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Ž -**） ，，…*：S≡ §§§§، ~º.¿�§§§ §§|- t.§. aesº， - i : - º º \: |. 3.y& * 1944: IT | EDTITUTIIIllilillºlº #Tſº LIBRARYºs # , ºr ſºlº SHTY(OF Miſſ - 'gnººn B \\ ºÉ \ 3-ºk, TUE 18OR ºf . • ?: - l - º - . . . ; \ . . . ; *. ; : Flºt - . & --- 3||||||I||||||IIITIIITIIITſº ºr ºccº. Tº Yiftºfºil 407 J).5 , H 75 /??3 THE INDIAN EMPIRE. MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH. All A'ights Reserved, :5 f 4. THE INDIAN EMIPIRE Prepared for Sir William Wilson Hunter's Works 1893 scale 265 miles - to linch." loo zoo -ºud I B Tºš º Lassº~- Jºaº Kyouk-hºw" a.a.s.º. - - Betra arº- r. *:: - o was Laccadive º º º Islands * ::sana, ºr C * Dow watt-irot *…! Maldive British Territory colored - *phot - Islands º In EFE in EN CE s Dependent & subordinate-vative states Railways opened - Do not opened ---------------------------- The numerals denote the height above sea level in rººt This Map is intended only to easºit the principal places, chief rivers & in India. Long. E. of B a Y of B E N G A L. Aguage rºle” º Peºparis 1: º *Great cºcº ºlutiº •xarkondami: - Andaman tº º - º {}* 1: Nicobar islands Q. Greenwich THE INDIAN EMPIRE : ITS PEOPLES, HISTORY, AND PRODUCTS. BY SIR WILLIAM WILSON. HUNTER, K.C.S.I., C.I.E. LL.D. CAMBRIDGE ; M.A. OXFORD. AVA, VV AAVED Aº E VISA.D EDITIOAV (The Third). LOND ON . W. H. AL LEN & CO. L.D., 1893. S. ! } t t -- º; S.<2. f * * § V: is . As “. . ; *} - J. & ºf § PRE FA C E. THIS book tries to present, in a compact form, an account of India and her peoples. The materials on which it is based are condensed from my larger works. In 1869 the Govern- ment of India directed me to execute a Statistical Survey of its dominions,—a vast enterprise, whose published records make I28 volumes, aggregating 60,000 printed pages. The Scale of the operations, although by no means too elaborate for the administrative purposes for which they were designed, necessarily placed their results beyond the reach of the general public. The 128 volumes of The Statistical Survey were there- fore reduced by me to a more compendious form as the fourteen volumes of The Imperial Gazetteer of India. In the present book I endeavour to distil into one volume the essence of the whole. I have elsewhere explained the mechanism by which the Statistical Survey was conducted in each of the Districts or territorial units, now 250 in number, of British India. Without the help of a multitude of fellow-workers, the local materials could never have been collected. In again acknowledging my indebtedness to my brethren of the Civil Service in India, I wish also to specially commemorate the obligations which I owe to two friends at home. Mr. J. S. Cotton, late Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and Mr. Morse Stephens, B.A. (Balliol), Lecturer on Indian History at the University of * See Preface to Volume I. of The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 2nd ed. 6 AREAEA CE. Cambridge, have rendered important aid at later stages of the work. This volume is the result of a long process of continuous condensation. But continuous condensation, although Con- venient to the reader, has its perils for the author. Many Indian topics are still open questions, with regard to which divergences of opinion may fairly exist. In some cases I have been compelled by brevity to state my conclusions without setting forth the evidence on which they rest, and without any attempt to combat alternative views. In other matters I have had to content myself with conveying a correct general im- pression, while omitting the modifying details. For I here endeavour to present an account, from original Sources, of a continent inhabited by many more races and nations than Europe—races in every stage of human development, from the polyandric tribes and hunting hamlets of the hill jungles, to the most complex commercial communities in the world. When I have had to expose old fables, or to substitute truth for long- accepted errors, I clearly show my grounds for doing so. Thus, in setting aside the legend of Mahmūd the Idol-Breaker, I trace back the growth of the myth through the Persian Historians, to the contemporary narrative of Al Biruni (970–IO29 A.D.). The calumnies against Jagannāth are corrected by the testimony of three centuries, from I 580 when Abul Fazl wrote, down to the local police reports of 1870. Macaulay's somewhat fanciful story of Plassey has been told afresh in the words of Clive's own despatch. His more serious misrepresentations of Warren Hastings are set right from the contemporary records of the Government of India, lately edited by Mr. George Forrest. But indeed almost every period of Indian history forms an arena of controversy. Thus, in the early Sanskrit era, each date is the result of an intricate process of induction. The chapter on the Scythic inroads has been pieced together from AA’/2A7A CAE. 7 the unfinished researches of the Archaeological Survey, from local investigations, and from an unpublished manuscript sup- plied for this edition by General Sir Alexander Cunningham. The growth of Hinduism, as the religious and social nexus of the Indian races, is here for the first time completely set forth in both its mediaeval and modern developments. In attempting to reconstruct Indian history from its original sources in the fewest possible pages, I beg Oriental scholars to believe that, although their individual views are not always set forth, they have been respectfully considered. I also pray the reader to remember that, if he desires a more detailed treatment of the subjects dealt with in this volume, he may find it in my larger works. The history of Christianity in India is written anew, from local investigation ; and, at the same time, with a full apprecia- tion of the latest researches by European scholars in the same field. The revenues of the Mughal Empire have been re- examined, from the evidence yielded by a further study of the coins and metric standards of the Delhi Emperors. The result is embodied in a section written by Mr. Stanley Lane- Poole for this edition. The population chapter is largely made up of materials specially prepared for me by Mr. Baines, the Indian Census Commissioner (1891–92); and the revenue and statistical chapters have in like manner been enriched by the personal kindness of Sir Charles Bernard, Secretary in the Statistical Department of the India Office, and by Sir Theo- dore Hope, lately Member of the Viceroy's Council. Mr. H. G. Reene has also courteously helped me, by reading through the former, or second, edition with a view to calling attention to omissions or oversights. In the revision of the sections deal- ing with the modern statistics and organization of Christian missions, I have to thank Mr. W. R. Philipps for the latest Roman Catholic returns ; Mr. Tucker, Secretary to the Society 8 AAC/º AA CAE. for the Propagation of the Gospel; Mr. Osborn Allen, Secretary