ has more recently, however, examined the hydrocarbons of Pennsyl- vanian oil with boiling-points above 216° C., and he finds that rising from C13H28 to C26H51, they all agree in belonging to the CH series, yet the two final hydrocarbons (boiling at 310° and above) which he obtained, belong to the CH, series, members of which series also occur in the less volatile portions of Canadian, Californian, and Texas oils. This, Mabery thinks, reveals some relationship between all four of the oils just referred to. According to Mark- ownikoff and Ogloblin, the naphthenes constitute at least 80 per cent. of the oil of Baku. Contrary to his previously-published opinions that the fractions of Caucasian petroleum boiling below 60° C. consist exclusively of paraffins, Markownikoff 10 found in 1890 that in some of these the specific gravities are higher than is consistent with this assumption, and indicate the presence of cyclic hydrocarbons. Mendeléeff considers that the Russian and American oils contain the same hydrocarbons, though in varying amounts. Beilstein and Kurbatoff 12 found pentane, hexane, and heptane in the lighter distillates from the oil of Tsarski Kolodtsi (Government of Tiflis), and state that this oil, unlike that of Baku, consists largely of members of the C,,H+ group. 2 21+2 Krämer states that the distillate obtained below 150° C. from German oil consists also mainly of the methane group; and Engler has found the com- pounds C5H12, C6H11, and C,H20 in the fraction boiling below 150° C. Bussenius and Eisenstück 13 and Uelsmann 14 state that the oil of Sehnde (Hanover) has the general formula CH The Italian oil, according to Chandler, 1 Das Erdöl, 1862. 9 C,H„+?• 2 Compt. Rend., iv, 909 (1827). 3 Proc. Manch. Phil. Soc., iii, 81; Phil. Trans., clxii, 111; clxix, 49; clxxi, 451; clxxiv, 269; Proc. Roy. Soc., xiv, 164; xv, 131; xvi, 34, 367; xviii, 25, and xix, 20, 487; Journ. Chem. Soc., xvi, 216; xxvi, 319 (1863, 1873). 4 Compt. Rend., Ivi, 505 (1863). 6 Mem. Amer. Acad., 2, ix, 177 (1867). 8 Eng. Min. Journ., lxxiii, 347 (1902). 10 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xxii, 23 11 Ibid., xv, 1, 189 (1883). 13 Ann. Chem. Pharm., cxiii, 151 (1860). VOL. I. (1890). 5 Mem. Amer. Acad., 2, ix, 121, 135 (1867). 7 Proc. Roy. Soc., viii, 221 (1857). 9 Proc. Amer. Acad., xxxvii, 565 (1902). 12 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xiv, 1620 (1881). 14 Ann. Chem. Pharm., cxiv, 279 (1860). 16 242 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. contains practically none of such compounds. In Galician oil, Lachowicz found normal and isopentane and normal and secondary hexane, heptane, nonane, and decane. O. Aschan ¹ has found in petroleum-spirit from Baku di-isopropyl or tetramethylethane, and Charitschkoff 2 in Grozni spirit, large quantities of isoheptane, and in the portion boiling between 29° and 35° C. two isomeric pentanes. The following members of the methane group have been isolated from Pennsylvanian petroleum :- Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, TABLE XXXIII.-PARAFFINS FROM PENNSYLVANIAN PETROLEUM. Name. Gaseous. Formula. Boiling-Point. Specific Gravity. C. CH4 C₂H6 • C3H8 CH10 Liquid. Pentane (normal), "" (iso-), Hexane (normal), (iso-), Heptane (normal), (iso-), Octane (normal), C₂H 12 3888 0.628 30 • C6H14 69 0.664 61 C₂H16 97.5 0.699 91 C₂H 18 125 0-703 118 (iso-), Nonane, Decane, Endecane, Dodecane, Tridecane, Tetradecane, C₂H 20 136 0.741 C10H 22 158 0.757 11H24 182 0.765 C12H26 198 0.776 C13H28 216 0.792 '14- C₁₁H 30 238 Pentadecane, Hexadecane, Octodecane, ? 15 C₁6H32 258 • C16H34 280 C18H38 • C20H42 C23H48 ? C25H52 Solid. Paraffin (myricyl), (ceryl), C27H66 C30H62 370 " By working on large quantities of crude Pennsylvanian petroleum, Warren separated both normal and iso-butane, pentane, hexane, heptane, and octane in quantities of some hundred cubic centimetres, and of boiling-points closely approaching to those given above, as is shown by the following résumé of his results: 1 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xxxi, 1801 (1898). 2 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xxxi, 655 (1899). PENNSYLVANIAN PETROLEUM PARAFFINS. 243 TABLE XXXIV.-PARAFFINS FROM PENNSYLVANIAN PETROLEUM. First Series. Second Series. Boiling- Specific Formula. Point. Gravity Vapour- Density. Boiling- Specific Formula. Point. Gravity Vapour- Density. • C. at 0° C. PC. at 0° C. C₁H10 ? 0.600 2.110 C₁H10 8 to 9 0.611 C5H12 30-2 0.640 2.538 C5H12 37.0 0.645 2.514 CH14 61.3 0.676 3.053 C&H 14 68.5 0.689 3.038 C-H16 90.4 0.718 3.547 C-H16 98.1 0.730 3.551 C8H18 119.5 0-737 3.992 CgH18 127.6 0.752 3.990 C₂H 20 150-8 0.756 4.600 12 11 Warren also isolated the members C10H20 (boiling-point 174.9° C.), C₁₁H₂2 (195·8°), and C₁₂H24 (216·2°) of the CH,,, group, but, according to Markownikoff, these compounds belong to the naphthene group already mentioned. Warren and Storer obtained the paraffins C,H16 to C,H20 from "Rangoon tar," pre- sumably the crude petroleum of Yenangyaung in Upper Burma. 1 Referring to the constituents of Pennsylvanian, Ohio and Canadian petro- leum between 150° C. and 220° C., Mabery ¹ finds that Pennsylvanian oil contains, besides paraffin hydrocarbons, smaller quantities of aromatic hydro- carbons (mesitylene, etc). Ohio oil is represented by the same hydrocarbons of the CH2+ series, the higher specific gravity being due to a larger percentage of the aromatic series. Up to 173° C. the Canadian oil is the same as the others, but the fractions 196°-214° C. have the formula C,H,,, and Canadian oil con- tains more aromatic hydrocarbons than the other two. The results show a relation between the chemical composition of the hydrocarbons and the specific gravity of the crude oils, viz., Pennsylvania, 0-80-0-82; Ohio, 0.82-0-85; Canadian, 0.85-0-88; whilst South American oil, specific gravity 0-948, contains only the C, H., series, which also forms the chief portion of Caucasian oil, specific gravity 0.88. Mabery and Buck 2 also examined Texas petroleum. It was very thick and dark in colour, and had a specific gravity of 0.9500 at 20° C. It contained hydrocarbons from C14H26 to C19H36 of the series CH, and higher hydro- carbons C21H38 to C25H16 of the series C, H, with boiling-points rising from 125° to 275° C., and specific gravities from 0-8711 to 0-9410. In a paper on the hydrocarbons in Pennsylvania petroleum with boiling- points above 216°, published in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xxxvii, pp. 565-595 (1902), Mabery describes the separation and identification of the following:- 1 Proc. Amer. Acad., xxxii, 121 (1897). 2 Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., xxii, 553 (1900). 244 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XXXV. PENNSYLVANIAN HYDROCARBONS. Tridecane, Tetradecane, Pentadecane, Hexadecane, Heptadecane, Octodecane, Nonodecane, Heneicosane, Name. Hydrocarbon, liquid at -10°, Docosane, Hydrocarbon, liquid at -10°, Tricosane, Hydrocarbon, liquid at -10°, Tetracosane, Hydrocarbon, liquid at -10°, Pentacosane, Hydrocarbon, liquid at -10°, Hexacosane, Hydrocarbon, liquid at -10°, Octocosane, Mabery and Palm (Proc. Symbol. Boiling-Point. Melting-Point. C13H28 226° 14 C₁₁H 30 236°-238° C 15 H 32 256°-257° C16H 34 C17H36 274°-275° 288°-289° 10° C18H C19 H 40 300°-301° 20° 38 210°-212°, 50 mm. 33°-34° C21 C 21 H 44 230°-231°, 40°-41 "" C22 H 44 240°-242°, 44 C22 H 46 • C23 H46 258°-260°, 45° C23H48 • C24H48 272°-274°, 48° C24 H50 C26 H52 280°-282°, C25H52 53°-54° C27H52 292°-294°, "" 58° C2H54 • C28H54 310°-312°, 60° C28 H58 Am. Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xl, pp. 323-334, 1904) have separated the following hydrocarbons from Ohio Trenton Limestone petroleum :- TABLE XXXVI.-OHIO (TRENTON LIMESTONE) HYDRocarbons. Series. C, H₂", • >> 27 دو >> "" C, H₂n-2, " CH-4 • • • • Formula. Boiling-Point. Sp. Gr. at 20°. 12 C₁₂H 21 211°-213 atm. pressure 0.7970 C13H 20 223°-225° 0.8055 >" "" • C14H28 138°-140° 30 mm. 0.8129 C15H30 152°-154° 0.8204 >> C16H32 164°-168° 0.8254 "" C17H34 177°-179° 0.8335 >> C19H36 1980-2020 0.8364 55 C21 C 21 H 40 213°-217° 0.8417 • C₂H C24 H 16 C22 H 42 224°-227° 0.8614 "" 237°-240° 0.8639 C23 H 42 253°-255° 0.8842 >> C24H44 C25 H40 263°-265° 275°-278° 0.8864 >> 0.8912 In the next Table (Ibid., pp. 334-340) Mabery gives the following hydro- carbons separated from Canadian petroleum, and the chlorides prepared from them :- TABLE XXXVII.—CANADIAN HYDROCARBONS. Hydrocarbon, Chloride, Hydrocarbon, Chloride, Hydrocarbon, Chloride, Hydrocarbon, Chloride, • • Formula. Boiling-Point. Sp. Gr. at 20°. C12H24 C12H23 Cl 216° C13H 20 C₁₂H25 Cl 160° 228°-230° 15 mm. 0.9145 0.8087 14 C13 H25 C₁₁H 28 C₁₁H27 Cl C16H30 C15 H 29 Cl 165° 141°-143° 50 180° 0.9221 0.8096 15 0.9288 "" 190° 159°-169° 50 15 0.8192 0.9358 CALIFORNIAN PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS. 245 From Santa Barbara (California) petroleum Mabery obtained the following (Ibid., pp. 340–346) :— TABLE XXXVIII.-CALIFORNIAN HYDROCARBONS. Hydrocarbon, "" 29 • Formula. Boiling-Point. Sp. Gr. at 20°. C13H24 150°-155°, 60 mm. C16H 30 175°-180°, >> C17H30 190°-195°. 95 C18H32 210°-215°. C24H44 250°-255°, C27H46 310°-315°, "" C29H50 340°-345°, 0-8621 0.8808 0.8919 0-8996 0.9299 0.9451 0.9778 >> 1 Balbiano ¹ finds that Italian petroleum (from Velleia, near Piacenza) con tains methylcyclopentane and cyclohexane, and is very rich in light oil boiling below 150° C. -12 Höfer 2 states that the American oil distillate known as light oil" contains the CH₁₂ to C₂H18 members of the methane group; while the illuminating oil consists mainly of the members CH16 to C12H26, according to Muspratt's Encyclopädisches Handbuch der technischen Chemie (Ed. iii., by Stohmann and Kerl, v. 986), or of the members C14H30 and C16H31, according to Biel.3 5 Mendeléeff 4 states that, from an examination of a large number of crude Baku oils obtained from varying depths, it is found that the specific gravity of the distillate obtained between 100° and 105°, after four or five fractionations, varies between 0-751 and 0.756, while that of the corresponding fraction of American petroleum lies between 0-703 and 0.710. According to Markownikoff and Ogloblin, the fraction of Caucasian petroleum, boiling between 150° and 300° C., shows nearly the composition CH₂-2, but after removal of hydro- carbons rich in carbon has the composition CH, S. Young 6 finds the follow- ing in American petroleum :-Isopentane, normal pentane, pentamethylene, isohexane, normal hexane, methylpentamethylene, benzene, hexamethylene, isoheptane, normal heptane, methylhexamethylene and toluene. Comparison of the results obtained with American, Galician, and Russian petroleum shows that the same classes of hydrocarbons-paraffins, polymethylenes or naph- thenes, and aromatic hydrocarbons-are present in the petroleum from all three sources, but that the relative amount of naphthenes and in all probability of aromatic hydrocarbons, is greatest in Russian and least in American petro- leum. Charitschkoff' finds pentane and isopentane in Grozni (Caucasian) petroleum. Varying proportions of the ethylene or olefine (CH) group are found in most crude oils, but Lachowicz 8 and others state that many of the compounds belonging to this series, found in the refined products, merely result from the distillation, and do not exist as such in the crude oil. Lachowicz asserts that this group is absent from Galician oil, but Tuttschew 9 found it present in 1 Gazz. chim. ital., xxxii, (1), 437 (1902). 2 Das Erdöl, p. 58 (1862). 3 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., ccxxxii, 354 (1882). 4 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xiii, 454 (1881). 5 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xiv, 36 (1882). • Journ. Chem. Soc., lxxiii, 905 (1898); also with E. C. Fortey, lxxv, 873 (1899). 7 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xxxi, 655; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1899, 907. 8 Ann. Chem. Pharm., ccxx, 188 (1883). 9 Journ. f. prakt. Chem., xciii, 394 (1864). 246 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. 1 2n small quantity. Beilstein and Kurbatoff identified these compounds in the oil of Tsarski-Kolodtsi (Tiflis). As already stated, the members of a C, H₂n group, found in the Russian oil, are naphthenes, which are benzene derivatives, isomeric with the ethylene group. De la Rue and Müller ascertained the presence of preponderating quantities of the ethylene group in "Rangoon " petroleum, and Warren and Storer isolated from it the members of the group from C,H18 to C13H26. Schorlemmer, Warren, and Chandler have found a lengthy series of members of the group in Pennsylvanian oil. Peckham and Chandler found them also in considerable quantity in Californian oil. C. F. Mabery and E. J. Hudson ¹ find that the hydrocarbons of Californian petroleum chiefly consist of the CH2 series. If there be any CnH2n+2 hydrocarbons present," they add," they are contained in the portions boiling below 70° C.," e.g. in the light gasoline from this petroleum. The distillate at 68°-70° proved to be a mixture of hexane and hexamethylene. Large proportions of the benzene homologues were found, with benzene itself. Naphthalene was also present in the fractions boiling between 220°-222° C. The following higher CH, hydrocarbons were isolated :—C13H26 to С19H38, and C21H4. An essential characteristic of Cali- fornian oil is the relatively low proportion of distillates below 225° C. According to Höfer, the following olefines have been isolated from "North American petroleum :- 66 Ethylene, Propylene, Butylene, · C₂H₁ C3H6 4 C₁H& -8 Amylene, Hexylene, . CH10 C&H12 Heptylene, . Octylene, Nonylene, Decatylene, Endecatylene, • C₂H14 C&H16 • C, H 18 Dodecatylene, Decatrilene, Cetene, • C12H24 C13H 26 • C16H 32 C10H 20 Cerotene, • C2754 C11H22 Melene, '30 3 O. Aschan 2 has discovered methylpentamethylene in Caucasian petroleum- spirit, and S. Takano's investigations of Japanese petroleums show that seven such oils are composed of hydrocarbons belonging to the ethylene series (CH2). Two of the seven samples contained solid paraffin. The content of sulphur and nitrogen-compounds is high, and the calorific values exceed those of Russian or American oils. Aromatic hydrocarbons are plentiful. Markownikoff and Ogloblin 4 and Mendeléeff have reported the presence of small quantities of the acetylene (C,H₂-2) group in Baku oil. Members of the benzene (C,H2-6) group and its derivatives appear to occur in all descriptions of crude petroleum. Benzene, CH, has been isolated from Pennsylvanian oil by Warren, Norman Tate, C. F. Chandler, Bolley, Schorlemmer, Schwarzenbach, and others; from Galician oil by Pawlewsky,5 Pebal and Freund, and Lachowicz; from Baku oil by Markownikoff; from that of Tiflis (Tsarski-Kolodtsi) by Beilstein and Kurbatoff; and from Rangoon oil by De la Rue and Hugo Müller. Thiophene, C₁HS, was discovered by Charitschkoff in Grozni petroleum to the extent of one part in one million. He found it present in benzene to the extent of 1 part per 10,000,000; mer- captan was also discovered. Toluene, C,Hg, appears also to be invariably present. Xylene, CH10, was found in Rangoon oil by De la Rue and Müller, and in Pennsylvanian oil by Schorlemmer; isoxylene in Galician oil by Paw- lewsky and Lachowicz, in Caucasian oil by Krämer, and in that of Baku especially, by Markownikoff. Paraxylene (boiling-point 137°) has been isolated 6 1 Proc. Amer. Acad., xxxvi, 255 (1901). 2 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xxxi, 1803 (1898). 3 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1900, 1003; also Mabery and Takano, ibid., 503. 4 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xiii, 179; xv, 237 (1881, 1883). 5 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xviii, 1915 (1884). • Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xxxi, 655; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1899, 907. NAPHTHENES. 247 from Galician oil by Pawlewsky.1 Cumene, C,H12, has been found in Rangoon oil by De la Rue and Müller, and pseudocumene in Caucasian oil by Mark- ownikoff and Ogloblin, and in the oil of America, Germany (Schwabweiler and Hanover), Galicia, and Italy (Terra di Lavoro) by Engler.2 Mesitylene, an isomer of cumene, was isolated by Lachowicz from Galician oil, by Engler from the oils of America, Hanover, Galicia, Italy, and Elsass (Schwabweiler), and by Markownikoff from the oil of Baku. Poni 3 found in Rumanian oil (Colibasi), besides trimethylmethane, in the portion boiling between 100° and 200° C., about 24 per cent. of aromatic hydrocarbons, viz., toluene, m-xylene, mesitylene and compounds of the formula C10H14. Kast and Künkler 4 found no mesity- lene or pseudocumene in the petroleum from Gemsah on the Red Sea. Krämer and Böttcher found toluene, meta- and paraxylene, pseudocumene and mesity- lene in German petroleum. 6 Hydrocarbons of the CH,,, series, which belong, not to the ethylene group, but to what is known as the naphthene, or C,H2-6+H, group, are found in C„H¿ most oils, but especially in that of Baku, and have been examined by Beilstein and Kurbatoff,5 Schützenberger and Jonine, Markownikoff and Ogloblin," and others. The naphthenes closely resemble the paraffins. Lachowicz ascertained their presence in Galician oil, which he states is about intermediate between the oils of Baku and Pennsylvania as regards the proportion of naphthenes con- tained. According to Le Bel, the oil of Tchongelek, in the Crimea, is largely composed of naphthenes, as are also those of Oelheim and Wietze. 9 Table XXXIX (by Markownikoff 8) gives the members of the naphthene. series which have been separated from petroleum, together with their boiling- points and specific gravities. Charitschkoff has found that the fraction of Grozni petroleum boiling at 80°-82° C. contains a hexanaphthene isomeric with the synthetical substance. He also points out that the Grozni crude petroleum is distinguished from that of Baku by its higher specific gravity, and by containing a greater proportion of low-boiling constituents (benzine). According to Markownikoff and Ogloblin,10 the fraction of Caucasian petro- leum boiling between 240° and 250° C. contains compounds of the formulæ C11H12, C11H14, C12H14, C13H14, and C₁5H30. They have also found bodies of the composition C10H14 and C14H28 in Caucasian petroleum. They consider that the aromatic hydrocarbons exist as such in the crude oils, and are not produced by the distillation, but Mendeléeff 11 believes that they are not present in the crude oil, and states that the large volumes of gas evolved on distilling such oil are produced by decomposition, and must not be regarded as gaseous hydro- carbons dissolved in the oil, because they cannot be redissolved. The com- pounds C10H10, C11H12, and C₁₂H14, isolated by Markownikoff and Ogloblin from the 240° to 250 distillate, appear to be related to naphthalene, though they cannot be oxidised without complete decomposition. Markownikoff 12 has isolated octonaphthene from the petroleum of Balakhani and Bibi- Eibat. 12 1 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xviii, 1915 (1884). 3 Ann. Sci. Univ. Jassy, ii, 65 (1903). 4 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., celxxviii, 34 (1890). 5 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xiii, 1818, 2028 (1880). 7 Ann. Chim. Phys., 6, ii, 372 (1884). 2 Ibid., xviii, 2234 (1885). 6 Ibid., xiii, 2428. 8 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xv, 237 (1883), and xxiv, 141 (1892). 9 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xxxi, 655 (1899); and Viestn. Jirov. l'esch., iii, 133 (1902). See Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1899, 907, and 1902, 964. 10 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch. xiv, 36 (1882). 11 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., xiv, 54 (1882). 12 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xvi (2), 294 (1884). 248 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XXXIX.-NAPHTHENES FROM PETROLEUM. °C. Formula. Formation and Occurrence. Boiling-point. Specific Gravity °C. °C. C&H12 { Hexahydrobenzene (Kijner), Russian petroleum, 6889 69° 0.7539 Hexahydrotoluene (Lossen), 97° 0.772 C₂H14 Russian petroleum, From the products of dry distilla- tion of colophony (Renard), 95° to 98° 0.742 20° 20° Hexahydro-m-xylene (Wreden), Russian petroleum (Wreden), 115° to 120° 0.777 122° to 124° 0.7835 CgH16 19° From colophony, 120° to 123° 0.764 19° Hexahydromesitylene (Bayer), 135° to 138° Hexahydro-- cumene (Kono- 135° to 138° 0.7812 waloff), CH181 From petroleum, 135° to 136° 0.7808 Hexahydropropylbenzene (Tchit- 140° to 142° 0.7811 chibabin), Dodecahydronaphthalene(Wreden), 153° to 158° 0.802 17.40° From petroleum, 160° to 162° 0.7808 40° 15° From petroleum, C10H20, From menthene, 168° to 170° 168.5° to 170° 0.8073 to 0.814 15° 15° 0.797 15° 15° From terpene hydrate, 168.5° to 170° 0.797 15° 0° From camphor (Starodubsky), 167° to 169° 0.8114 0° Tetrahydroterpene (Orloff), . 162° to 167° 0.806 0° 16.2° C11H222 From petroleum, 179° to 181° 0.8019 40° 18.4° C12H24, From petroleum, 197° 0.8120 40° 18.6° C14H282 240° to 241° 0.8215 40° 18.8° C15H30 246° to 248° 0.8210 40° Clifford Richardson and Wallace,¹ after investigation of petroleum of the Beaumont field (Jefferson county, Texas), conclude that the oil contains a large proportion of unsaturated hydrocarbons and their sulphur-derivatives, and that the saturated hydrocarbons are dicyclic polymethylenes, not satisfactory as illuminants. They agree with Mabery that the latter hydrocarbons belong to the CH2-2 series. Clifford Richardson has compared the characters of the petroleums of the older and newer fields of North America in papers contributed to the Franklin Institute in 1906,2 from which the following extracts are taken :— 1 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1901, 693. 2 Journ. of the Franklin Institute, clxii, 57-70, 81–128. SATURATED HYDROCARBONS. 249 -2n Young has isolated from the lighter distillates of Pennsylvania petroleum in a very considerable degree of purity the naphthenes or monocyclic poly- methylene hydrocarbons CnH₂, containing five, six and seven atoms of carbon, pentamethylene, methylpentamethylene, hexamethylene, dimethylpentamethy- lene and methylhexamethylene, corresponding to those found in Russian petroleum. Both of the preceding investigators have found considerable amounts of aromatic hydrocarbons. Young finds benzol in the fraction boiling at about 65° and 66°, and toluol to a considerable extent in a higher fraction,¹ while other homologues have been detected by Mabery. While unsaturated hydrocarbons are present in Pennsylvania petroleum, and are readily removed by strong sulphuric acid, there is, in the opinion of all modern investigators, no sufficient evidence that these hydrocarbons are mem- bers of the olefine series. Their actual structure has not yet been determined. Sulphur and hydrogen derivatives of the hydrocarbons are present in but. mere traces. The following table gives the characteristics of the various saturated hydro- carbons of the CH₂+2, CH₂, and CH-2 series, as described by Mabery and Young :- TABLE XXXIXA. CnH₂+2 Hydrocarbons. Compo- sition. C₁ H₁₂ Iso. 4 -12 Specific Gravity. Ref. Boiling Index. Point. Pres- sure. Melting Point. Authority. 0 760 mm. C5 H12 Nor. 0.6250 25/25° 36.3 Mabery. Young. 0.6261 0/4° 0.6454 Iso. 0.6392 27.95 711 mm. 99 6 C₂ H₁₂ Nor. 0.6771 68.95 Iso. 0.6730 61.00 ?? C, H16 Nor. 98.40 Iso. 0.6969 0/4° 90.30 Cg H18 Nor. 0-7188 20/20° 125.00 760 mm. Iso. 0.7190 119.50 Mabery. C, H20 Nor. 151-00 C10H22 Nor. 0.7479 163-164 • Iso. 0.7467 173-174 11 C₁₁H24 0.7581 196-197 39 C12H26 Nor. 0.7676 214–216 C13H28 0.7834 1.451 226 .་ 14- C₁₁H30 0.7814 1.436 236-238 C16H32 0.7896 1.4413 256-257 C16H 34 0.7911 1.4413 274-275 C17H36 0.8000 1.4435 288-289 C18H38 0.8017 1.440 300-301 10 20 C19H40 0.8122 1.4522 210-212 50 mm. 33-34 C21H11 230-231 40-41 44 C22H46 0-7796 15° 240-242 44 ་་ C23H18 C2H50 0-7900 60° 258-261 45 0.7902 272-274 48 C₂H 0.7941 280-282 53-54 25 -52 0.7977 292-294 58 86- C28H58 C31H64 0-7945 70° 310-312 60 0.7992 328-330 66 C32H66 0·8005 75° 342-345 68 C3H70 0.8009 80° 366-368 72 C35H72 0-80052 380-384 76 ¹ J. Chem. Soc., 1898, 73, 914 and 918. 250 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. TABLE XXXIXA.-continued. Monocyclic Polymethylenes-CnH₂n. Compo- sition. C5 H10 Pentamethylene Co H₁₂ Methylpentamethylene -12 C H12 Hexamethylene 6 C, H₁₁ Dimethylpentamethylene H14 C, H₁ Methylhexamethylene -14 Compo sition. Specific Gravity. Boiling Point. Pres- sure. 0.7000 0 4° 50° 760 mm. Authority. Young. 0.7660 72 "" 0.7722 80.6 >> "" 0.7543 20/4° 94 "" 0.7964 102 "" Hydrocarbons CH. Specific Refractive Gravity. Index. Boiling Point. Pres- sure. C21H42 0.8424 20/20° C22 H 44 0.8262 1.454 240-242° 50 mm. Mabery. "" C23H46 0.8569 1.4714 258-260 95 "" C24H 48 0.8598 1.4726 272-274 "" C26H52 0.8580 1.4725 280-282 ,, Hydrocarbons C„H₂-2. C27H52 C28H54 0.8688 20/20° 0.8694 1.4722 1.4800 290-294° 310-312 50 mm. Mabery. " The lower polymethylenes or naphthenes, CnH₂, isolated by Young, are plainly monocyclic hydrocarbons. The higher distillates, like those which occur in Russian petroleum, corresponding in composition to the same general formulæ, and containing twenty-one atoms of carbon and over are associated with CH2+2 hydrocarbons containing the same number of carbon atoms or one or two less. They do not solidify at very low temperatures and are separated from the paraffins by freezing and filtration. From our know- ledge of the hydrocarbons in asphaltic oils it would appear that they differ from them essentially, as they are much more stable, have a lower density, and, for the same refractive index, nearly double the molecular weight and a much higher boiling point :-- Density Refractive index. Boiling-point Pressure Formulæ • Paraffin Petroleum.1 Trinidad Asphalt.2 California Petroleum.' California Petroleum.2 0.8598 0.8690 1.4726 272-274° 1.4721 170-180° 50 mm. C24H46 30 mm. C13H24 0.8808 1.470 175°-180° 60 mm. C18H30 0.8654 1.474 178° 30 mm. It appears from the preceding data that the paraffin petroleums of the Appalachian field consist of small amounts of monocyclic, aromatic and polymethylene hydrocarbons, which have been separated in such a degree of purity as to be identified definitely; of minute traces of sulphur and nitrogen compounds and, predominatingly, of paraffin hydrocarbons from isobutane, C4H₁₂ to C35H72, the members above 14 being solids at ordinary temperatures. Polycyclic hydrocarbons of the CH2 series are also present in very consider- able amounts from C21 to C26, the constitution of which is not understood, but which are quite different from the hydrocarbons of the same relation of carbon and hydrogen found in asphaltic oils, and have no relation to the ethylene or olefine series. Polycyclic hydrocarbons of the CH-2 series are also present in the fractions boiling above 290°, at 50 mm. 12 2n In the petroleum of the Ohio-Indiana field, the saturated C, H, hydro- carbons of higher boiling-point, and the saturated hydrocarbons CH2n−2) both begin at a much lower number of carbon atoms than in the case of the 1 Mabery. 2 Richardson. TEXAS PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS. 251 Pennsylvania oil, while hydrocarbons of the series CH2-4 are present which are not found in the Eastern oil. Canadian oil, like that from Pennsylvania and North-western Ohio, may be classed as a paraffin petroleum, since it contains a predominating amount of hydrocarbons of the CnH2n+2 series, especially in the solid form. It differs from these petroleums in that the amount of distillate below 150° is very much smaller, while the sulphur derivatives of the polymethylenes are present in very much larger amount, as are the aromatic and unsaturated hydrocarbons in the lower distillates, while the higher residues contain larger percentages of the solid paraffins and less unsaturated hydrocarbons. It resembles Ohio oil in having the lower liquid asphaltic hydrocarbons as components. The petroleums of California are of the most varied character and all of them consist of more or less dense asphaltic hydrocarbons. Nitrogenous bases are often present in very large amounts and again in only small amounts. Phenols are a common constituent of the denser oils. Except in those con- stituents which boil at a comparatively low temperature, the components of California oils are unique in their density and viscosity. None of the components is of the paraffin series, and the hydrocarbons being largely of the CH2, and C,H2-2 series, among those of sufficient volatility to be used as illuminating oils the distillates below 150° do not make good burning oil. They burn with a smoky flame and must be mixed with a large proportion of Eastern kerosene before they can be used. Beaumont (Texas) oil has a very high density for one beginning to distil at 110°, and the hydrocarbons of which it is composed, as shown by the ultimate composition of the original oil, and by a comparison of the specific gravity and refractive index of the 150-300° distillates from the Engler flasks with similar distillates from Eastern oils, must belong largely or entirely to some series other than the paraffin, and probably to the same series as those found in the Sour Lake petroleum previously examined (J. S. Chem. Ind., 1900, xix, 121), rather than those of the Corsicana oil, which consists largely of paraffins. It is also plain that the oil contains a much larger proportion of unsaturated hydrocarbons removable by sulphuric acid than Pennsylvania petroleum. The Beaumont oil has a high sulphur content and carries, as it comes from the wells, a large amount of hydrogen sulphide in solution. This gas has previously been observed in solution in petroleum, but not in so large quantity as at Beaumont. The sulphuretted hydrogen is largely lost on standing and more completely on blowing air through it. After such treatment the oil contained 1.75 per cent. of sulphur in the form of sulphur derivatives of the hydrocarbons, and as free sulphur. It is of interest to note that although naphthalene, acenaphthene, fluorene, anthracene, and phenanthrene are found in coal-tar, the only one which appears to be undoubtedly present in crude petroleum is naphthalene, although it is usually stated that anthracene, chrysene, pyrene, and fluorene are present in small quantity. In this connection, it may be mentioned that Boussingault 2 mentions the deposition of naphthalene on cooling the fluid "bitumen" from the burning springs of Ho-Tsing, in the province of Szechuen in China, and that De la Rue and Müller found naphthalene in Rangoon oil. Krämer 3 states that naphthalene crystallises out from the distillate of 200° to 300° C. from the oil of Tegernsee and Oelheim, but mentions that this body was not necessarily present in the crude oil. 1 See also Krämer and Böttcher, Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xx, 595 (1887). 2 Comptes Rendus, xevi, 1452 (1883). 3 Sitz. Ver. Beförd. Gewerbfl. Preuss., 1885, 299. 252 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. According to Engler,¹ the oil from the Tegernsee district is especially rich in aromatic compounds. Camphenes of the general formula CH2-4 have been found in the distillate from the asphalt of Pechelbronn,2 and in that from the asphalt of the Val de Travers.³ 4 6 9 7 In reference to the oxygen shown by analysis to be contained by all petro- leums, Höfer states that some of it may be accounted for by absorption from the air. R. A. Ostrejko 5 has shown the effect of sunlight in facilitating the absorption of air by ordinary Baku oil of medium quality, opalescence or sediment, and strong acidity being produced. A penetrating odour is also developed, with deepening of colour. Several distillates variously refined showed that the amount of acidity increased concurrently with deepening of colour. The oxygen, both in the fresh oils and in those which have been exposed, appears to be almost entirely contained in acid and phenylated com- pounds. Hell and Medinger first ascertained the presence of oxygen acids in petroleum, especially in that from Rumania. The Baku oil contains less oxygen acids than those of Galicia and Rumania. Pebal found phenol in Galician petroleum. Markownikoff was the first to find phenol in crude Caucasian petroleum, and, in conjunction with Ogloblin, investigated the composition of the oxygen acids of petroleum. Markownikoff found as much as 5.25 per cent. of oxygen in the fraction of Caucasian petroleum boiling between 220° and 230° C. He considers the acids to be carboxylic acids, derived from the naphthenes of the petroleum, but Zaloziecki 8 states that they consist mainly of acid lacto-alcohols. Aschan confirms Markownikoff's contention that they are naphthene derivatives, and has prepared octonaph- thene from one of them. According to Krämer, however, these acids are ordinary fatty acids. C. J. Robinson 10 more recently gives great support to this statement by the discovery of acetaldehyde in both Pennsylvanian and Ohio petroleums. He found as much as 0.001 per cent. of acetaldehyde in the crude oil. Engler " has detected phenols and fatty acids in several German oils. Schidkoff 12 has detected the presence of acids soluble in water in various samples of Grozni oils (specific gravity 0.9242 and 0.9108); he found that the amount varies between 0.0443 and 0.1042, the proportion of free acids increasing with the specific gravity of the oil. But besides soluble acids (of which formic acid, oxalic acid, and petroleum acids are examples) Schidkoff also detected some organic acids insoluble in water acidified with hydrochloric acid. Zelin- sky,13 by chlorinating certain fractions of Caucasian petroleum, treating the products with magnesium, subjecting the magnesium compounds to the action of carbon dioxide, and decomposing the complex substance formed with water and sulphuric acid, has obtained good yields (up to 60 per cent.) of organic acids. On heating one of these, the acid CH4O2, with glycerin, to 250° C., a tri-octin was obtained, which had the properties of a fat. 1 Verh. Ver. Beförd. Gewerbfl. Preuss., 1887, 637. 14 2 Boussingault, Ann. Chim. Phys., lxiv, 141, and lxxiii, 443 (1837, 1840). 3 Völckel, Ann. Chem. Pharm., lxxxvii, 143 (1853). 4 Das Erdöl, 39 (1862). 5 Trudi Bak. otd. imp. russk. techn. obsch., 1896, 10 [2], 21; [4], 19; [6], 1; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1896, 26, 345, 645. • Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., vii, 1216; x, 451 (1874, 1877). 7 Ann. Chem. Pharm., cxv, 19 (1860). 8 Zeitschr. angew. Chemie, 1891, 416. 9 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xxiii, 867; xxiv, 2710 (1890, 1891). 10 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1899, 232. 11 Verh. Ver. Beförd. Gewerbfl. Preuss., 1887, 637. 12 Trudi Bak. otd. russk. imper. techn. obsch., 1898 [4]; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1899, 360. 13 Jurn. Russk. Ph. Kh. Obsch., xxxiv, 968 (1902); Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1903, 149. BROMINE-ABSORPTION. 253 The composition of the residues from petroleum-distillation has received considerable attention, more especially as regards the Pennsylvanian oil. Morton, in 1873,¹ obtained by the distillation of petroleum-residue at a red heat a product which yielded needle-like crystals of a greenish-yellow colour and pearly lustre. This body, which he at first called viridine, and afterwards thallene, was found to be isomeric with anthracene, though unlike it in cry- stalline form, melting-point, and solubility. Hemilian 2 asserts that this compound, which he calls petrocene, has the formula C32H22. Tweddle, in 1876, stated that thallene is produced by the destructive distillation of a green ish substance, which he termed petrocene, obtained from petroleum-residues. According to Gräbe and Walter 3 thallene closely resembles the picene obtained by Burg from brown-coal tar. From the least volatile products of petroleum- distillation, Divers and Nakamura have isolated a compound boiling between 280° and 285° C., and possessing the empirical formula C₁H₂, while Prunier 4 isolated from the green so-called petrocene (boiling-point 190°-240° C.), obtained by distillation of the residues after the ordinary paraffin had come over, hydro- carbons which he called carbozene, carbopetrocene, and thallene. These compounds were found to possess formulæ ranging from (CH₂), to (C₂H₂), where n is a variable higher than 4. 21 Klaudy and Fink 5 have obtained a new aromatic hydrocarbon from the red pitch" condensing in the stills during the cracking of Austro-Hungarian petroleum. They have termed it "crackene," and the formula C₂H18 is assigned to it. It forms yellow crystalline scales with green fluorescence, melting at 308° C., and decomposing on distillation at 500° C., though it may be sublimed with care. It is probably identical with the product obtained by Divers and Nakamura from Japanese petroleum, and very similar to the benzerythrene of Schmidt and Schultz. 6 7 The fact that the tarry residues obtained in the manufacture of gas from petroleum contain phenols and anthracene was first shown by Lietnii, and the subject was soon afterwards investigated by Liebermann and Burg, and by Salzmann and Wichelhaus. Many years ago Nobel Brothers demonstrated the possibility of producing anthracene on a large scale by bringing Russian petroleum residuum (ostatki) into contact with highly-heated surfaces. Mr. A. J. de Hailes has determined the amount of bromine absorbed by several specimens of crude petroleum in the author's collection, and has obtained. the following results :- TABLE XL.-BROMINE-ABSORPTION OF CRUDE PETROLEUMS. Description of Sample. Bromine absorbed (after deducting Br converted into HBr). 5.9141 per cent. United States (Bradford), (Parker, Clarion), (Stoneham), Russia (Balakhani-Sabuntchi), Burma (Yenangyaung), Assam (Digboi), Italy (Montechino), (Neviano), (Ozzano), England (Derbyshire), 1 Am. Chemist, iii. 106 and 162, and vii, SS (1872, 1876). 2.7841 4.5752 1.7730 3.0392 >> 4.2480 3.3947 0.6140 >> 0.8676 4.2330 2 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., ix, 1604 (1876). 3 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xiv, 175 (1881). Bull. Soc. Chim. Paris, 2, xxxi, 293 (1879). 5 Monatsh. Chem., xxi, 118 (1900). • Dingler's polytechn. Journ., cexxix, 353 (1878). 7 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xi, 723 (1878). s Ibid., xi, 802, 1431 (1878). 254 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. C. F. Mabery 1 has determined the bromine-absorption of Californian petroleums. Crude oil from Ventura county, specific gravity at 20° C., 0·8882, and bromine absorption 17-72 per cent., i.e. higher than Pennsylvania or Ohio oil, but nearly the same as the crude oil of Oil Springs, Canada. That from Fresno county has a specific gravity at 20° C. of 0.8423, and a bromine-absorp- tion of 9.07 per cent. Vaseline. The semi-solid mixture of hydrocarbons originally introduced under the proprietary name of vaseline, and now largely employed as a pro- tective coating for metals, as well as in pharmacy, is obtained from American petroleum in the manner described in Section VI of this work. As met with in commerce, vaseline is usually colourless, or of pale yellow colour, translucent, fluorescent, amorphous, and devoid of taste and smell. It does not oxidise on exposure to the air, and is not readily acted on by chemical reagents. It is soluble in chloroform, benzene, carbon bisulphide, and oil of turpentine. It also dissolves in warm ether and in hot alcohol, separating from the latter solvent in flakes on cooling. Its melting-point is usually from 40° to 50° C., and its specific gravity 0-803 and upwards at 100° C. The paraffinum molle of the British Pharmacopoeia is described as having a melting-point of 95° F., while the United States Pharmacopoeia gives the melting-point of the corre- sponding product as between 104° and 125° F. Vaseline has been stated to consist principally of paraffins and iso-paraffins (probably C16H31 to C20H42), together with olefines, but its chemical composition has apparently not been fully determined. J. R. v. Wagner 2 and Miller 3 consider it to be a mixture of paraffin with volatile oils, but Moss 4 and others believe it to be merely a mixture of easily fusible paraffins. Much light has been thrown upon the composition of vaseline by the researches of Engler and Böhm. By the distillation of the material, these chemists obtained an oil belonging to the CH, group, together with paraffin melting at 40°, and a so-called fluid vaseline solidifying at -10° C. Details of this investigation and further information as to the chemical nature of vaseline will be found in Section VI. 5 Mabery (Proc. Amer. Acad., xl, 361, 1904) examined commercial vaseline, and showed that this product is composed of heavy oils such as have been identified as forming the portions of Pennsylvania petroleum with high boiling- points, and Coraopolis heavy oil, viz., hydrocarbons of the series C, H, CH", and C, H.,, with solid paraffin hydrocarbons. The quantity of solid compound present is sufficient to saturate the oil, and in slight excess to form an emulsion of the desired consistency. Solid Hydrocarbons. That solid hydrocarbons exist as such in crude oils which remain fluid at low temperatures, but from which paraffin is obtained on distillation, was at one time a matter of doubt, but the evidence which has now accumulated has finally proved their presence in most crude oils. Sadtler and McCarter 6 were among the earliest to point this out, but the fact that the bore-holes of many wells become choked by the solidification of this substance in them would alone be a sufficient proof. From the solid hydrocarbons that collect in certain oil-wells in Pennsylvania, Mabery (loc. cit., pp. 349-353) separated the following:- 1 Amer. Chem. J., xix, 796 (1898). 2 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., ccxxiii, 515 (1877). 3 Amer. Journ. Pharm., iv, 1 (1874). ↑ Jahresb. Fortschr. Chemie, 1876, 471. 5 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., cclxii, 468 (1886). • Amer. Chem. Journ., i, 30 (1880). SOLID HYDROCARBONS (PENNSYLVANIAN). 255 TABLE XLI.-SOLID HYDROCARBONS (PENNSYLVANIAN). Formula. Melting-Point. Specific Gravity. Tetracosane, Hentricontane, Dotricontane, Tetratricontane, Pentatricontane, 66° C24H50 50°-51° 0.7900 at 60° C31H64 0-7997 at 70° C32H66 1 67° 68° 0-S005 at 75° C34H66 71°-72° 0.8009 at 80° C35H72 76° 0-8052 at 80° Hydrocarbons of the series C,H+2 have now been identified in Pennsyl- vania petroleum in continuous series, with but few members wanting, from butane, CH10, boiling-point -10°, to pentatricontane, CH72, boiling-point 380°-384°, 50 mm. Kast and Seidner 2 have found that the mud which collects on the bottoms of the storage-tanks of crude American petroleum contains much paraffin. Among others who have worked on the subject may be mentioned Goldstein,³ Odling, Partridge,5 Schorlemmer,6 Morgan, and Engler.8 4 CC Höfer states that Galician oil from Eocene deposits is free from paraffin, which is only found in the Miocene and Cretaceous oils. Similarly, Schädler expresses the opinion that the geologically older petroleum of the Ropianka beds of Galicia contains more of the lighter hydrocarbons than the oils of the Eocene and Oligocene formations. In American oil, Norman Tate found 2 to 3 per cent. of paraffin. Engler states that the oils of Oelheim and Wietze are almost free from solid hydrocarbons, while that of Pechelbronn contains from 1 to 2 per cent. Much of the crude oil of Upper Burma contains from 10 to 12 per cent. of solid hydrocarbons, and in that of Digboi (Assam) the proportion appears to be almost, if not quite, as large. A general statement as to the comparative richness in paraffin of a number of typical specimens of crude petroleum, examined in the author's laboratory, will be found on page 227. The oil from Bibi-Eibat, in the Baku district, is said to contain rather more paraffin that that from Balakhani-Sabuntchi, but the proportion present is very small. Shukoff and Pantjuchoff 9 show that the concurrent deposit of pitchy bodies largely prevents the isolation of what paraffin wax the Russian crude oils contain, so they worked upon distillates. They find, by a modification of the Zaloziecki method, that a white hard paraffin wax solidifying at 54° C. can be obtained. From various specimens of Caucasian crude oils they isolated percentages of wax varying from 0-2 to 0.76 per cent. and melting from 53° to 58° C. The solid hydrocarbons, known collectively under the name of paraffin or paraffin wax, appear to belong chiefly to the paraffin series, CH They vary in specific gravity, melting-point, and boiling-point, within a somewhat wide range. By crystallisation from a solvent, or by fractional fusion, a partial separation of the hydrocarbons may be effected. Refined commercial paraffin is a white or bluish-white, translucent, waxy, solid substance, of lamino-cry- stalline structure, devoid of taste and smell, and characterised by chemical indifference. It consists of about 85 per cent. of carbon and 15 per cent. of hydrogen. 