d. ſ. &# : ： ， 0 D , w： ſís） .... . .---· ¿L…--- · -·· ---------·-¿ir |-·…···-·…- --· ··º.s.v.， -, -..… 2:2： ' +W, m.- 、、、。、。·-·|-،·*-， ， , ， ， ， ， ！”: „ ' .··f（\ſ*（: ，∞ √∞！！！！！！！！!! ?*e**： »žr.·- sae"-·##########xiſt:ș***T: ‘…ºº^，]*） ***********ſº, ºſrč. ，,- -ģ;§§§ſérſtätä ------：：-·|- ~8（）！！！，，，， ！* w:· - …· -.. ' ° ',·‘ “ ’ , ~ .·· · ·:$##########（.. a ſeyt . . . . . 3RA ºr f º.ſ. §-ſ * * * ºr. º: *… * º. ·w- -} ！ 3 +---- ·~.~· º'|- |- - º ！..-~ º ： **... • ' ' ， ' ', ,* * ':' .. *· · ^ . . , qº ， !|- | ~ . .· ·-~ r__° ***· *g, *-.-.-.-.- * ~ .{ « - ~~*<. ! .*^ ;---- wſ`-- ' ! ra . " +* . ~ |-„~~ …i ~ ·..“ ? : . ，,} *+ º ,-~ . +-· · ·...? ----· ;į )|- | }-~. *+'' ~.~ . .-- , •· A -||× { º : * ， ,# * {};. :！- |×- - ... ~~+ . . . |-, ’- + { |· *- * ,- - -|-}· ~~~~ · }. ^ （ * - ſ',Y ! - * , ’|- ·'. w …? * · · - 0 i · • • aº - ~ } …”*:|----- 7）, ȚUȚIȚIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› ‹› tiºn ºrrºrºccº D！）†ĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪſ !!!！!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!$$}}}}′{{{7}}}′EĽĽŁĘ \\{ſ} \\} §§ffſ §ÑŅŇ]\\{} № OAUUUAVAGNUAEF rºſºft & º {}A\º #NXURRGAURUTG; 2№ Uſſ!!!E # ifi Fºſſi º f †† ñº |¡ïĖ#ffffffffffffffffffffÌìÎîÏïĪīİıĮįīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīīī $8. iºus ºw '3A- , TA- A 3 : i LIBRARY CATALOGUE SLIP. Texas. Department of agriculture insurance statistics and history. J. E. Hollingsworth, Commissioner. Report | on the brown coal and lignite | of Texas I character, for- mation, occurrence and fuel uses | by | Edwin T. Dumble, F. G. S. A., state geologist || – ||[Vignette] | – || Austin || Ben C. Jones & Co. state printers | 1892. 8 vo. pp. 243. pl. XXV. Dumble (Edwin T.) Report | on the brown coal and lignite | of Texas character, for- mation, occurrence and fuel uses | by | Edwin T. Dumble, F. G. S. A., | state geologist ||—|[Vignette] | – || Austin || Ben C. Jones & Co. state printers | 1892. 8 vo. pp. 243. pl. XXV. TEXAS. Department of agriculture inswrance statistics and history. (Geological survey of Texas.) Dumble (Edwin T.) Report | on the brown coal and lignite | of | Texas I character, for- mation, occurrence and fuel uses | by | Edwin T. Dumble, F. G. S. A., | state geologist || – ||[Vignette] | – || Austin Ben C. Jones & Co. state printers | 1892. Q 8 vo. pp. 243. pl. XXV. TExAs. Department of agriculture insurance statistics and history, (Geological survey of Teacas.) |ÉPAHIM|| || ||||||I||##| ||S|H||F, SIMISIS [M] HIST|, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TEXAS JNO. E. Hollingsworth, Commissioner. E. T. DUMBLE, State Geologist. REPORT ON THE BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE () F TEXAS. CHARACTER, FORMATION, OCCURRENCE, AND FUEL USES, BY EDWIN T. DUMBLE, F. G. S. A., STATE GEOI,() GIST. AUSTIN: BEN C. JONES & Co., STATE PRINTERs. 1892. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. OFFICE of CoMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, INSURANCE, STATISTICS, AND HISTORY, AUSTIN, TExAs, December 12, 1892. Hon. James S. Hogg, Governor of Texas: DEAR SIR: I have the honor to submit herewith the Report on the Brown Coal and Lignites of Texas, as prepared by the Geological Divi- sion of this department. State Geologist E. T. Dumble visited Germany and Austria and made a careful and thorough examination of the mines and factories of those countries to ascertain the character, use, and value of lignites, and by comparison to find out the value of the lignites of Texas, and how same could be best utilized as fuel. The question of cheap fuel, especially for manufacturing purposes, has long been a serious one with Texas, which has been solved by Professor Dumble, as will appear from the results of his efforts embraced in this Report, for which he deserves great praise. The last few months, includ- ing the trip to the other side, has been only a small portion of the time he has given to the utilization of Texas lignites, for it has been a study of years with him, and long before his connection with the State Survey he became interested in the subject and devoted much time and atten- tion to it. The result at last achieved has fully repaid him for all work done. Texas will reap the grand benefits, for the capitalists will come and establish industries, the wants of the people will be supplied at home, and prosperity will abound. That the brown coal is the cheap fuel so long needed is no longer a question, for which all Texas should rejoice. I am, with much respect and esteem, your obedient servant, JNO. E. HOLLINGSWORTH, Commissioner. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, INSURANCE, STATISTIC, AND HISTORY, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TEXAS, AUSTIN, TEXAs, November 1, 1892. Hon. J. E. Hollingsworth. Commissioner of Agriculture. Insurance, Statistics, and History, Austin, Texas: DEAR SIR: I have the honor to transmit here with my Report on the Brown Coal and Lignite of Texas, embodying the results of my investi- gations so far as I have been able to complete them. The scope of the investigation might have taken a much wider range, but practical results were wanted, and I have therefore confined myself in this Report to the character, formation, occurrence, and fuel uses of brown coal and lignite. As this character of fuel has not formel the subject of such detailed investigation in this country as it has in Europe, any description of the coal or its utilization must draw most largely from foreign sources, as it is only there that machinery and appliances can be found especially de- signed for its use, the adaptability of which have been proved by actual trial. While a part of the material used has been derived from the excellent literature on this subject by German, French, and Italian authors—and I have endeavored to bring together the facts which bear on the subject by liberal quotations from the different authorities—it is also true that a large part of it was secured by my personal observations and investiga- tions among the mines and factories of Germany and Austria, and some Of the most practical portions of the work could not have been obtained in any other manner. I have also endeavored to bring together as clearly as possible the general statements regarding the geology and the details of the occur- rence of the Texas deposits, in order that they might be the more readily accessible to those who may wish to use the Report. In conclusion, I beg that you will accept my sincerest thanks for the constant support and encouragement which you have so kindly afforded me during the progress of the work. Yours, very truly, E. T. DUMBLE, State Geologist. ſ 7 J CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Introductory and Historical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º 'º º ºs e º & 17 Fuels and their distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Early notices of Texas brown coals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Early experiments in burning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Early experiments in coking and briquetting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Acknowlegements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 CHAPTER II. Brown Coal.—Its Origin, Formation, Physical and Chemical Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Classification of coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Coal of Coal Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Coal of Cretaceous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Coal of Tertiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Brown Coal and Lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Character of vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Character due to maceration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 T}ecomposition of vegetable matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 In contact With air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Out of contact with air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 The deposition of the decomposed materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 At the place of origin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 At other localities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 The subsequent alteration of the deposits by slow or more rapid metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Physical character of brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Jointed structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Lustre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Streak and powder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Contents of coal in hygroscopic water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Ashes of brown coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Chemical properties of brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Action of reagents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Classification of Texas brown coals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Lignite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Earthy brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Brown coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 10 CONTENTS. Pitch coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 51 Glance coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º us is a e º 'º dº ſº tº e º ºs e e = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 5] CHAPTER III. Brown Coal as Fuel.—Direct firing with brown coal: gas firing with brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . .T* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 52 Raw brown coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Direct firing...... tº º tº e º 'º e º ºs º ºs & © • * * * e s a e e s = e s e e s e s e º e tº tº gº tº e º ſº tº e º e º e º ºs & 54 Step grates. . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 54 Flat grates. . . . . tº e = < * * * * * s e º e º e º 'º s = < * * * * * * * tº e º is $ $ e e º e s º ºs º a tº a ſe e º e º & 58 Locomotive firing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Flat grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 The upright grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 The fire Screen or arch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Gas firing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (33 Producer gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (53 Gas producers with blast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Illuminating gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 ('HA PTER IV. Brown ("oal as Fuel—continued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Brown coal in iron smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Coking brown coal in Europe. . . . . . e a • * * * * s e = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s • * * * 7() Raw brown coal in furnace use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7] Iron furnace at Zeltweg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Coking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e s s e º a e e s is a s m e º te e s tº e º 'º º º º 74 American experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 G. Christian Hoffman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Oxperiments of Mr. Gooch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 CHAPTER V. Brown ("oal as Fuel—continued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Artificial fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S7 Qualities of Briquettes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SS Form, size and weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S9 IIeating power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Behavior in the fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Firmness and durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Mechanical preparation of the coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Briquettes With bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 The bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Coal tar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Starch paste and dextrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Irish moss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Paper pulp Or cellulose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Molasses . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Magnesia eement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Mixing coal and bond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Briquette presses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Tangential presses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Stamping presses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Steam presses with open forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 The process of briquetting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Cost of briquette plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 CONTENTS. 11 Briquetting without bond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Wet pressing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Dry pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II5 Pulverizing and mixing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Plate driers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Tubular driers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 118 Driers with direct heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Pressing the dried coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 The process of briquetting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 * Cost of production. . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 123 CHAPTER VI. Geology of the Brown. Coal Deposits of Texas. . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Basal Division. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Wills Point Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 The Brazos river Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 The Colorado Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 The Timber Belt Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Lignitie beds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . as a s s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 130 East Texas Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 The Brazos river section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * g. 135 Colorado river Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Rio Grande Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Marine beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 East Texas Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Brazos river Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Colorado river Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Rio Grande section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Yegua Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 East Texas section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Brazos river Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Colorado river Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Rio Grande Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 153 Fayette Division. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 East Texas Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Brazos river Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Colorado river Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Rio Grande section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 CHAPTER VII. Oceurrence and Composition of the Brown Coals of the Tertiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Bowie county . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Cass county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Morris county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Franklin and Titus counties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Hopkins county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 161 Marion county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Harrison county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Henderson county . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I66 Smith county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Gregg county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Upshur County. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Wood county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Rains county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 12 CONTENTS. Van Zandt county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Freestone county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Limestone county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Leon county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................ 173 Robertson county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Analyses of Little Brazos coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Analyses of Calvert Bluff coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Milam county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Lee county . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Bastrop county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I82 Caldwell county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Atascosa county . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Medina county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Frio County. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 UValde county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Zavalla county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Webb county . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 CHAPTER VIII. Occurrence and Composition of the Brown Coals of the Tertiary—continued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Panola county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Shelby county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Nacogdoches county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Rusk county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Cherokee county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I95 Anderson county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I97 Burleson county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Sabine county . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 San Augustine county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Newton and Jasper counties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Angelina and Trinity counties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Houston county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I99 Grimes county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Brazos county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Fayette county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 CHAPTER IX. Texas Brown Coal compared with European and with Bi- tuminous Coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Production in Austrian Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Production in Bohemia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Production in Hungary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Production and imports in Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Production in the German Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20S Imports of Bohemian brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Receipts of fuel at Berlin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Statistics of Brown Coal Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Analyses of Texas brown coals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Analyses of German brown coals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Analyses of Austrian brown coals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Analyses of Italian brown coals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Analyses of briquettes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 216 Analyses of coal used on railroads in Texas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Comparison of fuel values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 CHAPTER X. Utilization of Texas Brown Coals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 CONTENTS. 13 Manufacture of paraffine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Results of experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Tar distilled from Texas brown coals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Raw brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Artificial fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Briquetting without bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Results of experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Briquetting with bond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Results of experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Prices of briquette machinery . . . . ., - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 225 The bond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Illuminating gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Producer gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Coking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 PLAT]. I. I 1. I I I. IV. V. V i. VI I. VII I. IX. X. XI. DX II. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. X X. XXI. XX II. XX}} }. XXIV. XXV. FI (; . ] . : { J 7* . l(). 12. 13. ILLUSTRATIONS Map of Brown (‘oal Area. Step grate at Donawitz. Step grate. improved form, at Zeltweg. Step grate under safety boiler. Locomotive fire box. H.ocomotive grate bar. Locomotive fire box with fire screen. Locomotive grate bar. Locomotive Smoke stack. Locomotive smoke stack. Gas producer. Teplitz. Gas producer. Donawitz. Gas producer with blast. Briquette press, Couffinhal system. Briquette press. hydraulic, Briquette press. hydraulie, improved. Briquette plant. Press for mass-press-stein. Steam drier. Riebeck (lrier. Pleutert’s compartment drier. ('alvert Bluff. Plans of Rockdale mine. Vogel mine. Plan of Lytle mine. String board with seats for grate bars.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grate bar for Plate I I, , Grate bar for Plate III Grate bar for flat grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iron furnace at Zeltweg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jacobi drier Exeter press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Section of well at Mineola... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brown coal near Port ( 'addo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Profile of Calvert Bluff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Section four miles southeast of Carthage. Panola county. . . . . . . . . Faulted lignite bed. Shelby county . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Section at Sulphur Spring, Cass county. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * g g º ºs e º g º 'º & º º is tº º a tº tº $ tº a s a º & s gº tº ſº º ſº e tº gº is e º sº e s tº e º s a sº º dº tº e s tº # 8 º' & & 8 s tº e º 'º e º # 8 & © tº * * * * * * * * * s e º e s 2 e g = < e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [15] 55 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. *—a PLATE I. & £effº 'ſile 4-K E RTÉ *. gp” i Aº ..ºr is ſ 9 Fredericksbºrº ! 2k cle & L'If sºft E 98. 'N - ^, * Johnson City / / / K | ‘S. i ^.. . ** É Ei # *A. B\, EYX, XA §R. N \,: H ~~# S-> *~; Georgetºwn Taylor #Terrell K A) U #| M i kauf tº Blºº 7\ \ \ W -- ºr uide - r ~ Öston Texarks .* Eylau . S as’ 2.9 L tº J S ^g + - t 9t º º | 0\l A *Č. ſº *\ . Atºne º | ſº iº § Carthage ...” & X º | H. E R *R S 0 N | ‘Troup H Headerson; | † 3-. - º * ===º ºn " " * g ..] --- * sº -º & <& iſ U S K, 32, º N & r gºrs & & *** * ----- "Tº ** i i g º sº 32 £º NTA syº/Ala R O | --4→ -- hl ---, m- ºr ** – --- *—k-r — — — —-º-º--- * *i-- - ---- i-º-º-º-º-ºl ,” & + _*" + f º \. :----- (-rº" - * * *: * --' | § Nº4 & 6&a tº X_^2% p * T a . .* ...; H \ { }L º p _2^ * *. 10 H, RV ºf º-º-º-º-TX-s H.E.1 Y \ =y. + ..” 'Yº. - | † & . . arms Cerater & y-/ 2-’ & A' N B E R S Rutsk W. ..~" iſ , º, X-->;--> --~~. * { ... -ºs. wfalestine tº } { } { § ..’’ N. r \{ }. alosane ~, § NACſ G D E S \,. . \ \ Fairfield * § \ g T----.S. * .***. 3. SS - \ F E TO N E || § 3. ſº Nacogdoches & - N. . º: \\ . \ ,”" W . __*--~ * --~~ 8-2 \\ M Sanº. Augustine& i \ \ ,” # | rº- S + F * * W * * ſº º' # ...”.” tº .# m M - º'ſ Nū iX0 N E\ \º * , J }\ $4.) | 7 Nººks 2. | 7SAM f & Co. Groesbeck \ .x.< r & As 2" ºs-ey. i AſſGUSTINE i - A W .2’ \ * ;,& * A ©Hemphil i N YA 'N y^ W § Lufkin. \ \ 's FA * . ëgor lºſ \ ^ A Ecº \--- C} >| ,” .--~...~£ / p: - .-- - cº ,” ..” i _--~~~ 2. # Groveto ... Yº *2 . \ i \ # # 2. * . . . §2.t== + 2’ # ** g 4. m R; : i Jaspe l º emple 3.” ankl r—º º: I . *H ./ † - º *! { . {{\ N ...” §º-ſº B E S 0 N \tº M A-3, L S (NN \, 2^ jº # \ coinesnet. l vºy toxi SN ...’ * , ºt &Madi - .2% & / th g ! * * - : \, : C. º 2’ \º **adisopyule_X*= * .# k - = 1 + >}. lºr: \, 2 S. S. º *N./\ | R Y \ } E 5* Asſ: E\{ i \ ...” Kºl Ys. Hearne * º Cº- . Y-, .2% | & l K \ • * * * •. * * > * Nº. * ...~~ \mu_^ º 2. P 0 W ... • * - i.) \ •. T 0 N §§ r gº +. A --f rº, . | H 3. a. * * * | ºn 4 S. º.º. / ...A. W. A^1 K/.E #8 Abi - ... & W \ i. /*i. * * * @ Kºj * A \ms . . . . | ! :o ; H . . . ... • *\\ \, i ſº frt sºs \* \º / j tº “ſº Huntevil! \{ ! . 2.É.iwin º * \, 'l ! *%-AA r_ſ-\\,..., , -}. Tºº--"Sº, ºx-ºff") } | \, . t #: A. *9°º.º.º.º. Sº Le \ } j \, . … " \ " * - . \ *= f f * i º - 8, º # a * : † i. * kdal * Ǻ º Of y all 7 , ; } - N. \ i> p; ºpold Spri ". V. }.)-->e------ M * G. \ ~" º: Sº- tº E. ‘S., • * th * = } * = - --- * * | | * ..! # † - ...—-----fºrs mº sº * —t * \ :-- -Yº Ye ºf R M E ...&AN \| A Cly 0 fºr % / i * ..” Caldwell } % M eAndersoni º \ £1} 7 | m \ ...” tº rºl M - - W W. - tºl X.” + - *g § l ºf , Kountzeº . Nº - l --" " * 8 U R S 0 }\ºgº-ººſayasota ...; º , * f l ...” & - g A § * - § ... • * # W A R D 3. | N ſ'. __ ºri.--~~" Lyong #: “R F--- w A *>. | \ & **222 * : 0 Aſ N G E R T \,-\, . A *N. range t * In ont, ſº “N. | ſº S # .. - O. ‘R. & 30 § * Eº ^: - º * * ---, t - #. ~5 *†-ºr . S. l tº - &. *::::::: 'V f § 3. - |J E F F E R SAO N ſº –4–0 ** I. * ~~~ / i - ---------|-- ſº § \. 2” i------ * - - - . - º D l L X r + R | m gºw allisville \; | 2' # Z" f & s J. •. &ernº/ C 0 M A ; ; , S(k^C. A $5 L ſº ^ - - A/º-º-º: \, j, (~" R-is-is-4&: - # 4 * sº sº Re Braunfels: Nº. Iauli ..~ || G. i .** + - >r. wood º - ...” g *** * “, £26. U ASD U P 5, º + * § sº * § e” swum & v. A *2 : # \º * G) S. */ Cºlumbli *. # onia, K-A- Rø. R. S., ſº §5 St z' sº ^^. .amºſ º ºsº 0 L 0 R / W. vºv 3. Eagle É y: Z (f, T. *~ ſº G. H. \, { { ------" \, º / i | ‘. N. •º | jº Cotulla l | | L–1–H .. Mc M. U, lists &Tilden i ** Nº. N ~, Sharpsburgh U 9 Yºsi sº % - º ^s / §2. y 2 ºf Tºcº § Ç T4: º sº: ** !---. "N. 2:… Ş §§ A N P A T Rºgº.g. * atagord *w-rri---- JG ºtſº 30 * † g? SCALE of MILES. row sville - Compiled by E. T. DUMBLE, State Geologist. in mº is M A P OF THE OF TEXAS. 1892. ...— Boundary of Eocene. { % ( & (approximate). Outcrops of brown coal or lignite. IBrown coal mines. Outcrops not examined by Survey. BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE AREA BR()WN ()()AL ANI) LIGNITE. BY E. T. I) UMIBILE. CHAPTER I. |NTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL, The question of a fuel supply adequate for all purposes has a most im- portant bearing on the development of a country. During the earlier stages of its history wood, when sufficiently abundant, answers for fuel, but with increased population and consequent demand for manufactures comes the necessity for a better combustible, such as is found among the fossil fuels stored up by natural agencies during the evolution of the earth. These fossil fuels occur at many different horizons, but those of the Carboniferous or coal period proper are, taken as a whole, the best adapted for all purposes because they combine compactness with large proportionate heating power and ability to withstand transportation with- out serious loss. In many places, however, where coal deposits of this age are missing, others are found of more recent formation, which, under proper conditions, will more or less completely supply the lack. Such is the case in Texas. The aggregate area which is underlaid by beds of fossil fuel is very large. In the northern central portion of the State the coals of the Carboniferous or Coal Measures occupy an area of several thousand square miles. In this area there are nine distinct seams of coal, two of which are of workable thickness and of good quality.” A second, but as yet unexplored, basin of similar age occurs on the Rio Grande border in Presidio county. These are, however, somewhat distant from many localities at which are found ores and materials which would afford bases for great industrial development with proper fuel supply. In the vicinity of Eagle Pass, on the Rio Grande, there is a third basin *Second Annual Report Geological Survey of Texas, p. 359, et seq. 2 – Grecl. 1-392 18 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. containing a vein of good coal in beds which belong to the upper part of the Cretaceous formation.* By far the most extensive beds, however, are those occurring in the Tertiary area, which stretches entirely across the State from Red River to the Rio Grande,f and in which the coal beds frequently show a thickness Of ten to fourteen feet in a single bank, with a total thickness in certain localities of from eighteen to twenty-four feet. These constitute, there- fore, the greatest and most widespread fuel supply which is found in the State, and the desirability of utilizing these deposits for manufacturing and domestic purposes has naturally suggested an examination into the possibility of doing so. The existence of lignite or coal, as it was usually denominated, has been recognized in Texas almost from the time of its first settlement by Americans. In many of the early books and papers descriptive of Texas the occurrence of this coal is mentioned and localities given. In an article entitled “Observations on the Geology of Trinity county, Texas,” by J. L. Riddell, M. D., published in the American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. XXXVII., No. 2, 1839, pp. 216-217, I find the first definite description of the Texas brown coal, as follows: * * * “In the banks of the Trinity, associated with the iron ore, and Overlying the brown coal, whole trees and fragments of trees, piled Sometimes one upon another, present themselves completely transformed into stone. In some logs a diversified metamorphosis is observable; one portion of the vegetable structure having been replaced with silex, an- Other with brown Oxide of iron, and a third is bitumenized or converted into coal. “In concert with Dr. F. B. Page, I took considerable pains in the exploration of the Trinity brown coal formation. As no excavations for working have yet been made, the best places for inspecting the for- mation are where the Trinity cuts its way through the highlands, or where its banks present themselves in bold high bluffs, as at New Cincinnati, and near the site of the projected town of Osceola. The coal lies inthorizontal strata, dipping one foot in thirty to the northwest. The main stratum at the latter place, just above Bedias creek, is repre- * First Report of Progress Geological Survey of Texas. First Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Texas. Notes on the Geology of the Valley of the Middle Rio Grande, E. T. Dumble. f First Report of Progress Geological Survey of Texas. First Annual Report Geological Survey of Texas. Second Annual Report Geological Survey of Texas. Utilization of Lignites. E. T. Dumble. HISTORICAL. 19 sented by the concurrent statement of W. C. Brookfield, surveyor, Mr. James S. Hunter, of Huntsville, Texas, Dr. Page, and some other persons whom I consulted, as between six and seven feet in thickness, the lower portion being between three and four feet above low water mark. Un- fortunately, during my sojourn there, the river was unusually high and turbid for the season of year; I could not consequently verify the same by personal observation and measurements. The most considerable coal beds which I had opportunity fully to inspect, were in the Trinity bluffs, Southwest side, at New Cincinnati, six miles lower down, and just below the mouth of Salt creek, near six miles above. The workable stratum of brown coal in each of these localities is about five feet thick, and situated Some fifteen feet or so above low water mark. In quality it is said to be precisely similar to the coal in the seven feet bed. “Specimens of average quality, which I took from the bed near the mouth of Salt creek, have a specific gravity of 1.326. The proportion of carbon or coke is forty-seven parts in one hundred (47-100). The vola- tile portion consists of bitumen, creosote, pyroligneous acid and water. Upon burning one hundred parts of the coal, there remains a trifle more than one part by weight of white ashes. The color of this coal is a dark umber brown, nearly black. Its ligniform structure is almost always easily discernible. It is readily ignited, burns with a pleasant flame, and with almost the same facility as charcoal. Although it has much less bitumen in its composition than the Pittsburgh or cannel coal, it will yet prove valuable for nearly all purposes for which coal is applied; such as parlor use, the reduction of ore, and the generation of steam power. It is, however, ill adapted for the manufacture of inflammable gas. “This sort of coal is denominated brown coal or brown ligmite by min- eralogists. Sometimes it is called Bovey coal, because a thick bed of it has long been wrought at Bovey, near Exeter, in England. It occurs in many parts of the world, in some places in vast abundance, but generally in beds of far less extent than those of the Trinity. It is worthy of re- mark that iron pyrites, generally so abundant and detrimental in coal, is here usually scarce.” - Dr. Francis Moore, Jr., in “Description of Texas,’’ published in 1840, mentions the following localities: “A large bed of lignite is found in the banks of the Colorado a few miles above La Grange.” “In the banks of the Brazos and Little Brazos are immense beds of coal or lignite.” “An extensive bed of excellent coal has been found in the Yegua, about twelve miles from the town of Independence, Washington county.” 20 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. W. Kennedy, in his work entitled “Texas,” published in 1841, speaks of the coal on the Trinity. * In 1848 C. S. Hale published “Geology of South Alabama,” in the American Journal of Science and Arts, which contains the following state- ment in regard to lignite: “It is found also at Natchitoches, on Red River, where the underlying bed consists of a gray plastic clay, very adhesive; on Bedias creek, near the Trinity river, Texas; at Robbin's Ferry, on the Brazos; and at Bastrop, on the Colorado.” Page 356. In “Texas in 1850,” Melinda Rankin says: “Bituminous coal is also found in different parts of the Trinity river, both above and below Magnolia, and has been in use some time for va- rious purposes.’’ Other similar announcements of the existence of these beds were made during these years and those which followed previous to the organization of the first Geological Survey under Shumard. In 1857, lignite was an- nounced from Burleson county, and also from Gonzales. In 1858, J. 5 5 De Cordova, in “Texas, Her Resources and Her Public Men,” mentions the coal of Guadalupe and Bastrop counties. The surveys under Shumard and Buckley both described many new lo- calities, and in a general way marked out the entire area in which they OCCUI”. Many efforts have been made to utilize the brown coal deposits, and small workings have been begun in many places. In some localities these have been carried on in a desultory manner for a year, or even longer, but in the end they have one after another been deserted, until to-day there are only a few localities at which lignite is being mined for use. The principal ones among these are: San Tomas Mine, Webb county. Lytle Mine, Medina county. Kirkwood Mine, Atascosa county. Alba Mine, Wood county. Henderson Mine, Rusk county. Rockdale Mines, Milam county. Calvert Bluff, Robertson county. McDade Mine, Bastrop county. The reasons for the failure of the efforts to bring lignite into general use have been of various kinds. In many places the cheapness of wood HISTORICAL. 21 has prevented the use of any other fuel. Even in localities in which the lignite is abundant and easily mined, wood has been easier to get and is therefore used for all household purposes and in Steam making. The stoves and furnaces in use are adapted either for wood Or bituminous coal, and do not give favorable results with lignite. Lignite usually contains considerable hydroscopic water, and on exposure to the air the evaporation of a portion of this causes it to slack and form a large amount of small coal. This occurs also in the fire box at times, and as the grates are not arranged for such fuel, that which slacks in the yard can not be used, and much that slacks in the furnaces falls unburned through the grate bars into the ash pit. Another source of loss in burning, due largely to the same property of crumbling, is the large amount unburned carried off by the draught. Another reason why it has not been brought into use is that those who understood its nature, and could and did use it successfully, could not depend on getting a proper supply at suitable figures. This in turn was due, in part at least, to the fact that the number of such consumers was too small to warrant mining on a large scale, and the amount of the traffic was not great enough to secure from the railroads the low rates of freight necessary to properly introduce it. Many experiments have been made in burning lignite, both under sta- tionary boilers and in locomotives, but I do not know of a single in- stance in which there was any fire box tried other than those in ordinary use for burning wood or coal under the same engines. The results of these experiments have varied according to the conditions under which they were made. Where the person in charge recognized the character of the fuel with which he had to deal, and used it accordingly, the re- sults have been highly favorable in every instance, even with the draw- backs of a fire box not suited to it. Among such experiments may be mentioned the mills and gin at Bastrop, experiments by J. A. Cushman at Houston, the experiment of the International and Great Northern Railway with Rockdale lignite, the long continued test of the mills at Corsicana, and many others, as well as its actual use at present in con- siderable quantities in San Antonio, at Rockdale, Austin, Waco, and Dallas. In the spring of 1877, at the request of Mr. A. S. Richardson, then Secretary of the Houston and Texas Central Railway, I took up the study 22 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. of lignites with a view to their preparation in Some way as fuel for use in their locomotives. Being practically without library facilities, the whole question naturally resolved itself into one of actual experiment, with the result that I found a fair coke could be made by adding a small per- centage of coal tar pitch and burning in a tightly covered crucible at high temperature. I also tried many other substances as cementing ma- terial, such as common molasses, Sugar, caking coal, etc., which gave variable results, sometimes yielding a coherent coke, at others simply the usual powdery coke of the lignite itself. The best results were obtained by introducing the extraneous substances first and covering them with the lignite. When they were mixed through the body of lignite, the results were not always so favorable. The coke made in this manner was of fair quality, and arrangements were made for the erection of a trial Oven for carrying on the experiments on a scale large enough to prove its actual value and ascertain approximately the cost of production. The completion of this was prevented by circumstances beyond my control. In the meantime, my attention was called to the experiments made by E. F. Loisseau in briquetting anthracite waste in Pennsylvania, and the briquetting works at Rondout, New York, and I made an effort to have a test made of the briquetting of Texas lignites at one of these places. Not succeeding in this, I finally made arrangements, through Mr. Robert Grimshaw, of Philadelphia, to have a test made of the briquetting properties of Texas lignites by the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chan- tiers de la Méditerranée, at Havre, France. In accordance with this arrangement, ten tons of lignite, taken from the bank exposed on the Brazos river a few miles west of Calvert, were forwarded to Havre, in August, 1881. Their report on it was to the effect that the machines manufactured by them would make a compact fuel of lignite such as that sent, but that its calorific value was not as great as that of the briquettes they were then making from their bituminous coal. As will be seen from the analysis of the lignite sent them, it was far below the usual average. f y ANALYSIS OF LIGNITE BRIQUETTED BY THE SOCIETE NOUVELLE DES FORGES ET f f CHANTIERS DE LA MEDITERRANEE, OCTOBER, 1881. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.30 Volatile matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.94 Fixed carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.56 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.20 HISTORICAL. - 23 An effort was made at the time to establish manufactories for the pro- duction of this character of fuel, and contracts were prepared, but owing to business changes and depression they were not carried out. During the same year, 1881, several letters appeared in the papers of the State, calling attention to this method of utilizing lignite, and in 1882 Prof. H. H. Dinwiddie, then president of the Agricultural and Mechani- cal College of Texas, recommended its use by conversion into water gas. I also published a leaflet on the subject of utilizing these brown coals, the main portion of which has been reprinted in the chapter on this subject in the Reports on the Iron Ore Districts of East Texas.” In 1888 Prof. Streeruwitz published two articles on this subject in the Geological and Scientific Bulletin, recommending especially the use of the “Treppen- rost’’ or step-grate. Other efforts were made from time to time to introduce briquetting ma- chines, but always without success, owing to the lack of authentic detailed information regarding them in this country. That which came nearest succeeding was made by the Austin Coal Company, which owned works at Rockdale. This company bought a press in Europe and brought it as far as New York, but financial difficulties overtook them and they were unable to carry out their plans. Such was the position of affairs at the beginning of the work of the Survey, and as our analyses of lignite from various portions of the State continued to prove their excellent quality, the question of their utiliza- tion gradually took shape, and finally culminated in an appropriation by the Legislature for an examination of the possibility of such use. Under this Act of the Legislature, and in accordance with the instruc- tions of the Commissioner of Agriculture, Insurance, Statistics and His- tory, I visited the principal deposits of brown coal in Germany and Aus- tria, compared the different varieties with those of Texas, and examined the various methods of utilizing them. Throughout my entire trip I met with the kindest attention and with the most ready and valuable assistance from the geologists and mining * Second Annual Report Geological Survey of Texas, pp. 57, et seq. This chapter is a compilation by Mr. Lerch from Dr. Wagner’s “Jahres-Bericht ūber die Leistungen der Chemischen Technologie,” and from the different pub- lications of the survey. It gives in a general way the methods of utilization of brown coal in Europe, and some of the facts regarding the occurrence and quality of the Texas deposits, 24 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. officers, both public and private; and it was only through the opportuni- ties thus afforded that I was enabled to gather the necessary information. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I am under special obligations for assistance and courtesies to Dr. Hauchecorne, Director of the Geological Survey of Germany, and to other members of the survey; to Frhr von der Heyden-Rynsch, Imperial Di- rector of Mines of the District of Halle a. S.; Dr. Brassert, Imperial Di- rector of Mines of the District of Bonn; Prof. H. Credner, University of Leipzig; Prof. Frech, University of Halle; Prof. Laube, German Uni- versity of Prague; Eng. E. Preissig, Prague; Dr. Geinitz, Director of the Royal Mineralogical Museum, Dresden; Profs. Toula, Oser and Hof- rath von Hauffe, Institute of Technology, Vienna; Profs. Höfer and Kupel- wieser, Mining Academy, Leoben; Alex. von Napolski, Halle a. S.; the officers of the A. Riebecksche Montan-Aktién-Gesellschaft, Halle a. S.; Oes- terreichisch-Alpine Montangesellschaft; Teplitzer Walzwerk und Besse- merhütte; Wiener Locomotivs-Fabrik; Zeitzer Eisengiesserie und Masch- inenbau Aktién-Gesellschaft; and above all to Prof. Freiherr von Fritsch, of the University of Halle. CHAPTER II. BROWN COAL – ITS ORIGIN, FORMATION, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTER, Various classifications of the coals have been proposed by different au- thors, but none have come into general use, or taken the place of that which is based upon their geological age, which is this: Name. Geological age. Peat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recent and Quaternary. Brown coal and lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tertiary to Triassic. Coal, or stone coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carboniferous and Older. The coal of the Coal Measures in Texas is of the bituminous variety, of the same general character as the coal of the Indian Territory, and much of it yields a fair quality of coke when burned in ovens. According to the classification given above, the coal of our Cretaceous area belongs under the head of brown coal, and it is true that in a few places small quantities of lignitic coal are found among the beds of this age. This occurs principally in the sands of the Bosque and Red River divisions, but nowhere, so far as yet determined, in workable quantities. The greater part of the coal of this age, as it is developed in the vicinity of Eagle Pass, resembles the bituminous coal of the Car- boniferous much more closely in every characteristic than it does any of the varieties found in the Tertiary. In addition to this, certain portions of this bed yield a good coke in the crucible in the laboratory, and thereby give promise, at least, of coking on a larger Scale. When we come to a critical study of the deposits of the Tertiary, we find that the varieties of brown coal occurring in them are numerous, and correspond closely with those recognized in Europe, including true lignites and lignitic coals. Therefore, while it has been customary in this country to use the term Lignite as synonomous with brown coal, and to apply the term to deposits of Secondary as well as Tertiary age, I have concluded, on account of the marked dissimilarity of the coals of these pe- riods, as they occur here, to adopt the definition and classification of Zincken for the purposes of this report, and to include under the general 26 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. name of brown coal “those fossil accumulations of the more or less car- bonized remains of plants which occur in the Tertiary formation.” Under this classification “Lignite” is made the name of a variety of brown coal, and is not used as a generic term. Brown coal, whether considered physically or chemically, may be justly regarded as a substance intermediate between peat on the one hand and bituminous coal on the other. There is no hard and fast line of di- vision between these substances, but each grades into the other by such Small differences that it can not be said where One ends and the other begins.” Indeed, so closely do certain varieties of each simulate the Other, that there is no test which can decide between them as to which is bituminous coal and which is brown coal, and the determination can only be made by their geological relations. Zincken says of this: “There are no physical or chemical qualities by means of which a coal may in every instance be characterized as a brown coal and distinguished from the other species of coal. Coals of different formations are in their external character similarly variable. At Malowka, in Russia, a Carboniferous coal has been found, which possesses altogether the appear- ance of a brown coal, and one of the more recent ones at that. The fact of its relative position as belonging to the Carboniferous formation, was first determined only after careful scientific investigation. There are Cretaceous coals which appear to be identical with certain kinds of brown coal, and alluvial coals, even peat itself, are met with, which closely resemble varieties of stone coal. Hence, the only certain method of de- termining the relative age of a coal is by the geological and paleonto- logical conditions of its occurrence.” f ORIGIN. The fossil fuels are mainly of vegetable origin, and their differences are principally due to the character of the vegetation from which they *“Brown coal or lignite contains 20–30 per cent of oxygen after the expulsion at 100 degrees C. of 15–36 per cent of water [as against “5–15 per cent (rarely 16–17) of oxygen, ash excluded,” in ordinary bituminous coal]. The hydrogen in each is 4–7 per cent. Both have usually a bright pitchy luster (whence often called Pechkohle in German). a firm, compact texture. are rather fragile com— pared with anthracite, and have a specific gravity from 1.14 to 1.40. The brown coals have often a brownish-black color, whence the name, and more oxygen, but in these respects and others they shade into ordinary bituminous coals.” —Dana, J. D., System of Mineralogy, 1892, p. 1021. f Zincken, C. F. Die Physiographie der Braunkohle, Leipzig, 1867, p. 5. ORIGIN. 