to the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ; and Dr. George Smith, Secretary for Foreign Missions to the Free Church of Scotland. The book has been thoroughly revised for this (the third) edition. New and valuable matter has been incorporated in every chapter, and important sections have been added. The population chapters have been reconstructed on the basis of the last Indian Census of 1891; and the whole of the statistics, administrative, economic, commercial, and Social, have been brought down to the same date. I should add that it is due to the kind and most generous personal help of Mr. Baines, the Indian Census Commissioner, that I am enabled to bring out this volume in anticipation of his official report of the Indian Census of I891. W. W. HUNTER. OAKEN HOLT, NEAR OXFORD, December 1892. | 9 | T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S. -- GENERAL PLAN. Physical Aspects, . The Population of India, The Non-Aryan Races, . The Aryans in Ancient India, Buddhism in India, The Greeks in India, Scythic Inroads into India, Rise of Hinduism, . Christianity in India, & Early Muhammadan Rulers, . The Mughal Empire, The Maráthá Power, The Indian Vernaculars and their Literature, . PAGE 33-75 76–90 9I–II 5 II6–175 I76–209 2 IO-22O 22I–239 240-278 279-32O 32I-343 344-374 375–382 383-4I5 Early European Settlements, . History of British Rule, . British Administration of India, Agriculture and Products, Means of Communication, Commerce and Trade, Arts and Manufactures, . Mines and Minerals, Geology, Meteorology, Zoology and Botany, Vital Statistics, º Statistical Appendices, . Index, . PREFACE AND TABLE OF CONTENTs, C H A P T E R I. THE COUNTRY. General Description of India; Boundaries, The Four Regions of India, First Region : the Himalayas; their Scenery and Products, Second Region: the Northern River Plains, . The Great Rivers; their Work; Land-making, The Indus, Brahmaputra, and Ganges, . © g The Gangetic River-system ; the Highway of Bengal, Great Gangetic Cities, . Three Stages in the Life of an Ind ian River, Delta of the Ganges; its Age and Process of Formation, PAGE 416–442 443–506 507–574 575–647 648–657 658–699 7OO–72I 722–732 733–742 743–753 754–767 768–771 773–8or 8o3–852 5–32 PAGE 33–36 36 36–42 42–67 42–67 42–48 48–53 53 53-55 55–6I IO TAAE/A2 OA’ COA/ZTEAVZ.S. The Rivers as Highways and as Destroyers, . Scenery and Crops of the Northern River Plains, . Third Region of India : the Southern Table-land, . The Deccan ; the Ghâts and their Passes, The Four Forest Regions of Southern India, Crops and Scenery of Southern India, . Fourth Region of India : Burma, . C H A P T E R II. THE PEOPLE. Feudatory India; the Chiefs and their Powers, The Twelve British Provinces; how governed, Population Tables, © tº º Pressure of Population; overcrowded Districts, e Under-peopled Provinces; the “immobile’ Indian Peasant, . Nomadic System of Husbandry, . e . The Land and Labour Question in India ; Serfdom, Unequal Pressure of Population; its Remedies, Population of India in 1872, 1881, and 1891 ; Increase, The Ethnical Elements of the Indian Peoples, C H A P T E R III. THE NON-ARYAN RACES. Kistvaen Builders; Flint and Bronze Periods, The Non-Aryans of Vedic India described, Andaman Islanders; Anamalai Hill Tribes, . Polyandry among the Nairs; the Gonds, Leaf-wearing Juangs of Orissa; Himalayan Tribes, The Santāls ; Village and Tribal Government, Santál Customs, Religion, and History, * g { } e The Kandhs; Tribal Government, Wars, and Blood Revenge, Kandh Marriage by Capture; Human Sacrifice, The Three Non-Aryan Stocks—Tibeto-Burmans, Dravidians, and Kolarians; their Languages, . e Statistics of Non-Aryan Races in 1872, 1881, and 1891, Crushed Tribes; Gipsy Clans; Predatory Tribes, . Character of the Non-Aryan Tribes, PAGE 61–64 64–67 67–74 67–70 7 I, 72 72, 73 74, 75 76 76–78 78, 79 8o, 81 81, 82 83 83, 84 84, 85 85–88 88, 89 9 I 9I, 92 93 93, 94 94, 95 95, 96 96-98 98, 99 99, IOO . I O I-L T O . I IO, III . I I I, II 2 II 3 TA B ZAZ OA’ COAVTEAVT.S. I I PAGE Mhairs and Bhils; their Reclamation by good Government, . 113-115 Ethnical distribution of Indian Races, . II 5 C H A P T E R IV. THE ARY ANS IN ANCIENT INDIA. The Indo-European Stock, . e e e I I6 Its Early Camping-ground in Central Asia, . . I I6, II 7 Common Origin of European and Indian Religions, II 7 The Indo-Aryans on the March, and in their new Homes, . I 17, 118 The Rig-Veda; Widow-burning unknown, tº . I 18, I IQ Development of Caste, * te e e * . I I 9, I28–I36 Aryan Civilisation in the Veda, tº . I2O—I 27 The Aryan Tribes organized into Kingdoms, I 28 Origin and Growth of Priestly Families, . I 28, 129 The Four Vedas; Brähmanas ; Sutras, . I 29, I 30 The Warrior and Cultivating Castes, . I 3 I, I 32 The Four Castes formed, . e te g & I32 Struggle between the Bráhmans and Kshattriyas, . . I33-I 35 Brähman Supremacy established; Bráhman Ideal Life, . . I36, I37 Brähman Theology, g e ſº I 39 Rise of the Post-Vedic Gods; the Hindu Triad, . I39, I4o Bráhman Philosophy; its Six Schools, . . I4O, I4. I Bráhman Science and Grammar ; Pánini, I 42 Sanskrit MSS. and Prákrit Dialects, • I43; I44 The Indian Alphabets, {} e . I 44; I45 Bráhman Astronomy; its Three Periods, . I46–148 Bráhman Mathematics, Medicine, and Surgery, . I48–152 Hindu Art of War, ſº e e tº tº I 52 Indian Music; its Peculiarities and Modern Revival, . I52–I 54 Indian Architecture, Art-work, and Painting, . I 54, I 55 Bráhman Law; Codes of Manu and Yājnavalkya, . . 156, I57 Hindu Customary Law; Perils of Codification, . I 58–161 Secular Literature of the Hindus, . º § I6 I The Maháðhárafa ; its Growth and Central Story, . I61–164 The Polyandry of Draupadi, g e e e . I 64, 165 The Admáyana ; its Story and its Author, Válmiki, . 165–167 Later Sanskrit Epics, I68 I 2 TABLE OF COWTENTS. The Hindu Drama; Kálidasa, The Hindu Novel; Beast Stories, Sanskrit Lyric Poetry; Jayadeva, . Mediaeval Theology; the Purānas, The Six Attacks on Brähmanism, . CHAPTER V. BUDDHISM IN INDIA (543 B.C. To Iooo A.D.). Buddha's Story modelled on the Sanskrit Epic, . # g Buddha, the Spiritual Development of the Heroic Aryan Man, Buddha's Parentage, Early Life, and Great Renunciation, His Forest Life, Temptation, and Teachings, His Later Years and Death, . g g The Northern and Southern Buddhist Schools, Political Life of Buddha; his Opponents; Devadatta, . Doctrines of Buddha; Karma, AWłrvána, tº & Moral Code of Buddha; its Missionary Aspects, . g tº Political Development of Buddhism; the Four Councils, 188 The Work of Asoka ; his Council and Edicts, The Work of Kanishka, ſº & g * The Northern and Southern Buddhist Canons, Spread of Buddhism throughout Asia, . Buddhist Influences on Christianity, . Buddha as a Christian Saint, Buddha's Personality denied, Buddhism did not oust Bráhmanism, . ū; e g º The Chinese Buddhist Pilgrims, Fa-Hian and Hiuen Tsiang, Buddhism under Silāditya ; Monastery of Nalanda, Mingling of Buddhism and Bráhmanism, tº e Buddhism an Exiled Religion; its Foreign Conquests, . Buddhist Survivals in India, o e * > The Jains; their Relation to the Buddhists, . C H A P T E R V I. THE GREEKS IN INDIA (327 TO 161 B.C.). Early Greek Writers; Hekataios, Strabo, Pliny, and Arrian, . Alexander in India; Results of his Invasion, PAGE . 