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STATE PLANNING BOARD
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commonwealth of Pennsylvania

















PRELIMINARY REPORT
PENNSYLVANIA
STATE PLANNING BOARD
TO THE HON. GIFFORD PINCHOT
GOVERNOR
OF THE COMMONWEALTH
AND TO
THE NATIONAL RESOURCES BOARD
COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA
HARRISBURG PENNSYLVANIA
DECEMBER 1934

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NATIONAL RESOURCES BOARD
Harold L. Ickes, Chairman
Secretary of the Interior
Frederic A. Delano, Vice Chairman
George H. Dern Henry A. Wallace
Daniel C. Roper Francis Perkins
Harry L. Hopkins
Charles E. Merriman Wesley C. Mitchell
Charles W. Eliot, 2nd
Executive Officer
Alexander Fleisher - Robert Whitten
Consultants for Pennsylvania

| The National Resources Board is not responsible for the
opinions, conclusions or recommendations of the Consultants
or the State Planning Board as expressed in this report •
PENNSYLVANIA STATE PLANNING BOARD
Lewis E. Staley, Chairman
Eric He Biddle
Charlotte E. Carr
John W. Edelman
Donald Guthrie, M.D.
Alice F. Liveright
Edward B. Logan
James N. Rule
Philip Sterling
Alexander Fleisher, Consultant-Director
Staff
F. A. Pitkin, Administrative Assistant
J. K. Barnes
Catherine Bauer
Homer F. Carey
Agnes J. Driver
Wºme D. Gelloway
Editorial
Sydney I. Snow
Edmund Ce Taylor
Me Hernaiz Becerra
Secretarial
Ruth E. Allen
Helen P. Houdeshel
Research and Technical
A. S. Houchin
Leonard J. Grumet
L. Z. Holcombe
Armand Ge Keller
Madaline Kinter
Drafting
Robert Keiser
George M. Greene
Me D. Johnston
John He Richey
G. W. Sollenberger
Victor F. LeCoq
F. J. Mulvilhill
William K. Ragan
Horace B. Smith
Henry Wan Walzah
Sociographers
Philip Ragan
Allen Decker
Fe Raudenbush
Clerical
Harry C. Potter
Robert F. Hartman
Agnes Tracy
ii
650bernor'g effice
HARRISBURG
THE GOVERNOR
December 31, 1934.
To the Honorable Harold L. Ickes,
Chairman, National Resources Board,
Washington, D. C.
Dear Mr. Sebretary:
I have the honor to transmit here-
With the preliminary report of the State Planning Board
of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, appointed by me
in accordance with Circular Letter No. 5, of the
National Planning Board.
I submit this report to you in conformity
with my letter of September 21, 1934, in which I agreed
to submit a preliminary report of the State Planning
Board.


iii
To His Excellency,
The Hon. Gifford Pinchot,
Governor of Pennsylvania,
Harrisburg, Pa.
Sir :
The State Planning Board, appointed by you last
Summer in agreement with the National Resources Board, here-
with presents its preliminary report.
The findings and recommendations are submitted
as the basis for planning a coordinated and adjusted eco-
nomic program for Pennsylvania and as the groundwork for this.
State's participation in National and Regional Planning,
The Board has cooperated fully with the National
Resources Board appointed by President Roosevelt, and has
borne in mind the importance of correlating State and Nation-
al programs. *
Respectfully submitted,
LEWIS E. STALEY
CHAIRMAN

iv.
FOREWORD
President Roosevelt, in July, l033, appointed a National
Planning Board in the Public Works Administration. This was
merged with the National Resources Board on June 30, 1934. The
purpose of the latter board, according to the Executive Order
creating it, was "to prepare and present to the President a
program and plan of procedure dealing with the physical, social,
governmental and economic aspects of public policies for the
development and use of land, water and other National resources
and such subjects as may from time to time be referred to it
by the President."
Planning for the needs of a people is by no means a new
movement. Its desirability has long been recognized. In
the United States the movement has been thought of most often
as town planning with adequate facilities for housing, trans-
portation, recreation, zoning, or as metropolitan area planning
in which contiguous, economically interdependent communities
are defined by such things as the extent of free delivery from
centrally situated stores, as distinct from political boun-
daries •
The Philadelphia-Tri-State Regional Plan, the Regional
Plan for New York and the planning for Allegheny County are
admirable examples of the latter. Their purpose is to provide
a broad framework to which all future detailed plans of the
various communities can be made to conform and, to a certain
extent, be adapted to state-wide purposes.
V
The natural next steps were National and State planning.
But National planning in the United States, if it is to be
successful, must be a cooperative effort. The action of the
State and of the National government are mutually inter-
dependent.
The National Board, therefore, undertook to encourage the
establishment of state planning boards by offering to supply to
state boards for a limited period the services of competent
consultants. As a result, planning boards have been set up in
4l states. In four of these, the state boards have been
authorized by their legislatures to continue their work.
Similar action is expected within the next few months in
others.
The State Planning Board for Pennsylvania was appointed
on July 23, 1934, by Governor Pinchot.
The task of the Board was to lay the foundation for a
sound State plan, one that would be, insofar as is humanly
practicable, directive - a set task - not a mere forecast. In
this report will be found many facts and conclusions which not
only demonstrate the need for a State plan but which can form
the basis for one.
Some of the fundamental problems before the Commonwealth
include the location and trends of population, the wealth of
the State and the buying power of its people, housing, work-
ing conditions, unemployment, mineral and water resources,
competitive situations faced by such important industries as
yi
coal and iron, changing agriculture, transportation, education,
social security and welfare.
In studying these subjects, the Board has considered, in
general, a program looking ten years into the future.
A number of facts stand out . On these are based the main
recommendations submitted by the Board. The supporting data
will be found in the main body of the Report.
The various departments of the State government have done
a vast amount of planning, each in its own field. They should
continue to do so. None, however, has drafted a comprehensive
plan embracing the purposes and needs of all the others in re-
lation to itself.
Consequently, one of the recommendations contained in this
Report is for a State Planning Secretary with the same official
status in relation to the Chief Executive as is now the case
of the Budget Secretary, and a permanent board of outstanding
citizens and department heads,
The Planning Secretary would supervise State planning as
the direct representative of the Governor and correlate State
and Federal activities in this field.
Such a State official would correlate the planning by the
various départments of the State government. Inventories of
State resources would be made under his direction and kept
up to dates Provision also should be made for special studies
to assist the Legislature, if requested. The suggested legis-
lation should provide for evolving short range plans to meet
vii -
immediate needs which may arise and for long term planning.
The outstanding conclusions developed from the Board's
research do not form an integrated plan that will assure every-
one in Pennsylvania reasonable security in an adequate standard
of living. But they do look forward to that end.
If the suggestions included in this Report are adopted,
they should insure a better opportunity for all citizens. They
should assist in laying the basis for the integrated planning
that must become a part of our united thinking.
The State Planning Board wishes to express its gratitude
for the cooperation of the Governor, and members of his Cabinet.
The departments have provided invaluable assistance,
It also thanks the National Resources Board for the ser-
vices of its Director and its Consultant, and the Work Division
of the State Emergency Relief Board for authorizing use of the
funds necessary for the employment of its staff.
The Board also is especially appreciative of the hard work.
done so generously by many employes of the State, frequently
in periods outside their regular working hours. Many in-
dividuals in the Federal service or with private agencies have
given unstintingly of their time in the preparation of sections
of this Report, in reviewing portions and in advising with the
members and staff of the Board.
The Board also extends its thanks to the authors of
certain sections of this Report, whose names appear as foot-
notes on the first page of such sections.
viii
PRINCIPAL FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:
FINDINGS
Population
Pennsylvania's population shows a tendency to stabilize
by l960.
The birth rate probably will continue to decline.
The death rate, now declining, Will begin to rise in
another decade or two as the average age increases •
There will be fewer children and more adults.
Land and Its Utilization
From lºlo to 1930 taxes on Pennsylvania farm lands
increased 159 per cent, farm mortgages 85 per cent and invest- .
ment in machinery and implements lé5 per cent,
From 1910 to l930 prices of farm products increased only
47 per cente -
The state lacks a long time program of forest redevelop-
ment e
The State needs information on flood controle
Many streams and other bodies of water necessary to
human life are badly polluted.
Changes of tremendous importance have displaced many
workers in the State's mineral industries, resulting in de-
serted areas or stranded populations, in some cases, and de-
stitution in many others.
*See body of report for otherse
ix.
Working and Living Conditions
Working conditions, minimum wages and hours of labor,
have generally improved and are continuing to improve as one
of the results of the NRA, but many classes of workers remain
whose conditions require further consideration,
Income is most unequally distributed.
Marked technological improvements have increased the
output per individual in the State's industries to such a
degree that no places would be available for many now unem-
ployed if business regained its former activity.
In the last là years relatively few dwellings have been
constructed within the price range of a majority of the people.
If business activity were to increase and cause reemploy-
ment, families now doubling up would find a shortage of sepa-
rate houses,
Less than one-third of the farm families in Pennsylvania
use electricity.
The State lacks a program for the security of individuals
but does make limited provision in Čertain instances through
Mothers Assistance, Old Age Pensions and Pension for the Blind •
The Government has failed to accept the obligation to
provide employment or to assume proper responsibility for indus-
trial workers involuntarily unemployed by industry.
It is inconceivable, particularly in mass production indus-
tries, that a time will ever come under the most carefully
planned program, when during a period of depression a11 unem-
X
ployed workers can be absorbed by a public works program.
The State lacks a coordinated program for public works
adjusted to employment in depressions.
Industry, Trade and Transportation
Marked changes in industries and in their location are
having serious effects on the workers dependent upon them.
Between 1929 and 1933, the number of stores had decreased
l5 per cent, sales arowed 47 per cent and full time employes
3l per cent.
The trend is toward chain stores, particularly in the
food groups, where the chains do 34 per cent of the total
business with only l2 per cent of the stores.
Twenty-one per cent of the total retail stores of the
State do 80 per cent of the business.
Industry uses three-fifths of the electrical power in
this State and pays approximately one-third of the total bill,
While domestic consumers use one-sixth and also pay approxi-
mately one-third of the total bill.
Pennsylvania's transportation system, covering railways,
highways, airways, waterways and pipe lines, is not adequate-
ly coordinated.
Regulation of transportation is now attempted under a
law not fully applicable to present day conditions.
Social Activities
More than 5600 taxing bodies exist in this State and many
of them have outlived their usefullness and should be combined .
Xi
Changing population trends indicate need for more
teachers and a greater variety of subjects in the high schools.
In the elementary schools the number of teachers needed
will decrease during the next decade, if present population
trends continue.
Movements of population and the improvement of transporta-
tion have changed the need for many smaller independent school
districts, -
Three and half million persons in Pennsylvania are without
access to public libraries.
Many of the smaller cities and five counties have not a
single library,
The State-aid program for the care of dependents is un-
coordinated,
The present system of relying mainly on taxation of real
property makes the carrying on of services by local units of
Government exceedingly difficult.
xii
RECOMMENDATIONS
The Board recommends:
Creation of the office of Planning. Secretary as outlined
in the Foreword.
Research with a view to maintaining the relative impor-
tance of Pennsylvania's mineral industries.
A long-time program of forest redevelopment.
A State program for purchase of abandoned and submarginal
land for forestation.
Close integration of the purchase of land by the Game Com-
mission with the work of the Department of Forests and Waters
and with the Federal land-buying program.
Collection of information on flood control.
Rigid enforcement of laws for control of stream pollu-
tion •
A housing program based on a stable population rather
than on unlimited speculative expansion.
Appropriate educational opportunities for the increasing
number of youth between l8 and 21 years of age out of employ–
ment and out of school,
A continuing education for adults at all ages.
State aid for free libraries,
Expansion of the present system of old age pensions to
supplant many almshouses, and the creation of larger alms-
house units in geographical districts serving as institutions
for chronic disabled aged.
• &
xiii
A State-wide plan for the care of the mentally ill-
State industrial farms to replace the present county
prisons •
Effective planning for rural electrical development •
Legislation -
The Board recommends State legislation to:
Covern the use and development of streams, with a view to
better allocation of water •
Preserve the gains achieved under NRA in respect to child
labor .
Consolidate and make permanent the gains through NRA as
to standards of wages and working hours.
Abolish company police and privately paid deputy sheriffs •
Set up machinery to facilitate collective bargaining-
Strengthen the Workmen's compensation law.
Set up official county welfare boards through new ad-
ministrative machinery, for poor relief, mothers' assistance,
blind and old age pensions and child care under the super-
vision of the Department of Welfare.
Develop the proposed ten-year legislative program of—
fering protection to childrene
Provide that in the absence of available industrial or
public employment, a direct money payment to assure at all
times the minimum for an adequate standard of living for
the worker and his dependents during involuntary unemployment •
Provide economic relief and other necessary home or
xiv.
institutional care through a unified public relief agency to
the chronic indigent, the maladjusted individual and similar
groups now the concern of public or private relief agencies.
Create a State Housing Authority to make possible an
orrective housing program and to cooperate with the Federal
program,
Completely change the State's system of school support
so as to guarantee to every school district a foundation
program and reduce local taxes on realty to their proportion-
ate share of the total tax load.
Facilitate the merger of numerous existing school districts
into fewer and more competent units.
Reduce the number of separate local units of government
in order to increase the quality and reduce the cost of pub-
lic service rendered.
Participate in the Public Works program and other Federal
projects,
Further Studies
The Board recommends that further studies be made of:
Water supply needs for domestic and industrial use for the
next 25 years •
1Possible sites for hydro-electric developmente
Power distribution and costs similar to that just com-
pleted by the Power Authority of the State of New York with
a view to the possibility of lower rates to domestic consumerse
Soil erosion, abandoned farm lands and submarginal lands
jºy
now under cultivation with the view to development of a plan
for use of submarginal lands.
Marketing of farm products, to develop a more satis-
factory system of marketing.
The administration of unemployment relief and other forms
of relief, grants or pensions in order to determine their
ultimate integration.
xvi
ACKNOWLEDCEMENT
In addition to the many State employes and those of
the State Emergency Relief Board, who have materially as-
sisted us in the preparation of this report, we wish to
express our appreciation for the great help given by the
following:
John D. Beatty
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Frederick Bigger
Pittsburgh, Pae
Philip H. Boyer
Philadelphia, Pa.,
Morris Le Cooke
Philadelphia, Pa •
Ceorge Evans
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Leonard Fox
Harrisburg, Pa.
Harold D. Hynds
Washington, D. C -
Ewing Laporte
Philadelphia, Pa.
Elizabeth Logan
Chicago, Illinois
Hattie Mechlowitz
Scranton, Pa.
Harry Moul
Philadelphia, Pa.
Bernard Je Newman
Philadelphia, Pa.
John Phillips
Harrisburg, Pae
Benjamin H. Ritter
Philadelphia, Pa.
Rose Stein
Pittsburgh, Pas
Walter Thomas
Philadelphia, Pa.
Joseph P. Tufts -
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Carter COOdrich
Washington, D. C.
C. W. Hasek
State College, Pa •
Walter Me Palakov
New York City
We Frank Persons
Washington, D - C -
Spurgeon Bell
Washington, D - C -
Ceorge S. Bliss
Philadelphia, Pa.
Ewan Clague
Philadelphia, Pa.
David W. Day
Creensburg, Pa.
F. Stuart Fitzpatrick
Washington, D. C.
Allen E. Harper
Washington, D - C -
W. W. Jeanes
Philadelphia, Pa.
Charles F. Lewis
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Isador Lubin
Washington, De C ,
Warren S. Thompson
Oxford, Ohio
Robert R. Nathan
Washington, D - C -
Harvey O'Connor
Pittsburgh, Pae
Samuel Ratensky
New York City
Peter Shire
Washington, D. C.
W. A. Sutherland
Harrisburg, Pae
C - We Thornthwaite
Washington, D - C -
Henry Wright
Hackettstown, N. J .
F. Pe Weaver
State College, Pae
Jerry Doyle
Philadelphia, Pae
Mary van Kleeck
New York City
fºdward Steidle
State College, Pao
Xvii
C O N T E N T S
National Resources Board
Pennsylvania State Planning Board and Staff
Letters of Transmittal
Foreword
Principal Findings and Recommendations
TABLE OF CONTENTS
POPULATION: Location and Trends
LAND AND LAND UTILIZATION
Physiography
Agriculture
Forest Land as a Basic Resource -
Water Resources: Water Supplies and Sanitation
Mineral Resources
Tentative Outline of Economic-Geographic Regions
WORKING AND LIVING CONDITIONS
Planning for Reasonable Comfort
Coping with Pennsylvania's Changing Working
Conditions
Housing
Social Security: Public Works
INDUSTRY, TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
Manufacturing and Trade
Retail Distribution
Transportation
Electrical Power and its Development
SOCIAL ACTIVITIES
State Government, Note on
Local Units of Government
A Planned Program of Education for Pennsylvania:
Libraries
Public Social Welfare
APPENDICES
Appendix A - Studies in progress
ty B - Related studies soon to be published
List of Maps and Charts
Page
ii
iii
ix
37
73
120
178
232
278
284
3.18
348
391
419
45l
48l.
514
54l
542
583
64l
677
678
6.79
POPULATION
LOCATION AND TRENDS
The trend in Pennsylvania today is toward a stabilized
population within the next twenty or twenty-five years. The
effect will mean a fundamental if slow change in the needs and
economic habits of more than nine and a half million persons.
Equally significant is that the Commonwealth is headed toward
an era in which a men larger proportion of the population
will be in the older age groups, and one in which there will
be a smaller proportion of children and young people.
How will this affect the present industrial, school and
social structure? A small "child population" obviously will
mean fewer primary schools, which in turn will affect the
attendance in high schools, colleges and universities. Be-
cause of the increased share of the population of 45 years of
age and over, a much wider program will be required to provide
for this group either by work opportunities or otherwise.
Schools for the rehabilitation of this untrained older group
will have to be envisaged; old age revion. and the number of
indigent people will increase appreciably, while health offi-
clais will become more and more concerned with the degenerative
diseases now showing rising death rates.
If the picture is expanded a little more, it is found that
a stabilized population in which the older groups are pre-
dominant will bring changes in the transportation system, hous-
ing problem and in a dozen other more or less related activi-
l
ties. Manufacturing plants geared to take care of the needs
of children and young people will have to cater to the personal
requirements of an older group. In short, a stabilized popu-
lation, provided the present trend is maintained, will call for
a gradual but inevitable readjustment in the life of the whole
State •
POPULATION
The total population of Pennsylvania in 1930 was
9,631,350, a gain in ten years of 911,333 or 10.5 per cent.
Between l890 and 1900, there was a growth of more than a
million persons. The following decade witnessed the largest
addition on record. The increment for the 1910-1920 period
dropped to about lo,000 more than that of 1890 to 1900. This
is explained by the World War with its casualties and its re-
stricting effect on immigration, in addition to the excessively
high death rate during the influenza epidemic of 1918. No such
unusual explanations are found for the still lower figure for
1920-1930. During that time, immigration into the United
States was drastically restricted. This naturally had its
influence in Pennsylvania. Births and deaths were lower, but
there was no one event or factor which would account for the
smaller increase.
Since 1890, with the exception of 1900 to 1910, there has
been a steady decline in the percentages of growth. That peak
period showed a 21.6 per cent increase, while two decades later
the percentage was less than one-half of it.
2
| “ON E \! (nº) | 3
O9OSOţ»O €O 2oı OO63||

PENNSYLVANIA POPULATION 1890 - 1930
TABLE le
CENSUS DATE CENSUS INCREASE FROM PERCENTAGE
POPULATION PRECEDING CENSUS OF INCREASE
June 1, 1890 5,258, ll3 975,222 22e 8
June l; l900 6,302,115 l,044,002 l9.9
Apr. 15, 1910 7,665, lll 1,362,996 2le 6
Jan. 1, 1920 8,720,017 l,054,906 l3.8
Apr. 1, 1930 9,631,350 911,333 10.5
Whether such a marked slowing up will continue is prob-
lematical, but that a downward trend will persist is reason-
able to suppose. The United States as a whole was *ins
the same movement, although at not nearly so fast a rate •
States bordering Pennsylvania likewise indicated this trend,
but it is to be noted that with the exception of Delaware, Penn-
sylvania had the lowest percentage of increase. Why was this
true, and if undesirable, what should be done to overcome' it?
If this continues Pennsylvania will reach stabilization at an
earlier date than these other states or the United States.
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Population is based upon three factors - births, deaths
and migration. All are important not only in themselves but
in their relation to each other. Wital statistics are avail-
able for the State since 1906. Although the records do not
extend over as long a period as was considered for census popu-
lation, they are sufficient to present definite trends.
BIRTHS AND DEATHS
In 1910 there were 203,510 births, or 26.5 per l;000
population. The largest number occurred in 1921, but the rate
was only 25.9. By l930 the number and rate had dropped to
l89,458 and 19.6 respectively. This indicates the slowing up
in reproduction, affecting not only the aggregate but the com-
position of the population as welle -
The death rate is moving in the same direction, although
not quite so rapidly as the birth rate. In 1906 there were
ll4,435 deaths, or lé.0 per l;000 population. In 1910, the
number had risen, but the rate was only lº. 6. The influenza
epidemic of l918 contributed substantially to the record high
general death rate of 22.0. Two years later this rate was cut
down to 13.8 and 1930 showed lll,606 deaths, or ll.6 per l; 000
population. How men further the death rate can be reduced
will depend, in part at least, upon the future composition of
the population. At this point, it is sufficient to state that
in 1930 a continued downward trend was indicated.
The excess of births over deaths, or the "natural in-
crease," has varied widely, but on the whole it shows that the
-5-
source of future population is diminishing. Between the census
of 1920 and 1930 the State gained 911,333 persons, but the
natural increase for the decade was 967,788. This means that
Pennsylvania would have had approximately 56,000 more persons
in 1930 than were enumerated, but for migration.
By comparing the number of persons born in Pennsylvania
but who were living in other states in 1930 with the number who
were born in other states and, at the time of the census, were
living in Pennsylvania, it is found that the Commonwealth lost
750,569 persons through interstate migration. The three pre-
ceding censuses showed losses, although not quite so large •
This indicates that for the past twenty years, the State has
been on the losing side insofar as this one factor is concern-
ed. Among the native-white, 18.7 per cent of those born in
the Commonwealth were living elsewhere in 1930; 21.8 per cent
of Pennsylvania-born Negroes were residents of other states.
Of those residing here in 1930, 8.6 per cent native-mit- and
65.7 per cent native-Negro, were born beyond its boundaries.
In addition, there has been a shifting within the boundaries
which further changes the relation of the urban and rural
sections, $
DISTRIBUTION
Of the total population in 1930, 6,533,511 or 67.8 per
cent were considered urban. This included all incorporated
places of 2,500 inhabitants or more and ten first-class town-
ships. The latter were added to this subdivision at the last
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census; therefore, the bases for urban and rural totals for
1930 and 1920 are not comparable. Excluding these townships
from their lºgo classification, the urban centers gained
715,191 or 12.8 per cent, whereas the Commonwealth, as in-
dicated, showed a gain of 10.5 per cent • In 1920 there
were four cities over 100,000 population, Philadelphia, Pitts-
burgh, Scranton, and Reading. By 1930, Erie had joined this
group. The gain in these five cities constituted 33.6 per
cent of the actual urban gain. The cities in the 25,000 -
lCO,000 population class accounted for 20.8 per cent. Johns-
town was the only one of this group which lost in total popu-
lation. The remaining cities over 10,000 population made up
17.5 per cent of the urban gain. The remaining 28.1 per cent
of this urban gain came in places of less than 10,000 in-
habitants.
Of the seventeen cities which came into 10,000 population
group for the first time, six were in Allegheny County, three
in Westmoreland, and Ellwood City in Lawrence and Beaver. In
addition, three townships were added to the urban population
of Allegheny County. In the southeastern section is Mont-
gomery County, which included three of the townships and one
of these cities, and Delaware County with two of the townships.
The other counties which showed the same development were
Lackawanna and Luzerne, in the northeast portion of the State.
In the former, Taylor entered the group, and in Lazerne,
Kingston and two townships increased beyond the lo,000 popula-
~ 7-
tion mark. These facts indicate a concentration of urban
centers in three separate areas in the State.
The ten first-class townships increased 97.5 per cent from
l920 to 1930s
According to the l930 Federal census, there were ten met-
ropolitan districts in Pennsylvania: Philadelphia, Lancaster,
Reading, Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, Harrisburg, Scranton-
Wilkes Barre, Pittsburgh, Erie, Johnstown and Altoona. In
l920, 66.2 per cent of Pennsylvania's population was in these
districts; by l930 this had increased to 68.8 per cent. With
the exception of Johnstown, the central cities in each district
gained from 1920 to 1930 and in each instance they were loca-
ted in counties which showed increased population during this
period. These districts will remain the centers of popula-
tion, but whether they will continue to increase in density or
in size will depend largely upon future suburban movements •
Delaware, Montgomery and Bucks counties, which touch
Philadelphia, showed a greater per cent increase from 1920 to
1930 than Philadelphia. Allegheny County, exclusive of Pitts-
burgh, increased at a higher rate than Pittsburgh. The
country surrounding Lancaster, Harrisburg, Scranton, Paston
and Reading likewise indicated a faster growth. This means
that a suburban movement was in evidence. This was not true
of Erie, Allentown, and Altoona.
Considering the metropolitan areas themselves, not the
counties in which the central cities are located, the same
-8-
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facts are brought out. In the Allentown-Bethlehem—Easton dis-
trict the area outside the centrel cities gained faster than
the cities as a whole, or Bethlehem and Easton separately.
Allentown showed a larger per cent increase than the rest of
that district,
In the Erie and Altoona districts, the sections outside
thc se cities showed losses of l6.1 per cent and loe 4 per cent
respectively. In all the other districts and territory out-
side the central cities increased faster than the cities them-
'selves •
A map prepared by C. W. Thornthwaite, who is making a
study of population redistribution, gives the net migration
of the State by counties.” This indicates the same trends in
these districts except in Erie, where the county had a net gain,
and in the Scranton-Wilkes Barre and Johnstown districts,
where the counties showed net losseso
Since 1900 the urban population has predominated, grad-
ually increasing in percentage each census until in 1930 it
was 67 o8 per cent of the whole • The rural forms but 32.2
per cent e
* Net migration was determined for each county by comparing
decennial excess of births over deaths with the gain or
loss in population as shown by the Federal censuses of
l910-20 and 1920-30.
PENNSYLVANIA POPULATION - URBAN AND RURAL
l880 - 1930
TABLE 3
YEAR PERCENT URBAN PERCENT RURAL
l680 4le 6 - se 58.4
1890 48, 6 51.4
l900 54 • ? 45,3
l910 60.4 39.e6
1920 64 • 3 35 o'7
l930 67. 8 32.2
The change in the ten townships from rural to urban made
a difference when comparing the 1920 and 1930 census figures.
If the 1920 ruling is considered, the rural gained consider-
ably by 1930, but under the latter classification a 0.5 per
cent loss is recorded. By subdividing the rural figures
into those for rural-ºr- (that population which is strictly
rural) and rural non-farm (people residing in small villages
and in circumstances which are neither urban nor farm), a
more detailed picture is obtained, showing that it was the
rural-farm section which declined. From 1920 to 1930 there
was a 10.1 per cent decrease, while the rural non-farm in-
creased 3.7 per cent.
There were nineteen counties in the State in rhich fewer
people were living in 1930 than in 1920. The 1930 totals in
- 10-
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THE STUDY OF POPULATION RED 1 STRIBUTION ?














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POPULATION PER SO UARE M | LE BY COUNT | ES
TOTAL POPULATION 8, 72O, O 17
PEN NSYLVAN IA - || 92 O
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POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE BY COUNTIES
TOTAL POPULATION 9,631, 350
PE NNSYLVANIA - |93 O
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twelve of these did not even equal their l900 figures. These
counties include those in the northern tier, Potter, Tioga,
Bradford, Susquehanna and the adjoining counties, Cameron and
Sullivan; four in the central and southern areas, Juniata,
Perry, Bedford and Fulton, and toward the northwest, Jefferson
and Forest. During the last decade, Clarion, Clearfield, Elk,
Clinton, Indiana, Huntingdon and Somerset also lost. In
general, the losing counties form one band across the northern
part and another north and south through the middle of the
State. The se counties are primarily rural in character. Lock
Haven with 9,668 inhabitants is the largest community in the
group
Since the downward trend in the avority of these counties
has extended over a period of years, it is reasonable to assume
that it will continue in the future.
In twenty-nine counties the rural population gained during
the decade under review • These are located along the western
border and in the eastern section of the State, in general
where the larger urban communities are found, although in nine
of these counties were there no cities over 10,000 population.
The reasons for this growth are varied. Some of the counties
are in good farming sections, while in others the increase may
be traced to the excess of births over deaths. In still others
the propinquity to urban centers may have influenced the growth
of the surrounding rural sections. This would be especially
true of such sections included in metropolitan districts.
—ll-
The movement of people within the State is clearly illus-
trated by maps showing the density of population by counties.
A definite southeastern and southwestern trend is evident,
The sparsely populated counties, many of which are in the los-
ing class, are seen clearly in the northern and middle portions
of the State.
On the whole, it seems probable that future population
maps of Pennsylvania will be much the same as the 1930 map in
regard to urban and rural distribution, although there may be
variations in density due to the widening of the metropolitan
areas. Better transportation facilities will enable people
to move away from the congested districts, or high taxes may
drive industry into the smaller communities. On the other
hand, with improved farm machinery and a continuance of farm
abandonment, less people will be found in the strictly rural
sections. Thus it appears that the rural non-farm and sub-
urban communities will show the greatest gains in the future •
AGE DISTRIBUTION
the age distribution of Pennsylvanians proves that the
population is growing older. In 1920, llo 5 per cent of the
people were children under 5 years of age • In ten years this
had decreased to 9.3 per cent, indicating the direct effect
of the declining birth rate from 26.l per 1,000 population in
1916 (the first year which would control the 1920 total for
children under 5 years), to 19.6 in 1930. Obviously with a
continued downward trend in the birth rate, the number of
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children, in future years, will be correspondingly fewer.
In the older age periods, there were actually and pro-
portionately more older people in the Commonwealth in 1930
than in 1900. During that time there was a 5 per cent pro-
portional increase in the group 45 years of age and older. -
There were slight variations in the middle age group.
The foreign-born are the oldest, slightly more than one-
half being between the ages of thirty-five and fifty-four.
Naturally with continued aging of this group, in addition to
restricted immigration, the possibility is remote that enough
young people will enter the State from abroad to over-balance
the large older age group, despite the fact that the death rate
for the latter is certain to increase. The advance ages of
foreign-born women will be noticeable especially in the birth
rate • Among them, fecundity is higher than among the native
whites, so that as they pass beyond the child-bearing age the
birth rate will falle The decrease of their children in the
under-age-five group from 409,144 in 1920 to 247,505 in 1930
shows clearly the effect of age upon the foreign-born and the
reduction in their numbers.
-lä-
FENNSYLVANIA POPULATION 1930 BY AGE AND NATIVITY
tº-
AGE GROUPS STATE NATIVE WHITE FOREIGN-BORN WHITE NEGRO OTHER RACES
State Total 9,631,350 7,959,551 l, 233,051 431, 257 7,491
Under 5 Years 895,843 853,757 2,008 39,345 733
5 to 14 l, 989,211 l,894,916 19,772 73,660 863
15 to 24 1,732,415 1,575,856 80, 372 75,108 l,079
25 to 34 s l,435,705 l, 137,497 200,700 95, 296 2, 212
35 to 44 1,357,057 929,344 351,437 74,819 l, 457
45 to 54 l,033,505 697,691 290,066 45,045 703
55 to 64 674,262 486,080 - l69,755 18,098 329
65 to 74 367,460 272,769 87, 823 6,790 78
75 years and -
Over 140, 818 107,775 30,445 2,569 29
Unknown 5,074 3,866 673 527 8
•l4-
During this period, the older negro people remained pro-
portionately the same , while the young and middle age groups
varied. There were higher percentages among the children
under fifteen years in 1930 than in 1920. Some of the middle
age groups increased while other decreased, which may be ex-
plained by the large migration of negroes in the ten-year
period •
For the State as a whole, in the age groups under four-
teen, the boys out-number the girls. From the ages of fifteen
to twenty-nine the opposite exists. In the large age group
of thirty to sixty-four, the men are more numerous, but after
that (sixty-five and over) the women predominate. The pre-
ponderance of males in middle age periods is due largely to
the fact that the foreign-born are principally in that group,
and among them the men far outnumber the women. The dis-
tribution varies for urban and rural sections. In the urban,
the male predominates only in the age groups under ten and be-
tween thirty-five to fifty-four. In the rural, he is more
numerous in every group except in the seventy-five-year and
over classe
Pennsylvania's urban population was in general elder than
the rural. In the former in 1930 the children under ten
amounted to l8.3 per cent of the whole, one-fourth of the in-
habitants were in the thirty-five to fifty-four group, and -
approximately one-sixth in the older group. In the rural-farm
area, the percentages for the under 10 class dropped from 21.7
-15-
to 20.8 during the ten years and in the rural non-farm they
fell from 26.0 to 23.5. The higher birth rate in the rural.
sections and the economic value of children on the farm ac-
counted in part for the fact that there were more children in
the rural population. But here too the percentage of children
was dropping. Men and women from twenty to thirty-four years
of age moved to the urban centers, with the result that boys
and girls under twenty and men and women over thirty-five pre-
dominate on the farms.
SEX
Men and women are fairly equally represented in Pennsyl-
vania. In 1930, there were 101.2 males to loo females. Al-
though the ratio remains in favor of the boys at birth, their
death rate, which is higher than that of girls, results in
fewer men in middle life. Since the male death rate is also
higher than the female rate for older people, the aging of the
population will bring about a still closer sex ratio. Another
element that will bring this about is the large proportion of
foreign-born males to females. With restrictions on immi-
gration, this group has had less and less influence on the com-
position of the whole population.
The proportion of males to females among the White popu-
lation was practically the same as that for the State as a
whole for 1920 and l330. Subdividing the white population
into native-white and foreign-born, it was the female in the
former and the male in the latter which predominated . The
latter group also had the highest ratio in 1920, 129.6 foreign-
born white males for each loC) females; in 1930 it had declined
to 117.2. Among the Negroes, the males were also more numer-
OUIS •
The last census showed more women in the urban centers
than men, while the opposite was the case in the rural areas.
This has been true for the country districts for at least the
past three censuses • In the urban classification, it was t
only among the foreign-born and Negro that the males out- .
numbered the females.
Marriage statistics for 1930 show that of the population
fifteen years of age and older, 59.6 per cent were married,
31.9 per cent were single, 7.7 per cent were widowed and 0.7
per cent were divorcede
-l 7-
PENNSYLVANIA POPULATION - URBAN AND RURAL
BY SEX AND NATIVITY 1930.
TABLE 5e
STATE URBAN RURAL
Male Female Male Female Male Female
State Total 4,845,517 4,785,833 3,240,853 3,292,658 l,604,664 l;493;175
Native white 3,955,902 4,003,649 2,535,692 2,650,428 l,420,210 lº 353,221
Foreign-born white 665,438 567,613 512,983 454,078 152,455 113,535
Negro 218,412 212,845 186,942 186,638 31,470 26,207
Other races 5,765 l,726 5,236 1,514 529 212

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Considering the sexes separately, the percentage of .
married persons is exactly the same for both, but the percent-
age of single men is higher than that of single women. These
were balanced by 10,6 per cent widows and only 4.8 per cent
widowerse
-l9–
PENNSYLVANIA POPULATION BY AGER AND SEX. l.930
TABLE 6
AGF. GROUPS SINGLE MARRIED WIDOWED w
MALE Fäliſ/ALE MALE FEMALE lialſº FEMALE
State Total l,183,086 971,131 2,018,874 1,999,302 161,432 $57,068
15 to 24 years 744,768 629,948 107,809 240,631 691 2,291
25 to 34 " 213,416 142,458 488,585 556,60l 6,151 14,592
35 to 44 " 104,394 76,993 569,533 535,694 l6,653 38,886
45 to 54. " 63,770 55,401 436,811 371,566 29,029 66,26l
55 to 64 * 35,382 36,933 265,222 204, la 5 37,883 89,040
65 to 74 " 15,936 20,616 120,645 76,398 42,309 89,233
75 and over 4,460 8,0ll 29,262 l3,363 28,539 56,431
Unknown 960 771 l,007 914 177 334

* 15 years of age and older.
-20-
SOCIOGRAPHICS .
P H ! L.A. D. E L PH 1A
1930
SIZE OF PEN NSYLVANIA FAMILIES C
P L A N N | NG
FIGURE NO. I 2 BOA RD

Approximately three-fourths of the foreign-born popula-
tion of both sexes are married, while among the native whites
there was a higher proportion of single men and women than for
either the State as a whole, the foreign-born or the Negro.
There were more married negro women than men.
The number of marriages in Pennsylvania has declined and
the rate, which is the number of persons married per l;000
population, likewise has dropped (from 19.2 in 1920 to 13.4 in
1930).
The size of the families in the State also showed a de-
cline, not rapid but constant, as shown by the chart •
NATIVITY
The population in Pennsylvania in the period under review
was 95.4 per cent white, 4.5 per cent Negro, with the remaining
0.1 per cent composed of Mexicans, Chinese, Filipinos, Indians,
Japanese and less than 100 "others." The whites are sub-
divided into the native and foreign-born, the former composing
82.6 per cent and the latter 12.8 per cent of the total popu-
lation. Foreign-born whites have steadily decreased since
1910. From 1920 to 1930 there was a loss of llel per cent in
actual numbers. Unless jmmigration quotas are changed, the
trend here indicated will continue even more rapidly.
The foreign-born have settled in the urban centers of the
State. In 1930, 78.4 per cent were living there, with only
3.2 per cent in the strictly rural sections, while 18.4 per
cent were in rural non-farm areas. It is noted that it was
-21-
not the large cities to which these people migrated. Of the
places over 100,000 population only Reading gained and then
but 0.1 per cent. Scranton lost ll,0 per cent; Pittsburgh,
9.3; Philadelphia, 7.3; and Erie 0.7. Of the other cities
over 25,000 only seven showed gains, none of which were large.
In the lo,000 to 25,000 group it was the smaller communities
which showed an increase,
The negro population has steadily grown, not only in
actual numbers but in percentages of gain. During the decade
1920 - 1930, the increase was 51.5 per cent, due mostly to
interstate migration. In 1920, e. per cent lived in the
cities; in 1930, 86.6 per cent. Unlike the foreign-born, the
negro flocked to the large centers. In Philadelphia, there was
an increase of 63.6 per cent. In Pittsburgh they gained 45.7
per cent and in Chester, 29.8 per cent. In only a few of the
larger cities was there a decrease and, with the exception of
Johnstown and Sharon, the loss occurred in towns where the
negro population was less than one per cent of the whole.
From this study of the census reports, it is evident that
certain trends had developed by 1930, chief among which was
the general slowing up in the rate of population growth not
only for the State but for most of the metropolitan cities and
for some of the rural counties. Through interstate migration,
Pennsylvania was losing more than it gained, although there was
a large influx of negroes. A faster declining birth rate than
death rate, and the maintaining of the present Federal immi-
22
SOCOGRAPHICS
P H 1 L A D E L PHIA
i
NATIVE WHITE FOREIGN NEGRO
BORN
CHANGING PROPORTIONs
OF THE POPULATION
P L. A N N | NG
FIGURE NO. 3 BO A R D.

*
gration restrictions indicated a continuation of the slowing-
up process. A suburban movement had also started, especially
in the southeastern and southwestern sections of the State.
The aging of the population, which had been in progress for
some time, became even more apparent.
MOVEMENTS OF POPULATION, lº&O-l934
The 1930 census, taken soon after the beginning of the
depression, did not reflect adequately the effect which the
economic crisis had upon movements of the population. Men and
women, out of work, went from place to place seeking employ-
ment. In some instances, this meant that entire families chang-
ed residence; on other cases, one or two members. Many city
families when faced with a reduced income moved to cheaper
houses, often to small plots of ground, to raise food to supply
their needs. "Doubling up" of families and the great tran-
sient group which developed meant another shifting of the popu-
lation.
From 1930 to l934 these marked movements in population
grew in numbers and significance. The Federal census results
consequently could be depended upon only for l930.
Unemployment was growing to such proportions that definite
data were necessary in order to cope with it advantageously.
To obtain this information a census was undertaken in l934 as
a Civil Works Administration project. This enumeration was
made in April, except in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, where it
was taken in February. The final results were checked against
23
Other survey figures and against school censuses. While these
did not agree entirely, the variations were very slight in most
cases • For this reason, the Unemployment Survey is considered
accurate and reliable. The strictly rural sections of the
State Were not included in the census-- only cities, boroughs
and unincorporated communities of a commercial or industrial
character were enumerated.
This survey shows the results of migration, both inter-
State and intrastate. Undoubtedly the movement of population
out of Pennsylvania, which was well defined by lºo, was accent-
uated by the depression. To this can be credited much of the
loss shown by the l934 figures. Shifting of population from
rural to urban and vice versa usually follows periods of in-
dustrial activity or depression, but unfortunately the exact
extent of this movement within the State cannot be determined.
It is established, however, that the drift toward the smaller
urban communities, noticeable in 1930, was accelerated by the
economic crisis.
According to the survey, the gains from 1930 to l834 oc-
curred in the smaller places and in the sections which are not
distinctly urban. In communities having less than 5,000 inhab-
itants, approximately one-half showed increases varying from
O. l per cent to a few cases where the population doubled itself.
In the 5,000 to 10,000 class slightly more than one-fourth add-
ed to their lºC) totals, while in the 10,000 to 25,000 group
only one-seventh increased. None of the cities over 25,000
24
population showed any gains • An accompanying table shows the
shift in population of the State's larger cities and boroughs.
Pennsylvania's population computed on the basis of the
school census for lo:33 (the last year for which complete totals
were available) has been checked against the l834 survey. Both
presented the same picture but the estimate is more accurate
because it included the entire State.
This estimate showed that the population of first-class
school districts, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, had a 3.14 per
cent decrease from 1930 to 1933. The second-class districts
lost 2.35 per cent while the third-class gained 0.15 per cent.”
From these changes, it appeare that the slowing up in the rates
of increase in the larger centers which the 1930 census in-
dicated, was so marked during the three-year period since that
enumeration that in most instances there was an actual loss.
The indication of the movement to the smaller urban pieces is
verified likewise.
The population of fourth-class districts shows a gain
(4.l6 per cent) from l930 to lºš. Since these districts in-
clude some , of the smaller communities, the increase bears out
the above mentioned trends for such places. For the strictly
rural sections, such a decided change was not in evidence in
l230. -
The counties whose entire population is classified as
* Second-class school districts have between 30,000
and 500,000 population; third-class 5,000 to 30,000;
fourth-class less than 5,000.
25
POPULATION OF PENNSYLVANIA
CITIES AND BOROUGHS HAVING 25,000.
OR MORE POPULATION IN 1939
1930 1934 1930-1934
Unemployment Percentage
* Census taken April 1930
* Census taken April 1934
>k Sk:k
Census taken February l934
U.S. Census+ Census++ Change
Aliquippa 27, 116 25,332 -6.6
Allentown 92,563 91, l32 -l.5
-Altoona 82,054 78,645 -4 el
Bethlehem 57,892 57,279 -lel
Chester 59,164 54,713 =7.5
Easton 34,468 32,344 ~6.2
Erie ll3,967 105,818 •8.8
Harrisburg 80,339 79,620 -0.9
Hazleton 36,765 36,392 -l.0
Johnstown 66,993 61,785 ~7,8
Lancaster 59,949 58, 224 -2.9
Lebanon 25,561 23,518 -8.0
McKeesport 54,632 53, 152 -2.8
Nanticoke 26,043 25,437 -2, 3
New Castle 48,674 46,500 -4.5
Norrist own 35,853 31,071 •l3.3
Philadelphia l, 950,961 l,862,032+++ -4 • 6
Pittsburgh 669,817 643,505+++ -3.9
Reading lll, 171 105,977 -4.7
Scranton l43,433 138,207 ~3.6
Sharon 25,908 25,446 -1.8
Wilkes-Barre 86,626 80,292 ~7.3
Wilkinsburg 29,639 28,450 -4 - O
Williamsport 45,729 41,996 -8.2
York 55,254 53,733 -2.8
26.
alº II
POPULATION CHANGE EACH F |GUR E = |O OOO PERSONS
SOCIOGRAPH iCS
PH L.A. D.EL PHIA
| ST CLASS DISTRICTS
2ND CLAS S D S T R 1CTS
3R D C LASS DISTR ic T 5
º
4 T H C L ASS D | ST R J CTS
BY SCHOOL DISTRICTS 1930 TO 1933
PLAN N | NG
F GURE NO. 14. BOARD





fourth-class school districts, gained substantially with one
exception. Sullivan County lost le 15 per cent--a downward
trend which has been evidenced since l.900. On the other ex-
treme, Perry County which also declined from 1900 to 1930,
changed completely to gain 20.53 per cent--the largest percent-
age change registered for the l930–1933 period. Of the other
counties losing by 1930, only Somerset continued in that
direction in the three years following.
The reason for the general change in trend in these
counties lies in the fact that so much of their territory had
been abandoned farm land. In these sections people discovered
unoccupied buildings and small farms which could be rented
cheaply. A study of the third and fourth class school dis-
tricts in four counties having a low value of agricultural
crops, shows that they gained more proportionally than the same
number of counties where the value of the agricultural crops
was high .
From past experience it is fair to assume that when the
economic situation improves it will be the poorer land from
which the people will move first. The movement therefore to
the areas just mentioned is not a permanent trend.
With two exceptions, the same may be said of those
counties which lost from 1930 to 1933. The exceptions, Somer-
set and Sullivan Counties, which have been losing since 1920,
are likely to continue to do so. On the whole the decline from
1930 to 1933 is found in the regions in which the urban popu-
27
lation is predominant.
In the southeastern area, Philadelphia lost, but the
counties bordering the city increased substantially. This is
further proof that the suburban movement indicated in l930 has
progressed rapidly since then. With economic recovery, Phila-
delphia may regain its loss but the outlying districts will
continue to be densely populated centers.
In the southwestern section Allegheny, Washington, West-
moreland and Fayette Counties showed slight losses, caused
principally by the temporary stagnation in the coal and steel
industries.* The inactivity of the steel industry accounts
likewise for the losses in Lawrence and Mercer Counties.
Lackawanna, Luzerne, Cărbon, Lehigh and Northampton
Counties in the third urban area, show losses caused by the
slack production of coal and steel also. ** So each of these
urban districts, depending largely upon manufacturing concerns,
have felt the effects of emigration resulting from curtailment
on the part of industry. When these companies again start
their factories, labor will return to these sections. So the
drift from these counties like the drift to the poorer counties
is not a permanent shift.
* A study of five counties (the four just mentioned plus Greene)
showing a high value of bituminous products also bears out
the small loss in spite of the fact that Greene County
gained considerably.
** A study of five counties having the highest value of anthra-
cite products (Carbon, Lackawanna, Luzerne, Northumberland
and Schuylkill) reveals a loss despite the fact that the
latter two counties gained.
28
The State as a whole increased in the l830–1933 period
but at a much slower rate than it did from l920 to 1930. It
is probable that the total increase did not exceed 32,000.
This is very small in view of the excess of births over deaths
by 204,000. This further indicates that many people have left
the Commonwealth. & -
Births and deaths have continued their downward trend.
The deaths from all causes dropped from lll,606 in 1930 to
106, lê3 in 1933, while the births showed an even greater de-
Crease for * * period. In 1930 where were l89,458 live
births in Pennsylvania--in l933 there were l67,059. In cities
over 25,000 population, with the exception of Nanticoke, -
Wilkes-Barre and York, the births decreased in l933 from 1930
and in all but seven of the cities in this group the deaths
also declined,
While the number of marriages performed in the Common-
wealth decreased in 1930, 1931, and lº&2, the total increased
in l933 by 7,374 over l932. In the past, years which witness-
ed large marriage totals were followed by years of increased
natality. The eight months' figure available for 1934 when
compared with that of the corresponding period in 1933 shows
such a small variation that l934 may possibly have as many if
not more births than the previous year. However, the general
downward trend of the birth rate will not be affected.
When comparing the deaths for the same months in l933
and l334 it is discovered that the deaths in the latter year
29
are more numerous indicating that 1934 death totals will be
higher than those of the preceding year.
FUTURE POPULATION
Pennsylvania gained 0.32 per cent in population from 1930
to 1933, estimated on the basis of school census.* If this con-
tinues, the increase for 1930-1940 would be 1.07 per cent as
compared with 10.5 per cent from 1920-1930. This is an un-
usually large drop but it parallels that predicted for the
United States for 1930-1940.** The sharp downward trend pro-
bably Will continue as indicated for the decade unless marked
industrial recovery occurs within the next five years, which
would cause migration into the State. Then the rate of in-
crease for the Commonwealth for 1930-1940 might be raised some-
What .
* The use of school census as a basis for population estimates
assumes that there is the same proportion of school children
in the entire population for each year, which is not the
case due to the variation in the birth rate . Ordinarily the
margin of error is not great .
** In l933 Dr. Warren S. Thompson and Dr. P. K. Whelptom cal-
culated the future population of the United States upon
three different sets of assumptions. In each instance, the
rate of decennial increase dropped noticeably--from 16.l per
cent between 1920 and 1930 to 10, 8.4 or 7.4 from 1930 to
1940, depending upon the birth and death rates and migration
used for the calculation. According to their high estimate
the United States would increase from 122,775,000 in 1930
to 167,300,000 in 1960. Their medium estimate gives
149,800,000 in 1960, while their low estimate gives
137,900,000 for that year (Population Trends in the United
States; Thompson and Whelpton). In a later statement
Dr. Whelpton asserts that "unless the decline in births and
in the specific birth rates is checked rapidly the low figure
of 136,500,000 (estimated for 1956) as a maximum population
for the United States will not even be reached" (The Popu-
lation Prospect: Whelpton).
30
Beyond lº!0 it would be unwise to estimate population
according to this accelerated trend because it appears to be
only temporary. It reflects the unusual effects of the de-
pression. As economic activity or inactivity causes drifts
from rural to urban and vice versa, it is possible that these
factors cause shifts to industrial states and away from them.
It is reasonable to suppose then that business recovery might
retard the large migration from Pennsylvania although it would
not check it completely. For comparison, the population on the
school census basis has been estimated and charted for the
years following l940, using the l930–1940 rate of increase.
Dr. Warren S. Thompson of the Scripps Foundation for Re-
search in Population Problems, has compiled two estimates of
Pennsylvania's future population by five-year periods from
1930 to l960 based upon two general assumptions--first, no
migration either into the State or within the State, and
second, with interstate migration and with the same movement
Within the State as occurred between l920 and 1930. In
addition he assumed. that the birth rate would fall until in
1960 it would be about two-thirds of the 1930 rate, that the
expectation of life would increase approximately five years
during the same period, and that there would be no foreign
immigration. Each set of estimates was compiled for urban,
rural-farm and rural non-farm.
The estimates on the basis of no migration show the urban
population continuing to grow steadily until 1950 and then de-
- 3l
clining so that the l960 total would be less than that of 1940.
The rural non-farm would steadily increase while the rurai-tan
would gain gradually from 1930 to 1935, then fairly rapidly un-
til 1950 and again slowly for the next ten years.
For the State as a whole this estimate gives a steadily in-
creasing population from lºo to l'º60. For l?35 the figure is
9,912,500 as compared with 9,682,685 on the basis of school
census. By 1960 a total of lo,808, 300 is reached,
Assuming interstate migration, Dr. Thompson estimates that
the urban population will grow steadily from 1930 to 1945 but
not as rapidly as it did prior to 1930. From 1945 it would ,
increase even more slowly until in l955 it reaches the peak.
After that there would be a gradual loss. The rural non-farm
would change little, gaining about 5.8 per cent in 30 years.
The rural-farm would continue to lose, not quite so rapidly as
it did between 1920 and lººC), but nevertheless would change
much faster than the urban or rural non-farm divisions.
When combined for the State, these estimates show the popu-
lation increasing slowly but at a rate greatly reduced from the
1920-1930 one. After 1940 the gains are estimated to be still
smaller until in 1955 when the maximum of 10,410,500 is reach-
ed. By 1960 the total would drop to 10,410, 200, indicating that
the decline would be much slower than the gain. These estimates
are set forth in an accompanying table,
Of the two sets of estimates computed by Dr. Thompson, the
second seems preferable. As has been pointed out, prior to 1930,
32
Pennsylvania was greatly affected by interstate migration and
since that time, it has played no less a part in determining
the location of the State's population. The estimate which
include: such an important factor would appear to be more
accurate • The suburban movement which was in evidence in
l930 indicated a continued growth in the urban and rural non-
farm divisions of the State. It was predicted that the large
urban centers would increase less rapidly and the future urban
growth would be found in the smaller communities adjacent to
the large cities • A steady rural non-farm growth was indicat-
ed. The strictly rural counties which were not gaining in l930
were likely to continue in the same direction while the rural
sections in the vicinity of large cities were likely to gain
as they had prior to 1930. All of these movements appear to
be included in this estimate •
The data concerning the reversal of trends since 1930,
especially those affecting the larger cities and the rural
sections, were not available when Dr. Thompson's study was
made. While it is true that they probably are temporary, they
have been so far-reaching that they will noticeably "slow up"
the future increases for the State. The losses in the urban
sections during 1930 to l934, even if they did not continue any
longer, would cause the urban growth of the next few years to
be retarded. The unusual increases in the rural sections in
the last four years would moderate the downward trend in those
areas. Migration from the State recently has been greater than
33
in past years • The number of births has fallen rapidly but
the deaths have decreased more slowly,
For these reasons it is believed that the future population
Of Pennsylvania lies between the estimate based upon school -
census and that of Dr. Thompson, assuming interstate migration,
although it probably will be nearer the latter figures. Pennsyl-
vania's maximum population will be reached probably between
1955 and 1960, with slightly more than lo,000,000 persons.
If all the trends continue as indicated and if these esti-
mates are sound, Pennsylvania may expect:
l. To gain approximately 700,000 in the next 20 years,
as compared with l,966,000 in the last two decades,
showing that the slowing up in the rate of increase
for the State will continue. -
2. The birth rate to decline about one-third by 1960;
death rate to decline slowly for a shorter period
and then rise as the population grows older.
3. To continue to lose more than it gains by interstate
migration •
4. Fewer children and more adults especially in the older
age groups, actually and proportionately, than hereto-
fore •
5. A more uniform population due to the decline in the
number of foreign-born.
6. The larger cities not to gain as rapidly as the areas
around them, the rural non-farm to gain steadily while
34
the poorer farm land continues to lose.
All of these are factors which will affect the educational,
industrial and social activities of Pennsylvania and must be con-
sidered in long-term planning.
POPULATION ESTIMATES*,
1935-1960
Estimate Based on - -
Thompson's Estimate Based on
School Census No Migration Interstate Migration
1935 9,682.6 9,912.5 . 9,861.3
1940 9,734.0 10, 173.5 10,057.4
1945 9,783.9 10,416.9 10, 224.2
1950 9,837.7 10,620.6 10,348.6
1955 9,890.2 10,751.6 10,410.5
1960 9,942.6 10,808.3 10,410.2
* In thousands.
35.
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PHYSIOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA
LAND SURFACE REGIONS.
I. POSITION, FORM AND SIZE.
A.
B.
Position
Pennsylvania's position is near the northeastern
corner of the United States between 399–43'-26" and 429
North Latitude. Pennsylvania is called the "Keystone"
state because it held the center position in the origi-
nal thirteen states . At present it belongs to the
Middle Atlantic States which includes two adjoining
states, New Jersey and New York.
Form
Pennsylvania is nearly rectangular in shape. The
northern, southern and western boundaries are regular.
In the northwest corner is a small triangle that ex-
tends forward to Lake Erie. This small section was
bought from the United States government to give the
State an outlet to the Great Lakes. The eastern boun-
dary, formed by the Delaware River, is irregular, and
the boundary between Pennsylvania and Delaware forms
the arc of a circle •
Size
* The area of the State is 45,126 square miles or a
total of 28,880,640 acres. The land surface area is
44,832 square miles, and the water surface 294. New
York is larger than Pennsylvania by 5,000 square miles,
-37-
but Pennsylvania is more than twice as large as New
Jersey, Maryland and Delaware put together.
II. ORIGIN OF PENNSYLVANIA RELIEF.
It is estimated that 600 million years ago, Pennsylvania
was part of an inland sea. Into the sea were being washed
mud, gravels, sands and limy materials mainly from the south-
east. The sea bottom rose and sank, but in the main, sink-
ing dominated and finally reached so great a depth that 30,
000 feet of rock material has accumulated in southeastern
Pennsylvania, but thinning to half of that or less in north-
western Pennsylvania. The great weight of the overlying lay-
ers, and the action of water changed the sediments to rock,
sands to sandstone, gravels to conglomerate, mud to shale,
and limy deposits to lime stone. At the end of the carbon-
fiferous age of coal, this great mass of rocks was subjected
to a great pressure from the southeast. Some of the rocks
were heaved into great folds or crushed. In the eastern
part of the State, the rocks were pushed westward, shorten-
ing the underlying rock by one or two hundred miles •
The great rock folds were believed to have reached a
height comparable with the Alps or Andes of today. Then
followed several million years of erosion, during which
time the mountains were wearing down to a plane but little
above sea level. The final stage in the formation of Penn-
sylvania's relief features has been brought about by a suc-
cession of broad uplifts with long stops between the several
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III.
uplifts, and the gradual wearing down of the softer rocks
into valleys and the harder rocks forming the ridges.
The level top of the ridges and plateaus tell of a time
long ago when they were part of a plain lying but little a-
bove sea level. Erosion is taking place constantly by water
passing over the land surface and although not so noticeable,
the action of water, heat and cold on the land surface is
gradually breaking up the mountain ridges, each year bring-
ing the land surface as a whole nearer the level of the sea.
PHYSIOGRAPHIC OR LAND SURFACE REGIONS
Pennsylvania is divided into three large and two small
Physiographic Regions :-
a. The Piedmont Plateau
b. The Ridge and Valley Region
c. The Allegheny Plateau, which is part of
the Appalachian Plateau
d. The Pennsylvania part of the Atlantic
Coastal Plain -
e. The Lake Erie Plain. Each of the three
major regions have their area divided
into sections which are discussed
separately.
A. PIEDMONT PLATEAU
The Piedmont Plateau occupies the southeastern part
of the State and includes about one-ninth of the entire
area. It takes in all the land from the Coastal Plain
to the Ridge and Walley Regions.
This broad undulating Plateau rises gradually from
the Coastal Plain to the base of South Mountain. Above
the level of its comparatively smooth surface rise numer-
-39-
ous hills and low ridges of swelling outline. While the
Plateau rises northward there is a gradual ascent south-
westward. (See Gontour lap.)
The Plateau is divided into three sections; Lowland
and Hill Section; Limestone Valleys and Piedmont High-
lands.
a. Lowland and Hill Section
b.
This section has many rounded hills and shallow
valleys with occasional knobs and low ridges. The
rock structure that forms this region is red shale,
sandstone and traprock. Much of the soil is thin
and not productive.
Lime stone Valleys Section
This area is a broad lowland, gently rolling,
with a few low hills. The valleys are underlaid
with lime stone which has weathered into soil rich
in plant food. Most of this section is located in
Lancaster County which has some of the richest
farm lands in the United States.
Piedmont Highlands Section.
The greater part of this area is rolling into
hilly with steep slopes along the streams. The
valleys dissected by streams are, for the most part,
labar"I"OWe
The Piedmont Plateau is one of the most
favored regions in the State. It is traversed by:
-40-
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• • • • • •
n v s i v T a







the Delaware, Susquehanna and Schuylkill Rivers
and many tributaries.
The climate is temperate and well suited for
human activity. The fertile son produces abundant
crops and the large municipalities within its bounds
are a ready market for all its products.
B. RIDGE AND WALLEY Region
This section includes the Pennsylvania section of the
Great Valley or Lehigh, Lebanon and Cumberland Valleys and
Pennsylvania's sections of the Appalachian Mountains known
as the Ridge and Walley Belt. About one-fourth of the
State area is included in this region.
a. Lehigh, Lebanon and Cumberland Walley Section.
Bounded on the south by the South Mountains,
and on the north by the Kittatinny or Blue Mountain
lies a broad area varying in breadth from ten to
twenty miles and extending across the southeastern
part of the State from Northampton County on the
east to Franklin County in the South. The southern
section is called Cumberland Walley, the central
Lebanon Walley and the eastern Lehigh Walley. The
valley has the character of an undulating or rolling
plain. At present the Valley is a well cleared
highly cultivated district. Its northern side is
somewhat hilly and broken, but its middle and south-
ern belts are smooth, fertile and well tilled.
- 41-
b.
Most of the Walley land is susceptible of
cultivation and is underlaid with lime stone which
has disintegrated into a loamy soil high in lime
content. Though certain parts of the valley near
the northern boundary of Lehigh, Berks and Leb-
snon Counties are somewhat hilly and broken, it
is nowhere interrupted by rugged and lofty ridges.
Ridge and Walley Section -
This section extends from the Blue Mountains
to the Allegheny Mountain Or escarpment of the
Allegheny Plateau and is from thirty to fifty miles
wide. The chain of ridges in this section is long
and narrow, running parallel to each other and
separated by a few broad and many narrow valleys.
The ridges sometimes end quite abruptly in
the form of knobs, while others taper off into the
valleys in long slender points. The slopes of
these mountains are generally uniform and are not
broken by ravines or gullies for many miles. The
ridges vary in height from 1300 to 1600 feet
above sea level along Blue Mountain. Many of the
mountains, however, do not reach the se heights.
Several of the valleys between the mountains are
broad and flat, while others have small ridges and
hills. The scenery when viewed from the crest of
some of the higher ridges is quite picturesque. As
~42-
- far as the eye can see there is ridge after
ridge covered with timber. Looking northeast
or southwest there is a picture of long reced-
ing valleys dotted with farms, patches of wood-
land and streams.
This whole mountain chain is the result of
the elevation of the rock strata into great
folds of long slender parallel waves and the
erosion or wearing away of the softer rock
material between th. folds by streams. Some of
these mountains are arranged in groups with
long, narrow crests in a straight line for great
distances, while others bend in a general curve
to the northeast and southwest. In many instances
the crests of ridges come together at their ex-
tremities and inclose a narrow oval valley
resembling the shape of a canoe. Interspersed
among the narrower ridges are tracts of land,
broad and flat, and at the same height as the
narrow crested mountains. These areas have many
large rocks and are covered by scrub growths.
There are many water gaps where the rivers have
cut through the mountains. These are seen by
studying the Relief map.
The general direction of travel through this
section is northeast and southwest except where the
-43-
rivers have cut through the ridges, thence the
direction is north and south.
The relief of the Ridge and Valley section
is characterized by three classes of features :
the river channels with their associated level
bottom; the upland or general level of the valley
which is more or less cut into rounded hills of
nearly equal elevation; and the ridges which also
in a general way rise to a uniform altitude.
The two classes of rocks which form this
section are quartz rocks and limerocks. There
are many varieties differing in composition,
color and texture; but they all fa ll into the
two great classes of the quartz rocks and the lime
rocks. The soluble lime rocks occur in the lower
slopes of the ridges and valleys. The insoluble
quartz rocks forms the crests of the ridges.
C. ALLEGHENY PLATEAU REGION
The Allegheny Plateau, a part of the Appalachian
Plateau, covers about two-thirds of the state and includes
the entire are north and west of the Ridge and Walley
Section except the Lake Erie Plain.
The Allegheny Plateau is divided into five sections:
a. Allegheny Mountain Section
b. Eastern Glaciated Section
c. High Plateau Section -
d. Western Glaciated Section
.e. Pittsburgh Section
a. Allegheny Mountain Section
This section of the plateau is mountain-
ous. in character. Entering Pennsylvania from
the south and passing through Somerset and -
Fayette Counties are three parallel ranges.
Through Somerset County on the east passes
Allegheny Mountain; on the border of Somerset
and Fayette Counties is the Laurel Ridge, and
a short distance westward, Chestnut Ridge.
These mountains are the highest in the state.
Mt. Negro in Somerset County reaches a height
of 3200 feet. . There are other places in this
area that exceed 3000 feet and most of the
highland between the mountains is above 2500
feet. As these mountain ranges extend north-
ward, their elevations gradually be come Smaller.
In Clearfield County, Chestnut Ridge loses its
mountainous character and is replaced by a broad
upland running across the northern part of the
county.
The Allegheny Mountain likewise breaks
down in eastern Centre, Clinton and Lycoming
Counties into smaller ranges with many wide
valleys. In the northeastern part of this sec-
tion, in Sullivan and Wyoming Counties, the moun-
tains again rise to nearly 2600 feet and have
-45-
many narrow valleys.
The ridges and hills between them have
rounded summits and comparatively gentle slopes
except where the streams have cut deep into the
hillsides. The mountains and hills are covered
with second growth timber, while the broad
valleys, being fertile, have many productive farms.
Eastern Glaciated Section.
The eastern glaciated section is bolder in
relief and has greater number of lakes than the
western glaciated section. The Pocono Plateau
in this section is about 1900 to 2200 feet above
sea level and covers, a broad area underlaid by
nearly horizontal rock layers.
The eastern portion of this section has many
rounded hill tops and water falls where the streams
_leave the plateau entering the valleys below.
The northern part has many deep valleys, some
having broad bottom lands.
The North Branch of the Susquehanna flows
through this section and has cut many gaps through
the low hills.
There are numerous lakes especially in Sus-
quehanna, Wayne and Pike counties which were form-
ed for the most part by the blocking-up of the
valleys and ravines by the glacial drift, thus
-46-
d.
closing the outlets of the streams.
This rolling and hilly surface with its
many valleys, lakes, waterfalls and forests has
become a retreat for hundreds of vacationers
seeking recreation and cool highlands surround-
ing the many lakes.
High Plateau Section.
* This section of the Allegheny Plateau region
has broad highlands and many deep cut narrow
valleys from 300 to 1400 feet deep. The eastern
half of this northern plateau has several long par-
allel mountains, having the structure of an ele-
vated flat basin. While the general surface of
the main table-land and its mountain spurs is
comparatively level, the hill slopes are extreme-
ly steep.
The hilltop surface gradually increases in
elevation from the Pittsburgh section to an ele-
vation of 2000 feet or more in Warren, McKean and
Potter Counties. The greater part of this
region is covered with timber and sparsely in-
habited. Agriculture is carried on a small scale,
since the soil is not very productive and the
growing season is shorter than in the southern
counties.
Western Glaciated Section.
47
6 e
This section which is covered with a thin
sheet of glacial drift rises from lloo to 1300
feet along the Ohio border to 2000 feet in Warren
County. It is a gentle undulating or rolling
region with many broad divides, moderately deep
ravines, lakes and many swamps. There are many
interconnecting valleys which at present do not
have streams running through them. The surface
is most rugged near the Allegheny River, and the
valleys are cut quite deep.
Pittsburgh Section
The area west of Chestnut Ridge and south
of the high plateaus and glaciated section has
been cut by many streams. The valleys are V
shaped, and the hills all rise to about the same
elevation. The hills are lowest in the south-
western part of the state. Through Pittsburgh
and extending northwest and southeast, the eleva-
tions are from 1200 to 1400 feet above sea level.
From this level the elevation gradually rises to
l600 feet in the southwest corner of the state
and northeastward from Pittsburgh rise with
uniformity to 1600 feet above sea level south-
western Venango, Clarion and Indiana Counties.
The rock strata is harder in the northern
part of this section which has produced broader
48
D.
ridges and narrow valleye than those farther
south. From the hilltops the horizon has the
appearance of a flat plain similar to the prairie
regions in the Central States. The great bitu-
minous coal deposits, oil and natural gas fields
are located in this section.
COASTAL PLAIN
In the southeastern corner of the state along the
Delaware River in Bucks, Philadelphia and Delaware coun-
ties is a narrow strip of land known as the Coastal
Plain. It is flat lowland close to sea level. The
soils are largely sandy loams. The western boundary
of this section is marked by the Piedmont Highlands,
where the river flows from the narrow valleys or the -
eastern •es of the hioiana. out into the lower level
of the Coastal Plaine
LAKE ERIE SECTION
This narrow section lies between th. watershed of
the Ohio and the shore of Lake Erie. It descends rather
rapidly from the watershed to the lake by a succession
of rather steep slopes. The elevation of the watershed
to the south is nearly 1200 feet and at the lake about
600 feet above sea level. There are numerous ravines
and narrow and steep valleys carrying its waters to
the lake. A cross section southward from the lake has
the appearance of a series of broad steps. On the
49
Lake shore there are cliffs from 80 to 100 feet high,
then a broad flat a mile or more wide, then a rise of
20 to 40 feet, followed by another flat which ends in a
sharp rise. In western Erie County there are three such
flat areas, each representing an old lake botton and
shore line. Lake Erie at one time was much larger than
it is now and land along the enor. shows unmistakable
signs of having been lake bottom,
50
DRAINAGE
Pennsylvania is divided hydrographically into six drainage
basins. * |
l. Delaware Basin •
2. Susquehanna Basin
3. Potomac Basin
4. Genesee Basin
5. Erie Basin
6. Ohio Basin
Sec. Fig. Drainage basins.
The State has three important river systems: The Delaware
in the east, the Susquehanna in the middle, and the Ohio in the
west; while smaller areas drain into the Potomac River in the
middle south, into Lake Erie in the northwest, and into Lake
Ontario through the Genesee River, in the middle north section.
Precipitation in Pennsylvania finds its way into the At-
lantic Ocean by the Delaware, Susquehanna and Potomac Rivers,
through Delaware and Chesapeake Bays; by the Allegheny and
Monongahela into the Ohio and thence into the Mississippi River
and Gulf of Mexico; other streams discharge into Lake Erie and .
Lake Ontario and flow through the St. Lawrence River and Gulf of
St. Lawrence into the Atlantic Ocean.
In an area of less than one square mile near the center of
Potter County, rivulets find their origin, leading eventually to
the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence by way of the Genesee
River, to Chesapeake Bay by way of the Susquehanna River and to
the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Allegheny River.
1. DELAWARE BASIN
The Delaware Basin occupies the eastern portion of the State
and includes all the area in Pennsylvania draining into the Dela-
51
ware River.
The principal streams draining this basin are: Delaware
River, Lackawaxen River, Lehigh River and Schuylkill River,
a. Delaware River
The east and west branches have their headwaters in
the Catskill Mountains of eastern New York, at an elevation
of about 1900 feet and unite at Hancock, New York, on the
Pennsylvania - New York boundary, to form the main stream
at an elevation of 895 feet.
The course of the stream is irregular. The topography
is mountainous in the northern part of the basin which lies
within the glaciated area, abounding in lakes and pond 8.
Along the eastern boundary of Wayne and Pike counties the
precipitous slopes of this high table land finally emerge
into a broad, open valley. The river cuts through the
Kittatinny Range at Delaware Water Gap and continues across
the plain to South Mountain below East on. At Trent on the
river is bordered by hills and valleys and drains the low,
gently rolling land of the Piedmont Plateau.
The river channel is generally swift and shallow, flow-
ing over bed rock with numerous riffles separating pools.
At Trenton an eight foot fall occurs which limits the tidal
effect extending to this point; the river has been improved
for navigation from this point southward.
The total length of the Delaware is 375 miles. In
Pennsylvania the West Branch flows a distance of seven miles
52
PRIMARY DRAINAGE BASINS
PROPORTIONAL PART OF PENNSYLVANIA OCCUPIED BY EACH
OH |O 34.5 º'c
D E LAWARE
14.3 °ſo
S US QUE HAN NA
46.4 ºo
E R E i. i. ºo --------r-
G E N E SEE. O. 2°º ------- -l
BASIN º
DE LAWARE 6,460
SUSQUEHANNA 20,9 7
POTOMAC 1,570
se NESEE 9 6
ER I E 5 || 2
OH iO 15,571
TOTAL 4 5,126
S
Fe
FIGURE NO.

along the New York – Pennsylvania boundary and then con- #
nects with the East branch forming the main stream which
has a length of 248 miles. - #
* The total drainage area is l2,912 square miles. In
New York, 2,650 square miles; in New Jersey, 2,345 Square
miles; in Pennsylvania, 6,460 square miles embracing all of
8 counties and portions of 9 counties in the eastern end of
the state.
b. Lackawaxen River
This stream flows through broken, mountainous
country containing numerous small lakes, ponds and swamps
in portions of Wayne, Lackawanna, Monroe and Pike count-
ies and enters the . Delaware River at Lackawaxen.
The length of the stream is twenty-seven miles and
has a drainage area of 602.8 square miles. The river
channel is over a rocky bed, between steep banks, and
has a deep gorge with cereases in its lower course.
c. Lehigh River
The Lehigh River has its source in southwestern
Wayne County and drains an area of 1,373 square miles,
embracing portions of Wayne, Lackawanna, Monroe,
Luzerne, Carbon, Schuylkill, Berks, Northampton and
Lehigh counties. The length of the river is loo miles
and enters the Delaware at Easton.
The basin above Lehigh Gap lies within the Ridge
and Valley Region with its parallel ridges and narrow
53,
valleys. Below Blue Mountain the basin lies in a
broad rolling agricultural section,
The river channel has high and rocky banks, es-
pecially in its upper course; between White Haven
and Mauch chunk it is like a gorge. The waste from
coal mines deposit great quantities of culm in the
rivere
de Schuylkill River
The source of the Schuylkill River is in schuylkill
County at an elevation of l, lé0 feet. The course of the
river is southeasterly a alatas, of 131 miles, The mouth
is at League Island, Navy Yard below Philadelphiae
The drainage area contains l, 915 square miles, em-
bracing portions of somyian, carbon, Lehigh, Berks,
Lebanon, Chester, Montgomery, Bucks, Delaware and
Philadelphia Counties. The area drained in Schuylkill
County is mountainous; at Hamburg the river enters the
Great Walley and passes through Reading and south
Mountain. below which lies a broad, rich, rolling
agricultural plaine
2, SUSQUEHANNA RIVER BASIN
The Susquehanna River Basin is the largest drainage
basin in Pennsylvania. The water-shed lies in four phys-
tographie divisions, Allegheny Plateau, lá,400 square
miles; Ridge and Walley section, 8,500 square miles; Great
Walley, l,700 square miles; Pigmont Plateau, l,800 square
miles.
The Susquehanna basin has a total area of 27,400 square
miles. It comprises 20,917 Bouare miles in Pennsylvania or
over 46 per cent of the State area; 6,270 square miles in
New York; and 213 square miles in Maryland.
The principal streams in the Susquehanna basin are :
Susquehanna River and its North and West branches; Juniata
River and its Raystown and Frankstown branches. Each of
these streams have many tributaries of local importance.
a • Susquehanna River
The Susquehanna River is formed by the junction
of its North, and West branches at Northumberland,
Northumberland County. Below this point the river
drains an area of 9,320 square miles. It flows nearly
south between Northumberland, Dauphin and Lancaster
counties on the east and Snyder, Juniata, Perry,
Cumberland and York counties on the west, passing then
into Maryland and entering into Chesapeake Bay at its
northern extremity, a total distance of 128 miles, in
Pennsylvania ll? miles. Between Northumberland and
Harrisburg the river cuts through a series of parallel
mountain ridges forming many water gaps. The river from
Northumberland to a point about 12 miles below Columbia
is wide and shallow, averaging about a mile in width
and contains many rocky islands. About 25 miles above
the Pennsylvania - Maryland boundary the stream enters
55
a gorge where it becomes narrow and rapid and on either
g shore is for the most part flanked by rocky bluffs.
The main tributaries below Northumberland are:
Pennis Creek, Juniata River, Conodoguinet Creek, Swatara
Creek, and Conewago Creek.
(l). North Branch, Susquehanna River
The North Branch of the Susquehanna has its
source in Otsego Lake, Catskill Mountains, south-
eastern New York. 1. drains a total area of
ll, 277 square miles; in Pennsylvania, 5,007 square
miles, embracing portions of Potter, Tioga, Bradford,
Carbon, Susquehanna, Wayne, Lackawanna, Wyoming,
Sullivan, Lycoming, Columbia, Luzerne, Schuylkill,
Montour and Northumberland counties. The total length
of the North Branch is 316 miles, in Pennsylvania lö5
miles. The river drains a rolling broken country in
New York. In Pennsylvania, it drains a mountainous
region and is confined to a narrow valley between
ridges. The northern part abounds in lakes and ponds
of glacial origin. The North Branch drains the great
Lackawanna and Wyoming coal basin which extends from
Nanticoke on the southwest to Carbondale on the north-
east. The river channel is tortuous in many places,
through gravel, aand and boulders, between high banks
and containing many islands. The stream is polluted
56
with coal waste forming deposits of culm in the
channel.•
The main tributaries of the North Branch
are: Chemung River, Tioga River, Tunkhannock
Creek, Lackawanna River, and Fishing Creeke
(2). West Branch, Susquehanna River
The West Branch of the Susquehanna rises
in Cambria County at an elevation of l;990 rest
and drains an area of 6,913 square miles, embrac-
ing portions of Cambria, Clearfield, Center, Elk,
Cameron, Potter, Clinton, Columbia, Tioga, Indiana,
Jefferson, Lycoming, Bradford, McKean, Sullivan,
Montour, Northumberland, Union and Wyoming counties.
The total length of the river is 228 miles, and drops
to an elevation of 430 feet at Northumberland. The
West Branch drains the high tablelands of the -
plateau region and has formed deep trenches in the
horizontal strata. From clearfield to Lock Haven
the country is rough and rugged, with much of the
country covered with timber. From Lock Haven to
its mouth it drains many agricultural valleys, and
mountains. The channel is tortuous in its upper
course, having gravel and sand beds with rocky
ledges in many places, and then becomes narrow,
flanked with high steep hills and with very little
bottom land. From Lock Haven to Muncy the river
57
winds through a wide cultivated valley, flanked
with steep wooded ridges, and southwest of Muncy
the river crosses a belt or deeply eroded "country,
full of conical hills.
The main tributaries to the West Branch are:
Clearfield Creek, Sinnemahoning Creek, Bald Eagle
Creek, Pine Creek, and Loyalsock Creek.
b. Juniata River
The Juniata River is formed by the junction of its
Raystown and Frankstown Branches near Huntington, Hunt-
ington County. The drainage area contains 3,426 square
miles, embracing portions of Somerset, Bedford, Fulton,
Franklin, Cambria, Juniata, Snyder and Perry counties.
Its length from near Huntington to its mouth at Juniata
Bridge is 86 miles. The basin lies within the Ridge and
Valley Section. The main valley is narrow, made up of
troughs between parallel ridges, and gaps where the river
has cut through the mountains. The river channel is
rocky, high and steep banks rise abruptly from the Water,
permitting little bottom land to be overflowed during
freshets.
(l). Frankstown Branch, Juniata River
The Frankstown Branch of the Juniata rises in
Blair County at an elevation of l; 164 feet. The
drainage area contains 99.78 square miles embracing
portions of Bedford, Cambria, Blair, Center and
58
Huntington counties • Its length is fifty-six
miles. The basin lies in the Ridge and Walley
section and the channel has rough rocky beds, flanked
with steep banks.
(2) Raystown Branch, Juniata River
The Raystown Branch of the Juniata has its source
in Bedford County at an elevation of l; l’8 feet. The
drainage area is l, Ol2 square miles, embracing portions
of Somerset, Cambria, Blair, Fulton, Bedford and Hunt-
ington counties. Its length is lo& miles. The basin
lies in the Ridge and Valley section and its channel
is through rough and rocky gorges and bordered with
narrow flood plains in many places.
35, POTOMAC BASIN
The Potomac Basin occupies the middle southern portion
of the state and includes all the area in Pennsylvania drain-
ing into the Potomac. River, embracing portions of Franklin,
Bedford, Fulton, Adams, Somerset and Cumberland counties.
The total area drained in Pennsylvania is l,570 square
miles. The streams in this basin drain small areas. The
largest area drained in this basin by any of the streams
in Pennsylvania is 499 square miles, which is drained by
Conococheague Creek.
4e GENESEE BASIN
The Genesee Basin occupies a small part of the middle
northern portion of the state, in Potter County, and in-
59
cludes all the area in Pennsylvania draining into the
Genesee River.
a. Gene see River
This stream drains 96 square miles in Northern Potter
County of rough and hilly country with narrow valleys be-
tween steep hills. The total length of the river in
Pennsylvania is ll miles. The river flows northward
through New York into Lake Ontario.
5. ERIE BASIN
The Erie Basin occupies the northwestern corner of the
state and includes 512 square miles, all the area in Penn-
sylvania draining into Lake Erie, embracing portions of Erie
and Crawford counties.
The main stream draining this basin is Conneaut Creek
which drains 154 square miles in Crawford and Erie counties
and has a length of 35.5 miles in Pennsylvania. There are
many other smaller streams, the larger of these are Elk Creek
and Walnut Creek.
6. OHIO BASIN
The Ohio Basin occupies the western portion of the state
known as the Allegheny Plateau Region and includes lä, 571 square
miles, all the area draining into the Ohio River.
The principal streams draining this basin are: Ohio River,
Allegheny River and Monorgahela River, with their tributaries
French Creek, Clarion River, Kiskiminitas River, Youghiogheny
River and Beaver River.
60.
a • Ohio River
The Ohio River is formed by the junction of the Alle-
geheny and Monongahela Rivers at Pittsburgh at an elevat-
ion of 703 feet .
The total area drained w the Ohio in Pennsylvania is
lă, 57l square miles or 34.5 per cent of the total area of
the state, embracing all of fourteen and portions of 10
counties in the western part of the State.
The length of the Ohio to its mouth at Cairo, Illi-
nois where it enters the Mississippi River is 96.7 miles.
Its length in Pennsylvania is 39.4 miles.
The river channel is through a narrow valley flanked
with steep hills, and containing little lowland. The
channel is broad and shallow but has been improved for
navigation by a series of locks and dams, creating a .9
foot channel. -
(l). Beaver River
The Beaver River, tributary to the Ohio, has
its source formed by the junction of the Mahon-
ing and Shenango rivers in Lawrence County and
drains a total area of 3,040 square miles; in
Pennsylvania, 1,784 Square miles, embracing por-
tions of Crawford, Mercer, Butler, Lawrence,
Allegheny and Beaver counties. The river basin
above New Castle lies in the glaciated region
containing broad valleys, swamps, and lakes.
61
South to Wampum the valley is broad with wide flat
bottom and from this point to its Tmouth at Ro-
chester, the valley is narrower and gorge-iike
with many river terraces and rolling hills beyond.
Some of the tributaries in their lower courses cut
through deep narrow ravines. The channel in places,
has cliff banks that rise to 300 feet above the river,
at other places, broad river terraces are located be-
tween streams and steep hills. The length of the river
is 22 miles from the junction of the Mahoning and
Shenango rivers to its mouth.
b. Allegheny River
The Allegheny River is the principal tributary of
the Ohio and drains the northern part of the Allegheny
Plateau and the greater part of the western slope of
the Allegheny Mountains, embracing over one-fifth of the
area of the state and a part of the western end of New York.
The total area drained by the Allegheny is ll, 705 square
miles; in Pennsylvania, 9,771 square miles, embracing
portions of Erie, Warren, McKean, Potter, Crawford,
Wenango, Forest, Elk, Mercer, Clarion, Jefferson,
Clearfield, Butler, Armstrong, Indiana, Allegheny,
Westmoreland, Cambria, and Somerset counties. The
Allegheny Plateau region is for the most part a
highland C&rved deeply with many narrow steep-sided
Valleys. The areas east of the main stream are more
62
rugged in outline than those to the west. The
river drains the western glaciated section which
abounds in small lakes and swamps. The Continental
Divide forms the eastern margin of the Allegheny
Basin, extending to an elevation of 2,800 feet in
Somerset County,
The total length of the river from its source in
Potter County is 514 miles; its channel flows through
many narrow valleys with steep sides and little bottom
land. The river is improved for navigation 24 miles
from its mouth at Pittsburgh.
The main tributaries of the Allegheny are: French
Creek, clarion River and Kiskiminitas River.
(l). French Creek
French Creek, tributary to the Allegheny has
its source in southwestern New York and drains a
total area of 1,246 square miles; in Pennsylvania,
1,135 square miles, ºr sins portions of **,
Crawford, Mercer, and Wenango counties. The area
drained by French Creek is rolling country with
broad valleys and many lakes and swamps of glacial
origin. The total length of French Creek in Penn-
sylvania is 78 miles and has its mouth at Franklin,
Wenango County. The channel is through marshes,
swamps, deep pools, lakes and broad flats. The
banks are steeper and narrower in its lower course.
63
{2). Clarion River
Clarion River, tributary to the Allegheny has
its source in Elk County and drains a total area of
l, 231 square miles, embracing portions of McKean,
Elk, Jefferson, Forest and Clarion counties. The
river drains a dissected plateau of rough character,
with streams flowing in narrow steep-sided valleys
without bottom lands. The length of the river is
95 miles and has its mouth near Parkers Landing,
Clarion County. The ,channel is tortuous, bordered
with steep rocky banks.
(3). Kiskiminitas River (Including Conemaugh River)
Kiskiminitas River, tributary to the Allegheny,
has its source formed by the junction of little
Conemaugh River and Stony Creek at Johnstown, Cambria
County and drains a total area of 1,891 square miles,
embracing portions of Cambria, Somerset, Indiana,
Westmoreland and Armstrong counties. The land sur-
face drained by this river varies from a high, gently
rolling plateau at head waters with elevations up
to 2,800 feet, to a region less than 1,100 feet marked
by narrow steep sided valleys and with high intervening
ranges of mountains, through which some of the stream,
have cut narrow gorges. the length of the river is
78 miles and has its mouth at Freeport. The channel
is through shale, and sand-stone strata which forms
- (,4
steep banks, being gorge-like in many places.
Other areas have alluvial flood plains, upon
which many towns are located.
Monongahela River
Monongahela River, tributary to the Ohio, is formed
near Fairmont, West Virginia at an elevation of 858 feet
and flows northeasterly into Pennsylvania draining a total
area of 7,340 square miles; in Pennsylvania, 2,728
square miles; embracing portions of Greene, Fayette,
Somerset, Washington, Westmoreland and Allegheny count-
ies. The basin lies west of the Allegheny Mountains and
drains their slopes. The valleys in general are narrow
with steep hill sides. From Fairmont to the Pennsylvania
border the nine are close to the river and only a few
small areas of bottom land are found, but below that
point to the north there are a number of stretches
bordering the river for several miles. Near Pittsburgh
the flâts become ſnore extensive and in some cases are
one-half mile in width. The total length of the river
is 128 miles; in Pennsylvania, 91 miles. The channel
is through mountainous and hilly regions, carved in
shale and sandstone in the upper basin and in alluvial
clay and gravel in the lower basin. The main tributary
to the Morlongahela is the Youghioheny River.
a). Youghiogheny River
The sources of the Youghiogheny is in Prest-
65
on County, West virginia at an elevation of
2,900 feet. It flows northward into Pennsylvania
and drains a total area of l',752 square miles; in
Pennsylvania, l, 265 square miles, embracing por-
tions of Fayette, Somerset, Westmoreland and
Allegheny counties. The greater part of the basin
is rough and drains western slopes of the Alle-
gheny mountains. Many of the small tributaries
in the upper region, flow through deep, narrow
valleys with wooded slopes. The channel is through
mountainous and hilly regions, some places are very
rugged, the stream falling over ledges and boulders
that have dropped from the slopes. The total length
of the river is lz5 miles; in Pennsylvania, 83 miles.
The mouth of the river is at McKee sport where it
enters the Allegheny River.
CLIMATE
Pennsylvania's climate is divided into three sections:
eastern, central and westerne The eastern section comprises the
comparatively few counties in the eastern part of the State that
are drained by the Delaware River and its tributaries. The
central section comprises the large middle portion of the State
drained by the sequehanne River and its tributaries, and the
Potomac and Genesee river basins. The western section includes
the portion drained by the Ohio River and its tributaries and
the small area that drains into Lake Erie,
As Bestern Sections
Precipitation
Excessive rains are not infrequent, and amounts in excess
of 7, inches within 24 hours have been recorded on numerous
occasions • Stroudsburg received 7,50 inches in 4 hours on
August 1, 1913, Mauch chunk e-66 inches within a period of 24
hours on May 20–21, 1894, while Milford reported 9.78 inches in
less than 36 hourse. The excessive precipitation from coast
storms seldom extends inland beyond the first ridge of mount-
ains. The average precipitation for this section is approxi-
mately 46 inches per year, which is almost ideal from an agri-
cultural standpoint. The rains during the crop growing season
are usually ample and are fairly dependable e However, there
are occasional droughts which occur in July and August, but
not long enough to destroy the crops. The snowfall is moderate-
67
ly heavy in the northern counties, but is comparatively light
in the southern counties. Very little Bnow falls in the .
southern portion of the section after April 1, and in November
the snows are generally light and do not remain long on the
ground. A large part of the winter precipitation is rain or
rain and snow mixed. The average annual snowfall at Phila-
delphia is about 23 inches, the ground being mor covered an
average of 28 days during the winter season. In the central
and northern counties these figures are approximately doubled.
Temperature
Temperatures of 100° or higher are seldom recorded in
this section, but high relative humidity sometimes makes the
temperatures oppressive • During the hottest periods in summer
the wind movement is generally light and affords very little re-
lief. These periods are not often protracted beyond a week or
ten days, and frequently break up over night with fresh north-
east winds. The winters in the southern portion of the section
are mild, there being an average of less than 100 days with the
minimum temperature below the freezing point, while zerº tem-
peratures are not reached more than two or three times during
a winter season. The summer mean in the extreme southern por-
tion is about 73°, and the winter mean about 32°, while the
northern portion has a summer mean of about 66°, and the winter
mean about 23°. The extremes of temperature are greater in the
valleys than in the uplands. In the southern, or agricultural,
portion of the section, the first killing frosts of autumn
68
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usually occur about the middle or latter part of October, and
the last in spring are generally during April.
Winds
The prevailing winds are from the northwest in winter
and the southwest in summer, and the wind movement is generally
light or moderate.
Thunderstorm winds sometimes reach high velocities and do
considerable local damage, especially by the beating down of
grain and corn.
B. Central Section.
Precipitation
The average annual precipitation for the whole section is
40.74 inches. The snowfall is moderately heavy, averaging about
50 inches annually in the northern and from 35 to 40 in the
southern portion. There is a narrow belt along the western
border of the section where the average snowfall is above 60
inches. The last heavy snow of the season usually occurs in the
latter part of March, the average April snowfall being about one
inch. In autumn there is little snow before the middle of
November, and the November snowfall averages a little more than
2 inches. The southern portions of the section are subject to
severe thunderstorms; heavy local rains amounting to 5 or 6
inches in 24 hours and to as much as 8 or 9 inches for a single
storm have been recorded in many instances •
In the northern part of the section the growing season is
occasionally too short for some crops, especially corn, and
69
periods of summer drought are not uncommon. The average
annual precipitation for the northern region is 36 inches, which
is enough for those seasons when it happens to be well distri-
buted.
The central portion of this section, which includes most
of ridge and valley region, has an average precipitation of
about 42 inches. The valley lands are comparatively free from
damaging frosts and have a growing season nearly as long as that
of the southern counties.
The precipitation for the rolling southeastern portion of
the section is 42 inches per year, and fairly dependable.
Temperature
The mean temperature in this section decreases about 6°
from south to north. In the northern highlands the summer mean
is about 679 and the winter mean about 24°, while in the south-
eastern counties the summer mean is about 72° and the winter
mean about 30°.
Temperatures 100° or higher occur in the southern
counties practically every summer season, while mid-winter
temperatures of 20° to 25° below zero or lower are occasionally
recorded in the northern highlands and in the mountains south-
ward almost to the State line. Maximum temperatures of 90° or
higher are recorded an average of 10 days for each summer
season, while the average number of days with freezing is a
little more than 100. In the southeastern portion the last
killing frost in the spring usually occurs about the middle
70
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of April, and the first in autumn about the middle of October,
giving about 180 days for the growing season.
Winds
In the northern part of the section the winds are mainly
from the west and northwest,' and in the central and southern
parts mainly from the west and southwest.
C. Western Section
Precipitation
The average annual precipitation for this section is
nearly as great as that for the central and eastern sections,
but occurs as a rule in smaller amounts and at more frequent
intervals • Rainfalls in excess of 2.50 inches in 24 hours
are comparatively rare. The average annual precipitation for
the section is 42 inches, being generally heaviest in the
northern and southeastern counties and lightest along the
Ohio border. The snowfall is moderately heavy, and the snow
lies on the ground longer than it does in the eastern part
of the State. The average snowfall for the section is 50
inches. Heavy snows appear occasionally in the northern
counties as late as the middle of April.
Temperature
This section is subject to somewhat lower temperatures and
to more trequent and sudden changes than occur in the remainder
of the State, excepting the northern tier of counties. Tem-
peratures of 100° or higher are recorded in the southern portion
and there is an average of about 15 days annually with tempera-
71
tures of 90° or higher. The winters are moderately cold,
there being an average of 100 days or more with freezing
temperatures, while temperatures of 20° or more below zero
are recorded in the northern counties nearly every winter.
The summer mean in the northern counties is about 66°
and the winter mean 25°. In the southern portion the summer
mean is about 71° and the winter mean about 30°.
Winds
In Warren County on the north the prevailing winds are
from the northwest. In Indiana County south and southwest,
and Fayette County southwest. At Pittsburgh the prevailing
winds are west and northwest.
72
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AGRICULTURE*
Since the early settlement of Pennsylvania, agriculture
has been one of the leading industries of the state. At first,
the farms were practically self-sufficing, producing all the
necessities for Which the area was adapted. Very little pro-
duce was sold except a few cash crops such as tobacco and
wheat. As foreign trade increased and local industry de-
veloped more and more produce was needed to feed the rapidly
growing urban population. Today farming in Pennsylvania has
become more specialized and Inost of the production is for sale .
The estimated cash income of Pennsylvania farmers in 1933
was $170,776,000”. Of this amount more than $78,000,000 was
from dairy products and $26,000,000 from chickens and eggs.
All field crops accounted for a cash income of $30,000,000,
fruite $8,000,000, and truck, nursery and greenhouse products
$16,000,000.
In 1933, according to the Federal-State Crop Reporting
Service, Pennsylvania ranked ninth among all states in total
cash income from farm products sold. In the same year, it
‘ranked second in cash income from eggs, third in cash income
from chickens, potatoes and milk, and fifth in cash income from
apples. It also stood high in cash income from the production
*Trepared by Mr. David H. Walter, Land Planning Consultant for
Pennsylvania, National Resources Board •
**Federal-State Crop Reporting Service.
73
of greenhouse products and truck cropse
Physical Factors Arfecting Agriculture
"Crops that can be produced to advantage in any area alºë
basic to the types of farming in that area. These are greatly
affected by topography, growing season, and soil.
"Topography. The topography of the State is discussed else-
where in this report. The fairly level area in the southeast,
comprising about one-sixth of the total land in the State, con
tains nearly one-fourth of the land in farms. In the West and
north, crop land is limited to the valleys. Beyond these high
ridges, to the west and north is the Allegheny plateau. The
crop maps show how the kind, amount, and proportion of the
various crops grown have been affected to a large extent by the
topography •
"Length of Growing Season. Both the northwestern and south-
eastern extremes of the State are near large bodies of water
and have relatively low elevations. These features are asso-
ciated with growing seasons of l70 to 200 days. Between are
the mountain ranges and plateaus, with growing seasons as short
as 140 days in the south central part and 90 days in the north
central part. The shortest growing season is about the same
length as that in western Wyoming and Montana. The areas of
longest growing season are similar in this respect to Southern
Illinois and southeastern Kansas. The area of short growing
season is limited largely to the production of hay, pasture,
oats, buckwheat, corn for silage and potatoes • The areas
74
of long growing season have a large part of their crop acreage
in corn for grain and winter wheat.
"Rainfall. In normal years, rainfall is adequate to produce
good crops. The State, as a whole, has 35 to 50 inches of
rainfall in an average year. The areas of heaviest rainfall
are in the southeastern part and on the western slopes of the
Anesian, Mountains; here the annual rainfall exceeds that of
Illinois by 10 to lö inches.
"Soil. Reconnaissance soil surveys of Pennsylvania were made
from 1908 to l8l?. The results are combined in one map. More
detailed surveys for 18 counties have been published. The
accompanying figure shows la of the most important soil types.
The value of any type of soil for farming depends in part on
whether it is clay, loam, silt, sand, gravel, stone or some
combination of these textures. Considerable areas of the De-
kalb soil series, which predominates through the mountainous
area and west to the last tier of counties in the northern half
of the State, owing to the high stone content, degree of
acidity and low amount of plant food elements, are unsuited for
farming. In general, the Dekalb soils are not so useful for
farming as the Hagerstown, Chester and other soils in the south-
eastern, or the Westmoreland soils in the southwestern part of
the State. The Volusia soils of the northwestern and north-
eastern parts of the State are poorly drained in some areas.
Oats, buckwheat, hay and pasture are less sensitive to lack of
drainage than is corn, consequently they predominate on the
75
Volusia soil types." *
Soil Acidity. A study of the lime requirements of the soils
of Pennsylvania shows the highest degree of acidity in the
northern counties. In these counties, where liming has not
been practiced, applications of over two tons per acre now are
necessary to obtain the most satisfactory crop yields. South
of this area along the Appalachian Mountains and in the western
part of the state, the requirements are considerably less.
ranging from one-half to two tons per acre. The highly pro-
ductive soils of southeastern Pennsylvania have a natural supply
of limestone and usually require only limited amounts. The
cost of lime, especially in the northern area, is a limiting
factor in crop production.
TMARKETS FOR FARM PRODUCTS
"Next to the physical features, which determine what the
farms can produce, available markets are the most potent factor
in determining what is grown. An accompanying figure shows the
population per square mile of farm land in various sections of
the State. The area of farm land includes all land in farms,
whether in crops, pasture, Woodland or Waste. It also shows
the amount paid out annually by the industries, in salaries and
wages, per square mile of farm land. Thus, in the upper half
of the anthracite coal area, comprising Lackawanna and Luzerne
*Emil Rauthenstein and F. P. Weaver, Fennsylvania Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin 305.
76
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Counties, there was paid in salaries and wages. in industry
$416,000 for every 640 acres of land in farms. In the south-
eastern area, comprising five counties with 1,356 square miles
of farm land, the industrial salaries and wages amounted to
$412,000 for every square mile of farm land. These two areas
had, for each square mile of land in farms, from 1,600 to 2,000
non-farm people as purchasers of the farm products. contrast
with these areas the six counties in northeastern Pennsylvania,
which have only 54 non-farm people and only $3,000 of salaries
and wages in industry per square mile of farm land. This area
has no city of 20,000 people or over, while the other two areas,
with only slightly more than half as much ferm land, have nine
such cities, one of almost 2,000,000 and three of over 50,000.
"These differences in population and industrial develop-
ment have had a profound effect on the types. of farming
possible in each district. The northeastern area has very
limited local outlets for products, but its relative nearness
to the metropolitan area of New York and New Jersey makes
possible an extensive fluid milk development. Farming in the
southern portion of this area is affected by proximity to the
anthracite coal mines. While there are striking differences in
the soil, topography and climate of the northeastern and south-
eastern areas, the relative capacity of available markets
accounts, in part, for the fact that the former produced farm
products worth only about $16 for every acre of land in farms,
and the latter $42.
77
"The second largest center of population in the State is
Pittsburgh. An area, comprising approximately four and one-
hair counties, surrounding Pittsburgh had almost l,000 people
and paid over $220,000 in industrial wages for each of the
2,000 square miles of farm land. The second ionºt areas in
population and in industrial production per acre of farm land
are in central Pennsylvania, the extreme northeast, and in the
southwest, where several counties have from 80 to ll:5 people
and from $10,000 to $14,000 of industrial payroll per square
mile of land in farms.
"No part of the State is over 200 miles from some market
of considerable capacity, but the areas adjacent to these mar-
kets have decided advantages over those lCO to 200 miles away.
This has led to differences in types of farming. The best mar-
ket opportunity for milk, eggs, fruits and other cash crops,
for a few farmers, exists near the many small cities in the
State where competition, with produce shipped in by rail is less
severe. The capacity of these cities for such products is
limited and production is easily overdone; only near the large
centers of population have the majority of farmers, because of
growing opportunity to sell cash crops and livestock products,
made changes in their type of business to such a degree as to
show in a statistical analysis of census data.”
*Emil Rauthenstein and F. F. Weaver, Fennsylvania Agricultural
Experiment Station Bullet in 305.
78
LAND USE IN PENNSYLVANIA
Total Land Area in Farms. The total land area of Pennsylvania
is approximately 28,692,000 acres. Slightly over 53 per cent
in l930 was classed as farm land. The remaining 47 per cent
was largely in urban centers and forests. As the physical
features and markets would indicate the highest percentages of
land in farms occur in the southeastern and Western areas.
The area of lowest percentage in farm land is in Cameron, Elk
and Forest Counties. Only 8.4 per cent of the total land in
Cameron County was farm land in 1930, compared to 88.5 per cent
and 85.9 per cent in farm land for Greene and Lancaster Counties,
respectively. The low percentage of farm land along the
Appalachian Mountains is due to the presence of considerable
rough land unsuitable for farming.
Crop Land. Farm land is classified by the census into crop
land, pasture land, WQod land not pastured, and all other land.
Crop land includes all areas that had been devoted to harvested
crops, crop failures and idle or fallow land. Twenty-seven per
cent of the total land area of Pennsylvania and 5l per cent of
the farm land in 1929 was in crop land.
The distribution of the percentage of total land area in
crop land corresponds, somewhat closely to the percentage dis-
tribution of total land area in farm land. Physical conditions
..and types of farming are largely responsible for the difference.
The southeastern area has by far the greatest percentage
79
of its area in crop land. In Lancaster County, 63 per cent of
the total land area was in crops. The soil is very fertile,
there is very little rough land, and the county is located near
large markets. In Greene County, southwestern Pennsylvania,
the per cent of land in crops is 25 or slightly below the State
average • Here the type of farming and the rolling topography
requires a large amount of pasture land. Cameron County and
the area surrounding it are low in acreage of crop land. The
rough mountainous topography and the poor soil types are
largely responsible • Only 2 per cent of the entire area of
Cameron County was in crops in 1929.
Pasture Lands. The total amount of pasture land as given by
the lºo census was 4,576, 192 acres or 50 per cent of the entire
area in farm land. This amounts to two-thirds of the area in
hapvested crops. The accompanying figure shows the distribu-
tion and amount of pasture land by minor civil divisions • The
areas that clearly stand out as important are the southwestern
and northwestern areas and the northern tier of counties east
of McKean County. In the southwestern corner of the State
sheep raising is the predominating type of farming, which re-
quires extensive pastures • Another reason for a large percent-
age of pasture land is the serious damage by erosion on the
steep hillsides under any form of cropping. The soil in the
northern area is adapted to pasture production • As a conse-
quence, dairymen must rely upon the home grown hay and pasture
and purchased grains to feed their livestock. The southeastern
80
TOTAL LAND AREA IN FARMS.
BY TOW N SH | P.S.
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area has limited acreages of pasture land but are capable of
reading more units of livestock per acre •
Other Land. Land not classed as either crop land or pasture
land makes up 19 per cent of the total land area in farms. This
area consists of wood land not pastured -- rough, stony, and
swampy land unfit for any particular use. The percentage of
this land is highest where the percentage of farm land is
lowest.
LAND IN CROPS
A wide variety of both field and truck crops are grown in
Pennsylvania. Many of them are grown in all sections of the
State while others are limited to definite arease Only a few
of the more important and widely grown crops will be discussed.
Gorn. According to the census figures, almost 19 per cent of
the total crop. acreage in 1929 was in corn. Of this, 77 per
cent was cut for grain and 18.5 per cent for silage. The bal-
ance was hogged down or cut for fodders
The heaviest production of corn for grain is in the south-
eastern section and along the two branches of the Susquehanna
River. In the southwestern area the corn crop is not so
important and is still less so in the northern part of the
State • The shorter growing season and cool weather limite the
amount of corn that can be grown to maturity in the northern
counties •
Introduction of the silo has meant a more even distribution
of corn acreage throughout the State • Dairy farms in the
8l
northern areas are able to utilize the corn economically for
dairy feed in the form of silage. For this reason a much higher
percentage of the crop land in this section is in corn for sil-
age than in any other.
Wheat. The area planted in wheet in 1929 was lă per cent of
the total crop area of the State, or nearly one million acres,
This is about the same acreage that was in corn for grain. The
distribution of wheat production is quite similar to that of
corn for grain. The 27 counties in the southern section produce
about 75 per cent of the total production. The acreage in the
northern and western regions planted in wheat have steadily
declined.
It is difficult for Pennsylvania farmers to compete with
western producers of wheat, but the crop is well suited to
common crop rotations, yields are relatively high, and it is a
good source of a cash income. The acreage probably will con-
tinue to be about the same, especially in the southeastern area.
Winter wheat is the type universally grown in Pennsylvania.
Oats. The acreage of oats harvested in 1929 was 13 per cent
of the total crop land harvested in the State. Because of its
wide popularity in common crop rotations and use as a horse
feed, oats is grown quite generally over the State. It is
adapted to a cooler climate than either corn or wheat and for
this reason it is one of the important crops in the northern
counties •
Hay. Hay is one crop that is common in every section, being
82
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reported in the l930 census by 81.8 per cent of the farms of
the State. More than 2,570,000 acres were in hay, which was 39
per cent of the total crop area harvested. The crop requires a
cool climate with plenty of moisture. For this reason the
northern counties have a higher percentage of the crop land
area in that particular crop.
Hay is grown in the regular crop rotation in Pennsylvania.
In the northern areas it is common to have a field in sod for
four or five successive years, compared with one or two years
in other areas in the State.
Potatoes. The production of potatoes is quite general through-
out the State. Soil and climate conditions are very favorable
to good yields. There has been a gradual concentration of the
production of this crop on the higher altitudes where the cool
moist climate affords optimum growing conditions. The important
areas are located in Somerset, Cambria, Crawford, Potter and
Lehigh Counties. Lehigh County farmers, because of nearness to
markets and favorable soil conditions, have greatly increased
production during the past 30 years. Q-
In 1933 the Pennsylvania potato crop amounted to 21,357,000
bushels.” According to government estimates, this is about two-
thirds of the amount annually consumed in this State, which
would indicate a ready market for local production.
2 : Fennsylvania Crop and Livestock Report.
83
RELATIONSHIP OF LIVESTOCK TO LAND USE
Income from the sale of livestock and livestock products
in Pennsylvania is much greater than the income from the sale
of crops • Most of the crops produced, especially the grains ,
are fed on the farm rather than sold . The economic advantage
of having home grown feed is the reason for a close relationship
between the number of livestock and acres of crops grown in
different areas of the State • Dairying and poultry raising
are the leading livestock enterprises •
Milk Gows: According to the census enumeration all cows and
heifers on farms April 1, 1930, born before l928 were classed
as milk cows, There were 76l., 273 head on farms in Penn-
sylvania on that dates Fluid milk is by far the most impor-
tant product sold from the dairy enterprise, Because of
ite perishability, the distribution of dairy cows is thick-
est near the larger cities. Another factor influencing
the location of dairy farms is the ability to produce suf-
ficient hay and pasture. The southeastern area has a dis-
tinct advantage in this respect .
The steady increase in consumption of dairy products in
the metropolitan areas of Pennsylvania and New York has re-
sulted in an expansion of the dairy business over the entire
state • The counties having the greatest increase in number of
dairy cows during the past 40 years have been farthest from the
central markets. Centre County had a 45 per cent increase e
84
Mifflin, Snyder, Union, Juniata, Blair, Bedford, Somerset,
Franklin, Lycoming and Tioga Counties all had gaoine of 20 to
42 per cent.
Chickens • The next most important livestock enterprise is
poultry raising. More than 15,000,000 chickens were re-
ported on Pennsylvania farms on April 1, 1930. This was
almost double the total number reported on farms in this
State 40 years ago.
The concentration and distribution of chickens corresponds
closely to the production of the grain crops. Partly for this
reason, the southeastern section of the State produces the bulk
of poultry and eggs. In 1933 the five counties of York, Bucks,
Berks, Lancaster and Montgomery produced 30 per cent of the
total egg production of the State. Several small concentrated
poultry raising-centers are scattered over the State, their
location determined largely by a good nearby market. Eastern
Wayne County is an example of this type of condition.
Types of Farming. The wide variation in physical features and
market facilities in Pennsylvania has naturally been responsible
for a wide diversification in types of farming. The distribu-
tion and importance of the leading crops and livestock have
already been shown. The accompanying detailed map of the pre-
dominant types of farming based on income shows many of the
less general but important enterprises.
Farms in the United States based on incomes were classified
by the 1930 census into 12 main types; 10 of which are found in
85
Pennsylvania. The type of farm most common is the general farm,
which comprised 29.6 per cent of the total number of farms.
These farms derive less than 40 per cent of their income from
any one crop or livestock enterprise . This indicates a Wide
diversity in crop and livestock production on a large percentage
of the farms. The next most important type of farm is the
dairy farm, 26.3 per cent of the total in this State falling
in this class. More than 45 per cent of all farms in Crawford,
Bradford and Chester Counties are dairy farms. The other types
of farms are abnormal, self-sufficing, poultry, crop specialty,
fruit, truck, cash grain and animal specialty, most of which
have a limited occurrence.
A more general picture of the agriculture of Pennsylvania
is shown in the accompanying "types of farming" map. The geo-
graphical location and the important types of farming determine
the boundaries of the 25 more or less distinct areas. The
outstanding fact about these areas is the predominance of dairy-
ing which accounted for 45 per cent of the total cash income
from farm production in 1933.”
Farm Tenancy. The percentage of farm tenancy in an area in-
dicates roughly the value of the land for agricultural purposes •
The better farming areas in Pennsylvania have much more tenancy
than the poorer areas. Several good reasons are accountable
for this condition. Usually the owner of good land desires.
* Federal-State Crop Reporting service.
.86
PREDOM INANT TYPES OF FARM ING
|929
ABN ORMAL SELF • SUFF 1 CING CASH GRAIN CROP SPECIALTY G EN E R AL AN I MAL SPEC I ALTY
%
DA 1RY PO U LTRY FRU 1 T T R UC K F | GU R E NO. 3 |
PENNA. AGRICULTURAL ExPERIMENT STATION BUl I FT IN NO 305.