27 were derived and its condition at the time of deposit; the manner and place of its deposition; the character, completeness or incompleteness of the chemical changes which have since taken place in it; and the changes induced by earth movements, pressure of superimposed beds, etc. That all are alike of vegetable origin, is proved by the occurrence of portions of plants, often carbonized, throughout the coal beds, the pres- ence of their roots in the under clay, and by the woody structure of the body of the coal itself, which is often clearly discernible in thin sections under the microscope. The vegetable matter from which coal is derived consists of: Trees, shrubs and herbaceous vegetation of lacustrine and dry land growth. Peat bog vegetation. Marine plants. While coal occurs in older formations, the first great accumulation is found in the Carboniferous period. The plant life of this period, as we find it recorded in the great number and variety of forms preserved as fossils in the coal and under clay, the overlying Sands and in the shales of the formation, was of three kinds. The first of these were conifers, which grew on the higher lands, and only furnished such part of the material for the formation of coal as was carried down into the coal swamps by freshets. Their remains are usually found in the sands which overlie the beds of coal. There were numerous species of these trees, which have their nearest representatives at present in the Yew and Japanese Ginko. Another class of plants, the number of species of which was fully one-half of all the flora of that period, were the ferns. Like the conifers, the material which they furnished for conversion into coal was inconsiderable when compared with that of the plants of the third class, but they had their use as they “formed the thick underbrush of the coal swamps.” Many of the ferns of that time closely resemble those of to-day in size and form, but there were also many varieties of tree ferns such as now grow Only in warm latitudes. 5 5 “Coal consists,” says Bischoff, “chiefly of the stems of Stigmaria, Sigillaria, Lepidodendra, and Calamites.” These Stigmaria, Sigillaria and Lepidodendra were a character of plant growth intermediate between the conifers and the club-mosses. They were composed of “a dense outer bark or rind, inck)sing a great mass of cellular tissues, through the 28 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. center of which runs a small fibro-vascular cylinder with very distinct pith.” They formed trees forty to one hundred feet in height, with wide-spreading roots and gently tapering trunks, which were covered with Scale-like or needle-like leaves, the characteristic cicatrices of which may Often be recognized where the bark is sufficiently well preserved. The Calamites much resemble the horse-tails (equisetaceae) existing to- day, except that in size they were very much larger, forming trees having a diameter of six inches and a height of thirty feet or more. All were marsh plants, and flourished best in an atmosphere warm and moist, and “stifling’’ from the amount of carbonic acid in it. With the advent of the Cretaceous period and a larger land area, land plants began to furnish a greater proportion of the material for the coal beds. Dicotyledonous trees appeared at this time, and have ever since Continued to increase in importance. The conditions of plant life inaugurated in the Cretaceous continued with gradual increase into the Tertiary, and in this period the vegetable matter derived from forest growth first took its place as a great factor in the production of coal. Material derived from such forest growth, how- ever, did not supply all the material for the production of the brown coal of the Tertiary. Even at present, when the Dicotyledons represent SO large a portion of the plant life of the globe, they furnish only a por- tion of the material which is passing into coal through the media of peat bogs, submerged forests, rafts, delta and other deposits. Another source Of Supply has always existed in the growth of Sphagna and similar plants which have played an important part in coal production from the earliest times to the present. These plants, like those which formed the coal, are Of Swamp growth and form the peat bogs of the present time. The part taken by marine plants in furnishing material for coal depos- its does not seem to be clearly defined. So far as they are composed of hydrocarbons there is the possibility of their alteration to coal, just as there is of animal life contributing to the same end, and doubtless such alterations have taken place in both cases. The differences directly traceable to the character of the vegetation from which the coals have been derived is shown in the conditions found in peat bogs, as described by Lesquereux: “In Sweden and Denmark peat deposits, rarely of wide extent, but Sometimes very deep, are of frequent occurrence. The soil is undulat- ORIGIN. 29 ing and diversified, with a great number of large ponds or small lakes, which have been filled by a growth of peat. At Waldmarsland, near Copenhagen, I had the opportunity of examining the separate layers and the composition of one of these peat deposits, which in that country are COnsidered mines Of wood. e “At the bottom, that is the lowest level reached by the drainage, lay four feet of black, compact peat, and over it a stratum of prostrated trees (pines), most of them laid in the direction of the slope of the basin, the tops of the trees pointing toward the center. The trunks of a large number of these trees measured from six to ten inches in diameter. They still kept their branches imbedded in a mass of leaves and cones, and even mushrooms. According to the proprietor of the mine, this lower stratum of peat and prostrated forest had a total thickness of eight feet. “It was overlaid by a bed of black peat four feet thick, covered in its turn, like the other, by a bed of prostrated trees (birches, Betula alba,) three feet thick. “Above that again was a third bed of peat, six feet thick, less compact than the two beneath it, and of a yellowish color, but covered in the same manner by a stratum of large trunks of Oaks, some of them two or three feet in diameter, their wood being still in so perfectly sound a state of preservation that they could be cut and sawed for timber. “Over the oaks there was a fourth bed of fibrous yellow peat, three feet eight inches thick, made up mostly of mosses not yet fully decomposed. “The total thickness of these deposits, so far as mining operations ex- posed it, was thirty feet; but the proprietor, one of the best informed land owners in the country, informed me that both his own deposit and others in that region were known to be at least twice as deep, but were never worked to the bottom on account of the difficulty and cost of drain- ing them.”* Here we have the marsh vegetation, the mosses, passing directly into peat by cumulative resolution—just as was the case with the swamp veg- etation of the Coal Measures—while the woody plants of the submerged forests grown in situ have preserved their original structure, and are being converted into lignite. That this is the usual form of alteration is sup- ported by many examples given by the same author and others. The Observations of Others show us that even when this cumulative resolution has gone on in such plants as Lepidodendra, Sigillaria, etc., until all trace of the interior structure of the plant is destroyed, the external form is still recognizable in beds of otherwise homogeneous coal. Where, however, the woody matter entering into the formation of * Origin of Coal, Geological Survey Pennsylvania, 1885, pp. 109, 110. 30 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. coal comes to its place of deposit in a more or less finely divided con- dition, lignite is not formed, but the material simply takes its place in the deposit, with which it alters to peat, brown coal, etc. Such material is derived from mouldering, of the leaves, stems, branches, or fallen trunks of trees carried from the place of original growth by floods, or even from the disintegration of lignitized material itself by similar agency, or passing directly into deposits at the place of growth, as is sometimes the case in emerged bogs. The character of the coal, therefore, depends somewhat upon the de- gree of maceration which plants undergo before final deposition. A difference which may be traced to the manner of its deposition is found in the earthy brown coals of the Province of Saxony, with their “Schweelkohle,” and the other brown coals in which this latter is missing. Prof. von Fritsch has shown that resinous trees were largely instru- mental in furnishing the materials of the brown coal deposits with pyro- pissite in the vicinity of Halle an der Saale. In a paper read before the meeting of the IV. Allgemeinen Deutsche Bergmanstag in Halle a S., September, 1889, he describes his investigations into the nature and com- position of the brown coal and pyropissite.* Pyropissite, or tar coal, is not a coal at all, in the real signification of that term, but belongs to a different class of hydrocarbons. Pyropissite melts, while brown coal burns without melting; and there is also a great difference in the specific gravity of the two, pyropissite being lighter than water, ordinarily sp. gr. 0.9, while brown coal ranges from sp. gr. 1.2 to 1.4, and often higher. In his investigation he found, after digesting brown coal with fuming nitric acid for a day or two, that it was brought into a so- lution having a brown color, in which swam numerous organic par- ticles. These were purified with water, and afterwards with alcohol, and proved to consist of large numbers of particles of vegetable mat- ter, in part cellular tissue and in part epidermal tissue. An exami- nation of tar coal showed only particles of amorphous resinous material, and it was only in impure specimens that any traces of plant cells either of bark or tissue were found, such as were so common in the brown coal. He therefore traces the origin of the fire coal (earthy brown coal) to the * Ueber die Entstehung der Braunkohlen, besonders der Schweelkohlen, Halle a. S., 1889. FORMATION. 31 woody portion of the plant, and the pyropissite (tar coal) to the resinous matter it contained. The tar coal, or pyropissite, forms bands or alternating strata with the fire coal, or is scattered through it in irregular masses. Prof. von Fritsch argues that the trees could not have grown at the locality of the brown coal deposit, for had that been the case there would have been an intimate mingling of the two materials both derived from the same trees, as is the case in other localities, but that they have been brought in from elsewhere, and the sorting action of the water has separated the tar coal from the fire coal by reason of their different specific gravities when brought to their place of deposit. FORMATION. Coal is produced by the chemical alteration of vegetable matter in the presence of water. And the processes by which the beds of coal were formed are in steady and gradual operation around us to-day. These are: 1. The decomposition of the vegetable matter: a. In contact with air. b. Out of contact with air. 2. The deposition of the decomposed materials: a. At the place of its origin. b. At other localities. 3. The subsequent alteration of the deposits by slow or more rapid metamorphism. I. THE DECOMPOSITION OF VEGETABLE MATTER. a. IN CONTACT witH AIR.—Vegetable matter, which is composed principally of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, when exposed to the action of the air undergoes change in two ways. It is partly oxidized by the air, or decays, and partly decomposed. In the process of oxidation or decay there is a loss of carbon as carbonic acid, and hydrogen as water, and the final resultant would be a pure carbon. This is believed by Some to be the method of formation of the mineral charcoal which is found between the layers of many bituminous coals, and which consists of nearly pure carbon. Where the atmosphere is sufficiently moist, this final carbonization does not occur, but the process takes more nearly the form of mouldering. b. OUT OF ContACT witH AIR.—The change of vegetable matter out 32 IBROWN COAL AND T.IGNITE. of contact with the air, or in presence of very moist atmosphere, but more especially under water, is due to decomposition only, or moulder- ing, in which the elements which enter into the composition of woody fibre as expressed by the formula of cellulose (Cs H, 60s), are resolved into four combinations, water, carbonic acid, light carburetted hydrogen or marsh gas, and coal, and the character of the coal is determined by the relative amounts of each of these products which are formed. The for- mation of carbonic acid and marsh gas, the choke-damp and fire-damp of the miners, is constantly going on even now in coal seams, and if con- tinued long enough would ultimately convert beds of bituminous coal into anthracite. * The changes which take place in the formation of coal, as shown by microscopic examination of beds of peat, “Are associated with the carbonization of the various materials and its further transformations. The experiments of Lindley and Goeppert show that the persistence of structure of plants immersed in water de- pends very much on the power which particular families of plants possess of resisting the decomposing action of water. “The process of transformation becomes more and more apparent by the deposit of a black amorphous matter in and upon the walls of the cells, which, under the microscope, appears to be nothing but carbon, and at first occurs in a very definite manner. The granular deposit is no- ticed first in the interior of the cells and upon the walls of the tubes which compose the vascular tissue of the plants, so that the process of transformation appears to begin with these. This metamorphosis con- tinues until the original anatomical appearance of recent vegetable tis- Sue is completely destroyed, becoming opaque, granular, and amorphOus by the deposit of the black substance. “The evolution of gaseous products ruptures the cells, and the vascu- lar tissue becomes separated, so that the cells and fibres gradually pass into an amorphous mass of a black color, or into an homogeneous yellow resinous-like substance. “These are the changes which take place where the air is partially ex- cluded, but when it has access the mass assumes a more earthy aspect and the elements of the tissues moulder down into granular particles. The gaseous products, when they can not bodily escape, tend to break up * Le Conte, J. L. Elements of Geology. For discussion of the changes in chemical composition which vegetable tissue undergoes during its conversion into peat and coal, compare also Percy’s Metal- lurgy, “Fuel,” p. 213, Dana's System of Mineralogy, p. 750, Bischoff's Chemical and Physical Geology, Vol. I, p. 274, et. seq., Muspratt, etc. FORMATION. 33 the tissues as they become confined within the cells or between the tubes. The burial of vegetable matter in the earth thus shuts out the action of the air and exposes it to the action of mineral matter, either the result of its own decomposition or that of surrounding strata.”* “The vegetable material, in changing to ordinary mineral coal, has not passed necessarily through the state of brown coal. * * * Be- tween these extremes of excluded air and very imperfectly excluded, and of pressure from heavy superincumbent earthy beds and little or no pres- sure, lie the conditions which attended the origin of the various kinds of coal, and determined, in connection with the nature of the vegetation it- self, the transformations in progress.”f Capacci’s table of the comparative values of carbon, hydrogen and Oxygen in wood, brown coal, bituminous coal, and anthracite, with the combined amounts of hydrogen and oxygen equaling fifty per cent of the total weight in wood, thirty per cent in brown coal, fifteen per cent in bituminous coal, and five per cent in anthracite, show that the rela- tions between the carbon and the hydrogen and oxygen would be re- spectively: C=H-HO in wood. C=2.33 (H+O) in brown coal. C=5.66 (H+O) in bituminous coal. C=19 (H+O) in anthracite. In other words, that the cumulative resolution or gradual elimination of the hydrogen and oxygen of the plant tissue or cellulose out of con- tact with air would, if it proceeded regularly and naturally for a length of time sufficiently great, cause the wood fibre to pass successively through the stages of peat, brown coal, bituminous coal, anthracite. This pro- cess may be accelerated by heat, moisture, and preasure, or it may be impeded or entirely stopped by exposure to atmospheric agencies or ox- idation. The relative proportions of the elements constituting the various kinds of fuels are given in the following tables from Groves & Thorp, to show that they are chemically derivable, as has been stated, by cumulative resolution: * Groves and Thorp, Chemical Technology, p. 36. f Dana, System of Mineralogy, 1888, pp. 758, 759. () MISSI () N. ('apacci. Ing. ('elso. Studi sulle Ligniti. Turin, 1890. 34 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. TABLE NO. 1. C. FI. O. Woody fibre... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.65 5.25 42.10 Peat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.57 5.96 34.47 Lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G6.04 5.27 28.69 Earthy brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.18 5.88 21.14 Secondary coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75.06 5.84 19.10 Bituminous coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89.29 5.05 5.66 Anthracite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.58 3.96 4.46 TABLE NO. 2. c. H. o. & N. º. WOOd—mean of several analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.00 12.18 83.07 1.80 Peat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.00 9.85 55.67 2.89 Lignite—mean of 15 analyses, including brown coal..100.00 8.37 42.42 3.07 Steam coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.00 5.91 18.32 3.62 Anthracite (Penn.)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.00 2.84 1.74 2.63 The chemical decomposition was also attended to a greater or less extent by disintegration or maceration, and the degree to which this was carried before final deposition has had a great influence upon the result- ing coal. Thus in the brown coals, it was least in the lignite and its varieties, greater in earthy brown coal, and its highest degree was reached in the process which produces glance coal and pitch coal. II. THE DEPOSITION OF THE DECOMPOSED MATERIALS. The places of deposition are: In complete basins, marshes, lakes or lagoons. Along the shores of lakes. Along river banks. In the river deltas. Along the sea shore. a. AT THE PLACE of ORIGIN.—This may be accomplished in three ways: 1. Through the decay and deposition of sea plants. The theory which considered all the coal beds as derived from such sea growth as occurs in the Sargossas is not now accepted, since the plants which occur there do not contain the necessary woody fibre. There are, however, certain small deposits which have been referred to such deposition from plants occurring along the sea coast and adjacent shore. FORMATION. 35 2. Through the submergence of forests. Numerous examples of deposits formed in this way are found in the brown coal beds of Switzerland, Silesia, and elsewhere. In the United States a similar Occurrence is noted at Drummond lake of the Dismal Swamp, which may, however, more properly belong to the deposits de- Scribed below. 3. Through accumulations similar to those of the peat bogs of the present day. Peat deposits are very scarce, if not entirely wanting, in this region, and few have had an opportunity of examining them. In his paper on the origin of coal, already referred to, Prof. Lesquereux describes their mode of occurrence and growth, and from this paper I have arranged the following description: “The definition of a bed of peat is the same as that of a bed of coal. It is an accumulation of the remains of plants grown in situ, deposited each year, or after the cycle of their vegetation is completed, and super- imposed without interruption, One layer upon another, until the accumu- lation becomes sometimes of great thickness, and covering a wide surface Of land. “Two conditions are necessary for the origin and growth of peat: water either stagnant in basins, lakes, pools, etc., or water abundantly supplied by a foggy atmosphere, increased by dense forest growth. “Peat bogs in the low countries are more extensively formed along the sea shore, especially near the mouths of large rivers, like the Somme, in France; the Weser and Elbe, in Germany; along the shores of the North Sea, in Holland; and of the Baltic, in North Germany, Pomerania, Denmark, Sweden, etc. Peat is formed everywhere where an expanse of water has become enclosed as a water basin sheltered from the invasion of the sea by bands of sand thrown up by the waves; or along the river valleys, by the natural levees which border most great rivers in Some parts of their course, especially near their mouths. These natural dams are made by the deposit of muddy matter in times of inundation; since currents make their precipitations along their border lines, where the force ceases to be active, and at a greater or less distance from the maximum line of flow, and parallel to it. “Behind such natural dams or levees, wherever the inundations do not overleap, there remain shallow basins with impermeable bottoms of Soft mud or clay. These are invaded by vegetation and transformed into peat bogs. Along the shores of the sea also the waves and winds create long sand dunes, some of which are very high. Behind these barriers Small creeks and even rivers are arrested in their flow, their waters ex- 36 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. § panding into shallow basins, which are invaded by plants and filled with peat deposits. These still retreats of vegetation are not always safe from disturbance; although sheltered for a time against the rivers or the ocean, it will happen that some extraordinary freshet, some extraordinary high tide, Some tremendous storms, break down or through the barriers, and then the peat bogs become covered with a deposit of mud or sand. “Pools of stagnant water, when not exposed to periodical drying up, are invaded by a peculiar vegetation, first mostly composed of confervae, simple thread-like plants, of various colors and of prodigious activity of growth, mixed with a mass of infusoria, animalcules and microscopic plants, which, partly decomposed, partly continuing the floating vegeta- tion, soon fill the basins and cover the bottoms with a floating clay-like mould. So rapid is the work of these minute beings that in some cases from six to ten inches of this mud is deposited in one year. Some arti- ficial basins in the large ornamental parks of Europe have to be cleaned Of such muddy deposits of floating plants, mixed with small shells, every three or four years. “When left undisturbed this mud becomes gradually thick and solid, in Some cases of great thickness, affording a kind of soil for the growth of marsh plants, which root at the bottoms of the basins or swamps and send up their stems or leaves to the surface of the water or above it, where their substance becomes in the sunshine hard and woody. As these plants periodically decay, their remains of course drop to the bottom of the water; and each year the process is repeated with a more or less marked variation in the species of the plants. After a time the basin be- comes filled by these successive accumulations of years or even centuries, and then the top surface of the decayed matter, being exposed to atmos- pheric action, is transformed into humus, and is gradually covered by other kinds of plants, making meadows and forests. In this way many deposits of peat are buried under ground and remain unknown until dis- covered by diggings or borings. Such are the immense peat deposits in the great Swamps of Virginia, the Dismal Swamps, and all along the shores of the Atlantic from Norfolk to New Orleans. “In other cases, when basins of stagnant water” are too deep for the vegetation of aquatic plants, nature attains the same result by a different special process, namely, by the prolonged vegetation of certain kinds of floating mosses, especially the species known as Sphagna. These floating mosses grow with prodigious speed, and expanding their branches in every direction over the surface of ponds or small lakes, soon cover it * This word should not be understood as water absolutely destitute of all movement, either by access or egress, but merely water not exposed to sweep- ing currents or great change of level. No peat can grow where the bottom of the basin is occasionally dry and exposed to the action of the atmosphere. FORMATION. 37 entirely. They thus form a thin floating carpet, which, as it gradually increases in thickness, serves as a solid soil for another kind of vegeta- tion, that of the rushes, the sedges, and some kinds of grasses, which grow abundantly mixed with the mosses, which by their water absorbing struct- ure furnish a persistent humidity sufficient for the preservation of their remains against aerial decay. The floating carpet of moss becomes still more solid, and is then overspread by many species of larger swamp plants, and small arborescent shrubs, especially those of the heath family; and so, in the lapse of years by the continual vegetation of the mosses, which is never interrupted, and by the yearly deposits of plant remains, the carpet at last becomes strong enough to support trees, and is changed into a floating forest, until, becoming too heavy, it either breaks and sinks suddenly to the bottom of the basin, or is slowly and gradually lowered into it and COvered with water. “The operation is nevertheless not yet complete, at least not always; for, after the sinking of the first floating carpet, the vegetation of the mosses may begin again at the clear surface of the water, and in the course of years or centuries—no matter how many, for nature is never in a hurry— a new carpet covers the basin, another cycle of vegetation begins and continues its course, until this second mass of vegetation, like the first, is pressed down under water. Thus we have two superposed beds of vegetable remains in process of slow decomposition, or subjected to the beginning of the transformation into coal. And both the layers are composed in the same way, the lower part being a mass of the remains of small vegetation, mosses, water plants, etc., the upper part covered with trees; that is, two beds of peat and two forests. “This exposition has no hypothetical character whatever; it is merely a description of observed facts. In the southern part of the United States the results of the process are differently exhibited. The bottom of Drummond lake, of the Dismal Swamp, for example, is formed of a forest, once growing at the surface, but now prostrate and buried be- neath fifteen or twenty feet of water. Beneath it probably lies a deposit of the detritus of plants, or a bed of peat; while the moss vegetation is now advancing into the lake from all around its edge; so that it is not possible to reach the open water without sinking deeply at every step into the floating carpet. “The water necessary for the growth of the plants which compose peat, and for the preservation of the vegetable remains against rapid decompo- sition, is not always in the shape of standing water, ponds or lakes. An ordinary spring of water will answer the purpose. Or, as has been said above, the moisture of the air may suffice. In the first case, the Opera- tion depends upon the nature of a special kind of moss called sphagnum, already mentioned, which has a very peculiar conformation and in reality 38 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. is not a true moss, but constitutes a separate family of plants not properly related to any other kind. From the seeds which develop in water, the stems expand loosely in every direction, in floating tufts, which grow continually wider and thicker until the basin is entirely filled by their vegetation. “In the other case, upon land surfaces where but little water is at hand for their original development, they grow in compact tufts (the stems not thicker than coarse thread) compressed upon each other, their branches and leaves being endowed with the peculiar property of absorbing moist- ure by their outer tissue, and imbibing it like a sponge. In this way they obtain sufficient moisture to sustain their growth. But under cer- tain circumstances, when the atmosphere itself contains less moisture than the mosses hold in their tissue, they have the faculty of absorbing water by their stems and leaves from below, taking it up to the surface of their leaves, where it is evaporated into the atmosphere. “The growth of these mosses is not limited to seasons. Although its activity in freezing weather stops for a time, it is resumed as soon as the temperature rises above 32 degrees; and, as these mosses are constantly filled with water in such a degree that it can be squeezed from a tuft as it can be squeezed from a soaked sponge, they furnish the best kind of ground for the germination and growth of a large number of aquatic and other plants; which in fact germinate in these humected tufts of moss quite as well as they could do upon wet ground. These mosses, there- fore, covering, as they often do, very wide areas, play the same part upon land surfaces as they do upon the water basins over which they float, the only difference being that on land surfaces their substance is far more compact. “Each year the peat bogs grow higher and higher, not merely by the yearly additions to the surface of the mass of sphagnum (and other plants mixed with it), but also by the added bulk of whatever woody remains get buried beneath the growth of moss. For, as soon as the moss bogs have become sufficiently compact, certain kinds of trees, like the tamarack, the bolled cypress and the birch in North America, and the Smaller species of pines in Europe, are apt to invade their surfaces. The roots of these trees become covered by the mosses, which build up their high tufts around them, protecting from the decomposing action of the atmosphere not only the roots of the growing trees, but all such leaves, branches, pieces of bark, cones, etc., as may fall upon the moss-covered surface. “When the atmosphere is very humid, or where the supply of water is furnished by some rivulet traversing the swampy plain, the peat grows upward rapidly and to a great thickness. In the great peat bogs of Les Ponts, Jura, the thickness of the peat is found to vary between 8 and 30 feet. In some provinces of Russia the growth of peat is officially reported TORMATION. 39 to be 50 and even 100 feet thick. In mountainous, foggy regions the ab- sorbent ability of sphagnum makes peat bogs grow even On steep slopes, which become, for this reason, more or less impassable. The mountain sides near the summit of the Brocken (the highest of the Hartz moun- tains) are sheeted with large boulders of rock, covered over and filled in between with moss, which thus makes a continuous carpet. “The absorbing powers of the peat mosses enables them to grow higher and higher above their original water level, from which they thus grad- ally emerge. The name emerged bogs has therefore been given to them. “The peat of emerged bogs is less compact, the annual layers are more distinct, generally well defined in their succession. At the top of the bog the layers measure about one inch in thickness; at the bottom less than one-eighth inch; and in old bogs still less. The growth there- fore, though not very rapid, is easily observed and registered. “The rate of growth depends of course on atmospheric or other local circumstances, but, putting together many such pieces of documentary testimony obtained in different countries, the average production of compact matter may in a general way be estimated at One foot in a century. “In emerged bogs, formed of vegetable debris falling into water, the peat grows more slowly and less regularly. The actual rate of its growth has not yet been positively recorded. In very extensive bogs, stretch- ing between Swiss lakes, timber posts have been discovered on the line of an old road, and part of a bridge buried beneath five or six feet of compact black peat. Although the exact date of these constructions has not been fixed, the discovery of Roman medals in the vicinity suggests the beginning of the Christian era. This shows that the kind of peat which results from the maceration of plants under water is of much slower growth than the peat layers of the emerged bogs. It is also more compact, and is quite black, the vegetable matter being more completely decomposed, and its internal structure generally so destroyed as to be unrecognizable. The peat of emerged bogs on the contrary is yellowish- brown, fibrous, its annual layers distinct, and the woody fragments more generally recognizable. “That the earth’s atmosphere was thoroughly saturated by vapors in the Carboniferous period is fully evidenced by the character of the flora of that epoch. The great thickness of the Carboniferous vegetable de- posits is in accordance with the probable fact of an excessively humid atmosphere; for it is well established that all of the deposits of immersed peat are generally thin. The beds of cannel coal, which are the ancient representatives of such lake bogs, are usually thinner than those of bitu- minous coal. “It must, however, be kept in mind that all the agencies which con- 40 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. 3. tributed to the formation of coal beds worked on a prodigously larger scale than those which are now in activity for the formation of peat. Then, the deposits of vegetable remains were from an exceptionally ex- huberant vegetation, favored by the greatest possible humidity of the air, and a superabundance of carbonic acid in the atmosphere. It was a vegetation of which we can scarcely get an idea from anything now vis- ible. Acrogenous plants, Ferns, Lycopods and Equiseta (Horsetail) com- posed nearly the whole flora of the coal period. All the plants of those orders, represented by numerous genera, were then large trees, their trunks measuring from one to three feet in diameter, 40 to 100 feet tall, or even more, growing close together, and forming an impenetrable thicket of stems, branches and leaves; whereas, at the present day, the same kinds of plants are represented by mere herbage of small size, with stems and branches scarcely as thick as a goose quill, and only one or two feet high. Most of the land surface was then a vastness of Swamps, in which the first growth, generally floating or creeping plants, was essentially composed of a peculiar species, the Stigmaria, whose immensely long stems and branches, from four to six inches thick, were woven together, like the thin, matted, floating stems of the Sphagnum of the present age, into an immense woven mat, or thick carpet, over which the luxuriant land vegetation of the coal soon spread itself. And, of course, we must Suppose that such an accumulation of ponderous materials, such a mass of vegetation, sank of its own weight at times and places into the water be- meath and became wholly submerged. This supposition becomes a cer- tainty in view of the superposition of thick beds of sandstone, shale, clay, ironstone and limestone upon the old beds of coal.’’ This description applies as well to the formation of certain deposits of brown coal as it does to those of bituminous coal. In some cases it is en- tirely possible from the character of the brown coal itself and from in- cluded materials to designate a certain deposit as having been formed in a submerged bog, while another is similarly shown to have been from an emerged bog. Thus the coal formed in the emerged bog is distinguished by its greater purity, less content of ash, and the scattered fragments of lignite occurring through it. These beds often contain roots of ferns. b. AT OTHER LOCALITIES.—While a certain portion of our brown coal was formed in this manner, there are nevertheless great quantities which Owe their origin to conditions somewhat analogous to those of the gulf coast of the present day. Stretching along the entire water front were bays and lagoons into which the rivers of Tertiary times poured their floods of water, carrying in solution and in suspension sand and clay and FORMATION. 41 lime, and bearing on their bosoms the drift gathered from the forest- covered hillsides through which they passed. The variety and luxuriance of the timber growth of that period is fully certified to us in the character and size of those portions of it which have come down to us in petrified condition and in the great beds of fossil leaves which are found at many localities. And the mouldered material, fresh plant portions, and soil masses carried down in this way have given rise to many of the beds of earthy and common brown coal with their in- terbedded clays or sands. In the fresh water basins great regularity of structure is exhibited, and the interbedded materials consist principally of plastic clay, and the coarser sand or pebble beds are entirely wanting. These latter, coarser or finer, are characteristic of the littoral or estuarine deposits. “During the formation of the Carboniferous beds,” all the rivers whose banks were covered with wood carried immense masses of drift- wood down into the sea, as the large American rivers do at the present time which are flowing through wide tracts of uncultivated lands. The culture of land has rendered circumstances quiet different. The banks of rivers have become arable and meadow land, while the Y, Oods have been destroyed for some distance from the banks. On this account, the quantity of drift wood carried down by rivers flowing through cultivated land has become much less than that which they conveyed to the sea in prehistoric ages. Not only were trees and shrubs torn up by the roots by floods, but also the decayed remains of plants were swept into the stream and carried into the sea. Every small brook and stream, over- charged after long rain or the melting of the snows, was laden with these substances. At this period, when a greater part of the earth’s surface was covered with luxuriant vegetation, these waters carried almost only decaying vegetable matter along with them; while at the present they carry down far more inorganic matter, derived from culti- vated land, than organic matter, the quantity of which is small since the crops are collected. Organic matter is, however, found upon analyzing the suspended matter of rivers; in that of the Rhine it amounts to 3.31, and in the mud of the Nile to as much as 5.5 per cent. “The trunks of trees float in water, but if they retain their roots, which are often laden with earth and stones, they readily sink, especially when soaked through with water. The trunks of trees, such as form the drift- wood of the Mackenzie river in the Slave lake f suffer a gradual decay, until they are converted into a blackish-brown substance resembling peat; * Bischoff, Chemical and Physical Geology, Vol. I, p. 295. f Dr. Richardson, in Lyell’s Principles, p. 716. 42 BROWN COAT, AND IIGNITE. the layers of this often alternate with layers of sand and clay, the whole being penetrated by the long fibrous roots of willows, which grow on their trunks as soon as they appear above water. A deposition of this kind would produce, says Lyell, an excellent imitation of coal, with im- pressions of the willow roots. The banks of the Mackenzie present almost everywhere horizontal beds of wood coal, alternating with bitum- inous clay, gravel, Sand, and friable Sandstone; sections, in short, of such deposits as are now forming at the bottoms of the lakes which it tra- verses. This wood coal, after having been converted into this blackish- brown substance, can not fail to be rubbed Off and carried into the sea during high water. A very great mass of driftwood is found where the Mackenzie reaches the Sea. “When stems of trees are converted into fine powder, by decay or mechanical means, it sinks in still water. This is the case not only with heavy woods, such as Oaks, beech and pine, but also with willow wood. It is only imperfectly decayed ligneous fibre which floats. Decayed spongy beech wood, sometimes quite bleached, and in which the inside wood is often altered, sinks when rubbed to powder; not, however, till after some days, if it be in large pieces. Some dark brown pulverulent ligneous fibre, resulting from the decay of heath plants, which I found in a forest, washed into the road by a heavy rain, sank immediately in water. Oak, fir, and poplar sawdust likewise sink, but splinters float in water. Even finely powdered dead leaves sink. The particles of wood, whether decayed or mechanically divided, also sink in sea water. There is no doubt that it is merely necessary to displace the air in wood by water in Order to cause it to sink. “In the moving waters of rivers, finely divided decaying vegetable Substances are not deposited, or at most, only temporarily; they are there- fore carried into the Sea or lakes, and sink in still water. This is also the case with the same kind of substances swept into the sea by the waves dashing upon the shore, and by the tides. “Although these organic substances are but little denser than water, while the inorganic matter suspended in river waters is two and a half or three times as dense as water, the former sink much SOOner than the lat- ter. Muddy Rhine water does not become clear until after it has stood four months. If, therefore, decayed vegetable matter and finely divided in- organic matter are simultaneously carried into the Sea, very little of the latter sinks with the former. For this reason the inorganic matter of coal always amounts to less than the carbonaceous, as is evident from the analysis of coal and brown coal. “It is easy to imagine that in prehistoric ages the quantity of decayed vegetable substances (vegetable detritus) carried into the rivers must have amounted to much more than that of the trees actually carried into them 12HYSICAL CHARACTER. 43 as such; for only the trees torn up from the banks and steep declivities of the rivers came into them in a perfect state, and not those which died upon the highlands and slight declivities. It was not until after these were decayed that they could be carried away by water. Then the area of the high plains and the slightly inclined land is, when the rivers flow through narrow valleys, far greater than that of the overflowed banks and the steep declivities. The dead trees upon slight inclinations are more or less fixed to the ground by their roots, and, like blocks of stone in the same position, are not carried away by the streams until after they have suffered decomposition.’’ III. THE SUBSEQUENT ALTERATION OF THE DEPOSITS BY SLOW OR MORE RAPID METAMORPHISM. As has already been stated, the decomposition which is the principal factor in the formation of the coal, does not cease with its deposition and its subsequent covering by beds of sand or clay, which may in time be hardened into rock, but continues its action indefinitely. This action may be accelerated by an increase of heat arising from greater pressure, earth movements, volcanic action or otherwise, and thus produce, from what would otherwise be a brown coal or lignite, a bituminous coal or even a variety of anthracite. When such acceleration is not applied the changes are of course very slow, and such derivation of anthracite and graphite without acceleration has not been definitely proved. PHYSICAL CEIARACTER OF BROWN COAL. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. —The specific gravity of brown coal varies from 0.8 in pyropissite (which is often classed among them, although more prop- erly a resin), to 1.5 in other varieties. This can only be regarded as an expression of the density itself if the coal is sufficiently clear from extra- neous admixtures or ash. Zincken recommends that in determining the specific gravity of brown coals the specimen, after being weighed in air, and previous to being weighed in distilled water, be freed from the greater part of its absorbed gases under the receptacle of the air pump. This is the only way of securing anything like accurate results, and with lignitic-coals requires a long continued exhaustion to obtain a proper de- termination. HARDNESS.—The hardness of brown coal varies from that of bitumin- Ous coals to that of peat. 44 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. CoHERENCE.-Brown coals vary from a soft, earthy material through all grades of compactness and toughness to that which renders it necessary to mine it by blasting. Lignitic varieties are sometimes flexible and elastic. CLEAVAGE.-The earthy, or common brown coals, show no cleavage; the lignitic, however, have a cleavage in the direction of the grain of the wood. Certain pitch coals, or glance coals, also show slight cleavage parallel to the stratification planes. JointED STRUCTURE. –Vertical joints are very common in beds of brown coal, and in glance coal and pitch coal these are so arranged that they fall apart in fragments of cubical or parallelopipedon shape. FRACTURE.—The fracture is even to uneven, smooth, slightly to com- pletely conchoidal, crooked, angular, granular, splintery, Schistose, and earthy in brown coals, and fibrous in those of woody texture. CoLoR.—The color of brown coal varies from light yellow through all Shades to the darkest brown and black. LUSTRE.-Brown coals possess a variety of lustres, such as dull, waxy, pitchy, greasy, vitreous, and metallic. STREAK AND Powder.—The streak and powder of brown coal vary from light to dark brown, and is usually of a lighter shade than the mass. If the brown coal be scratched, the scratch shows a surface more or less shining. The earthy varieties often assume a greasy appearance if rubbed with the finger nail. Fötterly states that the streak and fine powder are the safest criteria for distinguishing stone coal from brown coal, as these are always black in the former and brown in the latter, but Zincken takes exception to this on the grounds stated elsewhere. Everhart gives, as a characteristic of brown coal, that a piece of it dipped in water and held to the ear emits a peculiar crackling Sound, which is not given out by bituminous coal under similar circumstances. CoNTENTs of BRow N CoAL IN HYGRoscopic WATER.—The hygrosco- pic water contained in brown coal varies with the variety of coal and the length of time which it has been mined. The variety of brown coal which has the least amount of water is a glance coal and pitch coal of Salesl in Bohemia, which only carries about two per cent. From this amount it gradually rises in the different kinds until in the freshly mined earthy brown coal of Germany it often amounts to fully one-half the en- tire weight. The table given below shows the relative amounts of hy- groscopic water in some of the European brown coals. PHYSICAL CHARACTER. 45 TABLE NO. 3. Amount of Hygroscopic Water in Representative Brown Coals of Europe. Sales] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bohemia..... Glance coal ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.00 Miesbach . . . . . . . . . . . Bavaria. . . . . . Pitch coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.36 Tokod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hungary....| Glance coal... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.86 Teplitz. . . . . . . . . . . . . Bohemia... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.25 Jasteani. . . . . . . . . . . . Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.00 Falkenau. . . . . . . . . . . Bohemia.....] Brown coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.03 Dux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bohemia... . . . Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.00 Gloggnitz . . . . . . . . . . Austria . . . . . Lignitic brown coal, much fissured. 25.00 Schallan (Teplitz). . Bohemia... . . Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.80 Bovey ... . . . . . . . . . . . England.....| Brown lignitie (Miocene). . . . . . . . .‘. . 34.66 San Giovanni. . . . . . . Italy . . . . . A. e. e. I a e º e e º 'º e e s a s a s = e º 'º e s a • * * 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 40.00 Halle a. S. . . . . . . . . . Germany . . . . . Earthy brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.00 A part of this moisture is readily dissipated on exposure to air, and to this fact is due to a large degree the quality possessed by brown coals of slacking or crumbling when so exposed. Even after long exposure to the air many brown coals contain as much as fifteen to twenty per cent of moisture. This water may be driven off by heating the coal to a tem- perature of 100 degrees C., or a little higher, but if it is left open to the atmosphere it will reabsorb as much as it lost. TABLE NO. 4. Moisture Absorbed per I00 Pownds of Dried Brown Coal. Hours and Gloggnitz. Tallern. Wester Wald. Westerwald. Grumbach. Minutes. (Austria.) (Austria.) (Nassau.) (Nassau.) (Austria.) 