168–170 . I 7o, I 7 I I 71 . 17 I, I 72 174, 175 116, 177 I 77 . I 77, 178 I78, I 79 . 180, I81 . I 82, I83 . I83, 184 . 185–187 187, 188 , 189, 192 . I 89–192 I 92 Ig3, 194 I94 I95 . I 96–198 . I98–199 I99, 200 2OO, 2O I . 2 O I, 2O2 . 202, 203 2O3 . 204-209 . 205-209 2 IO . 2 I I-213 TAAZAE OF CONTENTS. Seleukos and Chandra Gupta, The India of Megasthenes, Indo-Greek Treaty ; Later Greeks, Greek Survivals in Indian Art, Ancient and Modern Greeks; the Yavanas, . C H A P T E R V II. I 3 PAGE . 213, 2I4 . 2 I 5–2 17 . 2 I 7, 218 . 218, 219 22 O SCYTHIC INROADS INTO INDIA (1262 B.C. To 544 A.D.). Early Scythic Migrations towards India; Yue-Chi Settlements, 22, 222 Pre-Buddhistic Scythic Influences; the Horse-Sacrifice, Was Buddha a Scythian P Tibetan Traditions, Scythic Buddhism and Settlements in India, . Scythian Elements in India; the Jäts and Rájputs (?), Indian Struggle against the Scythians, . e e e tº Indo-Scythic Settlements; Sen, Gupta, and Valabhi Dynasties, Pre-Aryan Kingdoms in Northern India, - The Takshaks and Nāgās, º g * Ghakkars, Bhars, Bhils, Kochs, Ahams, Gonds, etc., Scythic and Nāgā Influences on Hinduism, C H A P T E R V III. RISE OF HINDUISM (750 TO 1520 A.D.). Decay and Persecution (?) of Buddhism, * Twofold Basis of Hinduism—Caste and Religion, Caste founded on ‘Race,’ ‘Occupation,’ and ‘Locality,' The Brähman Caste analysed, . e tº Building up of Caste; Hindu Marriage Law, Changes of ‘Occupation’ by Castes, Plasticity and Rigidity of Caste, te e Caste a System of Trade-Guilds; an Indian Strike, Practical Working of Caste; no Poor Law ; Rewards and Punishments, º Religious Basis of Hinduism, & * iº Buddhist Influences; Beast Hospitals; Monasteries, A Japanese Temple and a Christian Church, Shrines common to Different Faiths, 242, 243 . 222, 223 . 223-225 . 225, 226 . 226, 227 228 228—231 • 23 I, 232 . 232-234 . 234-237 . 237-239 . 24O, 24. I 24. I 24. I 244 . 245, 246 247 , 247, 248 . 248, 249 249 25o . 25 I, 252 252 I 4 TAP/AP, OA' COMTEAVTS. Serpent-Worship; Năgă Rites; Phallic Emblems, Fetish-Worship in Hinduism ; the Sálagrám, Bráhman Founders of Hinduism ; Low-Caste Apostles, The Acța Sanctorum of Hinduism, the Bhakta-Málá, Kumārila Bhatta ; Sankara Acharya, © Growth of Siva-Worship; its Twofold Aspects, Human Offerings; the Charak Pujá, . The Thirteen Sivaite Sects; their Gradations, Siva and Vishnu compared, . Friendly Vishnu; the Vishnu Purána, Bráhmanical and Popular Vishnuism, Vishnuite Founders; Rámánuja, Rāmānand, Rabir ; Chaitanya; Vallabha-Swami, . † Krishna-Worship; the Chief Vishnuite Sects, The Brähmanical and Buddhist Origin of Jagannāth, Christian Calumnies against Jagannāth, . . Modern Fate of the Hindu Triad, C H A P T E R IX. CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA (CIRCA Ioo P TO 1881 A.D.). Christianity coeval with Buddhism for 9oo years, . Origin of Christianity in India, tº e The Three Legends of St. Thomas, . e St. Thomas the Apostle, Thomas the Manichaean, Thomas the Armenian, º © & iº Wide Meaning of ‘India’ in the Fathers, Early Indian Christians (190 A.D.), º & The Nestorian Church in Asia; its Wide Diffusion, ‘Thomas Christians’ of Persia and of India, Mixed Worship at the alleged Shrine of St. Thomas Madras, g g © e tº Troubles of the Ancient Indian Church, Extinction of the Nestorian Church, First Portuguese Missionaries, 15oo A.D. ; the Syrian Rite, Xavier and the Jesuits; Work done by, Jesuit Literature in India, e Parochial Organization of Portuguese India, . * . 265-267 . 267, 268 . 268–272 . 272, 273 . 286, 287 PAGE . 252-255 . 255–257 . 257, 258 258 . 259, 26o . 260–262 . 262, 263 . 263, 264 265 267 274 . 274–276 . 277, 278 279 . 279, 280 281 . 281–283 . 283-285 285 287, 288 . 288–290 29O & 29-294 295 296 297 . 298–30.o TAAE ZE OF COAVTEAVT.S. Jesuit Colleges and Rural Settlements, . & e c The Jesuit Malabar Mission in the 17th and 18th Centuries, The Portuguese Inquisition at Goa, * & Organization of Roman Catholic Missions, Distribution of Roman Catholics in India, ſº First Protestant Missionaries, 1705; Danish Lutherans, . Schwartz; Kiernander; the Serampur Missionaries, - Bishopric of Calcutta; Indian Sees, Presbyterian and other Missions, . tº ſº Statistics of Protestant Missions, and their Progress, General Statistics of Christian Population in India, The Indian Ecclesiastical Establishment, C H A P T E R X. EARLY MUHAMMADAN RULERS (71 I TO 1526 A.D.). Early Arab Expeditions to Bombay and Sind, India on the Eve of the Muhammadan Conquest, . Hindu Kingdoms (Iooo A.D.), The Muhammadan Conquests only short-lived and temporary, Table of Muhammadan Dynasties (Ioor to 1857 A.D.), . First Türkſ Invasions; Subuktigin (977 A.D.), Mahmuid of Ghazní; his 17 Invasions; Somnáth, . Invasions, * tº tº e tº e Hindu Kingdoms; Rájput Dissensions (1184 A.D.), Muhammadan Conquest of Bengal, g g e Dynasty, © e g º tº * & House of Khiljí; Alá-ud-din's Conquest of Southern India, Mughal Mercenaries for the Suppression of Hindu Revolts, Expeditions and Cruelties, His Forced Currency, Revenue Exactions; and Revolts against . 337, 338 him, I 5 PAGE . 298–302 . 3O2–3O4 tº . . . 3O4–305 The Jesuits suppressed (1759–1773); re-established (1814), . 306 . 306–309 . 309-3 I 3 • 3 T 3, 3 T 4 . 3 I4, 3I 5 3I 5 3I6 . 316–318 . 318–319 . 3 T 9, 32O 32 I 32 I 322 323 3.24. 325 . 325–328 House of Ghor (Ioor—Io30 A.D.); Muhammad of Ghor's . 328, 329 . 329, 33O & . 339, 33 I Slave Dynasty (1206–1290 A.D.); Altamsh; the Empress Raziyā, Mughal Irruptions into Northern India, and Rájput Revolts, . Balban's Cruelties and his Royal Pensioners; End of Slave 33 I, 332 332, 333 333 • 334, 335 . 335, 336 House of Tughlak (1320–1414 A.D.); Muhammad Tughlak's 336 I6 TAP/CAE OF COMWTAEAV7S. Firuz Shāh Tughlak’s Canals (1351–1388 A.D.), . º Timür (Tamerlane), 1398 A.D.; Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties, Hindu Kingdoms of the Deccan ; Vijayanagar, Five Muhammadan States of the Deccan ; Bahmanſ Kings, Independent Náyaks and Pálegárs of Southern India, State of India on the Eve of the Mughal Conquest, C H A P T E R XI. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526 TO 1761 A.D.). Bábar's Early Life; his Invasion of India; Battle of Pánſpat (1526), . © {º e s e © Genealogical Tree of the Mughal Emperors, . Humáyūn; Sher Sháh the Afghān, ſº * e Akbar the Great; his Work in India (1560–1605), His Conciliation of the Hindus; Intermarriages, . Akbar's Hindu Military and Revenue Officers, . * Reform of Hindu Customs; Change of Capital to Agra, Akbar's Subjugation of Khándesh; his Death, Akbar's Religious Principles; his New Faith, e $º tº Akbar's Organization of the Empire; Military and Judicial Reforms, ſº e * º º & Akbar's Financial System ; Table of his Revenues, The Large Totals of Mughal Taxation, . Revenues of the Mughal Empire (1593–1761), Jahāngir, Emperor (1605–1627); the Empress Nūr Jahān, Sir Thomas Roe, Ambassador; Drinking Bouts at Court, Jahāngir's Personal Character; his Justice and Religion, Sháh Jahān, Emperor (1628–1658); his Deccan Conquests, . Sháh Jahán's Architectural Works; Tāj Mahál and Moti Masjid, g e e º g * * e The Great Mosque and Imperial Palace at Delhi, . * e Rebellion of Prince Aurangzeb, and Deposition of Sháh Jahān, . g e te g tº Provinces and Revenues under Shāh Jahán, . Aurangzeb, Emperor (1658–1707), Murder of his Brothers, tº te e g Conquests in Southern India; Rise of the Maráthás, . 338,339 • 339; 34O . 340, 34 I • 342, 343 , 344-346 , 346, 347 • 353-355 . 355-357 . 358, 359 PAGE 338 342 344 345 348 348 349 35O 350, 35I • 35I, 352 352 359 359 360, 361 362 362 363 363 364 365 365 TAA Z E OF COAVZTAEAVZ.S. I7 PAGE Aurangzeb's twenty years' Maráthá War; his Despair and Death, . e º ſº g e o & e g 366 Aurangzeb's Oppression of Hindus; Rájput Revolts, . . 366, 367 Aurangzeb's Provinces and Revenues, . † tº tº . 368, 369 Character of Aurangzeb, © e i.e. º g g º 37O Six Puppet Successors of Aurangzeb, . te º º g 37 I Decline and Fall of the Mughal Empire (1707–1858), . . 37O, 37 I Independence of the Deccan, Oudh, and Rájput States, * 37.2 Invasions of Nádir Sháh the Persian, and Ahmad Sháh the Afghān (1739–1761), . * o • 372; 373 Last Battle of Pánipat (1761) and Fall of the Mughal Empire, 373, 374 C H A P T E R XII. THE MARATHA POWER (1634 To 1818 A.D.). India won, not from the Mughals, but from the Hindus, tº 375 Rise of the Marāthās; Sháhjí Bhonsla (1634), . § g 375 The Hindu Party in Southern India, . e tº tº g 375 Sivaji the Great (1627–1680), . tº tº e ſº e 375 His Guerilla Warfare with the Mughals, e e & . 376–377 Sambhají (1680–1689); Sahu (1707), . g jº g te 377 Rise of the Peshwās; Bălaji Viswanath, * ſº g o 378 Growth of the Maráthá Confederacy, . tº tº § g 378 Maráthá Raids to Deccan, Bengal, and the Punjab ; Chauth, 379 Defeat of the Maráthás at Pánipat (1761), . º g g 379 The Five Great Maráthá Houses; Decline of the Peshwās, . 379 British Wars with the Maráthás (1779–1781, 1803–1804, and 1817–1818), . e * Q tº © e g . 380-382 C H A P T E R XIII. THE INDIAN VERNACULARS AND THEIR LITERATURE. The Three Stages in Indian History, . e ſº o . 383,384 The Dravidian Route through India, ſº tº tº 385 The Dravidian Family of Languages; its Place in Philology, . 385 Pre-Aryan Dravidian Civilisation, g e g o . 386, 387 Bráhmanic Influence on the Dravidians, e © tº g 387 Dravidian Languages; Tamil, . © º d e . 388-398 I8 TAAE ZE OF COMTEAVTS. Aryan Languages of Northern India ; Sanskrit, The Prākrits or Ancient Aryan Vernaculars, . s The Modern Vernaculars evolved from the Ancient Prákrits, Sanskrit, Prākrit, and Non-Aryan Elements in Modern Vernaculars, . o The Seven Modern Vernaculars, . * e tº & The Modern Vernaculars; their Literature and Authors, Hindſ, its Historical Development and Chief Authors, . Maráthſ, its Historical Development and Chief Authors, Bengali, its Historical Development and Chief Authors, C H A P T E R XIV. EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS (1498 To 18TH CENTURY Vasco da Gama's Expedition (1498), Portuguese Voyages and Supremacy in the East; Albu- º g tº . 4 I 7–423 Downfall of the Portuguese; their Possessions in 1881, 1891, querque and his Successors, . The Portuguese in Modern India, The Dutch in India (1602–1824), e tº Their Brilliant Progress, but Short-sighted Policy, . Fall of the Dutch Power; Dutch Relics in India, . Early English Adventurers (1496–1596), English East India Companies, e g e Early English Voyages (1600–1612), . e & Naval Fights with the Portuguese ; Swally (1615), Wars with the Dutch ; Massacre of Amboyna, Early English Factories; Surat, Masulipatam, Hügli, Madras Founded (1639); Bombay Ceded (1661), Calcutta Founded (1686), Other European East India Companies, Comparative Table of Europeans in British India, C H A P T E R X. V. HISTORY OF BRITISH RULE (1757 To 1885 A.D.). First British Territorial Possessions, The French in India, , . PAGE . 392–394 . 394–395 396 . 397, 398 4OO . 4OO-4O3 . 4O3, 4O4 . 404–406 . 406-415 A.D.). 4I6, 417 423 424 • 424, 425 . 425, 426 426 . 426,427 . 427, 428 . 428,429 • 429, 43O • 439, 43 I • 43 I-433 • 432, 433 434 • 435-44. I º 442 443 • 443, 444 TA B/CAE OF COAVZTEAVTS. I9 PAGE French and English Wars in the Karnātik ; Dupleix, Clive, . 444-447 The English in Bengal (1634–1696), © e ſº 447 Native Rulers of Bengal (1707–1756); the ‘Black Hole' Tragedy, . e e º º e e º . 447–448 Battle of Plassey (1757), and its Results, . e te . 449-45 I List of Governors and Viceroys; Clive, Governor of Bengal (1758), . e © & e e © g te . 452–453 Clive's Wars in Oudh, Madras, and Bengal, . e e • 453.454 Massacre of Patná ; First Sepoy Mutiny; Battle of Baxár, 454 The Grant of the Diwānī (1765), . e º 455 Clive's Reorganization of the Company's Service (1766), . 455, 456 Administration of Warren Hastings (1772–1785), . . 456-462 Abolition of the Dual System of Administration (1772), 456 Hastings' Policy towards Native Powers, . 458, 459 Rohillá, Maráthá, and Mysore Wars, . 459–464 Charges against Hastings, g e e ſe º 46I Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793); the Permanent Settlement, . 462, 463 Second Mysore War, . º e & º e e • 463,464 The Marquess Wellesley (1798–1805); his Work in India, . 464–469 Treaty with the Nizām, and Extinction of French Influence, . 466 Third Mysore War, and Fall of Seringapatam (1799), 467 Second Maráthá War (1802–1805), and Extension of British Territory, e e e e e º e . 468, 469 Sir George Barlow (1805); the Vellore Sepoy Mutiny, . 469 Earl of Minto (1807–1813); Embassies to Persia and Afghānistán, o o e . 469, 47.o Marquess of Hastings (1814–1823), 47 O The Nepāl, Pindarí, and last Maráthá War, . . 47 I-473 Lord Amherst (1823–1828), 473 First Burmese War; Capture of Bhartpur, 474 Lord William Bentinck (1828–1835), º 474 His Financial Reforms; Sati and 7%agi suppressed, . 475, 476 Renewal of Charter; Mysore protected; Coorg annexed, 476 Lord Metcalfe (1835–1836); Liberty of the Press, 476 Lord Auckland (1836–1842), e º e º tº . 477, 478 The First Afghān War (1839-1841); its Disastrous Termination, 478, 479 Lord Ellenborough (1842–1844), . 479 The Army of Retribution; ‘Gates of Somnáth,’ 479 2O TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Sind War, and Gwalior Outbreak, . e tº 48o Lord Hardinge (1844–1848); the First Sikh War, g . 480–482 Earl of Dalhousie (1848–1856), . e * tº . 482–487 Second Sikh War, and Annexation of the Punjab, Q . 483,484 Second Burmese War, and Annexation of Pegu, tº 484 Dalhousie's Policy towards Native States; the Doctrine of Lapse, . tº e 485 Sátára ; Jhánsſ; Nāgpur ; Berár, . g & e & . 485, 486 Annexation of Oudh, . * tº & tº ſº 486 Lord Dalhousie's Work; Extensions of Territory, . 