1 Sic, but? CH70- 34 3 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xii, 689 (1879). 5 Journ. Franklin Inst., xcvii, 479 (1889). 7 Journ. Chem. Soc., xxviii, 301 (1875). 2 Dingler's polytechn. Journ., cclxxxiv, 6 (1892). 4 Proc. Roy. Inst., viii, 86 (1876). s Verh. Ver. Beförd. Gewerbfl. Preuss., 1887, 637. 9 Chem. Rev. Fett- u. Harz-Ind., vii, 94 (1900). 6 Journ. Chem. Soc., xxvi, 319 (1873). 256 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM. In an investigation into the composition of commercial paraffin undertaken in connection with the question whether paraffin is actually present in the crude oil or whether it is the result of change during the process of refining, Mabery (Proc. Amer. Acad., xl, 355-361, 1904) separated the following TABLE XLII.-HYDROCARBONS IN COMMERCIAL PARAFFIN. Formula. Melting-Point. Specific Gravity. Tricosane, Tetracosane, Pentacosane, Hexacosane, Octocosane, Nonocosane, · · • C23H48 48° 0.7886 at 60° C24H50 50°-51° C25 H 52 53°-54° 0.7941 at 60° C26H54 55°-56° 0.7968 at 60° C28H58 60° C29H60 62°-63° The specific gravity of paraffin obtained from United States crude petroleum is usually about 0.908 at 60° F., and about 0.750 at 212° F. The following determinations by Galletly indicate that the specific gravity of paraffin obtained from Boghead coal increases with the melting point:- TABLE XLIII. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF PARAFFINS FROM BOGHEAD COAL. Specific Gravity. Melting-Point. 89.6° F. 0.8236, 0.8480, 0.8520, 0.9090, 0.9110, 0.9243, 0.9248, 0.9400, • • • 102.2° F. 104.9° F. 128° F. | 1 128° F. ( 136.4° F. • 138.2° F. 176° F. • Beilby's experiments 2 with a sample of shale-oil paraffin, of a melting-point of 104·4° F., demonstrate that paraffin in solution and melted paraffin have practically the same specific gravity : In the solid state, at 21° C., Dissolved in 0.885 paraffin oil, at 21º C., In the melted state, calculated to 21° C., Specific Gravity. 0.8740 0.7950 0.7956 The following table by Allen 3 indicates the relation between specific gravity and melting-point :- TABLE XLIV.-RELATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY TO MELTING-POINT OF PARAFFINS Specific Gravity. Origin of Sample. Solidifying-Point. Solid, at 15.5° C. Liquid, at 99° C. 1. Shale-Oil, 0.8666 0.7481 44.0° C. 2. "" 3. 0.8961 0.7494 47.0° 0.9000 0.7517 52.0° • 4. 22 0.9111 0.7572 58.5° 5. American Petroleum, 6. Ozokerite, 7. Rangoon Tar, 0.9083 0.7535 53.8° >> 0.7531 61.5° • 0.8831 0.7571 40.0° 1 Sic in original, Chem. News, xxiv, 187, 188 (1871). 2 Journ. Chem. Soc., xliii, 388 (1883). 3 Commercial Organic Analysis, Ed. 2, ii, 411 (1885). ÓZOKERÍTE. 257 At a temperature below its melting-point paraffin becomes plastic, and subjected for some time to slight pressure, it undergoes a molecular change, becoming transparent; but upon a change of temperature, or upon being struck, it resumes its normal translucent appearance, though by slow cooling it may be annealed. When two blocks of paraffin are struck together, a metallic sound is emitted, especially if the material be of high melting-point. Paraffin is freely soluble in mineral oils, in ether, in benzene, and in essential oils. It is sparingly soluble in hot absolute alcohol, but separates on cooling, and is insoluble in rectified spirit. When boiled with concentrated nitric acid, it is oxidised, the principal products being succinic acid, CHO, and cerotic acid, C27H5402, the formation of the latter indicating the presence of the hydro- carbon, C2H56, in the material. Paraffin is also oxidised when heated with potassium permanganate, and at a high temperature is attacked by concen- trated sulphuric acid. The hydrocarbons of highest melting-point appear to be the most easily acted upon by nitric and sulphuric acids. Chlorine slowly attacks melted paraffin, and when heated with sulphur, paraffin is decomposed, sulphuretted hydrogen being evolved, and carbon deposited. 27 The solid forms of bitumen are represented by ozokerite, and the various kinds of asphalt. An elastic description of bitumen, termed elaterite by Haus- mann, and frequently referred to as mineral indiarubber," occurs in the Odin lead mine near Castleton, Derbyshire.¹ A similar material, known as coorongite, has been found in the Coorong District, South Australia, but Professor Ralph Tate holds that this is a vegetable product. Among other forms of solid bitumen are the albertite of New Brunswick, the grahamite of West Virginia, and the uintahite or uintaite of Utah, also termed gilsonite, after Mr. S. H. Gilson of Salt Lake City. These forms are fully described by Dana.” Ozokerite, which may be regarded as natural paraffin, varies from a very soft substance to a black material as hard as gypsum. Its specific gravity varies from 0.85 to 0.95, and its melting-point from 58° to 100° C. It dissolves in ether, petroleum, benzene, turpentine, chloroform, carbon bisulphide, etc. Boiling absolute alcohol dissolves about 3 per cent. of ozokerite. The colour of Galician ozokerite varies from a light yellow to a dark brown, with frequently a greenish shade due to dichroism. When rubbed, it becomes negatively electri- fied. It becomes plastic when heated, and usually melts at about 62° C. The refined ozokerite of commerce is largely known as ceresine or cerasin. It is not crystalline, and some doubt has been expressed as to whether crystalline paraffins can be obtained from it except by distillation. Zaloziecki,3 however, has obtained crystalline paraffin by crystallising ozokerite melting at 65° C. from excess of warm amyl-alcohol, and expresses the opinion that the absence of crys- talline structure in the ordinary product is due to the presence of colloids, which prevent crystallisation. The question has been further discussed by Partridge. Höfer 5 describes an almost white partly-transparent paraffin found in a fine- grained sandstone with the oil of Sosmezö (Transylvania). This paraffin, he says, is distinctly crystalline, as is shown by its behaviour towards polarised light. The crude ozokerite found on Tcheleken Island on the Transcaspian coast is described by Beilstein and Wiegand as brownish-black and sticky. The ozokerite of Utah has been examined by Newberry, Wurtz,8 and Seal. Ac- cording to Seal, it is dark brown, and contains crystals of gypsum. It melts at 53° to 55° C., and has a specific gravity of 0·928. 6 7 1 Aikin's Dict. of Chem. and Min., 1807, article “ Bitumen.” 2 Syst. of Min., 6th ed., 1017–1020. Journ. Franklin Inst., xcvii, 479 (1889). 6 Ber. deutsch, chem. Ges., xvi, 1547 (1883). 8 Eng. and Min. Journ., xxvii, 108 (1879). VOL. I. 3 Zeitschr. f. angew. Chemie, 1888, 261. 5 Das Erdöl, 48 (1862). 7 Amer. Journ., 3, xvii, 340 (1879). • Journ. Franklin Inst., cxxx, 402 (1891). 17 258 PROPERTIES OF OZOKERITE AND ASPHALT. Ozokerite and other forms of paraffin do not dissolve aniline colours, but in candle-making the colouring-matter is introduced by previously dissolving it in a little melted stearin. It is worthy of note that the melting-point of a mixture of paraffin and stearin may be lower than that of the more readily fusible of the two ingredients, the mixture resembling, in this respect, many metallic alloys. The following are some particulars of specimens of ozokerite from various sources: Baku Specific gravity, 0·903; melting-point, 79° C. (Petersen). Persia-Specific gravity, 0.925; dark green, rather hard. England (Morpeth, near Newcastle)-Specific gravity, 0.890; melting-point, 60° to 70° C.; soft and sticky, brownish (Wagner). Boryslaw (Galicia)-Specific gravity, 0.930; dark yellow to dark brownish-black (Josef Merz). Ozokerite consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons in various proportions. It contains 85.7 per cent. of carbon, and 14.3 per cent. of hydrogen. According to R. Heger,¹ the composition of ozokerite may be best represented by the formula C₂H₂, and its formation may be attributed to the oxidation and decomposition of the hydrocarbons of petroleum, since the action of oxygen on these compounds simply eliminates hydrogen-thus, for example, naphtha- lene gives dinaphthyl and water- 2C10H8 +0=C20H14+H2O. By further oxidation, there are obtained compounds of the formula C, H2,› which react with the hydrocarbons of the marsh-gas series, with formation of very complex carbon compounds of various melting-points, as for example- 2C8H18 + O2 =C16H32+2H2O and C16H32+C8H18 + O=C24H48 + H₂O. Krämer and Spilker 2 believe, on the contrary, as regards formation, that ozokerite marks an intermediate stage between diatom-wax and petroleum, i.c. in the passage from the former to the latter, and they adduce evidence in support of their view. Asphalt, or asphaltum, and asphalt-rock are found widely distributed, and occur in some localities in immense quantities. Although certain deposits, such as that forming the Pitch Lake of Trinidad, have been by some considered the primary product of the decomposition of vegetable or other matter, asphalt is usually regarded as having resulted from the combined action of evaporation. and atmospheric oxidation upon liquid petroleum as it issues from outcropping strata. (Clifford Richardson gives an exhaustive report of the Nature and Origin of Asphalt in the Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1898, 13-32. See also Peckham, Ibid., 1003; J. Endemann, 1005.) The following table gives the comparative composition of Trinidad and Cuba asphalt on the basis of results obtained by distillation :--- TABLE XLV.-COMPOSITION OF TRINIDAD AND CUBA ASPHALT. 1. 2. 3. Water, 0.17 0.13 0.11 Volatile Bitumen, 51.81 64.03 8.34 Sulphur, 10.00 8.35 8.92 Ash (earthy matter), 28.30 19.51 16.60 Fixed Carbon, 9.72 7.98 66.03 100.00 100.00 100.00 1. Refined Trinidad, 2. Refined Cuba (soft), 3. Melting-Point, 185° F. (hard), 115° F. 160° F. 1 Seifensied.-Zeit., 321. 2 Ber. deutsch. chem. Ges., xxxv, 1212 (1902). ASPHALT. 259 By solution in carbon bisulphide, the following comparative results were obtained: TABLE XLVI.-COMPARISON OF TRINIDAD AND CUBA ASPHALT. Trinidad, Cuba (soft), "" (hard), Bitumen. Fixed Carbon, etc. 68.12 per cent. 31.88 per cent. 87.84 12.16 " 27.74 72.26 The chemical composition of Trinidad bitumen has been given as:- Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, 80-32 per cent. 6.30 0.50 >> 1.40 11.48 >> 100-00 In a report on "Asphalt Paving" to the Department of Public Works, Philadelphia, U.S.A., 1894, the following tabular comparison of Trinidad and Bermudez (Venezuela) asphalt is given :— TABLE XLVII.-COMPARISON OF TRINIDAD WITH BERMUDEZ ASPHALT. Refined Trinidad Asphalt. Refined Bermudez Asphalt. Specific gravity at 60° F., Bitumen soluble in carbon bisulphide, 1.373 61-507 per cent. 1-071 97-22 per cent. Mineral matter (ash), 34.51 1-50 Non-bituminous organic matter, 3.983 1-28 Portion of total bitumen soluble in alcohol, 8.24 11.66 ether, 80.01 81.63 Loss at 212° F., 0-65 A 400° F. in ten hours, 7.98 1.37 17.80 on total bitumen, 12.811 18.308 Evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen at, 410° F. None at 437° F. Softening-point, Flowing-point, 160° F. 192° F. 113° F. 150° F. A number of tabular statements of the results obtained in the examination of samples of asphalt from the Pitch Lake (Trinidad), and from deposits lying between the lake and the sea coast ("land pitch "), will be found in the Sixth Annual Report of the Inspectors of Asphalt and Cements (Washington, Govern- ment Printing Office, fiscal year, 1891-1892). From these results it appears that the lake-pitch is richer than the land-pitch in bituminous matter soluble in petroleum-spirit. The soluble portion is termed petrolene, and the insoluble asphaltene. Mr. Henry G. Hanks, formerly mineralogist to the State of California, gives, in his Fourth Annual Report (1884), the following composition of two samples, 260 PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT. and states that the results indicate the general character of Californian asphalt- rock : From Santa Cruz-Asphalt, 19.8 Sand, 80.2 100.0 From Santa Barbara county-Bitumen, volatile portion, 35.0 fixed, 7.2 Quartz sand, 57.8 100.0 The sand is angular, and consists almost entirely of transparent quartz. The bitumen is soluble in turpentine. On the northeast coast of the island of Sakhalin, exudations of petroleum have saturated the peat of extensive morasses, producing by oxidation an impure asphalt. Samples tested in the laboratory of the Imperial Russian Technical Society were found to consist of bituminous matters soluble in ether 75 per cent.; insoluble matter 24.6 per cent. ; ash 0.5 per cent. The sulphur- content is only 0.80 to 0.85 per cent. The melting-point is high, the mass beginning to soften only at 160° C. Asphalt-rock (such as is used for paving) generally consists of limestone saturated with the bituminous material, which is usually almost free from solid paraffin. The grains forming the asphalt-rocks are almost invariably found to be totally uncemented, save by the bituminous matter, and the rocks fall to powder when the bitumen is removed by a solvent. This is the case with such widely-different rocks as those of Seyssel, Forens, Lobsann, Limmer, Val de Travers, Kentucky, California, and Athabasca. M. Durand-Claye has given the following particulars of several descriptions. of natural asphalt-rock:- TABLE XLVIII.-COMPOSITION OF ASPHALT-ROCKS. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Water and other matters volatilised at 100° C.,. 0.35 3.40 0.40 0.40 0.80 Bituminous matter, 8.70 11.90 9.10 8.80 8.85 Sulphur in organic combination, or free state, 0.08 4.99 trace • Iron-pyrites, 0.21 4.44 Alumina and oxide of iron, 0.30 1.25 0.05 4.35 0.90 Magnesia, 0.10 0.15 0.05 3.85 0.45 • Lime, 49.50 38.90 50.50 5.70 49.00 Carbonic acid, 40.16 31.92 39.80 8.15 39.40 • • Combined silica, 11.35 Sand, 0.60 3.05 0.10 57.40 0.60 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 1. Val de Travers (Switzerland). 2. Lobsann (Elsass). 3. Seyssel (Ain, France). 4. Maëstu (Spain). 5. Ragusa (Sicily). ASPHALT. 261 In his Report to the Geological Survey of Kentucky on the Occurrence of Petroleum, etc., in Western Kentucky, 1891, Dr Orton furnishes a full account of the asphalt of California and Kentucky. The following table gives the results of four analyses, quoted by Orton, as showing the composition of the well-known French and German deposits: TABLE XLIX.-COMPOSITION OF FRENCH AND GERMAN ASPHALT-ROCKS. Val de Travers. Seyssel. Forens. Lobsann. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Water lost at 90° C.,. 0.50 1.90 0.20 3.40 Portion soluble in carbon bisulphide,. 10.10 8.00 2.25 11.90 Insoluble mineral matter, 0.45 0.10 0.05 1.25 Alumina and iron oxide, 0.25 0.15 0.15 Calcium carbonate, 87.95 89.55 97.00 69-00 Magnesium carbonate, 0.30 0.10 0.70 0.30 Sand, 3-05 Sulphur, 5.00 · Iron (present as sulphide), 4.45 ! A single analysis of the Limmer rock, made at Columbia College, New York, showed the following composition of the "dried " material:— Part soluble in carbon bisulphide, • Clay, Calcium carbonate, Magnesium Iron oxide, S.26 per cent. 4.98 56.50 27.01 3.21 In three samples of asphalt from Western Kentucky, Dr. Peter found 9.4, 8.0, and 8.75 per cent. respectively of matters driven off by ignition. According to Hilgard, the asphalt-rock of Ventura county, California, contains :— Water and volatile oil lost at 217° F., Total asphaltum, Ash, 2.37 per cent. 20.00 77.65 The ash consisted of a fine clay containing a little sand and about 3 per cent. of calcium carbonate. S. F. and H. E. Peckham 2 examined a Texas asphalt-rock, turrelite," a shelly mass cemented together by bitumen. The following results indicate its composition :- t Soluble in petroleum-ether, oil of turpentine, chloroform, dilute hydrochloric acid, Sulphur in residue, Silica and clay, 9.415 per cent. 4.121 trace 84.894 0.138 1.432 100-000 The asphalt of the North-Western Territories of Canada, lying to the north of the land drained by the Peace and Athabasca rivers, has been examined by 1 Tenth Annual Report of the State Mineralogist, California, 1890, 766. 2 J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1897, 996. 262 PROPERTIES OF NATURAL GAS. 1 G. C. Hoffmann of the Canadian Geological Survey. He reports that this asphalt is dark brownish-black, and becomes soft at 100° F., although quite hard at common tenperatures. The material contains 12.42 per cent. of bitumen, 5.85 per cent. of mechanically-included water, and 81.73 per cent. of sand. When treated with benzene or carbon bisulphide, the bituminous matter is dissolved out, and the residue consists only of colourless and transparent sand- particles which were merely held together by the bitumen. << Mr. W. H. Delano 2 considers that the term asphalt should be applied only to bituminous limestone, the composition of which he gives as varying from 7 per cent. of bitumen with 93 per cent. of carbonate of lime to 20 per cent. of bitumen with 80 per cent of carbonate of lime. He states that the bitumen found in the Trinidad Pitch Lake is mixed with 33 per cent. of fine clay, sand, and vegetable matter, and 33 per cent. of water; and that refined Trinidad bitumen always contains from 20 to 25 per cent. of fine clay, but is neverthe- less so tough, malleable, and stringy, that for asphalt "mastic "it is preferable to some other short-fibred” bitumens chemically purer. Mr Delano adds that, for use in asphalt-paving, bitumen should be free from "dross," perfectly black, not brilliant, of the consistency of bees-wax at 70° F., and free from oils that will evaporate at 480° F. “Mastic" is the name given to the material prepared for use in paving by mixing hot asphalt-rock, ground to a fine powder, with such proportion of hot bitumen, similar to that contained in the natural rock, that the product contains about 15 per cent. of bitumen and 85 per cent. of limestone. "Gritted asphalt-mastic" is composed of the mastic already described, re-melted with 5 per cent. of bitumen, and from 30 to 40 per cent. of clean dry fragments of limestone, or sand. For use in preparing mastic, the bitumen extracted from Seyssel asphalt is stated to possess the desired qualities in the highest degree. It is asserted that this bitumen may be heated to a temperature of 500° F., or cooled to many degrees below the freezing-point of water, without losing its tenacity and malleability. Its chemical composition is-carbon, 85 per cent.; hydrogen, 12 per cent.; oxygen, 3 per cent. Natural Gas consists mainly of members of the paraffin series, principally marsh gas, which constitutes from about 50 per cent. to about 90 per cent. of the Pennsylvanian gas. Ethane, propane, and certain members of the olefine series are also present, the latter being more especially found in the gas of Baku. Varying amounts of carbon dioxide, sometimes amounting to 10 per cent. or more, and small quantities of carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen are also found. The Pechelbronn gas contains 3 to 3.7 per cent. of carbon dioxide (Engler). Natural gas dissolves in petroleum, and slowly escapes when the oil is stored. This is said to be particularly the case with the oil of Los Angeles in California.3 Similarly, natural gas invariably carries with it a certain amount of water and oil which are deposited on compression of the gas. This is the case even with the so-called "dry" gas of the Carpenter well in Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. The first analyses of American natural gas appear to have been made by Fouqué, whose results, which were little more than qualitative, are in part incorporated in Table L, taken from the Report of the Committee on Natural Gas, of the Engineers' Society of Western Pennsylvania. 1 Summary Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada, n.s., iv, 14. 4 5 2 Twenty Years' Practical Experience of Natural Asphalt and Mineral Bitumen, London and New York, 1893. See also Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., 1902–1903, elii, 3. 3 Weeks' Eleventh Census Report of the United States, 1892, 567. 4 Ashburner, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., xiv, 419 (1880). 5 Comptes Rendus, lxvii, 1045 (1868). NATURAL GAS. 263 TABLE L.-COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 6.10 13.50 22.50 4.79 75.44 80.11 60-27 89-65 | 96-34 18.12 5.72 6.80 4.39 trace 19.56 78.24 0.98 47.37 93-09 80.69 95.42 4.75 3.10 2.18 6.44 0.60 nitrogen, and 15-86 per cent. Marsh gas, with small quantities of of carbonic acid. Marsh gas, with a little carbonic acid. trace 0.34 0.66 2.28 0.35 3.64 traco traco trace 0.26 of carbonic acid and nitrogen. Chiefly propane, with small quantities Marsh gas, ethane, and butane. Constituents. Hydrogen, Marsh gas, Ethane,. Propane, • Carbonic acid, Carbonic oxide, Nitrogen, Oxygen,. Illuminating hydrocarbons,' Petrolia, Canada. Chiefly marsh gas, with some ethane and carbonic acid. 82.41 96.50 10.11 0.50 4.31 0.23 2.00 2.94 1.00 1. Fouqué, Comptes Rendus, lxvii, 1045. 2. H. Wurtz, Am. J. Sci., 2, xlix, 336. 3. Robert Young. 9. 0.56 truee trace 2.20 49.39 0.49 8.12 3.98 0.17 3.26 7. S. P. Sadtler, Report L, 2nd Geol. Surv. Pa. 8. "" ,, 10. F. C. Phillips. 11. Robert Young. 12. Rogers. 13. Fouqué, Comptes Rendus, lxvii, 1045. 14. Bischof's Chem. Geol., i, 730. 15. 16. J. W. Thomas, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1875, 793. 17. " 4. Fouqué, Comptes Rendus, lxvii, 1045. 5. "" 8. S. P. Sadtler, Report L, 2nd Geol. Surv. Pa. 264 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. TABLE LI.-COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS (AMERICAN). Columbia. Vancouver, British Salt-well. Allegheny City, Kokomo, Ind. Baden, Pa. U.S.A., Pittsburg, Pa. Painters & Co.'s, Creighton, O. Cleveland, O. tion Grounds, Pa. Pittsburg, Exhibi- Murraysville, Pa. Canonsburg, Pa. Houston, near Raccoon Creek, Pa. Murraysville, Pa. Lyons Run, Speechly, near Oil City, Pa. Wilcox, McKean Co., Pa. Pa. Kane, McKean Co., Sheffield, Warren Co., Pa. Fredonia, N.Y. Constituents. Nitrogen, 9.91 15.30 4.40 7.30 6.30 0 0.70 12.32 6.00 7.10 6.30 Carbon dioxide, Hydrogen, 0 0 0.41 0.30 0.20 0.21 0.05 0 0 Ammonia, 0 Oxygen, Sulphuretted hydrogen, Paraffins,¹ 0 0 0 trace trace trace trace trace trace 0 0 trace 0 0 0 0 0.28 trace 0.44 0.20 0.52 0.20 0 3.64 0.40 0.41 0.40 0.30 0.14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 trace trace trace trace 0 0 0 0 90-05 90.64 90-01 90-38 95.44 97.70 90-09 84.26 95.40 92-18 93.50 96.36 98.90 87.27 93-60 92.60 93.56 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.54 9.06 9.79 9.41 4.51 2.02 78-14 | 76.69 | 76-77 | 76-52 | 21.86 23-31 23.23 23.48 200.00 $100-00 100- 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 14 are cited from Report of Geol. Survey of Pennsylvania, 1886; the remaining analyses are by Professor F. C. Phillips. ¹ Chiefly methane, with traces of the higher hydrocarbons of the series. 77.11 | 74-96 | 76-42 76-68 | 75-15 | 75.40 76-40 75-80 | 75.51 76-48 | 75.40 | 75.44 | 75.23 22.89 25.04 | 23.58 23-32 24.85 24.60 23.60 24.20 24.49 23.52 24.60 24.56 24.77 100-00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 The paraffins contained in these gas-samples have the following compositions by weight 100-00 100-00 100-00 Carbon, Hydrogen, NATURAL GAS-AMERICA. 265 1 Professor F. C. Phillips ¹ has determined the composition of natural gas from various sources, but has chiefly worked upon the gas delivered by the Allegheny Heating Company. This organisation takes its supply from a large number of wells drilled over a considerable area, and the results obtained by Mr. Phillips may therefore be regarded as representing the average composition of an enormous volume of gas. It is stated that, from 1886 to 1892, no im- portant differences in composition have been observed, although occasionally the odour of the higher paraffins has been more marked than usual. Gas from other localities in Pennsylvania, New York, Indiana, Ohio, and British Columbia has also been examined by Mr. Phillips, and in Table LI the results are tabu- lated, with a number of determinations made by others. Except in the cases of Kokomo and Vancouver, Mr. Phillips' analyses were made at the wells. Table LIII gives, for comparison, the composition of several samples of Russian natural gas, and the results of two analyses of gas from deep borings at Middles- bro'. Charitschkoff 2 states that the natural gas of Bereke (Daghestan) issuing from the ground with the petroleum, contains 12.82 per cent. of carbon dioxide, 65.84 per cent. of methane, and 19.92 per cent. of ethane. Mr Phillips made a careful search for hydrogen, carbon monoxide (usually, as he points out, included in the constituents of natural gas), olefines, and sulphur-compounds, and he maintains that these were entirely absent from the samples examined. From this he draws certain deductions in respect to the origin of petroleum, to which reference will be made in the succeeding section. In his analyses, how- ever, of a natural gas obtained from borings on Point Abino (Lake Erie), he shows 0.74 per cent. of sulphuretted hydrogen.3 Except in the case of the gas from a well near Canonsburg, with which, after it had been passed through water for several hours, a feeble Nessler reaction was obtained, ammonia was never found; but in this connection a case is reported, upon the authority of Mr. S. A. Ford, of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, where masses of solid ammonium carbonate were blown out of a well by the pressure of the gas. Professor C. C. Howard of Columbus has published the following results of analyses of the natural gas from the Trenton Limestone in Ohio: TABLE LII.-COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS (OHIO). Findlay. Fostoria. Saint Mary's. Hydrogen, Marsh gas, 1.64 1.89 1.74 93.35 92.84 93.85 Olefiant gas, 0.35 0.20 0.20 Carbonic oxide, 0.41 0.55 0.44 Carbon dioxide, 0.25 0.20 0.23 Oxygen, 0.39 0.35 0.35 Nitrogen, 3.41 3.82 2.98 Sulphuretted hydrogen, 0.20 0.15 0.21 100.00 100.00 100-00 1 Am. Chem. Journ., xvi, 406–429 (1894). 2 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., xxxvi, 321 [1904]; J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1903, 1190. 3 J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1898, 698; J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1898, 1073. 266 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS. TABLE LIII.-COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS (1 TO 6 RUSSIAN). 1. ல் 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Carbon monoxide, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Carbon dioxide, 0.95 2.18 3.50 0 2.47 4.44 0 0.3 Olefines, 4.11 3.26 4.26 0 0 0 0 Methane, 92.49 93.07 92.24 95.39 97.57 95.56 1.90 Hydrogen, 0.94 0.98 0 0 0 0 0 Nitrogen, Oxygen, 2.13 0.49 96.57 96.8 1.53 2.9 100.62 99.98 100.00 100-04 100-00 100-00 100-00 Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 : natural gas from the Caspian region. Communicated to Mr Phillips by M. Beliamin of Messrs Nobel Bros., St. Petersburg. No. 4 is the result of a partial analysis. Nos. 7 and 8: gas from deep borings at Middlesbro', England (stated by Phillips to be given on the authority of Bedson). 1 Particulars of numerous other analyses of the natural gas of the Old World have been published. Abich gives the following results of analyses by Schmidt and Bunsen of the gas of the Apscheron, Taman, and Kertch peninsulas: TABLE LIV.-COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS (RUSSIA). Apscheron Peninsula (Schmidt). Taman Peninsula (Bunsen). Kertch Peninsula (Bunsen). Titarovka. Seleonnaia. Jenikale. Methane,. 92.49 93.09 92.24 95.56 95.39 Bulganak. 97.51 Ethylene, 4.11 3.26 4.26 Hydrogen, 0.34 0.98 Carbon dioxide, 0.93 2.18 3.50 4.44 4.61 2.49 Nitrogen, 2.13 0.49 Engler gives the subjoined results of analyses of the gas evolved from the oil-wells of Pechelbronn : TABLE LV.-COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS (PECHELBRONN). Marsh gas, Olefiant gas and olefines, Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide, • Oxygen, Nitrogen and loss, 77.3 77.3 4.8 4.8 • 3.6 3.6 · • 3.5 3.4 1.8 2.0 8.9 9.0 About the year 1896, when searching for an underground water-supply, the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway Company discovered the presence of natural gas at Heathfield, Sussex, about 46 miles from London. The gas 1 Jahresberichte über die Fortschritte der Chemie, 1855, 1003. HEATING POWER OF NATURAL GAS. 267 had a strong smell of petroleum, and was reported to have an illuminating power of from twelve to fourteen candles. This gas was, in 1903, examined for the Royal Commission on Coal Supplies by H. B. Dixon and W. A. Bone, who found it to contain methane 93.16 per cent., ethane 2.94 per cent., carbon monoxide 1.00 per cent., and nitrogen 2-90 per cent.¹ Table LVI, showing the heating power of natural gas, is given on the author- ity of Professor Phillips, the results having been calculated from his analyses. already set forth : TABLE LVI.—CALORIFIC POWER OF NATURAL GAS. Gas-Field. Fredonia, Sheffield, Kane, Wilcox, Speechly, • Lyon's Run, Raccoon Creek, Baden,. Houston, • Available Heat Units per 100 cub. ft. of Gas. Pounds of Water (previously heated to 100° C.) evapo- rated by 100 cub. ft. of Gas. Pounds of Pure Charcoal equal in heating power to 100 cub. ft. of Gas. 32,421 133-30 8.845 28,430 116.89 7.756 29,319 120-52 7.999 28,102 115.54 7.667 • 31,554 129-73 8.609 26,321 108-22 7.181 27,355 112-47 7-463 26,941 110-77 7.350 26,119 107-38 7.126 1 J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1902, 1225; 1903, 410; Proc. Chem. Soc., xix, 63 (1903). SECTION IV. THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. THE question of the origin of petroleum and natural gas has received the attention of some of the most distinguished chemists and geologists, and has been experimentally investigated with instructive results. Whilst, however, it has been conclusively established by laboratory experiments, that products more or less closely resembling those which are met with in nature may be obtained by various processes, it cannot be said that any one theory of origin has yet found universal acceptance. Humboldt, in 1804, expressed the opinion that the oil was distilled by volcanic action from strata at an immense depth, and Reichenbach, in 1834, advanced the theory that it was formed by the action of subterranean heat on the turpentine of pine trees. The earlier references to the origin relate only to the liquid and solid forms of bitumen, the connection between natural gas and petroleum having apparently not been recognised. The various theories which have been formulated from time to time may be divided into three groups, the first consisting of those which attribute to petroleum an inorganic origin, the second of those which consider it as derived from the decomposition of terrestrial vegetation, and the third of those which regard it as a product of decay of marine vegetable or animal matter, or of both. Orton, in his Report on the Occurrence of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Asphalt Rock in Western Kentucky (1891), has given one of the most complete résumés yet published of the various views expressed. He classifies the theories dealing with the derivation from organic matter into two divisions. The first division comprises those which are based upon the view that petroleum has been formed from organic bodies in the strata now yielding the oil, the decomposition having principally taken place in situ, and the oil being thus mainly indigenous to the yielding strata. This view has been supported by Sterry Hunt, Lesley, White, and Whitney, and to a greater or less extent by many other authorities. The second division includes the theories dependent upon the conclusion that petroleum is a product of distillation, or of the secondary decomposition of organic matter. This general conclusion has been advocated by Newberry, Peckham, and a large number of other geologists. The assumption is that the original remains were partially transformed in situ, and that the conveyance to the rocks now yielding oil, of the petroleum produced by distillation, was aided by hydrostatic force," the so-called bituminous shales" being "counted the chief sources of these products." In controversy on this point, some have assumed that water-pressure alone was implied by the term hydrostatic, instead of the wider signification, covering all fluids. Gas, whether free or suspended in petroleum, is a most potent agent in the distribution of the oil and of any associated water, whilst the concentrated salinity of the latter in many cases militates against any hypothetical connection with artesian water- passages. 268 INORGANIC ORIGIN. 269 66 Orton considers that petroleum is the parent product from which both gas and solid bitumens are derived, and, speaking of the common origin of these substances, says: If a line were to be drawn anywhere in the series, it would be between gas and oil. The former, as we know, originates under many conditions in which petroleum does not occur; but on the other side, petroleum is never found free from inflammable gas, and in a large way all the facts and occurrences of both so exactly correspond, that it is impossible to separate them in respect to their origin." In referring to the wide dissemination of petroleum, Orton says:- We need to bear in mind that the various members of the bituminous series are abundantly and almost universally distributed among the unaltered sedimen- tary rocks of the earth's crust. The valuable accumulations of these substances are rare, it is true, but one can scarcely go amiss of petroleum, asphalt, or gas, at least in small quantities, among the stratified rocks that retain their original structure. In particular, the rocks of the entire Ohio Valley can be said to be charged with petroleum. A well cannot be drilled at any point in the valley for even a few hundred feet, in which careful examination will not reveal the presence of some representative of this bituminous series. The aggregate of this disseminated petroleum is often found to be very large. A fifth of 1 per cent. of petroleum, if distributed through 1000 feet of rock, would make a total to the acre or square mile far beyond any production that has ever been realised from the richest oil-field, and percentages of this amount are not only not rare to find, but are even hard to miss. "It is a popular impression that oil and gas are unusual substances in nature. The object of this paragraph is to show that this impression is entirely un- founded, and that we must free our minds from it if we would consider in proper light the question as to the origin of rock oil." Inorganic Origin. The theories which ascribe an inorganic origin to petro- leum are considered inadmissible by geologists and others acquainted with the conditions under which the many widely different descriptions of the product are met with. Prior to the formulation of the definite theory of an inorganic origin for petroleum, Brunet,¹ in a note to the Geological Society of France, suggested as a possible method of formation of asphalt, the action of nitrous and sul- phurous volcanic gases on the terebinthine of conifers, which view he supported by experimental evidence. It may be mentioned that he was led to this conclusion during a study of mud-volcanos, which he, in common with other early observers, regarded as true volcanic phenomena. Twenty years later, Rivière, finding that gas leaking from the mains condensed, in the surrounding soil and buried vegetation, into liquid hydrocarbons, suggested that in the same way gaseous hydrocarbons of igneous origin condensed in rocks and in deposits of ancient vegetation, forming the bitumen of both. 2 The first to advance a general theory was Berthelot, who, proceeding upon the hypothesis of Daubrée that the interior of the earth contains free alkali metals, ascertained by experiment that when carbonic acid or an earthy carbonate acts upon the alkali metals at a high temperature, acetylides are formed, and that under the conditions existing in the earth, these bodies when acted upon by water-vapour yield hydrocarbons resembling those of American petroleum, the exact composition of the hydrocarbons varying with the tem- perature. He therefore expressed the view, in 1866, that petroleum may have been produced by the infiltration of water containing carbonic acid gas 1 Bull. Soc. Geol. France, ix, 252 (1838). 2 Comptes Rendus, xlvii, 646–648 (1858). 270 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. into the interior of the earth, where it would be brought into contact with the alkali metals at an elevated temperature, and under great pressure, with the production of both liquid and gaseous petroleums. 1 In 1892 Maquenne ¹ described a method of preparing barium carbide, and showed that this substance evolved acetylene on treatment with hydroxylated compounds. In 1893 Travers prepared calcium carbide by heating the chloride and charcoal with sodium, and from this he also produced acetylene. Mean- while Willson 2 obtained calcium carbide from a mixture of lime and carbon in an electric furnace, and laid the foundation of the present acetylene-industry. These results are of interest in connection with the question of the origin of petroleum, but further light has been thrown on the subject by the researches of Moissan, who has found that certain of the carbides yield liquid hydro- carbons on treatment with water. In a paper published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society in 1899, J. A. Mathews has given the following classification of the reactions of decomposition of the carbides :- (1) The carbides of lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, and strontium are decomposed by water, giving mostly acetylene. (2) Silver, copper, mercury and gold (?) acetylides are acted on by hydro- chloric acid, giving acetylene. (3) Aluminium and beryllium carbides react with water, yielding methane. (4) Manganese carbide with water gives methane and hydrogen. (5) The carbides of yttrium, lanthanum, and thorium are decomposed by water, giving mixtures of acetylene, ethylene, methane, and hydrogen. (6) Lanthanum, cerium, and uranium carbides give with water, besides. the volatile products, a residue of liquid and solid hydrocarbons. It will thus be seen that several of the carbides, including that of man- ganese, yield methane (CH), the lowest member of the paraffins present in Pennsylvania petroleum, and that some actually yield liquid and solid hydro- carbons. In 1871 Byasson 3 suggested that petroleum might have resulted from the action on iron or sulphide of iron at a white heat, of steam and carbonic acid gas produced by the infiltration of salt water to great depths in the earth. His theory, like that of Berthelot, is based on laboratory-experiments, which resulted in the production of hydrocarbons resembling petroleum. In 1872 Anderson (Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, iv, 174–177 (1872)), objecting to the theory that oil was derived from coal, on the ground that even when oil-springs were found in proximity to such deposits there was no loss of bitumen in the coal itself, pointed to the known liability to polymerisation of the hydro- carbon gases, and the frequent occurrences of oil in fissures in the earth's crust, as evidence that petroleum had been formed by condensation of gaseous hydrocarbons from the interior of the earth. 4 In 1877 further evidence of the possibility of petroleum having had an inorganic origin was published. Cloez obtained petroleum-like hydrocarbons by the action of dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and even of boiling water, on a spiegeleisen (carbide of iron and manganese), and Mendeléeff published his notable paper on the inorganic origin of petroleum.5 Mendeléeff refers to the great density of the earth, to the well-known presence of iron carbide in meteorites and of iron in the solar system, as shown by the spectroscope, and to 1 Comptes Rendus, cxiv, 677 (1892). 2 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., xiv, 135 (1895). 3 Comptes Rendus, lxxiii, 609, and a brochure (22 pp.), 1876. 4 Ibid., lxxxv, 1003 (1878). 5 Jurn. Russk. Ph.-Kh. Obsch., ix (1), 36; Journ. Chem. Soc., xxxvi, 283 (1879). INORGANIC ORIGIN. 271 the presence of iron in basalts and other eruptive rocks, as powerful arguments in favour of the view that the interior of the earth contains large amounts of iron, whether combined with carbon or not. He states that he, like Cloez, obtained olefines and other hydrocarbons, in the form of a liquid having properties exactly similar to those of natural petroleum, by the action of hydro- chloric acid on spiegeleisen; but the theory to which his name is usually applied ascribes the formation of petroleum to the action of carbide of iron at high temperatures in the interior of the earth upon water which has penetrated through fissures produced in the earth's crust by the elevation of mountain chains, or by other changes. He further alleges, as incidental arguments in favour of his theory, the absence of adequate organic deposits from the strata yielding petroleum, at least in Russia; the occurrence of petroleum having no connection with the geological age of the oil-bearing strata; and the relations between petroleum occurrence and volcanic manifestations noticed by so many observers. These statements have, however, been directly traversed by geo- logical investigation. At the meeting of the British Association in 1891, O. C. D. Ross advanced the theory that petroleum is a product of the action of volcanic gases upon lime- stones. He partly founds his theory on the observation of Bischof, that sulphur has been obtained in laboratory-experiments by the action upon chalk of hot volcanic gases (sulphurous acid and sulphuretted hydrogen), and assumes. that such action would further produce both olefines and paraffins, with a separation of sulphur and a conversion of the calcium carbonate of the chalk into gypsum.¹ Ño experimental evidence, however, in support of the views expressed has been adduced.2 The theory of the Russian geologist Sokoloff (1890), may be thus sum- marised Hydrogen and carbon enter very largely into the composition of the heavenly bodies, and hydrocarbons formed therefrom make their appearance at an early stage. In the earth, bitumen was in like manner produced, was absorbed by the glowing, viscid mass forming the core of our planet, and as cooling progressed, was transferred to the outer layers, where it is now found. In 1889 Meunier had found ozokerite and its ally kabaite in a meteorite. 