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the institute of industrial. Research :
and ' ' ' .
HENRY A. GARDNER, Asst. Drrectos
tNoHARGE Division of Paint technology,
the isstitute of industrial Researcs . . .
* * *
was HINGTo N
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WASHINGTON, D. C.
PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC.
1911
PREFACE
OR a number of years the writers
have been making a study of indus-
trial problems and have been publishing
the information which they have ac-
Quired, regarding the value of various
structural materials, for the benefit of
consumers as well as producers. The
Institute of Industrial Research has re-
ceived so many requests recently for
information in regard to just what paints
should be selected for the protection and
decoration of houses and other buildings
that it has seemed best to sum up the
Subject in the form of a special pamphlet
or bulletin. It is only after years of
investigation work carried on by the
authors, both separately and in co-opera-
tion, that any review of the work has
Seemed possible, for only recently have
the results of tests carried on in a num-
ber of different localities seemed to jus-
tify a definite opinion in regard to the
best selection of exterior paints. No
attack on any one paint material is here
included, but the value of each has been
carefully weighed, and the atterimpt is
3
made to discuss them in the light of ex-
perience and knowledge. It is the au-
thors' intention in this bulletin to put
into the hands of architects and paint-
users who may not be thoroughly famil-
iar with the technical properties of paint
materials, information which will enable
them to make a proper and intelligent
selection of paints for the preservation
and decoration of the exterior of wooden
buildings, -
The Preservation of the Exterior of
Wooden Buildings
Lumber and its Relation to Paints:
The proper choice and treatment of lum-
ber is one of the most important prob-
lems which the builder as well as the
painter has to face. When about to build
a dwelling, barn, or other structure made
principally of wood, the question is sure
to arise in regard to what variety to se–
lect So as to get the maximum, service
and money value. The locality in which
the structure is to be built 1must often
have a bearing upon this question. While
it is true that the painting of each type
of wood demands the special considera-
tion of the painter, it is also true that
the study of paints for wood protection
points toward the production of a paint
that will give satisfactory results under
all conditions and on all grades. It is
the writers' opinion that a paint may be
made that will be perfectly well suited
for the preservation of every species of
Wood, provided the paint is properly
treated in the hands of the skillful and
intelligent painter, who can produce last-
ing results on almost every type, by
varying the proportion of thinners and
oil in the various coats. The painter
who uses the same paint on Soft pine,
5
and again on hard pine, without making
a Special study of how to reduce the
priming coat for the hard pine, will be
likely to get inferior results on the latter.
In case of failure, the natural impulse is
Often to place the blame upon the paint,
whereas the real responsibility may rest
upon the painter's lack of knowledge.
Signs of . Paint Failure: Those who
are responsible for the care and mainte-
nance of property are familiar with the
condition of surface presented by almost
all wooden buildings or structures which
have been improperly painted with infe-
rior paints. “Chalking” or “flouring”
are terms used to describe the condition
of a paint surface which has deterio-
rated within the paint film. The forma-
tion of minute fissures, generally spoken
of as “checking,” as well as the effects
best described as cracking, Scaling, peel-
ing, and blistering, are other signs of
failure which cause paint coatings to
present an unsightly appearance, and
which point inevitably either to the use
of improperly made paints or to im-
proper application. The cause of these
conditions is not difficult to understand
when even a brief study of the character
of the materials entering into the com-
position of a paint has been made. It
NoTE.—For a more detailed account of the
lumber question, see “Modern Lumber as a
Problem for the Painter,” read by John Dewar,
at the Convention of Master House Painters’
and Decorators’ Association of Pennsylvania,
January, 1911, Pittsburg, Pa.
6
BLISTERING-Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly

Made Paint (magnified view).
CHALKING-Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly
Made Paint (magnified view).

-- -
- -
- - - - - ---
… - - º -- --- --- - -
- - - -- -- - - - -
º - - º - - º º ſº - º
. º - - - - º - - º
- --- Iſ "._ººſºº" [. ------
CHECKING-Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly

Made Paint (magnified view).
CRACKING-Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly
Made Paint (magnified view).

SCALING-Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly

Made Paint (magnified view).
GENERAL DISINTEGRATION.—Type of Decay Ex-
hibited by Improperly Made Paint (magnified view).

is, however, a fortunate circumstance
that the proper admixture of different
types of pigments enables us to correct
the strong tendency exhibited by special
pigments to rapidly deteriorate in an oil
film. This point will be more fully dis-
cussed in a later paragraph.