487 Earl Canning (1856–1862), . º g ſº . 488–496 The Mutiny of 1857–1858, . g § g tº tº . 488–493 Downfall of the Company; India transferred to the Crown, . 494, 495 Queen's Proclamation of November 1st, 1858, 495 Financial and Legal Reforms, . * ſº ë © 496 Lord Elgin (1862–1863); Lord Lawrence (1864–1869), 496 Lord Mayo (1869–1872); Ambálá ZXarââr; Visit of Duke of Edinburgh, g g ſº ge & . 496, 497 Financial Reforms; Abolition of Inland Customs Lines, 497 Lord Northbrook (1872–1876); Visit of Prince of Wales, 497 Lord Lytton (1876–1880); Proclamation of the Queen as Empress, o ſº g e e & e ſº 498 Famine of 1876—1878; Second Afghān War, de g . 498,499 Marquess of Ripon (1880–1884); End of the Afghān War, . 498–50 I Rendition of Mysore; Legal and Financial Reforms, . 499, 5oo Education Commission; Abolition of Import Duties, 5oo Bengal Tenancy Bill, . & 5o I Earl of Dufferin (1884–1888), . 5o I-503 Annexation of Upper Burma, . 5o I-502 The Queen's Jubilee (1887), 503 Marquess of Lansdowne (1888 to 1893), . 503–506 Progress of Self-Government, . 503–506 The Indian National Congress, 5O4 . Lord Cross' Act (1892), 5O4. Manipur, 1891, . º g e e g 504 Russian Aggressions on the Pamirs (1891–92), 505 Burmese Progress, - 506 The Fall of the Rupee, 506 TABLE OF CONTENTS C H A P T E R XVI. BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. Control of India in England, tº Under the Company, and under the Crown, . The Secretary of State; the Viceroy, The Executive and Legislative Councils, High Courts; the Law of India, . º Provincial Administration in different Provinces, . “Regulation’ and “Non-Regulation’ Districts, The District Officers; their Duties, The Indian Civil Service, Districts and Sub-Districts of India, The Secretariats, Imperial and Provincial, The Land-Tax, . e g © tº o º Ancient Land System under Hindus and Musalmáns, Land System under the Company; the Zamāndār, Landed Property in India; Growth of Private Rights, . Rates of Land-Tax; Government Share of the Crop, The Land Settlement; ‘Survey and Settlement,” . Permanent Settlement of Bengal, . e Land Law of 1859; Rent Commission of 1879, Temporary Settlements; in Orissa; in Assam, Aáyatwār; Settlement in Madras; Sir Thomas Munro, . Permanent Settlement in Madras; Sub-Tenures, Extension of Tillage in Madras; Reduction of Average Land Tax, e g º e tº Land System of Bombay; the ‘Survey' Tenure, The Deccan Cultivator; Agriculturists' Relief Acts (1879 and . 529-532 1881), . e e g º Land System of North-Western Provinces and Punjab, . Of Oudh and the Central Provinces, . Land Revenue of British India, - The Salt-Tax; Systems of Manufacture, Excise; Distilleries and Breweries, (1890–91), . . s • * º Municipal Administration; the old Pancháyat, . 508, 509 . 5 IO, 5 II . 5 II, 5 I:2 . 5 I 2, 5 I 3 . 5 I 3-5 I4 , 5 I4, 5 I5 . 515, 516 o 517-520 . 517, 518 . 525, 526 2 I PAGE 507 507 5o 7 516 518 519 . 5 IQ, 52O . 52O, 52 I . 52 I-523 523 524 526 . 526, 527 528 533 533 534 . 535–538 - e e . 538, 539 Opium; Gánjá; Charas; Tobacco, Total Excise Revenue . 539, 54O . 54O-542 22 TAA/A2 OF COAVTEAVTS. PAGE Finance and Taxation of British India, . . . -> . 542–558 Obscurities in Indian Accounts, . . e • - . 543 Taxation under the Mughals and the British compared, . 543–549 Heavy Taxation in Native States, . º te ſº e s 549 Incidence of Taxation in British India, e e º g 549 Balance-Sheet of British India, . e e - e. . 55o, 55 I Analysis of Indian Revenues, e e º - e . 550–555 Indian Expenditure; Army; Public Debt; Famine Relief, . 554–556 Exchange; Public Works; Railways; Irrigation, . sº . 556, 557 Imperial and Municipal Finance, . o ſº © º . 557, 558 The Army of India; its Constitution, . ſº - º . 558, 559 Police and Jails, . e e e • e - e . 559, 560 Education, . e e º º e º º e . 560-569 Education in Ancient India; Sanskrit Tols and Village Schools, 560 Early English Efforts; the Calcutta Madrasa and other Colleges, . - e º e e • . e 561 Mission Schools, †- e º e • º 56I State System of Education in India, . e g e e 56I Education Commission of 1882—1883, . º & • • 562 Education Statistics, 1878 to 1891, • . - * . 562, 563 Indian Universities, Colleges, and Schools, . º º . 562–566 Primary Schools, Girls' Schools, Normal and other Special - Schools, º e - & g - e . 566–569 The Vernacular Press; Newspapers and Books, . ſº . 569–572 Tables of Publications, • e s à º e • 573, 574 C H A P T E R XV II. AGRICULTURE AND PRODUCTs. Agriculture almost the Sole Occupation of the People, . . 575, 576 Various Systems of Agriculture; Irrigation; Manure, . . 576, 57.7 Rice in the different Provinces; Area ; Out-turn, . e . 577–58o Wheat; Millets; Pulses; Oil-seeds; Vegetables, . º . 581–584 Fruits; Spices; Palms; Sugar, e º º . 584–585 Cotton Cultivation in different Provinces; Exports, º . 585–589 Jute Cultivation and Preparation; Exports, . º e . 589, 590 Indigo Cultivation in various Provinces, º • º . 590–59 I TA B/CAE OF COAVZTEAVZ.S. Exports of Indigo ; System of Planting, Opium Cultivation and Manufacture, . e g Tobacco Cultivation; Trade and Method of Curing, Statistics of Principal Crops; Acreage, . o & Coffee; its Introduction into India; Progress and Growth, Tea in India; its History and Statistics, Processes of Tea Cultivation and Manufacture, Cinchona Cultivation and Manufacture; Statistics of, The Company's Silk Factories, - Silk Area of Bengal; Silk Statistics, Jungle Silk; Lac ; Lac-dye, . . e e e Model Farms; the Problem of improved Husbandry, The Impediments to better Husbandry, Agricultural Stock of India, . o '• , , º e Breeds of Cattle ; Horse-Fairs; Studs; Wild Elephants, The Forest Department, e º e e Wanton Destruction of Forests; Indian Timber Trees, . Forest Conservancy; its Results; Revenue, . Nomadic Tillage; its Destructiveness, . Irrigation; its Function in India, . Irrigated Area in Sind; Bombay; Punjab, In the N.-W. Provinces; Oudh ; Bengal; Orissa, . In Madras; Mysore; Central Provinces; Burma, . Statistics of Cultivation and Irrigation, . ſº • . Famines; their Causes; Drought; Flood ; Blight; War, Necessity for Husbanding and Utilizing the Water-Supply, History of previous Famines (1769 to 1876), The Famine of 1876–1878; its Area, Remedial Efforts; Mortality; Expenditure, . Famine, a Weak Check on Population, C H A P T E R XVIII. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. Indian Railway System ; Lord Dalhousie's Trunk Lines, Lord Mayo's Branch Lines, . * The Four Classes of Indian Railways, . 23 PAGE . 592, 593 . 593, 594 . 594, 595 . 596, 597 . 598–60o . 600–604 . 604—606 . 606–609 . 609, 6 Io . 6 Io, 6 II . 612, 613 . 614, 615 . 616–618 . 618–62 I . 618–62 I . 622-627 . 622-624 . 623–627 . 627, 628 . 628, 629 . 629–633 . 633–636 . 637–639 . 639-642 642 . 642, 643 . 643, 644 . 645–647 646 . 