4 5 Peckham quotes the following authorities as considering it likely that petroleum is a condensation-product of marsh gas-Hitchcock 3 (1866), Coquand (1868), and Grabowski (1877). Coquand, like many others, connects the occurrence of petroleum with mud-volcanos, but he appears to be the only one who attributes the formation of petroleum to the condensation of marsh gas into liquid hydrocarbons under the influence of such pseudo- volcanic action. In 1902 Sabatier and Senderens 6 produced by the action of acetylene and hydrogen on reduced nickel a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons bearing a resem- blance to Pennsylvania petroleum, while acetylene alone with nickel gave a product resembling Russian petroleum. In a survey of the various theories proposed, Mr. L. V. Dalton thus summarises the arguments brought forward by the believers in the inorganic origin of petroleum :- 1. The absence of an adequate quantity of organised life in many petro- liferous formations. ¹ Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1891, 639. Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1866, Sect., 57. 5 Chem. Centr. 3, viii, 462. Compt. Rend., exxxiv, 1185–1188. 7 Economic Geology, iv, 606 (1909). 2 Chem. News, xliv, 215 (1891). ¹ Bull. Soc. Giol. de France, 2, xxv, 35. 272 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. 2. The differences between the oils produced by artificial distillation of coal, etc., and the natural petroleum oils. 66 3. The very general distribution of petroleum in the earth's crust, regard- less of the geological age of the rocks containing it. 4. The connection between igneous rocks and other manifestations of volcanic activity and petroleum. The first of these objections to the organic theory has, it may be said, been altogether removed by further investigation, as even in the very oil-fields on the phenomena of which the argument was based evidence of abundant organic life has since been detected, and that of a character well qualified to give rise to petroleum. The second arises out of insufficient knowledge of the organic theories, for, as will be seen, so far from the supporters of these pointing to land-vegetation as the sole source of oil, the number of authors arguing for such an origin at all is now a small fraction of the whole. It should be remembered, however, that the earlier writers on both sides often failed to distinguish adequately between carbonaceous substances exhibiting traces of vegetable structure, such as coal and lignite, and those which are now, by general consent, considered as derivatives or allies of petroleum. 66 Though petroleum does occur in greater or less quantity in rocks of all geological ages, it may be said that its quantity is far greater in rocks deposited under such conditions as would ensure the entombment of large quantities of organic material, and where the conditions of a particular period were through- out the world unfavourable to the existence of abundant life, that division of the geological record is nearly or entirely barren of petroleum. 66 Finally, it is now known that the mud-volcanos so frequently accompany- ing petroleum are not of igneous origin, and that in fact true volcanic energy is seldom manifested in petroliferous regions, while the number of occurrences of petroleum in igneous rocks bears only a small proportion to the number of such occurrences in sedimentary deposits far from any known mass or outcrop of igneous rock. Against the theory as a whole may be urged the difficulty of understanding how the petroleum of such deposits as those of the United States and Baku (in fact the majority of geologically-known oil-fields of the world) could have reached its present position if derived in any way from the central magma of the earth, while it is also difficult to reconcile with the inorganic theory the fact of the extreme rarity of petroleum in the oldest solid rocks of the earth's crust and in any such igneous masses as are precluded by their mode of occurrence from containing oil derived from surrounding sedimentaries. It may be added that, as emphasised by Phillips, natural gas contains only a small proportion of hydrogen, whereas the synthesised gases of the igneous theorists contain very large proportions of that element, and no adequate hypothesis has yet been advanced to account for its elimination." It must, however, be admitted that in some cases hydrocarbons are found in nature where only an inorganic origin will account for their presence, but these instances are in general of purely academic interest, and do not help to remove the difficulties in the way of those who would attribute an inorganic origin to petroleum generally. Organic Origin from Terrestrial Vegetation.-The relation between petro- leum and the oils obtained by distillation from peat, lignite, and coal, led, at an early date, to a belief that petroleum was produced from one or all of these materials. Although this theory was soon abandoned in its original form by the majority of observers, a few later writers have also considered that terres- trial vegetation has in some cases undergone a special mineralisation, being ORGANIC ORIGIN. 273 changed to liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in place of the usual solid lignites and coal. Hatchett noticed this (1798), as already mentioned in the section relating to the chemical and physical properties of petroleum. Binney 1 considered the bituminous matter which he found in a peat-bed on Down Holland Moss to be due to the decomposition of the peat, but Höfer 2 observes that this deposit, like many Continental peat formations, lies upon sand which may have supplied the bitumen. 3 Höfer ³ also remarks that the oil which trickles from the coal in Shropshire, especially at Coalport, near Broseley, is derived from a sandstone in the coal formation, and not from the coal itself. By the distillation of wood with superheated steam, Daubrée obtained a carbonaceous residue and a distillate smelling like the oil of Elsass. Von Kobell and many others have considered anthracite to be the residue from the formation of petroleum from coal. 4 In 1860, Wall, finding oil in Trinidad and Venezuela in a series of lime- stones, sandstones and shales, associated with beds of lignite, was led to suggest that the latter had given rise to the oil, but in the same year Delesse 5 had found 0-256 per cent. of nitrogen in Trinidad pitch, which, though no clear proof of its animal origin, was evidence in its favour, and was explicable in the light of Prof. Rupert Jones's discovery that the matrix of his samples of the asphalt was composed of Nummulinæ and Orbitoides. In 1897 Peckham 7 studied the occurrence of plant remains associated with asphalt in Trinidad, on the basis of which Wall had built up his theory, and found that the lignite bed near the pitch-lake, and the pieces of lignite in the asphalt itself, were in exactly the same condition, that is, they were both still wood, and that the bitumen could certainly not have come from these, in his view. The author has in his possession specimens of soft woody fibre containing petroleum, which were found by the late George Scott in strata yielding small quantities of oil and gas, at depths of 40 to 50 feet and 60 to 70 feet, during the drilling of a well at Digboi, Assam, in 1893. 8 9 Griffiths, in 1884, finding free phenol in pine cones, again suggested that petroleum was derived from the decomposition of conifers, on the ground of the occurrence in some mineral oils of a small proportion of the same com- pound. Sadtler also suggested the participation of land-vegetation in the formation of petroleum, on the ground that vegetable fats such as linseed oil could be made to yield both kerosene and solid paraffin like those obtained from natural petroleum. Watson Smith 10 has advanced a further argument in favour of the theory that petroleum is derived from coal, in connection with some experiments on a highly-bituminous coal from Japan. In connection with this matter, Höfer, who has been largely instrumental in placing the animal-origin theory upon a scientific basis, thinks that cannel coals, at least in many districts, derive their bituminous contents from the animal remains which are found in them. Newberry (1878) 11 points out that the cannel coal of Ohio contains large quantities of remains of mollusca, fish, amphibia, and crustacea. 1 Proc. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc., iii, 136. 3 Loc. cit., 113. 5 Ann. Mines, 5, xviii, 151, 1860. 6 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxii, 592, 593, 1866. 7 Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xxxvi, 105, 1897. 9 Amer. Journ. Pharm., lxviii, 465 (1896). 2 Das Erdol, 110. + Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xvi, 467. 8 Chem. News, xlix, 95. 10 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1891, 979. 11 Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, part i, 125 and 174. VOL. I. 18 274 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. The objections to the theory that petroleum has been produced from coal are at least strengthened by the fact that the largest deposits of the former are situated in strata of a period which was not coal-forming, and are usually far distant from coal-deposits. In Pennsylvania, for instance, the coal- and oil-fields are totally distinct, and the former belong to newer rock-groups. Coal has nowhere been found below the oil strata of Pennsylvania and New York, and in the anthracitic and other coal-fields of North America no important deposits of petroleum have. been found. On the chemical side also, it may be objected that the tars distilled from wood or lignite present marked differences from, as well as some similarity to, natural petroleum, while in the course of distillation the compounds more characteristic of rock oils do not appear until a high temperature has been reached. It seems possible, however, as suggested by Sadtler's linseed-oil experi- ments, that the parts of land-plants which are particularly rich in fats may have contributed in some small degree to the production of petroleum. Organic Origin from Marine Organisms. As regards the opinion that petroleum is indigenous to the strata in which it is found, geologists are very generally agreed that this is true of a large number of the deposits. Sterry Hunt considers that limestones are almost invariably the source of petroleum, and that in the case of the Niagara Limestone, the Corniferous Limestone, and the Trenton Limestone, the oil was produced in those strata. from animal and vegetable remains contained in them. Orton, however, points out that Sterry Hunt has sometimes described the oil of Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio as indigenous to the Devonian and Carboniferous sandstones which contain it. Lesley argues that the conglomerates and sandstones of Kentucky are the primary source of the oil they contain. Orton holds the same opinion regarding the deposits of Northwestern Ohio, and Andreae respecting those of Upper and Lower Elsass. Höfer regards the oil of Shropshire and the bitumen of Seyssel as found in their parent strata, and Peckham decides that the oils of California, Texas, and Tennessee undoubtedly originated in the beds now containing them. Sterry Hunt judiciously remarks that the fact of the alternation of similarly porous beds free from, and saturated with, petroleum," shows that this material cannot have been derived from overlying or underlying beds, but has been generated by the transformation of organic matters in the strata in which it is met with." He further states that in some cases petroleum is found filling cavities in the Lower Silurian limestone, as at Rivière à la Rose (Montmorency, Quebec), where it drops from the Birdseye Limestone, and at Pakenham, Ontario, where it fills cavities of large Orthoceratites in the Trenton Limestone. "From some specimens nearly a pint of petroleum has been obtained." In the Marcellus Shales at the base of the Hamilton Group are found con- cretionary nodules containing petroleum, while at the summit of the same group similar concretions holding petroleum are again met with. Even when found in sands and conglomerates, Sterry Hunt usually refers. petroleum to limestone as the parent rock. He observes, with special reference to the Niagara Limestone, near Chicago, that " with such sources ready-formed in the earth's crust, it seems to me, to say the least, unphilosophical to search elsewhere for the origin of petroleum, and to suppose it to be derived, by some unexplained process, from rocks which are destitute of the substance." He ORGANIC ORIGIN. 275 adds: The forms in which it [petroleum] now occurs depend in great measure upon the presence or absence of atmospheric oxygen, since, by oxidation and volatilisation, the naphtha or petroleum becomes slowly changed into asphalt or mineral pitch, which is solid at ordinary temperatures. It would even appear that, by a continuance of the same action, the bitumen may lose its fusibility and solubility, and become converted into a coal-like matter. Thus, in the calciferous sand-rock in New York, a black substance, which has been called. anthracite, occurs in cavities with crystals of bitter-spar and quartz. It some- times coats these crystals or the walls of the cavities, and at other times appears in the form of buttons or drops, evidently, according to Vanuxem, having been introduced into these cavities in a liquid state, and subsequently hardened as a layer above the crystals which have conformed to it, showing that this coal- like matter was once in a plastic state. It is very pulverulent, brittle, of a shining black, and, according to Vanuxem, yielded but little ash, and 11-5 per cent. of volatile matter, which he regarded as water.¹ 66 A similar material occurs in the Quebec group in Canada, the equivalent of the Calciferous Sand-rock, and fills cavities and fissures in the limestones, sandstones, and even in the accompanying trap rocks, as at Quebec, Orleans Island, Point Levis, and at Acton, presenting mammillary surfaces, as noticed by Vanuxem, which evidently show that it has once been semi-fluid. . . .' The recurrence of similar phenomena in European rocks of various ages has been described in Section II of this work. >> J. S. Newberry regards the oil and gas of the Allegheny field as having their source in the Devonian and Carboniferous shales underlying the reservoir rocks, and considers these shales, more especially the black shales, to have been subjected to a slow but continuous spontaneous distillation, "performed at a low temperature." In the Geology of Ohio, i. 158 (1873), he says:- We have in the Huron Shale a vast repository of solid hydrocarbonaceous matter, which may be made to yield 10 to 20 gallons of oil to the ton by artificial distillation. Like all other organic matter, this is constantly undergoing spontaneous distillation, except where hermetically sealed deep under rock and water. This results in the formation of oil and gas closely resembling those which we make artificially from the same substance, the manufactured differing from the natural products only because we cannot imitate accurately the processes of nature. "Second.-A line of oil and gas-springs marks the outcrop of the Huron. shale from New York to Tennessee. The rock itself is frequently found saturated with petroleum, and the overlying strata, if porous, are sure to be more or less impregnated with it. Third. The wells on Oil Creek penetrate the strata immediately over- lying the Huron Shale, and the oil is obtained from the fissured and porous sheets of sandstone of the Portage and Chemung groups, which lie just above the Huron, and offer convenient reservoirs for the oil it furnishes." Peckham has expressed the opinion that the different varieties of petroleum are the products of fractional distillation of carbonaceous matters at depths far below the rocks now yielding the oil, and cites the Bradford oil, whose large paraffin-content he attributes to the great pressure under which it was formed. He considers that the distillation occurred slowly, and without violent heat, especially as regards the deposits of New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio. He regards the distillation as caused by the metamorphic action and heat produced by the elevation of the Appalachian system, and adds that the chronic evaporation or distillation thus set up has converted the animal- 1 Geology of New York, iii, 33. 276 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. and plant-remains into oils, the light oils into heavy oils, and these into asphalt and other solid bitumens, the process being associated throughout with the evolution of gas. Further, he is of opinion that the petroleums of California. and Texas are indigenous to the shales from which they issue, and argues that the animal remains in these shales, the large amount of nitrogen in the oil, and the fact that the fresh oils when exposed soon become the habitat of the larvæ of insects, show these descriptions of bitumen to be of animal origin. On the other hand, he regards the petroleums of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia as of vegetable origin. In discussing Peckham's theory, Orton points out that evidence of meta- morphic action is absolutely absent even at very great depths; drillings at Canal Dover, Ohio, brought up from a depth of 2700 feet, being perfectly normal, as is also the case with the Westinghouse well at Pittsburg, the Cleve- land rolling-mill well at 3200 feet, and wells at Springfield and Dayton, in Ohio. He states that the deep-lying shales show an absence of change, which pre- cludes the idea that so high a temperature as 212° F., far below that at which distillation of oil would occur, has ever been reached in them. Orton concludes that the theory" does not harmonise with the facts of geology in the main oil-fields." As regards the temperatures and pressures prevailing when the oils were produced, authorities are much divided in opinion. Some consider that high temperatures, approaching that employed for coal-distillation, have prevailed, while others argue that the composition of the oil precludes the possibility of such temperatures having been reached. Krämer opines that petroleum cannot have been produced at as high a temperature as is employed for obtaining brown-coal tar, which again is obtained at a lower heat than ordinary coal tar. 1 وو Orton ¹ holds that the production of the oil must have occurred at tempera- tures below 200° C., and calls distillation at such a heat" spontaneous " rather than destructive." Krämer and Böttcher 2 consider that petroleum has been produced under great pressure, and the former believes that variation in the character of petroleum found is due to changes occurring in the oil after its formation. In confirmation of this latter opinion, Höfer contends that the absence of necessity for theories to account for the different varieties of petroleum, is shown by the observation of Schultz (1882),3 that the coals of different districts yield tars of different composition, Wigan coal, for instance, giving tar rich in phenols and benzene, while that from Newcastle yields a tar rich in naph- thalene and anthracene. Most of the previously named observers assume that petroleum is derived from both vegetable and animal remains. Lesley believes the Pennsylvania oil to have been formed from fossil fucoids and coral plasma, and Ashburner adopts a similar dual origin. Orton considers that the oil occurring in shale and sandstone is of vegetable, and that found in limestone of animal, origin. Peckham suggests that oil containing asphalt, but not paraffin, is of animal origin, while that containing paraffin is of vegetable origin. Strippelmann thinks that petroleum and natural gas were probably produced from vegetable and animal remains in Silurian, Devonian, and carboniferous formations, and Krämer maintains that they were formed by the dry distillation of organisms. of the Carboniferous epoch. 1 Preliminary Report on Petroleum and Inflammable Gas, 1886, 11. 2 Berichte deutsch. chem. Gesellschaft, 1887, 595. 3 Chemie des Steinkohlentheeres, ii. 22. DOUBLE ORIGIN. 277 As regards the general aspect of the theories dealing with the organic origin, Orton 1 thus expresses himself :-" Petroleum is undoubtedly indigenous to, and derived from, certain limestones, as Hunt has so strongly asserted. The Trenton Limestone is undoubtedly the most important source of oil and gas in the geological scale of the United States at the present time. On the other hand, Newberry's doctrine, that the great supplies of the Pennsylvania field are de- rived from Devonian shales, is becoming more firmly established and more generally accepted every year, though it seems likely that he has laid too much stress on bituminous shales. In other words, the theories are not exclusive of each other. Different fields have different sources. We can accept, without inconsistency, the adventitious origin of the oil in Pennsylvania sandstones, and its indigenous origin in the shales of California, or in the limestones of Canada, Kentucky, or Ohio. "The double origin of petroleum, from both limestones and shales-and it is not necessary to exclude sandstones from the list of possible sources deserves to be universally accepted. In confirmation of this double origin, it is coming to be recognised that the oil and gas derived from these two sources generally differ from each other in noticeable respects. The oil and gas derived from limestones contain a larger proportion of sulphur than is found in the oil and gas of the shales. Sulphur-compounds impart to the oil a rank and persistent odour, from which it can be freed only with great difficulty. In the case of the oil-bearing shales of California, the petroleum is apparently derived from the animal remains with which the formation was originally filled. In composition, this oil agrees with the limestone oils already described. . . . Certain it is that the limestone oils differ in physical characteristics from the Pennsylvania oils; for example, in a marked degree, they are dark in colour ; they are heavy oils, their gravity ranging generally from 34° to 36° B., though sometimes rising to 40° or even 42°. They have a rank odour, arising from the sulphurous compounds which they contain. The oils of Canada, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and of the new field in Northwestern Ohio, all agree in these respects, and the oil and gas of the Utica shale and the Hudson River group of the slate fall into the same category. The theories which regard some petroleums as produced by the decomposi- tion or distillation of animal remains, are now largely accepted, especially by German chemists, and Höfer notes that the belief in an animal origin gains ground as our geological knowledge of the oil increases. Sterry Hunt, as already stated, regarded this theory as the most probable, and Peckham con- siders that, at any rate, the nitrogen-containing oils of California, Texas, and Tennessee are of animal origin. Leopold von Buch traced the oil of the Upper Lias shales of Swabia to the animal-remains therein. Sir Roderick Murchison in 1829 (Proc. Geol. Soc., i, 139), in an account of the bituminous shale of Seefeld in the Tyrol with its abundant fossils, remarked on the probability of so many fish having materi- ally co-operated in the bituminisation of the schist." Bertels considers that the Caucasian oil was produced by the decomposition of molluscs. Zincken holds that the bituminous shales, limestones, and marls which appear to have produced the oil, contained, in addition to the fish- and mollusc-remains, the unfossilisable fat of animal organisms. The animal origin of the Carpathian oil is affirmed by Paul and Tietze, and Credner believes that the petroleum of North Germany originated in the strata of the Upper Jurassic formation, which contains animal rather than plant remains. ¹ Report on the Occurrence of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Asphalt Rock in Western Kentucky, 1891, 43. 278 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. 1 By fractionation of the distillate from a lime-soap of menhaden (fish) oil, Warren and Storer ¹ obtained members of the methane, ethylene, and benzene groups, such as are found in petroleum.2 The most striking experimental evidence yet published in support of this theory is, however, that of Engler,³ who distilled 490 kilos. of menhaden oil in a Krey apparatus at Riebeck's works in Webau, and obtained a distillate remarkably like petroleum. The distillation was commenced at a temperature. of 320° C. under a pressure of 10 atmospheres, and was completed at 400° C. under a pressure of 4 atmospheres. He obtained about 60 per cent. of dis- tillate of specific gravity 0.8105, about 8.9 per cent. of gas, and about 5 per cent. of unsaponifiable fat in the residue. The distillate was brown, and possessed a greenish fluorescence and a disagreeable, acroleïn-like smell. By fractiona- tion, the distillate was found to contain pentane, hexane, normal and secondary heptane, and normal octane and nonane. From the chemical reactions of the distillate, the presence of olefines and of naphthenes and other aromatic hydro- carbons was inferred. Finally, from the distillate, a lighting oil was separated, which was described as indistinguishable from commercial kerosene, and this statement the author, having received a specimen of the product from Pro- fessor Engler, is in a position to confirm. On repeating the experiments with trioleïn (commercial" oleïne "), similar results were obtained; in fact, the menhaden oil used may be considered as a mixture of oleïn, stearin, and palmitin. The composition of the oil is such that, after combination of all the oxygen with part of the hydrogen to form water, the residue contains carbon and hydrogen in about the same proportions as are present in petroleum. Engler considers that the glycerin or acrolein formed during the reaction. would be washed away from the petroleum, but Veith has given a more elaborate explanation of their disappearance. He considers that the glycerin becomes converted by heat and pressure into acroleïn, which, by elimination of water and condensation, produces benzene. The fatty acids are converted into hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide, which becomes reduced to carbon. monoxide, and ultimately into hydrocarbons, by the influence of dissociated hydrocarbons. Although these experiments of Engler furnished such suggestive results, a further series, in which he attempted to obtain similar products from dried fish and other animal-remains, was totally unsuccessful, the distillate yielded being altogether different from petroleum. Engler, therefore, considers that some change in the animal remains must have taken place in the earth, whereby all nitrogenous and other matters, save fats, were removed, the petroleum being formed from the fat alone, by the combined action of pressure and heat, or by pressure only. Zaloziecki (1894, 1895) 5 also believes in the animal origin of petroleum, but in a different manner. He considers that the first products of the decomposi- tion of animal bodies would be nitrogenous matters and adipocere, which com- prises the fatty matter of the remains, and that the adipocere would become covered with sediment and gradually converted into fatty acids, which finally decompose into hydrocarbons. He is of opinion that adipocere, ozokerite, and liquid petroleum are produced in the order named. 1 Mem. Amer. Acad., 2, ix, 177 (1865). 2 Amer. Journ. Sci. (2), xliii, 250. 3 Berichte deutsch. chem. Gesellschaft, xxi, 1816 (1888); and xxii, 592 (1889). See also Engler and Seidner, Dingler's polytech. Journ., cclxxi, 515 (1889). 4 Das Erdöl, etc., 95; and Chemiker-Zeitung, xiv, 1368. › Dingler's polytech. Journ., cclxxx, 69, 85, and 133; and Chemiker-Zeitung, xv, 1203. ANIMAL ORIGIN. 279 Ochsenius considers that the halogens in the water found with petroleum have had much to do with the production of the petroleum. He thinks that the fatty matters of decomposing animal bodies are converted into petroleum under the action of certain salts, notably alkaline bromides and aluminium chloride. Zaloziecki, however,¹ points out that the water found with petroleum is not always saline, and asserts that the action of salt is merely to arrest putrefaction. Sickenberger (1892) 2 believes that a connection can be traced between the abundant animal-remains in the Red Sea and the bituminous matter in the rocks on the coasts, whilst Barron and Hume (1902) largely support the suggestion, made by Fraas in 1868, that the coral-reef oil is still in process of formation, and refer that of the older rocks to the continuance of similar conditions throughout Tertiary times. Höfer ³ mentions the following as arguments in favour of an animal origin for petroleum :— 1. Oil is found in strata containing animal but little or no plant remains. This is the case in the Carpathians and in the limestone examined in Canada and the United States by Sterry Hunt. 2. The shales from which oil and paraffin were obtained in the Liassic oil shales of Swabia and of Steierdorf in the Banat, contained animal but no vegetable remains. Other shales, as, for instance, the copper shales of Mans- feld, where the bitumen amounts to 22 per cent., are rich in animal remains, and practically free from vegetable remains. 3. Rocks which are rich in vegetable remains are generally not bituminous. 4. Substances resembling petroleum are produced by the decomposition of animal remains. 5. Fraas observed exudations of petroleum from a coral reef on the shores of the Red Sea, where it could only be of animal origin. ¹ In summing up the evidence as to origin, Höfer expresses the belief that petroleum is of animal origin, and has been formed without the action of excessive heat, and observes that it is found in all strata in which animal remains have been discovered. He considers that the oil is the primary, and gas a secondary, product. Orton's opinions, which are somewhat different, are as follows 5 (1) Petroleum is derived from organic matter. (2) Petroleum of the Pennsylvania type is derived from the organic matter of bituminous shales, and is probably of vegetable origin. (3) Petroleum of the Canada type is derived from limestones, and is probably of animal origin. (4) Petroleum has been produced at normal rock temperatures (in American fields), and is not a product of destructive distillation of bituminous shales. (5) The stock of petroleum in the rocks is already practically complete. F. C. Phillips (1894) 6 supports the view that petroleum has been formed by the slow decay of marine vegetable matter, under water, in the absence of air, on the ground that such a process is the only one known which yields a gas at all similar in composition to the natural gas of the petroleum fields. In reference to the theory of Mendeléeff he points out that, practically, no free hydrogen is found in natural gas, as would be the case if petroleum had been produced by the action of steam upon metallic carbides. Also, that whilst paraffins alone 1 Loc. cit. 3 Das Erdol, 118. 2 Chemiker-Zeitung, xv, 1582. * Loc. cit., 131. 5 Report on the Occurrence of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Asphalt Rock in Western Ken- tucky, 1891, 60. 6 Am. Chem. Journ., xvi, 406-429. 280 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. cannot be produced by such chemical reaction, the gaseous product resulting from the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon ferro-manganese contains 6 per cent. of olefines, and natural gas contains neither olefines nor carbon monoxide. Similarly, in regard to the theory of animal origin, Phillips points out that the gaseous products obtained by Engler in the distillation of menhaden oil and oleïc acid contained from 25 to 38 per cent. of carbon monoxide, and a con- siderable proportion of olefines, while the amount of paraffins present was comparatively small; and he states that it is difficult to understand how such a gas could have been so changed in composition as to be rendered similar to natural gas. Phillips is of opinion that the process of decay of vegetable matter which has resulted in the formation of petroleum, is a secondary one of very slow progression, following the comparatively rapid changes which first occur, and that a gradual decay of this description is not possible in the case of animal- remains. Krämer and Spilker (1900-1902) support the view, first propounded by Witt in 1894, that the waxy matter secreted by diatoms may have contributed directly to the production of petroleum. The present formation of oil from the decomposition of seaweed on the Sardinian and Swedish coasts has been described in Section II in the accounts of Italy and Sweden, and oily matter seems to be formed in the Levant and the Red Sea, according to Natterer.¹ Lesquereux regards petroleum as due to marine vegetation, traces of which abound in the lower Palæozoic rocks, whilst coal is derived from fibrous terres- trial plants. 2 The theories which have been advanced in relation to the origin of petro- leum have been critically examined by Aisinmann, who summed up strongly in favour of the views expressed by Höfer and Engler. The Engler-Höfer theory, as developed by its authors up to the present time, states that petroleum is derived from the natural decomposition in situ of the fatty remains of marine organisms, both animal and vegetable. In regard to the manner in which the decomposition may have taken place, Mr. L. V. Dalton (loc. cit.) has thus summarised the opinions put forward by various observers: ઃઃ The chemical evidence cited is fairly conclusive on this point, that if marine organisms are the source of petroleum, their nitrogenous parts are in some way eliminated prior to the formation of the oil; it has already been mentioned that the fats are known to persist after the disintegration of the other material, and Prof. Engler (who first laid stress on the existence of two stages in the process of petroleum-formation), and other authors, have suggested a very feasible manner in which the two processes are carried out in marine deposits. In the first instance, after the death of the animal or plant, bacterial action begins, attacking the cellulose of the latter and the nitrogenous tissues of the former, but leaving untouched the fatty matters of both at first. That this does actually take place in nature was shown by Engler, who found that while the decomposing organic remains in a zoögen-phytogen mud contained 20 per cent. of fat, the living organisms contained only 15-7 per cent. The action of bacteria in the formation of petroleum was first suggested by Radzis- zewski (Archiv Pharm., 3, xiii, 455-459 (1878)), and later researches have supported the view that these microorganisms play an important part. Bertrand and Renault found their remains in boghead. Dr. C. B. Morrey. Professor ¹ Scott. Geogr. Mag., xiv, 639, 642 (1898). 2 Zeitschr. angew. Chem., 1893, 738; and 1894, 122. 3 3 See Renault, Bull. Soc. Ind. Min., 3, xiii, 865-1169 (1899); xiv, 5-157 (1900). Russian boghead contains Micrococcus petrolei. SUMMARY OF OPINIONS. 281 of Bacteriology in Ohio State University, found fossil bacteria in oil rocks,¹ while Meyer 2 found petroleum in a bacterial deposit from Altenberg. Some of these observers undoubtedly laid too much emphasis on bacterial action, which, as Lemière, who also contributed to the study of the subject, suggested,³ would be arrested as soon as the central parts were rendered antiseptic by the hydro- carbons formed. We must therefore regard the action of bacteria as in the main limited to the first stage, i.e. the elimination of the nitrogenous matters, the action being automatically stopped almost as soon as the fats are attacked, whilst, as Engler objects, soil (and sediment) acts as a bacterial filter, and so, when the action had extended to the fats, the progress of deposition would probably render these immune from further fermentation; on the other hand, he remarked that carbohydrates may be converted into fats by the agency of microorganisms. Having then in this way accounted for the elimination of nitrogenous matters, which, as we have seen, give rise in distillation to compounds not found in petroleum, the process of transformation of fats into oil may be supposed to proceed slowly, as Phillips found did actually happen in the case of seaweeds, while Engler and others have emphasised the fact that not only does pressure tend to raise the temperature of bodies (as Scheithauer found to be the case to a remarkable extent with lignites), but that the actions which are normally carried out in the laboratory by the action for a short time of a high temperature are equally well performed by a comparatively low tempera- ture acting for a very long period.' >> Considerable attention has been directed in recent years to the study of the optical activity of petroleums, as bearing upon their origin. It was suggested that the rotation of the polarised ray was due to the presence of small quantities of cholesterol, of which Dr. Lewkowitsch, in his Chemical Technology of Oils, Fats, and Waxes (ed. iii, 1904, vol. i, p. 138), remarks that "since all animal oil and fats contain small quantities of cholesterol, the presence of cholesterol in an oil or fat points to an animal origin." Rakuzin (Jurn. Russk. Phiz. Khim. Obsch., xxxv, 554, 1904, etc.) was the chief investigator of these optical properties, and he first announced the detection of cholesterol in petroleum; later observations, have, however, tended to throw doubt upon his deductions, and it is still impossible to affirm that the presence of cholesterol or phytosterol (the similar substance found in vegetable oils) in petroleum has been established beyond doubt, though such a result would accord well with the Engler-Höfer dual theory of the origin of mineral oils. Engler thus enumerates the various stages which in his opinion occur in the formation of petroleum from organic matter: 5 1. Putrefaction, or fermentation, by which albumen and cellulose, etc., are eliminated. Fatty matters (and waxes), with a small quantity of other durable material and possibly fatty acids from the albumen, remain. 2. Occurs partly during the first stage: saponification of the glycerides, and production of free fatty acids, either from action of water or ferments, possibly both. The waxy esters are either wholly or partly hydrolysed. The residues from many crude oils are probably due to lack of completion of these actions. 1 See Bull. Geol. Surv. Ohio, 4, i, 313 (1903). 2 Chem.-Zeit., xxx, 814 (1906). 3 Compt. Rend. Congr. Geol. Internat., viii, 508 (1901) 4 Zeitschr. angew. Chem., xxi, 1590, (1908). 5 Ibid., 1588. 282 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. 3. CO2 is eliminated from the acids and esters, water from the alcohols, oxy-acids, etc., leaving hydrocarbons of high molecular weight containing oxy-compounds, cf. the intermediate product like ozokerite of Krämer and of Zaloziecki, who also regarded that mineral as representing an early stage in the formation of oil. 4. Formation of liquid hydrocarbons and violent reaction with "cracking" into light or gaseous products = formation of proto-petroleum. He adds, in regard to all these stages, that he is assuming that time and temperature compensate one another, though pressure has no action beyond raising the temperature slightly, and is in no way equivalent to it. He con- siders that with moderate temperatures and pressures oil of intermediate grade will be formed, while increase of either tends to form light oils. Poly- merisation and addition-products are formed after the completion of stage 4. He further suggests that the various hydrocarbons are formed as under: Methanes as direct products from the "bitumen," i.e. the fats of stage 1 and heavy hydrocarbons of stage 3. Olefines directly formed, by splitting up of saturated chain hydrocarbons. of the paraffin series, C2H4+2=CH2+2 +CH₂ ; they would afterwards polymerise to form simple methanes, etc., but they are probably partly re-formed in distillation, especially at high temperatures, as in the "cracking" process. Naphthenes-perhaps from the decomposition of aromatic acids or esters, or from isomeric olefines under the influence of heat and pressure. Lubricants-formed directly from original fats, at low temperature. Benzenes, etc.—from the decomposition of fats at comparatively high temperatures. The differences between the oils of various localities and ages have been the subject of much discussion, and the exact cause of these variations is not clearly known. It may be mentioned, however, that Peckham's view, that asphaltic oils are mainly of animal origin, while paraffin is largely derived from vegetables, is worthy of acceptance on general chemical as well as geological grounds, since Krämer and Spilker, and others, have shown that vegetable fats produce paraffin either with or without artificial distillation, and the limestone oils, which on geological grounds are generally held to be mainly of animal origin, are notably asphaltic. For other differences, Engler's view that variation in temperature and pressure accounts for the production of hydrocarbons of different densities, etc., may be considered with that of Krämer and Böttcher, that variation is due to changes after its formation, i.e. polymerisation, etc., both kinds of agencies being probably potent causes. Reference may also be made to the theory of Dr. Day,¹ based on experiments on the filtration of petroleum through fuller's earth, that filtration through clays may account for some of this varia- tion, and he suggested that the oil of Pennsylvania may be the lighter and paraffin-containing parts of the Silurian limestone oil purified by filtration through the Devonian shales. The extent to which this theory can be applied may be considered as doubtful, but that such filtration of oil does occur in nature is known, and it may be that in some fields it has taken place on a fairly large scale, without being applicable to all. Hypotheses as to the precise manner of production of the solid hydro- carbons are somewhat at variance. Kast and Siedner 2 have pointed out that ¹ Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xxxvi, 112 (1897). 2 Polyt. Journ., cclxxxiv, 6 (1892). SUMMARY OF OPINIONS. 283 the marked difference between petroleum-residues and ozokerite renders it unlikely that the latter was formed by evaporation of petroleum, and Zaloziecki, as already mentioned, believes that ozokerite is an intermediate product in the formation of petroleum from animal fats. Grabowski considers ozokerite to be an oxidation- and condensation-product of petroleum. From the fact that a product resembling the petroleum of the Tegernsee district is obtained by the distillation of the asphalt from that place, von Gümbel has thought it possible that this oil has been produced by the spon- taneous distillation of asphalt. It is, however, quite certain, as already pointed out in the section relating to the geology of petroleum, that the principal asphalt deposits are merely the result of the evaporation of petroleum along the out- crops of porous strata, and it may be added that Peckham has produced an asphalt-like substance by the spontaneous oxidation of Californian petroleum. Presumbly the Bavarian asphalt, like all kindred masses, contains traces of still unoxidised petroleum, readily eliminated by distillation. From the account given in this section, it will be seen that there has been abundance of speculation as to the origin of bitumen, and that, in regard to some of the theories, a considerable amount of experimental proof has been forthcoming. Probably, on the whole, the Engler-Höfer dual theory has the largest number of adherents, and for this it only remains to be shown more clearly what are the relative parts played by the animal and vegetable kingdoms in the process of formation of the different varieties of petroleum. SECTION V. THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM, NATURAL GAS, AND OZOKERITE. Early Methods.