0.15 5.50 3.50 2.10 1.40 1.50 ().30 e - tº o 4.70 3.50 2.90 3.00 0.45 & e º º tº e º º 5.40 4.10 & e º º 1.00 8.40 5.30 (3.50 4.80 3.70 3.00 9.50 4.00 e - - - s • e - 5.00 10.70 e e s tº 6.00 e - e. e. 13.40 7.00 e e º 'º' 8.00 e e º º * * * * 14.80 - - - - 12.00 14.90 9.60 tº e º - 6. 24.00 15.90 12.70 6.60 ASHES OF BROWN COAL.—In addition to the inorganic matter contained in the woody substances from which the coals are derived, they contain 46 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. greater or less amounts of mineral matter which have been deposited with them from solution or suspension in the water in which they are laid down. The amount of such material varies widely, not only in different beds, but in different parts of the same bed, or even from different parts of the same lump. The ash consists principally of silica, alumina, oxide of iron, lime and alkalies. It may lessen the value of the coal in two ways: first, by its existence in the coal in too great quantity; second, by the presence in it of the iron or alkalies in such proportion as to form “clinkers” by fusing. The color of the ash is often a fair indication as to the amount of iron present, those white to gray in color being low in that metal, while the various shades of red indicate its presence in corres- ponding quantities. It usually occurs in the form of pyrites. CIHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF BROWN COAL. The chemical properties of brown coal are twofold: First, its compo- sition; that is to say, the elements of which it is composed and the rela- tive quantities of each contained in it. Second, the action of chemical reagents upon it. Of these the first is by far the more important for our purpose; but while the latter have no special bearing on its fuel value, they are given for comparison. Two methods are used for the purpose of ascertaining the composition of brown coal. The first of these merely determines the relative propor- tion of water, compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, Ordinarily reported as “volatile matter,” fixed carbon and ash, which together con- stitute the coke if one is formed. This is called proximate analysis. The water is determined by heating the powdered coal to 105 degrees C. (care being taken to avoid oxidation), until the weight is constant. The volatile matter is determined by subjecting a weighed quantity of the carefully dried coal to a dull red heat in a platinum crucible until the volatile matters are driven off, and their quantity is then determined by 2 y loss of weight. The remainder consists of the “coke,” or fixed carbon, and the ash. This part of the analysis can not be made by the method commonly used with bituminous coals of heating them strongly in blast flame for three minutes and reckoning the loss of weight as volatile matter, since this not only brings about combinations of the carbon and disposa- ble hydrogen of the brown coals, which are volatile at the temperature employed, but from the physical peculiarity of the brown coal an appre- CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. 47 ciable quantity of it is carried off unburned if finely powdered, when the blast and high heat are used. This gives the amount of volatile matter a much higher ratio than that actually existing, and the fixed carbon a cor- respondingly lower one. The amount of ash is found by carefully burn- ing the coke left in the preceding operation in an open platinum crucible until the carbon is perfectly consumed and the ash assumes a clear ap- pearance. This is the method of analysis most often followed, but while it gives an idea of the character of the coal, it does not furnish the requi- site data for an accurate calculation as to its real value. A modification of this method of analysis for fuel valuation is often used to ascertain the suitability of the brown coals for other purposes, such as the production of paraffine, oil, tar, etc. This is called fractional distillation. t The other method is an ultimate analysis of the coal—a separation of its elementary substances—carbon, hydrogen, Oxygen and nitrogen, which is usually accomplished by combustion with oxide of copper, preferably with the use of a boat of platinum or other substance in a stream of oxy- gen supplied by a gasometer. In this method, which is substantially that commonly used in all organic analyses, the carbon and hydrogen are burned to carbonic acid and water, separated and weighed, and the loss taken as representing the oxygen and nitrogen, or the nitrogen may be determined by the ordinary methods. The process is carried on in a tube of difficultly fusible glass or platinum, which is connected on the one hand with the gasometers holding Oxygen and air, by bulbs containing caustic potash and chloride of calcium, to absorb all carbonic acid and moisture that may be in the air and oxygen, and on the other with simi- lar tubes to collect the products of combustion. The combustion is made in the usual manner, and the amount of carbonic acid and water produced are ascertained from the difference in weight of the collection bulbs of caustic potash and chloride of calcium before and after combustion. From these amounts the total carbon and hydrogen of the coal can be easily calculated, and if a boat has been used it contains the ash, which can also be weighed. An analysis of this character gives data for the calculation of the calorific value of the fuel, and is, properly speaking, the only re- liable basis for such a determination. According to Fremy,” lignites are partly dissolved in alkalies with * Zincken, p. 10. 48 . BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. formation of ulmates, which color the solution dark brown. They are completely dissolved by hot nitric acid into a yellow solution, in which the insoluble resins float and are also dissolved by hypochlorite of Soda, leaving only traces of colorless pith. The earthy, compact, and black varieties of brown coal dissolve either very slightly or not at all in alkalies; they produce scarcely any ulmic acid, are soluble in nitric acid with separation of the resin, and are com- pletely dissolved by hypochlorite solutions, as well as in a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids, to a substance similar to ulmic acid, which is precipitated by water. Bituminous coal and anthracite, On the other hand, are not acted upon by hypochlorite of soda and alkalies, and only slightly, and after a long time, by nitric acid. The ulmic acid-like body produced by solution in nitric and sulphuric acids can also be precipitated by water. Percy’s experiments on the reaction of various reagents nitric acid, sulphuric acid, hypochlorite of Soda, and potash, On anthracite, bitumin- ous coal, and lignite, where the action was allowed to go on several years, shows that the reaction is greatest in the lignites, less in the bitu- minous coal, and least of all in anthracite. CLASSIFICATION OF TEXAS BROWN COALS. The following table will represent the different varieties of brown coal which are found in Texas, with the European equivalents. TABLE NO. 5. Texan. German. IFrench. Italian. Lignite . . . . . . . . . . Lignite . . . . . . . . . . . Lignite xiloide. . . . Piligno. Earthy brown coal | Erdige Braunkohle Lignite terreux. . Lignite terrosa. Brown coal. . . . . . . Braunkohle. . . . . . ..] Lignite brun. . . . . . Dignite bruna. Pitch coal . . . . . . . . Pechkohle . . . . . . . . Lignite Sec. . . . . . . . Lignite secca mera. Glance coal. . . . . . . Glanzkohle . . . . . . . Lignite piciforme | Lignite grassa nera picea). Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gagat. . . . . . . . . . . . . Jais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Giajette. The different species are not only separable into varieties, but also grade almost imperceptibly one into the other. VARIETIES. 49 LIGNITE. Under this name are included portions of wood—trunk, stem, leaf, or root—more or less fossilized and altered into brown coal; yellow to dark brown in color, and with a fracture varying according to character of the wood from which they are derived. It is not infrequently the case that there can be found in a single piece woody structure and particles altered into earthy, pitch, or glance coal. Lignite occurs in single trunks or particles scattered through the sands, and as logs imbedded in deposits of brown coal of different varieties. Much of it as it comes from the mine retains its form and character so completely as to be almost indistinguishable from the ordinary wood of the present time, except that it is somewhat darker in color. It is frequently the case that such a log will be part lignite and the remainder silicified wOOd. Lignite is formed principally of coniferous woods, less often of en- dogenous woods, peat and water plants. The trunks of trees which are altered into lignite are seldom found standing at the locality at which they grew; and if they are, it is in a broken condition. They are more often found in horizonal positions, generally flattened, so that their breadth is to their height as 1:3 to 1:15. Certain deposits of brown coal consist of a bed of material in which the whole mass shows the wood structure more or less completely pre- served, and these are designated as lignitic brown coals. The varieties of lignite are based for the most part on the kind or por- tion of wood from which they are derived, such as bark coal, leaf coal, reed coal, and others. Moor coal is the name given to accumulations of the smaller portions of plants which are so finely divided as to show no woody structure, but serve as the resting place of masses of lignite derived from swamp growth or woody roots, trunks, etc., and is the most common companion of lig- nite deposits. EARTHY BROWN COAL. Earthy brown coal, through the more complete maceration of the plant material of which it is formed, is entirely amorphous, and shows no wood structure. In color it varies from yellow, through various shades of <=–Greol. 50 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. brown, to brownish black. It is friable and earthy in structure, whence its name. It frequently contains quantities of lignite, and is usually ac- companied by retinite, amber, and pyropissite. This latter is known as “Schweelkohle,” and is the base of the great paraffine industry of Germany. In its ordinary condition it contains as much as forty-five or even fifty per cent of moisture. While it somewhat resembles Our Texas brown coal, especially in the fatty streaks which occur in it, the German is much more friable than ours, and also much inferior to it in heating value in the raw state on account of the great percentage of water it contains. This is the character of brown coal that is found most largely developed in the district around Halle a. S., and in the Rhine provinces. Much of it lies very near the surface, in beds varying from a few inches to sixty feet in thickness, and is most often mixed with Schweel coal to a greater or less extent. From this variety of brown coal is manufactured the 2 “mass-press-stein ’’ and brown coal briquettes without bond. Cologne earth or umber is a variety of earthy brown coal. According to Roscoe & Schorlemmer and Dana earthy brown coal is “not a true coal, inasmuch as a considerable portion of it is soluble in ether and benzene, and often even in alcohol, whereas true coal is nearly, if not quite, insoluble in these liquids.”* The suggestion is made that the soluble portions may represent the pyropissite or other resins contained in this variety of brown coal. BROWN COAL. Brown coal, or common brown coal as, it is sometimes called, is de- scribed by Zincken as follows: “Compact more or less firm and solid masses, with traces of woody structure in parts. Structure compact passing into earthy, fracture even to somewhat conchoidal, lustre dull or slightly shining. Color from light brown to blackish-brown, and with a greasy, shining streak. It is intermediate between earthy brown coal and pitch coal.’’ This variety of coal is that which is most common in Austria, where it is associated with pitch coal and glance coal. It is also a variety found very generally distributed in our Texas deposits. * Treatise on Chemistry, Roscoe & Schorlemmer, N. Y., 1888, vol. 1, p. 598. System of Mineralogy, J. D. Dana, N. Y., 1888, p. 755. VARIETIES. 51 PITCH COAL. The next step in the cumulative resolution of the woody matter from which the brown coal is formed produces pitch coal, a compact coal of blackish-brown to pitch black color, with a waxy or greasy lustre, and a fracture uneven or slightly conchoidal. Its streak is brown. It most frequently occurs as a stratum or strata in other deposits, but sometimes occurs alone. The coal of the Bohemian basins is very largely a mixture of common brown coal (of somewhat drier nature than the German) and pitch coal, together with some lignite, and in this is very similar to the larger part of Our Texas deposits. § GLANCE COAL. This is the firmest and hardest variety of brown coal. It is compact in structure, usually possessing perfect conchoidal fracture and glassy or metallic lustre. It sometimes yields a coke. It occurs with brown coal and pitch coal as well as separately, and in certain places in Europe has been formed from the varieties named by the influence of the eruption of phonolite, basalt, trachite, etc., while at other localities no such agency can be found to account for its Occurrence. CHAPTER III. BROWN COAL AS FUEL, DIRECT FIRING WITH BROWN COAL, GAS FIRING WITH BROWN COAL The principal use of brown coal is, of course, for fuel purposes. Its proper and profitable application to this purpose has been brought about in three different ways. In the first place, by means of suitable appliances, it has been found possible to use the brown coal just as it comes from the mine for all kinds of domestic and manufacturing purposes. In the sec- Ond place, by the preparation of an artificial fuel from it, it has been found possible to use it in the same manner and under the same condi- tions as bituminous coal. And in the third place, by the manufacture of producer gas from it, it has come into use in many metallurgical and manufacturing Operations. The most available fuel is that which can be used with least prelimi- nary preparation. Hence we have such general use of wood and stone coal, even in localities where the same amount of heat could be obtained from fuel in other forms at the same or even less expense. Therefore, in so far as it may be practicable, we should, where cheap- mess is the principal point, use the brown coal just as it comes from the mine. If we consider the means of utilizing our brown coal raw, i. e., as it comes from the mines, without any preliminary preparation, we must observe the following facts: First. The moisture it contains when freshly mined, and sometimes after long exposure to air, amounts even in the better brown coals, on an average, to about 11 per cent of their total weight, while that of the coals in use, as shown by analyses, is only 3 per cent. This surplus of 8 per cent must be evaporated by the heat evolved in the combustion of the brown coal, and lessens its fuel value to just that extent. Therefore we are confronted in the outset by the fact that under similar conditions a greater amount of raw brown coal will be required to accomplish a given amount of work than would be required with bituminous coal. RAW BROWN COAL. 53 Second. This moisture, in addition to the effect it has in diminishing the heating power of the brown coal, is also considered detrimental from the further fact that its evaporation causes the brown coal to crumble or slack, and this happens whether the evaporation takes place in the open air at ordinary temperature or in the furnace. This has been one of the principal objections to our brown coal as fuel. It is, however, a fact well known to those of us who have tried it, that this slacking goes on very slowly; indeed, if the brown coal be sheltered the slacking is very small in amount, and even when exposed the slacking goes on, it seems, only until a comparatively thin mantle of fine coal has covered the entire pile, and then is very much retarded, if not stopped altogether. For this reason it is possible to store brown coal to much greater ad- Vantage than is generally supposed, even when the furnaces for which it is intended are only arranged to burn the lump coal. If, however, the furnaces be adapted for fine coal, this slacking is not detrimental Save as the same condition applies to all coals from slight loss of heating power by exposure. While it is possible to overcome this tendency to slack by the pro- cess of converting the brown coal into briquettes, and while it is also true that for many purposes this is by far the most desirable form of fuel and will always commend itself by reason of its many good qualities and ad- Vantages for domestic, railroad and steamship use, there are still many branches of industry which require the cheapest possible fuel, and if the brown coal in its raw state can be successfully applied to meet their re- quirements it will be greatly to their advantage. Such application has been found entirely practicable, and the work has even gone further, and not Only have suitable grates been constructed for heating steam boilers, etc., for industrial purposes, but stoves for household use, apparatus for util- izing brown coal in metallurgical and industrial heating of all kinds, and even in locomotives, have been put into use with satisfactory results. Such use requires, however, as has been repeatedly stated, an arrange- ment of fire boxes, grates and draught in such a manner as will suit the peculiarities of the fuel. When this is done raw brown coal is proved in use to be as available a fuel as any. The methods of use are broadly separable into: 1. Direct firing. 2. Gas firing. 54 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. In the first of these the combustion is completed in the fire box directly in connection with the boiler or what is required to be heated. In the second the material is gasified only in the fire box or producer and conducted elsewhere for use either directly or through regenerators. DIRECT FIRING. STEP GRATES. For all industrial purposes, and especially in making steam, the very best results in direct firing are secured from the brown coal by use of the step grate—the treppenrost—of the Germans. This differs from the flat grate in ordinary use at present in its greater angle of inclination and in the form and position of the grate bars themselves. In the ordinary grate the bars stand on their edge, run lengthwise of the fire box, and the grate is horizontal or rarely slightly inclined. In the step or stair grate the bars lie on their sides, run across the fire box, and the grate is inclined at an angle of 29 to 40 degrees. The inclination of the grate is varied according to the fuel to be burned, the rule being the finer the fuel the higher the angle of inclination; or conversely, the coarser the fuel the flatter the grate. This grate is intended for use with all fuels which are in a more or less pulverulent condition—sawdust, spent tanbark, breeze or slack coal, etc.; but more especially for brown coal or lignite, and is used for all purposes, either in direct, half gas, or gas firing. The grates from which the drawings here reproduced on Plates II and III were made are those in use at Donawitz and Zeltweg, in Styria, where I found them burning brown coal very closely resembling that which we have in Texas in character and in composition. The measurements which are given in the drawings are all millimeters, of which 25.4 are equal to One inch. These are the simplest of the forms in use and represent two kinds of the step grate as applied to stationary boilers. The upper drawing of each plan gives the vertical section of the grate and boiler, while from the ground plan at the bottom it will be seen that the grate bars under each boiler are in three sections. The simpler form of the step grate is shown in Plate II. At the bottom of this grate a wrought iron support, four by six inches, extends across the furnace, and is built into the walls from three to five inches in order to make T)IRECT FIRING. 55 it secure. On this support rest the string boards which carry the grate bars. These string boards are supported at the top by a double “T” beam, fastened in like manner as the first at the foot. These string boards are of cast iron, and the details of one of the centre Ones are illustrated in Fig. No. 1. Those at the sides of the furnace are often let into the ma- re--- -b-----> ------------ aş N2 º- ºr - - - - ſº tº mº a - - - - - sº ºšč NSN * à 2. 2.” - 2.? §§ - 2 N 3SN14 Š º Fig. 1. String board with seats for grate bars. sonry one-half inch or more. They have usually a thickness of an inch to an inch and one-half and carry the proper seats for the ends of the grate bars. The dimensions given for the one figured are: Thickness of string boards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 inch. Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 to 6 inches. Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ft. 6 inches. Thickness of iron seat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % inch. Fig. 2. Grate bar for Plate II. *---------------------400-600----------------------->. Fig. 3. Grate bar for Plate III. The steps for grate bars, which are carried by the string boards, and which are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, have the following dimensions: 56 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Pength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 to 24 inches. Breadth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 to 6 inches. Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % to 34 inches. Distance between steps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % to 1% inches. At the top of the grate in Plate II there is an iron plate 24 to 30 inches long, while another plate of equal size works in a slide against the boiler. These two form the hopper into which the fuel is thrown and whence it is fed into the grate. In this style of grate the bed of coal on the grate bars is held in place by the bank of ash and coal shown at the bottom of the grate and in ash pit. The measurements given for the opening of the hopper for the different sizes of coal are as follows: For Slack Coal No. 2 (passing through mesh 3% inch square): Width of opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% inches. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 degrees. For Slack Coal No. 1 (passing through 54 inch mesh): Width of Opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% inches. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 degrees. For Small Coal (passing through 1% inch mesh): Width of Opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% inches. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 degrees. For Small Lump Coal (passing through 2 inch mesh): Width of Opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 inches. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 degrees. For Lump Coal: Width of Opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fully open. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 degrees. In Plate III is represented an improved grate which is in use in many factories. While the principle is the same as that shown in the one de- Scribed, a comparison of the two plates will show considerable difference in construction. In this one, we have as a foundation two wrought iron supports, about 2x6 inches, running across the furnace, with the ends se- cured in the masonry. On these are laid either sliding perforated plates Or a series of small grate bars. It has a length, from foot of step to fur- nace walls, of twelve to fourteen inches. These grate bars are generally laid flat, but in some cases the end next to the furnace wall is slightly raised. In perpendicular section these grate bars should have a triangu- lar shape, the top being + inch and the bottom #, and the distance between them at the top of an inch. Below this perforated plate, or set of grate bars, there is a solid plate, as is shown in the plate. The grate bars themselves are often made moveable to facilitate the removal of any clinker that may be formed. In some instances this solid plate is several inches, or even a foot, below the grate bars or perforated plate, and the ; § : $..... .* * * * sº * 9. + 2. O º \ C \ , , 5– ..+...º. «ſ. -------------------------------------------> --yeo (ºr * § #". Soo----- .J. : | ||66 k--- & ſ: º PLATE III. A. ÜN * Ž % ZZZZZ | 3. | : $4-4-6-4-3 % % | : H----, ! : !-- : | : —l T- . . ! S H– - . ----s -T--- : —lli– ! * c | - I º -Y--> — —Sc.- —-- - - | ! --Y. Sº Wºź | *..............{99.....… º | : - | •, % | : | . | ," | . <, º %3A …A.44%00.--> . | º t Z. 5&XXX-XXXXXXXXXX º 233333333333333. º { - & OCXXCXXC º Ǻ S& Sº O & Q& l & 33333333333333333333333 ! $32& 3& 333333 & t º 3& & -- : º 3333333 & —H º ºzº - : *A* * * * */2 * . £3333. —l ſ 2 222; Öxºxxºxº § /% ..., |# %3& º % “A,”|% %= t * % % % t t .* 3% I ~~~} #º & a %zà ſ Å & A– º gº Tººl - - º C ; **=FP, ºr rº Nº.2 CXC t 2 º QQQXCXC 2. : S—ºz. & C h N-za 5& º bºº & & ! S–27, Q& 2222222* 5& º b o º -- º Yºs 4 Ž QQQQQ s Ne-pz (XXXXX) ! º 2222222222 & ; N-dºza & * <--> 222222 C 32 ! *O Nºzzzzzz & 2222222 ºx) 25 (XX) ! S- & ! - -za & 2222222222* 333.33% ! 200 S-leza & * ºf s - - - -!------------- . . . .----2 --------------- - - -->2}} - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - ------------>KXXXXXC w sº f * & ! : - S-72 & º º & d XXXXX) t t ZU N -- - - - - -3 j (). --->KXXXXX) ! : 's 33333. | & -zza ! X& OC ; d : & & * - Se-ºzal N- XXXX& º º Y 2 b & ÇK) Sº W y * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * zzà 33333 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • -, * * * * * - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * * * * * tº e º ºs e º 'º - ... [.. XXX XXX: - E * f º - ! º t º º 4. t - ! + |-- O - - ºx) 2a2ZZX Ş w • * * TSSSS Sº i N SS §.--&---40 § N \S. §§....Y. -->804. OOC ©ºxºxxº N CXXXXX N NCXXXXX. § Sºx 0. • * ~ R - , KOOOOOC C se QQQQ& CXXC CºCCXCXCXXCXXCXXX KXXXX & KXXX KXCXCXXCXCXXC OXXXXX & Q& QQQ IMPROVED STEP GRATE FOR STEAM BOILER. — — — — 4 - p. 56 PLACE IV. SCALE, A T 3.5 1 4 ºf 0 Z /* . IIFT 2 × U. -F a y 2 . . . –6 ſ, dº. *. --5. . s --> H. 2 ==-- **** *-*. - - - , --——----------— , , , HT-- t +4:- } º f {l}=====~ * *--------- - =>} + Qrs * * |---&#~--~ ! №w! （.. -\ `NL`.> N‘º ‘… …,（ ）º, º.•----> iz' ^2 #22 ºr 3 ºł, 7 */A6, , 2 * A / . . . . . .” z' . ," * .. z' ...' . . . w ,” af • > - ? Z/ ,’ ” < … " ...” -- ... . * 2° . … 2 × 2 .. z' ." 2* // / A 2 -4––. ZZ Z 2’ % ,” ZZ (ZZ * - - - - -" -- - - - - - - - ---. ...---------------. —- ----------- - ---------------- - p. 56 STEP GRATE UNIDER SAFETY BOILER. DIRECT FIRING. 57 intervening space is closed by a door or damper. Springing from a suit- able support above these small grate bars and resting against another support above are the iron string boards, which are similar to those already described. At the top of the step grate, and below the “T” beam against which it rests, there is a sliding gate by which the supply of fuel may be regulated or entirely shut off. Above this is the funnel or hopper, whence the fuel is fed to the fire, regulated by the sides of the opening at “a,” which is determined by the position of the sliding gate. The following figures give the details of the arrangement of this hop- per as used for the different sizes of brown coal at Donawitz: For Slack Coal No. 2 (passing through mesh 36 inch square): Width of Opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2% inches. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 degrees. For Slack Coal No. 1 (passing through 5% inch mesh): Width of opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2% inches. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 degrees. For Small Coal (passing through 1% inch mesh): Width of opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 to 3% inches. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 degrees. For Small Lump Coal (passing through 1% by 3 inch mesh): Width of Opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 to 4% inches. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29% degrees. For Lump Coal: Width of Opening of hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fully open. Angle of inclination of grate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 degrees. In Plate IV is shown a step grate arranged under a safety boiler, using the same character of coal. This has only two sections of grate bars, and the space at foot of step grate is closed with flat bars as in Plate III. From the descriptions given it will be seen that the step grate is in a measure self-feeding. The firing of a step grate requires less exertion than is the case with a flat grate, but as these step grates do not clear them- Selves of ashes by their falling through, it is necessary for the fireman to clear the space from time to time. The principal recommendation of the step grate is its great regularity in burning, and the fact that by a proper regulation of the draught the combustion can be rendered practically complete and almost smokeless. These present the general principles in use in all such grates in Europe. Many patented appliances are used with them by various man- ufacturers, by which the feeding of the coal is regulated, and other meth- ods of economizing labor provided. But, just as in this country, the flat grate is in general use everywhere, and the improved grates are the 58 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. exception; so there, the forms of step grates here illustrated are the ones in general use, and only occasionally is one of the patented grates to be found. FLAT GRATES. If, however, it is desired to use a flat grate, as is done with the fri- able and pulverulent brown coals in some parts of Germany, the grate bars are made thin and close together. The grate shown in Fig. 4 is recommended for this purpose.” It has the following dimensions: Length of bar... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 to 13 inches. Thickness of bar at top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % inch. Thickness of bar at bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–32 inch. Space between bars at top................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . }% inch. Depth of bar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 inches. In addition to these plain forms of grate bars others are in use which, by the character of their upper surface and sides, are intended to secure the best results possible with slack of brown coal. Such grates are fig- ured on Plates V, VI, and VII in connection with the use of brown coal for locomotive firing. These various designs of flat grate bars have the further advantage of costing a very small amount in making a change from the old style bar. The importance of a suitable grate for the successful use of brown coal is such that I have reproduced these drawings of several different ar- rangements which are in the most general use in Austria and Germany in order that the variations may be properly understood. The original drawings of all these plates, which are made to scale, are in the office of the Survey and are at the service of all those interested in their use. They have been in use so long that they are no longer subject to patent, and can therefore be used by any one free of cost in that respect. There are, no doubt, American grates among the large number which have been patented and which have come into use in different localities Some of which will prove suited to the needs of brown coal. An inspec- tion of those here presented will give an idea of what is needed, and will enable our machinists and engine builders, if they prefer to do so, to Se- lect such American grates as promise success, and use them as they are or with such modification as may be found necessary. *Von Reiche, H. Anlage und Betrieb der Dampfkessel. Leipzig, 1886, pp. 129–135. DIRECT FIRING. §§§ s &=º-º-mºmºmºmºmºmºmºmºmºmº *-m-m-m-m-m-m-m-m-m-m-m-m-mºm. **-*-m-m-m-m-m-m-s = | gº Z/Z =|| E =\ | | FA | | F. ||||||||||| = | | =# | Im. | | | | | *- im % % % % A=s %º f- T. | . i t | | : ſ |. #77;= *=|| iº. Hº 'g. 0. * º i | | f | ſ ſ | | | l | | | | | | #|| | | |||||| | | | *|| i T. E º:#||5|| - :=== sº-º-º-º-º-mºm-- º-º-º-º-º-mºmºmºm-m-m-º-º-º-º- :=E== :==== 60 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. RAW BROWN COAL FOR LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. Railroad companies are the largest consumers of coal in our State, the daily consumption being many thousand tons. At the present time, with the exception of the coal from Laredo, Eagle Pass, the Texas and Pacific mine at Thurber, and the Wise county mines, their entire supply is brought from outside the State. The coal now being used is mostly from Alabama, Arkansas, Indian Territory, Colorado, and New Mexico, and the distance which it must be hauled adds greatly to its cost, even to the railroads themselves. Almost every one of the principal railroad systems of the State cross the deposits of brown coal at some point on their line, and some of them are built directly upon them. If therefore it be possible to use this fuel On the locomotives effectively, and at the same time economically, it must necessarily result in a marked reduction in their fuel account, by reason of the cheapness with which the brown coal can be mined. Brown coal has been used in the locomotives of Austria and Italy for many years, and, in many parts of Bohemia, in spite of the heavy grades and long trains that are common, no other fuel is used. When brown coal in the form of briquettes is used for locomotive firing, little if any change is necessary in the locomotive fire box, the principal point to be watched being to secure a proper draught. But when we come to the use of raw brown coal in locomotive fire boxes, we must again take the character of the fuel into consideration and provide a suitable fire box, grate, and draught in order to secure such efficiency as will make it possible to use it. Many years of actual use of this fuel in Austria have demonstrated that locomotive firing with brown coal is not only possible but has resulted in a great decrease in the expense of heating and, as already stated, is in general and exclusive use to-day on many of the larger railroads of Bohemia. Through the kindness of Professor Leopold Ritter von Hauffe, a mem- ber of the Aulic Council, and Professor Dr. Johann Oser, of the Insti- tute of Technology of Vienna, the Wiener Locomotiv-Fabrik Actien Gesellschaft, who manufacture locomotives for using brown coal as fuel, have furnished me with drawings of the different fire boxes, grates, and smoke stacks manufactured by them for this purpose. Some of the drawings are reproduced in the accompanying plates, which as usual give detailed sections and measurements. PLATE W. | | | | | | . - - - – - — — — — — — — — — — — p. 60 LOCOMOTIVE FIRE BOX. PE VI. 60. 8%; 73 £3 ſ.5%. - 23– 824 as Ž —Z3 4.8% ºd. LOCOMOTIVE ATE BAR. BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. PLATE VII. ſº ! % ſ ! | % | % | | % : ; % | | % I | Ç | -- - - - ... = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * * * * F----------------- -------------------------------------------------4---- - * -º-; -º- - -nº mºm * * * ----- ----- ! • *i-------- --------------------------------------------------------|----- | : = - m ºn ºr ºr == ** = r. m. - - - - - -, * * * * * m = m = * * * * *-* = * *-* * * * = * * * * * * * * - - - - - * = -i- - - - - - - - ----------- - - - - - | | I I 1.172. : 2 30 | ! . * = +--- - - - ------------------------------º * -- - - - ºn sº ºm º º- - - - -~. * * * - --- * * * +-- - - - - - - - - - - **-* * * * * * * * * -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----------- * * *=º ºf m º ºn am m ºr nº sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * | f : H t | ; ! ; : f ; ! ; | g ! : . . . ." 1 r | *~~ I. t i. “ºlinate : ; : | - > -s; 4- | l H Sº-3:862 : |O Q... O O O O O O O | >~~ : t **~~~ f **~~~ ſ ! . ºss-, AES | *~. 35° # , ; f { z-N at 2^{---- 'ſ **2:33, O C O O Cº--Q. Q O O O ! * * :-} ** * * * * * * * * * * ------------!> - * ~ * * - T'----łoo | I * “ . . i s —! N *~~~. Tº-ºº: Q. § ----- i. ºf N-J ----, **---- t | CD: R -. I * * * ~ *, H fºiOj (, NSW -Qºo O O-Q || | * r , "?. -- -$66 **. ſ F-º-º-º: **-, ... * ~~. | : * ! g; t > * >\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\s. Tº --~~ | *--> , | : I I **. º N * - - # * º ; *---- CŞ } & *s-sº NY\\\\\ ‘G)... O | _fººt; ; 3. ! ***k--- | ! :* -. T*~~~. * * ! .. *: | #4. ... ?-- *~~ *~~~ *~~~ r § * I | >~ * * ,-- *š ,-- * ~ * **-- - § - ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ | O}} ( -S$ºgºsº NSSR.---2% º | | | J -. `--- **~~~ º źks. ' (Öt ! l f I j * §-- ". . * ~ * ~. - Cl | | f # : ; 3}. ~ § 2-> .."--sº - | | ! (T\; -- y -ºšº >{ §:3 Z ! C; O O O" Cºjº-à-- f * * º l } : + * * *. § * CN, | Ø tº: | | 3. |z{\; * T-Sºfts ſº % = I i * f t 1 § ſº o o o O o O or ls......A....... | | ºf ------pf----- 3--- ºf . ºggao. Tº 4 f go I - ºr * = - F. - I - - - -º-º-º-º: * * { : #O ( O O O O O O O". © Płºśń º - # , ! | ; : ; / /? : º, CN | | #-------------------------------------4979.--------------------- !---------*-i----------------------------*------------ ij (ſºo 3 # * g : ; | O O C TO O". Oriºl: ; ; ; ; J -- --> “ſº- ! Z I | \{ \} * ! ------ f | | T TW Tº T Ti TTI . TI TI In tº TI Tº tº T. T- IT TI 7-HT-P- TM trº i I | Z | h º {WWWt W-l H* W-t H W#WWWF/WWF/WWE * |- º # T # T * W TI ITI T &l # t T. t Y 4. W ; | | | | 23S, - :gº" - * * * * f r x I * ! l | #| | | +º- 3 ---É.- . tº- + - - - -º- ºgy-, *y-, ºppº, A. % SNá H--- *. * --% \, \, N 4 ; ; ; -- | | § -º-T- M. H # i \ } N ? 3; ; ; Nº % Š r I f % CN | | §§ § 2/ | ſº I l % t | §§§4 Rºsſ’ ---- #} \ % ; : | ! -----------------~~~~ & # f #24---- 3--------- É º-º-º: f # : ! | J | § ! I ! J. § f l J f k---tº:--> I & 4 : k------- - - - - - - - - - - - - -------------------- * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - = * * *-* → * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = * * * * * m = - mº m ºn m = ± sº ºn mem.º.e. a = as a ºn a- - = 4 - - - - - -------------------->{ ! | ! - f ! SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS i | * | --Éé---jº : ZZZZZZZZ | | | N N N N N N N N — —|\, Ri N } {4.4%; N N * - N -tº-3 （iſſiſſiſſil N. %. ºr- N - |THT N ||||||||||||| N N N § N N N N N N N N º, N N ,” % Z/X ...”2 2X ^X. * - %2 ZZ * ^ \ * \ --T— f A A .." ; ------------ 40. kº-º-- - - - -º- ºr -, - ... | | <-2S.--19. t | H : t f A r f \ | |-- f T t- —-1 f \ - V - 7 \ T- - - .. # f * \ / ſ \ \ f \ \ { %' –3–– I --—4--...--—º- - - - \ l —l 4–1– * # r -º-º-º: ( ! T-- \ \ ---, \ ,-\ J # V- - i f * ! | - * * * f y \ : ' L. * \ f L -- * 'ſ I ... " f \ f \ \ * {? * f * / W - 3 - i º N - * *-* m mºm º - ºk m = * * - - P* * * * -* * \ i_` * i t | i * t | | I I J # º \ J-L-r---iſ "TH++*-ī-,-,----|- | | r” . * f \ | A-f fº--. ſ --~~|Tº * \ ſ * | f * I LOCOMOTIVE FIRE BOX WITH NEPILLY GRATE AND FIRE SCREEN. p. 60. DIRECT FIRING. 61 For medium lump coal (three to four inches) ordinary flat grates are sometimes used with wrought iron bars having a thickness of § inch and spaces of + to § inch. The Smallness of the space being deter- mined by the cleanness of the coal and its freedom from clinker. The spaces therefore must be regulated in every instance by the character of the coal to be used. The narrowing of the space prevents loss of coal, and is desirable whenever it can be done without the interference arising from too heavy an ash or clinker, and the proper proportions are only ob- tained by trials of the various coals which it is expected to use. As this is the practice in many places with the bituminous coals now in use, it presents no additional difficulties. The dimensions found most advisable on the Dux and Bodenbach railway, after exact trials, was both for bars and spaces 10 mm. or ; inch. This is of course only for use with lump coal, and not where it is found preferable to use small coal or slack. For this purpose the special heating arrangements which are here given have been designed and are giving complete satisfaction. Plates V, VI, VII, represent the arrangements as used on numerous freight engines. They consist in the main of three parts: 1. The flat grate. 2. The upright grate. 3. An arch of fire brick over the grates. The Flat Grate.—This is constructed with single cast-iron grate bars, which have an open dice-shaped surface, which is shown in Plates VI, VII. This peculiar shape is designed to prevent the small coal from falling through, and at the same time to furnish sufficient openings for proper access of air. A variation of this grate bar is shown in Plate VIII. These grate bars are set in two rows in supports of suitable con- struction, the details of which are given in the sections. The upright grate, which is of the Nepilly system, serves to convey fresh air Over the coal. The air enters through the spaces beneath the Screens, is thoroughly mixed with the heated coal gas, and secures a per- fect and practically smokeless combuston. In this grate it is also highly important to have the bars and spaces of proper dimensions, so that while there is sufficient air to secure complete combustion there may not be so much as to cause any cooling of the tubes. The cost of attaching this arrangement to ordinary engines is very little, but the difficulties to be Overcome have been so great that in Austria its use has been discontinued, 62 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. as it has been found possible to secure almost as good results by use of the fire Screen. The fire screen or arch, which is built of wedge shaped fire brick, is used to secure the heating of the air as it enters through the grate and the preservation of the lightest dust coal in a quiet position on the grate. This arrangement of the arch is absolutely essential to the burning of Small coal. It has been used in England for many years for this purpose, and its use as here recommended will render possible the satisfactory burning of every sort of brown coal. By throwing the flame backward, it pro- duces a more even heating of the surface of the fire box, and by checking . the rapid flow of the burning gases extracts from them a greater amount of heat. The length of the arch should not be so great, nor its inclination at such an angle, as to hinder the proper spreading of the coal on the grate surface. The arch, as here constructed, protects the boiler-head from the cold air, and thus prevents some loss of heat from the tubes. The first illustration (Plate VII) gives a longitudinal section of the fire box, showing the two lengths of grate bars and the fire brick arch, while the figure below it gives a view of one-half the surface of the flat grate. The second illustration gives cross sections, showing both the front and back of the fire brick arch and the grate bars, and the figure below ; J shows the general arrangement of the Nepilly grate, if used. "...e details of the grate bars and their supports are fully given in the CutS. The third illustration gives a longitudinal section of fire box without fire brick arch, and below it a grate of somewhat different pattern to the one described, details of which are also given in the accompanying plates. - Still a third pattern of grate manufactured for using brown coal on locomotives is figured in Plate VIII. It was furnished by the Sachsische Maschinenfabrik, Chemnitz. Two smoke stacks or funnels are figured in Plates IX and X, which are those of the Vienna Locomotive Works. These are designed to act as spark arresters where small brown coal is used, and are in use on many of the Austrian railways. Much of the success which has attended the use of Small brown coal of this kind on Austrian railways has been due to the care and good will of the firemen themselves. PLATE IX. - ---→ -+ -===~æ• • • •-=====* --, -， → → → → → →→→→→ -- →→→ • • • • • • *— - — - • *= * * * *-*-* *= *-*=~ • •===== ~ - ） – ） --→ … - --◄ • •-, -: • • • • • • •-， -， -， - – - – ---|-" - – -—--—-— !---- LOCOMOTIVE SMORE STACK. PLATE X. --------------------~--------------------→ ** ------+---+---+---+---------------------+---+-------- || [||| ||||- | | |│ │|| |ſaei ||| | 1 |||||| | | ff |||||| | ſ |||||| •#2|!||||----- | | | ||||…}}：№ģ） –####ff （`) |4.||-ĘŁSąR# ||| |||||| ||||× 'Oºº *| x e-{‘Oſºg >]k togſ- >È !||| |||č3 | | 92|9 |||| || 3||||| ğ||||| .|| • |●|| |||siequiețioroſsieweseg|| |-|||L|| • • • • • • • •- - ----× - - -!-- - --- ~~~~ - - - - - - - - -）----- – – – – – – – – –~–1L– x e-{ C) 8$ „ “O83*<ſoosi . .>=<°OO6I>‘OO61> -I-|~Æ|-|- ||}*|| | •<‘OGS ! > š| G)| • •G) v№ G)| |G) |בOOL ><'|>.<- •> | �oet|OO6I|| ||\，|L ，===-|}}}}}|+-+-L|}}}| �בOQ90>.<*OO6I> <‘OGGØ ‘OOý<’O9Z » ±==== ×→ ſzły > -I： I|-"Oſº ſ. •„ \\ ^ • 8OĢ8• § (~O §| || III）,Tl? £<«OOO !„<*/ *OOIØ.בOO9 > •_fifſh] }__\，\!()----• ſ) ĀI |aes►►-r}}Å „cíģ}}Tº8úč● ! !ÇOCNQ }×-}}ÇO-$ O};NO28 >>� § 4ķeSNÒNķSłº§.\，v „d| ||TĀ|- +→! | ±| ||-, ' (ſ) |9•#$OO€?) ��3 #1M)/ $§2#•• CO}X ./ }}•ö į :>|O،ÇO }}}{DØ.3LO ogí#4CNCN # 100•،· *-+#}/OOIS § ;~ . .• „ oſ)! |• og» ºg ozº • •→ºog [[Q „ci< bD :-3 OÅ $）. „ri 4-P$ £ÇO O !3w CD QD CD Ö ö ? as - - - - O * CNv * * * ••• - - - - - ~ ~ • • • • º *- - - I - — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -t- t i - * - - - - - - - - - -'- - - - 6/, GAS GENERATOR AT TEPLITZ. PLATE XII. BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Section through. E F Section through C D. Section through A. B. Section through I K. === * * * * * * *=+ → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → -+-+ += *-*== *=+ += = = = = = = = =， =* =*= = = = ==** * * =：= ** === = = = = = = = ----*.*\,\,*== *- |----„”„”\\\-++ |„”{}*, -rº！-*,،*№.| |*----*= *= * *==+ = √+ √（−） ==# ！= = = = =， ！-*= *== *= *= = = = == ！--* === = ==`| Í H- - - - - <--- - - - - - - --------- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~{ {}|| įL-~--~~| j}„”~\|} #| ||!©\|| |||$：'.'}İ| \ !\|-}|| {\,#! | į*ų.„*| ||*№.~~--~^|| i !| | |||| , !| } |--+--------， -， -：-, -， ×， s-a -s-， æ， æ æ æ +=æ， ſæ, sæ， æ æ---- - - ----| FJ Section through G. H. 40 Scale l p. 64. GENERATOR AT DONAWITZ. GAS ** --, ----- -*-_. ! ..] —l ––––––– Ap. 65 GAs PRODUCE TH BLAST. DIRECT FIRING. 