Requisites of a Good Paint: Progress-
ive manufacturers are aiming to produce
a paint which will show, under the
widest range of conditions, good hiding
power, adhesiveness, freedom from in-
ternal strains, permanency of color, rela-
tively high imperviousness to moisture,
sufficient elasticity to prevent scaling or
cracking when subjected to expansion
or contraction, and freedom from the
chemical action which results in deep
checking or excessive chalking. Such a
product as this cannot be attained, in
the writers’ opinion, by the use of any
one pigment in linseed oil. In order to
meet all the demands as stated above,
there should be in an economical and
durable paint a proper percentage of the
various pigments which, united, will tend
to correct each other's faults, and thus
produce a durable paint coating of maxi-
mun efficiency.
The Composition of Paints: As is well
lºnown, a paint is a mixture of One or
more pigments and a vehicle which acts
the part of the spreading and binding
medium. Up to the present time the
vehicle portion of paints has generally
been made of linseed oil, admixed with
some volatile thinner, such as turpentine.
I3
The subject of oils and paint vehicles
will be discussed more fully later on.
Physical Properties of Pigments: The
pigment portion of a paint for use on
barns and farm buildings may, if de-
sired, be composed of properly selected
iron oxides or other colored pigments,
even containing in some cases a moder-
ately high percentage of silica, clay, or
other inert materials, and give perfectly
satisfactory results. For the preserva-
tion and decoration of dwellings, how-
ever, the pigment portion of paints is
generally made as a whole or in part of
the more expensive white pigments, such
as white lead and zinc oxide. The rela-
tive values and properties of these white
base pigments will now be taken up.
White Leads: White lead, either of
the corroded or sublimed type, is per-
haps the most generally used of all the
white pigments as a paint base. Cor-
roded white lead is a basic carbonate of
lead, while sublimed white lead is a basic
sulphate of the same metal. Both of
these types are white, and admirably
adapted as painting materials. They
take relatively the same amount of oil
and spread easily, producing paint films
which are highly opaque and which,
therefore, hide efficiently the surface
upon which they are placed. Sublimed
white lead is a relatively finer pigment
than corroded white lead, and seems to
show a tendency to chalk to a greater
extent upon exposure to the weather.
Corroded white lead is more alkaline,
however, than sublimed white lead, and
I4
when used alone with linseed oil gen-
erally shows a tendency to chalk to a
considerable extent in a short time and
to show deep checking, thus permitting
the admission of moisture. The alkaline
nature of this pigment produces con-
siderable action upon certain tinting
colors and results in fading or darken-
ing, when mixed with delicate greens or
blues.
The use of white lead has been con-
demned in some parts of this country,
as well as abroad, because of its alleged
poisonous properties. While it is true
that lead poisoning may occasionally
occur in some factories where the work-
man and his conditions are not properly
Safeguarded, it is, nevertheless, a fact
that lead poisoning very seldom occurs
among painters of experience and cleanly
habits. Carelessness in mixing white
lead is, fortunately, a practice almost
obsolete among modern painters. The
use of paints already ground in oil by
means of machinery to a pasty condition,
allowing easy working and reducing,
obviates the danger of lead poisoning
from any such cause as this, even though
the percentage of lead in such paints is
in preponderance. Recent efforts that
bave been made by the legislatures of
certain States to brand lead paints as
poisonous are not only unnecessary, but
show a complete ignorance of the prob-
lenn.
Zinc Pigments: Another pigment which
has proved itself of great value to the
I5
painter is zinc oxide. The use of this
pigment may be said to have almost
revolutionized the paint industry of the
World, and its increased consumption
during the last ten years is sufficient evi-
dence of its value as a painting material.
Zinc oxide is produced by oxidation and
Sublimation of zinc ores and is not only
extremely fine, but of great whiteness.
It has good hiding power, although not
quite So great as that shown by the white
leads. It tends to produce a glossy Sur-
face, making it especially valuable for
use on interior work and in enamels.
When used alone it has the effect of
hardening the oil film in which it is en-
Veloped, and upon long exposure causes
cracking and Scaling. However, when
the sublimed or corroded white leads are
properly combined with zinc oxide, a
more durable surface is produced, the
shortcomings of each pigment being
overbalanced by the good properties of
the other. The proper combining prop-
erties of zinc oxide with white lead may
be said to wary between 20 to 55 per cent
of zinc oxide for paints designed for ex-
terior use. In the opinion of the authors,
lead and zinc pigments in the above per-
centage, properly blended and ground,
make paints of far better wearing value
than can be produced with either white
lead or zinc oxide used alone.
Zinc Lead; Zinc lead, a pigment Sub-
limed from mixed lead and zinc ores,
and containing about equal proportions
of zinc oxide and lead sulphate inti-
I6
mately combined, as well as leaded zinc,
a product similarly produced, but with
the zinc oxide running about 75 per cent,
are white base pigments of value, which
are used to a considerable extent. They
are generally slightly off color, however,
and are therefore used most largely in
paints which are to be tinted in various
colors.