646, 647 648 648 * O49 24 TAP/A2 OA' COAVZTEAVZ.S. “Guaranteed’ Railways, ‘State Railways,’ . ë e tº g ‘Assisted’ and ‘Native State’ Railways, Railway Statistics, tº § ſº Roads; Old Military Routes, tº ſº e tº The Grand Trunk Road; Bombay Inland Route, . Extension of Roads; Bridges of Boats, Navigable Rivers, © e e * Navigable Canals; Malabar Back-waters, etc., C H A P T E R XIX. COMMERCE AND TRADE. Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Trade of India, . Large Sea-borne Trade impossible under the Mughals, . Growth of Trading and Industrial Cities under British Rule, Rise of Calcutta and Bombay, Summary of Indian Exports (1700–1885), India's Balance of Trade and Yearly Savings, Fourfold Division of Modern Indian Trade, . The Sea-borne Trade of India, tº Early Portuguese Trade (1500–16oo), . Dutch Monopoly (16oo), . ſº e e o English Factories and Early Trade (1600–1700), . Growth of Trade; Quinquennial Table of Foreign Trade, Indian Foreign Trade Statistics; Imports and Exports, . Imports: Cotton Goods ; Treasure, . ge Exports : Raw Cotton ; Jute ; Rice; Wheat, Exports: Oil-seeds; Indigo and Dyes; Tea; Coffee, Export of Cotton and Jute Manufactures, Countries with which India trades; England, Belgium ; Italy; Austria, United States; Africa; Australia, . Distribution of Foreign Trade of India, Effects of the Suez Canal on Indian Trade, . Sir R. Temple on the Balance of India's Foreign Trade, . 654, 655 . 655, 656 . 659–661 . 662, 663 . 664, 665 . 666–689 . 67 I, . 678-680 . 680, 681 . 681, 682 China ; Straits ; Ceylon; Mauritius; France; Germany; . 682, 683 . 684, 687 . 685, 686 PAGE . 649–650 . 649, 650 . 649–652 . 652–654 654 654 657 . 658, 659 659 660 66 I . 661, 662 662 663 664 644 669–672 673–678 687 688 TAP/A2 OA’ COAVTEAVTS. 25 PAGE Coasting Trade of India; Shipping Statistics, § e q 689 Frontier Trade with Afghānistán and Central Asia, ſº e 690 The Himalayan Trade Routes; Nepāl; Tibet, . * , 69 I, 692 Trade with Bhutan and the North-Eastern Frontier, . e 692 Trade with Burma and Siam, e e e & e º 692 Table of Trans-Frontier Landward Trade, g g 693 Internal Trade ; Trading Castes, . º tº e , 692, 694, 695 Local Trade; the Village Money-lender, . º t , 695, 696 Religious Fairs; Village Markets, g & 696 Internal Trade a Safeguard against Famine, . e tº . 696, 697 Statistics of Internal Trade in certain Provinces, . * g 698 Growth of Large Marts; Local Trading Centres, . º . 698, 699 C H A P T E R X. X. ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. Manufactures of India; Art-work, 7oo Competition with the English Artisan, . 7oo Native Industries; Village Crafts, 7o I Cotton-weaving; its Decline, © § 3- . 7O I, 7 O2 But still a Domestic Industry throughout India, . 7 O2, 7 O3 Special Fabrics; Muslins; Chintzes; Sárás, . tº 7O4 Silk-weaving ; Classes of Silk Fabrics, . 7 O4, 7 OS Steam Silk Factories, g ſº tº 7o 5 Embroidery; Kashmir Shawls; Leather-work, & 706 Carpets and Rugs; Processes of Manufacture, . 706, 7 o'7 Goldsmiths' and Jewellers’ Work; Precious Stones, . 707, 708 Iron-work; Cutlery; Chain Armour; Damascening, . 708, 7 og Brass and Copper Work; Bidari Ware, . 709, 7 Io Indian Pottery and Sculpture, . 7 Io, 7 I I Wood-carving; Inlaying; Ivory-carving, 7II, 7 I 2 European Industries; Steam Cotton Mills, * . 7 I 2–7 I5 Their Manufactures; Competition with Manchester, . . 7 I 5, 716 Statistics of Bombay Cotton Mills; their Future Prospects, . 716, 717 e . 7 I 7, 718 Exports of Jute; Indian Consumption; Growth of the Trade, 718, 719 Brewing; Paper-making; Leather, etc., © e G . 7 I 9, 72 I Jute Mills, Manufacture of Gunny, e e * 26 TAP/CAE OF COAZZTEAV7S. C H A P T E R XXI. MINES AND MINERALS. Indian Iron ; Native System of Working, Failure of Early English Efforts, . Difficulties of Iron-smelting in India, Indian Coal; its Inferior Quality, g History of Coal-mining in Bengal; Coal Statistics, The Four Great Coal Fields; Future of Indian Coal, Salt Manufacture; the Punjab Salt Range, Saltpetre; Manufacture of, . tº tº o o Gold and Gold-mining; the Wainád Quartz Reefs, Copper; Lead; Tin ; Antimony; Cobalt, Petroleum and Mineral Oils, e Stone; Lime; Áankar; Marble; Slate, Diamonds; Carnelians; Rubies; Pearl Fisheries, . C H A P T E R XX II. GEOILOGY OF INDIA. Geology; the Himalayan Region, e The Lower Himalayas; Siwáliks; Salt Range, Indo-Gangetic Plain ; its Geological Age and History, . Peninsular India; Vindhyan Rocks, Gondwéna, Pánchet, Tálcher, and Dāmodar Series, The Rániganj Coal Seams, Deccan Trap ; Laterite, Geology of Burma, C H A P T E R XXIII. METEOROLOGY OF INDIA. Meteorological Geography; the Eastern and Western Hima- • 743, 744 layas, º e º Air-currents; Vapour-bearing Winds, . iº ſº Punjab Frontier; Indus Plain ; the Great Indian Desert, . 722, 723 . 723–725 . 725, 726 . 726, 727 . 727, 728 . 728, 729 • 729, 73O . 730, 73 I . 73 I, 732 , 737, 738 • 739, 74O . 74O, 74 I . 74 I, 742 • 744, 745 PAGE 722 723 723 725 . 733, 734 . 734, 735 . 735, 736 737 744 TAP/A2 OF COMTEAVTS. 27 PAGE Gangetic Plain ; Eastern Bengal; Assam, 745 Central Table-land; Sátpura Range, 746 Málwā Plateau; Aravalli Range, . ſº e 746 Southern Plateau; Anamalai Hills; Coast-strip, 747 Ceylon and Burma, . 747, 748 Observatory Stations, . e º * o © • 749 Temperature; Atmospheric Pressure; Wind, etc.,. . 749, 750 Rainfall Returns, . 75o, 75 I Sun-spot Cycles, . . 752, 753 C H A P T E R XXIV. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF INDIA. Destruction of Life by Wild Animals, gº 754 Mammals of India; Lion; Tiger; Leopard, . . 754–756 Wolf; Fox; Jackal; Dog: Hyena, . 756, 757 Bear; Elephant; Rhinoceros; Wild Hog, . 757-759 Sheep and Goats ; Antelopes; AVí/gdi, Deer, . 759, 760 Bison and Buffalo, g ſº © e g . 760, 761 Ornithology; Birds of Prey and Game Birds, . 761, 762 Reptiles; Loss of Life from Snake-bite; the ‘Cobra,' . 762, 763 Fishes; Insects; Locusts, . 763–765 Indian Flora in Various Provinces, . 765–767 C H A P T E R XXV. VITAL STATISTICS OF INDIA. Sources of Health Returns; their Untrustworthiness, . 768, 769 Death-rate in India, ſe 769 General Death-rate for all India, . * 77 o Statistics of Principal Causes of Death, . . 77'o, 77 I Death-rate and Birth-rate, arrived at by Actuarial Calculations On the Basis of the Age-returns in the Census Reports of 1881 and 1891, . e © tº tº ſº ſº * 77 I TAA/CAE OF COAVTEAVZTS, 29 A P P E N D I C E S. PAGE APPENDIX I. Area, Towns and Villages, Houses, Population, etc., of British India, in 1891, . © & 774 35 II. Towns and Villages in British India, classified according to Population, in 1891, & e 775 ,, III. Population of British India, classified according to Sex and Age, in 1891, . º º © 776 35 IV. Population of British India, classified according to Religion, in 1891, . 0. º º tº 777 25 V. Asiatic Non-Indian Population of British India, classified according to Birth-place, in 1891, . 778 , VI. Non-Asiatic Population of British India, classified according to Birth-place, in 1891, . 779 ,, VII. List of the 222 Towns in India, British and Feudatory, of which the Population in 1891 exceeded 20, ooo, showing the variation between 1881 and 1891, . tº e . 