65 plicity of their construction, durability and ease of working recommend them most highly for the purposes for which they are intended. For other purposes, however, many other forms of generators are in use. Some of these are patented and can only be used subject to the rights of the owner of the patent. The ones figured are in no way sub- ject to patent and are therefore free for all to use. GAS PRODUCERS WITH BLAST. The general method of constructing gas producers with blast with step grate for firing is shown in Plate XIII, which represents one of a battery of Such producers in use at Donawitz. There are also many other forms of producers of this class, both in Eu- rope and America, which may utilize this fuel. The use of gas in firing pottery, brick, drain tile, and other clay pro- ducts, has received much attention, and many factories are operated with it throughout Europe. The same is true of glass factories, cement works, lime kilns, chemical works, and indeed all industries to which gas fuel is applicable, and in all of these the gas produced from brown coal furnishes their constant supply of fuel. Brick clays and fire clays are often found in close proximity to the brown coal, and the manufacture of bricks, fire brick and tiles, at an ex- tremely low price, is thus rendered practicable, and a great number of mines have brick yards in connection with them by means of which they are enabled to make use of all their coal, even what would otherwise be refuse. At one of the larger brick works on the Rhine the experience from a trial of several years proved that firing with a mixture of brown coal briquettes and raw brown coal gave better results in actual work than stone coal alone, stone coal with briquettes, or stone coal and raw brown coal, and at the time of my visit works were just being completed for briquetting their brown coal for use in this manner. In brief, if I may be again allowed to repeat it, the use of raw brown coal, either in direct or gas firing, has been proved not only possible, but economical as well, for all industrial purposes for which bituminous coal is applicable. E–G-eol 66 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. ILLUMINATING G.A.S. Certain varieties of brown coal produce gas of very high candle power; thus the Reichenau deposit furnishes a material which affords a gas of thirty-five candle power and is widely used as a gas enricher, and the Schweelkohle of the province of Saxony furnishes on distillation a heavy oil, which is used in many of the smaller towns in the manufact- ure of illuminating gas. Teplitz, in Bohemia, is lighted by a gas made from the brown coal of the vicinity, having originally an illuminating power of seven to nine can- dles, enriched with a small percentage of Reichenau brown coal to pro- duce twelve to fourteen candle power. The retorts and plant in general have nothing in anywise different from the plants for the manufacture of gas from stone coal, except that the smoke stack is removed a little dis- tance from the benches of retorts, and the furnace gases, after having done their duty in the volatilization of the gases from the material in the retorts, are conducted through a number of canals situated below a brick floor over which is spread the brown coal for the next charge. This waste heat is thereby made to evaporate the excess of moisture from the brown coal and it is placed in the retort practically dessicated. The gas gives perfect satisfaction, and the coke is separated by sieving, the finer material being sold to the zinc reduction works, while the coarser part is sold in Teplitz for various uses. One hundred kilos of brown coal yield 17.5 cubic meters of gas—about three cubic feet per pound. In Italy the experiments made for producing illuminating gas from Italian brown coal have been extremely satisfactory, and show that it can be done not only to the entire satisfaction of the consumers, but at a much greater profit to the producer than is possible with bituminous coal. In September, 1891, the city of Spezia entered upon some experiments, being incited thereto largely by the patriotic motive of assisting in bring- ing into use the deposits of brown coal of the neighborhood in place of the coal imported from England. These experiments included not only the production and sale of illuminating gas, but a briquetting of the re- Sulting coke for steam purposes, according to the method proposed by Messrs. Stacchina, known as the Sapori patent. So successful was the re- sult that a special official report* was published concerning it, giving the *Relatione uſficiale in ordine agli esperimenti sulla lignite per la produzione del gas-luce. Spezia, 1892, IILLUMINATING GAS. 67 details of the experiments, cost and character of products, returns from their sale, and a general discussion of the subject. There were present during the experiments representatives of the Ital- ian governmental bureaus of Mines, Agriculture, Industry and Com- merce, of the Inspector General of Railroads, and of the Navy, mining engineers, and scientists, including Sir C. Capacci, the Italian authority On brown coal. The experiments began on the 27th day of September with a thorough test of the New-Pelton coal and the determination of its illuminating power as a standard of comparison for that from the brown coal. The experiment with brown coal began on the 28th and continued through the 29th, during which time 29.04 tons of brown coal were subjected to destructive distillation. This was of the following character: 4 tons lump coal. 20.04 tons small coal. 5 tons slack. The distillation was effected in five benches of retorts, three of which were of ordinary pattern, containing in the aggregate fourteen retorts, and the other two were of the Horn system with seven retorts each. The retorts were completely cleared of the coke remaining from the coal before the brown coal was introduced. The method of production of gas from bituminous coal was followed without deviation in quantity or quality of fuel used in order that the heat of the furnace might be con- stant and equal. Under these conditions a retort charge of two hundred and seventy pounds of bituminous coal required six hours for distillation, while one of brown coal weighing two hundred and thirty-four pounds was completed in four hours. The amount of gas produced from the twenty-nine tons of brown coal was two hundred and sixteen thousand feet, or a little under seven thousand five hundred feet per ton. Careful photometric measurements of the gas produced from brown coal on the 28th and 29th, and of that made from bituminous coal on the 27th and 30th, showed the illuminating power of the brown coal gas to be nine-tenths of that of the coal gas, or more pre- cisely, in the relation of 89.14 to 100. The gas produced was used for lighting, in Otto gas engines, and for producing steam, and in each and every instance gave as good satisfaction as the coal gas, and no- where was there any dissatisfaction found among the consumers. From 68 EROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. the report it would appear that the briquetted fuel from this particular trial was not So Satisfactory as was hoped. for, on account of a much larger percentage of ash than was expected from an analysis of the coal, and much more than was found in other brown coal cokes, the manufac- ture and use of which have fully proved their adaptability for steam, in- dustrial and household uses, when prepared in this manner. The brown coal used in these experiments was that of Casteani, which, according to Capacci, has the following composition in water-free speci- mens. Analyses by E. Bechi: First Quality. Second Quality Volatile matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.60 k 39.00 Fixed Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.85 53.68 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 7.32 Sulphur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.12 1.00 Moisture varies from 1.25 to 17 per cent in different analyses. Capacci gives 8 per cent for second quality. CHAPTER IV. BROWN COAL AS FUEL–Continued, BROWN COAL IN IRON SMELTING. Like all other proposed uses of brown coal, that in connection with the Smelting of iron ores has been the subject of long and careful experiment, and while it has not been found possible to entirely supplant the use of bituminous coal or coke with brown coal, it has been clearly proven by actual Operations on a commercial basis, which have extended Over a number of years, that it is both possible and profitable to employ brown coal as a part of the fuel used in such work. & The experiments have been directed both toward the production of a coke from brown coal which would be serviceable in the iron furnace, and to the use in the furnace of the raw brown coal itself. The first of these proceeded on the understanding that if a coke could be produced from brown coal containing no greater amount of ash than that of the stone coal, of sufficient hardness to support the furnace bur- den, and in large enough particles and porous enough to permit the proper passage of the blast and gases, there would be no difference, prac- tically, in smelting iron with the two. The other experiments are based on the experience gained in smelting Ores with raw bituminous coal, and have proved very successful. Many attempts have been made to secure a good coke from brown coal, but so far it has not been found practicable to produce coke of suffi- cient size and low enough in price to render it available for this use. Ordi- nary brown coal when submitted to the coking process comes from the oven as a powdery coke, few fragments being over a quarter of an inch in diam- eter. Some of the lignitic varieties, however, can be charred, and yield a kind of charcoal which is suitable for the blast furnace, and are so used. Prof. Kupelwieser, of the Mining Academy of Leoben, who has given the subject much attention, and who, by his experiments and his ac- quaintance with those of others working to the same end, is most capable of 70 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. giving a correct opinion on it, has written an article” concerning this use of brown coal, the substance of which, supplemented by other informa- tion received from him personally and by my own observation, is used as the basis of the following statements: When the varieties of brown coal which are of compact structure and conchoidal fracture, such as the pitch coals or glance coals, are charred Or subjected to the coking oven, a coke is usually produced which is in Small cubical pieces, the largest of which is rarely larger than a quarter of an inch in diameter. These fragments are hard, compact, and only slightly friable, and if it were possible to produce a similar coke in pieces of sufficient size it would go far toward solving the question. As yet this has not been done. Where lignite, or that form of brown coal which still shows the woody Structure, is charred, it sometimes forms a good charcoal, but often pro- duces thin leaves, which, while they may be of small size, are quite hard and firm. This tendency to split up is much less in the lignite showing a knotty structure than in that having a straight grain. When the lig- nite forms a good charcoal it is of course serviceable, but the smaller fragments are open to the same objections as those from other brown coals. Attempts to coke charred brown coal with good caking coal have been made repeatedly, in order to secure thereby the coke in larger frag- ments, but the practicability of this process for this purpose is not fully decided and the possibility of a suitable production depends largely on whether a good caking coal for use as a bond can be procured at a suffi- ciently cheap price. The brown coal must be finely powdered, inti- mately mixed with the caking coal, and coked at high heat. The ma- nipulation is rather complicated, and the coke produced in this way still remains somewhat friable, on which account it would be necessary to erect a coking plant at the place of use, that is, in the vicinity of the blast furnace. The objection to the use of fuel of such small size in the blast furnace seems to be due to the fact that the zone of fusion alters its position in point of density in accordance with the size of the materials used in the furnace. That is to say: if in a given furnace which is being run with *Studien über die Verwendung der Braunkohle bei der Roheisenerzeugung (Verhütting der Eisenerze), 1881. TRON SMELTING AND CORING. 71 coke for fuel, the materials be charged in smaller fragments, and the furnace charge and the blast be respectively of the same height and pressure as with the other charges, then the tension of the gas in the furnace will become greater and greater, in proportion to the smallness of the fragments. If the other conditions remain unchanged, then the in- crease of tension of these gases will prevent the proper passage of the blast, and the amount of air and mixed gases passing through the furnace will become less and less, until a certain limit is reached, at which the burning of the fuel is completely stopped and the process is entirely ar- rested. This phenomenon will always make its appearance as soon as the grain of the fuel and the ore is so small that the uniform penetration of the blast through the zone of fusion becomes impossible; and this will be the same whether we use with the powdered ore, small charcoal, small coke, or coked brown coal in small pieces. Since the coke of brown coal has this disadvantage of small size, and is subject to further pulverization in transportation and even in charging into the furnace, it seems to be much more advantageous to charge the brown coal raw. This offers the following advantages: The cost of coking is entirely saved; the porosity of the charge is much greater—at least until the coal crumbles down; and the gases present are richer and more valuable. It is not considered necessary to charge the brown coal in large lumps. Well assorted medium lump coal which has been freed as far as possible from dust, impurities and hygroscopic water, will give excellent results. In order that the objections which have been mentioned may be over- come, the following methods are suggested by means of which brown coal in its raw state or the substances produced by coking it, may be made to replace a large proportion of the fuels now used in the produc- tion of pig iron. First. To keep the zone of fusion porous under conditions which are otherwise similar to the present, a greater pressure of blast may be used. While it is true that the tension of the gases certainly increases with the pressure of the blast, it is also a fact that a part of these gases would be forced through the zone of fusion, and would thus serve to render it somewhat porous. If, however, this blast pressure is rendered too high relatively for the other conditions, and the mixture of gases can not penetrate the zone of fusion uniformly, it would result in the gases 72 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. forming canals where the resistance was least, and rushing through them without permeating the entire section of the zone of fusion. From the formation of such canals it would also happen that the Outflowing gases, acting upon the ore, would become much richer in carbonic Oxide, and would therefore form an easily explosible mixture of gases, which might lead to many inconveniences. It is necessary, therefore, that great care be taken that the pressure of the blast be never increased so far as to permit the formation of such canals. It is also highly recommended that the blast should be distributed with the greatest possible uniformity over the entire section of the furnace, and that in charging the greatest care be taken to lessen the possibility of such canals being produced in the furnace. With these restrictions, since an increase in the pressure of the blast could be made up to a certain de- gree, it appears advantageous to work as nearly as possible to this limit in order to be able to use the advantage which may be derived from the strong blast, without being injured by its disadvantages. Second. Another means of rendering the zone of fusion porous is found in a small alteration in the size of the material which it is proposed to work. In mining, burning, and roasting the Ores, care can be taken that they be not made too small, and that not much fine ore or dust be used in the work. Having the grain of the ore uniform, and of not too small size, will aid essentially in keeping the zone of fusion porous and uni- form. Such conditions seem to be easy in the smelting of magnetites and hematites, but greater difficulties are to be overcome in the working of siderite and limonite ores. With these ores, the briquetting of the ore itself seems to be of some advantage, providing expense will permit it, if by this means a homogeneous mixture of equal sized single frag- ments can be obtained; for thereby the use of a larger mixture of cheaper brown coal will be allowed. Third. The form of the furnace has also a great influence upon the possi- bility of using brown coal and the quantity that can be used. In the de- termination of the form of the blast furnace there are two considerations which are somewhat difficult of accomplishment in the same structure. If raw brown coal is burned it is necessary that the furnace be provided with a comparatively large reduction chamber, the size of which can only be les- sened if the hot ores are charged, which charge will assist in the preparation Of the fuel. The second consideration is that the furnace be not built too IRON SMTELTING. 73 }<--------- - - - ------ºğğğ%3F -------- №zogt- }<ſæ æ ææ æ ææ æ ， • «=s | _）~ k------8,477. - - - - --> * = & m ms sºme ºmis ºms ºms sºme º mº Iron furnace at Zeltweg. Fig. 5. 74 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. high, lest the zone of fusion betoothick. The running of blast furnaces with bituminous coal and light friable anthracite at many places has proven that high furnaces are not practicable for this purpose. Under existing circumstances, therefore, the most promising outlook for the employment of brown coal in iron smelting would appear to be its use in the largest possible proportion with stone coal coke in the blast furnace process, and as producer gas in the further manipulations of the pig iron. At Zeltweg, near Leoben, the Oesterreichisch-Alpine Montangesellschaft have two blast furnaces each of eighty tons capacity, fifty-five feet high, Seventeen foot bosh, which have been run for many years with a mixed fuel of Silesian coke and raw brown coal from the mines in the vicinity. The lines of the furnace now in use are given in Fig. 5, with measure- ments in meters. The amount of brown coal used is governed by the comparative cost of coke and coal at the furnace. When coke or freight rates are high, or brown coal decreases in price, a greater per centage of brown coal is used, but as stated before, the brown coal is sold at such a high figure as to prevent its being used to the extent which it would otherwise be. At times there are equal amounts of brown coal and coke used, and accord- ing to Prof. Kupelweiser, it has been found practicable to use a mixture containing as much as seventy per cent of brown coal; but the average of these furnaces, as furnished me by the secretary of the company, gives for different periods something over thirty per cent of brown coal used. These furnaces have been in practical operation for more than ten years, and afford most positive proof that raw brown coal of proper firmness can be used advantageously in the blast furnace, in connection with coke, for the production of pig iron. COECING. Experiments in the coking of brown coal have been made at many dif- ferent times both in Europe and America. Speaking in general terms, it has not been found practicable to make a coherent coke suitable for metallurgical purposes from brown coal un- der the ordinary conditions observed in coking bituminous coal. It is true that once in a while a variety of brown coal is found which affords COKING. 75 a fair coke (although it is usually in too small a quantity to be of value), and that some lignites yield a good charcoal. “Even the best kinds of brown coal are not easily charred, as during the action of the heat the single layers, concentric rings, etc., which are scarcely perceptible in the fresh specimens, split off, and a compact piece of brown coal becomes thus completely broken up into small fragments or so fissured as not to bear carriage. Roschers states that lignite, if thoroughly air dried when fresh from the pit and very slowly charred, is not subject to this disintegration; and according to Mayer very fine charcoal is formed by charring the freshly dug lignite without previously exposing it to the air.”” The experiments which have been made may be classified thus: The coking of the raw brown coal without addition of extraneous matter. The coking of the raw brown coal together with the addition of caking coal, coal tar pitch, or other agglomerant, either directly or after com- pression. The coking of brown coal previously charred, with addition of caking coal, coal tar pitch, or other cementing substance. • The earliest experiments in the direction of the coking of brown coal without addition of extraneous matter of which I have been able to find a record were the attempts to coke it in heaps or meilers, just as wood is charred. The results as stated were the production of a coke amounting from 15 per cent of the original material by weight in the Wetterau, and about 40 per cent in Cassel, which was of considerable hardness but in small sized pieces. This was succeeded by tests in brick ovens, but in nearly every case the result is the same—the production of a powdery coke, which was extinguished with difficulty when drawn. Ungerf says that a coke sufficiently good for blacksmithing was pro- duced at the mines of Habichtswald from a woody pitch coal, and that the yield was about 44 per cent. He concludes that it is only from those brown coals which are rich in tarry matters, that there can be pre- pared by use of suitable methods compact coke giving an intensive heat which will closely approach that from bituminous coal. The results of the experiments in Austria and Germany are briefly Summarized in the pages just preceding, in connection with the prepara- tion of brown coal for iron smelting. * Chemical Technology, Groves & Thorp, p. 119. *Unger, Louis. Die Verwerthung der Braunkohle, etc., Weimar, 1863, p. 146. • 76 T815&OWN COAL AND LIGNITE. The first American experiments of which I find publication are those of G. Christian Hoffman, Chemist and Mineralogist of the Geological Survey of Canada, 1884, and F. A. Gooch, in Vol. 15 of the Tenth Cen- Sus Report, 1886. The coal experimented with by Mr. Hoffman was a Cretaceous lignite (No. 2) of coarse lamellar structure, which he describes as follows: “The various layers differ somewhat in lustre; contains an occasional in- terstratified layer of mineral charcoal; color black; lustre along the plane Of bedding dull, that of the cross fracture sub-resinous and resinous; fracture uneven, that of some of the layers not unfrequently conchoidal; it communicates a deep brownish red color to a boiling solution of caus- tic potash; by exposure to the air splits along the plane of bedding and falls to pieces. “Specific gravity, 1.3972. “An ultimate analysis gave: Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54.35 Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.34 Oxygen and nitrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T7.52 Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.67 Ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.30 Hygroscopic Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.82 T00.00 “It yields, both by slow and fast coking, a non-coherent coke; the gases evolved during coking burnt with a yellowish, somewhat luminous, slightly smoky flame. The ash has a reddish-brown color; exposed to a bright red heat it becomes slightly agglutinated; at a most intense red heat it forms a more or less vitrified mass. “It appeared desirable in the case of those fuels which are only slightly non-caking, to ascertain what proportion of a caking coal would be required to be added to them in order to insure the production of a coherent, Ser- viceable coke, and with this object in view the undermentioned experi- ments were carried out. No. 26 was selected to represent the lignitic coals and No. 2 the lignites. The caking coal employed was the well known Youghiogheny gas coal (Pennsylvania). The materials were reduced to the same state of mechanical division (tolerably fine pow- der); the weight of the mixture employed was in all instances the same, and the cokings were conducted as nearly as possible at the same temper- ature. The results are as follows: CORING. 77 Proportions Parts by Weight of #####. Character of the Coke. Number 26 |Youghiogheny (Lignitic Coal.) Coal. I 100 20 Firm, coherent; an excellent coke. 2 100 15 Firm, coherent; an excellent coke. 3 100 10 Firm, coherent; somewhat inferior to the one immediately preceding, but still of good quality. 4 100 5 Coherent, but tender; fairly good. Proportions. Parts by Weight of #. Character of the Coke. Number 2 Youghiogheny (Lignite.) Coal. 5 100 20 Firm, coherent, good quality; about equal to that of experiment 3. 6 I00 I5 Coherent, somewhat tender; fairly, good. 7 100 I0 Coherent, but tender; inferior. “From this it will be seen that, as far as experiments on the small scale are concerned, the addition of fifteen parts of a strongly caking coal to one hundred parts of the lignitic coal insures the production of a good strong coke; with ten parts of caking coal the product is still a good coke, and even the mixture containing only five parts of caking coal makes a coke which, although somewhat tender, might yet be found use- ful for Some purposes. The lignite, it may be observed, requires a much larger addition of caking coal in order to insure equally satisfactory re- sults; the mixture containing twenty parts of caking coal does not make a stronger coke than that obtained from the mixture of lignitic coal con- taining only half that amount of caking coal; with fifteen parts of caking coal, the coke was tender, though possibly still a useful fuel; that made from the mixture containing ten parts of caking coal can not be regarded as a useful coke. “From the foregoing experiments it may, therefore, be inferred that, as regards the lignitic coal, the addition of fifteen parts of a Strongly caking coal to one hundred parts of that fuel would be found to yield a good firm coke, and that about ten parts of caking coal is the smallest propor- tion that would be found to give satisfactory results; in the case of the lignite an addition of not less than twenty parts of caking coal to one hundred parts of lignite would be required in order to insure the produc- tion of a good coherent coke, and that fifteen parts of caking coal is the 78 EROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. smallest proportion that can be employed with any probability of obtain- ing a fairly good coke.”* * The experiments as detailed by Mr. Gooch are with coals somewhat more nearly like Our Texas brown coals, and for this reason I present the greater part of his report on them. “The experiments, of which a brief account is here given, were, at the request of Mr. Pumpelly, the director of the Northern Transcontinental Survey, undertaken in the attempt to make from non-coking lignites of low grade and feeble heating capacity a good locomotive fuel of compar- atively high calorific power, and, though the investigation was hardly more than begun when interrupted by the discovery and opening by the survey of the Bozeman coal field, it has been thought advisable to make record of such facts as were Observed. * “Of all known modes of treatment something like the process of man- ufacture of the SO-called Parisian coal Or like that Of the Welsh an- thracite coke seemed best suited to the case of the lignites, and attention was accordingly turned in these directions. The mode of preparation of the Parisian coal consists, in brief, in the grinding of charcoal refuse with from 8 to 12 per cent of water, intermixing thoroughly 30 per cent of coal tar, molding the magma into cylinders, and coking the last in a muffle furnace. The product is said to be less fragile than ordinary char- coal and more inflammable than coke. The process of manufacture of the Welsh anthracite coke involves the intimate mixture of 60 parts of anthracite coal in fine powder with 35 parts of good caking coal and 5 parts of coal tar; and the coking of the mixture beneath a cover of two inches Of bituminous COal. It is claimed for this COke that it is about 23 per cent heavier than the best Welsh coke from bituminous coal, gains only from 1% to 2 per cent in weight when moistened with water, burns without decrepitating or crumbling, and is an excellent cupola or blast furnace fuel. gº “The materials employed in these experiments were lignites from sev- eral localities On the line Of the Northern Pacific Railroad in Western Dakota and Montana, bituminous coal from Connellsville, Pennsylvania, from Montana and from Washington Territory, the composition of which is given in the following analyses: * “Experience has shown that, in the preparation of coke from a mixture of non-caking and caking coal, it is very desirable that the latter be reduced to a much finer State of division than the former. The two kinds of fuel should therefore be ground separately and afterward mixed in the desired proportions.” COKING-. 79 23 Water. # # e # Ash. 3 Pa I. Missoula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.44 || 38.08 27.02 || 11.46 II. Point 100 miles west of Miles City. . . . . . . . . . . 21.56 38.12 28.29 || 12.03 III. Montana (otherwise undescribed). . . . . . . . . . . . 21.26 || 32.34 34.98 || 11.42 IV. Little Missouri. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.53 || 35.18 || 33.59 || 5.70 V. Bly mine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.56 35.87 || 30.71 9.86 VI. Wilkeson mine, Washington Territory. . . . . . . 1.22 || 32.88 50.67 | 15.23 VII. Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.95 || 25.65 55.82 | 17.58 VIII. Connellsville, Penn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.53 || 30.13 | 60.17 | 8.17 IX. III partly roasted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.68 || 8.86 62.35 21.11 X. IV partly roasted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.98 || 12.50 | 60.32 || 17.20 XI. V partly roasted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.93 || 12.39 || 61.58 || 16.10 “The composition of the residue, after drying or after complete roast- ing of the lignites out of contact with the air, is, of course, readily seen in the figures of analyses I to V. “In experiments 1 to 12, finely pulverized lignite from Missoula, the composition of which is given in analysis I, was employed with a coal tar which yielded 33 per cent of its weight of coke. Small amounts of material, from 5 to 10 grams, were used in each case, and the ignition was effected in closed platinum crucibles within the flame of a large gas blow-pipe, so that the coking might be accomplished at a high heat Quickly applied, the most favorable condition for cementing the material and returning the largest yield of coke. In experiments 1 and 2 the lig- nite was taken in its natural condition; in experiments 3 and 4, after the expulsion of its water of composition, by drying at 115 degrees C.; and in experiments 5 to 12, after thorough roasting out of contact with the air to remove the volatile matter. The proportions used are given in percentages: 80 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Locality. #: $º Treatment. Fesidue. 1. Missoula . . . .] 76.9 23.1 |... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Not coherent. 2. . . . . do . . . . . . . 55.6 44.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coherent, but granular and very fragile. 3... . . . do . . . . . . . 65.0 | 35.0 |... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coherent, but granular and very fragile. 4. . . . . do . . . . . . . 56.6 43.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coherent, but granular and fragile. 5... . . . do . . . . . . . 95.3 4.7 | Mixture tamped . . . . . . Feebly coherent 6. . . . . do . . . . . . . 91.6 8.4 | Tar at bottom of cruci- Feebly coherent ble with lignite above it. 7... . . . do . . . . . . . 91.6 8.4 | Mixture not tamped...] Coherent, but granular and fragile. 8.. . . . do . . . . . . . 91.6 8.4 Mixture tamped. . . . . . . Coherent and hard, but not cellular. 9. . . . . do . . . . . . . 91.6 8.4 Moistened with naptha | Feebly coherent. and tamped. 10... . . do . . . . . . . 91.6 8.4 || Moistened with water | Feebly coherent. and tamped. 11... . . . do . . . . . . . 86.6 || 13.4 || Moistened with water | Feebly coherent. and tamped. 12.. . . . do . . . . . . . 72.2 27.8 | Not tamped. . . . . . . . . . . A true Coke of fair col- g Or and structure. “It is evident that under the conditions of these experiments a mix- ture of roasted lignite and coal tar is capable of producing a firm fuel, as in experiment 8, in which 19.3 per cent of tar was employed, or even a true coke of good structure, as in experiment 12, in which the roasted lignite was mixed with its own weight of tar. The bad effect of the presence of the volatile matter of the lignite is obvious in experiments 1 and 2, an amount of tar more than twice that of the fixed matter of the lignite proving insufficient to produce a firm cementing of the materials, and the removal of the water of composition alone seems to improve the matter a little. Tamping, or the compression of the mixture before heating, is advantageous, but, as would be expected from the results of experiments 1 to 4, the addition of volatile matter to the mixture is deleterious; and this effect appears to be due to the mechanical disintegra- tion of the mass by the evolution of gas at the time when the fusion of the particles should be in process, rather than to chemical action, though it would not be unnatural to expect some dissociation of aqueous vapor at the expense of the carbon, more especially as the application of heat is sudden. “In experiments 13 to 23 bituminous coals, either with or without the addition of coal tar, were used for the cementing material. In ex- periments 13 to 17 the roasted lignite of analysis II, the Washington Territory coal of analysis VI, and coal tar yielding 33 per cent of coke were employed, and in experiment 18 the same lignite was used with Montana coal of analysis VII. In experiments 15 to 18 portions of 400 grams were operated upon in fire clay crucibles in a Fletcher gas furnace, the crucible being at red heat when the mixture was introduced. In COKING. 81 other cases small portions of a few grams were treated in platinum cruci- bles as before. In experiments 19 to 23 the lignite from Montana, rep- resented by analyses III and IX, in the natural, dried, partly roasted, and roasted conditions, was used in mixture with the Connellsville coal of analysis VIII. ## #3 5 # § º O g 8- Remarks. 2. H O O 13 90.8 9.2 . . . . . . Firm and dense, but with no cellular structure. 14 || 78.8 21.2 . . . . . . . Firm and dense, but with no cellular structure. 15 86.4 || 8.7 || 4.9 | Firm and dense, but with no cellular structure. 16 || 88.7 | 9.0 2.3 | Firm and dense, but with no cellular structure. 17 | 88.1 9.5 2.4 Firm and dense, but with no cellular structure. 18 78.8 18.5 2.7 | Firm and dense, but with no cellular structure. 19 || 50.0 | 50.0 | . . . . . . Firm, color excellent, structure porous with marks of fusion. 20 | 68.3 || 31.7 . . . . . . . Firm, color fair, structure porous. with marks of fusion On Surface of contact with Crucible. 21 | 68.3 || 31.7 |... . . . Firm, color good, structure porous, with marks of fusion on surface of contact with Crucible. 22 | 68.3 31.7 . . . . . . . A true coke of good color and structure. 23 | 68.3 || 31.7 | . . . . . . A true coke of excellent color and structure. “It appears from the first six experiments of the series just given that a firm fuel may be made under the conditions of the crucible experiments from mixtures containing proportions of caking material very much below those of the Welsh formula, though the Welsh propor- tions did not yield a true coke. Seventy-five per cent of roasted lignite, with 20 per cent of a caking coal (which though good is not to be placed in the same rank with the Connellsville coal) and 5 per cent of coal tar as serviceable proportions; so, also, is the mixture of 80 per cent of roasted lignite and 20 per cent of the caking coal. “In the last five experiments the proportion of bituminous coal was equivalent to the fixed matter of the lignite, and the fuel produced was in every case firm, and in experiments 22 and 23 a true coke; but, as in the experiments in which coal tar was the sole cementing ingredient, the disadvantageous effect of the presence of volatile matter is clearly trace- able, though in the case of the partly roasted lignitº—material taken from that used in experiments on a larger scale, which are about to be described, and which was partly roasted simply because the complete roast- ing of the large sample was an impossibility with the facilities at com- mand—the influence of the residual volatile matter was comparatively slight. Though, as was evident in the earlier experiments, the cementing Quality of tar is adequate to the production of a true coke, these later ex- periments go to show very plainly that the value of good bituminous coal exceeds that of the same proportion of coal tar. Thus, while in experi- ment 2, 44.4 per cent of coal tar to 55.6 per cent of lignite in the natural E –G-ecºl 82 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. condition is a proportion capable of yielding only a fragile product, in experiment 19 equal parts of lignite and Connellsville coal produce a firm fuel of good structure and color, though not a true coke; and in the comparison of experiments 7, 8 and 13 the bituminous coal seems to have the advantage. It is to be noted, however, that the superiority of the caking coal over the tar is particularly obvious when the lignite still re- tains its volatile matter, and it may be that the advantage of the coal lies in the longer retention, during exposure to high heat, of the capacity to cake, so that a larger proportion of the gaseous matter of the lignite may escape and be out of the way of doing harm before the cementing of the material ceases. “Experiments 24 to 36 were made upon a considerably larger scale, for the purpose of testing the conditions of the coking oven. The mate- rials were taken from the large lots which had been prepared for the final experiments, 37 and 38. The roasting of the lignites was effected in re- torts Ordinarily used for making illuminating gas, and was but partial, because it was found necessary to stop the process before completion to prevent the wasting of fixed carbon by the action of the air, which, un- der the circumstances, could not be entirely excluded. Each charge was drawn as soon as it appeared to be ashing slightly on the surface, and drenched at Once with water. A mill usually employed in grinding fire clay offered the only means available for pulverizing the roasted lignite and the bituminous coal, but the conditions imposed in the use of the mill, that the material should be worked in moist condition to keep the dust down, effectually prevented the grinding of the materials to that .degree of fineness which was greatly to be desired. Much of the ground lignite and coal would scarcely pass a sieve of ten meshes to the linear inch. The mixtures were made in the proportions indicated in the tabu- lar statement, and small portions of each mixture were tested in the cru- cible after the manner of the experiments previously described. The portions experimented upon, varying from 150 to 400 pounds in weight, according as sacks or barrels were used to contain them, were thrown di- rectly upon the hot bottoms of bee-hive ovens, from which the charges had just been drawn, immediately covered with the new charge of caking coal, and quenchèd and drawn with the charge of the oven after forty- eight hours. The analyses of the products are included in the table. COKING. 83 24. 25. 26. MaterlalS. Montana lignite ; Montana lignite ; Ilittle Missouri Connellsville coal ; Connellsville coal ; lignite ; Con’llsv. Coal tar. Coal tar. coal ; Coal tar. f Natural lignite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84.4 84.4 S5.5 Caking coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 11.8 I0.9 Coal far. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 3.8 3.6 Weight of charge—pounds . . 320 150 150 Residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Firm fuel... . . .] Fairly firm fuel...|Rather fragile. |Upper. Under. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.98 5.71 4.70 .7.21 Vol. matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.33 5.39 3.97 8.51 Carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7().24 69.0S 69.50 68.25 Ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.45 19.82 21.93 N I6.03 100.00 100.00 || 100.00 100.00 Residue in parallel crucible experiments. . . . . . Color excellent, but grain coarse. 27. 28. Materials. Little Missoufi lig- || Bly Mine lignute ; nute ; Connellsville Connellsville coal : * Coal ; Coal tar. Coal tar. Natural lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85.5 85.3 Caking coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9 11.1 Coal tar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 3.6 Weight of charge—pounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 150 Residue . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * c e º 'º e < * * * * * * * * * * Weak fuel. . . . . . . Weak fuel. TJpper. TJnder. Upper. TJnder. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.54 (3.02 4.84 5.23 Vol. matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.79 7.06 8.07 7.30 Carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.05 72. II 66.24 65. 72 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.62 14.81 20.85 21.75 100.00 100.00 I00.00 100.00 Residue in parallel crucible experiments. . . . . . Color excellent, but grain coarse. 29. 30. Mater 1818. Montana lignite ; Con- Montana lignite ; Con- nellsville coal. nellsville Coke. Natural lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87.8 84.4 Caking coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2 I5.6 Weight of charge—pounds. . . . . . . 400 300 Residue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Too fragile to be drawn Feebly coherent. Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.53 Vol. matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.89 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * > * 19.48 84 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Materials. 31. 32 Montana lignite ; nellsville Coal. Con- Montana lignite ; Con- Inellsville coal. Natural lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78.5 73 Caking coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.5 27 Weight of charge—pounds. . . . . . . 300 300 Residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Firm, but not a true | A fair coke, of good coke. color and structure. Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.59 sº Vol. matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.73 3.09 Carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67.71 75.07 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.97 19.05 100.00 100.00 Residue in parallel crucible experiments...... Color excellent, but grain coarse. 33. 34. Materials. Montana lignite i Connellsville Montana lignite ; Connellsville CO8,l. Natural lignite. . . . . . . . * 73 64.3 Caking coal. . . . . . . . . . . 27 35.7 Weight of charge, lbs.. 150 220 Residue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Good coke, of good color and structure. Good coke, of good color and Structure. TJpper. Under. Water... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.50 5.63 2.79 Vol. matter . . . . . . . . . . . 4.29 6.93 3.09 Carbon... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.71 68.34 75.07 Ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.50 19.10 19.05 100.00 100.00 100.00 Residue in parallel crucible experiments. . . . . . Color excellent, but grain coarse. 35. 36. MaterialS. Little Missouri lignites ; Con- Bly Mune lignute ; Connnells- nellSville coal. VIIIe coal. Natural lignite. . . . . . . . 74.8 74.2 Caking coal . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2 25.8 Weight of charge, lbs.. 150 150 Residue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weak fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fairly firm, of good color. but not a true COke. Upper. |Under. Upper. TJnder. Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.75 5.63 4.97 3.13 Vol. matter . . . . . . . . . . . 7.60 4.49 8.77 4.37 Carbon... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.93 75.05 70.25 74.87 Ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.72 16. 52 16.01 17.63 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Residue in parallel crucible experiments...... Color excellent, but grain coarse. COIKING. 85 .* “Experiments 24 to 28 indicate pretty clearly the lowest proportions of cementing material, by the admixture of which with the roasted lig- nites, it may be hoped to secure a good fuel by coking. Why experi- ments 26, 27 and 28 should have yielded a feebly coherent product under apparently the same conditions of mixture and experimentation, which in experiments 24 and 25 gave a firm fuel, is difficult to see, unless the cause is to be sought in the larger amount of volatile matter still remain- ing in the partly roasted lignite of the first experiments. At any rate, it is evident that these proportions lie near the limit of successful cement- ing. Experiments 29 to 36, with the companion tests, show unmistakably that the conditions of the crucible experiments are more favorable to the production of firm cokes of good color than the conditions which prevail beneath the surface of coal in process of coking in the bee-hive oven, and a comparison with experiments 13 to 18 and 23 emphasizes the value Of a fine comminution of materials. “In experiments 37 and 38 the materials were mixed for oven charges, as indicated in the table following, and thrown into hot bee-hive Ovens. Heating began immediately, and a coherent crust formed upon each charge and the surface cracked in an encouraging manner. In the case of experiment 37, however, it was possible to run a pole to the bottom of the oven after eight hours heating, and upon drawing the charge at the end of twenty-four hours the product was worthless, excepting the thin surface crust. In experiment 38 the product, drawn twenty-two hours after charging, proved to be a good coherent fuel, but not a true coke. This fuel was used with success on a 27-ton locomotive, and gave every indication of being applicable to locomotive use, and the material was preserved for quantitative tests. 37. Materials. Montana lignite; Little Missouri; [B]y Mine lignite; ConnellSV111e Connellsville COInnellSVllle Coal; Coal tar. Coal; Coal tar. Coal; Coal tar. ~5 Natural lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84.4 85.5 85.3 Caking coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 10.9 11.1 Coal tar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 3.6 3.6 Weight of charge—pounds. . . . . . . 2000 2000 2000 Residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thin crust. On Surface. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vol. matter... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. 38. Materials. Little Missouri * Montana lignite; lignite: Connells-| Bly Mine lignite; Connellsville coal. ville coal. Connellsville Coal. Natural lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 74.8 74.2 Caking coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 25.2 25.S Weight of charge—pounds...... 1330 2730 1330 Residue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fairly firm, but not a true coke. Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.92 Vol. mattr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.54 Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69.24 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.30 100.00 Residue in crucible experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Color excellent, but grain coarse. “From the experiments which have been cited, it is plain that not only a good fuel, but a fuel possessing the qualities of a true coke, may be made under the conditions of the crucible experiments from mixtures of roasted lignite with either a coking coal or coal tar, and the conclusion that the more thoroughly and quickly the heating of the mass takes place, the better will be the product, seems warranted. Fine pulverization of the materials before coking is shown distinctly to be advantageous in experiments on the Small scale, which suggests at least the trial of the same mode of preparation on the large scale. The bee-hive oven is manifestly unsuited to the coking of material not abundantly charged with bituminous constituents, but some one of the many devices which have been lately put forward as improvements upon the plan of the Bel- gian ovens would doubtless prove valuable in such cases, some arrange- ment by which the material may be compressed and coked in thin layers being apparently most promising. Perhaps the most important point which has been brought out by these experiments in reference to the treatment of lignites by coking in mixture with bituminous materials, is the great advantage to be gained in the removal of the volatile constit- uents before making the mixture to be coked. In the crucible experi- ments the yield is the sum of the fixed matter of the coal, the lignite and the tar, as given by the ordinary proximate analysis; On the working scale, it is probable that the waste of fixed carbon need not exceed that which is usual in the coking of bituminous coal. While the experiments have not been carried far enough to warrant a close estimate of the cost of producing the proposed fuel, the results justify the belief that this would not be prohibitory where the alternative was the bringing in of Eastern coal.’’ * CHAPTER V. BROWN COAL AS FUEL — Continued, AIRTIFICIAL FUEL. The name briquette,” which is now used for every variety of artifi- cially formed combustible, was originally used in Paris for fuel formed from peat with addition of water and plastic clay; later it was applied to fuel formed by pressure at a high temperature from good agglomerating coal, but without addition of a bond, to distinguish them from those 2 3 termed “pérats,” under which name were included the fuel first made by Bérard and Givors from bituminous coal with tar, pitch or other bond. Numerous other names, such as “charbons agglomérés,” “houilles agglo- mérés,” or for short, “agglomérés,” in France, “briquettes de charbon” in Belgium, “patent fuel” or “compressed fuel” in England and North America, “kohlensteine” or “kohlenziegeln” in Germany, were all used in a restricted sense for pressed fuel from bituminous coal only, while under “combustibles artificials” and “artificial fuel” were embraced every sort of artificially prepared fuel. In Germany, pressed brown coal was designated by such generally used terms as mass-press-steine (also presskohlensteine) and darrsteine (or darrkohlensteine), in accordance with the two different methods of preparation. Numberless experiments for the preparation of coal for use by pressing were conducted in different directions and by different methods, but the difficulties to be overcome were very considerable, both from a chemical and a mechanical point of view, and it required a very long time after the principle was understood before it was found possible to enter upon the manufacture successfully, and for this reason the real production of briquettes from bituminous coal may be said to date only from 1860, and of brown coal from 1870. Since that time the improvement has gone on steadily, and there is hardly any doubt that materials now regarded as unbriquettable in this manner may finally, under sufficient pressure, be * Preissig, E. Die Presskohlen-Industrie, Freiberg, in Sachsen, 1887. 