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to hold title to it and have someone else do the work. It
is usually a good form of investment . Another reason is the
ability of a farm to support two families rather than one. In
Lancaster County 30.5 per cent of the farms were operated by
tenants and only 3.3 per cent in Sullivan County and 3.8 per
cent in Carbon County.
Walue of Real Estate. The value of farm land depends largely
upon the productiveness of the soil for agricultural products.
Other factors such as possible building site, mineral deposits,
and resort areas have a decided effect on the price of land
irrespective of its value for farming. In an accompanying
figure is shown by townships the value of land and buildings
per acre as reported in the l930 census.
The areas of high valuation are in southeastern, east
central and southwestern Pennsylvania, which corresponds
closely to the centers of population. Many of the townships
in these areas, according to the 1930 census, have an average
value per acre of more than $150. The outstanding fact, how-
ever, is the extremely low land values in the northern,
central and south central counties. These areas are identical
with the poorer farming areas of the State.
TREND IN THE USE OF FARM LAND
Number of Farms. The number of farms in Pennsylvania in 1870
was a little more than 174,000. Considerable expansion con-
tinued to take place until 1900. That year was the peak in the
total number of farms, 224, 248, or over 50,000 more than in
87
1870. Since 1900 there has been a steady decline in the number
of farms. In 1930 there were 172,419 farms in the state, the
lowest number of any census year since l860. The loss in farms
between 1920 and 1930 was about 3,000 annually, a 15 per cent
decrease in the 10-year period.
Every county in the State showed a decrease except
Fayette, which had a 3 per cent increase. The largest decrease
in the ten-year period seems to have occurred around large
population centers and in the poorer farming areas. The sale
of farms for estates and real estate development in the thickly
populated areas and farm abandonment in the poorer areas
probably accounts for much of the decrease. McKean County in
northwestern Pennsylvania had a 32 per cent decrease in the
number of farms, Delaware County 46 per cent, and Philadelphia
County 45 per cent.
Size of Farms. There has been a steady decline in the number
of acres per farm in Pennsylvania. The average farm in the
State contained 103.4 acres in 1870 and only 88.8 acres in 1930.
Although the size of farms has greatly decreased, the acreage
in improved land per farm has not decreased very much. The
land is being better utilized.
Because of physical features and market facilities which
determine the predominant type of farming, the size of farms
varias greatly in different sections. Farms are smallest in
Lancaster County, averaging only 53 acres. The largest are in
Huntingdon County, near the geographical center of the State,
88
VALUE OF LAND AND BU |LD INGS
|N DOLLARS PER AC RE
| 93 O
2 r
\.” p
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Tl
O - 49 |OO - 49 OVER 15 O
(DOLLARS)
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE - BUREAU OF THE ce Nsus. F 1 J U R E NO. 33



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89
where the average is 156 acres.
In the southeastern part of the State, the level topo-
graphy, rich soil and nearness to market, resulting in an in-
tensive agriculture, is responsible for small farms. The farms
in the Allegheny Mountain region, compared to the southeastern
area, are much larger because of the excessive waste land, con-
siderable wood land, and a less intensive agriculture.
The size of farms in the different sections of Pennsylvania
is continually changing. The average size in some areas is in-
areasing and in others decreasing. These changes are the
result of inevitable readjustments resulting from unstable
population, industry and economic welfare of the people in each
section.
Most of the counties showed increases or decreases in the
average size of farms between 1920 and 1930, in the Census of
1930. The outstanding increases occurred in the north central
counties and Lehigh and Northampton Counties. These changes
indicate larger farming units with a more extensive agriculture.
The outstanding decreases were in Pike and Fayette Counties.
The development of Pike County as a resort and sports region,
along with considerable farm abandonment, probably was respon-
sible for the large decrease in size of farms. Fayette was the
only county in the State to record an increase in farms from
1920 to 1930. In the same period, there was a decrease of 14
per cent in that county in the average size of farms. This
was due possibly to an increasing number of small self-
90
sufficing or part-time farms.
Total Acres in Farm Land. As the number of farms and the
average size of farms have decreased, it naturally follows that
the total number of acres in farms also has been decreasing.
From 1900 to 1930 there has been a loss of 4,065,542 acres of
farm land. This means a yearly loss of 135,518 acres. The
rate of loss has been much greater since 1920 than before,
which shows the rate of farm abandonment is accelerating. Some
of this loss has been absorbed by expansion of urban centers,
estates, airports and other similar developments. Much of the
loss has occurred in the poorer farming areas and this has
probably been due largely to . unprofitable operations.
TREND IN CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
Although the longtime trend in Pennsylvania is toward less
land devoted to agriculture, the net farm production in this
State has been increasing. More intensive farming and greater
efficiency enables the farmers to produce more on less land. A
i’ew figures will be sufficient to show the typical changès.
Changes in Crop Acreages. The acreage planted to the nine
principal field crops in Pennsylvania has decreased 17 per cent
since 1900. There was a 478 per cent increase in the acreage
of barley and an increase of 128 per cent in tobacco acreage.
The acreage of the other seven crops shown in the table on
acreage in field crops decreased anywhere from 4 to 60 per cent.
The substitution of barley for wheat and rye as a livestock
feed probably accounted for the large increase in the a creage
G
91
in Acre of Fields Crops in Pennsylvania Since 1900s."
Average Acreage (in thousands)
Crop. 1896–1904 1929-1952 Per Gent Chenge
Corn ls 355 ls 265 as?
Wheat l,517. -- 976 ~36
Oats 1sl22 . 964 •19
Barley 9 52 3.478
Rye 3.19 l28 •60
Buckwheat , 243 166 ~32
Potatoes 210 2O2 •4
Tobacco 18 4l ©l28
Tame Bay —£az87 2,562 ~8

Total "7s 648 6.a354. self
#General Bulletin its and Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock
Reporte Pennsylvania Department of Agricultures
92
Change in Yield per Acre of Important Field
.Crops in Pennsylvania from 1886-95 to 1924-3.3%
Average 10-year yield per acre
Crop 1886-1895 1924-1933–Per cent Change-
Corn bus 30.4 39 el +29
Wheat. " 13.6 18.6 •37
Oats " 25.7 31,3 *22
Barley " l9.6 - 26 el •33
Rye " l2.6 15.3 •21
Bučkwheat bu . 14.7 18, 7 +27
Potatoes " 73.5 117.5 •60
Tobacco lbs. ll&2,4 1235 e5 44
Tame hay tons le? 1,4 317
* General Bulletin 445 and Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock
Report. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture.
93
of this crop.
The significant change in apple trees has not been in the
number but in the rapid change from small home orchards to com-
mercial plantings with an outstanding increase in yield. The
number of peach trees in Pennsylvania was about three and one-
half million in 1930. Since l900 the number of trees has not
changed materially but yields have increased because of better
Orchard management e
Much of the increased agricultural production in Pennsyl-
vania has been in the vegetable business. There was a 36 per
cent increase in the acreage of the ll most important vegetables
from 1900 to 1950s
Yield Per Acre • The yield per acre of all field crops had in-
creased since the latter part of the nineteenth century. One
of the accompanying tables shows lo-year average yields of
crops for two periods about 40 years apart. The yield per
acre of every crop has increased, the most outstanding being a
60 per cent increase in the average potato yield. Tobacco,
with only a 4 per cent increase, is the only one of the nine
principal crops not having at least a l’ per cent increase.
The principal reasons for these higher yields are the
abandonment of some of the poorer land, use of better strains
and varieties, improved cultural practices, and better control
of insects and diseases.
Livestock Production. The number of different types of live-
stock has changed materially between 1900 and 1929. Milk cows
94.
Number of Livestock on Farms in 1900 and 1929
and Per cent change.”
Tumber of Head (in thousands)
1900 1929 Per pent change-
Horses - 560 349 -38
Mules 38. 5l. *34.
Horses and Mules 598 400 *33
Milk Cows - 970 855 •l2
Other Cattle 524 530 •l
Swine 1064 715 -33
Sheep 8l4 44l =46
Poultry 10,025 19,034 •e.90
FGeneral ETIEETZ5 and Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock
Report. Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture.
95
decreased la per cent in number but the estimated amount of
milk produced was 9 per cent greater in l929 than in l900s
This shows a much higher production per cow than formerly.
The number of poultry on farms increased from around 10
million to l9 million, or a 90 per cent increase. According
to estimates, the production per hen has increased l3 per
cent during the same period. This would mean an increase of
over loC per cent in total egg production in the State •
The decreasing importance of sheep and hog raising and
the effect of western competition is indicated by a decline
of 33 per cent in the number of hogs on farms and a 46 per
cent decline in the number of sheep. The number of other
cattle, which are kept mainly for beef purposes, have
remained practically the same.
The number of work animals has decreased 33 per cent,
there being a 33 per cent decrease in the number of horses
and an increase of 34 per cent in the number of mules on
farms in Pennsylvania. The increased use of the truck and
tractor has in part been responsible for the decrease in the
number of work animals.
AGRICULTURAL LAND-USE PROBLEMS
There are three major agricultural land-use problems in
Pennsylvania which should be studied to properly plan any land
utilization or readjustment program. They are: soil erosion,
abandoned farm land and submarginal farmi land now under
cultivation. In the past most of the researchi and extension
96
work has been in the better farming areas. This is to be ex-
pected because of the better interest and ability to adopt new
methods • Progress has naturally been greatest in the better
areas. As a result, the increased competition has caused
greater maladjustment in the marginal and submarginal farms.
There is a need for more land-use studies, especially in the
more serious problem arease
soil. EROSION IN FENSYLVANIA*
There are two types of erosion. One is called "gully
erosion," since it results in the formation of gullies. The
other, which removes soil a layer at a time over a large area,
is called "sheet erosion.” The gully type is the more notice-
able of the two. It converts fertile land into a barren waste
- by cutting up fields to such an extent that profitable cultiva-
tion is impossible • Sheet erosion is not as evident as gully
erosion but it removes tons and tons of fertile top soil each
year. It does not prevent cultivation but gradually, as the
top soil is lost, the field becomes less and less productive •
This condition often is blamed on something other than the
real cause. Many farm operators whose land is being removed
by sheet erosion do not realize What is going on •
Sheet erosion is the type that prevails in Pennsylvania •
Small gullies are quite common but, except where sheet erosion
, is well advanced, gullies are scattered and rather shallowe
A recent Reconnaissance Erosion Survey of Pennsylvania
*Austin L. Patrick, Soil Technologist, Fennsylvania State College
97
shows that from 25 to 75 per cent of the surface soil of Penn-
sylvania has been lost by sheet erosion where the land has been
cleared and cultivated. This means that approximately 50 per
cent of the top soil has been lost since the land has been under
cultivation which, on an average, is not more than 100 years.
At this rate the entire surface soil of Pennsylvania would be
removed in another century of cultivation.
After a few inches of the surface have been removed, the
underlying soil is lost at an exceedingly rapid rate. Many
persons do not realize that practically all of the available
plant food constituents are found in the first 6 inches of
soil. Here the organic matter, consisting of plant and animal
remains, is found. the uninitiated might suggest that organic
matter and plant food elements could be added to the raw sub-
soil and so convert this horizon into productive soil. The
problem cannot be solved as readily as this, for several reasons.
To attempt to restore the plant food constituents and organic
supplies in the soil would be economically impossible. Even
though it were practical to supply the organic matter in suf-
ficient quantities to make up for the losses by erosion it
would be impossible to cover each soil grain with a thin or-
ganic film, as nature does; this requires many years. This
film-like distribution of organis matter is largely responsible
for the excellent physical quality of virgin soils. It helps
in moisture retention and prevents excessive plasticity and
cohesiveness.
98
Seventy-five years ago this waste land in
stone Valley was a fertile corn field.
FIGURE NO. 34

An excellent example
farming to prevent soil erosion,
effect by "Master Farmer" Ray Bro
Wal ley.
of a strip crop system of
worked out and put into
wn in the Kishacoquillas
FIGURE NO. 35

The difference in crop producing ability between surface
soil and subsoil is noticeable where clean cultivated crops are
grown. The yellow or red spots, which indicate the subsoil,
are evident even on nearly level land. These subsoil spots
seldom produce as good crops as the surface soil. The differ-
ence between the two is even more marked during periods of
drought. Some subsoils are Euch more productive than others
but no subsoil will produce corn, potatoes and many other crops
comparable with productive or normal surface soils unless large
amounts of commercial fertilizers and organic matter are added.
Soil erosion in Pennsylvania is influenced by a number of
interrelated factors. In discussing these it is necessary to
treat each as a unit but it must be remembered that one factor
influences the operation of another. Aside from climate, the
factors which regulate the amount of soil and water run-off are
nature of cover, per cent and length of slope, amount of organic
matter, filled top soil and soil type.
A comparison of a cover map, type of farming map and the
general erosion map of Pennsylvania shows a number of interést-
ing correlations. There is practically no erosion in timber-
land, except here and there where the litter has been removed
by man or animals. Old skid trails or ruts made by wagons or
paths often act as the beginning of gullies in the forest. On
cleared lands, very little erosion takes place where the land
is in continuous sod. Where the sod becomes weedy and thin,
where peths are worn, or where wagons have caused ruts, erosion
99
often is serious. Fertilizer and lime may often work wronders
in erosion prevention on run-down pastures and meadows.
The most important live stock sections of Pennsylvania are
not badly eroded. The outstanding exception to this is the
large live stock section in southwestern Pennsylvania. Most
of the land there is in grass, yet the prevailing system of
farming calls for plowing the grass when the turf becomes thin.
Corn usually follows the grass; being a clean cultivated crop,
losses of soil by erosion are excessive. Even though this
land is plowed only once or twice every ten or twelve ye &rs 2
erosion is serious because of the nature of the soil and the
sharpness of the prevailing slopes.
In the dairy sections of northern Pennsylvania erosion is
not such a serious problem as in most other sections. The
slopes are not as abrupt and hill-sides are covered cºntin-
uously with grass, only a small acreage being devoted to the
growing of clean cultivated crops. The large stone content
also tends to impede losses of water and soil. The land which
is used the most for growing clean cultivated crops is the land
on which erosion is the greatest problem. Since nearly all
crops in Pennsylvania are grown in rotations the short rota-
tions are the least desirable and predominate in the general
farm sections. Bulletin 305 of the Pennsylvania Agricultural
Experiment Station entitled "Types of Farming in Pennsylvania".
contains a map which shows the type of farming areas in 1929.
It presents a good erosion picture of the State •
100
The beginning of a gully on an Indiana
County Farm.
FIGURE NO. 36

Small gullies and sheet erosion in northern
Indiana County.
An excellent method of erosion control put into
effect on an Indiana County Farm.
FIGURE NO. 37


Cultivated steep slopes wash more readily than flatter
areas. In fact, on nearly every farm there are some areas
which are so flat that a minimum amount of erosion takes place,
while the adjacent slopes may be ruined for cropping purposes.
Subsoil often is exposed in cropped land where the slope does
not exceed 3 or 4 per cent. In general, the steeper the slope
the greater the erosion, other factors being equal.
- Certain soil types erode much more readily than others.
The old Reconnaissance Soil Survey of Pennsylvania recently was
brought up to date and new maps are being prepared. In general,
the thinnest soils are those which developed from thin, platy
argillaceous shale, schists or from combinations of calcareous
and argillaceous shale. Examples of the former are the Calvin,
Berks and Dutchess soil series. The latter ar'e exemplified by
the Meigs, Belmont, Upshur and Westmoreland soils. The Manor
soils represent the main soil derived from schist. There ar'e
58 different soil series recognized on the Reconnaissance Survey
and l3l different types.
The Pennsylvania State College has been cooperating with
the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture for twenty years in mapping the soils of
Pennsylvania. At present, approximately one-third of tº state
is mapped. This work is fundamental to the whole land-use
program and should be completed as soon as possible. The soil
maps Would be more useru, it soil erosion, per cent of slope
and land-use features were included, as well as soils. The
10l.
Soil Erosion Service has shown, during the summer of 1934, that
all of these features can be shown on the same map without much
more work than is required to map soils or erosion alone,
Farmers in many sections of Pennsylvania practice soil
erosion control measures, to some extent. Some of the more
common means are strip cropping, planting trees, leaving per-
manent grass depressions where gullies might form, and permanent
grass for pasture. Mechanical means of control, other than
contour plowing, are seldom used.
The erosion studies that are being made in Pennsylvania
at present consist of three phases:
(A) Surveys
To show types, location and extent of soil
erosion as related to nature of cover, per cent
of slope, and soil type. The plan is to make a
general or reconnaissance survey, to be supple-
mented by many scattered detail surveys or
limited acreage made here and there throughout
the state. Strip surveys across the state
have also been planned ,
(B) Control Demonstrations
Many plots, to illustrate the more desirable
methods of control under cropping, permanent
pasture, and orchard management practices. In
addition, studies are being made which will aid
in the selection of trees for timber control •
(C) Watershed Demonstrations
The aim is to put into practice the most
effective measures of control known on a com-
plete watershed.
The above program is being carried out by the Soil Erosion
Service of the United States Department of the Interior. The .
102
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field work for the Reconnaissance Survey of the State has been
completed and several detailed area surveys are available. The
semi-experimental or control demonstration plots are being set
up on land belonging to The Pennsylvania state College. A
* Watershed Demonstrational Area has been selected north of the
town of Indiana. It consists of about 130,000 acres and in-
cludes about 800 farms. The sum of $200,000 was set aside for
this purpose by the Secretary of the Interior on October 5,
l234.
This report points out the extent of soil erosion in Penn-
sylvania and how it is affected by various conditions, including
percentage of slope, nature of cover, and soil type; and the
work that is being done by the Soil Erosion Service. The State
should be made conscious of the seriousness of the situation,
Erosion control is too large an undertaking for the average
land owner to accomplish unaided. Thousands of acres of land
in Pennsylvania already have become unprofitable for agricul-
ture through erosion. Thousands of acres more fall into that
class each year. It is time that the Federal and State Govern-
ments began to work with this problem; if erosion is not con-
trolled, it will result in untold losses.
ABANDONED FARM LAND
A problem which has raised considerable coment and about
which little is known is the extent of farm abandonment in
Pennsylvania. Anyone who has traveled through the state cannot
help but wonder at the vast amount of idle land and the reason
103
for this condition.
Farm abandonment is primarily due to cultivating land from
which a satisfactory living cannot be derived. There undoubt-
edly would be many more farms abandoned if it were not for a
reluctance to move away from property accumulated through years
of hard work and start life anew in a different environment.
From 1900 to 1930 there was a decrease of 51,829 farms and
a decrease in the same period of 4,065,542 acres in farm land
Within the State. Not all of this former farm land is idle at
present. Much has been naturally reforested, purchased by the
State, or used for real estate development.
A survey made in the winter of 1925-1926 in 15 counties of
central and south central Pennsylvania indicated between l,600
and l,700 separate tracts of land, or about 145,000 acres that
had not been operated during the previous two years.” The
study also indicated about two-thirds of this acreage had been
abandoned for the rive previous years. A State-wide survey in
the summer of lº26 indicated approximately loã,000 acres of
abandoned farm land in the same là counties which checks very
closely with the previous study.”
in 1928 the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters
made a survey in l? counties to determine the amount of idle
cleared land in these areas. The total was 232,315 acres,
approximately half of the total loss in these counties of non-
5: General EIGHT375, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture.
lC4
wood land farm area from 1910 to l930. Using the results of
the study as a basis, it was estimated that approximately
1,200,000 acres of idle cleared land existed in Pennsylvania
at that time. This is 7.3 per cent of all cleared land in
farms in the State.
The results indicated that a much larger percentage of the
loss in non-wood land farm area was idle in the poorer farming
areas than in the more productive areas.
In some counties as high as 20 to 25 per cent of the farms
were abandoned by 1929. At that time few of the houses on
those farms were occupied but in 1934 practically every house
was being used. Until the depression, the trend of population
was toward urban centers. This trend has changed in some sec-
tions. A comparison of 1929 and 1934 population figures shows
four of the poorer farming counties had an increase of 4 per
cent in the third and fourth class school districts. During
the same period the population in the third and fourth class
school districts in four of the better farming counties remained
practically the same •
Do these people who aré moving to the poorer farming areas
and occupying abandoned farm houses expect to invest in a farm
only to find in a few years that it doesn't pay and leave as
the former occupant has done? To what extent are they paying
taxes and supporting the community? To what extent do they
add to the poor relief load in these counties?
It is highly desirable at present to know the exact con-
iO5
Amount of Cleared Landº and Fer Cent of
total cleared land Area ille in seventeen counties, issø
Loss in Non-Woodland
Total of Idle
Per Gent of Total
County Farm. Area 1319-1930°–Cleared land_Cleared land. Idle
Adams 17,422 acres - 5,855 8. Cres 2s2 -
Carbon 15,994 4,717 6,2
Centre 24,811 15,390 5,8
Clinton 9,982 12,244 lle6
Crawford 67,875 31,902 6.0
Elk 9,981 8,600 lle 4
Franklin 14,4ll 8,393 2.4
Greene 24,953 12,135 3, 6
Juniata 15,317 8,990 6.0
Lawrence 27,500 17,047 9.4
Monroe 29,140 24,767 15.5
Potter 55,498 23,470 9el
Somerset 58,350 21,010 4.9
salivan 9,258 lo,770 lie?
Susquehanna 46,271 13,605 3.2’
Union 6,356 4,000 4el
York 38,642 9,420 —le?
Total 471,761 232,315 5 e4
Estimate for State 2,359,223 1,200,000 7.e3
*Bulletin 51, Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters
*United States Census
106
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dition of these idle lands in regard to their tax and debt
situation. Are they still a source of tax income? How has
abandonment of some farms affected the costs of schools and
road maintenance for those that remain? Is the amount of State
aid going into these sparsely settled areas justified or should
it be curtailed? Would not the total of State aid over a few
years in some sections be enough to buy all the land and turn
it into a self-liquidating forest project? . Would this solve
the problem of a living and educational opportunity for the
present occupants?
The se areas of idle land constitute a real land utiliza-
tion problem. Two agencies in Pennsylvania have instituted
definite programs for better use of large areas of abandoned
land. They are the State Department of Forests and Waters and .
the State Game Commission. Their future program would possibly
absorb all of the idle farm land, but many small tracts are un-
suitable for their purposes. Complete adjustment cannot result
from the work of the above agencies alone.
SUBMARGINAL FARM LAND *
The term submarginal farm land as used in this report
refers to land so low in productivity and value of products
sold per acre that arable farming is uneconomic and undesirable.
It is land from which a satisfactory living cannot be derived
over a period of normal years. There is no clear cut division
between a marginal and a submarginal farm. A slight change in
the price of farm products may enangº the classification of
LO7
many farms,
The fact that both the number of farms and the number of
acres in farm land has been steadily decreasing in large numbers
since 1900 indicates a trend of conditions which is rendering
these farms unprofitable. Even the high prices of farm products
during the war period did not stop the trend of farm abandon-
ment. The increased use of Inachinery under high prices
probably intensified the unfitness of many areas that formerly
supported farm people. Without definite standards for judg-
ment and detailed studies it is almost impossible to say which
farms are submarginal and how many exist. Although it is prob-
able that many unprofitable farms are being operated at present,
the social welfare of the people living on these areas should not
be overlookede
Reliable information for locating the poorer farming areas
in Pennsylvania is essential. To determine the value of land
for agricultural purposes two important factors must be con-
sidered. One is cost of weauction, influenced largely by
yields; the other the cost of marketing. An attempt has been
made to make a preliminary estimate of the number of submarginal
farms in the State • As a basis for determining the more serious
areas, a weighted index number of crop production per acre and
and index number of value of products per acre for Pennsylvania,
each by minor civil divisions, was used” . The power areas
*TOEtained from a SūyTOFECOnomic LanāTGTESSIFICATIOTIn Fenn-
sylvania which is now being made by the Department of Agricul-
tural Economics, the Pennsylvania State College,
108
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were mapped from the se indices and with the assistance of per-
sons well informed in the various counties.
The results of the survey, completed in November, 1934,
are shown in an accompanying figure. The shaded areas are
townships where 20 per cent or more of the farms under culti-
vation are estimated to be submarginal. These shaded townships
are considered a distinct problem land-use area. The general
location of these areas is in the northern counties and the
south central section along the Appalachian Mountains, where
the soil, topography and climatic conditions are less favorable
to agricultural production.
It is estimated from this preliminary survey that slightly
more than 10,000 farms within the designated problem areas are
submarginal. This is about 6.5 per sent of all farms in the
State and 40 per cent of all the farms in the problem areas.
Approximately l, 133,000 acres are included in these submarginal
farms. Of the total, 357,000 acres are in crop land and
403,000 in pasture land. It has been estimated that there are
about 120,000 acres of submarginal farm land not included in
the above problem area. This would make a total of approx-
imately 1,250,000 acres of such land in the State, or slightly
more than 8 per cent of the total land area in farms in 1930.
Reliable estimates place the value of the land and
buildings per acre on the submarginal farm land at $20.80.
These estimates were inclined to be higher than actual sales
indicated. The section with lowest valuation was the
109
Appalachian Mountain region in central and south central Penn-
sylvania, which was $14.80 per acre. In the Pocomo Mountain
resort section in northeastern Pennsylvania, the value was es-
timated at $53 per acre. This is too high for agricultural
purposes but the area is a popular hunting and resort section,
which keeps the value of land very high.
Tax Delinquency. Since 1929 current tax delinquency has not
in all cases been most serious in the poorer farming areas.
Farmers who had large cash incomes were affected more by the
sudden drop in prices than the farmers with low incomes. For
this reason, current tax delinquency is not a very good indica-
tion of poor farm land or submarginal conditions.
A better indication of the net returns from farming is the
amount of continued tax delinquency. Data was obtained from
the County Treasurers' books in several counties on the number
of farms on which the 1931 and 1932 taxes were not paid on
August 1, 1934, at which time such farms were to be put up for
sale,
With one exception the problem areas had a much higher
percentage of tax delinquency than the non-problem areas. In
McKean County it was almost five times as great. Wenango
County showed a very high percentage of delinquency, 18 per
cent for the non-problem area and 34 per cent for the problem
area. The 1932 figures show an enormous increase in de-
linquency over 1931 for McKean and Susquehanna Counties, the
only counties for which the later figures were obtained.
ll.0
Per Cent of 1931 and 1932 County Taxes
on Farms Delinquent August la 1934
Non-Problem Area Problem Area
- Number of FF Per Cent Delinquent RESSF of Farms Per Cert Delinquent
County 1930 Census: 1931. 1932 1930 Census 1931 1932
McKean 191 4. 10 890 19 25
Susquehanna 2030 2 15 1140 2 18
Warren . 902 lò 1090 22
Wenango 1132 18 638 34
lli
Incomes. The average farm income by townships worked out from
the l930 census figures is shown in an accompanying map. This
is not a true picture of the value of the land for agricultural
purposes but it does show distinct areas of high and low in-
comes. The southeastern area stands out clearly as having high
farm, incomes. The areas of low income per farm correspond
closely to the problem area map where 20 per cent or more of
the farms are considered submarginal. The Pocono Mountain re-
sort section, and the central and south central sections show
exceptionally low incomes per farm. These areas would show a
much lower income if it were not for a few or the better farms.
raising the average. The area in sueuehanne and northern
Wayne Counties have high average incomes for problem areas.
This is due to the fact that dairying was very profitable the
year the census was taken . ;
Population Decline. The trend of population within Pennsylva-
nia from l?00 to l929 was usually away from * poor farming
areas. Most of the counties showing a decrease contain large
areas of submarginal and abandoned farm land. The principal
areas where population has declined is in the northern counties
east of McKean, where the people are mostly rural. Potter
County had a 42.9 per cent decrease between i910 and 1930,
Tioga – 35.l, and Sullivan - 38.2 per cent decrease. These
losses have probably been at the expense of the rural popula-
tion. The per cent of abandonment in these counties is
estimated to be very great. Little informationſ is known con-
ll2
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cerning the effect of this emigration on fiscal conditions and
social life in these areas.
Factors Responsible for suwarginal Farms and Farm Abandonment.
The fact that the farm land in Pennsylvania has been decreasing
at the rate of 135,000 acres annually for the past 30 years is
‘conclusive evidence that some sound social and economic factors
have been responsible. It is hard to say how long this trend
Will continue.
Increasing Cost of Production. In the past twenty years there
has been a decided increase in the cost of production on Penn-
sylvania farms. From l910 to 1930 taxes on farm real estate
increased l39 per cent, farm mortgage indebtedness 85 per cent,
and the investment in machinery and implements per acre l65 per
cent. While these steady increases in costs were taking
place, prices of farm products in this State advanced only 47
per cent. Farm prices did not advance nearly as much as the
major costs of production. This more extensive farm equipment
can be used, with profit, only on the better land.
A study” of taxation in Pennsylvania in 1925 indicated
that 13.6 per cent of the gross income of farm people was re-
quired to pay their taxes that year while only 9.5 per cent
of the income of all other people went for the same purpose.
In the same study it was found that 38 per cent of the net
income of farms and mining corporations was required to pay
x-F-F. Weaver, Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin 263
ll3
their taxes • These are the types of businesses that require
large investments in real estate • Other types of businesses
requiring limited investments in property rata only 13 to 27
per cent of their net income for taxes. These figures indicate
the unjust tax burden that is placed on farm real estate.
Early in 1933 a survey* of 53 counties indicated that
approximately 139,996 acres of cleared land had reverted to
county ownership, no bids being made for the amount of the de-
linquent taxes • This condition may not have existed if more
equitable tax assessments had been •
Competition from Other Areas. Improvements in agricultural
production and in marketing have been the cause of considerable
maladjustments in many eastern farming areas. Before mechanic-
al power was used there was not much difference in the
efficiency of farming anywhere in the United States. The
specialized producing areas in the west are well adapted to
large scale mechanized farming while certain sections of Penn-
sylvania, with its rough topography, are not. For this reason
some Pennsylvania farmers have found it difficult to compete
with areas of more level topography,
Along with specialized production came improvements in
transportation. In 1955 Wisconsin supplied 31 per cent of the
cream receipts in the Philadelphia markete. In the same year
only 10 per cent of the egg receipts in that market were sup-
*TPennsylvania Department of Forests ºters
114
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plied by Pennsylvania farms. Most of the eggs consumed in
our eastern markets are produced in the mid-western states.
Low cost of production and adequate transporation facilities
enable them to successfully compete in our markets. These
conditions are tending to make farming less profitable on the
poorer farm land in this State. Farming, especially for
crop production, will have a tendency to concentrate in the
more level areas. Large areas of marginal land in the west are
still undeveloped. This fact indicates that abandoned and sub-
marginal farm land in Pennsylvania probably will not be needed
in the future for agricultural production.
Depletion of Soil Fertility. Loss of soil fertility is occur-
ring in Pennsylvania in two principal ways, by soil erosion and
by removing plant food by crop removal without restoring this
fertility. The loss by soil erosion has been adequately dis-
cussed already in another section of this paper. Information
on loss of fertility by crop removal is not available. Tests
of lime requirements indicate that many of the farms, es-
pecially in the northern counties, are becoming more acid.
When the farming area of Pennsylvania was still increasing,
larger areas of cut-over land were put under the plow. Prices
of farm products were relatively high, competition from other
areas not oppressive, and the soil. fairly productive. Under
these conditions, farming was profitable.
As competition became more keen, these farms did not pay
so well. Fertility of the soil and building repairs were
ll.5
neglected. All of the income was needed to pay ourrent ex-
penses. As the fertility of the land decreased the returns also
decreased. The inevitable result was tax delinquent sales and
farm abandonments
Other Factors. The disappearance of local markets in some
areas is also an important factor in the welfare of nearby
farmers. Decadent mining, and the disappearance of lumbering
and manufacturing towns that once furnished good local markets
for a limited number of farmers have, in many cases, resulted
in submarginal conditions for farmers.
Supplemented income and employment in the lumbering
business was at one time an important item for many farmers,
especially in the central and northern sections of the State.
rh. peak of lumber production was reached in 1900. Since then
both farm land and the lumbering business have declined rapid-
ly. Pennsylvania lumber production in 1930 was only about ten
per cent of what it was in 1900.
In 1928 a land utilization study was made in Wyoming Coun-
ty to determine what factors made land submarginal for farming
in the poorer areas of Pennsylvania. * The area studied is in
the northeastern part of the State, some of it being in the
problem area already referred to.
Accurate information of all operations was obtained on 50
selected farms and a record of land use and occupancy on 1,307
F-F-T: WFIgley Fernsylvania Tzricultural ExperimeTETSEREIGHT
Bulletin. 257. -
ll6
of the l,543 farms reported in the 1920 census.
Although the study involved only a small number of farms
for the short period of a year some definite recommendations
and conclusions were made • Operating expenses are so nearly
equal to returns that any unfavorable relationship between
these items would have a tendency to increase farm abandonment •
Consolidation of holdings should and will take place in the
future to increase the efficiency of the farming unit. The
smaller farming units are having the most difficulty. Wolusia
and Lordstown soils, which are unsuited for crop production,
are usually submarginal for farming and should be abandoned in
most cases • Approximately one-fifth of the county, an area of
50,000 acres, was recommended for forestry and recreational
purposes as its best possible use. These areas lie chiefly in
the southwestern and northwestern parts of the county.”
It is possible tº this discussion of submarginal farm
land to point out certain trends that probably will occur in
the future • Land now out of cultivation or abandoned will not
be needed again, for many years at least, for agricultural
purposes. Operations on the poorer farm lands in Pennsylvania
will tend to become less profitable • Decrease in farm acreage
probably will continue. Problems of readjustment in land use
will become greater, More research will be necessary to ade-
quately cope with the situation •
*F. I. WFigley, Fennsylvania IgEIGUIETFEI Experiment.TSECTIOT
Bullet in 257,
117
Studies in land utilization have been neglected in, the
past. The Wyoming County study has been mentioned. Early in
l932 the Greater Pennsylvania Council planned and started ex-
tensive land use studies but this organization was terminated.
before any satisfactory results were obtained. At present the
Department of Agricultural Economics at The Pennsylvania State
College is working on an economic land classification map of
the State . This map is to classify land in Pennsylvania
according to its value for agricultural purposes. This study
Will be of invaluable assistance in any future program of land
use. More detailed study is needed covering also the social
problems involved.
The large areas of submarginal farm land in Pennsylvania
should eventually be put to their best possible use with the
least amount of disturbance within our social structure. These
lands probably should be retired from farming and devoted to
forestry and recreational uses. Before any definite programs
are started by either National, State, or other agencies, de-
tailed studies should be made of both land and people in each
8|I’83 a
As H. A. Wallace, Secretary of Agriculture, stated before
the American Civic Association in St. Louis, October 24, l?34,
concerning land use planning, "We cannot move much faster than
research makes the facts available, and we must not attempt to
move faster than local public opinion will permit."
118
Index Numbers Showing Changes in Prices of Farm Products,
Farm ortgage Indebtedness, Taxes on Farm Real ºstates and
Investment in Implements and Machinery £er Acre of farmland
In Pennsylvania from 1910 to 1882:
Year Prices of Farm Mortgage Indebtedness Real Estate Taxes Investment in
Products Miachinery and
Equipment,
1910 100 lCO 100 100
1920 218 l45 1635 244
1925 160 l80 221 226
1930 147 l85 259 265
Prices of Farm Products from Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 309;
other from United States Department of Agriculture.
119
FOREST LAND AS A BASIC RESOURCE*
Forests have become valuable because of the multitude of
wood products that civilized man has been able to extree! i’r'Om
them, from construction timber to paper, pulp and fuel weed. As
accessible virgin timber supplies have been blotted out , nations
have quickly discovered their dependence on wood and forest pro-
ducts, and have set about producing wood as a planned crop.
Further, with the greater leisure for the masses of our people,
the forest has become a playground. It is sought for the
pleasures of hunting and fishing. Many citizens build in it
summer homes and camps. . It is used as sites for hotels and
sanatoria. The forest is recognized as a conservator of rain-
fall and &S 3. reservoir protection for domestic water supply
and power use, as well as a regulator of stream flow.
Forest areas would be retained and developed as a public
resource even if there were not a stick of timber coming from
them. The certainty not only of self support but of their
becoming the source of an important financial income from the
wood produced as a raw material, improves their position as
a capital resource subject to public planning and development.
Even though our industrial ingenuity is able to develop
acceptable substitutes for many wood products, the cheapness
* Prepared by E. A. Ziegler, D. Sc., Director Forest Re-
search. Institute, Department of Forests and Waters, Mont
Alto. ~! .
120
|
:
-*

of producing wood and wood fiber, and the new uses for it
constantly developing, will always keep it as one of our im-
portant raw materials. Wood has the advantage over coal,
oil and gas for fuel, and over the metals for construction,
in that it is a reproducable crop. If the forest lands are
properly handled our wood supplies can be forever replenished,
but the mineral fuels and many metals are subject to ex-
haustion. In the last analysis, we may have to fall back on
the solar energy-storing abilities of our forests on a large
scale for our increasing fuel and power demands • Already
some European nations are requiring a certain percentage of
wood alcohol to be used with gasoline for motor fuel.
Further, it is good public policy to keep large 8.1768. S
of lands in forests, for with no other profitable use these
areas would soon deteriorate through erosion and injure ad-
jacent agricultural lands as well as ruin our commercial
waterways and water works of all kinds.
NECESSITY OF LONG TIME PLANNING
Forest trees develop more slowly than shade trees be-
cause of the smaller portion of light received by each tree,
when many trees are on 3.11. 8. CT 8 of land. This crowding of
forest trees is necessary to shade out the lower branches
and produce long clean tree trunks of maximum lumber value.
The soil where ornamental trees are placed is also generally
enriched. Knotty trees are desired for practically no use -
not even fire wood. Unlike shade and ornamental trees which
l2l
may grow an inch in diameter in one to two years, forest trees
require three to five years to grow each inch in diameter, and
generally require 30 to 40 years to grow small diameter wood
materials like paper-wood, mine timbers and posts; 40 to 60
years to grow poles for wire lines or to grow railroad ties;
and 50 to 100 or even more years to grow fine quality saw
timber 12 to 30 inches in diameter • Rapidity of forest
growth varies with timber species, rainfall and temperatures
in different parts of our country, but within fixed limits.
Even though we still have some virgin high quality tim-
ber left in our Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain forests
which may be had at a reasonable price, including trans-
portation to the eastern seaboard, this supply is strictly
limited and will not remain plentiful to the end of the
long period of years, necessary to grow high grade timbers
on our devastated forest lands in the East . It is essential,
therefore, that we take forest planning more seriously, es-
pecially in * eastern half of the country where the great
preponderance of our population resides and where our great
lumber and wood markets are bound to continue •
This long time element is a great retarding factor for
private forestry, and coupled with the expanding and dominant
social benefits of forests, forms the chief reason for govern-
ment ownership and management of forests on a large scale.
Forests are pre-eminently fitted for investment and management
by continuous organizations such as corporations using them
9
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for raw material supply, or vital protection of water re-
sources, and by the different branches of the government
itself.
amºria OF WOOD PRODUCTS
An examination of the consumption of wood products
by some other nations of Europe and America shows that
those nations are exporters of wood when the productive
forest acreage exceeds one acre per capita, and importers
when the national forest acreage is less than one acre.
Their managed forest grows about 50 cubic feet or a little
over a half cord of wood per acre a year, taking all classes
of forest together. The colder nations grow less. Nations
like Germany, France and Switzerland, with only .5 to .6
per acre of productive forest per capita must import a con-
siderable part of the wood used. Poland is one of the few
nations that export timber but have less than 1.0 acre of
forest per inhabitant. This is accomplished through great
self-denial in domestic wood use.
Although with central European standards of living and
advanced forest management one acre of forest per inhabitant.
makes a nation self-supporting in wood and timber supply, our
own American standards are much higher. We, in this State
and Nation, require three to four times the wood volume per
inhabitant that the front rank Central European nations do,
despite the fact that we have a greater abundance of mineral
fuels - coal, oil and gas. The United States with four acres.
125
of forest land per capita is in a position to maintain this
higher standard of living and high wood consumption, by in-
tensifying its forest management, and doubling the wood grown
per acre of forest. Pennsylvania with its less than leg acres
per capita will always consume more wood than it can grows
even with a slow growing or stationary population.
Comparison of Wood Growna Consumeda and the Eorest
Acreage per Inhabitant for a number of Nations
Per Inhabitant –––...º.
Wood
Consumption Wood Forest
Countr - or Drain Growth. Area
(cubic feet) (cubic feet) (Acres)
Wood exporting countries
Canada 285 plus 225 25.0
Finland 350 369 14 • 7
Sweden 265 197 9 •9
United States 134 73 4 •0
Norway 149 123 5.3
Russia (Europe) 7O 127 3,7
Poland . 23 31 Oe 9
Wood importing countries
Switzerland 36 22 Oe 6
Germany 33 27 0.5
Belgium 30 ll 0-2
France 27 23 Oe 6
Great Britain - 2l 1. 0-l
Pennsylvania - 89. 39 le4
Note - Canada's total commercial forest is not thought to be
much over 250 million acres. The above figures on con-
sumption apply to 1928-29, except for Canada, Sweden and
Russia where they apply to an earlier year and may be
relatively high for present consumption •
The authorities used are "A National Plan for American
Forestry" - U. S. Forest Service; "Forest Resources of
the World," Zon and Sparhawk; For Pennsylvania, The
Pennsylvania Forest Research Institute Reports;
"Forestry in Sweden," Perry. * -
124
RECREATION
The recreational use of the forest is an equal public
service, and shortly may be recognized as even a greater one
than supplying raw wood materials where population is as
dense as in Pennsylvania. The greater leisure time of the
people, the improved roads and the almost universal use of
the automobile have made more and more distant areas of
forest land accessible to larger portions of our population.
Extensive forest areas are available or can be developed
on otherwise idle and waste land in every part of the State.
The recreational use of the forest may modify timber grow-
ing plans but is readily correlated with such plane.
HUNTING AND FISHING
- A specialized phase of the use of land for recreation
must be recognized in hunting and fishing. These uses of
land in Europe, with the iron-clad development of property
ownership and rights over them are generally made the sub-
ject of commercialized forest income. Private and even
state owners of forest land and waters in Europe lease the
exclusive hunting and fishing rights to the highest bidder
and as a result, hunting and fishing recreation on forest
lands are the prerogatives generally only of the wealthier
class. The average man in Europe cannot hunt and fish. In
America, with our long enjoyment of the open forest as a
"commons" we have developed by custom the rights of the masses
to hunt and fish on unenclosed lands as long as they do not
injure the property.
This mass right to hunt and fish over adequate lands
should be preserved to our people for all time through gov-
ernment ownership of such lands. Private forest lands are
rapidly being secured and enclosed by private hunting and
fishing clubs and the general public is excluded. This
movement should be headed off by the extension of govern-
ment forest Tand ownership.
Walues involved for fishing are much less quantita-
tively than for hunting. Also the State Fish commission
seeks to keep open streams on private lands to public
fishing, through stocking with game fish. It seems reason-
ably certain that public fishing rights will be preserved
even in streams on private lands. Forest cover on fishing
streams is important in maintaining clear waters at rela-
tively low temperatures for such game fish as trout and
bass. The fishing license method of financing State
hatcheries and state stocking, together with limitation
of the seasonal and daily catch of game fish, should bring
back good fishing - provided the waters are kept pure and
cool by foresting the maximum area on their watersheds.
The continued development of water reservoirs for power,
domestic use and stream control will add to the fishing re-
creation of the State. Such artificial lakes as Wallenpau-
pack, Pymatuning, the three dams on the lower Susquehanna,
the dams on the Clarion ana Monongahela, and the many smaller
developments will be powerful aids in enhancing this popular
126
recreation. The policy of the State Department of Forests
and Waters and Water and Power Resources Board, of reserving
to the public maximum fishing, shooting and recreation rights
on these lakes even when privately owned, is to be highly
commended.
Considerable improvement in making streams on State
forests and game lands favorable for fish life is possible
by the building of artificial pools and improvement of stream
channels,
COOPERATION IN USE OF FORESTS
Maximum benefits from large forest areas require close
cooperaticn between technical foresters, seeking to perpetuate
the needed timber supply, and the health and recreation in-
terests, the hunters and sportsmen, the Water conservation
engineers and others. This is particularly true of govern-
ment-owned forests.
A good example of this may be found in the Mont Alto State
Forest in Franklin and Adams Counties. An area in the center
of was forest, on a mountain plateau, has been set aside for
the State Health bearine's free tuberculosis sanatorium,
where the health dividends of the forest are paramount.
Several watersheds are closed to camping for the pro-
tection of the water reservoirs which furnish the populations
of Waynesboro, Mont Alto and the sanatorium with water. These
watersheds will never be denuded or contaminated, and the
forest springs held up even in such droughts as 1930 and 1931.
127
Mont Alto and Old Forge Park areas are set aside for
public picnic grounds • Camp sites are leased for SUlrºlēI* homes
and camps. An are: in this state forest is set aside as a
game refuge, where the public is excluded in the hunting
season. The entire forest outside this refuge is a public
shooting ground. Camp sites are leased to hunters. The Fish
Commission stocks the low temperature streams with trout.
With all these social services this forest is producing
wood for local fuel and timber for wood-using industries •
Between 1920 and 1928 there was sold, from this forest of
22,000 acres, over $200,000 worth of wood (largely blighted
chestnut) most of which went into wages for local labor.
The original cost of this forest to the State was but $77,000.
Reduction of roºst AREA
The United Btates once had about 820,000,000 acres of
forest. This has been reduced by clearing for agriculture and
by lumbering and repeated burning to less than 500,000,000
acres. Likewise Pennsylvania, which was once an almost Ull-
broken forest of 28,000,000 acres, has had its forest growth
reduced (largely by agricultural clearing) to 13,000,000-
acres. In this reduced area are included several million
acres of burned brush areas, hardly worthy of being called
"forest." This reduction of forest area in Pennsylvania pro-
gressed so far on steep and inferior soils, that a strong.
t—-
* Abandoned farms and other lands reverting to forest raise -
this figure to 14,533,292 acres. r
128
counter movement of farm abandonment has set in. Already al-
most 1,500,000 acres of farms are in the abandoned class.
Agricultural specialists believe that another 1,700,000 acres
of still active farms will be found submarginal in the near
future and should be transferred to forest, game and park
ll S6 e
l29
Present Land Use
(1) Forest Land
(a) Mature forest
(b) 2nd growth
(c) Restocking
(d) Not restocking
a" erosion
negligible. l,544,347
b' erosion
moderate 387,923
c" erosion
critical 404 aô80
Total not restocking
(e) Game & wild life forest
(f) Farm forest
Total forest
(2) Park & Recreational Land
(3) Agriculture
(a) Crop
(b) Pasture -
(c) other farm (exc. woodland)
Total agriculture
(4) Estimate for towns, railroads, roads and
Misc. use
Acres
694;492
5,800,455
1,464,682
2,336,950
873,399
3.1363 aglº
7,813,826
3,238,419
893 1925
14,533,292
94,946
11,946,170
Total land in State
2all3.072
28.692,480
l30
If abandoned farms and other land slowly reverting to
forest is excluded, there still remains something over
13,000,000 acres of land under some forest cover. These
figures are partly estimates.
They include data from all
special forest land and abandoned farm land surveys made
in the State and available to date, as well as data from
the United States Census and the State Departments con-
cerned.
TIMBER REDUCTION
To arrive at the present timber stand and growth in the
state it is necessary to reclassify the forest area, ex-
cluding the reverting cleared land and rounding to thousands:
Forest Land by Types and Stand Conditions
Forest Beech-Birch-Maple Oak-Hickory
Class Type’ Type
(Acres) (Acres)
Saw timber 450,000 1,381,000
Cordwood stands 1,959,000 3,470,000
Growth below cordwood -
(a) Restocking ... l;563,000 1,670,000
(b) Unsatisfactory 200,000 1,000,000
Practically deforested 285,000 11107,000
Totals 4,457 ,000 8,628 ,000
Total
Area
(Acres)
i,831,000
5,429,000
3,233,000
l, 200,000
laš92a000
13,085,000
The approximately 28,000,000 acres of virgin forest in
Pennsylvania may be safely estimated to have averaged 10,000
board feet per acre • Large areas of virgin hemlock and hard-
woods averaged 20,000 board feet, and individual stands ran up
to 50,000 and even 100,000 board feet per acre.
It is evident
lól
that this magnificent virgin forest contained about'
280,000,000,000 board feet of timber. There were cut and
utilized about 70,000,000,000 board feet of timber (log size)
up to l870 and 100,000,000,000 board feet since 1870. The
other l10,000,000,000 board feet must be accounted for in
actual destruction of logs in the clearing of early farms;
for the bark alone used in tanning, leaving the then un-
merchantable peeled hemlock, chestnut oak, and chestnut logs
to rot on the ground; for fuel wood; ties; poles; mine tim-
bers; pulpwood, and minor products. Forest fires also took
a heavy toll, though these have been worse in their cumulative
effect on the second growth forest.
This virgin forest has been stripped from our lands and
only a few small remnants of its glorious expanse now remains
The following table shows the total lumber cut of Penn-
sylvania for census years from 1870 to 1930. Detailed record
of species is available only from 1900. Hemlock, oak, white
pine and chestnut have been the leading species. In 1900 the
conifers, hemlock, white pine and yellow pine, formed 71 per
cent of the cut. In 1930 they formed only 29 per cent of the
cut. It is estimated that our lumber cut will fall to about
200,000,000 feet, and that over 90 per cent of this cut will
be hardwood, before the improved forest management is able
to again start the cut upward.
132
PENNSYLVANIA's LUMBER GUT
(U. S. Census)
C e n s u s Y e a r
Species 1870-1880-1890 1900. 1910 1920, 1930
TMillion board feet cut)
Hemlock 1,558 687 225 80
Oak Cut not 342 297 145 92
Chestnut 45 108 85 19
Maple detailed 49 92 49 40
White pine 221 92 44 ll
Beech by species ~ 57 39 34.
Yellow pine 18 33 2 gº
Birch prior to 1900 10 22 ll 6
Yellow poplar 10 15. 7 º
Ash census 5 lO 4. sº
Basswood 10 13 6 3
Hickory 4. 15 l 2
Allowance for other species and for
mills not reporting 61 22 22 27
Total cut l,630-1,734-2,113 2,333 l;463 640 314
The next table shows Pennsylvania's fall from first place
among the lumber producing states of the Union in 1850 to
twenty-second place in 1929.
The maximum cut occurred in 1899 (1900 Census report)
when 2,333,000,000 board feet were cut, and the lumber towns
such as Cross Fork, Cammal, Sinnemahoning, and a dozen others
of the north central part of the State had not yet vanished.
Had adequate planning and fore sight been exercised by the
State fifty years ago, these communities would be thriving
today and nearby agricultural lands, now also abandoned,
would still be the location of prosperous families. There
would be millions more of taxable property. Pennsylvania has
sufficient land for forest management to bring back her
133
maximum limber cut and associated forest industries - tanning,
paper making, wood distillation, stave manufacture and all the
others ,
PRESENT FOREST INDUSTRY
The accompanying table on Forest Industries gives the
Census data on Pennsylvania primary and secondary wood indus-
tries, whose raw material is wood or wood fiber to a consider-
able degree. These industries employed over 62,000 workers
or 5.4 per cent of all gainfully employed workers in the
State. They received almost $91,000,000 in salaries and
wages, or 5.2 per cent of all paid in the State. The output
of these plants had a value of $348,000,000 or 4.7 per cent of
all manufactures in the State. Even at our low ebb of 1929 the
wood industries are found large enough to have their future
supply of raw material planned for on a large scale. Addition-
al industries will be developed as the lumber and wood products
again begin to increase,
WOOD CONSUMPTION
The following table sets forth the approximate wood consum-
ed and that cut within the State. The excess consumed is
shipped into the State from other states, Canada, and other
foreign countries. Wood and wood pulp have come in from as far
as Scandinavia and Russia.
134
SOCIOGRAPHICS
P H 1 L A D E L PH1 A
1850
1860
1880
1890
A = PENNSYLVANIA
13 TH
1900
|9|O
1919.
FALL OF PENNSYLVANIA IN RANK
OF STATES PRODUCING LUMBER
F GURE NO. 4.6 B OA R D
19TH


Forest Industry in Pennsylvania
(Census for 1929, figures rounded)
Industry Employee
Primary Wood Products
Lumber and timber 3,605
Planning mill 7,069
Box mſge l,757
Cooperage 563
Custom -
saw-mills (este) 2,000
Paper and pulp lC),864
Wood distille
and charcoal 721
Wood preserving ll.8
Wood turned, etce liºz
Total 28,054
Secondary and
Part-wood Products
Agricultural
Implements 897
Bags - paper 698
Boxes - paper 5,985
Cardboard 365
Carriages, wagons,
sleds 245
Caskets, burial cases 8,834
Envelopes 96l
Furniture 13,713
Lasts, etce '67
Models & patterns 635
Refrigerators 514
Wall paper l,518
Total 34,232
$3,716,000
l2,405,000
2,299,000
829,000
2,000,000
l'7,453,000
857,000
171,000
labbé,000
4.l., 284,000
l, 327,000
973,000
6,575,000
765,000
337,000
l4,57l,000
l, 236,000
19,841,000
ll'7,000
l,033,000
867,000
3,041,000
49,683,000
Walue of
Product
$10,874,000
35, 367,000
7,567,000
5,063,000
5,000,000
95,509,000
5,654,000
3,493,000
4,064,000.
170,591,000
2,996,000
5, lă3,000
21,568,000
2,489,000
l,035,000
74,364,000
4,093,000
55,512,000
216,000
2, lêl,000
6,794,000
178,337,000
135
PENNSYLVANIA ANNUAL WOOD CONSUMPTION AND CUT (PRE-DEPRESSION)
Equivalent
Material Unit Suantity or Bach unit standing Tree/volume
Consumed Cut Consumed-Cut in State
See unit column Million cus ºft.
Lumber Mill-ft.B.M. 2/1,900 3.13 414e O 68s. 6
Fuel wood
Farms Thoue cords 859 859
Other rural º * 487 487
Total $º º l,346 ls346 lC2• 3 lO2.5
Hewed ties " pcs. 4/1,000 506 4/ lz.6 6el
Fence posts Q º 5,100 5slCO 7.7 7.7
Pulpwood º cords 353 82 40e O 9.5
Woodpulp
(imported) tº Cº. 400 tº-e 46.0 º
(equivalent)
Mine timber
(round) Mille cu. ft. 100 75el l30,0 97.7
Logs, veneer,
export & Infge ſº Wº tº ll ll 2.8 2.8
0.7
Cooperage stock,
slack and tight 3/ small 3/ 24.0 small
Shingles Thousands 4/ 100 4/ 2.0 small
Poles and piling 1. 4/ 20 4/ 5.0 0.2
Cordwood * cords 212 212 l2.l 12-l
(Distile stann 3.
excelsior, etce
Total (utilized) - 797,9 307.7
Fire drain-93,000 acres loss yearly l8.6 18.6
10 yrs, growth or 200 cu. ft. per Ae
Insect drain 3.0 3.0
Loss in natural thinning unutilized trees over 3.5 ine
dºº-º-º-º: 108 or growth —39-0 59e O
Total forest drain - 858-5 368 e5


#
cooperage products in the U.S.
Peeled volume.
Approxe ave pre-depression figure; 596 mille bde fºe consumed in l932.
Pennae cooperage plants manufacture 8 per cent of the value of all
The consumption of staves and heading
was therefore taken as 8 per cent of the U.S. Total.
Estimatee
#
The "cut" figures are averages for l925–29,
The "consumed" figures
are pre-depression but not always five year averages as these are not
available in many cases.
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STANDING, TIMEER
Using the same forest land classification as is included
under "area”, the volume of growing trees may be estimated as
follows:
The growth of peeled wood
is estimated below for the
Standing Timber in Pennsylvania
Land Beech—Birch-Maple Oak-Hickory Total
Class” Type ** © Stand
(NHTTion Bd. Ft.)
Softwood 367 779 l, l46
Saw Timber Hardwood l, 317 3,434 4.75l.
Total l,684 4,213 5,897
(Thousand cords)
gº Softwood 88O 4,254 31,716
Cordwood Hardwood 30,836 30,179 34,433
Total 31,716 34,433 66, 149
(Below cordwood size generally)
Restocking g-e gº tº º
Satisfactory *-º gºe º
Unsatisfactory * = •. gº •
Deforested • gº gº
forest land classes adopted. A recent growing stock survey of
60,000 acres in 70 scattered compartments of State Forests
gave an average growth of 37 cu. ft. of unpeeled wood or about
33 cu. ft. of peeled wood per acre and year in trees 3.5
inches in diameter breast high and over. The average growth
of 29 cu. ft. per acre for this State-wide estimate appears
good if trees above 3.5 inches in diameter lost in natural
thinnings are included. Some allowance must then be made under
"forest drain" for this loss.
137

ANNUAL WOOD GROWTH IN FENNSYT WANIA
Beech-Birch-Maple Oak-Hickory Total
- Type Type Total
Land Class Growth per acrº Total—Growth. Growth per acre Total Growth. Saw Timber Gus Vol.
Bde Fte Cu,Ft. Mille Mille Bde Ft. Cueft. Mill. Mille Mill. Bd. Mille
Bdelºte CueFt. • Bde Ft. Cuejºts F't e Cu-Ft.
Saw Timber 80 2O 35 9 30 36 llo 49 l45 .58
Cordwood - 50 - 59. º 40 • 139 * lºS
Restocking:
satisfactory we 35 º 55 Tºº 3O tº 50 tº l()5
unsatisfactory tº l'7 4 º' 3 tº l,5 tºp l6 * > 18
Deforested dº O.5 tº ºn' tº tº º tº-e º º tº º
Grand Total dº tºº 35 l26 tº º ll.0 253 l45 379
Note: The average acre stand for the 13,085,000 acres of forest land is placed at 643 cu. ft. of
peeled wood - the average increment 29 cu. ft. per acre or 4.5 per cent. This increment
per cent falls as the average stand increases in quantity and size.


Here is the vital argument for growing more timber in
the State, by extending State forest ownership; by better
forest protection and management; and by reforesting all
abandoned farms and idle lands available. We are growing but
379,000,000 cubic feet of wood each year, and we are consuming
almost 858,000,000 cubic feet. In other words, the State is
importing 56 per cent of its wood requirements. Our supplies
are being brought from farther and farther points, until now
much comes from the Pacific Northwest.
Importation of lumber, wood and paper pulp from Canada,
Russia or Finland is frequently held as a solution for our
excess wood needs. Imports from these countries must be a
temporary expedient only. Densely populated Europe will in
the long run absorb any exportable surplus from her northern
nations. The Canadian supply of timber is now definitely known
to be much less than was formerly thought, and relief does not
lie there.
It costs $18 to $30 per thousand feet to transport lumber
from the Pacific Northwest via the Panama Canal to points inland
from the east coast by combined ship and rail haul. Freight
rates on lumber from the south to Pennsylvania run from 35 cents
to 45 cents per hundred pounds, or from $10 to $2l per thousand
feet. In many instances timber can be grown in the State for
the excess freight costs.
After the war forest products formed about 10 per cent of
the railroad freight traffic of the country. It exceeded any
1.59
simple commodity except bituminous coal, in freight volumes. It
averaged in 1922 +4.03 per ton for the average haul of 175 miles.”
Forests produce lºoo to 3000 pounds of wood per acre and
year for transportation. This is a larger production of freight
volume per acre than the average from farm land.
EFFECT on Agârguinſ:
In many counties of the State agriculture went forward with
the nearby forest industries furnishing the required market. It
is no coincidence that the peak of the State's lumber production
was also the peak of the total and improved farm land area. An
accompanying chart shows the decline in agriculture with the de-
cline in the lumber industry,
In some counties like Lycoming the decline in the forest
industries - lumber and tanning - was obscured by added develop-
ments in other industries. The results of the up-surge of the
forest industries and agriculture in the north central part of .
the State about 1900 only to be followed by the exhaustion of the
forest and the abandonment of near-by farms since 1910, may be
noted in the data on population and non-forest farm areas in
this section. The population of Cameron, Elk, Forest, Potter
and Sullivan Counties reached a peak, in the lumber boom in
1900, of 93,745. By 1930 the population of the same counties
had shrunk to 88,906, a loss of 26 per cent. Individual counties
like Sullivan, Potter and Forest had higher percentage lossess
*Tºrne American Lumber Tºdustry, "TNelson G. Brom, Tºž.
l40
Loss in Population and Cleared Farm Land
in Certain Forested Counties
Population Cleared Farm Land
l900 l930 Decrease Decrease lºl.0-l930.
(Number) (Number) (Per cent) (Acres) (Percent)
Potter 30,621 17,489 43 55,498 28.
Cameron 7,048* 5,307 - 25 13,347 6l
Elk 32,903* 33,431 (From 1910) 7 9,981 lsº
Forest ll,039 5, 18O 53 5, lé3 2l
Sullivan lºal&4 Zn492– 358 98.258 l4
Total 93,745 68,906 26 93,247 26
* Peak in 1910 was 35,871 in Elk County and 7,644 in Gameron.
Elk County had a large tanning industry which has suffered
from the wiping out of the hemlock forest. But the timber from
Elk County was milled at mills in adjacent counties. Hence its
loss in population (from 1910) is not as great as that in the
surrounding counties. The retaining of non-forest industries
has helped this county.
For the group the loss of 26 per cent of the population,
compared to a gain of 8.6 per cent in the State rural population
818 &l whole is significant. The loss of 26 per cent of the non-
wooded farm area in these counties compared to 16 per cent for
the State as a whole also possesses significance greater than the
actual difference in figures. The conclusion that the forest
portions of the state can be benefited greatly both agricultur-
ally and industrially by the restoration or the rorest and its
re specific analyses showing the decreased economic-welfare of
the forest region were not possible in the time available, such
measures as assessed property values, farm incomes, etc. are com-

plicated for comparison by changing dollar values, changing bases
for assessment, lack of uniformity in census methods, etc.
141
supply of raw materials seems fully warranted.
TAX. DELINQUENCY
In addition to a detailed forest tax study in 1932 in Elk,
Sullivan, Potter, Centre and Clinton (forest) Counties, and Adams,
Franklin and crawford (agricultural) Counties, the Department of
Forests and Waters obtained reports of land tax delinquency early
in 1933 in 43 additional counties. The eight counties studied in
detail possess 2,518,000 acres of forest land, or almost 20 per
cent of the total forest land of the state. The other 43 counties
brought the tax delinquency survey up to over 80 per cent of the
forest land. Estimates were made for the missing lé counties.
County records are very incomplete in separating clear and
forest land. They also lack uniformity in dates to which the
lands were sold or advertised for sale for delinquent taxes. The
last delinquent taxes involved were for lgål, but for some
counties no action was taken that recently. The canvass does
not reflect the full seriousness of land tax delinquency. Lands
are constantly being redeemed by the owners (a legal privilege
for 2 years after sale), new sales are being advertised, and
County Commissioners are selling land to which the county has
taken tax title, whenever it can be passed back to private owners.
So the situation is a rapidly changing' one. The following data
show the serious situation in private forest land ownership.
*A. C.W.A. project directed by Pennsylvania State College and the
U.S. Department of Agriculture made another canvass of delinquent
lands late in 1933 and early 1934. Results of this canvass are
not yet available. -
l42
Land Tax Delinquency - lº
Sold to Counties Advertised for Sale
Area Assessed Value Area Assessed Walue
Land Class (Acres) (Dollars) (Acres) (Dollars)
Forest land 412, 10l 1,953, 144 326,476 l, 296,533
Cleared " l39,996 2,033,028 264, lél 7,643,709
Total 552,097 3,986, l?2 590,637 8,940,242
When the books are cleared for unpaid taxes for 1932, 1933
and lºé, and the records of the slower counties for earlier years
are brought up to date, this delinquency will have much larger
totals •
Forests cannot produce a crop of timber each year unless the
property consists of a considerable acreage and until there has
been secured a complete tree assortment of sizes from seedlings
to mature timber. This requires forestry practice with long time
planning, and a long period to build up our cut-over and burned
forest lands. Detailed studies show that repeated annual taxes
of from 15 cents to $7.00 per acre will confiscate the final
value of the periodic timber crop 30 to 80 years from the seedling
stage. There is no longer a large unearned increment in the value
of timber lands, such as in the past furnished the funds to pay
high annual taxes on virgin timber bought for a song, and held in
a rapidly rising market for 20 to 40 years and then slashed off.
Forest assessments should not average over $3.50 to $4.00
per acre: during the long growing period when well set with trees,
143
and when all property is assessed at market value, When other
property is assessed at 40 to 60 per cent of full value, or when
the land is not well set with desirable trees the assessed value
anoma be reduced to an amount as low as 50 cents per acre •
The Auxiliary Forest acts, declared unconstitutional by the
Bucks County Court in 1934, should have a constitutional amend-
ment and should be repassed, in case the higher courts sustain
this decision. These acts permitted assessment up to $1 per acre
for the annual tax, and required 10 per cent of the final timber
crop value as a "yield tax." These acts afforded relief for
forest land from local excessive property *.
PARKS AND RECREATION AREAS
Pennsylvania has natural facilities for parks and recreation
equalled by few states. It has beautiful forest-clad mountains,
studded with springs and glens. It has sparkling rivers, gorges
and water vistas that make a perfect complement to the forests.
The variety of its plants and trees provides one continual parade
for the nature lover, •rans, summer, autumn and even into the
winters The rapidly restoring wild life - the hundred and more
species of song birds and game birds; the squirrels, raccoons,
deer, and bear, and the host of other animals, even the fish-
stocked streams add life and movement and zest to the outdoors
to a degree not met with in most states.
Pennsylvania’s recreational paradise now is open to our
large population by a magnificent road system. There are no
144
fees beyond the nominal resident hunters' and fishing licenses
for our citizens. The poorest can enjoy our recreation with
the richest, except for transportation. But these recreation
facilities need great expansion within the radius of a day's
outing (perhaps 50 miles) of our urban population centers.
Shorter working hours and more vacation increase the recrea-
tional use of our forests and streams. The popular response to
added picnic, park and outing facilities is out stripping the
present facilities.
On the State Forests the recreational demand is being met
by setting aside special use areas for
(a) State Forest Parks and picnic places
(b) State Forest Monuments
(c) Public camps
(d) Permanent camp sites
and the creation of semi-independent
(e) State parks not directly a part of the state forest
system.
(a) The State Forest Parks and picnic places
on the state forests now... include such places
as the Caledonia and Mont Alto Parks in
Franklin County, Childs Park in Pike
County; Womeida Park (Hairy Johns") in
Centre County; Leonard Harrison Park in
Tioga County; Colerain and Greenwood in
Huntingdon County; Sizerville in Cameron
and the Hemlocks in Perry County. These
places have facilities for cooking and
picnicking and personal comfort. Trails
lead out from these parks and tempt to
healthful hiking. Four have swimming
facilities.
Four park areas are being added: Parker Dam, Clearfield
County; Half-Way, in Union; Riansares, in Clinton and Black
Moshannon, in Centre County.
145
(b) The State Forest Monuments include
historical, botanical, or scenic
places and are equally picnic and
recreational places. The Buchanan
Birthplace in Franklin, the Ole Bull
in Potter, Snyder-Middlesworth in
Snyder, Bear Meadows in Centre,
Detwiler Run and Alan Seeger in
Huntingdon, Joyce Kilmer and McConnell
Narrows in Union, Mount Logan and
Mount Riansares in Clinton and Martins
Hill in Bedford Counties.
(c) The State Forest Public Camps have
special camping facilities added to the
picnicking facilities. The se include
shelters, fireplaces, water, tables,
benches and comfort facilities. Fifty-
one Public Camp sites in the State
forests have now been set aside and are
still being added to . These may be
illustrated by Pine Grove Furnace Camp
in Cumberland, Old Forge in Franklin,
Laurel Run in Mifflin, Cherry Springs
in Potter, Laurel Summit in Westmoreland,
and Promised Land in Pike County. These
camps are most popular for week end and
holiday outings.
(d) Permanent camp sites are leased on suit-
able areas in the State forests for summer
cottages, hunting lodges, etc. The lease
is for a period of ten years with an
extension privilege. Building plans
must be approved so as to prevent a spoil-
ing of the landscape with unsightly build-
ings. These camp sites meet the recre-
ational desires of an ever growing class,
of citizens, as the list of leases shows.
Even the depression has not decreased the
number of sites leased as is shown by the
following figures:
Year Camp Sites Leased Receipts
1913 - - 38 $ 138
1915 252 l, 361
1920 * 573. 3,712
1925 1,277 12,611
1930 2,319 22,171
1933 2,850 27,958
Total receipts to date $226,517
146
Up to l830 the number of personal camp site leases doubled
each five years. The taxable value of these camp buildings in
three of the 20 State forest districts with state land, already
exceeds the cost of the forest to the State and so replaces the
forest land withdrawn from taxation. For all the State forest
land the taxable value of these camps and summer homes (almost
$3,000,000) is almost 75 per cent of the total cost of the
land to the State (slightly over $4,000,000). With the five
cents per acre paid by the State annually in lieu of taxes to
the local governments, this camp taxable value goes far to
make up for the loss of local tax income from State owned
forest lands.
(e) State Parks include historical spots
such as:
Fort Necessity Fayette County 350 Acres
Walley Forge Chester and Montgomery lé00 "
Bushy Run Battlefield Westmoreland 169 rº
Washington Crossing Bucks 440 "
Presque Isle Erie 437O ºf
Fort Washington Montgomery 36O. *
also a 40-mile section of the old
Delaware Canal in Bucks County
known as the Roosevelt State Park 3.15 "
the Cook Forest Park with a small
body of magnificent virgin white
pine and hemlock in one part 6500 "
the Ralph Stover Park in Bucks
County now being developed along
the Tohickon Creek 37 tº
A measure of the service of State Forest and Park recre-
ational areas may be seen in the record of visitors to these
areas made each year by the Department of Forests and Waters.
147.
Year Wisitors
l.923 524, 405
1925 - 84l,057
1930 l, 289,347
1933 3,484,437
In 1931 additional parks like Roosevelt, Bushy Run, and
Fort Necessity were added accounting in part for the increase
in visitors.
A table in this section shows that the total land area in
park and recreational use in the state is placed at 94,946 acres
owned as follows:
Municipal parks l:5,078 Acres
l/ County " 4,010 "
2/ State n 22,258 "
3/ Federal vº l, 200 "
Total Public 42,546 "
Private recreation 58,400. "
State total 94,946 "
GAME CONSERVATION
Pennsylvania is famous today for its wildlife. Its
wilderness areas furnish a home for thousands of white-tailed
deer and for black bears; its mountains harbor flocks of wild
turkeys; its woodlands and countryside grouse, bob-whites,
and ringnecked pheasants. In the brush, fields and fence-rows
rabbits live, and squirrels frisk in the woodlands. On the
lakes and streams are migratory waterfowl. This assemblage of
game-life places Pennsylvania in the forefront among hunting
states of the Union.
Foxes, both red and gray, raccoons, wild cats, skunks,
l/ Allegheny County. - .
2/ Part in State forests.
3/ Gettysburg National Park, part of which is classified as
"farms."
l48
minks and weasels are so abundant as to keep a large number of
trappers busy during the winter season. A host of valuable
small song birds live throughout the Commonwealth, many of
them even in the towns. In the mountains are found black
ravens, and bald and golden eagles.
Forty years ago no such assemblage of wild life existed
in Pennsylvania. In 1900 there were but few white-tailed
deer, and black bears were very rare, Far-sighted sportsmen
and naturalists foresaw that our wild life would have to be
protected carefully, that laws would have to be enacted and
enforced, that a body of men who should care for the wild
animals would have to be organized, and that an efficient and
business-like system of game management would have to evolve.
WILD_LIFE PLANNING
Thus in June, l895, there was created by act of law, a
Board of Game Commissioners in Pennsylvania. The Board had one
great advantage; they were dealing with a region wonderfully
varied and almost ideally located geographically for the
protection and development of game-life. While lumbering
interests and forest fires had swept most of the mountains,
some forests remained, and the wild areas were potential game
wer-ºne ºints. The climate was favorable; food bearing
plants abundant, and the average citizen of Pennsylvania socn
caught the spirit of conservation and tries to cooperate.
At first the Board had little money with which to work.
A total of $800 was available in 1896, which was used entirely
lá9
for postage and express. This sum was available each year until
190l., when $3000 was appropriated. The sum increased rapidly,
doubling itself each biennium, until in 1913 $97,400 was in use.
Financial difficulties were so great at first that but one Game
Protector could be hired to patrol the Whole Commonwealth.
HUNTING. RESTRICTIONS
The Board was especially interested in saving Pennsylvania's
deer, which at that time were practically extinct. In June, l897.
they obtained passage or a law which stopped the use of hounds in
hunting deer. Market hunting had not yet been stopped, but the
unfairness of hunting the rapidly dwindling deer herd with hounds,
as well as with modern firearms, had a popular appeal and the law
was put into effect at once as efficiently as possible under the
circumstances. The act of 1897 was the first concentrated attempt
to put a stop to market hunting, which was recognized by the Board
to be the most objectionable single feature of the game conserva-
tion problem as it stood at the close of the Nineteenth Century.
The act of l897 led to a subsequent law which prohibited the sale
of game and which eventually put a stop to ºn mºst hunting.
In l903 a law was passed which established the non-resident
hunter's license fee at $10. The sale of such licenses was not.
great. *
In 1905 was passed the first Game Refuge law which set into
motion a system which has since become world famous, and which
has been widely followed. The first Game Refuge was established
in Clinton County on State Forest Land, since that was the only
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land available. On this refuge the game was safe, and about the
tract of land set aside as absolute sametuary was an area of
public hunting ground where all sportsmen of the Commonwealth
could •rena their recreation hours, on State-owned property
available for their use for all time. While the refuge system
has grown and been modified considerably, the original prin-
ciples have been retained, and the fact that hunters have a
wholesome respect for the refuges because they recognize them
as the best sources of their game supply, has made the system.
tremendously popular.'
In 1905 black bears were given protection. While some men
at that time regarded bears as destroyers of property, Others
felt they were a valuable game animal. The sportsmen won, and
Pennsylvania was the first state of the Union to recognize the
black bear as an almost altogether harmless animal, desirable
as game. By degrees the bear law tightened so that eventually
steel traps, dead-falls, and such means of capture were not
permitted. Finally, hunters were permitted to take but one
bear apiece, and small cubs were given complete protection.
In 1907 two important laws were passed - one protecting
all female deer, permitting only bucks with antlers visible
above the head to ve shot; but placing no restriction on the
size of the antlers. Such restriction followed in later years
until today only bucks with two or more points to an antler
are legal. The other one prohibit B the use of automatic guns
in killing game. The so-called "buck law" of l907 is largely
151
responsible for the tremendous deer population present in
Pennsylvania today.
In 1908 a law was passed preventing unnaturalized
foreigners from possessing shotguns and rifles. In 1915 a
law was passed preventing foreigners from owning dogs and
FINANCING OF GAME PROGRAM
Probably the most important step in the development
of our Game Protection System was the hunters' license law of
1913. With the adoption of this law, which provided for a
license fee of $l, funds immediately became available. A corps
of Game Protectors could now be hired and properly paid; lands
could be acquired for game refuges; game animals could be
brought in from outside the Commonwealth to replenish the de-
creasing supply; law enforcement could begin in earnest. The
wild life conservation movement was gaining impetus rapidly.
In 1913 was brought into being the first effective "bounty
law. " which permitted the paying of a certain sum of money for
each animal destructive to game. killed by citizens who reported
their work by sending the dead animal or its skin in for exam-
ination and for payment of reward. According to this law #4 was
to be paid for each wildcat, $2 for each gray fox, $2 for each
weasel, and 50 cents for each goshawk. sharp-shinned hawk, and
great-horned owl. In 1915, and during subsequent years, this
bounty law was IIIodified to its present form. Bounty was paid on
lºg
hawks and owls only during 1913 and 1914. From 1915 to 1921 a
bounty of $l was paid on minks.
By 1914, most of the features of the game conservation
movement which are recognized as so important in Pennsylvania
today were in effect. Market hunting had long since been
stopped, and with the stopping of this practice "game hogs"
were gradually weeded outs. But market hunting was stopped too
late to save the Passenger Pigeon -- a bird which might today
be a splendid form of game life, so abundant and so easily
approached that the youngest hunter might go to the woods
reasonably certain of returning with a bag of game.
By 1914 deer were noticeably on the increase, bears were
prospering, small game was holding its own, game refuges
surrounded by public hunting grounds were being established,
natural enemies of game were being controlled, and over the
Commonwealth was developing such a genuine interest in and
sympathy for wild life that the average Pennsylvania citizen
was by degrees, and in a sense, himself becoming a Game Pro-
tectore
In 1917 the Auxiliary Game Refuge law was passed. This
gave the Board authority to lease the hunting rights, for •
period of ten or more years, on lands suitable for game refuges
and public hunting grounds. Refuges could thus be established
in sections where land was not available or was too high
priced for purchase,
In 1919 the Legislature passed a law authorizing the Board
153
of Game Commissioners to purchase lands to be known as State
Game Lands and to be used for game refuges and public hunting
ground purposes. This made it possible to purchase lands in
sections of the Commonwealth where no State-owned land was
available • The first purchase was made in Elk County in 1920.
Thus was started a program whereby the sportsmen purchased
their own land. It is of the greatest importance that the
larger State Forest lands are also in effect public shooting.
grounds, with many game refuges on theme
In l923 all the Game Laws were codified and thereby made
more intelligible. In 1923 the Resident Hunter's License fee
was increased to $l.25, the Non-Resident Hunter's License fee
to $15.
BOARD OF GAME COMMISSIONERS
Today, there are eight, instead of six, Board members,
Not one of these men receives a salary. The Board is still
free of political entanglements. It is the duty of the Board
to determine Pennsylvania's policy of wild life conservation,
The Legislature fixes the hunting seasona and acts upon certain
features of wild life control, but the Board has the power of
changing the seasons and daily and seasonal bag limits of game
as local conditions seem to warrant. This power of changing
seasons, of regulating bag limits, and of closing certain
sections or all of the Commonwealth to the shooting of certain
species, is one of the most important powers of the Board and
is one of the fundamental reasons for the success of game.
l64
management in Pennsylvania today. The Board has control of the
funds which accumulate from the sale of hunters' licenses, from
fines and other sources of revenue. The Game Fund is maintain-
ed separately from other monies so that direct returns are made
to the sportsmen who have paid their license fees. The revo-
cation of hunters' licenses and of special licenses is in the
hands of the Board.
All of the Board members are official. Game Protectors and
may arrest on sight, without warrant; any violator of the Game,
Fish or Forestry Laws.
The Board elects an Executive Secretary who carries out
their plans and policies. He is the Chief Game Protector of
Pennsylvania and with the approval of the Governor has charge
of the hiring of men throughout the field and office force,
has direct supervision of the various branches of the work with
offices in Harrisburg, and carries out as nearly as possible
the program of game management as conceived by the Board •
REFUGES AND SHOOTING GROUNDS
The Bureau of Refuges and Lands is charged with the acqui-
sition of all lands for game refuges and public hunting grounds
for the Board of Game Commissioners; the creation of game
refuges; the supervision over refuge keepers and the maintenance
of State Game Lands and Game Refuges.
The Pennsylvania Game Refuge system at present consists of
lll Primary Game Refuges, most of which are under the supervision
155
of salaried game refuge keepers, some of the keepers having
supervision of several refuges, and 66 Auxiliary Refuges which
are looked after by Game Protectors and other salaried field
officers. Primary Refuges total loo, lz7 acres and Auxiliary
Refuges, 23,231 acres. The system of control is the same with
each class. All are surrounded by a single strand of No. 9
wire, a brushed line eight to ten feet wide and conspicuously
posted. All refuges are surrounded by public hunting grounds •
Refuges for large game are l; 500 to 3,000 acres in size, for
small game such as wild turkeys, grouse, quail, etc. are
smaller. ranging in size from loo acres to l,000 acres. To
date the sportsmen of Pennsylvania have acquired by purchase
over 452,950 acres of State Game Lands.
The land purchase program was further extended in 1927
when the Resident Hunting License fee was increased to $2,
seventy-five cents of which was ear-marked for purchase of
land, the creation of game refuges and the maintenance of the
game refuges and public hunting grounds. The land purchase
program is proceeding with the purchase of approximately 75,000
acres per year. This will continue for several years unless
there is a change in the present law, and should enable the
Commission to completely finance a long time plan for perpetual
gaine and wild life conservation in the States
This Bureau also arranges for cooperative construction of
door-proof fences to relieve landowners from depredations by
deer,
156
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Refuge keepers, with whatever assistance is needed, keep
old roads, trails and refuge lines well brushed out at all
times. The refuge wire is kept in good condition. Lines
around the refuge are brushed out to a width of about ten feet,
and are posted with notices bearing the words : "State Game
Refuge; Hunting is Unlawful" about every seventy-five yards,
in addition to notices containing rules and regulations
governing the refuge, which are placed between these signs.
They wage constant warfare on natural game destroyers.
A large part of their time during the winter months is taken
up with the trapping and killing of predatory animals.
They make repairs on roads leading to the refuge, where
the road is under the control of the Game easºn. Each .
refuge is provided with a telephone and it is usually necessary
to construct a few miles of telephone line to the refuge house.
Each refuge keeper, wherever it is possible to do SO 9
plants a number of game-food and game-cover trees or shrubs,
and in certain cases cultivates plots with grain for game food.
The grounds around each refuge keeper's house are kept as
attractive as possible at all times. This is accomplished by
planting ornamental trees or shrubs.
GAME PROTECTION
The Bureau of Protection has charge of field work in en-
forcing the game laws and its force comprises seven supervisors,
65 county protectors, 12 assistant county protectors and lo
157
traveling protectors. Appointments to this service as well as
for refuge keepers are made by competitive examination, which
is duly advertised, and the applicants are subjected to a very
thorough examination on ten different subjects, and the appoint-
ment is made by a selection from the three highest papers,
physical qualifications, of course, being taken into consider-
ation. As a result of this examination we are getting an
unusually high type of officer in the service. All salaried
field officers are now fully uniformed and a permanent training
school for these officers has been established. Here game laws
are studied carefully. The officers are given a special course
in public speaking to better enable them to present the work
of the Game Commission at sportsmen's and other gatherings.
They are taught the art of self-defense and how expertly to use
and handle firearms. Pennsylvania also has a force of over
600 Deputy Game Protectors who serve without remuneration be-
cause of their keen interest in the work,
One of the important phases of the work of the Game
Commission is the control of animals which destroy game. The
Game Protectors and refuge keepers destroy all the predatory
creatures that they can, but it has been found worthwhile to
offer stated sums of money for the killing of certain species
of animals, when these animals or their pelts are properly
forwarded to Harrisburg together with a legal claim for bounty.
The policy is not to exterminate any kind, but merely keep them
under control to save game species. A bureau for this purpose
158
was established in April, 1915. This bureau, known as the
Bureau of Predatory Animals, is concerned principally with
the examination and payment of all such legal bounty claims.
Today bounty is paid as follows: $15 for each wildcat ;
$4 for each gray fox; $l for each weasel, and $5 for each
goshawk killed between November l and May l. Over $100,000
is spent annually for this purpose. The payment of bounties
in Pennsylvania is more or less traditional for it goes back
as early as lé83, when lo shillings was paid on dog wolves.
The Bureau of Education conducts biological researcnes,
delivers lectures to organizations on request, makes motion
pictures of wild animal life of the Commonwealth, and pre-
pares and issues a monthly magazine known as the Pennsylvania
Game News, as well as bulletins and posters of interest to
sportsmen and scientists. There is an increasing demand for
accurate information as to the wild life of the Commonwealth
from sportsmen's associations, service clubs, nature study
societies and Boy and Girl Scout organizations, which the
Commission has been greatly pleased to recognize, and some
300 lectures were delivered during the past year.
PROPAGATION AND STOCKING
Game propagation, which was started on several Game
Refuges in l928 on a small scale and with almost no facilities,
has progressed so that now the Commission owns four regular
State Game Farms, two for rearing ringnecked pheasants and
rabbits, one for quail, and one for wild turkeys.
159
This year these farms set a production record never before
equaled by any state or privately owned game farm system. From
January 1, 1934, to September 20, 1934, the four State Game
Farms shipped the following birds for restocking purposes:
43,995 ringnecked pheasants, 5,325 bob-white quail, 2,000 wild
turkeys and 833 wild ducks. Further shipments which will be
made before the end of this year will increase the production
for restocking purposes to approximately the following: 45,000
ringnecked pheasants, 7,000 bob-white quail, 2,500 wild turkeys,
and l,000 wild ducks. Much game is also purchased annually.
Last season ever 50,000 cottontail rabbits were purchased and
released, also a goodly number of fox squirrels and raccoons.
Under the present policy of restocking depleted areas of
the Commonwealth with wild life, game is never released on
lands which are posted against hunting, nor on areas which are
open only to a privileged few. It is released only on areas
that are closed to hunting entirely, such as game refuges, or
on lands which are wholly open to public hunting,
EXPENDITURES AND REVENUE
The budgeting and accounting in connection with the Game
Fund is handled by the Bureau of Office Maintenance • The income,
which makes up the Game Fund comprises that received from the
sale of hunting licenses, from the sale of special licenses such
as taxidermy, fur dealers, ferret owners and numerous others, and
penalties. This amounted during the fiscal year June 1, 1933, to
l60
May 31, 1934, to $1,134,664.8l.
Hunting is a source of great revenue. The value of the
game killed, computed on the average prices paid for iike
species in the open market, is well over $10,000,000; that
of fur-bearing animals is nearly $2,000,000. Also, it is con-
servatively estimated that each hunter spends approximately
$10 per capita a year. This includes his #2 license, arms anā
ammunition, clothing and other equipment, foodstuffs, trans-
portation and other items of expense. During the year lº
there were 524, 337 licensed resident hunters in Pennsylvania.
On the basis of $10 each this amounts to *.*.* spent by
the hunters of Pennsylvania that year. In addition over loo,000
hunt without license on their own land and non-residents would
increase this amount considerably. Computed also on a conserve-
lative basis we find that, with the value of game killed and fur-
bearers taken, hunters receive on an average almost $18 for
- every #1 spent.
One other important valuation accruing as a result of hunt-
ing but which is seldom credited to this great sport is the
value of song and insectivorous birds to the farmer. Every
dollar spent to protect and increase these valuable allies of
man is contributed by the sportsmen.
LAND USE PLAN
The principal uses for non-agricultural lands are:
(l) Forests
(2). Game
L61
(3) Recreation
The forest is the basis for all of them and the three uses
are so inextricably associated that there is need for the closest
cooperation to assure the maximum service of these lands to all
our people. Lands producing timber can simultaneously produce
game, and the beauty spots can be set aside and developed for
recreation. Likewise game lands with rational planning can pro-
duce wood products to a great degree without sacrificing cover
or food for wild life.
The growing social aspects of forests and the failure of
private ownership as reflected in the obliteration and devasta-
tion of the virgin forests, the subsequent burning of the cut-
over lands, and now the extensive abandonment of large areas for
taxes - all point to a need of greatly extended government
interest in and ownership of our forest lands.
The outstanding recommendations for forest lands are the
increase of land in State Forests by 3,081, 340 acres; the
establishment of county ones rerests (largely from delinquent
tax lands) of l?l, 962 acres; the increase of State game lands
of 601,331 acres; the increase of land in the Allegheny National
Forest by 199,277 acres, or a total increase of 4,056,753 acres
of forest in public ownership. This is made up partly of forest
land now privately owned, and partly of non-forest land now
privately owned to be bought and reforested by the State, county
and Federal governmentse
l62
(2)
(3)
RECOMMENDED FUTURE LAND OWNERSHIP AND CHANGES
Present Area Recommended Future Permanent
- Increase Dacrease Future Area
(l). Forest Land
(a) Municipal lă, lé9 2,663 l'7,832
(b) County O 171,962 tº-º l?l, 962
(c) State
a"Forest l,647,881 3,08.l.,340 -º-º-º: 4,729,221
b" Game 440,286 60l.,33l ** l,04l, 617
(d) Federal 4Ol.023 • 199,377 *-- 600,300
Total public 2,504,359 4,056,573 6,560,932
(e) Private farm
(f) Private non-farm,
inc. game land &
abandoned farms 8,665,619 -- 2,443,854 6, 221,765
Total private lz,028,933 -- 2,443,854 9,585,079
Total all forest l4,533,292 l,612,719 tº-sº l6, l46, Oll
Recreation and Park Land
(a) Municipal l3,078 6,367 gº-º-º: 2l, 445
(b) County 4,010 2,800 rº-º- 6,810
(c) State 22,258 135,072 --> 157,330
(d) Federal 1,200 gº tº tº º l, 300
Total Public 42,546 l44,239 tº gº 186,785
(e) Private recreation 58,400 7,877 --> 60,377
Total all recreation 94,946 152slló - º 247,062
Agriculture
(a) Crop land
a" Private) 7,813,826 <--> 429,585 (7,359,957
b” Public ) ( 24,284
(b) Pasture (exc. woodland
pastured)
a"Private 3,238,419 -* 44l, 325 2,785,687
b'Public ll, 407
(c) All other land
in farms 893,935 tº gº 893,925 ºsº-
Total Agriculture
(ex. woodland) ll, 946, 170 -- l,764,835 lo, 18l, 335
Urban, R.R. roads etc.
(except farm wood) 8,118,07? dº-it- º-º-º-º: —£ullSiO7&
State land area 28,692,480 tº-º-º- -ºº. 28,692,480
163
REcoºnDED FUTURE FOREST ONNERSHIP In PENNSYLVANIA