Lithopone: Lithopone, a pigment pro-
duced by precipitation, and consisting of
zinc sulphide and barium sulphate, is of
great value in the manufacture of inte-
rior paints. On account of its liability
to darken and disintegrate, however, it
is seldom used on exterior work, al-
though recent tests have shown that
when used in combination with zinc
oxide and whiting, it gives very promis-
ing results.
Crystalline. Pigments and Their Use:
Barytes (barium sulphate), silex (silica),
whiting (calcium carbonate), gypsum
(calcium sulphate), asbestine (silicate of
magnesia), and china clay (silicate of
alumina) are white crystalline pigments
which, when ground in oil, become trans-
parent. All of these pigments possess
the property of strengthening a paint film
made of white lead and zinc oxide, and
often increase the durability of Such a
paint. Barytes, silica, and china clay are
especially valuable for this purpose. AS-
bestine, because of its needle-like struc-
ture and low gravity, prevents settling
and acts as a reinforcer of paint films.
Whiting or calcium carbonate should be
I7
*
used when zinc oxide is in excess in a
paint, So that the hardness of the paint
may be overcome.
A white paint must be possessed of
sufficient opacity to efficiently hide the
Surface upon which it is placed, when
three coats are applied for new work or
two coats for repainting work. Mixtures
of the white leads and zinc oxide, with
the latter pigment running not over 55
per cent, will easily produce such a
result and wear well. It is generally
deemed advisable, however, by most
manufacturers to take advantage of the
excessive opacity of such mixtures,
which allows the introduction of moder-
ate percentages of those inert pigments
which give greater strength and other
desirable features to a paint. The per-
centage of natural crystalline inert pig-
ments to add to a white paint made of
lead and zinc must, however, be moder-
ate and insufficient to detract materially
from the hiding power of the paint.*
* Pigments such as silica, barytes, china clay,
and asbestine are thoroughly inert. Recent in-
vestigations have proved that they accelerate
the drying of linseed oil, but this is not due to
any chemical action they exert, but rather to
their physical action in distributing the mass of
oil in which they are ground, and thus allow-
ing a greater surface to be exposed to the
oxygen of the air.
It is also possible that some of the inert pig-
ments may stimulate oxidation by catalytic or
contact action, although they are not chemi-
cally active in themselves.
IS
*-
White-Paint Formulas: From these
conclusions, which have come from wide
experience in the testing of paints under
actual Service conditions, there can be
recommended to the buyer of paints and
to the manufacturer and master painter
those machine-mixed paints in white,
made by reputable manufacturers, the
composition of which will show a mix-
ture of white lead and zinc oxide, with
the latter pigment within limits of be-
tween 15 to 55 per cent, and especially
the same mixtures reinforced with the
moderate percentage of crystalline inert
pigments referred to above.
Tinted paints possess greater hiding
power than white paints, and the above
proportions would be somewhat changed
for a tinted paint containing any per-
centage of coloring material. Tinted
paints are, moreover, far more service-
able than white paints, as will be shown
later.
Mill vs. Paddle: The mixtures under
consideration should be ground in linseed
oil by the manufacturer, through stone
or steel mills, to a very fine condition,
as it is only through proper grinding that
the pigments can be properly blended.
'The mixing of paint by hand is, fortu-
nately, to a large extent a thing of the
past. The uneven lumping of hand-
mixed paints is often the cause of their
failure. Such ancient and crude practice
should be avoided by every painter, for
it is more economical to obtain semi-
paste paints, properly ground by ma-
IQ -
chinery, to such a condition that they
may be easily broken up and tempered.
Such paints may be reduced to the proper
consistency with oil and volatile thinner
for application to any kind of wood.
In the opinion of the writers, a ma–
jority of the paints sold by reputable
dealers and made by reputable manufac-
turers in this country are not only made
from the best linseed oil and highest-
grade pigments obtainable, but are put
up in a form ready for the painter to
thin down with full oil or turpentine re-
ductions, either for priming work or to
be used without reductions for finishing
coats. The large metropolitan painter
who wishes to make his own tints and
shades may, however, prefer to have his
mixed pigment paint ground by the
manufacturer in heavy paste form for
certain purposes.