-The primitive methods adopted for the collection of petroleum have been somewhat fully dealt with in the first section of this work. The earliest system appears to have consisted in skimming the oil from the surface of water, upon which it had accumulated, and Professor Lesley states that at Paint Creek, in Johnson County, Kentucky, a Mr. George and others were in the habit of collecting oil from the sands, "by making shallow canals 100 or 200 feet long, with an upright board and a reservoir at one end, from which they obtained as much as 200 barrels per year by stirring the sands with a pole." These so-called "stirring places" resembled similar spots at Burning Springs, in West Virginia, which were worked in like manner early in the last century. Larger quantities of petroleum were obtained in remote times by the sinking of dug wells or shafts, and evidences of very old workings are to be found along Oil Creek and elsewhere in America. 1 Japan and China.-Mr. Lyman ¹ says that at Echigo, old wells, supposed to have been dug several hundred years ago, are existent, and that a Japanese history called Kokushiriyaku, states that "burning-water" was obtained in Echigo about A.D. 615. The antiquity of the Chinese oil and gas borings has already been referred to. 66 Mr. Lyman thus describes the manner of digging the petroleum wells of Japan: The present mode of working is very simple, a method that has probably grown into its present form in the course of centuries of experience, and is now apparently practised in all the oil regions, with little or no variation. The digging is all done by two men, one of whom digs in the morning from nine o'clock until noon, and the other from noon until three. The one who is not digging works the large blowing machine or bellows that continually sends fresh air to the bottom of the well. The blowing apparatus is nothing but a wooden box about 6 feet long by 3 wide and 2 deep, with a board of the same length and width turning in it upon a horizontal axis at the middle of each long side of the box, and with a vertical division below the board, between the two ends of the box. The workman stands upon the board and walks from one end of it to the other, alternately pressing down first one end and then the other. At his first step on each end he gives a smart blow with his foot, so as to close with a jerk a small valve (0·3 foot square) beneath each end of the board, a valve that opens by its own weight when the end of the board rises. The air is, therefore, driven first from one end of the box, then from the other, into an air- pipe about 0.8 foot square, provided at the top, of course, with a small valve for each end of the blowing box, made of boards in lengths of about 6 feet, and placed in one corner of the well. The well is, besides, timbered with larger ¹ Report on the Geological Survey of the Oil Lands of Japan, 1877, 17. 284 285 JAPANESE METHOD. pieces at the corners, and light cross-pieces, which serve also as a ladder for going up and down, though at such a time, in addition, a rope is tied around the body, under the arms, and held by several men above the mouth of the well. The earth or rock dug up is brought out of the well in rope-nets by means of a rope that passes over a wheel 1 foot in diameter, hung just under the roof of the hut, about 10 feet above the mouth of the well, and is pulled up by three men, one at each corner of one side of the well, and the third in a hole 2 or 3 feet deep and 1 feet wide, dug alongside of the well." Mr. Lyman states that a well dug in Echigo to a depth of 900 feet is reported to have cost only about one thousand dollars, and he considers that boring by the usual American or other systems is not likely to supersede the above method, on account of the heavy cost of transport of the necessary machinery, and of the very low wages paid to the diggers. The following statement, quoted by Mr. Lyman on the authority of Mr. Kada, shows the cheapness of the system 4 posts, 1 board (6 ft. by 1 ft.), Dollars. 0.100 0.120 12 cross-pieces, $0.096 to $0-216, 0.156 Materials for one length (4 ft.) of timbering, 0.376 Materials for hut :—wood, $1; rushes, $0-63, 1.630 1 pair bellows, 3.750 1 length of air-pipe (6 ft.), 0.140 1 wheel (two needed for each well), 1.200 1 tank (6 ft. diameter, 6 ft. high), 1 well bucket, 6 ft. straw rope, 10 soka (? 5000 ft.) small straw rope, 2 picks (large one 16 lbs., small one 63 lbs.), 1 rake, 3 rope nets, 15.000 0.500 0.012 0.475 ? 0.500 0-350 1 oil-paper, for skylight in roof over the well, 1 pot for boiling the labourers' rice or water, 0-320 0.620 In the locality where these prices prevailed in 1868, the wages of the sinkers, not including food, were $0.18 per man per day, and of the common labourers, $0-10. One shoo of rice beer (saké), value $0.065, had, however, to be provided for every four men. The number of workmen needed was according to the depth of the well, which rarely exceeds 50 fathoms, as follows:- From 1 to 10 fathoms, 10 30 ་་ 30 40 40 50 3 men. ∞- Père Imbert¹ thus describes the sinking of artesian wells in China for the production of brine, an art which appears to be of great antiquity in that country — The wells are usually from 1500 to 1800 (French) feet deep, and only 5 or 6 inches in diameter. If there be a depth of 3 or 4 feet of soil on the surface, they plant in this a tube of hollow wood, surmounted with a stone, in which an orifice of the desired size of 3 or 4 inches has been cut. Upon this they bring to work in the tube a rammer of 300 or 400 lbs. weight, which is notched, and made a little concave and convex below. A strong man, very lightly dressed, then mounts on a scaffolding, and dances all the morning on a kind of lever that raises this rammer about 2 feet, and then lets it fall by its own weight. From time to time a few pails of water are thrown into the hole to soften the rock and reduce it to pulp. The rammer is suspended to a rattan ¹ Ann. Assoc. Propag. Foi, iii, 369. 1828. 286 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. cord, not thicker than your finger, but as strong as our ropes of catgut. This cord is fixed to the lever, and a triangular piece of wood is attached to it, by which another man, sitting near, gives it a half turn, so as to make the rammer fall in another direction. At noon this man mounts on the scaffold, and relieves his comrade till the evening, and at night these two are replaced by another pair of workmen. When they have bored 3 inches, they draw up the tube, with all the matter it is loaded with, by means of a great cylinder, which serves to roll the cord on. In this manner these little wells or tubes are made quite perpendicular, and as polished as glass. When the rock is good, the work advances at the rate of 2 feet in twenty-four hours, so that about three years are required to dig a well." The salt-industry carried on by the Chinese in the district bordering on Thibet, in the Province of Szechuen, has been more completely described by M. Louis Coldre in the Annales des Mines, 8th series, xix, 441 et seq. (1891). As there is a remarkable resemblance between the Chinese methods of boring for salt, which have been practised from the earliest times, and those adopted in America and elsewhere in drilling for petroleum, it has been thought advisable to embody a portion of the article in this work. In sinking a well the Chinese commence by digging a pit several feet in diameter, so as to remove the surface soil and the soft upper strata. In this operation, strong, narrow-bladed hoes are employed, but when stones are encountered, picks are substituted, and when the rock is reached, the work- men make use of hammers and quadrangular pyramidal-pointed chisels or drifts. The pit is usually sunk to a depth of 10 tchang (36 yards), as the upper rock is too soft to stand the chafing of the boring tools, and, being permeable, permits the passage of rain-water. The well is then provided with an artificial mouth formed of blocks of hard stone, 2 to 3 feet square, pierced with a central circular aperture 6 to 9 inches in diameter; these blocks are carried to the well and placed in position by the aid of a rough lever, consisting of a tree trunk resting on a cross-bar supported by uprights. The cavity between the stones. and the walls of the pit is then filled with earth, tightly rammed down. The boring machinery is next erected. The large hoisting drum is fixed a little way from the well, and is placed vertically. The axle is of wood, 7 to 8 feet long, and terminates in an iron pin at each extremity, the lower working in a dressed stone, and the upper in a strong cross-beam, mounted on two firmly fixed wooden tripods. At about 5 inches from either end of the axle there is a row of wooden spokes projecting from 4 to 4 feet, and to the outer ends of these are affixed upright rods, parallel with the axle, a skeleton drum being thus formed. The cable used in raising and lowering the drill is maintained at a suitable height, while being wound on the drum, by passing over a hori- zontal roller. Instead of the "walking-beam" of the American driller, there is a plank lever resting on a wooden frame, and on either side of the lever, and parallel with it, there is a strong platform. 66 The boring-bit a (fig. 10), used in drilling the upper part of the well, ter- minates below in a cutting surface 8 or 9 inches square, having eight steel teeth, and weighs 200 to 300 lbs. The central part of the stem is surrounded by a sort of crown, to keep the bit in an upright position, and the top is formed into a ball. The bit is attached to the sinker-bar" by four strong, bowed strips of bamboo, allowing a certain amount of play, on the principle of the American "jars." To diminish the risk of losing the bit by the breaking of this part of the apparatus, a safety-cord is attached to the bit. The cable, from which the drill is suspended, is attached to the lever by means of a swivel, and the length of the cable is so adjusted that the lever is horizontal when the CHINESE METHOD. 287 и b с d € j リ ​bit is just resting on the bottom of the well. To depress the lever and raise the bit, two sets of workmen jump, in turn, from the side platforms on to the lever, and back again, and this performance, being repeated every four or five seconds, gives from 720 to 900 strokes per hour. While the bit, which is raised to a height of about 2 feet, is in the air, the boring foreman twists the swivel a little, so as to enable the teeth of the bit to strike in a fresh place, and pours water down the well from time to time when a dry rock is being worked. When it becomes necessary to remove the detritus, the drillers draw up the bit and lower into the well a cylinder of about 60 lbs. weight, in which large annular cup-shaped channels are cut. As soon as this touches the bottom, the cable is jerked a few times to shake the mud into the channels, and it is then drawn up. The operation is repeated till the well is cleared. When the foreman believes he has reached an impermeable rock, he ceases boring, after having penetrated a few feet, and proceeds to tube the well by means of bamboo stems, or the trunks of cypress trees hollowed and joined together by step- or taper - joints. The tubes are covered externally with a wrap- ping of canvas saturated with boiling mastic, made of lime and oil of Elæococca. This covering is enveloped by another layer of canvas, and the whole is coated with the mastic. Thus prepared, the external diameter of the tube is a little less than that of the well. According to the nature of the ground, the length of tubing required varies from 1 tchang (about 33 yards) to about 30 tchang. When more than two or three tchang is needed, a high derrick must be erected. This is formed of two strong bamboo poles firmly embedded in the ground, and inclined towards each other at the top, where they are joined together by a cross-bar carrying forks to hold a pulley. Steadiness is imparted to the erection by a couple of stay-poles fixed at different heights, and by guy- ropes. The tubing is lowered into the well in lengths, which are joined in the following manner - The upper end of the tube is held a short distance above the mouth of the well by a clamp consisting of a couple of blocks of wood bound together, and another tube is lowered on to it by a cable passing over the pulley, the junction of the two being carefully covered with mastic and left to dry. When enough tubing has been introduced, a quantity of mastic is poured down (after clearing the well of water), and by jerking the cable a few times, is made to settle round the lower end of the tube so as to prevent the inflow of fresh water. FIG. 10.-CHINESE DRILLING TOOLS. Formerly, the boring was continued with a small iron bit, faced with steel, making a hole of 3 to 4 inches diameter, but a bit of 6 to 7 inches diameter, of the form shown at b (fig. 10), is now employed. The play of the jars is so arranged that the sinker-bar falls on to the bit, at the bottom of the down 288 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. stroke, and increases its effect. The contact causes a bell-shaped piece of metal, loosely fitted on the stem, to emit a sound, which indicates to the driller that the stroke has been effective. A valved bamboo cylinder is used to remove the detritus. If it is found that sweet water is making its way into the well below the tubing, and diluting the brine, the position of the leakage is ascertained by the use of the instrument shown at c (fig. 10). This consists of a wooden rod, 3 or 4 feet in length, with a coating of puddled clay, held in place by hemp cord, a cylinder being thus formed with a diameter slightly less than that of the well. The coating is thoroughly dried, and the instrument is then lowered into the well to progressively greater depths, and examined from time to time, until it comes to the surface moist. The depth at which the leakage is occurring having thus been determined, the bore-hole is somewhat enlarged at that point, and is plugged with straw slightly lower down. A quantity of mastic, mixed with chopped hemp, is then poured in. After the lapse of a month, the mastic, which has become hard, is bored through, and the deepening of the well is continued.¹ The most frequent mishaps in boring are due to the breakage of the cable, and if the drill cannot be recovered by " fishing," it is broken up by means of a steel bit of great weight. The fishing tools used are of various forms, and many of them resemble those used by American drillers. Two descriptions are represented at d and e (fig. 10). The first of these has a conical framework of bamboo, sliding moderately freely upon the stem, a jerk being sufficient to cause this cone to descend and embrace any object between it and the steel grapnel. The other is used in conjunction with a vertical rod, terminating in a horizontal ring, by means of which the prongs may be brought together, and caused to grasp any solid object which it is desired to remove from the bottom of the well. The cutting implements, ƒ and g, are employed in enlarging the bore of the well, to dislodge the drill if it has become jammed, and the bit h is for breaking boulders met with in drilling. Burma.—Dr. Fritz Noetling 2 gives a very complete historical account of the Burmese petroleum industry, and observes that there is not the slightest deviation in the digging of the wells from the practice of a hundred years ago. He says that having selected a place, a square hole, the sides of which are about 5 to 6 feet, is dug, the walls being lined with a wooden casing, which consists of rough split staves, notched at either end so as to secure a safe jointing. Four of these staves, which correspond in length to the sides of the well, form a square frame, which is gradually increased in depth as digging proceeds, by new staves being added at the lower end. The digging tool is known as a tayuwen, and consists of a chisel-shaped iron shoe fixed to a heavy wooden handle. The shoe is slightly tapered, and ends in a two-sided edge. The handle, which fits into a socket at the upper end of the shoe, is club-shaped, and deeply notched at about 6 inches from the upper end. The miner grasps the tayuwen with both hands, the notched end resting against his shoulder, and drives the shoe into the ground, the earth thus dislodged being placed in a basket and hauled up. The hard sandstones, interbedded with the soft strata through which the well is sunk, are penetrated by a most primitive method. A prismoidal lump of iron pierced for the passage of a rope, and weighing about 150 lbs., is suspended from a beam laid across the mouth of the well. The rope being cut, 1 This practice resembles the present procedure of cementing wells with Portland cement. 2 Report on the Petroleum Industry in Upper Burma. Rangoon, 1891, and Mem. Geol. Surv. India, xxvii, pt. 2 (1897). BURMESE METHOD. 289 the iron falls to the bottom of the well and fractures the rock. After each fall of the iron, a man descends and attaches the rope to it, so that it may be hauled up again. Owing to the shape of the iron, the rock is struck at various points and finally penetrated. The diggers are paid at a progressive rate, according to the depth at which they are working. In 1890 the wages were as follows :— TABLE LVII.-WAGES OF BURMESE WELL-DIGGERS. Depth. Amount paid per Cubit of 19 inches. Cubits. Rs. An. Pus. An. 0 to 80, 1 5 to 1 8 80 90, 3 8 4 8 "" 90 100, 5 8 6 "" 100 110, 110 120, "" 6 7 7 8 10 Approximately. 120 132, 12 0 "" Below 132 cubits by special contract. The total cost of making a well 250 feet deep may be taken at 1200 rupees. As no artificial light can be used in the well on account of the presence of inflammable gases, the digger's eyes are bandaged some time before his descent, to accustom him to the darkness. Dr. Noetling finds that the maximum time during which a young and strong man can work at the digging never exceeds 290 seconds, owing to the difficulty in breathing caused by the petroleum- vapour. 1 The form of apparatus used for raising the earth and oil has not altered during the last century. It consists of a rope running over a drum, formed in one piece with its axle, which works in two forked branches pegged to a cross- beam, the ends of which are respectively laid in a forked tree stump, and pegged to a post. The hauling is effected by a leather rope pulled by two coolies. running down a slope from the well. In the time of Captain Cox ¹ lacquered wicker baskets were used for raising the oil, but these have for a long time been superseded by earthern pots holding from 10 to 14 or 16 viss (1 viss equals 3.65 lbs., or about 0.41 gallon). The pots are spherical, with a somewhat narrow opening furnished with a lip, forming a neck, round which the rope is fastened. The same pots serve for conveying the oil to the river. In 1891 there were 373 productive dug wells in the Yenangyaung field, as against 281 in 1888, and 229 unproductive wells, as against 245 in 1888. Up to 1891 no pit-well had reached a greater depth than 310 feet. In the following table the daily production of the Yenangyaung pit-wells in 1895 is given in a classified form :- TABLE LVIII.-DAILY YIELD OF BURMESE PIT-WELLS, 1895. Daily production Depth of Wells. Number of Wells. in Viss (100 Viss = 42 gallons). Average per Well per Day in Viss. Less than 151 feet, 86 2,795 32.5 From 151 to 200 127 6,272 49-39 >> 201 to 250 192 >> 11,825 61.59 250 to 300 105 8,064 76.8 More than 300 9 745 82.77 519 29,701 57.22 VOL. I. ¹ Asiatic Researches, vi, 127–136, 1799. 19 290 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Dr. Noetling observes that the minimum production occurs during the dry season, and the maximum during the wet season. He adds that " we may even go further, and say that there is a certain coincidence between the level of the Irrawadi and the quantity of production. In those months when the river is at its lowest, the production is at its lowest; as soon as the river rises, the pro- duction rises. He, however, states that the data at his disposal are not sufficient to absolutely prove that the height of the river directly affects the oil supply. The difficulty of navigation may have induced restriction of out- put in the dry season. Italy. The old water-wells from which petroleum was formerly collected at Montechino, Piacenza, Italy, are described as being in some cases as much as 240 feet in depth, with a diameter of 8 to 10 feet. They were lined with bricks cemented together, and are said to have been perfectly cylindrical. The yield appears to have been about 160 to 180 lbs. of oil per day for as long a period as eighty years. THE UNITED STATES. The petroleum-industry in the United States may be considered to date. from the year 1859, when the first well avowedly drilled for the production of oil was completed by Colonel E. Drake; and it is of interest to briefly trace the evolution of the present method of drilling from the artesian well system. previously adopted for obtaining water and brine. A description of the method employed in China in sinking artesian wells for brine has been given on pp. 286-8. An artesian well exists in the garden of what was once a Dominican convent at Lillers, in the Province of Artois, and is said to have flowed since 1126. The first rock-bored artesian well "west of the Alleghanies, if not in the United States," was a brine well completed in January 1808, by the brothers Ruffner, in West Virginia. Their work and the effect of their experience on the petroleum-industry have been very fully described by Professor M. F. Maury. In their first attempt they employed a "gum," consisting of a straight, hollow sycamore tree, about 4 feet internal diameter, and sank it down by cutting away the quicksand beneath, until it touched rock at a depth of 13 feet. After cutting through this, the water rose freely, but was found to contain less salt than was obtained in the upper layers of quicksand, and the hole was abandoned. They then made another attempt, about 100 yards from the river, but the brine obtained was still too weak, and they returned to the first "gum," which they succeeded in driving to a depth of 17 feet. By dint of careful trimming and the use of thin wedges, they succeeded in preventing the influx of water from the quicksands above the bed-rock, which they finally penetrated by the use of a spring-pole, formed of a sapling 40 or 50 feet long, fixed at an angle of about 30°, with its upper end over the well. The drilling tools, which comprised a long iron drill with a 24-inch steel chisel-bit, were suspended from the pole, and by pulling the end of the pole and then releasing it, the requisite motion was imparted to them. At a depth of 17 feet in the rock, the drill penetrated a fissure, an increased flow of stronger brine resulting, but the drilling was con- tinued, additional lengths being welded to the drill from time to time, until a sufficient supply of strong brine was obtained at a depth of 58 feet from the surface. To raise the stronger brine without dilution by that which filtered in from above, the brothers constructed a long tube of two semi-cylindrical strips of wood, carefully fitting the edges and binding them together by a wrapping of twine. The tube thus formed was passed down the 24-inch bore-hole, with a PRACTICE IN UNITED STATES. 291 bag of wrapping at the bottom to form a tight joint below. The brine then rose through the tube into the "gum," and was removed by buckets as from an ordinary well. This simple arrangement was soon replaced by tin tubes soldered together as they were lowered, and these again were superseded by copper pipes which screwed into each other. The wrapping at the bottom of the tube was also replaced by the "seed-bag" device, which consisted of a piece of buck-skin or calf-skin sewn up like a sleeve, about 12 or 15 inches long. This was slipped over the end of the tube, and having been securely bound at the lower end, was filled to a depth of 6 or 8 inches with flax-seed, either alone or mixed with gum tragacanth. The upper end was then bound loosely to the tube, to permit the bag to empty itself if it became necessary to withdraw the tube, and the arrangement was lowered. The seed soon swelled from the absorption of water, and formed a perfectly watertight joint. An important appliance was introduced in 1831 by Mr. William Morris. It was at first called the "slips," but is now known as the " jars," and consists of a long double link with closely fitted jaws, which, however, slide freely up and down. It may be compared to a couple of elongated and flattened links of chain. The links are about 30 inches long, and are interposed between the heavy iron auger-stem carrying the bit and the upper rod, known in the United States as the sinker-bar. Their principal use is to give a sharp jar to the drill on the up-stroke, so that the bit is loosened if it has become jammed in the rock. The drilling of petroleum-wells is carried on by individuals or companies, either on lands owned by them, or on properties whose owners grant leases, usually on condition that a certain number of wells shall be sunk within a stated period, and that a portion of the oil obtained (usually from one-tenth to one-fourth) shall be appropriated as royalty to the lessor. Such leases are often transferred at a larger royalty, especially after the territory has been proved productive. The "wild-cat wells, sunk by speculative individuals on un- tested territory or on lands which had not previously proved productive, played an important part in the earlier mapping out of the petroleum fields, as has been described in the first section of this work. The leases granted in respect of oil properties are very simple, and the following are the principal conditions generally applicable to the oil-fields of the eastern part of the United States :- >> The lease is granted for the sole purpose of "mining and operating for " oil and gas, for laying pipe-lines, and for erecting tanks, buildings, and other structures on the property " for the purpose of taking care of the products mentioned. The exact situation of the land is described. The lease is generally for a period of ten years and as long thereafter as oil or gas or either of them is produced by the lessee. With regard to royalty, the lessee has to deliver to the lessor, free of cost, into the pipe-line to which he may connect his wells,,, or (as the case may be) of all oil" produced and saved" from the leased premises. In respect of wells in which gas only is produced, the lessee must pay to the lessor $200 per annum, in advance, for each well, if the gas is being used off the property, and the lessor has the right to the free use of gas to heat and light one dwelling-house situated on the property. The lessor receives from the lessee for gas produced in any oil-well, if the gas is used off the premises, $100 per year for the time during which such gas shall be so used, the payment to be made every three months in advance. The lessee agrees to "protect all outside lines," that is to say, that all wells drilled on the neighbouring lands on the boundaries of the property must be offset" by drilling corresponding wells on the property leased. 292 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The lessee is bound to commence a well on the land within thirty days from the date of the lease, otherwise the lease becomes null and void. The minor conditions are :—that the lessee must, when requested, bury all pipe-lines below plough depth, and must pay for all damage to growing crops, caused by drilling; he has the right to use oil, gas, or water, on the leased lands for operation thereon, and may, at any time, remove all machinery and fixtures placed by him on the property; he may also draw and remove casing. No well may be drilled nearer than 200 feet to any house or barn situated on the property. Generally speaking, it may be said that although oil leases are granted for various periods, they nearly always contain a clause that they are for so long thereafter as oil or gas may be produced. Naturally, the oil royalty, the amount payable for gas-wells, and the time for the commencement of the first well, together with less important conditions to suit local requirements, vary. It is usual to drill along the borders of the land as far as practicable, in order to first obtain the oil which might otherwise be raised by others; and on account of the small area often controlled by the operator, the number of wells drilled has frequently been far in excess of the number which might reasonably be sunk. This, says Professor Peckham, was especially the case in the valley of Oil Creek, where leases of only a quarter of an acre were frequently worked upon, thus ensuring the sinking of about twenty times as many wells as there should be. "Experience has proved that one well to five acres is as close as they should be drilled." The manner of occurrence of petroleum, and the distribution of the most productive portions of the oil strata along well-developed lines, have been fully described in the section dealing with the geological and geographical distribu- tion. The belief formerly held, that the oil was largely contained in fissures or cavities in the strata, has also been discussed in that section, and has been shown to be unfounded. This belief was, however, widely accepted during the earlier days of the petroleum-industry, and appears to have been the direct cause of the invention of the torpedo which Colonel Roberts introduced in 1862, with the idea of breaking up the strata, so that the maximum number of these fissures or cavities should yield their contents to the well. Drilling Plant.-After the selection of the site, the first operation consists in the erection of the "rig," shown in Plate 19. rig," shown in Plate 19. The following letters of reference explain these figures: a, Mud-sills. a', Cross sills for engine-blocks. b, Engine-block. b', Engine. c, Engine-block brace. d, Main-sill. Foundation. e, Sub-sill for jack-post of band-wheel. k, Samson-post. k'. k". "" braces. >> irons. 7, Band-wheel jack-posts. l', Braces of ditto. m, Band-wheel. N, 25 0, o', P, bull-rope pulley. shaft. "" arm. wrist-pin. e', Sub-sill for jack-post of sand-pump reel. f, Derrick sills. f', Derrick-floor sills. g, Derrick floor. h, Keys or wedges. ¿, Conductor. j, Corner-stones or blocks. Superstructure. q, Pitman. r, Knuckle-post for sand-pump reel. s, Jack-post for ditto. 1, Upright lever. u, Connecting bar. v, Hand-lever in derrick. w, Friction pulley of sand-pump reel. x, Shaft of sand-pump reel. y, Walking-beam. z, Headache-post A kk h 12" x 14"x 12″ '12"x12" 18"x24"× 9′ a' ~ 12"> 14" 12′ b a 1/2″ x 12″ 3 6 12″ × 14"× 221 Ᏹ a እ ん ​'10" 12" a 18" x 24" 18′ 5:0" 12″× 14″× 20′ {{iturstitials a 3.6″ 5:0". 12″x 14" x 18" a 22"x 24"× 30′ d jh -7:60. 12" x 14"x 20' 10″x 12″x 20' 12′.67. 12" x 14" 12"x12"x20" 12"x 12″ x 20' FOUNDATION TIMBERS. Scale of nature. 10 15 20 C m m 00 12. A a 10″x 12"x 20′ 10″x 12" x 20" m X 1.6* f 10"x 12″ x 20'. * r h d e rr W 00 m' d y a a HORIZONTAL PROJECTION ~ 10"x 12" x 20' 支 ​26 ft -121.6″- ་ 24" 104 36 SIDE ELEVATION. ke 8 8 1"x12" 2 1"x12" # 1" x 12" الل MA $5 OIL WELL DERRICK OR CARPENTER'S RIG. $ 1" 10" 99 1"x 12" ff 1" x 10" 99 1" x 12" H 2x6 99 2"x 12" 12″× 12′ Onn ff X kh " 3" Camber I f کور 10 ठठ 2" x 10" J'.2″ -7.6". የፊ iss 12″ × 14 aa сс k 4"x 12" 18" a END ELEVATION aα M OF C PLATE 19. H. A U C C о لا MODERN AMERICAN DRILLING – Rio. G 7. N D TT TTE D נ.1 об D о ברט SAMARON ATMOS (SANY O UU R • ❤ Q KOTHURIE.. O PLATE 20. DRILLING TOOLS. 293 a a, Bull-wheel posts. bb, Bull-wheels. bb', Bull-wheel shaft. cc, c c', "" "" brake band. "" e e, Derrick stiles. Superstructure.-continued. ff, Derrick girths. 9 9, hh, >> i i, "" lever. jj, "" j j', "" braces. ladder. sand-pump pulley. crown pulley. "" block. kk, Steam-pipe connecting with boiler. ll, Throttle-valve. ... Sundries. m m, Telegraph" cord which operates throttle-valve. nn, Pulley in derrick for telegraph-cord. oo, Driving belt. pp, Reversing link of engine. qq, Cord operating ditto from derrick, rr, Position of the bull-wheel rope. The derrick consists of four strong uprights or legs held in position by ties and braces, and resting on strong wooden sills, which are preferred, as a founda- tion, to masonry. The arrangement shown is that employed for drilling the deep Pennsylvania wells, where, on account of the length of the string of drilling tools, the derrick is usually at least 70 feet high, about 20 feet square at the base, and 4 feet square at the summit, but in the case of shallow wells, such as those drilled in the Franklin and Mecca-Belden districts, the total height is often not over 30 feet, and the entire cost of the well may not exceed that of a 70-foot derrick. The cost of a high derrick has been given as $325 to $400, according to the locality, and of a set of "rig-irons" as $75 to $100. A later type of rig is shown on Plate 20, with various minor improvements in detailed construction of draw-works and transmission. Mr. J. F. Carll in his Report III, Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, gives a very complete account of the construction of a derrick, and of the drilling tools. The mud-sills a, which have gains cut in them to receive the main-sill d, and sub-sills e and e', are usually levelled up on the ground and then tamped with earth or gravel. The foundation thus formed is locked together by keys or wedges h. The whole derrick is set up by keys, no mortices or tenons being used, and thus the complete rig may be readily taken down and set up on a new site. The samson-post k, which supports the walking-beam, and the jack- posts, l, r, s, are dovetailed and keyed into the sills. The samson-post is placed flush with one side of the main-sill, the band-wheel jack-post being flush with the other side, so that the walking-beam works parallel with the main-sill. The boiler generally used is of the portable locomotive type. It is either set, in the first instance, at some distance from the engine and well, or is removed sufficiently far away before the drill enters the oil-bearing formation and until the oil and gas are under control, in order to minimise the risk of fire. A large boiler frequently supplies the engines of several wells. The engine b', which is provided with reversing gear, is of 12 or 15 horse-power, and motion is communicated to the band-wheel, m, through the belt o o. The throttle-valve, ll, is opened or closed by turning a grooved vertical pulley, by means of an endless cord (the "telegraph ") passing round another pulley, nn, fixed upon the "headache-post," z, and is thus under the control of the driller working in the derrick. The position of the reversing link, p p, is altered by means of a cord, q q, passing over two pulleys, fixed respectively in the 294 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 1 engine-house and on the derrick. At one end of the band-wheel shaft, o, is the bull-rope pulley, n, and upon the other end is a crank, o', having six holes to receive a movable wrist-pin, p, the length of stroke of the walking-beam being thus adjusted. The revolution of the bull wheels is checked by the use of a powerful band-brake. The band-wheel communicates motion to the walking-beam, while drilling is in progress, through a pitman, q; to the bull- wheels while the tools are being raised, by the bull rope, r; and to the sand-pump reel by a friction pulley, w, while the sand pump is being used. It is, therefore, necessary that the machinery should be so arranged that the connections may be rapidly made and broken. The sand-pump reel, w, is set in motion by pressing the lever, v (which is connected to the upright lever, t, by a bar, u), the reel being thus brought into contact with the face of the band-wheel. The sand pump descends by gravitation, and its fall is checked by pressing back the lever, v, so as to throw the reel, w, against a post which serves as a brake. The sand-pump line is coiled upon the shaft, x, and passes over a pulley, i i, to the mouth of the well. In case of breakage of the wrist-pin, or disconnection of the pitman, the walking-beam falls upon the " headache post," z, which is placed directly below the beam upon the main sill. Drilling Tools.-The drilling tools are suspended by an untarred Manilla rope, about 2 inches in diameter, passing from the bull-wheel shaft over a The grooved wheel known as the crown pulley, at the summit of the derrick. "string" of drilling tools consists of two parts separated by the jars, the lower one to give the downward blow, and the other an upward blow, which serves to loosen the bit if it has become jammed in the rock. The lower portion. consists of the bit, the auger stem, and the lower half of the jars, while the upper portion consists of the upper half of the jars, the sinker bar, and the rope socket. Plate 21 shows a set of drilling tools of a common pattern. In addition to the appliances mentioned, the tools comprise reamers to enlarge the bore of the well, the " winged substitute " (fig. 11) which is fitted above the bit to prevent it from glancing off, and above the round reamer to keep it in place, a temper-screw and clamps and wrenches. Sand-pumps and bailers are also required to remove detritus, water, and oil from the bore-hole. Mr. Carll (op. cit., p. 300) thus describes the action of the jars and temper-screw :— CC Suppose the tools to have been just run to the bottom of the well, the jars closed, and the cable slack. The men now take hold of the bull-wheels and draw up the slack until the sinker-bar rises, the play' of the jars allowing it to come up 13 inches without disturbing the auger-stem. When the jars come together, they slack back about 4 inches, and the cable is in position to ¹ In the American Manufacturer, of 3rd May 1895, Mr. Weeks described a new single- eccentric drilling engine, manufactured by the Oil Well Supply Company, under the Woolf patents of 30th July 1889 and 13th January 1891, which was claimed to possess unusual simplicity, economy, and effectiveness. This engine having only one eccentric and rod, there is no link to get out of order. The single eccentric is rigidly secured to the shaft, and the eccentric strap has an upward arm, on the end of which is pivoted a roller which travels in a guide journaled in a bracket on the engine-frame. The eccentric has its centre opposite the crank-pin, and when the engine is on either dead centre, the roller stands exactly over the centre of the guido. The correct position for the eccentric is thus easily determined, and the length of the eccentric-rod is then adjusted so as to give equal "lead" at both ends of the valve. The valve is thus set, and requires no further adjustment. The direction of the motion is regulated by the guide which moves the eccentric strap. By the lever attached to the guide, its inclination can be changed, either to vary the travel of the valve, and thus regulate the point of "cut-off," or to reverse the engine. These engines have been tested in actual work at oil-wells, and are stated to have afforded very satisfactory results. b 30 61.10' a 18 a b C c'- С C 3.11° O 7" d 5. Co 6 " 3/2 3 8" C" 8° m 3 a Sinker bar b Auger-stem. c Jars. d Rope-socket. e Ring-socket. f Club bit 8." g' Bottom view of reamer. h Centre bit 5%. h Side view of centre bit. i Reamer 5½" i Bottem view of reamer. 1 Temper screw, f' Side view of club bit m Wrench. y Reamer 8." 12 c'c" Sections of jars, c. PRINCIPAL TOOLS USED IN DRILLING OIL WELLS IN THE PENNSYLVANIA OIL REGIONS by H. Martyn Chance. Scale of Feet. 1 5 Crown pulley 4t i 3'2 To the tools n 24 3.0' H. 15 L で ​A PLATE 21. DRILLING TOOLS. 295 be clamped in the temper-screw. If now the vertical movement of the walking- beam be 24 inches, when it starts on the up-stroke the sinker-bar rises 4 inches, and the cross-heads come together with a smart blow, then the auger-stem is picked up and lifted 20 inches. On the down-stroke, the auger-stem falls 20 inches, while the sinker bar goes down 24 inches to telescope the jars for the next blow coming up. A skilful driller never allows his jars to strike on the down-stroke. They are only used to 'jar down' when the tools stick on some obstruction in the well before reaching the bottom, and in fishing opera- tions. An unskilful workman sometimes loses the jar,' and works for hours without accomplishing anything. The tools may be standing on the bottom while he is playing with the slack of the cable, or they may be swinging all the time several feet from the bottom. If he cannot recognise the jar, he is working entirely in the dark; but an expert will tell you the moment he puts his hand FIG. 11.-WINGED SUBSTITUTE. upon the cable whether the drill is working properly or not. As the jar works off,' or grows more feeble, by reason of the downward advance of the drill, it is tempered to the proper strength by letting down the temper-screw to give the jars more play. The temper-screw forms the connecting link between the walking-beam and cable, and it is let out' gradually to regulate the play of the jars as fast as the drill penetrates the rock. When its whole length is run down, the rope clamps play very near the well mouth. The tools are then with- drawn, the well is sand-pumped,' and preparations are made for the next run.' With the old-fashioned temper-screw, a great deal of time was spent in the re-adjustment, for it had to be screwed up by tedious revolutions of the clamps. But this delay is now obviated. The nut through which the screw passes is cut in halves, one-half being attached to the left wing of the screw frame, the other half to the right wing. An elliptical band holding the set-screw,¹ a, passes around the nut. It is riveted securely to one of the halves, and the set-screw presses against the other half to keep the nut closed. The wings, b b, are so adjusted that they spring outward and open the nut whenever the set-screw is loosened. To To run up the screw, the driller clasps the wings in his left hand, and loosens the set-screw. He then seizes the head of the temper-screw in his right hand, and relaxing his grip upon the wings, the nut opens, when he quickly shoves the screw up to its place, again grips the screw, and tightens the set- screw." In some cases the clamps are connected by cord and pulley with the walking- beam, and so counterbalanced as to minimise their weight for the driller's left- handed lift. Mr. Carll gives the following as the dimensions and weight of the tools comprising a driller's outfit:- ¹ In the illustration of a temper-screw on Plate 21, a is shown as l', and b b as l. 296 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE LIX. PENNSYLVANIAN DRILLER'S OUTFIT. Rope-socket, Sinker-bar, 3 inch, Jars, 51 inch, Auger-stem, Centre-bit, Temper-screw, Jars, 8 inch, Two bits, 8 inch, Reamer, Two bits, 5 inch, Reamer, 5 inch, Ring socket, Two wrenches, Feet. Inches. Pounds. 3 6 80 18 0 540 • 7 4 320 30 0 1020 3 3 140 • 62 1 2100 145 565 320 180 280 140 • • 50 210 3990 • $700 Total weight of set, Total cost of set, Driller's complete outfit, including cable, costs about. $900 An old catalogue of the Oil Well Supply Company of Bradford and Oil City, Pennsylvania, gives the following as the dimensions and weight of a string of tools, the principal differences from the figures given by Mr. Carll being in the weight and length of the sinker-bar :— TABLE LX.-DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF STRING OF DRILLING TOOLS. Rope-socket, Sinker-bar, 4 inch, Jars, Auger-stem, 4 inch, Bit, Total, Feet. Inches. Pounds. 3 0 90 12 0 400 6 0 300 32 1050 3 4 140 56 4 1980 The bits are faced with steel, are about 4 inches in thickness, and range in width from 4½ to over 12 inches. The tools are connected in the order named, by means of pin and box joints, the collars being squared for the application of wrenches. The end of the drilling-cable is held by the rope-socket. As an illustration of the weight of a simple standard cable drilling outfit, exclusive of the rig, the following has been taken from the Oil Well Supply Company's catalogue- Articles. Weight. lbs. 1 boiler, 20 H.P., 1 engine, 20 H.P., 5800 4000 1 belt, 10 in., 5-ply, 90 ft., 140 1 drilling cable, 2 in. × 1500 ft., 2143 I wire sand line, 7 in. x 1500 ft., 470 1 bull rope, 2 in. × 85 feet, 115 1 telegraph cord, 3 SAND-PUMPS. 297 Articles. 1 temper screw, 12 in., with 1-in. lower parts, 1 New Era rope socket, 21 in. × 31 in.—7, Weight. lbs. 270 125 1 set jars, 51 in. diameter, 24 in. × 34 in.-7, 300 1 auger stem, 3 in. × 36 feet, 24 in. × 31 in.