(All figures in acres)
WERNMENT
RECOMME.DED GOM Quºd FoºtSST LAND | Total Private Total
Municipal | County 8tate Rational Public Forest all
Forest - Game Lands Forest
Adams; O O 30,370 10,000 3OO 40,670 61,911 102,581
Allegheny 681 O O 15,399 O 16,080 91,494 107,574.
Armstrong O 41 50,000 20,000 O 70,041 126,986 197,027
Beaver O 5,058 10,000 20,500 O $5,558 82,519 118,077
Bedford O 80 120,000 31,400 O 151,480 237,221 388,701
Berks 255 8,000 53,774 20,000 O 82,009 81,575 163,584
Blair 5,000 5,000 75,000 15,000 O 98,000 108,640 206,640
Bradford O 5,000 50,000 40,000 O 95,000 259,111 354,111
Bucks O 1,482 O 19,700 O 21, 182 98,936 120,118
Butler 2,000 4,500 55,000 30,000 O 71,500 147,849 219,549
Cambria O 12O 60,000 14, 127 O 74,247 200,738 274,985
Cameron O O 140,000 16,000 O 156,000 68,444 224,444
Carbon O 5,000 81,000 13,500 O 99,500 92,296 191,796
Centre 100 O 262,500 22,500 O 285,100 247, 161 552,261
Chester O 152 151 12,000 O 12,503 96,355 108,658
Clarion O 5,000 40,000 13,300 O 58,300 141,162 199,482
Clearfield O 5,000 200,000 24,000 O 229,000 855,909 584,909
Clinton O 4,000 302,000 17,400 O $23,400 133,302 458,702
Columbia 61 | 10,000 31,000 12,000 O 53,061 87,427 140,488
Crawford O 9,000 10,000 10,000 O 29,000 189,205 218,205
Cumberland O 75 40,000 10,000 O 50,075 41,765 91,850
Dauphin O 5,000 30,000 10,000 O 45,000 86,675 131,675
Delaware O 4,000 O 5,000 O 9,000 17,563 26,565
Elk O 36 155,000 53,000 | 123,000 $31,036 130,448 461,484
Erie O | 10,070 O 10,000 O 20,070 104,728 124,798
Fayette O 44 100,000 20,000 O 120,044 160,190 280,254
Forest O 50 10,000 7,900 | 159,000 176,950 60,271, 237,221
Franklin O 49 45,000 15,000 O 60,049 100,595 180,644
Fulton O O 40,000 19,890 O 59,890 96,679 156,569
Greene O 5,000 O 12,000 O 17,000 50,612 67,612
Huntingdon O 100 114,300 23,906 O 138,306 273,881 412,187
Indiana O 77 80,000 11,020 O 91,097 183,877 274,974
Jefferson O 5,525 80,000 24,000 O 109,325 146,720 256,045
Juniata O 5,000 50,000 10,000 O 65,000 75,938 138,938
Lackawanna 284 5,000 60,000 10,000 O 75,284 61,551 136,855
Lancaster O 15 3,000 8,000 O 11,015 92,731 103,746
Lawrence O 9,002 O 10,000 O 19,002 35,663 54,666
Lebanon O 41 10,000 10,000 O 20,041 37,138 57, 179
Lehigh O 2,077 5,052 8,000 O 15, 129 42,168 57,297
Luzerne 5OO O 160,000 10,000 O 170,500 198,061 368,561
Lycoming O 5,005 230,150 27,500 O 262,655 290,111 552,766
McKean 8,000 5,000 100,000 22,000 | 168,000 503,000 232,827 535,827
Mercer O 3,000 19,500 5,000 O 27,500 90,639 118,139
Mifflin O 2,500 65,000 11,233 O 78,733 60,579 139,312
Monroe O 5,075 95,000 9,848 O 109,923 157,760 267,683
Montgomery O 28 20,132 6,000 O 26,160 85,864 112,024
Montour 15 O 10,068 4,900 O 14,983 7,832 22,816
Northampton O 47 20,077 4,500 O 24,624 40,145 64,769
Northumberland 45 O 30,000 8,000 O 38,045 81,170 119,215
Perry O 5,046 75,000 10,000 O 90,045 121,924 211,969
Philadelphia O 23 O O O 25 531 554
Pike O 5,000 120,000 10,000 O 135,000 173,251 308,251
Potter O 110 350,000 22,870 O 372,980 125,855 496,855
Schuylkill O 5,050 145,000 20,000 O 170,050 141,232 311,282
Snyder O O 35,300 4,800 O 40,100 42,568 82,668
Somerset O 240 120,000 20,000 O 140,240 196,355 336,575
Sullivan O O 90,000 43,000 O 135,000 103,355 236,355
Susquehanna 2O6 O 60,000 13,000 O 73,206 129,009 202,215
Tioga O 55 190,000 13,400 O 205,455 168,703 372,158
Union O O 60,263 5,000 O 65,263 35,498 100,761
Wenango 500 5,060 50,000 20,000 O 75,560 211,048 286,608
Warren 160 4,140 79,500 20,000 | 150,000 253,800 180,101 433,901
Washington O 5,050 20,000 20,000 O 45,050 79,111 124,161
Wayne 45 O 70,484 8,000 O 78,529 168,452 246,981
Westmoreland O 5,129 90,600 14,000 O 109,729 203,396 513,125
Wyoming O O 30,000 24,200 Q 54,200 81,892 136,092
York O 11 20,000 9,824 O 29,835 128,240 158,075
Total 17,832–1171,962 |4,729,221 11,041,617 | 600,300 6,560,932 | 8,238,893 14,799 .825
NOTE: Forest County Private Forest Land reduced by 8,415 acres and pasture land increased
by 8,413 acres from that in County Schedule submitted to Washington Planning Board.
l64
FEDERAL assistance
& The water conservation benefits of the forests for power,
navigation and irrigation on the headwaters of our inter-state
streams, give the Federal Government a direct interest in re-
forestation and forest management. Already the Federal
Government is:
(l) Contributing toward the protection of State
and private forests by a co-operative pro-
tection fund, Federal, State and private.
This should be continued and somewhat en-
larged, -
(2) Contributing toward the maintenance of state
nurseries for the production of cheap re-
forestation stocks. This should be continued.
(3) Extending National forests.” by purchase of
land • This should be completed within the
boundaries agreed on in Pennsylvania. An
additional l99,277 acres is needed to com-
plete the Allegheny National Foreste
(4) Purchasing sub-marginal farm lands for park
purposes for development with relief funds
or C.C.C. Camps and leased to the State. ,
This should be continued and extended to
lands for State Forest additions. The game
land extension policy is well in ‘hand and
needs no Federal assistance •
(5) Carrying on forest research from the -
Allegheny Forest Experiment Station located
in Philadelphia, and investigating some
forest problems from Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, Delaware and Maryland. This
scattering of effort of a small group of
investigators over such a large territory
is open to serious question. States are
doing some of their own forest research,
and lately State agricultural colleges and
experiment stations are also entering this
field. There is a question as to whether
all this effort should not be merged under
a system of State forest experiment stations
165
(6)
parallel to the State agricultural ex-
periment stations with Federal coordination
and supervision, but attached to the state
forestry departments in those states where
the state has accepted the dominant position
and responsibility in forest land ownership
and management •
The Federal C.C.C. camps should be made a per-
manent feature for the development of our forests. . .
STATE FOREST PROGRAM
The State
ownership of, forest land may be divided into
two parts according to present organization, (1) game lands,
and (2) forest
(l)
(2)
and park lands •
Game lands now have been purchased by the
State to the extent of 440,286 acres. This
report recommends the purchase of an estimated
601,331 acres additional, The fixed portion
of the hunters' license fee available for
land purchase permits the addition of about
75,000 acres of land annually at present
prices to the State game land holdings. At
this rate approximately eight years will see
this plan completed.
The great problem is the financing of the
State purchase of an additional 3,081,340
acres for the completion of the State Forest
system. Part of this area is abandoned farm
land which must be reforested. During a
previous administration a bond issue was de-
feated, largely by the argument that the pro-
gram could be financed by annual appropriations
from current income and the payment of bond
interest avoided. This plan has broken down,
and unless an annual appropriation of one
million dollars can be provided for the next
twenty years, a bond issue should again be.
brought before the electorate •
New York is well along with a policy of abandoned farm.
land purchase and reforestation, for which a constitutional
amendment authorizes the annual appropriation of one million
166
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dollars for 20 yearse Forestry requires a continuous policy
as free from temporary interruptions of political expediency
as possible •
If the rederal government, in trying to permanently solve
the problem of agricultural surplus, can finance the purchase
of a part of the submarginal and abandoned farm land for park
and forest use and lease them to the State under long term
lease, such aid in the solution of the land problems of the
State is recommended.
The State-wide forest protection system developed by the
Department of Forests and Waters is getting results and should
be continued. Federal, State and private cooperation should be
continuede -
The production in State nurseries of forest trees for
economical reforestation by the government arid private planters
should be continued. The nurseries must be greatly extended,
if the policy of State reforestation of abandoned farms and
submargined farms is adopted on an adequate scale. To reforest
50,000 acres a year or l,000,000 acres in 20 years-a minimum
program for the combined private property owner and the state -
will require a 60:000,000 tree output per year. Our forest
nurseries now have facilities for but la,000,000 to 15,000,000
outpute
Since the present State forest lands are now reºching an
age when large scale marketing of thinnings is necessary, the
State should establish a special fund for the proceeds of such
167
thinnings, from which the cost of making them may be paid. An
appropriation of perhaps $100,000 would start this special fund.
It was only the existence of such a special fund that permitted
the self-supporting salvage of 35,000 cords of blighted chestnut
from the Mont Alto State Forest (lg80–27) with proceeds of about
$200,000. This special fund was legislated out of existence with
other special funds, without a consideration of its special merite
FOREST RESEARCH
The Department of Forests and Waters, with its problems of
technical management of highly complex natural forest stands,
and in its extensive reforestation problems, and also in the
problem of finding markets for its wood crop now approaching
harvest in the first stage, must carry on a continuous series of
practical experiments as yell as basic forest research. Its
needs are pressing and it cannot wait for the efforts of more
remote forest agencies, interested often in different problems,
to come to its assistance. For this reason the Department long
has had a Bureau charged with forest research, and centralized
at the Mont Alto Forest and Nursery, though the experimental
work is as State-wide as the State forest landse
The interest of the Department of Forests and Waters is
paramount and its State Forest Research Institute should be
continued. Merging should be considered only if a National
system of State forest experiment stations is established with
the local administration of such a State forest experiment station
168
associated with the State forest administration, Forest
administration and research are inseparable. The Department
of Forests and Waters holds the responsibility for leadership
in reforestation. It should establish demonstration forest
areas in each county situated in accessible places for the
inspection and encouragement of private forest owners in re-
forestation and forest management,
Such abandoned farm land, reverting to the counties for
non-payment of taxes, as can be attached to and economically
administered by established State Forests should be so ad-
ministered. But there will remain smaller scattered blocks
which might well be put under permanent forest administration
by some of the counties themselves. Enabling legislation now
exists for thise The State should subsidize the reforestation
of such county forests and furnish professional consultation
in their reforestation and management as New York State is now
doinge
EXTENSION OF PARK AND RECREATIONAL LANDS
An accompanying table shows that there is a total of
94,946 acres of land devoted to park and recreation purposes,
including an estimated 52,400 acres privately owned, most of
the latter in golf courses. While the State Forests and Game
Lands are open to visitors everywhere (game refuges excepted)
and are to a degree a vast system of State recreational lands,
they are often not advantageously placed for park and recreational
Uls6 9
l69
PRESENT PARK AND RECREATION LAMD ONNERSHIP IH PENNSYLVANIA
(All Figures in Areas)

TGOVERIFESTOTEDT Total | Privately
Municipal Coun State Federal Public Total
Allegheny 2,028 4,010 O O 6,038 10,000 16,038
Armstrong O O O O O 300 500
Beaver 21 O O O 21 200 221
Bedford O O 15 O 15 IOO 115
Berks 835 O 25 O 860 400 1,260
81air 59 O O O 59 250 309
Bradford O O O O O 150 150
Bucks O O 765 O 765 1,000 l,765
Butler O O O O O 500 500
Cambria 435 O O O 435 5OO 935
Cameron O O 109 O 109 50 159
Carbon 3 O O O 5 500 503
Centre O O 887 O 887 3OO 1,187
Chester 10 O 1,500 O 1,510 5,000 6,510
Clarion O O 5,958 O 3,958 200 4,158
Clearfield O O 330 O 330 IOO 4SO
Clinton Il O 229 O 240 IOO 340
Columbia O O O O - O 2OO 200
Crawford 42 O 4,414 O 4,456 5OO 4,956
Cumberland 87 O 410 O 497 300 797
Dauphim 1O6 O l O 107 1,500 1,607
Delaware 119 O O O 119 1,500 1,619
Elk O O 15 O 15 100 115
Erie 219 O 3,000 O 5,219 500 5,719
Fayette O O 254 O 234 500 734
Forest O O 1,927 O 1,927 50 1,977
Franklin O O 386 O 386 3OO , 686
Fulton O O 15 O 15 50 65
Greene O O O O O 200 2OO
Huntingdom 8 O 517 O 525 IOO 625
Indiana 3 O O O 3 3OO 3O3 .
Jefferson O O 193 O 193 3OO 493
Juniata O O 4. O 4. IOO 104
Lackawanna 226 O O O 226 500 726
Lancaster $19 O O O 3519 500 819
Lawrence 387 O O O 387 500 887
Lebanon O O l O 1. 500 5O1
Lehigh 495 O O O 495 1,000 1,495
Luzerne 375 O O O 375 5OO 873
Lyooming 180 O 37 O 217 2,500 2,517
McKean 6 O O O 6 100 106
Merger 6 O O O 6 200 206
Mifflin O O 48 O 48 100 148
Monroe O O 8 O 8 2,000 2,008
Montgomery 95 O O O 95 5,000 5,095
Montour O O O O O 200 200
Northamptom 249 O 35 O 284 1,000 1,284
Morthumbdriland IO O O O IO 2OO 210
Perry O O 134 O 154 1OO 234
Philadelphia 8,353 O O O 8,553 5,000 13,353
Pike O O 1,209 O 1,209 2,000 3,209
Potter O O IO6 O 106 100 2O6
Schuylkill l O O O l 1,000 1,001
Snyder O O 452 O 452 IOO 552
Somerset O O 58 O 58 200 256
Sullivan O O 27 O 27 300 327
Susquehanna O O O O O 100 100
Tioga O O 261 O 261 IOO 361
Union O O 468 O 468 2OO 668
Wenango 45 O O O 45 200 245
Warren 130 O * 0 O 130 150 280
Washington 6 O O Q 6 500 506
Wayne O O O O O 500 500
Westmoreland 143 O 477 O 62O 5OO 1,120
Wyoming O O O O Q 200 200
York 68 O 0 O 68 300 368
Total 15,078 4,010 22,258 1,200 422546 52,400 94,946
179
Another table indicates for the future there should be an
increase of l44, 239 acres in publicly owned park and recreation
lands. This would bring such lands publicly owned up to 20
acres per 1000 inhabitants. With a moderate increase in private
recreational lands of 7,877 acres, an additional 5 acres per
lC00 inhabitants would be available largely in golf courses,
ball parks, etc. These figures seem large, but probably half
of the recommended increase in State owned recreational and
park land will be set aside for this special use as the State
Forests and Game Lands are built up to the point indicated in
this plan. This agrees with the recommendation of the Greater
Pennsylvania Council that the special public park areas should
total about 10 acres per lood inhabitants and these parks
should be located within a 30 to 60 mile radius. Of the population
to be served. With the rapidly increasing speed and facility for
transportation, probably the 60 mile radius may be used, as it
offers a more adequate choice of natural park arease
The suggested increases in State parks include such pro-
jects (for further investigation) as:
Park Project Area County
(acres)
Blanket Hill l,500 Armstrong
Sinking Walley 2,500 Blair
Haycock Mountain 4,000 Bucks
McConnells Mills 8,000 Butler
Sinking Walley 2,500 Cambria
Buck-tail 6,650 Cameron
Warwich Twp. 26,000 Chester
Buck-tail 4,000 Clearfield
171
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dIHSHARMO (INV'I DILysaosa qaw Szawa INANVRºad {{{{f\ºſli QºſţNºNO03ſ:

‘24T
Buck-tail 20,000 Clinton
Pine Grove Furnace 500 Cumberland
In Philadelphia and vicinity lo,000 Philadelphia
Clarks Valley 7,000 Schuylkill
To be named 5,000 Somerset
Ricketts Glen 6,000 Sullivan
Ten Mile Run l3,000 Washington
The accompanying figure" shows the location of some of
these proposed State park areas and existing park areas, with
their relation to population density, on a State map.
The Federal government is disposed to make a material con-
tribution to this advanced program by the purchase of several
park areas close to the metropolitan areas, develop them with
relief funds or C.C.C. camps and then lease them to the State
Department of Forests and Waters for administration as State
parks •
For financing the State's share of this program, a special
item should be added to the Department of Forests and Waters
land purchase appropriation, or bond issue, if the latter is
resorted to. An annual appropriation of $100,000 would seem
adequate for the first years in launching this greater State
Park Plan,
Some expansion of county parks may be feasible, though
recreational land us. knows no county lines and is more
especially a state interest.
* Adapted from "An outline of a Balanced state Park System"
by Joseph Talmage Woodruff of the former Greater Pennsyl-
vania Councile
L73
SUMMARY OF LAND USE PLAN
(l) The forest provides social services for our citizens,
which in time may exceed its much needed wood crops in value.
These services include , to restate the more important one 5,
water conservation in all its forms-domestic Supply, power,
irrigation, regulation of stream flow, and protection of
navigation channels; soil erosion; climatic influence; hunt-
ing, fishing and recreation, -
Private ownership has failed to grow new crops of wood
after it exploited the virgin timber. It has failed to maintain
a forest cover adequate to furnish the above social services.
It is now abandoning large areas of forest land and submarginal
agricultural land for taxes. Public forest ownership must be .
greatly extended to protect the paramount public interest
involved.
(2) Pennsylvania normally consumes 858,000,000 cubic
feet of forest grown wood each year. It grows only
379,000,000 cubic feet. It must purchase outside and ship in
56 per cent of its wood needs for its industries and home
consumption. There is a home market for all the wood our
forest land, plus the already abandoned farm land and the
sub-marginal farms to be abandoned, can produce if fully
reforested and propers managed.
(5) The present forest area of about 13,000,000 acres
must be increased by the addition of these starvation farm
lands to above l6,000,000 acres. There must be a further
174
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shift in ownership. The State must add over 3,000,000 acres
to the l,600,000 now in State Forests, replanting perhaps a
million acres of this added area.
The State must add an estimated 600,000 acres to its
game lands bringing that forest land holding to about one
million acres •
This extending of State forest lands will assist mightily
in the reorganization and consolidation of local government
units and school districts advocated elsewhere in this report.
The Federal government plans to add 200,000 acres to the
Allegheny National Forest to attain its goal of 600,000 & CI'e S e
The counties are permitted by law to set up county forests
from their county owned tax-forfeited lands. They should be
counted on to handle between loo,000 and 200,000 acres with
State aid in their reforestation and management.
This program calls for a total increase of public owner-
ship of 4,000,000 acres of land now under unsatisfactory forest
cover, or in already abandoned plus active but submarginal
farms.
(4) The park lands of the State should be increased
144,000 acres, generally as State Parks. Public parks no longer
serve only local populations.
(5) The game interests have already worked out their land
program. They are adding 75,000 acres annually to the State's
holdings for wild life refuges and public shooting grounds. The
program is financed by the hunters, without asking for tax money
175.
and should be completed in 8 years. This portion of the plan
needs but to be let alone.
The Federal government has its National Forest already
two-thirds complete and is proceeding on the last third. This
requires only the support of our Members of Congress at
Washington.
Only the State Forest (and the minor county forest) and
State Park programs are lagging. Since the defeat of a bond
issue, the alternative is to make a State appropriation of
$1,100,000 a year for 20 years to carry out this essential part
of the State land use program. This need must be classed in
importance with the state support of schools and welfare insti-
tutions. Thus far building up the State Forest and Park system
has been regarded only as a project for surplus funds in pros-
perous periods. It must become an established policy like the
game development which has already shown the Nation what a steady
year by year planned policy can accomplish.
The Federal government is offering some little aid by pur-
chasing submarginal farm lands and leasing them to the State for
State Parks and State Forests.
(6) Minor points in the forest plan call for
(a) Continued Federal financial cooperation
in forest fire protection and in State
forest nursery support.
(b) continued forest development by the
Federal conservation corps.
(c) More adequate support of forest research
by Federal and State agencies.
176
(d) A system of county demonstration,
reforestation and forest management
areas should be established as a
practical help to private land
owner's, To start this at once the
Federal government might be interested
in buying submarginal land and leasing
it to the State,
177
warra RESOURCES.”
Pennsylvania is divided topographically and hydrographi-
cally into six drainage basins, three of which are further
divided into sub-basins presenting in its watershed the div-
ides between the Atlantic Ocean, the Uiulf of Mexico and the
Great Lakes drainage systems. The most important river sys-
tems are the Delaware in the east, the Susquehanna in the cen-
ter and the Ohio in the west. The Potomac River drains a com-
paratively small area in the middle south, while in the north-
west there is a small area draining into Lake Erie. In the
extreme northern central part of the State, the Genesee River
System drains northwardly into Lake Ontario.
Precipitation
General and systematic observations of rain and snowfall
were not begun in Pennsylvania until 1887. In 1915 the Water
Supply Commission, (now known as the Water and Power Resources
Board, a unit of the Department of Forests and Waters) collect-
ed all available rainfall records. These were analyzed and all
that appeared authentic and of value were published. At pre-
sent there are about 190 precipitation stations, or an average
of one station for each 258 square miles of area. The United
States Weather Bureau operates lºš stations; 40 are maintained
by the Department of Forests and Waters and l3 by private in-
*Reduced from a larger report by Charles E. Ryder, C.E.,
Chief Engineer Water Resources Service, Department of
Forests and Waters,
178
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terests •
The average annual precipitation for the 46-year period,
1883 to 1933 inclusive, was 42.29 inches. Within this period
the maximum recorded yearly rainfall, for the State as a whole
was 52.67 inches in 1889, and the minimum 28.82 inches in
l930s
Precipitation data are valuable in connection with the
investigation of all forms of utilization of water resources,
particularly where direct measurements of stream flow are
lacking. In some parts of the United States it is difficult
to trace relationship between precipitation and runoff, but
climatic conditions in Pennsylvania permit practical use of
raini’all records. Although the rainfall stations in Pennsyl-
vania are fairly well distributed, additional stations are
needed at particular localities where data are now lacking.
It is believed that 40 additional stations should be estab-
lished as soon as possible,
There are 26 precipitation stations in the Delaware Basin;
43 in the Susquehanna Basin; 38 in the Ohio Basin; l in the
Erie and 3 in the Potomac Basins • -
HYDROGRAPHIC DATA
Surface Runoff
No comprehensive plan for water conservation can be Car-
ried out without reliable basic information concerning the
behavior of streams over a long period of years. Work of this
kind was begun shortly after the creation of the Water Supply
179
Commission in 1905 and is now being carried on by the Water
and Power Resources Board in cooperation with the United States
Geological Survey. It includes not only the operation and
maintenance of 96 permanent gaging stations, but also a col-
lection of stream flow data on miscellaneous streams during
times of drougth and floods. At present 37 permanent stations
are located in the Ohio River, 40 in the Susquehanna, L6 in the
Delaware, and three in the Potomac basins.
The development of this form of water resources investiga-
tion has been gradual and possibly has not kept pace with the
needs for such data. Requests are constantly being received
for hydrographic information on streams which are not being
gaged. In such cases it is necessary to make long range de-
auctions, using records of other streams in which conditions
may not be entirely similar, so that the results are very often
misleading. A more complete knowledge of runoff characteris-
tics of certain important streams is desirable by extension of
the stream gaging program.
Up to date, 52 gaging stations have been provided with
self-recording equipment. This means that 4l of the stations
are supplied with only chain or staff gages. At least one half
of such stations are located on important streams where depend-
able recording equipment should replace the present non-record-
ing gages • Not less than 25 additional stations should be es-
tablished and maintained, with major efforts directed to
streams of small drainage areas. Weirs are needed as control
18O
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sections at many gaging stations because of continual shifting
channel conditions •
There are twenty gaging stations in the Delaware Basin,
forty-three in the Susquehanna Basin, two in the Potomac Basin
and forty in the Ohio Basin. In the first group four are at
communities along the Delaware River from Port Jervis, N.Y.
to Trenton, N.J. Two each are located along the samylan and
Lehigh Rivers and others along the principal creeks tributary
to these streams. In the Susquehanna Basin, the distribution
is along the Susquehanna, its branches and tributaries and in
the Ohio along the Allegheny and its tributaries.
The following table gives basic information with respect
to the average rates of runoff in the streams in various parts
of the State:
AVERAGE DISCHARGE
(Cubic feet per second per square mile)
(Stations with records of 10 years or more)
CHIO BASIN
Station Total Average
years dis-
, Drainage Of charge
Area record Q. Beme
Allegheny River at Franklin 5,982 lº le65
Blacklick Creek at Blacklick 390 26 le.7l
Brokenstraw Creek at Youngsville 304 L9 l,83
Casselman River at Markleton 382 L3 le60
181
Station Drainage Total Average
Area years dis-
Of charge
record c. some
Chartiers Creek at Carnegie 264 l2 le30
Connoquenessing Creek at Hazen 356 14 le38.
Crooked Creek near Ford City 280 22 le59
Cussewago Creek near Meadville 90e2 26 le44
French Creek at Carters Corners 208 L7 2.04
French Creek at Saegertown 629 L2 le,69
Kiskiminitas River at Avonmore l,723 26 l,75
Laurel Hill Creek at Ursina l2l 17 2,27
Little Shenango River at Greenville 105 13 le36
Loyalhanna Creek at New Alexandria 265 10 le,69
Mahoning Creek near Dayton 321 13 l,76
Pymatuming Creek near Orangeville 169 L5 le28
Redbank Creek at Saint Charles 528 2O 1.70
Shenango River near Jamestown” 181 15 le24
Shenango River at New Castle 792 23 l.l.4
Shenango River at Sharon 603 25 l.l7
Slippery Rock Creek at Wurtemburg 406 2O 1.38
Stony Creek at Johnstown 4.67 19 le,69
Turtle Creek at Trafford 54.8 13 le46
Youghiogheny River at Connellsville l;326 24 le.88
Youghiogheny River at Sutersville l,715 13 le63
SUSQUEHANNA BASIN
Clearfield Creek at Dimeling 37l 20 le58
Driftwood Branch Sinnemahoning Creek
- at Sterling Run 28l. l4 le61.
Frankstown Branch Juniata River at
Williamsburg 291 l4 le32
Juniata River at Newport 3,354 32 le34
Lycoming Creek near Trout Run i.73 L6 le54
North Bald Eagle Creek at Beech
Creek Station 559 23 la 45
North Bald Eagle Creek at Milesburg ll.9 18 le.82
North Branch Susquehanna River at
- Danville ll, 220 3O l. 35
North Branch Susquehanna River at
Towanda * 7,797 L5 le28
North Branchi Susquehanna River at
Wilkes-Barre 9,960 34. l. 37
Pine Creek at Cedar Run 604 14 le?2
TºStation discontinued July 1934
182
Station Drainage Total Average
Area years dis-
Of charge
record Gessm:
Raystown Branch Juniata River at
Saxton 756 22 le26
Susquehanna River at Harrisburg 24,100 43 le45
Swatara Creek at Harper Tavern 333 14 le62
Towanda Creek near Monroeton 214 L5 le39
Tunkhamnock Creek at Dixon 383. 15 le42
Tuscarora Creek near Port Royal 214 22 le?3
Upper Little Swatara Creek at Pine
* Grove 34 e5 l2 le55
Wapwallopen Creek near Wapwallopen 45.8 13 le35
West Branch of Susquehanna River at
Bower 315 20 le.80
West Branch of Susquehanna River at
Renovo 2,975 2l le62
West Branch of Susquehanna River at
Williamsport 5,682 38 le58
Brandywine Creek at Chadds Ford 287 22 le29
Bushkill Creek at Shoemakers ll." 2l 2.02
Delaware River at ‘Belvidere, N.J. 4,540 ll l,72
Delaware River at Riegelsville 6,340 27 I.”O
Delaware River at Port Jervis, N.N.3,070 28 le.8l.
Delaware River at Trenton, N.J. 6,800 20 le66
Lehigh River at Tannery 322 14 2 el?
Little Schuylkill River at Tamaqua 42.9 15 2.24
McMichaels Creek at Stroudsburg 64.4 2O le.86
Schuylkill River at Philadelphia l;893 ll le29
Wallenpaupack Creek at Wilsonville 228 L7 l,70
Ground Water
In some parts of the country ground water is the most
valuable natural resource, but it is only within recent years
that its importance has been recognized.
From 1912 to lºl B, during the preliminary investigations
and surveys for the Pymatuning Reservoir Project in north-
western Pennsylvania, observations were made at 40 wells.
Since l93l, about 35 wells have been observed weekly around
the margin of the reservoir. The purpose in collecting these
183
records was to determine the influence of ground water on
stream flowe In the fall of 1931, 3e Wells in the vicinity
of sween seeins stations distributed in the Ohio, Susquehanna
and Delaware basins were selected for ground water observations
and weekly records showing the ground water fluctuations have
been obtained since that time. The study has been going on
for too short a period to make any conclusive statements con-
cerning the results.
Ground water observations should be continued and a
large number of additional wells should be driven and main-
tained e
D ts
Droughts may be divided into two classes; the first oc-
curring when the rainfall is inadequate to satisfy the growing
crops although the streams are kept near normal stages by
ground water flow; and the second when neither the previous
ground conditions nor the rains are sufficient to maintain
normal ground and surface flows. The former affects chiefly
the crops, while the latter arrects water supplies •
Authentic records of droughts during past years are scarce
and conflicting, as the beginning of such periods are not well
marked and the State has not been subjected to such frequent
and devasting dry spells as in some other parts of the country.
However, ten noteworthy ones have been experienced during the
last se years, but there are no records to show that any of
them were accompanied by losses and inconveniences to popula-
184
tion, and industry equal to that of l?30s
The unprecedented drought of lo30 covered the period July
to December inclusive • At the end of June there was an accumu-
lated deficiency in precipitation of five inches over about
one-fourth of the State, and during the following four months,
covering the growing period, the deficiencies increased in the
dry regions to 15 inches and to lo inches on fully three-
fourths of the State. The average deficiency for Pennsylvania
during those four months was over eight inches or less than
one-half the normal amounts
For the State as a whole, the mean precipitation in 1930
was 28.82 inches as compared with a normal years of 42 s?9
inchese The deficiency in 1930 was equivalent to one-third of
the usual amount, with the nearest approaching condition in
1895 when it was one-fifth of the normal.
During this drought water supplies from small streams and
ponds, shallow wells and thousands of springs became exhausted.
Conditions became so accute in some localities that it was nec-
essary to use mine water, while in others resort was had to
water that had collected in abandoned quarries • Consequently,
restrictions were placed on the use of water in many locali-
ties • Water supplies failed in August in some sections of the
State, and at one municipality waste condensor water was pumped
into the distribution system at a temperature of lz5 degrees •
Water power outputs were below anticipated minimum produc-
tions. Slightly more than two-thirds of the usual electric
185
output by public utilities in Pennsylvania, normally generated
by water power, was furnished by hydro-electric plants in 1930,
Forestry suffered great losses through lack in tree growth, by
the dying of trees and destructive fires which numbered 3,700
more than were ever known in any previous year. Fish life was
exterminated in many streams and food for wild life was scarce
and of inferior quality,
The distribution of rainfall for the growing seasons of
1931 and l332 was in most sections favorable to plant life. So
far as vegetation was concerned, the drought ended with the
growing season of lºl, but as related to water supply the ef-
fects of that drought were still being felt in the fall of 1932.
It was the marked and long continued deficiency in stream flows
and extremely low ground water levels that made the l930
drought outstanding. From August 1950, to March 1931, the low-
est monthly flows for each of the eight consecutive months were
observed in many Pennsylvania streams,
Droughts are important not as isolated freaks of climatic
conditions but as menaces that are virtually certain to recur.
Future planning for the many uses of water must be based on a
thorough realization of this fact. If supplies are to be ade-
quate, full provision must be made for a recurrence at any time
and allowance must be based upon a complete statistical know-
ledge of what has happened.
Natural Lakes and Ponds
Information concerning lakes and ponds exceeding 20 acres
186
in extent is published in Part IV of the Water Resources. In-
ventory Report. Two hundred and ninety-three lakes were sur-
veyed with 254 exceeding 20 acres each in area. Gonneaut Lake
in Crawford County is the largest natural lake, with an area of
928.5 acres. The second in size is Harvey Lake in Luzerne
County, with a water surface of 658.6 acres. There are 17
others in the State exceeding 200 acres each. Four hundred and
twenty-four lakes and ponds are listed in the publication, with
a total surface area of over 23,530 acres.
The natural lakes and ponds of Pennsylvania are compara-
tively small and although they are found in considerable num-
bers, are used principally as pleasure resorts or in some cases
as sources of ice supply for rural districts.
Conservation by Storage
There are in Pennsylvania about 870 storage reservoirs,
either built or building, each with a capacity of 1,000,000
gallons or more • The aggregate drainage area about these re-
servoirs is 10,900 square miles, or an average drainage area
for each reservoir of about 12.5 square miles. The total stor-
age is 238 billion gallons, or an average of about 275 million
gallons for each reservoir. Two reservoirs, Lake Tallenpau-
pack, in Pike and Wayne counties, and the Pymatuning Reservoir,
in Crawford County, have a combined capacity of 133,000,000,000
gallons, or 56 per cent of the total. Lake Wallenpaupack has
the greatest capacity, 70,000,000,000 gallons, although its wat—
er surface area of 5,760 acres is but slightly more than one-
187
third of that of the Pymatuning Reservoir, which has an area
of 16,400 acres and a capacity of 63,000,000,000 gallons.
The drainage area about Lake Wallenpaupack is 227 square miles,
while that above Pymatuning is lö0 square milese Disregarding
these two reservoirs, which have capacities for exceeding those
..of any others in the State, the average storage per reservoir
is about 120,000,000 gallons •
The importance of storage for conserving water and regula-
ting stream flow is usually not fully appreciated nor under-
stood. Without such regulation, the dependable amount of water
which may be obtained from a stream for water supply purposes
is limited to the minimum flow prevailing during the driest
months. Low flows during the warm summer season likewise gov-
ern the design of works for the treatment of sewage and trade
wastes and determine the sanitary quality of a stream. Water
power developments require dams to dreate working head and to
equalize the stream flow, although the combination of steam
and hydro-electric plants materially increases the average rate
of stream discharge which may be put to useful work.
In the case of the typical unregulated stream, probably
less than five per cent of the total yearly runoff can be
said to be useful and dependable for water supply purposes •
It is possible, with storage reservoirs, to increase a
stream's usefulness all the -way through the range from mini-
mum flow to practically 100 per cent of the yearly yield, de-
pending upon the availability of storage reservoir sites and
188
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depending upon the extent to which such sites may be econom-
ically developede
The variation in rain and snowfall from year to year in
any given locality covers a wide range and is a governing fac-
tor in determining stream flow and its usefulness for water
supply purposes. There may be successive years of deficiency
in precipitation resulting in depletion of ground water stor-
age, thus causing streams to fall far below the average. It
is periods such as these which must be considered in determin-
ing how much water may be counted on for meeting the needs for
domestic, municipal and industrial supplies •
The rate of discharge of a stream is a function not only
of the rainfall but also of the topographical, geological and
other physical characteristics of the watershed and of the size
of the drainage basin. We know that certain streams may dry
up entirely during long continued periods of warm weather with
little rain, and that other streams in glaciated country appear
to be dry because the entire flow is passing beneath the sur-
face of the gravel stream beds. We may then have a range vary-
ing between zero flow for certain classes of streams of small
size to comparatively high summer flows for those streams
draining forested mountainous areas and areas underlain with
limestone where the underground storage is large. It is not
possible to make a general statement with respect to how much
water may be obtained from a stream of any given size without
storage regulation, and the smaller the stream the more diffi-
189
cult it is to make such estimate. In the case of particular
streams, however, fairly accurate estimates can be made if the
flows have been measured over a long period at reliable gaging
stations. Less accurate estimates of safe and dependable yields
of certain streams can be obtained by comparing them with
streams having similar physical characteristics on which stream
gaging stations are located,
For the purpose of illustrating the value of storage, let
us assume that a water supply is to be obtained from a mountain
stream having a drainage area of 10 square miles • If only 811
intake is built in the stream, the dependable yield cannot ex-
ceed the low flows of drought seasons. A fair estimate of the
minimum flow would be 0.05 cubic feet per second per square
mile, or 325,000 gallons per 24 hours total supply. This would
be sufficient for a town of 3230 inhabitants at a per capita
consumption of 100 gallons per day. If this same stream con-
tained a suitable site for a dam so that it could be completely
regulated by a storage reservoir of 3 or 4 billion gallons cap-
acity, the safe yield would probably be about one million gal-
lons per square mile of drainage area, or a total of 10 million
gallons per 24 hours, a supply adequate for a city of 100,000
population. New York City is planning to obtain 440 million
gallons of water a day from tributaries of the Upper Delaware
River having a drainage area of 440 square miles. Large stor-
age reservoirs will make this possible and also provide for
releasing compensation water to augment the flow of the main
190
Delaware River during dry seasons of the year when the flow at
Port Jervis or Trenton falls below a certain specified amount.
As another illustration of the effectiveness of storage
there may be cited the effect of the Pymatuning Reservoir in
regulating the flow of the Shenango River at Sharon. During
August, 1930, the average flow at Sharon was 13.5 cubic feet
per second, or 8,725,000 gallons per 24 hours, and during Sep-
tember of the same year the average daily flow amounted to
ll, 370,000 gallons. With the reservoir in operation, the sum-
mer flow will be maintained at not less than 400 cubic feet
per second, or 258,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, almost 30
times the low monthly flows now experienced.
INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY
Consumption
It is estimated that the industrial consumption of water
in Pennsylvania is 2 billion, 500 million gallons daily. Many
steel, iron, coal companies and other industrial plants use
large quantities of water and pump directly from the large
rivers if conveniently located. At Johnstown, the Bethle-
hem Steel Company secures its principal supply from large stor-
age reservoirs on tributaries on the Conemaugh River. One, on
Hinckstown Run in Johnstown, has a capacity of one billion,
124 miliion gallons; the other on Quemahoning Creek, the larg—
est water supply reservoir in the State, holds 12 billion gall-
ons. Water is also diverted from the Little Conemaugh River,
several miles east of the city.
191
. The Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company, and the
Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company have extensive water supply
systems covering the territory in which they operate. The last
named firm is now using clean water for cleaning its coal from
a large storage reservoir which is being built by its subsid-
iary, the Panther Valley Water Company on Still Creek, Schuyl-
kill County, with a capacity of two billion 500 million gallons.
Railroads are also large users of water. The Pennsylvania
railroad supplies its main line principally through controlled
incorporated water companies. Included in this system, mainly
in the western and central parts of the State, are 17 reser-
voirs with a combined storage capacity of two billion, 600
million gallons. Cement mills, glass plants, tanneries, paper
mills and dye works likewise use considerable quantities of
water, and a large number have their own supply systems.
WATER POWER
Present conditions
In the early days of Pennsylvania and almost down to the
present time, "Water Power" meant mechanical power generated by
water. Now when we speak of Water Power we usually mean hydro-
electric power or electric power generated by water. The first
power plants, although small, were well suited to furnish power
to small local industries. Power could not be transmitted any
great distance and these industries were built up around the
sites of the power developments. Many of the smaller plants
have outlived their usefulness and have since been abandoned.
192
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The flow of water in most Pennsylvania streams fluctuates
greatly and there are but very few places where reservoirs large
enough to equalize the seasonal flows can be built economical-
- lye Auxiliary plants, usually steam, are accordingly necessary
to supply power during periods of low water. When hydro-elec-
tric plants were first built they were generally considered as
being in competition with steam plants; but it was soon dis-
covered, in view of the wide variations in stream flows and the
few opportunities for large storage, that hydro-electric and
stem ºiate (in Pennsylvania at least) were not competitors;
but on the contrary, supplemented each other.
State Policy
Prior to 1914 or 1915, the State had no definite policy in
regard to the development of water power, but in 1923 the Legis-
lature passed two acts establishing the present policy. The
first act provides for issuing permits for power dams. Permits
issued for projects not within the jurisdiction of the Federal
government are limited to periods not exceeding 50 years, and
provide for renewal until the projects are recaptured or pur-
chased by the State. Permits granted for projects within the
jurisdiction of the Nation provide that the permittees must
secure licenses from the Federal Power Commission, and also pro-
vide that upon the waiver of any rights included in the Federal
License, including any rights of recapture, that these rights
may be exercised by the State. Every limited permit is subject
to an annual charge.
193
The second act gives to public service companies holding
limited permits for public service projects the right to condemn
and appropriate any lands, waters and other property and rights
which the Water and Power Resources Board finds necessary for
the construction and operation of these projects.
Jºrior to 1905, and before the creation of the Water Supply
Commission, 73 water power companies had been incorporated, and
from loos to l8l4, 52 others. It has been held that the act
under which water and water power companies are incorporated
restricts the territory for which a company may be incorporated
to a single municipal sub-division – a city, borough or town-
ship, or a part thereof. When a large Water power project is
contemplatea, companies are incorporated for each of the town-
ships in which portions of the project lie, these companies
later being merged into one company. The company is required
to complete its works within a period of seven years, which per-
iod may be extended under: certain conditions.
Water Supply for Steam Plants
Modern steam electric plants require large amounts of Water
for condensing purposes in addition to the Water used for boiler
feed supply. For proper condensing, water in the amount of
three to four cubic feet per second is required for each l,000
kilowatts of power generated. This is equivalent to a flow of
about 2,500,000 gallons per day, or about 100,000,000 gallons
per day would be required for a plant of 40,000 kilowatts capac-
ity. As very few streams in Pennsylvania can furnish such a-
194
mounts of water during periods of low flow without large and
expensive reservoirs, the general practice has been to build
large steam plants on main rivers where there is always an
abundant supply of water •
The Giant Power Survey
The l923 Legislature created a Giant Power survey 3oard for
the purpose of securing facts and recommending a policy that
would secure for industries, railroads, farms and homes of the
Commonwealth an abundant and cheap supply of electric powere
Realizing the State's water resources can supply only a decreas-
ing proportion of the increasing power demands, the Board declar-
ed that the policy of Pennsylvania should be one concernied
chiefly with electric power produced by steam from the rich bit-
uminous coal deposits from the western part of the State •
The Board gave five essentials necessary for a wide devel-
opment of steam electric power:
l. Adequate public agencies obligated to a scrupulous re-
gard for investors' rights to attract capital and to
guide it towards the social ends easily within reach.
2. Mass production, which means abundant and cheap produc-
tion at sources of raw materials
3. Mass transportation to all parts of the State by an in-
tegrated system of transmission lines •
4 • Effective, simple and stimulating regulation to pass OIl
to the power consumer the abundance and cheapness •
5. Fair and justly regulated interchange of power with
195 \
other States to increase abundance and cheapness.
Legislation was recommended establishing a permanent Giant
Power Board; enlarging powers of the Public Service Commission;
authorizing incorporation or giant power generating and giant
power transmission companies; and providing for the negotiation
of interstate compacts for the regulation of interstate trans-
mission of the power.
Nineteen bills were introduced in the l925 Legislature and
seven in the extra session of lº25, but all failed to pass.
FLOODS AND FI,00D CONTROL
Causes of Floods
Floods are caused by heavy concentrated precipitation by
prolonged and moderate winter and spring rains over large areas,
clotudbursts or rains of great intensity and short duration con-
fined to small areas, and by ice gorges. Other important fac-
isers are the **, wereºs and geology of the watersheds,
the direction or path followed by the storms, the moisture con-
tent of the ground, snow, channel encroachments and the tempera-
ture •
About 30 major floods have been recorded in the Delaware
River in the past lö0 years, 35 in the Susquehanna River and
about 50 in the Ohio. Numerous floods localized on the Smaller
tributaries of these streams are frequently experienced and
cause serious flood damage •
The June l, 1889, flood is the greatest on record in the
196
Susquehanna Basin. Although the storm was concentrated over the
watersheds of the Juniata and the West Branch of the susquehanna
River, the central and eastern section of the State suffered un-
paralleled losses • At Johnstown, Cambria County . 2142 lives
were lost and a large part of the City destroyed.
The Pittsburgh Flood Commission estimated flood toll to the
City of Pittsburgh alone, from 1898 to 1908, at $12,000,000, of
which #6,500,000 was caused by three floods in l907 and 1908.
The total financial loss along the Allegheny River resulting from
the 1913 flood, amounted to $720,000. The Shenango and Beaver
Walley damage from this same flood was $2,100,000. Along the
Lehigh River, the ‘loog flood loss reached #760,000. In August,
1915, in the City of Eities 34 people were drowned and damage
amounting to $2,000,000 resulted from a flood in Mill Creek. In
July, 1931, Norristown suffered a loss of $1,000,000 as the re-
sult of floods in two small creeks traversing the borough. York
lost $260,000 in 1884 and $4,360,000 in 1933 from floods in Co-
dorous Creek.
Floods can be controlled by retarding or storage basins, di-
version channels, stream channel improvements and by the construc-
tion of levees and embankments • . The logical and proper method Of
control is to limit the quantity of water reaching the channel to
the discharge capacity of the channel by means of retarding or
storage basins • Protection generally may best be secured, not by
any one single method 3) but by a combination of several methods
applicable to each other in a limited way.
l27
The construction of 17 storage basins and certain channel
improvements has been recommended for flood protection for the
City of Pittsburgh. A combination of channel improvement and
levee or dike construction has been suggested along the North
Branch of the Susquehanna River to protect the wains Walley.
A combination of retarding basin, diversion and channel improve-
ment has been in successful operation for years at Harrisburge
At present there are two flood control projects under way in
the State, one consisting of retarding basin control combined d
with channel improvement, the other a retarding basin flood con-
trol project alone e
Flood control by storage basin retardation has been effect-
ed by the completion of the State Pymatuning Reservoir Project
in Western Pennsylvania. While the primary reason for the con-
struction of this reservoir was to provide sufficient water dur-
ing the dry season for domestic and industrial use in the Shen-
ango and Beaver valleys , the capacity of the Pymatuning lake
will be sufficient to absorb and hold back the flood flow enter-
ing it until the waters from the watershed below have passed
downstream and the river receded to below flood level. Had the
Pymatuning Reservoir been in operation during the 1913 floods
the flood height at Sharon would have been reduced by 23.3 per
cent and the maximum rate of discharge 32.5 per cente
A carefully determined public policy for control and super-
vision of the streams of the Commonwealth was adopted and put
into effect when the 1933 Legislature enacted the Dam and En-
198
croachment Act which made it unlawful for anyone to construct
any "water obstruction" without a State permit. ‘Stream channels
with adequate areas to discharge maximum expected floods have
been conserved and protected. Streams that have been encroached
upon and the channels restricted so as to make them inadequate
to pass floods without backwater and overflow have not been all-
owed to become worse, and where possible serious water obstruc-
tions have been modified or removed and the channel improved for
flood discharge e
In communities subject to flood damage the State has made ‘8.
number of surveys and hydraulic studies. Channel lines limiting
all new construction along both sides of stream cnannels, and to
which existing encroachments are removed from time to *, new
been established in Johnstown, York, Manayunk, Sharon, New Cas-
tle, Butler, Reading, Norristown, Scranton, and Erie.
The major flood control problem in Pennsylvania, flood pro-
tection for Pittsburgh and the upper Ohio River, was studied un-
der the direction of the Pittsburgh Flood Commission from 1908
to 1912. The Pittsburgh Flood commission recommended construc-
tion of 17 retarains or flood storage reservoirs distributed
over the drainage areas of the Allegheny and Monongahela
Rivers and supplemented by a river wall at Pittsburgh. The cost
was estimated to be about one-half the direct loss that would
otherwise be caused by flood damage to the city within a 20-year
period. Between 1924 and 1929, U. S. Army engineers studied the
problem and developed much additional valuable data. In 1955
199
the Commission submitted a new plan based upon all the essential
data developed to date providing for the construction of ten
storage reservoirs, seven in the Allegheny watershed and three
in the Monongahela watershed, at an estimated cost of $57,500,000.
Legislation approved in 1931 authorized the Water and Power
Resources Board to study and develop a plan of flood control.
Under the Act, the Board is empowered to proceed on its own ini-
tiative, or at the request of some outside person or agency, to
improve stream channels, build levees and diversion channels and
to construct retarding storage basins for flood control. ris
Board and its agencies are further empowered to "enter upon,
take, appropriate or injure any land or lands", and aw ºn-
•ses sustained thereby are to be paid by the Department of For-
ests and Waters.
The question of culm and flood control in the Schuylkill,
Lehigh and Susquehanna rivers and their tributaries have been
investigated and studied from time to time for many years, but
very little has been accomplished toward bettering conditions.
The anthrasite coal industry is the basic industry of the re-
gion. The pollution of streams by coal colliery wastes has been
in the past a necessary evil of the industry,
While collieries are recovering a larger percentage of the
finer sizes of coal, nevertheless a great quantity of culm is
still being wasted in the streams. To successfully solve this
problem the cooperation of the coal operators must be secured
and present methods of preventing pollution improved and put in
200 *
more general use, or new methods devised to combat a condition
- &
that is becoming more serious each years .
STATE ADMINISTRATION OF WATER RESOURCES
Pennsylvania was one of the first states in the Union to
enact legislation leading to the development of a definite sys-
tem of planning with respect to its water resources.
In l905 the Water Supply Commission of Pennsylvania was
created and organized as an administrative State agency charged
with the responsibility of planning not only for the imediate
but for the future use, conservation and development of the Wat-
er resources of the State, except in matters pertaining to the
purity or quality of water, which was a function previously
placed by the Legislature under the jurisdiction of the Depart-
ment of Health. It continued to function until 1923 when it
was merged with the Department of Forestry to form the Depart-
ment of Forests and Waters, and a new Board was created within
the Department known as the Water and Power Resources Boardie
The personnel consists of the Secretary of Forests and
Waters as Chairman, the Secretary of Health, the Commissioner Of
Fisheries, a member of the rºle service Commission and an en-
gineer member, both appointed by the Governor. Its duties son-
sist principally in acting upon applications for charters of
water power companies, mergers and applications for permits for
the construction of dams and other water obstructions, etc. The
Board has power, upon application of the Secretary of Forests
201
and waters, to hold hearings upon and decide any other matter or
thing relating to waters "which may be within the jurisdiction of
the Department.
A primary consideration in the creation of the Water Supply
Commission came about as the result of a practice which had dev-
eloped rapidly, prior to 1905. of incorporating water companies
for the purpose of securing control of streams, either for pure-
ly speculative purposes or for industrial supplies to railroad
companies, coal companies, steel mills or other large commercial
Consumers of water. These companies secured some of the best
streams in the Commonwealth. Many were created solely for the
purpose of speculation, and the water supply rights thus held in
the more desirable streams were subsequently sold to municipali-
ties or other water companies. The Act of May 4, 1905, correct-
ed., many of these abuses by giving the Commission power over allo-
cation of streams and the right to decide whether the streams
will be fully developed by means of storage in the interest of
the conservation of water. This power is now exercised by the
Water and Power Resources Board.
The Board, however, has not been given authority over the
use and diversion of streams by Water companies created prior to
1907. As the ownership of the water flowing in the streams
rests in the Commonwealth, it would appear reasonable that the
State should determine how the water should be used and to whom
it should be allocated.
The authority of the Board in respect to supervision over
202
the development of water power is conferred by two laws; one
providing for the issuance of limited power and limited water
supply permits for a term not to exceed fifty years, and the
other providing a method by which holders of such permits may
condemn and appropriate lands, waters and other property. Pro-
vision is also made for extension and renewal of the permits and
for recapture or purchase by the commonwealth.
Realizing the necessity for foresight in dealing with the
water resources of the Commonwealth, Governor Tener in 1913 made
certain recommendations to the Legislature in consequence of
which the body passed "The Inventory Act" which directed the Wat-
er Supply Commission to make a complete inventory of all the wat-
er resources of the Commonwealth. However, the appropriation
made available was insufficient to complete the work as outlined
in the Act, and the Commission was only able to compile informa-
tion with respect to the present condition and utilization of
the water resources as a groundwork for future studies. The re-
port was published in l92l and is divided into ten parts.
Part l contains introductory matter of general applicabil-
ity to various topics, with the Commission's deductions from the
information contained therein and its recommendations.
Part 2 outlines a method of improving flood conditions in
the Turtle Creek Walley.
Part 3 is a Gazetteer of Streams compiled from maps and
other information collected.
Part 4 contains information on all lakes and ponds whose
*
2O3
names could be found, while those whose areas are 20 acres and
over were described in detail.
Part 5 contains s collection of all existing authentic rain-
rail records in Pennsylvania and a discussion of the influences
effecting precipitation.
Part 6 contains descriptions of all operating water supply
systems and statistics concerning the use of water for this pur-
pose, as well as lists or smartered water companies showing their
present statuse t
Part 7 contains descriptions of the operating hydro-elec-
tric plants as well as the larger direct utilizations of water
power for manufacturing purposes.
Part 8 contains a record of floods on all the large rivers
and inventories of damage done in numerous communities •
Part 9 traces the use of the water courses from early Col-
onial times through the canal era and includes the present ex-
tension work of the Federal government with respect to naviga-
tion.
Part lo deals with the culm and mine drainage situation in
the streams draining the Anthracite coal fields.
Following its creation, the Water Supply Commission adopted
a fixed policy for the conservation, development and administra-
tion of the State's water resources, which may be summarized as
follows:
(a) Thorough knowledge of the streams of the State so
that the problems of control may be known.
(b) General plans for solving those problems.
204 a
(c) An orderly legal code which will make practicable
the execution of plans when developed and insure
control and supervision over constructions affect-
ing the river systems
It also advocated:
Topographic Surveys: Through cooperation with the United
States Geological Survey the topographic map of the
State should be completede -

rographic Studies: Stream gaging records and studies
of flood conditions should be continued and increas-
ed in scope •
Rainfalls Steps should be taken to secure a more com-
plete knowledge of rainfall conditions •
General Plans: Sufficient information should be secured
concerning each river system to enable general
plans to be worked out for the control and use of
the waters of hat particular system. This infor-
mation should include:
(a) Character and extent of its drainage area.
(b) Conditions of rainfall and runoff.
(c) Extent to which the streams may be called
upon in the future to furnish water supply
for domestic and industrial use e
(d) Extent to which floods menace life, destroy
property and restrict growth, and the extent
to Which this menace and damage may be ex-
pected to increase in the future •
(e) Possibility and feasibility of water power
development, the possible extent to which
the stream might become part of a navigation
systeme
With this information at hana, the commission further de-
termined that tentative general plans should be made for the con-
trol, use and development of each stream to the end that a gen-
eral policy might be follows without conflict or lack of coor-
dination •
The Water and Power Resources Board, which succeeded the
Commission, now acts as a clearing house for general information
on all problems of public water control. As projects are initi-
2O5
ated from time to time in various parts of the State, the
Board furnishes advice as to the general methods which may be
used in approaching each problem and exercises regulatory pow-
ers over all undertakings,
Water Control Code
A legal code should be outlined which, in attion to con-
tinuing and supplementing wherever necessary the present powers
of the Water and Power Resources Board, will provide methods for
legal cooperation and organization for constructing and main-
taining Water control works.
The following essentials of water control programs are
found in nearly all American and European codes •
le. Improvement is not demanded by the State unless necess-
ary to correct some abuse, but is initiated, by petition or
otherwise, in the community most directly concerned,
2. A court, commission or other public authority determines
whether the undertaking is or public value and whether it should
be carried oute
3. If the improvement is wertºwn, the territory involved
is set apart by formal action of court or commission and exists
so far as is necessary for carrying out the purposes of the im—
provement as a municipal corporation or a governmental subdiv-
ision, commonly known as a district," and usually with its own
board of officers.
4. The improvement is paid for by special assessments, each
piece of property paying an amount proportional to the benefits
2O6
received. Where city or village property or interests are
affected; the city or ques. is treated as a person or cor-
poration owning property and dealt with just as any other pro-
perty owner. In only a few exceptional cases are improvements
of this sort paid for by flat rate taxes, and these exceptions
prove the wisdom of the general rule.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The State has very complete and accurate data concerning
rainfall and runoff, floods and droughts. Ground water stud-
ies, however, have only recently been made and much additional
information is needed, especially in the determination of the
relation between ground and surface runoff. g
with respect to the utilization or both ground and surface
waters, very complete information is available in the report Of
the Inventory of Water Resources published by the Water Supply
Commission as the result of information collected in 1914. we
additional subsequent data may be found in the records of the
Department of Forests and Waters, the Department Of Health and
other State departments, boards and cºntestone. Further in-
formation may be obtained from reports of the U. S. Army engin-
€61°S 8.8 the result of studies recently made in the Delaware,
Susquehanna and onio basins to seemine howſ the streams could
be developed for navigation, water power, the control of floods
am irrigation.
It would be highly desirable to assemble this information
2O7
and thus bring up to date the inventory of Water resources,
planning this work in such a way as to have available a con-
timing record of new developments and changing conditions from
year to years. With respect to the various uses of water resourc-
es the investigation should include:
Domestie and Industrial water supply: A study of the water
supply needs of each community or district for the next 25 or 50
years, in addition to a determination of the present needs and
how they may be mate
Industrial use of Water: The survey should develop in a
general way the present and reasonable future needs of water
for industrial purposes. Such survey will tend to avoid fut-
ure conflict between domestic and industrial water supply de-
velopments and indicate how they may be combined to mutual ad-
vantagee
Iater Power: The survey should result in a selection of
possible sites for hydro-electric development and a determina-
tion as to where storage reservoirs may be built to regulate
stream flow and thus increase the power which may be derived
from flowing water. It should also indicate the possibilities
of combining power development, water arris, flood control and
river regulation •
ºlpod controls Information should be collected concerning
the extent to which floods meaace life, destroy property and re-
strict growth, and the extent to which this menace may be ex-
pected to increase damage in the futures
2O3
Navigation: It is believed that the studies made by the
U.S. Army engineers will cover the subject of navigation. The
State's investigation should, however, determine needs of water
for navigation and how the development of streams, by means of
storage or for other purposes, may be correlated with havigation
needs •
- Storage Reservoirs: The investigation should include a
study of possible reservoir sites in each drainage basin, and
indicate how and for what purposes they may be developed. It is
particularly desirable to secure regulation of streams near the
headwaters and this may be aetomplished in part by the creation
of state forests areas and in part by the construction of sto-
rage reservoirs where suitable sites are available.
Allocation of Waters. In order to make possible the alloca-
tion of the water resources of the state for all purposes and
users, the present laws conferring limited power on the flater
and Power Resources bears should be broadened to include super-
vision and control over the use and diversion of streams by
water companies incorporated prior to 1907 or by any natural
person, corporation or municipality engaged in supplying water.
or water power for domestic, commercial or manufacturing pur-
poses requiring a new er additional supply of water,
Cuim: A complete investigation and study should be made
for the purpose of developing a sane and practical plan for the
improvement of stream channels affected by culm and other wastes
from anthracite minese
209
WATER POWER PLANT'S IN PHINNSYLVANIA
100 Horse Power or More
Field Stream Name of Plant Owner Total installed Head
No. capacity help.
3 Fishing Creek Benton Pas Power & Light Co. 15O l6
3. Conodoguinet Creek Newville ſº \ 18O '7
5 Conodoguinet Creek Carlisle Carlisle Gas & Water Co. 400 8
6 Lehigh River Raubsville Pa. Power & Light Coe - 2,250. § 15
(Del. Div., Canal) -
8 Muddy Creek Delta Southern Pa, Power Co., 3OO 2l
9 Rock Run ‘Muncy Walley Northern Pa. Power Co. 462 50
IO Penn. Creek • Swengal Pa. Power & Light Co. 250 7.
ll Swatara Creek Hummelstown º 2ll 8
l2 Comestoga Creek Rock Hill th 525 8
13 Conestoga Creek Slackwater º 924 l6
15 W. Br. Susquehanna River Williamsport º - l,00 9
l? Schuylkill River Klapperthel Dam Metropolitan Edison Co. 724 20
2l Frankstown Branch Warrior Ridge Penn Central Light & Power 2,680 27
(Juniata River) .* w
23 Fishing Creek Bloomsburg Pa. Power & Light Co., 570 29
25 Lehigh River Canal Easton Metropolitan Edison Co., 1,340 22
26 Brodheads Creek Stroudsburg t? ls 250 25
27 Susquehanna River Holtwood Pa, Water & Power Coe 158,000 to 63
28 Schuylkill River (Canal) Manayunk Phila. Electric Co. 2,800 23
3l Raystown Br. Juniata River Huntingdon Penn Central Light & Power Co. 3,900 36
33 Conodoguinet Creek Roxbury Penn Central Light & Power Co., 800 58
34 Spring Creek Milesburg West Penn Power Co., 3.15 li
36 Susquehanna River Susquehanna Northern Pa. Power Co., 800 9
37 Susquehanna River Lanesboro ſº 300 6
39 Lehigh River (Canal) White Haven Pa. Power & Light Co., 220 22
sº
§
WATER POWER PLANTS IN PENNSYLVANIA
100 Horse Power or More
Continued
Field 3tream Name of Plant Owner Total instalied Head
No. capacity h.p.
4l Kishacoquillas Creek Yaegertown Yeagertown Water Power Cos 400 16 to 20
42 Susquehanna River York Haven Metropolitan Edison Co. 29,213 22
48 lºountain Creek Mount Holly Springs Eaton Dikeman Co. 150 l.9
5 Susquehanna River York Haven York Haven Paper Co. 3,400 l9.5
5l. Beaver River Eastvale Borough Beaver Walley Water Coe 730 ll
52 Beaver River New Brighton tº 440 l4
54 Clarion Rivor Piney Clarion River Power Co., 34,009 75
55 ſiallenpaupack Creek Hawley Pa. Power & Light Co. 57,000 350
56 North Bald Eagle Craek Howard West Penn Power Coe LOO 6
57 Susquehanna River Safe. Harbor Safe Harbor Water Power Co.855,800 53
58 Swatara Creek Hummelstown Hummelstown Water Supply Co 234 8
59 Penn Creek and Laurel Run Laurelton Pa. Power & Light Co. l?4 8 & 24
60 Octoraro Creek Pine Grove Octoraro Water Coe 165 l2
61 Tulpehocken Creek West Bridgeport. Althouse Chemical Co. 225 6
§3 Brodheads Creek Minisink Hills. Analomink Paper Co. l,800 l8
63 Yellow Breeches New Cumberland Rivertown Consolidated
* Water Co. 335 8
Total Horsepower Installed 562, 197
É
Stºshº Rºscºwongs ring CAPACITIES OF 109,000,000 Galicºs 08 Mºe
WS = Water Supply. IWS = Industrial Water Supply. WP is Welter Powere
Name of Owner Name of Dam Purpose Capacity
ls OOO,000 gale
Adams Co.
Borough of Chambersburg Birch. Run WS 38
Bedford. Co- - i. -
Evitts Creek Water Company Lake Gordon lis le400
Evitts Creek Water Company Thomas We Koon W.S. 2,475
Berks Co. "
City of Reading Antietam W.S. 101
City of Reading Lake Ontelaunee W.S. 3,880
Blair Co.
Tyrone Gas & Water Company Upper Sink Run LS 150
Blair Gap Water Company Kettle IºS 188
Blair Gap Water Company Plane Nine I S liſ)
City of Altoona Lake Altoona Vºs 800
City of Altoona Impounding Wis 365
Tipton Water Company Tipton Run IWS 250
Butler Coe
Butler Water Company Thorn Run WS 206
Butler Water Company Lake Oneida Wis 574.
Cambria Co.
Summit Water Company Wilmore IºS l,025
Summit Water Company Lloydell I S 2O7
Johnstown Water Company Salt Lick *S 900
Manufacturers Water Company Hickston Run IWS l,lºé,
Johnstown Water Company Mill Creek Noe 2 Wºls 97
Johnstown Water Company Laurel Run Noe 2 WS lCl
Carbon Coe
Panther Walley Water Company Hauto IºS l,385
Chester Co., -
Borough of Coatesville Rock Run TS 332
- Philadelphia Suburban Water Co. Pickering Creek *S 380
Clarion Coe
Clarion River Power Company Piney †P ll,000
Clearfield Co. -
City of DuBois Anderson Creek †S l32
Crawford Co.
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Pymatuming Stream Regulation 64,275
Dauphin Co. - *
City of Harrisburg Wildwood Park Flood Control 200
Delaware Co.
Philadelphia Suburban Water Co. Crum Creek W.S l62
Philadelphia Suburban Water Co. Springton TºS 3,500
212
STOBAGE RESERVOIRS. HITH CAPACITIES OF 100,000,000 GALIONS OR MORE.
(Continued) ºmºmºmºsº,
Name of Owner Name of Dam Purpose Capacity’ -
ls OOO,000 gale
Rik Co.,
Ketner Water Bompany Ketner I\s 92
Borough of Ridgway Big Mill Creek WS 20C
Fayette Coe -
Mountain Water Supply Co. Indian Creek IºS 23].
Citizens Water Co. of Scottdale Green Lick iS. 166
Huntingdon Co. " y
Pennae Hydro Electric Co. Warrior Ridge inp 515
Raystown Water Power Coe Raystown Branch Yi P 3,000
Jefferson Coe
Kyle Water Company Kyle It is 390
Glow Water Company Clour I'S ll.4
Lackawanna Co.
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Brownell WS 847
Scranton—Spring Brook W. Supply Co. No. 4 WS 264
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Nesbit. WS l,279
Scranton—Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Lake Henry W. S 205
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Coe Oak Run WS 418
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Coe Elmhurst WS l,200
Scranton-Spring Brook. We Supply Co., Noe 7 WS lCl
'Scranton-Spring Brook W. . Supply Coe Williams Bridge WS 343
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Lake Scranton WS 2,617
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co., Summit Lake WS 259
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Griffin 2WS 548
Scranton-Spring Brook We Supply Coe Falling Spring WS 258
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Maple Lake WS 214
Charles A. Sisk. Estate Lake Sheridan WS 176
Scranton-Spring Brook. We Supply Co. Watres Ws l,885
Lancaster Coe -
Pennsylvania Water & Power Company Holtwood WP 6,975
Susquehanna Water Power Company Conowingo, Hºd. WP 93,750
Safe Harbor Water Power Corporation Safe Harbor WP 30,000
Lehigh Co.
‘Clear Spring Water Company Spring Creek WS . IOO
Luzerne Coe - -
Scranton-Spriug Brook W. Supply Coe Mill Creek Storage WS 617
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Deep Hollow WS 252
Scranton-Spring Brook. W. Supply Co. Huntsville WS ls 922
Hazelton Water Company Dreck Creek YS 192
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co., Pike Creek WS 2,94l
Scrantori-Spring Brook W. Supply Co. Crystal Lake WS l,650
Diamond Water Company Wolfs Run W.S 144
Mc Kean Co. -
City of Bradford Gilbert Run WS 202
City of Bradford Marilla Creek WS l2O
213

STORAGE RESERVOIRS WITH CAPACITIES OF 100,000,000 GAILONS OR MORE.
—Tarifar
Continued
Name of Owner Name of Dam Purpose Capacity
l,000,000 gale
Northumberland Co.
Acaring Creek Water Company Noe 6 W.S le330
Bear Gap Water Coggany Moe 2 WS 600
Pike Co.
Pennsylvania Power & Light Co. Wallenpaupack *P 70,000
Schuylkill Co. &
Girard Water Company Noe 5 WS 264
Silver Creek Water Company Silver Creek *S 25l.
Silver Creek Water Gompany Lower Tumbling W3 I-73
Silver Creek Water Company Mud Run †S 20:5
Panther Valley Water Company Greenwood WS 370
Silver Creek Water Company Upper Tumbling WS 224
Pottsville Water Company Wolf Creek Tºs 400
Pottsville Water Company Kaufman Run ºS 104
Pottsville Water Company Eisenhuth WS 500
Ashland Borough Little Mahoney Cr. WS 108
Girard Water Company Noe 6 YS 27O
Tamaqua Borough Upper Owl Creek ºffs 3:ll
East Penn Electric Company Sweet Arrow TºS 560
Pottsville Water Company Indian Run. WS 480
Panther Walley Water Company Still Creek TºS 2,535
Pottsville Water Company Tar Run WS 160
Somerset Co.
Johnstown Water Company Dalton Run Yºs 150
Manufacturers Water Company IºS 12,000
Johnstown Water Company Bens Creek WS lelOO
Sullivan Co.
Associated Gas and Electric Coe Trout Run †P 156
Susquehannā Co.
Scranton-Spring Brook W. Supply Co., Stillwater \ſs 3.25
Samuel Entrot Lewis Lake TºS 240
Canawacta Water Supply Company Comfort Pond WS 22O
Consumers Water Corypany Snake Creek WS 262
Washington Coe - *
Citizens Water Co. of McDonald H. Branch Patricks
Run Yis 250
Citizens Water Co. of Washington No. 4 - #S 675
Citizens Water Co., of Washington No. 3 WNS IO6
Citizens Water Co. of Washington Speers Run WS i25
Citizens Water Co. of Washington Canonsburg WS 210
Wayne Co. te
Honesdale Consolidated. Water Yºs 282
Westmoreland Co.,
High Ridge Water Supply Company Tub Mill US 200
High Ridge Water Supply Company Little Sugar Run WiS 124
214

STORAGE BESERVOIRS WITH CAPACITIES OF 100,000,000 GALIONS OR MORE.
! †med)
Name of Owner Name of Dam Purpose Capacity
. . l,000,000 gal.
Westmorelani Go-Toontº).
Citizens Water Co. of Scottdale Upper Bridgeport WS lºz
Westmoreland Water Company. Ethel Springs ºs 156
Westmoreland Water Company. Imal ºS 177
Westmoreland later Company Unity WS 486
Jamison Coal and Coke Company. Lower D Iws ll O
Keystone Coal, Company Salem • Iws 221
Latrobe Water Company Trout Run. W. S. 360
Wyoming Coe -
John M. Stark - .Lake Carey .WP ls 350
York Coe - -
York Water Company Dunkard WS’ 900
York Haven Water Power Company York Haven WP 860
Hanover Municipal later Works. Wººs 185
215
PROPOSED DAMS AND RESERVOIRS IN FENNSYLVANIA, OR ON DELAWARE RIVER, INCLUDED IN U. S. ARMY ENGINEERS REPORT 1938
FOR COMBINED WATER SUPPLY AND POWER DEVELOPMENT OF DELAWARE RIVEN AND TRIBUTARIES TO 1980.
CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR
PROJECT * LOCATION__ . . PºpCSE Bºrgºt gº nºt In laboo,000,000 Gaºlors
Cochecton - Delaware River Power 32 feet 8.4 º
Narrowsburg Delaware River Power 60 * .” 4.e3
Prompton W. Branch Lackawaxen River Storage 90 W 6,
Homesdale Dyberry Creek Storage 100 * 10,
Barryville Delaware River Power 90 tº lle
Shohola Falls Shohola Creek Storage 64 ºf 9e
Cold Springs shohola Creek POWer 80 ° le6
Tooks Island. Delaware River Power and Storage 145 " 8l4,
Belvidere Delaware River Power 68 tº 13s
Chestnut Hill Delaware River above Easton Power - 53 tº 4.
Bear Creek Lehigh River Power. 75 m O,7
Tobyhanna Lehigh River Power and Storage 160 m 28,
No. 1 Mud Run Mud Run (Tributary of Lehigh) Conduit lº's n 9e
No. 8 Stony Creek º Stony Creek (Tributary of Lehigh) Conduit l40 * 2e
No. 3 Bear Creek Bear Creek (Tributary of Lehigh) Conduit 160 tº 4s
:
PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES*
One of the outstanding triumphs of sanitary engineer-
ing in public health work is the dramatic reduction in typhoid
fever attained by serving pure water supplies and providing
communities with sewerage facilities •
As Pennsylvania became urbanized and dwelling houses in
towns were built closer together, many armans “ter waii.
became contaminated by filth from nearby privies or cesspools.
With the sewering of towns without adequate sewage treatment,
streams were polluted and in the past, public water supplies
were derived from them and the water served without adequate
purification. Under these conditions typhoid fever, with
its toll of suffering and death, stalked the state. Up to the
early years of the 20th Century there was no State control over
public Water supplies or over municipal sewerages
Disease epidemics so aroused the Legislature in 1905 that
it. created the Pennsylvania Department of Health and gave it
sanitary control over water supplies and sewerage. During
1906, about 24,500 cases of typhoid and almost 4000 deaths were
reported in Pennsylvania. The number of deaths per year has
dropped, in the 27 years the State Health Department has been
in existence, to 125 in a population of about lu.000,000
persons •
* Prepared by W. L. Stevenson, Chief Engineer, Department
of Health, and Chief Engineer and Secretary, Sanitary
Water Board. - .
217
Before water can be served to the public, application -
must be made to the Department of Health for the issuance of
a permit approving the source of supply and stipulating the
conditions under which the water may be served, that is to
say, as to its purification. Field examinations are made of
the proposed source and the plans of the proposed water works
are examined to see that the processes of purification are
adequate to produce, at all times, a safe and pure water
supply. Thereafter, inspections are made of the water works •
The dominant sources of public water supplies in Penn-
sylvania are surface streams. Water of clean streams in the
sparsely settled country is impounded and in most cases
chlorinated before delivery to the consumer. Water derived
from the larger streams in nearly all cases is filtered and
chlorinated. Seven hundred water works now serve purified
Water to 8,000,000 people in Pennsylvania •
Comprehensive Plane
In the past it was common for water works to be developed
and extended in a haphazard fashion. The trend today is for
the adoption of comprehensive water supply plans, looking
reasonably far into the tºurs. ‘Such plans should anticipate
a future, superior source of supply of adequate quantity if
the present source is from a river draining a substantially
developed valley. They should include future water purifi-
cation works and future extensions of the distributing.
system to meet the needs of growth in the territory to be
218.
TYPHO |D DEATH RAT
tº EA PER
|
O
1906 O 7 O 8 O9 IO l l 12 l 3 14 15 16 | 7 || 8 19 20 2 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3 O
PENNA. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH - P GU RE NO. 56

served. Comprehensive plans reasonably insure that as funds
are made aveilable and construction work done, each step is a
forward one toward an ulitmate goal.
Water Supply Districts:
Contiguous or neighboring communities generally can be
served best and cheapest by a single water works and distri-
buting systems This avoids duplication of source of supply,
purification works and pumpting stations, it centralizes
technical control and also, as purified water is a manufactured
product, cost is lessened by mass production. This will take
care of communities in such districts that are too small to
finance their own water supplies. Service of water by die-
tricts can be attained either by agreements between the munici-
palities involved or through the chartered area of a water
company •
Artificial Purification
Years ago when public water supplies were first intro-
duced into Pennsylvania, most streams were cleaner than at pre-
sent. Under these conditions the source of supply generally
chosen was the nearest available water and many of these
sources are still in use, notwithstanding the increase in pol-
lution of the raw water.
In the interim, processes of water purification have been
developed to remove or modify nearly all of the different kinds
of organic and inorganic impurities present in raw waters Most
of these processes have been sufficiently well established
2.19
that, when operated with skill and fidelity, it is possible to
produce a bacteriologically safe water and generally a palat-
able supply even though the raw water is too polluted to be
used wiselye Obviously, however, this is repugnant .
Sources of Water Supply
So there is a rapidly growing demand on the part of the
public for the use of relatively clean ºrater as the source of
supply with minimum artificial purification rather than the
serving of purified polluted raw water. This principle
should be reckoned with in the preparation of comprehensive
water supply plans.
The public demands and is entitled to receive a water
supply not only bacteriologically safe but also one that is
palatable; that is to say, free from offensive tastes, odors
and color. It should be clear and sparkling, also reasonably
soft and not corrosive to plumbing fixtures.
Quantity of Water
Severe droughts since 1930 forcibly showed the inadequate
storage facilities of many water works whose source of supply
is not a major river or lake. Minor streams during drought
often shrink below the daily needs of the water works. Gen-
erally this danger can be avoided by providing impounding
reservoirs wherein, during years of normal rainfalls sufficient
water can be stored to adequately serve reasonable water needs
through drought periods.
220
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Storage
Where a water supply can be safely provided by storage
of relatively clean water and its chlorination (but filtra-
tion is not needed) then, (a) assured long time storage should
be provided in as quiescent a state as practicable for the
self-purification of the stored water; (b) recreational use
of the reservoir and its margins should be prohibited to re-
duce danger of contamination; (c) reservoir capacity should
be adequate to furnish water through drought periods; and
(d) where practicable and in the public interests, reser-
voir capacity should also be sufficient to provide water for
releases to augment the otherwise low flows of the stream be-
low the dam.
When raw water is stored and afterwards also filtered,
then; (a) if practicable, the storage should be sufficient to
better the quality of the water so as to reduce the load upon
the filters; (b) the reservoir should be "zoned" as to re-
creational use to prohibit such use in dangerous proximity to
the water outlet and allow reasonable use at parts more remote
from the outlet; (c) reservoir capacity should be adequate to
furnish water through drought periods; and (d) where practicable
and in the public interests, reservoir capacity should be
sufficient to provide water for releases to augment, the other-
wise low flows of the stream below the dam.
Importance of good operation
All water works operators should be trained, skillful and
221
faithful. A study of water-borne typhoid fever outbreaks
in the United States from 1920 to 1929 shows clearly the im-
portance of vigilance in the operation of water works to pre-
vent disease outbreaks. It can be done. Witness the typhoid
record of this State.
PRIVATE WATER SUPPLIES
Approximately 2,000,000 of the State's population do not
receive public water su.splies but depend upon wells and
springs. They are the dwellers in the rural districts and
smaller towns. In the interests of public health, every
community should have a pure public water supply. Lack of
financial ability is the commonest deterrent to attaining this
goal. There is not, and probably cannot be, State control over
private water supplies because such control does not lie with-
in the police power of the State. However, the rural typhoid
rate is higher than the urban rate and its reduction is a real
health problem.
To meet this need, the Department of Health s for several
years has been examining, upon request, such Water supplies,
advising the householder concerning defects in the structures
needed to safeguard the water against surface contamination
and making bacteriological analyses of the Water.
The rural dwellers should be encouraged to request this
service and to safeguard their drinking water, provided that
funds can be made available to'the Department to do the in-
vestigatory worke
£a. y 222
RELATION OF INSANITARY FACTORS
TO WATERBORNE TYPHOID OUTE REAKS
UNITED STATES e 1920 - 1929

CONTAMINATION OF RESERVOIR O.7°/o
MISC ELLAN E OUS 2.9°/o
SURFACE
©
SOURCES 16 °/o
UNTREATED
©/.
WATER 33.3°/o
U ROUN
N DERGROUND 17.3°/o
SOURCES
CONTAM IN AT |ON OF 2O.l.º/o.
COLLECTION SYSTEM
INA DE QUATE CONTROL OVER 21. I ºſo
PURIFICATIon METHo Ds jº
TA |N
CONTAMINATION 2 1.9 °/o
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
BASED UPON “THE SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER BORNE TYPHOID FEVER OUT BREAKs”
BY WOLMAN AND GORMAN, 1931.
F1 GURE NO. 58
SEWERAGE
Before the middle of the 19th Century, human filth ac-
cumulated near dwelling houses in privies and cesspools, a
serious menace to health. The introduction of public water
supplies was a step toward ending this danger, for it led to
the common use of the indoor water closet and the production
of sewage, which is the once clean Water supply made dirty
by use in homes and factories and collected by sewers.
There was no State control over municipal sewerage or
the discharge of sewage until 1905. Since then application
must be made for approval of sevrer plans before construction
and for permission to discharge sewage into the waters of
the State. The statutes provide for the issuance of permits
stipulating conditions. The State has not power, nor should
it have, to require a municipality to build main and branch
sewers, as that is wholly a local matter. But under the
statutes, the State does have power to order the interception
of sewage and its treatment so as to prevent harmful stream
pollution •
Severage Districts
As sewage normally flows in sewers by gravity, public
sewer systems should be laid out , where practicable, for
natural drainage areas upon which contiguous or neighboring
municipalities are located.
In such a district continuous intercepting sewers are
laid in the main valleys and collect the sewage of the sewered
223
towns along their line and convey it to suitably located sites
for treatment. The economy of this is self-evident when com-
pared with each sewered community in the district constructing
and maintaining its own treatment works. District works lo-
cated farther down stream, where river discharge is larger,
can often use a lesser degree of treatrient.
Public sewerage by natural drainage districts for con-
tiguous or neighboring municipalities can be provided by
agreements between them as authorized by State laws.
Comprehensive Plans.
The preparation and adoption of comprehensive sewerage
plans looking well into the reasoneble future is economical
of public funds. Through it, practically all new construction
may become part of a complete ultimate project. Especial
reference should be made to the design of the main inter-
cepting sewers, pumping stations and sewage treatment works.
Sewage Treatment
The discharge of untreated sewage or inadequately treated
sewage within prejudicial influence upon a water works intake
Or into insufficient diluting water, is the most dangerous kind
of stream pollution. Through years of experience processes for
the treatment of sewage have been developed and are in success-
ful use whereby practically any prescribed degree of removal of
impurities can be attained. The degree of treatment is determin-
able by the use and condition of the body of water into which
the effulent is discharged. But from a practical point of view
224
a less degree than the ideal is sometimes the only one attain.
able, because of limitation of the financial ability of the
municipality •
In most cases, construction of the main parts of a sewer
system, its pumping stations and treatment works and the B.C.-
quirement of needed land, is financed by bond issues which
create municipal debt. But the Constitution limits municipal
debt to 7 per cent of assessed valuation. Also, debt over
2 per cent cannot be incurred without an affirmative vote of
a majority of the electors. These are serious handicaps to
the abatement of sewage pollution of streams.
Sewer Rental
There is an increasing use in many States of sewer rental;
which is an annual, equitable fee charged against properties
connected to a public sewer. Sewer rentals can make public
sewer systems and sewege treatment works self-supporting, as
is the case with most water works.
All Towns Should Be Severed
In the interest of the public health and for comfort and
convenience, the built-up part of every municipality should. be
provided with public sewers. Where attainable, the sewage so
collected should be treated to that degree needed to protect
public interests in the stream below the point of discharge •
SANITARY WATER BOARD
In 1923, the Sanitary Water Board was created and ém-
powered with the authority over sewerage and sewage disposal
225
formerly exercised by the Department of Health and with the
authority of the Department of Fisheries and of the Water
Supply Commission with regard to the prevention of stream
pollution, and also empowered to study and investigate methods
of preventing stream pollution.
The Pennsylvania Plan
After careful study the Board evolved fundamental
policies • Having been put in practice, they became known in
a number of States as the "Pennsylvania Plan", which included
(a) The classification of streams; which means the pre-
servation of clean streams and the reduction or abatement of
pollution of other streams by determining the required degree
of treatment, of pollution after a study of the present and
probable future use and condition of the receiving stréam.
(b) The scientific sanitary surveys of rivers to de-
termine their use and condition, including the degree of pol-
lution and the causes thereof.
(c) Cooperation, under agreements, with groups of major
industries for the finding of reasonable and practicable ways
and means for the treatment of industrial wastes.
(d) The making of inter-state stream agreements with de-
partments of health of states adjoining Pennsylvania.
Sanitary Survey of Rivers
These surveys included the use of mobile laboratories for
analyzing in the field samples of water of the river and of
industrial wastes discharged into it, and also, the use of
226
stream gauges to determine river discharge. Studies are made
during normal and low flows of summer which is the critical time
to evaluate stream pollution.
After the data collected has been correlated and studied,
they are used to make diagrams which show the amount of bene-
ficent oxygen present in the water (a measure of good condi-
tions) and also the oxygen demand of the water (a measure of
the pollution). The difference between these is known as
"oxygen balance”, that is to say, the amount of beneficent
oxygen which would remain in the water after the pollution
load has been assimilated.
Evaluating the pollution load from municipal sewage and
or organic industrial west. loads converted into equivalent
human sewage, made possible a beginning of work with the major
sources of pollution. Often a 70 per cent reduction of a
large sewage or industrial waste load will bring about more
improvement in the condition of a river. than the complete
elimination of a relatively large number of small pollution
loads, which at a later date are taken up in the order of, their
importance.
One of the best features of this procedure is its equity
and justice. When an approach is made to those responsible
for the major pollution they can not pass on to other parties
the responsibility for abatement by saying that they are not
major causes of the river pollution. It works.
227
Industrial Waste Agreements
In 1924, an agreement was made with the leather tanners
Of Pennsylvania which created a technical committee provided
with funds from the industry to study tannery waste treat-
ment. Two full scale experimental plants were constructed
and operated and a report submitted setting forth reasonable
and practicable processes of treatment laid out in progressive
steps. It was accepted by the Board and the industry and con-
struction work has been carried on fairly well.
In 1926, an agreement was made with the pulp and paper
manufacturers which also created a technical committee to
study the problem of waste disposal. As a result, material
improvements have been made in the condition of streams be-
low paper mills by the installation of "save-alls" and in
many cases, re-circulating systems, which have materially
lightened the paper mill loads upon streams. The Board has
recently undertaken an experimental study of the unsolved
problem of sulphite waste disposal.
In 1928, an agreement was made with the companies
operating by-product coke ovens. Formerly the waste waters
discharged from these plants contained phenolic bodies which
created offensive tastes and odors in public water supplies
derived at points below. As a result of this agreement,
means for complete elimination or substantial treatment have
been installed and the trouble is practically ended. The
same year, a practically similar agreement was made with
228
manufactured gas plants and it has had the same good result, so
In 1929, an agreement was made with the bituminous coal
operators. No method of treatment was then known for the acid
drainage flowing from the mines. As the result of cooperative
studies and of work done by the coal operators and under Federal
and State relief projects, there has been brought about re-
duction of acid in some streams.
Inter-State stream conservation Agreements
In 1922, the Departments of Health of Pennsylvania and
New Jersey inaugurated the first agreement of this nature in
the United States. It applied to the Delaware River.
In 1924, an agreement was made between the Departments of
Health of Pennsylvania, Chio and West Virginia, relative to
the Ohio River. This was subsequently extended to include the
health departments of all of the eleven states in that great
river basin. Under the agreement, the State Health Commission-
ers constitute an Executive Board and the Chief Engineers, a
Board of Engineers, charged with carrying out of the technical
provisions of the agreement, which are primarily the safeguard-
ing of water supplies in one state from harmful pollution
originating in another state. This agreement has brought about
a cooperation between the officials of these states and ite
benefit has gone far beyond the original purpose -
In 1929, practically an identical agreement and set-up
were made applying to the drainage basin of the Great Lakes •
Other agreements were made applying to the inter-state
- - 229
streams common to Pennsylvania and Maryland and to Pennsyl-
vania and New York and to the waters of the Pymatuning
Reservoir, inter-state to Pennsylvania and Ohio.
Innumerable problems have been solved under these agree-
ments in an amicable fashion without even consideration of
litigation in the Federal Courts, which is the only means of
redress where there is not such cooperation between the author-
ities of adjoining states •
Control of pollution of interstate streams can best be
had by compacts between states but this is not easy to bring
about. In the interim, agreements between State Health De-
partments, as referred to above, is reasonably effective.
SANITARY CONSERVATION OF WATER RESOURCES
The waters of our streams and lakes belong to the Common-
wealth. Only use thereof, but not ownership, is obtainable by
State permission or as a riparian right. The Supreme Court or
the United States has declared that the use of water for
drinking purposes is its highest use . The order of use for
stock watering, for recreation, such as fishing, bathing and
boating, and for manufacturing purposes, vary for different
streams and in different parts of the state. Water taken from
streams, used and converted into sewage and industrial wastes,
must of necessity be returned whence it came; but should be
treated to prevent harmful pollution.
Every practicable effort should be made to maintain all
clean streams in that wholesome state and to reduce the pollu-
// - 23O
tion of other streams as much as possible, compatible with the
general public interests and in so doing to reasonably reckon
with the financial ability of our municipalities and industries.
In an urbanized and industrial state, the streams drain-
ing developed areas cannot be returned to their pristine
purity. The ideal should be to attain an economic balance be-
tween the value of stream cleanliness in different places, the
cost of water purification and the cost of treatment of munici-
pal sewage and of industrial wastes.
The sanitary conservation of water resources is, there-
fore, a complex, scientific and economic problem of profound
importance to the well being of the Commonwealth and its people.
Ground Water i Investigations of ground water and its re-
lation to water supply have been undertaken during past years
only to a very limited extent. This information is becoming.
increasingly important and it would appear desirable to inten-
Sify such investigations in conjunction with the surface water
studies conducted by the Department of Forests and Waters.
Rainfall and Runoffi With the increasing need for informa-
tion governing the successful design and operation of water sup-
ply and water power plants, flood control systems and other hy-
draulic Works, the activities of the Department of Forests and
Waters with respect to stream gaging and the collection of pre-
cipitation data should be expanded by the installation of 25
.automatic recording stations, principally on the smaller streams,
and the addition of 40 rain gages at carefully selected locations.
231
MINERALS IN PENNSYLVANIA
The importance of its mineral resources, especially coal,
to the well-being and future of the citizens of * Common-
wealth, cannot be over-estimated. In the discussion of move-
ments of populations the fact of the decreased production is
evident in the part of the report dealing with housing. This
subject, the future housing of the population, due to the
stranding of whole communities in the coal fields, becomes
clear. Its effect on retail trade, on banking, and on the re-
lief problems facing the State is overwhelming.
Any planning body that may be created must of necessity
consider the social problems surrounding the production and
use of coal as one of its prime responsibilities.
The section on coal in this report as originally prepared,
emphasized the problems of the coal operators. It is presented
here, not because of this point of view, but because of the
mass of the essential factual data that is herein contained,
These data are of fundamental importance in the development of
any State or National Plan, and of State and National policies
in relation to National resourcese
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PENNSYLVANIA'S EXTRACTIVE MINERAL INDUSTRIES(*)
Industry Investment 1930 Employment 1929 Walue of
products 1929
Bituminous Coal $475,000,000 l30,000 $258,607,000
Anthracite 445,000,000 158,000 385,643,000
Common Rocks 50,000,000 (c) 65,000,000 (b)
Petroleum (c) (c) 44,800,000 (*)
Natural Gas l'71,000,000 8,600 28,189,000 (*)
Iron Ore 9,500,000 450 2,383,000
(*) Investment figures are from the 1930 report on Productive
Industries, Pennsylvania Department of Internal Affairs; employe
figures are from the State and other sources; value of products
figures are based on United States Bureau of Mines data.
(b)Partly estimated by the author
*Data not available
(d) at wells
233
M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S
Pennsylvania's mineral industries, the very heart of her
economic development, have been losing ground at a rate which
indicates that sound planning is necessary if the Commonwealth
is to retain its leadership.
In l919, the value created by the principal mineral in-
dustries of the state represented 32% per cent of the nation's
total; in 1929 it dropped to 25 per cent. The decline affects
almost every one of the group so vital to the State's well-
being.
Much of the readily accessible wealth has been used up
and, at the same time, increasing competition has developed.
Research is indispensible to combat the growing difficulties
with which those inaustries are faced. More diligent search
for new mineral deposits, development cf better means of
utilizing minerals, perfection of new uses, studies of under-
lying economic problems, --all these are necessary if Pennsyl-
vania is to continue to profit from this essential group.
>k-k-k-k-k
(A condensation of a survey by Raymond E. Murphy, Ph.D., Ass-
istant Professor of Economic Geography, School of Mineral In-
dustries, Pennsylvania State College. This important work,
unfortunately out of print, was published by the Greater Penn-
sylvania Council. A. W. Gauger, Director of Mineral Research,
Pennsylvania State College, says in a preface to Dr. Murphy's
study that it furnishes the facts necessary for intelligent
planning, -- a program of education and research.)
254
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235
The prosperity of the entire State is, in a large measure,
dependent upon that of those industries. Buying power and not
productive capacity is the critical factor in present day ec-
onomics. obviously, the mineral industrial worker can do no
buying -- even of agricultural products -- when he cannot
get work. Inadequate returns to mines, quarries and mills af-
fect whole communities and result in population shifts and
capital migrations that must be reckoned with.
Support being given to research on the part of certain
associations, representing whole industries, for the benefit
of the groups as a whole and not a single company, is a hope-
ful signs Pennsylvania's School of Mineral Industries also
has experienced gratifying support for its educational and
research programs
The United States is the greatest mineral producing and
processing country in the world, and, within the United States,
Pennsylvania is by far the leading state in these activities.
Pennsylvania's mineral industries employed about 600,000 per-
sons in 1929, from which the conclusion may be drawn that.
these industries gave direct support to one-third of the
State's total population.
The dominance of mining and primary processing of miner-
als extends far beyond the industries themselves, influencing
virtually every economic activity in the State. Railways not
only depend upon coal for power, but minerals constitute more
than three-fourths of their freight tonnage. Products of the
236
GENERAL SUMMARY OF PENNSYLVANIA*S
MINERAL INDUSTRIES
le. Extractive Industries:
Walue of products, 1929s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - $784,622,000
Number of employees, *1929
(more than) • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 300,000
Investment,” ig30 (more than)................#1,150,500,000
2e Primary Processing Industries:
Investment,” 1930. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1,521,519,000
Number of employees, * 1929. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257,000
Payroll, a 1929, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 436,000,000
Total value of products, a 1929. - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2,224,000,000
Value added by manufacture; 1929. . . . . . . . . . . . 853,000,000
3, Summary of all Mineral Industries:
Walue created, ig29° o e < e e o ei eee e e e o e e s e e e e o e e ...#1,640,000,000
Investment, 1930 (estimate) © C G O © Q & O © e o O e o O O. O. .#2,800,000,000
Number employees, 1929 (estimate). . . . . . . . . . . . 600,000
*Partly estimated by the author,
*Figure given does not include investment in production
of petroleum, there being no data available on this points
*Total value of extractive products plus value added by
manufacture in primary processing industries •
steel mill, of the by-product plant or of other primary pro-
ºcessing works, become the raw materials of many industries.
Some of these make machinery for use in mining and processing
minerals and hence are doubly tied to the mineral industries.
Not much less independent are certain types of manufact-
uring plants, like the silk mills of the anthracite regions
which rely upon the excess of female labor characteristic of
such areas.
Agriculture is affected because the workers in mining,
mineral industries and related enterprises constitute a large
non-food producing element in the State's population which must
be fed. The degree to which retail trade is affected is re-
flected in its sensitivity to anything influencing the income
cf the group, such as strikes, adverse weather conditions or
other factors retarding or accelerating earnings. Wholesale
trade reacts almost as quickly.
Thirty-second state in land area, Pennsylvania is second
in population and second in wealth, facts chiefly explained by
the State's mineral resources. And of the three spots of great-
est population density, two, Allegheny and Lackawanna counties,
are dominated by mineral industries. •
Many states owe their development to metallic rhinierals
but Pennsylvania has gained its leading position in mineral in-
dustries because of its non-metals, particularly the mineral.
fuels and it is to these that chief consideration is given in
that which follows:
238
Fundamental problems affecting the future of the State's
mineral industries may be summarized.
Obtaining equitable freight rates. Discriminatory or
otherwise unfair rates may impose insurmountable handicaps.
Each industry should undertake as part of its research program
a study of rates. *
Taxation. The charge is made that some industries bear
too large a tax burden. In some instances, notably in the
case of anthracite, high taxes have so increased the price
of the ultimate product that inroads of substitutes have been
encouraged to the detriment of the industry. Taxation of
minerals still in the ground has been criticized.
Overproduction. This is a serious matter in almost
every one of the mineral industries. The curve of production
has been rising more rapidly than the curve of demand. How
to retard production to a profitable point is a major problem.
The energy devoted to increasing production might better be
spent in standardizing quality, developing new products and
developing new uses for existing products.
Conservation. Minerals, unlike products of farm and
forest, are irreplaceable. Preservation of resources for the
future does not mean depriving the people living today but
guarding carefully against waste and efficient utilization.
Research. The coal, metallurgical, and other industries
have research organizations, but these deal chiefly with im—
mediate practical problems and are still overshadowed by
239
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public and semi-public bodies, Long range fundamental research
is vital. such a program is already being carried on in the
Mineral Industries Experiment Station of the Pennsylvania State
Collegee It is the only program being carried forward in Penn-
sylvania that unites all branches of research in the mineral in-
dustries •
Discovery. A new science of geophysical or subsurface pro-
specting has grown upo relying on delicate scientific instrue-
ments. The Commonwealth should take advantage of this progress
and check up on its Iºes OURI"C63 Ola C6 more e
A certain amount of competition is stimulating, but the
common result of such competition as that among the fuels is
profitless operation for alle Industry and consumer alike would
benefit if more co-operation could replace excessive competition.
Coal and Coal Processing.
The importance of the coal industry to Pennsylvania is diff-
icult to overemphasize. It is the foundation of the industrial
development of a great state and of far greater importance to
the Commonwealth than to the nation as a wholeo
Coal mining employs 290,000 persons in this state, and
their dependents increase the number relying upon it for their
support to between 1,000,000 and l,500,000. Many others are em-
ployed in manufacturing, transportation and other activities
closely related to the presence of coal.
Two main classifications of coal are important in Pennsyl-
24l
vania -- anthracite popularly known as "hard" coal and bit-
uminous or "soft" coal. The term "rank" is used to designate
the proportion of fixed carbon, volatile matter (or gases)
and water which coals contain. Anthracite, almost all fixed
carbon, is very high in rank, and burns without smoke.
The percentage of fixed carbon in coals decreases from
east to west in Pennsylvania, the highest rank, anthracite,
being found in the east-central counties. Sullivan county
produces a semi-anthracite, virtually smokeless, and treated
and marketed like anthracite. The low volatile bituminous
coal of the central Pennsylvania fields, is also practically
smokeless and competes with anthracite and semi-anthracite for
the domestic market. Lower ranks, though used for domestic
purposes, produce more smoke. The medium volatile coals of
the Central Pennsylvania field are well adapted and chiefly
used for steam purposes, while high-volatile or "gas coals”
found in the western part of the state are used for generat-
ing steam including steam for locomotives, coke making, gas
making and household use. -
Anthracite, primarily a domestic fuel, bears little re-
lation to the manufacturing development in which bituminous
coal is so important. Anthracite reserves are distinctly
limited as compared with the country's reserves of bituminous
coal. While 93 per cent of the anthracite produced in the
United States comes from four counties in Eastern Pennsylvania,
the bituminous industry is spread over many states.
242
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Six and one half times as much bituminous as anthra-
cite was produced in the United States in 1931, yet the value
of the former was only about twice that of the latter. In
Pennsylvania, the two are on much more even terms. The l93l
bituminous coal tonnage in the state was l. 6 times that of an-
thracite, but the total value of the anthracite was twice that
of the State's bituminous coal output.
Nevertheless, Pennsylvania is primarily an industrial
state and bituminous coal has formed the foundation of its in-
dustrial development. From that point of view, the bituminous
coal industry of the State is vastly more important than the
anthracite.
The anthracite industry employs approximately lá0,000
men. Mining is chiefly in the hands of two groups, the "com-
panies", ten in number, so called because of their historic
connection with the railroad companies of the region, and a
second group of 100 Qr more operators, the "independents”
who lease lands they operate on a royalty basis. The "com-
panies" own lands, produce 70 to 80 per cent of the coal and
own about 90 per cent of the reserves.
The principal difficulties confronting the anthracite in-
dustry today are:
l, Competition from other fuels.
2. High production costs.
5. A heavy tax burden.
4. High costs of distribution, particularly freight,
243
although retailing charges are high, also.
5. Limited market for smaller sizes (a situation that is
improving.)
6. The existence of too many commercial sizes or coal
with consequent high costs. of preparation, transportation and
delivery to consumers.
7. Unfavorable attitudes of unions toward plans to in-
crease efficiency, including the introduction of labor saving
equipment. -
8. Growing exhaustion of more cheaply mined deposits.
9. Increasing depth, with attending gas, roof and other
troubles.
lo. Increasing water.
ll. Excess capacity, entailing heavy carrying charges.
l2. Too high royalties on some leases, in view of present
conditions.
Corrective measures have been put in practice or suggest-
ed for most of these difficulties, especially in developing
better sales and service methods to meet the keen competition
from other fuels. The principal invaders of the domestic mar-
ket of anthracite have been fuel oil, coke, natural gas, man-
ufactured gas, fuel briquets, imported anthracite, anthracite
and semi-anthracite produced in the United States outside of
Pennsylvania, hydro-electric power and bituminous coal. The
use of fuel oil for the heating of houses and other structures
has increased rapidly in recent years and in 1930 represented
244
THE STANDARD SIZES OF ANTHRACITE, THEIR USES, AND
THEIR AWERAGE SELLING PRICES
(Adapted principally from Keystone Coal Buyer's Catalog for 1930 and from
Mineral Resources of the United States)
Average sales reali-
3:\tion per short ton
Commercial Average shipped from breakers,
Name Diameter Principal Uses - all regions, f.o.b.
Less Greater breakers, 1931
*Domestic" sizes than than
- - Dollars
Broken 4-3/8" 3-1/4" Gas making, other manufacture, and steam raising. . . . . . . . . . . . , 6.74
Egg 3-1/4" 2–7/16" Domestic furnaces and open grates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7-ol
Stove 2–7/16" 1-5/8" Kitchen ranges, base burners (sometimes mixed with .
chestnut coal), small furnaces, open Erates • , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~7.57
Chestnut
or Nut l-5/8" 13/16" Kitchen ranges, small stoves, base burners (sometimes
mixed with stove coal), and small open grates; also
heating service water and homes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~7-21
Pea 13/16" 9/16" Domestic furnaces with small openings in grate, -
kitchen ranges, and "banking" fires; also heating
service water and homes. • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -4-76
"Steam" sizes (though Buck-
wheat Noel finds consid:-
erable domestic use)
Buckwheat Steam making, and self-feeding domestic furnaces;
No. 1 9/16" 5/16" domestic stokers • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -2-79
Buckwheat
No. 2 or Rice
- 5/16" 3/16" Steam making; domestic Stokers; anthracite gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l., 52
Buckwheat Steam making; and chemical and industrial
No. 3 3/16" 3/32" processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l.03
Barley
Boiler 5/16" - 3/32n Same as the last two buckwheats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.29
Finer than Briquets, producer-gas plants, powdered and Wariable but
Buckwheat Nos 3 burned either mixed with powdered bituri- less than for
mous coal or by itself. larger sizes
& except Boiler,
§
a displacement of somewhere near 3,000,000 tons of anthracite,
Coke is a serious competitor for the domestic fuel mar-
ket, since in cleanliness end lack of smoke it is comparable
to anthracitee Despite certain disadvantages, its use is un-
doubtedly growing. Small but consistent inroads on the domes-
tic market have been shown by foreign anthracite, imported
chiefly from the United Kingdon and Russia.
Producers are taking vigorous steps to rehabilitate the
anthracite industry. The Anthracite Institute, representing
both the larger companies and independent producers, has led
in these activities. Engineers of its Anthracite Service
maintain contact with dealers and consumers in thirty of the
larger cities of the anthracite using territory, not only
giving instruction in combustion engineering, but conducting
market surveys and studying the anthracite needs of various
industries •
Another important activity of the . Institute is the sub-
sidizing of research on the nature and use of anthracite.
Studies of methods and equipment for using anthracite are
being made in the Institute's laboratory at Primos, near
Philadelphia, where automatic stoking devices and ash remov-
al appliances are tested and equipment for more efficient and
economic burning of the fuel is opening the way to disposition
of more of the smaller, or "steam" sizes of coal. More and
more use is being made of sizes finer than "steam" which un-
til recently were wasted. Such material may be converted into
246
briquets, may be burned in powdered form, either by itself or
mixed with bituminous coal, may be used in small producer-gas
plants, or in other ways.
The industry's heavy tax burden operates to keep up the
retail price of fuel and a detailed study of the tax problem
from the point of view of present and probable future condi-
tions is needed. Taxation of coal reserves has been the sub-
ject of criticism in both the anthracite and bituminous fields.
Some of the anthracite companies own large reserves, and the
present system of taxing coal in the ground imposes a heavy
load upon theme
Other needs ‘of the industry to meet its major problems
include:
Better co-operation between managment and labor in in-
creasing mining efficiency and lowering costse
Further study of the freight rate structure of the an-
thracite railroads. Determination whether the rates are act-
ually too high should be possible, and, if they are, further
demands for adjustment should be made •
Better control of retailing is needed to avoid excessive
charges, improper representation of the product, etce
Reduction of excess capacity may be achieved by shutting
down some mines, and concentrating production and preparation
in the hands of producers best equipped for efficient oper-
ation---principally with the end of avoiding the high cost of
part-time minings
247
Revision downward of some of the royalties which are too
high for present conditions in the industry is important.
Reduction of costs by all possible methods to place the
price of anthrasite to the consumer more nearly on the parity
with that of competing fuels is needed.
Northeastern United States and adjacent sections of Can-
ada doubtless will continue to be the principal market. area
for anthracite. The the west, the industry faces a long freight
haul to markets which are much nearer to the bituminous coal
deposits as well as the sources of competing fuels; to the
south higher temperatures, lower standards of living, and com-
petition with bituminous coal prevent any considerable exten-
sion of markets.
The need for the anthracite industry, therefore, seems to
consist of a more and more thorough development of its pre-
sent market territory with an extension of the use of anthra-
cite within that area • -
Pessimistic views of the future of the anthracite fields
after the coal is exhausted loo years hence, with towns and
villages now thriving becoming deserted, do not seem to be
justified. The percentage of freight, other than anthracite
carried by the railroads of the anthracite regions is growing;
these roads have developed terminal facilities making pos-
sible a growing trunk-line business; and some of them have es-
tablished "new industries" departments to attract enterprises
to the area.
248
SOCIO GRAPHICS
P H | L: A D E L PHIA
C O O. O. O. -O O. O. O. O. O. O © . O O -O O O O C C C C, O O O. O O. O' C C C,
DOM EST I C U S E | N T H E UNITED STA T E S (3(3, 5 º'
iſ iſſ
© O C Q O. O. C. Q_O C, O.
Ex P O R T E D - | 9.3°/e
Pow ER AND HEAT 7.1%
AT M I N ES gº
HOTEL APARTMENT 5.1°/e
A ND OFF! C = BU I LD! NGS
MISCE L tº N E O U S IN DUST R ES
*
RAILROADS 3. Oº
US ES OF PEN N SYLVANIA ANTH RACITE - Ü
AS Ü F | 929 -
PL. A N N | N. G.
FIGURE No. 62. so A R D