88 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. formed into a fine briquette without a bond. But the question of cost, of method and machinery requisite, and whether the material is briquett- able in this way with profit, must be fully considered before any great expense is incurred. After the first establishment of a manufactory for this character of fuel at St. Etienne, France, in 1842, it spread into England, Belgium, and elsewhere, and when the price of the bond was materially lessened, by the saving of the tar from the coke ovens, it gathered fresh headway, until at the present time factories are in operation in France, Belgium, Holland, England, Spain, Italy, Russia, Sweden, Germany, Austria, Hungary and the United States. The present conditions of briquette technology are such that outside of peat, certain kinds of brown coal, and possibly caking coals, briquettes can not be manufactured without a bond of some kind, while by the use of such a bond all possible fuels may be converted into pressed coal, and thus made serviceable. QUALITIES OF BRIQUETTES. Schwackhöfer gives the following as the qualities of good briquettes: a. They must be homogeneous, ringing, and nearly smokeless. b. The breakage in transportation must not exceed 5 per cent. c. The weight of each briquette should not exceed one to two and one-half pounds, so that they can be used handily and without breaking in feeding the furnace. d. The average specific gravity should be at least 1.15. e. They must not be hygroscopic. The moisture contained in them should not exceed 5 per cent, and the ash should not be more than 10 per cent. f. They must be easy to kindle, burn with a lively and practically Smokeless flame, and must not fall to pieces in the fire. g. Their steaming power must be approximately equal to that of a good steam coal. For certain purposes, however, such as use in locomotives or in ships’ furnaces, larger sizes are made, reaching in the French marine to bri- quettes weighing twenty-two pounds each, and even a greater size. The limits of water and ash are also changed under certain conditions, but the water and ash together should never exceed the maximum here given. ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 89 Briquettes complying with these requirements are sold in Westphalia at about the same price as the best bituminous coal, in England at the same relative price and even higher, while in Russia they are preferred to bituminous coal and bring a higher price. ForM, SIZE AND WEIGHT.—The forms of briquettes of this character in most general use are prismatic or cylindrical, more rarely egg-shaped, or perforated prismatic forms. Such briquettes are of a great variety of sizes and consequently differ as widely in weight. HEATING PoweR.—One especial advantage of good coal briquettes over the coal itself, and one which remains unaltered for a very long time, is their higher heating power. This has been amply proven by many ex- periments in England, France, Germany and Austria. The heating power is of course largely governed by the character of the coal of which they are made, and this increase can not be entirely attributed to the pitch which is added as a bond, since the amount ordinarily added would not raise it more than 2 per cent. The higher heating power is there- fore partly due to the more complete combustion of the briquettes or to the cleansing of the coal previous to briquetting it. BEHAVIOR IN THE FIRE. –For the best service the briquette should not have the quality of caking or running together in the fire, and thus pre- venting a free passage of air; neither should it fall apart, but it should hold its form and burn steadily from the outside inward. The char- acter of bond used has considerable influence over the behavior, and, ac- cording to Gurlt, briquettes formed with magnesia cement give excellent results, neither running together nor falling apart, but those cemented with pitch are so far considered the best, since even at a high temperature the gases are evolved gradually and their dissemination in the mass pro- duces a lively and intense flame. FIRMNESS AND DURABILITY. —These are also influenced to a large degree by the kind of bond and the degree of pressure used in the manufac- ture. When proper pressure is given the bulk of the fuel is reduced and its durability greatly increased. Thus in the French marine it has been found possible to store in the same space 10 per cent more briquettes than coal, and that the loss by breaking and pulverization is very much less. 90 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. MECHANICAL PREPARATION OF THE COAL. The size of the particles of coal and its cleanness or freedom from ex- traneous matter are weighty factors in the manufacture of briquettes. If the coal be well mixed with the bond and subjected to strong pressure, the particles may have a diameter of five, or at the highest seven, milli- meters (three to five-sixteenths of an inch). The most satisfactory pro- duct is from coal of an even size of one-eighth of an inch (three milli- meters) or from the slime of slack. “The cleaner the product the higher the value, and so much the more widespread will be its market.” This principle, founded on expe- rience, holds as well for briquettes as for coal and coke, of which the qual- ity is judged, aside from its heating power and other characteristics, especially according to its cleanliness. It is therefore best to separate all slate, pyrites and other foreign materials as completely as possible by Separation and Sorting, and to complete this by washing the coal after it has been reduced to proper size. By this means the briquettes often contain much less ash than the coal from which they were made. The mechanical preparation of coal for briquetting consists of three Operations: Separation; Crushing; Cleaning. These operations are so fully described in all the standard works on the subject that it is hardly necessary to do more than refer to them here. SEPARATION.—The coal as it comes from the mine is sorted by hand, or separated into different sizes by a system of sieves or other suitable ap- paratus, the lump coal passing to the crusher, and the fine coal to the washing apparatus. CRUSHING.—The apparatus for crushing is either a breaker or a crusher of the ordinary type, or a disintegrator of special construction. The latter seems to be preferred in Belgium, France, Germany, and Austria, as it produces a fine coal of very uniform size and homogeneity. CLEANING..—In order to secure the Smallest possible amount of ash and sulphur in the briquettes, the fine coal is washed to rid it of its clay, Sand and iron pyrites, just as in preparing it for coking. The great im- ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 91 provement caused by washing is most clearly shown by the following table: Ash. Raw coal. Washed coal. Wolfsbank mine, Westphalia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 per cent. 2.79 per cent. Horder mine, Westphalia................... 22 per cent. 3.5–5.77 per cent. Forst pit, Saxony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22–24 per cent. 5.8–6 per cent. Brückenberg, Saxony....................... 25 per cent. 5–6 per cent. Meyram pit, near Gottesberg, Silesia. . . . . . . . 17–18 per cent. 4.5–6.35 per cent. The cost of such washing, including interest, superintendence, etc., was from five to six cents per ton of washed coal at Wolfsbank and Brückenberg. There are a variety of forms of apparatus in use for washing the coal, and each has its special claim for excellence, or its application to a par- ticular character of work, one of the largest plants of this kind being that of the briquette factory of Couillet, in Belgium, which has a ca- pacity of 1000 tons in ten hours. The drying of the washed coal is usually done by means of centrifugal machines, which make 300 revolutions per minute, and have a capacity of three tons per hour. At other localities the drying is carried on in drying towers. The separation and cleaning of coal in the dry way is also in success- ful operation at several localities, and while the cost of installation of the plant is somewhat greater than in the washing apparatus, the cost of cleaning is about 20 per cent less. There seems to be some advantage in it, since the coal is worked with dry air and the cost of drying after washing is saved entirely. BRIQUETTES WITH BOND. The greater quantity of briquettes which are made with bond are manufactured from the slack of coal with the addition of coal tar pitch. The earthy brown coal of Germany is not well adapted for the manufact- ure of briquettes of this kind, and while the pitch coal and glance coal of Austria are well Suited for the purpose, the demand for the coal, small as well as large, is so great that up to the present time there have been few plants erected. Where they have been, however, they are in suc- º 92 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. cessful operation. In Italy, where the brown coal is almost the Only source of supply, this method of converting it into a serviceable fuel is receiving considerable attention, and in many of the factories the brown coal forms a part at least of the material briquetted. THE BOND. In the beginning of the briquette industry many kinds of material, both inorganic and organic, were used as bonds, but at present the Or- ganic are used almost exclusively. Among the inorganic substances used at different times may be men- tioned the clays (some of which are still in use today in preparation of certain coals for household purposes when the increase of ash is not such an important matter), silicate of soda, alum, alum shales with quick lime, lime water, etc. Many other materials were added to the inorganic bonds for the purpose of increasing the inflammability of the briquettes or to de- crease the production of smoke and soot. Some of these were saltpetre, chlorate of potash, magnesia, slacked lime, potash, Soda, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, permanganate of potash, etc. None of these, how- ever, are now in practical use, and the only substitute for pitch which is at present worthy of attention is magnesia cement. ORGANIC BONDS. CoAL TAR.—This material was used as bond in the oldest briquette factories, but the product was not firm enough to bear long transporta- tion, or to withstand the heat of the sun. It develops also in burning a dense black smoke and a very disagreeable odor, and although many trials were made to overcome these disadvantages by thoroughly drying the briquettes in dry kilns, the results were unsuccessful. For these reasons, coal tar is now scarcely used in its raw state, but is sometimes added to the material for the purpose of increasing its combustibility. Its real value lies in the fact that it is the material from which the pitch used can be distilled. For this purpose only the tar from bituminous coal is generally made use of, because that from brown coal, peat and bitumin- Ous shales is found more valuable in Europe as the basis of the manufac- ture of mineral oil and paraffine. Pitch from wood tar and petroleum might also be used, but so far has not been applied in this direction. Coal tar is a product of the distillation of coal, by which it is separated * ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 93 into tar, ammonia and gas as distillates, and coke which is left as residue. The tar consists principally of hydrocarbons, but includes also other neutral bodies, as well as some that are acid and basic, the character of which is not constant, but depends upon the composition of the coal, method of distillation (especially the temperature), influence of the heat, and form and size of the vessel used. The quantity of târ produced from different coals varies directly in proportion to the hydrogen they contain, and the regularity of the temperature and the degree of heat, used. High temperatures produce carbon and carbonic gases of little light-giving power, with slight amounts of liquid distillates, while lower temperatures afford large amount of fluids and gas of higher light-giving power. Under the present modes of manufacture, tar is only a by-product, and not the principal object of production. The sources from which it is derived, are the manufacture of gas and coke, and; in far less quantities, from the gases of iron furnaces using raw coal as fuel. The residue from the distillation of petroleum is not included in this. England is by far the greatest producer of coal tar, having an output of about half a million tons annually, nearly twice as much as is made in all the other parts of Europe. The earlier tar output was confined exclusively to the gas works, but the application of methods for Saving both tar and ammonia from the gases driven off in the coking of coal in ovens has increased the out- put very greatly. As these ovens vary in construction and in the degree of heat used, the tar is also variable, being in Some cases similar to gas tar, and in others much thinner and lighter. The heat employed in distillation ranges from 800 degrees C. in retorts to 1600 C. in recuperative ovens. The product from the coke ovens also varies from 2.11 per cent to 3.5 per cent of the weight of the coked coal. The ammonia recov- ered at the same time in the form of ammonium Sulphate averages about 1 per cent, and these by-products have a value of from fifty cents to one dollar and fifty cents for each ton of coal. From the iron furnaces using raw coal as fuel the tar is collected by condensation of the escaping gases. PITCH.-Pitch is the residue of tar after the distillation of substances volatile under a certain temperature. The distillation is carried on in upright cylinders of boiler iron by direct heating. Below 140 degrees C. the light oils (benzene, toluene and homologous oils) are driven off; 94 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. between that point and 220 degrees C. light and heavy oils together, (the higher homologues of benzene, napthalene and carbolic acid); be- tween 300 degrees C. and 400 degrees C. anthracene (with phenanthrene and higher homologues of the phenol group). The residue still fluid at 400 degrees C. will, when cooled in the pitch chamber, form hard pitch. If the distillation be stopped at the completion of the separation of the light oils, the residue is asphaltum, with a specific gravity about equal to water. Soft pitch is the residue when about half of the heavy oils have been driven off and the distillate has reached a specific gravity of 1.09. The specific gravity of medium pitch is between 1.09 and 1.12, while hard pitch sometimes reaches 1.28. Soft pitch. . . . . Softens at 40 deg. C. Melts at 60 deg. C. Medium pitch. Softens at 60 deg. C. Melts at 100 deg. C. Hard pitch....Softens at 100 deg. C. Melts at 150 deg. C. to 200 deg. C. The yield of pitch from tar may be stated to vary between 50 and 67 per cent of hard pitch, or from 60 to 75 per cent of soft pitch. In the manufacture of briquettes hard pitch is generally preferred, though both soft and medium pitch are used to some extent. The lia- bility of the lattel to soften at low temperatures, however, would prevent its being serviceable in warm countries. The amount of pitch used in briquetting varies from 4 to 10 per cent of the weight of the coal used. In America there has been little incentive to the recovery of the pitch and ammonia produced in the coking of coal, since the chemical works, which in Europe are dependent on this source of supply for their mate- rials, have here the same materials in the residuum of the distillation of coal oil in great abundance and at extremely low prices. Of late several articles have appeared in the proceedings of the different scientific asso- ciations urging the erection of coking Ovens properly arranged for this purpose. An extension of the process of briquetting to the smalls of anthracite and bituminous coal would create so great a demand for this material as to render such plants quite remunerative. STARCH PASTE AND DExTRINE.—Starch, although insoluble in cold water, forms a paste of a more or less gelatinous character in water having a temperature between 40 degrees and 70 degrees C. Heated carefully from 160 degrees to 200 degrees, or with addition of an acid from 100 degrees to 120 degrees, the starch is changed into dextrine, ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 95 which is soluble in both hot and cold water. Rye meal, potato meal, and flour have been used in the production of briquettes, and in Dixon’s patent fuel, which is so extensively used in England, dextrine is the cementing substance, supplemented by hard pitch, fusel oil and alum. These briquettes have given most excellent results both in smelting tests and for household purposes. IRISH Moss.—This material, which was used formerly and had the merit of being very cheap, was hygroscopic and therefore has been laid aside. 4. PAPER PULP or CELLULOSE.—Patents were taken out for the use of this material for bond, but after tests on a large scale it was found that bri- quettes made with it would not withstand moisture, and after experi- ments failed to remedy the defect it was abandoned. MoLAssEs.—This material was brought into use as bond for briquettes by Bérard, but in 1884 its use was greatly extended by Saltery’s patent for briquetting ores, coal, coke, sawdust, etc. Coal briquettes made with it have all the characters of those agglomerated with hard pitch ex- cept their imperviousness to moisture. If this property can be attained by the addition of a small amount of linseed oil, as has been suggested, the cheapness of the bond will be greatly in favor of its use. The quan- tity required for successful agglomeration depends upon the percentage of Sugar and gummy substances in the molasses, and in some measure also on the caking or non-caking character of the coal. It is usually be- tween 1 and 1% per cent of the coal. There seems to be some improve- ment needed in the technique or machinery of the operation for mixing the molasses through the coal, and it is also necessary to dry the briquettes artificially before they can be stored or shipped. INORGANIC BONDS. MAGNESIA CEMENT.—This is a patent cement composed of magnesia and chloride of magnesia with 50 to 60 per cent of water of hydration. It is produced from the refuse of the potash works at Stassfurt. It forms a very plastic paste with water, which hardens under change of temper- ature. The cementing power of this material is so great that it will bind to- gether twenty times its own weight of other substances, such as sand, etc., into blocks so hard that they will withstand a pressure of 500 to 96 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. 1500 kilogrammes to the square centimetre. . Small coal mixed with only 5 per cent of the magnesia cement (of which 24 per cent remains as ash) will produce hard, firm briquettes. They require a pressure of 150 to 250 kilogrammes per square centimetre, and the briquettes require twenty- four hours to become completely dry and hard, and should not be ex- posed to rain for at least three days. The amount of ash, and the fact that it does not increase the calorific power of the material, would not recommend it for use with brown coal except under very special condi- tions, despite the advantages offered in cheapness of plant required for using it. As stated previously, however, pitch is the bond most extensively used, either by itself or sometimes with the addition of a small percent- age of coal tar. Hard pitch is the variety in most general use, although machines of the Evrard system, which use only soft pitch, are also in use in considerable numbers. In Russia the use of bitumen is reported, but whether the material is of natural occurrence or the name is simply used for a manufactured ar- ticle, does not appear. MIXING COAL AND BOND. In the manufacture of briquettes it is of the highest importance that there should be the most intimate mixture possible of the coal and its bond, and to accomplish this there are as many processes as there are bonds, if not more. Certain bonds, such as Irish moss, dextrine, silicate of soda, clay, magnesia, cement, etc., can be mixed with the coal without the aid of heat. By Saltery’s patent the molasses is dissolved in warm water and then mixed with the coal in a mixing cylinder, which resemi- bles a clay-cutting machine. While the processes require a less costly plant than those employing heat, the briquettes produced must be dried after manufacture, either in the air or by artificial heat, before being ready for market. The methods which give the best results are those which heat the coal and bond and press them while in that condition. Hard pitch may be powdered and mixed with the fine coal, and the mixture passed through pulverizers of suitable eonstruction to reduce both to the requisite fineness, and the mixture then heated to secure the plasticity necessary for perfect agglomeration, or the pulverized and ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 97 heated coal may be mixed with the pitch in a liquid condition; or the coal only may be heated and then mixed with the powdered pitch in a suitable apparatus, and the whole brought to a plastic state, preferably by means of superheated steam. These methods with their various modifications are in use at different localities, and the one best adapted for any given coal is determined by its character, the machinery to be used and the fuel to be produced. BRIQUETTE PRESSES. Preissig gives in the following table the different varieties of presses used in briquetting fine coal with bond: *2–G-eol A. | Loiseau. Tangential presses. . . . . . . . . . . . S+a, ‘eSSUll'8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - Tangential presse Steam pressure | Bilan. B. Presses with endless forms. or stamp presses. (". Presses with open forms. or endless presses. - | Direct pressure. . . . . On One side . . . . . Perpendicular . . Mazeline. Middleton- Detombay. Watin. Hietrix. Perpendicular ſ Steam pressure. . . . . 3 On One side . . ſ I)urand & Horizontal . . . .' Marais. \ Indirect pressure. | Hanrez. Perpendicular ) . . ( º U On both sides | | ('Ouffin hal IIorizontal . . . . . Yeadon. Revollier. ſ On One side . . ſ Perpendicular flºº. | Hydraulic pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J | Mazeline. lo. both sides lºw- tº - - - & l{Oux-Veillon. ! steam Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horizontal . . . } É. Dupuy & Fils. 3 ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 99 .A. TAN (; ENT I.A. L. PIRESSES. The earlier presses of this character have been replaced by those with stamps, and those designed by Loisseau, in America, and Bilan and Fou- quemberg, in Europe, are the only ones in practical use, and their use is at present comparatively limited. BILAN's MACIIINE is thus described in “Annales Industrielles:’’ “This machine is designed for manufacturing agglomerated fuel in spher- ical shape for domestic purposes. It consists of a frame of cast iron, which is the support for four vertical moulding wheels placed at right angles to each other, and tangent to the line of centers. These wheels have their periphery cut into cavities that have the form of one quarter of a sphere; thus they form at the point of contact a complete sphere, in which the material is enclosed. “The fine coal is mixed with 8 to 10 per cent of coal tar pitch, thrown into a crusher and pulverized and intimately mixed. It then passes into a pug mill and is there converted into a plastic state by means of Super- heated steam. The paste is then conducted into an agitator for the double purpose of freeing it from the steam that it contains, and of dis- tributing it in the moulds of the briquette machine. From a hopper at the upper part of the frame the paste is taken up on two endless Screws and forced toward the point where the four moulding wheels meet. “The driving pulley of the machine is keyed upon a horizontal shaft, which, by means of two endless screws, communicate the motion to two gear-wheels, and then by means of beveled pinions set the four moulding wheels in motion. “The four moulding wheels are so accurately adjusted that their cavi- ties meet each other at each revolution, carry along the paste which they receive from the hopper, compress it powerfully on the four sides, and as they separate by farther revolution permit the finished ball to fall Out. “The rim of the four wheels which carries the quarter spheres is made in four segments and fastened by bolts, so that they can be taken apart and replaced with new ones when necessary. “The capacity of the machine is about forty tons per day.” The alterations made on this press by Schüchtermann and Kremer, Dortmund, are said by Preissig to increase its efficiency. LoissEAU’s PREss.--This press, being one of the very few erected in America, deserves somewhat more extended notice than I am able to give it. In principle it is the same as the Bilan, but instead of four wheels, the cavities of which form a sphere, he uses “Two rollers, each thirty inches in diameter, and thirty-six inches. • * * * * e * • º º © A * º * * * wº © e - © * & : s * * : 100 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. º • * 4 ºf 4, g o in length, containing on the surfaces semi-oval cavities, connected together by small channels, which allow the escape of air and excess of material; each cavity or recess communicates by four of these channels with the surrounding ones. These cavities extend in close proximity to each other, in regular rows, over the whole length of the rollers, the recesses of every other row being intermediately between those of the adjoining row, in the nature of the cells of a honey-comb, SO that small metallic contact surfaces are formed, and the entire surfaec of the rollers is utilized for compressing the composition into lumps of an egg-shaped form. The shafts of the rollers are cast solid with the rollers, and they are ten and one-half inches in diameter. Each roller Weighs Over a ton. On top of these is a hopper thirty-six inches long and thirty inches wide, in which the materials to be compressed are dis- charged from the mixer. In this hopper a series of knives, screwed to a Small horizontal shaft, revolve rapidly, and keep the material in a gran- ulated State.’’ This description, taken from his paper in the Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. VI, 1877-78, p. 216, is the only one to which I have had access, although several machines made on this pat- tern are now in use in the United States for briquetting coal slack. PRESSES WITH ENDLESS FORMS, OR STAMPING PRESSEs. The general principle of this character of presses is a rotating table, pierced with moulds of the size and shape desired in the briquette, the pressure being given by means of a plunger, operated by steam or water power. The pressure may be applied either by direct action of the power from the piston rod, or, as is most usual, indirectly by means of levers, etc. STEAM PRESSES. The principal press, which was formerly operated under the first of these methods—steam applied directly — is the Mazeline, the general operation of which will be given fully in its improved form under Hydraulic Presses. Of the steam presses in which the power is applied indirectly, we have first the English press of Middleton, afterwards improved by Détombay, of which a great number have come into use in different parts of Europe. The Watin press, and also that of Biétrix (model of 1878), are of the §ame general type as the Middleton-Détombay, but differ from it in Q º © •es © ºf PLAXIV. |） }●{ | ||| ||į C#●C § {| ||| | }Sſºi!| §2Ş, ŞSg， ''）;∞！}J !§§zſĂ。ÑOEfffſŅĒŅ||Ş|-|-| |© |=N=|-№À TÉ||||||Ż|Ž||||Ė| | | | # Fț¢Tſ|ſſ|Ø|||||||||||Ŕ='）！“ſí|...） || || ? {ºŞį2 ||º§§=i; = }|， ！9，5-!� -#-£•ſą№ Ē||&#№._ _ || ? 、|-Șſ-ļķ||||4||22||§=。r:}})zºſtmºziºù §§ !|№ ģŠTĚ“ jiſſNŠ$ŚĻŠ## {* |-��№a №NS5- - ）， , ，& {ſººſ ! |[]|·• - Yº} og r - †3 |~|||3 §<>ł| caer) *|| = | | } +}|§ <>|+----| | | §§?%）] ;|Þº §@>ru •|, ！=}• — £ €@% }|| ſae！…….-…：.….------£||| |-``:Ø！ | №*! Æ！!！ @（FĒ! #}| EŞ №=2）• … - - …� }� §fºº;İİİİİİ™İŞvš < – – – – – – atsa- - - - - - -→ + – – – – – – – – – – – oro é-- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~^* ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ł ſſDLI-IIDID，©® & !--- \- i I i COUFFINHAL BUETTE PRESS, >−! ſ᧠2. }-{ TE~ >=; →-4 ſ II·！ Y ;-） --------+---+-------- [−|s——D~♥~ — !|--№ſ É— }! § C， º <1; } º =3 (i) | 5 g 3 — Top W ev, - Jöd T k ! k-1- | DX Cl- - - - H 1,169-? > * - | Ú A550 | 1. I ----|--|--back-4---- Fig. 1 — Elevation of Press. | #º | E • £3. 3 •\,! \+ ~ ~ - -~\~~örgy -• • • • + \+ ~ ~ ~ ~ -->! • • • • • •！= -º - • • • • • •- - - - - • • fºg 6–Shape of Molds. p. 100 - **----- ------s. ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 1()1 mechanical movement. In presses of this type the pressure is applied vertically, but in those manufactured by Durand and Marais, and Dupuy and Fils, at Paris, the pressure is applied horizontally. It would appear from the number of the various machines in use that the former system is preferred. All the above mentioned presses were of the single compression type, but have now been improved by the use of double compression. The first of these improved presses was the Hanrez, manufactured and used in Belgium, which is a combination of the Middleton press with certain features of the Mazaline, and has given great satisfaction. This was followed by an improvement in the Biétrix by Couffinhal, and the result is the press bearing his name, which gained gold medals, both for the machine and the inventor, at the Paris Exposition of 1889. Its character and construction are plainly shown in the illustrations in Plate XIV. The following description gives not only the details of con- struction, but is sufficient to explain the general principles on which all presses of its class are constructed. CourFINHAL PRESS.—The machine is set in motion by a horizontal shaft, A (Fig. 3), which may either be operated directly by the engine or by a counter shaft. The principal shaft transmits its motion by means of a pinion, B, to two geared wheels, C C, chocked on two shafts, D D, symmetrically situated with respect to the principal axis of the press. These are furnished on their opposite extremities with cranks, E E, which work the two vertical rods, F F (Fig. 1). These rods are attached to a horizontal yoke, H, which transmits its motion alternately in rising and falling to two levers, II, situated above the moulding table. These levers carry the two pis- tons, J K (Fig. 2), one of which compresses the fuel, the other expelling it from the moulds. These latter are guided by a central piece, X, fixed to theºrame. A. second pair of levers, L L. similar to the preceding but below the moulding table, carry the piston of the lower compressor, N. They turn around on an axle situated in front, and their further extremities are con- nected with the corresponding extremities of the first pair by the two shafts, O O (Fig. 2), which carry the hydraulic regulator. Since the compression is produced by the stroke of the levers and compressor piston, which are above the table, there comes a moment 102 EROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. when the upper part of the briquette does not fall in consequence of the resistance offered by the lower piston and of friction met with by the coal against the walls of the mould. At this instant, the lower face hav- ing less pressure than the upper, a reaction is produced, the latter Sur- face becomes a fixed point and the lower piston moves in its turn so that pressure is made equal on both sides. The mechanism is very similar to that of a pair of nut crackers; it could not be more simple. In this machine, as in that of the model of 1878, it is possible to regu- late the amount of compression and prevent the increase of power when the resistance has reached a limit suited to the quality of the coal, and this is variable at will. To attain this end it is necessary that the work- ing parts should be, so to speak, elastic. The rear shaft, O (Fig. 4), of the upper levers is capable of sliding in a groove, a, and is carried by a piston, p, working in an hydraulic cylinder, T, the relations of which are clearly shown in the figure. The hydraulic cylinder, which is firmly bolted to the bed plate of the machine, is furnished with two valves (Fig. 5), one opening inward and the other outward. If the compressing piston, J, in moving downward, meets with a resistance greater than that offered by the water in T, the valve Opening outward permits the water to escape and the piston, p, to travel upward, carrying with it the levers II. The parts ultimately re- Sume their initial positions by gravity, the valve being provided with a Spring, and the pressure to be exerted by the pistons, J., can be readily changed by increasing or decreasing the tension of this spring. By the tension and elasticity given by this apparatus the pressure which it is desired to give the briquettes can be regulated with precision. In short the compression is made in three motions: first, the upper compressor piston works alone; second, the lower piston rises sufficiently to make the pressure equal on both surfaces; and third, the piston of the regulator entering the hydraulic cylinder starts at the moment when the pressure is attained, and just as the dead center is reached by the cranks. The correct movement of the mould-table is effected by means of a drum, R (Fig. 3), carrying grooves of a peculiar shape, in which slide the roll- ers, S (Fig. 2), of which the effect is to begin the motion with no power at the start, but increasing uniformly to the maximum, and returning to the initial degree by inversely similar ratio. The curve representing the motion is composed of two parabolas. AIRTIFICIAL FUEL. 103 The work of the drum in moving is as follows: The rollers, SS, enter the grooves successively, and are driven forward by their sloping faces. The mould-table stops when the rollers are held in the normal parts of the grooves; it is then held firmly in place by the three rollers, which pre- vent its movement in either direction. The skeleton of the apparatus is composed simply of a frame carrying pedestals, of moulding table, of a central guide for the table, pistons, levers, shafts, cranks and winches, the drum and the hydraulic regulator. These are reduced to the most simple form, if we take into consideration the numerous actions they perform. The moulds are filled by means of an ordinary distributor fed by ap- paratus for mixing the paste. The finished bricks are thrown on a rock- ing table, U. or upon an endless band placed directly under the machine. The spring, r, in Fig. 4, serves to bring the lower arms, L L, back to their original positions, after having aided in partially compressing the mixture. The mould table carries twelve to fourteen moulds, and the pressure which can be obtained is a little over 4000 pounds to the square inch. Some of the advantages claimed for this machine are: equal compression on both faces, and consequent homogeneity of composition; perfectly formed briquettes, little liable to loss by breakage in transportation; re- duction of the motive power to the minimum; and the possibility of having all the parts of the machine directly in sight, and the consequent care which can be taken Of them. These presses, manufactured in France by Biétrix & Co., and by Schüch- terman and Kremer in Germany, have come into very general use. The Yeadon press, manufactured at Leeds, which is of this same gen- eral type, is also in use in many parts of the world. HYDRA ULI(" PRESSES. The Révollier (French) and Bodmer (English) were among the earliest hydraulic presses made, and were very effective, but in the earlier ones the cost of production was slightly higher than in other presses. . As a type of this class of presses the following description by Dr. Grimshaw of the improved machine built by the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranée is given:* A —s- ------ - *Journal of the Franklin Institute, September, 1879. 104 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. “The briquette machine of the ‘Société Nouvelle des forges et Chan- tiers de la Mediterranée’ is shown in two sections, in Fig. 1, Plate XV.” It is a modification of the Mazeline and Cody compressing machine, well known in Europe in this industry. By the patent office classification it would, as now built, be considered as a duplex hydraulic machine, with horizontal mould tables, continuous moulding and successive produc- tion. “It differs from the old type of machine: “First. In consisting of two separate machines, which can be worked either or both at will, thus permitting one to work at normal belt speeds on half production. “Second. In employing hydraulic pressure. Thus, while in the Maze- line machines the compression is by steam pistons acting on a lever, and reaches a maximum of 90 kilogrammes per square centimetre (say 1200 pounds per square inch) of horizontal section of the briquette—it varies in the new machine from 100 to 300 kilogrammes per square centimetre of the same section, and without recourse, as we shall see later, to the Special pumps, accumulators, etc., which accompany hydraulic machinery of all kinds. “This agglomerating machine consists of: “First. A Mizer (A). This is a large vertical wrought iron cylinder, in which the materials are brought gradually to a temperature suitable for agglomeration. It is composed of a double envelope, in which circu- lates steam, which keeps the walls at a high temperature. On the same axis, as the cylinder turns continuously, a vertical shaft, armed with blades, aa, which divide the materials, mix them and knead them. Jets of steam are let in at the same time by openings shaped like rose sprink- lers, and SO placed on the walls as to surround the materials on all sides during the mixing, and to heat them by giving up all the very consider- able heat (530 calories). When the material appears sufficiently hot or agglomerant (which the workman can readily see by taking some in a shovel and pressing it with his hands), he opens two doors, bb, in the lower side, and the material falls into the distributing apparatus. * Second. The Distributor.—This serves to distribute the paste into the moulds. It is composed of a cast iron chamber, in which turns a rake or scraper, of which the arms, c, sweep the material into the moulds, which pass under the distributor, and are there completely and uniformly filled. “Third.' Moulding and Discharging Apparatus.-One on each side of the filler, and under it, are two rotating “mould tables,’ which are heavy disks or plates of cast iron, bearing on their plane faces, near their cir- cumferences, a circle of angular recesses, faced with steel, and correspond- *Taken from Engineering, November 8, 1878. PLATE XW. F1C H b º º - % º % % % | || || N % % % sº s N sº Lºſ §D& **asººlſ; §% & ºn ºf IEET Sº? He % § || § % % I G 9 |} sº dºll § | || ſ Cº. ººº- º | ſ. R § º tº ill ºr ſº || 3 | f --- ==T--> f % § -- º } = \ºssº) Ż%tiº/4 º 3. s – -s : BRIQUETTE PESS—HAVRE. - p. 101, AIRTIFICIAL FUEL. 105 ing to the form and dimensions of the block or ‘briquette’ desired. These mould tables have an intermittent motion upon a vertical axis, forming part of the bed plate of the machine, and carrying with them rectangular compressing blocks or pistons placed in the recesses or moulds. These blocks rest upon and slide on horizontal, circular inclined planes, f, which form part of the foundation of the machine, and which give to the blocks a rising and falling motion in the moulds. “Following one of the moulds during a revolution, we note that the mould table is stopped when each mould is under the distributor; and in this position of mould the piston is at the bottom of its course and resting on a horizontal plane. The material, pushed by the scraper of the distributor, fills the moulds completely. The rotating mould table starts off and then stops — the mould is still under the distributor; the piston block has slid along the horizontal part of the track, in case the moulds were not perfectly filled at the first stoppage, the filling continues and is surely finished. At the next movement of the mould table the mould passes under a compression surface, D, the block mounts the inclined plane, and thus lightly compresses the paste. This “initial compression’ is highly advantageous, bringing the paste to a compact condition, and in the case of moist coals (most coals are moist), express- ing most of the water. It also saves a good deal of the power required for the heavy compression, as in using the full force of the machine to effect light work only, much force would be wasted. “The mould rests under the compression table, and the block completes the initial compression by finishing the ascent of the inclined plane, and then passes on to a horizontal plane or track on the level of the hydraulic press. In the next movement of the intermittently rotating mould table, the piston block passes under the press or ram, E, and during the next time of stoppage is forced in by the plunger, g, thus powerfully com- pressing and agglomerating the paste. “The intermittent movement of the mould table continuing, the mould comes from under the compression plate, the block piston mounts a sec- Ond inclined plane, and raises the finished briquette in the mould; so that by the time the table has made a semi-rotation, the block is entirely free from the mould, and a ‘‘ mechanical hand” takes it off the table and puts it on an endless chain, G, to be carried away. “Fourth. The Compressor.—This essential part of the machine consists of a compression plate, D, held by strong wrought iron pillars or bolts, h, to the foundation plate, and to the steam and hydraulic cylinders which produce the compression. “The cylinder, H, above the compression table is a steam cylinder, its piston rod, h, Serving as the plunger of a hydraulic pump, I, resting on the bed plate. In communication with the pump is the hydraulic ram or 106 BROWN COAL AND I,IGNITE. press, E. Above the steam cylinder and on the same axis is a cylinder of lesser diameter, K, having its lower end always in communication with the steam supply pipe, so that there is a constant pressure tending to keep the steam and pump pistons at the upper end of their stroke, and the press ram at lower course. “The steam cylinder is supplied with a steam chest and a slide valve, K, actuated by an eccentric, having a motion proportioned to that of the intermittently rotating mould table. As each mould block stops under the press the slide valve opens the admission port, and the steam, acting On the upper face of the piston, drives the steam and pump pistons down, and the water pressure transmitted to the ram causes the compression The slide valve then shuts the steam ports and opens the exhaust port; the piston of the small steam cylinder raises the system to its first posi- tion. Between the pump and the hydraulic press is a valve box, L, con- taining two clappet valves, one. l, held in its seat by adjustable springs, and the other, m, able to lift freely and let the water return. “The water forced by the pump lifts the spring clappet before acting on the press, so that, in case the distribution of the paste in the moulds is stopped or incomplete, and in consequence the effect of compression is suppressed or reduced, the resistance experienced by the water in lifting the clappet prevents too rapid a movement of the pistoms and plungers from causing shocks. The return valve permits the water to pass freely from the press to the pump in the next movement. It is easy to under- Stand that this disposition renders the movements of the organs of com- pression independent, in a great measure, of the regularity of distribu- tion of the materials in the moulds. In case the pistons arrive at the end of their stroke with some considerable speed, as always takes place at the upper end of the stroke, their momentum is taken up by the spring buffers, n, o, in the upper part of the large steam cylinder and the lower part of the little One. “Another part of the compressor is a valve box, M, communicating with a water tank, and containing a safety valve held by a weighted lever, and which valve is lifted when the pressure of water in the hydraulic press passes any given limit. There is a second, or suction valve, which allows water to pass from this tank into the hydraulic pipes to compen- sate for losses. * Fifth. Organs of Movement or Driving Parts.—The intermittent mo- tion of the rotating mould tables is produced by two pawls acting on cast iron teeth on the crown of the mould tables and corresponding with the moulds; these pawls are actuated by the connecting rods of a crank shaft, p, so that each turn of the axis causes motion of one table and rest in the other. The crank shaft is driven by bevel wheels, q, and a pulley. PLATE XVI. - T-ST.--TÌ------|-RIT- «Nº ： * （º. ·zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz! | 33 GOEILI”. LLUOE ????????”. Z. z.º.º 22，2，2，2，2，2，2，2，22：22222 . ，,? № 2% º Žº z/. º% gº- §§ Gae. Ż Ž f ! E. º º - Øzzzzzzz ºzzº % % º % % N §§ N Ñ Š $N º p. 107 } . PRESS- HYDRA UT LIC. TTE º 3, BRIQUI ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 1()7 • The auxiliary apparatus has (as has the main machine) fast and loose pulleys and proper striking gear, and they receive motion from the main driving shaft of the factory. All the transmission is by means of belts, and the tension and the belt lacings or fastenings are arranged so as not to exceed in strength a certain limit; SO in case the apparatus is stopped by the presence of a foreign body in the coal or in the pitch, the belt breaks or slips and no damage is done. There are, of course, necessary the suitable boilers and driving engines. “I gave above the degree of compression which could be obtained. Here is a table of the production for twenty-four hours of the different sizes of this apparatus, the sizes being named after the weight of the blocks produced. It is not very necessary to remind one that the single machine has but one mould table. , - ... e. Production in 24 hours. Size of machine or weight of blocks. s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - * * Single. I) Ouble. 10 kilogrammes—22 pounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 tons 580 tons 5 kilogrammes—11 pounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 tons 320 tons 2.5 kilogrammes—5.5 pounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 tons 170 tons 1.25 kilogrammes—2.75 pounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 tons 96 tons “The machine described compresses its own water as required, but it is evident that if it were desired one could utilize a natural head of water, or draw the water from an accumulator, or from any other source of liquid under pressure. In this way the steam cylinders and the pump are omitted, the hydraulic press being retained and supplied with a dis- tribution chest having a suitable slide valve. “The mechanical arrangement by which this is proposed to be effected by the “Société des Forges et Chantiers’ gives two successive and in- creasing hydraulic pressures, independent of the initial wedge pressure given by means of the inclined plane. ... . “The economy of steam resulting from this arrangement is considerable. In making the calculations from the curves, based on a pressure of fifty kilogrammes per square centimetre, the weight expended per stroke of piston is four-fifths that to obtain the same result with a single pressure; and for a pressure of 100 kilogrammes per square centimetre (say 1375 pounds per Square inch), the expenditure is reduced to 20 per cent of that indicated by curve 4; that is to say, a mean economy of two-thirds the steam. “The new machine is represented in section and elevation in the two fig- ures, Plate XVI. In comparing it with Plate XV, we see that the two steam cylinders (the compression cylinder and the auxiliary steam cylinder) are 108 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. replaced by a single steam cylinder, A, of which the piston carries an ex- pansion joint, a, and which receives the steam by a double ported slide Valve, b. The plunger pump is replaced by a piston pump, B, having a Valve chamber, C. Finally, for the buffers in the steam cylinders, there is substituted a single box containing a rubber block, D, in full sight, and controlable while the machine is running. “The section of the pump piston is such that with the steam acting above the Steam piston, the pressure of the water under the pump piston cor- responds to the first rectangle in broken lines. The section of the pump piston rod is such that the pressure of the water in the pump will be the maximum desired, if this steam acted as the plunger of a hydraulic pump. This pump is in communication with the hydraulic press by the passage, C. “Suppose the steam admitted by the upper port of the slide valve, the pump piston descends and compresses water in the press at the first pressure. At the same time the space which would otherwise be left void above the pump piston is kept full by means of a valve, d, in communi- cation with a supply tank. “As soon as the resistance of the press passes what we should call the first pressure (that is, the first hydraulic pressure) on the paste, the valve, e, held by a suitably adjusted spring, opens; the water, under pressure (I object to the use of the expression compressed water) passes in part from the other side of the piston, shuts the suction valve, d, and we have the conditions of a hydraulic pump having a plunger of a diameter equal to that of the piston rod. The compression is thus continued with this Second or maximum pressure. When the resistance of the press attains this maximum, the safety valve, D, opens, the press stops, and the com- pression is held until the slide valve closes the steam port and puts the upper part of the steam cylinder in communication with the lower; the steam piston is then raised to the upper end of its stroke by a pressure due to the difference in areas of the two piston surfaces. The pump piston is thus raised; the water passes from the upper to the lower side by the valve, f. Part of the water in the hydraulic press also returns under the pump piston, the rest being discharged by the safety value, D. which is for this purpose raised by the lever, g, suitably actuated. “It is nearly useless to add that by tightening the springs of the valve, e, we increase the initial pressure, and thus we can so control the disposition of the partial rectangles upon the curve representing the resistance on the hydraulic press, as to effect the greatest convenience and economy in work, and to adjust the machine to the material it may be working. “In the case of the briquette machine supplied by a constant head of water, and to which I referred above, the arrangement adopted by the “Société des Forges et Chantiers’ is based upon the same mechanical principle. ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 109 “The steam cylinder is of course omitted, and the hydraulic press, as described, is replaced by a double-acting press, the two parts of which are put in communication by a valve chamber with a spring poppet and a re- turn valve.’’ STEAM PRESSES WITH OBEN FORMS. The general principle of the continuous presses consists in compressing the plastic material in a form open at both ends by means of a stamp moving backward and forward. As the stamp moves backward a certain amount of the mixture to be compressed falls into the mould; during the forward stroke of the stamp this material is forced against that previously pressed, by which means this is driven still further forward toward the open end of the mould, and then, by automatic appliances or knives, cut into such number of briquettes as the stroke of the stamp will allow. In compress- ing, the stamp has no other resistance than that offered by the friction of the briquette mass in front of it. This friction is very considerable, and increases with the length of the mould. The principal machines operating under this system with use of bond in compressing are the Evrard, which uses soft pitch as an agglomerant, and manufactures briquettes of cylindrical form, and the Bouriez, which is built on the same principle, but for brick-shaped briquettes, and is in use in many places in Belgium and Germany, including the cast steel estab- lishment of Krupp. The advantages claimed for machines of these systems are moderate cost and great simplicity of plant; but a greater power is required for Operating them than for machines with closed forms. The machines for compressing brown coal without bond are also con- structed under this general principle. r TESSOE：|iſ|]]* №!|| || },8§|||||）（||||||, ）ĒĒĒĒĒĒĒī~--~~~~）; ， № ſ ≡ ≈ º Rºss --~~**0 ſ ）; º ;[] • • • • ! #§ 1）;#** .ſ į!----$i;••; · ）---،~~:-）| ， ، ، ، ، ، ، ،|-- •º X.ſaeſ?3●Fº * * * *ș№， №8{■■■■ &# #ff！ 2 ！! !！ ！！!）））…№._. Iſae ~！!! :） ）ſſſſ!!）--º--：it：GL~~~~ .. * & *_* ! **|：\!\， ，{~--~--~ w：|×55′ . ！ ! ».，īs la ſ ſ ≠ ≈ ≠ ≠ ≠ ≠∞-ſ , ， ,«» &* * * … ► ،， -：-，№, № į º YY ſe ? .~.; †ff-Tūſīīīīīīīīīīī£）'）;!!●（, ， ſ.ſ.ſ.！~， ， §, !||3 , ** * * · **8 */ %{? ！！！Ä\！\, , ， №={ {}}}|} ; …، ، ، ، ، ، ،!:-& & &§ （3）} } | * |*+ }{�-->æ√æ√∞ √° √- 2%£SN\\（|' + ſ）\，Þº|yn ael）: '+, ， # * •ſq || … “ſ įè ſºgaeſſli№. º. №， … - ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ） -----5,4|| ? ¿Y ſae ºQ:{W（RSSR：2. №ț¢ £ © ®::：:：::：:：：：：：：TWT-N.T-1） | （_，_,l^*:\ :* - * * * *| `-- -----~--~~~~|（~~~~）;L"|||||' ■：، ، ،įș s （ ， * *|-|} | , ، ، ، ، ）, iº » №ſſa?· · · ·T· · · · · ------！- ſ ºſºff№##ſiii !!!TTTTTTTT）！！!！！*----||ſ º° • ו}~--~ ?， ，, ， ， ， ，* * *• !! !! #3 x 1））！！！ ！！ ！！***Fº -ſº ºººº，，， ， ，ſą :e-3ſtrīſſſſſſſſ " •º’ √，∞X ）| º∞， --~~ |--- -§.ſae!, º| + i ;~ſlī£ſſaeſtſ، ºſaei（SN）ș•-- -*- -- Wº !،∞ .<！--~~~~t.; ; ; ; ty maeſºº º Z }R！ *■<. "--. .---*RŅ: || .! ！!sae-- ~ ;。---> ×·· = q ***** *| | || ' `;&\; ， º،' .x x））-*... ?-：|- ： №rſ（AT-, ，3，}\,|- 0 &ſý（…* •ºº， *،------ zºſą· *gº：ı--! 8* ：%%&ș ; ）- →， , ， º， ， º|--_ __-__------→→→→→→=~~~=++~~~( ）- ##· ×* ---__ -{{l}** •}' ！： ---- ，！: ||h|ºſi - żZºſºſ • • • ••••• • ¡¡¡g . ،%： : • • •- Įſ ||||||||||||||| į ſae Ü } { |||||| ſae|ļ） ~ ！=，，，==ÆSȚſ |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||###ìŠīſ ¡№ }}| |ſ|ſſ）;ŠŇ #:#|-|||||||№ſſae • № ، ? n. ! :; ; ; **: .ș$1）; \ ！ ， !- ،|- 5------! } « ș. ! 8{ |-} ） ） *, , , ， !* &· § 4 ） _ •';∞ ». . . ***-| 4i i ſ »ș șł wș % +«）.! » ， » »* 4 *! 5. * *�●~！ 5 ºg • •!-; ; , ， ， ， !�3，3ș și ! »·！~， ，-= + ■ ■ ■ ■•?º №wºſº gael!!!|-• • ſ） ） *، ، ، ، ، ، ' +● ---- ●! ± %sr-Tſº s * * * · · ·& &§ 4 và- -« №，ſae·*.*.*.5-F • • •！！！！！ſº5 » $ º-___---， -：- -~ （… ：） ?-¿YNR. º.، ،！” , • § € ºº :،*•ş-، ■ ■ ■ ■ ■º~--~<！--*º.∞-ſº ſe º ſ•& s &į， º3 4！ 8- |--w* # ， #, ,~-->~•·* º * * * ·:： | , ، ، ، ، " .. ， !،- d.！, ¡ --- *• • •, ， - -ſ！！！！！!ºùSÅ {}ęī; * * **** · * * | ſſ ·* .£ €Ď ۩ ✉ ₪ į · · *،،----- *№ ſi : ;\，ſae！ -，…--~~~~№w \ºliſ; '.'• • • • • •iš* * | ſ: ） ,W:-（（（（（（（， ; ::::::（， * * *~ ~~~~. --* *:::::- -Ō '! :\;，ſ ：S. .， ， ， ， ， º_ （__（** ----- ?©!şTĘ; W • • •●4ſſſſſſſſ！！! !! !！ !! !!!!!:: | ===~ ~ .∞ √∞~~~~，1）- ^tº* w:rº:§§§№：I， 34; ; ; \ \ \ \ !ț¢ £, ſ （º ___ ~ ~--~~º. [×（\'*^®* ''~= - - ~~•Ķī£ + { 1!zgº§ ¶ • • • •___）·， ! ！= - - - - || 3:§），----ſ•Ō ! !! !！' ， \，•~~ ~ ~.*·ą ę ł ń º $：¿T （ ）; } */*|&*=-- ~~e_º $_R，-} ¡ ¿ \，§ ，\,\， ，-T-3}\\É:±، ، ، Y№ *. ）, ***** - № lī£§!| || f , ！ § , ، ، ، ، ، ، ،… • ~~ {iſ… × 4 äſſ;ſº }« » º·•* # ！=*!º ， ！：º, , ， ，t. |~<！-- … * * * *¿? №§ 7ºº.ººº~~ ~~~~*!!!！!！!）.*.**...!!! % !! !į %■| || ， ، №, ºpºſ, -）, ’º „}}%ſ\. |\， )·----∞ ·º. ț¢ £ © ® ° *** ， †0：{ș iſ，| || ， ، ، ſº8 * * * * *a * -aeſzy，**E” – №-§！ ！! !!！ !！ !! ！！ **-----º ：،、t. №, º į∞ ** - *· * * *！======== -~- - - - •،º：！ ،;•• ~- - - -· * ** ：， - |-*} ~ \， +：-）-º：· |- -į• • •≡-~~*-º，،+iš ſ ● a ſ ºs º• ±.-ſ.-- * * * * *< . . . . ^，… ！| ! }}|- •· :.:· · · -• •• • •----wº --- - - ،•ș----· » → →·ſaeae:::：， ，→&º ， , , ， ，' ， …:-（ ：-（~º * ：±·}∞, ！-# .ſé ***（t），…:… '|':saeÇárae , ！! ± -- № !! ！! ！！ … ~~~~）; }€ £ ¥":， ， ， , ， **،-！ į !�º. ſ.3~ſºț¢ £ €- （-： }s ≡ ?* ， , ， ;ae. ， ſºț_º * „Ť！！！！！！！! :） I '-'）;* * * * *|-№šº * * * *، ، ، ، ، ،→ • -d. º If（x;-， ，.*！ ?Aſ a sº: ， , !*** · * *a ** ， ſº：-（ -«.*< • • •? ، |-tę }-£）-№, maeſ----|| （!!!!!!!№gº¿#|ſºº， , ，'$? ſh; R， ſii; ;3;4 || ●- - - * |×- -0 * { fºi o º»å u �± − ׿№kºſº ºſae ºſſſſſſſſſſſſ！！!LÈ），！ ！ ', ，'',''）;* m ; »، ، ،-+→ ſëſiiſ jiſtſ!!:№º...!!！！！--（…）： '',sae*F（T）Eā i: …!!55 Tº. * * '__）'，） ; ********ºs）∞||||||İſ{» » ： | } ：~$* 1 : ?_r -== ！--S！T” ， ， ， , º____…:####T, ÆTTF ！ ！ ！！ % ！! !! !!!-A A R ≠ 1:：} （}）. . . . º ſaeſ **. W） { s + 4 • • •w ſkłae ！» !：：：•* •«»، !!!!, ， ， ！--§：șș și s \ \ \ &0，% B*;“ A™-*、Ť73|| … : __ （__）... ſae lºſ ſººº，） ; :ş��\\：}į ūtī£ 1 , ! ， !TTTTTT！!！!!！！!!！!！ 88!،ſ * &&Åſ， ºſaeiſ į ：-•∞ | №· ·«* ! }* į Iš | ||* **** Šī£ №ĀŅŇ è\\ №=…=…=）=）=） sº ！tii ...!!! --- g llll!!/||||||）（jįņÈ {： ſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſ|}}}}}}}}}į||||||||||||||||||| ~¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡}}}%; | iſijįļņķ}}}}}}}}} }Å#######¡VÁ|（""，""， }%'''’''' '' … ___i- ſaeſ? ||||||||||||||||||Ē.|||||||||ii}）&\} ſ. ! ！==， § ¶ |ff;|#ff ∞ ſ. №·ºsa + ， :， ：，： ſiji!.!!!!1!lº !! （！！ ! ! ! !!! !! !! ！! !!!!.!.！.! ============~：：~~====№ ÎîÏïĪīİıĮįī] * [[,\ X GHAI, ſ ||||||||||| ff ||šāſēņš|||| ¡Tț¢;}|#|#|ſ.| |..}} . . . ſ ..}}. º | | |} ! & { + & i } f f *====================******====================№s'. ---- āſ:∞ W” Ic{ ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 111 THE PROCESS OF BRIQUETTING. Having given the details of the different methods and apparatus em- ployed in the preparation of compressed fuel with the use of a bond, it may not be amiss to give in a single view a general idea of the arrange- ment and working of a briquette plant. This will be seen by reference to Plate XVII. This process begins properly after the preparation by Sorting, pulver- izing, washing and drying, or otherwise cleaning the coal. The fine coal is dumped into the pit nearest the drying furnace. It is raised by elevator buckets and emptied into a trough, through which it is carried by an endless screw to the center of the drying furnace. Fall- ing upon the revolving table inside the chamber, the rakes move it con- tinually toward the outside as the table turns, until finally it is discharged into the trough connecting with the agglomerator. The pitch is pulverized, raised by an elevator, and carried forward by an endless band to a hopper, whence it falls into the same trough in which the dried coal has been discharged. The hopper contains the arrangement for regulating the amount of pitch to be added. The pitch and coal are then carried forward together by the endless screw to the mixing chamber, where the mixture is perfected by proper mechanical means and the degree of heat necessary for successful agglomeration secured by a steam jacket. The paste then falls upon the distributing table from which the moulds are filled, the moulding table revolves until the mould comes between the dies or stamps. The compression takes place, and the finished briquette, after a quarter revolution, falls upon an endless band, and is carried away for drying and storage or shipment. - In drying such briquettes it is advisable not to pile them more than three high while they are yet warm, as in such case sufficient heat is some- times evolved to cause their ignition. After they have thoroughly cooled * there is no further danger of such ignition. (OST OF BRIQUETTE PLANT'S AND OF THE MANU FACTURE OF BRIQUETTES. The prices quoted by the manufacturers of the various systems of presses and machinery differ widely. Preissig gives as the cost at factory of complete plants the following figures, which are approximately correct. Some of them having been revised and present quotations used: 112 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Name. wººl ºr re. --- ~~- — — Biétrix … 6% pounds. 3. (5 $7,500 00 I)upuy (2 presses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . e = e tº a tº 6% pounds. 5. () 7,000 00 Couffinhal... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6% pounds. 5.0 12,500 00 Biétrix …........................ | 11 pounds. 6. () 12,000 ()0 Dupuy (2 presses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 11 pounds. 7. () 8,500 00 Mazeline Double. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 11 pounds. 13.0 | 20,000 00 Couffinhal... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 pounds. 7.5 18,500 0() Yeadon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 pounds. 5.0 6,250 00 Middleton-Detombay... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 pounds. 6. () 13,000 00 ('ouffinhal... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 pounds. I2 . () 23,000 00 Bouriez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e s s tº e s tº e º e º 'º º 5. () 11,250 00 Evrard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * j.0 12,600 00 In addition to these prices there would be freight on from forty to One hundred tons of machinery from factory to destination, and the cost of erection of building and setting up machinery. These prices do not include the machinery for cleaning the coal, but do include pulverizers for coal and pitch. As the amount of pitch used is variable, only a very general state- ment can be made regarding cost, which as given here does not include expenses of management nor real estate. In Belgium the Détombay presses use 8 per cent hard pitch at a cost of $10 per ton, and their fine coal costs $1 per ton. Total cost, includ- ing labor, fuel and oil, $2 per ton of briquettes. By the Couffinhal system, employing nine men and boys, and using 7 per cent pitch as agglomerant, the cost, exclusive of cost of fine coal, is 85 cents to $1 per ton. The detailed cost per ton by the new machines, according to the state- ments of the various briquette manufacturers, is as follows: Wages of workmen: England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 to 18 centS. France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 to 15 cents. Germany... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 to 12 cents. Fuel, oil, repairs, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 to 8 cents. Interest and depreciation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 to 10 centS. ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 113 Pitch for bond : England, 6 to 8 per cent. France, 4 to 8 per cent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 to 100 CentS. Germany, 6 per cent... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (50 to 70 cents. BRIQUETTING WITHOUT BOND. As has already been stated, there are two entirely different methods in use for the manufacture of artificial fuel from brown coal without the use of a bond. The fuel produced by these is known respectively as mass-press-kohlen, or water-pressed coal, and darr-press-kohlen, or bri- quettes. WIC'T PRESS IN (; . The simplest of these is the manufacture of mass-press-kohlen, but the fuel produced, though more stable than the earthy brown coal of which it is made, is suitable principally for domestic purposes. The coal used in this is the earthy brown coal containing a variable amount of “Schweel- kohle.” The presses are run only during the warmer months, as freez- ing would destroy the briquettes. The ‘mining of the coal is continued through the winter, however, and the great piles of coal are kept wet to prevent spontaneous combustion. The coal is thoroughly mixed and carried, by either inclined plane or aerial cable conveyance, to the room above the press. Here it is again wetted and mixed, and passes into the hopper between two heavy rollers, which reduce it to fine powder. The press, which is very similar to a brick machine in character and operation, is illustrated in Plate XVIII. It has a compressive force equal to five atmospheres. The bricks are cut as the moulded block comes from the press, and then arranged on shelves in long open sheds, where they remain until they are dry, which takes from four to five days to as many weeks. When they first come from the press the bricks have the following dimen- Sions: * 65x118x200 mm.; 24x4}x8 inches. In drying they shrink to the following: 60x115x190 mm.; 24x44x7% inches. Their weight, which is in the freshly formed bricks about five pounds, is reduced by drying fully one-half, so they do not exceed two and a half pounds each. e—Greel PLATE XVIII. Elevationſ - º #ZZ% Žíříž º Affif, º:= E. * if Zºzº-ºº: ſº %t-Eß3% ſº- Żºłºś. k k, sº 22 N al L- = E [− E. E. - E. E. * # =#EH== 5-Etº-º-º-º: #555th-EEEE *E Fºº. ººmmº - E. E-I I- EE EE s O 1 t I ź Yn, f | T *—r ----|-- T-R. PRESS FOR COAL BRICKS (Nass-press-kohlen). - ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 115 A press producing 90,000 bricks in ten hours requires an engine of thirty-five horse-power, and there are employed in mining the coal and operating the plant as many as 100 to 130 men. Briquettes of this character are in demand for use among the farmers, and wherever a low priced fuel is needed and no great heating power required. In 1890 there were forty-five factories of this character in Germany, and the production for the year was 340,000,000 bricks, which were worth at the factory $2 per thousand. |) HY PRESS IN G. The manufacture of briquettes by heavy pressure without the use of bond has, up to the present, only proved applicable to certain kinds of brown coal, and to those bituminous coals which are of a decidedly caking character, in which the heat evolved by compression causes the develop- ment Of Sufficient bituminous matter to cement it. The brown coal which lends itself most readily to this method of treat- ment is the earthy or common brown coal which occurs in such abund- ance in the province of Saxony and on the Rhine. As it is mined the coal is a mixture of earthy or common brown coal, with more or less “schweel” or tar coal and lignite. The deposits are of great thickness, twenty and even thirty feet not being uncommon, and even much greater thickness being found. As they usually lie near the surface, they are worked by open mining. The coal is roughly sepa- rated, as mined, into that which is intended for the manufacture of tar at the schweelerie, and that which goes to the briquette press. From the mine it passes by underground or overhead channels to the place of its destination, and is there again culled before being used. The coal as it comes from the mine is, for the most part, of an earthy, friable nature, smeary, brownish-black in color, and contains from 40 to 60 per cent of moisture. Before it is compressed the excess of water must be driven off by evaporation. The process of dry briquetting may be divided into (a.) Pulverizing and mixing. (b.) Drying. (c.) Pressing. 116 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. (a.) PULVERIZING AND MIXING. The coal as it arrives in the mine cars is raised by platform elevators to an upper story, whence it passes through a series of breakers, crushers, rollers and sieves until it reaches the ground level again in a mass of uniform grain and thorough homogeneity. (b.) DRY IN G. After pulverizing and mixing. the coal is again lifted by bucket ele- Vators to the upper stories to the chamber from which it passes into the drying apparatus. Care must be taken in the dessication of the coal; first, that the drying be Only carried to that point which will leave the coal in the best con- dition for briquetting. This differs with different coals, but it is usually considered necessary to leave in the coal from 10 to 20 per cent of moist- ure. In the second place, this desiccation can not take place at too high a temperature, because then the coal itself would suffer more or less der composition. As the usual amount of moisture contained in the brown coal of the province of Saxony, as it comes from the mine, is from 46 to 60 per cent, according to Wendlandt, it is evident that the drying is a very important part of the briquetting operation, since, in order to ob- tain 100 tons of briquettes, from 125 to 200 tons of brown coal must pass through the drying process. Many different arrangements have been tried for this purpose, and many of them are still in use among the briquette factories of Germany. Some varieties are shown in the cuts on Plates XIX, XX, XXI. The large amount of water to be evaporated, and the danger to be avoided of spontaneous combustion or explosion in the finely divided heated coal, have finally brought into most general use such apparatus as effects the drying of the coal with least danger of ignition from com- ing in direct contact with the heated air or steam used in drying. The apparatus in use is of two general types. In the first the move- ment of the coal is effected by mechanical means, and in the other it is automatic. They are further divided by the manner of heating, which may be by direct firing, by heated air, or by steam, or by a combination Of these. PLATE XIX. Z -*. ~~~ ~~ （~~~~ ~~ +* -i-K-2 ±，±，±，±， ±，±，±，±，±，±，±，±，±）".* * * * | | ! || } | | \| ::：：：: ſae| ĶĪiºj，[] | Īſ | |||||||| | ſae TūFfijïae， ||||||||| ĶĪĒ5 ）}}% |[[# # *（[] --Kº. | ~ || TI ！T！ ī= | TI NȚII įſīEIÊU þZZ jñiñiñi MILIĘ Ť|||||||| ∞ſtraer . JŪRĘ#7 ſ|||||||| （il #T ſſſſſſſſſ!!! ŞTEAM TORTER. ZZZZZZZZZZZ22 p. 117 AIRTIFICIAL FUEL. 117 Vertical Section Yº'; ' '...} *...* * *. …? • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- “sº - - - - - -ºº ºs - > - ū : | \ | º ! !. &l, ! | - t B ! C A. ! !; * 5 t ! { (2 !}; IT - - - - - - - - - - - - - prº # C r | M. º. !!! ! : .# C: ; : { *— iT, J. ſ º C#|# C. i! Q. | : . d t º 3– 2. C s 1. ! sº | 62, #: º t sº t AL © = ;I’s } | . - |: & #: t | ; l |: & ºf . g - * = |T ! is . - , Q, |! : C * | # º * * C | #: et - i. & tº d. | #| | #| || Cl ; : : Q º ! CR, {ii - ~ 4. Fig. G. The Jacobi Dryer. The Jacobi dryer, shown in Fig. 6. belongs to the second class. It consists of a series of steam pipes, c, surrounded by three or five-sided metal chambers, a. The metal boxes, d, are filled with heated air from a blast, and the working together of this heated air and the heat from the steam pipes dries the coal as it passes one after another of the chambers in its descent between them and metal guides, f, the water evaporated finds exit at e. There are several dryers of this general type, varying in the arrangement of the different parts. Of the drying apparatus using steam exclusively and securing the continuous motion of the coal by mechanical means, there are two distinct 118 BROWN COAf, AND LIGNITE. types — the plate dryer and the tubular oven — with several varieties of each kind, but their differences consist in the manner of applying the Same general principles. - PLATE DRIERs.-These consist of horizontal plates or tables of iron having a diameter of twelve feet or more, ranged one above the other in a vertical series of 10 to 20. These plates, when intended solely for drying by steam, are made of wrought iron with double walls, and the Space between the walls of each is filled with steam, which is admitted to them through two of four hollow columns, T, the other two serving to convey it away from the plates, through the central axis by means of suitable openings, a. These plates have openings, f, arranged alternate- ly at the center and circumference for the descent of the coal from One to the other. (Plate XIX.) Above each plate there is a kind of rake with broad teeth for keeping the coal in motion. These rakes are attached to the central shaft and revolve with it, and the teeth are so arranged that on one plate the motion of the rake moves the coal from the circumference of the heated surface of the plate to its center, where it falls through the openings to the plate beneath, the rakes of which move it from the center toward the circumference again. In this way it passes from one plate to the other until it reaches the bottom and finds an exit in a dried state. In Ovens of more recent construction the plates or tables are enclosed in a sheet-iron cylinder, or walled in, by which their efficiency is increased over 20 per cent. Openings are left for admission of air and for exit of the evaporated water. The motion of the central axis is secured by a shaft and cog wheels as shown in plate, and the dried coal is removed by means of endless Screws and elevators to the store room or direct to the briquette press. Such a drier of latest construction, with seventeen plates will produce 27.5 tons of brown coal containing 20 per cent moisture from a raw coal containing 46 to 50 per cent moisture, in twenty-four hours. The steam employed in drying is generally the exhaust from the engine, although in Some instances steam direct from the boiler is used. TUBULAR DRIERs. –These are sheet iron cylinders, eighteen to twenty feet in length, over six feet in diameter, and carrying about 200 tubes, . – * s so y- * }* }J T-4, #| [. ; | 9 | º | # |rºs #|ſ||5|| rº- == Jºlº.I | | |..a | - A hº r ſ || || || || || || | | | --- | - | - i en ºilf-figs' tº Fr "fit S §§ 8 -> sº Tiszºłºżºłºzºkºlaº ſº 8. § N NS | §§ § § § <\ . s M | is is tº § N N <-s T § § § º º § i ARTIFICIAL FUFL. 119 which contain the lignite to be dried. The cylinders are placed in an inclined position, the length of the cylinder and the angle of inclination being governed by the amount of moisture to be evaporated from the coal. In the Schulz apparatus the axle is formed of two hollow cones, which taper toward the middle of the cylinder. These cones have their surfaces perforated and the steam from the boilers or exhaust from the engines is let into the cone at the upper end of the cylinder and into which it escapes through the perforations. After passing around the pipes it passes back into the lower cone and finds exit to the chimney. The coal is fed into the tubes by suitable appliances from a hopper above, and the cylinder is filled with steam, which carries the process of evaporation to the point at which it is best for briquetting. The entire cylinder is slowly revolved by machinery, and the drying is perfected as the coal, which fills each tube about half full, passes from one end of the cylinder to the other. The expulsion of the aqueous vapors developed by evaporation is accomplished by means of the draught of a chimney about thirty feet in height. The Schulz drier is recommended for many varieties of pulverulent brown coals, and more than seventy of these cylinders are now in opera- tion in different parts of Germany. They have a capacity of 40 tons per day, and cost in Germany (without buildings or power) $8250.00 each. One of its chief recommendations is its freedom from explosions. DIRECT HEATING.—In the fire plate ovens of the Riebeck pattern, as shown on Plate XX, we have a series of cast iron plates about 13 feet in diameter ranged one above the other in a series of 15 to 17. These are walled in with masonry, making them much safer than the more open forms. An axle in the centre carries the same arrangement of rakes for moving the drying brown coal that has been described under the steam plate Oven. The brown coal is fed from the top, and in the Ovens of newer construction the gases of combustion pass from the furnace to the top of the oven, so that they reach the coal containing the greatest amount of moisture first. From here they pass downward over the plates and brown coal, carrying with them the steam from the drying brown coal, and both find exit through the chimney. These driers are especially recommended for brown coals having little bitumen, like the earthy brown coals of Saxony, where a high heat is needed to develop that con- 120 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. stituent for the purpose of briquetting without bond. They are not well adapted for fatter brown coals, and require considerable care in their Operation. - Leuterts’ compartment oven for heating by direct firing is shown in Plate XXI. Its outside dimensions are, length, breadth and height about twenty-four feet each. It is divided by walls into four compartments, and in each compartment there are two divisions, each consisting of four perpendicular prismatic chambers. These chambers contain a series of metal plates bent at an angle of 145 degrees, placed alternately, so that the coal falling from above, by its own weight, has a zigzag motion. The burning gases pass from one compartment to another through suita- ble openings in the direction shown by the arrows. Each kind of drier has its own advantages, and is applicable to some certain kind of coal with better effect than with others, and in a quest for that best suited for any particular locality the question of the character of the coal has greatest weight in selection of the drier. Many other systems or patents are in use in Germany, but the types here figured or briefly described are sufficient to show the general prin- ciples of all. The capacity of such drying ovens as I have described is from ten to forty tons of dried coal each per day. They cost from $2000 to $3000 and upwards each. It has been found in practice that the limit of water contents in a brown coal intended for briquetting by this method should not be less than 10 per cent nor over 20 per cent, the exact amount varying with the char- acter of the coal. Dryer coals than these do not, as a rule, make good briquettes. For this reason some of the Bohemian brown coals can not be used in this way, but at Königsberg a. d. Eger a factory was erected by Preissig which is being worked successfully. PRESSING THE I) RIED COAL. The presses in use for pressing the coal after drying are all of one character, and belong to the class already described under “open form presses.” The engraving and sections of the Exeter press will give a better idea of its operation than can be given by a description. In this machine, shown in Fig. 7, the dried coal enters the press through the hopper, a, and passes down to the mould, h. The mould, PLATE XXI. ：·ºſ:5- - %% |¿ ſ. ; ?>ae ∞ eae |-| № * - -1，50. · • ×-- LEUTERTS (‘OMPARTMENT OVEN.p. 120 ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 121 which is of hardened steel, is made in four pieces, and is held in place by the screw e, which is tightened to the proper tension by the wheels f and g on the retaining plate, d. W Af ! ...” º, VWN º: º_*. prº º' all º gº º º "A. | * N % % | iſſil # ºr 4. ºr ſºlº $º *= º * W ºf º: * i. ºf | | º º, 2 | Irº- * > sº iii : Tº pºssils º ..ºf gºsºs @ ax” y º c % sº tºº. # **śTºº sº § §I= -- § NSN % NS The Exeter Press. S/2Zº º º & Sº º N S/Z. % º § R 7% SR N. Sº, * * Ş Ş */3, Fig. 7. As the plunger or stamp, b–c, is drawn back, the requisite amount of coal falls into the mould and is compressed by the forward stroke of the stamp against the briquettes left in the mould by the former stroke. The engine has a cylinder 17% inches in diameter, and 26-inch stroke, three-fourths filling under steam pressure of five atmospheres, and is regu- lated by throttle valves. The stamp has a section of about 16 Square 122 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. inches, and has a stroke of 6 inches. Its backward stroke is 6 inches, and it goes forward 3% inches without pressing. The strokes are from 65 to 80 per minute, and a briquette is pressed at each stroke. The power de- veloped in the stroke is from 1200 to 1500 atmospheres in an engine of the size given. In those last built the power of the stroke has been in- creased to 1800 atmospheres. The details of the operation of a plant using drying ovens of the tubu- lar pattern and two such presses as the above are as follows: The raw coal which is required for making briquettes is brought in skips On an inclined plane, by an endless chain, to the second story of the dress- ing per. Beneath this hopper there is a feeding apparatus which brings the i. e., the wet coal—house, where the skips are discharged into a hop- coal in equal quantities to the breaker, by which the larger pieces of the raw coal are to be crushed. From this breaker the coal is brought onto a shaking apparatus, which is fitted at the upper end with a fine meshed sieve, through which the fine coal falls into the elevator by means of a guide, whereas the larger pieces passing on fall through the second rough sieve and are crushed by the rolling mill—fine rollers—to the degree needed for making briquettes. This also falls, finally, through a guide to the elevator. The pieces of wood (lignite) which are found in the raw coal and can not be crushed, slide over the shaking sieve and fall into a car which is put beneath. These cars, when filled with these pieces of wood, are brought thence by the lift over to the fires of the steam boilers. The elevator raises the fine coal up to the highest story of the wet-coal house, throws the coal on a shaking sieve, which sifts out the small pieces of wood and other things unsuited for the man- ufacture which may still remain in it, and these then fall through a pipe into a hopper, from which they are also brought to the fires of the steam boilers. The coal which has fallen through the upper shaking sieve is collected in a hopper, and from this it is brought, by means of cars, to the storage room above the driers, from whence the coal is to be dis- tributed over the hoppers of the driers. The pipe drying apparatus is an inclined boiler, which lies in spherical bearings on I girders; the drier is put in revolution by a toothed gear. Through the axle of the boiler, which is hollow, the heating steam, i.e., the exhaust steam of the presses and of the steam engine, comes into the boiler and surrounds the pipes through which the coal slides. Each boiler ARTIFICIAL FUEL. 123 contains 240 drying pipes of about 100 mm. (4 inches) diameter and 6400 mm. (21 feet) length. The coal slides through the drying pipes on ac- count of the inclined position of the drier, during its rotation, and is thereby properly dessicated. The water evaporated by this means es- capes through the chimney into the open air. The coal dried by the driers falls into a conveyer, common to all driers, and is brought by it to the last rolling mill and is again sifted and crushed. The coal is then brought by a second conveyer to the supply rooms, which form the COOling hoppers Over the presses. These presses make from 80 to 90 revolutions per minute, and at each revolution a briquette is made. The thickness of the briquettes can be changed by means of a worm wheel at the end of the presses. The press also moves the finished briquettes in iron channels to the loading spot, generally about 100 yards from the press. The cost of plant and operation in Germany, is stated to be as follows for factory with three presses and suitable drying apparatus with a capacity of 120 tons per day: PIANT. Land, building and working capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 67,500 Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75,000 Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $142,500 (XOST () F PRODUCTION. $ Based on Output of 30,000 tons per year, current rates of wages and materials, and raw brown coal at 50 cents per ton: Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $16,000 Wages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,000 Repairs, dies, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,500 Lights, oil, packing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 's s e e s e e o e e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 3,000 General expenses (management). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . we e º 'º e º 'º e s w e º 'º - e º a 6,000 Insurance . . . . . . . a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500 Depreciation, 5 per cent... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.500 Sundries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000 Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $45,500 The laborers required are: Day shift — 2 engineers, 1 stoker, 1 press- man, 1 blacksmith, 16 laborers (five of whom may be boys). Night shift — 2 engineers, 1 pressman, 1 stoker, 10 laborers (five of whom may be boys). - The selling price of the briquettes at the works is $2.25 to $3 per ton. CHAPTER VI. GEOLOGY OF THE BROWN COAL DEPOSITS OF TEXAS, The Tertiary deposits of the gulf slope of Texas, in which the brown coals occur, occupy a belt of country sub-parallel to the present gulf coast, stretching from Red River to the Rio Grande. This belt has a length of 650 miles, and its greatest width is about 200 miles. It covers in whole or part eighty-four counties, and has an aggregate area of nearly 60,000 square miles. The brown coal beds have not been found everywhere within this area, but their existence is known in more than fifty of the counties, and in a large number of them the deposits are workable. - The accompanying map gives the general boundaries of the brown coal area of this Tertiary belt, the locations of many of the outcrops known to the Survey, and of all the mines now in operation. Owing to lack of topographic maps covering any considerable portion of the area, to the character of the rock materials, and to the general flatness of much of the region underlaid by the Tertiary deposits, it has been almost impossible to form a complete section of the formation, or to secure sufficient data for its final separation into series and correlation with Other localities. The following arrangement may be taken as representing our present state of knowledge regarding the Eocene series, which contains the greater amount of the deposits of brown coal. ſ Fayette Division. § \ tº e tº | ſº Yegua Division. }. Brown cóēl bearing. EOCENE. : | |. Belt Division. J Basal Division. BA SAL DIVISION. This division embraces the Basal beds or Wills Point clays of Penrose. * * The descriptions of the Tertiary formation and its brown coal deposits are taken from the various reports of the Geological Survey and notes of some of the geologists, supplemented in places by my own observations. EASAL DIVISION. 125 THE WILLS PoſNT SECTION.—The Basal beds consist of a stiff lami- nated clay, yellow, gray, blue, or bluish green in color, frequently in- terbedded with seams and laminae of Sand, containing many concretion- ary masses of non-fossiliferous gray limestone, which are much cut up by veins of brown crystalline calcite, and vary in size from a few inches to six feet in diameter. They are generally of a flat, elliptical shape, and of a gray color. While occasionally occurring in the upper brown clays, the bowlders are mostly imbedded within the gray Sands of the formation near the contact of the lower beds with the Cretaceous. Nu- merous similar bowlders Occur in Muddy Cedar creek bottom, about half a mile northwest of Elmo; also east of Elmo on Walnut creek; also im- bedded in clay on the Goschen road, two and one-half miles south of Wills Point; and on the south side of Allen creek, four and a half miles southwest of Wills Point, they are found imbedded in a stratified yellow clay similar to that found on a hill about a mile east of Rocky Cedar. East of Wills Point the calcareous bowlders imbedded in yellow clay oc- cur at several places scattered over an extent of country nearly two miles in width. Large quantities of gypsum are also found in places in the clay. On Burnet creek, one mile east of Wills Point, gypsum crystals five to six inches long are frequently found. One of the most constant characteristics of the clay is the presence in it of soft small white calcareous concretions one-tenth of an inch to two inches in diameter, which often have the cauliflower-like form of some of the geyserite of the Yellow- stone Geyser basins. They are found, very plentifully, and often collect in large quantities in creek beds. ' Interstratified with the clays, and inclosed between the upper brown clay and the lower dark blue division, there occurs a series of beds of white fossiliferous limestone and brown and dark bluish-gray sands. These beds show a section of: 1. White limestone containing numerous casts of shells............... 8 feet. 2. Brown Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 3. Limestone similar to No. 1, but containing a greater number of bi- Valve shells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e 10 feet. 4. Dark bluish gray Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 feet. These limestones and associated sands first appear upon the crest of the hill about half a mile northwest of the village of Elmo, where the upper limestone forms the surface of the hill for about 100 yards. Nearer the 126 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. village the limestones appear in a well digging, and are overlaid by the yellowish brown sand everywhere forming the surface deposit of this re- gion. On going eastward from Elmo the limestones again appear in a tank at Cobb’s switch; and about a mile furthur east, on Rocky Cedar creek, they attain their maximum thickness of twenty feet. At Prairie Grove postoffice, about two miles north of the railway crossing over Rocky Cedar, the limestones also appear in most of the streams in the region, and from their thickness appear to extend much further north. A general section of the beds within the region around Wills Point gives the following: 1. Yellowish brown sand containing calcareous bowlders of sand- stone, limestone with thin veins or seams, occasionally nodules of crystalline calcite, and containing occasional fossil remains. .. 30 feet. 2. Yellow laminated clay with thin partings of yellow sand and con- taining occasional bowlders of siliceous limestone. . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 feet. 3. Massive bedded clay. showing no signs of lamination, containing numerous bowlders similar to those of No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 feet. 4. White limestone containing great quantities of fossil casts, chiefly Turritella, Cardita planicosta, Ostrea (2) and other bivalve shells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 feet. 5. Brown Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 6. Limestone similar to No. 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 7. Bluish gray sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 feet. 8. I)ark blue laminated and much joined clays with thin sandy part- ings, containing occasional small bivalve shells chiefly, and hav- ing a thin pavement of siliceous nodules near its upper surface 62 feet. 9. Ponderosa marls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 feet. The dip of these beds, where traversed by this section, ranges from less than one to nearly five degrees, in a Southeast direction. The greater portion of the area occupied by these deposits consists of prairie with small patches of timber lands interspersed. The timber is mostly blackjack and postoak, with a few black ash and sycamore trees along the creeks. - t From the contact of the laminated blue clays with the Ponderosa marls, three miles west of Elmo, to the point of the disappearance of the yellow clay, three miles east of Wills Point, the width area embraced by the Basal clays of the Tertiary deposits in this portion of the State is BAS AI, DIVISION. 127 fifteen miles, and the complete section of these clays and sands shows them to have a total thickness of at least two hundred and sixty-two feet. THE BRAzos RIVER SECTION.—The representatives of these beds on the Brazos are seen in the bluffs of the river extending from the northeast corner of Milam county down the river to within two miles of Pond creek, a distance of about seven miles. These clays here overlie the Blue Marls, which are extensively developed between this point and Waco. They differ somewhat in lithological character from the clays at Wills Point, and are at many places highly fossiliferous. The first bluff show- ing them, coming down the river, is in the corner of Milam county. It is about a third of a mile long and forty feet high. The lower part of it is composed of very dark, almost black, clays, containing fragments of shells, and running into a lighter yellowish and greenish clay towards the top. This upper part contains highly calcareous indurated strata, showing a nodular structure and containing many fossils. The lower part of the bluff is also calcareous, but not as much so as the upper part. Dip, three degrees southeast. At a point two miles above Pond creek is another bluff of interbedded dark gray clays and white and gray sands, containing many flat calcareous concretions, weathering in concentric layers and one to ten feet in diameter. They are dark gray inside and brown on the outside. They are in the sand seams, and are probably simply part of the inclosing stratum indurated by the large amount of calcareous matter that they contain. In a thin bed of clay, four inches thick, in this bluff are found many shells of an oyster. The dip of the bluff is very gentle to the southeast. It becomes much more sandy to- wards the top than at the base, and doubtless represents the transition bed from the Basal Clays to the great overlying series of sandy strata (Timber Belt beds). THE Color Ado SECTION.—The Basal Clay bed in Bastrop county is seen to the west Of Elgin, and between that point and Manor, in Travis county. It forms the same character of country as in the northern part of the State, and finally disappears to the east under the Overlying Sands. On the Colorado river it is seen cropping out at a point sixteen miles by river below Austin, and one mile below the mouth of Onion creek, in a bluff Some forty feet high and a mile long. Also at Webberville, on the line between Travis and Bastrop counties, where it is seen in a low bluff just 128 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. above the water’s edge. This is a much darker and more massive clay than that seen in most other outcrops. In the bluff sixteen miles below Austin are found a few fragments of fossils, but they are all so broken as to make their determination very doubtful. The extension of the Basal Clays west of the Colorado has not been Studied. It may be that the beds observed at Webb Bluff on the Rio Grande belong here, but their reference to these beds must await the de- termination of the fossils collected from them. No lignite beds have as yet been observed in these clays. THE TIMEER BELT DIVISION. The Basal Clays everywhere, from the northern part of the State to the Colorado river, blend upwards into the sandy Timber Belt beds. These form a large part of the Tertiary formation in Texas, and underlie the great timber region of the eastern part of the State. , They are composed en- tirely of siliceous and glauconitic sands, with white, brown, and black clays. The clays, however, are greatly in the minority, and the siliceous Sands compose by far the larger part of the whole series. Lignite beds are Of very frequent occurrence, varying from a few inches to ten and twelve feet thick; and the sands and clays are often impregnated with vegetal matter to such an extent that numerous traces Of petroleum, asphalt, and natural gas have been found in the East Texas region, sometimes in quan- tities of considerable economic importance. Many Of the black and brown clays and sands owe their coloring matter to this ingredient of vegetable material, and burn white or buff color when exposed to heat. These beds occupy an area over 125 miles wide in the northeast part of the State, but thin down to less than 40 miles on the Colorado. This greater development of the Tertiary strata to the northeast is probably due to a greater deposition in the vicinity of the embayment which ex- isted in the lower Mississippi at the time they were laid down, or to the Overlapping of deposits of later age toward the southwest. The sands are generally much cross-bedded, gray to buff in color, and contain black specks, which are often glauconite. This latter mineral is a common constituent in many of the beds, and there are found all grada- tions, from a pure siliceous sand to a pure greensand bed, such as are well developed in the iron ore regions of Anderson, Cherokee, Rusk and other counties. All the sand beds are more or less impregnated with carbonate TIMBER BELT DIVISION. 129 of lime, and often it is in such quantities as to form beds of calcareous sandstone, where it acts as a cement, and forms a soft, friable rock. Sometimes even beds of limestone are found, and calcareous nodules and concretions are of very frequent occurrence throughout the whole of the Timber Belt beds. One of the most characteristic features of the region depends on this presence of carbonate of lime in the Sandy beds. It is the occurrence of great masses of sand, varying from one to ten feet and more in diameter, and cemented into a hard rock by the calcareous mat- ter. These rocks vary much in shape and hardness. Sometimes they have a concretionary shape and weather in concentric layers; at others they show the horizontal stratification of the beds in which they occur, and gradually blend into the soft enclosing sand. Many of the sands are also intimately mixed with a fine impalpable white clay, which renders the beds soft and highly plastic when wet, but when dry it forms a hard, solid mass, often occurring as a friable sand- stone. When such beds are exposed to erosion by creeks and in gullies they break up into lumps, which become rolled and rounded, and form putty-like pebbles. The sand beds are generally also variable in com- position. They blend by insensible gradations, both vertically and laterally, into clay or sandy clay beds, so that minute correlations, even in beds very close to each other, are difficult to make. This extreme variability in composition is simply one of the many proofs of a near shore deposit. The sand beds often contain considerable quantities of dark brown or gray mica. The clay beds of this division vary from a pure white highly plastic clay to a dark brown, or even black, material con- taining large quantities of lignitic matter. They are generally laminated, or finely stratified, and frequently occur interbedded with thin seams of Sand, the latter often in lenticular streaks, while the clay is generally continuous. The seams of clay vary from one-twentieth to one-eighth inch in thickness, and the sandy seams are but very little thicker. The whole formation shows a peculiar undulating section, the undulations being due to the thinning and thickening of the sandy seams and not to lateral pressure. The brown coal beds of this series are composed both of brown and black varieties. Silicified wood is of very frequent occurrence, sometimes simply in small fragments, and at others as large trunks of trees. It Sº Creol. 130 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. is generally dark brown or black inside, and weathers gray or buff color On the outside. Sometimes it occurs partly lignitized and partly silicified. It frequently shows shrinkage cracks which are filled with quartz or Chalcedony, and often lined with quartz crystals. Carbonate of iron, in the form of clay ironstone, is of very frequent Occurrence throughout the Timber Belt beds. It rarely occurs in a con- tinuous seam, but is found in lenticular masses and nodules, often occu- pying the same plane of stratification for considerable distances. Some- times these masses coalesce into a bed continuous for a few hundred yards. They are rarely over three or four inches in thickness, and are generally rusty from oxidation. They are probably the source of some Of the brown hematite iron ores in the counties north of the Sabine river. Iron pyrites is an almost inseparable accompaniment of the beds. ar The Timber Belt division has been provisionally separated into the Lignitic and Marine beds. LIGNITIC BEDS. EAST TEXAS SECTION.