-7, 1400 1 spudding bit, 13 in.-80 lb. steel, 300 2 sets drilling bits, 8 in., 6 in., 1100 2 tool gauges, 8 in., 6 in., 1 set tool wrenches, 1 Barrett jack, No. 1, 1 40-in. bellows, 1 150-lb. anvil, • 2 14-lb. sledges, with handles, 1 ball peen hammer, No. 71, 1 pair blacksmiths' tongs, 17 450 209 150 150 32 2 5 1 tubing or casing line, 2 in. x 240 ft., 340 1 set Fair's malleable iron elevators, 5g in., 70 54 50 1 Chickering sand-pump, 4 in., for 5§ in., 80 140 175 125 1 single snatch block, 20 in., 1 single snatch block hook, 1 Morahan sand-pump, 5§ in., for 8 in., 1 wrought iron bailer, 5 in., 1 horn socket, The above outfit as a rule will suffice to drill a well through ordinary strata to a depth of 1200 or 1400 feet, or even deeper, if a longer cable and sand line are provided. The estimated weight of the timber and lumber in a complete rig with a derrick 72 feet in height, and 20 feet square at the base, is 57,000 lbs. CC Sand-Pumps. The ordinary “sand-pump or bailer" (A, fig. 12) con- sists of a length of light casing or tubing, with a bail at the top, and either a dart-valve or clapper-valve at the bottom. The "sand-pump" or "bailer" is usually about 6 feet in length, but is some- times as much as 15 or 20 feet, and, as its valve-stem projects downwards beyond the bottom, it empties itself when rested upon the bottom of the waste- trough. When clapper-valves are used an iron pin is fixed vertically in the waste-trough for the purpose of opening the valve. A better form of sand- pump (B, fig. 12) is provided with a plunger attached to an iron rod passing through a stirrup which spans the top of the cylinder. It is suspended from the upper end of the plunger-rod, and when it reaches the bottom of the well, the plunger descends as the rope slackens, and rises again before the cylinder is raised, the entrance of the detritus being thus facilitated. Fishing Tools.-The operation of drilling is frequently interrupted by the occurrence of an accident which necessitates the use of fishing tools. If the fishing operation is unsuccessful, the well has to be abandoned, often after months of labour, unless it is found possible to drill past the tools which have been lost. In readiness for a fracture of the drilling tools or of the cable, special appliances known as "fishing tools" are provided. These are so numerous that any attempt to give a description of more than a few of the typical forms would be out of place. Ingenious drillers often make special fishing tools in order to overcome exceptional difficulties met with when engaged on a fishing scrape." The fishing tools are generally attached to the cable, and are used with portions of the ordinary string of tools, but some are fitted to pump- rods or tubing, and others to special rods. In the last category are included the heavy and powerful appliances used for cutting a new screw-thread on a broken tool at the bottom of the well, while in the first will be found the “horn socket" (fig. 13), which consists of a slightly tapering steel tube with a slot cut 298 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. from a to b to allow for springing. This contrivance is driven by the jars upon any tool lying in the bore-hole, and, if skilfully used, will thus raise a considerable weight. It is commonly made for use in a 5ğ-inch casing, but has an attachment which admits of its being employed in an 8-inch hole. The slip socket (fig. 14) is intended to be pushed over any boring tool, the pin or box of which has broken off. To give it a better grip, it is enclosed in a a D O FIG. 14.-SLIP SOCKET. O O · DOL A B Fig. 13.-HORN SOCKET. FIG. 12.-SAND-PUMPS. Fra. 15.-PIN SOCKET. sheath, which is tapered on the inside, so that it tightens the slips when drawn up. The pin socket (fig. 15) is for attachment to the pin of a tool which has become unscrewed and detached. It is fitted with three steel sectors, which are conical on the outside, and are threaded inside. They are held in place at the bottom of the case by a strong spring. When the screw enters from below, the spring yields, and the screw passes between the sectors, from which it cannot afterwards escape. The jar latch or boot jack (fig. 16) is employed to seize the "jars" when FISHING TOOLS. 299 1: (1 FIG. 16.-JAR LATCH OR BOOT JACK. > FIG. 18-MANDREL SOCKET. U FIG. 19.- CASING-SPEAR. FIG. 17.-Spud. FIG. 22.-CASING-CUTTER. FIG. 20.- ROPE-GRAB. FISHING TOOLS. FIG. 21.- ROPE-SPEAR. 300 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. the upper half is broken off. The latch, a, fits into the slot in the jars. device can be used to recover a lost sand-pump or a bailer. This The spud (fig. 17) serves for clearing a space round drilling tools which. have stuck fast. It is a gouge-shaped tool, sometimes as much as 60 feet in length. The mandrel socket (fig. 18) is to slip over a broken tube, which it holds by contact between the strong outer case and a pear-shaped enlargement on the shaft. The casing-spear (fig. 19) is used to grip the casing at any desired point. Its four steel wedges are held together by a hempen thread bound round the top. This can be broken by a blow from the jars, whereupon the wedges fall outwards and grip the casing with their toothed edges. The rope-grab (fig. 20) and the rope-spear (fig. 21) are employed for fishing up a broken cable. The casing-cutter (fig. 22) is used for cutting off the casing at any point in the bore-hole when it is too tightly fixed for the whole to be drawn out. It FIG. 23.-VALVE- ROPE KNIFE. consists of a strong tube with four steel knives, a, which project in the same horizontal plane through slots. When the tube has been lowered sufficiently, an iron cone, b, is inserted, and this presses against the inner ends of the knives and forces them against the casing, which is thus cut through. The cone is then withdrawn, and the knives, which are formed with bevelled upper surfaces, slip back into the tube. The valve-rope knife (fig. 23) serves for cutting off the cable above the rope socket in case of wedging, and when the rope cannot be pulled up. The severance is effected by means of a V-shaped knife, in the manner shown in the figure. The instrument is affixed to a pump-rod, and is fitted with small "jars to facilitate the cutting operation. وو The sucker-rod spear (fig. 24), which is used to raise broken pump-rods, is a semi-cylinder, having on the con- cave surface at the lower end a sharp steel spring, the point of which is turned upwards. When the tool is dropped over the pump-rod, and then raised, the point of the spring spear enters the wooden rod, and holds it firmly. € FIG. 24.-SUCKER-ROD SPEAR. A further set of these tools is shown in figs. 25 and 26, the uses to which they are put being indicated beneath. By means of these various appliances, it is possible, at a depth even exceeding 2500 feet, to cut off a broken cable from the rope-socket, to recover a complete string of tools, or to cut a thread on a fractured tool, so that it may be connected by screwing, and thus raised. Drilling the Well. The drilling of a well is commonly carried out under contract, the producer erecting the derrick and providing the engine and boiler, while the drilling contractor finds the tools, and is responsible for accidents or failure to complete the well. The drilling " crew" consists of two drillers and two tool-dressers, working in pairs in two" tours" (noon to midnight and mid- night to noon). FISHING TOOLS. 301 Hollow reamer. For straightening a crooked hole, and for removing the earth around tools when jammed, to facili- tate passage of fishing tool. Grab.-For grasp- ing a loose tool be- low the collar when the box or pin is broken off. Sand pump or bailer grab. For raising a lost bailer. pump ΟΙ Mouse trap.-For cutting and "fish- ing" out a rope when matted in the well, or for raising any small object. Tubing spear and socket.—To screw upon dril- ling tools. Tubing spear and socket.-To screw upon tub. ing. FIG. 25.-FISHING TOOLS. Jar socket.- To the grasp lower reins of jars whose head is broken off. 302 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Grab.—For raising a rubber which has becoine detached from a packer. Front. Il ook bil or Side. for straightening rcamer lost in well, when lying against or jammed in wall. Alligator For raising small articles lost in the well. grab.- Rasp. For reducing size of box or collar on lost tool, in preparation for fishing tool. use of Twist drill. Twist drill spear. When the top of a lost tool fills the bore-hole, a hole is bored with the drill to receive the drill spear for raising the tool. Grab. For raising de- tached valve cups. For Rope worm. drawing rope out of tubing. FIG. 26.-FISHING TOOLS. Nº 1 AD. 1861 Backing Box...... Derrick floor Floor sills Derrick sill Head block DRIFT Conducar Bax 6x65 Sucker Rod Sucker rod jourd Seed bag, on tubing Add style= Thonble Working barril Working valve ar Plunger OIL Standing vabe Anchor Discharge Pipe Oil N. 2. AD.1868 Water Mahargo for baile UIC. I´tubing inside diameter Gas pipe Casing hand BED ROCK 4hots BOTTOM SECTION Aump SEED BAG SECTIONİ BOTTOM OF DRIVE PIPE SECTION SURFACE SEFIII DRIFT BED Leather caper Water packers Seed buy on cunning. Nợ 3. A.D. 1878. Old delivery pipe bas Pipe DRIFT 6 Drive pipe 4 Water pump) inserted, between cusing and drive pipo. ROCK Gas pipes Derrick flour BOTTOM OF DRIVE PIPE SECTION SURFACE SECTION! Shoe on end drive pipe BED ROCK 5% casing 7% hole Casing, inside diam Bottom of 7½" hole SEED BAGRSECTION, Bottom of 5% casing. 5/2 hole 5/2 hote BOTTOM SECTION Derrick sill こ ​PLATE 22. SPACE WATER OIL SPACE SUCKER ROD TUBING DRILL HOLE INCHES IN DIAMET 4 INCHES IN DIAME 4 WOODEN CONDUCTOR 6 INCHES SQUARE 1861. WATER GAS SPACE SPACE SPACE OLL SUCKER ROD TUBING 2 CASING 3 ԱՆ INCHES IN DIAME · INCHES IN DIAMETE WATER -DRILL HOLE 5½ INCHES IN DIAMETER PUMP TUBE CAST-IRON DRIVE ITPE & INCHES IN DIAMETER 1868. WATER SPACE GAS SPACE SECTIONAL AND CROSS SECTIONAL Drawings of THREE OIL WELLS SHOWING SUCCESSIVE VARIATIONS IN STYLE OF DRILL-HOLE, DRIVE-PIPE, SEED BAG, TUBING AND CASING, FROM 1861 TO 1878. Scale of Cross Sections, 1/2 Natural Size. OIL SPACE SUCKER ROD TUBING 2 INCHES IN DIAME METER WROUGHT – IRON DRIVE PIPE 8 INCHES IN DIAMETER CASING 5% INCHES IN DIAMETER 1878. SANDE OIL SAND OIL SANDE Scale of Sections, 40 Natural Size. th SLATE OR SHALE SLATE OR SHALE SLATE OR SHALE DRILLING OPERATIONS. 303 The first operation consists in sinking a conductor down to the " bed-rock." For this purpose an ordinary shaft, about 8 or 10 feet square, is dug to the bed- rock, when this lies at a depth of not more than 10 or 15 feet, and a wooden conductor," of somewhat greater internal diameter than the maximum bore of the well, is inserted, so as to extend from the floor of the derrick to the bed- rock, the junction with the latter being very carefully made, in order to prevent the entrance of gravel and mud into the well. When the superficial deposit is too thick to admit of digging to the rock, a strong iron "drive-pipe," furnished at the lower end with a sharp steel shoe, is driven down, as in pile-driving (see fig. 27), but this operation requires consider- able skill, the maintenance of the vertical position of the pipe, especially when the depth extends to 200 or 300 feet, being by no means easy. When the rock is less than about 60 feet from the surface, the drilling tools cannot at first be worked in the usual manner, and the operation of drilling is commenced by spudding." For this purpose the drilling tools are raised and dropped by tightening and then slackening the cable, which is either coiled two or three times round the axle of the revolving bull-wheel, the end being held by the driller, so that by loosening it, he can let the drill drop, or by tightening it, can cause the tools to be raised; or the cable is attached to the crank of the band- wheel by a "jerk-rope," the action of which is shown in fig. 27, the same device being employed in the work of forcing down the drive-pipe. The further opera- tion of drilling is thus described by Mr. Carll (op. cit., p. 306) :- When a sufficient depth has been reached by spudding to admit of the introduction of a full string of tools,' the spudding machinery is abandoned. Now the coil of drilling cable is rolled into the derrick, and set upon end. The free end in the centre of the coil is tied by a connecting cord to the rope just detached from the ring-socket, and by it drawn up over the crown-pulley and down to the bull-wheel shaft, where it is fastened; the bull-rope is put in place, the engine started, and the men carefully watch and guide the cable as it is wound, coil after coil, smoothly and solidly upon the shaft. When this is done, the end of the cable depending from the crown-pulley is secured to the rope- socket, and the full set of tools is attached and swung up in the derrick. After carefully screwing up all the joints (the bull-rope having been unshipped), the tools are lowered into the hole by means of the bull-wheel brake. The band- wheel crank is then turned to the upper centre; the pitman is raised and slipped upon the wrist-pin, where it is secured by the key and wedges; the temper-screw is hung upon the walking-beam hook, the slack in the cable is taken up by the bull-wheels until the jars are known to be in proper position ; the clamps are brought around the cable (after a wrapper has been put on it at the point of contact), and securely fastened by the set-screw; the cable is slacked off from the bull-wheels, and the tools are now held suspended in the well from the walking-beam, instead of from the top of the derrick as before. Some 15 or 20 feet of slack cable should be pulled down and thrown upon the floor, to give free movement to the drill. When the drill is rotated in one direction for some time, the slack coils around the cable at the well mouth; if it becomes troublesome, the motion is reversed, and it uncoils. Only by this constant rotation of the drill can a round hole be ensured. "Having now made all the necessary connections, it only remains to give the engine steam, and the drill will rise and fall with each revolution of the band-wheel, and commence its aggressive work upon the rock below. From this point downward, the daily routine of the work is very monotonous, unless some accident occurs to diversify it. Day and night the machinery is kept in motion. One driller and one engineer and tool-dresser work from noon until 304 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. midnight (the afternoon tour '), and another pair from midnight until noon (the morning tour '). Up and down goes the walking-beam, while the driller, with a short lever inserted in the rings of the temper-screw, walks round and L 1 0 宀 ​FIG. 27. SINKING DRIVE-PIPE. round, first this way, then that, to rotate the drill. He watches the jar, and, at proper intervals, lets down the temper-screw as the drill penetrates the rock. When the whole length of the screw has been run out,' or the slow progress of the drill gives warning that it is working in hard rock and needs sharpening, he arranges the slack cable upon the floor, so that it will go up freely without DRILLING OPERATIONS. 305 kinks, and informs the engineer that he is ready to draw out.' After attend- ing to the needful preliminaries, the driller throws the bull-rope upon its pulley, and quickly steps to the bull-wheel brake, while the engineer commands the throttle of the engine. The walking-beam and the bull-wheel are now both in motion, but at the proper moment, one man stops the engine and the other holds the bull-wheels with the brake just when all the slack cable has been taken up, and the weight of the tools is thus transferred from the temper- screw to the crown-pulley. This is a performance requiring experience and good judgment, for should any blunder be made, a breakdown must certainly result. "To loosen the clamps on the cable, and unlock the pitman from the wrist-pin and lower it to the main-sill, is but the work of a moment. Dropping the pitman raises the end of the walking-beam with the temper-screw attached to it, and throws them back from their former perpendicular over the hole, so as to allow the cable and tools to run up freely without interference with them. Steam is now turned on again, and the tools come up. 66 When the box of the auger-stem emerges from the hole, the engine is stopped. A wrench is slipped on the square shoulder of the bit, and the handle dropped behind a strong pin fixed for that purpose in the floor; another wrench is put on the shoulder of the auger-stem; a stout lever is inserted in one of a series of holes bored in the derrick floor in a circle having a radius a little less than the length of the wrench handle, and it is brought up firmly against the upper wrench handle, thus making a compound lever of the wrench, and greatly increasing its power. Both men give a hearty pull on the lever, which breaks the joint,' or, in other words, loosens the screw joint connecting the bit with the auger-stem, so that the bit can be unscrewed and taken off by hand after it has been brought up above the derrick floor. The wrenches are then thrown off, steam is let on again, and the bit rises from the hole. Now the driller throws off the bull-rope by operating a lever with one hand, while with the other he catches the bull-wheel with the brake, holding the tools suspended a few inches above the floor. At the same instant, the engineer shuts off the steam, or else, suddenly relieved of its heavy work by unshipping the bull-rope, the engine would run away' with lightning speed. It now remains only to hook the suspended tools over to one side of the derrick, and the hole is free for the sand-pump. (C ‘ While the driller is sand-pumping, the engineer unscrews the worn bit and replaces it by one newly dressed, so that there may be no delay in running the tools into the well again when sand-pumping is finished. The line' to which the sand-pump is attached, as already described, passes over a pulley near the top of the derrick, and thence down to the sand- pump reel, which is operated from the derrick by means of the hand lever, v (Plate 19), and connecting levers, u and t. While sand-pumping, the pitman remains disconnected, the bull-rope lies slack on its pulleys, and the band-wheel is kept constantly in motion. A slight pressure on the lever, v, brings the friction pulley, w, in contact with the band-wheel, and the pulley immediately revolves, the slack sand-pump line is quickly wound up, and the sand-pump, which is usually left standing at one side of the derrick, swings out to the centre and commences to ascend. Just now the lever is thrown back, and the connection between the friction pulley and the band-wheel being thus broken, the sand- pump commences to descend into the well by its own gravity. If it be likely to attain too great speed in its descent, a movement of the lever, to bring the pulley either forward against the band-wheel, or backward against the brake post, will quickly check it, and thus the speed may be regulated at will. CC As soon as the pump strikes bottom, additional steam is given to the engine, VOL. I. 20 306 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. and the lever is brought forward and held firmly, while the sand-pump rises rapidly from the well. The sand-pump is usually run down several times after each removal of the tools, to keep the bottom of the hole free from sediment, so that the bit may have a direct action upon the rock. ( After the hole has been sufficiently cleansed, the sand-pump is set to one side, the drilling tools are unhooked and, swinging to their place over the well mouth, are let down a short distance by the brake, the wrenches are put on, and the lever is applied to set up' the joint connecting the replaced bit to the auger stem. Then removing the wrenches, the tools are allowed to run down to the bottom, under control of the bull-wheel brake. Connections are now made as before, the driller commences his circular march, the engineer α a d FIG. 28.-TOOL-JOINT WRENCHES. examines the steam and water gauges and the fire, and then proceeds to sharpen the tool required for the next 'run,' and thus the work goes on from day to day until the well is completed." The manner in which the wrenches are used for tightening and loosening the screw joints of the drilling tools, as already de- scribed, is shown in fig. 28. The wrench bar, c, which drops into one of a series of holes in an iron plate, b, fastened to the derrick floor, is used as a lever to move the wrenches, a. A wooden lever, d, is also em- ployed when additional force is needed, and to this is sometimes attached a block and fall. The Barrett patent oil-well jack has to a very large extent displaced this wrench circle and bar for setting up joints. Instead of "tempering" the "jar" as it becomes feeble, by slightly lowering the temper-screw, which practically increases the length of the cable, some experienced drillers rely upon the spring of the cable alone when a sufficient depth has been reached, the jars being only utilised when. the drill jams. This operation is known as" bouncing" the drill. The bits are "dressed" by heating the cutting end in the forge which is attached to the derrick, hammering it out to a blunt edge, the width of which depends on the required diameter of the well, and then hardening it in water. In drilling through a seam of hard rock, the drill frequently becomes much reduced in width, while the cutting edge is not necessarily blunted to a great extent. When the well is of considerable depth, the tools on being lowered descend with a velocity which causes the derrick to vibrate to its foundation, but the operator keeps his hand on the brake, and carefully watching for a piece of string tied upon the cable at a certain point, is able to reduce the speed before the bottom is reached. The derrick was formerly lighted by a primitive lamp burning crude. petroleum, and resembling an iron kettle with a spout on each side. Electric light is now commonly used. The derrick is frequently warmed by a stove con- sisting simply of a sheet-iron cylinder, in which natural gas is burned. WELL RECORD. 307 When gas issues in sufficient quantity from the well to furnish fuel for the boiler, it is conducted through a 2-inch pipe connected with the casing of the well, to the fire-box, a 1-inch steam pipe fitted with an 1-inch jet being inserted into the gas-pipe close to the fire-box. This arrangement acts as an exhauster, to draw the gas from the well, and prevent the flame from travelling back. Well Record. The following record, relating to a well drilled in the Bradford field, shows the time occupied in drilling a well to a depth of 1700 feet, together with the accidents which were met with :— DENNIS WELL, No. 1, situated on the Rogers Farm, three-quarters of a mile south, 25° west, of Bradford, McKean county, Pa. Daily Advance. Depth. 1877. Nov. 29. Feet. Feet. " 30. Conductor, 21 feet, previously set, Thawing supply pipes, 12 to 33 • Dec. 1. Pulling tubing from water well, 2. (Sunday), 3. 4. 34 67 48 115 "" 67 5. 6. 60 175 • 35 210 >> 7. 50 260 >> د, وو "" 10. >> 11. 12. Putting in casing, 13. " 8. Engine gave out, 9. (Sunday), 31 291 >> 99 390 >> 45 435 >> 10 445 >> 101 • 546 * F ** "" 14. 15. 16. (Sunday), 17. 18. 19. 86 632 • 66 698 • 72 770 68 838 ♪ 81 919 >> 20. 34 953 21. "" 34 987 22. 34 1,021 23. 24. Broke jar and lost tools at 1056 feet, 35 to 1,056 (Sunday), 25. (Christmas), 26. Fishing, >> 27. Fishing, >> " 28. Fishing, got tools out, minus bit, 29. Fishing, 30. (Sunday), 31. Fishing, . • • • • . 1878. Jan. 1. Fishing. Pin broke above jars, 2. Fishing, >> 3. Cleared the hole, 4. 30 5. 6. (Sunday), · 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. (Sunday), * A * 14. 15. 1,063 7 1,070 15 1,085 22: 15 1,100 16 1,116 9 1,125 19 1,144 31 1,175 39 1,214 • 40 1,254 33 1,287 308 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. DENNIS WELL, No. 1-continued. Daily Advance. Depth. 1878. Jan. 16. Feet. Feet. 30 to 1,317 17. 29 1,346 25 45 18. 19. 55 "" 1,401 49 "" 1,450 "" 20. (Sunday), "" ་ >> 21. 22. 23. 27 "" 1,477 38 >> 1,515 35 ་ 1,550 24. Bull-wheel broke down, 12 1,562 "" >> 25. 21 >> 1,583 26. Cable parted 9.30 p.m., tools and 1,400 feet of rope in hole, 62 1,645 • 39 27. (Sunday), • 28. Fishing, • 29. 17 1,662 35 ༢ 30. Struck the oil-sand at 1,664 feet, 9 1,671 "" 31. "" Feb. 1. 2. 142 14 1,685 14 1,699 >> 20 "" 1,719 Total time of drilling, about 47 days-66 days from time drilling began to completion of well. Average progress, about 36 feet per day. Best twenty- four hours' work, 101 feet. Well drilled dry; cased at 435 feet. Torpedoed on completion, when it gave a heavy flow of oil for a short time, and afterwards. yielded about 35 barrels per day. The well was drilled to a further depth of 48 feet after the oil was struck, and this procedure is general, in order that a considerable surface of the oil-bearing formation may be exposed in the well. Oil Saver.-As the oil frequently flows from the well mouth during this extension of the depth, an "oil saver" (fig. 29) is employed. This device. consists of a cap fitted to the top of the well casing, and having a lateral pipe communicating with a reservoir for the oil. The cable is bound with cord to minimise friction, and passes through a tube, d, which works in a gland in a ring, b, secured by screws, c. For clearing out débris, a sand-pump is used, the sand line working through a ring, ſ. The Evolution of the present Drilling System in Pennsylvania.-An oil- well consists of three sections--the first formed of surface clays and gravels, the second of stratified rocks containing water, and the third of stratified rocks, including the "oil-sands," usually free from water. The conductor, already described, passes through the first of these divisions, and "casing" is used in the second to prevent percolation of water into the oil-bearing portion. 66 Plate 22 represents longitudinal and cross-sections of typical wells in 1861, 1868, and 1878, and indicates the main improvements effected from time to time. In 1868, the wooden conductor previously used was replaced by cast- iron drive-pipe, and a 31-inch casing was fitted permanently in the wells down to the lower portion of the water-bearing strata. The end of the casing was packed either with the seed-bag" or with a leather cup which was forced open against the sides of the well by the water pressure. 2-inch tubing, suspended from the casing, passed nearly to the bottom of the well. As the casing was 3 inches, and the uncased part below was 5 inches in diameter, it was difficult to introduce fishing tools, and if the well required deepening, only a 31-inch bit could be employed. Important improvements in the system of drilling and casing are shown in the drawing of the well of 1878. An 8-inch wrought-iron drive-pipe, termin- DEPTH OF WELLS. 309 ating in a steel shoe, is driven to the bed-rock, and a 73-inch hole is drilled below it to the base of the lowest water-bearing stratum. The bore is there reduced to 5-inch, and a bevelled shoulder being made in the rock, a 5- inch casing, having a collar to fit water- tight on the bevelled shoulder, is in- serted. The well is then completed with a 5½-inch bit. As the water is shut off before the portion of the well below the water- bearing strata is bored, the remainder of the drilling is conducted with only sufficient water in the well to admit of sand-pumping. The drill is thus allowed to fall freely, instead of being partly upheld by the buoyancy of the water, as in the earlier wells. Depth of Wells.-Wells in Pennsyl- vania now range in depth from 300 feet to 3700 feet. Four strings of casing are usually employed, having the following diameters:-10 inches, 8 inches, 61 inches, and 5 inches. Contractors will undertake to drill wells of moderate depth at 90 cents to $1 per foot. The cost of a deep well may amount to as much as $7000, while wells of average depth cost about $3000. The depth of the wells in Indiana ranges from 900 feet to 1650 feet. The drilling in Indiana is not difficult, a drive-pipe of a diameter of 81 inches or 61 inches being used to a depth of about 700 feet, and the wells are usually completed without any further casing; in the event, how- ever, of water being met with before oil is reached, the well is cased with a string of 6-inch or 5-inch tubing. Wells are drilled under contract at 85 cents to $1 per foot, and the average cost of the well when finished is from about $1200 to $1500. Wells in the Lawrence county oil- field in Illinois range in depth from C FIG. 29.-OIL SAVER. C 750 feet to 1900 feet, and seven distinct oil-bearing sands have been found. In Clark county a well was drilled to 2969 feet, and obtained oil apparently in the Trenton Limestone. CC The average depth of wells in Illinois is about 1450 feet, and the cost of drilling by contract is as follows: To 1,000 feet, D From 1,000 feet to 1,350, 1,350 1,600 85 cents per foot. $1.20 1,600, $1.35 • 2,000, • $1.50 310 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The contractor furnishes the drilling rig, tools, boiler, steam engine, and water. He pays the producer $100 per well for fuel, either oil or gas. Should, however, the cost of the oil or gas purchased by the contractor when drilling a well exceed $100, the producer pays the additional cost. On the completion of a well, the following rates are paid to the contractor for withdrawing casing :- 20 cents per foot for 12-inch casing. 10 10 "" "" "" "" "" 10 "" >> 81- >> 6 "" "" 62 "" >> "" After a well has been shot, the contractor receives $15 per day of twelve hours for time occupied in cleaning out the well, and he is paid at the same rate for any other work done at the well after the completion of drilling. For repairing and cleaning out old wells the usual charge is $20 per day, the con- tractor supplying the rig and tools, and the producer providing fuel and water. Wells in Kentucky vary in depth from 650 feet to 1800 feet, the average depth being about 1000 feet. Wells drilled in the heavy-oil district cost about 60 cents per foot, only one string of 84-inch casing being required. In the deep-oil district drilling costs from $1 to $1.25 per foot, and three strings of casing (81 inches, 61 inches, and 5 inches) are generally used. The wells in Kansas and Indian Territory vary in depth from 800 to 1300 feet. The Texas wells are from 800 to 1100 feet in depth, and the average cost of drilling is about $6000 per well. In the Corsicana district the oil is obtained at a depth of 1010 to 1030 feet, and is found in a loose-grained quartz sand, which ranges in thickness from 15 to 30 feet. In the Saratoga field the wells have a depth of 980 to 1020 feet. The deepest well in the United States is said to be one drilled for water in Connecticut, reaching the depth of 6004 feet with a diameter of 6 inches. The second deepest well was in Pennsylvania-5575 feet. Rate of Progress in Boring. There is perhaps no engineering operation in which the daily rate of progress is as variable as that of sinking a well, and that this is necessarily so will be obvious when the nature of the work which the driller has to accomplish is borne in mind. The material which the drill has to penetrate often consists of very dissimilar strata, changing in character with every two or three feet drilled, and the angle at which the strata dip is also an important factor. Again, breakage of tools, which cannot be foreseen, may involve the loss of many days. It is therefore difficult, even where the geological conditions are known, to predicate what may be regarded as a fair rate of drilling per diem. In respect of properties on which several wells have been sunk, and oil obtained at about the same depth, it is possible, if accidents are excluded, to forecast fairly accurately the time occupied in sinking a well. In many instances in the American oil-fields, wells are sunk with great regularity, and the producer is enabled to calculate closely the cost of each well; but in operating in another district, he will, as a rule, find the data obtained from his previous experience of little guidance. It therefore follows that it must not be assumed that because a certain number of wells have been sunk in one district, in a given time, and at a stated cost, or at an average cost of so much per foot, similar results can be achieved in a new field where the conditions. may be very different. Rotary System of Drilling. The rotary system, which is in general use in the oil-fields of the coastal plain of Texas, is a modification of that invented by Fauvelle in 1845, and used in the early years of the industry in some of the oil- ROTARY SYSTEM OF DRILLING. 311 producing countries of Europe. It is one of the most rapid and economical which can be employed in for- mations which are suited to it. There are three styles of rotary rigs in use, which differ slightly in detail, but the principle is the same in all. The descrip- tion of one in general use is given below:-Fig. 30 shows the derrick (which is of similar construction to that employed in other systems of drilling) and the machinery used. The re- volving table, and the gearing for rotating it, and handling the drilling rods or casing, are shown in fig. 31. The principle of the rotary system consists essentially in the use of rotating hollow dril- ling rods or casing, to which is attached the drilling bit, and through which a continuous stream of water, under a pressure of 40 to 100 lbs. per square inch, is forced. a The drilling tools are sup- ported by a cable which passes from a swivel attached to them through a block and fall, and over a pulley at the top of the derrick to the hoisting drum. A flexible hose connection is made from the swivel to the water pumps, which are two in number, in order to ensure continuous supply of water. The bits commonly employed are the fish-tail, the adamantine, or shot-drill, shown in figs. 32 and 33, and the core-barrel. The fish-tail bit is used for dril- ling in soft strata, such as sand and clay. The core-barrel bit is designed for use in harder material, such as very compact clay, indurated sand, etc. In hard rock these two bits are ineffective, the progress made with them being very slow, in FIG. 30.-DERRICK FOR ROTARY SYSTEM. some cases only a few inches a day. Under these conditions the adamantine or shot-drill is used, the abrasion of the rock being effected by steel shot, which are caused to revolve by the adamantine bit. The débris produced by the rotating bit is carried to the 312 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. surface by the current of water ascending in the annular space outside the drilling rods or casing, and in this way the bore-hole is kept clear. In the event of encountering formation which "caves," the flushing water is mixed with fine clay or mud, and in this way the caving formation is plastered up and prevented from falling into the borehole. This puddling process is also employed to prevent the circulating water from gaining access to a porous stratum. The method of commencing drilling-operations is as follows:-A length of drilling rod or casing, to which the bit is attached, is connected to the water-swivel, and brought into the derrick by means of the cable fastened to the hoisting drum. The lower end of the drilling rod or casing with the WATER បា - ་་་་་་་་ va TO ENGINE FIG. 31.-REVOLVING TABLE AND Gearing. bit is passed through the rotary table and clamped tight enough to cause it to revolve; but it is not held sufficiently fast to prevent it from being lowered when required. On starting the machinery, and as soon as the water flows freely, the driller slackens the friction, and allows the drill to descend, and as the work progresses he lowers the drilling rods slowly, holding them stationary or letting them descend according to the character of the material in which the bit is working. Additional lengths of rods are added as required, and these must be connected as quickly as possible, in order to minimise the interruption in the flow of the water. To facilitate this operation it is usual to have two swivels to which flexible hose is attached, so that the next joint of pipe is held in readiness for connection to the rotary stem, only the joint of the swivel in use having to be broken and the new length of pipe screwed The men employed to run a rotary rig are generally four in number, viz., a driller, two derrick hands, and a fireman; and if the work on. ROTARY SYSTEM OF DRILLING. 313 proceeds night and day, a corresponding number are required for the night 66 tour." It is very advantageous to work continuously night and day on account of the length of open hole which is, as a general rule, only prevented from caving by the mud or clay forced into it by means of the circulating water; for the same reason, in the event of a slight breakdown occurring, the circu- lating water is kept flowing when this is possible. Ordinarily the first string FIG. 32.-FISH-TAIL BIT. FIG. 33. ADAMANTINE OR SHOT-DRILL. of casing used has a diameter of 12 inches, and in drilling a hole for this size of casing, 6-inch drilling rods with a 13-inch bit are usually employed. The length of 12-inch casing used varies from 500 to 800 feet, but the amount which can be put into a well depends largely upon the skill of the driller and the nature of the formation. The bore-hole is not as a rule cased until the depth calculated for the string of casing has been reached, the ascending current of water, with or without mud, as already described, preventing the well from caving. The next string of casing has a diameter of either 8 inches or 9 inches, and for both of these sizes a 10-inch bit is used. Several of the wells drilled at Spindle Top have been completed with 9-inch casing, but, if necessary, 6-inch or even 4-inch casing can be used to finish a well. Wells 314 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. CC are commonly drilled by contract, the average price paid to the contractor, who furnishes machinery, tools, labour, etc., being from $4 to $4.50 per foot. The time occupied in drilling a well in most of the fields is about two months. At Spindle Top several wells were completed in less than a month, but the majority took from two to three months to sink. Before the well is drilled in " the tools are withdrawn, and a gate-valve is fitted to the casing. After the fitting of the valve, the well is drilled to a sufficient depth in the oil-sand to ensure a good flow of oil. The tools are then withdrawn, the water bailed out, and the well allowed to flow uncontrolled for a time, in order that the small pieces of rock and gravel may be washed out of the bore-hole. After this cleansing process, the flow of oil is regulated by means of the gate-valve. The wells are not torpedoed. The effect of a torpedo, in one instance in which it is reported to have been tried, was to ruin the well. In some districts the flowing and the closing of a new well are attended with considerable danger to the workmen, owing to the highly poisonous nature of the gas accompanying the oil. Parker Within the past five or six years, largely extended employment has been made of the rotary system of drilling, and in the present form of the rotary drill, there are many improvements which are the outcome of practical experience in the use of this system under various conditions. The improved ("Parker") drill has not only given excellent results in Texas and Louisiana, where 200 of these drills are stated to be in operation, but has been largely adopted in California, where wells from 2000 to 2500 feet in depth have been completed by this system in twenty to thirty days, and one well has been drilled to the great depth of 4200 feet. It has also been success- fully employed in Mexico, and is being tested in Rumania, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Burma and Trinidad. Where the oil occurs in loose fine sand, as in Texas and Louisiana, various screening devices are adopted, with the object of arresting the sand and allowing the oil to flow into the bore-hole. The most successful of these screens appears to be that which is formed by wrapping a perforated pipe with square or oval wire so as to allow a small space (1 inch or less) between the convolutions of the wire. As an illustration of the formation in which the rotary system can be used with success, the log of the Lucas well, the first productive well in the Spindle Top field, is given below, one of several variants of this interesting record. This well was sunk to a depth of 1139 feet in seventy-five days, or practically at an average daily rate of 15 feet. TABLE LXI.-LOG OF THE LUCAS WELL, SPINDLE TOP, JEFFERSON COUNTY, TEXAS. This Well was commenced on 27th October 1900, and finished on 10th January 1901. Thickness. Depth. Nature of Rock. 36 36 Yellow clay. 20 56 Coarse grey sand. 114 170 75 245 20 265 52 317 35 352 Blue clay. 24 376 Blue clay, pretty hard. Fine grey sand. Variously coloured gravel, from bean to goose-egg size. Coarse grey sand. Coarse grey sand, with pyrites. 19 395 Blue clay. 45 440 Fine grey sand, with lignite. 8 448 Marl. ROTARY SYSTEM OF DRILLING. 315 TABLE LXI.—continued. Thickness. Depth. 60 508 .75 508-75 19.5 528.25 .75 529 34 563 25 588 .5 588.5 13.25 601-75 •25 602 57 659 6 665 14 679 6 685 7 692 23 715 2 717 136 853 20 873 2 875 24 899 200 80 979 50 1029 40 1069 70 1139 Nature of Rock. Grey sand, with concretions and much lignite. Soft limestone. Grey clay, emitting sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Hard sandstone, with calcite. Grey sand. Compact hard sand, with pyrites. Hard sandstone and calcareous concretions. Grey clay. Hard sand. Grey clay, with calcareous concretions. White calcareous shells. Grey clay. Grey sandstone, with oil. Grey clay, with calcareous concretions. Grey clay, getting harder. Calcareous concretions with calcite. Hard grey clay with calcareous concretions; much fine pyrites. Sandstone and pyrites; hard. Hard rock, apparently limestone. Fine oil-sand, with hard layer toward bottom and heavy pressure under it, filling casing for 100 feet above point of drilling. Hard clay. Calcareous concretions, with bands of hard sandstone. Struck heavy gas-pressure and oil, which lasted about one hour, and then subsided. Sand mixed with calcareous concretions and fossils. It is known that quicksand was met with in this well, though no mention of it is made in the log. The oil was struck at a depth of 1120 to 1139 feet, at such pressure as to blow the 4-inch casing out of the well. The Oil Well Supply Co., of Pittsburg, make a combination rig and outfit, comprising a rotary hydraulic outfit and a standard cable outfit, so that in the event of hard rock being encountered in the use of the rotary drill, the ordinary percussion drill may at once be employed. In this combination rig the walking beam is fixed on a revolving centre support which permits of the beam being swung aside when the rotary tools are used, thus giving a clear passage for the hoisting lines. Portable Drilling Machines.-There are several portable drilling machines with which satisfactory results have been obtained in sinking shallow wells. These machines are self-contained and up to a moderate size comprise engine and boiler, the necessary machinery for boring, and mast or derrick, all being mounted on a strong iron frame. They are made in various sizes for drilling wells from 150 feet to 2500 feet in depth. As a rule the larger sizes are not provided with a boiler. Some of the portable drilling machines are so constructed that their own power is used for locomotion and a speed is attained of from two to four miles per hour, according to the nature of the roads over which they travel. Drilling in California.-Fig. 34 shows the type of standard rig in ordinary use in the Californian oil-fields with the addition of the calf-wheel, for handling casing, an enlarged view of which is given in fig. 35. Fig. 36 illustrates an improved form of casing perforator, designed by the 316 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. FIG. 35.-CALF-WHEEL. FIG. 34.-CALIFORNIAN RIG. DRILLING IN CALIFORNIA. 