Results of Field Tests: A careful
analysis of the results of field tests which
have been carried on in different parts
of the country would be far too volumi-
nous for insertion in this bulletin. The
official findings of special committees of
inspection have already been published
in special reports. Whereas there may
still remain ground for some difference
of opinion in regard to the interpretation
of the results obtained on the various
test fences, there can be no doubt that
considerable information of the highest
value has been yielded, both to the pro-
ducers and consumers of paints. One of
the principal results obtained from these
2O
tests has led to the opinion expressed
above by the writers, that better results
can be obtained by a proper mixture of
Selected pigments than by the use of any
One pigment in linseed oil. This conclu-
Sion has also been reached by engineers
Of the United States navy, and, as a re-
sult, the specifications of the Bureau of
Yards and Docks for paints made of
straight white lead and oil have recently
been changed to call for white lead com-
bined with upwards of 50 per cent of
zinc oxide. Many engineers and master
painters have interpreted the results of
the tests in the same way, and the atten-
tion of the authors has been called to a
number of opinions which show that the
tendency of demand among those who
are properly informed is for a high-grade
combination type of paint rather than
for any Single pigment paint.
Color: The selection of the color for
a dwelling or other structure is a matter
that depends largely upon the good judg-
ment and taste of the owner, combined
with the advice of the painter. One
point, however, should be impressed
upon the mind of both, namely, that
PRACTICAI,I,\ AI,I, SIIADES OR 'l'INT'S MADE
UPON A GOOD WITITE I’AIN'T BASE,
THROUGH THE USE OF PERMAN ENT TIN 'I'-
ING COLORS, WILL, BETTER WITHSTAND
EXPOSURI. 'I'O 'I’III. ATMOS Pl:IERE TITAN
THE WHITE BASE USED ALONE. Owing
to the cheerful effect produced by the
use of white paint on dwellings, a very
large quantity of white will continue to
2I
be used. If these white paints are de-
signed in line with the suggestions
brought out above—that is to say, if the
white lead bases are properly reinforced
with zinc oxide and other pigmentary
materials—better results will undoubt-
edly be obtained, as far as appearance
and durability is concerned, than if white
lead had been used alone. The consumer
should remember, however, that more
durable results will be obtained by the
use of tinted paints.
Reductions and Thinners: Turpentine,
with its Sweet odor, high solvent action,
and Wonderful oxidizing value, has al-
ways taken first place among the volatile
liquids used for thinning paints. Wood
turpentines, produced from the steam
distillation of fine - cut fat pinewood
or from the destructive distillation of
Stumpage and Sawdust, have been refined
in Some cases, by elimination of odor and
toxic effects, to such purity that they are
equally as good as the purest grades of
gum turpentine, and their use is bound
to increase in the paint industry.
The painter and manufacturer have
come to understand that certain grades
of asphaltunn and paraffine distillates are
equally as satisfactory as turpentine for
use in paints for exterior purposes.
Those volatile oils which are distilled
from crude oil with either a paraffine or
asphaltunn base and possessed of boiling
point, flash point, color, and evaporative
value approximating similar constants
of turpentine, are excellently suited to
- 22
partly, and in Some cases wholly, replace
turpentine in exterior paints. A little
additional drier added to paints thinned
with these materials will cause oxidation
to take place in the proper time.
Prominent master painters * h a ve
shown that benzol, a product obtained
from the distillation of coal tar, differing
from benzine, a product obtained from
the distillation of petroleum, is a valu-
able thinner to use in the reduction of
paints for the priming of resinous lum-
ber such as cypress and yellow pitch
pine. The penetrating and solvent value
of benzol is high, and it often furnishes
a unison between paint and wood that
is a prime foundation to subsequent
coatings, preventing the usual Scaling
and sap exudations, which often appear
on a painted surface. Because of the
great solvent action of benzol, however,
this material should never be used in the
second and third coatings. These facts
will doubtless interest the Southern
painter, who has so much wood of a
refractory nature to paint.
Oils: The increasing cost of linseed
oil has raised the interesting question as
to whether or not it is good practice to
use an admixture of other oils in Con-
nection with it, in high-grade paint Coat-
ings. Strong differences of opinion will
probably be found in regard to this ques-
tion, and undoubtedly further investiga-
tion work is necessary in order to decide
* Dewar, Titzel et al.
23
it. A number of different oils have been
proposed for the purpose, of which, per-
haps, SOya-bean oil is the one which has
been most prominently discussed. No
definite formulas, however, should be
recommended until the results of investi-
gations which are now being carried on
are in hand. A systematic series of test
panels is now being erected in Washing-
ton, D. C., on the grounds of The Insti-
tute of Industrial Research, which are
designed to gather data covering just this
point.
The flax crop conditions have been
most discouraging during the past two
years, and the natural shortage of Seed
has caused a rise in the price of linseed
oil, which has necessitated a rise in the
price of paint. The added protection to
be secured, however, through the fre-
quent application of paint far outweighs
any increased cost which has been caused
by the rise in price of the raw commodi-
ties entering into the composition of
paint. º
24
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