—Immediately succeeding the Basal Clays, and in close contact with them, there lies an extensive series of sands, clays, and brown coals, having an aggregate thickness of over 900 feet. The western outcrop of these deposits occurs about three miles east of Wills Point, and the deposits themselves extend eastward beyond the Louisiana line. Their northward extension has not yet been determined, but members of the series occur near Springdale, Douglasville and Hughes Springs, in Cass county, Daingerfield in Morris county, and at Alba, in Wood county. In their southern extension they have been traced through Cass, Marion and Harrison, to the Sabine river. Similar beds also occur in Gregg county, south of Longview, in Upshur county, near Wilkins’ mill, and in Smith county, near Tyler. The sands are variously colored, being white, yellow, brown, red, gray, blue, and black, the colors often shading into one another, and with the exception of the dark blue or black, and Occasionally white beds, present no uniformity of coloration for any distance. In structure they are laminated or thinly stratified, massive, cross-bedded, and fre- quently interlaminated with clay. In estimating their dip or thickness TIMBER BELT DIVISION. 131 no reliance can be placed upon their structure, as the beds occur in all positions and dip at all angles. The clays occur interstratified and interlaminated with the sands, and in such positions are mostly laminated. Massive and stratified beds also Occur in many portions of the area, sometimes nearly free from Sand, but the greatest portion are sandy or micaceous clays. In color they are generally dark blue, gray, and black. Occasionally deposits of red and yellow clay occur, and frequently thin beds of white are found among the upper members of the series. The uppermost member of the deposits belonging to this group appears to be a series of laminated or thinly stratified white and red sands and Sandy clays, frequently merging into one another and forming a mottled Sandy clay or clayey sand. The laminae generally do not exceed one- fourth to half inch, but the white sandy clay frequently expands to six or more feet. This series is best developed in the neighborhood of Queen City, Cass county, where it has a known thickness of sixty-five feet, for which reason it has been called the Queen City beds. In Marion county, near Jefferson, and in Harrison county the beds appear at various places immediately underlying a yellowish-brown sandstone, or altered glauconite, containing occasional casts of fossils, chiefly of the Cardita planicosta type. They occur also near Tyler, in Smith county, and as far south as to within two miles of Troupe. Towards the north they occur at Gladewater, in Gregg county, and from Wilkins’ mill, in Up- shur county, westward to within a short distance of the Big Sandy. The lowermost beds of these deposits are not as yet exactly known, but from the records of the several deep wells bored within the area, appear to be dark blue or brown clays. The yellow and brown Sands found near the contact with the Basal Clays west of Edgewood do not represent the beds in absolute contact with the underlying Basal Clays, but are probably an overlap of some of the higher deposits belonging to this group. This condition is extremely probable, as towards the South- western portion of Van Zandt county, and only a distance of two miles or so from the place where the Basal Clays are last seen, lignitic deposits Occur in association with blue clay. Between the Queen City beds and the lowermost deposits of that group there lies a series of black, blue and gray micaceous sands, blue, brown 132 BROWN COAL AND IIGNITE. and gray clays, with thin strata of sandstones and limestones, and also containing many small seams and several heavy deposits of lignites, which unfortunately are not visible, or only partially so, at any of the places yet visited. Towards their southern side the beds belonging to this division present the initial flexing so largely developed throughout the immediately over- lying marine or glauconitic beds. These undulations occur at many places South of the Sabine river, in Smith county, beginning a few miles South of Lindale, and extending as far south as Bullard, where the beds pass under the glauconitic sands of the Mount Selman series. From whatever cause this flexing may have arisen, it is evident that the same action involved the structure of these as well as the succeeding beds, al- though they are widely separated in composition and the conditions under which they were deposited. A striking resemblance between the flexures of the two sets of beds, leading to the conclusion that this bend- ing took place after the upper deposits had been laid down, is their gen- eral coincidence with each other and their uniform tendency to a north- east and southwest course, or a course approximately parallel to the old Cretaceous shore line. These deposits so far have yielded no fossils beyond a few broken plant remains found in the stratified bluish sandy clay north of Grand Saline. The structure and position of these beds can best be seen in the follow- ing well section: NECTION ( ) F W ELL AT MINE() I.,.\ . Thickness. Depth. 1. Top soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 1 foot. 2. Red clav . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 feet. 12 feet. 3. Gray or white sand with water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 feet. 20 feet. 4. Brownish black elay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 25 feet. 5. Brown clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 35 feet. G. Blue clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 feet. 50 feet. 7. Brown clay, sand and mica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 feet. 66 feet. 8. Lignite sand and iron pyrites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 70 feet. 9. Sandstone with Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I foot. 7] feet. 10. Blue clay or mud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 75 feet. 11. Gray sandstone with water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 80 feet. 12. Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 100 feet. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. TIM BER BELT DIVISION. Thickness. Potter's clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - 10 feet. Sandstone with water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. Gray or blue clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - 14 foot. Sandstone with water... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9% feet. Fig. 8. Well at Mineola. Scale 1 inch=40 feet. Bluish gray clay and pyrites. . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45 Bluish gray clay with some sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 10 Blue clay with limestone bowlders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Gray sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15 133 Depth, 110 feet. 115 feet. 1.15% feet. 125 feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. 170 feet. 180 feet. 200 feet. 215 feet. 134 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Thickness. Depth. 21. Black clay with limestone, pyrites. etc. . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 221 feet. 22. Dark limestone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 223 feet. 23. Gray Sand and mica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ' feet. 228 feet. 24. Black and blue clay. mica and pyrites. . . . . . . . . . . . . I foot. 229 feet. 25. Gray sand, mica, brown clay and water . . . . . . . . . . . (5 feet. 235 feet. 26. Sandstone with water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 239 feet. 27. Brown black clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 feet. 265 feet. 28. White clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 270 feet. 29. White or gray clay. sand, mica and pyrites with water 10 feet. 280 feet. 30. Lignite” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I foot. 281 feet. 31. White clay with thin strata of sand with water. ... 19 feet. 300 feet. 32. Brown clay and white sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 310 feet. 33. White sand with water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 320 feet. 34. Brown clay and lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 340 feet. 35. Brown joint Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 342 feet. 36. Gray Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 feet. 350 feet. 37. Gray sand and lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 360 feet. 38. Gray sand and pyrites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 370 feet. 39. White Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 375 feet. 40. Grayish white sand and black mud. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 380 feet. 41. Coarse white sand with grains of lignite and water. 20 feet. 400 feet. 42. Brown clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feeſ. 405 feet. 43. Lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 406 feet. 44. White sand, very coarse. with water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 408 feet. 45. Lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 411 feet. 46. Gray clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 413 feet. 47. Grayish white clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 416 feet. 48. Brown Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . à feet. 421 feet. 49. Dark brown clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I foot. 422 feet. 50. Black mud. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 424 feet. 51. Black mud. Sand and lignite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 426 feet. 52. Iron pyrites and black mud. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 430 feet. 53. Black brown clay and pyrites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 feet. 460 feet. 34. Lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 feet. 475 feet. 55. Black brown clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 480 feet. 56. Gray sand with water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 490 feet. 57. Lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 495 feet. 58. White sand with water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 505 feet. 59. Dark brown joint clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 515 feet. 60. Gray sand, mica and water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 feet. 530 feet. 61. Dark brown clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 550 feet. * “Dignite” in this section may mean either brown coal or lignite. We had no specimens of it. TIMBER HELT DIVISION. 135 Thickness. Depth. 62. Grayish blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 feet. 575 feet. 63. Dark brown clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 595 feet. 64. Joint clay and sand at bottom of boring . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 600 feet. THE BRAzos River SECTION.—About a mile and a half below Pond creek, in Milam county, is seen an outcrop of Tertiary sand, contain- ing black specks and rendered plastic by a white clay. It is capped by semi-indurated Quaternary gravel and sand, and contains large nodules which give a strong reaction for carbonate of lime, and which are simply hardened masses of the enveloping sand. They are one to eight feet in diameter, hard, kidney-shaped, flat or nodular, and project out of the compact Sandy bluff in a most characteristic manner. Loose fragments of silicified wood, which have also doubtless been derived from the same bed, lie among the many nodules that have been eroded out. So many of these rocky masses have been loosened from the sand and piled up in the bed of the river that they have obstructed its course, and have formed rapids. Many of these rocks are round or oval, and are locally known as “kettle bottoms.” Such strata as these are seen down the river for a mile and a half from this point, where they dip under a series of gray clays containing beds of brown coal, varying from one to five feet thick and associated with ferruginous sand. The clays con- tain large masses of silicified wood, which is sometimes seen in places in the bed, but more often has been weathered out and lies in the bed of the stream. Occasionally nodules of clay ironstone, generally in a semi- Oxidized condition, are found. Such strata are exposed for about a mile, when the gray sands with calcareous concretions and indurations again appear. This deposit contains considerable quantities of iron pyrites, and the indurations are often cut by veins of crystalline calcite. A short distance below here is Calvert Bluff, Robertson county, where brown coal Occurs in large quantities and has been worked intermittently for many years. - The clay beds at this locality contain large clay ironstone concretions, which enclose many leaf impressions. From here to where the Interna- tional and Great Northern Railroad crosses the river we see Sand beds with calcareous indurations, such as have been described at Rocky Rapids. At this point is a bluff showing sixteen feet of Tertiary strata, capped by over fifteen feet of a highly calcareous light green and yellow Quater- 136 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. nary clay containing many small white concretions. The base of the Tertiary part of this bluff is composed of black clay from the water edge up to ten feet above it, and is overlaid by six feet of non-fossiliferous greensand marl. Quaternary deposits lie unconformably on the Tertiary strata. For twelve miles below this point is seen a series of interbedded and interlaminated clays and sands, with occasional beds of brown coal, and Some few small gray calcareous concretions. Frequently small fragments of lignite are seen in the sand beds, showing that the swifter waters, which changed the character of the bed from clay to sand, were also re- sponsible for the destruction of lignite beds, the fragments of which were deposited with the sand. Color ADO RIVER SECTION. Five miles by river below the outcrops of Basal Clays in the neighborhood of Webberville, is seen a low bluff, rising some four feet above the water and a quarter of a mile long, com- posed of glauconitic marl with many Eocene fossils. This represents the lowest fossiliferous bed of the Timber Belt series in this locality. From a point two miles below the Bastrop county line to the town of Bastrop is about twenty miles by river. In the distance are seen numerous out- crops of gray sands, cross-bedded, and containing black specks, which are often glauconite, as well as large concretionary and indurated masses, like those already described on the Brazos at Rocky Rapids. As at Rocky Rapids, they doubtless owe their existence to the presence of argillaceous and calcareous matter, which has acted as a cement. Here, however, On the Colorado they are much fewer and smaller (one to four feet in diameter) than on the Brazos, and form a much less important part in the topography of the river channel. The sand beds are frequently in- terstratified with beds of gray clay. Many beds of brown coal, one to five feet thick, are found cropping out in the bluffs, and thin seams and lenticular masses of carbonate of iron are frequently seen throughout the formation. This latter is generally partly decomposed and exposes a rusty surface. Frequently it shows shrinkage cracks, proving its once gelatinous condition. The dip of these sands and clays is to the east and Southeast at an angle of from 0 to 5 degrees. The bluffs are usually capped by from ten to thirty feet of Quaternary gravel and sand. From Bastrop down the river for eight miles a series of interbedded and interlaminated gray, brown, and chocolate clays and Sands is seen in many bluffs. The seams of clay are often not over one-eighth inch in TIMBER BELT DIVISION. 137 thickness, and yet they preserve a very remarkable continuity; the inter- laminated sand occurs as a series of connected lenses, and gives the under- lying and overlying clay laminae characteristic undulating appearance. Brown coal beds are very plentiful throughout the series, and vary from one to eight feet thick. They are generally conformable in a general way with the overlying and underlying strata, but sometimes they are unconformable. Twelve miles below Bastrop is “Red Bluff.” This is about a hundred feet high and capped with a Quaternary conglomerate from three to twenty feet thick, and composed of pebbles of flint, chert, quartz, feld- spar, and jasper, one-sixteenth to six inches in diameter, and cemented in a highly ferruginous sand. It frequently contains patches of red and mottled sand, and is of a bright red color. The foot of the bluff is cov- ered by immense blocks that have fallen from this bed. Underneath the conglomerate is a bed of white Tertiary sand, in places thirty feet thick. It is frequently rusted on the surface from the ferruginous solutions run- ning down from the overlying conglomerate. Below the sand are fifty feet of interlaminated seams of chocolate clay, Sandy clay, and gray sand. At the base of the bluff the sand bed contains large black indur- ated masses of sandstone, as at Rocky Rapids, on the Brazos. The whole bluff has a red appearance, the effect of which is greatly enhanced by the patches of unstained white sand occasionally seen. Half a mile below this point is seen a similar though smaller bluff of the same strata. For two and a half miles below this are seen scattered outcrops of gray sands and plastic clays, containing brown coal deposits. RIo GRANDE SECTION.—Three miles below the north line of Webb county we obtained the following section: Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sandstone white and glistening, with mica and some little iron; cal- careous sandstones: clay with “cannon ball” concretions, and Small seam of grahamite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 feet. Greensand marl with many Tertiary fossils: nodules of carbonate of lime; Specks of glauconite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 to 8 feet. Stiff, plastic, dark greenish or blue clay jointed (Cretaceous). . . . . . . 10 feet. A quarter of a mile below is a bluff fifty feet high of indurated sandy clay, containing mica and ferruginous Scales between the strata. Dip 1 degree South. One and a half miles below are seen similar deposits, but with no fossils, and containing numerous gray calcareous concretions, with veins of brown crystalline calcite. Two miles beyond this, on the 138 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Mexican side, is a bluff a quarter of a mile long and seventy-five feet high, of interlaminated gray sands and chocolate clays, with sulphur and gypsum in places, and occasional ferruginous spots. Hard gray clay ironstones with leaf impressions are also found. The sand beds are from one to five feet thick, and the clay is in thin laminae. Dip undulating from 1 to 5 degrees southeast. The mica and black specks in the sand, the laminae of chocolate clay, the presence of sulphur and gypsum crys- tals, all show a strong resemblance to the Tertiary of East Texas. From here to the Hardin Ferry, and thence to the mouth of the Cavezeras river, are seen similar strata, frequently causing rapids where they cross the Rio Grande. In one place the indurated bluffs encroach on the river until it narrows down to thirty yards. Here the waters have cut a deep channel and rush through at a great velocity. Frequently interbedded glossy brown ferruginous layers one or two inches thick, are found in the sandstone. Three miles below “the Hardin” is a bluff sixty feet high composed of friable sandstones, the harder and softer layers blending into each other and occasionally showing ferruginous patches. Dip 1 degree south. For nineteen miles below this point we pass over identically simi- lar strata, frequently containing calcareous concretions one to three inches in diameter. These contain seams of crystalline calcite, and are of a gray color, weathering brown or red in concentric layers. Similar strata are seen from here to the San Tomas coal mines. These are situated on the Texas side of the river and at the mouth of San Tomas creek, about twenty-five miles by river above Laredo. For three miles below this are seen indurated greenish clays with leaf impressions, broken stems, and specks of lignite. Occasionally seams of chocolate clay and calcareous nodules are found. As usual, the bluffs are capped with pebbles or sand, and dip two degrees southeast. Fifteen miles above Laredo is a bluff reaching a maximum height of forty feet. and about a mile long. It is composed of interbedded coarse sand with calcareous nodules, and sandy clay with gypsum and Sulphur. The sand grains are red, yellow, white, and gray, and the whole bluff has a green- ish appearance, spotted in places by ferruginous matter. Many similar Outcrops are seen for seven miles below, and as the dip is often horizontal, or nearly so, the exposures show simply different parts of the same bed. Eight miles above Laredo is a bluff about eighty feet high and a half mile long, composed of semi-indurated buff Sands with an undulating TIMBER BELT DIVISION. 139 dip. Similar exposures are seen down the river to Laredo, and in fact that town is built partly on the same beds, which are here succeeded by those of the next division of the Eocene. MARINE BEDS. EAST TExAs SECTION.—The succeeding beds in the ascending scale are a group of marine deposits consisting of a series of Sands, greensands and clays, having a total thickness of approximately six hundred and fifty feet. Their areal extent in this region embraces a ridge of land, approximately forty miles in width and having an elevation of from three hundred and fifty to seven hundred feet above tide, extending across the counties of Harrison, Gregg, Rusk, Smith, Cherokee and Houston. They Occupy the greater portions of Cherokee and Anderson counties, the whole of the northern half of Houston county, and a great extent of Sabine, Nacog- dcohes and San Augustine, as well as portions of Smith and Henderson coun- ties. Across the Trinity they extend westward, and in Harrison county, to the northward they narrow to a point, and become more or less broken into isolated hills. Small outliers of the same age are also found at Hughes' Springs and at Atlanta and in the northern part of Cass county. The outlines of these beds have not yet been traced to any extent. They are known to overlie the red and white sands and sandy clays of the Queen City beds in Harrison county, three miles north of Marshall, where they come in direct contact. To the west of Marshall they are again seen overlying the Queen City beds. On the south side of the Sabine river, the brown ferruginous sandstones belonging to the basal division rise thirty feet above the level of the river. Westward, in Smith county, near Bullard, six miles north of Mount Selman, the base of the series is found in wells at a depth of twenty-four feet, resting upon a black lignitic clay. In Henderson county they occur only in the southeastern portion as iron capped hills. Toward the South, in Houston county, they dip under a series of thinly laminated blue clay and Sand containing crystals of selenite; and near Alto, in Cherokee county, the upper beds are overlaid unconformably by a Series of black clays and Sands containing crystals of gypsum. The Marine beds may be divided into two groups—the basal, from its greatest development in Cherokee county, may be called tentatively the 140 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. “Mount Selman’’ beds, while the uppermost, from its typical develop- ment in Houston county, may be denominated the “Cook's Mountain’’ beds. THE MOUNT SELMIAN BEL).S. The beds of the Mount Selman series rise abruptly on the northward to a height of seven hundred feet above sea level, and consist of a series of brown Sands, blue clays, greensands, altered greensands, glauconitic Sandstone and laminated iron ore, and are more or less fossiliferous throughout. General section from Jacksonville to Bullard, across the Mount Sel- man beds: 1. Gray sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 2. Brown sand, ferruginous pebbles and iron ore... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 feet. 3. Mottled Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 4. Brownish yellow Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 5. Brown and yellow Sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 6. Alternate strata of iron ore and brown sand, the ore in generally laminated deposits of two to ten inches. and sand from one to two feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 feet. 7. Dark green sand containing casts of small bivalve shells. . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 8. White clayey sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 9. Dark green nearly black sand, containing thin seams of ferrugin- ous materials near top. and also containing small fish teeth and Cardita plan?costa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 feet. 10. Brown Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 11. White sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I0 feet. 12. Alternate strata of brown sand and laminated iron ore, ore gener- ally wavy and not more than two to six inches, and sand one to two feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 13. Pale blue and brown clay. mottled in places and laminated in others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 feet. 14. Alternate strata of altered glauconitic brown sand and iron ore, the ore generally irregularly deposited. laminated and siliceous. and not exceeding six inches to one foot, the sand from six inches to two feet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 feet. 15. Brown sand. forming the surface near Bullard, but passing under No. 12 at the base of the hill. altered greensand. changing to yellow a few feet under ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 feet. 16. Dark green sand, containing fossil shells and a few shark teeth . . . 24 feet. 17. Lignite or “black dirt.” having the appearance of drift. contain- pieces of Wood, leaves, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 18. Dark lignitic clay, jointed in places, and having the joints filled with glossy lignitie material and sand, and said to contain Small white shells near the bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 19. Brown clay at bottom of well near Bullard, dug into . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. The minor folds noticed in the beds between Mineola and Tyler are greatly increased in force in the Mount Selman beds, and even this TIMBER BELT TXIVISION. 141 mountain, which may be looked upon as being among the highest, if not the highest point in this portion of the country, shows its structure to be that of an elevated synclinal trough. Minor undulations also occur throughout the whole series of the deposits to the southward as far as New Birmingham, and probably further to the southeast than is at present known. The prevalent idea that the changes of dip found in the overlying beds are due to the erosion of the lower sand deposits, through the action of springs and other underground waters, will have to be abandoned. It is undoubtedly true that many of the changes found locally in the neigh- borhood of the streams are due to this kind of erosion, but some other Cause must be found for such an extensive series of undulations as Occur in this region, involving as it does two so widely separated sets of deposits as these and the underlying lignite beds. Our present knowledge of the life history of these deposits is extremely meagre. The only fossils so far found consist of a few broken undetermined shells of the Cardita type, a few casts of a small bivalve, and several small shark teeth. COOK’s MOUNTAIN BEDS. The chief characteristics of the upper group of the Marine beds are in many respects lithologically the same as those of the Mount Selman beds. They comprise an extensive series of greensands, and greensand marls, altered greensand containing thin strata of carbonate of iron, indurated altered fossiliferous greensand, green fossiliferous clays, glauconitic sand- stones and clays, stratified black and gray sandy clays, brown fossilifer- Ous Sands, and black or yellow clays with limy concretions, with occa- Sional local deposits of black sand with gypsum crystals. The prevailing deposits, however, are the greensands in their several characters. A striking distinction between this series and the underlying Mount Sel- man is the extensive fauna found in the Cook’s Mountain beds. The general section here given represents the beds of this group from Independence postoffice, in Cherokee county, to Alto, a distance of twenty-five miles. SECTION.—INIDEPENDENCE TO DIA f,. 1. Cross-bedded sand with nodules of white clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. Altered greensand containing white nodules, thin streaks of iron ore and casts of fossils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 feet. 2. 142 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. 3. Mottled brown and white sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 4. Thinly laminated blue sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 5. Thinly stratified or laminated red and white sand and white clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. SECTION.—RU S K PENITENTIARY HILL. 1. Gray sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 2. Interstratified laminated ferruginous material, iron ore and al- tered greensand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 feet. 3. Laminated or thinly stratified red and whitish blue sand and sandy clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 4. Mottled red and blue sandy clay, probably belonging to and º forming the lower part of No. 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 feet. 5. Red Sand and ferruginous gravel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 6. Brownish stratified sand, mottled in places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 feet. 7. Grayish blue stratified sand in creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. N HEW HIRMIN ( ; H.A.M SECTION. J. Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 2. Micaceous Sandstone containing iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 3. Sandstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S in. 4. Micaceous sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 5. Altered glauconite containing casts of fossils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 6. Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 7. Altered glauconite, with casts of fossils and thin seam of sand- Stone near centre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 feet. .A.I.T() REGION. 1. Gray sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 to 20 feet. 2. Ferruginous sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 3. Iron pyrites and lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% feet. 4. Laminated iron ore and brown sand (altered greensand). . . . . . . 10 to 15 feet. 5. Fossiliferous altered brown glauconitic sand, containing Ano- mia ephippioides, Ostrea sellaeformis, Cardita plan icosta and other fossils, and streaks and nodules of calcite. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 6. *Yellowish brown and grayish brown indurated glauconitic sand containing Scutella caput-linensis, Ostrea sella formis. and other fossils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 7. Greensand containing casts of fossils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 8. Brown sandstone, altered glauconite with casts of fossils. . . . . . 30 feet. 9. Greensand with gasteropods and fish teeth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 feet. These beds present in some slight degree the same undulating struc- ture as is seen in the Mount Selman beds. This, however, is only seen near the base of the series, and where they come in direct contact with the beds of that division. As they ascend the Scale the flexing ceases al- together, or is so slight as not to be appreciable. Toward the Southern border these deposits assume a general uniform Southeast dip of nearly * This bed forms a well defined horizon from the Louisiana line westward to and beyond the Trinity river. TIMBER BELT DIVISION. 143 sixteen feet to the mile. The southern border, so far as has been traced, breaks off somewhat abruptly, and is strongly indented by Several great bay-like openings, and probably more than one long, narrow, river-like channel, through and among which the succeeding deposits have been formed in an unconformable manner. The southern boundary can be easily traced from its entrance into the State in Sabine county, through San Augustine, Nacogdoches, Cherokee and Houston, as far west as the Trinity river, and probably much further, by a heavy bed of grayish brown, changing to a yellowish brown indur- ated sand, characterized wherever found by the presence of the fossils, Scwtella caput-linensis, and Ostrea divaricata. Other fossils Occur in this bed, but so far as yet known these appear to belong almost exclusively to it. It is usually about twenty feet thick, and the Scutella caput-linensis have not as yet been found in any of the others. The bed immediately overlying this is a brown altered glauconitic Sand, with calcitic streaks and modules containing Anomia ephippioides in great quantities, Ostrea, selloeformis, Cardita planicosta and other fossils. This bed occurs at the two places, Alto and Cook’s mountain, and at many intermediate points. It does not, however, exceed a general average thickness of ten feet, being six at Alto and ten in Houston county. BRAzos RIVER SECTION.—In the northern corner of Burleson county, and two and a half miles below where the north boundary of the county crosses the Brazos, is seen the first fossil-bearing stratum that has been met along the river below the Basal clays. Here is found a bluff, about thirty-five feet high, giving the following section: BURLESON SHIELT, H.LUFF. 1. Fossiliferous greensand marl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 to 20 feet. 2. Interbedded and interlaminated dark brown and black clays and sands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 feet. 3. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 4. Gray sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 5. Interbedded and interlaminated dark brown and black clays and sands to water edge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. Dip of the above section, 3 degrees southeast. The greensand marl is rusty and indurated in places, and in others retains its green color. It contains a few gray calcareous concretions, One to three inches in diameter, and is often literally made up of fossils. One mile below this point the same bed is seen dipping under the water level. For six miles below this point is seen a series of interbedded and 144 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. interlaminated sands and clays, often much colored by lignitic matter, and containing a heavy bed of, brown coal. The sands are much cross- bedded, and contain considerable quantities of iron pyrites. The dip is irregular and undulating, frequently tending toward the north. Six miles below Burleson Shell Bluff we come to Moseley’s Ferry (San An- tonio Ferry), where we again find glauconitic deposits rich in fossils. These are twelve feet thick and underlaid near the water edge by a chocolate brown clay containing gray calcareous concretions. The green- Sand marl is rusty and indurated in places, soft and green in others. Fossils are very numerous, and many species resemble those of White Marl Bluff, on the Colorado. CoLoRADo RIVER SECTION.—The first exposure of these beds on the Col- Orado is at Bombshell Bluff, which is seventeen miles by river below Bastrop, and is in the southern part of Bastrop county. It consists of thin inter- stratified layers of glauconitic marl, black clay, and dark siliceous sand with glauconite specks, and is the first fossil-bearing stratum seen after leaving Travis county. Interstratified with these deposits is a hard in- durated ledge of calcareous rock, made up largely of glauconite and weathering white. Dark gray round and oblong calcareous concretions are found throughout the clay and sand. The bluff is about ten feet high, and about half way up it is a bed three to eight inches thick, very much rusted and with streaks of hard-pan. This seam is one which contains most of the fossils, and in some places is almost entirely made up of them. They are entirely of Claiborne age. The sands are cross-bedded and the whole bluff is heavily charged with iron pyrites. Numerous specks of lignite are found, even with the shell-bearing strata, proving beyond a doubt the littoral character of the deposit. The dip is about horizontal. For four miles below this are seen similar ledges of the same strata, all preserving an almost horizontal dip. Frequently gypsum crystals are found in the clays. Four miles below the beginning of this fossiliferous area we come to what is locally known as the Devil’s Eye, an eddy at a low ledge of a similar formation to those just described. The strata here belong to the same series as those just passed. The fossil-bearing bed is six to twelve inches thick, is semi-indurated, and composed almost en- tirely of glauconite and shells. Specks of lignitic matter are found throughout the associated chocolate clays, and also, Occasionally small quantities of rusty clay ironstone are seen. Dip, horizontal. Alum TIMEER BELT DIVISION. 145 Creek Bluff is at the mouth of Alum creek and a short distance above Smithville. It is forty feet high, and shows the same charater of strata and the same shell bed as is seen at Devil’s Eye. It is underlaid by twenty feet of much cross-bedded sands, and dips 3 degrees to the south- east. Between here and Smithville is seen a series of interlaminated sands and clays, barren of fossils and dipping 5 degrees southeast. At Smith- ville, in the eastern part of Bastrop county, are found interbedded de- posits of glauconitic marls and chocolate clays in a bluff thirty feet high and capped with Quaternary gravel. The glauconitic marl is hardened and rusty in places, and in others is soft, green, and entirely unaltered. It is highly fossiliferous and contains numerous Claiborne species.* Dip 3 to 8 degrees southeast. One mile below is a small lignite bed underlaid and overlaid by chocolate sands. Below here the river makes a turn to the northeast and again intersects the same bed as is seen at Smithville. White Marl Bluff is near the Fayette county line, is ten feet high, and composed of interbedded strata of dark gray clay, glauconite, gray sand, and a creamy white shell-bearing calcareous marl. These beds vary from one to twelve inches in thickness, and are all highly fossiliferous. Rio GRANDE SECTION.—In limestone from Laredo Professor Heilprin has found Cardita densata, Turritella carinata, and other Claiborne fossils. One mile below the town are seen highly calcareous sandstones, soft on a weathered surface, hard and flinty inside, and associated with choco- late clays. Large quantities of iron pyrites are found all through the formation, as well as specks of lignite, grains of glauconite, and often an efflorescence of sulphur. Five miles below Laredo, a large bed com- posed of fragments of an oyster was found in the following associations: 1. Oyster bed, containing fragments of oysters cemented in green- Sand marl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–2 foot. 2. Softer greensand marl, with a few oysters, Turritella, shark teeth, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 3. Interlaminated gray and chocolate sandy clay with sulphur..... 2 feet. 4. GreenSand marl to water edge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% feet. Below this point for five miles similar deposits are seen, and then we come to another highly fossiliferous bed, consisting of interbedded sili- ceous sands, chocolate clays, and greensand, in a bluff fifty feet high. Half way up is a bed composed mostly of shells in a greensand matrix, * This is the locality referred to by Dr. Buckley “near Mrs. Gazeley’s.” First Annual Report, Geological and Agricultural Survey of Texas. S. B. Buckley, 1874, p. 64. 1.C–G-eel 146 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. and eight to twelve inches thick. In it were found many oysters, Tur- Titella and other gasteropods. Hard gray calcareous nodules, like those at “Bombshell Bluff,” on the Colorado, and containing specks of lig- nite, are found throughout the section. One mile below, and on the Mexican side, is a bluff thirty to fifty feet high, and extending down the river for a mile and a half. It is composed of interbedded gray sands, with Specks of glauconite, and chocolate and gray clays, containing thin lenticular seams of lignite one-eighth to one-quarter inch thick, and a few fragments of shells; also gray calcareous concretions one to two inches in diameter, and gypsum crystals. At its lower end this bluff runs into a somewhat similar formation, but differing from it in having many col- ored sands in seams of purple, red, yellow, brown, and bluish gray. Considerable quantities of iron pyrites are present, and it is probably to this that much of the coloring matter is due. Two miles below here the strata again assume their normal character, and dip two degrees south- east. About at the line between Webb and Zapata counties is a bluff a mile long, and reaching a maximum height of a hundred feet. It con- sists of buff and greenish-colored sands with gray calcareous concretions, One to ten feet in diameter, and many large gasteropods, one to four inches long, in a hard shell rock at the base. Near the top of the bluff is another shell bed, six to eight inches thick, lenticular, and made up mostly of fossils, among which are many Turritella and Cardita. Similar bluffs, but without fossils, are seen almost continuously down the river, on the Texas side, for two miles. At the mouth of Arroyo Dolores are found glauconiferous beds with many oysters, in places made up entirely of them, with apparently no other fossils, and rising ten to thirty feet above the water. Thirteen miles above San Ignacio is seen a low reef of hard gray limestone, weath- ering to a greenish-gray color, and rising two feet above the water. It shows a concretionary structure in places, and forms rapids in the river. Four miles below this is a bluff three hundred yards long and varying from twenty to sixty feet high. The upper third of it is com- posed of river alluvium, with a pebble bed at its base. The lower part consists of buff sands and sandstones, with seams of chocolate clay and greensand. The top of this deposit is capped by a shell bed containing glauconite, and six to eight inches thick. Among the fossils were found Cardita, Crassatella 2, oysters and shark teeth. The shell bed contains TIMBER BELT DIVISION. 147 specks of lignite, and the shells are mostly in fragments. Small white calcareous concretions are numerous. Dip, 1 to 2 degrees southeast. Similar outcrops, but non-fossiliferous, are seen down the river to a point twelve miles below San Ignacio. The sandstones vary from very friable to hard and compact, and often loose masses lie on the slopes of the bluffs like slabs of flagstone. Throughout this whole distance of twenty-One miles the strata all dip to the northeast at an angle of from 1 to 10 degrees, and in one place, five miles below San Ignacio, they dip 10 degrees northwest. This is the greatest and longest variation in the normal southeast or east dip that has been seen by the writer anywhere in the formations under discussion. The strata do not show any other evidence of having been upthrown or disturbed in any way, and it seems probable that this abnormal dip is due simply to the natural sinking and contraction of the strata. Below here on the river are seen many local dips to the northeast of 5 to 8 degrees, but they never prevail for more than a mile or so. Four miles above the Texas town of Carrizo, and on the Mexican side of the river, is seen a bed of woody lignite one and a half to two feet thick, overlaid by ten feet of buff sands and underlaid to the water’s edge by four feet of greenish-gray clay. The Rio Salado flows into the Rio Grande from the Mexican side opposite Carrizo. The town of Guererro is on this river, six miles from the mouth, and in this distance are seen many outcrops of buff sandstone, often rising in abrupt ledges through the river alluvium. Most of the houses, churches, and fences of the town are built of it. Similar rocks are seen for sixteen miles below Carrizo on the Rio Grande, and dip at an angle of 2 to 6 degrees southeast. At this point a small creek on the Texas side cuts through a series of low ledges of interstratified buff sandstones, containing gray concretions and chocolate black and greenish-blue semi-indurated clays, dipping 1 to 2 de- grees southeast. In the bed of the creek were found many fossils, mostly oysters, and fragments of silicified wood. Thence down the river for nine miles similar, but unfossiliferous, ledges are seen. At the end of this dis- tance is a bluff forty feet high, composed of interbedded hard and Soft calcareous sandstones and clay seams, and containing many Cardita and Crassatella. Numerous calcareous concretions are found, and the Sand Occasionally contains coarse black and gray siliceous grains the size of a mustard seed and larger. Three miles below here, and half a mile above the Starr county line, is a low bluff composed of gray clay and capped by 148 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. a bed six to eight inches thick of shell rock with specks of glauconite, Cardita, and many gasteropods (Turritella, etc.) Eight miles below the western line of Starr county the following section was seen: 1. Indurated light brown Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 to 6 feet. 2. Loose light brown Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 3. Gray clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 4. Oyster bed, Ostrea contracta ?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 to 12 inches. 5. Gray clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * 1 foot. 6. Oyster bed, Ostrea contracta ?... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 7. Detritus to water edge.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. Beds 4 and 6 are a solid mass of shells. Some of the oyster shells are Over one foot long. Dip of strata varies from horizontal to 3 degrees northeast. Eight miles above Roma are seen similar beds, associated with similar clays, and dipping 2 to 3 degrees south. Two miles below this point, on the Mexican side of the river, the following section was seen: Greenish-yellow hard clay, with white calcareous concretions, gyp- sum, and sulphur, indurated in layers 1 to 3 inches thick. . . . . . . . 20 feet. 2. Oyster bed, same as described above, in a white calcareous rock. . . . 2 feet. 3. Same sands and clays as in 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 feet. 4. Brown and black lignitic clay, with gypsum and sulphur . . . . . ... .. 6 feet. 5. Siliceous sandstone, rusty and hard in seams, gray to brown in color, and containing much Sulphur as it approaches bed 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. Dip of strata 7 degrees southeast. The bluff varies from ten to thirty feet in height, and is a half mile long; the above section is taken along three hundred yards of it. Two miles below this, on the Mexican side, is seen an oyster bed, in the same aSSOciations as in the above section. It is ten feet thick, and contains a seam of clay in the lower part. The bed immediately overlies the brown and black clays of the last section. Dip, 0 to 2 degrees northwest. Four miles below, on the Texas side, are seen ledges and reefs of similar shell beds, and in some cases single shells are as much as eighteen inches long. Dip, 5 degrees west. The same formation runs hence to Roma, but at that place only a few of the large oyster shells are seen scattered through the buff Sandstone. One and a half miles below Roma are seen the same strata as at that town, and dipping 7 degrees east. At this point we come into a great clay and sand area, non-fossiliferous, and resembling the Fayette beds of the Colorado river. YEG-UA DIVISION. To this division is referred the lower portion of the deposits heretofore classed as Fayette beds. YEGUA DIVISION. 149 EAST TEXAs SECTION.