317 late Mr. E. Graham, which has been used with success in California. The perforating is effected by bringing the star-wheel into forcible contact with the interior of the casing in the manner shown in the drawing. Cementing Wells. The cementing of bore- holes for the purpose of holding back or shutting off water has been satisfactorily accomplished in many oil-fields. One of the most successful methods is that practised in the Californian oil- fields, and is as follows:-For the purpose of illustration the method of employing casing and cement in combination will be described. The casing with which it is desired to shut off the water must admit of being moved quite freely in the bore-hole, so that it may be raised or lowered the full length of a "stand," that is, for a distance of, say, three lengths or joints. A disc "wall- packer," or any other suitable packer, is then lowered on tubing, usually 2 inches or 3 inches in diameter. The packer is "tripped," and set in the bottom joint of the casing, and the tubing is connected by means of a flexible hose or a swing-jointed pipe to a powerful steam pump, similar to those used for hydraulic rotary drilling; water is then pumped down the bore-hole through the tubing, and in this manner a circulation of water is established between the space outside the casing which it is desired to cement and the wall of the well, the return water flowing freely from the mouth of the bore-hole. It is necessary to move the casing and tubing together during the process, and provision must be made for handling them in this manner. The casing having been raised off its seat, and a free circulation of water maintained, the cement is then mixed, and this is usually done in large shallow boxes, or troughs. The cement is shot from the bags or barrels into the water and is kept in a state of continuous agitation by means of hoes or mortar rakes. A sufficient number of men must be kept constantly at work stirring the cement to keep it in a liquid state until the whole mass has " ripened," and is in a fit state to be taken by the pump. The suction of the pump is now transferred from the water tank to the cement box, and the cement, in a liquid state, is pumped down the bore-hole through the tubing and is forced up into the space between the outside of the casing and the wall of the borehole, the packer preventing its rising inside the casing. When enough cement has been pumped in to fill this space to a sufficient height, dependent on the nature of the strata, the O FIG. 36.- GRAHAM'S PERFORATOR. P 郵​: 318 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 66 suction pipe of the pump is again transferred to the water tank and water is pumped down the tubing in order to clear it of cement. The casing and the tubing are then lowered to a seat, when the packer is struck" and with- drawn, and the well is allowed to stand until the cement has become hard. The time required for this depends upon the nature of the cement used and the temperature of the bore-hole. The success of this method is dependent upon the continuity of the work, as any stoppage or breakdown during the pumping-in of the cement is liable to prove disastrous, especially with a well having a high temperature, when the cement sets very rapidly if the flow is arrested. It frequently happens that the pressure while pumping the cement rises to 500 lbs. per square inch, and a pump capable of working at such a pressure must be provided, together with an adequate supply of water. In the experience of Mr. William Sutton, who has furnished the author with these particulars, the above method has been successfully carried out in many new bore-holes and, with certain modi- fications, in old wells which had been producing for a considerable time, but to which water had gained access, either through fissures in the strata, or through. the collapse or splitting of the casing. In the latter circumstances, washing with a current of water may have to be carried on for a considerable period, and it is often necessary to perforate or slit the casing in order to get effective circulation. Electrical Treatment of Emulsified Crude Petroleum.-In California and elsewhere, petroleum is sometimes obtained from the wells in the condition. of a more or less complete emulsion with water, and occasionally it has been found that this emulsion was of so persistent a character that little or no separation occurred by subsidence. In 1908 Dr. F. G. Cottrell and Mr. Buckner Speed carried out experiments on the application of high-potential electricity in effecting the precipitation of water in a petroleum emulsion, and a plant for carrying out the process on a practical scale was erected on the property of the Lucile Oil Company, in the Coalinga field of California, early in 1909. The operation of this plant proving commercially successful, an experimental installation was provided on the property of the Western Union Oil Company, in the Santa Maria field, for dealing with the more intractable emulsion found there, and in 1910 improved plant was constructed on the property of the Pacific Oilfields, Ltd., at Lompoc. This installation, which is on a fairly large scale, was described in the Oil Age, of 21st April 1911, by Mr. Arthur T. Beazley, consulting engineer to the company, who, in association with Mr. A. C. Wright, superintended its erection. The complete apparatus consists. essentially of three units: the Wetted Septum Water Trap, the Electrical Treater, and the Separator. The first of these units is, however, only employed when the emulsion is a partial one, as it is intended for the removal of free water before the emulsion is subjected to the electrical treatment. The wetted septum in the first unit is a canvas bag which has been thoroughly wetted with water. The electrical treater is a cylindrical metal tank, the upper part of which is expanded in a conical form, so as to give increased area at the top and thus allow greater space between the electrodes along the surface of the oil with which the vessel is filled, surface leakage of electricity being thus pre- vented. An outer electrode is formed by tightly stretching a number of wires from a ring at the base of the inverted cone to a circular plate fixed at the bottom of the tank. Outside this electrode is a wetted septum. An inner electrode is formed by tightly stretching wires between two circular plates attached to a vertical shaft, by means of which the electrode is rotated. The wires of the inner electrode are parallel to, and exactly concentric with, the ELECTRICAL TREATMENT OF OIL. 319 wires of the outer electrode. The oil in the treater is maintained at a suitable temperature, depending upon the viscosity, by means of a steam-coil. The treater has a cover, and an automatic arrangement is provided for admitting steam to the upper part of the apparatus in the event of the oil taking fire. The inner electrode is connected with a source of electricity at a voltage between 10,000 and 15,000. The process is thus described by Mr. Beazley - "The action of the electricity is to create a very strong electrostatic field between the electrodes. As the emulsion under treatment comes between these elec- trodes, the infinitely small particles of water, being conductors of electricity, will be formed into chains from electrode to electrode along the electrostatic lines of force, and, if the voltage be sufficiently high, the fine films of non- conducting oil between the water particles will be punctured, bringing the entire chain together in the form of one comparatively large drop. This drop is now free water, and is deposited on the septum and conveyed to the bottom of the treater. It may happen, however, that so many chains of water particles are formed at the same instant that they constitute a short circuit between the electrodes, thus lowering the voltage below that point at which it can puncture the oil films. In order to prevent such short-circuiting, the inner electrode is rotated, which gives the desired result, probably owing to the lengthening of the chain between corresponding wires in the outer and inner electrodes as the latter is revolved." The third unit is simply a device for quickly and automatically separating the oil and water. The process is patented, and the rights are vested in the Petroleum Rectifying Com- pany of California. It is now in use on the McCabe property of the Pacific Oilfields, Ltd., on the Lucile property in Coalinga, and by the Reward Oil Com- pany in the McKittrick field. 3 Casing. The casing, each string of which extends from the mouth of the well, is made up in lengths of 17 to 20 feet, screwed together, and is raised and lowered by means of casing elevators, a type of which is shown in fig. 37. The casing elevator con- sists of the jaws, a, and the stirrups b b₁, the latter fitting into an eye in the jaws. When a sliding band, c, is pushed up, the jaws can be opened and the casing tube released. This apparatus is only FIG. 37.-CASING Elevator. used for flanged tubes. It is suspended from the cable by a swivel-hook passed through the stirrups. a When inserted- or flush-joint casing is used, a casing swivel, constructed of a short nipple of the particular sized pipe being handled, is employed. For holding the casing suspended in the well, or for gripping it when being “jacked," a casing ring or a casing ring or "spider," having hardened slips or wedges in different sizes to suit various diameters, is used. As the hole is never drilled quite true, and an allowance has also to be made for the larger diameter of the sockets connecting the lengths of the casing, a 13-inch bit is used for drilling a hole which is to receive 10-inch casing, a 10-inch bit for 7§ casing, and a 73-inch bit for 5ğ casing. Danger of Fire.-It has already been mentioned that the boiler supplying steam to the drilling engine is placed at some distance, in order to reduce the risk of fire, but notwithstanding the adoption of this precaution, many lives. have been lost and much property destroyed through the ignition, at the boiler-fire, of gas or oil-spray from the well. The outflow, when the oil-bearing 320 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. stratum is penetrated by the drill, not infrequently takes place with such violence that the drilling tools are projected from the well, and flowing wells, which have become accidentally ignited, have in some instances continued burning for a long time, all attempts to extinguish the flame having failed. The author has given particulars of such cases, and described the appearance presented by burning oil and gas-wells in his Cantor Lectures on Petroleum.1 Yield of Wells.-The yield of the wells varies within very wide limits, and the relative importance of the different producing districts is also constantly. changing. The average initial daily production of the productive wells drilled in 1903 in the Appalachian oil-field (embracing the producing region in New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and the south- eastern portion of Ohio) was 11.8 barrels per well, as compared with 15.6 barrels in 1902, and 16.9 barrels in 1901. The term initial daily production signifies the quantity that any new well will produce the first day after it has been put in condition (Oliphant). The table given below shows the average initial production per well in barrels in various States. TABLE LXIA.-AVERAGE DAILY INITIAL PRODUCTION PER WELL IN BARRELS OF 42 U.S. GALLONS. State. Pennsylvania and New York Kentucky and Tennessee, Lima (Ohio), Indiana, • Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma, Northern Texas, Coastal Texas, Louisiana, 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. 4.48 3.77 2.91 3.18 3.99 23.1 17.5 18.1 23.8 11.8 • 10.4 10.2 11.4 10.3 13.5 15.0 10.2 10.2 17.6 30.5 40.5 32.7 26.2 34.6 55.5 15.7 13.0 16.1 19.0 22.3 71.1 131.7 87.1 75.3 71.1 10.8 19.8 10.8 15.6 112.1 126.6 166-1 89.7 173.5 252.0 740.0 676.4 210.3 994.7 I. C. White, State geologist of West Virginia, estimates that in fairly good producing sand a cubic foot of rock contains from 6 to 12 pints of oil. He assumes that in what is considered a good producing district the amount of petroleum which can be obtained from a cubic foot of rock would not be more than a gallon, and that the average thickness of the oil-bearing rock would not exceed 5 feet. Taking these figures as a basis, the total yield of oil from an acre of petroliferous territory would be a little over 5000 barrels of 42 U.S. gallons. Inducing Flow. A flow of oil may often be induced in a well which would otherwise require to be pumped, by preventing the escape of the gas which issues with the oil, and causing its pressure to raise the oil. As this pressure only accumulates gradually, the flow thus produced is usually intermittent. The device employed for this purpose is known as the water-packer, and consists in its simplest form of an india-rubber ring, which is applied between the tubing and the well-casing, so that upon compression it makes a tight joint. The gas thus confined in the oil-chamber forces the oil up the tubing. Pumping. For pumping a well, a valved "working barrel," with valved sucker (fig. 38), is attached to the lower end of the tubing, a perforated 1 Journ. Soc. Arts, 1886. PUMPING WELLS. 321 "" anchor being placed below. The sucker carries a series of three or four leather cups, which are pressed against the side of the working barrel by the weight of the column of oil. The sucker is connected by a string of sucker- rods with the walking-beam. Fig. 39 shows an arrangement employed for working the pumps of a number of adjacent wells from one engine. The ends of the axle of the driving wheel, a, have cranks keyed on to them, so as to drive the "pitmen," b. These communicate an oscillating motion to a wheel, c, to which they are connected by ball-and-socket joints, and through the medium of the rods, d, connected to the wheel, the necessary motion is imparted to the sucker-rods at the various wells. Another form of pumping plant, known as the Mascot power, which is extensively used, is constructed in the following manner :-A bearing carrying a vertical shaft about 4 inches in dia- meter is set on heavy wooden mud sills which are filled in with concrete, and upon this shaft is keyed a laminated-wood band-wheel, about 15 feet in diameter, having the ordinary cast-iron flange centering-irons. Above this are set one or two eccentrics and straps according to the number of wells to be pumped, to the periphery of which are attached tubular rods which pass over suitable guides and are connected to the jerker lines running to each well. Above the eccentrics there is an upper steadying bearing for the main shaft, supported by tie-rods or guys, fitted with turnbuckle tighteners, attached to the mud sills. The driving belt drives direct from the pulley on the engine shaft to the band-wheel, there being a half twist thrown in the belt to convert the horizontal into a vertical motion. The belt is kept tight by means of a jockey-pulley centred in a frame which is adjustable for lateral move- ment by means of a rack and pinion on an inclined plane, or a screw device. The belts generally employed are 10 inches in width and are made of 6-ply canvas, the average length being 130 feet. D FIG. 38.-PUMP-VALVES. These powers are generally driven by gas engines of 25 to 35 H.P. having single water-jacketed cylinders with tube ignition. Two fly-wheels are mounted on the crank shaft, and this shaft is provided with an extension at one end working in a tail-bearing. On this extension is carried a self-contained friction-clutch pulley. The pump-rods are sometimes formed of iron, but are usually of white ash or hickory of circular or octagonal section. They are generally about 25 ft. long and 1½ in. in diameter, and are connected together by pin and box joints on iron ferrules. There is usually fixed above the sucker a short iron valve rod, with a rivet-catcher (fig. 40), to prevent damage to the pump from the dropping of rivets from the pump-rods. or Fig. 41 shows a "sucker-rod elevator," which is used for raising lowering the pump-rods. It is laid upon the derrick-floor, and the neck of VOL. I. 21 322 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. the pump-rod being inserted in a slot, a, is firmly held as soon as the clevis end is raised, as it becomes locked by a tail, b, descending into the end of the slot. This tool serves a double purpose, as it also acts as a catch wrench, holding the weight of the rods when resting on the pump tubing while the upper "stand is being unscrewed. "" The length of time during which a well continues to yield in paying quantities varies considerably, but has been estimated as averaging about five years in the oil-fields of the United States. It is usual to remove the casing from exhausted wells for use in new wells, and as the flow of water from the water-bearing strata into the oil-sands has 다 ​म. 0. 다 ​FIG. 39.-PUMPING POWER. been found to materially reduce the yield of adjacent wells, the Pennsylvanian Legislature has enacted that such abandoned and uncased wells shall be effectively "plugged," to prevent the infiltration of water. In the State of Illinois, when an oil or gas-well is abandoned, two persons have to swear an affidavit before a Notary Public to the following effect :- "That they, affiants, were both present during the plugging of said well and saw the same plugged, that said well was plugged by first being solidly filled from the bottom thereof to a point at least 25 feet above the gas or oil-bearing rock, with . . . immediately on top of which filling was seated a dry wood plug, not less than 2 feet in length, having a diameter of not less than one-fourth of an inch less than the inside diameter of the casing in such PUMPING WELLS. 323 well. Above such wood plug such well was solidly filled for at least 25 feet with the above-mentioned filling material, immediately above which was seated another wood plug of the same kind and size as above described, and such well was again solidly filled for at least 25 feet above such last mentioned plug with such filling material. After the casing had been drawn from such well there was immediately seated at the point where such casing was seated a cast iron ball (or tapered wood plug at least 2 feet in length), the diameter of such ball (or the top of which plug) was greater than that of the hole below the point where such casing was seated, and above such ball (or plug) such well was solidly filled to the top of well with the aforesaid filling material." In California, inspectors have been appointed whose duty it is to see that abandoned wells are properly plugged. The arrangement employed for separating the gas and oil obtained from a producing well is shown in fig. 42. The oil either flows or is pumped into a О о 0 0 о О О 0 O ،، FIG. 40.-RIVET-CATCHER. FIG. 41.-SUCKER-ROD ELEVATOR. gas tank" placed near the derrick, and having there become separated from the gas runs by gravitation into a larger tank shown to the right of the figure, while the gas passes away and is utilised as fuel, or for lighting purposes. 66 >> In some cases a water-well is drilled by the side of the oil-well, the sucker rods of the water-pump and the oil-pump being operated by the same walking- beam. The water is delivered into a separate tank shown to the left of the figure. Torpedoing Wells. On the completion of the drilling, or when the produc- tion is found to decrease, it is usual to torpedo the well to increase the flow. This process was patented in 1862 by Colonel Roberts, who believed, with many others, that the oil was contained in crevices in the rock, which might not have been tapped by the bore-hole. He therefore proposed the use of nitroglycerine, gunpowder, or other explosive, to break up the rock at the bottom of the well, so that these rich "pockets might be brought into com- munication with the well. 324 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. December of the following year he exploded a torpedo in a "dry hole" (the Woodlin well) on the Blood farm, and obtained a production of 20 barrels daily, which was increased to 80 barrels by the explosion of a second torpedo. The most striking result, however, was in the case of the Armstrong No. 1 well, at Thorn Creek, Warren county, which, in 1884, after having been con- INEN At first Roberts was unable to try his invention, as producers were afraid of injury being done to their wells, but in 1865 he was allowed to experiment upon the Ladies' well near Titusville, and obtained a favourable result. In Water Tank. Gas Tank. FIG. 42.-PUMPING A WELL Oil Tank. TORPEDOING WELLS. 325 sidered a "dry hole," was converted, by a heavy torpedo-explosion, into a rich producer. In the first hour after the explosion, a 500-barrel reservoir is said to have been filled. In shallow wells of only a few hundred feet in depth, gunpowder is found to be more effective than nitroglycerine, as the latter does little beyond expelling the air or water from the well, but in the deeper wells of Pennsylvania, nitroglycerine is exclusively employed. The amount of explosive used has been increased from the original 4 to 6 quarts to 60, 80, 100, and even over 200 quarts. It is placed in tin canisters of about 3½ to 5 inches in diameter, and about 10 feet in length. The canisters have conical bottoms, and fit one in the other, as shown on the right in fig. 43. They are separately filled with nitroglycerine, and are lowered to the bottom of the well, one after the other, by a cord wound upon a reel, until the required number have been inserted. (C Formerly the upper end of the highest canister was fitted with a "firing- head," consisting, as shown, of a circular plate of iron, slightly smaller than the bore of the well, and having attached to its underside a vertical rod or pin carrying a percussion-cap. The cap rested on the bottom of a small iron cylinder containing nitroglycerine. To explode the charge, an iron weight, known as a go-devil," was dropped into the well, and, striking the disc, exploded the cap and fired the torpedo. Now, however, a miniature torpedo known as a "go-devil squib," holding about a quart of nitroglycerine, and having a firing-head similar to that already described, is almost invariably employed. The disc is dispensed with, and the percussion-cap is exploded by the impact of a leaden weight running on a cord, as shown on the left of the figure. The squib is lowered after the torpedo, and, when exploded by the descent of the weight, fires the charge. Another kind of squib consists of a canister partly filled with sand to give it weight, and having a central tube surrounded by a two-minute fuse attached to a detonator. The central tube is filled with nitroglycerine at the last moment, the top sealed with pitch or wax, the fuse lit, and the squib dropped into the bore-hole. If the impact does not explode the charge, the fuse ensures the explosion. The torpedo is generally exploded under a head of about 50 feet of water, which is sometimes replaced by petroleum, in order to prevent access of water to the oil sands. Little or no sound is heard after the explosion, but a slight vibration of the ground is often noticed, and after a short time, varying with the depth of the well, the water or oil is shot out as a fountain, together with small pieces of rock. The well then commences to flow if the explosion has been effective, though there is usually time to connect the casing with the oil-tank before the outflow begins. Although the explosion increases the production for a time, it is by no means certain that the actual output of a well is increased in all such cases, though from some wells there would be no production without the use of the torpedo. There is no doubt that in individual cases the total production has been in- creased, and as it has been found that a well will sooner drain the adjacent sand-rock after such treatment, most well owners torpedo their wells on com- pletion, in order to obtain as much oil as possible before drilling is commenced on neighbouring properties. When the production decreases, another torpedo, sometimes followed by a third or fourth, is used. Several firms are engaged in the manufacture of nitroglycerine for use in the oil-fields, and it has been stated that more than 8 tons was the amount used in the wells of the Bradford field in July 1885. Gas-Wells. The gas-wells in the United States are similar to the oil-wells, 326 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. in fact, a well drilled for oil is frequently found to produce gas, or vice versa, and wells which at first yielded one of these products are now producing the other. The casing-heads are in many cases firmly secured by chains, to prevent them from being forced off by the enormous pressure which the gas often exerts. Torpedo Top-plate. Firing Head. "Anchor." Drop-weight with Guide Line. Section of Firing-head. FIG. 43.-OIL-WELL TORPedoes. Torpedo in Well. The pressure at which the gas exists in the well varies within considerable limits, and is not necessarily the same for wells in the same field. This is especially the case where the wells drain different strata, as in the Washington field, where four oil- and gas-horizons exist. It is, however, generally found " Go-devil." GAS-WELLS. 327 that the closed pressure in wells draining the same stratum in any given field, ultimately becomes about the same, although the pressures, when the wells are first "drilled in," frequently far exceed this limit. It is said that closed pres- sures of about 900 lbs. per square inch have been observed, but it may be stated that the highest actually-measured closed pressures have usually not far exceeded 800 lbs. In the first productive wells drilled at Findlay, the closed pressure was about 450 lbs. ; in the Murraysville field, about 500 lbs. ; and in the Indiana field, 400 to 500 lbs. In Wilcox, McKean county, the pressure was about 575 lbs.; in Allegany county, New York, 450; and in Illinois, 400 to 450 lbs. The production of a well may be roughly estimated from the time in which the rock pressure is reached after closing the well. In some cases this takes only a minute, while in others it requires some days. Wells of the former type give by far the larger yield. For more accurate measurements, the anemometer is generally used for wells not exceeding an output of 1,000,000 feet daily. This instrument appears to have been first used by Mr. McMillan, of Columbus, Ohio, in the Adams well at Findlay in 1885. For measuring greater pressures, a modification of the Pitot tube is employed. This modification is due to Professor S. W. Robinson, who carried out a series of investigations on behalf of the Ohio Geological Survey in the Findlay field. The pressure in the tube is read in inches of water or mercury, and the velocity in feet per second (v) is found from the following equation, where his the height in inches of water (if the height be measured in mercury, it must be multiplied by 13.5 to obtain the height of a corresponding water column). v=83.1 √/h. The daily discharge (V) in cubic feet will be represented by the formula- V=86,400 v a, where a is the sectional area, in feet, of the delivery pipe. Full information on the subject, together with tables showing the output. for various pressures, is given in the sixth volume of the Reports of the Geological Survey of Ohio. In the Findlay field, the yield of individual wells in 1885 varied from 80,000 to 3,500,000 cubic feet daily. From the Karg well, completed in January 1886, and the largest in the State up to that date, a daily flow of 14,000,000 cubic feet was wasted for months, no less than 1500 million cubic feet being said to have been lost before any was used. It, however, continued to yield for nearly three years. The most productive gas-wells ever drilled in Ohio were, however, those completed in 1889 and 1890. A well drilled at Upper Sandusky into the Trenton Limestone in the summer of the former year yielded 15,000,000 feet daily, while the Mellott well, near Stuartsville, yielded 28,000,000; and a well near Bairdstown is estimated to have yielded about 33,000,000, the open pressure having been no less than 45 lbs. per square inch. The Hutson well, the most productive in Ohio, was sunk early in 1890, in Allen township, Hancock county, in territory not then considered specially promising. It yielded largely at a depth of 800 feet, but the principal produc- tion occurred after it had reached the Trenton Limestone. In the Murraysville field, the average yield was estimated, in 1885, at 15,000,000 feet daily, and in the Tarentum wells at 1,500,000 feet. On 2nd August 1892 an extremely powerful well-exhibiting the greatest pressure observed in Pennsylvania-was opened a mile south of Elizabeth, in 328 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Allegheny county, at the southern end of the Murraysville anticlinal. It was drilled into the Gantz Sand, and, at 1809 feet, showed 700 lbs. pressure without being entirely closed. The following particulars indicate the character of some of the gas-wells in the Kane field, Pennsylvania, inspected by Mr. Eastlake. Well A, completed in August 1888, reached the gas-bearing sand-rock at a depth of 1957 feet, the total depth of the well being 2000 feet. One pressure-packer was used. On 1st July 1889 the rock-pressure was 800 lbs. per square inch. The pressure at the end of the first minute after the well was closed was 260 lbs. per square inch. On 1st June 1892 the rock-pressure had fallen to 340 lbs., and at the end of the first minute after the well had been closed the pressure was 190 lbs., but at the expiration of ten minutes it had risen to 295 lbs. per square inch. Well B was completed in September 1892. On 1st December in that year the rock-pressure was 900 lbs., and the first-minute pressure 250 lbs. The rock- pressure in some of the first wells drilled in this field is said to have ranged from 900 to 1200 lbs. per square inch. The character of the rock-series admits of rapid drilling, wells being sunk to a depth of 2000 feet in thirty days. Only one string of casing is used. When the gas-pressure permits, the wells are torpedoed on completion, and this operation is in many instances repeated after the well has been cleaned out. The torpedoing is usually carried out by contractors, and the charge of nitroglycerine employed is from 100 to 120 quarts. As showing the character of the gas-wells in the Lancaster field, Ohio, the following particulars of wells inspected by the author are given. In Well A the pressures on the well being closed were— Pounds per At the expiration of the 1st minute, "" 2nd 3rd " 4th "" 5th "" 6th 7th "" 8th "" 9th 10th "" >> square inch. 490 520 530 535 537.5 538.5 541 543 544.5 546 Well B, which had just been completed, had a rock pressure of 560 lbs., a minute pressure of 470 lbs., and an open pressure in the 3-inch tubing of 30 lbs. per square inch. The pressure in the delivery-pipe from Well C was 315 lbs., the minute pressure 410 lbs., and the open pressure 23 lbs. per square inch. During 1901 and 1902 a large gas-field was opened up to the northward of the original Lancaster field. The proved area of this new field is about 20 miles in length and from 4 to 6 miles in width. Of seventy-two wells drilled in this field up to the end of 1903, only four were unproductive. The rock pres- sure is 800 lbs. per square inch, and the average yield of each well approxi- mately 4,000,000 cubic feet in twenty-four hours. One well at first delivered at the rate of 14,000,000 cubic feet, but the production soon fell to 9,000,000 cubic feet. The depth of the wells ranges from 2100 to 2150 feet. Owing to the gradual decrease in the pressure under which the gas at first flows from the wells, a pressure sufficient to force the gas through the mains to points of consumption many miles distant from the supply, it has long since become necessary to employ powerful pumping and compressing engines. According to Mr. F. H. Oliphant, the most economical results have been GAS-WELLS. 329 obtained by the use of large gas-engine compressors, in which the explosive agent is the natural gas, 9 cubic feet of such gas having been found to develop one h.p. per hour on the basis of 1000 h.p. With such an engine 30 cubic feet of gas has been compressed from 0 to 270 lbs. pressure per square inch by the consumption of 1 cubic foot of natural gas, whereas double that quantity of gas was needed to heat boilers supplying steam to a double-expansion condensing steam-engine doing the same work. In order to exclude from the mains any water or oil which may accompany the gas as it flows from the well, and thus insure a supply of dry gas, a device termed a "drip" is employed. The " drip " is an arrangement of wrought-iron pipes placed vertically, and comprises, in the case of what is known as a "single H drip," four upright tubes, the inner two of which are connected by a cross tube forming the H. In the passage of the gas through this apparatus the water or oil is separated in a manner similar to that by which condensed water is removed from steam in the use of a steam-trap. The water or oil accumu- lates in a tube, usually 8 inches in diameter, called a tail-piece, and is blown out from time to time. CC "" In connection with the "drip,' drip," "heaters are also used to prevent the freezing of the water accompanying the gas. In most instances there are two heaters to each well, one being placed between the well and the "drip, and the other in the delivery-pipe just before its connection with the main. The usual form of "heater "consists of a mound of stones, 6 feet in length and 18 inches in height, piled over the delivery-pipe before this enters the drip " or the main, as the case may be. A 3-inch hole is tapped in the pipe and fitted with a 3-inch globe valve. Through this valve a supply of gas is delivered through a mixer" into a 1-inch pipe about 16 feet in length, which is buried in the mound of stones. The pipe is perforated at the part beneath the mound, and forms an effective burner by means of which, on the gas being lighted and kept burning day and night, the mass of stones is maintained at a sufficiently high temperature. '' CANADA. The petroleum-industry is mainly concentrated in the district of Petrolea, Ontario. On account of the small depth of the wells, and the tenacious nature of the principal strata bored through, the Canadian method of drilling differs from the Pennsylvanian or " American" system in the following particulars :- (1) The use of slender wooden boring rods instead of a cable. (2) The employment of a simple auger instead of the “spudding bit.” (3) The adoption of a different arrangement for transmitting motion. (4) The use of a lighter set of drilling tools. The derrick (fig. 44) is usually about 48 feet in height, and about 15 feet square at the base. It is often mounted on a firm wooden foundation, so that it may be shifted on wheels from place to place. The walking beam, a, is driven through a " pitman," c, and crank, b. To one end is attached a "spring- pole" provided with a cast-iron cap, d, formed with a spiral groove, and with a projecting ridge on the upper side. The chain by which the boring rods are suspended is passed twice round the cap in the spiral groove, and then round the ridge to a small winch, with ratchet wheel, f, pawl, g, and pawl-spring, i, fixed on the walking-beam. By pulling a cord, h, the driller can raise the pawl, allow a portion of the chain to unwind from the drum, and thus gradually lower the tools as the drilling proceeds. This arrangement is termed the slipper-out." 330 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The spring-pole was formerly much longer than in the arrangement shown, but the tendency is now to dispense with its use altogether. a. ·P f: n h C-- k .a EL d f C n 9 FIG. 44.-CANADIAN DERRICK AND TRANSMISSION. The driving axle fitted with the crank, b, is also provided with two pulleys, a larger one driven by the engine, and a smaller one from which a small pulley on an axle, k, is driven by means of a leather belt. This belt works loosely, and is inoperative until tightened by the pressure of a roller, l, which is brought 331 CANADA. 2 into action by means of a lever fixed near the driller's seat. The winding drum for the cable by which the drilling tools are raised or lowered is carried on the axle, k, and is fitted with a brake wheel, the brake being applied by pulling a lever, o. The draw rope passes from the drum over the pulley, p, thence over the crown or sheave pulley at the top of the derrick and terminates in a swivel to which the boring tools, etc., are attached. The drilling tools for use after the bed-rock has been reached, usually consist of a bit, 2 feet long and 43 inches in diameter, weighing about 60 lbs. ; a sinker-bar about 30 feet in length, 3 inches in diameter, and 1040 lbs. in weight; and the "jars," which are about 6 feet long, and about 150 lbs. in weight. The drilling poles, which replace the cable used in Pennsylvania, are made of tough, long-grained, white ash, and are barely 2 inches in diameter. The rods are about 37 feet in length, and are fitted with iron screw-joints, by which they are connected together. The screws on the boring rods, etc., used in Canada are generally conical. In the greasy clays forming the upper strata in the petroleum-district of Canada, the boring is usually effected with an open clay-auger 10 inches in diameter, which is connected to a rod (fig. 45) 24 inches in diameter and 32 feet long. This rod is squared at the upper end, and is inserted in a string of 23-inch tubing, where it is held by a key. The auger is lowered by releasing the brake- wheel, and is raised by starting the engine and bringing the winding-drum into action. When it rests in the hole, a cross-beam is fastened to the tubing which extends above the floor, and the auger is turned by a horse walking in a circle. When the auger has thus become filled with clay, it is withdrawn, cleared, and replaced. If the formation is gravel or sand, the auger is replaced by a borer or "mud-bit," which merely loosens the earth, so that it may be removed by means of a valved cylinder 3 feet long, and of similar construction to the simple sand-pump already described. O о FIG. 45.-CLAY AUGER-Rod. When a stone is met with, it is usually with- drawn by a hook, shaped like a corkscrew, or having a single corkscrew-like twist at the lower end. No "drive pipe" is required, as is required, as the deposits are too tenacious. to fall in; but when the bed-rock is reached, a wooden conductor" is introduced. The rock drilling is effected with "bits," similar to those used in Pennsylvania, about sixty blows per minute, or even more, being given, while the tools are turned by the driller, so that an approximately round hole may be made. The blow is plainly felt at each stroke, but the sound is drowned by the inrush and outrush of the air. As the play of the jars diminishes through the sinking of the chisel, the driller lowers the tools by a jerk of the cord, h (fig. 44). After a depth varying from 5 to 15 feet has been drilled, the chisel becomes 332 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. blunt, and it is also necessary to remove the detritus. The tools are accordingly drawn up, the boring rods being disconnected length by length. The rods are drawn up through a hole in the centre of the wrench-block, and are supported by a catch wrench while being unscrewed. To raise and disconnect the rods, three men are required. One stands at the wrench-block, unscrews the rod which has been drawn up into the derrick, pushes it to one side, connects the cable with the next rod, removes the holder, and replaces it when another rod has been drawn up. Another man, up in the derrick, disconnects the unscrewed rod, places it against the framework of the derrick, and sends down the free end of the cable to be again attached to the string of rods. The driller controls the machinery, the steam-supply being controlled by his foot, the brake by his left hand, and the winding-drum by his right. While the blunt chisel is being replaced by a sharp one, the hole is cleared out by means of a sand-pump about 4 inches in diameter, and often as much as 37 feet in length. To facilitate discharge from this pump, the valve and seating are fastened to the body by a screw with a coarse thread, so that they may be readily removed. The fishing-tools resemble those used in the United States. The casing is usually of 4ğ-inch bore, and the lengths connected by collar-joints. As soon as they are completed, the wells are torpedoed with from 8 to 10 quarts of nitroglycerine, costing about one dollar per quart. The wells seldom yield more than 10 barrels daily at first, and the daily production gradually declines to a quarter of a barrel or less. Owing to this low yield, it has become usual to employ the multiple system of pumping already described. One of the pumping-rigs erected by Mr. Engelhardt, in Petrolea, pumps no less than 151 wells, and it is stated that the number might be increased to 200. The engine used is of 100 H.P. It drives. a main "jerker" wheel, which, by suitable connections, usually formed of old boring-rods, and having an aggregate length of no less than 25 miles, conveys the requisite motion to the rods of all the connected pumps, some of which are about a mile away from the centre. This system is found so economical that wells yielding but a few gallons daily are worked at a profit. The steam boilers used in drilling in Canada resemble those employed in Pennsylvania, and are usually fired by petroleum. The engines are not as a rule provided with reversing gear. The drilling contractor employs his own derrick, engine, boiler, and tools, furnishes wood and water, cases the well, and fixes the pump. The well-owner provides the casing and pump, and subsequently erects the permanent three- pole derrick. The wells at Oil Springs were formerly from 200 to 300 feet deep, but as the oil-bearing strata at this depth became water-logged, they were afterwards deepened to about 375 feet, and were cased to a depth of about 275 feet to exclude the water. The contract price for drilling a 45-inch hole. to a depth of about 375 feet, under the above-mentioned conditions, was $150, and the time occupied was about a week, work being carried on day and night. In the Petrolea field the wells are about 480 feet deep, and the contract price, including the cost of 100 feet of wooden conductor, is $175, from six to twelve days being occupied in the drilling. The 45-inch casing costs about 45 cents per foot, and a 14-inch pump, with piping, from $65 to $85, according to the length of piping. An ordinary square-frame derrick with mud-sills costs about $22 to $27, but a three-pole derrick, such as is commonly used after removal of the derrick employed for drilling, can be erected for $10. A hundred-barrel wooden tank costs $50. CANADA. 333 Mr. Brumell¹ gives the following as the cost of a complete drilling rig at Petrolea, Ontario, f.o.b. :- TABLE LXII.