A number of manufacturing industries are established already .
With a good location and excellent transportation facilities
it seems probable that greater manufacturing development will
keep pace with the decline of coal mining.
The bituminous coal area of Pennsylvania forms a block of
fifteen counties with extensions and small isolated areas in
at least thirteen others. In 1931, according to the United
States Bureau of Mines, Pennsylvania produced 97,658,698 met
tons of bituminous coal valued at $155,060,000. More than
ll6,000 persons were employed in the industry in that year and
the capital invested amounted to nearly $500,000,000.
Overproduction is the curse of the industry and the dis-
posal of a surplus labor supply is a serious matter. Increased
use of mechanical devices permits cheaper production, but in-
creases the productivity of the mines and displaces laborers.
While productive capacity has increased, competition from
other fuels and increasing efficiency of coal utilization
have curtailed demand.
A healthier industry seems. certain to result from a de-
cision of the United States Supreme Court opening the way to
much needed consolidation; which previously had been held to
be in violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Law. Despite the
fact many have believed some form of pooling would best over-
come the present inefficient overproduction, until the Court's
decision in March, 1933, in the case of Appalachian Goals,
Inc., the way seemed blocked. Appalachian Coals, Inc., was
249
formed by 137 producers in the southern high-volatile district
of Kentucky, Tennessee and the Wirginias, representing three-
fourths of the tonnage of this district.
Similar agencies representing other groups of operators
are being formed in Pennsylvania and elsewhere. The movement
undoubtedly will bring about some control of production, and
hence a beneficial stabilization of the industry. Ricreover,
producers of a certain rank of coal will now present a unified
front in marketing their product.
Pennsylvania's greatest coal reserves lie in Greene and
washington counties, and a shift of the principal mining act-
ivity to these southwestern counties is to be expected.
Although more than 40,000,000,000 tons recoverable bit-
uminous coal are estimated to be left in the ground in Pennsyl-
vania, less than 10,000,000,000 tons are in thick or moder-
ately thick beds, such as those now being mined. At the pre-
sent rate of production, this will last 70 or 75 years. At
the end of that time large reserves will still remain, but of
coal occurring in such thin seams and so difficult to mine
that the State will be unable to maintain its position as a
leading producer. Since the great metallurgical and other man-
ufacturing industries of the State depend upon cheap coal, it
is obviously highly important that coal waste be eliminated.
A problem which arises occasionally even now and which
is sure to arise more frequently in the future is this: As
the minable coal is exhausted, what will become of the coal-
250
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mining communities? Will the present coal-mining valleys re-
vert to wilderness? The suggestion has been made that the
housing, labor supply, and other facilities might well attract
new industries -- that the mining communities might thus
gradually change to manufacturing towns. These communities
should be carefully studied, and eventually, assisted in re-
adjusting themselves to their changed environment.
Pennsylvania's production of bituminous coal has shown a
fairly steady, though gentle decline since 1918. More is
known about the supply than demand, and more about production
than consumption. The producer knows his coal output. Avail-
able data suggest the iron and steel industry (including the
manufacture of coke used in the industry) is the principal
consumer; that the railroads are second and that household use
is third. A host of other uses - electric utilities, steam-
ship fuel, exportation, gas manufacture and . certain general
manufactures (stone, clay and glass products; metals and metal
products other than steel; food products; chemicals and fer-
tilizers) also account for important amounts.
Competition from other sources of power has been an import-
ant factor in the decreased use of bituminous coal, which con-
tributed 70 per cent of the total energy derived from mimeral
fuels and water power in the United States in 1909 and only
48% per cent in 1931. Liuch of the relative increases of
other sources of power represents, directly or indirectly, re-
placement of coal; but of equal importance in slowing down
25l.
the use of coal have been advances in fuel •rtistems.
Domestic oil has shown the greatest gain as competitor.
Water power and natural gas also have made gains, while im-
ported oil is not to be ignored. Tariffs were imposed upon
foreign coal and oils in 1932 in efforts to lessen the compet-
.ition.
The seasonal character of soft coal consumption provides
a serious problem for the industry for which storage seems the
only cures The producer rarely has facilities for storage,
which is left to the wholesaler, the retailer end the consumer.
For instance, householders are encouraged to get winter supp-
lies in the summer months. Large quantities of lake-cargo
coal are stored each summer along the Great Lakes for distrie
bution throughout the Northwest. Many large industrial con-
sumers, such as utilities, and nearly all wholesale and retail
coal dealers have storage facilities • Storage for the slack
season keeps the miner at work, insures the consumer of a
supply when he needs it and spreads the burden of transporta-
tion over a longer period,
Distribution is accomplished by rail and waterways and to
a lesser degree, over the highways. "The coal problem is a
railroad problem" is an often heard saying that is still es-
sentially true, although 17% per cent of the coal loaded for
shipment in 1930 was loaded directly upon river barges or
other river vesselse. Use of high-pressure pipe lines for
transporting pulverized coal from the mines to consuming
252
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centers is under consideration.
A crying need of the present is a thorough revision and
simplification of freight rates so that they will be based pri-
marily upon actual cost of service. The freight rate struct-
ure affecting bituminous coal is exceedingly complicated,
Preferential rates have been given to newer and outlying fields,
making the consumer of "short haul" coal bear part of the cost
of transporting "long haul" coal and making the average
freight rate on all coal higher than need be by favoring "long
haul" coale
Stream pollution by means of escaping mine water forms a
vexatious problemſ in both the anthracite and bituminous coal
industries • Underground water coming in contact with air and
iron pyrites is rendered more or less acid and is popularly
known as "sulphur water". Many miles of streams draining the
bituminous coal fields, have been rendered acid by this "sul-
phur water".
No feasible method has been found to render the polluted
waters more alkaline but certain operators have found that by
concentrating drainage at specified points many streams may
be left unpolluted and suitable for public water supply and
fish life.
In the anthracite fields pollution is caused by dumping
silt and rock, the waste products of the industry, into
streams, Thus fine coal is was ted and deposits so clog the
channels that floods are common, sometimes causing much dam-
253
age. Some operators are using sludge ponds, thus avoiding
stream pollution and accumulating a product which has or will
have value. Others are using silt as mine fillings, with rock
and boiler ashes added. In a few months the silt solidifies
enough to , allow robbing the solid pillars without danger of
surface subsidence. The net result is a larger coal recovery
and a market reduction of waste accumulations at the surface,
Processing Methods.
Coal processing produces coke, gas, tar, coal tar dyes
and many other chemicals. Coal may be heated in retorts,
thereby driving off the volatile matter and leaving light,
porous, smokeless fuel called coke. If this process is carried
on in a special kind of device called a by-product oven, tar,
gas and various other substances are obtained. Or the bitum-
inous coal may be treated particularly for its gases, with
coke as a secondary products
Beehive ovens, devoted to the production of coke and ig-
noring the by-products, reigned supreme until 1918 but a grow-
th in knowledge regarding the recovery and use of valuable by-
products has led to rapid replacement of this type of oven,
which is now regarded as having served its purpose and des-
tined to pass out of existence. This fact colors the whole
future of the industry in Pennsylvania, for although Fayette,
Greene and Washington counties have their larger reserves, it
is unlikely that these counties ever will be important coke
254
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producers. Instead their coal will be sent to by-products
plants conveniently located with respect to markets,
The major interest of the coke industry is in obtaining
a product strong enough to be suitable for blast furnace and
foundry use. Nevertheless, a continued increase in the use of
coke for household purposes is the most striking feature on
the industry's horizon, Pennsylvania's principal part in the
development of this trend probably will be the shipment of coal
for use in by-products plants situated in New England, New York
and elsewhere in the areas of maximum demand for household
coke, *
Related closely to the coke industry is manufactured gas,
first among the uses of which must be listed "domestic pur-
poses" —- cooking, water heating, house heating and other uses
in the homes Once of great importance as an illuminant, it
has been succeeded in this field by electricity.
In the field of industry gas, which has the great ad-
vantage Of adaptability to accurate temperature and furnace
atmosphere control, is gaining in favor rapidly,
Types used include ccke-oven gas; coal gas, made by dis-
tilling bituminous coal in an air-tight retort; blue water gas,
made by passing steam through a large chamber filled with glow-
ing hot coke, or anthracite; cerburetted water gas, which is
blue water gas enriched with gasified oil; producer gas, gen-
erated by blowing a mixture of air and steam up through a
thick hot bed of coal or coke; blast-furnace gas, a by-product
255
of the smelting of iron ore, and mainly used to supply power
at the smelter; and oil gas, made by the thermal decomposition
or "cracking" of hydro-carbon oils into lighter, fixed hydro-
carbon eases.
The average manufactured gas delivered to consumers in the
eastern United States is a mixture of coal gas and water gas,
and of by-product coke oven gas where it is available. The
production and consumption of manufactured gas has been in-
creasing steadily and is expected to continue to do so, since
appreciation of it as a fuel is growing.
Petroleum and Natural Gas
As an extractive mineral industry, petroleum is exceeded
in Pennsylvania only by the anthracite and bituminous coal in-
dustries in the value of the products. All three of its
branches, production, transportation and refining, are repre-
sented in this state, which produced ll,892,000 barrels of
crude petroleum in 1931 with an estimated value, at the wells
of $23,550,000. Pennsylvania ranked eighth in bulk of pro-
duction, with 1.4 per cent of the United States total. The
high grade of lubricants made from Pennsylvania petroleum and
the nearness to markets accounts for the State's higher rank
in terms of value than in volume-
Pennsylvania crude oil not only makes the highest quality
lubricant, but also has a lubricating oil content of approx-
imately 23 per cent as compared with a 3 per cent average for
the United States.
256
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Pipe lines form an important part of the petroleum in-
dustry, and although transportation cannot be definitely eval-
uated, it is an integral part of the State's petroleum indus-
try, linking as it does, production and refining.
The value added by manufacture for Pennsylvania's petro-
leum refining industry in 1929, was $48,215,658, nine per cent
of the United States total. In petroleum refining, Pennsylvania
with a rank fourth among the states, is of greater relative im-
portance than in crude oil production. This is accounted for by
the importation of crude oil by southeastern and western Pennsyl-
vania refineries.
Petroleum production employs a large number of persons in
Pennsylvania --more than 4,000 in McKean County alone, al-
though exact data on this point is not available. About 9,500
persons were employed in the petroleum refining industry of
the state in 1929, according to the United States census.
The State has played an important part in the industry.
The first oil well drilled in the United States was that of
Colonel E. L. Drake, near Titusville, which was completed
August 28, 1859. This produced about 25 barrels a day, the oil
commanding about $16.00 a barrel. Methods and tools developed in
the early Pennsylvania fields are in use wherever the industry
has spread. Men trained in Pennsylvania have drilled many of
the wells in other fields.
Improved Methods for Secondary Recovery
Pennsylvania's petroleum is a premium, product from which
257
lubricants of the highest grade are made. It must be conserved
and recovered with maximum efficiency, since without lubrica-
tion the wheels of industry would stop turning.
The days of flush production are gone and the genius of
man is challenged in order to insure a more complete recovery
of our reserve. It has been estimated that only lº per cent
of the original petroleum is recovered by natural flooding
methods. In the Bradford District of Pennsylvania a flooding
method has been devised which increases the ultimate yield by
an additional lº to 20 per cent. Even by this method, however,
50 to 60 per cent of the original oil still remains in the
ground and may be lost forever unless new methods of recovery
are devised. The effect of this may be realized when one con-
siders that the Bradford District is only 5 per cent of the
Pennsylvania petroleum area and yet is responsible for 85 per
cent of the State's production. It is estimated that the
Bradford area will be worked out in 20 years by the existing
methods of production. At this time we do not know how to re-
cover the remaining 4,500,000,000 barrels of petroleum still in
Pennsylvania sandstones. This is a challenge to our initiative
and genius.
Overproduction
Overproduction, fostered by unrestricted competition, is
of world-wide scope and of course finds its echoes in Pennsyl-
vania. The demand for "Pennsylvania grade" crude has been kept
up, in part through advertising, but low prices and the nec-
258
THE RECOVERY OF PETROLEUM
PE N N SYLVANIA e 1930 \
15°/o WAS
RECOVERED
BY ORIGINAL
MATURAL
M ETHODS
21 *
5O°/o MUST
REMAIN IN THE
G ROUND UNTIL NEW
METHODS OF
RECOVERY ARE
DEVELOPED
30°/o Is .
THE MAxiMum.
WHICH CAN YET
B E RECOVER ED
BY SECON DARY
METHODS
NOW KNOWN
3°/o TO 5°/o HAS BEEN RECOVER ED –
BY SECONDARY METHODS — — — —
Wºj
R. E. M U R PHY : PENNA. M IN ERAL INDUSTRIES FIGURE NO. 57
* \















essity for proration have affected the Pennisylvania fields.
Proration was lifted in the fall of 1931, with the understand-
ing that producers would maintain a balance between production
and consumption. In 1932, however, the Eureka Pipe Line
Company out runs 10 per cent o indicating a resumption of a
certain amount of proration. -
A tariff on "cheap foreign oil" has been demanded by the
producers in Pennsylvania and other states, who blame many of
the recent troubles of the industry upon such imports.
Under present conditions and methode of production, it is
thought that an average annual production of 10,000,000 to
12,000,000 barrels may be maintained for 50 or 60 years. If
demand increases and prices rise, this production may be great-
ly increased by water-flooding methods. But such speeding of
production would shorten the life of the industry in Pennsyl-
vania • -
Petroleum is the sole commercial source of gasoline, which
has made possible the spectacular development of the motor-
driven vehicle, and gasoline accounted for 43.8 per cent of the
value of products from Pennsylvania's refineries in 1929, being
valued at $106,371,694. Lubricating oils came next, with 29.1
per cent or $70,776,547. Fuel oils accounted for 12 per cent
Or" $29,352,168. Other products included kerosene, naptha, ben-
zine and tops; greases; and a variety of minor products.
With the constant plague of over-production hampering the
petroleum industry, we are likely to lose sight of the fact
259
that the petroleum supply of the world is being used up at a
very rapid rate. Advancement of the cracking process will in-
crease more and more the gasoline production from a given a-
mount of crude. But this and other methods will simply defer
the inevitable •
Ultimately, motor fuel must be obtained from other sources
than petroleum, or at least other sources must supplement the
supplye As petroleum production declines, prices will rise un-
til oil-shale treating plants can work at a profit. Bituminous
coal and liaite, through low-temperature carbonization or
liquefaction, may become sources of substitutes for petroleum
products. Natural gasoline, of which l8,713,000 gallons were
recovered from natural gas in l930, is too volatile for a motor
fuel unless blended. By-product coking produces light dis-
tillates, such as benzol, usable as a substitute for gasoline,
and the heavier distillate, or tar, as a substitute for fuel
oil.
Finally, several agricultural products (such as alcohol
and vegetable oils) have been employed or proposed as substit-
utes for gasoline in the operation of motors, Thus, though
prices for motor fuel and other petroleum products may rise,
it seems probable that new technology and substitution will
solve the problem of the future, -
Natural Gas
The natural gas industry was an offshot of the petroleum
industry. Until 1883, the gas was considered a nusiance and
260
R. E. M U R PHY :
USES OF NATURAL GAS
PEN NSYLVANIA
TOTAL CONSUMPTION
|O 8, 218, OOO,OOO CUBIC FEET
DO M ESTIC OR
HOME USE
4 i. 3°/o
45. Je/o
(consumption BY STEEL
PLANTS, GLAss works, Ice
PLANTS, BR!CK & TERRA-
cotta Establishments, ETc)
— ELECTRIC PUBLIC UTILITY POWER PLANT'S O 6eſe
—— PETROLEUM REFI NERIES 1.04°/e
PENNA. M I NERAL INDUSTR JES FIGURE NO. 68

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few attempts were made to utilize it. In that year, it was
piped to Pittsburgh for use in industries. For 25 years, many
of the steel mills, iron foundries and glass factories relied
solely upon natural gas for fuel. Then supplies began to
fail, partly because of waste and partly because of normal ex-
haustion.
Despite temporary spurts in production due to new fields,
a steady decrease accompanied by a steadily growing appreci-
ation of the value of natural gas has been observed in Penn-
sylvania in the last few years. In 1931, the State produced
74,797,000,000 cubic feet of natural gas with an estimated val-
ue at the wells of $21,092,754, just a little less than the
value of petroleum produced in the State in the same year. The
gas came from approximately 20,000 producing wells.
Two areas of particularly large production stand out. One
includes Armstrong, clarion, and Jefferson Counties; the other,
Greene and Washington counties. A third region, the Tioga coun-
ty field, although not comparable to the other two in present
production, is of especial interest because of its newness and
possible future importance. In the first quarter of 1932
production had risen to 500,000,000 cubic root asny. A pipe
line has been completed to Williamsport and another to Syracuse,
New York. Possibility of sending the gas to New York City and
New England is under consideration.
Predictions regarding the future of the industry are diff-
icult to make. New drilling is going on. Deeper drilling, the
26l.
Mining and Quarrying (other than coal) 1929
Limestone
Sand and Gravel
Iron Ore
Slate
Basalt
Sandstone;
Clay
Granite
Silica
Stones misce
Sand, Molding
Other Industries
Total
Number of En-
terprises
l2
465
Wage Earners
6,048
l, 208
68O
ls 95.l
566
595
555
263
327
l68
146
l84
12,691
Horse Power
103,188
43,717
16,448
15,334
lº, 188
7,167
2,199
2,850
l,784
2,llé
1,673
laº;4
210,596
Wolume of
Production.
19,124,040
ll,002,656
4,515,586
4,330,00l
2,236,438
l,615,444
l, 215,882
731,484
689,886
568,783
44l,648
11193,841–
84,564,189
263
testing, that is, of deeper sands has developed two important
gas areas. A partial vacuum method is used to obtain gas in
SOrde depleted fields. Pennsylvania's annual production has
been declining and with the deeper phase of exploration com-
pleted, its future as a natural gas producing state will be put
a matter of a few years, in all probability.
The Portland Cement Industry
For 40 years Pennsylvania has been the leading producer of
Portland cement in the United States, at one time manufacturing
more than 85 per cent of the total volume, and despite the
great expansion in other states, it still produced 23 per cent
of the total in l93l, when it produced 28,510,231 barrels, val-
ued at $30,952,302. The value added by manufacture was about
$20,000,000. Approximately 7,900 persons were employed in the
industry in this State in 1930.
Natural cement is a product made by burning a clayey
limestone ti incipient fusion and grinding the product to a
fine size. Portland cement, which is stronger and more depend-
able, is more carefully prepared, the material which is burned -
being in artificial mixture containing lime, silica, alumina
and some iron oxide in definite proportions.
Three-fourths of the Pennsylvania product is made in the
Lehigh cement district, where a clayey limestone, called "ce-
ment rock" furnishes a material ideally suited to the manu-
facture of Portland cement, requiring only a small amount of
pure limestone or a little shale to give proportion of lime
263 .
carbonate to the clayey substances.
The large consuming markets are in New York, New Jersey,
and New England. At least 40 per cent is used for public
and commercial buildings, houses, and sidewalks in urban com-
munities. A large quantity, too, is used in highways, which
increase in number and width as urban centers are approached,
and for paving city streets.
In the last few years a change in the marketing of cement
has come about which may affect the cement plants profoundly.
Formerly cement was sold direct to the consumer. The cement
companies made the contacts necessary to introduce goods, gave
advice as to the mixing of concrete, and generally superintend-
ed its use. Much of this duty has now been taken over by the
ready-mix companies which are springing up in every city. Their
function is to buy the cement cheaply in large quantities, mix
it with sand and gravel aggregate or crushed stone, and sell it
ready-mixed to the building contractor or other users .
The Portland Cement Association has done much for the in-
dustry. It is one of the largest engineering, educational and
scientific research organizations in the world, and aims to in-
crease the knowledge, utility and use of Portland cement
through scientific investigations and public education. Al-
though it has no function in connection with individual manu-
facture or sales, it has promoted general sales and extended
the demand for cement by its publications, information to
newspapers and periodicals, instructions to users, and by mak-
#
264
|N PORTLAND CEMENT INDUSTRY
LEGE N D : U NITED STATES PRODUCT
PENNsylvania P Robuction
O O
R. E. M U R PHY : PEN NA. M. N E RAL INDUSTRIES FIGURE NO. 70

ing staff assistants available for advice on job problems •
Common Rock Industries
Common rock material produced in Pennsylvania in 1929 are
estimated to have totalled about 50,000,000 short tons and to
have had a value of nearly $65,000,000, Limestone made up a-
bout half of each of these totals, while sand and gravel and
clay were next in order. A number of other rocks or rock mat-
erials contributed to the totals in smaller amounts.
Rock materials are used chiefly for concrete, plaster and
road materialse Cement manufacturing ranks second both in ton-
nage and value of rock materials consumed, while the iron and
steel industry, because of its deriand for fluxing stone, and the
clay-products industries are other large consumer. The lime manu-
facturing industry, the railroads (through demands for ballast)
and a great number of other users account for smaller amounts.
Pennsylvania does not lead in the production of any of
the building stones except roofing slate, but nevertheless,
building stone other than slate produced in l929 had a value
of $594,372, placed upon it by the United States Bureau of Mines.
This figure undoubtedly is too small, Probably a considerable
amount of building stone for local use is quarried when needed.
The Lime Industry
When finely . ground limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated
in kilns carbon dioxide is driven off, leaving calcium oxide,
which is known as "quick-lime" or "lime." It has a high affin-
ity for water, and when water is added it "slakes", forming a
265
hydrate of lime. When slaked lime is exposed to the air, it
sets or becomes hard, due to evaporation of the excess water
and the reversion of the calcium hydrate to calcium carbonate
by absorption of carbon dioxide from the air. •
The total value of lime sold by Pennsylvania producers in
1930 was $4,661,670 and its bulk, 633,520 tons. Pennsylvania
ranked second among the states as a lime producer.
Recently, mechanical means have been introduced to hydrate
the lime, producing a fine white powder much easier to handle
than quick-lime, and the product is an ever increasing per-
centage of the lime sold.
Lime for building purposes made up l8 per cent by weight
of the Pennsylvania product in 1930. The chief use in building
is in plaster. The building lime industry has been affected
adversely by the recent enormous increase in the use of Port-
land cement and the increased use of gypsum wall plaster.
Although only 26 per cent of the lime produced in Penn-
sylvania in 1930 was used for agricultural purposes, the State
produced 47 per cent of the Nation's total agricultural lime.
Pennsylvania was the leading state in chemical lime pro-
duction in 1930 with 19 per cent of the United states totals
both by weight and value. Chemical uses of lime are widely
distributed throughout the industrial field. Metallurgical
uses account for 14.5 per cent of the product; paper mills
6 per cent; tanneries 3.2 per cent ; glass works and sugar re-
fineries •5 per cent, while other chemical uses, each relative-
266
ly small, total 29.5 per cent •
Clay Products Industries
Pennsylvania has abundant supplies of most of the lower
grades of clay. Much of the best pottery clay in the State has
long been brought in from other states or even from abroad, and
although enormous quantities of fire clay occur associated
with the coal beds of Pennsylvania, the quantity of high grade
fire clays in the State appears to be quite limited .
The clay-products industries of the Commonwealth had a
product value of $67,000,000 in 1929, and for the same year,
20,000 persons were employed by these industries. Clay pro-
ducts consist of common brick, paving brick, face brick, hollow
tile, terra cotta, sewer pipe, roofing tile, refractories (heat
resisting products, ) etc. In 1929, Pennsylvania produced 37
per cent of the clay refractories manufactured in the United
States and the combined production capacity of the refracto-
ries plants of Pennsylvania is said to be equivalent to 49 per
cent of that of the whole country.
The raw materials used in the manufacture of many of the
clay products are not required to pass rigid specifications as
to properties. Other products, such as refractories, Pennsyl-
vania's particular specialty, must be made from clays of high
purity, which Imakes it necessary in practice to discard, or not
to mine at all, large proportions of the available deposits.
Preliminary study has convinced us that if processes could
be developed that would make possible the removal of some of
267
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the objectionable impurities in clays, not only could the
properties of the finished products be improved, but, in add-
ition, large quantities of raw material now discarded or nes-
lected could be used to manufacture valuable products. This is
especially true of refractories or heat-resisting brick and
other shapes that are absolutely essential in furnace construct-
ion in the iron and steel and other metallurgical industries,
in by-product coking and glass making. Research to develop such
benefication processes is essential if Pennsylvria is to main-
tain its high standing in the clay-products industries.
Non-Clay Refractories
Refractories may be divideo conveniently into the follow-
ing groups: Fire-clay, silica, Magnesite, chrome and high-
temperature cements. The most important of Pennsylvania's non-
clay refractories in terms of value is silica brick. The State's
output in 1929 was valued at $10,452,622. Silica brick has an
extensive use in metallurgy.
Magnesite and chrome refractories are also used chiefly
in metallurgy. The combined value of Pennsylvania's output in
l929 was about $4,000,000 while that of high-temperature ce-
ments was $2,685, 183.
For convenience, abrasives and grinding wheels may be
grouped with refractories. The industry is based largely upon
the use of silicon carbide and electrically fused aluminum ox-
ide. Rottenstone, and earthy siliceous material, is the only
natural abrasive originating in Pennsylvania, but an abrasive
269
and grinding wheel manufacturing indus;ry has plants in Phila-
delphia, Beaver and Chester counties with reported product
value in 1928 of $3,000,000.
The Glass Industry
Pennsylvania was the leading glass-producing state in the
Union in l929 with a value of products amounting to
$81,050,092 and a value added by manufacture of $50,907,037.
It produced 26 per cent of the nation's glass in terms of pro-
ducts.
Plate glass and bottles and jars make up more than half of
the total value of glass products. Cut and decorative glass,
table-ware and Window glasses are other mportant divisions Cf the
industry •
A total of 14l glass making establishments with 18,630 em-
ployes were in operation in the State in 1930. The trend has
been toward specialization and large-scale production.
Machinery has been introduced steadily in the industry
since 1900, automatic devices displacing skilled labor.
As a result , the industry finds itself in something of a
transition stage, changing from hand to machine processes with
about half of the establishments taking advantage of existing
machinery.
Iron and Steel
The United States is by far the leading producer of iron
and steel, and within the United States, Pennsylvania leads
that industry. Within Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh dominates the
270
picture.
While Pennsylvania produced only one per cerit of the
nation's iron ore in 1931, it easily led other phases of the
industry with . 28 per cent of the total pig iron tonnage and
32 per cent of the total tonnage of steel ingots and castings.
The making of iron and steel (with a total product value
in 1929 of $1,493,586,364 and a value added by manufacture of
$546,697,674) is by far the State's leading manufacturing in-
dustry, accounting for 16 per cent of all value added by manu-
facture in 1929. In the same year the average number of per-
sons employed in the industry in remºvania, according to the
United States cenas, was 168,500. The l930 Productive Indust-
ries report Of the Pennsylvania Department of internal Affairs
estimated the capital invested in the iron and steel industry
to be between $700,000,000 and $800,000,000. But such figures
d'O not fully describe the value of the industry to the Common-
wealth. Account must also be taken of the way in which it has
attracted or made possible the development of a great many
other manufacturing industries.
Pig iron, result of the blast furnace or electric smelting
of iron ores, may be made into cast iron in a foundry, into
wrought iron in a puddling taill, or converted into steel, that
is iron with carbon added.
Production of 1,000 tons of pig iron requires about 1,800
tons of ore, 700 tons of limestone as a flux, 1,000 tons of
Coke, and 4,500 tons of heated air. Moulten iron is drawn off
271
every four hours. A second product, slag, is still largely
waste, but has a widening field of uses, among which are rail-
road ballast, road surfacing, the manufacture of cement in
some localities, and fertilizer.
Increase in the carbon content increases the hardness and
brittleness of steel, but weakens it by a decrease in toughness,
malleability, and ductility • Numerous alloy steels exist to
which various metals are added to impart special qualities •
Steel is made by any of four types of processes, the
Bessemer, the open hearth, the electric furnace or the cruci-
ble process. The open hearth processes are slower than Bess-
emer but result in a higher, more uniform grade of steel and
89.5 per cent of Pennsylvania's steel was made this way in
1931.
Coincident with the phenomenal rise in the production of
iron and steel has come the integration of the industry.
Eighty-nine per cent of the ingot capacity of the United
States was controlled by ten companies in 1931, with the United
States Steel Corporation controlling 43.3 per cent of the ore
shipped from all mines in the United States, 20.9 per cent of
the coke produced, 38.1 per cent of the pig iron and ferro-
alloys, 38.9 per cent of the steel ingots and castings and
34.2 per cent of all kinds of finished rolled products. The
Bethlehem Steel Corporation has about one-third as large a
capacity as the United States Steel Corporation.
The United States Steel Corporation and the Jones and
272
Laughlin Steel Corporation are the largest iron end Steel organ-
1zations in extreme western Pennsylvania; the Bethlehem Steel
Company (chief operating subsidiary of the Bethlehem Steel Cor-
poration) is outstanding in eastern Pennsylvania, and both the
larger companies are represented in Johnstown.
Within recent years, an increasing use of scrap iron has
developed and, in consequence, an excess of steel produced OVer
pig iron used reached more than la ,000,000 gross tons in l929.
The re-use of old steel and iron which this difference repre-
sents is very desirable from the standpoint of conservation.
It is, moreover, a tendency which must be taken into considera-
tion in estimating the probable time of exhaustion of the iron
Ore deposits.
Several influences have been tending to decentralize the
iron and steel industry. When the industry turned from beehive
to by-product coke, development of plants some distance from
the source of Caol became possible. Abolition of the "Pitts-
burgh rius' system in 1924 promoted this decentralization still
further so far as western Pennsylvania is concerned. (For many
years quoted by steel products manufactured at , and shipped
from, points outside of Pittsburgh were the regular F. O. B.
Pittsburgh prices plus amounts equivalent to the railroad
freight charges on such products if shipped from Pittsburgh.)
The curves showing proportions of the United States
total production of iron and steel products contributed by the
various districts of Pennsylvania as a whole and by competing
273
districts and states, bring out only too clearly that some
shift in the industry is going on. Pennsylvania is steadily
declining in relative importance as a producer, whilé the Chic-
ago-Gary district and some others are increasing in importance.
Exhaustion of the Lake Superior deposits, which produce
inore than 85 per cent of the country's iron ore, is not to be
expected for forty or fifty years. When this tonnage does de-
cline, the industry probably will obtain more and more of its
ore from abroad and from the great reserves of low-grade ore in
southeastern United States.
Increasing dependence on foreign ore is likely to result
in a gradual migration of the iron and steel industry in the
United States to the Atlantic Coast, -- a movement in which the
Bethlehem Steel Company, with its plant at Sparrow's Point,
Md. , may be considered a pioneer.
Studies of Pennsylvania's Iron Ore and Chronite Reserves
—and of Possible Methods for their Beneficiation.
Pennsylvania became the center of the iron and steel in-
dustry in the United States primarily because of her abundant
deposits of iron ore, plentiful supplies of fuel and of line-
stone for fluxes, and favorable location with respect to con-
suming markets. When high grade iron ores were discovered in
the Lake Superior region with accompanying cheap large scale
mining and handling methods, Pennsylvania ores were driven out
of the markets. The crude and inefficient methods used in the
days of Pennsylvania iron ore mining may have had something to
274
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do with this shift, which left, it is generally agreed, large
unmined low grade reserves in Pennsylvania •
The early exhaustion of high grade ores in the Lake dis-
trict has been predicted by experts. It is probable that sari-
ous decrease in the flow of ore from the rich lake Shore de-
posits will begin long before their exhaustion forty or fifty
years hence. Then attention will focus on the lower grade de-
posits of the country and Pennsylvania may again become import-
ant as an iron ore producer.
Two lines of study seem to be promising. (1) Careful
prospecting, especially by the use of the newer geophysical
methods, may well locate important unknown iron ore bodies in
the 3tate, especially in the regions where ores are magnetic .
(2) Studies leading to the improvement of beneficiation methods
such as crushing, screening, drying, Washing, jigging, electro-
magnetic separation, smelting, nodulizing, desulfurization, etc.,
should make possible the use of our lower grade iron ores.
Such methods are already in extensive use in the Lake Superior
district. In that region they are making possible the use of
lower grade ores as the better ores are being exhausted. Re-
cognizing this fact, the State of Minnesota has for some years
been engaged actively in a study of beneficiation methods of
Minnesota ores.
During the last twenty years chromium and its compounds
have become of paramount importance in metallurgical and chemi-
cal uses. Chromium imparts valuable properties to steels and
275
and other alloys, which chromium compounds are exceeding im-
portant in refractory, tanning, dyeing and other uses. At pre-
sent most of the chromium used in the United States must be im-
ported, Pennsylvania has produced chromium in the past but pro-
duces none at present, Chromite is magnetic and it is possible
that the same magnetic prospecting referred to above as appli-
cable to iron ore finding might reveal some valuable chromite
deposits.
Other Metal Industries
The non-ferrous metal industries of Pennsylvania had a
total product value of about $78,000,000 and a value added by
manufacture of about $29,000,000 in 1929. No mines are opera-
ted primarily for the ores of any of this group, although some
copper, gold and silver are obtained as by-products in mining
iron ore at Cornwall.
Zinc was formerly mined extensively in Lehigh County and
some zinc deposits are known elsewhere in the State • Lead has
been mined in central Pennsylvania and in Chester County. Some de-
posits of copper minerals occur in the southeastern part of the
State and mines have been operated for short periods, but with
little success •
The smelting and refining of zinc from ores or concen-
trates had a product value of $34,843,205 in Pennsylvania in
1929 and a value added by manufacture of $17,854,327. The in-
dustry gave employment to 3,845 persons.
Pennsylvania has risen in relative importance in the zinc
276
AUTOMOTIVE
Building AND
CONSTRUCTION
CONTAINERS
OIL - GAS –WAT ER
AND MI N NG
AGRICULTURE
MACH | NERY
ExPORTS
ALL OTHERS
4. (3 12 16 24. ześ
R. E. MURPHY : PENNA. M IN ERAL INDUSTRIES F i G U R E NO. 7 || A

industry and the addition of a plant near Monaca should still
further add to the State's relative importance.
A number of plants in the State are engaged in making
brass and bronze and other non-ferrous alloys from scrap; or
in some type of recovery of metals from waste materials. On
the basis of available data the total value of the State's sec-
ondary metal industries was about $43,000,000 in 1929 and the
value added by manufacture about $11,000,000.
277
TENTATIVE STUDY
Of The Economic Geographic Regions
of Pennsylvania%
On the adjoining map Pennsylvania is divided into twenty-
five geographic Regions, a reas which are essentially uniform
throughout both in their natural environmental conditions and
in dominant human use forms. These divisions are purely tenta-
tive and are by no means complete; they are designed only as
working units in studying the economic geography of the State.
Any one of these regions or a part of any region may form a
unit for detailed investigation.
Unlike agricultural regions geographic regions are based
upon all forms of utilization a s well as upon the appearance of
the regions. In some parts of the . State, agriculture is
dominant and types of agricultural use serve to set off one
region from another; in other parts mining or manufacturing
predominates and forms the basis for regional divisions.
DESCRIPTION
I. Philadelphia Urban District.
As its name implies this region consists of the City of
Philadelphia, a great urban center, in which manufacturing and
commerce are the dominant activities. Chester is included as
being essentially a part of urban Philadelphia.
*By Raymond E. Murphy, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Economic
Geography, School of Mineral Industries, Pennsylvania State
College.
278
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II. Philadelphia Suburban Area.
A suburban and part-time farming region borders the urban
district.
III. Southeastern Dairy Region.
This is a region dominated by agriculture in the form of
a dairy industry but dotted with small semi-industrial cities.
IV. Lancaster County Tobacco Region.
An agricultural region dominated by one crop, tobacco,
and with one important industrial center, Lancaster.
V. Southeastern Diversified Farming Region.
. This region, consisting of York County and a strip extend-
ing on toward the northeast, is predominantly an agricultural
region in which poultry raising, dairying and several other
types of farming vie with one another for leadership. York is
an important industrial city, and a number of smaller urban
centers, too, show a high degree of industrialization. Metal
products, cigars and furniture are outstanding manufactures.
WI. South Mountain Fruit and Resort Region.
A region dominated by a topographic feature, South Moun-
tain. Much of the land is left in forest and locally supports
a resort industry; but the edges of South Mountain are in thany
places used for agriculture with apple production dominant .
VII. Great Valley Agricultural and, Industrial Region.
This long strip of the great Appalachian Valley is a
region of diversified farming but is dotted with a number of
important industrial centers, among which are Harrisburg,
279
Reading, Lebanon and Carlisle. Textiles, iron and steel, metal
goods and food products are important manufactures.
VIII. Lower Lehigh Valley Industrial Region.
The lower Lehigh Valley is dominantly industrial, with
Allent own, Bethlehem and East on as important urban centerse
The cement industry, iron and steel manufacture, slate quarry-
ing and the making of textiles and textile products are among
the outstanding activities.
IX. Appalachian Ridge and Valley Region.
Forested ridges alternate with agricultural valleys in
this region, the forested ridges being slightly more char-
acteristic. Diversified farming is the predominant type of
agriculture.
X. Broadtop Coal Field.
A small plateau-like bituminous coal producing area
surrounded by the ridges and valleys of central Pennsylvania.
XI. Appalachian Limestone Walleys Region.
Though this region consists of alternating ridges and
valleys like Region 9, the valleys are more extensive than
the ridges and support an agriculture in which dairying is
dominant. Altoona, Lewist own and Huntingdon are some of the
industrial towns that are scattered over this region. In
these urban centers textile mills, refractory plants and
railroad shops employ many of the industrial wage earners.
XII. Susquehanna Valley Agricultural Region.
Lowlands along the Susquehanna with diversified
280
farming dominant, but with some industrial development in the
Small urban centers.
XIII. Southern Anthracite Fields.
The three southermost anthracite fields, the
Southern Western Middle and Eastern, are here considered as a
group because they are essentially continuous. Anthracite min-
ing is the dominant activity, but the urban centers have also
developed. manufacturing, textiles and textile products being
particularly important.
XIV. Wyoming Valley.
This is another anthracite region, separated
from and north of the three just mentioned. Settlement is slight-
ly more concentrated here than in the southern anthracite fields.
Again, anthracite mining is dominant, with textile and metal pro-
ducts manufacturing as important sidelines.
XV. Pocono Resort Region,
The rugged, glaciated country of the Poconos is
the site of an important resort industry, while agriculture is
restricted to serving in part of the needs of the resorts.
XVI. Northeasterm Dairy Region.
This is a highly specialized dairy section with
few urban centers and little industrial development.
XVII. Allegheny Mountains Forest Region.
A rugged region of many state forests and little
cleared land.
XVIII. North Central Gas and Farming Region.
28l.
With a larger percentage of forest land than
the Northeastern Dairy Region, this region has as its agricul-
tural specialities, dairying and potato growing, but natural
gas production has attracted increasing attention with recent
years.
XIX. Upper Allegheny Oil and Gas Region.
Forests occupy much of the surface of this re-
gion. Petroleum production and refining dominate, with McKean
County leading the state in crude oil production, and Oil City,
Franklin, Titusville and Bradford standing out as refining cen-
ters.
XX. Northwestern Dairy Region.
An agricultural section devoted principally to
dairying, with Meadville as the largest industrial town.
XXI. Erie Urban and Fruit Region.
This region includes Erie, a manufacturing and
commercial city in which metal products are the outstanding man-
ufacture. It includes also the lake shore belt with its impor-
tant grape industry.
XXII. . Allegheny Mountains Coal-Mining Region.
* This high portion of the Plateau, frequently
called the Allegheny Mountains, is dominated by the soft coal
mining industry, while some of the larger urban centers manu-
facture clay products. The forest cover is widespread and agri-
culture is not of great importance.
282
XXIII. Middle Allegheny Agricultural and Mining region.
In this region general farming, coal mining and
the oil and gas industry are all of considerable importance •
XXIV. Southwestern Sheep Region. -
This hilly section is best adapted to its prin-
cipal form of utilization, sheep raising. The presence of large
bituminous coal reserves, however, suggests that coal mining my
some day be the dominant utilization form of this region.
XXV. Western Pennsylvania Industrial and Mining Region.
A coal mining industry characterizes all of
this region, while industrial development is important in the
cities, the iron and steel industry being particularly outstand-
ing- Pittsburgh, Johnstown, New Castle, Connelsville and Union-
town are some of the industrial centers of this region, their
industries depending particularly upon coal. Agriculture in so
far as it is present is designed to serve the mining and indus-
trial centers. The Shenango Valley, the Uniontown-Connellsville
area and the city of Pittsburgh are some of the important sub-
regions into which this major might well be divided.
283
PLANNING FOR "REASONABLE COMFORT"+
Approximately nine in every ten of Pennsylvania's families
had incomes, even in 1929, that were inadequate for the com-
plete attainment of reasonable comfort. In fact, many did not
have enough for their basic needs. The average income was suf-
ficient to buy only three-fourths of the things regarded as
virtual necessities for an American standard of living.
Moreover, the standard of living of these and other fami-
lies today is lower than in 1929.
Pennsylvania's income in 1929 was between $7,500,000,000
and $8,000,000,000, according to estimates based on totals for
the United States, which were prepared by various agencies. A
study of expenditures by the people of the State for clothing,
food, rent, transportation, recreation, amusements, health and
, other things led to the conclusion that the State's income was,
in round figures, $7,500,000,000.
In the following pages a budget for the reasonable human
needs of the population has been fixed at $9,910,000,000 or
$4375 for each "statistical private family" of 4.23 persons
* . Ultimately, if we are to plan a sound civilization, we must
think, essentially, in terms of the needs of citizens. This
section is submitted as an attempt to face this problem. We
appreciate, of course, that prices mentioned are based on an
economy of scarcity while the outline of goods is based on one
of abundance. The prices allow for existing returns to cap-
ital. The approach and attitude are more important than are
any of the detailed estimates submitted. Sources and methods
used are appended.
284
(see appendix) in 1929 dollare. Adjusted to the purchasing
power of the 1954 dollar, the minimum income for each family
in the commonwealth should be $3500 or, for a single indivis-
dual, $829 a year. But in was only 'læ per cent of the pop-
ulation received such incomes. Consequently 88 per cent re-
ceived less than enough for reasonable requirements.
In the United States the words "human needs" connote
more than the bare necessities to sustain a miserable ex-
istence. So, in classifying them for Pennsylvanians, a
reasonable standard of living has been kept in mind. "Human
needs, then, are such essentials as food, shelter, clothing,
health protection and at least that minimum of recreation and
amusement requisite for well-being and comfort. They in-
clude the means for education, transportation, and other ser-
vices and goods in adequate quantity to satisfy the reasonable
desires of the average individual and the average family.
They stop far short of extravagances. In other words, they
constitute an "American standard" of living.
National inventories of income, rounding out into bil-
lions of dollars in consumers goods and services, all provide
an auspicious asset side of the balance sheet. But liabil-
ities also must be considered. Do they exceed the assets?
Any national inventory becomes the asset side of the
balance sheet, and the human needs or demands, the liabilities.
National income was variously estimated for 1929, but with
a general agreement that it was in the neighborhood of ninety
285
billion dollars. The National Survey of Potential Product
- Capacity placed it at $95,400,000,000 while the Brookings
Institute calculated it at $91,385,000,000. This was for an
America operatins, according to the findings of the same
institute, at approximately 80 per cent of capacity e
Yet, with this 80 per cent capacity, millions of people
in the United States lacked a sufficiency of goods and ser-
vices in 1929. For example, the 29,000,000 men and boys'
suits produced in that year was at a rate which would allow
about one suit every two years for each individual. A pro-
duction of a trifle more than 9,250,000 overcoats would al-
low these same men and boys a new overcoat only once in six
years • A striking short age also was shown in housing unite
available and in the health and comfort of the homes •
Most of the figures upon which estimates can be based
are national statistics for l929, In order to arrive at an
estimate for Pennsylvania, its share must be computed on the
basis of its population and the number in each age groups.
At the end of this section of the report , the figures are
reduced to a l?34 basise
In the present survey, several of the principal human
needs have been "budgeted". Others have been roughly estimated
to round out the picture •
Food
The food budget becomes a problem of diversification of
foods rather than a question of quantity e One adequate for
286
*
Pennsylvania's 9,631,000 people, on the basis of 1929 price
levels, would require an average outlay of $15 a week for
each family, according to a bulletin published by the United
States Department of Agriculture •
Food supplies in 1929 were found ample in quantity but
not in variety. If we round out the diet by a decrease in the
production of foods containing starch, sugar and protein, and
an increase in mineral and vitamin foods such as milk, fresh
vegetables and fruits, the acreage necessary to supply the re-
quirements would be less than that under cultivation from 1928
to 1932. The number of cattle, hogs and sheep and the quantity
of poultry would likewise decrease, although the number of milch
cows would have to be increased to supply the larger consump-
tion of milk called for in the diet. If beverages and spices
are added, the bill for the State would be $2,040,000,000 a
year, or about $20,000,000 less than was spent in 1929.
Wearing Apparel
The wearing apparel budget, in greater part, has been
adapted to the needs of the Commonwealth's population from the
findings of the National Survey of Potential Product Capacity.
Men and boys formerly limited to one suit every other year are
alloted one a years or even two, depending upon occupation and
age. Likewise, the number of overcoats has been increased
from one every six years to one every two years. Women and
girls receive thirteen dresses and frocks every two years,
almost double the 1929 allotment, thirteen pairs of stockings
287
a year instead of ten, and ten pieces of underwear compared
with four and a half in 1929.
Pennsylvania's dress bill for 1929 could not have ex-
ceeded $800,000,000 but the actual needs as expressed in the
new budget increases this amount by about 75 per cent to
$1,377,000,000 or from less than $80 a year for each person,
at 1929 prices, to slightly more than $140.
Housing
Agreed minimum standards of housins allot one room to
each individual, exclusive of bath facilities • The total cost
of a four to five room unit including the cost of land, under
any large scale program, is $5,000. When modern methods
are utilized, the cost is approximately the same whether
the unit is contained in a large apartment structure or single
dwelling. With the life of these properties set at forty
years, an annual replacement of 298,000 rooms is needed, at
a cost of approximately $200,000,000.
Ten per cent of the value of the property or about
$992,000,000, is the rental budget for Pennsylvania, amount-
ing to a little more than $435 a year for the "statistical
family" of 4.23 persons----roughly $3.50 wer Inonth per rooms
Health
The health bill of the people of Pennsylvania in 1929
exceeded $250,000,000 and vesses $26 to $30 per capita •
Medical facilities and personnel during a reasonably compar-
able period were inadequate in all but the number of nurses.
288
For each loo,000 persons, the State had l?4 physicians,
57 dentists, 266 nurses, le public health nurses and 886
hospital beds • Careful studies by the Committee on the
Gost of Medical Care have rized the lowest numbers for ade-
quate care of the people at 142 physicians, 179 dentists,.
99 dental hygienists and laboratory technicians, l?6 hospital
and home nurses, 44 public health nurses and l, 158 hospital
beds • f
Opinion varies upon the cost of health service for
each individual if purchased yearly upon a group basis. The
Milbank Memorial Fund computed the figure at $42, while the
Committee on the Cost of Medical Care gave an estimate of
$36, or #25.30 for medical expenses and $10.70 for dental
expenditures. On the latter basis, Pennsylvania's annual
health bill would be slightly more than $345,000,000.
Recreation and Amusement
Reasonable estimates place the expenditures of the
people of the Commonwealth in 1929 at approximately $470,000,000
for public and private sports, theatres, music, vacations,
(excepting automobile travel), foreign travel and other mis-
cellaneous amusements and private social activities. How-
ever, the people's capacity for recreation, travel and
amusement is such that this "play bill could be doubled with -
beneficial effect upon the population as a whole. It would
then be roughly $2 per week per person which does not seem
extravagant e
289
Transportation -
A transportation budget should include passenger trans-
portation by automobile, bus, electric railway and railroad,
and in some instances by Waters If we were to provide an
automobile for each of the statistical families in the State,
more than 2,275,000 cars would be needed. The life of an
automobile averages about six and three-quarters years, which
means an annual replacement of 337,000 cars, costing roughly
$214,000,000 •
Cost of gasoline, lubricants, tires and tubes and main-
tenance would be $378,000,000 provided that the average mile-
age operated each year did not exceed ll,000 miles per care
Garage rental would amount to approximately $136,000,000.
Common and contract passenger transportation, exclusive
of commercial passenger trertie, if increased 25 per cent
over the 1929 expenditures, would amount to $250,000,000.
All totalled, including miscellaneous expenditures, Penn-
sylvania's transportation bill would amount to $1,582,000,000
a year.
SUMMARY
Expenditures in 1929 for clothing, food, rent , trans-
portation, recreation, amusements an. health amounted to ap-
proximately $5,305,000,000. Education was not listed sep-
arately, nor were savings and insurance, but were placed in
a group with "all other expenditures." This also included
house furnishings and services, personal needs and various
290
other things, totalling another $2,195,000,000. Thus, in
round numbers, the expenditures in 1929 of the people of the
Commonwealth totalled $7,500,000,000, Or virtually the same.
amount as the estimated income for that year. A rough esti-
mate of other needs has been reached arbitrarily by increasing
by 20 per cent the unallocated expenditures. Pennsylvania's
budget for the achievement of "reasonable comfort" will then
look as follows: -
Amount in
Millions
of Dollars
Food. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2040
Wearing appare]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377
Rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
Health - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 345
Amusements and Recreation . . . 940
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1582
All other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2634
Total - 99.10
l929 income 8000 to 7500
Deficit 1910 2410
This budget of $9,910,000,000 represents a minimum for
each of the State's 2,276,915 families or for each of its
9,631,000 individuals, if goods and services are expressed
in 1929 dollars. Therefore, each statistical family of
4. 23 persons, as already statea, needs $4375, in 1929 dollars
or $3506 when adjusted to the purchasing power of the dollar.
of 1934 as its minimum annual income. But while the income is
set forth as a minimum requirement, this discussion is of the
average, not the minimum family. Those smaller than the
average of 4.23 would require less. The requirements Of a -
single individual cannot be completely met by less than $829
291
FENNSYLVANIA FOOD BUDGET
(Pounds per year except milk and eggs)
, Last three
ciphere omitted
Jitem Amount
Flour, Cereals. • - - - - - - - - l, 544,473
Wheat flour. . . . . . . . . . 1,173,800
Corn Meal . . . . . . . . . . . . l64,447
Prepared Flour. . . . . . . 46,334
Oat Breakfast food • . . 46,334
Rice • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30,889
Macaroni, Noodles . . . . 30,889
Wheat breakfast foods l5,445
Rye flour. . . . . . . . . . . . 15,445
Corn Breakfast foods, 15,445
Cornstarch. • * * * * * * * * * 15,445
Potatoes, Sweet-
Potatoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l. 559,960
Potatoes. . . . . . . . . . . . , l, 294,767
Sweet Potatoes. . . . . . . 265,193
Dried Beans, Peas &
Nuts • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 197,003
Dried beans - - - - - - - - - - 88,65l
Peanuts • - - - - - - - - - - - - - 65,011
Dried peas . . . . . . . . . . . 9,850
Nuts (in shell) . . . . . . 33,491
Tomatoes, Citrus Fruit. . 882,147
Tomatoes, fresh . . . . . . l32,322
Tomatoes, canned . . . . . 308, 75l.
Oranges • - - - - - - - - - - - - - 282,287
Grapefruit. . . . . . . . . . . 88,215.
- Lemons • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70,572
Dried Fruits - - - - - - - - - - - - 257,668
Raisins. - - - - - - - - - - - - - 103,067
Prunes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 103,067
Others • - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
51,554
292
**.
FOOD BUDGET
(Pounds per year except milk and eggs)
(Continued) -
Last three
ciphers omitted
Item Amount
Leafy Green or ~
Yellow Vegetables. ... . . . . . . . 947,026
Cabbage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476,516
Lettuce • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l?0,465
Peas - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 104,173
Snap beans. - - - - - - - - - - - - - 56,822
Carrots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,35l
Spinach, Kale, -
collards, etc - - - - - - - - - 47,35l
Asparagus • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28,4ll
Peppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l8,941
Other Wegetables & e
Fruits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,963,432
Apples. • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 667,567
Bananas - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 215,977
Grapes • * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 215,977
Peaches • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 176,709
Corn- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l67,074
Onions, turnips,
beets, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . ll 7,806
Watermelons. . . . . . . . . . . . . 98,172
Cantúloups • , . . . . . . . . . . . . 78,537
Pears. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 78,537
Cucumbers • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39,269
Celery • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39,269
Strawberries • . . . . . . . . . . . 39,269
Pineapples • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,269
Fats - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 491,675
Butter. • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 245,838
Lºrd - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 98,335
Wegetable Oils &
Shortenings. . . . . . . . . . . 98,335
Bacon, salt pork. . . . . . . . 34,417
Margarine • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14,750
Sugar, Molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . 565,4ll
Sugar- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 424,058
Molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,466
Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,887
293
..FOOD BUDGET
(Pounds per year except milk and eggs)
{Continued)
Item Last three .
ciphers omitted
Lean Meat, Poultry Amount
& Fish - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 909,302
Beer................... 309, l05
Pork- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 354,628
Veal - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45,465
Lamb & Mutton. . . . . . . . . 27,279
Poultry • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 100,023
Fish. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72,744
Eggs. *l............ 156,453
Milk. Quºtel........... 2,879,905
Fresh whole milk. © º O C. • 2, 793,506
Condensed & *
Evaporated . . . . . . . . . . 86,397
Coffee - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 91,498
Spices - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l,849
294
WEARING APPAREL BUDGET
item
Shirts
Skirts
Slips
Diapers
Socks (Pairs)
Sacques
Cloaks
Mittens (Pairs)
Caps
WEARING APPAREL BUDGET
-Male
255,906
255,906
34l,208
3,070,872
170,604
l?0,604
85,302
85,302
85,302
BABIES UNDER ONE YEAR
Sex
Female
246,657
246,657
328,876
2,959,884
164,438
l64,438
82,219
82,219
82,219
CHILDREN ONE AND UNDER FIVE YEARS
Item
Coat
Suit
Dress
Underwear
Sleeping Suits
Hose
Shoes
Caps & Hats
Gloves & Mittens
Sweaters
Male
368,770
2, 212,620
2,212,620
737,540
2,950, 160
l, l06,310
737,540
737,540
737,540
Sex
Female
360,024
2,160,144
2, 160,144
720,048
2,880,192
l,080,072
720,048
720,048
295
ANNUAL BUDGET FOR INDIVIDUALs
MALE 5-14 65 yrs
years years & over
*Work Gloves lsº
Ties 3 5.2 3
Handkerchiefs. 4.5 8.5 8,6
Garters , l 1. l
gloves l lel •6
Suspenders .5 25
Collars 2-5. . 2.5
Work Shirts 2.3
Corduroys •8.
. Overalls le5
Mackinaws •3
Sweaters l ‘eS •5
Hats .# 2.5 i
. Shoes (Pairs) 4. 3.8 l.6
Sleeping y
Apparel &
Bathrobes 2.5 2.5 2
Underwear. 4. . 6.5 4.
Shirts 4.7 7 5.
Hosiery -
(Pairs) 10.5 l4e5 9.6
Knickers &
Extra Pants l,6 lel •5
Overcoats &
Topcoats - •5 •5 •3
Suits l . le2 l
FEMALE 5–l4 15–64. 65 yrs
years. years & Over
Handkerchiefs—526–1028– l:0.9
Garters ... 2 2 2
Gloves - - l, 6 3.4 . 2.4
Sweaters lsº -8. •5
Hats' 2 3 l -
Shoes (Pairs) 3.3 3.4 l,7
Sleeping
Apparel, Kimo-
nos, Bathrobes 2-l 3 2
Corsets,
Girdlesz-Etc. lº.8 • 7
Brassiers l.5 l
Underwear 6.6 8.2 3.9
Hosiery (Pairaſig-3 lº- 7.4
suits •4 •7. •3
Dresses & Frocks333 5.6 2.2
Coats •5 • 7 •5
Amounts shown in these two tables are in fractions bécause the needs of physical
and mental workers were computed, separately and the totals added and then divided
by the total individuals of the given age groups.
annually in 1934 dollars. Yet, in 1929, only 12 per cent of
the population had comparable incomes • Consequently 88 per
cent received less than enough to assure them of reasonable
COmfort e
ANNUAL BUDCET FOR INDIVIDUALS
Babies under One Year Children One to Five
Male Female Male Female
Caps +–4. SWeaters 2 2
Cloves &
Miſſiens (Pairs) —l l Mittens 2 2
• Caps & -
Cloaks l l Hats 2 2
Sacques - 2 2 Shoes (Pairs) 3 35
Socks (Pairs) 2 2 Hose (Pairs) 8 8
Di apers 36 36 - Sleeping Suits 2 2
Slips 4. 4. Underwear 6 6
Skirts 3 5 Dresses 6
Shirts 3 —é Suits 6
Coats - l l
Population from United States Department of
Commerce, Bureau of the Census •
This table and other's following in this section are based
chiefly on information furnished by Walter M. Polakov, con-
sulting Engineer to National Survey of Potential Products cap-
acity •
297
Item
Suits
Overcoats &
Topcoats
Extra Pants &
Knickers
Hosiery (Pairs)
Shirts
Underwear
Sleeping Apparel
& Bathrobes
Hats
Shoes (Pairs)
Sweaters
Mackinsws
Overalls
Corduroys
Work Shirts
Collars
Cloves
Suspenders
Carters
Handkerchiefs
Ties
Work Gloves
WEARING APPAREL BUDCET
MALE
Men
l5-64
3,913,470
l,573,065
3,529,800
45,657,253
22,022,903
20,488,221
7,865,323
7,865,323
ll,817,175
l,573,065
792,929
4,757,576
2,378,788
7,136,364
7,826,940
3,529,800
l,573,065
3, l'é6, 129
26,703,714
16,497,986
4,757,576
Men
Boys
65 & Over 5-14
243,140
81,047
l21,57l
2,527,190
l, 215,700
972,560
486,280
245, la C
399,443
l21, 57l
555,745
lă6,303
l21,57l
243, l40
2,084,050
729,420
l,00l.,976
500,988
l,623, 201
10,500,708
4,729,326
4,007,904
2,504,940
2,003,952
4,007,904
l,00l.,976
l,00l.,976
l,00l.,976
4,488,852
3,005,928
Total
5,158,586
2, lä5,100
5,274,572
58,485, läl
27,967,929
25,468,685
lC);856,545
10, llº,415
l6, 324,522
2,696,612
792,929
4,757,576
2,378,788
7, lºº, 364
8,382,685
4,688,079
l,694,636
4, 39.l., 245
33,276,616
20,233,334
4,757,576
298
Item
Coats
Dresses & frocks
Suits
Hosiery (Pairs)
Underwear
Brassieres
Corsets,
Cirdles, etc -
Sleeping Apparel,
Kimonos & Bath-
robes
Shoes (Pairs)
Hats
§s
SWeaters
Gloves
Carters
Handkerchiefs
WEARINC APPAREL BUDCET
Women
L5-64
2,155,500
l?,281,849
2,155,500
40,171,300
25,293,397
4,6353151
5,569,75l
9,270,300
lo, 491, l99
9,270,300
l,545,051
10,491,199
6,180, 200
33,342,798
FEMALE
Women
65 & Over
l,
l32,704
587,689
88,469
971,595
Cirls
5-14
494,142
375,548
lo, 159,560
l,023,724 6,483,144
3,
265,406
189,580
530,812
454,986
265,406
132,704
eases
530,812
88l,566
2,114,928
3,241,572
l, 976,568
l, 265,004
l,620,786
l,976,568
5,494,860
Total
2,782,346
2l, lll,110
2,619,517
52,302,455
32,800,265
4,900,557
5,759,331
ll,916,040
14,187,757
ll, 512, 274
2,942,759
12,756,550
8,687,580
41,719,224
299
SOURCES AND METHODS
statistical Family -
The "private statistical family" in Pennsylvania is cam-
puted as 4, 23 persons. It is the average number of individuals
in priyate families, that is, excluding those in hospitals, -
institutions, etc. It includes one person "families" con-
sisting or individuals living alone. The figure 4.23 is
the United States Census Bureau average for the State. Di-
vided into the total population, it gives the number of statis-
tical families, 2,276,915. The age distribution, as shown in
the United States Census for 1930, was used to calculate the
budgets for food and wearing apparele
|Food
The food budget, in reference to quantity, was based up-
on, Circular No. 296, United States Department of Agriculture,
"Diets at Four Levels of Nutritive Content and Cost," by
Hazel K. Stiebeling and Medora M. Wará. The "adequate" diet
considered was neither a maximum nor a minimum but one Which
would furnish enough of the different nutriticnal elements to
cover adequate requirements and provide a reasonable margin
of safety • In marking calculations 40 per cent of the eaults
were considered as active, requiring a higher diet. The basis
of cost of diet was founded upon "Your Money and Your Meals"
by Cove Hambridge • -
Apparel
A budget furnished by Walter M. Polakov, eonsulting en-
300
gineer to the National Survey of Potential Products Capacity,
was adopted and applied to the age groups of Pennsylvania as
snown by the United States Census of 1930. Items which were not
listed in the Polakov budget were alloted in much the same pro-
portion as done by the Survey to coincide with its computations.
The Pennsylvania Baby Book was used for the infanta' wear budget.
Housing
In arriving at the replacement cost estimate, $4000 was
- considered as the cost of . construction of a housing unit and
$1000 the cost of the land upon which it stood. One bathroom
was allowed for each statistical family of 4.23 persons.
Health
The figures on health personnel and medical facilities
were taken from "The Cost of Medical Care," by I. S. Falk,
C. Rufus Rorem and Martha - D. Ring, and also from the Am—
erican Medical Association Directory. The cost of medical
care was taken from the quarterly bulletin (April, 1933) of
the Milbank Memorial Fund and the Committee on the Cost of
Medical Care. The lºg29 figure was estimated upon the basis
of per capita cost for the whole United States and adjusted
for the difference of facilities of Pennsylvania and the av-
erage for the United States.
Recreation and Amusements
The cost was estimated upon the basis of the National
Survey figure for lºg2 and this figure was increased by
100 per cent to equal the human need budget.
3OI
Transportation
One automobile was given to each of the 2,276,915
statistical private families. This figure is not unduly high
as is indicated by the fact that registration of passenger
cars, not including were, in Pennsylvania in 1929 was
l,515,875 or .67 car per each 4.23 persons. The cost of
operation and maintenance of automobiles was estimated at
3.89 cents per mile per car travelling an average of ll,000
miles a year. The figures were obtained from the National
Automobile Chamber of Commerce "Automobile Facts and Figures,"
for 1930. The garage estimate was reached by alloting. $5
per month per car. The automobile price is the average
wholesale price of all cars in 1929. since the cost of
freight transportation is passed along to the consumer, and
much the same is true of commercial passenger travel, both
should be omitted from the budget to prevent duplication.
Income -
The findings of the Brookings Institute in "America's
Capacity to Consume,” prepared by Maurice Leven, Harold G.
Moulton and Clark Warburton, coupled with "Statistics of
Income," published by the United States Department of In-
ternal Revenue, furnished important sources of information
upon incomes of individuals and families. See following
section. -
Capacity to Produce
The source for discussion of this subject was "Am-
erica's Capacity to Produce," by E. G. Nourse & Associates
302
published by the Brookings Institute.
adjustment Of Income Dollars
In adjusting l929 income dollars to the purchasing
power of 1934, the index of cost of living for wage earners
and low salaried workers in the United States, prepared by
the United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, and published in the Monthly Labor Review of
August, l934, was used.
Supporting the assertion in this section of the report.
that incomes are less adequate today than in 1929, are fig-
ures just released in a survey made by the Bureau of Bus-
iness Research, University of Pittsburgh, which showed that
62 per cent of the families in Allegheny county in 1933 re-
ceived less than $1000. This statement was made on the basis
of a house to house canvass of every ninth block.
Production Figures
Wherever used, were taken from the United States Census
Of Manufactures.
303
INCOME OF PENNSYLVANIANS
Pennsylvania, in 1929, had a spendable income of
$7,818,000,000 derived from wages, salaries, interest, di-
vidends, rents, profits withdrawn from business, etc.”
The services of housewives, the tasks persons perform for
themselves and their families and various other things upon
which no money value can be placed have not been included.
Because of the dearth of information regarding the
income received by individuals in the State, except such
as appear in income tax returns, all totals are necessarily
estimates, and should be regarded at best as only close
approximations. The incorporation of varying items by dif-
ferent students result in slight variations in the amounts
Of the total income.
Distribution of this income was such that three or every
five families in the State had less than $2,000 upon which
to live in that year. And while the greatest concentration
of these groups was between the $1,000 and $2,000 level,
One in every five had an income of less than $1,000. -
The State had 2,089,612 families of more than one per-
son at the end of 1929, according to estimates based upon
the 1930 census, and l39,905 persons classified as families
because of their occupancy of individual living quarters.
In addition, 497,954 income receiving individuals lived out-
2k The imputed value of owned homes is included in this in-
come figure but various items are excluded. For details as
definition of income used and methods and sources of material,
see appendix.
304
siae family groups---in hotels, institutions, lodging houses
and as roomers in private families. The number of income
spending units was thus 2,727,471.
A. great many families had more than one income recip-
ient. As a matter of fact, 3,851,337 individuals received
income and of these, 3,693,857 are estimated to have been
gainfully employed.
The 2,089,612 families of two or more persons received
an aggregate income of about $6,597,000,000 or approximately
$3,157 per family. The average number of persons per family
was just a fraction more than four. The 637,859 unattached
individuals, including one-person families, received, in 1929,
$1,355,000,000 or about $2,124 per capita.
The following facts will aid in showing the range and
concentration of income.
Nearly 399,000 families, or slightly more than 19
per cent of the total, had incomes less than
$1,000.
About 1,300,000 families, or more than 62 per cent,
had incomes less than $2,000.
Nearly 1,670,000 families, or more than 79 per
cent, had, incomes less than $3,000.
Slightly more than l,846,000 families, or more than
88 per cent had incomes less than $4,000.
Only a trifle more than 157,000 families, or 7.5 per
cent, had incomes in excess of $5,000.
About 47,400 families, or 2.3 per cent, had incomes
in excess of $10,000. -
The 2.3 per cent last named received an aggregate of
approximately $2,000,000,000, or slightly more than the ag-
305
gregate of all those who received incomes less than
$2,000. On the other hand, the 19 per cent in the first
group mamed received only 3.6 per cent of the total in-
COfflee
At 1929 prices, a family income of $2,000 may have
been regarded, perhaps, as suf ’icient to supply only
basic necessities. Yet more than 1,300,000 families,
or 62 per cent of all those in the State, were below this
standard of expenditure •
In connection with this analysis, attention should be
called to the fact that in 1929 speculative profits from
the sale of securities and other properties served to
increase materially the amount of monetary income re-
alizede Since those who had incomes in excess of
$4,000 formed the group most able to participate in .
speculative activities, the disparity in the incomes of
the lower and higher income classifications was some-
what greater in that year than normally.
The distribution of income among unattached in-
dividuals and one-person families is similarly diverse
—and similarly, concentrated a
While the focus of our attention is the family as
the spending unit, the importance of the distribution
of income among INDIVIDUAL recipients was not over-
looked in the general analysis.
In compiling estimates of the division of income
306
among spending units study was made of the manner in
which income is distributed among individual recip-
ients. The accompanying tables which follow show the
estimates in terms of simple distributions and the com-
putation of the amount of inson, in each income class.
The estimates indicate that about 35 per cent of
the income recipients, or close to 1,362,000 persons,
received less than $1,000 in 1929. The class between
$1,000 and $2,000 comprised 47 per cent of the income
recipients and somewhat less than 35 per cent of the
aggregate income. Only 18 per cent of the income re-
cipients had incomes exceeding $2,000 and only 5 per
cent acquired more than $4,000. -
Those having incomes greater than $5,000 con-
stituted about 3 per cent of the total number of in-
come recipients and accounted for 36 per cent of the
aggregate income • Those with incomes greater than
$10,000 comprised only le3 per cent of the total number
but they controlled 27 per cent of the income.
Pennsylvania's Standing * the States
The income of $7,818,000,000 received by the people
of Pennsylvania in 1929 placed this Commonwealth second
among the states in total income received. New York
was first with $17,003,000,000. But while Pennsylvania
ranked second in total income, it stood thirteenth in
per capita totals for 1929, with $815 going to each
307
*
individual. Individuals on farms fell far short of the
income received by the non-farm population. The rormer
received only $305 per person while the latter acquired
$865.
Pennsylvania ranked twenty-fifth in the list of
states in the per capita income of its farm population,
with California taking first place with a per capita
income of $1246. In regard to the non-farm population,
Pennsylvania ranked fifteenth, Delaware leading with a
per capita income of $1550.
Total income from non-farm occupations amounted to
$5,481,000,000. Approximately one-fifth of this sum
represented returns from property and approximately
one-ninth profits from the sale of property. In the
first and third groups, Pennsylvania ranked second to
New York. In the second, it was exceeded by New York
and Illinois. This State ranked twentieth, twelfth
and tenth respectively in per capita income from occupat-
ion, returns from property and profits from the
sale of property, with New York again leading in all
but the last named, in which class Delaware headed the
list.
Did Pennsylvania become more prosperous between
l916 and 1929? Has our real per capita income been in-
creasing over a period of years?
In making a study of income received by individuals,
308
consideration must be taken of the changes in the pur-
chasing power of money and in the number of people who
are to receive it. An increase in the total income
from year to year may be apparent , rather than real.
The total income expressed in current dollars, has
increased enormously, but ense. in the per capita
real income are not so discernible although it has in-
creased .
In 1916 the spendable income of Pennsylvania in
current money value amounted to about #4,200,000,000
or $504 per capita. In 1929 the total income amounted
to about $7,500,000,000 or $793 per capita. The high
point was reached in 1926 when the total income amounted
to slightly more than $7,700,000,000 with the per capita
figure standing at $853. These figures show an in-
crease in total income of 80 per cent over a period of
14 years and an increase of 57 per cent for the amount
per Capita.
When the above totals are expressed in terms of
constant money value, that is corrected for changes in
the purchasing power of money, the increase in total
income amounted to only 25 per cent for the la year
period. With the per capita income increasing only
8 per cent with 1926 still the high year •
309

COMPARISON OF PENNSYLVANIA'S INCOME WITH THAT OF
OTHER STATES BY CLASSIFICATION FOR 1929
Amount Rank of Top State
Income Classification (Millions of Pennsylvania State Amount
dollars) (Millions of
º dollars)
Income of the Entire Population (a) 7.818 2 N.Y. l?,003
Income of the Non-Farm Population (a) 7,558 2 N.Y. l6,652
Income of the Farm Population § 26O 8 Cale - 714
Per Capita Personal Income of the -
Entire Population (a) 815* l3 N.Y. l,365*
Per Capita Personal Income Non-Farm -
Population (a) 865* lă Dele - l,550*
Per capita Personal Income Farm (a)
Population - (b) 305* 25 Cal. l, 246*
†: Expressed in dollars
(a) Includes income from profits from the sale of property and imputed rent on owned
homes. Excludes income from durable consumption goods other than homes.
(b) Includes incomes from non-agricultural sources.
source: America's Capacity to Consume -- The Brooking's Institution -- pp. 172-173
§
COMPARISON OF PENNSYLVANIA'S NON-FARM INCOME
WITH THAT OF OTHER STATES BY SOURCES FOR 1929
Income Classification Rank of Top State
(Millions of Pennsylvania State Amount
dollars) (Millions of
dollars)
Income from Occupation Non-Farm Population (a) 5,48l. 2. N.Y. 9,906
Returns from Property n tº tº (b) le474 3 N.Y. 4,792
Profits from sale of " " º 603 2 N.Y. l,954
property
Per Capita Income n n n (a) 627* 20 N.Y. 845*
from occupation
Per Capita Income Re- " " " (b) l69* l? N.Y. 408*
turns from property
Per Capita Income Pro- " " º 69* lC) Dele 529*
(a) Wages, salaries, and business profits in regular occupations.
Does not include income
from odd jobs of otherwise employed persons or income from roomers or boarders in pri-
(b) Chiefly investment income, including imputed rent on owned homes, also includes income
from odd jobs of otherwise employed individuals, from roomers and boardsrs in private
Amount
fits from sale of
property
;: Expressed in dollars.
wate families.
families, and from gardens, cows, chickens, etc.
durable consumption goods other than homes •
Does not include imputed income from
Source: America's Gapacity To Consume —The Brooking's Institution — pp. 175—176e
#
ESTIMATED INGOME or FAMILIES AND UNATTACHED INDIVIDUALs
BY INCOME CLASSES - PENNSYLVANIA - 1929
(In millions of dollars)
Total income
of
- Unattached
Total income Total income Individuals
of all of families (Including
Income class” spending of twe or - one-person
(In dollars) units Per Cent more persons Per Cent families) Per Cent
O to l,000 4.18 5e 257 24l 3,662 l” l3.05.l
1,000 to 2,000 l, 984 249949 l,531 23.2Ol 453 33,403
2,000 to 3,000 l, 185 l4.e.902 l,025 l5.534 l6O ll,843
3,000 to 4,000 776 9,759 705 lſ), 69.l 7l 5,206
4,000 to 5,000 216 2,716 198 3. l8 le350
5,000 to 10,000 944 ll.87l 846 12.826. 98 7 e226
10,000 and over 2,429 30,546 2,05l. 3l,086 378 27,921
All classes 7,952 100, 6,597 100. l,355 100,
1–
* Includes income from occupation, investments and sale Of property; also includes im-
puted income on owned homes, but does not include imputed incóme on durable consumption
goods other thah homese
312
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF FAMILIES AND UNATTACHED INDIVIDUALs
BY INCOME CLASSE8 -- PENNSYLVANIA - 1929
A. Number of
Unattached
- Number of Individuals
Total number • Families of: (Including
Income Class” of spending two or more one-person
(In dollars) units Per Cent persons Per Cent families) Per Cent:
0 to l,000 66l,ll.9 24.239 398,238 19.058 262,881 4le 215
l,000 to 2,000 l, 175,957 43.lls. 904,530 45,287 271,427 42,555
2,000 to 3,000 424,573 lf.567 366,706 17,549 57,867 9.072
3,000 to 4,000 194,378 7.127 176,907 8,466 l'7,471 .2e 739
4,000 to 5,000 93,646 3,453 85,883 4ell.0 7,763 l. 217
5,000 to lo,000 122,055 4.475 lo9,85l. 5,257 12,202 le.913
10,000 and over 55,745 2,044 47,497 2,273 8,248 le293
..All classes 2,727,471 L00,000 2,089,612 100,000 637,859 loC),000
* Includes income from occupation, investments, and sale. of property; also includes
imputed income on owned homes, but does not include imputed income on durable
consumption goods other than homese
313
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SOURCES AND METHODS
Definitions
While in the mind of the average person the work
"income" is associated only as revenue in terms of money,
it is, fundamentally, the flow of goods and services over a
given period of time • "Income received" or the amount
available for spending purposes by the people of the Com-
monwealth consists in the main of the amounts received
by individuals in the form of wages, salaries, pensions,
compensations for injuries, annuities, interest, dividends,
rents, royalties, profits withdrawn from business, profits
from the sale of properties and the imputed value of owned
homes • The person residing in a dwelling owned by himself
receives an income from it just as truly as if he were
paid rent by someone else. He is receiving use of the
structure in return for the investment he made in it.
The net value of the services rendered by other durable
consumers goods, such as landed estates, automobiles and
the like, can, at best, be approximated only roughly and
for that reason they have been excluded from all estimates
herein. In addition to the exclusion of the value of the
services persons perform for themselves and their families
(as in the case of housewives) invertº wins. excluded
from the totals presented are expense allowances to em-
ployes, earnings from "odd jobs" and charity.
316
Sources
Wherever possible the State figures in "America's
Capacity to Consume" published by the Brookings Insti-
tution have been used. Statistics of Income of the Bur-
eau of Internal Revenue lºlò-l929 and the study by the
Department of Commerce report, 73rd. Congress, "National
Income, lºß9 to l932" Senate Document la4, were utilized.
The method employed throughout the study was similar
to that used by the Brookings Institution in arriving at
the estimate for the United States.
The estimates for incomes in the various years be-
tween l916 and 1929 were obtained by applying to the
other years in the series the proportions of Pennsylvania's
income to National income for the years l919, 1920 and
192l, prepared by Maurice Leven in his work "Income in
the Various States" (National Bureau of Economic Research),
necessary corrections were made.
The distribution of income classes was obtained by
applying the proportion in these groups in the United
States as shown by the "Statistics of Income” to the
figures shown by the Brookings Institution study.
317
COPING WITH PENNSYLVANIA'S CHANGING WORKING CONDITIONS*
Four out of ten of Pennsylvania's inhabitants are workers
--if they can find work. Altogether, they number between
3,500,000 and 4,000,000. Of vital importance to them are the
conditions under which they spend the Working part of their
waking hours; nothing is more important to them or to their
families than the monetary return received for their labor.
Upon their earnings depend the livelihood, health and re-
creation of themselves and their families.
Approximately nine out of every ten of these workers
are persons employed by others who direct their labor and de-
termine the wage or salary that they shall receive for the work
performed.
The balancing of work and pay involves many problems. On
one side of the ledger is what they worker will give for his
hire, what hours he shall labor and at what physical risk.
There also is the question of whether children shall be employed.
On the other, side there is the question of how much pay the work-
er shall receive and whether he shall organize to bargain with
his employer and whether he shall be assured of work and compen-
sation. When he merits theme
The Jobs
The question as to whether there is a job for every worker
* Prepared by Elizabeth S. Johnson, Department of Labor and
Industry.
318
was one of increasing insistence even through the past decade
when the State considered itself prosperous. More jobs are de-
manded and will be demanded by our increasing proportion of
job seekers in the population. The problem is to find those
job 8. -
The manufacturing industries of Pennsylvania barely kept
a constant number of wage earners during the 15-year period
ending in the peak year of 1929, despite the increasing
population of the State. In fact, in 1931 fewer wage earners
were employed in Pennsylvania manufacturing industries than
at any time for which the Census of Manufactures was taken
since 1904. From 1929 to 1931, the number of wage earners
in manufacturing industries dropped from slightly more than
l,000,000 to 775,000, a decline of nearly 25 per cent which
occurred before the depression had spent its force in dis-
rupting economic life in the State.”
Whether resulting in part from the rapid shift in the
capacity of mechanical industry to use the labor of men and
women or merely coincident with it, the depression forced
more than 1,000,000 Pennsylvania workers into the ranks of
the unemployed.
At the beginning of 1932, when statistics of unemploy-
ment were first prepared by this State, the number out of work
was approximately l,000,000. The total mounted to one and one-
* See sections on Manufacturing Industries.
319
third ſaillion by the spring of l933. In spite of the drive
for re-employment under the NRA in September, 1934, the total
number of Pennsylvania workers out of jobs or temporarily OYl
government of relief work, was within a few thousand of the
allion mark.
Problem of Reabsorbing Unemployed
In the light of a statement by Dr. Isador Lubin, United
States Commissioner of Labor Statistics, in May 1934, Pennsylvania's
problem of reabsorbing the unemployed into gainful occupations
presents a serious challenge. Assuming the situation in this
State parallels that of the nation, only about 350,000 of the
State's jobless ſmāy be expected to be reabsorbed into the manu-
facturing, mining, communication and transportation industries
and in retail and wholesale trade in the State if industrial
activity returns to the level of 1929. A return to the l929
levels of employment in the fields of agriculture and domestic
service cannot logically be expected . and a return in buildirg
construction can be expected only if extensive government-
financed housing projects are carried out.
"The only one of these fields in which we can logically
look for an expansion in employment is in the professions," Dr.
Lubin said. "The lack of adequate health, educational and re-
creational facilities. is a crying need in the United States.
Here again, however, expansion cannot be expected without
greatly, increased expenditures on the part of government. These
320
services do not lend themselves to the regime of private pro-
fit. Assuming that American industry as a whole Will revive
to the point where it employs as large a number as in 1929,
and despite increases in efficiency I see no reason to be-
lieve that this is outside the realm of probability, pro-
vision will have to be made in the field of social services
for the employment of something approaching three million*
additional workers. A beginning has already been made in
the Civilian Conservation Corps. ontinually increasing
income will have to be taken from the profits of industry and
through inheritance taxes for employment in fields where we
are today greatly undermanned. With a modernized system of
education and with recreation facilities adequate to our
needs, and with a public health system which will maintain the
*rican people in a condition in keeping with modern scienti-
fic knowledge, there will be no difficulty in reabsorbing
those who cannot during this generation find employment in
private industry." 4.
In the following pages are traced some trends in working
conditions, accidents, child labor, hours, earnings and labor
organization through the decade of the 1920's up to the pre-
sent. The significance of the NRA, particularly its appli-
cation of the minimum wage principle and its assertion of the
right of collective bargaining, in serving as pegs for labor
* Equivalent to 250,000 for Pennsylvania
321
standards is notable. Measures which challenge the state to
use its intelligence to develop constructive control over †
working conditions without shifting the entire responsients
to the Federal government, are indicated.
Accidents. *
Employment in modern industry has not been and is not
safe. The risk of accident for manuſ acturing workers has been
but slightly reduced during the past decade and a half, de-
Spite aggressive safety campaigns and the incentive for safety
brought by the Workmen's Compensation Act. An accompanying
chart shows that the trend of accidents has followed quite
closely the trend in anoment and Peyroll totals.
Approximately 170,000 accidents to employes were report-
ed in 1929 to the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and In-
dustry, 3, 600 of them resulting in permanent disability, and
l,800 resulting in death.
The most hazardous industry in the State, anthracite
mining, has, on the other hand, become increasingly hazardous.
in the last ten years. This is shown in the second accompany-
ing chart. The ground lost in safety for anthracite miners
dates chiefly from the beginning of the depression, and
probably may be explained by the greater mechanization of the
industry and the attempted economy in equipment, maintenance
and supervision in a depressed industry,
The safety work of the Department of Labor and Industry
and the Department of Mines needs to be reinforced and legis-
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PENNA. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR l l NDUSTRY
3O
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32 33
34
O
FIGURE NO. 74
NT

lation for additional safeguarding for mine workers should be
given thorough consideration.”
The values and limitations of the present workmens' com-
pensation system -- the meager benefits, defects in administra-
tive provisions and the need for providing compensation for
workers incurring occupational diseases --- are discussed under
the heading "Workmens' Compensation" in the Social Security
Section • -
Child Labor
In no one aspect of Working conditions has so rapid and
spectacular achievement been made as in the field of child
labore The question now before Pennsylvania is not so much
of a choice of eliminating child labor as it is a matter of
holding gains already made under the NRA and patching up a
few leaks •
A consistent decline in the number of 14- and 15-year
old children out of school and working for their living, is
shown in the appended table. From 25,000 children at work
aurºns the period from 1925 to 1927, the number dropped with
the depression to 7,000 in 1932, and approached the vanish-
ing point in 1934 when only 216 children were at work on
general employment certificates at the close of the first
* See discussion of Workmen's Compensation Act in sociºi
Securities Sections
323
school year after the enactment of the NRA, These figures for
general employment certificates exclude children at domestic
service and farm work who are not touched by the NRA and it
also excludes children at work outside of school hours •
CHILDREN la AND lº YEARS OF ACE AT WORK CN
CENERAL EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES* AT close
OF SCHOOL YEAR
Number
School Year - Of
Children
1923-24 18,656
1924-25 25,045**
1925-26 25,947
1926-27 26,015
1927-28 25,535
1928-29 - 16,648
1929–30 21,593
1930-31 13,310
lS31-32 - 7,025
1932-33 4,702
1933-34 216
Source: School Census, Pennsylvania Department of Public In-
struction •
An additional 1000 children were certificated at sometime
during the school year ending in l934 for employment outside of
school hours. This is the lowest number certified for vacation
work for any year on record, and is half of the number for the
preceding year. The number of permits for children l4 and 15
years of age to leave school for domestic service or farm Work,
occupations not covered by the Child Labor Paw and not requir-
ing employment certificates, likewise have been materially re-
* Excludes domestic service, farm work, and employment only
outside of school hourse
** For three quarters ending March, 1925 - Data for last
quarter not available •
324
duced during the last few years. Twenty-five hundred children
were excused from school attendance for these occupations in
1934, compared to 6,500 so excused in the peak year of 1928.
These achievements in reducing the number of child
workers were not the only depression effects on child labor.
The number of children (7,000) employed on general employ-
ment certificates at the end of the school year in 1932
fails to reveal the really significant thing that had been
happening : that certain industries were using children as
cheap and defenseless labor to reduce labor costs. In some
sections of Pennsylvania, shirt factories depended on the
labor of children, many under 16 years of age and others
under 18, to the extent of half their work force. Wages to
those under 16 were approximately $3 a week and often less.
Child labor tended to be driven to this and other fields such
as domestic service and street trading where conditions were
poorest and least supervised.
With the whole-hearted acceptance of the NRA prohibitions
of the labor of children under 16 years of age, the immediate
effectiveness of this provision was remarkable. In the cotton
garment industry, one of the largest child-employing industries
during the depression, one out of every 25 workers was a child
under 16 years of age in October, 1932, while in February, 1934,
only two minors under 16 were found in a study of 12,000
3.25
workers in this industry.*
Child labor thus has been recognized as a wholly incon-
gruous thing when the supply of adult labor far exceeded the
available jobs. Were Federal regulation removed, the return
of child labor would be an untenably backward step. State
legislation prohibiting the employment of children under lò
years of age and regulating the employment of those under l8
is needed. This regulation to extend to children at farm work
and domestic service as well as to secure the gains already
made under the NRA.
Hours of Work
The hours of work which an employee has been asked to de-
vote to his job in return for the wage he has received showed
a slow though decidedly downward trend during, the two decades
preceding the NRA. Not until the situation of unregulated
hours--some employes working 70 hours a week while others
worked seven, and a million working none at all--was checked
by the NRA, did any appreciable reduction come in the standard
length of the work week in Pennsylvania •
The year 1913 marked the passage of the present 54-hour
a week law for women, superseding a 60-hour a week law. Fifty-
four hours was the prevailing length of the work week ac-
cording to the 1914 United States Census of Manufactures, both
* Cotton garment Workers in Pennsylvania under the NRA, Bureau
of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and
Industry, Monthly Bulletin September, 1934.
326
in Pennsylvania and in the United States as a whole. In
the 15-year period between 1914 and 1929 the standard work .
week was reduced in Pennsylvania by four hours, from a
median average of 54 hours to one of 50 hours a week. * Penn-
sylvania moved more slowly toward shorter hours than the
United States as a whole. The median average in 1929 for the
United States was 49 hours, five hours less per week than in
1914. The proportion of employes with a 48-hour or shorter
standard week was correspondingly smaller for Pennsylvania in
1929; only 37 per cent of the wage earners in manufacturing
working these shorter hours in this Commonwealth while the
nation as a whole showed 46 per cent.
No figures on the average length of the standard work
week can convey a real picture of actual conditions since work-
ers have had greatly varied working hours in airferent indus-
tries, in various establishments in one industry and among in-
dividual workers in a single establishment.
Among a group of 16,000 silk workers in Pennsylvania
whose hours were studied in 1928, **just one-third were actually
working the scheduled number of hours established in the
various plants as the length of the working week. One-third
of the Workers put in overtime hours, and despite the fact
that it was a busy season another one-third of the employes
* United States Census of Manufactures, l'914, 1929.
** Bureau of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of
Labor and Industry, Hours and Earnings of Men and Women in
the Silk 1ndustry, Special Bulletin No. 29, 1929.
327
worked less than the regular weekly schedule. This irregu-
larity in weekly hours means added exertion and fatigue in the
case of overtime; in the case of under time, it means a pay
envelope thinner than the worker has anticipated.
The economic depression has affected the length of the
work week in ways other than bringing an increase in part-time
work. While some employes worked all too short hours, others
worked longer hours than in periods of normal business a cit vity.
On the one hand, the average number of hours actually worked
by employes in Pennsylvania manufacturing industries, in con-
trast to scheduled full time, fell from an average of 49 a
week in l929 to an average of 32 a week in 1932.
AVERAGE NUMBER OF HOURS ACTUALLY WORKED PER WEEK
IN PENNSYLVANIA MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
1927–1934
Year Actual Weekly Hours (Average)
–4–
l927 46.6
l928 46.9
l929 48.8
l93G 44.5
l93l 38.2
l932 31.9.
1933 33.l
1934 (lst lo months) 32.3
Source: Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry in co-
operation with Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia.
On the other hand, additional figures from the Pennsylvania
Department of Labor and Industry bear out the increasing pre-
valence of very long hours of work. A study of the silk in-
328.
dustry in 1932 revealed a marked increase in the proportion
of workers employed for approximately the 54-hour week maximum
permitted under the Woman's Law. Twenty-five per cent of the
women worked 53 or more hours a week in cetober, 1932, con-
pared to the 16 per cent who worked such long hours in Septem-
ber, 1928, one of the busiest months in the record of the in-
dustry during the period preceding the depression." In 1932,
five per cent of the men silk employes worked 70 hours or
longer in one week.
A further indication of the breakdown of hour standards
under the force of the job competition from the unemployed dur-
ing the depression is revealed in the record of prosecutions
for violation of the Woman's Law. Between 1927 and 1933 such
prosecutions had multiplied nearly tenfold, from sº to 422 a.
yearãº. This same proportion of increase in violations of the
Woman's Law was shown among silk workers whose hours of work in
1928 and 1932 were referred to above. Although in certain in-
stances the workers readily accepted these excessive hours be-
cause of their urgent need for the increased earnin s, they pro-
bably endured the long hours more frequently because they feared
they would lose their jobs if they did not work the time their
employers requested. The employers, on the other hand, often
, required excessive hours of work only because of the pressure
* Bureau of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of
Labor and Industry, Hours and Earnings in the Textile and
Clothing Industries of Pennsylvania, Cctober, 1932.
** Pênnsylvania Labor and Industry in the Depression, Penn-
sylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Special Bulletin
No. 39 e 329
for lower overhead costs or because of rush orders which
sharply competitive conditions had brought.
Second only to the reduction in child labor is the re-
duction in the hour standards the NRA brought within a few
months. After lê years, during which four hours were sub-
tracted from the standard work week in Pennsylvania, the NRA
produced almost overnight a lo-hour decrease in the standard
work week for the mass of the manufacturing industries of the
State. Manufacturing industry's general acceptance of the
40-hour week as standard, however, has not eliminated the
problem of irregularity in the number of working hours with
its attendant irregularity in weekly earnings. A study of the
cotton garment industry in Pennsylvania in February, 1934,
showed that only one-fourth of the employes worked exactly 40
hours, ºne sha maximum 7l per cent were recorded as working
fewer hours.” A third of the total group were reported as
working even less than 30 hours a week in a period of average
activity. -
The gains of the NRA in shortening hours have been con-
fined largely to the manufacturing industries. Hour standards
in the service industries have for the most part been set by
NRA codes at 48 and 54 hours a week, and actual hours of work
- are longer than for manufacturing industries and for
mining.
* Gºian Garment Workers under the NRA, Bureau of Women and
Children, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry,
Quarterly Bulletin, September, 1934. - -
330 . -
AVERAGE ACTUAL WEEKLY HOURS IN NON-MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRIES IN FENNSYLVANIA
Average for the first 10 months of 1934
Industry Average actual weekly hours
Longer than for manufacturing industries
Hotels 47.5
Street railways, bus and taxi 44 •l
Wholesale trade 4l .3
Dyeing and cleaning 4l. 1
Laundries 40.0
Light, heat and power 39, 6
Retail trade 38, 6
Telephone, telegraph and broadcasting 37.3
Crude petroleum 34 • 8
Quarrying and non-metallic mining 32.4
Manufacturing industries 32.3
Shorter than manufacturing industries
Anthracite 32.0
Bituminous 25.6
Source: Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry in
cooperation with the Federal Reserve Bank of
Philadelphia and the United States Bureau of Labor
Statistics,
331
Barnings
- Work done, measured chiefly by hours on the job, appears
on the outgoing side of the worker's ledger. Earnings appear
on the incoming side.
- Information on the earnings trend in Pennsylvania is
available since 1923 for wage earners in manufacturing in-
dustries. An accompanying chart shows a fairly even trend
in the amount of average weekly earnings up to 1928, with a
slight increase in 1929, just prior to the depression slump.
The average weekly earnings in this period of prosperity
varied around $26 a week for Pennsylvania. The collapse in
earnings, beginning in 1930 and continuing until the middle
of 1933, resulted in a net drop of almost 50 per cent. In
March, 1933, the average earnings were $13.70 a week. In
terms of living costs this decrease was approximately 33 per
cent since March 1929. The rise in average earnings, ac-
cºins the NRA and the New Deal program, has resulted in
an increase to about $18.50 a week, the average for 1934. In
terms of living costs in Pennsylvania average. weekly earnings
of those employed in manufacturing industries in 1934 were
approximately 15 per cent below the 1929 level.
In the basic metal manufacturing industries of the state
earnings have fluctuated more than in the textile and clothing
industries. From March, 1929, to March, 1933, the drop in
average weekly earnings was 60 per cent for metal industry em-
ployes compared to 46 per cent for textile and clothing workers.
332 ,
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The rally from the low point of March, 1935, when earnings
for each industry group averaged little more than $12 & week,
brought average earnings in the metal industry to $18.50 a
week and in the textile and clothing industries to $16.60 a
week in March, 1934.
Information on average weekly earnings in non-manufac-
turing industries is available for Pennsylvania beginning with
1932, with an average of $22.43 a week. Workers in these in-
dustries have lost l per cent in terms of living costs between
1932 and 1934. *
These average figures for all non-manufacturing industries
conceal a wide variation in earnings of workers in the differ-
ent industries of the state. In insurance and real estate estab-
lishments average weekly earnings were $35 a week in 1934, while
in hotels employes averaged little over $13 a week and hired
farm labor averaged $1.76 a day, without board.
The effect of the depression and the recovery period on
earnings of workers in Pennsylvania is, however, not fully told
in terms of averages. In October, 1932, 15 per cent of the men
and 24 per cent of the women in the silk industry earned less
than $10 a week, compared to but 2 per cent of the men and 5 per
cent of the women whose earnings fell in this classification in
* Index of Cost of Living in Pennsylvania. (Compiled from