—Following the Cook’s Mountain beds, there gomes a series of deposits made up chiefly of sands, sandy clays, clays and brown coal The country occupied by them is, as a whole, low and flat, in few places of sufficient relief to present anything but the most super- ficial Section. In area this group extends from the Angelina river westward and southwestward across the Neches to the Trinity in Houston county. Eastward they probably cross the Angelina, and extend into and even across the southern portion of Nacogdoches, and may also be found west of the Trinity in Leon and Madison counties. The northern boundary, in the region crossed by this section, begins in Cherokee county, South of Atoi creek, and passes in a generally southwest direction along the margin of the Marine beds, about two miles south of McBee’s school house, two miles south of Alto, and crosses the Neches river a little over three miles to the south of Robbin’s ferry. Continuing its southwesterly course as far as Crockett, it bends more to the west for twelve miles, when it again turns south and across the Trinity river at Alabama bluff, where it forms the upper division of the section. They are limited to the southward by a series of gray clays and gray sandstones, which occur about a mile south of the Neches, at Clark’s crossing on the Houston East and West Texas railway, where they rest upon the heavy deposits of gypseous clay belonging to the beds under consideration. The sandstones also occur eastward at Rockland, on the Neches, ten miles north of Colmesneil, and to the westward they have again been crossed at Riverside, on the Trinity; but whether they rest upon the same gypseous clay has not yet been determined, as at neither of these places has the base of the sandstones been seen. The upper portion of Lufkin deposits consists of gray, white and blue sands, sometimes laminated and cross-bedded, although the greater por- tion of them show no structure whatever. They are frequently Saline, and in dry weather, the water having evaporated, the pools show heavy incrustations of salt. In many places they contain quantities of silicified wood, forming a strong contrast with the beautifully opalized wood of the succeeding deposits. Quantities of siliceous pebbles occur, at Some places in small patches and at others in the form of thin, distinctly formed lines. These pebbles are mostly rounded and water worn, but are occasionally fragmental or angular pieces of an older rounded 150 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. boulder. Although they are mostly of quartz or silicified wood, occa- sional pieces of syenitic rocks have been found scattered through the mass, and many have a thinly stratified or laminated dark blue or black Slaty appearance. The principal bed underlying these sands, and the one probably form- ing the greater portion of the whole group, is a heavy bed of dark blue clay, changing to a dirty yellow, containing clusters of small crystals of gypsum in great profusion. It stretches from the Angelina southward to the Neches, on the south side of which it is seen passing under the gray Sandstones of the succeeding group. Where it disappears this bed is thirty-five feet thick. * The basal deposit of this group is a dark blue laminated clay in the neighborhood of Alto, while in Houston county it consists of a dark blue laminated sandy clay, with partings of brown sand, and containing mu- merous crystals of selenite. In both cases the clays rest, so far as can be seen in the sections obtained, directly but unconformably upon the Marine beds. Whether these beds are the equivalents of each other can not, with the knowledge at present available, be accurately determined. Their connection may possibly be found in Trinity and the northern part of Polk county, but in the absence of any examinations in these counties nothing definite can be stated. Another series of deposits which may belong to this group is a set of beds found in the valley to the south of New Birmingham and Rusk, in Cherokee county. These consist of several beds of thinly laminated gray and black sands and gray clay, a section at J. D. Baker’s brickyard giving: 1. Brown sand and gravel, with small pieces of gravel and iron... . .2 to 3 feet. 2. Alternate strata of purplish gray clay and gray sand, the clay in strata of from six inches to one foot, and in places two feet, and the sand from one to six inches. Numerous frag- ments of leaves occur in this clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 feet. 3. Purple clay containing fragments of leaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 inches 4. White Sand to bottom of pit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. These beds do not belong to the other Eocene deposits found through- Out the higher ground of the country, and may not belong to the group of beds under consideration. They are probably of estuarine, or perhaps fresh water Origin, but beyond their existence nothing is yet positively known, and they have only been placed in this group tentatively on ac- count of their overlying the Eocene beds in their neighborhood. YEGUA DIVISION. 151 Another circumstance which adds to the difficulty of ascertaining the exact geological structure or position of these deposits is the great want of conformity between them and the underlying Eocene beds. Every- where, where examined, this unconformability is so strong that one is led to the almost unavoidable conclusion that the Eocene had been sub- jected to a long continued and great erosion before the Overlying clays and sands were deposited. As we descend the river from the “Moseley’s BRAzos RIVER SECTION. Ferry” shell bed, which is the uppermost fossiliferous Tertiary bed seen On the river, we reach, at a point four miles below it and at the mouth of the little Brazos, a rapid caused by cross-bedded sands, with gray, black, and greenish clays in lenticular seams, and containing many fer- ruginous concretions. For over two miles below this are seen outcrops of gray sand and watery-green and chocolate clays, with brown coal beds up to one and a half feet in thickness. Many calcareous concretions, one-half to two feet in diameter, are seen, as well as hardened masses of clay and sand and a tremendous amount of silicfied wood in loose blocks. This wood was not seen in place, but occurred in the gravel drift overlying 3. this formation. Nine miles below “Moseley’s Ferry,” and in the eastern part of Burleson county, is “Sulphur Bluff.” The following section shows the Occurrence of the strata: 1. Ilight brown hardened Sandy clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 2. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 feet. 3. Grand sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I foot. 4. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % foot. 5. Interbedded gray sand. and chocolate and greenish clay, turned white in places on the Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. The whole bluff is coated with sulphur as at the “Chalk Bluffs’’ on the Colorado river. It is one mile long, 40 feet high, dips 3 degrees south, and presents a white and bleached appearance. Silicified wood is found in many places, and is similar to that described on the Colorado. From here to a point eight miles above the mouth of Yegua creek are seen small outcrops of the same sands and clays. At this point is seen a bluff showing the following section: 1. Cross-bedded gray sand, hardened in places. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 2. Hard greenish clay, with seams of chocolate clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 feet. 3. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 4. Hard greenish clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 5. Brown coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 6. Calcareous gray sand, with indurations , , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 6 feet, 152 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Dip of strata 1 to 6 degrees south. Many imperfect leaf impressions and considerable iron pyrites are found in the clay. Three miles above Yegua creek is seen a bluff of similar clays and sands. CoLoRADo River SECTION.—As we enter the country underlaid by these beds going down the Colorado, we pass a series of low bluffs, composed of dark gray or black clays, much jointed and faulted, until the mouth of Barton creek is reached. Here there is a bluff over 100 feet high and composed of clay and sandy strata, as represented in the following section: 1. Red Quaternary gravel and sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 feet. 2. Ilight brown sand and clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 feet. 3. Lenticular bed of brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% feet. 4. Chocolate colored sand and clay, with gypsum and sulphur. . . . 10 feet. 5. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 6. Interlaminated beds of gray sand and clay of a black, chocolate Or green Color, with gypsum and sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 feet. 7. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 to 4 feet. 8. Similar strata to those of 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. The whole formation is much faulted and jointed. and dips 2 to 5 de- grees southeast. From here to within twelve miles, by river, of La Grange we pass Over a series of outcrops of similar sand and clay strata, all dipping in the same direction, and frequently containing rusty masses of carbonate Of iron. At this point we come to what is locally known as Chalk Bluff, On account of the resemblance of the hard clay to chalk. It dips 5 de- grees Southeast, and is 100 feet high. The following section is made up from different parts of the bluff: 1. Pebbly Quaternary drift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 2. Laminated chocolate clays and sandy clays, white on exposed sur- face, or yellow with sulphur... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T00 feet. 3. Woody lignite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 4. Same strata as 2... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. Numbers 2 and 4 contain large quantities of sulphur, coating the ex- posed surfaces and joint cracks as an efflorescence. Gypsum crystals are very plentiful throughout the beds. The lignite contains masses of partly silicified and partly lignitized wood. The associated clays also contain fragments of the same material. The whole bluff presents a white or yellow appearance, but on breaking through the outside crust the Sands and clays regain their original dark color. At the foot of the bluff we find fragments of a hard light watery-green clay, of the consist- ency of tale. These pieces came from near the top of the ledge, and will YEGUA DIVISION. 153 be mentioned further on. Low outcrops of the same materials are seen below this point until we come to the second “Chalk Bluff.” This is about a quarter of a mile long, has a general dip of 3 degrees Southeast, and is about the same height as the first One. The following section is made up from different points along the bluff: 1. Quaternary drift. 2. Interbedded gray and white sand, white and watery-green Clay... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7() feet. 3. Hard watery-green clay, like in 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 4. Brown coal... . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 5. Similar strata to 2. light chocolate color on surface. . . . . . . . 3 feet. 6. Brown Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 7. Similar strata to 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 feet. 8. Chocolate clays, with black leaf and reed impressions. . . . . . 14 foot. 9. Hard watery-green Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 10. Brown coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 11. Hard light green clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 12. Similar strata to 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % to 1 foot. 13. Hard light green clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 14. Brown coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 to 2 feet. 15. Hard to light green clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. Leaf impressions are found in many places throughout the whole bluff, but especially in the two beds mentioned in the above section. Consid- erable gypsum and sulphur exist throughout the strata. The lumps of hard clay found at the base of the first Chalk Bluff are probably from a bed corresponding to the foot of this bluff. For two miles below here are seen small outcrops of similar strata, all showing a uniform southeast dip of about 5 degrees, and composed of green, gray, chocolate, and black clays or sands. In one place a brown coal bed over ten feet thick was seen. The river here is very crooked, and the same beds are cut by it in several different places. Four miles, by river, above La Grange is “Palm Bluff,” about 100 feet high and covered in its lower half by a heavy bed of detritus. The upper half is composed of a series of light watery-green clay, with sand beds and calcareous seams. The first undoubted beds Of this series are seen five miles below the Texas town of Roma, and in the Mexican State RIO GRANDE SECTION. of Tamaulipas. They occur in a ledge three hundred yards long and one to six feet high, and consist of hard light sea-green clays, with many leaf impressions and rusty iron pyrites. At the lower end they are over- laid by similar beds, but somewhat harder and more sandy. Frequently Small white calcareous concretions, and sometimes large clay indurations 154 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. with veins of crystalline calcite, are found. Three miles below are found similar beds just above the water level. FA YETTE DIVISION. To this division are referred the Fayette sands proper. The base of this division is somewhat conglomeritic in places and con- tains great numbers of a bivalve shell which is closely allied to Macoma, and which in some localities is accompanied by other forms, both gas- teropods and bivalves. The upper line of demarkation is somewhat irreg- ular, as the overlying Lapara beds rest upon it quite unconformably, and in places occupy basins eroded in it. EAST TExAs SECTION.—The greater proportion of the deposits, where seen, consists of gray sandstones interstratified with gray clays and gray sands, the last containing considerable quantities of Opalized wood. A gray sandstone, containing fossil leaves as yet undetermined, occurs about One mile north of Corrigan, and the upper beds of the southern Sandstones, near Bowers, contain numerous casts of palm leaves, reeds, etc. Some of the palm leaves are of great size, fragments measuring from three to four feet across being of frequent occurrence. Three miles north of Corrigan, on the line of the Houston East and West Texas Railway, a deposit of white sandstone occurs, containing casts of shells. The fossils found here have been referred to the Eocene by Dr. Dall, on the strength of the existence of the casts of Cardita plani- costa. * d The thickness of these sandstones and clays, as shown by the sections, is approximately 150 feet. Near Rockland they have a thickness of 200 feet; on the Neches, at Clark’s Ferry crossing, 30 feet; the expo- sures on McManus creek, and other places near Stryker, are over 100 feet; in Hitchcock’s quarry, near Corrigan, 20 feet; and westward, at Riverside, on the Trinity, they appear to have a thickness of over 100 feet in the river bluffs. These beds were referred to the Grand Gulf (Miocene?) of Hilgard by Dr. Loughridge, and in previous reports of this Survey.j *The other fossils of this horizon from this and other localities have been studied by Mr. Gilbert D. Harris and found to be characteristic Eocene species. + Cotton Production of the Southern States. Tenth Census, Vol. 5, p. 21. FAYETTE DIVISION. 155 General section from Angelina river, in Angelina county, south to Corrigan, in Polk county: 1. Coarse gray Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 feet. Laminated blue and white sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 feet. 3. Brownish-gray to yellow sandstone, gradually losing its brown tint as it nears the base. The upper brown division is thinly laminated and contains plant impressions and nodules of pure clay. The lower gray division contains clay modules, but no plants, four feet in railway cut, but fifteen feet in Hitchcock's GUlarly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 4. Gray Sand... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 feet. 5. White sandstone containing casts of Venericardia planicosta and other shells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 6. Indurated gray sand or soft Sandstones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 7. Unknown, probably gray Sands and sandstones.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. Gray cross-bedded Sands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 feet. 9. Gray sands with quantities of Opalized wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 feet. 10. Laminated pink clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (; feet. 11. Gray laminated Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 inches. 12. Gray sand stained brown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 13. Thinly stratified gray Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 14. Gray sandy clay.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 15. Gray Sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 16. Shaly gray clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s & & & & & 4 - © to 5 # * is ſº e º 'º - 1 foot. 17. Gray and yellow Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 18. Dight yellow or cream colored clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 19. Thinly laminated gray Sandstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 20. Brown laminated clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 21. Thinly stratified white and gray sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 22. Gray Sandstone stained brown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. 23. Thinly stratified or laminated blue clay with gypsum in crystals. 35 feet. BRAzos River SECTION.—Three miles above Yegua creek is seen a bluff of clays and Sands, and a quarter of a mile below that creek, in Washington county, are seen ten feet of light green clay capped by one- half to one foot of hard gray cross-bedded sandstone. The sandstone lies unconformably on the clay and contains lumps of the latter, proving that the increase in the speed of the waters, that caused the character of the deposit to change from a clay to a sand, had also eroded part of the clay and deposited lumps of it in the sand. A mile and a half below this is a low bluff showing similar sands, composed of coarse transparent white, red, and black grains, with pebbles of the same composition, and one-eighth to one inch in diameter. There are also found in it worn pieces of silicified wood one to six inches long, with similar fragments of vitreous wood Opal; lumps, singly and in lenticular patches, of light green clay, one-quarter to two inches in diameter; rusty crystals of iron 156 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. pyrites; worn pieces of bone, one-half to two inches long; small shark teeth, worn and broken; and small white calcareous nodules. The Sand is cross-bedded, and in places hardened into a friable sandstone. The Organic remains in this bed have doubtless been eroded out of the Tertiary strata and laid down here during the deposition of the sands, as they have evidently been much worn and rolled, and the shark teeth strongly resemble Tertiary forms. A mile and a half below this is a hill rising one hundred feet above the river bottom, and closely resembling the LaGrange bluff. It shows the same friable sandstones, coarse and fine sand, loose yellow sandy clays with white calcareous nodules, iron pyrites, etc. CoLoRADo River SECTION.—The upper thirty feet of Palm Bluff is com- posed of sand, in places hardened into a friable sandstone similar to those already described. It is composed of sharp siliceous grains, and often contains black specks. Patches of very coarse transparent sand, the size of a mustard seed and larger, occur in it. Lumps of white or light brown clay and similar nodules of limestone, from one-half to one inch in diam- eter, are of frequent occurrence. In some places black oxide of manga- nese coats the grains of Sand. Many impressions of a palm or palmetto leaf, as well as silicified stems and trunks, are found in the sand bed. From here to LaGrange are low outcrops of the same sand as caps Palm Bluff. They are of a very striking light watery-blue color when wet, but gray when dry. * “LaGrange Bluff” is about a mile below the town of LaGrange. It is 100 feet high, and the lower part is heavily covered by alluvium and detritus from above. The exposed part is composed of interbedded soft friable sandstones, white or yellow in color, specked in places by rusty spots of decomposed iron pyrites, and containing many small white cal- careous and clay modules. The whole bluff offers very much the same 5 y appearance as “Palm Bluff,” and the sand varies from a very fine variety to that of the size of a mustard seed. Frequently a hard clay is inter- bedded with the sands, and when dry often weathers into nodules, due to its conchoidal fracture. The white calcareous nodules are in places so numerous that they form a conglomerate, with Sand or yellow sandy clay as a matrix. RIO GRANDE SECTION.—Eight miles below Roma are found similar beds just above the water level, and overlaid by fifteen feet of sandstone, with TAYETTE DIVISION. 157 concretions, fragments of worn silicified wood, and a few broken pieces of an oyster. These latter have the appearance of being derivative and not indigenous to the bed, as they are much rounded and rolled, and were very probably derived, during the deposition of the enclosing clays, from the great oyster beds of the strata about Roma. Two miles below this are seen similar beds, but with no clay, the soft and indurated layers alternating with each other. The dip is 2 degrees north 20 degrees east. This, however, is a local variation. Nine miles above Rio Grande City are seen similar Sands with silicified trunks and branches of trees. The Sands have the characteristic grains seen in the Fayette beds on the Brazos and Colorado. The town of Rio Grande City (Ringgold Barracks) is situated on a bluff of hard white clay, rising some fifty feet above the river, and indurated into a substance of a chalky consistency, though, chemically, it is only very slightly calcareous. It probably represents the light green clays of the Fayette beds, and has become indurated by exposure to heat in a dry climate. The effect of such agencies would also account for its white appear- ance, as the characteristic pale green color of these clays is doubtless due to their hydration. The bed shows a highly conchoidal fracture, contains iron pyrites, and is much jointed. These joint cracks are frequently filled by veins of smoky quartz one-eighth inch to one inch thick, often showing a globular surface. The bluff extends along the river for half a mile below the town, and two hundred yards above it. Beyond these limits it disappears under the gray river silt. CHAPTER VII. OCCURRENCE AND COMPOSITION OF THE BROWN COALS OF THE TERTARY, The lowest deposits of brown coal which are now known, and some of the heaviest and best beds as well, occur in connection with the Lignitic or lower portion of the Timber Belt division, the general stratigraphy of which has just been given. The known occurrences begin in Bowie county, near Red river, and extend southwest through the counties of Cass, Marion, Harrison, Morris, Titus, Hopkins, Camp, Upshur, Wood, Rains, Van Zandt, Smith, Hen- derson, Anderson, Freestone, Limestone, Leon, Robertson, Milam, Lee, Bastrop, and Caldwell. From this point the deposits are not known until we reach Atascosa and Medina counties, where we again find the coal, and whence it can be followed westward to the northern part of Zavalla county, in which, at the Nueces river, the western boundary line turns south, through Dimmit county, until it strikes San Lorenzo creek, which it follows through Webb county to the Rio Grande. The existence of the brown coals throughout this area is shown by many outcroppings and numerous well borings. Concerning the most northeastern of these occurrences—that of Bowie county—little is known beyond the general fact that outcrops are com- mon along Sulphur Fork and also on Anderson’s creek. The only work that has been done on it which has come under the Observation of the Survey, is that by Mr. E. P. Elliott of New Boston. A shaft, some thirty feet in depth, was sunk on the Solomon Poer headright, which is On Anderson creek, seven miles south of New Boston, and the bed of brown coal penetrated showed a thickness of twelve feet. Specimens of this brown coal were sent to the Survey, and the analysis proved it to be of such excellent quality for gas coal that Mr. Elliott was advised to try to put it on the market for this purpose. The following analysis gives its proximate composition: OCCURRENCE AND COMPOSITION. 159 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.67 Volatile matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76.41 Fixed carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.62 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.45 Sulphur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.00 This brown coal is of black color, and its structure is somewhat earthy but irregularly fibrous, with the lustre of raw silk, in places shining. Some sulphide of iron occurs in it. An analysis of another specimen from this same locality gave the fol- lowing proximate composition: Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.55 Volatile pmatter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.7() Fixed carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.30 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.55 Sulphur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 100.00 In the northeastern portion of Cass county some work was done a few years ago in the vicinity of Alamo and Stone Coal Bluff. The Alamo brown coal appears to be divided into two beds, one at forty-nine feet and the second at sixty-five feet. A section of the shaft shows: 1. Sandy clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 feet. 2. Gray clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 feet. 3. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 8 inches. 4. Gray sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 5. Hard Slaty clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 feet. 6. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet 2 inches. The lower brown coal bed was not cut through. The shaft was sunk by a company, with the intention of mining the brown coal of the lower bed, but, owing to difficulties encountered, the undertaking had to be abandoned. The quantity of water accumulating in the shaft contributed largely to the suspension of work of the com- pany. The Stone Coal Bluff brown coal lies in the bottom of the river, and the exposure can only be approached at low water. Dr. G. G. Shumard reports this bed of brown coal as having a thickness of twelve feet, gives the following analysis of it by Dr. Riddell, and speaks of it in the high- est terms:* *3. * Shumard, Dr. B. F. First Report of Progress. p. 12. 160 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Moisture at 212 deg. F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.808 Volatile matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.422 Fixed carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.788 Ash (grayish brown). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.992 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.000 Specifie gravity, 1.483. No specimens of this coal have been analyzed by the present Survey. In Morris county deposits of brown coal are reported as existing along the banks of Sulphur Fork on the northern boundary of the county, and at various other places lying north of Daingerfield. These have not yet been visited and examined. On the Jonathan N. Bohonan headright, about five and a half miles south of Daingerfield, there are several exposures of a thin seam of brown coal. At Mr. S. H. Pruitt's house an attempt has been made to develop this vein, and an opening has been made with a view to mining the coal for local use. The vein at this place is only fifteen inches thick, and dips a few degrees south of east, and according to Mr. Pruitt, at the rate of one inch in three feet. ** A section of the opening at this place shows the following: 1. Yellow sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 feet. 2. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot 3 inches. 3. Black or dark blue stratified sandy clay, mixed with lignitic matter, Visible. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. The brown coal at this place, although reported as being of a fair qual- ity, can not be worked. The following is an analysis of it: Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.45 Volatile matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.05 Fixed carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.15 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.35 100.00 The brown coal from the Pruitt mine is approximately a pitch coal. Its color is black to brownish black. Structure generally massive, but lamellar at times, with cubical fracture; some pyrites present. Lustre dull to pitchy; does not soil the fingers. No woody structure observed in body of coal. A proximate analysis of selected specimens gave the following results: OCCURRENCE AND COMPOSITION. 161 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.55 Volatile matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.24 Fixed carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.89 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10 Sulphur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.22 100.00 No shafts have been sunk or borings made below this to ascertain whether or not the heavier beds, which are those cropping out on Sulphur Fork, occur below these thinner ones. + From Franklin and Titus counties we have had no specimens, but from the work done in Hopkins county some years ago we have record of the existence of brown coal of excellent quality. These deposits of brown coal are from ten to twelve miles from Sul- phur Springs and near the surveyed route of the northeastern extension of the Houston and Texas Central Railroad. The surrounding country is quite broken and the brown coal outcrops in many places in the ravines and on the hillsides. A shaft was sunk on the seam several years ago, and General W. H. King furnishes the following section of it: 1. Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 2. Sand rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 3. Slaty clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 4. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 feet. 5. Sands and clays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 feet. 6. Plastic clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 feet. The clay or slate above the brown coal is is said to form a very solid roof. The following proximate analysis shows its proximate composition: Everhart. Water at 100 C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.20 22.92 Volatile matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.92 50.28 Fixed Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • a s s e º is º e º a dº ſº º & & © tº e º e º a º º e º a tº º º º 44.13 21.66 Ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.75 j.14 Sulphur was not determined. The deposits of Marion county are also but little known. Good ex- posures occur on Big Cypress, and in the deep well at Jefferson three beds of brown coal were passed through at different depths. Many de- posits are known along the north side of Caddo lake, outcropping in chan- nels of the streams which enter the lake on that side, and are also found in wells in the vicinity. For the most part, however, they are not of sufficient thickness where they have been observed to be of any value for 1.3–Greel 162 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE, mining, fifteen to eighteen inches being the maximum so far as noted by members of this Survey. Their areal extent has not been determined, nor has any analysis been made of them in the laboratory of the Survey. In Harrison county the semi-lunar region of gray Sands lying along the Sabine river, extending across the eastern side of the county and along the Caddo lake and Cypress bayou towards Jefferson, is generally underlaid by beds or deposits of brown coal of varying qualities, extent and thickness. As a general thing these deposits are thicker toward the southern side of the county than toward the north, and as far as could be judged from the well borings in which brown coal occurs, the deposit thins out toward the western margin of the gray sand area. These de- posits are also, from the same data, irregular in their distribution, and are altogether absent in some localities. Brown coal appears at several places along the Sabine river, in thick- nesses of from two to six feet. On the John D. Pinson headright it is said to have a thickness of between five and six feet. Towards the centre of the area wells dug deep enough to pierce the brown coal beds show them to have a thickness of only from six to twelve inches. On the W. D. Ward headright the brown coal lies under thirty feet of sand and clay, and the mean of three wells does not exceed two feet, and along the lake shore region around Port Caddo the bed has a general thickness of about three feet. Outside of the gray sand region the brown coal occurs at several places. In the deep well bored at Marshall brown coal about one foot thick was passed through at a depth of one hundred feet. It was also struck in a well on the O. H. P. Bodine survey at a depth of thirty-two feet, and on the Francis Wilson headright it is seen in a stream bed to have a thickness of two feet at a depth of seventy-six feet. The bed found on the O. H. P. Bodine headright is the upper or high- est bed found in a boring made near the same place under the direction of Mr. Hoxie, when general manager of the Texas and Pacific Railway. The drill was carried down eighty feet, and in its course passed through three beds or deposits of brown coal, showing thicknesses of twelve, six, and six feet. The lowest bed was not pierced through, Owing to the quantity of water accumulating in the well, and the inadequate means of pumping at hand. While this bed is known to have a thickness of six feet, its actual thickness may be much more. OCCURRENCE AND COMPOSITION. 163 At Rocky Ford, on the Sabine river, the brown coal stretches across the river in the form of a bar, and disappears under a deep covering of gray sand. This bar of brown coal has a width of about forty feet and slopes downward in its passage across the stream, being about three feet higher at its upper edge than at the lower. The coal from this place is dark black in color, devoid of lustre, and friable when exposed to at- mospheric agencies. In burning it has an unpleasant odor and leaves a Soft brown ash. The thickness of this bed is said to be four feet. A section of the place gives the following: 1. Light yellowish gray silty Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. 2. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet. 24 feet. Except in very dry seasons this bed is always covered with water. Near Carter’s Ferry, on the Carthage road, there is another exposure of brown coal about six feet thick. This deposit, like the one at Rocky Ford, also stretches across and is best seen in the river bottom. The water here has cut a channel through the brown coal bed close to the Harrison county side, and leaves a wide stretch of the bed along the Panola county side of the stream perfectly dry. This brown coal is a dull black, with little or no gloss when freshly broken, and has a ten- dency to split into thin layers, and when broken across the strata breaks with a subconchoidal fracture. In this deposit there are the trunks of two trees, measuring sixteen and twenty feet in length respectively, and from eighteen to twenty inches in diameter. The sixteen foot tree is silicified throughout its entire length, and the twenty foot tree is but partially so, having the butt and lower part Of the trunk silicified and the top and upper part of the trunk perfectly lignitized. There does not appear to be any definite line of demarkation between the two conditions—the silicified and the lignitized—but they graduate from the one to the other almost imperceptibly. These trees are lying in such positions as they would take naturally had they floated down the river and sunk in the positions found. In this same bed there is a stump standing in such a position as to lead to the inference that it grew in the position it now stands, or was there prior to the deposition or formation of the upper three feet of the brown coal. This stump is silicified, and the centre has apparently decayed and been removed be- fore the process of silicification had commenced. 164 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. The following is a section of the river bank at this deposit: I Gray silty sand, forming the banks of the river on both sides. . . . . . 25 feet. 2. Brown coal, dull and lustreless, thinly bedded and containing fossil trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 31 feet. At Robertson's Ford a section of the river bank gives: 1. Gray sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot. 2. Mottled, brown, blue, and yellow unstratified clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 feet. 3. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 4. Dark blue Sandy clay to water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet 55 feet. This deposit is six feet thick, and is of a harder nature than the two deposits described above. When freshly broken it shows a slight lustre, which it soon loses, and breaks into an irregular lump resembling bitu- minous coal. This deposit appears upon the Harrison county side of the Sabine river and close to the water, even in its lowest stage. It is said another deposit occurs from twelve to fourteen feet deeper. The deposit as seen in the bank of the river has a length of about 100 yards, and in passing back into the country appears to thin out rapidly, as a well forty- four feet deep, about a mile north of the river, passed through only one Or two inches of lignitic matter and into the blue sandy clay bed which underlies the brown coal at the ferry. The deposit on the Francis Wilson headright is only two feet thick and about Seventy-six feet underground, and is a true lignite, as the grain and fibre of the wood are still visible and can easily be traced. In text- ure it has all the appearance of a member of the pine family. This lignite does not burn so readily as the others, but acts very like a wet wood. The smell from the fire is not so strong, but in other re- spects, such as showing a red ash, it is similar to the other brown coals of the district. In splitting and breaking it splits easily along the fibre, but breaks only with considerable difficulty, and then only with an even fracture. * Section of brown coal bed in stream on O. Hendricks survey near Port Caddo: OCCURRENCE AND COMPOSITION. 165 3. ...t-:....": . . . e * & 4 p. ...'. :*, *.*.* * * * * * * ... *** •. * * •” : *. *.* ... • * *** * * * * * • *, *, * * .*, * * * * • , f : - . . " ", , * * * * * * , , *: g: ** e • • . . . . . * * * * * ** . . . . . . . . . ...Y. º. ºf . * * . . . " :: *.*.*.*.*.*.*.*, *::: *.*-ºs.; ; ; *... [..." ** * # a *.*, *, *, **śrº * + ° *...*: º ſº :-- * * *. 2. *** º * g t * -, *.*.* tº *.*.*.*.*. * * º sº * * * * tº $. & , * • : >~ . *** “. . . • * * * , • *, * , , , * * & & e g '- * ** * * * * * º: .." º: : º sº ºf tº-vs.-, * 2:...)". •ºs g * * £3 s & 4) *: * . . . ... • & } Fig. 9. a, Gray sand. b, Lignites. c. Sandy pebbles. d, Rusty gray sand. The brown coals from the Lake Caddo region are a dull, lustreless black. They have not yet been examined with regard to their action under fire. ANALYSES OF BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE FROM OUTCROPS IN HARRISON COUNTY, TExAs. Number. Water. Vol. matter. Fixed Car. Ash. Sulphur. Total. 704. . . . . . . . . . . . 14.850 38. 520 39.605 6. 175 0.850 100.00 707. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.350 42.820 35. 670 7.000 1.160 100.00 717. . . . . . . . . . . . 16.400 35.950 44.750 2.300 0.600 100.00 952. . . . . . . . . . . . 10.050 33.310 35.860 18.700 2.080 100.00 NOTE.-No. 717 is of the nature of lignitized wood. Localities. No. 704. B. Anderson headright, Robertson's Ferry, Sabine river. Pitch coal. Sub-conchoidal fracture, lamellar to massive structure, color brown to pitch black. sº No. 707. J. T. Ramsdale headright. Rocky Ford, Sabine river. Pitch coal; color pitch black, fatty streak under finger nail, compact, massive, no wood structure or lignitic matter visible. Fracture uneven. Contains occasional ex- tremely thin layers and spots of a steel gray color of decomposed pyrites. Shrinkage cracks approximately parallel and perpendicular to plane of bed- ding. Does not soil the fingers. No. 717. Francis Wilson headright. Lignite, passing into pitch coal, but with woody structure well developed. No. 952. Port Caddo headright, McCathern creek. Hendricks survey. Lig- mitic brown coal, with mineral charcoal, also brown coal passing into pitch coal: laminated structure, brown or black in color. A selected specimen of air dried brown coal from the Ramsdale head- right gave the following analysis: Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º is e º 'º º e º ºs º is a gº tº & e º ſº e º is tº gº e > * * tº º ºr e º 'º a º ºs e º 'º e 9.50 Volatile matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e º e º ºs e e s is e s s a e e s s e e s e º nº e º e s is a tº e º e s tº e s is 41.25 Fixed carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.90 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e º e º ºs e tº dº º e s & © e º gº tº º º a e e s e º is e a e º e º e º e s tº se e s s & e 8.35 Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.00 100.00 166 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. At Athens, the county seat of Henderson county, are seen sandy and clayey strata similar to those described in Van Zandt county. The fol- lowing section, made up from data collected to the east and southwest of the town, shows the character of the beds: 1. Ferruginous clayey sand, with thin seams of iron ore, two to twelve inches thick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. 2. Gray clays and ferruginous sands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 feet. 3. Potter's clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 to 18 feet. 4. Siliceous sands and gray clay. in same places pure, in others ferruginous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 feet. 5. Brown coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 to 4 feet. 6. Chocolate colored clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 to 4 feet. 7. Gray clays and sands at base of section. The greater portion of the central and western portion of the county is underlaid by lignitic deposits. The brown coal outcrops at vari- ous places in the neighborhood of Athens. When first taken from the mines it forms a solid block with a subconchoidal fracture and slightly coal-glossy lustre, but upon exposure to the air for a few days it loses its gloss and becomes a dead black, and in a short time breaks into small cuboidal fragments. The Texas Fire Brick and Tile Company mined and used as a fuel for steam purposes brown coal from an outcrop on the southwest corner of the C. M. Walters headright. The following is a section of this opening: 1. Gray Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 2. Yellow Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 inches. 3. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. 4. Dark blue Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 feet 2 inches. In mining this brown coal the overlying sand and clay were taken off and thrown into the hole left by the extraction of the coal. The pro- duct obtained was used as a fuel for some time, and is reported as being a good steam producer when carefully watched. It has also been used suc- cessfully both in Dallas and Corsicana for steam purposes, and at Athens for domestic uses and for firing brick kilns. & The following analyses made in the laboratory of the Geological Sur- vey were from two specimens from the same bed, No. 1 being a freshly mined specimen, and No. 2 a specimen taken from the Survey Museum, where it had been kept for more than two years: OCCURRENCE AND COMPOSITION. 167 Locality Mol Sture. Yºlº dº. Ash. jºr. No. 1, C. M. Walters headright . . . . . . (5.80 || 50.65 || 37.00 5.55 0.52 No. 2, C. M. Walters headright “. . . . . 5.70 || 57.45 29.85 7.00 0.87 * Collected by Dr. R. A. F. Penrose, Jr. Brown coal also occurs in a bluff on the north side of the S. Calderon headright. The following is a section of this bluff: 1. Brown Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. 2. Thinly laminated Sandy clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 feet. 3. Black Sandy clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet. 4. Brown coal (exposed). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 inches. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 feet 10 inches. On the Neches river, about two miles east of this place, brown coal occurs in the bluffs of the river, extending southward for nearly a mile, and is also found in wells throughout the southeastern portion of the county at depths ranging from twenty to forty feet. In nearly every part of Smith county beds of brown coal are found, vary- ing in thickesss from a fraction of an inch to ten feet. These beds are very numerous and lenticular in shape, having uniformly a dip to the South or Southeast. The physical aspect of the brown coal varies considerably. It differs in color from brown to black and from an amorphous mass to a hard glossy variety. In the northern part of the county it is developed in great abundance along the Sabine river, and may be seen cropping out in many places in its bed and bluffs. It is also met with in the southern portion of the county. On the William Luce league a section of the strata gives: Red Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet. Blue clay, containing the seams of lignite and yellow sand . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. Sand, impregnated with lignitic matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet. Blue clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet. Brown coal exposed to view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet. The coal was brownish black, massive, uneven to sub-conchoidal in fracture and contained small inclusions of resin and also of the steely gray sulphate of iron. Shrinkage cracks irregular. No traces of woody Structure. On section twenty-four of Thomas Quevedo survey the following Sec- tion was seen: Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 to 5 feet. Buff colored Sandy clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e s is s e e º e s e e º e s a s a e s e º s e 10 feet. 168 BROWN COAL AND LIGNITE. Red and white mottled clays, with streaks of sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet. Blue Sandstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 inches. Brown coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 4 feet. This specimen was very similar to the above, except that it was browner in color and contained no inclusions of resinous matter. Other localities are west of Lindale, three miles northeast of Lindale, Sections 6, 24 and 40 of Seven Leagues, E. E. Lott headright, and in the Sabine river close to Belzora crossing. The brown coal beds are generally overlaid by from two to thirty feet Of Sand and clays, and can Only be seen where the creeks and rivers have cut through the overlying strata. In their natural state the value of these brown coals is quite small, on account of the large amounts of ash, sulphur, and water which they con- tain, a great part of the heating power being thus lost. The following is the analysis of five of these brown coals: #| | | ##| 3 à Ilocality. # § #: §§ .c. 3. ; & º: jº cº F. z B. P- £r. . . . . . º. iſ : i * * * * * tº sº º ºsº * * * * * : * * * * * : * ~ * ºw ſº * * * * * : * : * : * : * * * * * tº a ſº sº in & ‘ºº ºf tº º ºr - º º, º ºs º ºxº sº as sº sº * * * * * * : * ~ * & & . . . . . . * * * : * …sº & 3 s :: *Sºx's . . . . . * * * * * *...*.* * * # : d º • *ś - # * * * * * * § 3 -º º : : : : ; ; .. : # ; : : ; # . : 2. : º º . #. i. & º § 3. : É ; ... a s” ºr 's & “ ºr * * * * * * : * : * ~ * .*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.* g : º º º º cºrº, º 'º º º º º º ºx & º & É º º tº ſº. t § - # * * ~º Sº tº tº º º-º-º: tº - ºx e º 'º º sº * - : ... º ºs º º ºg tº º s *** * * 2 ºr 3º * * º ; # º-º-º-º-º & # * * & tº -ºº º sº º . É a *, *, *, *, * s a sº, e º sº tº * : * * * * * * * * : * - tº º º ºr 3 * & ſº º º * * * * * º * …","...º.º.º.º. º-º-º-º-º: º * ºr ſº º ºr sº tº Cº-º-º-º-º: --- * * * * * * : * * * ... ...< * : * * & º º º º * -- Tº º É ; s : : s ; ; 3. : § : . 3. : . & : : i i . 3. : . Fº e tº sº *s • *:::::: * * * * *- : R & *.*.*.*, * & & 3 tº º sº º * * * * * º-º: * * * * º º # : : º 3.: i. | : : : : º s" a s , , s s -º is " " - w 3 ; s a -a -º-º-eº sº sº sess sº º º: & & *.*.*.*.*.*.* º º * * ~ * | ; :. & º º † . . § Fº º * @ 8- ºr C & &: © a 3’ & ‘º : . sºº º º : * º . º . sº : : : gº : º y - " sº , , , , , sº * , as tº º tº $ ºf sº | w_s a e : * ~ * 5 : º † : * : * * * sº tº º , -º * § º § º : ; ', ...'s a". © - ºf C & º ; tº . C. § 3 * : * * * § º & *_º_º_º º * Q_x * * * * 4 m * * * - tº a º ºs e º sº e º º tº º ſº 3 * * * * s : º i. D a tº = * = * * : * ~ * 3 * * * * * tº º e: G ºr º-ºº: # * * * * , º :º : i . º º i. : : : i. º zº º º ºs º º a. * * * * * * : * : * E. # i º g º º º-º-º-º: e-5-º ; i S. . º i : : i : º : : .2.º É i . ; º ; ; : i : º º . : gº i : . E. 5. º: º, º & -i :