-COST OF CANADIAN DRILLING RIG. One 20-H.P. boiler and 20-H.P. engine (10-inch diameter and 14-inch stroke), One 31-inch steel counter-shaft, 5 feet long; four flanges, crank wrist pin, nodale pin, saddle, two pair brasses and pitman straps, two stirrups and plates, two 14-inch sheaves for derrick, Wooden wheels and rig, spring pole and wrench block, One 12-inch leather belt, 28 feet long, One 12-inch 5-ply rubber belt, 40 feet long, 1000 feet ash poles, One horn socket, with clevis, One 2-legged socket, with dog, One 3½-inch drill sinker, 30 feet long, One 3-inch One 24-inch "" "> >> One pair 11-inch jars, One pair 1-inch One pair 1-inch "" for fishing, • "" Two Dutchman's subs, Three 6-inch drill bits, Three 42-inch "" One 12-inch mud bit, One 8-inch reamer, One 6-inch One 5-inch >> • • • • $800 90 97 25 25 23 7 14 55 • 42 35 26 23 15 18 54 42 15 16 14 Two tool wrenches, Two pole wrenches, Twenty pairs pole joints and centre straps, One drill swivel and drill chain, One draw swivel, One cast-iron spring-pole jacket, One slipper-out, with cast wheel, One pole holder, One weight and two clevises for rope, One 4-inch sand-pump, 36 feet long, One sand-pump hanger and chain, Two chain rings and hooks for tools, One lever and two chains for wrenches, One §-inch chain ring and hook for casing, One stirrup bolt, ring bolt, and plate, Two 11-inch clamp bolts, One chain and swivel for spool, • • · 13 10 4 70 14 8 6 15 2 4 • 27 4 3 8 4 4 3 18 14 45 One 12-inch auger, One 8-inch mud-pump, 100 feet boring stems and connections, Total, $1715 By an Order in Council, dated 18th December 1890, any person applying for a location of mineral lands, for working petroleum deposits, must make affidavit that he verily believes from indications that petroleum exists there. Completion of purchase before the end of five years from date of entry is not permitted unless proof is given that at least one well is in operation, and yielding oil in paying quantities, failing which, at the expiration of the five years the entry is cancelled. ¹ Natural Gas and Petroleum in Ontario prior to 1891. Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada, n.s., v, Q, Appendix B. 1893. 334 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The natural gas industry of Canada has been described in the first section of this work (pp. 65-66). The modification of the Canadian system of drilling employed in Galicia is described on påges 342 to 347. RUSSIA. Although petroleum-wells in Russia have not the depth of those in the United States, the disturbed character of the strata, with consequent liability to caving, and the occurrence of hard concretions, render drilling a lengthy and expensive operation. It is usual to commence by making an excavation 8 feet in diameter and 24 feet in depth, and lining the sides of this with wood or brick. The commencing diameter of the well drilled from the bottom of this pit is in some instances more than 36 inches, bore-holes of the larger sizes being preferred, as they are less liable to become choked, and admit of the use of larger bailers for raising the oil. The drilling of wells of large size requires the use of heavy tools and of very strong appliances generally. The system generally adopted is a modification of the Canadian system already described, the boring-rods being, however, of iron instead of wood, but the cable-system (an account of which has also been given) has also to some extent been used. For the ordinary 2-inch plain-laid Manilla cable, a wire rope has in some cases been successfully substituted. In order to prevent caving, the casing is constantly lowered so as to closely follow the drill. When the casing can no longer be forced lower, the diameter of the well is decreased by the use of a smaller bit, and a smaller string of casing is inserted. It is usually necessary to thus diminish the size of the bore-hole several times before the oil is struck. Dimensions of Wells. The diameters of the 1850 wells in the Baku district in 1903 are given in Table LXIII. TABLE LXIII.-DIAMETER OF WELLS IN THE BAKU DISTRICT. Diameter in Inches.1 Number of Wells. Balakhani. Sabuntchi. Romani. Bibi- Eibat. Binagadi. Total. 6 1777880 : : 7/1/ 73 81 9 91 9! 9 AP- 1 2121 3 i NNNσ 5 2 2 2 19 33 10 78 to,- 1 1 1 3 S 13 1 1 1 i 6 21 2 2 11 1 9 1 2 9 10 1093/ 63 10/1/1 11 · 10 13-22 、ས་ 3 5 97 27 25 212 • 111 4 111 2 5 1 11 11 1 8 12 20 12∞ 1 Some of these wells were in course of drilling at the date to which the return was made up, and their diameters would be less on completion. RUSSIA. 335 TABLE LXIII.-continued. Number of Wells. Diameter in Inches.¹ Balakhani. Sabuntchi. Romani. Bibi-Eibat. Binagadi. Total. 12 102 130 37 26 4 299 121/1 13 134 133 622 ~ 4 1 11 2 4 3 18 29 3 3 14 136 139 29 18 6 322 15 6 1 151 1 12 2 : 151 152 2 27 8 3 2 • • 4 1 14 16 149 111 18 30 4 312 17 1 1 2 171 1 2 3 17 1 18 109 98 22 18 248 i 18/1/2 1 1 19 1 1 20 55 56 11 15 137 22 15 19 3 24 6 8 26 2 2 1031 5 · 10 47 17 5 : Diameters. TABLE LXIII.-continued. SUMMARY. Balakhani. Sabuntchi. Romani. Bibi-Eibat. Binagadi. Totals. From 6 to 92 24 52 23 23 10 14 321 388 135 78 15 19 270 222 49 49 20 26 78 85 14 24 or or Him H 1 123 4 926 5 595 5 206 >> Totals 693 747 221 174 15 1850 • Since the date mentioned, the initial diameter of the wells has largely increased. Drilling Tools.-Figs. 46 to 64 (see Plate 23) exhibit the construction of some of the principal tools used in drilling in the Baku district. Fig. 46 shows on the left an ordinary bit, and on the right a bit capable of a traversing motion, for cutting hard sand, so as to facilitate its removal by the sand-pump. 66 In fig. 47 two forms of under-reamer are illustrated. They are used in conjunction with a bit screwed to the lower end. Fig. 48 shows an "auger-stem" or "sinker-bar," fig. 49 the " jars," fig. 50 the "temper-screw," for use when boring with rods, fig. 51 the ordinary boring rods, and fig. 52 an improved connection for such rods. a Fig. 53 represents a "rod-guide" for "stiffening" a string of tools, fig. 54 "substitute" for uniting tools and rods of different threads, and fig. 55 a 1 Some of these wells were in course of drilling at the date to which the return was made up, and their diameters would be less on completion. 336 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. number of wrenches for connecting and disconnecting tools and rods. The "fork" illustrated in fig. 56 is used for holding up a string of tools during connection and disconnection. 66 In fig. 57 is shown a "screw-jack" with 5-inch screw, and in fig. 58 a casing-clamp." The "swedges" shown in figs. 59 and 60 are employed for straightening the casing in the well. Fig. 61 represents mud-augers with and without a foot-valve. Figs. 62 and 63 represent sand-pumps fitted with a piston and a foot-valve, to be used when there is oil or water together with the detritus; and fig. 64 a bailer, such as is employed in raising the oil from the completed well. Connecting Lengths of Casing.-A writer in Industries and Iron, in August 1893, gives the following description, accompanied by a drawing (fig. 65) of Lentz” method employed in the Baku field for connecting the various the 4-7% A E Rud 1 4 lengths of riveted well-casing. The tubes vary in diameter, but are usually made of-inch plate, having only one longitudinal seam, double-riveted, and with lap joints. The lengths are con- nected by rings inch thick and 9 inches wide, with three rows of rivets for the end of each tube, the rivets being in- serted circumferentially from 21 to 21 inches apart. Each length of tube, as it stands in the well, is fitted with a ring, into which the new length is forced, the rivet holes in the tube and the ring having been made to gauge, so as to coincide. An anvil consisting of blocks, A A, with a central wedge-shaped block, B, is then lowered into the tube, as shown, and the blocks, A, which hang from rods, D, are forced outwards on raising the block, B, by turning a wing nut, F. The tube being placed in a vertical position in the joint ring, the rivets are driven in with a hammer against the anvil, as shown in the side sketch. As the blocks, A, only cover some of the holes, the anvil requires to be turned round during the operation. The rivets are of soft iron, 1 inch long, inch in thickness at the small end, and inch at the inner end, where they are V-shaped, as shown, in order to splay out when driven in. A В B A A FIG. 65.--LENTZ RIVETING ANVIL. 16 8 Depth of Wells. The wells in Russia, piercing soft rocks, are never torpedoed as in America, but in the neighbourhood of Baku it is usual to continue boring to the depth at which a flowing well may be obtained. The average depth of the wells in the Balakhani-Sabuntchi field has gradually increased from 154 feet in 1873, to 273 feet in 1880, 350 feet in 1882, 420 feet in 1885, 665 feet in 1889, and 1125 feet in 1903. Of late years the depth of wells in the Baku field has very greatly increase, with a corresponding addition to the cost of production. The average depth of the wells in the Balakhani-Sabuntchi-Romani field increased from 896 feet FIG. 146.-BITS. AFEFLUTE TIRES TAMI": U о о О FIG. 47. — UNDER-REAMERS, Oi FIG. 57.-SCREW-JACK. FIG. 59.-SWEDGE. FIG. 50.-TEMPER-SCREW, FIG. 51.- BORING-RODS. FIG. 52.- ROD-CONNECTION. FIG. 54.-SUBSTITUTE-CONNECTION. 口 ​FIG. 53.- ROD-GUIDE. 10247115110511012013108620000000000 0 0 HOND THIRT FIG. 56.-FORK TO HOLD UP TOOLS. FIG. 60.-SWEDGE. PLATE 23.-RUSSIAN DRILLING TOOLS. FIG. 48.-AUGER-STEM OR SINKER-BAR. FIG. 49.-JARS, FIG. 55.-WRENCHES FOR TOOL-JOINTS. FIG. 61.-MUD-AUGERS. PLATE 23. FIG. 58.-CASING-CLAMP. B 1 CHIR FIG. 64.-BAILER. L FIG. 62.---SAND-PUMP. FIG. 63.SAND-PUMP. ર U N ON M FLOWING WELLS. 337 in 1896 to 1169 feet in 1906. In the Bibi-Eibat field the increase in depth was from an average of 1141 feet in 1896 to 1757 feet in 1906. The deepest well up to that date was 2310 feet. In 1909 the average depth of the new wells sunk in the three principal fields was as follows:-Balakhani-Sabuntchi, 1580; Romani, 1890; Bibi-Eibat, 1660 feet. In the Grozni field in 1908 the average depth of the producing wells was 1207 feet, but in 1910 it had increased to 1519 feet. In August of that year a well began to produce at the (for Russia) unprecedented depth of 3559 feet, and several wells have a depth of about 3000 feet. Pressure in Wells.-The great pressure at which oil issues often demands special precautions to prevent leakage round the outside of the casing, and the bottom of the excavated shaft, already described, receives special treatment with this object. According to Vasilieff it is preferable to make this shaft. octagonal, and about 6 feet across, and to fill in the space between the casing and the walls with masonry and cement, but it has been found more satis- factory to tamp the space with puddled clay after the joint between the casing and the solid ground has been caulked with rope packing. Controlling Outflow.-To effect control of a flowing well an iron cap with a gate-valve was formerly attached to the casing, but the outflow was some- times so sudden as to allow no time even for the removal of the drilling tools, and these, notwithstanding their great weight, have been driven out of the well. The pressure is said to have occasionally amounted to as much as 300 lbs. per square inch. In the case of Nobel's No. 32 well, finished in June 1886, with 8-inch casing, no less than four 8-inch gate-valves were required to check the flow, and while more oil was escaping than could be carried off by three pipes of 3, 4, and 6 inches diameter respectively, the valves and the framework of timber were blown away, and the oil, mingled with mud and stones, spouted out for fifteen days, after which the flow ceased. The well is estimated to have discharged about 100,000 barrels of oil, and its stoppage is attributed to the collapse of the casing caused by the pressure. Particulars of other flowing wells have been given in the first section of this work. Yield.—The average yield of the wells in active operation in the Baku field in 1885 has been estimated by Vasilieff at about 32 tons daily per well. The necessity for raising the oil to the surface which exists in the United States is not experienced to the same extent in the Baku district, and it was formerly considered that wells not further apart than 100 yards did not drain each other. Flowing wells were, therefore, invariably capped, and allowed to discharge only when the oil was required, but Mr. Rydèn has informed the author that the experience gained has led to the discontinuance of this practice. Towards the end of the last century the average daily yield per well in the Grozni field was large, but subsequently it rapidly, and then slowly, decreased. The average production per well in 1898 was 1500 poods, and in 1908, 750 poods, but in December 1909 it had increased to over 900 poods. The life of a well appears to range from two to nine years, but the "Kormilitza" ("Wet-Nurse ") well gave 32,000 gallons daily for twelve years, and the No. 5 well of Mirzoeff yielded 40,000 gallons daily for six years. Present Practice in Production.-Boilers.-Steam power is generally em- ployed for drilling, bailing, and general purposes throughout the field, although recently electric motors and internal-combustion engines have to some extent 22 VOL. I. 338 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. come into use. It is a common practice in the Baku field to erect a central battery of boilers, usually of the Lancashire and Cornish type, for the purpose of supplying steam for the requirements of the property under development. Fig. 66 shows a typical installation of five boilers, and indicates the method of setting, together with the positions of the flues communicating with the chimney stack, which as a rule is built of brick. The boilers are fired with liquid fuel, and the burner or "forsunka" is usually of very simple construction. Until recently no endeavour was made to economise fuel, but within the last two or three years a few of the leading and more progressive firms have adopted measures with this object. The great difficulty with which the Baku oil- 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Feet tt d Sectional Plan Longitudinal Section 2 3 4 5 6 7 & Sagenes FIG. 66.-BOILER INSTALLATION, Baku. producers have to deal in connection with steam raising is the lack of good water. Nearly the whole of the water used is that of the Caspian Sea; and as a result a large quantity of scale is quickly formed, in spite of blowing-off the boiler several times a day. This incrustation and the deposit of sediment necessitate cleaning the boilers about once a month. The bad quality of the water in the Baku district precludes the use of the more economical high- pressure water-tube boilers. Engines. The type of steam-engine in general use for drilling wells is a double-cylinder horizontal engine, and the power is usually 35 H.P., nominal. In many cases the engines are of English manufacture. In the majority of cases the engine is situated at a considerable distance from the boiler, and thus it frequently occurs that while the steam-pressure in the boiler may be 60 pounds, a pressure of only 20 pounds is registered at the engine. Fountains.—It demands lengthy experience to determine when the drilling BAILING WELLS. 339 should be stopped, so as to get a good flowing or bailing well, and avoid an uncontrollable fountain. In some cases the oil, accompanied by sand and stones, has been projected to a height of 200 feet, and the derrick completely destroyed. If the well spouts to a great height, the oil-spray is liable to be carried by the wind to a considerable distance, and there is a risk of ignition occurring at some boiler-fire, with the result of communicating flame to the well. A fountain-plate consisting of a block of cast iron about 4 feet square and 6 to 8 inches in thickness is therefore placed in the derrick at a suitable height above the mouth of the well, and the oil playing against this, is con- fined to the immediate neighbourhood of the well. In some instances such a block has been pierced in twenty-four hours by the sand thrown up with the oil. As fires are said to have been occasioned by sparks caused by pieces of rock ejected from the well striking the iron fountain-plate, a stout wooden plate is now sometimes used. As soon as possible the oil is led into an excava- tion in the ground near the derrick, but although such a reservoir commonly holds from 4000 to 6000 tons, it is quickly filled with oil and sand if the fountain is a strong one, and the lower part of the derrick may even be buried in a sand- hill in a short time. In such cases great loss of oil is unavoidable. The life of a fountain is very uncertain. The violent outflow often lasts only for a few days or weeks, but the fountain may continue to play for more than a year. Some wells spout intermittently at intervals of from two to thirty minutes, and in these the pressure is usually not very great. The sand is liable to choke the casing, and it is necessary to clean the well from time to time. In some cases the wells at first require the use of the bailer to raise the oil, and afterwards commence flowing. Bailing Wells. Owing to the large quantity of sand which is mingled with the oil, sometimes to the extent of 30 or 40 per cent., it is impossible to use ordinary pumps in the wells, and when the wells do not flow, the oil is raised by a bailer (shown in fig. 64, Plate 23), which commonly holds about 45 gallons. The work of raising the oil from wells which do not flow, by the use of bailers (termed shalonkas), is usually performed by Tartars, the winch or bailing drum being belt-driven from a steam-engine. The valve of the bailer is opened by descending on to a plate which is pushed over the mouth of the well; the greater part of the oil flows into a wooden tank constructed round the top of the bore-hole, a portion, however, finding its way back into the well. Much of the sand accompanying the oil settles out in the tank, and the over-flowing oil passes into an excavation in the ground, where most of the remaining sand is deposited. The excavated reservoir is not lined in any way, the ground in which it is made being, as a rule, already saturated with oil. From this reservoir the oil is pumped into iron storage-tanks, and thence through pipe-lines to the refineries. Raising Oil by means of Compressed Air.-Some years ago, owing to the initiative of Colonel English, a method of raising oil by the agency of compressed air was introduced into the Baku oil-fields. The system, which is known as the "air lift," is of American origin. "Air lift" pumps, having capacities of 1000 to 40,000 gallons per hour, are employed in Great Britain for raising water at a number of factories having their own water wells. The appliances are the same for oil as for water, and they can be used in wells of any depth. In cases where large quantities of oil or water, or both, constantly flow into the well, the "free air lift" system is employed, but where the fluid only rises in the well to the height of 10 to 30 feet, it becomes necessary to use a displacement-chamber. 340 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. In the first experiments made in the Baku field, the air was conveyed down. the well by means of 1-inch or 14-inch tubing to the depth required, and liquid was raised to the surface through the annular space between the air tube and an outer tube. Subsequently experiments were made with an arrangement for forcing the air down the annular space between two concentric tubes, and causing the oil to come to the surface through the centre one. The latter method is in principle that which is now generally adopted. The chief advan- tages claimed for this system of raising oil are :—that it is automatic, that it is less costly than bailing, and that there is an absence of all wearing parts or fittings liable to get out of order. In spite, however, of the advantages claimed for it, the system has not been extensively adopted by oil-producers. Natural Gas. Although the natural gas of the Russian fields is not utilised in the same manner, or to anything like the same extent as that of America, it has been employed in a primitive manner from time immemorial for burning lime; and the gas springs of Surakhani formerly furnished a source of heat in the refineries of Korkoreff and Mirzoeff, as described by Schneider and Engler. In 1850 Admiral Vasilieff attempted to use the gas on Holy Island, in the Caspian, in a lighthouse or beacon, but defective fittings resulted in an explosion, prematurely terminating the experiment. The activity of the mud- volcanos is due to the escape of natural gas through water-logged deposits, and where such discharges occur in the sea, as near Bibi-Eibat and elsewhere, they produce apparent ebullition of the water, and sometimes give rise to more or less permanent islands of ejected mud. Practically until recently the utilisation of natural gas in Russia had been neglected, but the decrease in production of crude oil during the last few years has caused considerable attention to be paid to reducing the cost of production. This has led to the development of the natural gas resources, and where possible. to the employment of gas as fuel in steam boilers. In 1909 there were in the Surakhani field eleven wells producing gas, and on many properties in the Grozni oil-field natural gas was used for firing steam boilers, for heating dwellings, for motors, and to a limited extent for illumin- ating purposes. Tenure of Lands. Some portions of the Baku oil-fields are held on the basis of special grants made by the Government to distinguished persons in recognition of services rendered; in other cases, as in the Grozni district, where the Cossacks are the owners, the land has been leased on a royalty basis; but the usual procedure as regards the acquisition of oil-bearing land under the Russian mining laws is as follows:-The land is marked out in squares, the lines of which run north, south, east, and west, and are each 300 sagenes (700 yards) in length, an area of 90,000 square sagenes (about 101 acres) being thus enclosed, and a numbered stone being placed in the centre of it. This plot is termed a ziavka, and the holder of it is allowed two years for carrying out boring or other operations. At the expiration of that time the holder is entitled to select 24,000 square sagenes, or 10 dessiatines (about 27 acres) for exploitation, on a perpetual lease, at an annual rent of 10 roubles per dessiatine, or 100 roubles (£10, 12s. 6d.) for the whole. This plot, which is called an otvod, may be selected in any part of the ziavka, but must be rectangular in form, and in one piece. When the selection has been made, the Government has the right, if the district has been officially declared as petroliferous, to dispose of the remainder of the ziavka by auction or otherwise, on the basis of rent and royalty. If the holder of the otvod does not commence work on the land within two years, the plot may be forfeited and disposed of by the Government. GALICIA. 341 GALICIA.¹ 1 The first wells were pits or carefully-timbered shafts excavated by hand, but the influx of water and gas prevented the operators from reaching the more productive strata. The adoption of the system of drilling by manual labour largely contributed to the development of the industry, but the substitution, about the year 1867, of what is known as the Fabian system, wherein steam E FIG. 67. GALICIAN HAND-DRILLING SYSTEM. power, is employed, was of greater consequence, as it enabled the driller to use far heavier tools, and a still more important advance was made when the Canadian system was introduced by Mr. MacGarvey in 1882. Hand Drilling for Oil.-The hand-drilling system is illustrated in fig. 67. The derrick is fitted with a powerful windlass, A, by means of which a gang of men can draw the drilling tools, B, out of the well; a smaller windlass or winch, C, for use with the sand-pump, D. and a massive beam, E, about 30 feet in length, pivoted about 5 feet from the end to which the drilling tools are attached. The bit may be chisel-shaped, but is usually formed as a combination of chisel 1 Under this heading are included, for convenience of comparison, particulars of various special systems of drilling, some of which have been employed in Galicia. 342 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. and gouge. The" free-fall" jars, G, consist of a rod working freely in a casing or tube. The rod is provided with a pin or stud running in a longitudinal slot in the tube, and this slot is prolonged at a right angle at its upper end, forming a catch for the pin. It is obvious that, by slightly turning the rod when it is telescoped into the tube, the tools may be raised and afterwards allowed to fall. The tools are attached to iron rods, H, screwed together, which are successively added as the depth of the well increases. The windlasses are provided with brakes, A', C'. The drilling is commenced from the bottom of a square shaft dug as deep as possible, and the operation is conducted in the following manner :— The jars being telescoped and locked, the beam, E, is lowered until its end strikes a wooden block, I, and the driller at this instant giving a slight turn to the tools by means of a lever, K, the pin of the jars escapes from the horizontal portion of the slot in its tube, and the bit falling 3 or 4 feet, strikes the bottom of the well. The beam, E, is then allowed to rise, and the jars, being again telescoped, are locked by turning the tools in the reverse direction. A gang of six men, in addition to the driller, is required, and the work is slow, as only about six or seven blows can be delivered per minute. The com- paratively small weight of the tools which can thus be used renders the process of hand-drilling ineffective where hard strata are encountered. The tools are drawn from the well at intervals, by means of a wire rope coiled on the larger windlass, the rods being disconnected one by one. The bit is then sharpened while the detritus is removed from the well by the sand pump, D, which is lowered by the smaller windlass. The pump has a valve at the bottom, and this is opened by the projecting stem, L, striking the bottom of the well, so that the mud flows in. As the pump is lifted, the valve closes. Modern Methods of Drilling. When manual labour was replaced by steam- power, in 1867, the general form of the drilling appliances remained, for some time, unaltered, but it then became possible to use tools weighing 800 to 1000 kilograms, and to increase the number of blows of the drill to as many as forty per minute. The free-fall jars used with such tools are shown at P P' in Plate 24. The Canadian system subsequently (in 1882) introduced by Mr. MacGarvey was found to require certain modifications to adapt it for use in Galicia, and its modified form is shown in Plate 24. The derrick, which is boarded on the outside, is 56 feet high, 16 feet square at the base, and 31 feet square at the summit. The walking-beam, A, is of wood, about a foot square, and the end which is over the bore-hole is furnished with a spirally grooved cast-iron cap, B, carrying the short chain which supports the drilling tools. After the chain has been coiled several times round the grooved cylinder, it passes to the " slipper- out," C, which consists of a small winch fitted with a spring pawl engaging in a ratchet wheel on its axle. A single-cylinder horizontal steam-engine, F, supplied from a boiler of the locomotive type, drives the walking-beam by means of a crank, D, of adjustable stroke, and a connecting rod, E. The driller can stop and start the engine through the medium of a "telegraph," or endless cord, F', connected with the steam throttle-valve, and can reverse it by means of a foot lever, F''', acting upon a cord, F", connected with the reversing link. The draw-rope spool, G, for raising the tools, is driven by means of a belt which normally runs loose, but can be tightened so as to cause the revolution of the spool by moving a roller, H, through the medium of a cord and a hand lever, K. A similarly-driven spool is employed for raising or lowering the sand-pump. The spool, G, has a brake I, connected with a hand lever, L, for controlling the descent of the PLATE 24. N B T T' N о Р Q R U U' W W о о A W S E H FI F [M K F' F GALICIAN DRILLING PLANT. NIL OF GALICIA. 343 CC tools into the well. The pawl which locks the slipper-out" is lifted by pulling a chain, M. In raising the tools, a Manilla-hemp cable, N, is commonly employed, but this is now in many cases replaced by a wire rope. The end of the cable carries a heavy piece of iron known as a cow-sucker," to facilitate its descent when the rods are disconnected from it. 66 The form of jars employed in the Canadian system is shown at R, and on a larger scale at O O'. They have no locking arrangement such as the free-fall jars, P P', are provided with, and their action is altogether different. The rods. are commonly of ash, 2 inches in diameter, and from 30 to 35 feet in length. They are made in two pieces, joined together by centre straps, and are connected by pin and box joints having conical threads, T T', secured by straps U U'. Short lengths, known as 5-foot, 10-foot, and 15-foot poles are used as make-up rods as the depth of the well progresses. For deep wells iron rods are now generally employed. The bit, S, varies from over 16 inches to as little as 21 inches in width. In drilling, the whole string of tools, Q, descends, and the blow being struck, the jars partly close. As the rods are again raised, the jars fully open before the bit is lifted, and the impact of the lower link on the upper one serves to dislodge the bit if it has become wedged in the rock. The tools are turned at intervals by the driller, so that the bit shall constantly change its position, and drill a round hole. The number of blows delivered by the bit, per minute, is usually from forty to sixty, but is sometimes increased to seventy. The guide," W, inserted in the string of tools, constitutes an addition to the ordi- nary Canadian appliances which is found of great service in drilling in the disturbed, and often steeply-inclined, strata met with in Galicia, since it facili- tates the preservation of the verticality of the bore-hole. It consists, as will be seen, of four wings radiating from a common centre. The method of raising and disconnecting the tools when the detritus requires removal closely resembles that already described as practised in Canada. 66 In some instances “under-reaming" is found necessary. This consists in the use of an expanding reamer, by means of which the well may be drilled to a diameter admitting of the casing descending freely, which, as a rule, could not be accomplished with an ordinary bit introduced through the casing. The under-reamer (fig. 68) is placed immediately above the bit, and is provided with two pivoted wings or dogs, a, which are forced outwards by a powerful coiled spring, acting through a sliding collar, b. When the reamer is inserted in the casing, the collar is raised as shown in A, and is locked there by small wedges, c, so that the dogs are closed, but a few strokes of the tools dislodge the wedges, and the dogs expand as shown in B, the effective cutting width of the instru- ment then exceeding the external diameter of the casing. The improved form of under-reamer shown in fig. 69 is commonly employed in Galicia at the present time. The upper portion of the well is usually lined with casing made of sheet-iron with riveted seams, and not water-tight, and casing of similar construction is often used in completing the wells, but water-tight artesian casing, consisting of wrought-iron, lap-welded tubing, with screwed joints, is principally employed. The casing is added at the top in successive lengths as the depth of the well increases, and when one size of casing can no longer be forced any lower, the diameter of the well is reduced, and smaller casing is used, so that a completed well may have several strings of casing, each of which extends to the surface. It is customary to remove a portion of the artesian casing, leaving that which shuts off the water, and perforated casing is often used below the water-bearing rocks, so that a large area is exposed through which oil may percolate into the 344 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. tr well. The small riveted casing, called a liner," with which many wells are completed, is not withdrawn, and extends only up to the bottom of the artesian с C a a a a A B о о FIG. 68.-UNDER-REAMER. FIG. 69.-IMPROVED UNDER-REAMER. casing. The following particulars of the casing of a well inspected by the author may serve to explain the above description :— A, B, C, D, E, 33 feet of 13 inch, riveted. 651 11 artesian. >" 124 "" 213 8 1 6 "" 433 45 236 4 perforated. 751 3 1/ riveted, "" F, G, • The water was shut off with the 8-inch casing, and the 64-inch was with- drawn on the completion of the well. Of the foregoing "strings" of casing, A, B, C, D, and E extended to the top of the well, while F lined the well from the bottom of E for 236 feet, and G completed the lining from the bottom of F for the remaining 75 feet. GALICIA, 345 The custom of using "liners" of riveted casing at the bottom of the bore- hole has, as a general rule, been given up, and in most deep wells the last string of casing is artesian, and extends from the top to the bottom. The Canadian system of drilling soon superseded the free-fall system in Galicia. It is more rapid, and as it is accompanied with less con- cussion, the risk of caving is mini- mised. Since the first edition of this book was published, further im- provements have been effected in this system of drilling, and although many other methods of drilling for oil have been tried during recent years, it maintains its supremacy, being, in fact, with few exceptions, the only system used throughout the country. One of the most important improvements was the introduc- tion of the eccentric bit. Fig. 70 shows this form of bit in process of being lowered into the bore-hole through the last string of casing, and fig. 71 shows the bit in action after it has passed through the casing. It will be seen that owing to its shape this bit drills a hole of sufficient size to permit of the casing following it. Previously this was only attainable by drilling a hole. with an ordinary bit, and then enlarging it by means of an under- reamer. The opening up of the Boryslaw oil-field in 1896, when the drilling of deep wells became a necessity, led to the introduction of the wire rope as an adjunct to the poles. In the use of a wire rope no other alteration is needed in the ordinary Canadian rig in general use in Galicia than the sub- stitution for the sheave at the crown of the derrick of a wheel of larger diameter, and having a wider groove. The string of tools employed includes the poles, which are added as required up to as many as ten in number, though as a rule only four full lengths are used. The first pole is screwed to the clevis, and the eye of the drilling rope is passed through the ring of the clevis. As the boring proceeds, poles are added until the maximum number is reached. When the tools are withdrawn a corresponding length of new rope is spliced on to the drilling rope, this operation being repeated as the well increases in depth. The lower end of the drilling rope is doubled back FIG. 70. ECCENTRIC BIT. FIG. 71. 346 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. FIG. 72.--GALICIAN-CANADIAN DRILLING PLANT. KIND'S FREE-FALL BORER. 347 to the extent of about half a yard, and spliced, and an ordinary tool-joint is riveted on with four or five rivets. On pulling out the tools the following operations take place :-The poles are withdrawn in the usual manner until the clevis is reached; the drilling rope is then keyed under the clevis, the screw withdrawn, and the clevis drawn apart; the eye of the draw rope is then coupled by means of a hook to the eye of the drilling rope, and both ropes are wound on to the sand-pump spool. On letting-in the string of tools the same operations take place, but in reverse order. The use at the top of the derrick of a wheel of larger diameter, and having a wider groove, is requisite to admit of the hook and eye of the rope passing over smoothly. The employment of the wire rope for drilling deep wells (from 800 to over 1000 metres in depth) presents the great advantage of allowing the tools to be pulled out or let in rapidly, the saving of time thus effected being very considerable. Fig. 72 shows the Canadian drilling rig, or what may be more correctly termed the Galician-Canadian rig, at present in use in the Galician oil-fields. The chief improvement made in recent years, apart from the strength- ening of the whole structure in order to cope with the greater depth of the wells, is the addition of the sand-pump reel, which is worked similarly to the draw-rope spool. ↑ hh 0 Kind's Free-fall Borer possesses some his- torical interest. It is self-acting, and is thus available for great depths. It consists, as shown in fig. 73, of three parts. The upper part carries a circular plate, a, and terminates below in a tongue, b, which bears on a collar, c; the intermediate portion contains a pair of hooks, d, moving on pivots, and the lower piece, g, carries the bit and appendages. The upper and lower portions work inside the middle piece, the former being held by screws, o o, and the latter by a pin n, sliding in a groove cut in the piece, g. When the bit rests on the bottom of the well, the top of the instrument descends until the upper part, e, of the piece, g, is caught by the hooks, d, and while the whole is being raised, the pres- sure of the well water on the plate, a, prevents the collar, c, from forcing the hooks apart. As soon, however, as the downward stroke begins, the resistance of the water raises the plate, a, and causes the collar to draw the upper ends of the hooks together, thus releasing the part, g, which descends with the bit. ruma FIG. 73.-KIND'S FREE-FALL BORER. Degoussée writes of Kind's borer as follows: The so-called free-fall instrument of Kind,. . . . the utility of which is acknowledged by boring- experts when it becomes a question of boring a large and deep well in the shortest time, and with the smallest comparative expenditure, may certainly be classed with the most important inventions of the age, although the whole of the credit cannot be ascribed to Kind alone-Oeynhausen, Rost, and Fabian being all entitled to a share.” 348 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The Fauck system of free-fall boring is by some engineers regarded as preferable to the Canadian system, for drilling in hard rock, and at depths of over 300 metres.¹ It was largely employed on the Kleczany property in Galicia, and to some extent in Bohemia, in drilling for petroleum, but, on the whole, the Canadian system appears to have given far better results that that of Fauck, in Galicia. The following description of the Fauck system is partly derived from the catalogue of Hasenörl, the maker of the apparatus:- The boring bits are made of tough, chilled cast steel, forged to shape and in various sizes, from 61 to 680 millimetres in width, according to the diameter of the bore-hole. A shoulder is provided for grappling in case of breakage. The d d FIG. 74. FIG. 75. FAUCK'S UNDER-REAMER. FIG. 76. bit is fastened to the free-fall instrument by a double cotter fastening, the shoulder and cotter being placed together so that the marks on each coincide, and the cotter is then driven up by means of copper hammers. Figs. 74 to 76 show the widening bit or under-reamer, which is placed between the boring bit and the auger-stem when the bore-hole has to be en- larged to facilitate the introduction of the casing. It is made of fine-grained wrought iron, the upper end being formed into a pin and the lower into a socket. Both ends are constructed for the double cotter fastening. In the centre are the cutters, c, of best crucible cast steel, which can easily be taken out and replaced. They are pressed outwards, into the position represented in fig. 74, by a spring, as shown in fig. 76, but when the instrument is let down into the bore-hole, they are confined by a string, d (fig. 75), which is broken by the shock of drilling. The free-fall instrument, figs. 77, 78 (replacing the American "jars "), is described as an improvement on that of Fabian. The wrought-iron falling piece, a, slides in the socket tube, b, to which it is connected by the pin, c, working in the grooves, d. The pin c is secured by a cotter, c, (fig. 79), itself fastened by a pin, c, which is kept in place by the walls of the tube. The Also Tecklenburg's Handbuch ¹ Gad, Dingler's polytechnisches Journal, cclxxi, 289, 1889. der Tiefbohrkunde, v, 200. FAUCK FREE-FALL SYSTEM. 349 lower end of the falling piece terminates in a shoulder-pin (e, shoulder; f, pin), for attachment to the auger-stem, and is further provided with a shoulder- piece, g, to facilitate grappling. The socket-tube is strongly made of wrought iron, and carries a screw pin, h, at the top, with a shoulder, i, for connection with the boring rods. The grooves, d, are enlarged at the top for the insertion of the steel pin-rests, kl. They are also widened below into the safety-catch, m, in which the pin, c, fits when the tool is being lowered into the well, in order to prevent the damage that might result if the pin escaped from the upper catch, and allowed the falling piece, with attached bit, to drop suddenly. The self-acting free-fall apparatus shown in fig. 80 is intended chiefly for use in wells of 30 to 100 centimetres in diameter, and exceeding 300 metres in depth. It consists of the boring bit, a; the under-reamer and auger-stem, b, in one piece; the free-fall piece, c; and the frame, d. Instead of one pin, the falling piece is provided with two, the lower, ƒ, for the safety-catch, and the upper, g, moving on a pivot, in steel bearings, forming the real catch pin. The upper part of the socket tube terminates in a square rod, which passes through the frame block, d', and is attached to the boring rods. When the bit touches the bottom, the rods, e, support the frame at a fixed height, and the socket tube descends through the frame blocks until the pin, g, engages with the catch. When the apparatus is raised, the bevel edge of the blade, h, releases the pin, g, and the free-fall piece, with its appendages, is thus caused to drop. The boring rods (fig. 81) are made of wrought iron of square section and are about 5 metres in length. They are connected by pin and box joints having conical threads, a b. Under the pin joint are two shoulder-pieces-the upper, c, for the wrench, in screwing or unscrewing; and the lower, d, for support by the prong. A diameter of 20 millimetres ordinarily gives sufficient strength ; rods of 23 mm. are used in exceptional cases. The following are enumerated as the principal essential features of the machinery (figs. 82 and 83):- 1. Good recoil of the walking-beam. 2. Large arc of movement, from 1 to 1 metre. 3. Sufficient height under walking-beam, to admit of surface-pit being dispensed with. 4. Movable head of walking-beam, for turning back. 5. Arrangements whereby all the operations are under the easy control of the boring foreman. 6. A simple steam-engine, without reversing-gear. The power is transmitted from the engine to the wheel, a, to which is attached the drum, b, and all the drilling operations, including the raising and lowering of the tools and sand pump, are controlled by means of the different hand levers. In drilling, the cog-wheel, c, is made to engage with the wheel, d, which communicates motion through the pitman or connecting-rod, f, to the walking- beam, e. The beam consists of a double girder of I-iron, moving on the bearing, h, and having at one extremity a weight, i, more than sufficient to counterpoise the tools; in fact, heavy enough to bring down that end of the beam with a blow upon the post, k, and produce a recoil. The connecting-rod moves in a loose bearing on the wheel, d, and, being hardly at the end of its stroke when the shock occurs, the vibration is not communicated to the machinery. By altering the throw of the pin on the crank-wheel, d, the arc of movement of the beam head may be varied between and 1 metre. The boring chain, m, is 350 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. e d FIG. 77.-FAUCK'S FREE-FALL BORER. نه FIG. 80.-SELF-ACTING FREE FALL - (FAUCK'S). BORER ០ 1 ·C2 FIG. 79.- COTTER-PIN. FIG. 78. SECTION. h FIG. 81.- BORING ROD. .... FIG. 82.-TRANSMISSION, FAUCK SYSTEM. དཱི FIG. 83.-TRANSMISSION, FAUCK SYSTEM. OF H. MICH INS Universal Hollow Rod. Universal Hollow Rod. Hollow-rod Swivel. Eccentric Bits. K F S Tubing Clamp. M -U Ph Substitute. Patent Jars. Casing-head for Water Flush- ing, with Stuffing-box Pipe, Under-reamer, with Flush. Taper Tap. TOOLS USED FOR "RAPID" SYSTEM OF BORING. Rapid" Boring-bit. Parallel-edge Bit, with Bottom Flush. a Hollow-rod Swivel for Core-boring. C h 9 a d C e PLATE 25. Crown Pulley. Steigrohre H A P Bard Under-reamer, with Elevator. Central Flush. Simplex Oil Pump. RAPID DRILLING SYSTEM. 