United States Bureau of Labor Statistics figures for
Philadelphia, Pittsburgh and Scranton) December 1917-100
June 1928-122.3 June 1932-96.7
June 1929-121.4 June 1933-90.7
June 1930-118.4 June 1934-97.5
June 1931-108.3
333
AVERACE WEEKLY EARNINGS OF EMPLOYES IN NON-
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, 1934
Industry - Average weekly earnings
(first 10 months of 1934)
Higher average weekly earnings than in manufacturing industries
Insurance and real estate $33.13
Light , heat and power 29 e 90
Banking and brokerage 29 e 64
Steam railways (class l} 28,82°
Anthracite mining $27.57
Telephone, telegraph, & broadcasting 27, 27
Wholesale trade 27 sol
Street railways, bus and taxi 24 e65
Crude petroleum producing 23,63
Retail trade 19 e 75
Construction and contracting l9 = 7l
Average Weekly earnings of manufacturing industries l3 e53
Lower average weekly earnings than in manufacturing industries
Dyeing and cleaning #18.52
Bituminous coal mining 2 L7 e 72
Quarrying and non-metallic mining l6 •46
Laundries l5 •43
Motor-freight, docks and warehouses l5 eO2
Hotels 13 ell" *
Farm labor (6-day week basis) - lO •56
* Figure for United States for first seven IGonths, l934, from
Interstate Commerce Commission,
** Excludes value of room, board and tips received by some em-
ployes in the industry •
Source: Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry: in co-
operation with the Federal Reserve Bank of Phila-
delphia and the United States Bureau of Labor Statis-
tics, except for farm labore The figure for farm
labor is six times the average daily wage for employ-
ment without board ($1,76) as reported by the United
States Department of Agriculture •
334
February, 1928, for full time work.” While the silk workers
surfered greatly in reduced earnings, with a drop of approxi-
mately 35 per cent in the median weekly earnings for full time
work for both men and women over this four-year period, ex-
ceedingly low wages were more prevalent in the garment factories
of the State. The $7.50 median average weekly earnings of work-
ers in this industry in October, lº&#2, were approximately half
the average Weekly earnings of workers in all manufacturing in-
dustries at this period of the depression. In this industry,
where the employes were chiefly women, ſtages had fallen to so
low a level that one-fourth of all workers earned less than
$5 a week in October, 1932, and only lo per cent earned as much
B S sis. An investigation of wages in establishments on which
testimony was given at hearings held by the Joint Legislative
Committee to investigate women's wages and child labor in the
Commonwealth showed that in May, 1933, half of the 5000 women
workers in 6l establishments covering a large variety of in-
dustries besides clothing earned $8.75 a week or less.
The application of the minimum wage principle under the
NRA in Pennsylvania has had unquestionably a very great influence
in the upward movement of earnings in manufacturing industries
during the last year and a half. An accompanying chart shows
that Pennsylvania not only has gained in the amount of average
weekly earnings, but has gained proportionately more than other.
*TBureau of Women and Children, Pennsylvania Department of
Labor and Industry, Hours and Earnings of Men and Women in
the Silk Industry, lº29, Special Bulletin No. 29. Hours
and Earnings in the Textile and Clothing Industries of
Pennsylvania October, l932.
335
States in the northeastern section of the United States. Be-
'fore the upturn of lºº, the average weekly earnings in Penn-
sylvania were lowest among the 15 states east of the Mississ-
ippi River and North of the Mason-Dixon line, its industrially
competitive area.” Pennsylvania's relative position for the
first nine months of lø34 is fourth from the bottom. This im-
provement in Pennsylvania has coincided with an increase of a
half-hour in average number of hours actually worked per week.
The increase in earnings since the NRA has raised average
Weekly earnings in Pennsylvania to 80 per cent of the figure
for the state with the highest weekly earnings in 1934, while
in l952 average weekly earnings in manufacturing in Penn-
sylvania were only 68 per cent of those reported for the high-
-est ranking state. *
As Pennsylvania, a low earnings state; has increased in
average weekly earnings in its manufacturing industries under
#he influence of minimum wage regulation, so the lower-paid
wºrkers within the State seem to be gaining more than the high-
er-paid workers. An illustration of the distribution of earnings
among the workers in a given industry is available from studies
* Northeastern industrial states included in this statement
and in Chart are: -
Connecticut Massachusetts. Ohio
Delaware Michigan Pennsylvania
Illinois New Hampshire Rhode Island
Indiana New Jersey Vermont
Maine' New York Wisconsin
From computations based on employment and payroll data pub-
lished by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics' and
on data from the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and In-
dustry. * > 336 -
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made in 1932 and 1934 for the cotton garment industry in
Pennsylvania • *
The NRA established a minimum wage of $13 for this in-
dustry and the earnings of individual workers grouped sharply
at the $13 point in February, 1934. Previously in 1932, a
wide range in earnings with no sharp grouping at one point
existed, but with 35 per cent earning less than #13 a week.
Half of the workers in February, l934, received no more than
the minimum wage for the hours worked, even though this is
an industry where piece work payment prevails .
The proportion of workers receiving earnings above $13
was increased in 1934 over that for 1932, although the pro-
portion of workers in the higher-paid catagories was not
large • Earnings of #15 a week or more were found for only
lă per cent of the total working force in February, 1934.
In October, 1932, 10 per cent earned $15 or more a week.
The minimum wage principle, while dramatically aiding the
majority of the workers in this low-wage industry thus has
failed to produce corresponding increases for the more high-
ly paid 3roups • There is great need for more analysis of the
results of the present NRA minimum wage regulations to show
the effect upon the earnings on the more highly were workers •
The effectiveness of the NRA minimum wage provisions de-
* Cotton Carment Workers under the NRA, . Bureau of Women and
Children, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry •
Quarterly Bulletin, September, 1934.
337
pends greatly on the efficiency and thoroughness of their
enforcement machinery. Two regional offices of the NRA,
charged with labor compliance have been established in Penn-
sylvania, one in Philadelphia and one in Pittsburgh, except
as other provision for compliance with code labor provisions
is made for specific industries. These offices handle only
cases of complaints; they do not assume responsibility for
discovering code violations where specific complaints have
not been filed. This situation is in contrast to the policy
of complete coverage followed in the enforcement of State
labor laws •
The limitations of the NRA method of enforcement are in-
dicated by the findings of the study of cotton garment workers,
that at least 12 per cent of the employes were being paid less
than the wage required by the code, and that the majority of
the plants were involved in these violations.
-The activities of the two NRA compliance offices in Penn-
sylvania during the first 10 months of 1934 have, however, re-
sulted in some real accomplishment. Within that period, they
have collected more than $200,000 in back wages for workers
who had been paid less than the required minimum wage.
While wage earners were experiencing moderate gains in
earnings during the first year of the NRA, 250 corporations
in the United States, having a net worth of approximately
$10,000,000,000 enjoyed far greater benefits. As reported by
the National City Bank Bulletin for August, 1934, the net
338
profits of these corporations increased $190,000,000 Or
220 per cent—from $86,000,000 for the first half of 1933
to $876,000,000 for the corresponding period of 1934.
The future trend of workers' earnings in Pennsylvania
is hardly predictable. Much depends on whether the minimum
wage principle is continued to offset the downward pull on
wages exerted by a great number of unemployed workers seek-
ing jobs.
The future of workers' earnings in Pennsylvania depends
indeed not only upon the continuation of the minimum wage
principle through state legislation and the required payment
of wages earned, tout also upon the power of organized labor to
bargain for higher wage standards. This bargaining power will
determine the figure at which minimum wage rates may be set and
also will determine to what extent Pennsylvania workers will be
employed under agreements, guaranteeing certain wage standards,
that have been made between organized employers and employes
outside the authority of governmental regulations.
Labor Relations &
Planning for progressive improvement in the working con-
ditions and in the income of wage earners is crucial in any
planning for the welfare of the citizenry of Pennsylvania.
The underlying forces for such improvement are not only the
increase in the productive capacities and wealth of the State
but also the power of workers to secure for themselves a fair
share of the product. Such power can be exerted effectively
339
only through organizations by which they can voice their
claims and bargain for what they shall receive •
The organization of workers into unions went through
various vicissitudes during the 1920's, with a serious set-
back in the Pennsylvania bituminous coal industry after the
strike of 1927, w
The depression was marked by a spontaneous revolt among
Workers against the collapse in labor standards. Then began
a renewed struggle on the part of labor to express its rights
and to force employes to recognize its organizations and in-
terests. The enactment of the National Industrial Recovery
Act, with its now famous Section 7 giving labor the right to
organize without interference from employers and encouraging
collective bargaining, ushered in a new era in the organization
of labor.
The trend in the membership of Pennsylvania workers in
labor organizations is indicated by the gain in dues-paying
members affiliated with the American Federation of Labor for
the total United States. This increase was 33 per cent be-
tween August , 1933, and August 1934. Probably the growth in
Pennsylvania has been even greater, counting the re-union-
ization in the first few months of the NRA of the bituminous
coal industry with its 120,000 wage earners. It is estimated
that about 400,000 workers in Pennsylvania are dues-paying
members of trade unions. This figure does not include unem-
ployed members exempted from the payment of dues and many
340
workers voting for representation by trade unions in elections
held under government auspices.
The growth of company unions immediately following the
enactment of the NIRA characterized Pennsylvania as it did the
United States. The National Industrial Conference Board re-
ports a growth in employe representation plans of 61 per cent"
for the United States in the first five months following the
passage of the Recovery Act. Fifty per cent of the employes
in 3000 manufacturing and mining companies were reported to
be under employe representation plans in May, 1934.” Such
membership, howeyer, is to these workers often merely a con-
dition of keeping a job and may not represent a free choice
as to the organizations through which they wish to bargain
collectively with their employers.
Statistics of labor disputes show the readiness of work-
ers to risk friction with the employers who control their jobs.
These figures are available for the period since 1925 from the
state Department of Labor and Industry as follows:
FTNETTEFETERFEFºss Era, TRIFTETTEST-
lective Bargaining in May, 1934.
341
Year Number of Persons
Disputes Involved
Reported
l925 36 l64, 158
*1926 94 54,933
** 1927 87 19,466
* 1928 70 5,097
1929 158 23, 169
1930 'll0 29,921
195] 159. 59,198.
1952 179 37,703
1955 629 370,384
l934 (6 months) 198 95,292
Source: Pennsylvania Department of Labor and industry, Penn-
sylvania Labor and Industry in the Depression, 1934.
That the preponderance of disputes were based on.
alleged discrimination against union workers, on refusal
to recognize labor organizations for collective bargaining or
on other questions of the application of Section 7a of the
National industrial Recovery Act is shown from an analysis of
the 604 cases before .the Philadelphia Regional Labor Board
between October, 1935, and December, 1934. Three-fourths of
this number, 447, involved the application of Section 7a, and
128 other cases involved alleged violation of wage and hour
provisions of NRA codes. ***
The dispute stage of labor relations is normally super-
seded , in case the employer recognizes the workers' organi- -
*
zation, by the mutual acceptance of a formal agreement wherein
* Does not include bituminous coal industry. S *º-
** Does not include general strike in bituminous industry, in-
volving about 100 operators and 100,000 miners. * -
***Harry Hoyle, Labor. Disputes under the New Deal, Manuscript
and suppleTETWREFECTSCHOOTOFFTREGE EnTcommerce,

* -
University of Pennsylvania. º
342
.*
each party makes certain guarantees to the other. Labor
for instance, may agree not to strike so long as the em-
ployer observes certain hour, Wage or other standards of
employment.
A further achievement in collective bargaining be-
tween workers and employers is the mutual acceptance of
machinery to settle grievances and disputes arising under
the collective agreement. An increasing number of such
agreements resulting from genuine collective bargaining are
greatly to be encouraged as the surest, soundest way to
industrial peace.
When mutuef agreement between employer and employe on
machinery for the settlement of disputes is lacking or fails,
the mediation services of the State and Federal governments
are available. Up to 1933, such assistance for settling
labor disputes was the service of state mediators, or Federal
mediators if the dispute extends beyond State lines, who have
gone as individual government officials to the scene of the
dispute to use their office to conciliate the disputing
parties.
With the rapid increase in the number of disputes under
the National Recovery Act, particularly because a great many
of these arose over the application of Section 7a of the Act,
the President of the United States created in August, 1933, a
National Labor Board which in turm established two of its
regional labor boards in Pennsylvania, one in Pittsburgh and
343
one in Philadelphia.
The labor board system may be illustrated by reference
to the Philadelphia Regional Labor Board. It is composed of
an impartial chairman and eight representatives each of em-
ployers and of labor and handles its cases chiefly by means
of informal hearings at which both parties to the dispute
are present. The purpose of the Board is to assist the dis-
puting parties in reaching an agreement in order to avert or
to end a strike. Failing an agreement, the Board makes a
decision on the issues in the case. Decisions may be appeal-
ed to the National Labor Board. The Regional Board reports
that it has effected satisfactory settlements in about 95 per
cent of the cases handled.
The board method has some advantage over mediation by a
single official in that it has greater prestige and has the
power to render decisions even though it has no authority to
enforce them. The individual mediator retains, however,
peculiar usefulness with his greater freedom of movement and
his greater opportunity for informal contacts on the scene of
an impending dispute.
Cooperative relations between Federal mediators, State
mediators and government labor boards, whether reacna or 'in-
dustrial, should be part of any planning in this field of
mediation of labor disputes.
In Pennsylvania the peaceful exercise of labor organi-
zations' legitimate activities has been handicapped by the use
344
of police officers paid by the employer who is a party to
the labor dispute. Strikers in the past, have been killed
in Pennsylvania and many have been injured by coal and
iron police arid company-paid deputy sheriffs. Too often,
in time of strikes, employer-paid police officers have
incited violence rather than curbed it.
Recent experience in Pennsylvania has shown that the
State Police and the National Guard, when acting under in-
structions to maintain peace and order without prejudice
either to the right of strikers to picket peacefully or
to the right of workers to enter a plant without molestation,
have been able to preserve peace and order without violence
to any party or damage to employers' property.
Conclusions
Planning for the greater economic and social welfare
of the people of Pennsylvania means giving particular atten-
tion to the physical conditions under which the 3,500,000
workers or the State are employed and to the amount of wages
they shall receive for their labor. The entire economic and
social welfare of the Commonwealth must rest on such a
foundation.
The present insecurity and instability among the work-
ing population is due, to a large extent, to the fact that
Pennsylvania labor legislation is not adequate to cope with
existing conditions. Many of these laws require amendments
or additions; some need extension revision; practically all
of them should be re-read, and reconsidered in the light of
345
conditions with which the Commonwealth must deal during and
after the current depression.
Changes in the laws, which would contribute materially
to the progress Pennsylvania must make for the greater
economic welfare of its working population, have been dis-
cussed in this section of the report. They may be summar-
ized as follows:
l,
3.
4.
5.
Further means of preventing accidents, particularly
in the anthracite mining industry.
Prohibition of the employment of children under 16
years of age and the regulation of conditions of
employment for all minors under 18 years of age •
Establishment of a shorter work week.
Greation of minimum wage standards.
Compulsory regular payment of wages earned and
authorization of the Department of Labor and Industry
to assist workers in the collection of back wages due.
Encouragement of genuine collective bargaining on
terms of employment between organizations of em-
ployers and organizations of employes •
Elimination of the use of privately paid or company-
controlled police officers, particularly in connection.
with labor disputes--as recommended by the Commission
on Special Policing in Industry.
More crucial for effectuating sound labor conditions and
policies than any of these specific recommendations are the
346
adequate financing of labor law administration and the securing
of a highly qualified personnel for this administration on a
civil service basise
347
HOUSING
The possibility, and sooner or later the probable necess-
ity, of large-scale public action in low-cost housing puts a
new responsibility on the shoulders of State and local govern-
ments. As long as residential construction was entirely a
matter of private enterprise, subject only to the rough checks
of profit and loss, effective demand and a minimum of govern-
mental restrictive measures, little or no planning was possible.
But when any part of the business of house-production and ad-
ministration becomes, in effect, a public utility enterprise,
there must be comprehensive planning, backed by clear purposes
and a complete understanding of the facts e Housing of the
wrong kind, or in the wrong place, or at the wrong rentals, or
constructed and administered inefficiently, may be, in the end,
worse than no housing measures at all.
The immediate task confronting the Gommonwealth may be sum-
marized as follows:
l. To understand the housing needs of the State as to
quality, quantity, location, price–range and method
of production and administrations
2. To investigate the various Federal facilities and
agencies in the housing field, either already avail-
able or proposed.
3. To promote and cooperate with those present or pro-
posed Federal agencies which appear to offer the most
fruitful possibilities for improving housing conditions
and stimulating the construction industry in Pennsyl-
vania •
4. To develop the necessary State and local agencies to
348
cooperate with the Federal authorities in housing
matters, initiate action on their own accounts and
in general assume responsibility for the eventual. .
ºr
successful solution of Pennsylvania's housing pro-
blems
PENNSYLVANIA DWELLINGS
le Census Distribution : Rural and Urban
A family, by the 1930 Census, is a group of more or less
related people who live and usually eat together. A home is
the place they occupy. The number of dwellings and homes is
always the same, since vacant dwellings are not enumerated and
all extra family is counted either as part of the occupying fam-
ily or merely as separate lodgers • Both terms, for the purpose
of housing research, mean an "occupied dwelling unit." In
Pennsylvania, Census families are distributed as follows:
Number Percentage of Median -
Total Families Family size”
Rural-farm families 184,151 8 % 4.01
Rural non-farm families 514, 2ll 23 - 3 • ‘7 O
Urban families l,537,258 69 3.54
The State : families 2,235,620 100 3.6l
Of the urban families, 30 per cent live in Philadelphia,
46 per cent in the five cities of over 100,000 population, and
57 per cent in the 15 cities of over 50,000.
The total number of dwellings probably has decreased,
since 1930, on account of demolitions. From 1930 through 1933,
according to records of the Philadelphia Housing Association,
* Lodgers, sefvants and guests excluded."
349
19,763 persons were permanently dehoused by demolition in that
city, or about 5000 families. During this period only 3,788
new dwellings were erected,
The section on Population shows that the State as a whole
has gained very slightly, but most of the larger cities show a
decrease of approximately 3 per cent. The situation is un-
doubtedly abnormal, but gives warning that planning for a
stable population in the near future and the re-vamping of many
of our building and finance practices are needed e
2. C. 9mpany. One -Industry, and Stranded Towns
Rural housing is one problem. Urban is another. But Penn-
sylvania has another condition neither urban nor rural which
Warrants further classificatione
There are more then l,000 towns and villages and isolated
groups of houses in this State which are wholly or largely own-
ed by single mining or manufacturing companies. In 1928, ac-
cording to a field survey conducted by the State Department of
Health, there were 853 bituminous coal mining villages alone,
with 49,760 families and 251,313 population. About lé0 addi-
tional company towns were disclosed in rather uneven responses
to a questionnaire recently sent out to Area Supervisors of
the State Emergency Relief Board. A large number of these
were anthracite or iron mining villages, but communities owned
by the steel manufacturing, cement, leather, glass, clay and
brick, chemical, railroad, power and other industries were
included. They are located in 49 counties. Unincorporated,
350
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1930 CENSUS | 93 O CEN SUS [8 CITIES
PER cenroop- J-s ºr, S." -. Nº... . . . . .''. -looper cent
& &
PERCENTAGE OF DWELLINGS BY TYPE OF BUILDING
PENNSYLVANIA e 1924 - 1932. * TOTAL
TOTAL URBAN TOTAL DWELLINGS
DWELLINGS DW ELLINGS CONSTRUCTED
IN STATE [N 18 CIT | ES 1924-32
2.2.2 ºz.
2O 2O
SINGLE HOUSES DWELLINGS DW E LLINGS
! N CLU DES ROW H OUSES 2 FAM | LY HOUSES |N APARTMENTS
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE - BUREAU OF THE CENSUS FIGURE NO. 78



for the most part, they would come under the classification of
rural nonfarm communities in the Census.
In the same group, because there is no clear line of de-
marcation, belong the one-industry towns classification in
general, whether or not the houses are owned by the companies.
Responses to the questionnaire listed between 250 and 300, in
55 counties. There are probably many more.
Finally, there are stranded populations living in former
company or one-industry towns where the plants have been per-
manently, shut down and the inhabitants have no regular means of
support. The State Emergency Relief Board survey mentions a-
bout 150 of these. There are certainly more of them, and a
large proportion of the company and one-industry communities
probably could be placed in this category.
At a conservative estimate, there are probably 100,000
families and 400,000 to 500,000 people living in company-
owned houses, in villages dependent on a single industry, or in
former industrial communities where all activity has been aban-
doned. (One of the semi-stranded villages is called Little
Hope •)
3. Dwelling-Types
The single-family housé is still the dominant dwelling-
form. 82.9 per cent of all the dwelling units in the State are
one-family houses, detached or in rows, as compared with 76 •4
per cent for the United States as a whole.
35l
OCCUPIED FAMILY UNITS 1939, BY TAFE OF STRUCTURE
l–Family 2-Family 5-Or more
Houses Houses Family Houses
The State l,852,48l. 82.9% 250,102 ll.2% i33,037 6.0%
Rural 647,806 92.8 43,196 6.2 7,360 l.l
Urban l, 204,675 78.4 206,906 lºs. 5 lz5,677 8.2
Philadelphia 364,457 79.5, 48,784 10.6 45,386 9.9
Pittsburgh 90,708 58.5 42,278 27.3 22,093 l4.2
Scranton 21,099 64-l 7,974 24.2 3,854 ll.7
Reading 2l,878 79.l 3, 220 ll,6 2,561 9.3
The proportion of multiple dwellings is somewhat higher
among structures put up since the war, but not greatly so.
This is shown on the accompanying charts
According to Real Property Inventory surveys in 1934, the
proportion of detached and row houses to total dwelling units
is as follows:
Detached l—Family Row
Houses Houses
Allegheny County 55 % (est.) 7 %
Erie (City) - 55 % 2. ſ.
Williamsport 47 % 3 %
Philadelphia.” 4 % 69 %
Age of Homes
Probably at least half of the residential structures in
Pennsylvania are more than 30 years old. Adequate information
* From the Occupancy and Vacancy Survey made by the Phila-
delphia Real Estate Board in 1932,
352
not available for the whole State, but recent surveys in
four cities with varying conditions give a general indication.
Proportion of Williamsport Erie Pittsburgh Philadelphia”
Structures -
One-quarter Gver 50 yrs. Over 40 yrs. Over 46 yrs. Over 44 yrs.
One-half Over 38 yrs. Over 22 yrs. Over 33 yrs. Over 29 yrs,
Three-quarters 9xer 12 yrs, over 13 yrs, over is wra, over lº-Ire:
* Excluding three central districts not yet surveyed, which include .
the oldest sections of the city.
Thirty-five years was set by the Public Works Administra-
tion as a reasonable amortization period for its low-cost
housing construction. It is worth noting that 54 per cent of
the residential structures in Williamsport, 30 per cent in
Erie, 43 per cent in Pittsburgh and 38 per cent in the dis-
tricts of Philadelphia which have been surveyed, are more. than
35 years old. Most of these old dwellings without doubt have
paid for themselves many times over since their construction.
Nevertheless many of them are located in sub-standard slum
areas which cannot be economically rehabilitated today because
of the persisting high scale of property prices.
Forty years, according to Bernard J. Newman, is about the
limit of useful life for the average dwelling erected under
present conditions. Approximately 25 per cent of all the re-
sidential structures in the above areas are more than 40 years
old. This proportion would probably not be far out for the
State as a whole. The newer suburban areas would show a lower
share of old dwellings, but in rural districts and the older
small towns many more than one quarter of the structures would
353
be more than 40 years old,
In the anthracite region 38 per cent of the company houses
surveyed by the Bureau of Labor statistics in 1930, were built
before 1881 and 57 per cent before 1890.
5. Condition and Equipment. ~
as Urban Housing Conditions - The following tables are
from the Real Property Inventory.
State of Repair Allegher Erie Williams- Phila-
(in 74 total Structures) my gos port delphia’
Structures needing:
Minor Repairs 4l % 42 % 4l % 22 %
Structural Repairs 13 * ll # 20 % 2 %
Structures unfit for use 3 % l £ l 4, 2 %
State of Int;
(in ſtotel dwelling units)*
Dwelling units with:
No running water in
building 5 % 3 % l?% 1 %
No hot, water facilities 23 % 14 %, 23 % 8 %
No bath tubs or showers 27 % 16 % 21 % 7 %
No central heat 44 % 35 % 28 % 8 %
No inside toilet l6 % 5 % 9 % 6 %

To fill out the incomplete picture of conditions in Phila-
delphia, a paragraph is quoted from a survey of several thousand
samples in eight industrial districts, made in 1932 by the
*TReport on Ehiladelphia so far omits two central districts
with high proportion of sub-standard dwellings. Phila-
delphia figures on Equipment are on structures in relation
to total structures not dwelling units, .
354
Philadelphia Housing Association:
"In 45 per cent of the properties studies, the water
closets are located in the yards; one house in every 25 has to
rely on the yard hydrant for water supply; about two out of
every five lack a bath tub; in one-half the houses the only
heating equipment is a kitchen stove; 3 per cent still use ker-
osene lamps for illumination.
"only a few years ago," says Dr. Edith Elmer Wood in her
latest book on housing, "Philadelphia had 60,000 privy vaults."
Benjamin Ritter of the Pennsylvania Bousing and Town Plan-
ning Association made a housing survey in Scranton in 1950s
*The housing standards established in the early days of the
anthracite industrys" he says, "are still represented in Scran-
ton's housing problem of today....while most of the "company
houses" have been replaced with better houses, settlements of
this kind have left an indelible stamp on the city....Minimum
standards of living were established in communities that pro-
duced more wealth per capita possibly than any other section
of Pennsylvania in a given lengun of time,"
In a survey of 500 buildings in slum areas, he found that
22 per cent covered their entire lot area, and 40 per cent were
rear buildings or faced only on alleys. Sanitary conditions
were comparable •
The housing problem is not entirely a matter of houses.
"Scranton," says the report on that survey, "has no sewage
disposal plant, but continues to discharge its raw sewage into
355
the Lackawanna River at some 60 different points. This gives
rise to serious stream pollution, and renders the river virtu-
ally an open sewer running through the central section or the
city. Residents in these areas are annoyed with foul air the
year round." There are hundreds of other communities in Penn-
sylvania who are thus violating their natural amenities •
*Over a million Pennsylvania people," says Mr. Ritter in
the last report of the Association, "live in "city' homes with-
out sewer connections or plumbing facilities." Many large Penn-
sylvania eities, including Lancaster, have no building ordin-
ances and as many as half of their dwellings are without sewer
connections. In 1925 Easton, with 40,000 population, had less
than 200 houses connected with sewers; Conshohocken had no Sºº-
age system at alle
be Rural Areas - Little comprehensive data are available
on rural housing conditions, although all evidence indicates
that a large number of old run-down houses, many vacant for
years, have been occupied during the past five years by former
city-dwellers. -
The proportionate number of farms having certain facilities
in 1933, as collected for the Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock
Report is shown on the accompanying chart, by regions. Likewise
the rate of change since 1926.
ce Rural-Industrial Housing - A good picture of living
conditions in mining villages, can be found in a study by Eliza-
beth Johnson of the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Indus-
356
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HOW MODERN ARE PENSYLVANIA FARMS2
The proportion of farm-houses having certain equipment in 1933, as reported in the
Pennsylvania Crop and Livestock Bulletin for l933.
roads from U. S.
Regions Total
Farms on
Census
1930.
Figures on total farms and Olºl

Per Cent of Far-Rouses which in 1933 had
and Farms Unimproved Running Bath Heating Elec-. Tele- Radio
Counties 1930 Dirt Roads Water Rooms Systems tricity phones
% lo3O *
NORTHWESTERN
Crawford Mercer
Wenango Erie. 18,482 56 33 l4 l9 54 34 33
Forest Warrén
NORTH CENTRAL
3radford McKean -
Cameron Potter 15,800 68 43 l6 l8 24 31 31 M
Clinton Sullivan
Tioga Elk
Lycoming
NORTHEASTERN
Lackawanna Hayne 8,987 65 46 l9 3O 33 42 39
Susquehanna Wyoming.
WEST CBNTRAL
Armstrong Beaver * *
Läwrence Clarion 18,234 66 45 l3 27 l9 39 35
Indiana Butler
Jefferson
CENTRAL
Montour Blair
Cambria Centre
Clearfield Perry -
Columbia Snyder 24,642 55 33 ll l? 25 27 27
Huntingdon Juniata s'
Mifflin Union
Northumberland
Dauphin -
EAST CENTRAL
Carbon Pike
Lehigh Luzerne 12,553 56 36 l8 26 40 24 4l
Schuylkill Monroe
Nort ton
SOUTHWESTERN
Allegheny Fayette
Greene Somerset 21,426 51 46 2O 31 29 38 37
Washington
Westmoreland &
SOUTHEASTERN
Montgomery Berks
Chester Bucks 30,466 30 42 25 5l. 49 38 39
'Lancaster Delaware
Lebanoni
Philadelphia.
SOUTH CENTRAL
Franklin Adams
Bedford Fulton 21,829 . 5l. 26 lO l4 30 27 24
Cumberland York
THE. STATE sº- 172,419 " ;2 39 l6 25 32 33 : 33. .
†Change,TFGT733 200,413 +45 +26 –5 +ll2 -42 +l66
(1925)
* This proportion probabl
y has been considerably decreased since that time •
357
try, in the departmental publication for November, 1931. Also
in the recent book, "I went to Pit college," by Lauren Gilfillan.
A thorough sanitary survey of 853 company-owned bituminous
coal-mining villages was made in 1928 by the State Department
of Health. .. The report was prepared by Howard Bronson, Housing
Engineer, and in his opinion conditions in these communities
are worse now than they were at that times
The villages were owned by 448 companies and located in
27 counties. The population was 251,313 and the number of
houses 62,038. Of the 853 villages, only 136, or lò per sent,
had satisfactory sanitary conditions on the second inspection,
recommendations having been made after the first visit •
conditions in the 853 villages: may be summarized as
follows:
Water Supply -
531, or 62%, supplied by wells or springs only
32l, or 38%, had unprotected sources
Excreta Disposal
45, or 5, had any sort of sewage system
817, or 96%, had privies
492, or 58%, were definitely insanitary
Waste Disposal. (Kitchen and laundry water)
693, or 81%, used the surface of the ground
Almost all had insanitary conditions
Milk supply
495, or 58%, used canned milk
Leifur Magnussen, in his "Housing by Employers in the
United States” describes the soft-coal towns of Pennsylvania:
#TBurean of Tabor Statistics, 1920
358
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*The towns of the region have dirt roads, generally no
sidewalks, and gutters only rarely. A piped-water system and
sanitary sewers are infrequently encountered. . . Trees, lawns,
and flowers are conspicuously lacking. . In the coke region of
Pennsylvania the large majority of towns are practically de-
stitute of all such growth; the neighboring hillsides have been
burnt bare by the noxious fumes of the coke ovens. In the lo-
cation of dwellings and ovens with respect to each other no re-
gard has been had for the direction of the prevailing winds."
Only 2.4 per cent of the 10,000 dwellings surveyed in his
study had inside baths and toilets. Only 48 per cent had either
gas or electricity for lighting. -
In the anthracite towns, Mr. Magnussen found that 45 per
cent of the company houses surveyed had no modern conveniences
at all. Conditions in the steel towns were somewhat better,
but even so had no modern conveniences.
d. Housing and Public Health - A definite relation exists
between bad housing and many kinds of disease and debility.
It is often forgotten, however, that probably most of the ab-
normal conditions usually prevailing in slum areas are the
direct result of poverty, and only indirectly of bad housinge
It should not be assumed that eliminating slums without raising
the purchasing power of slum-dwellers, would automatically re-
move most of those extra expenses incurred by all cities in
their slum distriets.
The following study was compiled recently by Mr. Ritter
359
for the Philadelphia City Planning Commission. The slum areas
surveyed contain l3.5 per cent of the population, but cover
only 4.9 per cent of the area of the city.
Rate per 1000 Population
Entire City l3 Slum Areas
Tuberculosis T.68 l2.25
Communicable diseases 11.94 l6.36
(ex. venereal and pneu-
monia cases)
Family Relief 54.58 252.48
Housing Complaints l2.82 37.78
Adult delinquency 3.86 8.58
(12 classifications)
A survey was made by the Pittsburgh Housing Association of
housing conditions of tuberculosis cases coming under the super-
vision of the Public Health Nursing Association. 33 per cent
of the new cases coming were from the "Hill District" where the
survey was made. Out of 400 cases living in that district, it
was found that :
One-third have cellar or basement living rooms, half of
them used for sleeping; 30 per cent of all living rooms with-
out adequate light or air; 30 per cent have defective plumbing;
more than 50 per cent have no baths; 81 families, more than 2
per room; 71 families, doubled up with at least one other
family. º
- - REPLACEMENT
+- Siums and Blighted Districts
Any estimate of housing needs arising from inadequate
360
present physical conditions must depend entirely on the level
picked as a minimum housing standard. If it is proposed to
eliminate only those dwellings which are structurally unsafe or
in bad sanitary condition at least 2 per cent of the dwellings
in the State, or about 45,000, would come within this category.*
But such a classification provides no sound basis for re-
construction. Even if the 45,000 were demolished and a new mod-
ern dwelling built in place of each, little would be contribut-
ed to the rehabilitation of our cities. The new houses probably.
surrounded by half-decayed structures and located within an ob-
solete street-pattern, soon would deteriorate to the level of
its neighbors.
If, on the other hand, every dwelling should have direct
sun, clean air, relative quiet, a reasonably decent outlook,
modern sanitary facilities, central heat, and an adjacent open
space suitable and safe for children's recreation, it would be
found that whole districts, almost whole cities, would have to
be demolished and built over. Thousands of dwellings put up
since 1920 would not conform to such a standard without complete
reconstruction and a different street-plan. -
The City Planning Commission of Philadelphia has just com-
pleted a survey of thirteen distinct slum areas. All of these
districts are definitely "sub-standard", all contain unsanitary
conditions, dilapidation, vandalism, and more or less chaotic
land-sweating. All, likewise, are believed to be large enough
—r-
* Based on Real Froperty Inventory figures.
36l
for efficient reconstruction. Together they house at present
about 13% per cent of the population of the city.
It is estimated that 10 per cent of the families in the
State live in similar districts under corresponding conditions,
with a higher proportion in certain heavy-industry areas, min-
ing towns and run-down rural areas.
On this basis, approximately 225,000 families need to be
rehoused immediately. A large share of these families need
not, and probably should not, be rehoused on their present
sites. Many congested districts should be transformed event-
ually into parks, safeguarding such neighboring areas as are
not already blighted. A large number of the mining and one-
industry towns probably should be abandoned and their inhab-
itants rehoused wherever work opportunities may be found.
The replacement problem, however, is complicated by the
fact that the real estate and municipal financial structures
are still geared to limitless expansion. Slum properties are
still being held and taxed as if they could soon be put to
some more intensive use. This means, usually, that they are
far too expensive for economical reconstruction as low-cost
housing developments.
Dwellings have been financed without adequate allowance
for depreciation and obsolescence, on the tacit principle, 8.8
Mr. Newman pointed out,” that appreciation of land-values would
make up for depreciation of structure in the long run. The
FT355 Report of the Philadelphia Housing Association
362
Evolution of BLIGHTED AREAs.
§ Ø &
* 26&SCŞ
غ &
&
ſ" º
FIG. 3 - ARRESTED GRowTH of center
BY VERTICAL EXPANSION .
ZZ2
Fig. 4- central AREA SHRINKING DUE to
FURTHER VERTICAL - GROWTH AND
LESSENED SPACE NEEDS.
KEY.
COMMERCE AND LIGHT INDUSTRY.
ACTIVE RESIDENTIAL AREA .
EXTENSION COMMERCIAL AND LIGHT INDUSTRY.
| NACTIVE RESIDENTIAL AND BLIGHT.
ZZZ
6& actual slum areas. •
E inactive commerce and Light industry.
verticAL ExPANSION IN HIGH Buildings:
SURVEY GRAPHIC 1933 Fi{su RE No. 81










same principle of endless rise in land-values, and thereby in
assessments, has guided the extension of costly municipal serv-
ices far out into the suburbs, while larger and larger central
areas succumbed to blight and decay.
increased urban land-values are dependent on two other
factors; increase of population as a whole, and continuing ad-
vantage of centralization. The rate of increase in population
of the State is rapidly slowing down, and will reach a point of
stability not so many years hence. Furthermore, there are in-
.dications of an even more pronounced downward trend in the fu-
ture population of the biggest cities.*
"The task," as Henry Wright said in the Survey Graphic for
August, l033, is "to set about a reorganization of the purpose
of our city development, adjusted to a stabilized population
rather than anticipated growth, and directed to a gradual
though complete renovation of our dilapidated housing facili-
ties."
2. Future Replacement needs
There is no way scientifically or statistically to deter-
mine a fair rate of replacement to meet the needs of deprecia-
tion and obsolescence in dwellings. Age is by no means the -
only consideration. The proportion of flimsy jerry-built
houses probably has been greater since the war than before, and
there are today many dwellings only 10 or 15 years old which
need replacement more than some of the more solid structures
* See Section on Population. -
363.
standing for more than a century. However, the dwelling over
40 years old which is habitable and modern in plan and struc-
ture and relation to surroundings is the exception.
If the Real Property Inventory figures are an indication
for the State as a whole, approximately 25 per cent of exist-
ing dwellings are more than 40 years old. Another 20 per cent
will become 40 years old during the next ten years.
Assuming a replacement rate of 1 per cent annually, ap-
proximately 22,500 dwellings would require replacement each
year after the estimated 225,000 dwellings requiring immediate
clearance are all replaced.
QUANTITATIVE SHORTAGE
There are two kinds of space deficiency - one of rooms in
relation to individuals, and the other of dwelling units in re-
lation to families.
l: Room overcrowding
The dwellings in the State as a whole contain enough rooms
to provide decent minimum privacy for a single family without
lodgers. When overcrowding occurs it is usually the result
either of extreme poverty or of high rents, a lack of available
living quarters in that vicinity and subsequent doubling up.
The Real Property Inventory, in common with most accepted
standards, called dwellings with one to two persons per room
"crowded", two. to three persons per room "overcrowded" and
three or more greatly overcrowded. (The kitchen and living
room are counted as rooms.) In localities covered by the In-
364
ventory in the State so far, conditions were found to be as
follows:
Dwellings housing Percentage
more than l person of total
per room dwelling
Units'
Allegheny County 78,724 25.2
Erie 3,534 10, 65°
Williamsport, l, Olo 8.32
Philadelphia (15 outlying wards,
with 272,816 dwellings) 31,020 11 e 37
Twenty "urban-like"
townships in Allegheny County 8,355 33.2
A survey of the 6309 families represented by recipients of
the Mothers Assistance Fund since 1929, showed that 70 per cent
were living in dwellings containing one or more persons per
room. Moreover, 874 families, or 14% per cent were living in
homes containing two or more persons per room.
Last year a survey of overcrowding and rental conditions
among relief families in Philadelphia was made by the Joint
Committee on Research of the Community Council of Philadelphia
School of Social Work. The following summary may be quoted:
"Over half were living in houses averaging less than one
room per person. Among the rent-free group of families the
situation was even worse - an average of 4.0 persons per house-
hold in 2.4 rooms. Individual instances are much worse even
than this . . . ."
Housing programs must be based on dwelling units and dis-
tricts rather than rooms. Nevertheless, a rough calculation of
365 .
quantitative room shortage may be worthwhile here.
Using the Real Property Inventory figures as a basis, and
assuming that these families need an average of lº rooms more
per household for a decent standard of occupancy, it is esti-
mated that more than 400,000 new rooms are needed. This would
mean 100,000 new dwellings of four rooms each.
2. Vacancies and Doubling Up
If it were not for the sharing of dwellings by a large
number of families, the housing shortage at present would be
extremely acute. This is true despite the number of vacancies
that exist and without allowing for the fact that much of the
population loss of the larger cities during the past four years
should be temporary.
Doubling up is due to poverty and to the fact that rents,
much as they have declined, have by no means come down in pro -
portion to incomes.
An Occupancy and Vacancy Survey covering the entire city
was made by the Philadelphia Real Estate Board in 1932. This
brought out the following facts :
Total dwellings 474,348 lodž
Total vacancies 42,250 8.9 %
Vacant dwellings
unfit for habitation 3,457 .7 %
Total net vacancies 38,793 8.2 %
Total extra families 28, 143 5.9 %
This leaves a net surplus of only 10,650 dwelling units,
or 2.3 per cent. The figures on vacancies of dwellings unfit
for habitation is probably rather low. In March, 1932, the
366
Philadelphia Housing Association surveyed a cross-section of
the city containing 88,619 one-family dwellings. They found
a vacancy rate of 5.5 per cent, but they also found that,
eliminating dwellings not suitable for occupancy in their state
of disrepair, those held for sale, and those not in the market,
the vacancy rate of available houses was 3.6 per cent, without
counting extra families, which were not included in the survey .
Five per cent vacancies are usually held to be necessary in
order to allow for adequate selection on the part of prospec-
tive tenants. Wacancies fit for habitation in row houses,
according to the Real Estate Association Survey, were only
21,390, while there were 24, 230 extra families living in row
houses. If occupied dwellings unfit for habitation were sub-
tracted, the situation would have been even more acute.
Roy Wenzlick of St. Louis, editor of the Real Estate Annal-
ist, estimates that vacancies throughout the country, about lo
per cent a few years ago, have now been halved.
The Real Property Inventory, taken in 1934, has so far
been tabulated for Pittsburgh, Erie, Williamsport, and about 82
per cent of Philadelphia. The accompanying chart summarizes
the results. It shows that if an adequate allowance is made
for choice, if dweilings definitely unfit for habitation are
subtracted, and if families abnormally doubled up were able to
seek quarters of their own, there would be a deficiency per
1000 families ranging from 2.2 dwellings in Erie to 146.8 in
Pittsburgh. This is despite the fact that these cities have
367
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368
*
lost from 3.9 per cent population (Pittsburgh) to 8.8 per cent
(Erie) in four years, according to the Unemployment Census.
In the Philadelphia study of unemployment relief families,
32.3 per cent of the families renting dwellings in March, 1933,
shared their dwellings with at least one extra family. Among
the rent free households, this proportion was 57.9 per cent.
It is estimated that fewer vacancies and more cases of
doubling up occur in the smaller communities and rural areas.
which have gained population during the past four years. In
the Allegheny County inventory, vacancies for the Whole county
were 7.0 per cent, with 8.1 per cent in Pittsburgh and 5.8 per
cent in 20 fairly populous unincorporated townships.
The Unemployment Census of lºš4 shows that in a few small
towns, selected at random, the proportion of extra families to
total families varied from 5 to 10 per cent with an average of
8.4 per cent . . By a preliminary hand count, Carbon County was
found to have 7 per cent extra families and Lycoming 8 per cent.
In the seme census, it was found that vacancies amounted
to only 3 to 4 per cent of total dwellings. In Delaware County
they were 5.7 per cent with a higher rate in boroughs and
Chester City and a lower rate in townships.
3. New Dwellings Needed
A minimum housing standard should allow one dwelling per
family, with enough vacancies to permit adequate selection, flex-
ible movements, and a check on exploitive rental schedules.
There is at present practically no demand for dwellings within
369
the price-range of new construction between l920 and l929. But
there is nevertheless a deficiency of separate dwellings in
proportion to the total number of families, and one major func-
tion of any State or Federal planning must be to devise means
whereby this demand, more or less hidden at present, can be
satisfied, whether by more and higher wages, or lower rentals
for new dwellings, or both.
Based on a liberal estimate of 7 per cent vacancies
throughout the State, and a conservative estimate of 6 per cent
of total dwellings which could be occupied by families now with-
out separate accommodations, there is a surplus of l per cent.
Allowing 5 per cent (the figure used by both the Philadelphia
Housing Association and the New York State Housing Board) for
adequate choice, there is a met deficiency of 4 per cent.
There are approximately 2,250,000 dwelling units in the
Commonwealth. The state, therefore, is more than 90,000 dwell-
ings short.
Population TRENDS AND HOUSING*
According to estimates of the population of Pennsylvania,
more than 13,000 dwellings per year will be needed throughout
the next decade merely to house additional population.
Families and Marriages. -
As the population grows older, the relative number of
children and the size of the family decrease and, for a time,
the number of families increases faster than the population as a
*See section on Fopulation.
370
whole. At the same time various social and economic forces
tend to decrease the size of the family unit seeking separate
accomodation. That all these factors must be studied in re-
lation to the housing problem whenever fresh information is
available is proved by the experience of England. There, after
10 years of constant governmental effort to relieve a housing
shortage, and the construction of approximately 1,250,000 state-
aided houses, it was found that the deficiency in relation to
family units was almost as great at the end as at the beginning.
This was because families had increased faster than population.
A factor of importance in 8. housing program is a sudden
jump in the marriage rate. Last year, after declining steadily
in 1930, 1931 and 1932, the number of marriages in Pennsylvania.
increased from 56,085 in 1932 to 63,459. With any signs of real
economic recovery a further large increase may be expected with
a corresponding direct rise in the demand for housing.
Location Trends
The movement of population from rural areas to urban has
been halted temporarily at least. That part of the population
of the larger cities which migrated to smaller towns may possi-
bly stay there, but the thousands of families who moved out to
sub-marginal farm territory probably will return to industrial
centers as soon as there is any real opportunity for employment.
For a few years the estimated average drift of 5000 persons per
year may be sharply increased. It is estimated 1500 new non-
farm dwellings per year would take care of this movement. In
371
several of the smaller Pennsylvania centers, those with diver-
sifiéd'industrieś; ºthere is already"añ acute housing shortage.
In Meadville, county seat of Crawford County, bankers, indus-
trialists, realtors and trade unions have joined in petitioning
the Federal Government for aid in the construction of badly
needed dwellings.
Even if the large cities grow proportionally with the
small ones, the effects of slowing down must be felt in the
house-production field. The administration of our cities and . .
our methods of financing residential construction have alike
been geared to rapid growth. The new subway or rapid transit
line could always be paid for later on out of increased assess-
ments. People could, with a relative degree of safety, buy
property or construct houses on a shoe-string, just as they
bought stocks on slender margins. The opposite is true at
present . Some cities have already rezoned central districts
at a lower degree of density. Speculative financing, short-
term mortgages with high discounts and bonuses, high rates of
interest, were all part of a scheme of house-production which,
even if there were no depression, would find itself unable to
meet a revolutionary new situation.
Stranded populations, particularly in the coal regions,
form a special problem which Pennsylvania housing and planning
authorities will be called upon to face. Any Federal or State-
aided large-scale housing program would of necessity be one of
372
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the strongest factors in such a movement.
As a basis it is estimated that 10,000 dwelling units are
a minimum first need in long-time planning for the rehabili-
tation of stranded workers.
needs FOR THE NEXT 10 YEARS
Immediate needs: Number of dwelling units
To replace accumulated sub-standard -
areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225,000
To meet the quentitative shortage. . . . . . . . . .100,000
To re-locate stranded populations. . . . . . . . . . 10,000
~335,505
Annual needs per year for rext ten years:
To balance population increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,000
Farm to nonfarm drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l; 500
TT, EC6
If the immediate needs were to be met in the first five
years, in addition to annual needs, it would mean 81,000 new
dwellings per year for five years and 14,500 thereafter. The
1 per cent replacement rate might then go into effect, adding
22,500 and making a total of 37,000 per year, for the last
five years.
The total for 10 years ºrould be just under 600,000, or an
increase of approximately one-fourth over the total present e
number of dwellings. At the same time, 362,000 dwellings unfit
for habitation would have been demolished .
373
CAPACITY TO PAY
1. Rent Levels a 1930 and Now
In 1930, median rentals on non-farm homes in Pennsylvania
were: In the state as a whole $26.9l; urban, $31.29; rural non-
farm, $13.26.
* serving chart shows median rentals by counties.
They ranged from less than $10.00 in four counties to $31.55 in
Montgomery, $33.03 in Allegheny, $36.8l in Philadelphia, and
$38.75 in Delaware. -
How 'rent-levels have fallen since 1930 is shown by the
following from the Real Property Inventory :
Median Rentals %
1930 (Census) 1934 (RPI) Decrease
Allegheny County $33.03 $23.60 29
Pittsburgh 36.81 25.70 3O
Erie (City) 30,55 21.00 31
Williamsport 29,71 19.05 36
Philadelphia (14 41.00 29. OO . 29
wards with 960,000
population, central
slum districts not
included)
Advance reports from a recent intensive survey of the fam-
ilies in every tenth block in Allegheny County, show the follow-
ing with regard to tenant families :
Median nominal rentals per annum
1929 - 1933 decrease
$353 $284 20%
The median ratio of nominal rental to total family income
374
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in 1933 was, however, about 43 per cent, with the obvious re-
sult. Thirty-nine per cent of the families reported that they
Were behind in rent payments. The annual rent bill of these
families was $4,905,100 in 1933. But their total unpaid rent
amounted to #1,318,460. The same 16,000 Allegheny County
tenant families reported that the following facilities were in-
cluded in their rents in 1929 and 1933.
Facilities included in rent Percentage of families reporting
- 1929 1933.
Furnishings - l.02 1 - 12
Electricity 3.52 5 e O8
Gas 3.84 5.63
Water 66.97 80s 83
Heat 6, 67 10, 69
Refrigeration l. 31 3. C4
Garage 3.02 4.8l
From a survey of application blanks, from 1929 to date, of
recipients of Mothers Assistance Fund aid, it is shown that the
median rental for this income-group was $16.20. Seventy per
cent of these families were overcrowded as to rooms.
2. Family Incomes
A better gauge of the market which must be met, if new hous-
ing is to be both produced and consumed, can be derived from
the following tables, which show advance tabulations from an in-
tensive housing survey recently completed by the Bureau of Busi-
ness Research of the University of Pittsburgh. This survey
covered about every tenth block in Allegheny County and is one
of the primary sources of data on family-income groups.
Family-income groups of present tenants in Allegheny
County for 1929, 1932 and 1933, by quartiles, were as follows:
375
Famir Income Gägues, airrºr gourº Familms, 1933°
INCOME GROUPS O W N E R S f E N A N T S T O T A L.
Number of cases and cumulative percentages)
$l -- 249 l303 lºs4 2261 25el 3564 2 le5
25O -- 499 l756 33,6 sea so.” acco w."
500 -- 749 1642 46.9 2239 54.8 zeal 51.4
750 -- 999 l245 57e O 1731 ce.8 2976 6le.9
lOOO -- la Q9 l94l 72.7 243.l 80s,8 4372 77.3
l500 -- l999 1357 85.7 lºS8. 90el 2845 87.5
2000 -- 2999 ll38 93.l lC64 96,7 2252 95.2
3OOO -- 4499 556 97.6 407 99.5 263 ge.”
4500 - 7499 lº& 99.2 32 99e 8 280 99.5
7500 lCl 100.0 36 loC),0 137 looe,0
All Families lz,370 l6,030 º 28,400
From advance tabulations of a survey covering about every “tenth block in
Allegheny County, conducted by the Bureau of Business Research of The
University of Pittsburgh,
376
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1929 1932 1933
25% families, under $775 $355 F275
50% of families, under $1236 $726 $649
75% of families, under $1964 #1385 #1225
The table on Allegheny County incomes shows median incomes
for 1933 as follows: Owners, #827; tenants, $663; average, $726.
More than 80 per cent of the families who are now tenants
cannot afford to pay more than $20.00 a month rent. There is no
reason to suppose that these figures would be greatly different
for the whole State. Mordecai Ezekiel, economic adviser for
the Agricultural Departinent, recently stated that a moderately
full life for a family under American conditions would cost
$2500 a year. The median income of families in the State, if
the Allegheny County survey is a fair index, is $726 from all
SOURI" C6 S •
THE BUILDING INDUSTRY
l. Building Trades Workers
In 1920, according to the Bureau of the Census, 213,743
workers in Pennsylvania were directly dependent on the building
trades for employment. This was the seventh largest occupa-
tional group in the State. In 1930 the building trades group
showed the second highest rate of unemployment, and in 1934,
according to a survey by the State Department of Labor and
Industry, almost three-fourths of all construction workers
were totally without employment. This was a proportion almost
double that of the next highest, the coal miners.
378

-- Percentage of Unemployment
Seven largest occupations Number of Aug. 1930 Oct. 1934
Pennsylvania 1930 (Census) workers (U. S. Census) Dept. Labor
- and Industry
l. Trade 562, 940 4.l 8.4
2. Transportation and
Communication 323,982 6.0 32.9
3. Coal mining 296,694 22.l 4.l.. O
4. Textile and clothing 266,981 19.6 27.9
5. Metal 266,978 10.2 38.5
6. Transportation
equipment 235,541 8.3 35.3
7. Building construction 213,743 18.4 74.2
Many other industries, however, depended indirectly, to a
greater or less degree, on activity in the building trades.
"Hourly wage rates for union labor in the building trades,"
says the Department of Labor and Industry, "were cut sharply
during the year ending May 15, 1932. Analysis of union agree-
ments shows wage decreases in 1932 for 27 out of 30 building
trade occupations, the reductions in many instances dropping to
the wage level of 1924. The average union rate for all build-
ing trade occupations on May 15, 1932, was $1.129 an hour as
compared with $1.217 an hour on May 15, 1931, a decrease of
#.088 an hour, or 7.2 per cent."
Approximately 40 per cent of the net building dollar, ac-
cording to a study made in 1932 by the Bureau of Labor Statis-
tics in Washington, goes for construction labor on the site.
This excludes all overhead, profits, land and finance costs,
379
fees, etc. None of the cities surveyed were in Pennsylvania, -
but the proportions were constant throughout. For residential
construction the proportion was somewhat higher in 1928, approxi-
mately 46 per cent, and slightly lower in 1932(37 per cent).
- The proportion of construction labor cost in the selling
price of a typical small house put up by an operative builder
in the 1920's rarely would have amounted to more than 25 per
cent. Other things remaining the same, a reduction of 20 per
cent in building wages would result in a price-saving of only
about 5 per cent.
2. Productive Capacity
An analysis based on actual operations at the hosiery work-
ers' apartments, now nearing completion in Philadelphia, esti-
mates that one construction man, working an average of 24 hours
per week, can produce about three rooms per year.
º The 214,000 Pennsylvania building trades workers, if work-
ing steadily and entirely engaged in residential construction,
therefore could erect about 642,000 rooms in a year, or approxi-
mately lé0,000 small arouins. averaging four rooms each. Since
the maximum annual output envisaged in a quantitative program
of needs is around el,000, this would engage only about half of
the total available building trades workers and would by no
means absorb all the men at present unemployed.
Figures on dwelling units constructed since 1920 are avail-
able for the 15 cities of more than 50,000 population, contain-
ing 38 per cent of the people of the State.* In the decade 1920
* Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor, and
Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry.
380
HOSIERY WORKERS' HOUSING:
One of the few limited div-
idend projects receiving a
loan from the PWA, the Carl
Mackley Houses in Philadelphia
consist of 295 apartments on
a 4% acre block planned with
no interior traffic streets-
COAL-MINERS' HOUSING: A company-owned town typical of the
853 villages in the soft-coal region surveyed by the State
Department of Health in 1928- Photograph by courtesey of
Mr. Howard Bronson, Housing Engineers
F1 GURE NO. 34.



to 1930, 153,459 mew family accomodations were erected in these
cities, and in 1930 approximately 17 per cent of all the fam-
ilies lived in dwellings put up after 1920. The number of
families increased by about 139,255 during the same period.
Since the population increase for the State as a whole was pro-
portionally similar, it is fair to assume that the rate of new
construction for the State must have been similar. The 15-city
rate would, if applied to the State as a whole, have produced
about 395,000 new dwellings in Pennsylvania from 1920 through
l929. At this rate the present number of families could be
entirely rehoused in about 57 years.
The past four years, l030-1933, show a different picture.
Only 8,484 new units have been put up in the lă cities, a rate
which would produce about 21,800 for the State as a whole.
Average annual increase Rate per 1000
in dwelling units, lä families
lārgest cities w
1920-1929 15,346 • 17.64
1930-1933 2, 121 2.44
The annual value of building permits (a rough gauge of net
construction costs) in the 10-year period for the 15 largest *
cities was $80,129,990. At the same rate, the State as a whole
would have spent about $206, 201,740 per year for construction.
The value per year in the 1930-1933 period declined to about
one-eight of this. Allowing 40 per cent of cost for wages, it
is apparent that the money available from residential construc-
tion for the annual wages of Pennsylvania's 214,000 construc-
38l
tion workers dropped from an average of about $82,500,000 in the
1920's to a little more than $10,000,000 in the 1930's.
Actual productive capacity can be estimated a little more
closely. Each of these là cities had a peak production year.
for new dwellings, ranging from 1922 to 1927. Presumably, if
Allentown was able to build 814 new homes in 1926, it could be
done again. Adding together the dwellings produced in the peak
years of all the cities, a total of 25,870 units is the known
productive capacity of the 15 communities. Applied to the State
as a whole, this rate of dwelling production would result in
66,570 dwellings per year and would rehouse the present number
of families in about 34 years. The amortization rate currently
in use by the Housing Division of the Public works Administra-
tion is 35 years, and 40 years is estimated by Mr. Newman as
the average useful life of a dwelling put up under present con-
ditions.
Large-scale Methods. "
Any effective large-scale program of low-cost housing,
whether achieved with government intervention or without, would
have to take advantage of all possible economics to be derived
from large-scale operations and mass-production methods. The
interjection of large-scale methods perhaps would constitute a
complete revolution. However, it has been many decades since
any sizable proportion of new dwellings has been produced in-
dividually, or tailor-made for the family intending to occupy
them. Ten per cent has been given as a high estimate for the
382
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- --~~~ -
CHATHAM WILLAGE:
a neighborhood of row
houses put up in 1932
for rent on a limited
dividend basis to white
collar workers of
Pittsburgh, by the
Buhl Foundations
i
-
- - -
-
Typical row-houses in Philadelphia, put up by an operative
builder for sale. The original cost was probably about the
same as for the Chatham Willage houses shown above-
FIGURE NO. 36



number of houses in Philadelphia constructed directly to the
order of the occupants.
Elsewhere the proportion might be
slightly higher, but in any case it would constitute only the
houses of the upper-income group.
Of the 12,370 home-owners
covered in the Internsive Survey of Allegheny County, less than
25 per cent reported that their houses had been built for them.
In Philadelphia operations have been large, usually cover-
ing a block at least.
have tended to be somewhat smaller
l, Normal costs and Present Needs
PRIVATE ENTERPRISE
In the western section of the State they
Despite various governmental measures intended to prime.
building business, almost no new dwellings are being construct-
ed.
The
average value of residential building permits per
dwelling unit in the 15 largest cities since 1920, was as
follows:
Year
1920
1921
1922
1923.
1924
1925
1926
Average Construction
Cost per Dwelling Unit
$6447
52.7l
4694
5448
56.68
5954
4988
Average Construction
Year Cost per Dwelling Unit
1927 $48ll
1928. 4707
1929 4801
1930 4991
1931 4551
1932 4046 .
1933 3812.
An accompanying chart indicates the usual spread between
cost as indicated by building permits and selling pricein Phila-
delphia . . The increase over cost ranges from 64 per cent in 1925
383
to 43 per cent in 1933. The spread in certain other cities,
notably in Pittsburgh, probably would be relatively greater,
due to higher land costs. and more bonuses and commissions on
second mortgages.
These are only average figures, and a certain number of
dwellings were put up which cost substantially less . . The dis-
tribution is indicated in a study made by the Philadelphia
Housing Association. The proportionate number of new one-fam-
ily houses selling below $5000 in Philadelphia has been as
follows: 1924 to 1927, 4.0 per cent; 1928, 5.3 per cent; 1929,
l3.2 per cent; 1930, 18.9 per cent; 1931, 30.8 per cent; lºS2,
65.7 per cent; 1933, 46.1 per cent.
The share of new construction selling under $5000 would have
been considerably less in Pittsburgh and several other cities.
Warious authorities, including the Bureau of Standards,
say that a $5000 house, even when financed by the most econical
means available, cannot legitimately be paid for except by fam-
ilies with regular annual incomes of between $2000 and $3000,
the former only in highly exceptional circumstances. And, ac-
cording to estimates by Dr. Edith Elmer Wood and the authors
of "America's Capacity to Consume," only one-third to one-half
of American non-farm families had incomes of over $2000 in 1929.
Results of the Allegheny County Survey if applied to the entire
State indicate only one out of eight families has an income of
$2000, or over.
That the cost of an average house has more than doubled
384.
NEW BUILDING
IN THE WRONG PRICE RANGE
PHILADELPHIA AROUND 1930.
S 15.0 OO AND ovek.
S 12.500 TC S 15.O.O.O.
}ºo
§§ °ſo OF FAM ILIES BY
Hº- ! N COME RANGES.
*o OF NEW COMSTRUCTION
S |O.OOO [T] º sº PRICE .
S 5,000 Tö 7| Gºo
OO
TO
ul S 6.00 § 3.34%
> º
O
O
z s4.o.o.o S e.goo Tols loopo 19.2°ſo
S 3.OOO S 6,000 TO S 8.G.O.O. - slowl
i
TO
S 4.OO
S 2.000 || S 4 OCO TO 5 6.O.O.C. 16.6}ºo
TO
s 3.000; .48 º'e
BELOW
S 2.00 wº
PERCENT-To IO 2O 30 40 SO GO
PHILADELPHIA HOUSING ASS N. F GUR E N O. 87





since before the war is partly the result of increased util-
ities and equipment - bathroom, garages, pipelines, etc. , but
speculative land prices, expensive construction loans, mort-
gages, bonuses, fees, commissions, sales and promotion costs
and numerous other more or less intengible factors all tended
to keep original costs high .
The cost of housing cannot be measured by original price
alone. Few people buy houses outright for cash, and they must
pay taxes and upkeep. Monthly payments or rents may be high
or loºſ in relation to original cost, depending largely on
methods of financing. Annual costs to occupants excluding
amortization in the case of owners in relation to the original
cost range from 6 to 8 per cent on various contemplated govern-
mental projects, to 15 per cent or more for the more speculative
type of apartments. The Committee on Large Scale Operations in
President Hoover's Conference on Home suilding estimated that a
decline of l per cent in the interest rate alone would reduce
rentals by 8 per cent.
1, Home-Ownership and the Financial Interests
The greater part of the energies of private home-building
enterprise during the past 15 years has been devoted to the pro-
motion of individual home-ownership. In 1930, 53.6 per cent of
Pennsylvania Census families owned their own homes. The rate
for the United States as a whole was 46.8 per cent. Pennsyl-
vania, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Rhode Island
were the only states which in 1930 showed more than 20 per cent
395
increase in home-ownership. At the end of December, 1933,
according to G. W. Cliffe, Secretary of the Pennsylvania
League of Building and Loan Associations, there were in this
State 2,948 building and loan associations with outstanding
loans of $957,800,000. A large share of this investment is in
individually owned small houses.
The picture is not complete, however, without mention of
the rate of foreclosures, particularly in Philadelphia. Houses
on sheriff's sale listings, of which more than 90 per cent were
actually sold, increased from 5,298 in 1926 to a high mark of
20,823 in 1932, dropping to 19,571 in 1933. The total for
eight years was ll4,898, or about one-fourth of the residential
structures in the city.”
Few of these foreclosures were due to tax delinquencies
because of a local law which makes the city assume mortgage
obligations in tax foreclosures. "The 3,437 Building and Loan
Associations which were operative in Philadelphia in 1925, "
- says the 1933 report of the Philadelphia Housing Association,
"had dropped by March, 1934, to 2,256. Of these, 342 were be-
ing liquidated, 470 were being operated under restrictions and
only l, 444 were active."
The mediam value of owner-occupied non-farm homes in 1930
was as follows tº state, #5206; Urban, 5830; Rural non-farm,
* Figures From Harry Moul of the Philadelphia Housing Association.
*Figures from U. S. Census.
386
The range by counties extended from $1702 in. Potter to
;7674 in Delaware. Median values, as estimated by owners in
$ 9
1930 and 1934, were as follows:*
- Percent
1930 Census 1934 (RPI) Decrease
Allegheny County $6658 $5724 l4
Pittsburgh 7058 5725 19
McKeesport 598O 4295 28
Erie 6514 4530 31
The fact that tax assessments have not been greatly reduced
and that their monthly payments have not suffered any general -
reduction, probably has tended to keep home-owners a trifle
over-optimistic. Median rentals came down more than 30 per
cent in the same areas from 1930 to l934. On the intensive sur-
vey in Allegheny County it was found that the median income of
owner-occupant families in 1933 was $827, but the median esti-
mated value of their homes was $5,20l. Obviously such a sit-
uation could not continue indefinitely. These same home-owners,
whose median year of home purchase was l923, estimated the com-
bined market value of their 12,000 homes was now only about 8%
per cent lower than the price paid originally.
Money for new construction by private enterprise must come
from the same agencies, practically, which financed construce
tion in the 1920's and which now hold such a large share of
that construction in foreclosure. The influence of this fect
on the present attitude toward efforts to stimulate new con-
struction cannot be overestimated. The 1933 Report of the
* Figures from U. S. Census.
387
Philadelphia Housing Association says:
"The need for more low cost, low renting houses is gen-
erally recognised. There is, nevertheless, an effective
opposition to their construction. Many corporate owners of
dwellinge, largely those who acquired title through fore-
closure for nonpayment of amortization, interest or taxes,
are adversely influencing building programs and this attitude
is sustained by mortage lending agencies who seek a wider
margin between the market value of dwellings and the face value
of the mortgages they hold thereon."
"Underlying this argument is the belief that corporate own-
ſers and mortages investors are entitled to a monopoly in hous-
ing until residential real estate may be sold or rented without
a loss on the original investment, and until losses suffered by
non-rent payments can be recouped." -
"It this policy and the arguments which support it were un-
debatable, society might well apply the same reasoning to all
fields..... and say that "rio more automobiles shall be built un-
til all the existing ones are again worth their original pur-
chase price.”
"Business recovery will not result from compulsory price
raising (i.e. by creating a tale, searcity) when opportunities
for work are withhold." .
The remainder of that report shows how the present impasse
is the logical result, not of overproduction or of the depression
itself, but of risky loan practices, failure to allow for de-
388
preciation and obsolescence, the encouragement of "over-
building in the wrong price range and overbuying by families
of limited resources, " and similar conditions •
FEDERAL HOUSING AGENCIES OPERATING IN PENNSYLVANIA
A complete summary of policies and achievements of Federal
Housing agencies operating in this State is being prepared. A
brief outline follows.
1. Housing Division of the Public Works Administration
One Federal loan to a limited dividend project of 295 apart-
ments for the American Federation of Hosiery Workers - now
nearing completion in Philadelphia.
* Public Works Emergency Housing Corporation
An "allocation" of $4,000,000 for slum clearance in Phila-
delphia has been announced, but no site has been selected
and no organization set up.
3. Home Owners Loan Corporation
About 30,000 loans amounting to about $60,000,000. Purely a
re-financing agency. -
4. Subsistance Homesteads Division
One project nearing completion of 250 homesteads costing
$625,000, nine miles from Greensburg, Westmoreland County,
for "stranded" soft-coal miners.
** Federal Housing Administration
Federal guarantee for an indeterminate but probably not
very large number of loans for "modernization and repair"
of miccle-class homes. No new constructions.
CONCLUSION
A great need in housing is the organization of consumer
demand. The experience of all foreign countries has been that
low cost housing is not provided in sufficient volume until
demand is mobilized by consumer organization and pressure
developed to obtain needed action by governmental bodies.
389
Every encouragement should be given to the formation of groups
that will work toward the construction of new housing suited
to the needs of those who are now living under sub-standard
conditions.
There is at present no legal authority or other public
agency in Pennsylvania, either State-wide or local, empowered
to cooperate with the Federal Government in housing matters or
to initiate low-cost housing projects of its own. It is re-
commended that legislation be enacted creating a State Housing
Authority.
390
SOCIAL SECURITY”
Among the great challenges to our generation are the con-
tingencies menacing the security of individuals and consequent-
ly the social security of the Nation, The problem of how best
to meet them is being given profound study by the Federal gov-
ernmente But we, in Pennsylvania, must reach decisions inde-
pendently on these problems as they touch us.
The need for unemployment insurance and old age pensions
in Pennsylvania has frequently been emphasized. This State has
'adopted certain forms of social insurance, such as Workmen's
Compensation legislation, provision for assistance to mothers
and pensions for the blind. Do we want further social insur-
ance? Its advocates maintain that its benefits in the preser-
vation of life, reduction of suffering and increase of human
welfare far outweigh acturial difficulties and other object-
ions. Its opponents assert that the present tax burden is as
high as can be borne; that no comprehensive plan can meet
grave National crises out of the reserves of the past, and,
that therefore, in times of stress, we would be forced to draw
upon the resources of the future, precisely as the city, county,
state and nation have been forced to do in the present emergen-
cy. They point out such troublesome questions as the lack of
FIn part based on an unpublished report, "Suggestions for a
Program of Social Relief and Economic Security in Pennsyl-
vania," by We C. Plummer, Ph.D., , Professor of Economics,
University of Pennsylvania, for the State Emergency. Relief
Boarde
391
. . . . .
data with which to determine the cost of such service with
mathematical accuracy and upon which to base rates, and con-
tend that private enterprise is better fitted than governmental
agencies to administer such activities. But to these and other
objections, the proponents reply: "They are insignificant in
comparison with the positive function of social insurance, the
certain relief of human suffering."
Assuming that we do decide that further social insurance
in Pennsylvania is desirable, should we consider a complete
protection program against the loss of a right to earn a liv-
ing? Should we place our chief emphasis upon unemployment
insurance, as President Roosevelt did in his recent address
before, the Committee on Economic Security? Should we consider
sickness and health insurance, old age insurance, maternity
benefits, survivors" insurance at this time or wait until the
matter of unemployment insurance is settled? Should we have a
separate type of insurance for each risk, or consider the pos-
sibility of complete coverage? Should we devote our energies
to improvement of types of insurance we already have, such as
Workmen's Compensation?
Secretary of Labor Perkins, in an introduction to Mr.
Abraham Epstein's work, "Insecurity--A Challenge to America,"
says: “Unemployment, sickness, accident, death and old age
manifest themselves in terrible individual experiences, and
create social conditions which call for immediate solution.
Most European countries have Nation-wide unemployment insur-
393
ance, medical care provisions and other forms of social insur-
ance. We in America are yet too involved in discussions, in
comparisons of different methods, in speculation on possible
outcomes, while reality calls for actions"
Insurance under private mangement has sought to provide
against some of these contingencies, the State has sought to
help individuals face others. Legislative requirements for
Workmen's compensation, compel insurance to be carried by
the State, private companies or authorized self insurers •
The financial situation forced upon many a family by the
death of a breadwinner, including dependency of a widow, orphans
or others, can be met to a certain extent • The blow can be
softened. Similarly we can offer hope to those facing the pro-
blems of old age, with its attendant infirmities and lessened
capacity for self-care. The same is true in cases of accident,
special conditions such as blindness, unemployment, physical and
mental sickness, each of which may be regarded as reasonably
inevitable for a definite proportion of the population.
The precise time at which any one of these blons may fall
is unpredictable. But, by spreading the risk, we can try, to
protect ourselves • Direct relief measures, pensions and social
insurance have been the tools devised to act as cushions to
soften the shocks which, experience has shown, will come in
numbers that may be estimated with a fair degree of accuracy e
However, we must face the fact that none of these methods pro-
vides, in itself, a complete cure • Human ingenuity has done
393
little, except in such fields as accident reduction and pre-
ventive medicine, to evolve anything but palliatives.
Unemployment Insurance.
Unemployment insurance, with an attendant payroll tax, is
predicted as a part of the Federal Administration program for
the coming Congress. President Roosevelt's economic security
experts have regarded insurance as the first line of defense a-
gainst recurring periods of unemployment • But wide diversity
of opinion exists on the various details of such insurance, the
method of anning it, the length of time that benefits should
be paid, the amount of benefits, how funds should be raised.
The President, in his address already referred to, said :
"For the administration of insurance benefits, the States are
the most logical units. . . Not only will there have to be a
Federal law on unemployment insurance but State laws will also
be needed."
In view of this statement, the most eareful study possible
should be given by Pennsylvania to the drafting of an unemploy-
ment bill which will not only meet the needs of the State but
fit into the National program adequately. A number of National
social insurance schemes of different types have been put into
operation in Europe, with varying degrees of success. Some
have bogged down because they have been inadequately or inex-
pertly financed. Experience by the British has tended to
prove that governmental operation rather than private adminis-
tration results in great economy. Investigating committees in
394
various States have studied the subject and adequate data is
available for drafting an immediate plan for Pennsylvania.
Despite the general interest in the subject and the number
of bills relating to it which have been introduced in the var-
ious state legislatures, Wisconsin alone has enacted an unem-
ployment insurance law so far. The beneficiaries under this
plan ere industrial workers only. All others and part time
workers are excluded. The employes of employers of less than
ten persons are excluded, as are workers earning more than
$1,500 a year. Two preceding years residence or forty weeks
work in the State is specified, with two weeks work for the
specific employer. A worker may be disqualified, for "miscon-
duct," quitting "without cause," or not applying for work at
prevailing rates. Unicrl standards are not protected.
Much controversy has developed over how long an insured
worker should have to wait before participating in benefits.
The Wisconsin act specifies two weeks, while others vary from
no period of waiting to eight weeks. The length of benefit in
Tisconsin is limited to not inore than ten weeks in any one year
arid not more tiºn one Week to every four weeks of employment
in the previous year. It specifies that benefits shall not be
more than $10 per week or 50 per cent of wages. The minimum
is $5, or less for part time workers. Contributicms are made
by the earloyer only ; never more than 2 per cent of the pay-
roll and less when the reserve is considered adequate. Indiv-
idual plant reserves are specified but are held by the State.
395
Administration is by the State Industrial Commission • The
worker must file a claim which the employer may dispute. The
employer may set up and sºmeter a private plan if the Con-
mission approves •
A measure similar to the Wagner-Lewis bill, sidetracked at
the last session of Congress, may be introduced at the coming
session. The bill met that requirement specified by President
Roosevelt when he said: "I am still of the opinion that this
part of social insurance should be a cooperative Federal-State
undertaking." (November lºth address) The income limit was set
at $3,000. Otherwise the provisions concerning beneficiaries
were, in general, like those of the Wisconsin act, "approved
standards" for State laws having been provided . A 5 per cent
tax on employers was suggested as the source of funds, with
payments under "approved" State unemployment insurance laws
credited. To quote again from the same address by President
Roosevelt: "It (unemployment insurance) must be financed by
contributions, not taxes." While the contributions" of the
employer in this instance would be compulsory, experts hold
they would not bar the way for a similar measure, as the
amount paid by the employer for unemployment insurance under
any state plan might be deducted from this tax.
The questions before Pennsylvania, then if the Legisla-
ture deems passage of an unemployment measure wise, are: Does
the proposed bill provi e adequately for cooperation with the
Federal measure which seems likely of enactment? Should bene-
396
ficiaries include all occupations, whether industrial, agri-
cultural, domestic or professional?. Should benefits cover all
time lost, and if not, how much? What previous residence and
employment requirements should be specified? What provisions
should be considered for protection against discriminations,
for union membership, etce? Should part time workers be cov-
ered? Should trade union wage standards be protected? Should
a waiting period be established, or should the insured become
eligible to benefits upon loss of employment? What should be
the amount of benefit? Shóuld private plans be permitted?
How should the administration be cared for? How soon should
the benefits begin after passage of the law? Her men of the
cost of involuntary unemployment should the individual worker
and his family bear, either through contributions, Waiting
periods, limits of amount of benefit (either by proportion of
or length of benefit period) security of the fund?
Two of the most controversial points in unemployment in-
surance discussions have been the period of waiting before re-
ceiving benefits and the amount of benefit. In the former,
the various plans under consideration in the United States
have shown a variation from no waiting period at all to eight
weeks. The most liberal proposal suggested that the amount of.
benefit should be equal to the average local wages, in no case
less than $10 a week, plus $3 for each dependent. This was in-
corporated in a bill also introduced in the last Congress. The
Wagner-Lewis bill, of especial interest as a possible groundworx
397
for future measures, specified $7 a week or twenty hours pay,
with liability of the fund at all times to be limited to its
resources • The Ohio plan, introduced in the Legislature of
that state after long study by an Unemployment Commission,
specifies not over $15 or 50 per cent of wages. The Minne-
sota plan suggests 40 per cent of Wages • The Massachusetts
King bill provides not over $10 a week, or 50 per cent of
wages, with rates lowered or stopped when the plant reserve
is insufficient • New York's Byrne bill provides for $5 to
#15 a week, not over 75 per cent of wages. The American
Association for Labor Legislation "standard" bill provides
for not over $15 a week or 50 per cent of wages and the Ameri-
can Association for Social Security "standard" bill for not
over $10 or 40 per cent of wages, with a $2.50 maximum allow-
ance for a wife and $l.25 for a child, provided the total is
not more than $5.
Two points can be noted in practically all of these plans
--the individual worker rather than industry bears the largest
share of the burden and in every major crisis, the plans sug-
gested are in essentials only a supplement, not a substitute,
for a relief program.
Among the objections raised to social insurance in gener-
al and unemployment insurance in particular is the lack of
statistics on Which to base a rate • Experts have answered that
unemployment is a definite economic hazard resulting in measur-
able economic losses and measurable economic distress s.
398
Another objection has been the "catastrophe hazard" common to
all insurance and typified in this instance by the recurrence
of depressions which would tend to wipe out reserves. Advo-
cates of unemployment insurance hold that such recurrences
may be reckoned with and reserves provided to meet them,
whereas in other types periodicity of the catastrophe is not
even remotely predictable. For instance, an epidemic might
wipe out a great number of lives, a fire or tornado or earth-
quake might destroy a city. In each case a tremendous load
would be thrown unexpectedly on the insurance covering that
particular contingency. But the companies have no way of
telling whether the next epidemic or fire or tornado or earth-
quake will follow immediately or many years elapse before the
next similar catastrophee
As for the argument that fraud and malingering would
prove an insurmountable handicap, it is pointed out that while
these things form dangers present in every kind of risk under-
written, no one advances this as an argument for the abolition
of all insurance •
Obviously, the most important immediate step is to reach
some measure of agreement among proponents of unemployment in-
surance. The types advocated may be divided into three main
groups, differing chiefly in the manner each attempts to deal
with these points: Should legislation impose contributions
upon the worker as upon the employer? should a separate re-
serve be established for each employer in the State fund or
599
should all of the reserves be thrown into one single pool?
Should the government contribute to the unemployment reserves?
Should the law be used to prevent unemployment by stabilizing
industry or should it be used primarily as a relief measure?
Of the three main proposals, the one that seems to have
met with the greatest approval up to the present time is the in-
dividual reserve plan for insurance. This proposed method of
establishing an adequate fund for unemployment insurance has
the endorsement of the American Federation of Labor, the Gover-
nor's Interstate Commission appointed by Executives of seven
eastern states and the American Association for Labor Legisla-
tion. It has been recommendéd by legislative committees in
Massachusetts, California, and other states. Its distinguishing
features are : (1) Contributions are made by employers only. (2)
Employers' accounts are kept separate, except that two or more
employers in the same industry or locality may merge their ac-
counts in a joint account, or Inay be required to do so by the
proper administrative authority if such action is desirable in
order to safeguard the reserves or carry out the purposes of the
plan. (3) The government does not contribute to the support of
the system. (4) The law may be drafted making unemployment
reserves or insurance primarily a relief measure, or it may go
further and attempt to stabilize industry or regulate employ-
ment, as in the case of the Wisconsin law.
The second of the three main plans is that proposed by
400
the Ohio Commission on Unemployment insurance. Highlights are:
(l) Contributions are made by both employers and employes.
(2) Reserves go into a state-wide pool. Since benefits are
paid from this central pool, a sharing and distribution of
risk, characteristic of insurance, results. A merit system
providing for the payment of higher premiums by those whose
records show a high rate of unemployment, was recommended by
the Commission. (3) The government does not contribute to
the support of the system. (4) The plan does not purport to
abolish unemployment or to regulate employment; it is primarily
a relief measure •
In Philadelphia, the Permanent Committee on Unemployment
of the Châmber of Commerce has submitted a report in wriich,
with some variations, it advocates a system of the same gener-
al type as that proposed by the Ohio Commission.
The salient features of the third plan, which is found in
Great Britain and other wropean countries, are : (1) Contribu-
tions are made by both employers and employes. 2) funds are
kept in a general pool. i. 3) Government contributes to the
funds. (4) Attempts are made to insure against the hazards of
unemployment, but the plan does not pretend to care uneing loy-
ment nor to stabilize production. While this scheme--the only
one of the three providing for governmental contributions to.
the reserves--has been advocated by a number of writers and
students of the subject, it has received little practical sup-
port so far as the best or most expedient plan for enactment.
40l.
into legislation in this Country •
A critical analysis of unemployment insurance which is
most illuſaināting and Worthy of attention is that prepared by
Kenneth L. M. Pray and published in Survey '69: 195—44, March,
1933. It represents the composite view cf an enlightened
group of Philadelphians, but is altogether too long for incor-
peration or even condensation in this report.
Health insurance.
Two types of sickness insurance have been suggested in
the United States. During the period immediately following
l915, bills to provide a substitute for wages lost as a re-
sult of sickness were introduced in a number of Legislatures,
&nd semittees were appointed in several states to study the
project. After the Report of the Cornmittee on the Cost of
Medical Care (1932) had been presented, a second campaign was
launched, this time urging passage of an insurance law that
would cover the cost of medical care. Thus far no action has
been taken by any of the States in regard to either proposal.
The Board feels that in planning for social security this sub-
ject should be considered, and this will be incorporated in
the study on Health.
Other Forms of Social Security.
ln view of the fact . that the trend seems definitely in
the direction of categorical insurance, that is, a separate
system of insurance for each type of risk, these questions
must be answered for the Commonwealth.
402
What, if anything, should be done about old age pensions?”
Whāt, if anything, should be dome about survivors' insur-
- 8 nGe?
What other subjects should be considered under the head-
ing of shortcomings from the standpoint of complete coverage,
such as maternity benefits?
What, if anything, should be done toward the improvement
of Pennsylvania's Workmen's Compensation Act?
Tsee section on TFublic social Welfare" for discussion of Sið
Age Pensions & Mothers' Assistance.
403
workMen's CowPENSATION")
Pennsylvania ranks lowest of all the leading industrial
states in liberality of its Workmen's Compensation Act.(?)
It is twenty-ninth among all the states in maximum amounts
paid for total disability; thirty-first in maximum weeks and
percentage of wages for total disability and fortieth in maxi-
mum amounts paid to widows in fatal cases.
* The system has shortcomings from the standpoint of cover-
age and defects of administration. Passed originally to trans-
fer the cost of industrial accidents in wages lost and in medi-
cal care from the worker to industry, it has resulted in the
injured worker bearing a very large share of the cost. For
partial disability, he received 65 per cent of his wages, pro-
vided that does not amount to more than $15 a week. A minimum
of $7 a week is specified, unless the weekly wage of the work-
er is less than that sum, in which case full pay is magnani-
mously provided. But in any event, the injured worker must
wait seven days before compensation becomes effective.
The report of the Governor's Committee on Workmen's
Compensation contains a severe arraignment of Pennsylvania's
workmen's compensation law. Recommendations of the Committee
for legislation to strengthen the Act should be given serious
consideration.
(l) Based on Workmen's Compensation supplement to November,
1934, Bulletin of Pennsylvania Department of Labor and
Industry, prepared under supervision of Governor's Com-
mittee on Workmen's Compensation.