351 wound round the drum, n (fig. 83), and adjusted by the screw and cog-wheel, p, by means of a hand-wheel, q. The segmental shape of the walking-beam head keeps the boring chain in the centre of the well during the whole of the stroke. The head can be set back if required, by drawing a bolt, n (fig. 82), pushing the segment back, and securing it by re-inserting the bolt. To withdraw the tools from the well, the hoisting lever is moved so as to lock a loose collar, s, running on the axle, b, and carrying the cog-wheel, t, with the friction brake, u, and the friction collar, v. The hoisting-drum, w, is thus brought into gear. It is found in practice that two lengths of rod (of 10 metres each) can be drawn up in ten to twenty seconds. To lower the tools, the reversing lever is moved, the effect being to bring into gear with the edge of the friction-collar, v, another drum (revolving on the axle, y), to which is fixed a cog-wheel, gearing into the large cog-wheel, z, the rotation of the winding-drum, w, being thus reversed. The friction-brake, u, is used to check a too rapid descent of the tools. To put the sand-pump in motion, the pump-lever is depressed, the bearing, dy, being thus raised, and the grooved wheel, e, caused to engage with a similar wheel, f, on the principal axle. The machines are supplied in three sizes, respectively for depths of under 300 metres, from 300 to 500 metres, and from 500 to 1000 metres. The cost of a medium-sized set, including boring tools and steam-engine, but without derrick, is about 12,000 marks. For depths up to 200 metres, however, Fauck's hand machine, costing 4500 marks, can be used. This has a lift at the beam- head of 1·25 m., and is used with a boring-trestle instead of a derrick. The "Rapid" system of drilling, which can be adapted to either hand or steam power, has been chiefly employed in boring for coal, salt, and other minerals; it has, however, also been used in drilling for petroleum. It can be worked either with or without water-flushing. If at any time during the sinking of a bore-hole it is necessary to temporarily abandon water-flushing, practically all the tools usually employed in the Canadian system are available for use with the Rapid rig. The chief advantages claimed by the inventors of the Rapid system are :— 1. Cores of the formation perforated can be obtained. 2. Simplicity of the boring rig. 3. Rapidity of stroke. The bit can be made to strike the rock from 100 to 250 blows per minute, and it is claimed that very hard rock is thus penetrated more quickly than with any other percussive free-fall boring system. The salient feature of the Rapid system is the conversion of the rotary motion of the driving shaft into the reciprocating motion of the boring tool by means of a rope or chain instead of by a walking-beam. In this way a large number of blows with a short stroke can be given per minute, the boring being thus effected with the shortest possible stroke, and the quickest possible succession of blows. If the drilling is carried on without flushing, jars are employed, as in the Canadian system, and the length of the stroke is slightly increased. Fig. 84 shows the Rapid boring crane or rig. On the main shaft there is an eccentric sheave, K, having an eccentricity corresponding to the throw of the crank-pin. The chain carrying the drilling tools is attached to the temper-reel, t, passes over the guide-pulley, and thence under the sheave, K, and afterwards over the guide-pulleys, R and R. Through the rotation of the main shaft a vertical motion is imparted to the chain, S, and to the drilling tools suspended from it, and in consequence of the parallel motion of the chain at S and S, the stroke of 352 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. the tools is double the turn of the crank or sheave, K. As the well becomes deeper, the boring chain is payed out by means of the wheel h. The temper- iR İR b S 1 พ เมษ M ས་ FIG. 84.-" RAPID " BORING SYSTEM. reel is self-acting, and, as will be seen, allows of the drilling tools being raised. The driller in charge of the turning lever, it is asserted, can feel what is going on at the bottom of the well, especially the intensity of the blow. As the temper-reel permits the rods or poles to be raised or lowered during the work of boring, the driller can exert the precise amount of pressure by the hand-wheel required to keep the rods or poles always in a state of tension. The method of letting-in and pulling-out the drilling tools, and the arrangement for sand-pumping, are similar to those of the Canadian system. The derrick must be of sufficient height to allow a 10-metre pole being handled, and therefore not less than 16 metres high. In consequence of the bit having so short a stroke, the water used for flushing is always delivered close to the bottom of the hole. In dry boring with the Rapid system a stroke of 180 to 200 milli- metres, with 80 to 90 blows per minute, has been found best, but good work has also been accomplished with a stroke of 320 millimetres, and from 50 to 70 blows per minute. The boring tools may be the same as those used for flush-boring, with the addition of jars; or Canadian tools and drilling poles can be used. The tools usually employed are shown in Plate 25, and the rig in Plate 26. The cores are obtained by means of a chisel-shaped boring crown (see fig. 85), and FIG. 85.-CROWN by the reversal of the flush, the water being delivered down for Core-boring. the bore-hole outside the drilling tools, and rising within the latter. Owing to the percussion of the boring crown the cores break off in varying lengths, sometimes only in thin discs, and are taken up automatically inside the drilling tools by means of the flushing current. Bohrloch. EXPRESS DRILLING SYSTEM. 353 It is obviously essential that the diameter of the cores should be kept smaller than the internal diameter of the hollow drilling rods. K B S' -A H Z W R 66 FIG. 86.-EXPRESS DRILLING GEAR. The Express" method of boring is similar to the Rapid system, but a walking-beam is used which is counterbalanced by means of adjustable buffer- springs. Fig. 86 illustrates the method adopted by Mr. Fauck in the latest form of this system. B is a walking- beam which is supported on a bearing at A. At the end of the walking-beam there is a movable head-pulley, K, carrying the drilling chain or rope, S, which is worked up and down by means of the connecting-rod, Z, attached to the eccentric shaft, W, the eccentricity of which can be regulated as required. By means of the buffer-spring F, and the slipper- out, N, the stroke of the drilling tools can be regulated with precision, and the tools can always be maintained in a state of tension. It is claimed that by this system as many as 250 blows per minute can be given. The cores are obtained in the same way as with the Rapid system. The under- reamer used with this method of drilling is shown in fig. 87, the other tools employed being practically the same as those used with the Rapid system. FIG. 87.- EXPRESS UNDER- The Fauvelle system.-The water-flush method of drilling, which provides for the continuous removal of the detritus from the bore-hole by means of a current of water, instead REAMER. of its periodical extraction with a sand-pump, was invented by Mr. Beart, an Englishman, and the machinery and tools were. designed by a French engineer named Fauvelle. The first well drilled by this. system was at Perpignan, in France. The work was commenced on 1st June 1846, and was completed on the 23rd of the same month. The well, which 23 VOL. I. 354 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. was bored for water, was 170 metres deep. Allowing for three Sundays, and for the circumstance that on six other days no drilling was done, the well was sunk in fourteen working days, which would give an average of a little more than 12 metres per diem. Although the original Fauvelle method is practically no longer employed, all the present water-flush systems are based upon it. The principal objection which an oil-prospector can have to drilling a well with the water-flush system, is that owing to the pressure Space For Pump D C B A E T FIG. 89.-RAKY DERRICK. of water, oil in paying quantities is liable to be passed through without being noticed. There is another objection, namely, that by this method, especially in the hands of careless drillers, it is possible to some extent to flood the oil-bearing formation FIG. 88.- with water. The advocates of the water-flush system claim FAUCK'S WATER-FLUSH. that this is not so, but unless special precautions are taken, the flushing water will find its way into a porous oil sand. It is a well-known fact that in the Baku field the cement employed in shutting-off water in a well has found its way into an adjoining well, and it is within the author's knowledge that the water from a well drilled by the "1 BM เบ Oldman +++ + "RAPID" BOring Rig, BORING RIG. + PLATE 26. N OF RAKY DRILLING SYSTEM. 355 water-flush system percolated into an adjacent bore-hole which was being sunk by the Canadian method, the distance between the two wells being about 30 metres. The free-fall water-flush appliances of Fauck, shown in fig. 88, comprise the boring rods, G, 1½ inch in diameter, the free-fall instrument, F, an enclosing tube, R, with packing rings, S, for preventing escape of the water except through the bit, a falling piece, A, forming part of the instrument, F, and made in one piece, a hollow auger-stem, S₁, made in several pieces, and a bit, T, with orifices for the outflow of water, as indicated by the arrows. In consequence of the considerable weight of the auger-stem, a play of 600 millimetres is found sufficient for the free-fall apparatus, F. When necessary, an under-reamer is placed between the bit and the auger-stem. The Raky System.-The form of derrick usually employed in drilling by the Raky system is shown in fig. 89. k. k m a > d " g 康 ​h 租 ​k Å Å Ä Ä JA JÄ Ä Ä Ä k n a" da." FIG. 90.-RAKY RIG. a" a" FIG. 91.-RAKY RIG. The rig (figs. 90, 91) consists essentially of the frame, a, firmly set up on heavy wooden joists, a', which in turn rest on the timbers, a", corresponding to the mud-sills of the American or Canadian systems. The principal object which this frame has to fulfil is to carry the walking-beam, b, which is of wood, about 20 feet long by 2 feet deep at the centre, tapering to each end, with a uniform thickness of about 14 inches. Firmly strapped to this walking-beam in the manner shown is the trunnion, c, fig. 91, which forms the point about which the beam is free to oscillate. The ends of the trunnion are supported by two bearings, d, carried by the strong iron rods, d', which pass upwards through the two transverse beams, e, f, passing easily through e, but fitting somewhat more closely to the holes through which they pass in the beam, ƒ. These rods terminate in screw-threads, d", which screw into the toothed wheels, g, h, the teeth of which are so cut that they gear in a worm actuated by the hand-wheel, i, with the result that by turning this hand-wheel to the right or left, the walking-beam as a whole can be raised or lowered. Guides, jj, on the frame serve to keep the bearings in line for vertical movement. Between the two transverse beams, e and f, numerous strong spiral steel springs, k, are inserted, and kept in position by means of retaining pins, and it is these springs which form the chief feature of the whole system, for it is evident that owing to them the walking-beam is free to oscillate about a point 356 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. which is not fixed, but which, under certain conditions, is capable of movement in a vertical direction. The number of springs is variable, and care should be taken by those in charge of the drilling to so adjust the number that their combined effect is always at least double that necessary to balance the weight of the tools and rods in use at any given time. As a general rule, the number of springs is between 30 and 40, and they are inserted in equal numbers on each side of the central axis of the rig. The walking-beam also carries a counter-weight, a (fig. 89), which is adjust- able in the usual manner by the addition or removal of iron segments, so that the weight of the tubes, tools, etc., can be compensated for at any time. Motion can be imparted to the walking-beam either by means of a crank and connecting-rod, or by means of a steam-cylinder and direct-acting piston placed beneath the beam. Raky favours the former device, and therefore the frame carries a shaft, A (fig. 89), provided with a crank or eccentric, B, and loose- pulley, C. The connecting-rod, D, forms the connection between the crank and the walking-beam. The throw of the crank is kept very small, so that the stroke of the walking-beam at the end which carries the tools is never more than from 8 to 10 cms., and as a consequence a great number of strokes per minute is permissible. Another feature in connection with the support of the walking-beam is the manner in which it can be easily and rapidly removed when necessary. This is provided for in the following way :-The guides, jj (fig. 91), on the frame are made with openings, j' j", at the top and bottom respectively. When it is required to withdraw the walking-beam, it is either raised or lowered by means of the hand-wheel, i, until the ends of the trunnion are opposite either the upper or lower opening; it can then be displaced horizontally, and the head brought away from its normal position over the centre of the well. The lower transverse beam, e, is rigidly attached to the frame of the rig, and jack-screws, nn (fig. 91), are provided for the purpose of altering the distance. between the two beams, or taking the weight of the upper beam (and every- thing hanging from it), off the springs. As far as the draw-works are concerned, it was formerly the practice to place all the winding arrangements within the frame, as shown in fig. 89. Lukasziewski describes this arrangement as follows:-The axle, A, carries several toothed wheels of different diameters, which can be made to gear with the wheels on the axle E, at each end of which a drum is provided. The rope which is used for winding the tools passes round the pulley, r (to which the swivel for connecting to the rods is attached), over two sheaves in the derrick crown, and down to the draw-works, each end being attached to one of the drums. This permits of easy adaptation to circumstances, for if one of the ends be unfastened and fixed, then only one end is wound up, and the pulley rises half as fast, but with double the lifting power. According to later modifications of the rig, however, the draw-works are confined to a winch placed beside the frame, conveniently under the control of the driller, and provided with the usual clutches for throwing in and out of gear, band-brakes, etc. When the system is used in drilling for oil, the engine provided is of similar type to those employed in other drilling systems. Power is transmitted from the driving-pulley of the engine to a loose pulley on the axle, A, by means of a belt, and a friction clutch is provided for throwing this pulley in and out of gear. Since both the rig and the engine are mounted on wooden blocks without any solid foundation, and the speed of running is high, a device for keeping the RAKY DRILLING SYSTEM. 357 belt tight, such as a friction-pulley actuated by an adjustable weight, as shown at F in fig. 89, is sometimes added. The arrangements for "slipping-out," and supporting the tubes from the walking-beam, are as follows:-The end of the walking-beam over the well carries a pivoted and pierced iron plate, p (fig. 90), on which the clamps which hold the tubes rest. The pivot serves the obvious purpose of preserving the perpendicular position of the tubes during the course of operations. Two forms of "slipping-out" arrangements are shown in figs. 92 and 93. In fig. 92 the lower clamps, a, which support the tubes, consist of two cheeks, which are tightened up by means of the screw spindles, d d, both of which grip the cheeks, but the one with a right-handed and the other with a left-handed thread, so that by means of the link, f, connecting the two handles, h h, as shown by dotted lines, both spindles can be made to screw up the cheeks with one movement. Above this clamp is a second clamp, b, which, when opened (by similar right-handed and left-handed threads and handles, e and g), can be pressed upwards by raising the handle, c, the eccentrics, kk, moving the link, l, being at the same time both actuated. When working the "slipper-out," the ď b k h h b FIGS. 92 and 93.-SLIPPING-OUT DEVICES. clamps, b, are opened and raised to their full height (about 20 cms.); they are then tightened up, and the clamps, a, are loosened, whereupon the weight of the tubes and tools is carried by the eccentrics. The driller, by gradually depres- sing the handle, c, can now lower the rods as fast or as slowly as he pleases, until ultimately the upper clamp, b, rests on the lower, a, when the whole operation is repeated. The spindles, a or e, are extended so as to form handles whereby the tubes can be rotated. Fig. 93 illustrates another form of slipper-out," in which the upper clamps, b, are, on being loosened, automatically raised by means of the spiral springs, h. In other respects the slipper-out is practically the same as described above. The traversers are so arranged that the movement of the upper clamps above the lower is not more than a very few centimetres. When it is required to slip out, the upper clamp is made fast to the tubes, the lower opened, and the whole weight of the tubes and tools is carried by the springs, with the result that the upper clamp, and with it the tubes and tools, descends until it rests on the lower one, when the operation is repeated. The tools and appliances are of the type commonly used for water-flush drill- ing. Jars are not employed. When drilling is to be commenced, the length of the poles is so adjusted that when the walking-beam is at the lowest point of its stroke, the bit is just 358 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. above the bottom of the well. Steam is then turned on, the loose pulley thrown in, and the beam begins to oscillate, but the bit does not yet touch the bottom of the well at any part of the stroke. As, however, the pace increases, the spiral springs come into play, and the point about which the beam oscillates no longer remains stationary. When the number of strokes per minute has increased to about 80 or 100, the length of the stroke added to the amount of vertical movement allowed by the springs causes the bit to sharply strike the well bottom and instantly rebound. As the depth increases, new springs must be added, either by means of a special instrument which compresses the springs and allows them to be inserted, or by raising the upper beam by the jack-screws. The top of the tubes is connected by a rubber hose with a double-acting pump within the derrick, and the water returns between the tubes and the lining of the well; that is to say, right-handed flushing is used. When it becomes necessary to withdraw the tools, the main friction-clutch is thrown out of gear, the rig ceases to work, the draw-rope is let down, the swivel is fastened to the top of the tubes which have been disconnected from the pump, and the draw-works are so manipulated that the weight of the tubes and tools is transferred from the walking-beam to the crown-sheave. The walking-beam is then raised or lowered until the trunnions come opposite an opening in the guides, when by means of the rack and pinion it is withdrawn, the tubes being then pulled out in the usual manner. The special advantages claimed for this system are:- 1. The great speed obtainable, as much as 120 strokes per minute being at times delivered, and with even this speed the bit comes off the ground so quickly that a breakage of the tubes should never occur. 2. The elimination of practically all stuffing-boxes, and the certainty, there- fore, that the flushing-water goes to the bottom of the well without leaking out on the way. 3. Easy perception by the driller, by the "feel" of the tubes, of the progress which the bit is making on the bottom. 4. Avoidance of all temper-screws or drilling-chains, and the consequently easy"slipping-out." 5. Owing to the absence of jars, and the consequent smaller stroke, the work proceeds more quietly, the walls of the well are less damaged, and a greater distance can be drilled without casing. The "Davis-Calyx" drill may be described as a steel-pointed core-drill. Figs. 94 and 95 illustrate the principal features of this system of drilling, fig. 96 the bit or cutter, and fig. 97 the method of gripping a core. A. The bit or cutter. B. The core-barrel. C. The reducing plug. D. The calyx. E. The top of the calyx, the point where the velocity of the flush-water diminishes. F. The hollow drilling rods. G. The grout. H. The annular wedge-shaped space between the core and the cutter. The arrows indicate the direction of the water-current. The bit or cutter consists of a cylindrical metallic shell, the lower end of which is made by a process of gulleting into a series of sharp teeth, which are set in and out alter- nately. The outward set of teeth drill the hole large enough to permit the drilling apparatus to descend freely, and the teeth set inwardly pare down the 359 - DAVIS-CALYX DRILL. FIG. 94. DAVIS-CALYX DRILL. FIG. 95.-DAVIS-CALYX DRILL. 360 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. core to such a diameter as will admit of the body of the cutter passing over it without seizing. The calyx is a long tube, or a series of connected tubes, situated above the core-barrel, to which it is equal in diameter. "" The diamond boring system has been extensively used in sinking wells for water, and in exploring for coal and other minerals; it has also been employed in drilling for oil, but not to any large extent. This method of boring may be classed under the head of what is generally known as the "water-flush system, the action of the drill in this case, however, being one of abrasion. A number of diamonds are set in a steel crown attached to hollow rods which are rotated at varying speeds, according to the nature of the rock to be encountered. A full description of this method of drilling is given by Mr. H. J. Eunson in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers for the year 1883. The diamond drill, while admirably adapted for sinking in hard rock, and for exploratory work, since the core fur- nishes a complete section of the strata passed through, is useless in soft clays, gravel, and shifting sand. The system has been used in Galicia, but does not appear to have given satisfactory results. As much as a year and a half has been occupied in drilling to a depth of 220 metres, and the tendency of the upper part of a highly-inclined stratum to slide on a joint and jam the core, constitutes a serious difficulty. FIG. 96.- CALYX CUTTER. Ꮐ Mr. Nelson Boyd has given an account of the drilling of a well at Polana, by the Aqueous Diamond Boring Company. The power was supplied by a 12-H.P. portable engine, and the crown was driven at the rate of 120 revolutions per minute. The hole was flushed by water forced in at a pressure of 13 atmosphere. About 1.25 cubic metre of water traversed the bore-hole per hour, and as about 75 per cent. of the whole was saved and used again, the actual consumption amounting to from 0-4 to 0.5 cubic metre per hour. At a depth of 200 metres, the drawing of the rods, the removal of the core, and the lowering of the crown again, occupied two hours, and this had to be repeated for every 10 feet bored. The well at Polana was com- menced with a diameter of 9 inches, and was drilled to a depth of 116 feet with the chisel. The water having been shut off at that depth by wrought-iron casing, the boring was continued with the diamond drill. In shale, with 120 revolutions per minute, 0.27 metre was bored in an hour, which, allowing for two hours occupied in removing the core, amounts to 5.90 metres per day. In sandstone, 0.828 metre was bored in an hour, giving 16.5 metres per day, after allowing four hours for removing cores. H FIG. 97.-GRIPPING THE CORE (CALYX SYSTEM). Deep Drilling.-In recent years, chiefly owing to the development of the Boryslaw field, the sinking of deep wells has become general. In the Boryslaw and Tustanowice fields, wells have been drilled to a depth of considerably over 1000 metres having diameters when finished varying from 6 inches to 4 inches. The time occupied in reaching the depth mentioned above has been from one to PUMPING IN GALICIA. 361 three years. The drilling in some instances is extremely difficult, constant delays occurring through the collapsing of casing and the existence, in certain parts of the field, of what is locally known as "growing ground," being in a state of intense lateral compression, to which the perforation affords a slight relief by upward flow of fragmentary material in the hole. In many wells, on account of this, no progress has been made for many months. Pumping. The pumps used in Galicia are from 1 to 2 inches in diameter, and are furnished with double or triple buckets with ball valves. The working barrel is placed at the bottom of the well, and, frequently, 1-inch gas piping is used as the sucker-rod. Canadian pumping rigs are largely used in pumping wells which only furnish a moderate yield. They are of three forms. The first consists of a single transmission-wheel, driven by means of belting from a stationary engine-either a single-cylinder horizontal engine, or what is com- monly known on the Continent as a locomobile (portable engine and boiler). Gas engines and benzine motors are also used for furnishing power. The shaft of the transmission-wheel, which runs in wooden journals, is supported on a stout wooden frame. This shaft is connected to the jerker-wheel by adjustable connecting rods. The jerker-wheel, which is placed horizontally, is of cast iron. and as a rule is cast in two pieces. In the rim of the wheel there are numerous holes, and the rods are attached by means of hooks which fit into these holes. Fig. 98, which is practically a working drawing, illustrates the method of con- struction. The second form, which is more powerful, is constructed on similar lines, but has a double belt-transmission, the engine driving a transmission- wheel, on the shaft of which there is a belt-pulley driving a second transmission- wheel, and this in turn communicating power to the jerker-wheel by means of connecting rods, in the manner already described. A third and still more powerful pumping-rig, which, however, is not in very general use, is provided with two transmission-wheels, on the shaft of which are two belt-pulleys driving two secondary transmission-wheels, and these, by means of connecting- rods, drive the jerker-wheels situated at each end of the rig. This system has been found to be very trustworthy and economical, where the amount of work is sufficient to justify its use. The number of wells which can be effec- tively pumped by one of these rigs, driven by, say, a 20-H.P. engine, naturally depends to a large extent upon the situation and depth of the wells, and the nature of the surface of the ground. In Canada, where the wells are shallow, as many as 150 are pumped by a single installation. In Galicia not more than from 20 to 50 wells are pumped by one rig. The plant which it is necessary to erect on a well which is to be pumped by the jerker system, is extremely simple, and consists of a walking-beam balanced on a strong upright wooden post, keyed into a substantial wooden foundation. To the end of the walking-beam overhanging the well the sucker-rods are attached by means of a hook and a short stirrup. The other end of the beam is connected in the same way to a bell crank, which is coupled by a hook to the jerker line. The method of pumping is as follows:-Assuming that there are two wells connected to the jerker-wheel, one being on the right-hand side and the other on the left, the jerker-wheel in making a quarter of a revolution will pull up the pump-rods of one well, and will lower those of the other. In this way, if the wells are properly attached to the jerker-wheel, but little power will be required to pump a number of wells. It is a common practice, where the wells are situated at a considerable distance from the pumping station, to run a double line of jerker-rods from the jerker-wheel at the pump-rig, to another jerker-wheel to which wells in the vicinity of it can be attached. In this way the use of a long single jerker-line is avoided, and the wells can be more easily coupled to the pump-rig, so as to 362 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. counterbalance one another. The vertical motion is imparted by means of a walking-beam, or by a triangle. The length of stroke in either case is about 18 inches, and the number of strokes per minute is usually about eighteen. It LI is found in practice that if the pump-rig is run at greater speed, the jerker-lines and connections are continually breaking. The jerker-lines which are, as a rule, hung on wooden posts by means of iron hooks, are made of old drilling- poles, wire rope, gas-tubing, hemp rope, or solid iron rods. Boilers.--It is the general practice in Galicia to have a separate boiler for FIG. 98.-PUMPING-RIG, GALICIA. 363 OZOKERITE INDUSTRY. the supply of steam to each well. In Boryslaw, however, where the wells are of great depth, two boilers are employed, and in some cases a central station has been erected for the purpose of providing steam for two or three wells. The boiler in ordinary use is portable and of the locomotive type, but the boilers which have been recently erected for supplying steam to the drilling engines at two or more wells are of the fire-tube or under-fired type. The fuel employed is either wood, coal, or liquid fuel, and recently, owing to the low price of oil, the use of liquid fuel for generating steam has become more general. The Ozokerite Industry. The manner in which ozokerite occurs in Galicia, and the nature of the geological formation, have been already described. In mining the ozokerite, a circular well, 3 metres in diameter, was formerly sunk through the overlying claybeds to the water level in the gravel, at a depth of from 14 to 16 metres. A shaft 1.3 metre square was then built up of balks of timber jointed together, and the space between it and the circular shaft was filled in with clay. The shaft was then continued by digging, with constant One of timbering, until progress was arrested by water or inflammable gas. the veins of ozokerite which had been penetrated by the shaft was then opened up and followed by means of a timbered gallery. In some cases the soft ozokerite suddenly burst into the workings and overwhelmed the miners, and cases are recorded of men having been raised from the bottom of the shaft to the surface by such an outburst. The horizontal galleries were not carried farther than about 5 metres from the shaft, partly on account of the risks already alluded to, and partly because of the contiguity of other properties. The disused galleries were sometimes filled up, but were usually allowed to fall in, and it was often found that they became recharged to some extent with ozokerite, when they were again worked. Fig. 99 shows the primitive system of mining which was at one time adopted by the small proprietors. The shed, A, was boarded up at the sides, and a ventilator for escape of the gases issuing from the mine was provided in the roof. (The boarding of the sides of the shed is omitted in the figure.) The lower portion, B, of the figure indicates the method of timbering and working in the galleries. Over the mouth of the shaft was fixed a windlass carrying a wire rope for raising the miners and mineral. The descent was made by placing one foot in the bucket, and using the other foot to prevent striking against the sides of the shaft, which was never vertical, on account of the subsidence and lateral movement of the earth. The miner wore a safety belt connected by a rope to a windlass, b, and carried a safety-lamp of the Mueseler or other type, on account of the inflammability of the gases in the mine. He also had access in the gallery to a cord, m, communicating with a signal bell, d, so that he could summon assistance, and be drawn up. The ventilation was effected by a rotary blower, c, turned by a woman, and connected with a pipe, l. Separating Ozokerite from the Matrix.-Two products were obtained from the mines—viz., nearly pure ozokerite in fragments, and earth containing much ozokerite. The yield of ozokerite in the inner field amounted to about 5 per cent. of the mineral mined. The pieces of nearly pure ozokerite were merely melted, but the remainder was subjected consecutively to hand-picking or sorting, washing with cold water, washing with hot water, and treatment with benzine and steam. All the larger fragments of ozokerite were sorted from the earthy matter by hand-picking by women, who worked at the pit- mouth, and effected the separation with the aid of small mattocks. The earth, which still contained from 8 to 10 per cent. of ozokerite, was then thrown into tubs of cold water, and stirred with shovels, the ozokerite, which floated, being skimmed off with sieves. The earth was next stirred up in boiling water, and 364 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. the bulk of the ozokerite in it rose to the surface as a thick, black, oily scum, which was removed at intervals. The amount of ozokerite present having thus been reduced from 4 or 5 per cent. to about 1 or 11 per cent., the earth was finally treated with benzine, this process, and the operation of purifying crude ozokerite, being described in Section VI. A B FIG. 99.-OLD SYSTEM OF OZOKERITE MINING IN GALICIA. Conditions and Cost of Working.-According to Heurteau, there were, in 1871, 10,000 miners engaged in the ozokerite industry, of whom 2000 were underground workers. Among these there were from 200 to 300 accidents per year, most being fatal. In some years there are said to have been as many as 1000 deaths from accident. Rateau,¹ writing in 1886, asserted that the admitted annual death-rate, due to accidents, ranged from 7 to 15 per 1000 (1.88 per 1000 being the rate in "ordinary mining "), but he considered that the rate was understated. A staff of officials, consisting of an inspector, a cashier, a surveyor, three overlookers, and six or eight police agents, was employed to enforce a code of regulations which had been passed to control the underground working, the cost of this supervision being met by a tax, levied on the owners, of two florins for each shaft. For the working of each shaft, two miners, two labourers, and one woman 1 Ann. d. Mines, sér. 8, xi, 147 et seq. OZOKERITE INDUSTRY. 365 were required. The majority of the operatives were of low class, and worked on the basis of a daily contract. The underground miners received 0-75 to 1.25 florin daily, while those employed above ground earned about 0.6 florin. The annual cost of this labour per shaft was 1000 to 1500 florins, and this, with other charges, brought up the total working expenses per shaft to 3500 to 4000 florins.1 Taking the average produce of each shaft at 15 to 18 tons, the average cost of the ozokerite would be from 16 to 18 florins per 100 kilos. (about 220 lbs.). Presumably this was the cost of production in the "inner" field. The sinking of the shaft cost about 4 florins the metre for the upper part, but in the dislocated beds below, where the ozokerite was met with, the cost of sinking was from 5 to 10 florins the metre run, without reckoning the cost of pumping out the water. The driving of the galleries was paid for at the rate of 7.50 to 9 florins per metre run. The shafts and galleries were, however, more commonly excavated by contract, the price per metre for the former, down to a depth of 130 metres, being from 20 to 25 florins, and for the latter 5 to 8 florins, both without timbering. This brought the cost of a shaft of 100 metres, inclusive of timbering, to 2000-4000 florins, or for a shaft of 200 to 225 metres, 10,000-12,500 florins. It is stated that the expenses of sinking and working in 1892 were as follows:- The cost of sinking shafts to various depths, including timbering, etc., was— 100 metres, 150 200 240 وو "" >> • 2,240 florins. 4,715 8,765 12,765 " The cost of driving levels 1.60 metre high by 1 metre wide, including timbering, was about 15 florins per metre in hard ground, but only from 6 to 7 florins per metre when the levels were in ozokerite-marl. TABLE LXIV.-COST OF WORKING ONE SHAFT PER DAY OF TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. Six miners at 1 florin, 6.0 florins. Eight surfacemen at 60 kreutzers, 4.8 Four ventilators at 5 kreutzers, 2.0 >> One foreman at 1 florin, 1.0 • >> Timber, stores, oil, rope, etc., 3.2 • Carting, 0.2 Washing, picking, melting, 0.5 Wear and tear, and sundries, 0.3 Taxes and management, 0.5 >> Total, 18.5 The method of raising the ozokerite described above has been superseded by the construction of shafts of large diameter and the provision of the usual appliances of a mine, but this account (which appeared in the earlier editions) is retained as being of historical interest. GERMANY. 2 The Fauvelle system of drilling was largely employed in the development of the Pechelbronn (Elsass) property. According to M. Pochon, petroleum was in the first instance obtained in the Pechelbronn district by subjecting the 1 Babu, Ann. d. Mines, sér. 8, xiv, 162 et seq. (1888). 2 Bull. Soc. Industrie Minerale, sér. 3, vii, 112 (1893). 366 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. petroliferous sand to treatment with boiling water, the product being used as cart-grease. The oil-bearing sand was mined by sinking shafts and driving galleries, and it was found that the density of the oil was in inverse proportion to the depth of the shafts, while the percentage of oil present increased with the distance from the surface. In excavating a gallery in one of the deeper wells in 1883, a sudden rush of gas occurred, and shortly afterwards the gallery was flooded with oil of specific gravity 0.885. This occurrence led to the introduction of drilling, and the first two wells yielded respectively 14,000 and 8000 litres of oil daily. In Elsass the Canadian system and the Fauck system have been employed, the wells in some instances having been commenced on the water-flush system. In the Hanoverian oil-fields the Canadian and Fauvelle systems have been used, and an arrangement for water-flush boring, devised by Olaf Terp, has also been tried. THE ORGANISATION OF PETROLEUM FIELDS. Davson's System.-It is claimed for this system that it systematises field operations generally, whether these are on a small or an extensive scale; on a small scale by aggregating under one roof the various departments necessary to meet drilling requirements, which are at the present time housed in separate sheds or buildings; on an extensive scale by selecting positions for these centralised buildings, in the light of the indications afforded by a geological survey, in order that the field operations may be most economically carried out. Plate 26A shows the design of such a building, based on a scheme evolved and carried out in a tropical country on a small scale, where economy was the chief consideration. The building was erected in rough timbering, corrugated iron sheets, and wire mesh, but the materials employed can be varied to suit local conditions, and the design, comprising, as it does, the minimum requirements, may be standardised for adoption in any locality. Supplementary requirements, such as those of electric-lighting and power plants, machine shop, etc., can be met by merely extending the roofs over the area indicated on the plan. A study of this plan will show that the various departments are arranged for expeditious handling and storage of materials. The offices are placed over a central roadway, and a double narrow staircase is provided at the end of the general office, as essential to the orderly payment of large gangs of men. The forge, vices, etc., are arranged in accessible positions between door- ways, to admit of long bars receiving attention throughout their length. A drilling machine is also conveniently situated near another opening, for perfor- ating casing, etc. The casing is placed on racks suitably designed to permit of attention to the threads, and can be easily handled without interfering with other work. The main store, with its system of shelves and pigeon-holes, provides for the rapid assortment of goods not allocated to the smithy or the oil stores, but all stores, etc., on their arrival are first placed in the covered general store-yard which acts as a depository for this purpose. A glance at the plan will show that when the scheme is carried out in a comprehensive manner, the various centres are connected with each other, and with the coast, by roads or railways, whilst branch pipe-lines transport the oil to the main artery leading to the coast, where a refinery may be situated, and where there may also be large stores and repair shops, which cannot be standardised, but must be designed to meet the special conditions. B 田田 ​田田 ​Section C. C. 田​內​田 ​JUMNA! Section A.A. Г t · Timber Store Yard to give the necessary space between machine shop & smithy AL To Well Sites etc. } 14" Gasing 5 12" Casing C General Store Yard for Packing Cases & to receive Goods & Machinery I Forge Bellows Bench Bench Anvil Vice Carpenters Shop Cooling Tank Pipe } Vice Bench Chief Bench Carpen -ter. Smith Shop Smithy Store Drilling machine Store keeper Shelves Store Water Storage Shelves Covered Way Turn Table to Railway System 6" Casing 6" Casing Main Yard for Carts etc. B To Well Sites etc. Plan of Ground Floor Pipe Casings Casing Front Elevation 田 ​LLA LU U N OF Pipe Lines thus Railway Anticlines " Located Areas thus Well Sites "" Centralised Buildings- F Section B. B. DESIGN FOR STANDARDISING OIL FIELD BUILDINGS. PLATE 26A. Oil Store etc. A 10" Casing to Well Sites etc. 8" Casing 8' Casing Casing Casing H GENERAL REMARKS. 367 CONCLUDING REMARKS. This section may appropriately be brought to a conclusion with a few general remarks. The two systems of drilling for petroleum with which by far the largest amount of work has been, and is being, done, are the American or rope system, and the Canadian or pole system. The former is not only employed in the United States, but is in use in Upper Burma, Java, Rumania, and elsewhere. The latter was introduced by Canadians into Galicia, as already described, and, with certain modifications, has hitherto been found to be the best for that country. The Russian system of drilling is a free-fall system with square iron rods, the fall being about 4 feet, but owing to the large diameter of the wells, the appliances differ from those employed else- where. Drilling experts are not agreed as to the relative merits of the two systems under specified conditions, but this may arise largely from the circum- stance that few drillers have had practical experience of both systems. It is asserted by advocates of the Canadian system that in some formations the comparatively rigid connection afforded by the rods is a great advantage. On the other hand, the cable system is undeniably far more expeditious, especially in deep drilling. The water-flush percussion drilling system can be success- fully employed where the strata are soft, and in such cases is inexpensive and rapid, but it is unsuitable for use in hard rock. The American rotary system, described on pp. 310-315, has made great progress within recent years, and in strata to which it is suited it is far more rapid in its action than any other. Probably the drilling system of the future will be a combination of the rotary and percussion methods. PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH. UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 3 9015 06712 5842