(2) Ibid. Graphic section prepared under direction of Ad-
visory Committee on Workmen's Compensation Administration.
404
Under the provisions of the Act, benefits payable because
of permärient disability and death are limited either in the
length of time in which they are paid, or in the total amount
paid or both. Thus the Worker permanently and totally dis-
abled has the benefits of 65 per cent of his wages stopped
after 500 weeks, or even before that time if the total ex-
ceeds $6,500. The widow of a worker accidentally killed while
on the job loses here benefits after 300 weeks. In view of
this, one is justified in asking why permanently disabled work-
ers and their dependents should be thrown upon general relief -
rather than upon insurance when the State has a workmen's com-
pensation insurance system that might continue to take care of
them, at least for a longer period than at present.
The present law likewise ſnakes no provisions for medical
treatment beyond the first thirty days of disability and thus
works a hardship upon the worker who suffers a serious injury.
in some cases employers or insurance companies assume respon-
sibility for treatment after the trirty-day period, hoping
thereby to reduce the period or the amount of disability. in
others, the victim must assume the burden and pay for medical
treatment out of his compensation allowance. This is particu-
larly true in cases involving the loss of a foot, a hand Olºf 3...
finger, for which the employer or his insurance company is re-
quired to pay compensation for a definite mutaber of weeks.
The thirty-day limitation also works an injustice to hos-
pitals, doctor 8 and others . . State-owned hospitals are among
405
those penalized. For instance, in the Ashland State Hospital
the cost of services beyond the thirty-day limit for 279
ease. was $51,821. In addition, the Pennsylvania act places
a $100 limit on surgical and medical services, medicines and
supplies. In twenty-three of the states and in Federal com-
pensation jurisdictions no such limit has been established,
either in time or money.
Since its original enactment twenty years ago, various
liberalizing amendments have been added to the Pennsylvania
measure and attempts have been made to liberalize it further.
Bills of this sort were introduced in the extra session of
1933, but failed of enactment.
The Act lacks provision for occupational disease compen-
sation, In future legislation seeking to rectify this pal-
pable injustice to the worker, consideration should be given
to a report to Governor Pinchot on "Occupational Disease Com-
pensation" made in 1933 by the Pennsylvania Commission on
Compensation for Occupational Disease. Consideration also
should be given to the forthcoming report of the United States
Health Service on Silicosis in Pennsylvania Anthracite Mines.
PUBLIC WORKS*
Long Range Planning
Paralleling closely other activities looking toward a
greater social security are the planned programs for public
works • Possibly these could be made, if properly-timed, an
effective pump-priming device to start private industry on its
way out of a cyclical depressione Although some economists
have cast doubt upon its value as a business stabilizer, all
available evidence points to the conclusion that long-range
planning could be made a strong and significant, although not
major, device for the alleviation of periodical unemployment,
For Pennsylvania, the probable result of successful long-
range planning of both State and local public projects would
be an additional public works payroll of approximately
$30,000,000 per year for a four-year depression period. The
accompanying table contains available data on public construc-
tion expenditures by the State and most of its political sub-
divisions during recent yearse
Unfortunately these data are only roughly accurate and
include neither all subdivisions nor all work done by the State
or any one subdivision. But allowing for a reasonable correc-
tion for omissions, it is roughly accurate to estimate that the
normal total construction expenditures of the State and local
FGronºlensation of a report of W. N. Loucks, Phebe, Assistant
Professor of Economics, University of Pennsylvania, to Mr.
Eric H. Biddle, Executive Director, State Emergency Relief
Boarde - -
4O7
governments prior to the depression were approximately
$100,000,000 annually. Probably about one-half of this sum
represents expenditures which raust be made at a time dictated
by factors wholly unrelated to the state of private business
activity. For instance, if a sewer caves in it must be re-
built immediately, or if a hard winter does extensive damage
to roads they must be repaired during the following spring and
8URIſlgºëIº e
However, the assumption that, from the standpoint of the
physical necessity of the work, about one-half of these total
expenditures could be shifted to other years than those in
which they actually are undertaken seems reasonable in view of
the extent to which the present lack of funds has retarded con-
struction projects.
If the shiftable projects (about one-half of the total)
were actually postponed over a seven-year period it would mean
the accumulation of projects totaling $350,000,000. Were the
prosecution of these projects to be spread evenly over a four-
year depression period the result would be an annual program of
$87,000,000, of which roughly one-third would go for wages.
Pennsylvania's past experience with public works expendi-
tures closely Paranºi, that of all other States. State and
local public construction activity, far from being stabilized,
has followed closely the swing of private business activity.
Prodigious spending during years of prosperity has been follow-
ed by drastic curtailments during depressions.
408
Expenditures by the Department of Property and Supplies
fell from $8,000,000 in 1929 to one-twentieth of that sum in
l934. On the other hand expenditures by the Department of
Highways were kept on a somewhat even keel by the increasing
liberality of the Federal government which gradually increased
its contributions from $4,000,000 in 1929 to $13,000,000 in
l934. In Philadelphia expenditures declined even before the
depression began, while they were cut more than half from
l930 to l932. In Pittsburgh expenditures were cut by one-
half from l929 to l93l, and by more than three-quarters from
l929 to 1933. Other political subdivisions have reduced their
expenditures by approximately two-thirds since the industrial
slump began •
With the deepening of the depression in 1930–1932 govern-
ments were put under pressure to create employment by reversing
the downward trend of their public works expenditures. But it
was only in l933 after the National administration opened its
purse strings to State and Local governments that any expansion
of public works and related expenditures occurred. Pennsyl-
vania shared with other states the promotion of CWA and LWD
programs. These programs were hastily concocted and have come
to be closely tied in with the granting of relief. But care
must be used not to confuse them with long range planning of
public works for employment stabilization, for the two have
practically nothing in common •
Following the lead of the Federal government, a few
409
States, including Pennsylvania, have considered long-range
planning legislation. These proposed state laws and the wide-
spread endorsement they have received forecast important legis-
lative developments in this field when many of the state legis-
latures convene in 1935.
Two bills (the first Sterling Bill and the Harmth ºil)
were introduced in the Legislature during the l853 regular
session. A third bill (the second Sterling Bill) was intro-
duced during the 1933 extra session. The first measure passed
the House and Senate without a dissenting vote, but was vetoed
by Governor Pinchot on the grounds that it carried no appro-
priation and that sufficient State revenue was not available to:
meet this liability. The Harmuth Bill, which passed both
houses, was also vetoed by the Governor on the same grounds.
The second Sterling Bill was not reported out of Committee to
which it was referred. Both Sterling bills provided for the
appointment of a State Public Works Planning Board. The first
bill proposed a board of nine, five members to be appointed by
the Governor for six years, with the Secretary of Property and
Supplies, the Secretary of Highways, the Secretary of Internal
Affairs and the Budget Secretary as ex-officio members. The
second bill provided for a board of eight members, six to be
appointed, with the Secretary of Property and Supplies 3.S eX*
officio member.
Both measures authorized the Board to formulate a six-year
public works program, to be extended each year. The Board
410
also would serve in an advisory capacity to governmental
&gencies • The second Sterling Bill eliminated some of the
discretionary powers granted under the first measure. Both
bills provided for full cooperation with the Federal Govern-
ment. These measures probably will be used as the basis for.
any State Public Works Planning legislation that may be enact-
ed.
However, neither of the sterling Bills nor the Harmºuth
Bill have touched upon a question that often has been posed by
students and advocates of long-range planning: Does the fact
that the State finances its construction work from revenues
obviate the possibility of building up reserves of public works
projects?
If a solution is to be found to this problem it probably
will have to be through a constitutional amendment authorizing
a large loan to be issued when the Governor, the General
Asserably, a Public Works. Planning Board, some Federal agency,
or some combination of two or more of these, declares an un-
employment emergency to exist. The amount of such a bond issue
would be dictated by the probable size of the reserve of
projects, and sinking fund payments would have to be so planned
as to repay the loan within a relatively short period of years.
This would mean that some of the revenues now going into year-
by-year State construction work would, after this system is in
operation, go into a sinking fund to pay off a bond issue, the
proceeds of which had been spent in a concentrated manner on a
4ll
depression program of public works. Obviously, this sugges- .
tion does not solve all the problems involved, and is merely
presented here as suggestive of the general direction in which
solutions probably Will have to go.
Another important question must be considered: jill the
departments of the State government, the General Assembly and
the Governor be willing, to yield certain powers of timing
State construction to a planning board?
The timing of projects obviously is the essence of the
long-range public works planning idea, as all preparatory work
becomes useless unless those agencies now dictating the timing
forfeit. at least a portion of that power to some technical
agency established specifically for that purpose and success-
fully isolated from political pressure.
If the agency established to administer long-range
planning machinery is merely given advisory powers, then it
becomes a question of whether those agencies which retain the
actual power to time projects will make their own decisions
coincide with the advisory opinions.
Snould proposed legislation create detailed machinery and
procedure for long-range planning, or should it merely commit
the State to the principle and create a commission to recommend
further legislation?
It may be argued that if the machinery and modus operandi
are not created during the present emergency they will not be
established later; that the need which is obvious now will be
412.
speedily forgotten with the return to normal conditions. On
the other hand, it may be contended that machinery now estab-
lished could not begin to function until the depression has
passed and that the intervening time should be used to study
the basic problems involved so that the best possible legis-
lation will result.
Important problems also arise from the issue of "home
rule" is the planning of local government projects. If local
governments are given broad powers to do their own long-range
planning it is probable that on the whole it will be done less
efficiently than if it were done by a State board. Although a
good case can be made out for State control on the basis of
relative efficiency, the strength of the "home rule" movement
creates a practical political question that is not easy to
overcome. Moreover, through its representatives in the Legis-
lature, local governments can exercise great power to resist
State encroachment on their authority. The two Sterling Bills
touch upon this issue, although neither offers a concrete
Sclution •
In vetoing the first Sterling Bill Governor Pinchot called.
attention to the difficulties involved in laying out a six-year
plan for roads and highways; but it seems clear that recent
attempts in city and regional planning have been on the whole
successful, proving the possibility of doing this sort of work.
The "Ten-year Building Program for State Institutions,"
formulated by the Department of Welfare in 1927 may be cited as
413
BUILDINGS NEEDED AT STATE WELFARE INSTITUTIONS
Applications by Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for Loans from the Federal
Tºmergency Relief Administration of lic Works

Beds
Location Project Iri- Attend-
mates ants Amount
MENTAl H03PITALS
Allentown, Lehigh County Dining Hall & imployees". Building . . . 10. $80,500
Convale scent Building. . . . . . . . . . . . 56 tº e. 142,000
Danville, Montour County Wing Addition & Roof Garden, Clinic
Diagnostic Building. . . . . . . . . . . . -- 14 2. 50,000
Pathological Building Addition tº Q e & 50,000
Water Filtration Plant. . . . . . . . . . . e - © e. 60,000
Farview, Waymart,
Wayne County. . . . . . . . . . Hospital for convict & criminal in-
same, Guard's Dormitory. . . . . . . . . . tº º 58 150,000
Harrisburg, Dauphin
County. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laundry Building- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - º Q. - * 150,000
- Two Tuberculosis Pavilions....... 100 © Cº 177,749
- Cottage for Contagious Diseases. . 12 e & 30,544
Norristown, Hontgomery, - -
. County. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Reconstruction-Buildings l; 8,13,14. 966 tº º 842,708
Construction-turo buildings for dis-
turbed patients male & female T20 © C 1,221,120
Improverents, new floors, heating,
lighting, wiring, water, refrigera-
tion. • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - © º tº º 402,205
Torrence, Westmoreland
County. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dining Hall & Kitchen. . . . . . . . . . . . º Co e G 208,618
Infirmary Patients' Ward . . . . . . . . . 362 9 419,677
Additions to Dibert Cottages. . . . . 124 tº 9 330,038
Warren, Warren County. Building for Disturbed Women &
- . Laundry • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 250 tº º 321,672
Wernersville, Berks County-Ward Building for Infirm Female
- Patients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 e e 143,734
Kitchen for main Dining Room & a
Bakery • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - tº O. e G 100,000
4.14
Location Project
INSTITUTIONS FOR. MºMTAL DEFECTIVES AND EFILEFFICTGOLONY
Camp Hill, R.D.s.l.,
Cumberland County • * * * * Cumberland Valley, Insitution for
Mental Defectives - to begin con-
struction • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Willage for feeble - minded women
Two Cottages • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Administration Buildings • - - - - - - - - -
Pennhurst, Chester County School for mental defectives
Boiler Plant - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Two Ward Buildings • * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
School for mental defectives
Cirls Infirmary • * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sewage Disposal Plant & Improve-
ments • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *.
Selinsgrove, Snyder County Admission. Building. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Service Buildings • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Water Systems • e • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Laurelton, Union County
Polk, Venango County e s e ere
MEDICAL AND SURCICAL, HOSPITALS
Blossburé, Tioga County, e - State Hospital, Géntral Unit. . . . . .
Connellsville, Fayette
County • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * State Hospital, Carage & Laundrye e
Nanticoke, Luzerne County State Hospital, New Wing. . . . . . . . . .
Thillipsburg, Centre
County • * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - State Hospital Additions • * * * * * * * * *
Scranten, Lackawanna -
County • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * State Hospital, Extension & Altera-
tions •,• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
PENAL AND CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Rockview, Centre County. . . Western State Penitentiary, Comple-
tion of Cell Blocks • * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Morganza, Washington
County • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - School for Delinquents, Two Cottages 66
Muncy, Lycoming County. ... • Industrial Home for Women, Canning
Building-... • * * * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOTAL • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 4,593
Beds . -
In- Attend- Amount
mates ants.
300 2O l,559,500
172 26 153,200
& C º l6 144,000
tº e G e > 100,000
352 C e 535,500
240 27 . 450,000
© º C tº º 70,000
104 28 371,205
© C º to º 175,615
© C & © º 50,000
12 4 96,000
tº º te 45,000
36 © C. 150,000
46 © tº 120,000
325 26 588,000
254 tº e 237,600
6 145,000
236 $9,905,185
an example of long-range planning. It has since been modified
to meet changing conditions and demonstrates the possibility of
getting flexibility into a long-range plan.
THE RELATION OF HOUSING TO ECONOMIC SECURITY”
The particular place of housing in a program for economic
security may be discussed from many viewpoints. In many
respects a large-scale program of planned public works construc-
tion centering around low-cost housing would provide a logical,
6V611 necessary, corollary to any program of social insurance.
This is a case where a certain amount of positive, constructive
prevention may well in the long run not only make the cure less
expensive and surer, but even limit the extent of the disease.
Some of the main points of contact between a housing pro-
gram and the problem of economic security are listed below:
l, Planned construction of housing facilities offers a
valuable means of stabilizing employment. By tempering ex-
tremes of depression ahd unemployment in the building industry
it provides a particularly constructive form of insurance or
guarantee of any measure designed to give cash insurance to the
unemployed.
2. ft offers a means of raising the material standards of
the lower income groups, by the establishment of a "national
minimum" below which no family's shelter should be allowed to
fall. Whether by outright subsidy or merely by setting up
methods of construction, finance and administration whereby the
* Prepared by Catherine K. Bauer, author of "Modern Housing.T
416
rent dollar pays for actual value received in labor and
materials (and not, as at present, largely for speculative
financing and land costs), an effective low-cost housing
program provides the means of raising average consuming power
and average real wages •
3. Economic security for an individual family should cer-
tainly include reasonable security of tenure in a decent dwell-
ing. This can be achieved-only if there is careful coordina-
tion of a long-time housing program with social insurance and
With other measures such as minimum wage legislation, etc. An
extreme example of what happens when these matters are not co-
ordinated is visible in the present situation with regard to
"rent relief." In many localities cash rents are paid to
families on relief lists. Relief families have in many cases
been forced back into slum areas which were formerly half-
empty. Therefore, rent relief, often a very large sum in
toto, acts as an outright subsidy to the worst slum real estate
properties, artificially keeping their value up beyond any
possibility of economical slum-clearance •
This discussion of the essential relationship which ex-
ists between housing and the general problem of economic
security is based on the following assumptions:
A. That present housing conditions in this country and
State are, particularly for the lower income groups, well below
any acceptable standard of decency or adequacy, and are not
compatible with the resources and knowledge of this country.
417
B. That ordinary private enterprise has not in the past,
and is not likely in the future, to be able to solve the prob- -
lem of housing the lower income groups.
C. That public or semi-public measures must be devised for
the effective solution of the housing problem •
The foregoing is treated in detail in the section of this
report which deals with housing.
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MANUFACTURING AND TRADE *
Pennsylvania ranks as the second manufacturing state. It
employs more wage earners than Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode
Island, and New Hampshire combined, according to the Census of
Manufactures in 1931. In the 14,774 establishments reported
in that year, more than 778,700 men and women were on the pay-
rolls.
The value of its manufactured products totaled
$4,105,387,000 or almost 10 per cent of the aggregate value
produced in the nation in 1931. Production reached its
peak in 1929, with a value of $7,443,861,000, or more than
80 per cent greater than the 1931 total. Manufactured pro-
ducts amounted to $780 per capita in 1929 compared with $580
for the mole of the country. These values dropped in 1931
to $423 per capita in Pennsylvania, and to $333 for the United
States; a decrease for the State of nearly 46 per cent, and for
the country of almost 43 per cent.”
Wagés paid by manufacturing industries in Pennsylvania
in 1931 totaled $845,607,000, nearly 12 per cent of the total
manufacturing wage payment of the country in that year, but a
* See Section on Mineral Resources
* While current figures are available, it was felt that undue
emphasis on depression years would present a distorted.
picture of conditions. Hence the Census of Manufactures for
1929 and advance sheets for 1931 have been useds
419
decrease from the State's 1929 peak of nearly 39 per cent. The
average wage paid in 1929 was $1,360, and in 1931, $1,089.
GROWTH OF MANUFACTURING
The population of Pennsylvania increased from 1910 to l920
approximately lá per cent; from 1910 to 1930 nearly 26 per
cent, Compared with this growth the value of manufactured pro-
ducts, gained 178 per cent in the first decade, and from the be-
ginning to the close of the twenty-year period, 183 per cent.
It must be noted that the State enjoys a constant but relative-
ly low rate of population increase, whereas the value of its
products had almost a two-fold gain in the first ten years. and
an increase of less than two per cent in the latter decade.
Undoubtedly the phenomenal gain in the first period was a re-
sult of the stimulation of war activity, yet the productivity .
provoked by that stimulation was maintained and slightly in-
creased in the closing period •
The growth of manufacturing in Pennsylvania has not kept
pace with the United States as a whole. The indices of Penn-
sylvania's Real Value of Products” were consistently greater
than those for the Nation up to 1929, when those of the country
forged ahead. The index of production for the State reached
its peak in 1929 at 110 (1923–25 equals 100), while in the same
year the index for the country stood at 12l. A comparison of
*TRSRTVETS OFFFSãuºs Täster-In-Tby TRIGINEERETIEEE
of value of products in dollars by the index of wholesale
prices •
420 ©
RowitH
(2O
O O
19 O 9 1974 | 9 |9 1923 -25 1929 193 |
ADAPTED FROM CE NSUS OF MANUFACTURERS FIGURE NO. 88

the trends of both state and Nation shows that the latter's
rate of increase is slightly in excess of that for Pennsylvania.
agruai. AND REAL VALUE OF MANuragruits
1909 - l?3l
Index of Change - 1923–25=100
* Walue of Products
Current Dollars Common Dollars
Year Pennae Ue Se Penna Ue Se
1909 36e 8 33, 2 54,9 49e 5
1914 39.6 38.9 58e 6 57 e5.
1919 lC2•4 lCOe 7 74 e5 73e 2
l923–5 lCOe O lCO, 0 100.0 lCO. O
1929 lC4e O ll4.1 lC)9.e.9 l2Os 9
1931 57e5 67.1 59e 6 92.e.7
A further indication of this is revealed by the State's
constantly decreasing percentage of the Nation's total value
of products, The Census of Manufactures in 1909 credits Penn-
sylvania with almost 13 per cent of the United States total.
In each census since, the percentage has declined slightly, urie
til in 1931 it was scarcely 10 per cent.
Manufacturing in Pennsylvania may be summed up briefly as
follows: The number of establishments is steadily declining,
indicating a tendency toward centralization in larger plants.
The number of wage earners shows a tendency to stabilize. The
* Current Dollars are those in actual use; Common Dollars are
those so adjusted that they will buy the same amount of
goods at any periode
42l
number of primary horse-power, was gaining rapidly up until
l929, although the real value of products per horsepower from
1923-25 to 1929 decreased; the value of products was rising
consistently up to 1929. These tendencies are shown in the
accompanying charts.
To assume that the trends indicated will continue at the
rate shown in the charts might not be considered entirely un-
reasonable. Yet to believe that such prodigious gains will be
made within the next ten years, as the projection of these
trends would indicate, is unlikely.
To qualify these with a bit of conservatism, the trends
of the real value of products from 1909 to 1929 and from 1909
to the estimated point for 1934 were compared. The average of
their spread when extended to l844 was considered to approximate
the real value of products in Pennsylvania in that year.
With this figure placed at nine billion, there is an in-
crease over the 1929 peak of 14 per cent. Since the real value
of products is a measure of production in dollars of the same
buying power, it may be assumed that production in 1944 will be
approximately 14 per cent greater than the lº29 volume.
However, it is well to bear in mind that these figures
are only estimates, based on the broad assumption that there
will be no radical changes in our economy in the intervening
period, that there will be gradual increases in manufacturing
productivity as human needs develop a greater demand for con-
sumer goods. At the same time there may occura revolutionary
422
PE
A F P RODUCTS
NITED STATES — PE N N SYLVANIA e 1909 - 193 |
80
O
1909 1914 1919 I92 | 3 1925
ADAPTED FROM census of MANUFACTURERS
1927
12O
|OO
1929 193 |
F IGURE NO. 89


O 6 *O N B è, ſnº) | 3* SE& n_LOw ºn NV W BO S n SN2“D WNObj 3 03.J. d\/CV/
ț» || 6 |||

change in mechanization or in the development of mechanical
processes of manufacture, sufficient to disjoint the whole
picture, War or other international complications may have a
similar effect.
The number of wage earners required to attain this in-
creased volume of production will be approximately 1,050,000,
or less than 4. per cent more than were employed in 1929. This
number is derived by using the real value of products per wage
earner as a guide. This factor closely paralleled the real
value of products from 1919 to l929. In anticipation of an in-
crease in mechanization, this was increased over the 1929 amount
by slightly more than 10 per cent, fixing the l844 figure (real
value of products per wage earner) at $8,600.
A similar analysis of the number of primary horse power
required shows that there will be but a slight increase over the
l929 figure. The real value of products per horse power de-
clined from 1923-25 almost 4 per cent, indicative of a tendency
to stabilize at the present level. This means only that the
primary installations of the present, or their equivalent, have
reached a limit; motors running on wreased electric current
will supplant the prime mover to a larger degree. These esti-
mates, compared with the 1929 data, are shown in the following
table:
423
ESTIMATED GROWTH OF MANUFACTURING
COMPARED WITH 1929
1929 1944
Real Value of Products $7,860,000,000 9,000,000,000
Number of Wage Earners 1,014,000 1,050,000
Primary horse power 5,991,000 6,000,000
WAGE EARNERS AND PRODUCTIVITY IN MANUFACTURING
Pennsylvania has consistently employed more than one-ninth
of the wage earners engaged in manufacturing in the United
States. In 1909, industry reported 877,543 wage earners, la .5
per cent of the U. S. total. The peak was reached in 1919 with
a total of l;135,837 wage earners, 12.6 per cent of the U. Se
total. Since 1919, the decline in the percentage of the U. S.
total has been constant except for the years 1923 and 1931 : in
1921 Pennsylvania reported l3.4 per cent of the country's wage
earners, and in 1923, 12.5 per cent; in 1929 the percentage was
ll-5, and in 1931, ll.9. The decrease in the number reported in
1931 compared with 1929 amounted to 235,311 wage earners. The
number of wage earners for the several years is shown on the ac-
companying chart.
Admittedly the decrease in the number of wage earners re-
quired in 1931 as against 1929 was the result of business re-
cession, yet the fluctuations in the number of wage earners
have in no other way been spectacular. They have instead shown
a tendency, up to 1929, to increase at a very moderate rate •
424
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| €8||628||§ 2 - € 2.6 l6 | 6 ||º || 6 ||6O63||
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The reason for this relatively slight change is that improvements
in mechanical processes have increased the productivity of the
industry without requiring any great change in the wage earning
body.
An indication of the advance in mechanization is given in
a comparison of the data on primary horse power in 1909 and in
1929, the last year for which it was reported. In the former
year there was a total of 2,903,413 primary horse power avail-
able to industry in Pennsylvania, an average of 3.3 horse power
per wage earner. During the succeeding twenty years the total
of primary horse power increased to 5,991,493, and an average
of 5.9 horse power for each wage earner. The mechanical assist-
ance available to each wage earner therefore increased almost
80 per cent during that period. The number of horse rever, how-
ever, is not to be considered other than as an indication of
mechanical advance. The greatest advances have been made in
the secondary apparatus, operated either by the prime mover or
by purchased electric current •
Advancing mechanization had its desired result ; increased
productivity. The average real value of products per wage
earner, i.e. coriverted to the common dollars of 1923-25, amounted
to $4,460 in 1909 and increased steadily to $7,740 in 1929, and
fell to $7,300 in 1931. The gain up to 1929 was equivalent to
more than 73 per cent. The real value of products per horse
power showed an increase of little more than 5 per cent over
this period, and, in fact, suffered a decline from 1923-25 to
425
1929 of almost 4 per cent.
A measurement of the degree of technologic advancement, or
the movement toward intensified mechanization and its resultant
displacement of the wage earner, cannot be made because of the
lack of pertinent data on the number of man-hours required to
produce the many products of industry at present compared with
some period in the past. In the accompanying table, however, -
some suggestion of this advance is given. The tabulation shows
the number of men required to produce a given quantity of goods
in 1920, as against the number required for the production of
the same quantity in 1929 when production was at peak. The data
on relatively few products of manufacture were suitable for this
analysis, and the picture is therefore limited.
426
ADAPTED FROM census of MANUFACTURERs F IG U R E NO. 92

DISPLACEMENT OF WAGE EARNERS
Relative number required in 1920 as
compared with 1929*
Industry Number of sage earners
1920 1929
Boots and shoes 100 78
Boxes, cigar 100 98
Brick, building - lCO 104
Cement 100 56
Cigars 100 65
Coal, anthracite 100 l29
Coal, bituminous - 100 89
Cokes bee-hive IOO 81
Coke, by-product 100 64
Gasoline 100 82
Ice cream loo 8l.
Iron , pig lCO 29
Plates, iron and steel 100 50
Sheets, iron and steel 100 wº 56
Bars, iron and steel 100 107
Sugar, refined 100 53
Winegar 100 46
Wire rods 100 63
º Adapted from "Froductive Industries." state Department of
Internal Affairs.
427
As the table shows there were eighteen classes, only three
of which showed, an upward tendency. In each case conditions
peculiar to that particular industry were responsible. In the
case of building bricks a recession had already been noted in
the construction business, so that peak production was not
required. The increase in anthracite coal was caused by a re-
duction in the number of days worked by the miners. In 1931
the figure was 181, compared with 225 days in 1927. The re-
cession during the four year period was constant. The manu-
facture of bars, iron and steel had reached a point of effi-
ciency in 1925 at which only 60 men were required. Production
thereafter fell, reaching a low in 1928. Recovery was almost
complete in 1929 when it was interrupted by the general decline
of business. -
Advancing technology is one of the factors responsible for
the movement toward concentration of manufacturing activity in
larger establishments. From 1909 to 1931 manufacturing estab-
lishments fell in number from 27,563 to 14,774, or less than
54 per cent of the 1909 total. The average establishment in
Pennsylvania in 1909 employed 32 wage earners, and had 106
primary horse power; in 1929 it engaged 60 wage earners and had
354 horse powere -
LEADING MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
An analysis of nineteen of Pennsylvania's leading manu-
facturing industries, representing almost 60 per cent of the
total value of products manufactured in 1929, shows that
428
twelve of them are in relatively good condition; four are just
holding on, and three are distinetly declining.
In the first class are: Bread and other bakery products;
car and steam railway repair shops; clay products; electrical
machinery, apparatus and supplies; steel works and rolling
mills; engraving; oniº and boat building; silk and rayon
manufacture; and cigars and cigarettes.
In the second class are: Clothing, men's ; coke, not in-
cluding gas-house; foundry and machine shop products; and
blast furnaces.
In the third class are : Leather, tanned, curried, and
finished; *: refining; and worsted goods.
The following tabulation shows the number of establish-
ments, number of wage earners, and the value of products in
these industries for the year 1929, which year may be consider-
ed to represent the peak of production. There is also shown for
all three items the slope or trend, in positive or negative per-
centages according as the item rises or falls. The quantity
indicates the movement of the item in five-year intervals over
a period of twenty years.
For instance, take the baking industry. It is to be
noted that the number of establishments is decreasing at the
rate of 3.6 per cent every five years, the number of wage earn-
ers is increasing at the rate of 2.8 per cent while the value
of products is rising 4.0 per cent. These values are signifi-
429
cant as indications of what is happening within the industry
rather than as absolute measures of growth or decline •
Reference to the table will show that Pennsylvania's
establishments are decreasing at the rate of 3.4 per cent
every five years while those of the United States are in-
creasing at a rate of approximately one per cent. The
number of wage earners in the State is increasing oe & per
cent every five years, while those of the country at large
are gaining le5 per cent. Pennsylvania's value of products
rises 3.0 per cent while that of the U. S. gains 3.7 per cent •
It is scarcely necessary to say that these trends will inevita-
bly reach an unpredictable point at which they will tend to
flatten out or become stable, rather, than to pursue these
courses and ultimately lose all reasonable proportion.
430
PENNSYLVANIA
Trends 1909-1929
(l) Constant (2)
Less than 0.1 per cent, but downward trend.
INDUSTRY 1929 Average for five year
- Intervals
Number of Number of Value of
Estab. Wage Earners Products #Est. #Wage E. R.V. of P.
M.5% * -
Bread & Other Bakery Products le.929 25,960 170,609 -5, 6 +2.8 44.0
Car & Steam Hwy. Repeir Shop 194 55,591 205,363 Լle 5 -00, 7 *2.6
Clay Products 245 16,933 59,491 -l,7 el.9 +3.9
Clothing, Men's 584 18,475 98,547 -5.4 •le 6 *2.4
Coke, not including Gas House 69 5,856 ll 5,545 -le 7 -4.5 *2.4
Electrical Machy, Appe & Supplies 157 47,375 547,141 e2•0 •5, 2 •7, 2
Foundry & Machine Shop Products 879 55,364 374,041 -5.2 -3.2 •l. 2
Iron & Steel, Blast Fur. 30 8,188 280,712 -3.5 -2.8 ele 5
Iron & Steel, Steel Works & 158 145,684. 1,212,877 •0, 7 •0.8 e2•l
Rolling Mills
Knit Goods 482 62,141 294,325 +0.4 *2.5 *7, 2
Leather, Tanned, Curried 62 8,876 95,959 -6.5 -2, 7 •l e4
& Finished * -
.Meat Packing 132 5,252 132,783 •l.l •2, 2 *2e 5
Petroleum Refining 48 7,895 . 245,259 •0e 7 *3.2 *5, 2
Photo. Engraving 44 959 6,077 el.8 42.8 •5.4
Ship & Boat Building 17 5,356 I5,488 . -4 •4 40, l eleb
Silk & Rayon Rifre 497 61,544 320,956 43.1 ‘92, 2 *4 •4
Sugar Refining 5 l,715 73,989 O(l) -6.5 -l.6
Tobacco, cigars & cigarette 530 25,221 108,061 -19.5 -l.4 e2•0
Worsted Goods 61 10,692 81,205 -2.9 -3, 2 -0 (2)
All Others tº sº sº ººº- tºº-ºº-º-º:
Total (Penna.) 16,947 l.014,046 7,443,861 -3.4 40.8 •5e0
Ue Se 210,959 8,838,745 70,434,865 40,9 *le 5 •5, 7 .
431
WAGES IN MANUFACTURING
The total of wages paid in manufacturing plants reached
its highest volume in 1919 as a result of the war stimulation,
Up to that time the total had been relatively . low, but during
the post-war period the wage level, speaking broadly, was main-
tained. &
The Census of Mianufactures shows that the average wage in
Pennsylvania in 1909 amounted to $520 per year. This rose to
$571 in 1914 and to $1,239 in 1919. The highest average wage
was paid in 1929, $1,360.
These averages, however, are not efficient indicators of
wage payments because of the changes in the cost of living. If
the average wage is converted into dollars having the same buy-
ing power as the dollars of the 1923-25 period, then the average
wage of 1914 amounted to $961; 1919, $1,139; 1923-25, $1,316;
1929, $1,381; and 1931, $1,293. Real wages, therefore, have
shown consistent increases throughout the period, suffering a
decline only in the period 1929-31.
The average wage in actual dollars, the average wage in
the common dollars of i923-25, and their indexes of change
from 1909 to 1931 are shown in the following table •
432
REAL WAGES IN MANUFACTURING
- Fl E No.
ADAPTED FRo M census of MANUFACTURERS GURE NO. 93

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DIVERSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING
Approximately 70 per cent of all the classifications of
manufacturing industries in the country are represented in
Pennsylvania----technically a "diversification ratio" of that
amount. Analysis of the number of types of manufacture re-
ported in the Census of Manufactures shows that Pennsylvania
had 226 classes of manufacturing industries in 1929 out of
326 for the country. This was a large increase over the
figures for 1909, in which year Pennsylvania had only 94
classes, and the country 259.
The degree of diversification in manufacturing industries
is an indication of the relative stability of a community with
respect to employment, production and general economic well-
being. It is obvious that any community dependent on one, or
few, industries, is in distress when those industries experience
difficulty. In the same manner a community having a larger
variety of manufacturing plants will not feel, to as great an
extent, the difficulties of one plant or industry while the
others follow their normal courses of productions
Compared with the state total, the Industrial Area of
Philadelphia has the largest ratio of diversification, 70.8
per cent with 160 classes. The Industrial Area of Pittsburgh
ranks second with 36.7 per cent and 83 classes. The Scranton-
Wilkes-Barre, Reading, and Allentown-Bethlehem Areas have
approximately the same ratiose.
434
Diversification Ratios by Industrial Areas, 1929
Industrial Area No. of Classes Percent of
State total
Philadelphia 160 70, 8
Pittsburgh 83 36.7
Scranton-Wilkes-Barre 36 15,9
Reading 34 15.0
Allentown-Bethlehem 32 l4 = 2
LOCATION OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
More than 70 per cent of the value of manufactured pro-
ducts is produced in the five industrial areas as set up in
the Census of Manufactures of 1929. The Philadelphia In-
dustrial Area, * which includes five counties in the south-
eastern portion of the state, and three counties in New
Jersey (these have been eliminated in this analysis), ac-
counted for 35.1 per cent of the State's total; the Pitts-
burgh Area, 27.1 per cent; the Allentown-Bethlehem Area, 5.3
per cent; the Reading Area, 3.1 per cent; and the Scranton-
Wilkes-Barre Area, 2.5 per cent.
In order to probe the economic soundness of the several
counties with respect to their manufacturing activity, an
analysis of the trends of number of wage earners and the value
of products in relation to the state totals from 1916 to 1929
and from 1929 to 1931, was made. The results * * there
Were nineteen counties in which the gain had been consistent
* The Philadelphia Area includes. Bucks, Chester, Delaware,
Montgomery and Philadelphia Counties in Penna. ; the Pittsburgh
Area includes Allegheny, Beaver, Washington and Westmoreland
Counties; the Allentown-Bethlehem Area, Lehigh and Northampton
Counties; the Reading Area, Berks County; and the Scranton-
Wilkes-Barre Area, Lackawanna and Luzerne Counties.
435
throughout the whole period; ten counties that experienced
nothing but decline; and thirty-eight counties in which the
trºna, were mixed, in most cases the result of latter day
influences. These trends are shown in the following table.
Counties Showing. Upward Trends in Number of Wage Earners.
and in Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 and to 1931
Adams Clinton Lancaster
Berks Crawford Lebanon
Blair Cumberland Montgomery
Bradford Fulton Northumberland
Bucks . Huntingdon Somerset
Centre Juniata Susquehanna.
Wyoming
Counties Showing Downward Trends in Number of Wage Earners
and in Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 and to 1931
Allegheny Indiana Perry
Coliumbia Montour Potter.
Fayette Northampton Sullivan
* Wenango'
Counties. Showing Upward Trends in Number of Wage Earners
and in Walue of Products - 1916 to 1929 (varying trends
since 1929)
Armstrong Greene Mifflin
Beaver Lackawanna Monroe
Delaware Lehigh Snyder
Erie Luzerne Union
Franklin Lycoming Warreri
Counties Showing Downward Trends in Number of Wage Earners
and in Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 (varying trends
since 1929) -
Cambria Dauphin Jefferson
Cameron Elk McKean
Clearfield Tºorest Mercer
º - Tioga
Westmoreland
436
Counties Showing Gains in Number of Wage Earners; Losses in
Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 (varying trends since 1929)
Bedford Carbon
Butler Lawrence York
Counties Showing Loss in Number of Wage Earners; Gains in
Value of Products - 1916 to 1929 (varying trends since 1929)
Chester Philadelphia Washington
Clarion Schuylkill Wayne
Note: Pike County is not included in this table as its
manufacturing industry is extremely small,
Based on the data of the Penna. Dept. of Internal Affairs.
437
The twenty leading counties, ranked according to their
value of products in 1931, are tabulated as follows: *
Rank County Walue of Products
l, - Philadelphia $1,202,426,500
2. Allegheny 819,542,000
3. Luzerne 194,578,700
4. Delaware 172,285,400
5. Beaver l4l, Oló,500
6e Berks 135,328,000
7s Montgomery l26,906,500
8, Lackawanna Lll,492,700
9, Westmoreland 104,408,300
10. York 99,704,900
ll. Lehigh 98,682,100
12. Lancaster 94,882,800
13. Schuylkill 94,752,000
14. Northampton 93,687,300
lje Washington 92,819, 200
16. Dauphin 87,576,100
l?e Erie 87,224,300
18. Mercer 67,279,500
l9. Cambria 61,562,900
20, Blair 59,268,100
#- State Depart ºf TRECRETRFFEIFE.
438
MIGRATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF INDUSTRY
A. tendens, on the part of industry to migrate from in-
dustrial centers to small outlying towns or to states where
adequate labor, power and distribution facilities are avail-
able, and where it may find a more or less temporary escape
from urban taxation, has been noted in the past. But in
the absence of any specific data, little more, can be said
that such a movement exists. However, in any industrial
planning program the basic reasons for this drift should be
studied and calculated.
RETAIL TRADE
Pennsylvania, with 7.9 per cent of the population of
the United States, reported 7.7 per cent of the total re-
tail sales in 1929, amounting to $3,803,941,000, according
to the first Census of Distribution made by the Census
authorities. The reports show that there were 135,275 stores,
employing £l 7,099 full-time workers, and 56,045 part-time
workers.
Since this information was first collected in 1929, the
trend of retail sales must be basad on the tax information
collected by the State's Mercantile Appraisers. As only the
sales within the State are taxable, i.e., interstate deliveries
are not taxable, these totals amount to approximately 75 per
cent of the actual sales total. With this qualification in
mind, the following index may be considered to represent the
movement of retail sales in Pennsylvania.
439
INDEX OF MOVEMENT IN. RETAIL
SALES, PENNA., 1920 - 1932
(1923-25-100)
1920 T9e O
1923-2s 100,0
l229 ll4.e3
1931 90e2
1932 - 76.3
WHOLESALE TRADE.
The State is credited with almost 7 per cent of the
wholesale trade of the country in 1929. According to the
Census of Distribution for that year there were 10,542 e S-
tablishments, with ll3,655 employes, and sales amounting to
$4,777,292,000.
The trend of wholesale sales from 1920 to 1932, based on
the tax information of the Mercantile Appraisers, is shown
in the following index :
INDEX OF MOVEMENT
l920 - 1932
(1923-25mloo)
l920 104.7
1923-25 100.0
1929 100.4
l931 71e 5
l932 - 62 e5
The leading counties, with their percentages of the total
retail sales of the State in 1929, before the general decline
* + r. Frº
set in, are shown below: **
RETAIL SALES, LEADING COUNTIES IN PENNA.
PER CENT OF STATE TOTAL, 1929
County Percentage
Philadelphia w 27.0
Allegheny 18.6
Luzerne 5, 2
'Montgomery 2,9
Berks e 2, 7
vestmorland 2-4
Lackawanna - 2, 2
Dauphin - 2.2
Lancaster 2-l
Washington . . . 2.0
Delaware * l.9
Cambria le 7
Northampton * l. 7.
Erie - le 6
Blair 1.
Schuylkill l, 6
Fayette * l. 5
All others (50 Counties) 25.1
Total t 100.0
44l
WHOLESALE SALES, LEADING COUNTIES IN PENN.
PER CENT OF STATE TOTAL, 1929
County * -f
. Philadelphia
Allegheny
Berks
Dauphin
Luzerne
Lackawanna
Lancaster
Blair
Cambria
Erie
Montgomery
Schuylkill
Westmoreland
Northampton
washington
e Fayette
Delaware
All others.
Total
- Percentage
43.6
22.8
2.7
2s 5
2.4
2.5
1.6
l,5
l,5
l. 2
l.0
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.8
O, 7
0, 6.
12,5
100,0
4:42
UTILITIES
Railroads employ the greatest number of workers of in-
dustries in the utility group, reporting a total of 453,022
employes in 1931. This is five times as many as all other
utilities combined. Telephone companies ranked second, and
electric companies third e A summary of the number of employes,
wages, average wage, and gross receipts for l93l follows:
UTILITIES IN PENNA. 1931, EMPLOYES, WAGES
AND GROSS RECEIPTS &
Type of Company Number of Wages Average Gross Receipts
Employes Wage
Telephone 26,640 #41,586,477 #1,560 $371,292,084
Telegraph 3,794 4,204,931 1,110 112,784,805
Steam Railroads 453,022 765,329,615 1,690 1,459,499,145
Street Railways 19,737 34,468,516 l,740 80,768,889
Electric 23,453 41,862,091 l,780 194,305,008
Gas, natural 6,548 9,915,066 l,520 46,491,237
Gas, mſd 6,604 lo,376,895 l,570 36,383,455
Water 7,343 9,255,387 1,270 : 40,610,413
Indexes of change in number of employes, wages and gross
receipts for the various industries of the utility group are
shown in the following:
443
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(OOT=g2-226T e3ueuo Jo xepuI)
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Steam Railroads and Street Railways in Pennsylvania
{Index of Change 1923–25-100)
Revenue
84.2
100,0
96 e5
98.l.
7l-l
Street Railways.
No e Of,
Employes
lC)2.9
lC0.0
87 sl
78.4
66 e6
Total
Wages
97 e 6
loo.0
95 e 6
85.5
68s 8
Gas Companies in Pennsylvania
(Index of Change 1923-25-100)
Railraods -
No. of Total
Employes Wages
90s 8 88.3
lCOsO. lC0.0
95.0 91.3
90el 88,6
77.6 76.1
Natural
No e of Total
Employes Wages
93 e 7 86.9
100.0 lC0.0
lC6.9 ll3.6
121.2 lls.6
92 e4 94.9
Manufactured
No e of Total
Employes Wages
ll? •8 lils?
100.0 100.0
106.l ll.6,6
100.1 ill-2
I06.2 ll? • O.
Revenue
97.60
lCO20
96.3
90.1
68.9
Revenue
89.7
100.0
ilā-l
il? •l
Revenue
74e 7
lò0.0
98 e6
lC4, 2
84 el:
il? •S
445
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OCCUPATIONAL TRENDS
During the twenty years from 1910 to 1930 a shift in
occupation from the productive * to the service industries was
noted throughout the country. The shift in Pennsylvania, which
reported a total of 3,722,103 gainful workers more than ten
years of age in 1930, 2 was not so pronounced as that of the
United States as a whole.
As will be acted on the accompanying chart, a regular in-
crease has taken place in the number of gainful workers re-
ported in Pennsylvania from 1910 to 1930, while the number of
gainful workers in the whole of the United States moved a re-
latively greater increase from 1920 to 1930 than from 1910 to
1920. The productive group of the United States has shown an
increase over the 1910 figure of 6.5 per cent, while Pennsyl-
vania's productive group has increased only . l. 6 per cent • The
country's service group increased from 1910 to 1930 sixty-five
per cent; Pennsylvania's forty-seven per cent •
l. The productive group includest manufacturing, mining,
forestry, fishing, agricultural and mechanical industries; ser-
vice includes transportation and communication, trade, public
service, professional service, domestic and personal service
and clerical occupations •
2- Gainful workers lo to 16 years of age are little more than
two per cent of the total gainful workers. The totals of
ten years of age and over follow the regular government set-up
and are used here without regard to the restrictions placed on
the employment of this groupe
447
The shirt in the State may be attributed largely to the
changing status of the state's productive industries. Wage
earners required in manufacturing are approaching the point
where no further increases in number will be necessary. The
mining industry requires fewer workers because of a number of
difficulties which the industry is now experiencing. In the
absence of increasing opportunity of employment in these in-
dustries, the gainful worker must turn to the service enter-
prises •
The number of gainful workers in Pennsylvania has been de-
creasing in relation to the total number in the United States
and to the population of the Commonwealth. In 1910, the 3tate
reported 8.2 per cent of the country's gainful workers , , and in t
l930, 7.6 per cent • In 1910 gainful workers, in Pennsylvania
were equivalent to almost 41 per cent of the state's popula-
tion; in l930 the ratio had fallen to 38.7 per cent.
In the following tables it will be noted that the per-
cent ages shown for the productive group (the first three items)
have tendencies to remain static or to decrease slightly e All
the other classes, which constitute the service group, have in-
creased in relation to the totale
448
ADAPTED FRom CENsus of MANUFACTURERs figure No. 34

GAINFUL WORKERS OVER TEN YEARS OF AGE IN
PENNSYLVANIA
(Per cent distribution by classes)
- - lº:30 1920 1910
Agriculture, Forestry & Fishing 6.8 8,3 il. 6
Extraction of Minerals 8.1 9,7 10.5
Mfg. & Mechanical Ind. 38 el 4.l.. 6 40.0
Trans. & Communications 8, 6 8,3 Te 6
Trade l2.3 9.e.9 9, 8
Public Service le 8 l,6 i-l
Professional Service 6.4 4.8 4 e2
Domestic & Personal Service 9. O 7.5 9.8
Clerical - 8.9 8.3 5.4
Total loo.0 lOO.0 100.0
449
GAINFUL workers over TEN YEARS OF AGE IN UNITED STATES
IPer cent Distribution by Classes)
Agriculture
Extraction of Minerals
Mfg. & Mechnical Ind.
Transportation & communication
Trade
Public Service
Professional Service
Domestie & Personal Service
Clerical
1950
21.9
2.0
28.9
7.9
l,8
6, 7
10.1
8, 2
1920
26.5
2.6
50.9
10.2
1.8
5.2
8-l
7 e5
1910
35.2
2.5
27.9
6.9
9, 5
l. 2
4.4
9,9.
4.5
Total
100.0
100.0
-100.0
450
SOCIOGRAPHICS
|9|O 193O P H L A D E L PH A
O O O O |
AGRICULTURAL - FORESTRY - FISHING -
EXTRACTION OF MINERALS
{} iſſ iſſ
*—f
MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL INDUSTRY
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
O O O iſſ
O O O
^
ProFEssionAL service
TRADE
=#
PUBLIC SERVICE
i O İ
DOMESTIC AND PERSONAL SERVICE
O O
GAINFUL WORKERS EACH Figure-ooooopersons
BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS ū
cLErical

FIGURE NO. 95 3OARD
RETAIL DISTRIBUTIONº.
Retail distribution is the process of selling goods for
use or consumption; together with services incidental to their
sale. The position of the retailer in society is to supply the
wants of the people and to make available at the right time and
at a convenient place a reasonable selection of goods to supply
those wants. The retail business is carried on directly with
the people without intermediaries and is the one business whose
contacts reach them in all the walks of life. The retailer obvi-
ously is the point of contact between the manufacturer and the
public, for through him the manufacturer determines what goods
to produce in order to meet actual and potential requirements,
what alterations to make in existing products, what new styles
to provide for, what products to abandon, and what manufactur-
ing schedules to set up.
Pennsylvania in 1929 carried on in its 135,275 stores, a
retail business of $3,803,941,000, representing a per capita
expenditure of $395.00. The transaction of this business en-
gaged the attention of 506,075 persons or 5.25 per cent of the
State's entire population and l3.59 per cent of the 3,722,103
people ten years or over in the State who were gainfully em-
ployed.
Preliminary figures of the 1933 Census of Distribution
* The data examined was to a large extent that found in the
1929 Census of Retail Distribution which is the last and only
complete census now available in detail, and statistics obtain-
ed by the United States Department of . Commerce.
451
PENNSYLVANIA SUMMARY - RETAIL DISTRIBUTION
Per
Cent
1929 1933 Changes
Number of Stores 135,275 115,421* -15
Sales $3,803,941,000 $2,014,402,000 —47
Employment
(Average number
throughout year)
Full time employees 317,099 218,999 -31
Part time employees 49,309 59,029 +20
Proprietors (active) 132,931 118,149 -ll
Payroll - Total 411,938,500 228,743,800 -44
(Not including
compensation of
Proprietors)
Full time. (Amount) 398,442,100 209,507,000 -47
Part time (Amount) 13,496,400 19,236,800 e43
Average annual earnings
per full time employee l, 257 957 -24
Foving to field conditions over which the Bureau had no control,
there is reason to believe that reports
retail stores in Pennsylvania were not collected.
from some of the smaller
It would
appear the number of stores should be about 132,400 and net
sales about $2,070,000,000. These are preliminary figures sub-
ject to revision.
452
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SEITWS Jºſhi
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SSSINISDE TO GIZIS Ka ‘NOILOGISISIGITIVISIH - WINVAIRSNN.I.I.
indicate the extent of the changes wrought by the depression.
Since 1929 there was a net decrease of 24 per cent of all
those on the payroll; full time employees decreased 31 per
cent, part timers increased 20 per cent. Stores decreased 15
per cent, sales 47 per cent and payrolls 44 per cent. From the
fact that there is reason to believe that the number of stores
should be about 132,400 in 1933 (see accompanying table), the
actual number of stores had a decrease of only 2875, or 2
per cent from 1929.
Sizes of Stores
The $3,803,941,000 business handled by Pennsylvania's
135,275 stores represents an average of about $28,000 per
store. A large portion of the stores, however, averaged far
less than this amount. 107,452 stores or 79 per cent of the
total did an annual business of $923,394,000 or 24 per cent
of the aggregate sales. This, volume represents an annual
average of about $8,600 per store. The group comprising the
remaining 27,823 stores, 21 per cent of the total number,
did a business of $2,880,546,000 or 76 per cent of the total
sales. This group represents an average of about $103,500
annually.
46,089 stores or 34 per cent of the total number, did an
annual business of $99,723,000, or less than 3 per cent of
the total sales and an annual average of only $2,170 per
store. As an extreme comparison it is interesting to note
that 2,085 stores or one and a half per cent of the total
.454
SOCIOGRAPH | CS
P H | L A D E L PH | A
SALEs over $50 ooo PER YEAR
SALEs UNDER $so ooo PER YEAR
TWENTY PER CENT OF STORES DO ɺgº sº. 29% ºf ޺s
SEVENTY-SIX PER CENT OF BUSINESS EACH FIGURE 4 9/o OF SALES
P L A N N | N G
F | GURE NO. 96 BOA R D.


number had $1,267,187,000 or one-third of the total sales.
These are all large stores with an annual business greater than
$200,000. It is evident in this field as in many others, a
relatively small number of stores account for a large proportion
of the businesse
Kinds of Business
In general, the retail business is carried on in storea
handling more or less distinct lines of goods, dictated and con-
trolled by the buying habits and preferences served in any par-
ticular community, but most commodities may be purchased in a
number of types of stores. These vary, naturally, in different
communities, so that no rigid classification can be made as to-
specific commodities sold in any one kind of store. Controll-
ing factors inelude price, credit, delivery, quality, location
of store, business hours, and the demand that comes to certain
stores which are exclusive distributors of lines aggressively
advertised nationally. Obviously some overlapping occurs in
the classification of stores • Country stores in some places
may sell more food than strictly grocery stores. Department
stores are increasing their sales of furniture in some cities.
Appliances, music, drugs, tires and so forth, are in some cities
sold by department stores and stores of other types in greater
volume than in specialized stores. In the Census, all stores
are classified according to the principal commodities they sell
or according to their popular designation-
For our analysis, we are using groups of related activities
455
to avoid clouding the picture with too much detaile These
groups do the bulk of the business in their commodities and are
representatives Fundamentally they are made up as follows:-
Food Group
Candy and confectionery stores
Dairy products, eggs and poultry stores
Fruit and vegetable stores
Grocery stores
Meat markets
Bakery goods stores
Other stores specializing in food products
Ceneral Stores
Country general stores, generally located in places of less
than 10,000 population •
Ceneral Merchandise
Department Stores
Dry goods stores, piece goods stores
General merchandise stores
Wariety, 5 and 10 to a dollar stores
Mail order houses, general merchandise by mail
Automotive Group
Motor vehicle dealers
Automobile dealers, including farm implements and machinery
Accessories, tires and batteries .#
Filling stations
Motorcycles, bicycles and supplies
Carages and repair shops
Other automotive establishments
Apparel Group
Men's and boys' clothing and furnishings
Family clothing stores, men's, women's and children's
Women's ready to wear specialty stores.
Other apparel stores
furniture and Household Stores
Furniture stores -
Floor coverings, draperies, curtains and upholstery stores
Household appliance stores
Other home furnishings and appliance stores
Radio and music stores * .
456
Restaurants. Cafeterias and Eating Places
Restaurants, cafeterias and lunch rooms
Lunch counters, refreshment stands, etc.
(Meals served in hotel dining rooms not included.)
Lumber and Building Group
Lumber and building material dealers
Electrical shops (without radio)
Heating and plumbing shops
Paint and glass stores
Other Retail Stores
Second-Hand Stores
Pertinent facts of the retail business of the State, se-
gregated to these groups is brought out in the accompanying
table. One is immediately impressed with the amount of money
the people have spent in the past for food, automobilee and
accessories, general merchandise, apparel and household equip-
ment. This expenditure amounts to 73 per cent of the total or
an average of $289.00 for every man, woman and child in the
State • 25 per cent of the merchandising dollar was spent in the
food group alone. Counting also restaurants, cafeterias and
other eating places, the total for food amounts to 28 per cent
or an average per capita of $112.00. Since sales according to
the 1933 census dropped 47 per cent, partially accounted for
by the drop in the price level, it is reasonable to assume that
semi-luxury purchases have been very greatly decreased, due to
lack of income and that the percentage of the dollar spent for
food is much greater.
It will be of interest to analyze these percentages when-
ever the detailed figures of the 1933 census become available
457
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to show just how they have been changed through the effects of
the depression •
Types of Operation •
Types of operation of retail stores play an important part
in the general scheme of distribution • Over a period of many
years several well defined types of operation have developed, the
principal ones of which are:-
Single Store Independents
Two and Three Store Independents -
Local Branch Systems (operated from a dominant
parent store)
Local Chains (four or more stores centrally
merchandised)
Sectional Chains (store in more than one city,
but in more than one section of the country)
National Chains (with stores in more than one
section of the country)
The basic distinguishing difference between chain stores
and independent stores is that in a chain store system, all the
stores are merchandised from one central merchandising head-
quarters and supplied from one or more distributing warehouses,
or directly from the manufacturer on orders placed by the cen-
tral buyers. With this in mind, it is possible to differentiate
readily between the various systems mentioned. Other types of
operation consist of a miscellaneous group made up of mail order
houses' catalog selling, roadside markets, utility operated
Stores handling gas and electric appliances, manufacturer-Gon-
trolled chains not classified by territory as in the case of
Sectional and national chains, house-to-house selling, cooper-
ative stores and buying associations and others • The most im-
portant of this group are the manufacturer-controlled chains
459
and the mail order houses' catalog selling. However, the chains
of retail stores operated by mail order houses are properly
classified as national chains.
The accompanying table shows the segregation of sales to
the various types of operation just cited. Contrary to general
belief, independent stores still do the major portion of the
retail business of the country. Stores numbering 119,808 in-
cluding single store independents, two and three store independ-
ents and local branch systems, constitute 89 per cent of the
total number of stores, did $2,788, 201,000 or 73 per cent of
the business of all the stores. Sectional and National chain
stores to the number of 8,379 or 6 per cent of the total number
of stores did $570,694,000 or 15 per cent of the business.
The growth of the chain store system, which has been par-
ticularly noteworthy since 1922, is the most important devel-
opment in recent years. In the popularly known 5 and lo cent
field, we have an available index which shows the extent of
this growth. This index is based on the reported monthly sales
of the representative companies.
5 & 10 Cent Chain Store Sales - Annual Index
Monthly Average 1923 - 1925 – 100
Year Index —r— Year Index
1922 74. 1928 150
1923 88 1929 l64
1924 99 1930 160
1925 . 113 1931 157
1926 125 1932 135
1927 138 1933 l34
Although these figures are based on the sales throughout
460,
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46L .
the country, we believe them indicative of most sections and lo-
calitiéº. In the grocery trade, the Great Atlantic and Pacific
Tea Co. is probably the most representative. In 1922 their annu-
al sales were $202,434,000 and increased to $352,093,000 in 1925.
In 1930, sales reached a total of $1,081,092,000, since which
time they have decreased somewhat in line with depression trends.
The growth of the chain store system in the grocery and com-
bination grocery and meat store business has been very rapid
since 1921 and an analysis of it is of interest, owing to its
particular closeness to the people.
In the grocery field alone, 3,769 stores out of a total of
20,950, or 18 per cent, are in sectional and national chain sys-
tems and do 51 per cent of the business. This compares with 43
per cent done by single store independents and the remainder by
missileneous types such as local chains. In the combination
grocery and meat business, 1,214 stores out of a total of 9,738
stores or 12 per cent, do 34 per cent of the business, compared
to 52 per cent for single store independents.
In the grocery field, these chain stores averaged $42,100
annually per store while the independents averaged $8,300 annu-
ally per store, a retio of about five to one.
In the combination grocery and meat store field, the sec-
tional and national chain stores averaged $88,900 annually per
store, while the independents averaged $21,400 annually per store,
a ratio of a little over four to one. Accompanying table gives
further details of operation of these two classes of business.
462
| N. DE PEN DE NTS
SOCIOGRAPH ICS
PH t. A D E. L. P. H. A
NATION A L CHA. N3
SECTIONAL CHA! Nº $
1.O CAL CHA! NS
A LL OTHERS
TOTAL RETA|L SALES
EACH FIGURE=5% C;
PLA N N | NG




PIGURE NO. 98
B O A R D
PENNSYLVANIA RETAIL DISTRIBUTION BY KINDS OF BUSINESS
2 & 3 STORE
INDEPENDENTS,
SINGLE STORE LOCAL BRANCH
TOTAL INDEPENDENTS, SYSTEMS AND SECTIONAL AND
LOCAL CHAINS NATIONAL CHAINS OTHER TYPES
Grocery Stores
(without meats)
Number of Stores 20,950 l6, l?4 614 3,769 373
Annual net sales (1929) $314,441 #134,498 $15,809 $158,860 $5,275
(thousands of dollars)
Per cent of total sales loo,00 42e 77 5e03 50,52 l,68
Combination Stores
(groceries and meats)
Number of Stores 9,738 7,725 g 654 l, 214 145
Annual net sales (1929) 317,320 165,482 39, 162 lC7,913 4,762
(thousands of dollars)
Per cent of total sales loo,00 52 el5 l2,34. 34.0l l,50
Total Grocer and Com-
bination Stores
Number of Stores 30,688 23,919 l, 268 4,983 518
Annual net sales (1929) 631,761 299,980 54,971 266,773 lo,037
(thousands of dollars) -
Per cent of Total sales loo,00 47,48 8,70 42.23 le59
§
Credit; Businese
How much of this great volume. of merchandising business is
carried on for cash and how much on credit? Reports from 115,555
stores, or S5 per cent of the total, doing 89 per cent of the
total business show that 61 per cent of their business was on a
credit basis. On the basis of reports by types of business,
49,990 stores doing $2,073,747,000 Worth of business or 55 per
cent of the total amount of retail sales show that 53 per sent
of their sales was on a credit basis. This compares with 53 per
cent for independents, 67 per cent for local chains, 71 per cent
for sectional chains and 53 per cent for national chains, whose
business makes up 91 per cent of the above totale
Reports of credit business from a number of the larger
cities are available. These reports are from the following
cities, in which 46 per cent of the total retail business of the
state is carried one
gredit Businese in selected cities
No e of Stores Sales-Thousands Credit Sales
City reporting Of in 7% of
Credit Sales Dollars Total Sales
Philadelphia 30,667 1,009,246 58 e81
Pittsburgh 5,197 335,491 66 eC)3
Scrant on 2,024 70,809 64s 24
Erie 1,278 51,662 63.90
Reading l,686 68,732 - 60 e89
—ur——
A further examination of credit sales in various kinds of
464
SOCIOGRAPHICS
PH, I LA D E L P H 1 A
| N DE PE N DENTS
LOCAL CHA D M S
A LL OT H ERS
SALES OF MEATS AND GROCERIES VT,
EACH FIGURE = 5%,
PLA N N | NG


FIGURE NO. 99 B O A R D
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465
business for cities for which detailed data is available is
interesting. The accompanying table shows figures for those
stores in the major groups which reported credit sales. The
wide differences between the percentages in the food and gen-
eral merchandise groups for the various cities is particularly
noticeable. The figures for the automotive and apparel groups
are consistent in showing the same credit situation existing
in the cities mentioned.
When details of the 1933 census of retail distribution are
available, it will be interesting to make a further examination
to find out how the years of depression have influenced these
ratios.
credit Business by Kinds of Business in Selected Cities
Per cent of Credit Sales to Total Sales
in Stores Reporting Credit Sales.
- General
City Food Group Automotive Merchandise Apparel Group.
- Group Group
Pittsburgh 42e 74 49,78 69 s52 55 e49
Scranton 58.21 58 e55 38e 85 53e 24
Erie 22e26 54 eO3 3l.lo 49e 48
Reading 46.e67 52.e.86 53 e59 44, 39
Retail Shopping Areas
In the foregoing, we have dealt principally with figures on
the business or the State as a whole. As a matter of fact, the
retail merchandising business has a tendency to flow to well de-
fined centers primarily for reasons of accessibility,
466
The J. Walter Thompson Co. of New York conducted a large amount
of research to determine the shopping areas around central
cities including those of Pennsylvania and these areas have been
accepted and used by the U. S. Department of Commerce and incor-
porated in its market Data Hand Book Series No. 30s
The shopping center having been determined by researchs
the surrounding territory was assigned to it (in Pennsylvania
these territories consist of entire counties or multiples
thereof) such territory being more accessible to this partic-
ular shopping center than to any other. In Pennsylvania there
are 32 named arease. In addition, Tioga and Bradford Counties
have no specific shopping center assigned while Susquehenna
County comes under the Binghamton , N. Y., shopping centere
However, the business in all Pennsylvania's 67 counties is in-
cluded in our figures. The Philadelphia and Allentown •
Easton - Bethlehem areas include portions of New Jersey but
only Pennsylvania business is considerede
The accompanying map has been prepared to show the loca-
tion and extent of these areas as well as the name of the
shopping center city after which they are called. In popula-
tion these areas run all the way from 89 per cent urban pop-
ulation for the Philadelphia area to 15 per cent urban for
the Gettysburg area and include manufacturing, minings
agriculture and other definite centers of business activitye
Since these shopping areas are made up of whole counties
in every case, it is possible from information at hand to ana-
467
lyze conditions in most of them. In this analysis we wish to
state again that the figures used apply only to business actu-
ally conducted within the borders of the State. The Philadel-
phia and Pittsburgh areas comprise 54 per cent of the people.
70,183, or 52 per cent of the total number of stores, are lo-
cated in these two areas and they do $2,288,796,000 or 60 per
cent of the total business. The distribution of the balance of
the stores and business is shown for all shopping areas and un-
assigned counties in the accompanying table. In examining the
sales figures for the areas, an abrupt drop in business is
noticeable beginning in the Shamokin area. Considering all the
areas from Philadelphia to Altoona, both inclusive as major
areas, it is found that this group, consisting of thirteen areas,
has 84 per cent of the population, 84 per cent of the stores,
and does 87 per cent of the business. The accompanying table also
shows how expenditures reflect the wealth of the various areas,
but the fact also must be borne in mind that a certain flow of
business is from the smaller areas to the large shopping centers.
Analysis of Selected A reas
Although the area in each case derives its name from the
city which is the shopping center, stores in the many towns in
each area obviously do a considerable amount of local business.
It is of importance to know to what degree and in what partic-
ular group the business either flows to the central city or
stays at home. It is possible in a number of the shopping areas,
enough we believe to be representative, to break down the fig-
468
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RETAIL SHOPPING AREAS, STORES AND SALES - PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES
TOTAL AMOUNT NET SALES (1929)
RETAIL SHCPPING AREA NUMBER OF STORES THOUSANDS OF OF TOTAL P3H CAPITA
NUMBERTY OFTOTAL DOLLARS SALES SALES
TOTAL FOR STATE l:55,275 lC)0.00 $3,803,941 100.00 395
Philadelphia(Pennae only) 42,358 31.31 l,328,822 34,93 488
Pittsburgh 27,825 2O.e57 595,974 25, 24 384
Wilkes-Barre 7,186 5.31 145,779 3.e.83 523
Allentown, Easton, -
Bethlehem, Pennae only 4,935 3e 65 l44,863 3.8l 423
Scranton. 5,556 4ell l24,985 3e39 345
Reading 3,087 2e28 loo,327 2,64 435
Harrisburg 4,101 3.03 92,566 2,45 3590
Johnstown 3,158 2e33 83,684 .2e2O 295
Lancaster 2,8l4 2,08 77,220 2,03 392
Erie 2,682 le.98 75 2 O93 le.97 428
Pottsville 5,405 4e CO 65,709 le.75 279
York 2,607 le.93 65,254 l,72 390
Altoona 2,378 le.76 60,026 le58 339
Shamokin ls 840 ls 36 38,219 leOO 267
New Castle 1,365 leOl 36,380 •96 374
Williamsport 1,378 leO2 35,580 •94 379
Dubois l,573 lel6 34, 139 .90 246
Sharon l, 274 •94 33,602 •88 359
Oil City 1,289 •95 33,512 * •88 343
Bradford 953 •7O 28,961 e76 399
Tioga and Bradford Co., l's 259 •93 25,429 e67 314
Meadville l,00l •74 23,452 •62 372
Lebanon 878 • 65 22,035 •58 329
Lock Haven l, 135 •84. 21,775 e57 277
Lewistown l, 108 •82 21,756 e5? 274
Chambersburg 991 e.75 21,568 • 57 291
Carlisle l,014 • 75 20,915 •55 307
Warrent 55 •4l l'7,561 •46 377
Lehighton 919, •68 l4,641 •38 23.l.
Berwick 584. •43 13,279 •35 272
Stroudsburg 421. •3l lo,335 e27 365
Gettysburg 717 •53 9,934 •26 268
St. Mary's 363 e27 8,359 •22 216
Susquehanna County (served
by Binghampton, N.Y.) 566 •42 3,157 •2l 24l
ure we have and develop this point. The areas chosen are:
Philadelphia area Erie area
Pittsburgh area York area
Allentown-Easton-Bethlehem area New Castle area
Reading area Williamsport area
Lancaster area Gettysburg area
These form, we believe, a representative cross section of the
retail merchandise business of the State • Referring again to
the table and considering only the major kinds of business
classification, we find that 25 per cent of the merchandising
dollar of the State is spent for food, 17 per cent for the
automotive group, lê per cent for general merchandise and ló
per cent for apparel. With these figures in mind, let us exam—
ine the conditions in the Pittsburgh area whose population is
65 per cent urban and 35 per cent rural.”
This area is the largest physically and contains the
cities of Pittsburgh and McKeesport, thirty-one towns over
10,000 population and llo towns above l,000 population and
under 10,000. It is possible from the data at hand to isolate
the sales made in Pittsburgh and McKeesport and so get the
sales made in the balance of the area. It is possible also to
segregate these sales in this case to three of the major kinds
of business classifications cited above, food, automotive and
general merchandise. One is immediately impressed with the
change in the percentage of the general merchandise group, in
the area excluding Pittsburgh and McKeesport as well as in
these two cities themselves.
*TCORETTEFIRETEETCFT3500 BCEIREICTERTOVEFESTECTRESF
the urban classification.
470
For the State as a whole, the percentage spent in the food
group is 25 per cent, in the automotive group 17 per cent, and in
the general merchandise group le per cent. In the Pittsburgh
area as a whole, these percentages are 27 per cent, 17 per cent
and 17 per cent respectively. In the area excluding Pittsburgh
and McKeesport, the percentage spent in the general merchandise
group drops from 16 per cent to 8 per cent. In the city of Mc-
Keesport it is only 9 per cent. Note, however, that in the city
of Pittsburgh the percentage jumps from 16 per cent to 27 per
cent, which we interpret as meaning that the general merchandise
business flows from outside the city to the city of Pittsburgh
itself but that the bulk of the purchases in the food and auto-
motive groups are made locally. Obviously, some increase will
be shown in the food and automotive group percentage in the area
outside of Pittsburgh and McKeesport due to the purchases of gen-
eral merchandise being made in the city of Pittsburgh. However,
the percentages decrease for the city of Pittsburgh proper in
these two groups. The accompanying table shows a similar ana-
lysis in a number of representative areas in which detailed in-
formation is available. Some of these areas can be considered
às urban, rural, and some pretty well divided as to urban and
rural populations. An examination of these figures shows that
the same condition obtains in all the areas to a greater or less
extent, which strengthens the interpretation that the major por-
tion of the business that flows to the shopping centers consists
of general merchandise and apparel lines.
471
DISTRIEUTION BY KINDS OR BUSINESS
NET SALES (1929) IN PER CENT OF TOTAL SALES
FOOD TIVE MERCHANDISE APPAREL
AREA OR CITY GROUP GROUP GROUP GHROUP
*Philadelphia Area Total 24e 65 lze47 20e,72 lle33
Philadelphia City 23, 25 10.39 25.67 l2.45
Chester City 29, lº 18.66 l().6l lC),68
Norristown City - 27,74 2le 52 12,50 10,31
Balance of Area 32.40 23,65 4.6l 4.e42
*Pittsburgh Area Total 26.80 lée 54 17,05
Pittsburgh City 22,89 lze.75 26.e32
McKeesport City 32e20 14e?8 8.97
Balance of Area 30.21 20.26 8,20
Allentowns Easton, -
Bethlehem Area Total 23s29 19.94 l2,69 lſ). 20
Allentown City 2Oe?7 19,95 17,46 l2.36
Easton City 2le.9l 15,02 l9.62 l2.72
Bethlehem City 27 e69 19,0l 8.21 lle.83
Balance of Area 26e 63 24 e44 2,00 3,38
Reading Area Total 21.66 20-55 10,72 9.e50
Balance of Area 23,88 23,96 l,62 leOO
Lancaster Area. Total l? •39 21.29 lle29 6.e.87
Lancaster City 16s.72 21,22 19,97 lCe45
Balance of Area l3e09 2le37 2.ll 3,09
Erie Area. Total 24.56 22.83 lo.49 lO,59
Erie City 23,98 22e29 l2.25 l2.26
Balance of Area 26,64 24,78 4,02 4.45
York Area. Total 20.45 21.40 lle.87 7.67
Balance of Area 2le48 22.45 4.90 3el9
New Castle Area Total 25,51 22 el2 9,91 10.4l
New Castle City 23,83 22e27 lle 60 lle 78
Balance of Area 29.e.87 2le.75 5,52 6.e.86
Williamsport Area Total 24e51. 21.00 10,40 lls 35
Williamsport City 23,88 20-ll l3,66 l3e 65
Balance of Area 25e 50 25.45 l.49 5e00
Gettysburg Area Total 19e 28 22elb 4.68
Gettysburg City 18,72 22.52 8.01
Balance of Area 19,69 21,92 2e24
*With exception of Bucks Co. Due to lack of detailed information
*With exception of Armstrong & Greene Counties. Due to lack of
detailed information a
472
In other words, the family food basket is filled in the
home markets. Automobiles which are sold at fixed prices are
bought at agencies convenient to home. Miscellaneous purchases
are bought locally or in the suburbs where there is convenient
parking space. National advertising and our contacts with the
cities, have made us style conscious and we prefer to do our
shopping in the city for clothes, curtains, furniture, rugs,
pianos and such other finer inerchandise, purchases are made
only after mature deliberation.
Influences Working Toward Changes
We have attempted to outline the extent of the merchan-
dising business of the State as well as show a break down to
the various natural territories in which it is conducted. It
is of interest to mention the influences that have been at
work in shaping up the changes that can be expected to take
place in the future and to visualize, if possible, their
extent •
Certain basic changes in the various retail shopping
areas that have been going on are due to population changes in
the last 30 years, both as to total population and the differ-
ences in rate of growth of urban and rural populations • In
the decade from 1900, the total population or the State gain.”
ed 21.62 per cent, the urban population gained 34.28 per cent
and the rural gained 6.34 per cent.* From 1910 to 1920, the
# of total population was lº, 26 per cent, that of urban

All incorporated places having 2500 or more inhabitants are
classed as urban arease
473
21.10 per cent and rural 2.56 per cent. From 1920 to 1930 the
gain in the total population was 10.45 per cent, that for urban
l2.83 per cent and for rural population 6.15 per cent. A de-
cided growth in the urban population has been at the expense of
the rural population. However, in the past depression years
some changes have taken place in these trends. According to
the 1933 Census, populations in both Philadelphia and Pitts-
burgh have decreased somewhat. This condition also has ob-
tained in many of the cities of the second class. Cities of
the third class, 30,000 down to 5,000 population, have about
held their own while in districts of 5,000 and unders there
has been some increase . Trends in population obviously are
based on data covering many years, so it is difficult to
determine the degree of permanency of these deviations just
cited or what effect they will have on the trend. We have
seen in the analysis of specific retail shopping areas the
large portion of the generel merchandise and apparel business
which flows to the shopping center city from the rural dis-
tricts. From the viewpoint of population changes alone, as
time goes on, the business placed by rural purchasers will con-
tinue to grow but will be a less share of the total and de-
pendent on other factors than population growth.
Changes in the general makeup of populations affect the
markets in the areas as a whole. Different groups of the pop-
ulations have different wants and changes in their size and con-

dition affect the purchasing poiler in their area.” The effect
* See Greater. Pennsylvania Council Soft Coal bulletins.
474
of the changes in the Pennsylvania bituminous coal mining indus-
try may be cited, The State has been losing her market stead-
4. ily. From 1923 to 1930, 65,000 Pennsylvania miners lost their
jobs with a corresponding loss of purchasing power in such areas
as Pittsburgh, DuBois and Johnstown. A similar situation
exists, not to as great an extent, in the anthracite fields
where competition is being severly felt from other fuels.
Unemployment resulting from the mechanization of industry
in the past years will be an important factor in the manufac-
turing and mining areas. This is especially true if these
workers are not assimilated into other occupations and relief
must be carried on on a wide scale in the future.
Changes in styles affect whole manufacturing districts
with resulting shifts in occupations and population.*
Frederick F. Stephan, Director, Bureau of Social Research,
has made an interesting analysis of the effect of population
changes in the Pittsburgh market.
The retail shopping areas are territories in which large
portions of certain types of the merchandising business flow
to the shopping center city. The shaping up of these definite
areas has been due to influences that long have been at work.
The shifting of trade in certain lines of merchandise away
from the country stores and small town stores to the country
seats and cities has been going on for many years but it has
TºPopulation Trends Predict the Future of Pittsburgh and
the Pittsburgh Market by Frederick F. Stephan, Director,

Bureau of Social Research. Federation of . Social Agencies,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania •
475
been particularly marked since 1920. Some of the shopping
center cities have been losing trade to the large stores in the
metropolitan districts but this shift has been less marked than
the changes in the areas *ives. During this period some
shifts have been taking place in the opposite direction but in
a less marked degree, Limitation of parking facilities led
some stores to establish suburban branches. Mail order houses
may have sensed a falling off in catalog sales in opening up
their chain retail stores. Suburban department stores, road-
side stands, gasoline filling stations with their increasing
lines of merchandise, can be mentioned as some of these. When
the detailed figures of the l833 Census of Distribution are
available, some definite figures on the changes can be worked
up for the years intervening since the l929 Census. Enough lo-
cal investigations throughout the country have been made, how-
ever, to convince us definitely that a continuous shift to the
cities is being made in general merchandise and apparel lines
or in general what might be termed fashion goods.
The basic cause of the shifting of purchasing and the form-
ation of well defined shopping areas has been the increased use
of automobiles (including trucks) and the development of good
road Bystems • Supplementary to these causes was the growth in
popularity of motion pictures and radio advertising. The people
have become style conscious, generally Rural folks now go to the
larger towns to shop and visit the motion picture houses and to
see the displays of good merchandise. Consequently the lag in
476
the spread of styles from the city to the country is lessened.
Instead of drawing their rural trade from é radius of five or
six miles, the urban stores now get business from distances Of
thirty miles and more and the change is still going on. Auto-
mobile speeds have been increasing with a corresponding in-
crease in distances traveled. This applies, too, to the radius
of urban store truck delivery.
The tendency of retail trade to concentrate in a smaller
number of centers has contributed to the growth of the chain
store system and we believe this growth will be continued. This
growth has been more rapid in some areas than in others as shown
in the following tabulation:-
Per cent of Total Sales by Sectional and National
Chains in Selected Areas
% of Sales by Sectional
Area and National Chains
Pittsburgh l9.17
Scranton 16.85
Altoona 15.14
Philadelphia l3.20
York 10.44
Lock Haven 9,65
Gettysburg 3.81
Future Tendencies
The Sales tax, as adopted by various states and suggested
for the Commonwealth, may have a marked effect on retailing.
Such a tax has a tendency to bear more heavily on the smaller
incomes proportionately, if the retailer passes on the tax. If
he is unsuccessful in doing so, his profits are affected notice-
477
ably. The street on retailers near states having no such tax
would be felt even more •
Another factor that may have an effect on retail merchan-
dising is the Federal policy of farm crop control. It is too
early as yet to determine any possible tendencies but they may
be far-reaching.
The recent general decline in the price level and increase
in operating expenses caused by added customer services without
increased volume makes maintenance of an adequate profit by the
retailer extremely difficult. He is now confronted with the
problem of increasing prices or reducing expenses in a highly
competitive field, and at present it does not seem probable
that the public Will be very Willing to absorb higher prices.
General advertising is another problem which may receive
some overhauling in the future. Higher competitive business
conditions have colored the advertising of some retailers to
such an extent that many customers are beginning to feel some
one is lying. One of the tasks of retailers is to re-establish
confidence in their advertising.
In such a time as the present forecasts of coming develop-
ments or the course the volume of merchandising sales will
take in the future are extremely hazardous.
We are fairly sure that in the coming decade the present
types of retailing will be maintained, but the possibility that
new kinds may come into being always exists. This obviously is
problematical. Neighborhood community shopping centers with
478.
specialized stores are likely to increase. Chain stores, such
as grocery and combination grocery and meat stores, may add de-
livery and credit • There appears to be some tendency along this
line at present. "Serve yourself" chain stores may increase in
numbers.
One thing likely to take place is that retailers will more
and more absorb college graduates in their personnel, parallel-
ing the practice of engineering companies. The turnover in per-
sonnel now is very high.
In attempting to visualize the volume of retail sales over
the past years, we are confronted with the situation of having
no official and comparative data, so that results we obtain must
necessarily be considered approximate. We have as definite fig-
ures the results obtained in the 1929 and 1933 Censuses of Dis-
tribution. Figures for other periods we must estimate from
such other sources, such as reports of retail mercantile bus-
iness in connection with mercantile licences •+
These figures indicate a retail business by 1944 of approx-
imately $5,000,000,000, on the basis of the 1923-25 price level,
an average annual increase of 4.5 per cent from the present
level. Such a conclusion is subjects of course, to a return of
prosperity, an increase in real wages and a resumption of the
rising trend in real income characteristic of the period from
†Productive Industries tº Fublic Utilities -- ſis:
cellaneous Statistics • Pennsylvania Department
of Internal Affairs -- Bureau of Statistics.
479
1922 to 1929.
If, however, estimates of future population appearing in
other parts of this report are taken into consideration, then
possibly the estimate for 1944 will be considerably lower, per-
haps as much as 20 per cent.
The outstanding accomplishment of American industry in the
post-war period has been the remarkable development of pro-
duction facilities. During these boom years of consumer de-
mand no necessity appeared for a high degree of scientific dis-
tribution so that costs and methods did not keep pace with the
development in production. We have now entered a period in
which constructive merchandising ability only can survive •
Human desires know no limit and the years of depression have
developed a pent up demand that craves to be satisfied. To
reach the greatest number of consumers, distribution costs must
be lowered. American ingenuity has solved the production pro-
blem, and that it will solve the many problems confronting re-
tailers, we are quite sure •
TRANSPORTATION IN PENNSYLVANIA*
This survey of the transportation facilities of the Common-
wealth aims to serve three purposes: To sketch briefly exist-
ing transportation facilities in Pennsylvania; to indicate the
need for coordinating them into a more harmonious and effective
system of transportation; and to indicate the need for further
quantitative and qualitative study of these facilities, their
coordination and their adequate constructive and comprehensive
regulation.
These matters should not be left to fortuitous development,
but should be studied in the interests of the public and the
development planned so as to conserve investments already made.
and those to be made in the future, to guard against ruthless and
destructive competition among these public service enterprises,
and to conserve employment for citizens of the State who earn
their livelihoods in these enterprises.
The conservation, coordination and regulation of trans-
portation facilities is a pressing problem in economic, govern-
mental and social planning in which the states and Federal gov-
ernment should cooperate.
RAILROADS OF PENNSYLVANIA
Pennsylvania is served by ll, l06** miles of railroad
*TDeveloped in cooperation with G. Lloyd Wilson, Fh.D., Pro-
fessor of Commerce and Transportation, University of Penn-
sylvania.
** 1932 mileage
48l.
operated by 18 systems, controlling 109 subsidiary lines.
Four and one-half per cent of the country's railway mileage
lies within the State and there is e245 mile of railroad per
square mile in Pennsylvania compared with eO66 for the United
States as a Whole •
Figures are not available as to freight or passengers car-
ried by railroads in Pennsylvania. The population of the State,
however, was 7.8 per cent of the total for the Nation in 1930,
its income approximately 8% per cent, and its value of manufac-
tured and mineral products about 10.6 per cent of the Nation's
total. It is the "Keystone" railroad State, for passengers and
freight pass through from the North, South and West. Exports
and imports also move through the ports of Erie and Philadelphia
in considerable quantities.
It would be reasonably safe to estimate that 70,000,000
tons of originating freight or 150,000,000 tons of revenue
traffic were carried by the railroads of the State in 1933.
In addition, 44,000,000 passengers traveled within the State
or passed over its borders in the same year. These figures
show a sharp decrease from the peak in 1929.
HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION
Practically 7 per cent of all motor vehicles in the United
States were registered and operated over the highways of Penn-
sylvania in 1933. On November 30, 1934, there were 1,475,524
private passenger cars, 5,704 buses and 258,220 commercial
trucks and tractors, or a total of l,738,948 vehicles. The
482
November, 1934, registration showed the first increase since
the peak registration of lºo,
Pennsylvania has approximately lº motor vehicles to every
mile of highway, while the country as a whole has but half that
number. It must be realized, however, that urban centers such
as Philadelphia, Pittsburgh and Scranton have much greater den-
sity than the mean of the State. Likewise, certain routes of
travel are more highly congested,
Between 6,000 and 7,500 truck operators hold certificates
of public convenience and necessity in Pennsylvania and it is
estimated that they operate between 7 and 8% per cent of all
the registered commercial freight vehicles. Eighty per cent
of all passenger vehicles, exclusive of private automobiles,
8Jºe COTºnoºl carriers.
Early Pennsylvania Highways. The early highways of Pennsylvania
had their origin in the post roads end the local roads of colon-
ial days, whose locations were controlled by the ridges, moun-
tains and valleys that run from the south to the northeast sec-
tion of the State. The industry of its people also has directly
affected, from the earliest days, the location and the density
of roads •
Late in the Eighteenth Century and far into the Nineteenth
toll roads and turnpikes were built and operated by private
companies. The first turnpike in Pennsylvania and one of the
first in America was built from Philadelphia to Lancaster, a
distance of €23 miles. It was the Lancaster Turnpike, built
485
and operated by the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike Road
Company. This road was completed in l’94 at a cost of
$465,000, or approximately $7,516 per mile.
By 1831 there were 2,500 miles of such roads in the State,
including the Downingtown, Ephrata and Harrisburg Turnpike,
otherwise known as the "Horseshoe Pike," the Little Conestoga,
York Road, the Strasburg Road and the National Pike. The
decade of the l840's and the period after the Civil War saw
large increases in the mileage of turnpikes and toll roads.
The early toll roads were of corduroy, plank or broken
stone construction and later of macadam. Lack of maintenance
caused many to be abandoned. Most of the roads did not pay and
almost without exception eventually proved to be unprofitable
Ventures •
The decline of toll roads was due to the expansion of
steam railroads and electric railways which diverted long-
distance travel from the highways to the rails, and partly be-
cause of the unpopularity of highways which were not tree to
the public •.
Another period of road development came with the advent
of the bicycle and later the automobile. Highway growth was
both the cause and effect of the development of the motor
vehicle. Pennsylvania was the eleventh state to take up
highway improvement. In 1903, the Pennsylvania Department of
Highways was organized but it did not have the supervision of
the State highway system until 1912.
484
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Present Highways.
Pennsylvania in 1933 had an average of 2.29 miles of high-
ways for every square mile of its area, compared to approx-
imately .87 miles for the United States as a whole.
There
were lo3,591 miles of improved and unimproved State Highways,
rural roads and city streets on May 15, 1933, as shown by the
following table:
5urfaced Construct
and - tion of
Type of Road Improved Unimproved base only Total
‘State Highway l2,130 l, 335 l3,466
Rural Roads 8,343 10,452 l, 375 20,170
State & City Sts. 65 65
Connecting 306 2 308
Highways
All other 15,342% 54,239* 69,581*
Highways *
Total 36, 186 66,028 1,375
lo3,590%
FETEEEEEFTTy I.TIS35.
A more recent inventory showed 35,414 miles of State High-
ways, State aid highways and rural roads, of which 10,532 miles
were unimproved and 24,882 surfaced and improved.
Use of Highways
Highways of Pennsylvania have generally been constructed
to accommodate passenger vehicles and moderate weight trucks.
sº
-The problem of providing highways f' or heavily loaded vehicles
must be considered in the light of the interest of the entire
485
public.
Vehicles of weights in excess of the limits for which our
present roads were constructed should be denied the right to
operate upon Pennsylvania highways. The Flaming or future
highways, however, should consider the limits of weight, to-
gether with the size of vehicles. Planning, too, should be
combined with the fact in mind that Pennsylvania's highway sys-
tem and the vehicles operating over it are part of a National
system and that it would be preferable to have uniform regula-
tion of size, weight and speed.
Roadside Improvements
Accomplishments of the Forestry Unit established in the
Highway Department in 1928 have shown that roadside improvement
pays for itself in lowered maintenance costs and that considera-
tion should be given to betterment of rights-of-way.
Roadside improvement is becoming recognized as an essen-
tial element of highway construction. Today the emphasis is
upon utility, elimination of traffic hazards and cutting of
upkeep costs, but at the same time beautification has been by
no means forgotten.
Planting of trees, shrubs and vines, together with sodding
and seeding, check erosion of steep slopes and in many instances
prevent it. Thus maintenance costs are reduced. Traffic
hazards have been eliminated by trimming and pruning trees on
the sides of curves for clear vision. Dead and dangerous
trees have been removed to promote safety but in every in-
486
stance effºrt has been made to spare the existiag desirable
growth,
The last report of the Highway Forestry Section showed
that more than 2,000,000 trees, shrubs, and vines had been
planted, nearly 8,000,000 square feet seeded and sodded, 31,827
dead trees removed, 103,801 trees pruned and trimmed, lé5,642
caterpillar nests destroyed, ll4 scenic views opened, ll, 354
Stumps and snags removed and a vast amount of other work
accomplished, such as spraying and transplanting in, the past
five years.
Erosion has been controlled on many slopes, and in some
specific cases maintenance charges have been reduced from $600
to slo a year. An unusual feature has been the trimming of
trees to obtain circulation of air, so that the roadway may
dry quickly, thus aiding the elimination of ice and slippery
roads •
Permanent live evergreens have been set out as "snowſ
fences" at points along the highways where snow drifts fre-
quently occur. These snowbreaks have replaced the wood and
wire fences ordinarily used and should greatly reduce mainten-
ance costs. The Forestry Unit estimates that if they were
substituted for all of the state's present mileage of wooden
fence, the saving would approximate $500,000 a year.
The first allocation of National Highway Recovery Funds to
Pennsylvania's roads amounted this year to approximately
$18,000,000 and the second to about $9,500,000. Of the first
437
amount, $94,500 was set aside for roadside development proj-
ects, and of the second, $98,798. The program provided for
work on virtually every major route in the State. Exclusive
of these funds, the Commonwealth has averaged $125,000 per
year for the past five years for roadside development.
The Forestry Unit points out that some revision of the
laws governing removal of trees, signs and other obstructions
at dangerous points along the highways is desirable in the
interests of traffic safety. Rights-of-way previously ob-
tained for the main highways have been too narrow, in general.
Future traffic needs on each route should be considered, par-
ticularly with regard to the probability of future surface
width and a landscaped area safely beyond the space required
for any future widening. Narrow rights-of-way have been
responsible for high costs of surface videning and often have
made landscaping impossible •
Rights-of-way can be purchased now at lower prices than
will be possible in the future, according to indications. On
main highways, a right-of-way not less than 150 feet wide seems
desirable to meet probable future requirements. Obtaining so
great a width may not always be practicable because of build-
ings or other improvements, however. In some places con-
siderably greater width my be needed, especially where oppor-
tunity exists For a particularly streetwo landscape develop-
ment, such as the preservation of a natural grove or where.
screening material should be planted to hide an unsightly, area.
488
SOCIOGRAPH | CS
P H | L. A D E L P H 1A
ºf, tº ºf
ºf
vºcle to Venicle
Z Z
V E H ICLE TO PE DESTRAN
VEHICLE TO FIXED OBJECT
TYPES OF AUTOMOBILE EACH FIGURE - 4 ooo AccIDENTS
ACC DENTS C
FIRST 9 MONTHS OF 1934 PLA N N i N. G
FIGURE NO. IO2 BOARD





The Forestry Unit has drawn up a pian for planting work in
all counties. The program is designed to protect the enormous
investment the State has in its highways. The immediate plan
shows a total of 4,660 sites for trees, shrubs, etc. , and 1,889
soddings and seedings proposed. The number of square feet
needing treatment is placed at 2,208 sll 8 and the total cost
“siºn.
Motor Vehicle Accidents
Motor vehicle accidents, ranging from 40,000 to 48,000
each year since 1929 on the highways, roads and streets of
Pennsylvania, resulted in l;900 deaths and 35,000 to 47,000.
injuries and millions of dollars in property damage. They
provide a major reason for highway planning and control by
the Commonwealth and local governments.
Collisions with motor vehicles, pedestrians and fixed
objects are the three most important types of accidents and
cause the greatest number of deaths and injuries. Approximate-
ly 55 per cent of the accidents result from operator viola-
tions, of which driving too fast under prevailing conditions
of weather, traffic and roadway; driving or parking upon the
Wrong side of road; forcing vehicles from highway; failure to
stop at "through streets," and "cutting in" are the major in-
fringements.
A surprising proportion of these accidents occur upon dry,
roads in clear weather, when the vehicle is going straight •
Street intersections, straight stretches of rural road,
489
sections between street intersections, and curves are the most
dangerous parts of the State's street and highway system. But
one of the greatest hazarás is a human one. Imattention of
both operator and pedestrian account for a large percentage of
the fatalities and injuries. -
Operator violations, mechanical defects of vehicles, and
actions of pedestrians, among others, can be corrected in some
part by strict enforcement of motor laws and regulations,
education of the driving public and the pedestrian, and the
construction of highways which will reduce to the greate st
degree the human element or "moral hazard."
Accident statistics hold the key to accident prevention.
These statistics, however, should be improved and be made in
greater detail than at present to provide a real means of
attack upon the problem.
Inaccuracies in information resulting from reports filled
out by persons involved in accidents should be corrected by
having the reports prepared by local authorities and forwarded
by them to a central government agency. Discrepancies would
then be less likely to appear.
It is also possible that more detail and complete analyses
of these reports would point out other Éleans of attacking the
accident problem. During the first ten months of 1934, for
example, there were 5,025 accidents on curves resulting in
death to 195 persons and injuries to 2,729. Only 246 of the
accidents on curves, causing three deaths and 126 injuries,
490
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resulted from operator violations, however. What were the
causes of the other 192 deaths and 2,483 injuries?
Statistics for the same period show that approximately 45
per cent of the accidents cause five-eighths of all motor
deaths and one-third of all injuries. How many of these
accidents were caused by the condition of vehicles, the weather,
the condition of road surface, actions of pedestrians, sleep-
ing drivers, obstructed view, excessive light, possible faulty
road construction such as unbanked curves, narrow lanes and
the like, and avoidable and removable hazards, along the rights-
of-way?
Analyses such as these should further facilitate accident
prevention upon existing highways and permit road engineers and
designers to construct and design future highways with greater
understanding of the types necessary for the safety of the
driving public.
OCEAN TRANSPORTATION
Pennsylvania, although not directly on the ocean, has one
major ocean port where ocean-going vessels may load and dis-
charge cargoes and passengers. Philadelphia is situated on
the Delaware River, a navigable waterway that empties into the
Delaware Bay and thence to the Atlantic Ocean - a distance of
lol.7 miles by water. The northwest boundary of the State
borders on Lake Erie, one of the Great Lakes, where the City of
Erie is a port for foreign and coastwise commerces
There are 71 steamship companies, with lines serving the
491
entire world, that dock their vessels at Philadelphia. The -
total commerce entering and leaving Philadelphia in 1933 was
21,140,221 long tons, an increase of more than 2,000,000 tons
since 1929. Erie, with a total of 3,326,174 long tons in
1933, also increased its 1929 figures by almost 1,000,000 tons,
Of the four types of shipping service in Philadelphia
(foreign, intercoastal, coastwise, and noncontiguous), coast-
wise shipping had the greatest amount of tonnage, with
15,396,969 long tons in 1933. The trade of Erie, divided be-
tween coastwise and foreign, was almost 70 per cent coastwise
in 1933,
Passenger service also was rendered by the steamship .
carriers in both Philadelphia and ºrie. Although entire
figures are not available for all passenger services, the ports
of Philadelphia and Erie had a total of 567 persons in 1932
either departing for Qr arriving from foreign ports. This was
a considerable decline from 1929, when 9,143 persons entered or
left the State by the two ports. Steamship lines also provide
tourist cruises to foreign, intercoastal and noncontiguous
points from Philadelphia and Erie.
INLAND WATERWAYS
Pennsylvania has an inland waterway system which totals
approximately 622.7 miles in length. Five rivers and two
canals comprise the navigable water routes and touch only the
East and dest portions of the State. The waterways and their
individual navigable lengths are :
,492
Miles.
Lehigh and Delaware Division Canals .68.00
Schuylkill Canal 90,00
Delaware River (Philadelphia to Trenton) 33,7
Chester River • * * * *
Allegheny River 255.00.
Monongahela River l31,00
Youghiogeny River 9.00
Ohio River (Pittsburgh to border of Penna.) 36.00
4 Total 622.7
The great majority of the tonnage transported consisted of
bulk products, such as coal and other mineral or low grade
products which did not require expedited services and were
shipped in such large quantities that low cost was the primary
consideration. g
From 1929 to 1931, there was a steady decline of inland
waterway traffic, dropping from a total of 38,628,065 short
tons in 1929 to 23,124,264 short tons in 1931. This was a
loss of 15,503,801 tons over a three-year period. Package
and merchandise freight also experienced a similar drop, from
l,842,601 short tons in 1929 to 117,955 short tons in 1931, a
loss of l,724,646 short tons in three years. The following
table gives statistics in short tons for all inland waterways
of the State :
YEAR Buir fieldſ: PAC&AGE FREIGHT TOTAL
1929 36,785,464 l,842;60l. 38,628,065
1930 34,981,175 lo2,912 35,084,087
1931. 23,006,309 ll'7,955. 23,124,264
493
The central portion of the State, though served by the
Susquehanna River, has not had its facilities developed On a
navigable basis by canals or simple river improvements. There-
fore, at present water transportation is completely denied the
central section of the State.
The decline in package freight undoubtedly is due to the
inroads of swifter forms of transportation, arising out of the
increase in hand-to-mouth buying and the need for rapid move-
ment of that class of freight. However, bulk freight does not
come under that category and should be shipped, when not
perishable, over the most economical route that is available.
Inland waterway development should be considered with a view to
providing a transportation facility that is economical when all
costs are considered.
The Allegheny River is now being improved so that it shall
be navigable to the New York State line.
PETROLEUM PIPE LINE TRANSPORTATION
Pennsylvania is the Keystone State in the pipe line struc-
ture of the United States. As a producer of petroleum of al-
most 12,000,000 barrels per year, Pennsylvania necessarily has
an intricate system of intrastate lines from its oil fields to
its refineries. However, every trunk line of the country
which moves from the western fields to the eastern seaboard,
enters the State.
Thirteen major pipe line companies, which operated lines
either through or within the State in 1933, had a total mileage
494
of 9,514 in Pennsylvania. This figure does not include the
mileage of numerous other small intrastate pipe lines, average
length of which was less than five miles • Of the lº companies,
only five reported an interstate business, although the majority
of the remaining eight lines reported that much of their traffic
was gathered from or for other lines doing an interstate
business. The majority of the liness therefore, may be con-
sidered parts of through interstate systems.
During 1931, the 13 companies carried a total of 44,518,107
barrels of oil and 4,545,140 barrels of gasoline. These,
figures do not allow, however, for overlapping in totals, for
in some instances intrastate carriers emptied their lines into
those of interstate carriers or larger intrastate carriers, and
in this manner the total would show the same shipment in the
figures of two or more companies •
A table of the major companies, their mileage and their
service follows:
495
BARRELS
CARRIED
COMPANY MILEAGE l931
0II:
National Transit Co., 3,800.84 959,840
South West Penna. Pipe Lines l,925.74 l2,194,267
Walvoline Oil Coe 956,80 '959,840
Bradford Transit Co. 630, 00 3,958,559
Tide Water. Pipe Co., Ltd. 592.00 5,459,771
Tuscarora Oil Co., , Ltd • 13.33 4,905,15l
Southern Pipe Line Co. 261.00 9,536,520
Pure Oil Pipe Line Co. 56.66 676,185
Vacuum Oil Co. 40.33 2,254,488
Elk Oil Co., 20,00 32,050
Franklin Pipe Co., Ltd. 5.00 (app.) — 27,973
TOTALS 8,301.70 44,518, l07
GASOLINE
Susquehanna Pipe Line Co. 546,60 2,422,288
Tuscarora Oil Co., Ltd • 440,50 2,017,837
Keystone Pipe Line Co., 225,90 105-105
Pipe line transportation, when studied for either regula-
tion or planning, presents two characteristics unusual to
agencies of transportation.
First, pipe iines are restricted
to the transportation of a single commodity - petroleum.
Seconds pipe lines usually are integrated portions of a large
industry - oil refining - and as such can be entirely regulated
only through regulation and supervision of the other related
portions of the industry.
COMMERCIAL AFRONAUTICS
Air transportation in Pennsylvania has been developed to
a considerable extent on a planned basis.
There are six main
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airways that directly cover the State and also one airway that
indirectly serves the area through the medium of the Central
Airport of Camden, N. J. All are lighted for day or night
service and are traversed by five of the major air transport
companies of the United States, namely, the Pennsylvania Air
Lines, Inc., Transcontinental and Western Air, Inc., American
Airlines, Inc., United Air Lines, Inc., and Eastern Air Trans-
port, Ince
These airways are maintained either solely by the State or
Federal governments, or, jointly by , both agencies. Beacon
lights spaced at ten to 15 mile intervals and intermediate
landing fields from 30 to 50 miles apart are among the aids
to air navigation established on the Federal airways system by
the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce. In es-
tablishing intermediate fields, the Aeronautics Branch so
arranges them that they serve in conjunction with airports and
other landing fields lying along the airway.” The State Aero-
nautics Division is proceeding in the same manner with the air-
ways under its supervision. At present, plans are under way
for the building of seven emergency landing fields, one of which
is now under construction. -
The number of licensed aircraft in the State increased,
except in 1934, and the number of unlicensed declined. Be-
tween June 30, 1929, and July 1, 1934, the total number of
WGEEETRIRºyTººHºº FTIRºy EITSETNS.T.I., United
States Departinent of Commerce, Aeronautics Branch, Washington,
T). C - 2 Septem € I’ l, 1932, -
497
aircraft in the State increased from 361 to 490, with 144 being
licensed in the latter year. The number of pilots also in-
creased, during the same period, from 265 to 719. The peak
year of 1932 saw 1,037 licensed pilots in the State. From
July 1, 1930, to July 1, 1933, the number of airports and
landing fields in Pennsylvania increased from 85 to lll.
Of these, 38 were partially lighted or fully lighted on the
latter date •
Commercial airports and landing fields are inspected and
licensed by the State Department of Revenue, Division of Aero-
nautics. This body also supervises the requirement of Federal
licenses for aircraft and pilots, a rule that is part of the
Aeronautical Code of Pennsylvania, enacted in 1933.
Pennsylvania is served by the commercial air transport
companies with every available air service. The five large.
transport lines all give passenger and express service While
four have United States air mail contracts. Coordinated air-
motor express service is given by one air line and the Railway
Express Agency. They make overnight delivery from Phila-
aelphia to the Pacific Coast. Although air transportation is
potentially for long distance or interstate travel, there is
little provision for intrastate movement. Because of the few
scheduled, commiercial air stops in the State, direct air travel
to or from any point within the State to or from points else-
where is limited e -
Gommercial aviation is being regulated and controlled to
498
a great degree by uniform State and Federal legislation.
Thirty-three states have laws similar to Pennsylvania and
practically all states follow either identically or closely
to Federal regulation. Due to the large overhead expense,
most states also leave licensing to the Federal government.*
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 4.
The electric and street railways of the State, with 56
separate operating companies listed as of the calendar year
1931, showed a total of 3,227.42 miles of trackage in opera-
tion. This was an average of ..ons miles per square mile,
as compared with an average of .0089 for the country as a
whole • -
The large cities of Pennsylvania are served by urban
street-car lines, with elevated lines, subways, surface Cars 3
and, in some instances, trolley buses. The interurban railway
lines, many of the high-speed type, make cross-country runs
between some of the larger towns. The state's electric rail-
ways operated 7,382 cars and employed 19,737 persons in 1931.
As was the case with many industries from 1929 to l231,
the patronage of the electric railways declined. In 1931,
l, 247,308;128 passengers were carried on the electric lines as
compared with l,568,313,847 in 1929. This passenger traffic
raid approximately va,000,000 in fares; or 88 per cent of the
total income of the railways for l931.
*Higon, G. Lloyd, The Transportation Crisis, TSears, New
York, l033. -
499
Thirty-seven of the 56 railways carried some freight,
milk or express, but the total revenue from such operations was
only $582,202.00, or .72 per ent of the total income for 1931,
Motor buses have either replaced or supplemented many of
the electric railways. This change has occurred either from
the inability of the railway to adapt itself to new conditions
such as population shifts and the flexibility of the bus, or
from the ability of the bus to offer more adequate service
under certain circumstances and conditions.
The decline of the interurban electric railway, however,
is not a new trend. It was generally well under way long
before lº29. Several of the lines, however, have held their
places in recent years by improving their service. These
improvements in service may have a direct bearing on the future
of electric railways.
500,
COMPARATIVE TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES IN PENNSYLVANIA

- Estimated TEstimated Hºrrºmir IHTrººper innºn:
Type of Mileage in mileage in In In In I n the
Facilities Penna, the U.S.: . Penna, the Uzès—Pennae- U. S.:
Railroad ii,106.43 247,595.00 0.245 0.0662 0.0012 0.0020
Electric Rwy. 3,227.42 31,547.82 0.0715 0.0089 0.00033 O. O.0025
\Waterway 622.70 27,366,00 0.0139 0.0092 Oe 00006 O.00022
Highway 103,590.58 3,040,000.00 2.29 O's 866 O. Olo'7 .0.025
Airway 1,266.00 24,878.00 0.028 0.0066 O.00013 O. O002O2
Pipe Line 9,514.70 ll.0,695.00 0.21 O's O29 O.00098 0.00090
50l.
GOORDINATION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
The orderly development of transportation in the interests of
all forms of transportation and in the paramount public interest
requires that attention be given by the carriers and by the public
through the State administrative authorities to the coordination
of the various instrumentalities of transportation.
The coordination of transportation, therefore, is the bring-
ing of the agencies of transportation into the same order, the
regulation and combination of all transportation facilities
into harmonious action or relationship.
The coordination of transportation facilities implies the
inclusion of rail, water, highway and air transportation
agencies into a general system in which each type of carrier is
on an equal basis with all other carriers, so that, by united
action, they may render more efficient service.
the goal for all -- the operators of the railroads, the
electric railways, the steamship lines, the motor carriers, the
shippers and receivers of freight, and the public -- is the
same. All are interested in adequate transportation service at
rates that are fair to the producers and consumers of trans-
portation.
The place of each transportation facility in a coordinated
service should be determined by the relative efficiency with
which each does its particular service. If it be definitely
established that motor trucks haul freight and that motor
buses transport passengers for short aistances more economical-
502
ly than steam railroads, electric railways, steamship lines,
or other carriers, then the development of motor transportation
in short haul traffic should be encouraged and railroad,
electric railway and steamship facilities should be devoted to
hauling the steadily increasing volume of long haul freight and
passenger traffic.
The coordination of transportation does not imply that the
motor carriers will be relegated to a position of minor im-
portance in the transportation system, or that motor truck and
bus lines will all be controlled by railroads or by other
carriers • Coordination, which implies only the union of various
classes of carriers to improve the efficiency of transportation,
may be achieved through independent ownership and operation of
motor vehicles as well as through ownership and operation by
railroads and steamship lines or by subsidiaries controlled by
these companies.
Any uneconomical division of the field of transportation
being brought about through the coordination of motor facilities
with other transportation facilities should be avoided. The
motor vehicle has become a permanent part of the transport
system of this and other countries.
The coordination of the agencies of transportation may be
achieved in a variety of ways:
l. By the direct ownership and operation of equipment for
performing various types of transportation services by carriers
already engaged in operating other types of transportation,
503.
as, for example, the ownership and operation of motor trucks or
motor buses by railroads or steamship companies.
2. By the organization of wholly-owned and controlled sub-
sidiary companies to own and operate other kinds of transporta-
tion facilities such as the organization of subsidiary com-
panies by railroads or steamship lines to perform highway trans-
port services •
3. By the acquisition of financial interest in companies
performing other types of transportation services, as typified
by the purchase of the securities of motor truck or bus com-
panies, steamship lines, express companies or air transport
companies, by rail or other transportation companies.
4. By the establishment of agency arrangements between
carriers of different types under the terms of which one
carrier performs services which it can perform more efficient-
ly as agent for the other contracting carriers, such as the
transportation of freight by contract motor carriers as agents
for the principals, the railroad or steamship companies, in
cases where the goods can be transported more economically by
motor vehicle than by rail or water.
5. By establishing joint routes, through rates and ser-
vice and divisions of the single-sum rates among independent
carriers of various types, as illustrated by joint rail-and-
Inotor, or joint water-and-motor, or joint rail-water-motor ser-
vices at through rates and joint billing arrangements,
6. By the organization of transportation companies
504
equipped to perform several or all forms of transportation
services; rail, water, express, highway, air and pipe-line •
The Need for Coordinations. - The need for the coordination
of transportation facilities is urgent. The Federal Govern-
ment has recognized the need and created the office of
Federal Coordinator of Transportation through the enactment
of the Railroad Emergency Transportation Act of 1933. The
Federal Coordinator has created Sections of Transportation
Service, Research, Purchasing, Gar Pooling, Labor and Gost
Finding, and regional coordinating committees and regional
traffic assistants. The aim is to study the problems of co-
ordinating transportation with the aid and cooperation of the
carriers, in order to recommend to the carriers improvements
in transportat ion services, facilities and practices and to
recommend to the Congress legislation required in order to
meet emergency conditions in the field of transportation and
in order to improve the condition of transportation carriers
and their usefulness, efficiency and economy to the industries
and the public which they serve •
Reports of the Coordinator so far released have recommend-
ed the consolidation and coordination of railroad, express and
freight forwarders' merchandise traffic; the pooling of rail-
road box freight cars into a national car pool, arrangements
for the combined purchasing of certain types of railroad
materials and supplies, and numerous other phases of trans-
portation services and practices,
505
Goordination and Regulations. - The policy of the Public Service
Commission of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania with respect to.
the coordination and regulation of facilities of transportation
has been stated in its decision in re Bingaman Motor Express
Company, Docket A-9092, decided February 19, 1924. (P.U.R. 1924–G,
389) :
"It has been the policy of the Commission to refuse to per-
mit compétition with existing utilities which have large invest-
ments and are necessary for public convenience, if their service
is or can be made reasonably adequate. No transportation agency
can render perfect service at all times to all persons. The
Commission must consider the benefit to the general public • The.
use of motor trucks for transporting property has reduced con-
siderably the receipts of railroad and electric railway compan-
ies. Although such motor service may be more convenient to some
shippers than service by electric railway or railroad, consider-
ation of public convenience will not permit the Commission to take
action which will endanger, the continued financial stability of
such established roads."
Types of Coordination: The principal types of coordinated trans-
portation service are to be found in the following arrangements:
railroad-steamship, railroad-highway, railroad-steamship-highway,
steamship-highway, railroad-electric railway, electric railway-
highway, railroad-airway, airway-highway, railway-airway-highway,
railroad-pipe line, railroad-pipe line-highway, steamship-pipe
line-railroad-highway, steamship-pipe line, and pipe line-high-
Ways 506
The use of motor vehicles in transportation services in-
cludes the following types of coordinated operations: branch-
line, reader, extension and connecting line services, supple-
mental services in periods of peak traffic, substitute ser-
vices in times of off-peak traffic, alternating services with
other forms of transportation, cross-country, terminal exten-
sion and terminal interchange services. -
Motor vehicles also are used in substitute service for
freight cars in intra-terminal industry-to-industry switching
movements which are unduly slow and expensive when performed º
by railroad cars; as substitutes for freight cars in concen—
tration and distribution services between major freight
stations and sub-stations; as substitutes for railroad trap
Or ferry car services between railroad freight stations and
- industries' private aidings in terminal districts, and in
substitute service for lighters, barges or car-floats at port
terminals • -
Motor vehicles finally are used as collection and delivery
resulties for performing store-door freight services in Con*.
nection with traffic moving via railroad, electric railway, ex-
press, parcel-post, freight forwarder, steam-ship or airway
*
transportation • *
* Wilson, G. Lloyd "Coordinated Motor-Rail-steamship-Trans-
portation" Appleton, New York, 1930s
507
Legal, RESTRIorions upon cognomation”
Pennsylvania's transportation facilities are directly or
indirectly affected by the provisions of the Interstate Com-
merce Act. The Act applies to common carriers engaged in the
interstate transportation of passengers and property wholly by
railroad, or partly by water when both facilities are used
under a common control, management or arrangement for a con-
tinuous carriage or shipment. Likewise it applies to the
transportation of oil by pipe line, or partly by pipe line and
partly by railroad or by water. • ,
Motor and air carriers are excluded from the Act, except
-
where the motor is classified as a terminal facility,” and,
therefore, are not properly parties to arous routes and joint
rates, covered by a joint tariff's
It is questionable also whether a railroad C811 legally
transport property of its shippers by motor ror a portion or
all of the line-haul under the terms of a tariff and bill of
lading providing for rail service. : The interpretation of the
Act is doubtful upon this point and arrieulty might arise where
the tariff' does not indicate that the service is performed by
motor or where the shipper does not desire his goods to move
by highway.
*TIGEFEREITGGEFäTREETOTITThe FFSTERE SERVICETWTDTGRITS-
way, Jr., M. B. A. Thesis, Graduate School, University of
. Pennsylvania, l932. - ºr .
Tariffs Embracing Motor Truck or Wagon Transfer Service, 91
I. C. C., 539.
508
All-highway service in lieu of all-rail movement likewise
involves a serious problem of interpretation when the service is
given at less than the rail rate. Should this be considered 8.
"device" by which preference may be given to some shippers
and a discrimination practiced against those availing them-
selves of the all-rail service, the railroads would be subject
to severe finese Although this may be stretching the point ,
doubt is well founded e
Another legal obstacle to coordination is provided by
Section 7 of the Clayton Anti-trust Act, which declares that no
corporation engaged in interstate or foreign commerce may ac-
quire, directly or indirectly, all or any part of the capital
stock of another corporation which is engaged in the same
commerce where the effect of the acquisition would be to sub-
stantially lessen the competition, to restrain commerce in any
section of the community or tend to create a monopoly in any line of
commerce • Similarly, the acquisition of voting proxies
of the Stock issued by competitors is prohibited. The Clayton
Act does permit, however, the organization of subsidiary com-
panies by which the parent corporation may continue its immed-
iately lawful business or branches of it when the effect is
not to lessen competition substantially. Very often these sub-
sidiaries result in savings to the parent carriers but do not
affect true, coordination in that they further duplicate equip-
ment and service •
509
POWERS AND DUTIES OF
THE PENNSYLVANIA PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
The Public. Service Commission of Pennsylvania has the
general administrative power and authority to supervise and
regulate all public service transportation agencies, whether
b
they be corporations or persons engaged for profit in the
conveyance of passengers or property, or both, between points
within the Commonwealth, by, through, over, above or under land
or water, or both
The authority and power of the Commission includes the
right to inquire into and regulate the following:
le
2 *
4 e
5 *
7 e
8 *
9.
The services, rates, fares, tolls or charges, including
individual and joint rates, but exclusive of the power
to establish through routes and joint rates for the
transportation of passengers over street railways,
elevated railways and subways.
The repairs, alterations and improvements in and to
such service as would be reasonably necessary for the
accommodation or safety of patrons, employes and the pub-
lic •
The grant of transfers upon the system of one carrier.
"The routing of street railway lines •
The just and equitable distribution of trains, cars,
vehicles and motive power or other facilities of all
Common carriers • •
The grant, construction, operation or discontinuance
of SWitches, sidings and crossings •
The construction, operation or discontinuance of
switches or other connections with or between lines
of railroads or street railways.
The location or abolition of freight and passenger
stations, wharves, docks or piers •
Use and compensation for cars owned or controlled by
persons other than cârrier,
510
10. Safety, adequacy and sufficiency of its facilities,
plant and equipment used to provide service.
ll. Forms, methods and systems of accounts and records,
with express provision that no charges be made to oper-
ating account that should properly be charged to capital
account, and that depreciation accounts should be
handled in a reasonable manner. -
The Commission, in addition, may investigate interstate
rates, facilities and services of common carriers operating
within Pennsylvania. If these rates, facilities or services
appear to the Commission unreasonable, discriminatory or pre-
- ferential, or in violation of the Interstate Commerce law,
or the rules, regulations or orders of the Interstate Com-
merce Commission, it may apply by petition to the Interstate
Commerce commission for relief. It may, otherwise, supply the
Interstate Commerce Commission with all facts in its posses-
sion concerning the violations.
Much the same difficulties rest with the Pennsylvania
Public Service Company Act as with the laws of many other
states. The Act seeks to regulate the State's transportation
agencies, but nowhere does it provide a means to obtain
a well-integrated system of transportation. The commission
is so burdened with detail that the formulation of a com-
prehensive transportation policy by it, including the plan-
ning of coordination of transportation facilities is dif-
ricult.
Regulation based upon the concept of transportation of.
two decades ago, when the public found it necessary to be
protected against the actions of the public service companies
5ll.
and the companies against •een other, can not meet the needs
of the present • The Commission should have more time for
research and planning in order to integrate the vast paralled,
competitive and unintegrates transportation facilities of the
State. Consolidation of the carriers and the coordination of
the various instrumentalities should be considered to provide
the State of Pennsylvania, its industries and people, with a
requisite system of travel and transport.
512
CONCLJSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A detailed survey comprising the transportation system
of Pennsylvania should be prepared e It is possible here only
to sketch from available data the outlines and to suggest what
should be done by State authority to improve the situation in
the interests of the public, for the betterment of the conditions
of all forms of carriers and the improvement of the services
offered the public • -
It is recommended that a descriptive and qualitative
survey of the transportation facilities and services be made
by a properly qualified commission appointed by the Covernor,
the Legislature or a Planning Board if created. Such a com-
mission should recommend necessary legislation.
Public service company regulation in this State should
be:
l. Comprehensive so as to include all of the activities
of all types of public service companies •
2- Constructive so as to protect the interest of the
public and conserve in good conditions all necessary
public service enterprises serving the public •
3. Enforceable so as to afford adequate protection to
the public and to the enterprises embraced in order
that destructive practices and unfair charges may be
effectively prohibited.
4, . Adequately administered by a well organized adminis-
trative tribunal selected for the qualification of
the members and free from undue influence from any
group outside the body •
5. Properly related to the regulation of transportation
by the United States Covernment. -
513
ELECTRIC POWER AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
POWER RESOURCES.
mostrical power and its development are essentially a
part of Pennsylvania. Gonsiderable electric power is gener-
ated within the State for industrial, commercial and acºsae
ll S6 3.e. In 1987, almost 12,000,000,000 kilowatt hours or
enough électricity to light 34,000,000 forty-watt lamps con-
tinuously day and night for one year were generated. The
position of the Commonwealth in relation to four of the leading
industrial states and to the united States as a whole is snown
in the following table :
installed capacity and Current Generated in Electrical Industry,
Manufacturing Industry and Isolated Plants - 1927. (Census,
of Electrical Industries)*
Rated Current
State Capacity Per cent Generated Per cent
(kw) U. S. (kw. hrs.) U. S.
New York 4,966,609 is .7 l3,852,904,969 13.5
Pennsylvania 3,958,822 lC).9 ll,870,182,911 'll, 5
Illinois 2,613,631 7s 2 - 7,596,283,632 7.4
Ohio 2,579,717 7.1 7,244,404,198 7.0.
United 36,275,00l 100.0 102,759,753,811 100.0
States
*On the basis of the United States Geological Survey figures
for 1933 for central station capacity and figures for manufac-
turing and isolated plants as given in the 1927 °Census of
Electrical Industries, a 1933 Rated Capacity (kilowatts) of
approximately 4,175,000 is estimated.
514
Power GENERATED IN INDUSTRY
|PA.
( ſ. 5 °/o
ALL OTHER STATES
60.6°/o
POWER GENERATED IN ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY,
MANUFACTUR ING INDUSTRY, AND ISOLATED PLANT.S.
Divided To show PERCENTAGEs GENERATED
|N FOU R OF THE LEADING INDUSTR IAL states.
*
*






CEN SUS OF E LECTRICAL INDUSTR i ES - 1927 . - FIGURE NO. 105
GENERATOR CAPACITY OF UTILITIES
RATED GENERATOR CAPACITY OF CENTRAL
STATIONS DIVIDED TO SHOW PERCENTAGES
BY TYPE OF PRIME MOVER.
| 932
.46°/o INTERNAL
COM BUSTION
ENGINES
J2.52°/o
HYDRO
87.O2°/o
ST EAM
S-
*s







CEN SUS OF ELECTR CAL INDUSTR i ES - FIGURE NO. 106
Four of the leading industrial states have approximately
40 per cent of the total rated capacity, or have enough genera-
tors installed to produce 40 per cent of all the power
generated in the United States. Twenty-five per cent of the
total power generated in the Nation was in New York and Penn-
sylvania, 13.5 per cent in New York and ll.5 per cent in this
State •
of the 12,000,000,000 kilowatt hours generated within the
State 7,500,000,000, * or approximately 63 per cent was gener-
ated by central stations owned by public utility companies or
municipalities, and the remainder, or approximately 37 per cent
Wa. S generated within the plant where it was consumed. There-
fore, the present study of electric power resources naturally
centers around central station installations.
The rated generator capacity of public utility and
municipal plants together for 1932 is given in the following
table from Census of Electrical Industries :
Kind of Prime Mover K. W. Generator Capacity Per Cent
Steam 2,289,828 87.02
Hydro 329,779 12. 52
Internal Combustion ll 2645 .46
Total 2,631,252 lò0, 00
* 7,50l.,974,521 in 1927; 6,373,552,248 in 1932.
5.
l
5
The United States Geological Survey as of December 31,
1933, gives the following:
r—
Kind of Prime Mover K. W. Generator Capacity Per Cent
−w-w
Steam 2,371,585 86.59
Hydro 356,405 l3.02
Internal Combustion lo,80l • 39
Total - 2,738,791 100.00
–A–
Eighty-seven per cent of the generating capacity was
driven by steam, with coal used as fuel, 12# per cent by water
and the remaining one-half of one per cent by internal combus-
tion engines using oil or gas as a fuel.
HYDRO PLANT LOCATIONS. +
On January l, 1934, there were 62 hydro plants of 100
horsepower or more with a head ranging from six feet to 500
feet. Of these only 41 were operating. A plan accompanies
this report showing the location and relative size of these
plants. ** Five of these plants have approximately 95 per cent
of the total installed horsepower. The Safe Harbor plant on
the Susquehanna River is the largest, having an installed cap-
acity of 212,500 horsepower and a head of 53 feet. Just below
this plant is the Holtwood plant, next in size, with an install-
ed capacity of 158,000 horsepower and a head of 48 to 63 feet.
The Hawley plant, located on Wallenpaupack Creek in Wayne
*Information from Pennsylvania Department of Forests and &laters.
*Figure No. 55, page 192.
516
County, has an installed capacity of 57,000 horsepower With a
head of 330 feet. The Piney plant on the clarion River, in
the western part of the State, has an installed capacity of
34,000 horsepower and a head of 75 feet. The York Haven plant
on the Susquehanna, above Safe Harbor, has an installed ca-
pacity of 29, 213 horsepower with a head of 22 feet e Miost of
the hydro development has been in the eastern part of the
State, principally along the Susquehanna, the only important
development in the Western part being Piney Dam along the
Clarion River. The total installed capacity of all the de-
veloped hydro sites in the State is 520,000 horsepower.
The potential water power sites with their proposed in-
stalled capacities and possibilities are given as follows:*
Delaware River f
Studies which are based on the entire existing flow except
for the diversion of 440,000,000 gallons daily, the future di-
version of which is part of the water supply system of New York
City, indicate a large number of water-power sites on the Del-
aware and its tributaries • Proposed projects envisaging an
aggregate installation of 326,000 kilowatts and designed for a
25 per cent load factor, would develop 608,000,000 kilowatt-
hours of primary power annually and 540,000,000 kilowatt-hours
of secondary power in the year of average run-offs. The es-
timated construction cost is $46,750,000, or $143 per installed
*Development of the Rivers of U. S., June 4, 1334. House of
Representatives Document Noe 395e
517
kilowatt of production capacity. The power thus generated
could be distributed to load centers in New York City, north-
eastern New Jersey, the Lehigh Walléy and the upper Susquehanna
Walley. This area is now dependent on steam power, and in
1930 consumed nearly seven billion kilowatt hours. As the
market grows, the addition of a substantial amount of hydro-
power which can be used to carry peak loads would be very
valuable. In addition, the tributaries of this river afford
four sites, two on the Lehigh River and two on the Shohola
Creek, which developed to a capacity of 30,000 kilowatts worth
about $8,400,000. -
Susquehanna River*
Recent studies by the War Department indicate that there
are 47 potential sites for the development of power and storage
of water. Twenty of these sites are considered for storage
only . The remaining 27 have an ultimate aggregate installation
of 2,567,070 kilowatts. The total estimated cost of construc-
tion for all sites is $459,260,000. Power generated in the
Susquehanna Walley has a very favorable industrial market , but
to quote the report from which this data is taken, "Due to the
wide variation between the low-water and high-water flows the
extremely low volume of flow during low-water periods and the
scarcity of reservoir sites, the Susquehanna Basin is not well
*Conowingo Dam, on the Lower Susquehanna, is located in Mary-
land; much of the power generated there, however, is dis-
tributed over southeastern Pennsylvania. -
518
adapted to the development of primary base load energy. By
utilizing a comination of steam and hydro-electric plants in
which the hydro plants furnish peak load power when the river
is low and base load power when it is high, certain profitable
developments along the river can be found. -
The studies indicate that ten sites having an aggregate
installed capacity of 2,00l., 100 kilowatts and estimated to cost
$247,650,000 for their development are worthy of study."
alsº use:
Potential water-power sites in the Allegheny Valley are
confined entirely to its tributaries, the clarion River having
8. potential aggregate capacity of 318,000 kilowatts; Broken-
straw and French Creeks, 64,800 alertº Reasºn: Creek,
- 19, 300 kilowatts; and Mahoning Creek, 49,650 kilowatts. The
report states these sites are not particularly attractive under
present conditions and their development on a large scale
should await more favorable circumstances.
Monongahela River.
Recent studies have disclosed many possibilities for hydro-
development along this river. Most of these, however, are be-
yond the state boundaries and undoubtedly have been retarded
by the availability of coal resulting in the production of
energy at a low cost in steam generating plants. The sites
are located favorably in respect to power markets and te large
inter-connected transmission systems •
5ig
Ohio River
There is one developed site and one potential site along
the Ohio River, both of which are down river far beyond the
State line.
Beaver River
Recent studies have disclosed the water-power possibili-
ties in this valley are along Slippery Rock Creek and Conno-
quenessing Creek with a potential capacity of 44,850 kilowatts.
There is seemingly large source of water-power in
Pennsylvania, but because of the intermittent supply it can
never be used as a source of base power, so that coal will con-
tinue to be the important factor in our power supply. Many of
these proposed sites may be developed with power as a by-
product, and in combination with improvements for navigation,
flood control or city water supply may be very profitable. The
power thus generated could be used in combination with steam-
generated power to great advantage.
At the present time, approximately 8 per cent of the power
generated within the State is sold in neighboring states, and
nearly the same percentage sold in Pennsylvania is generated
outside of the Commonwealth. For full development of our
pówer resourges in the eastern part of the State we may have to
look for markets across the border, while surrounding states, in
developing their resources and ferreting out markets may un-
doubtedly cross into Pennsylvania. These conditions make
power development a regional problem rather than a State one.
52O
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By referring to the accompanying map,” the location and
relative size as to installed capacity of the various steam
generating centers can be asures. Philadelphia and Allegheny
Counties are by far the largest producing centers which com-
bined have approximately 40 per cent of the installed steam
generating capacity of the State, Philadelphia leading with
about one and one-half the instaura sweeity of Allegheny
County. - The eastern part of the State, again as in the CE. SG
of hydro development, has much more generating capacity than
the western part. The plants in Allegheny County are example,
of mine-mouth stations, being either located right at the mine
or within a short haul by rail or water from the source of fuel.
The availability of coal, however, was not the only factor in
location of these plants. For economic operation an ample
supply of Water is as essential as the supply of coal,
In Allegheny County and some of the adjoining counties the
rivers flow through large deposits of coal. Recent river im-
provements, which were mainly for flood control and an aid to
navigation, have created a more even flow, making this part of
the State ideal for steam power development. The Hiladelphia
plants have been located with an eye to the availability of
water, the coal being shipped from the nearest coal risiae.
A thorough study should be made of the vast coal resources
*Prepared from a map of transmission lines furnished by the
Public Service Commission. *
52l
of Pennsylvania -- estimated to be enough at the present rate
of consumption to last for 200 years. This may be undertaken
by the industry itself, the regulating bodies, the public or a
combination of all. It should seek to insure benefits to all,
comparable with those being derived elsewhere in the Nation
through developments in the industry.
f The production of electric power by central stations in
Pennsylvania in the five-year period from 1927 to 1932 has de-
creased from 7,501,974,52l kilowatt hours to 6,373,522,248*
kilowatt hours, or a decrease of 15 per cent, while in New York
and the country as a whole there was an increase of 10.7 per
cent and 6.7 per cent, respectively. The decrease in Pennsyl-
vania may be accounted for by the depressed condition of the
steel industry which under normal conditions uses approximately
60 per cent of the power used in all the industries. The load
factor, which is a comparison of the generator capacity nec-
essary- to produce the 6,373,552,248 kilowatt hours generated
with the actual installed generator capacity, was 27.6 per cent
for 1932. For 1927, as given by the Bureau of Engineering,
Public Service Commission, the load factor was 35.74 per cent.
In both these comparisons there was no allowance for stand-by
equipment or equipment out of operation for repairs. The dis-
tribution of power generated by type of prime mover for 1932
is shown in the following table :
* 6,787,229 in 1933
522
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(From Census of Electrical Industries, 1932)
-E- - w
TOTAL K.W. HRS.
INTERNAL COM- .
GENERATED STEAM (kw. hrs.) WATER (kw. hrs.) BUSTION ENGINE
e- (kw. hrs.)
Pennsyl- 6,373,552,248 5,184, 145,263 l,181,143,826 8,263,159
vania. - e g
Per cent 100.0 81.4 l8.5 •12
United 79,657,466,651 45,374,873,980 33,567,449,749 715,142,922
States - -
Per cent lC)0,0' 57.9 42.0 •l
The output per unit capacity for hydro is shown to be
greater than for steam. This is explained in a report for
1927 by the Bureau of Engineering, P. S. G., as follows: "The
fact that hydro makes a comparatively better showing in this
particular than steam, may be due to the fact that much of the
reserve equipment is steam operated. Considered alone the
energy produced by water power is a large amount, but when it
is compared with the tremendous production by coal fired steam,
it is seen to be a small factor in the total production."
Of the total 6,373,552,248 kilowatt hours generated,
5,184,145,263 kilowatt hours were generated by steam. In
generating this amount of energy 7,955,786,720 pounds of coal
were consumed, an average of 1.53 pounds per kilowatt hour.
Records of the Bureau of Engineering show the average consump-
tion per kilowatt hour for the years l922 and 1927 was 2.58 and
l,78, respectively. This marked increase in efficiency in-
volves the saving of approximately 2,500,000 tons of coal in
1932 over 1922 and is largely due to vast developments in
boiler room operation and to installation of much larger units,
of the turbine type, in new plants taking the place of smaller
inefficient steam installations now being discarded. In large
plants consumption of coal per kilowatt hour is already under -
one pound and a still further decrease can be expected within
the next ten-year period. There seems to be no need for imme-
diate concern over conservation of coal reserves, because of
their vastness. However, it should be noted that the more
524
Power GENERATED BY UTILITIES
PEN NSYLVAN IA • 1932 -
... i*/o INTERNAL
COM BUSTION
ENGINES
81.4°/o
STEAM
Power GENERATED IN centraL stations
OF PENNSYLVANIA Di VIDED TO SHOW PERCENTAGES
BY TYPE OF PR M. E MOVER . -




C EN SUS OF ELECTRICAL INDUSTR ES F1GURE NO. 109
accessible veins are being mined first and that the cost of
mining will increase as the more inaccessible veins are mined.
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Transmission and distribution of electrical energy may be
understood more clearly if it is pictured as some other trans-
portation facility, for example, air transportation; the net-
work of the airlines being the high voltage transmission lines,
the people traveling being the units of energy, the airports
being the substations and the bus lines being the distribution
systems. The airlines discharge passengers at the airport,
the buses distribute them to factory, office or home. Like-
wise the high voltage transmission lines transmit the energy
from the central station to the sub-station, where it is
stepped down to lower voltage. and then distributed to the
ultimate consumer. Just as it is impossible to discharge
passengers between airports, it is also impossible to serve
small communities from high voltage lines between sub-stations.
In the 19th entury, the days of the steam engine, power
was not distributable, and in the early years of the 20th
century when electric power was generated as direct current and
at low voltages, it could only be distributed within the com-
munity where generated. Industry was forced to develop around
power, and power became one of the big factors in centralization
of industry. Streets became congested, slums became crowded
and the rural population largely shifted to cities. With the
development of alternating current and high-voltage generation
525
the transmission of electrical energy for long distance became
possible. Before 1912 the standard high voltage transmission
was 66,000 volts. Then it was increased to 110,000 and
132,000 volts, and now there are transmission lines of 220,000
volts capable of transmitting energy over three hundred miles.
This development was a great factor in the progress of the
electrical industry. Plants could be located at the source of
fuel supply and water, resulting in abandonment of small in-
efficient stations and construction of large stations which
have been interconnected by transmission lines.
The maps* of transmission lines show the network covering
Pennsylvania. In the western part of the state, centrel sta-
tions are interconnected by la2,000 volt lines from the Lake
Lynn hydro plant on the Cheat River in West Virginia north
across the State, with plants in Pittsburgh, then north with
the Piney hydro plant on the Clarion River, north to Erie and
then east to New York State. This system also is connected by
132,000 volt lines west of the Windsor Plant in West Virginia.
The eastern part of the State is interconnected with 222,000
volt lines from the Conowingo hydro plant, north along the
eastern boundary to the Wallenpaupack hydro plant, and then by
lesser voltage north into New York State. There are also
220,000 volt lines connecting this system with New Jersey and
New York on the east. There are also llo,000 volt lines con-
*Prepared from a map of Transmission Lines furnished by Bureau
of Erfgineering, Public Service Commission.
526
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necting the eastern and central part of the State. In ad-
dition to the lines shown there are lower voltage lines making
electrical energy. available to parts of every county within the
State.
- Just as power in the early stages of development was a
factor in centralization, it now has become a factor in de-
centralization • Power is becoming available at most places
and at Imost times, provided the demand is sufficient to extend
distribution lines. Rural distribution has not developed in
step with the progress made in the industry as a whole . How-
ever, data prepared by the Pennsylvania Joint Committee on
Rural Electrification* shows considerable progress from 1927 to
January 1, 1934. At the beginning of 1927 there were 4,990
miles of rural lines and on January l, 1934, there were 13,458
miles, an increase of 8,463 miles, or an addition of 4 miles
per work day over the seven-year period. It is estimated by
the above committee, assuming three farms per mile, that 29,028
miles of new line would be necessary to serve 75 per cent of
the farms now without service. At the present rate of con-
struction, this would take 24 years •
*The Pennsylvania Joint Committee on Rural Electrification is
a strictly voluntary and cooperative committee, composed of
two groups, one made up of representatives of leading farm or-
ganizations named by the State Council of Agricultural Asso-
ciations, and the other of representatives of the Electric
Light and Power Companies of Pennsylvania, named by the
Pennsylvania Electric Association.
527
OWNERSHIP
The tendency of utility ownership has been toward incor-
poration. In 1927, from Public Service Commission Report,
97.71 per cent of the generating capacity of all privately
owned plants was reported by holding companies, 1.63 per sent
by independent groups and .66 per cent by manufacturing, mining
and other interests. There were 41 municipal plants, 14 of
which purchased all the power distributed by them from the
utilities and 7 purchased part of their power from utilities.
With this report there is a map showing the territories served
by the various companies. It shows an overlapping of ter-
ritories, sometimes parts of one territory being isolated by
another. This necessitates one company crossing territories
of the other with transmission lines. For this purpose strip
charters are granted just wide enough for transmission purposes
for through lines. The result has been duplication of trans-
mission lines which for the State as a whole. has increased
the costs of transmission.
CONSUMPTION
The extent to which industry has become electrified can
be seen by the comparison of data given in the Census of Manu-
factures for 1914 with that given for 1929. In 1914, 43.5
per cent of the aggregate installed horsepower in the manu-
facturing industries was motors driven by electricity. By
1929 the horsepower of motors driven by electricity had in-
creased to 83.5 per cent of the aggregate installed horsepower.
- 528
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The combined horsepower of steam engines and turbines in this
period has not varied materially, whereas the power of electric
motors has increased rapidly. The increase in aggregate
horsepower of all installations was 2,455,668 horsepower, while
the increase in power of electric motors driven by purchased
energy was 2,301,192 horsepower. Therefore almost all of the
increase in installed power was accounted for by the increase
in electric motors driven by purchased energy. While 83.5
per cent of the total installed horsepower was electric motors,
only 29.5 per cent of them were driven by energy generated
within the plant and 44 per cent by purchased, energy.
Practically the same indication of electrification exists
in the mining industry. In 1929, 86 per cent of the aggregate
installed horsepower was motors driven by electricity, only
26.5 per cent of the aggregate being driven by energy generated
within the plent and 59 per cent of the aggregate being driven
by purchased energy a Installed horsepower is by no means a
measure of energy consumption, since the difference between the
horsepower rating of electric motors and the actual amount of
motor horsepower in daily use varies. This condition is due
to the fact that in many factories some of the motors are idle,
O I" are operating at considerably less than their rated capacity
during a large part of the time, so that the combined rated
capacity of all the motors greatly exceeds the amount of power
delivered by them at any given moment. It, furnishes, however,
an excellent means of arriving at the extent to which industry
529
has become electrified.
. The following table shows the growth of the électrical
industry from 1914 to 1930:
530
NUMBER OF CUSTOMERs, KILOWATTs sold AND AVERAGE KILOWATTS PER CUSTOMER*
Type of No e Customers . . . Kwh Sold Kwh per Customer,
Consumer 1930 l914 1930 l914 l930 1914
Power 53,993 15,620 7,597,551,000 812,893,000 104,800 52,000
Commercial 263,869 66,356 665,342,252 122,677,000 2,321 1,848
Residential l;663,550 l38,345 913,503,000 37,249,000 549 235
' Total l, 981,412 240,321 9,176,396,252 972,819,000 4,626 4,050
*Taken from Report of Special Committee, Bureau of Engineering, Public Service Com-"
mission.
total kwh. aold in 1914 as between residential and commercial classes:
Figures are not available to separate the total number of customers and
However,
séparation is possible to an extent representing over 70 per cent of the total
residential and commercial customers in that years gº.
SALES To ULTIMATE CONSUMER--1932
From Census Of
Electrical Industries
Average kwh
Type of Service. No. of Customers Kwh. Sold sold per
- . Customer
Total 2,043,25l 6,648,677,826 3,254
Industrial 38,636 3,894,890,752 100,810
Commercial 268,980 . 699,068,453 2,599
Domestic 1,692, 175 997,849,180 590
Farm 37,540 28,684,067 764
Municipal (Street Light) 4,505 43,817
197,393,605
531
The number of power customers increased 246 per cent, the
number of commercial customers increased 298 per cent and the
number of residential customers increased 954 per cent.
During the same period kilowatt hours sold to power con-
sumers increased 835 per cent, with an average yearly consump-
tion increasing from 52,000 kilowatt hours to lo4,800 kilowatt
hours, or an increase in average yearly consumption of approx-
imately loo per cent. For the commercial customers, comprised
largely of mercentile establishments, offices, small factories,
repair shops and various minor industrial establishments, the
increase in kilowatt hours consumed for the same period was 440
per cent, with an average yearly consumption increasing from
1848 kilowatt hours to 2521 kilowatt hours, or an increase of
average consumption of 36.4 per cent.
Residential or domestic consumers used twenty-four and
one-half times as much power in 1930 as they did in 1914. The
average yearly consumption per domestic consumer increased from
235 kilowatt hours to 549 kilowatt hours, or an increase of
134 per cent •
A striking factor is the remarkable increase in the number
of domestic consumers and the increase in the use per consumer.
This is still more significant when it is considered that in
1932 at almost the lowest period of the depression the number
of customers and the consumption per domestic consumer increas-
ed.,
532
Comparable data for industrial consumption is not avail-
able. One accompanying table gives total sales, while an-
other gives sales to ultimate consumer. In the former
industrial power sales from one utility to another for resale
are included. However, a marked decrease in generation of
kilowatt hours is shown from 1930 to 1932. consumption Of
electrical energy depends on two factors, industrial consump-
tion, which is very volatile, and domestic consumption, which
is rather stable. This fact has come to be realized by the
industry. itself and is being used as a factor in building 8.
stable load by appliance promotional campaigns. It is probable
that the domestic consumption will double within the next ten
years. The trend now is toward universal electric refrigera-
tion in the home and the introduction of air conditioning,
electric ranges, electrically operated heating systems and
water heaters, which consume current at a low rate contin-
uously or during redetermine. periods. It is estimated that
80 per cent of the non-farm population are domestic consumers
of electricity supplied by the utilities. The per capita use
of electricity increased eight times from 1914 to 1930. If
there is a resumption of the rising trend in real incomes
- existing prior to the depression and a lowerine of rates to the
extent that they will become attractive to a larger percentage
of the population, the per capita consumption probably will
- increase 50 per cent by 1945.
533
RURAL ELECTRIFICATION
Progress of rural electrification has been much slower .
It is estimated that only 20 per cent of the farm population of
the state used electricity supplied by utilities in 1933. The
1930 Census figures show that of 172,419 farms in the State,
45,638, or 26.4 per cent reported dwellings lighted by elec-
tricity. Of this number 35,215 purchased electricity, the balance
having their own lighting plants.
The number of rural customers receiving central station elec-
trical service in Pennsylvania is snown in an accompanying table,
compiled by the Pennsylvania Joint Committee on Rural Electrifica-
tion from the Pennsylvanie Triennial Census of 1927, the Federal
Census of 1930, and annual reports of the electric companies.
No. OF RURAL CUSTOMERS RECEIVING CENTRAL
;STATION ELECTRIC SERVICE IN PENNSYLVANIA
Year 1927 l928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933
Farm -
Customers 24,160 28,967 33,215 37,352 40,850 42,770 44, 117
Non-Farm 68,343 83,384 96,432 107,575 ll6,877 122,345 lz7,688
Total -
Rural 92,503 112,351 129,647 144,927 157,727 165,115 l'71,805
534
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Data compiled by a Rural Service Committee of the Pennsyl-
vania Electric Association shows an increase in the average
annual consumption per farm from 466 kilowatt hours in 1928 to
922 kilowatt hours in 1931, or an increase of 98 per cent, and
a decrease to 910 kilowatt hours in 1932. The slight decrease
in 1932 is due probably to the lack of income resulting from
the diminishing market for farm products. With the large and
varied use, such as Water heating, cooking, Washing, ironing,
refrigeration, etc. , for the house and milk cooling, steriliz-
ing dairy utensils, soil heating, utility motors, poultry
brooders and water pumping for the farm, it may be estimated
that the future average annual consumption per farm may reach
2,000 to 2,500 kilowatt hours.
From a study made in 1932 of 3,000 miles of line, the
Joint Committee estimated that in addition to the number Of
rural customers, there are 20 per cent with service available
who are not customers. With this assumption, they estimated
34, 361 premises as being potential customers with service
available. Farm customers constitute approximately one-fourth
of the rural customers and on this basis there would be 8,590
farms and 25,771 non-farms as potential customers with service
available. Of the l72,419 farms in the State, 52,707 now have
service or have service available, leaving ll.9,712 farms, or
approximately 70 per cent of the farms of the State, without
electric service. It is assumed by the Joint Committee that
there would be one non-farm customer for each farm, making a
535
total of 239,424 potential customers without service and that
it would be in the public interest to promulgate plans to make
service available to 75 per cent or 87,084 farms and 87,084
non-farms. This would necessitate, assuming three farm cus-
tomers per mile of line and that the non-farms would be served
with the farms, the building of 29,028 miles of line •
Gost of rural electrification has been reduced by length-
ening spans, so that the average cost now ranges from $1500 to
$2000. However, these costs are still very high and should be
substantially reduced, say to $900 to $1000 per mile including -
transformers and service.
How a reduction in cost from $2000 per mile to $1000 would
affect the consumer is illustrated in the following example,
on the basis of three farmers to the mile and a monthly service
charge of 2 per cent of the cost of the line. With the $2000
son each farmer would have to pay $13.33 a month and with the
$1000 cost, $6.67. This cost is in addition to each farmer's
bill for power used. * * l; per cent service rate (The
Philadelphia Electric Company's rate) these figures would be
$10 and $5, respectively, per farmer.
Obviously, unless the cost to rural customers is very much
reduced, it is not reasonable to expect a rapid expansion in
the numbers of this class of customer. Even with the decrease
in construction cost, the anime guarantee of 2 per cent per
month charged by most companies is too high to encourage the
farmer in the more thinly populated areas to electrify.
536
The educational programs of farm uses of electricity by
State college and the industry itself are not enough. A
thorough study of the rural problem should be made with the
view of formulating a well planned and coordinated system of
developing distribution systems in the rural areas where such
a plan would be economically sound. Such a study would be
necessary because there has been no data compiled with the idea
of a definite plan in mind. With the present attitude toward
government aid for the farmer, a self-liquidating distribution
plan aided by the government to insure a low minimum charge is
feasible, and would remove the barrier which is now delaying
rural electrification.
COST OF ELECTRIC POWER
Cost of electric service for the various classes of con-
Sumers in recent years has been a topic of much discussion.
It may be of interest to note the amount of current consumed
by the different types of service an ºr re'Veralle derived from
each class.
537
CONSUMPTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY BY ULTIMATE CONSUMER.
AND REVENUE DERIVED FROM EACH CLASS OF SERVICE. CENSUS
OF ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES 1932
Type of Service Kwh Sold Revenue % Kºſh %
— Sold Revenue
Industrial 3,894,890,752 $59,350,333 58.60 34.8
Domestic 997,849, 180 58,724,304 lä.03 34.4
Commercial 699,068,453 34,493,217 lo.52 20.2
Farm 28,684,067 l, 754,055 .4l l-l
Municipal l97,393,606 8, 6ll, 219 2.93 5 e O
Other service 830,791,768 7,577.338 13:51. 4.5
*= ==&#14ſº $170,511,055 100.00 loo-00

Domestic consumers bought only lb per cent of the total
power sold and paid 34 per cent of the total revenue while in-
dustry bought 59 per cent of the total power sold and paid only
35 per cent of the revenue, or little more than the domestic
consumer. The average cost per kilowatt hour to the indus-
trial user was le 5 cents, while the average cost to the domestic
consumer was 5.9 cents per kilowatt hour. The cost of gen-
erating a kilowatt hour of energy is the same regardless of
its ultimate consumption, the difference of cost being in
transmission and distribution. It is generally agreed that
the cost of generating and transmission of energy on the basis
of an average annual consumption of 600 kilowatt hours per cus-
tomer ranges between l and l; cents per kilowatt hour.
The findings of the Power Authority of New York State
538
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after three years of research, submitted to the President
* November 10, 1934, disclose that the cost of distribution
only of electrical energy, averaged 2% cents per kilowatt hour
for the users of 50 kilowatt hours per, month, approximately the
average household use. The report emphasized that the costs
upon which these conclusions rest are for private operation
of electric system, including a 6 per cent return on all useful
fixed capital, and an additional 5.5 per cent to cover depre-
ciation, taxes and insurance. The survey was extended to
include the determination of reasonable distribution costs in
29 representative municipalities in New York, Pennsylvania,
Indiana, Virginia, California and Washington. For 26 of these
cities the analysis was based on engineering field studies.
Costs of generation and transmission given here are large
enough to allow for the difference between the 6 per cent
return included in the New York report and the 7 per cent re-
turn allowed by the Pennsylvania Public Service commission.”
It would then seem that the average return per kilowatt hour
for domestic consumption should be between 3% and 4 cents in-
stead of the 5.9 cents given by the l932 Census of Electrical
Industries. A drop from 5.9 sents to 3.5 or 4 cents would
mean a saving to domestic customers of $ll to $14 annually.
*The Pennsylvania Public Service Commission has asked the
companies to go on a 6 per cent basis.
539
CONCLUSIONS
Domestic consumers are paying a disproportionate share of
the electrical power bill in Pennsylvania. There is need of a
comprehensive study of power distribution and the cost to con-
sumers in the State. Such a survey should be similar to that
recently completed by the Power Authority of the State of New
York. Any such study should be made with a view to the possi-
bility of lowering the cost of power to the domestic consumer
and an extension of rural electrification. It also should in-
clude development of the State's coal resources as a source of
base power, as well as development of water power sites. The
possibility of coordinating both sources and their interconnec-
tion with present supplies also should be considered.
Any sound State plan for the development of Pennsylvania's
power resources to est the needs of consumers should fit in
with long range regional plans.
540
STATE GOVERNMENT
The organization of State Government has been touched
upon in various parts as incidental to its functions. To
have considered organization in detail would have been mere-
ly to duplicate the thorough and comprehensive report, "A
Survey of the Government of Pennsylvania," just issued by the
Joint Legislative Committee on Finances. (The Sterling Com-
mittee Report) -
Since publication of the storians report, however, de-
velopments at Washington have indicated the value of the
Federal Government's Central Statistical Board. The Sterling
committee recommended that a state statistical Board be es-
tablished to attempt to bring about general unity in statis-
tical efforts e It is suggested the American Statistical
Association be invited to cooperate in Pennsylvania in making
a study and in setting up machinery as it did in Washington.
Functions of local government taken over by the State
governments elsewhere in the United States may well receive
further consideration to see if anything has been developed
which might be applied usefully in Pennsylvaniae
541
LOCAL UNITS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT*
BEGINNINGS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
- The commonwealth of Pennsylvania began subdividing itself
soon after the first colonists arrived in 1623, until it Y1OW
contains 5.636 separate local taxing units. The township seems
to have appeared first. Under whe Duke of York's laws, in
effect some years before Penn's arrival in 1682, each settle-
ment or towi had some degree of self-government. The most
numerous and important local officials were peace officers.
Each town chose eight overseers who had limited ordinance-
making power and authority to levy taxes. The overseers also
assessed persons and property, while the duty of collecting
taxes devolved upon the constables.
The formation of three counties was one of Penn's first
acts. These were Chester, Bucks and Philadelphia. Greation Of
the first boroughs and cities followed shortly. Upland, now
the city of Chester, was the first borough and Philadelphia,
chartered in 1701, the first city.
*Prepared by Bradford W. West, Ph.D., Wharton School of
Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, except
for the "Accounting Suggestions", which were prepared ,
by Charles J. Rowland, Ph.D., of The Pennsylvania State
College. Valuable suggestions were made by members of
the staff of the Pennsylvania Economic Council, , especially
Mr. Robert D. Dripps, and by Blake E. Nicholson, Ph.D., -
and Edward W. Carter, Ph.D., of the University of Penn-
sylvania, and Harold F. Alderfer, Ph.D., of The Penn-
sylvania State College. General conclusions added by
State Planning Board. - . -
542
Sº W/ / realization
gi. Bºi. Mºſgin 3 Réât's
COUAT ºf QF JCAAY DOYLE AND P
SP

FIGURE NO. 115
PRESENT system of Local governmºſt
The organization of the taxing units into a system of local
government is comparatively simple • First, because there are
only seven kinds of political subdivisions having power to levy
taxes • These are the county, city, town, borough, township,
school district and poor district. Secondly, cities, towns,
boroughs and townships, are mutually exclusive • Cities, boroughs
and towns are incorporated. When territory is incorporated it
is withdrawn from the township of which it was previously a part e
There is no overlapping of these units. No part of the Common-
wealth can be subject to the jurisdiction of more than four units
of local governmerit. Except in Philadelphia, every part of the
Commonwealth is subject to at least three e The primary sub-
divisions of the Commonwealth are the 67 counties • The counties
are further subdivided into 47 cities, one town, 936 boroughs
and l,577 townships, or a total of 2,561 secondary governmental
subdivisions • Superimposed upon these are the 2,584 school
districts which are usually, but not always, coextensive with the
secondary subdivisions. The poor districts constitute the fourth
layere
POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS
Section 34 of Article III of the Constitution of Pennsylvania
‘provides:
"The legislature shall have the power to classify counties,
cities, boroughs, school districts and townships according to
population, and all laws passed relating to each class, and all
laws passed relating to, and regulating procedure and proceedings
in court with reference to any class, shall be deemed general
'543
legislation within the meaning of this Constitution; but
counties shall not be divided into more than eight classes,
cities into not more than seven classes, school districts into
not more than five classes, and boroughs into not more than
three classes."
(Amendment of November 6, 1923)
This permits classification on a population basis only.
The legislature has made partial use of this authority.
Counties are classified as follows:
Class Basis of Classification Number of Counties
First 1,500,000 or more l (Philadelphia)
Second 800,000 to 1,500,000 l (Allegheny)
Third 250,000 to 800,000 5
Fourth 150,000 to 250,000 ll
Fifth 100,000 to 150,000 4.
Sixth 50,000 to 100,000 17
Seventh 20,000 to 50,000 l?
Eighth Less than 20,000 ll
There are four classes of cities, but no classification
of boroughs has been made. The population of boroughs ranged
from 17 to 35,853 in 1930. Forty-nine boroughs are large
enough to become third-class cities if their inhabitants so
desire, but 420 are small villages of less than l,000.
Townships have been divided into two classes, the first
class consisting of those having an average population density
of 300 persons per square mile. Because of this basis of -
classification, * have less than one thousand inhabitants,
whereas sixty-two second-class townships have more than 5,000
inhabitants each. A majority of the first class townships.
have more than 5,000 inhabitants, Upper Darby having 46,626
in 1930.
School districts have been divided into four classes. Those
544
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having more than 500,000 inhabitants constitute the first
class, 30,000 to 500,000 the second class, 5,000 to 30,000
the third class, and less than 5,000 the fourth class. In
January, 1934, there were two districts of the first class,
20 second, 257 third, and 2,306 fourth.
There is no legal classification of poor districts. In
50 counties the poor district is coextensive with the county.
Most of the other 374 poor districts are coextensive with cities,
boroughs, or townships. A few are smaller in area than the
municipalities within which they lie while several include two
or more municipalities. Two districts extend across county
lines.
The distribution of the local governmental units in Penn-
sylvania, as of July 1, 1934, is shown in an accompanying table,
- 545

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local Subdivisions by Glasses, and Percentage of
State Population in Each Class. 1930s 1920s and 1910.
1930 1920 1910
Number Per- Number Perse Number Pergent
of sub- cent of sub- cent of sub- of State
divisions of State divisions of State divis- Popula-
Popula- Popula- ions tion
tion tion
CITIES 45 44 •8 38 43,6 29 40.4
Class l l 20.3 l 20,9 l 20, 2
Class 2 l We O 2 8,3 2 8.7
Class 2A l le5 tº tº ... • sº
Slass 3 42 l6.0 35 14.4 26 ll-5
BOROUGHS 940 26.6 934 27.2 90l. 27.5
TOWNSHIPS 1574 28.5 1565. 29, O 1555 32.0
2nd-Glass l,512 23.6 L508 35-5 1512 29, O
T O T A L s 2560 100.0 2538 100-0– 2486 100.0
Philadelphia County with only nine subdivisions and Allegheny
with 245 are the extremes of consolidation and decentralization •
POPULATION TRENDS
The number of cities, boroughs, towns and townships, by
classes, in 1910, 1920 and l930 is shown in an accompanying table.
It also shows what proportion of the total population was govern-
ed under the laws relating to each type. This is shown also
in an accompanying chart. (The population of the single town
is included with that of the boroughs in this chart.)
Philadelphia, held its place consistently, with slightly
more than one-fifth of the population. Pittsburgh and Scranton
likewise maintained their relative importance. ‘The number of
third-class cities increased 61.5 per cent, or from 26 in 1910
to 42 in 1930. Whereas only ll.5 per cent of the population
resided in third-class cities in 1910, 16 per cent lived there
in 1930. In the latter year 44.8 per cent of the total popu-
lation resided in cities.
This gain for the cities was at the expense of the boroughs.
The percentage of the population living in boroughs dropped from
27.5 per cent in 1910 to 26.6 per cent in 1930, although the
number of boroughs increased by 39. The creation of 16 new
cities would have resulted in a much greater drop in the number
of people under the borough form of government had not more than
55 new boroughs been formed from townships or parts of townships.
The creation of new boroughs has slowed down materially since
1920. There are four less in 1934 than there were in 1930.
549
Bloomsburg, the only town in the State grew at about the
average rate, maintaining its relative importance. It is possible
that this form of government may disappear entirely in the near
future. The borough code provides that any town may adopt the
borough form of government. Moreover, if Bloomsburg maintains
its present rate of growth, it soon will be eligible for a third-
class city charter.
There has been a natural increase in the number of first-
class townships and in the percentage of population there •
These townships are for the most part suburban adjuncts of
large cities. Thus 28 are in Allegheny and Beaver counties, 18
in Delaware and Montgomery counties, five in Lackawanna and Lu-
zerne counties, and only ten throughout the remainder of the
Commonwealth. The shift of population to suburban areas tends
to make this type of government more common but this is partially
checked by the tendency to create new incorporated places or to
axtend the boundaries of those already in existence.
The number of second-class townships remained the same in
1930 as in 1910. They gained 86,000 inhabitants. But due to
the continual tendency to incorporate their more populous parts,
the portion of the total population living. in a second-class
townships dropped from 29 per cent in 1910 to 23.6 per cent in
1930s
In twenty years 74 cities, boroughs and townships were
created in excess of the number lost by consolidations. Since
the creation of one of these subdivisions usually incurs the
550
formation of a new school district, approximately 150 new
separate taxing subdivisions were added to Pennsylvania's local
government system. Twenty-eight counties had less than 75 in-
habitants per square mile in 1930, 14 from 75 to 150, 16 from
150 to 300, seven from 300 to 600, and two, Philadelphia and
Allegheny, more than 600. Cities are in only thirty-one
counties, of which only mine had population densities of less
than 150 persons per square mile. The first class townships are
concentrated in fifteen counties, of which all but two have more
than 150 inhabitants per square mile. In 32 counties a majority
of the people lived in second-class townships. This group in-
cluded all but two of the ll eighth-class counties and all but
three of the 17 seventh-class counties. The average number of
incorporated places per county in these 32 counties is only
10.1 whereas in the other counties (except Philadelphia), the
average is 19.5
woxtony AND OPTIONAL FUNCTIONS
Functions delegated by the Commonwealth to any of its sub-
divisions are optional with the local unit or made mandatory by
8tate law or the State Constitution. If mandatory, the expendi-
ture required also may be fixed by the commonwealth. In other.
cases the State law fixes minimum or maximum expenditures or
leaves to local authorities a large range of choice as to how
elaborately and expensively they will perform the function.
Thus the payment of county commissioners and provision for the
support of county prisoners are both made mandatory by State
55l
law, but the law fixes the exact amount of the commissioners'
salaries, whereas the cost of maintaining prisoners depends
upon the number of prisoners and other factors. .
The extent to which the expenditures of local subdivisions
are controlled by State law rather than by local opinion is of
fundamental importance to understanding the problems in planning
for local government. Two recent studies have made a valuable
beginning in determining the extent to which the cost of local
government is fixed by State law. These are "County Government
Costs in Pennsylvania" by F. P. Weaver and H. F. Alderfer and
"Mandatory Expenditures of Local Government in Pennsylvania" by
Edward W. Carter,
COUNTY FUNCTIONS
Most of the important functions performed by the counties, .
and their expenditures are mandatory in nature or in amount, or
both.
The mandatory expenses include: -
le
2.
3 •
6.
The items for administration of justice.
The conduct of primaries and elections.
Recording deeds and registering wills, births and deaths.
Paying for road damages. .
Maintenance of county highways and bridges.
Paying for burial of veterans and their widows and for
markers for veterans' graves.
7.
Compiling war records, paying the G.A.R. for Memorial
Day observance, and providing flags to decorate soldiers' graves.
552
COUNTY OFFICERS -
C H | EF C. L. R. K.
E N G | N E E R
. SOL I CITOR
COUNTY ROADS
CARE TAKERS
|NSPECTOR'S OF
WE GHTS & MEASURES
CERTAIN TA X ASSESSORS
AN D COLLECTORS
INTER PRETERS
FOR ASSESSORS
SU PT. AND ASST .
FOR OR P HANS H O M E
STAFF FOR HOS P (TAL
FOR TU B ERCULOSIS
STAFF FOR WORKH OUSE
SPEC I AL D ETECT IV ES
FOREST FIRE DETECT IV ES
9 COUNTY PLAN N | NG
comM ISS toNERS (2ND)
5 REC REAT |ON AND
fe A R K & OARD
7 BoARD of Ass EssM ENT
AND REV (SION OF TAXES
2 N D AND 3 RD
5-7 BOARD OF LI B R A RY
Dſ RECTORS
OARD OF OFFICE OF HEALTH
2ND TO 8TH
PEN NSYLVAN | A
CLASS
VOTERS
(n - O
8 3 F | } s o, = |* 3
O w (ſ)
# , 22 || 3: ; 2 || | | 3 || 3 || 3 || 4 || || |*2
: N | * * º ; : | 3 | | | || 3 || 3 || - § | > t.
(A Q | < 2 | o : m F | 6 < on S. 20
C- o O 2 20 O O
* E|##| = | 73 | * | 3 || 3 || 3 || 3 || 5 ||22
9 2 ºn 9 || - ſº | Q ol Q a | 3 > | }. O : 3 F
2 < | 2 m v. 3 || 2 || 9 >| | < *; 20 20 * | 9 in
ſm (ſº 20 Cº. C > || || -- 2 25
20 20 20 20 ºn -& (ſ)
(/) * *| < •
DEPUT (Es, Assistants, secretaRI Es, STENo GRAPHERS, AND
OFF ( C E E M P LOYE ES
SALARY BOARD
COMM ISSION ERS S|N|KING FUND CO M M I SS |ON
CONTROLLER
CO M M ISS I ONERS
TREASU RER
BOARD OF REVISION CONTROLLER OR
COMM (SSION ERS AUD ITORS
ASSOC IATE JUDGES
PRISON BOARD
PENS | ON BOARD CO M M (SSION ERS
CO M M I SS ON ERS SH E R FF
TREASUR ER CONTROLLE R
CONTROLLER
COUNTIES
3 - 9 B OARD OF
V | EWERS
A DV ISORY BOARD
FOR HO SP (TAL
FOR TU BERCULOSIS
5 LAW LIBRARY
CO M M ITTEE
BOARD OF TRUSTEES
FOR COUNTY
INDUSTRIAL FARM,
WORKHOUSE OR
REFORMATORY
cERtain vacancies
COURT OFF | CERS
BOARD OF A SS ESSM ENT
AND REVISION OF
TAXES IN count ES
WITH 3OO,OOO TO 500,000
PO PULAT ( ON
|
| ASSESSO RS
S
Fe
Fl GURE NO. Il 7

8. Inspecting Weights and Measures.
9. Collecting returned taxes on seated and unseated lands.
10. Paying assessors and costs of registering voters.
ll. Paying salaries and certain expenses of the county
commissioners and other officials provided for by State law •
12. Paying the office expenses, etc., of the County Superin-
tendent of Schools and for the annual convention of school direct-
ors in the county. --
Counties may, at their option, engage in a large number of
other activities. The more important include aiding in provid-
ing recreational facilities, libraries, hospitals, public audi-
toriums and airports• Counties also may provide canals and
waterways and aid in the control and prevention of floods. By
appropriations they may aid agricultural societies, various
historical and educational associations, veterans and National
Guard units. They may provide and maintain memorials, drill gas
Wells, provide ornamental street lights about the county build-
ing; and exercise various other minor powers. Authority for
county planning is granted second-class counties •
The organization chart for counties, adapted from a chart
prepared by F. P. Weaver and H. F. Alderfer, illustrates the
typical organization for governing all counties except Phila-
delphia. There is no other type of local subdivision in Penn-
sylvania where authority is as decentralized as in the counties •
The county organization is the result of the gradual accretion
of new agencies as the powers of the county expande Fourteen
553
sets of officials are elected, many specifically provided for
in the State Constitution. A large number of other offices are
filled by appointment by the county commissioners. Additional
appointing power is vested in the judges of the district court.
Nearly all elected officers may appoint some subordinates. Ex-
cept in the seventh and eighth class counties, a county salary -
board decides the number and compensation of such employes.
The ex-officio boards for the revision of taxes, prison board
and sinking fund commission complete the usual county organ-
ization. Uounties Öf the second class may have a pension
board •
FUNCPIONS OF TOWNSHIPS AND BOROUGHS
There is a large degree of similarity between the mandatory
functions of townships, boroughs and cities, but there are two
differences. First, the optional functions vary and some option-
al functions for sparsely populated units are mandatory. Second,
the governmental organization is more complex for cities •
Townships of both classes have the same mandatory functions.
These are :
l, Maintenarice of the minimum governmental organization
specified in the township code.
2. Collection of township taxes.
3. Maintenance of township highways and bridges.
In addition, the following mandatory functions are performed
at county expense By officials elected in each township. Adminis-
tration of justice by justices of the peace, maintenance of law
554
and order by constables, and assessment of taxes except in
counties of the second and third classes.
Optional functions of second class townships include:
Providing fire protection.
Providing watering troughs ,
Providing for garbage and trash removal and prevention of
nuisances •
Providing for insurance - workmen's compensation, fire,
public liability or group policies for the benefit of township
eſºployes •
Erecting and maintaining public buildings.
Providing water and sewer systems.
Providing parks, playgrounds, etc., and appropriating
money for forest conservation.
Regulating traffice
Assisting by appropriations for Memorial Day services, the
Armory Board and National Guard units.
Maintaining memorials and providing burial plots for ex-
service men.
In addition, the supervisors, on petition of residents of
any part of the township, may light specified streets, provide
water for fire protection and other uses, and provide sidewalks.
Beneficiaries of these special services pay for them. Lockups.
may be built and fire equipment costing more than a specified
amount may be purchased only after the projects are approved at
an election. The court of quarter sessions may direct the
555
appointment of policemen for any part of the township whose
residents petition for such protections
The governmental set-up for performance of these functions
is shown in the accompanying organization chart for townships
-
of the second class. The voters elect three supervisors, an
assessor, three auditors and a tax collector. A secretary and
treasurer are appointed by the supervisors. The minimum- or-
ganization required by law is completed when the supervisors
appoint a road superintendent if the township is not divided
into road districts, or a road master for each district if it
is divided. Appointment of township solicitors and engineers
is optional with the supervisors who also may appoint unpaid
park and recreation boards and a waterworks commission •
First class townships may Perror- any of the functions of
second class townships, but the commissioners may act more fre-
quently than second class township supervisors upon their own
initiative. Moreovers first class townships are authorized to
perform many additional municipal functions. These include:
Regulation and inspection of buildings, inspecticn of the
milk supply, regulation of the use of inflammable and explosive
articles, smoke regulations, providing motor ambulances, regu-
lation of amusements, registration of real estate, regulations
for the public safety, creation of fire, water and sewer dis-
tricts, fire prevention regulations, regulation of the running
at large of animals, provision of comfort and waiting stations
and drinking fountains, health protection, sewage disposal, and
* 556
organization chart – Townships of THE FIRST CLASS
PENNSYLVANIA
VOTERS
COMMISSIONERS H TREASURER |
ONE PER WARD AND EN -
OUGH AT LARGE SO THAT
THERE SHA AT LEA
FIVE . SHALL BE LEAST ONE ASSESS OR
ONE ASST. ASSESSOR
TWO ASST. TR 1 ENNIAL
ASSESSORS
FRESIDENT AND V | CE -
|PRESIDENT CHOSEN -
FROM M E M BERS OF THREE ELECTED OR
COUNC1L. on E APPoint ED
AUDITOR OR
ONE CONTROLLE R
|
| SECRETARY |
O PT IONAL
- T - - | - I - T] -
| SOL I C I TOR | E N G | N E E R | | POLICE | | MAN AG ER |
I - - | - | - - |
BOARD *ealth | LK BUILD ING WATER
HEALTH OFFICERS |N SPECTORS |NSPECTORS COM M I SS ION
- ſ – | - I I
ZON | NG * BOARD OF PLAN N ING SHA D G T REE
CO M M S S I ON A DJ USTM ENT CO M M I SS I ON CO M M I SS | ON
- Sp
F't GURE NO. 118

ORGANIZATION CHART – TOWNSHIPS OF THE SECOND CLASS
PEN NSYLVAN | A
º
SUPER INT END ENT | DEPUTY
3 SUPERV I SORS A S S E S SO R 3 AU D IT ORS TA X COLLECTOR
* POSITIONS NOT IN.com PATIBLE WITH POST OF SUPERVISOR, AND F REQUENTLY HELD BY SUPERV I SORS
Wºj
FIGURE NO. Il Q

ORGANIZATION CHART – CITIES OF THE THIRD CLASS
PEN NSYLVANIA
−F=-
MAYOR AND UN AN | COUNCILMAN | Council-MAN | Gouncil-MAN TREASURE R CONTRO LLER
PRES | D ENT tºº-ººººººººººººººººººº.
OF CO UN Cº L
DE PARTM ENT DEPARTMENT | DEPARTMENT | D EPARTMENTIDE PARTMENT
F OF OF OF
OF O
PU B L | C ACCOUNTS PUBLIC | STREETS AND| PARKS AND
AFFAIRS A ND SAFETY PU B L | C PU B L | C
FINANCE IMPROVEMENTS PROPERTY
L
C V | L S E RV I C E CO M M I SS (ON HEALTH OF F 1 C ERS H.
F I RE & H EALTH
- L F I REM EN H
POL |C E H
C V L S E R V C E CO M M I SS iON
POLIC E |
/ Assistant ENGINEERs H
BoARD of
, HEALTH
M N IN G
ENG IN E E R
(ANTHRAcIT
fºr EG | ON
E L E C T R C A L H
C IV L SERV I C E CO M M I SS (ON LECT R
ENG IN E E R IN G, E.T. C.
i
BU | LD ING INSPECTORS H
[F]
WATER
& -- SP
FIGURE NO. I2O






ORGAN |ZATION CHART - BOROUGH S
PENNSYLVANIA
VOTERS
COUNCIL
B U R G ESS H | GH | ASSESS OR TAX COLLECTOR
CONSTABLE | TO 3 F ROM EACH WA R D OR
OR ! [.N EACH WARD
7 IF BORO HAS NO WARDS EXCEPT IN 3RD-
| CLASS COUNTIES –
OR W H E RE -
PRES I DENT OF COUNCIL APP O INTED, 3 AUDITORS
SEC RETARY TREASUR ER ELECTED BY COUNCIL O R
F ROM ITS MEMBERS | CONTROLLER
optiqnal
ST RE ET FIRE
eºne
O
H E ALTH E U R EAU OF §§§":
- PLANN | NG ZON ING Mine inspection L BU LD 1 NG | If it, to PERForm
T1 com Miss I on B OA R D. bºsºm º- | NSPECTORS T OPT I ONAL
- - ANTHRAC IT E . BO ROUGH
R EG | ON DUT | ES
HEALTH
OFF | CER
F IGURE NO. 12 |

creation of shade tree commissions and zoning and planning boards.
In addition the commissioners have broad powers to enact
ordinances and resolutions and enforce theme
Elasticity in the government of first class townships is
shown in the organization chart. The voters elect one commiss-
ioner from each ward (of which there may not be more than 15) or
enough at large so that there shall be at least five commissionerse
A treasurer, assessors and three auditors or a controller also
are elected. It is optional for the commissioners to appoint
one qualified accountant as auditor. A secretary appointed by
the commissioners completes the minimum organization.
The first class township code, Act of June 24, 1931 P. L.
1206, section 150l., authorizes the commissioners "To create any
office, position or department which may be deemed necessary for
the good government and interests of the township . . . . ." Other
sections specifically mention various offices or boards which the
commissioners may create. Some of the optional offices which
have been created in many first class townships are shown at
the bottom of the organization chart.
A provision of the first class township code utilized by
only one township, allows the commissioners to adopt the mana-
ger system of government by ordinance, but not by direct vote
of the electorate • The commissioners may create the office
of manager; and define his powers, auties, term and compensa-
tion. They may delegate "any of their respective non-legis-
lative and non-judicial powers and duties to the township
557
manager."
The mandatory functions of boroughs are the same as those
of the townships. Some small boroughs confine their customary
activities closely to their mandatory functions, especially in
years when the tax burden is unusually onerouse
Boroughs may perform any optional functions of townships
of either class, and the following in addition:
Provide for putting electric wires underground.
Manufacture and supply electricity.
Operate gas wells for municipal purposes.
Establish airports.
Regulate weights and measures.
Make annual appropriations up to $1,000 for municipal music,
and up to $500 for municipal burial ground maintenance.
Widen and deepen watercourses.
Erect and maintain wharves and docks,
Contract with street railways for the removal of tracks.
Inspect mines as to surface support in the anthracite
region •
In the organization chart for boroughs the upper half of the
chart shows the minimum legal organizations The lower half lists
the optional offices and boards most frequently created. The
borough council has a broad grant of power to create such addi-
tional offices and departments as it sees fit.
A majority of the boroughs have populations as small as
the majority of second class townships. Ordinarily, howevers
558
the borough population is concentrated in a smaller area than
that of the townships. Hence most small boroughs have been
created to render governmental services which their residents
could not so easily obtain under township government. Such
boroughs commonly set up only the minimum legal organization
plus a board of health, a fire company equipped or supported
at least partially at borough expense, a borough water or
sewer system, or a public markete
The minimum borough organization does not differ great-
ly from that of a first class township. Both have elected
assessors and auditors or a controller and an appointed secre-
tary. The elected township treasurer has the combined duties
of the elected borough tax collector and the appointed borough
treasurer. The high constable of the borough might well be
dispensed Withe
The borough council corresponds to the township board of
commissioners. If a borough has no wards it elects seven
councilmen; if there are wards, from one to three councilmen
are elected in each. New wards may be created upon petition
at the discretion of the Court of Quarter Sessions.
The burgess, who has no counterpart in the township, may
veto ordinances or resoluticns of council, although his veto
may be overruled by two-thirds of council. He has the powers
of a justice of the peace in enforcing borough ordinances and
and in respect to riots, tumults, disorderly meetings, va-
grants and disorderly persons within the borough. His princi-
559
pal auty is to preserve order, enforce ordianances and regu-
lations, hear complaints, remove nuisances and exact a faith-
ful performance of the duties of the officers appointede He
also has charge of the police, and may suspend policemen with-
out pay until the succeeding regular meeting of council.
Council, however, has the sole power of appointment and re-
moval o This division of authority frequently leads to friction
between the burgess and council.
The larger borouse, 49 of which are as large as the
majority of third class cities, perform many more of their op-
tional functions and have created a wide variety of offices. The
borough law, permits appointment of a borough manager, to whom
the council and burgess may delegate, subject to recall, any of
their respective non-legislative and non-judicial powers and
duties • Approximately 20 boroughs, most of which have 5,000 or
more inhabitants, have exercised this option • In other boroughs
another official, usually the engineer or secretary exercises
approximately the same powers •
ADMINISTRATIVE METHops.
The administrative methods of local sub-divisions may be
treated under five headings, namely, the supervision of ad-
ministration, personnel methods, purchasing, accountine, and
budgetary control • •.
1. Supervision -
County commissions fix the tax levy for the county, and
draw warrants for all payments of county funds • They share
560
their financial authority, however, with several other elective
officers. They are required by law to pay prescribed salaries
for many of the chief county officers and to appropriate money
for many purposes over which they have no control • Professors
Weaver and Alderfer found, for example, that in 1931 mandatory
- expenditures of sixty-four counties ranged from 18.7 per cent
of all expenditures in McKean County to 86.3 per cent in
Mifflin County. In thirty five counties mandatory expenditures
accounted for more than 40 per cent of all expenditures. Pro-
fessor Carter arrived at similar findins, in his study of the
expenditures of twenty-nine counties in 1930.
Weaver and Alderfer list twenty-three varieties of public
works projects where the commissioners share authority with
some other agenicy. This may be a group of petitioning citizens,
board of viewers, grand jury, judge or judges of the Court of
Common Pleas or of Quarter Sessions, electorate, poor directors,
controller, or such State departments as those of Health, Wel-
fare, or Highways. Each elected officer is virtually supreme
so far as control by any other county authority, except *
Salary Board, is concerned. Supervision over some activities is
exercised by administrative agencies of the Commonwealth, how-
6W 81° e
The county controllers are largely responsible for seeing
that expenditures are made legally. In the other countiés, the
auditors annually examine the accounts of the county fiscal
officers and of the directors of the poor where the poor dis-
56l
trict is on a county-wide basis.
Supervision of administration is much more centralized in
townships, boroughs and cities, although in none of these
units is there any single officer who is solely responsible
for the conduct of municipal affairs. In townships of the
first class and boroughs the administration of public affairs
is ordinarily supervised by committees of the legislative
body. Sometimes an appointed official, such as the secretary,
engineer, street commissioner, or manager is allowed or dir-
ected to exercise supervisory authority over all or most of
the other appointed employes, and to supervise construction
and maintenance of public works, subject to the direction of
the legislative body. Where this situation exists the most
efficient administration usually is found. Occasionally the
president of council or chairman of the finance committee per-
forms more or less the same duties. . In second class townships
the three Supervisors are not over-burdened with administrative
duties. Some confusion arises in third class cities because
the council has administrative powers which are allotted to the
individual members, while the mayor is authorized to supervice
the work of all city officials.
2. Personnel Problems.
The chief personnel problems have to do with selection and
payment of officials and their tenure in office. There is no
general provision for the selection of public officials on a
merit basis except for some employes of the third class cities.
562
The worst situation exists in counties where the decentrali-
zation of authority leads to over-staffing of many offices.
Appointive positions in second class townships frequently are
filled by the supervisors themselves. In first class town-
ships and boroughs, officials originally chosen for political
reasons often have a surprisingly long tenure in office. This
depends to a great extent upon the ability of the party or
faction in power to maintain its position. Even the civil ser-
Vice commissions in third class cities usually are ineffective
in securing the most competent persons for public office. Many
exãminations given are so simple that nearly any candidate can
qualify, and the provision whereby the appointing officer may
nominate to council any one of four persons whose names are
submitted by the civil service cômmission permits the appoint-
ment of politically desirable candidates.
The statutes sometimes provide minimum qualifications for
specified officials. Thus the borough code provides that the
controller shall be a "competent accountant". Unfortunately
such terms as "competent" are subject to many interpretations.
The fact that so many administrative officials are elected
is another weakness of local government, especially in the
counties. Voters are poorly equipped to judge qualifications
of candidates for technical administrative positions. Persons
so selected are prone to do their work poorly unless competent
assistants are hired to do it for them.
There is no uniformity in salaries for similar services.
565
Thus commissioners and supervisors of first and second class town-
ships are paid on different per diem bases, while councilmen -in
third class cities receive alaries within a range prescribed by
law and members of borough councils are paid nothing. Borough
treasurers, even in large boroughs, often are unpaid whereas in
other boroughs they receive relatively substantial ~iaries.
This situation is complicated by the fact that salaries
of many local officials, including most county officers, are
fixed by State law. Another factor is the fee system, which re-
Sults in over-payment of some officials and under-payment of
others.
3- Purchasing.
There is great diversity in the purchasing methods in use
in the various local government units. The wº- in each
community is almost entirely optional with its legislative body.
In counties, each department head purchases many of his own
supplies with little or no centralized supervision. In amaller
sub-divisions purchasing is commonly left to the committee of
the legislative body in charge of a particular function. In
cities purchasing bureaus are authorized by law but few, at
least of the smaller cities, have them. Ordinarily each depart-
ment head purchases his own supplies • Occasionally a city,
borough or township empowers one officer to make or negotiate
all purchases. Regardless of how purchases are made they must
be approved and authorized by the legislative body. Competitive
bidding is required, by law in the case of purchases involving
564
the expenditure of $500 or more.
** Accounting
- Except in the case of townships, which are required to sub-
mit uniform reports to the Department of Highways, there is
Y1O unifornity in the accounting systems of any of the kinds of
local governments. There are some units in each class which
have excellent bookkeeping systems, which clearly reflect the
financial situation of the unit • More commonly the only ac-
counts kept are on a singie entry cash basis with practically
no classification of expenditures.
5. Budgetary Control
No satisfactory budgetary system is required by law for
any of these kinds of local sub-divisions. Decentralization of
the counties and diffusion of powers among the various officers
make proper was and airtient. In the other kinds of units
no person is made responsible for the preparation of a budget.
In no class of units are public hearings required in advance of
the adoption of a budget. In the case of the boroughs the code
does not even mention budget making. Where the law provides
that a budget be adopted or a tax rate fixed there is no uni-
formity as to the date. Furthermore, only in the county and
third class city laws is there any reference to budgetary con-
trol of expenditures after adoption of a budget. Hence
practices vary greatly. In many small units, most expenditures
recur so regularly that it is satisfactory to fix the same
tax rate with slight variations from year to year. This leads
565
Governmental-Cost Payments of Counties, Cities, Boroughs; and Towns,
School Districts, Townships, and Poor Districts. 1932
|Totals expressed in thousands of dollars)
Protec- Chari-
tion to Health ties,
COUNTY AND OTHER General person and High- hospi-
CIVIL DIVISIONS Total govern- and sani- ways tais,
ment prop- tation and
erty COrrec-
tions
GRAND TOTAL 681,925 47,534 47,392 19,802 66,084 53,080
State government lé5,691 10,023 8,762 3,749 20,872 22,957
Counties (b) 80,418 18,763 2,476 307 9,539 ll,900
Cities, boroughs 219,705 l8,049 36,154 14,980 22,708 10,768
ańd towns (a) -
School districts 167,046 699 766
Townships 19,845 12,965
Poor districts 8,315 7,455
Opera-
tion
and e
:mainte-
nance of
public
Schools service
COUNTY AND OTHER Libraries 3ecre- Miscel- enter- Interest Out-
CIVIL DIVISIONS ation laneous prises lays
FERED FORI-Iggloſs—Egg- lo, 337 TEOS 55:005—IEETET-
State Government 45,636 317 4, 270 2,810 4l,609
Counties (b) ' ll.0 737 l,917 _37 8,971 25,661
Cities, boroughs 3,524 5,744 5,622 9,556 32,222 60,398
and towns (a)
School districts 149,806 l6l l,528 12,586 21,500
Townships l4 l,491 5,375
Poor districts 257 603
a.
b
Includes for cities, boroughs, and towns not reporting a distribution by departments
an estimate based on the average for cities, boroughs, and towns of the same group.
Exclusive of Philadelphia County -
(Statistics from Financial Statistics of State and local Governments; 1932.
Pennsylvania U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1934)
566
Revenue Receipts of Counties, Cities, Boroughs, and Towns,
School Districts, Townships, and Poor Districts. 1932
(Revenue receipts expressed in thousands of dollars)
COUNTY AND OTHER º TAXES
CIVIL DIVISIONS Total Total General Licenses Special
Property and Assessments
Permits
GRAND TOTAL 626,564 a481,255 b340,372 81,752 5,750
State Government 169,84l als2,639 - 73,508
Counties (c) 63,542 56,422 50,395 6,027
Cities, boroughs, 181,189 129,424 127,228 2,196 5,442
and towns
School districts 182,452 139,353 139,353 -
Townships 21,014 17,525 17,504 21 3O8
Poor districts 6,980 5,892 5,892
-- Fº
Fines, for- Subven- Dona- Highway Earnings Earmings
feits, & tions & tions, privi- of general of public
escheats grants gifts, & leges, depart- service
pension rents,& ments enter-
assess- interest prises
ments
COUNTY AND OTHER
CIVIL DIVISIONS
GRAND TOTAL l,758 50,315 4,668 29,006 33,181 20,631.
State Government 367 13,927 3,843 6,166 12,899
Counties (c) 432 90 53 1,634 4,904 7
Cities, boroughs, 887 2,120 755 18,852 4,635 19,074
and towns
School districts 6 31,971 14. 2,231 8,877
Townships 66 l,842 2 71 1,187 13
Poor districts 365 l 43
;
679
includes inheritance taxes and other special taxes for state purposes only.
includes poll and occupation taxes
exclusive of Philadelphia County
(Statistics from Financial Statistics of State and Local Governments:
Pennsylvania U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1934)
1932.
567
to serious difficulties, though it is frequently followed in the
more populous and active communities.
SOURCES OF REVENUE
No State department publishes or even collects complete
financial statistics of all the various sub-divisions of the
Commonwealth. The Department of Public Instruction collects
uniform statistics concerning finances of school districts,
sufficiently detailed to be of great value. Townships are re-
quired to submit similar reports to the Department of Highways.
But while these reports must be made on uniform blanks, there
is no required uniformity in bookkeeping methods. Cities and
boroughs submit their annual financial statements to the De-
partment of Internal Affairs. Few of these reports are com-
parable at all and some are valueless.
The most complete attempt to compile statistics concerning
revenues and expenditures of local governments in Pennsylvania
has been made by the Bureau of the Census of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Commerce for the fiscal year, 1932.
Unfortunately poll and occupational taxes are grouped with
taxes upon real property in the table of revenue receipts. This
group, of which the tax on real property constitutes by far the
major part, supplied 79.3 per cent of all the revenue receipts
of counties; 70.2 per cent of those of incorporated cities,
boroughs and towns; 76.4 per cent of those of school districts;
83.3 per cent or revenue receipts of townships; and *.* per
cent of those of poor districts, or 74.8 per cent of the total
568
revenue receipts of all the sub-divisions of the Commonwealth.
Subventions and grants, mostly to school districts, account
for 8.0 per cant of the revenue receipts of all the sub-divisions;
highway privileges, mostly to incorporated placés, account for
5.0 per cent; earnings of general departments for 4.4 per cent;
those of public service enterprises for 4.1 per cent and minor
items for 3.2 per cent. Practically all earnings of public ser-
vice enterprises accrued to incorporated places. Licenses and
permits, which yielded only 1.8 per cent of the total receipts
in 1932, have become of increasing importance since the repeal
of the 18th a mendment. At the same time the yield from the
general property tax is dropping sharply.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES
Expenditures of local units in Pennsylvania for govern-
mental purposes in 1932 were 29.8. per cent for schools, in-
cluding a small amount for libraries; 22.0 per cent for per-
manent improvements; lo-8 per cent for interest; 8.8 per
cent for highways; 7.5 per cent for protection to person and
property; 7.3 per cent for general government; 5.8 per cent
for charities, hospitals and corrections; 3.1 per cent for
health and sanitation; l.9 per cent for operation and main-
tenance of public service enterprises; 1.3 per cent for re-
creation, and 1.7 per cent for miscellaneous purposes. Ex-
penditures for outlays were not subdivided by the Bureau of
the Census but ordinarily such expenditures are incurred
chiefly for highways, schools, and charities, hospitals and
569
corrections •
Outlays, general government, charities, hospitals and correcº-
tions, highways and interest account for nearly all county ex-
penditures, - in this order. In incorporated places, outlays
for protection to person and property, interest, highways and
general government were most important. Township expenditures
ar. almost wholly for highways, while those of school districts
and poor districts are self-explanatory •
PROPOSALS FOR DEVELOPMENT
Future development of local government in Pennsylvania
concerns the proper size of administrative districts, the
proper agency to perform certain functions, the proper degree
of centralization of authority, the proper allocation and de-
velopment of revenue resources, and proper accounting procedure.
An administrative district should be of the size most
suitable for efficient performance of its functions. This is
not always easy to detertaine, but certain glaring cases of mal-
adjustment are evident and should be corrected.
There is no reason for the creation of a new separate
school district whenever a new borough or township is created,
nor for the continued existence of many small school districts.
There is no more reason why a poor district should have the
geographical boundaries of a township or borough.
In view of modern means of transportation and methods of
balloting, a survey should be made to determine which election
districts are uneconomically small. Further steps might then
570,
be taken to redistrict the State on a more scientific basis
for election purposes • This would require the cooperation of
the county judges, who under the present Constitution, have
final authority in fixing the boundaries of such districts.
It might also be advisable to c jamge te constitutional
provision for the election of justices of the peace and con-
stables in every township, ward and borough e Larger dis-
tricts also are suggested for the minor judiciary together
with a requirement that justices be trained in the law.
An alternative to changing the size of existing govern-
mental districts is to transfer functions • Suggested changes
follow: -
To transfer the construction and maintenance of high-
ways from the townships to the Commonwealth, Since highway
maintenance is now the chief function of the second class
townships, such a step might easily lead to abolition of
this type of unit • A less drastic step has been taken in
Maine, where the state has assumed full responsibility for
all local government activities in certain extensive but
sparsely populated regions, abolishing the usual agencies of
local government • A broader plan is the Wisconsin statutes
which provides for county zoning. Typical zoning ordinances
enacted under this law go so far as to prohibit family dwell-
ings in forest regions • This makes maintenance of schools
and, some roads unnecessary in such regions and reduces the
unit cost of providing these facilities in other regions •
57.1
survey might be made of conditions in those counties of
Pennsylvania which are steadily losing in population to de-
termine whether either plan is adaptable here •
Modern policing problems indicate the need for further ex-
pansion of the State police system and, perhaps, even for the
eventual relinquishment of this entire function to the CogInon-
wealthe
In "The Collection of Local Taxes in Pennsylvania, " . Pro-
fessor Nicholson has shown that the present system of collect -
ing taxes through locally 'elegted collectors paid on a fee
basis costs the taxpayers of Pennsylvania from four to five
times as Iuch as the taxpayers of Ohio w for the collection
of approximately the same amount by a single official in each
county who is paid a straight salary. This situation could
be improved by authorizing the county treasurer or some other
county officer to collect taxes levied by all subdivisions of
the county. Similarly, the present decentralized system of
assessing property, with its variations in rates, could be im-
proved by more centralized control along the lines already
provided for in counties of the second and third classes. Also,
present procedure whereby property in cities of the third class
is assessed separately by city and county assessors should be
Changed a
Substantial savings and increased efficiency in the con-
duct of county affairs would result from a thorough reoremas-
tion of county government, eliminating many elective officers
572
and vesting far-reaching administrative authority in the hanas
of a strong executive. This, however, would require con-
stitutional changes •
Nevertheless, a number of county offices, particularly
in the field of welfare have been created by the Legislature
and may be abolished by the General Assembly. A survey
should be undertaken to determine whether these welfare
agencies, such as the Mothers' Assistance and poor boards,
could not be merged into a single county-wide agency to prevent,
duplication of effort and cut expenses.” •
Neither the counties, cities, boroughs nor townships.
have any real executive head, It would be aesirable to make
one officer more definitely responsible for preparation of
the budget, routine purchasing and personnel management.
Civil service systems for the selection and promotion of em-
ployes on a merit basis should be provided for the larger
units and definite professional qualifications should be re-
quired of all technical employee in all units.
A complete investigation should be made to determine
which mandatory laws are desirable and likely to continue to
be sc, and which impose undue hardships. Such a study should
determine what justification there is for the salary scales
and fee bases now prescribed by law and should assertain
whether such matters should not be left to local determination.
#TFor fuller discussion see section on this subject.
573
The recent great increase in the scope of governmental
activities, supported almost 75 per cent by taxes on real pro-
perty, has placed such a tremendous burden upon property owners
that increasing numbers are unable to meet their obligations.
Hence current debts of the local government units are increas-
ing rapidly and many units are in default on their bonded in-
debtedness. As of June 25, 1934, thirty units were in default
as to either bonds or interest, and the Bureau of Municipalities
in the Department of Internal Affairs listed 97 other units
waen had recently been in default but which had adjusted
their obligations.
- The situation has led local governments to demand more
sources of revenue. Liquor and other licenses have helped some-
what but have been inninetent. There are not many taxes
capable of yielding substantial revenue which are suitable for
local administration except the general property tax. Hence
it probably will be necessary to levy either a State income
tax or sales tax, or both. If this is done, there should be
a careful investigation to determine whether it is better to
leave the administration of the functions now performed by
local units in their hands or to transfer some of them to the
Commonwealth.
A malar situation in North Carolina has led to a re-allo-
cation of the functions of government whereby highways and
schools are supported by the state from the proceeds of in-
creased gasoline and income taxes. At the same time the state
574
created a Local Government Commission and a Director of
Local Government. They have wide powers to supervise local
finances, install uniform accounting systems, pass upon and
market all bond issues, and pass upon the qualifications of
municipal accountants • Their efforts have resulted in tre-
mendous savings, improvement in the bond market for North
Carolina local government bonds, and reduced interest rates.
A Strong agency to pass upon the necessity for bond
issues is a desirable institution, for one of the most burden-
some expenses of local governments is the fixed charges upon
the debts they incurred in more prosperous years when they
should have been reducing their debts.
PERSONNEL SUCCESTIONS
"Accounting systems do not run themselves and adequate
training and experience are essential to the proper handling of
accounts and finances of local governmental units . In order to
obtain the right kind of personnel, it is recommended that :
"(l) Colleges and universities establish courses of study
for training employes for local governmental units ,
"(2) Local government employes charged with handling ac-
counts and finances be selected on a merit basis under some
sort of civil service plane.
"(3) Local government employes receive adequate salaries
and be given a reasonable tenure of office.
" (4) No financial or accounting employes be elected or be
subjected to politics.
- 575
ACCOUNTING SUCCESTIONS
"It is recommended that some agency in the State govern-
ment be given authority to prescribe the essential features for
the proper system of accounts and procedure to be adopted by
local governmental units. The writer believes the following
essential features are uniºn resurants:
"(1) Uniform System and Classification of Accounts . A
reasonably uniform but flexible classification of accounts
and system of records should be worked out by experts
thoroughly familiar with the general requirements of govern-
mental accounting and with the conditions present in this
State • It woula, of course, we necessary to have somewhat
airferent systems in different units. For example, a system
of accounts suitable for a county could not be used for a
borough. All systems and classifications should be made
flexible enough to be readily adapted to local needs and
conditions •
"(2) Double Entry System of Books under Supervision of a
Responsible Officials. The use of double entry principles of
bookkeeping by competent employes gives some degree of
assurance that all business transactions will be analysed in
a complete manner, that coordination of all financial activi-
ties in the records will be brought about and that proper
financial statements can be prepared from the books •
"(3) Fund Accounting. In governmental accounting it is
important that funds be kept separate in the records and in
- 576
fact. For example, if special assessments are being col-
lected for local improvements or taxes are levied to provide
interest and principal to retire bonds, it is important that
such funds be kept intest and used only for the purposes for
which such funds were created. Illegal transfers and bor-
rowings as between funds have produced disastrous results in
many communities • -
"(4) Accrual Basis of Accounting. The essence of this
basis is to account for income or revenue in the period in
which it is earned and to account for expenses in the period
in which the liability is incurred. This principle is to be
followed regardless of when the actual receipt or disburse-
ment in cash may occur. In other words each accounting period
must stand by itself and reflects only the income earned and
expense incurred in the period under review. Professor Lloyd
Morey, an authority on Municipal Accounting, in an address to
the Municipal Finance Officers Association, referred to the
accrual basis as follows:
"Its importance and its correct solution have been re-
cognized, yet governmental accounting in general is still
carried out on the cash receipt and disbursement basis. It is
high time that governmental officers and public accountants
took the matter in hand and settled it once and for all. No
one would think of accepting cash receipts and disbursements
as representing an adequate accounting basis for private
business • No more should it be considered acceptable in
577
in public than in private business. Only by this method can
an accurate exhibit be made of the operations of a given period
and the resources and liabilities at the end of the period.
"(5) Budgetary Control. A proper system of budgets and
budgetary control should be worked out in conjunction with the
general accounting system. This will provide an effective
plan for estimating revenue and keeping expenditures within
the revenue. It will provide for checking actual performance
with the budgeted items of revenue and expense.
"(6) Periodic Financial Reports. Accounting is not an
end in itself but exists only because of the aid which it can
render to messent, creditors, investors, public officials
and taxpayers. It is essential, therefore, that periodic
financial statemerits be issued at regular intervals. These
statements should set forth in as simple and as clear a
manner as possible the essential facts regarding the financial
condition and operating results of the governmental units.
The reports should be made monthly or at least quarterly for
the guidance of adminstrative officials, creditors, bond-
holders, citizens and taxpayers. The reports should include
as a minimum requirement the following:
"(a) Balance sheet showing a summary of all assests, lia-
bilities and proprietory accounts for each fund, such as
general fund, special assessment funds, sinking funds, etc.
"(b) Statement of révenue and expense items in the
various funds, together with supporting schedules of the de-
578
tails by departments and budget classifications •
"(c) A summary of Cash Receipts and Disbursements by
Funds, showing opening balances and closing balances recon-
ciled with bank accounts. -
"(7) Cost Accounting Systems. The local governmental
units can profit much by establishing proper systems for cost
analysis. The study of unit costs of various services and
departments of governmental units will promote efficiency and
economy. These costs can be compared with costs of prior
periods, with costs of other governmental units and with pre-
determined standards set in the budget for the year under re-
view. Such systems to be of the greatest value must be co-
ordinated with the general accounting system.
"(8) government owned and Operated Institutions and
Utilities • Where local governments operate colleges, li-
braries, hospitals or public utilities, the accounting pro-
cedure and standards for such enterprises should follow the
best standards and practices in use by similar private in-
stitutions or enterprises.
"It is realized that certain -u school districts and
townships may be too small to adopt all of the foregoing but
the counties and most of the boroughs and small cities surely
need these minimum requirements.
AUDITING SUGGESTIONS
"The present policy of electing auditors and paying them
five dollars a day does not produce satisfactory results for
579
borough, township, schools, school districts and counties in
Pennsylvania • The essential requirements are :
"(1) to secure competent auditors.
"(2) To prepare audits and audit reports in accordance
with some standard specifications,
"One way of obtaining competent men is to have the
municipal auditing work performed by Certified Public Ac-
countants. The work should be awarded on the basis of
professional skill and reputation but not on the basis of
competitive bidding,
"Another plan is to have a staff of auditors trained
and working under some office or bureau of the State. Un-
less these jobs are held by trained men who are not sub-
ject to politics the work will not be performed very satis-
factorily. In New Jersey, only those who are registered
and licensed as Municipal Accountants may make audits of
governmental units. Licensee are issued annually by the
New Jersey State Board of Public Accountants. Such a pro-
cedure is in marked contrast with conditions in Pennsyl-
vania. When the State staff is not large enough to do the
job all at once, either the work must be spread over the
year or temporary help must be obtained for the peak load.
"Oné of the reasons for the wide differences in fees
when bias are called for in connection with municipal
audits is the character and amount of work which will be
done by the various auditors. The only way to insure a
580
satisfactory audit is to establish some standards or speci-
fications as to the scope and character of the investigation.
to be made. It is understood that the National Committee on
Municipal Accounting proposes to develop a standard program
for Municipal Audits,
REVISION OF LAWS
"It will be appreciated that many of the foregoing
suggestions cannot be adopted without legislation. I+,
would seem, therefore, that a study of the legal sit-
uation should be made by a committee of accountants with
the aid of legal counsel. In the opinion of the writer
the following are the major tasks of such a committee :
"(l) Codification of such existing laws as seems
desirable.
"(2) Framing of legislation to require properly
trained employes, proper accounting procedure and audits
by Certified Public Accountants."
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
The conclusion seems obvious that local governmental units
in Pennsylvania need to be reorganized in terms of the functions
to be performed. This reorgenization would involve a decrease
in the number of existing units and layers of government, with
increase in the quality of the leadership and personnel and re-
duction in relative cost of administration.
Many of the counties of Pennsylvania are now too small to
perform with efficiency or economy the functions of county, gov-
581
ernment • Relatively few of the school districts of Pennsyl-
vania are large enough either to provide or to administer ef-
ficiently a modern program of educatione The number of school.
districts could be substantially reduced with resultant large
savings in the cost of education and large gains in the quality
of the educational program, particularly in rural areas and
small towns • In general, the problem of local government in
Pennsylvania resolves itself into the organization and inte-
gration of the subdivisions of government into fewer but more
competent functional units, so that a re-distribution of
powers as between the State and its subdivisions may be made on
a basis which will at once insure efficiency and economy and at
the same time, preserve the advantages of local participation
and initiative •
582
A PLANNED Pacºus OF PUBLIC EDUCATION FOR PENNSYLVANIA*
Foreward
Any attempt to form a precise picture of our State program
of public education ten years hence is unwise. Rapidly chang-
ing social and economic conditions make uncertain both our future
educational needs and our future educational possibilities,
Our present wide-spread unemployment would normally tend
to increase the demand for educational service, but such growth
is opposed by the economic stress which restricts severely the
educational service possible to maintain.
The gradual mechanization of industry resulting in a grow-
ing leisure for everyone, would, other things being ecual, tend
to increase enrollments in schools and colleges. Whether such
results will follow, however, will be determined largely by the
degree to which educational opportunities offered succeed in
meeting the every-day practical and cultural needs of the public.
Moreover, the point of diminishing returns in public edu-
cation remains to be determined. We have yet to ascertain just
what per cent of our total population can be educated by soci-
ety with profit to itself. We are divided as to what should
constitute a foundation program of public education to
#FFEEEFEGTSyTWTCESTTE, ETFECTOFTEEERSISTEucation
Division, Department of Public Instruction, from material
gathered by Committees of the Commission to Study the Ed-
ucational problems of Pennsylvania, James N. Rule, Super-
intendent of Public Instruction, Director. Mr. Castle was
the Executive Secretary of this Commission.
585
be required for all. We are not agreed as to the minimum pro-
gram of free public education to which everyone should have a
right. Neither are we clear as to the extent to which the
State should assume responsibility for higher education in a
program of training for leadership.
However, of some changes we may be reasonably certain.
The projection of present trends will reflect, with some degree
of accuracy, the direction of developments in the immediate
future. Educational needs now apparent will tend to determine
the organization, administration, and substance of public edu-
cation in l945. Inequities now known will be partially or
wholly corrected in the then current practice. During the
past century since, the birth of free public education in Penn-
sylvania, our changing philosophy of life has tended constantly
to enlarge rather than to restrict the responsibility of public
education for individual and social Well-being.
Regardless of the many variable factors involved and the
unanticipated educational demande and problems of the future,
the adequate meeting of educational needs now apparent, and the
correction of inequities now known, ºna constitute the ab-
solute minimum of progress in the development of our education-
al program which will be discernible ten years hence.
Recognition is given to the members of the various study
committees of the Commission for the Study of Educational Prob-
..lems in Pennsylvania, to the officials of the several bureaus
of the State Department of Public Instruction, and to other
584
authorities, from the contributions of whom the conclusions and
factual data of this report have been drawn without reserve.
A TEN-YEAR PROGRAM OF EDUCATION FOR PENNSYLVANIA
In education, as in any other public service, planning is
essential to progress. We cannot very well arrive until we
have decided upon our destination. We should know definitely
where we want to go and quite as derinitely why we wish to go
there.
Prompted by these convictions, the State Superintendent of
Public Instruction moved, in 1931, to develop for Pennsylvania,
a ten-year program of public education. To this end, in June of
that year, the Superintendent of Public Instruction appointed,
with the approval of Governor Pinchot, a Commission for the Study
of Educational Problems in Pennsylvania, as a first step in the
formulation of such a program.
This Commission consists of twenty-nine outstanding edu-
cational leaders representing the various levels and depart-
ments of education. The purpose of this study of educational
problems, now continuing, is to secure accurately-determined
facts as to our present and projected educational needs, as a
basis for formulating a sound ten-year program of educational
policy and procedure for the Commonwealth.
585
Under the direction of the Commission, major study com-
mittees have attacked the problems of educational objectives
and principles; of school administration; of school finance ; of
teacher preparation; of school legislation; and of instruction-
al programs and procedures in the fields of elementary educa-
tion, secondary education, higher education, and extension
education •
As a means of directing the attention of the members of
scores of committees and sub-committees now engaged in this
study, the administrative objectives in education which are
mandated for Pennsylvania by constitutional and legislative
provisions were summarized as follows :
Pennsylvania's Educational Charter
For every child in Pennsylvania protection ºf his
constitutional right to an education.
For every child an understanding, competent teacher.
For every child an adaptable educational program --
instruction and practice in how to become a com-
~, petent citizen -- training and guidance to do
some part of the world's work well -- activities
for the development of worthy home membership,
wise use of leisure time, health, culture, and
character •
For every child a school term sufficient in length
to enable him to profit to the full extent of his
capacities from opportunities offered by education.
For every child safe, sanitary, hygienic, and
properly equipped school buildings and grounds.
For every citizen of the Commonwealth provision
for a continuing education -- to make up for oppor-
tunities lost in earlier years and to provide means
whereby the individual may adjust himself to new
civic, social, and economic responsibilities •
586
These intended outcomes of the study of educational prob-
lems now being prosecuted, supplemented by successive inventor-
ies of a like nature, should establish a common philosophy with
clearly-defined objectives, and insure to Pennsylvania the per-
manent benefits of a planned program of public education for
the Commonwealth.
Chronological Development of Education in Pennsylvania
It is of interest that Pennsylvania, celebrating at this
time the conclusion of its first one hundred years of free
public education, should inaugurate its second century of
public instruction, by an inventory of the problems, policies,
and achievements of its past as a basis for greater progress in
the future. From the prevailine convictions of former genera-
tions which found expression in constitutional and legislative
provision, can be learned the policies and purposes which have
brought our Commonwealth to its present greatness.
The growth of a definite philosophy of education can be
traced through successive years in a chronological chart to be
found in an appendix to this section.
In the legislative high spots in the development of public
education in Pennsylvania, one finds the Source and basis of
State responsibility for -
l. A thorough and efficient system of public education
for all children.
2. Protection of children in their right to attend
school continuously until at least sixteen years.
of age e
58?
3.” Universal secondary educational opportunities for all youth.
4. Teacher preparation and certification.
5. Equalized educational opportunity for all regardless of
age, economic circumstance, physical handicaps, or
geographical location- • *
6. Estáblishment and maintenance of minimum standards in
public education.
7. Local organization and administration of public education.
8. State aid in accordance with ability to pay.
9. Special aid to financially-distressed school districts.
10. Higher education in training for leadership.
ENROLLMENT IN FENNSYLVANIA
* following paragraphs treat of enrollment trends in
public schools and colleges within the commonwealth.
Total School Enrollment - The public schools of Pennsylvania,
for the school year l933-1934, enrolled 1,881,000 pupils dis-
tributed by grades as follows, - Grade l - 196,000, Grade 2 -
180,000, Grade 3 - 183,000, Grade 4 - 184,000, Grade 5 -
183,000, Grade 6 - 179,000, Grade 7 - 182,000, Grade 8 -
l69,000, Grade 9
l43,000, Grade lo - ll6,000, Grade ll -
91 9 O00 9 Grade l2
74,000.
The curves submitted herewith show actual trends over the
past ten years, and probable estimates, for the next ten years.
With the uncertainty of population and economic conditions, any
such estimate is liable to great error. In preparing these.
curves predicting school enrollment for the next ten years, the
following assumptions were made -
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l. Mortality prior to school enrollment, promotion
rates, and elimination are assumed to continue
for the next ten years at the same rate as at
present.
2. Inter-state migration of families is assumed to
balance each other in the numbers of children
of public school age.
3. It is assumed that there will be the same number
of births per year during the next four-year
period as there were in 1933 as indicated by the
regularly recurring plateaus of the birth-rate
curve for the Commonwealth.
The projected curve in one figure indicates that if the
birth rate and other factors are constant during the period
1935–1938, the total public school enrollment in 1944 will be
approximately l,730,000. On the other hand, if the birth rate
declines during this coming period at the same rate of decrease
occurring in the period 1930–1933, and other factors remain
constant, the total public school enrollment in 1944 will be
approximately l,366,000.
The second shows the actual public school enrollment
trends from 1924 to 1934 by the following grade brackets, - l
to 3 inclusive, 4 to 6 inclusive, 7 and 8, and 9 to 12 in-
clusive. The actual and projected curves show the following
trends:
589.
Total Total Total
Grade Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment
Brecket, 1924 L934 l944.
Grades l-5 644,000 558,000 330,000
Grades 4-6 533,000 547,000 380,000
Grades 7–8 255,000 351,000 269,000
Grades 9–12 214,000 326,000 387,000
It will be noted that during the last ten years Grades l-3
have experienced a marked decrease in number, this decrease
tending to continue to about 1940, at which time it reaches its
plateau of stability. Grades 4-6 have maintained, during the
past ten years, an approximate uniformity in enrollment, showing
a decided drop from 1936 to 1944 under the influence of resent
decreases in birth rate. Grades 7-8 have shown a definite in-
crease during the past decade, semina, having arrived at
their peak in l933, which is maintained until 1937, followed by
a corresponding decrease in enrollment. Grades 9–12, represent-
ing the high school bracket, show a marked increase during the
past ten years of approximately 52 per cent . approaching stab-
ilization about 1936,
Recognizing the many variable factors involved and their
tendency to alter projected enrollments, trends shown by the
actual curves should have an important bearing in future
policies in sehool-buildings programs and teacher preparation.
For the Commonwealth at large, the actual curves of enrollment
during the past decade show a diminishing demand for elementary
590
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school accommodations and a rapidly increasing demand in the
field of secondary education, while the projected curves in-
dicate a continued decrease in demand for the former and the
present peak as approaching the point of maximum demand for the
latter. These trends suggest conservatism and a careful study
of local conditions in school-buildings programs •
These curves are not to be considered as a finished
product, Corrections should and are being made for subsequent
use in the final report.
Total enrollment in colleges and universities - (Exclusive of
State Teachers Colleges) – The actual curve of the figure show-
ing total enrollment in colleges and universities, indicates
a steady increase in enrollment from 55,000 in 1924 to 93,000
in 1930, arowing to ze,000 in lºca, rising to loa,000 in 1933,
and falling to 93,000 in 1934.
The projected curve shows a relatively small but rather
steady increase in total enrollment of colleges and universi-
ties from 1934 to 1940, at which time it is likely to reach its
point of stabilization and thereafter, barring abrupt changes
in social and economic conditions, will hover around 100,000.
Total Enrollment in state Teachers Colleges - (Being studied -
to be reported later).
Total Enrollment in Extension Education - (Being studied - to
be reported later).
Emrollment in Special glasses for Handicapped Children - Data
on special education classes for physically-handicapped
591
children are not available for the State at large over the
period 1924-1934. In view of this fact, recourse has been made
to the records of Philadelphia, representing at this time over
30 per cent of the total State enrollment in this type of
public education.
One of the accompanying charts indicates a rather constant
increase in enrollment of handicapped children in these classes
from 6,000 in 1924 to ll,000 in 1934.
In view of the relatively recent attention to this aspect
of the Commonwealth's effort to equalize educational oppor-
tunity, few inferences can be drawn from the facts now avail-
able other than that for the Commonwealth at large enrollment
of physically-handicapped children in special education classes
will continue to increase during the next decade in direct
proportion to the provision of such facilities.
Enrollment in Kindergarten Classes - Records as to kindergarten
enrollment are not available for the entire Commonwealth. As
indicative of state-wide demand, data as to this type of public
education have been drawn from Philadelphia and Pittsburgh ex-
clusively, which cities now enroll over 50 per cent of the
total State registration in kindergartens.
The curve of kindergarten enrollment shows a rather grad-
ual increase from 16,000 in 1924 to 19,000 in 1930, followed by
a decrease during the following year suggesting the influence
! of our falling birth rate. -
Total Enrollment in Continuation Schools - Total enrollment in
592
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KINDER GARTEN EN Roll_MENT IN PHILADELPHIA AND P ITT's BURGH cons ISTs of over 50 °b of
º - TOTAL STATE Kl N DERG ARTEN ENROLLM ENT
O
1924 25 26 27 28 29 30 3| 32 33 34
PENNA. DE PARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION F i GURE NO. 126
O

continuation schools for the period 1924-1934 is shown in
another chart. Continuation school pupils are those of that
group of employed minors between fourteen and sixteen years of
age, who, under the provisions of the Child Labor Act, are
given work permits but required to attend school for eight
hours each week, constituting an exception to the State com—
pulsory attendance laws.
The actual curve of continuation school enrollment shows
a total continuation school enrollment for the Commonwealth of
49,000 in 1924 and a relatively constant enrollment to 1930,
followed by a rapid and steady decrease to 6,000 in l934. In
view of prevailing unemployment and the economic stress of the
past five years, this rapid decrease in continuation school
enrollment is a natural result. Pupils constituting the larger
enrollment prior to 1930 have reached the upper age limit of
the compulsory school attendance law and they have not been
replaced because of continued attendance of this class of pupil
due probably to inability to secure employment.
Total ºnrollment in Horkers' ſºlucation - (Being studied - to
be reported later).
The Youth Problem in Pennsylvania - Outstanding among the edu-
cational problems of Pennsylvania is that of our youth. Public
school records for 1934 show that during that year, in Grades
9-12, 326,000 pupils were enrolled. The total enrollment in
public secondary education for the school year l929–1930 was
296,372. The Federal Census of 1930 reported a total of
593
663,221 children of teen age in Pennsylvania who were not in
any school whatever.
The total number of high school graduates in 1933 was
64,533, while the number of college entrants for that year was
16,558. Including 1930, we have since graduated a total of
288,000 girls and boys from our high schools, and during the
same period fewer than 20,000 have entered institutions of
higher learning.
The public schools have made an effort to provide occupa-
tion for our army of idle youth by means of post-graduate
courses, but the maximum number of these at any given time,
slightly exceeding 6,000, was enrolled in 1933. Confronted by
prevailing unemployment and a severe economic depression, the
youth of Pennsylvania, for the greater part, can neither go oil
to college nor find jobs.
The influence of rapidly growſing leisure on this large
group of the young manhood and vromanhood of Pennsylvania, with
the social and economic significance of continued enforced
idleness, during formative years, is a problem which should
challenge the interest and aggressive attention of parents and
citizens.
CURRICULA AND METHODS OF TEACHING
Definite and constant trends in curriculum making and in
methods of teaching during recent years, promise a continued
development along rather well established lines.
594
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Curricula - Curriculum making for three decades past has been
characterized by a differentiation of courses in an effort to
meet - individual needs. During this period the junior high
school, offering a wide choice of subjects and exploring the
interests and aptitudes of pupils, has shown a rapid growth.
commercial education, industrial education, home economics,
agricultural education, and the fine arts have been given a
large and significant place in the program of public school
offerings. - -
So, also, the integration of subject matter under general-
ized themes, in elementary and secondary grades, is effecting 8.
consciousness in shildren of the interdependence of all mankind.
Progressive-education schools now dispense with readings
writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, drawing, and construc-
tion classes as such , but in one general theme such as "the
ship" will employ in a well-coordinated theme all of these
fields of subject matter in a practical and effective use of
life situations. In high school work general history, general
science, general mathematics, and unified English have sprung
directly from the integration movement.
'Methods of Teaching - The traditional group-recitation plan
based upon a crude classification of pupils as to their ages
and abilities, and at its worst consisting of its much-deplored
"pouring-in" process, is rapidly giving way to a policy of
direction of learning.
The socialized recitation, in which a member of the class
595
takes charge, with the teacher in the background, and as chair-
man conducts a general informal group discussion of the lesson
assignment, has been found to eliminate the gestrictions and
inhibitions of the formal recitation. This plan stimulates in-
dependent thought, increases participation, develops the
ability to compare facts, to discriminate, and to come to con-
clusions. Its outstanding disadvantage, however, is that all
members of the class, regardless of ability, must proceed over
identical course content regardless of their interests and
needs, and at a rate of speed uniform for all.
Individualized directed study as a general method con-
stitutes the other major line of divergence in methods and
provides organized subject matter in units of work outlined in
thé form of master sheets for the general direction of pupils
in their study. This plan has the advantage of throwing each
pupil on his own resources except as he seeks help from his
instructor. It trains him in finding the information he needs
and in utilizing it to the desired ends. It permits each
pupil to Work at maximum capacity developing application and
industry and enables him to progress as rapidly as possible.
It , too, develops initiative, independence of thought and judg-
ment, but it does not provide the wealth of social relation-
ships nor the free exchange of thought and judgment possible
in group Work.
Mention should be made of the rapidly growing use of
sensory aids as a basis for learning. Recent realization
596
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experience has rized the fact that in this age of books neither
spoken nor printed word can have meaning except as the in-
dividual possesses some previous experience which will serve as
a basis for understanding its meaning. This has led to the
setting up of experience as one of the fundamental objectives
of education. The major objectives of elementary education are
1CW recognized as being a reasonable mastery of the tools of -
learning plus a broad experiential foundation. Consequently
a greatly enlarged use of objects, specimens, models, graphs,
the school journey, and pictorial and musical reproductions
will characterize the future methods and techniques of teach-
ing.
Generally speaking, great strides will be made during the
next decade in socializing both curriculum content and methods
of teaching. More and more they will tend to draw from imme-
diate environment the subject matter of course content, and
increasingly they will duplicate natural living conditions as
learning situations, developing in individuals qualities which
will equip them for successful participation in community life
and for making intelligent contributions to society.
597
TEACHER PREPARATION
The function of preparing teachers for the public schools
of Pennsylvania is now served primarily by thirteen state-owned
Teachers Colleges and the Cheyney Training School for Teachers
and fifty other approved institutions of higher learning within
the Commonwealth. In 1934, the Teacher Colleges graduated 2,636
well-trained prospective teachers from a total enrollment of
8,549 students.
Current Administrative Policies and Practices - Recent trends in
teacher preparation are characterized by steadily rising stand-
ards in the qualifications for faculty membership, in course con-
tent, and in achievement required of students. Practically all
teacher-preparation institutions require of faculty members a
minimum training represented by the master's degree and at least
three years of teaching experience in the public schools,
Advanced entrance requirements, recently adopted, have in-
sured in new teachers college entrants both proper personality
and character,traits and a requisite educational background which
have improved perceptably the quality of the student body.
The adoption of a graduated four-year, preparation-level
program for all teachers will eventually bring minimum require-
ments for elementary school teachers abreast of those now re-
quired for high school certification.
It is significant that even in fourth class districts, em-
ploying approximately 28,000 teachers, 28 per cent of these are
598
COLLEGE AND OTH E R H | GH ER INSTITUTIONS
SOCIOGRAPHICS
P H | L.A. D. E. L. P. H 1 A
POST GRADUATE H IGH SCHOOL
SPECIAL TRAIN IN G
TEACH ING-STORE - O FF 1 C E
FACTORY TRADES AND OTHER EMPLOYMENT
AT HOME AND OTHERS - LARGELY UNEM PLOYED
WHAT HAPPENS TO H | GH
SCHOOL GRADUATES
f
PLAN N | NG
FIGURE NO. 3O B O A R D




now college graduates and 98 per cent have had two years or more
of special training, whereas in 1930 but 92 per cent had two
years or more of such training.
in recent years a general distribution among state teachers
colleges of responsibility for teacher preparation in special
subjects and fields, has been supplanted by specialization in
certain institutions, of training for teaching in such fields,
At this time we have three state teachers colleges maintaining
specialized courses of teacher training in art, three institutions
do likewise in music, two in commercial education, three in health
education, two in library, two in home economics, and one in kin-
dergarten education.
In-service training of teachers is carried on by meafhs of
summer schools, extension courses, , institutes, and Saturday-
afternoon classes •
Future developments in teacher preparation will be influ-
enced by the trend away from specialization and toward general-
ization in keeping with the modern conception of learning. For
the same reason, equally broad training will be required for ele-
mentary end secondary certification. Higher standards of mental,
spiritual, and physical fitness willfbe required of those regis-
tering for teacher training and, in keeping with the integration
movement and trends in our changing concept of education, our
present narrowed specialization will probably give way gradually
to a broader and more diversified educational background as a
*
fundamental requirement for certification.
599
Teacher supply and Demand - In a report made in 1932 by the Com-
mittee on Teacher Preparation of the Commission for the Study of
Educational Problems, evidence was submitted showing that the an-
nual turn-over of teaching personnel required annually the certi-
fication of 5,500 to 7,000 new teachers. While some excess of
supply of trained teachers over demand was at that time apparent,
it was shown that this excess was due largely to a preponderance
of secondary school teachers.
While making no specific recommendations as to the number
of required teachers, it pointed out that the current enroll-
ment of students in state teachers colleges was generally in
harmony with the determined annual demand for new teachers, and
that whatever excess of teachers existed over the demand, this
represented a wholesome condition allowing for selective pro-
cesses in the appointment of teachers, which should be constantly
operative.
Becommendations of the Committee on Teacher Preparation - The
following constitute in brief the recommendations of the com—
mittee on teacher preparation of the Commission for the study
of educational problems in Pennsylvania:
I. Recommendations as to qualifications of teachers and the
salary schedule •
l. The minimum standards for admission of students to
approved teacher-preparation curriculums in approved
teacher-preparation institutions should be the same
for all such curriculums.
600
2. Required qualifications for certification should be
uniform for all teachers irrespective of the age levels
or children taught, of the different subjects taught,
and of the different classes of school districts in
which teaching is done.
3. The minimum salary schedule should be uniform for
all teachers irrespective of the age levels of chil-
dren taught, and of the different subjects taught, and
of the different classes of school districts in which
teaching is done,
4. That the present minimum salary schedule of teachers be
changed to provide smaller annual increments over a
longer period of service tending to stimulate self-im-
provement of teachers after appointment, and providing
a suitable reward for faithful service • -
II. Further recommendations regarding minimum standards for the
approval of teacher preparation institutions were submitted cow-
ering the following items:
Demonstration of need for additional facilities for the
preparation of teachers, uniform admission requirements
for all teacher preparation institutions, adequate cur-
ricula, a minimum faculty personnel, adequate training
school facilities, appropriate dormitory faeilities, a
sufficient budget, and minimum library, laboratory, and
gymnasium facilities.
6Ol
LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
Pennsylvania's present school district system may be shown
somewhat in detail by the following tables:

Classification of School Districts by Po ation and
* Number of School Districts, lº2-35°
Class of Number of School
District, Total Population Districts
First, 500,000 or more 2
Second 30,000 but less than 500,000 2O
Third 5,000 but less than 30,000 259
Fourth less than 5,000 2,304
* Statistical Research Studies, number 9, Department of Public
Instruction, -

Number of Teachers and Pupils Per Director by
Class of District, 1932–1933*
Class Number Number Number of Number of
Of Of . Of Teachers Per Number of Pupils Per
District Directors Teachers Director—Pupils Director
First 30 ll,805 3594 422,407 14,080
Second L8O 8,681 48 265,094 l, 473
Third l,813 18,918 LO 618,056 541
Fourth ll,520 33,481– 3—788.884 63

* Statistical Research Studies, number 9, Department of Public
Instruction.
From the first of the two foregoing tables it is apparent
that of a total of 2,585 school districts within the Common-
wealth 2,304 have a total population of less than 5,000 people
each. Of the latter, 34 school districts maintained no schools
and employed no teachers, transporting resident children to ad-
joining school districts. The smallest school district in
Pennsylvania that conducted schools had an average daily attend-
ance of 10 pupils during the school year 1932-1933 and a total
population according to the United States census of 1930 of 33
persons. One-half of all the school districts in the Commonwealth
had an average daily attendance of less than 245 pupils per dis-
trict. The census shows that 1,200 school districts had a popula-
tion of less than 1,000 per district.
The second table shows that in all fourt-class districts
the average number of pupils per director was 63; and the average
number of teachers per director was 2. During this year (1932–
1933) there were 631 school districts each of which employed
fewer teachers than they had school directors.
A compilation of areas of the school district, of the
Commonwealth shows the average school district of the Common-
wealth to be a theoretical square only slightly in excess of
four miles on each side. tº
Records for the school year 1932-1933 show a total of
6,105 one-room schools within the Commonwealth. 798 consolida-
tion schools, tending toward elimination of one-room schools
and the creation of larger local units of school administratic y
G@3
enrolled last year approximately loo,000 pupils.
Teachers and Average Daily Attendance by School Districts - The
following tables indicate the inadequacy for school purposes of
the present school district wet- of the Commonwealth:
Teachers by School Districts, l932-1933.
Number of Teachers Number of Districts Per Cent
Total 2,585
O 34 le3
l ll.8 4.6
.2 l63 6.5
3 l4l 5.4
4 l'75 6.8
5 18O 7 - O
6 183 7. l
7 l52 5.9
8 156 6.0
9 l32 5 el
lO lC2 3.9
Over lo l,049 40.6
The above table shows that 34 school districts maintained
no school's and l,536 school districts have lC teachers or less.
l, 424 school districts, or 55 per cent, have no high schools.
Number of School Districts by Average Daily Attendance
Average Daily Attendance. Number of Districts
- Total . . 2,383
O-24 95
25-49 l51
* 50-99 296
lCO-l99. 6O7
200–299 4l6
500–399 218
400-499 l47
500-999 354
lC)00–l499 - ll.9
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This table shows that 542 school districts have an average
daily attendance of less than 100 pupils and that 2,383 school
districts have an average daily attendance of less than l,500
pupils, l0 high school teachers represent an approximate mini-
mum as a faculty for offering a program of high school educa-
tion with a reasonable choice of courses in accordance with
pupils' interests and needs, but such a high school of 275 pu-
pils is representative of a school district having a population
of at least 5,000 and an elementary school enrollment of at
least 800 pupils, and a total school enrollment of over 1,000.
From the above table it is obvious that of our 2,585 school dis-
tricts, 2,264, or more than 87 per cent are too small to maintain
a high school program with reasonably fair offerings with some
degree of economy •
Of the 2,031,441 pupils reported as enrolled in the school
year 1932–1933 only 70,734 were classified as non-resident or
tuition pupils. For the school year l929–1930 the total second-
ary school enrollment was 296,372. The Federal census reporting
for that year a total of 663,221 children of teen age in Penn-
sylvania who were not in any school whatever suggesting the in-
fluence of our present small local school district upon high
school enrollment and presenting an apparent lack of equalizes
educational opportunities.
Unequal Educational opportunities - Due largely to the smallness
of local units of school administration there is a prevailing
lack of educational opportunities for our girls and boys through—
605
out the greater part of the Commonwealth. To recognize this
one needs only to compare our total number of school districts,
(2,585) with the number of school districts actually offering
a choice of educational opportunities as indicated in the follow-
ing:
Four-Year High School - 948 School districts
Commercial Education - 430 school districts
Wocational Education - 291 school districts
Agricultural Education - ll 5 school districts
Home Economics Education - L72 school districts
Industrial Education - lºC school districts
Industrial Arts Education - 347 school districts
Special Education Classes - 87 school districts
Evening Schools - 65 school districts
Evening High Schools - 24 school districts
The present school district system is for the greater part
a continuation of the original political districting plan cre-
ated for the Commonwealth more than 100 years ago. Despite the
rapid imporvement during the past three decades of transporta-
tion facilities, Pennsylvania continues to ignore these advan-
tages and the growing educational demands of this day and age •
The automobile and the improved roads with transportation of
pupils have reduced distance to at least one-fourth, Today
children can go farther in the same length of time and get
IIICIfe e -
General Recommendations as to School Administration - The
following summarizes briefly the proposals as to school admin-
istration arising from the recommendations and deliberations
of the Committee on Local Unit of School Administration, the
Executive Committee of the Commission for the Study of Educa-
606
-º-º-º-º- --
PROPOSED consol-IDATION of school Districts
PERRY COUNTY
9 - Schools closed or TO BE CLOSED UNDER NEw consolidation PLAN.
Dº! PRoPostd consolidation — No Buildſ NG or Pos ITIVE Location
PROVIDED FOR . .
|_ PRoPostd consolidation — where: PRESENT BUILDING, or Buildings,
- CAN BE USED .
D euilding To BE REPLACED on PREs ENT Location.
tº Building To BE RETAIN ED.
PENNA. DEPARTMENT of Pue Lic instruction F IGURE NO. I 32 ..





tional Problems, and otherse
le
2 *
3.
4 •
5.
6.
7 e
There should be a re-organization of local school
districts to provide administrative units suffi-
ciently large to make available in an economical
manner to all resident youth, educational facilities
offering a complete educetional opportunity through-
out the elementary and secondary school levels.
In the creation of larger local units of school
administration generally, transportation facilities
and social, economic, and topographic aspects of
contemplated areas should constitute the deter-
mining factors.
The creation of larger local units of school
administration should be attended by a re-organiza-
tion of all attendance areas involved in order to
eliminate, as largely as possible, the duplication of
effort and overhead within the unit,
The larger local unit of school administration
should be of sufficient size and strength to provide
adequately for all administrative, supervisory, and
teaching functions, and should result in trained
leadership, increased local initiative and re-
sponsibility, and further decentralization of
authority,
Convenience in the administration of larger local
school districts will be enhanced by adherence to
civic boundary lines or election precinct lines,
but such units, if necessary in order to provide a
desired school population and adequate strength or
to define a natural community area, should include
an entire county, or all or parts of two or more
counties,
Economies and advantages obtained by the creation
of larger local units of school administration will
be furthered by the employment of the four-quarter
plane
The greater equalization of educational opportunity
made possible by the larger local unit of school
administration will be furthered by an extension in
length of the day, secondary-school program with
staggered assignment of teachers and pupils making
the extension evening secondary school a true ex-
tension of the day secondary school.
6O7
8. The economies and advantages of the larger local
unit in equalizing educational opportunity should
be furthered by cooperative development, as needed,
of joint projects in commercial education,
industrial education, special education, parent
education, post-graduate study and like public
education services •
9, State responsibility for public education and
State provision for financial aid, as needed, to
supºort a minimum program of public education
warrants the mandatory creation of larger school
districts and required annexations necessary to
an economical and effective equalization of
educational opportunity for alle
lo. The creation of larger local units of school ad-
ministration with resulting problems of transpor-
tation of pupils, bonded indebtedness, disparity
in local ability and effort, and like issues
should be attended by simultaneous inauguration
of the fiscal policies recommended by the
committee on school finance •
SCHOOL FINANCE *
An accompanying figure shows the actual curve of public
school expenditures in Pennsylvania, exclusive of capital out-
lay and debt service, from 1919 to 1933 inclusive. These ex-
penditures increased steadily from approximately $65,000,000
in 1919 to $149,000,000 in 1932, followed by a rather sharp
decrease to $137,000,000 in 1933. The expenditures for the
year ending 1932 do not include accounts payable, which totaled
more than $5,600,000. At the close of the year ending lº33
accounts payable amounted to more than $9,000,000. Many of
the accounts payable include current expense items. To avoid
duplication tuition for non-resident pupils is not included in
the expenditures for the years 1932 and 1933.
The average costs per pupil in average daily attendance
for each year from 1919 to 1933 are presented in the following
table, which shows that costs per pupil rose steadily from 1919
to l829. From 1929 to 1932 these costs show a slight drop.
The costs in 1933 compared with those of 1932 show a drop of
approximately 10 per cent.
* School Finance Report prepared by D. E. Crosley, deputy
superintendent in charge of the administration of finance,
Department of Public Instruction.
609
AVERAGE COST PER PUPIL IN THE STATE's PUBLIC SCHOOLS
Total current
Average
expenses cost
Total Average cost. (excludes per
School Expenditures per pupil capital out- pupil
year for all (Total lay and (current
ending purposes expense) debt service) - expense)
1919 $75,343, l00 $57.4l $65,555,008 $49.95
1922 129,344,699 89,29 90,889,655 62.74
1926. 181,392,646% ll7.00% 121,640,870* 78.46%
1929 206,652,321* 128,47% 140,256,285* 87.19%
1931 208,901,253” 122., 30% 148,337,459% 86.84%
1932 204,494,512* 117.83% 148,792,253* 85.73%
1933 181,609,097* 137,039,068% 77.lok
102.17%
#TEEE tuition
In 1921 the Edmonds Act, providing for specific State
appropriation to school districts maintaining salary schedules
which meet minimum legal requirements, became operative. The
net enrollment in the public schools increased from 1,583,187
in 1929 to 2,028,441 in 1933. The total enrollment of high
schools, grades 9-12, increased from 148,240 in 1920 to
408,051 in 1933, an increase of approximately 175 per cent.
The enrollment in, the high schools, grades 9-12, in 1920 was
9.3 per cent of the total net enrollment and increased to 20.1
per cent of the total met enrollment in 1933. The increase
of approximately 260,000 high school pupils required the
addition of approximately 10,000 high school teachers, and
otherwise increased the cost of maintaining schools. Growth
6:10
OF CAPITAL OUTLAY AND DEBT SERVICE
1919 20 2 I 22 23 . . 24. 25 26 . 27 . 28 29 30 3| 32 33
JPENNA. DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION - F! GURE NO. 133

of the junior high schools, increased cost of living, better
qualified teachers, enriched curricula, and improved super-
vision also were factors in the steady rise of expenditures.
Small School District Operating Costs
The cost of operating schools in the smaller districts has
been a matter of concern for a number of years. The next
table shows the median cost per pupil in average daily attend-
ance for current expenses and instruction in districts organ-
ized as boroughs, operating elementary schools only, having
elementary school terms of lé0-170 days and having less than
100 pupils, in average daily attendance. These costs are dis-
tributed on the basis of the number of pupils per teacher in
the various school districts,
6ll
MEDIAN COST FER PUPIL IN AWERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FOR
GURRENT EXPENSES BASED ON AWERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE
GROUPS FOR SCHOOL, DISTRICTS MAINTAINING A TWELVE YEAR
SCHOOL PROGRAM, 1932
i
E-E-E
Average daily
atterſdance
group Districts ** Median Cost
Under loC) 15 $lll,67
ICO-l99 77 77.8l
200-299 - - 117 66el?
300–599 78 64.31
400-499 - 67 65.9l
500-999 198 67e.8l
1000-1999 l6l 72,50
2000e–2999 48 75,00
3000-3999 - 28 80,00
4000-4999 l4 76,00
The cost per pupil tends to decrease as the number of
pupils per teacher increases. The median cost for current
expenses in districts having 10-19 pupils per teacher is
approximately twice that of districts having 35 or more pupils
per teacher. The cost of instruction in the districts having
10-19 pupils per teacher 1. 220 per cent higher than the median
cost per pupil for districts having 35 and more pupils per
teachere
612
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MEDIAN COST PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE FOR CURRENT
EXPENSES AND INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOL, DISTRICTS, ORGANIZED AS
BOROUGHS, HAVING ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ONLY, AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
TERM OF leo-l'70 DAYS, AND AN AWERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE OF UNDER
100 PUPILS, DISTRIBUTED ON THE BASIS OF PUPIL-TEACHER RATIO,
1932
Pupil-Teacher Median Cost
Ratio Districts Current Expenses. Instruction
10-19 2l - $65.83 $51.67
2O-29 52 47.50 38.28
30-34. 2O 40.00 30.00
35 and over 26 33,00 23,53
The foregoing table presents the median cost per pupil
in average daily attendance for current expenses for districts
maintaining a twelve-year school program. This table in-
dicates that under conditions as they were in 1932, current
expenses in districts having an average daily attendance less
than l90 had a higher per pupil cost than did districts having
an enrollment of 10,000 to 10,999. A comparison of median
costs in districts having less than 400 pupils in average
daily attendance shows that costs are higher in the smaller
districts. In districts having more than 400 pupils costs
tend to increase because the larger districts generally provide
a longer term, a more elaborate curriculum, better paid teach-
ers and other advantages that are usually not found in the
smaller districts.
Gºlò
Sources of State Revenue
Appropriations to the public schools are was from the
State "General Fund," source of maintenance appropriations for
various governmental activities and institutions,
The General Fund was accumulated during the two years be-
ginning June 1, 1931 from taxes assessed on such items as in-
heritances, capital stock, insurance premiums, sales, corporate
loans, mercantile and other licenses, times and penalties,
institutional revenue, and gross receipts of those engaged in
transportation, generation and transmission of power, private
banking, and promotion of boxing and wrestling exhibitions.
Nearly one-third comes from taxes on inheritances, while the
levy on capital stock raises more than one quarter. The per-
centage contributed by other items is relatively small in each
instances -
The following table contains a record of the major appro-
priations by the General Assembly for the l933-35 biennium
for the operation of the public schools and the education of
the deaf and the blinde (In determining the amount available
for a given year, divide the appropriation by two.).
614
Appropriations for Public Schools
1935–1955 biennium
Item
Reimbursement to school districts on basis
of teachers' salaries, etc.
Emergency appropriation for financially
distressed school districts
Transportation
Education of deaf and blind
Salaries and expenses of county and
assistant county superintendents
Vocational education
Miscellaneous subsidies
Training vocational teachers
Amount
$53,000,000
5,000,000
2,500,000.
l,060,000
l,046,000
700,000.
217,000
90,000
The following table specifies appropriations for other
educational activities: -
Appropriations for Warious Educational Activities
1933-1935 biennium
State aided colleges and universities $7,317,000
Public school employes retirement system 7,195,000
State teachers colleges - 3,000,000*
Administration, salaries and expenses
including examining boards l,l:30,000
State-owned institutions - 482,000
State-aided institutions - 375,000
State Library and Museum 210,000
Former teachers - lă5,000
Board of Censors - 130,000
Historical Commission - - 20,000
#TTEIHOTESTERET3,000,000,TEREFSGSIES OFTthe ESECREFs
colleges from student fees will be used in the colleges for
operating expenses.
Distribution of State Appropriations
State appropriations go to the various school districts on
the basis of teachers' salaries. The amount is based upon
population, the true value of taxable real estate, as deter-
mined by law, and the minimum teachers' salaries as prescribed
by law. Nothing in the law prohibits paying salaries greater
than the minimums prescribed.
In addition to the reimbursement on the basis of minimum
teachers' salaries, the State also compensates school districts
for part of the cost of transportation. To promote consolida-
tion of schools, it pays to districts of the fourth class $200
a year for each elementary school that is closed permanently.
616
Thus, paradoxically, it actually pays $900,000 a year to
keep the doors of 4500 schools closed while it grants addition-
al. sums to keep schools open in financially distressed dis-
tricts. In the latter instance the money is allotted during
the 1933–35 biennium from a fund of $5,000,000 appropriated
by the General Assembly. A part of the high school tuition in
certain districts comes from this same sources
The State also pays tuition for non-resident pupils placed
in a district by order of court or by some other duly author-
ized child-placing agency.
When deaf or blind children are placed in a State-owned
school or a school approved by the Department of Public In-
struction, the State pays 75 per cent of the cost of tuition
and maintenance while the local district pays 25 per cent of
the cost of these items.
Minimum salaries required for county werintenant. and
assistant county superintendents are likewise paid by the
State. They also are allowed necessary expenses for travel-
ing. If the County School Directors' Association, which
elects a county superintendent, should vote to pay him a salary
greater than the minimum salary, the portion of his salary in
excess of the minimum is paid out of the school fund apportion-
ed to the school districts over which he has supervision,
before the fund is distributed.
Determining the Amount of State Aid
Among the 2305 school districts of Pennsylvania with a
617
population of less than 5,000, the assessed valuation of real
estate per teacher in One district is more tiºn leo times that
of another district.
The State subsidy for public schools to the poorest dis-
trict is only one and one-half times more than that to the
wealthiest district. The wealthiest of these school districts
receives from the State 50 per cent of the minimum salaries
prescribed for its teachers; the poorest district receives 75
per cent.
One school district during 1933 levied no property tax but
another school district had to levy a 53 mill tax.
The range of difference in the amount of State aid paid to
school districts is not comparable to the range of difference
in their relative abilities to support public schools.
Whether the "so called true valuation" per teacher is
$5,000 or $50,000, in all school districts where such valuation
is $50,000 or less, the State pays 75 per cent of the teachers'
minimum salaries.
A five mill property tax levy in the poorest district will
produce $20 per teacher. The same tax levy in the other dis-
tricts will produce #250 per teacher.
In determining the amount of State aid due a school dis-
trict under the present plan of distribution, the following
three variable factors appear:
l. The assessed valuation of real estate
2. The reported rate of assessment
3. The number of teachers employed
618
SOCIOGRAPHICS
P H | L A D E L P H ! A
EMEI) III
WEALTH | EST 4TH CLASS SCHOOL DISTRICT
STATE AID
TO
SCHOOLS
EMEMEI) III Ö
POO REST 4TH CLASS SCHOOL DISTR CT
WITH 433 T. M. ES T H E A E, I Li T Y TO SUPPORT | TS
SCHOOLS THE WEALTH | EST RECEIVES FROM THE
STATE Two THIRDS As MUCH AS THE Poor Est
INEQUALITY OF STATE AID
PLAN N | NG
FIGURE NO. 135 3 O A R D.










Inequalities or inequities in real estate assessments are
reflected in the amount of State aid paid to school districts.
No responsibility has been placed on the Commonwealth relative
to real estate assessments because the State levies no real
estate taxes. With the increase in state subsidies to school
districts and assessed valuation of real estate a factor in
determining the amount of such subsidies, increasing need has
developed that the State require real estate assessments on a
scientific basis.
The school board secretary, although required to report
the rate of assessment, usually has no accurate information
upon which to base his estimate. His report is largely a
matter of guess-work. The higher the guess, the more State
aid for the district.
A statement from officials who have authority in connec-
tion with making esseement, Would have more weight than from
parties who have no connection with matters of this kind.
The School Law gives the local board of school directors
full authority to employ teachers. The greater the number of .
- teachers, the greater the amount of State reimbursement for the
district • -
One hundred school districts qualified for a higher rate
or state reimbursement for the two years beginning June 1, 1933
than for the two years beginning June 1, 1931 because of an
increase in the number of teachers. In at least one-third of
these districts there was no increase in the number of pupils.
619
In one school district the average number of pupils per teacher
is nine while in another district the average is fifty-two.
Weaknessess in the plan of determining the "so called true
valuation" per teacher have developed so the number of dis-
tricts getting the highest rate of reimbursement has increased
rapidly as indicated in the following table:
School Districts with Population
of less than 5000
Rate of State
Reimbursement 50% 60% 75%
Number of - Number of Number of
Biennium Districts Districts Districts
L927-29 llā2 876 323
1929-31 lové 873 379
1931–33 990 880 46l
1935-35 854 - 845 593
School Districts with Population
ſº º º
of 5,000 but less than 30,000
35% 60% 75%
1927–29 177 36 2
L929–31 165 47 3
L931-35 l62 5l. 2
ll
1933-35 l&l 66
FINANCIAL DISTRESS AND SPECIAL STATE AID
Owing to the excessive load carried by real estate under
our tax system, a financial crisis has arisen in hundreds of
our school districts. Anticipating this emergency, the General
Assembly of 1931 appropriated a special aid fund of $1,250,000
for financially distressed school districts. The General
620
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Assembly in special session in 1933-1934 appropriated an ad-
ditional special aid fund of $5,000,000 for this purpose.
For the last half of the school year 1933–34 after this
$5,000,000 fund was made available for financially distressed
school districts, 720 school boards made application for re-
lief. Five hundred and twenty-six of the applicat ions Were
approved and $2,430,000 was allotted for the payment of overdue
teachers' salaries, high school tuition and other current ex-
penses •
A New Plan for Distributing State Appropriations
A recommendation has been made that the state 8. SSUIſºlò
responsibility for financing a "foundation program" of educa-
tion---a guarantee of a specified length of school term and
adequate standards. In order te assure this, no school dis-
trict should be so impoverished that it is unable to offer
something in addition to that provided by the State. To
illustrate, the cost of the plan might be fixed at $1200 for
each elementary unit. If a school district were unable to
meet the expense with the proceeds of a five mill tax, the
State would make up the difference. If a district raised $400
per teaching unit with a five mill tax, the State would pay
such district $800 for each teaching unit. -
A teaching unit would represent a group of thirty-two
elementary or twenty-eight high school pupils. Each one-room
school and each special class Would be considered a teach-
ing unit. The number of pupils required for a teaching unit
(321
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AS TO CURRENT TRENDS
l. In view of the certain continued mechanization of indus-
try, with resulting unemployment and leisure, and anticipating
economic recovery, enrollment in schools and colleges will very
probably continue to rise during the next decade above the
points indicated by the projected curves submitted in this
report.
2. The eventual istribution of required labor, resulting in
greater leisure and a longer period of parental care for chil-
dren, will tend to increase the period of school attendance for
the average child.
3. The enrichment of curricula with broad differentiation of
C Oll].” S6 S of study to meet individual needs will be expanded, and
will be achieved, particularly in the interest of smaller high
schools, by means of individualized directed study, effecting
marked economies in the instructional costs of such schools.
4. The integration movement in curriculum building and
directed-study trends will tend to influence teacher-prepara-
tion policies in a definite swing from recent narrowed special-
ization toward a broader generalization of both general and
specialized training,
5. Trends in curriculum building and methods of teaching
will tend to effect equivalent required preparation and a
uniform minimum salary schedule for all teachers irrespective
of fields of 'instruction, of grades or subjects taught, and of .
class of sehool district in which teaching is done,
622
6. A growing appreciation of the vital importance of attract-
ing to the teaching profession the finest. character and per-
sonality, the broadest culture and training, and the deepest
human sympathy and understanding, will tend to increase rather
than diminish the rewards given for efficient teaching service,
and will tend to provide in the interest of Pennsylvania's
children a constructive continuity of teaching service through
suitable guarantees of tenure for those serving successfully in
the capacity of teacher. -
7. The principle of an equitable distribution of free public
service will demand increasingly greater equalization of adu-
cational opportunity. This will come through provision for a
wide differentiation and enrichment of courses and curricula of
public day schools, and through the development of school exten-
sion, university extension, and library extension facilities.
8. The demand for a greater equalization of educational
opportunity and the pressure for stringent economy in public
school administration will tend to establish within the Comon-
wealth local school units sufficiently large to encompass and
maintain within each of such communities the complete twelve-
year program of public education.
9. The urgent new for greater efficiency in school ad-
ministration will effect greater emphasis on educational
counselling and vocational guidance, tending to develop a
scientific analysis of common elements in individual trait.s and
skills, and the creation of appropriate prognosis tests as a
basis for intelligently directing the pupil's choice of studies
and a vocation,
10. The principle of the water good to the greatest
number will tend to emphasize mass or integrating education
for social competency rather than preparation for college en-
trance and leadership training, as the major objective of
public schools.
ll. Prevailing unrest incident to all periods of rapid
social and economic change will direct attention to the vital
necessity of adequate training for the intelligent and construc-
tive participation of the individual in community, state, and
national life, and will tend to e-maize the importance of a
more effective assimilation of foreign-born residents, of the
eradication of illiteracy, and of citizenship training as
fundamental safe-guards, of democracy.
12. The threat of increasing leisure to dissipate and
neutralize the efforts of formal pºlic education to develop
constructively the youth of Pennsylvania, will tend more and
more to impose upon educational agencies responsibility for the
planning, supervision, and control of community environment and
of safe recreational programs.
15. The problem of Pennsylvania's growing army of idle
high school graduates and the selective–admission policy of
colleges and universities, demands the development of post-
high school educational facilities for high school graduates
who are under-privileged or of the lower quartile brackets
624
by an extension of the public school program beyond the present
twelve-year range, by the creation of a system Of readily
accessible junior colleges, or by other means.
l4. The growing appreciation of the loss to society due
to lack of higher educational opportunities for talented but,
under-privileged girls and boys, will tend to establish a
system of state scholarships which will, by subsidy, provide
for this group the training necessary to secure for society the
contributions which they are equipped to make.
15. The gradual shift of wealth from the form of real and
personal property to that of stocks, bonds, and other intan–
gibles, remune in a preponderance of the latter, demands 8.
revision of the taxation system of the Commonwealth which will
distribute equitably the cost of public education and establish
adequate and stable sources of revenue. - -
16. The continued concentration of wealth in certain areas
and the principle of arl equitable distribution of the cost of.
free public service will necessitate the assumption by the
commonwealth of a much larger share of the cost of public
education.
17. An equitable distribution of the local cost of public
education will necessitate a state—wide system of uniform tax-
assessment rates, a uniform maximum school law if and as re-
sured to maintain the mandated foundation program of education
in an school districts, supplemented by state aid if and as
needed to maintain that program.
# 625
19. Financial stringency and over-crowding in public
schools will tend to introduce the four-quarter plan of public
education with controlled vacations of pupils, automatically
increasing our present school—building capacity approximately
30 per cent.
19. Current economic stress and increasing demands for
greater efficiency in administration will tend to stimulate
the study of educational needs and planning, and will tend to
effect the enlistment of all public educational agencies and
facilities in a coordinated and more efficient program of public
education for the Commonwealth.
l-
2.
7.
8.
MAJOR OBJECTIVES
- CONSTITUTING
A TEN YEAR PROGRAM OF EDUCATION
A larger local unit of school administration.
Greater differentiation and enrichment of high school
courses and curricula.
Individualized directed study and integration as the
bases of teaching methods and technique.
Uniform required qualifications and minimum salary
schedules for all public school teachers.
Tenure of office for public school teachers.
Greater equalization of educational opportunity
within the limits of a mandated foundation program,
for all regardless of age, economic circumstance,
physical handicaps, or geographical location.
A scientific and enlarged program of educational
counselling and vocational guidance.
The utilization of the four-quarter plan, with con-
trolled vacations, to increase the capacity of
School buildings.
G25
9. Increased educational opportunities for high school
graduates. -
lo. A more effective assimilation of foreign-born residents.
ll. The eradication of illiteracy.
12. State subsidy of higher educational opportunities
for talented but under-privileged high school graduates.
13. Social control through a planned program of directed
recreation for Pennsylvania's youth.
14. An equitable distribution of the local cost of
public schools.
15. Tax revision with uniform assessment rates and
uniform maximum required school tax levies, and
providing adequate and stable sources of school
re'Wellulee -
16. State aid of public schools, if and as needed,
based on ability to pay.
17. A more effective coordination of existing educa-
tional agencies and facilities •
Gonclusion
In the foregoing, an effort has been made to indicate as
briefly as possible the more urgent problems only which now
confront public education in Pennsylvania, and to summarize
those major objectives only upon which there is now, for the
greater part, general agreement. Many related aspects of local
and State school administration and finance are now in the
process of being studied for inclusion in the final report.
The increased cost of transportation of pupils involved
in the proposed larger local unit of school administration; the
present demand for teachers in the various fields and subjects
as indicated by the actual current employment of such teachers;
627
ways and means of effecting an equitable adjustment of the
present bonded indebtedness of the different school districts
which would form a larger school district; what number of
pupils should constitute the proposed teaching-unit, what unit
sum of State aid should constitute the proposed teaching-unit
quota, and what differentiation, if any, should be made to
apply to varying population and school enrollment, - these, and
many other issues having a direct bearing upon the policies
and provisions of State planning and development, should have
careful study.
In some respects, however, present evidence is unmistak-
able. For the greater part, our smaller school district
represents poorer school building facilities, imsevate equip-
ment, ineffective supervision, and inefficient organizati n due
to small school and class enrollments. Paralleling these de-
ficiencies are higher instructional cost per pupil and corres-
ponding losses, for which an increased State aid is allowed.
It seems obvious that the reorganization of our present
system into larger local units of school administration, and
a complete revision of our State aid policies are imperative.
other proposals submitted in this report are largely dependent
upon these adjustments as first and basic steps. Through them
Pennsylvania can secure for itself a better educational service
at the same cost, or an equivalent educational service at a
lower cost.
It is doubtful whether the Commonwealth can justify a
continuance of its smaller local units of school administration
and the consequent excessive price paid for a relatively
inferior public education service.
629
should be sufficiently small to assure a district's having credit
for supervisors and teachers of special subjects such as music, art, and
vocational education. The desire to reduce the tax load on real
estate is growings- Demands for additional State appropriations
for education are increasing. If our children are not to be denied
their constitutional right to an education, there must be a revision
of our system and sources of school support.
630
APPENDIX
Chronological Development,
of Education in Pennsylvania
l681 – Penn's Charter provided for a committee on education
"that youth may be successively trained up in virtue and
useful knowledge and arts," — Permanent universal
education.
1685 – Seeond Colonial Assembly provided for universal
compulsory education in elementary subjects. –
Compulsory education. -
1776 – New State Constitution stated that "a school or schools
shall be established in each county by the Legislature." —
State responsibility for creation of educational
opportunities.
1786 – Appropriation for Dickinson College and a provision
for a fund for the endowment of public schools. –
State support of public education and state aid of
leadership training.
1802 – 1804 – 1809 – "Pauper school acts" provided a limited
amount of free education for children officially
labeled as paupers. — The inauguration of free public
instruction for under—privileged classes.
1824 – First free public school act. Repealed in 1826 before
being put into effect. -
1854 – A second free public school act establishing a free
public school system with the Secretary of the
Commonwealth as Superintendent of Common Schools. –
Inauguration of free public education for all.
1856 – Authority granted Philadelphia to establish a high
school. — The beginning of free public high schools
in Pennsylvania.
1858 — Law providing definite state aid to academies and
colleges. – Crystallization of principle of state
aid of education.
631
l849 –
1854
1857
1873
1887 -
1893 –
1895 –
1901 –
Teachers certificates first required; age limit of
children raised from 4 to 5 years; and minimum school
térm increased from 3 months to 4 months. –
State control of public education.
Act of 1854. Established school district, system and
county superintendencies; specified duties of school
directors; and repealed provision of state aid to
denominational common schools. - Further development
of policies as to state responsibility and state
prerogatives.
Provision for the establishment of state—aided Normal
Schools. – Inauguration of state responsibility for
teacher training.
Constitution of 1875. Legislative stipulation that
"the General Assembly shall provide for the maintenance
and support of a thorough and efficient system of
public schools, wherein all the children of this
Commonwealth above the age of six years, may be
educated and shall, appropriate at least one million
dollars each year for that purpose." – Recognition
of state responsibility for maintenance and support
of an efficient public education system for all
children.
Legislation regarding high schools. - Further
recognition of high schools as integral part of State
Program of Free Public Instruction.
Extension of privilege of maintaining high schools to
all boroughs of five thousand or more population. —
Further development of free public high school
education.
First compulsory attendance law. - Definite inauguration
of policy of required foundation program of education
for all.
Compulsory attendance required for children from eight
to sixteen years of age, with certain exceptions for
thirteen to sixteen-year age group. - Increase in
compulsory school age.
632
1903 – First minimum salary law. Further state control of
1905
1911
1911
l91l
l92l
1925
educational interests of its children.
High School Act requiring districts not maintaining
a high school to pay high school tuition of its
pupils in another district. - Equalization of high
school educational opportunity.
Code of 1911. Legislation regarding district
organization, certification and salaries of teachers,
length of school term, high school education,
taxation, and other related matters. — Aggressive
exercise of established state responsibilities and
prerogatives. -
Provision for the purchase of Normal Schools by the
State. — Transition from partial state responsibility
in teacher training to complete control of teacher-
training functions and institutions.
Legislation exempting children having completed six
grades of public school work and from fourteen to
sixteen years by work permits only. - Established
exception to blanket compulsory school attendance.
The Edmonds Act. Provided state aid for all school
districts on bases of population and ability to pay
contingent upon maintenance of certain minimum
standards. - Further recognition of state -
responsibility for a mandated foundation program
of education for all of its children, and acceptance
of the principle of ability—to-pay.
Legislation regarding extension schools and the
education of handicapped children making such schools
and classes an integral part of the state program
of free public instruction. – Established the right
of all residents to the current foundation program
of free public education, regardless of age, economic
circumstance, physical handicaps, or geographical
location, and made instruction of foreign-born ,
residents in English and citizenship an integral part
of state program of free public education.
633
1927 – Legislation permitting the use of public school
buildings for the maintenance of junior colleges. –
Recognized growing need for expansion of public
education program.
1931 — Permissive legislation regarding the maintenance of
kindergartens as a part of the public education
program. – Recognized the interest of communities in
the well-being of children below the school
entrance age of six years.
1935 – Legislation appropriating special aid to financially
distressed school districts. - Further recognition of
the responsibility of the State for the maintenance
of a mandated foundation program.
634
A PLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA LIBRARIES*
Even at the peak of prosperity, one-third of the citizens of
Pennsylvania were without local library service. The Keystone
State ranks, second in population, second in wealth, second in in-
dustrial output, but occupies a much lower rank in its provision
of public libraries for its people •
Careful surveys showed that 3,500,000 Pennsylvanians had no
access to a public library. Twenty-three communities out of
sixty-seven with 10,000 to 25,000 inhabitants, and fifty-four
towns out of lo3 of 5,000 to lo,000 inhabitants were without lib-
raries. The rural districts had almost no service, and five
Small counties were found without a single library. In many
others the only existing agencies were so small and their funds
so inadequate that they were libraries in name only.
When millions of Pennsylvanians were deprived of their
daily occupations by the depression, nearly a million of them
turned to these struggling libraries. Some came for books which
Would help them prepare for a different type of work, some to ad-
Vance their education, while the compelling need of diversion
he material for this report and the points of view expressed
are those of the State Planning Committee of the Pennsylvania
State Library Association. This Committee consists of Miss Gert-
rude MacKinney, director of the State Library, Harrisburg, chair-
man, and the following eminent librarians: C. Seymour Thompson,
University of Pennsylvania; Herbert B. Anstaett, Franklin &
Marshall College; Miss M.E. Crocker, Annie Halenbake Ross Library;
Professor William W. Dennis, the Pennsylvania State College; Miss
Susan Himmelwright, B.F. Jones Memorial Library; Carl W. Hull,
Dubois Public Library; Alfred D. Keator, Reading Public Library;
Willard P. Lewis, The Pennsylvania State College; Dr. Ralph Munn,
Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh; Miss Isabel McC. Turner, Allentown
Free Library; Miss Florence A. Watts, Osterhout Free Library; Miss
Susanne Young, Pennsylvania State Library. - -
635
brought others.
During the period between l929 and l933 the number of library
borrowers increased 20 per cent, and the number of books borrowed
grew by 24 per cent.
In the face of this enormous growth in demand, library funds
were cut an average of 23 per cente Salaries, heat and light
took most of the funds, and expenditures for books dropped to an
average of six cents per year per inhabitant--the price of two or
three newspapers. Unable to purchase new books, or to replace
old ones as they wore out, librarians watched their collections
dwindle under excessive use. Besides the depletion of book
stocks, the placing of many libraries on a part-time basis of
opening, and the entire closing of others, featured the depress-
ion years. Increased demand and decreased funds tell the whole
story of libraries during this period.
With the present trend toward shortening hours of labor and
spreading work, a greater margin of leisure is assured. Thus a
continued and even increased demand for library service seems
certaine. Other trends which will enhance the need of the edu-
cational services of libraries are becoming known. With reduced
birth rates, adults will comprise a much larger proportion of the
population; with an over supply of labor, young men and women will
probably enter industry at an older age and thus have more time
for study and readings
- The trend of the times thus demands the diffusion of know-
ledge among adults and the wholesome recreational reading which
636
GROWTH IN HOME USE EAC H F |G U R E = | M | LLION
OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES Ü
PEN NSYLVAN IA

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can best be supplied by public libraries • sconomy demands that
library service be developed with the least possible burden upon
the taxpayer. With a view to planning the future expension of
Pennsylvania's library facilities in a way which will bring both
economy and efficiency, the following questions must be considered.
Practically all of our public libraries are organized for
service to town units, and almost all of our larger public li-
braries are now controlled and financed by cities or towns. Some
of the disadvantages of this system are: (a) small cities and
towns have low assessed valuations and cannot raise a sufficient
fund from a reasonable tax levy, (b) suburban areas are likely
to use the city library without contributing to its support, and
(c) the small towns and rural areas are left without service.
The organization of libraries on a county-wide basis was
the first answer to these problems, but it has not been widely
adopted. Although we have had a county library law since 1917,
only six counties have organized libraries and none of them is
given adequate support. The trend now appears to be against
county governments; their elimination or the combining of
counties to make larger units is advocated. Terms of endow-
ments, charters, and local preference will probably always re-
strict some libraries as to their present forms of organization.
Wherever possible, however, the libraries of the future should
certainly be planned to serve an area which is at least larger
than the city or town. Whether it be a newly designated region,
637
a combination of counties, or the single county, is a question
which IIeeds close study. The effort must be to find a unit of
administration which is large enough to yield adequate support
from a reasonable levy, yet small enough to permit localized
supervision and service.
Finances are of course the crux of the whole problem. In
Pennsylvania the public library's revenue comes from the general
property tax as levied by municipal councils or boards of edu-
cation. It is no secret that taxes upon real estate have about
reached the point of diminishing returns - higher levies might
result only in greater delinquency.
In 1931, Pennsylvania recognized its obligations to help in
the support of public libraries when the Legislature enacted a
bill giving State aid to county libraries in the less populous
counties • This wise principle must be extended to give much
more generous aid to all public libraries • The basis upon which
State aid is given to schools, that is, in inverse ratio to the
community's own ability to raise funds, is perhaps the fairest
method upon which State aid can be apportioned. Any scheme of
State aid should preserve to the community such freedom of
action in controlling the library as will incite local interest,
initiative and pride.
The Federal government's interest and support is now being
extended to many activities which were formerly thought to be out-
side its scope. The American Library Association has asked the
Federal government to recognize the inevitable inequalities in
638
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THE LIBRARY COMES HOME TO THE PEOPLE
HAS DOUBLED TS VAt UE TO
THE COMMUNITY BY ACCEPT - .# County BRANCH is
lºw G TH E A D OF COUNTYW 1 DE OF TEN Low IN cost, AND
SERV CE. SMALL IN SL2[E YET STRONG
& IN SERV ICE AND GREAT IN
IN FLU & N.C.E.
5,573.2°ºs Su_j -
B t; - [T] To the UN ion School. As A BRANCH
* % */ LibRARY IN A County Library SYSTEM
3:35 2%|2% COME EAGER ºo R ROW ERS OF BOOK3
, , | * * FROM M | L:S AROUND ,
&- º *** , , ºf SU
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-*.
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THE County Librari AN comes an INolno witH
HER FRESH Sū PPLIES OF GOOO ... OokS FOR T & E - * * *
BRANCH Lis RARY AND THE SCHoou, AND of PER1NG |*|†: ſh
QX PERT Aſſºv IC& AN ID A$$ ISTANCE TO TH J LOGAL. Room School is =-zººlººl.c
Ltº RARIANS on H &R Route . FoRTuin Art: THAT º • * * *-
HAs A Count Y .
~ *. *-ºs.
- |-- - *N-. = -\lu- *
-- -
— — ſº- - V/~ • * WHY 5Houllo THE FARM House
––– a 3 B& OEN i EO THE GOOD BOOKS W H CH
==>|<ºpagal- ºf- ARE FREE ro ALL in the city 7
: -
Sº, ---
X: .2 § Sº,
--~~ x-rvi v
------" -
TH is VI LLAGE Liara RY
THE STORE ON THE MAN STREET
MAY ALSO BE A LIBRARY STATION.
THE RURAL Post Offic E
|MAY ALSO SERVE THE PURPOSE
of A D STR tº UT't NiG STAT ON FOR
LIBRARY Books.
3 *n_- =C.
C ~ THE Town HALL, some -
TIMES PROVIDING, S PACE FOR
A BRANCH LIBRARY, SOME -
Tim LS THE HEADQUARTERS
of A Country L-1BRARY SYSTEM .
Lic RARY TO DE PEN ID ON FOR Constra NT
SUPPLIES OF GOOD READING .
FIGURE NO. 4 |
#



















library facilities in the several states, due to inequalities of
taxable resources, and provide financial aid for libraries.
From all sources, local, State, and Federal, Pennsylvania
libraries must be assured of an income of not less than $l per
year per inhabitant. This amount, determined after a careful
study by the American Library Association, is based upon the
purchasing power of a lºC dollar and is to be considered as a
reasonable minimum.
With this income, Pennsylvania could cover the bare spots
on its library map, ana wins real life to the existing libraries
which are unable to meet the heavy demands for service now being
made.
No system of public libraries can operate successfully with-
out a strong State Library to supplement and coordinate its
Services. In addition to its function as a great reference and
repository library, the State Library must be prepared to aid in
organizing and counselling local libraries, and acting as a clear-
ing house for inter-library loans •
Satisfactory library service can be attained only through a
Well-trained professional personnel. To insure this high calibre
of personal service, certification of librarians, based on edu-
cation and experience, must be provided.
The libraries of our educational institutions must be includ-
ed in any study of the book facilities of Pennsylvania. Provision
of public school libraries is the direct responsibility of local
boards of education, and for their guidance the Department of
639
Public Instruction has devised certain standards of operation. Ef-
ficiency and economy demand, the closest cooperation between public
and school libraries • Public authorities are not responsible for
the development of most of our university and college libraries,
but their importance as centers of research and study should be
recognized.
640
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PER CAPITA RECEI PTS - 200 LIBRARIES
- PEN NSYLVANIA
STATISTICs TAKEN FROM REPORTs of 200 PUBLIC LIBRARIES.

19 °ſo
$ too PER CAP (TA \
AND OVER.
62 °ſo
o to 50¢ PER capita
*Q | 9 °/o
5o Ç To $1.oo
P E R C A P ITA
W.]
PEN NA. STATE L J B RARY F1GURE NO. 43
PUBLIC SOCIAL WELFARE
Many grave problems facing the Commonwealth must be solved
by the Department of Welfare. The care of mental defectives,
in and out of the State's mental hospitals; child welfare, with
its problems of the development of family service and study of
the needs of a child away from the home; and the seemingly end-
less questions concerning social security - the care of the
aged, the blind, the deaf, the chronically ill, as well as
correctional matters, poor relief and mothers' assistance, are
among the most importante
In the field of social service activities, population
changes are vital in affecting policies of administration in
coping with existing needs and in planning for the future,
Many of them have been anticipated by the Pennsylvania Depart-
ment of Welfare, as is evidenced by old age and blind pensions •
mothers' assistance, improved institutional and clinical ser-
vice, new methods of poor relief, community service for better-
ing family life, and intelligent planning for decreasing the
tendency to follow crime which accompanies mass-livings
The slowing up of population growth will not mean, for
some time, a lessening of social welfare activities • Rather
* Material from the Department of Welfare, with population in-
formation prepared by F. Herbert Cooper; mental health section
by William C. Sandy, M.D., director, Bureau of Mental Health;
child welfare section by Mary S. Labaree, assistant director,
Bureau of Community Work; social services by Helen Glenn Tyson,
director, Bureau of Community Work; correctional by Dr. B. L.
Scott, director of the Bureau of Corrections and probation by
Mrse Gertrude Marvin Williams, Secretary, Probation Committee e
64l
it is an opportunity to méet existing needs and to formulate
a plan for a more thorough treatment of state-wide welfare
problems, such as is here suggested by assembling reports made
to the Secretary of Welfare by the experts in that Department.
MENTAL, HEALTH PROGRAM
(Some Special Factors and Features in a Long-time Plan.)
A long-range plan for meeting the problems presented by
mental patients in Pennsylvania involves a number of special
considerations. Included are population trends, already dealt
with in this report, and the resultant need for modifying
hospital districts from time to time; the effect of certain
policies, such as the State's attitude on complete State care
for the mentally ill; and the ever present but increasingly
difficult budgetary situation.
Mental niness
In the field of the mentally ill, a distinct trend toward
complete State care has developed. This is largely the result.
Of high standards of treatment and care afforded by the State
mental hospitals as contrasted with the more limited facilities
of the county institutions, which are mora or less inadequate
and are becoming an insupportable burden to the counties.
The ten-year building program of 1927 now requires a re-
study based upon factors and trends which were not wholly
anticipated. Certain districts of the State show remarkable
diminution in population, others unexpected increases. Are
642
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these changes due to temporary shifts in population, because of
economic stress, or to more or less permanent movements which
will necessitate a modification of hospital districts? With
the probable gradual adoption of complete State care and the
designation of suitable County institutions as new State cen-
ters, the hospital districts will then have to be changed.
Overcrowding in the State hospitals is again becoming a
serious problem. It was largely being eliminated by the com-
prehensive building program of 1927, which has been discon-
tinued in recent years. No district is wholly free from
overcrowding, but the Southeast, complicated by the deplorable
conditions at the Philadelphia Hospital for Mental Diseases at
Byberry, the Torrance district serving the West and the Warren
district serving the Northwest, are especially serious. The
needed expansion of hospital facilities if delayed too long,
will force the abandonment of the creditable policy of re-
ceiving all mental patients needing hospital treatment and
care. It may also restrict admissions to those who are
troublesome in the community. In the interests of all mental
patients, such a backward step must not be considered.
Long-time Planning to Relieve Hospital Overcrowding
Relief from overcrowding in institutions and preventing
the development of such deplorable conditions can be brought.
about only by long-time planning and a comprehensive con-
struction program. Such a program must take into consideration
not only the needs of a single institution as such, but also
643
its requirements in relation to the State as a whole.
Certain trends and contemplated policies encourage op-
timism as to the future. A growing adequacy in psychiatric
social work has resulted in greatly increasing the number of
State mental hospital patients on parole and the ultimate
recoveries. The possibilities in this field are still incom-
pletely utilized in a number of hospitals not having an ade-
quate staff of social workers.
The boarding out of suitable mental patients in carefully
selected private homes is under consideration. If the
necessary amendments to the mental health law, now being
studied, are finally enacted, this may result ultimately in
provisions for hundreds of patients in the community who Y1OW
have to be maintained in hospitals. The process will be a
slow one, however, with no immediate prospect of relief in this
manner for the overcrowding of institutions.
With the mental hospitals so crowded, general hospitals,
which often have a large percentage of unoccupied beds, should
realize their opportunity and responsibility in respect to
mental patients. General hospitals, if provided with
psychiatric consultants and nurses with mental hospital ex-
perience should be prepared at least to admit for observation
patients pending commitment and for the intensive study and
treatment of selected cases, probably of short duration.
The state mental hospitals housed on May 31, 1934, 130l
patients seventy years of age or overe Those seniles who may
644
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have recovered sufficiently from active psychotic symptoms or
who have deteriorated into a quiet inactive status, should be
studied as possibly suitable for return to county homes, or to
their own homes supported through the old age pension system."
Mental Clinics offer the most hopeful opportunity for
prevention. The policy of stimulating the establishment and
conducting of more general mental clinics by the hospitals in
their districts should result in decreasing the institution-
alization of borderline cases and in assisting paroled patients
to remain in the community. The objective of a child guidance
clinic in each hospital district, the policy of the Bureau of
Mental Health, when attained, should result in saving many
children from future difficulties, and in the general education
of the public in the principles of mental health.
Hental Peficiency
In the field of mental deficiency, it is now recognized
that institutionalization of all cases is not only impossible
because of the numbers, but also unnecessary if adequate edu-
cational facilities and community supervision are provided.
In Pennsylvania with only 5406 State institution beds and a
waiting list of more than 2600, need for at least twice the
number of institutional beds is estimated. When adequate
special class facilities are provided in the public schools,
the trend will be toward more and more high grade mental de-
fectives remaining in the community.
In 1927, the mental health law was amended to permit the
645
colonization of selected Bental detectives, but owing to the
limitations of the appropriation act, it has never been tried.
In a neighboring state, under similar comâitions, the capacity
of one institution was ultimately increased by 1,000 beds, with
advantage to the patients concerned and at a great saving of
expenses.
While sterilization is by no means the panacea which its
most sanguine advocates believe, yet it should be considered
at least in selected cases of mental deficiency. Sterilization
would be especially useful in those cases sufficiently trained
to return to the community but who have to be retained in in-
stitutions because of an obvious danger of reproduction of
their kind •
The proposed Cumberland Walley Institution for Mental
Defectives (Male Defective Delinquanta) will relieve penal
and correctional institutions. It will also provide accommoda-
tions for the desirable long-time supervision of delinquents
of low mentality for whom there are at present no suitable
places.
The Selinsgrove Colony for Epileptics, still in the de-
velopmental stage, has accommodations for only about 400 adult
male patients. The colony should be more rapidly expanded,
with facilities also for women and children, thus making it
possible to receive for treatment all classes of •rurass,
and relieve the other institutions for mental patients of some
2,000 cases.
646
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Finally, no comprehensive program for mental patients will
be complete without organized research activities. The pro-
posed western state Psychiatric Hospital, for which a site has
been donated by the University of Pittsburgh, will be the
center of psychiatric inspiration for the State, a place for
the intensive study and treatment of selected cases and for the
education of physicians; nurses and others in the treatment of
mental illness. With the increasing number of patients and
mounting costs, the Commonwealth cannot afford to neglect
facilities for an organized effort to discover more adequate
methods of prevention and cure.
CHILD WELFARE
The census of dependent and neglected children taken by
U. S. Bureau of Census as of December 31, 1933, shows that
29,737 Pennsylvania children were cared for away from their own
homes on that date. Tabulations now being made are bringing
out. interesting facts about these children. They will show,
for instance, how many are supported in whole or in part from
public funds; how many children of widows are being cared for
away from their mothers despite state and county appropriations
for mothers' assistance; how long children have been under
care; the counties where they now are compared with the
counties from which they came •
It is hoped that this Federal Census will help the Penn-
sylvania Department of Welfare to plan better social statistics
v. 647
in the children's field and to devise a means for bringing
the census findings to the attention of the public.
Family Service
9are of Child away from Home
The great number of children cared for away frºm their
homes emphasizes the need for a better development of family
service agencies. Adequate relief and social case work that
helps to solve fundamental problems of family life and in-
dividual maladjustment would reduce the institutional and
foster home load of children now apparently in need of special
care. Already the wide spread and fairly well coordinated pro-
gräm of federal and state unemployment relief is holding many
families together that might have broken down. We need more
definite data on the relationship of family service - public
and private - to the care of children. We need to know the
real effect, especially in those communities where there are
adequate-family agencies, of this family care.
The Age 16 - 21 Group.
The problem of those sixteen to twenty-one years old has
hardly been touched. Nowhere is there a real program for them.
Institutions and foster home agencies are overweighted with
these young people because neither they nor the communities
have a plan. Vocational guidance and training is necessary,
Many boys and girls outside of the care of organizations need
direction and help. The falling birth rate and rising age of
children to be cared for should present to children's
648
institutions the need for possible re-drefting of their
programs. The need for changing their policies to meet the
need of older children rather than to continue care of normal
children under twelve years of age should be faced ,
Juvenile Delinquency
The reason for a decrease in juvenile delinquency should
be explored. Is this due to greater leniency on the part of
arresting officers, a desire to economize on the part of county
officials, or an actual decrease?
No. of Family Agencies (private) in Penna. (prior
to '31) and budget
22 Private Family Agencies spent $1,247,350.38
in 1929. (Dept. of Welfare records show 50
Family Societies (private) listed.
No. of child caring agencies (private) in Penna.
(prior to "31) and budget
ll6 child caring agencies, but no record of -
budget available •
No. of counties reporting:
Family Welfare Societies 28
Child Caring Agencies 48
County costs for Family Care
in 1933 $6,493,722
County costs for Child Place-
ment in 1933 - $5,097,760
649
SERVICES AND CARE OF SPECIAL. GROUPS
(Exclusive of Children and Unemployed)
Care of the Aged
Aft present Pennsylvania cffers the following types of care
to dependent aged i
Private sectarian or freternal homes (about 100)
(Fee required in most homes)
State-aided non-sectarian homes for the aged (25)
Fee
Almshouse. (85) (Inadequate care)
Outdoor relief (Inadequate relief)
Private family agencies (Small number of cases)
Old age assistance December 1, 1934
(Strict limitations in law)
The objectives in the care of the aged seem to be:
(1) Insurance system for workers now employed, applicable
to as large a number as possible.
(2) Old age assistance to the present aged, to include a
liberalizing of present law and dropping the age
from 70 to 65 years.
(3) Institutional care for the infirm aged :
(a) State supervision of all private institutions.
(b) Regional public hospital-homes for the aged and
infirm, replacing almshouses; State supervised
and probably supported by State as well as
county funds.
650
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Physically Handicapped
Except for the blind and the workers disabled by accident
in industry, and certain information about crippled children,
very little is known about the physically handicapped. For
example, no State-wide study of the problems of the deaf has
as yet been made. This field, considered as a whole, should be
explored as to prevention, retraining, vocational guidance,
placement and relief . -
The Care of the Chronically Ill
Aside from a few private institutions with prohibitive
waiting lists and admission fees, Pennsylvania offers nothing
in the way of institutional care of the chronically ill except
almshouses. Only five of the eighty-five almshouses may be
defined as hospitalized, with even a minimum of regular medical
and nursing service .
This field should be explored with a survey of the need,
present provisions, and plans for the future.
Assistance to Mothers
Even with the strict limitations of the law granting re-
lief only to widows and wives of men in mental hospitals,
biennial appropriations have never been sufficient to care for
the entire waiting list. The question of liberalizing this
law to include assistance to other dependent families such as
those of men in the penitentiary, or men in State tuberculosis
sanatoria, deserted wives, unmarried mothers, should be con-
sidered. Planning must relate to the plans for county boards
- 651
of welfare.
". Poor Relief
The Poor Relief Study shows the costliness and futility
of maintaining a substratum of relief administered on a lower
level of service and relief grants than is received by groups
such as the widows and th. blind. Poor relief is at present a
-catch-all with no defined field, no clear policies, no stand-
ards. Forty of the eighty-five almshouses could be closed
even without planning for new institutions, provided that the
populations of the other almshouses were analyzed, the able-
bodied given cere in the community and the inmates now in the
forty smaller almshouses boarded in the larger institutions.
Under the plan for county boards of welfare , some of the
injustices of our present relief measures, which maintain
different groups of people at different levels of care, would
be eliminated.
- The Welfare Department would consider no relief measure
adequate that did not coördinate unemployment relief with othér
relief activities. At present, although the lines of ad-
ministration are clearly defined, it becomes daily more evident
that the needs of a family must be considered as a whole and
not on the basis of the need of one or more individuals in
the family e
652
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NoI.Lw&LSINI wow 331-138 dood 3o 3d Al


ADMINISTRATIVE SUBDIVISIONS OF
STATE EMERGENCY RELIE F BOARD e
AREAS EM ERGENCY RELI EF BOARD
O count Y EMERGENCY RELIEF BOARD
F GURE NO. 150

CORRECTIONAL
The last ten years have witnessed many changes in the
field of penology and prison administration. A definite move-
ment is apparent today in the nation away from the old phil-
osophy of imprisonment for punishment to the newer view Of
imprisonment for rehabilitation. This trend, both in policy
and practice, serves to bring out the weakness and, in many
cases, the inadequacy, of the present penal system in Penn-
sylvania •
In the development of any new system, State Industrial
Prison Farms shoula take the place of County prisons, which
in turn should be used for short term prisoners only. While
it is true that a number of Counties are talking of regional
prison ferms, ultimately all of the institutions in which
offenders are housed should be under the jurisdiction of the
State • England, from whom we took our system of county
prisons, has long since abandoned such local institutions, and
all places of confinement are under the central government.
The State could be divided into districts; the present indus-
trial prison farms acquired and new ones planned. The State
would bear the cost of erection, but the maintenance could be
pro-rated among the Counties in the districts, depending upon
the number of prisoners committed from the Counties. Such a
system would provide for better management, uniform regula-
tions, more adequate standards for both housing and program,
653.
and standarized parole procedure •
State Prisons
The Eastern State Penitentiary and Western State Peniten-
tiary are the oldest State penitentiaries in Pennsylvania.
The New Eastern Penitentiary at Graterford and the Rock-
view Prison Farm at Rockview are their annexes. They have met
an essential need since fastern State Penitentiary is in a
residential and small business section of the city; the Western
State Penitentiary is in a manufacturing area • Neither of the
old institutions has proper facilities nor the necessary ground
for expansion or recreational space necessary for the newer pro-
gram.
The original plan at Graterford called for a housing ca-
pacity of 3,200 inmates. A prison of this size is not practic-
able, and accordingly, plans have been changed so that not more
than 2,000 inmates are to be housed there. Even this is too:
large a number unless the prison population is composed of Se-
leeted individuals. It is necessary to plan for another prison
to serve the eastern section of Pennsylvania and to replace the
old Cherry Hill institution in Philadelphia. The new institution
should be located on a farm tract away from the city but access-
ible to it. It should be for a population of not more than l,500
and preferably not more than l, 200.
A farm tract near Pittsburgh should be obtained for the
Western State Penitentiary, and an institution of medium security
erected providing for the proper handling of not more than 1,500
inmates and preferably l,200.
.654
Industrial School
The Pennsylvania Industrial School at Huntingdon was built
as a pºnitentiary to serve the central part of the State, but
was later turned into a State Reformatory. The structure is
poorly adapted for the purposes of an Industrial School, but
might well serve as a prison of medium security for 1,000 or
l,200 inmates. A farm tract should be secured on which could
be erected inexpensive, modern type buildings which would pro-
vide for a real Industrial School for offenders between the
ages of fifteen and twenty-five. This would complete a classi-
fication plan of penal institutions for males, with the €2Xee
ception of one for male defective delinquents which the state
has long planned to build on the ground owned by the Common-
wealth near New Cumberland. Such an institution is badly
needed, as there is a group in each of the present existing
penal institutions which probably should be housed in a sep-
arate institution for male defective delinquents. These groups
constitute the troublesome individuals in any normal prison
population as far as administration and program are concerned,
If such changes as here advocated were made, Pennsylvania
would have minimum, medium and maximum secure prisons, adequate
in capacity to serve the Commonwealth for the next fifty years.
In addition, the facilities would be such that the newer and
modern conceptions of prison administration and penology could
be put into effect under trained leadership.
655.
- County Prisons and Jails
Perhaps the outstanding weakness in the penal system, not
only in Pennsylvania, but throughout the nation, is to be found
in county prisons and mustral jails. For years students of
renology and criminology have declared these local institutions
to be mere schools of crime. -
For the year ending Dec • 31, 1932, the sixty-nine county
penal institutions cost the taxpayers of Pennsylvania
$2,652,860.69 for maintenance expenses only. This figure does
not include the maintenance cost of * 702 city, borough, and
township lock-ups for which no reliable figures are available.
On any given day nearly nine-tenths of the penal population
of the State is to be found in these county prisons and local
jails. By every measuring stick these places are failures;
they neither offer the protection that society demands nor do
they have any program of rehabilitation.
Prison–Farms
As a substitute for existing county prisons aud local
lock-ups, thoughtful citizens and students of penology have
recommended the Industrial Prison Farm. This type of institu-
tion offers hopeful prospects for rehabilitation of the
individual and is cheaper to maintain •
Most of the county prisons in Pennsylvania were built
years ago on limited tracts of ground. They are generally
found in congested areas in County seat towns, their buildings
unsuited for modern sanitary equipment, and with no opportunity
656
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for modern penal practices. Two counties have since built new
institutions known as Industrial Farm Prisons. These are
modern buildings, erected on tracts of ground of sufficient
size to offer opportunity for farming and truck gardening,
dairying and the raising of stock and poultry. In addition,
there are a number of work shops for inmates who are unable to
do outdoor work. Many of the larger counties in the State are
in need of similar institutions, which should not exceed l,000
in capacity and preferably might be for a population of con-
siderably less. -
Many of the smaller counties are not in a position to
undertake such a project by themselves, but a State law pro-
vides for the joint construction by any wo or more counties
of an Industrial Farm and Workhouse. A considerable part of
the upkeep could be met by the raising of farm and truck pro-
duce, stock and poultry, while the work shops could turn out
articles for the use of inmates and those of other institutions
maintained by the countiess
Women Offenders
Apparently there has been no State planning for Women
offenderse Thousands pass through the Courts of Pennsylvania,
both Courts of Record and those of the minor judiciary, but
there is no well defined program, for handling their cases.
Many are warned to leave town; others are given sentences of
such short duration that no health or rehabilitation program
can be made. The present penal institutions, with few ex-
65?
ceptions, have no adequate facilities for handling women.
There is no uniformity of policy in regard to commitments or
of disposition of their cases. Many women are found in the
larger county prisons who have served scores of short sentences
and who are released only to be returned after a short spell
of freedome
In planning a definite program for handling erring women,
a survey should be made of the entire State as to their number,
type and the social ****. In some cases, sentences
should be longer. In others, supervised probation might be
used. But the first and paramount heed is an accurate know-
ledge of the wer, background and needs. -
For the year ending Dec. 31, 1933, the total cost of main-
taining the sixty-nine county penal institutions in Pennsyl-
vania was $2,589,313.92, which sum was paid entirely by the
Counties. For the year ending May 31, 1934, the cost of
running the four State penal and correctional institutions was
$2,394,355.54. A portion of this expense was borne by the
Counties according to the number of commitments; the rºunder
came direct from State appropriations. The combined cost to
the taxpayer of both State and County, penal institutions is
$4,983,669.46.
PROBATION
Probation is important as a crime preventive measure.
Properly administered, it prevents : chances of offenders de-
veloping into criminals through the undesirable associations
658
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of prison and reform schools; unnecessary costs to taxpayers
of maintaining additional inmates of prisons and correstion
schools; loss to society at large through anti-social acts of
potential criminals.
A survey prepared for the Pennsylvania Committee on Pro-
bation by the Division of Research and Statistics of the De-
partment of Welfare, shows among other things that the use Of
probation in Pennsylvania is confined to the larger Counties,
whereas it should embrace all Counties of the State. It also
shows a discouraging failure to understand or apply the real
principles underlying probation even in most of the Counties
which go through the form of using it.
- In any future program the first essential should be a
general educational campaign to remind courts, public officers
and the public in general of the existence of probation and to
teach them how to put it into practice.
The second essential should be to secure the coöperation
of the Bench, as the efficiency of a State probation system is
absolutely dependent upon whether Judges are willing to use the
system and how intelligently they use it.
The third and no less important essential should be to es-
tablish rigid standards and qualifications for appointment of
probation officers,
659
ExPENDITURES FOR PRINCIPAL FORMS OF SOCIAL RELIEF BY PENNSYLVANIA
STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS BY FISCAL YEARS FROM
JUNE 1, 1927 to MAY 31, 1935
` 1929-30 1930–31 1931–32 l932-33 l933-34
Unemployment Relief (1) $ 9,297,829 , $21,910,108 $33,840,952
poor Board Relief (2) 9,517,725 10,710,963 12,483,642 13,340,448 l8,348,271
Mothers' Assistance 2,715,438 2,715,438 3,851,840 3,851,840 , 4, llā,938.*
Weterans." Relief 17,500 17,500 l62,134 l62,134 105,000*
Assistance to the Blind 16,505 l6,505 33,924 33,924 680,000+
Old Age Assistance - 2,000,000*
Wocational Rehabilitation 47,289 43,471 50,756 61,231 74,311
$tate Aid to Home and Hos- 4,816,750 4,816,750 5,587,66l 5,587,661 5,777,868
pitals for Free Service.* -
State Owned Institutions (Free 3,792,097 3,792,097 3,794,778 3,794,778 3,399,892
Service) (3) w -
Tuberculosis Sanitoria and Hos- l,055,126 l,055, 126 809, 182 809, laz 596,500
pensation 185,535 185,535 155,019 155,019 l65,000
School Employees' Retirement" 5,900,000 5,900,000 6,010,000 6,010,000 5,695,000
State Kmployees’ Retirement 878,750 B78,750 870,000 870,000 850,000
Employment Offices 88,147 87,869 99,637 121,477 73,773
TOTAL 29,030,862 30,220,004 43,206,402 56,707,802 70,722,505
(l) The $10,000,000 appropriated by the State under the First Talbot Act and administered by the
- poor boards is included under Unemployment Relief and NOT under Poor Board Relief.
(2) The figures for Poor Board Relief do not include expenditures of local governments for relief
(3) Appropriations less receipts from patients able to pay for service received,
TABLE A
* Appropriations (approximately the same as expenditures)
pital for Children (Indigent)* -
Administration of Workmen's Com-
purposes not made through the poor boards,
Corresponding
*
totals for 1927-28 - $25,683,975, 1928–29 – $29,748,214
(Table by W. C. Plummer, Ph.D.)
The Total Amount of such expenditures is not knowne
;
PLANNING THE REORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC RELIEF
IN PENNSYLVANIA* *
Pennsylvania faces an increasingly complicated problem in
the matter of social relief. Formerly, two main channels, the
county poor boards and private agencies were used, but the
recent tendency has been to earmark State appropriations for
special groups. Nowhere in the field of local government nor
in that of welfare effort is the need for planning more appar-
ente
The Commonwealth has six forms of public relief: Poor
relief, mothers' assistance, veterans' relief, unemployment
relief, pensions for the blind and old age pensions. They are
organized as follows:-
e Poor Relief: This basic form of public assistance was es-
tablished in l682 and approximately l400 separate laws relating
to it are on the statute books of the State • Seven different
forms of organization include:
County unit poor districts with County Com-
missioners acting as Directors of the Poor 22 counties
County unit poor districts with three
. elected and salaried Directors of the
Poor in each county 27
Township, borough, and combination inter-
township-and-borough poor districts l2
Township, borough, and combination dis-
tricts, with certain districts including
parts of two counties 3
*Information essentially from Arthur Dunham, TSecretary, Family
and Child Welfare Division, Public Charities Association of
Pennsylvania and from Mrs. Gertrude Marvin Williams, Depart-
ment of Welfare e
661
City Department of Public Welfare in
Pittsburgh; remainder of Allegheny County
a poor district with three elected
Directors of the Poor l
City and county coterminous; city
Department of Public Welfare, with
six independent poor districts in
certain sections of the city
(Philadelphia) l
County unit poor district with three
unpaid Directors of the Poor appointed
by Court of Quarter Sessions (Erie
County) - l
67 counties
In the 67 counties there are 85 almshouses, 425 poor dis-
tricts, and 966 directors and overseers of the poor. Most of
the poor directors are elected and paid officialso
Mothers' Assistance was established in Pennsylvania by a per-
missive act of the Legislature ** in 1913. It is operative
in 59 counties of the State, in each of which it is adminis-
tered by a board of seven unpaid women trustees appointed by
the Governor for terms of six years. The boards are subject
to supervision by the State Supervisor of the Mothers' Assist-
ance Fund, a member of the staff of the Department of Welfare.
Half of the funds come from the State and half from the coun-
ties.
Weterans' Relief, instituted in 1929, is administered by the
State veterans' Commission and local veterans' organizations
and other cooperating agencies. All funds for veterans' relief
are appropriated by the State.
662
Unemployment Relief, inaugurated in 1932, is administered by
the State Emergency. Relief Board and by its local administra-
tive units. Funds are derived from Federal and State Govern-
ments. The State Emergency Relief Board is composed of five
ex-officio State officials, the Governor, the Lieutenant
Governor, the Auditor General, the State Treasurer, and the
Speaker of the House of Representatives. The local adminis-
tration of unemployment relief is carried out through the
agency of 13 area (inter-county) emergency relief units in-
cluding 41 counties, and 26 county emergency relief units.
Each area and county unit has an unpaid area or county emer-
gency relief board and an executive and staff. Area and county
boards are appointed by and are agents of the State Emergency
Relief Board.
on November 17, 1934, 374,900 cases, including both
families and single residents, were receiving unemployment
relief, either in the form of direct relief or work. They
represented slightly less than 1,500,000 individuals. These
families and single individuals represented a total of about
1,333,256 individuals. Pennsylvania's unemployment relief
population is almost as large as the total population of the
State of Nebraska. It is larger than the total population of
any one of sixteen states of the union.
Blind Pensions went into effect on June 1, 1934, and are ad-
ministered by the mothers' assistance boards in the fifty-nine
counties where mothers' assistance operates and by special
663
boards appointed by the Governor for that purpose in the re-
maining eight counties. The Whole administration is under the
ºperation of the Department of Welfare. All funds for blind
pensions come from the state. The state appropriation for
blind pensions for the biennium 1933-35 is $1,310,000.
Old Age Assistance went into effect on December 1, 1934, and is
administered by mothers' assistance boards where they exist and
by special boards in the remaining counties. The State Depart-
ment of Welfare supervises administration. Funds for relief
through old age assistance are derived from state appropria-
tion, but the administrative expenses will be met by the
county commissioners.
PROBLEMS PRESENTED
In the light of the foregoing facts regarding public re-
lief, the following problems are presented:
l. How can a modern and ºrrective basic public relief
system be substituted for the archaic and generally
extravagant and inefficient system of poor relief?
2. How can the number of separate public relief
agencies be reduced in the interests of simplifying
government and saving the taxpayers' money?
3. How can the maximum economy of relief administration
be attained consistent with humane and adequate relief?
4. What is the most effective form of organization for
a local public relief agency?
664.
5. How can qualified paid personnel be obtained and
retained in public relief and public welfare services?
6. What should be the sources for public relief funds?
7. What should be the relationship between the State
and local public relief agencies? *
8. What should be the relationship between the State
Department of Welfare and the State emergency re-
lief administration?
THE COUNTY WELFARE PLAN,
During the last year a plan of county welfare organization
for Pennsylvania has been proposed, and the enactment of this
plan into law at the 1935 session of the Legislature is now
being advocated by the Public Charities Association of Penn-
sylvania and by many cooperating organizations and groups.
The county welfare plan is essentially a project for con-
solidating and reorganizing the public relief and allied public
welfare services of the State. The five basic principles of
the plan are as follows:
l. Establishment in every county of an appointed county
welfare board of unpaid citizen members.
2. Appointment by the county welfare board of a paid
airestor and staff qualified for public welfare administration.
The director and members of the staff are to be appointed on
the basis of a state civil service merit system •
3. administration by the county welfare board of poor re-
lief, mothers' assistance, old age assistance, blind pensions,
665
public care of dependent and neglected children and (either
immediately or ultimately) unemployment relief.
4. Appropriation of both state and local funds for ad-
ministration by county welfare boards for public relief and
public welfare services.
5. Supervision of county welfare boards by the State De-
partment of Welfare in order to safeguard the administration
of state funds and to develop uniform standards of service
throughout the Commonwealth.
Reasons for the County Welfare Plan
In support of the county welfare plan the following argu-
ments are advanced :
l. It provides a modern and effective public relief system
for the long-time public relief job instead of the
inadequate and ineffective machinery of Poor Reliefs
2. It would reduce the number of public relief ‘agencies
from 531 to a maximum of 67. Sixty-seven county
welfare boards would replace the following existing
public relief agencies: -
Present Public Relief Agencies in Pennsylvania
425 poor boards with 966 members
59 mothers' assistance boards with 413 members
8 boards administering old age
assistance and blind pensions
in counties not having mothers" &.
assistance with 56 members
666
Total:
3.
4.
5.
l3 area emergency relief
boards with 4l members
26 county emergency relief -
boards with l88 members
531 relief boards with l664 members
It would reduce the cost of local government, and
eliminate the duplicative costs involved in maintain-
ing township and borough and inter-municipal poor
districts with the resulting total of 425 poor dis-
tricts in the 67 counties. It would simplify and unify
relief administration and by bringing together in one
organization unit these various forms of relief it
would reduce overhead administration. Above all, it
would yield a greater return for every tax dollar spent
on these public welfare services.
It is a measure of tax reform. It eliminates the sep-
arately levied poor tax and centralizes further taxing
powers in the hands of the county commissioners, thus
reducing the number of separate taxing bodies by some
400. *
It establishes the pattern of an unpaid citizens" .
board--the form of organization which has been success-
ful in mothers' assistance. The board, under the pro-
visions of the law and state regulations would deter-
mine matters of policy and program and would appoint
667
6.
7.
8.
the executive director from persons certified as
eligible under the civil service system.
This plan provides for qualified personnel on the basis
of a civil service merit system. Nothing is more im-
perative in the field of public relief than setting up
a guarantee of the integrity and continuity of tech-
nically qualified service and the absolute divorcing
of public relief personnel from political pressure and
patronage.
It provides for both state and local funds in the ad-
ministration of the long-time relief job. Public
welfare today met be thought of in statewide terms.
Some counties simply do not have the resources to meet
their local needs. The stete is concerned for the wel-
fare of every family within its borders whether the
family lives in a rich county or a poor county. State
funds as well as local funds are required. The prin-
ciple of state equalization funds is as sound in the
field of public welfare as in the field of public edu-
cation.
It meets the need for a simpler, clearer, more compre-
hensive public relief policy. During recent years
there has been developed a process of marking off
different kinds of relief for various types of people
who need relief; that is, widows with dependent
668
children, the aged, the blind, etc. Unfortunately,
even When we have established all these various forms g
of relief, people still slip through the meshes of our
complex relief system and yet must be taken care of
just the same. The primary basis for the giving of
relief is the existence of human need - not the
possession of certain formal requirements of eligibility
as a widow, an aged person, or some other special type
of human being. A simpler, clearer, and more compre-
hensive relief policy implies one single, unified and
well organized public agency to administer reiter in a
county or in a district composed of two or more
counties •
Whatever may be the final decision regarding the county
welfare plan it must be recognized that it is not a partisan or
political proposal but a statesmanlike attempt to formulate a
plan for the more effective organization of public relief and
public welfare services within the state •
While the county welfare plan relates primarily to the re-
organization of local public welfare services, it is obvious
that the adoption of this plan will raise the additional ques-
tion as to what should be the relationship in the future be-
tween the two state organizations which supervise or administer
public relief, that is, the State Department of Welfare and the
State Emergency Relief Board. If long-time public relief
services and unemployment relief services are merged locally
669
a strong case is made for the merger of all state services
relating to dependency. Whether this would mean merely the
merger of the State Department of Welfare and State Emergency
Relief Board as these two organizations now stand, or whether
this would involve some further shifting of organization units
within the State government is a problem of statewide public
welfare planning that deserves the most careful consideration
within the coming months.
6 70
EXPENDITURES FOR PRINCIPAL FORMS OF SOCIAL RELIEF BY PENNSYLVANIA
STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS BY FISCAL YEARS FROM
JUNE 1, 1927 to MAY 31, 1935
1929-30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33 1933-34 l934-35
Unemployment Relief (1) • $ $ 9,297,829 $21,910,108 $33,840,952 $22,306,406* (2)
Poor Board Relief (3) 9,517,725 10,710,963 12,483,642 . 13,340,448 l3,348,271 (4)
Mothers' Assistance 2,715,438 2,715,438 3,851,840 3,851,840 4,115,938* 4,115,938%
Veterans' Relief 17,500 17,500 162,134 l62, 134 105,000+ 105,000+
Assistance to the Blind 16,505 16,505 33,924 33,924 680,000% 680,000+
Old Age Assistance 2,000,000* 2,000, Q00%
Vocational Rehabilitation 47,289 43,471 50,756 6i,231 74,311 (4)
State Aid to Home and Hos- 4,816,750 4,816,750 5,587,661 5,587,661 5,777,868 5,777,868
pitals for Free Service% -
State Owned Institutions (Free 3,792,097 3,792,097 3,794,778 3,794,778 3,399,892 3,399,892
Service) (5)
Tuberculosis Sanitoria and Hos- l,055, 126 1,055; 126'. 809, 182 809, 182 596,500 596,500
pital for Children (Indigent)*
Administration of Workmen's Com- - - -
pensation 185,535 185,535 155,019 155,019 165,000 l65,000
School Employees' Retirement” 5,900,000 5,900,000 6,010,000 6,010,000 5,695,000 5,695,000
State Employees' Retirement 878,750 878,750 870,000 870,000 850,000 850,000+
Rºmployment Offices 88,147 87,869 99,637 121,477 73,773 (4)
TOTAL 29,030,862 30,220,004 43,206,402 56,707,802 70,722,505 45,691,604 (6)
* Appropriations (approximately the . same as expenditures)
(l) The $10,000,000 appropriated by the State under the First Talbot Act and administered by the poor boards is
included under Unemployment Relief and NOT under Poor Board Relief.
(2) The Expenditure for Unemployment Relief for the fiscal year 1934-35 will be larger than the amount indicated, but
the total cannot be estimated in advance.
through the poor boards.
(4) Figures for fiscal year 1934-35 are not yet availalla.
(5) Appropriations less receipts from patients able to pay for services received.
(6) Total incomplete because figures for your Items are not yet available or are incomplete •
Corresponding totals for 1927-28 - $25,683,975, 1928-29 - $29,748,214.
(3) The figures for Poor Board Relief do not include expanditures of local governments for relief purposes not made
The Total Amount of Blºch expenditures is not known.
(Table by W. C. Plummer, Ph.D.)
3.
THE TEN YEAR PROGRAM OF CHILD WELFARE
FOR PENNSYLVANIA+
The Ten Year Program of Child Welfare for Pennsylvania is
a project for promoting the welfare of children usually classi-
fied as dependent, neglected, delinquent or handicapped. These
groups, estimated to have numbered 125,000 children in 1930,
are today much larger because of the widespread economic dis-
tress. The program was developed as the result of three years
of cooperative effort carried on under the leadership of the
Child Welfare Division of the Public Charities Association
of Pennsylvania. Local round tables were first held in 38
counties. Organization of a statewide program committee and a
number of sub-committees followed and recommendations were
evolved which were adopted at a general conference.
The llé recommendations which constitute the plan are
classified as fact finding, educational and legislative. They
relate to the following eleven divisions in the field of child
welfare; Fatherless children, the Mothers' Assistance Fund;
Family aid from public and private agencies; children away from
home (foster care in families and institutions); children be-
fore the courts, (juvenile delinquency); marriage laws and the
child; the deserted family; children of unmarried parents;
crippled children; children with visual handicaps; children
with mental handicaps; hard of hearing children.
* Material from Arthur Dunham, Secretary, Family and Child
Welfare Division, Public Charities Association of Pennsyl-
672.
The makers of the program realized that it was not a com-
plete method for dealing with child welfare. It was limited
in the belief that restrictions were the necessary price of
its effectiveness. Recommendations were classified as primary
or secondary in point of urgency, and in each case the name of
the organization suggested to take the initiative in carrying
the recommendation into effect was submitted a
A sample section of the plan is summarized as follows :
Division: Fatherless Children; The Mothers' Assistance
Fund. Fact Finding : Study the problem of increasing grants
that they may more adequately meet family needs. (State Office,
Mothers' Assistance Fund.). Study further the question of
where responsibility should be placed for the care of other
types of dependent children not now included under the liothers'
Assistance Fund law. (Child Welfare Division, Public Charities
Association of Pennsylvania.) Study further the need for re-
vised equity ruling. (State Office, Mothers' Assistance Fund.)
Education : Conduct continuous publicity to inform the public.
of the need for greater financial support and further legis-
lation. (State Office, Hothers' Assistance Fund designated to
call together a group of Trustees to organize a statewide com-
mittee of trustees and others.) Legislation : Secure an ade-
quate State appropriation to clear the waiting list. (State-
wide Committee noted under Education, ) Extend the law to in-
clude the family where the father has been declared legally
dead. (State Office, Mothers' Assistance Fund.)
633
Similarly, the recommendations for the section headed:
"Children away from Home; Foster Care in Families and Institu-
tions" are grouped in three classifications. Basic principles
are set forth as: l . Emphasizing the "oneness" of all child
caring work, the single objective being the development of the
personality of the individual child. 2. Stress the preserva-
tion of family life and the need of all children for normal
family relationships.
High lights of the Program
Some of the major objectives of the Ten Year Program Es
a whole may be summarized as follows:
Securing a state appropriation for the Mothers'
Assistance Fund sufficient to clear up the waiting
list of 2500 eligible mothers who can receive no
grants at present because of lack of funds •
Employment of trained welfare workers and the
giving of constructive family service by directors
of the poor.
Increasing the effectiveness of the service of
juvenile courts; raising the juvenile court age to
eighteen; modifying the court's jurisdiction; and
establishing a state probation bureau.
Development of the spirit and service of domestic-
relations courts in the present courts; more effec-
tive handling of the problem of desertion, through
skilled probation service and individualized treat-
674
ment based on careful analysis of each case.
Study of the problem of hasty marriages and
proof of age in obtaining marriage licenses.
Securing legislation giving the State Depart-
ment of Welfare a check on the incorporation of
new welfare agencies •
Study of the laws relating to illegitimacy;
and education regarding the care of the unmarried
mother and her child.
Securing the fullest possible measure of oppor-
tunity, education, and training for physically and
mentally handicapped children.
A coordinated state-wide program for crippled
children, covering the location of cripples, ex-
amination and treatment, care, education, vocational
training, and employment .
A program for visually handicapped children,
including state-wide registration, medical ex-
amination and treatment, education and training,
vocational guidance, and placement.
Strengthening of public schools; mental
clinics, and institutions to bring about a unified
program in behalf of problem children and those who
are mentally ill or mentally defective •
. 675
SOME THINGS WHICH BAVE BEEN ACCOMPLISHED
A State-wide Committee on Mothers' Assistance was or—
ganized in 1931 to act as an unofficial planning group in this
field and as a body to secure the adoption of needed mothers'
assistance legislation. Through the efforts of this committee
and other cooperating groups, the State's biennial appropriation
for mothers' assistance has been raised from $2,750,000 to
$4,115,938.
A plan for the development of county welfare boards in
Pennsylvania has been formulated and a state-wide campaign is
now in progress to obtain the adoption of this plan at the 1935
session of the Legislature.
The powers of the State Department of Welfare over the
incorporation of private welfare agencies have been strength-
ened.
A new juvenile court code has been enacted and the first
separately organized juvenile court in Jennsylvania established
in Allegheny County.
Progress has been made in the extension of mental clinic
and child guidance clinic services.
676
A P P E N D I X A.
STUDIES IN PROGRESS
p
Among the studies in progress but not completed in time
for incorporation in this Preliminary Report are:
le
2.
3 •
4 •
5 •
6 •
7 e
8 *
9 •
A coordinated program for the use of Submarginal Land
Power costs to Consumers
Federal expenditures in Pennsylvania
Public Health
Distribution of medical services and facilities
The State and Municipalities
Standardized financial procedure for cities
Unemployment and unemployables
Changes in Occupational trends
Credit facilities in Pennsylvania
Distribution of products - local marketing
*
67%
A P P E N D I X B
RELATED STUDIES SOON TO BE PUBLISHED
The Planning Board deemed it unnecessary to make spec-
ial studies of Poor Relief or of Land Taxation in view of
studies that are nearing completion in these fields -
"The Taxation of Real Property in Pennsylvania" by
Edward B. Logan, Ph.D., conducted as a G. W. A. and Work Divi-
sion project will be available shortly e
"Administration of Poor Relief in Pennsylvania" is prac"
tically completed and ready for release. It will be published
under the auspices of the Department of Welfare. This study
was also carried on as C. W. A. and Work Division projects .
$78,
Figure
:
13
14
15
l6
17
18
20
2l
22
24
25
26
27
28
29
5l
32
35
34
35
36
37
. 38
LIST OF MAPS AND CHARPS
Title
Population Trends
Decline of Birth and Death Rate
Population loss by Migration
Metropolitan Areas
Net Migration
Net Migration
Population Per Square Mile by Counties
Population Change
Age Distribution
Population by Age Groups and Sex
Marital Conditions in 1930
Size of Pennsylvania Families
Changing Proportions of the Population
Population Change by School Districts
1930-35
Principal Events in Geologic Development
of Pennsylvania
Topographic Map
Physiographic Sub-Region
Primary Drainage Basins
Yearly Precipitation Averages
Mean Annual Precipitation in Inches
Average Rainfall in Inches During
Growing Season
Average Length of Growing Season in Days
Annual Mean Temperature
Mean Temperature March to October
Average Date of Last Killing Frost in
Spring
Average Date of First Killing Frost in
Autumn
Population and Industrial Payroll Per
Square Mile of Farm Land
Total Land Area in Farms
Distribution of Total Pasture
Total Land Area in Crops
Predominant Types of Farming
Farm Tenancy by Counties
Walue of Land and Buildings
Erosion Illustrations
Erosion Illustrations
Erosion Illustrations
Tºrosion Illustrations
Erosion of Fields in One Year Under
Different Methods of Cultivation
Following
Page
l
i
10
10
10
12
12
18
20
22
36
38
40
52
68
68
68
70
70
70
72
72
76
80
80
82
86
86
88
98
98
l()0
100
102
6.79
Figure
No.
Title
Types of Farming Areas
Submarginal Farm Areas
Walue of Farm Products
Investment Per Acre in Farm Machinery
The Farmers Dollar
Wooded Areas
State Forests
Fall of Pennsylvania in Rank of State
Producing Lumber
Lumber Consumed in Pennsylvania
Deer Killed in Pennsylvania
Record of Resident Hunting Licenses Issued
Forests Existing and Potential
Present and Proposed Park Areas in Relation
to Population
Precipitation Stations
Gaging Stations :
Storage Reservoirs
Water Power Plants
Typhoid Death Rate
Population using Purified Waters
Relation of Insanitary Factors to Water-
borne Typhoid Outbreaks
The Mineral Industries of Pennsylvania
Relation of Pennsylvania and United States
in Value of Mineral Industries
Producing Coal Fields
Uses of Pennsylvania anthracite Coal
Bituminous Coal Production
Uses of Pennsylvania Bituminous Coal
Production of Coke -
Natural Gas and Oil Fields
The Recovery of Petroleum
Uses of Natural Gas
Natural Gas Output
Trends in Portland Cement Industry
How Pennsylvania Steel Industry is losing
to Mid-West Field -
Industry Consuming Finished Steel
Economic Geographic Regions
Trends in Accidents Employment and Payroll
in Manufacture
Trends in Accidents Employment and Wage
Payments
Average Weekly Earnings
Average Weekly Earnings in Manufacturing
Industries Aº ‘
Following
Page
6l
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
7O
7l
7la
72
73
74
75
76
LO6
l,03
ll 2
ll?
ll.4
l2O
l22
l34
l36
L50
l:56
löö
l?4
l?8
18O
188
192
218
22O
222
252
234
242
248
250
252
254
256
258
260
26O
264
274
276
278
680
Figure
No.
77
78
79
80
8l
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
9].
92
93
94
95
9ö
97
98
, 99
lOO
lCl
lC)2
lO3
lC4
lO5
lO6
LO7
108
109
ll.0
lll
ll?
liá
ll4
llā
ll6
117
ll8
ll.9
l2O.
l2l
Title
Percentage of Dwellings by Type of
Buildings
Percentage of Dwellings by Type of
Buildings
How Modern are Pennsylvanias Farm Houses
Development of Sanitation
Evolution of "Blighted Areas"
Decrease in Median Rentals
Median Rentals
Housing Illustrations
Average Cost and Selling Price of Cne
Family Dwellings -
How House Illustration
New Building in the Wrong Price Range
Growth in Manufacturing
Real Value of Products
Real Value of Manufactured Products
Wage Earners: in Manufacture
Productivity, in Manufacture
Real Wages in Manufacture
Trend of Gainful Workers.
. Gainful Workers
Twenty Per Cent Stores
Distribution of Retail Sales
Total Retail Sales
Sales of Meats and Groceries
Retail Shopping Areas
Official Road Map
Types of Automobile Accidents
injuries and Deaths by Accidents
Air Lines
Power Generated in Industry
Generator Capacity
Location of Steam Operated
Power Generated by Central Stations
Power Generated by Utilities
Transmission Lines (High Voltage)
Transmission Lines (Lower Voltage)
Public Utilities Territory Map
Farm Dwellings - Electricity
Who Pays Electric Bill
City Budget (Cartoon).
Distribution of Population -
County Officers —2nd to 8th Class
Organization Chart. Townships lst Class
Organization Chart Townships 2nd Class
Organization Chart Cities 3rd Class
Organization Chart Boroughs
Following
Page
350
350
356
358
362
372
374
380
382
382
584
42O
422
422
424
426
432
448
450
464
458
462
464
468
484
488
490
496
5l4
514
520
522
53
526
526
528
534
538
542
544
552.
556
556
556
556
68l.
Figure
No.
l22
l23
l24
l25
Title
School Enrollment
Public School Enrollinent
Enrollment in Colleges and Universities
Enrollment of Handicapped Children in
Special Classes
Kindergarten Enrollment
Continuation School Enrollment
Percentage of Illiteracy
Half of Youth (14 to 19) Not in Any School
What Happens to High School Graduates
Children go Farther to School
Proposed Consolidation of School Districts
Public School Expenses
Relation of Per Pupil Cost to School
Enrollment -
Inequality of State Aid
iteal Estate Carries the School load
Growth in Home Use of Public Libraries
Relation of Book Stock to Growing Demand
for Books
Library Service for Urban and Rural People
J3ook Circulation Per Resident
The Library comes iſome to the People
Relation of Circulation and Expenditure
in Libraries
Per Capita Receipts - 200 Libraries
Patients on Parole from State Institutions
State-Owned Institutions
State-Aided Institutions
Population in State Institutions
Those Helped by Mothers' Assistance Fund
Type of Poor Relief Administration
Administrative Subdivisions of S3
Disposition of Criminal Cases
Population in State Penal Institutions
Following
Page
588
590
592
126
127
128
l29
130
l3l
l32
l35
134
l35
136
l37
138
139
l40
14l
l42
143
144
145
l46
147
148
149
lă0
15l
l52
592
592
594
594
596
598
604
606
610
612
618
620
656
636
658
638
638
b40
640
642
644
644
646.
650
652
652
656
658
682
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