780–783 ,, VIII. Population of British India, classified according to Education, in 1891, e º o . 784–790 ,, IX. Population of British and Feudatory India, classified according to Occupation, . - 79 I 25 X. Incidence of the Land Revenue on Area and Population of British India, in 1890 and I891, . tº e & e º º . 792, 793 ,, XI. A List of Governors, Lieutenant-Governors, and Chief-Commissioners of India Provinces, .. 794–8o I INDEX, º º e * * * e - e . 8o3–852 [31 THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF INDIAN PROPER NAMES. THIS volume adheres to the uniform spelling of Indian proper names pre- scribed by the Government of India. The system was resolved on after a protracted inquiry as to the best practicable course, and it embodies the joint conclusions of the Supreme and Provincial Governments on the sub- ject. It is now adopted in the official publications and correspondence of those Governments, by an important section of the Indian Press, by the Royal Geographical Society, and by most authors who have an accurate acquaintance with India. According to its methods of transliteration the vowel sounds are as follow :- has the sound of a in WOIIl (21). has the sound of a in father. has the vowel sound in grey. has the sound 2 in pin. has the sound of final 2 in intrigue. has the sound of o as in bone. has the sound of 14 as in bull. has the sound of u as in rural. has the vowel sound in briar. 2. I Accents have been used as sparingly as possible; and omitted in such words or terminals as fºur, where the Sanskrit family of alphabets takes the short vowel instead of the long Persian one. The accents over £ and 2% have often been omitted, to avoid confusing the ordinary English reader, when the collocation of letters naturally gives them a long or open Sound. No attempt has been made by the use of dotted consonants to distinguish between the dental and lingual d, or to represent similar refinements of Indian pronunciation. Such refinements have no meaning to the European eye, and would only perplex ninety-nine out of every hundred persons who will use this volume. - Where the double oo is used for 24, or the double ee for 2, and whenever the above vowel sounds are departed from, the reason is either that the place has obtained a popular fixity of spelling, or that the Government has for good reasons ordered the adoption of some special form. I have borne in mind four things–First, that this work is intended for the ordinary English reader. Second, that the twenty-six characters of the 32 AVOTE O/V THE S/GAV Aº X. English alphabet cannot possibly be made to represent the fifty letters or signs of the Indian alphabets, unless we resort to puzzling un-English devices of typography, such as dots under the consonants, curves above them, or italic letters in the middle of words. Third, that as such devices are unsuitable in a work of general reference, some compromise or sacrifice of scholarly accuracy to popular convenience becomes inevitable. Fourth, that a compromise to be defensible must be successful, and that the spelling of Indian places, while adhering to the Sanskrit vowel sounds, should be as little embarrassing as possible to the European eye. This consideration has led to the old orthography being retained, at the cost of scientific con- sistency, in a large number of Indian proper names which have obtained a historical or popular fixity of spelling. NOTE ON THE SIGN RX. Large values are given in this volume as ‘tens of rupees, a denomination which, while not subject to the charge of inaccuracy attaching to that of “A sterling’ calculated at the nominal exchange of 2s. to the rupee, never- theless enables comparisons to be made with the old figures in treatises or official reports in which the no longer accurate expression of values in sterling was employed. The sign Rx. is used to signify tens of rupees; so that Rx. 50,000,000 means fifty millions of tens of rupees, or five hundred millions of rupees. This system of representing sums in Rx, or tens of rupees has now been uniformly adopted for large sums in the accounts of the Government of India, and in the Indian blue-books submitted to Parliament. - | 33 THE INDIAN EMPIRE. C H A P T E R I. T H E CO U N T R Y. INDIA forms a great irregular triangle, stretching Southwards General from Mid-Asia into the ocean. Its northern base rests upon " the Himalayan ranges; the chief part of its western side is washed by the Arabian Sea, and the chief part of its eastern side by the Bay of Bengal. It extends from the eighth to the thirty-fifth degree of north latitude; that is to say, from the hottest regions of the equator to far within the temperate zone. The capital, Calcutta, lies in 88.” E. long. ; so that, when the sun sets at six o'clock there, it is just past mid-day in England. The length of India from north to south, and its greatest Dimen- breadth from east to west, are both about 1900 miles; but the * triangle tapers with a pear-shaped curve to a point at Cape Comorin, its southern extremity. To this compact dominion the British have added, under the name of Burma, the country on the eastern shore of the Bay of Bengal. The farthest eastern frontier of British India has now become con- terminous with the Chinese dominions. The British Indian Empire, thus described, contains over I; millions of square miles, and over 288 millions of inhabitants. India, therefore, has an area and a population about equal to the area and population of the whole of Europe, less Russia. Its peoples more than double Gibbon's estimate of I.20 millions for all the races and nations which obeyed Imperial Rome. This vast Asiatic peninsula has, from a very ancient period, Qrigin of been known to the external world by one form or other of the º name which it still bears. The early Indians did not them- selves recognise any single designation for their numerous and diverse races; their nearest approach to a Common appellation for India being Bhārata-varsha, the land of the Bhāratas, a noble warrior tribe which came into Upper India from the C 34 AA/VS/CA/, ASPECTS OF JAV/O/A. Sanskrit, Zend, and Greek forms. Buddhist derivation of ‘In-tu.’ north. But this term, although afterwards generalized, applied originally to the basins of the Indus and the Ganges, and strictly to only a part of them. The Indus river formed the first great landmark of nature which arrested the march of the peoples of Central Asia as they descended upon the plains of the Punjab. That mighty river impressed itself on the imagination of the ancient world. To the early comers from the high-lying camping grounds of inner Asia, it seemed a vast expanse of waters. They called it in Sanskrit by the word which they gave to the ocean itself, Sindhus (from the root syand, “to flow ’), a name afterwards applied to the ocean-god. The term extended itself to the country around the Indus river, and in its plural form, Sindhazas, to the inhabitants thereof. The ancient Persians, softening the initial sibilant to an aspirate, called it Aſendu in the Zend language: the Greeks, further softening the initial by omitting the aspirate altogether, derived from it their /ndikos and /ndos. These forms closely correspond to the ancient Persian word Idhus, which is used in the inscrip- tions of Darius for the dwellers on the Indus. But the native Indian form (Sindhus) was known to the Greeks, as is proved by the Sinthos of the Periplus Maris Erythraei, and by the distinct statement of Pliny, ‘Indus incolis Sindus appellatus.’ Virgil says, “India mittit ebur.’ The more eastern nations of Asia, like the western races of Europe, derived their name for India from the great river of the Punjab. The Buddhist pilgrims from China, during the first seven centuries of our era, usually travelled landward to Hindustán, skirting round the Himalayas, and entering the holy Indian land of their faith by the north-western frontier of the Punjab. One of the most celebrated of these pious travellers, Hiuen Tsiang (629–645 A.D.), states that India “was anciently called Shin-tu, also Hien-tau; but now, according to the right pronunciation, it is called In-tu.’ This word in Chinese means the moon ; and the cradle-land of Buddhism derived its name, according to the good pilgrim, from its superior glory in the Spiritual firmament, sicut luna inter minora sidera. ‘Though there be torches by night and the shining of the stars,’ he says, “how different from the bright (cool) moon Just so the bright connected light of holy men and sages, guiding the world as the shining of the moon, have made this country eminent, and so it is called In-tu.” Notwithstanding | Si-yet-k? : Buddhist Records of the Western World; translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang by Samuel Beal. Vol. i. p. 69. Trübner, 1884. BOUNDARIES OF INDIA, 35 the pious philology of the pilgrim, the great river of the Punjab (the Indus) is, of course, the origin of the Chinese name. The term Hindustán is derived from the modern Persian form (Hind), and properly applies only to the Punjab and the central basin of the Ganges. It is reproduced, however, with a wider signification in the title of the Queen-Empress, Kaisar- Kaisar-i- i-Hind, the Caesar, Kaiser, Czar, or Sovereign-paramount of A/272d. India. India is shut off from the rest of Asia on the north by a Boun- vast mountainous region, known in the aggregate as the ** Himalayas. Among their southern ranges lie the Independent States of Bhutan and Nepāl; the great table-land of Tibet on the stretches northward behind : the Native Principality of Kashmír north, occupies their western corner. At this north-western angle of and north- India (in lat. 36° N., long, 75° E.), an allied mountain system ** branches southward. Its lofty offshoots separate India on the west, by the well-marked ranges of the Safed Koh and the on the Sulāimán, from Afghānistán ; and by a southern continuation ** of lower hills (the Hálas, etc.) from Balūchistán. The most southerly part of the western land frontier of India is the river Hab, in Sind; and this boundary ends with Cape Monze, at the mouth of its estuary, in lat. 24° 50' N., long. 66° 43' E. Still proceeding southward, India is bounded along the west and south-west by the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. Turning northward from its southern extremity at Cape Comorin (lat. 8° 4' 20" N., long, 77° 35' 35" E.), the Bay of on the Bengal forms the main part of its eastern boundary. east. But in the north-east, as in the north-west, India has again a Burmese land frontier. The Himalayan ranges at the north-eastern boundary. angle of India (in about lat. 28° N., long, 97° E.) throw off long - spurs and chains to the southward. These spurs separate the British Provinces of Assam, Eastern Bengal, and Burma, from the outlying and semi-independent territories of the Chinese Empire. Proceeding south-eastward from the Irawadi delta in Burma, a confused succession of little explored ranges divides the British province of Tenasserim from the Native Tenas. Kingdom of Siam. The boundary line runs down to Point serim º e G g O . . . / boundary. Victoria at the extremity of Tenasserim (lat. 9° 59' N., long. 98° 32' E.), following the direction of the watershed between the rivers of the British territory on the west and of Siam on the east. - * * tº * * * e & g . Physical The empire included within these boundaries is rich in aspects. 36 PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF INDIA. The four Regions of India. First Region— The Himá- layas. varieties of scenery and climate, from the highest mountains in the world, to vast river deltas raised only a few inches above the level of the sea. It forms a continent rather than a country. But if we could look down on the whole from a balloon, we should find that India consists of four separate and well-defined tracts. The first includes the lofty Himalaya Mountains, which shut it out from the rest of Asia, and which, although for the most part beyond the British frontier, form a most important factor in the physical geography of Northern India. The second region stretches southwards from the base of the Himalayas, and comprises the plains of the great rivers which issue from them. The third region slopes upward again from the southern edge of the river plains, and consists of a high three-sided table - land, buttressed by the Vindhya Mountains on the north, and by the Eastern and Western Ghâts, which run down the coast on either side of India, till they meet at a point near Cape Comorin. The interior three-sided table-land, thus enclosed, is dotted with peaks and ranges, broken by river valleys, and interspersed by broad level uplands. It comprises the southern half of the Indian peninsula. The fourth region is Burma, consisting of the valley and delta of the Irawadi, together with the Yoma ranges, a coast-strip on the Bay of Bengal, and a wild hill- region stretching on the east and south-east of the Irawadi towards the Chinese and Siamese frontiers. The first of the four regions is the Himalaya Mountains and their offshoots to the southward. The Himalayas—literally, the ‘Abode of Snow,” from the Sanskrit hima, frost (Latin, hiems, winter), and dilaya, a house—consist of a system of stupendous ranges, the loftiest in the world. They are the Emodus or /maus of the Greek geographers, and extend in the shape of a curved Scimitar, with its edge facing southward, for a distance of 1500 miles along the northern frontier of India. At the north-eastern angle of that frontier, the Dihang river, the connecting link between the Tsan-pu (Sangpu) of Tibet and the Brahmaputra of Assam, bursts through the main axis of the Himálayas. At the opposite or north-western angle, the Indus in like manner pierces the Himalayas, and turns southward on its course through the Punjab. The Himalayas, like the Kuen-luen chain, the Tiān-shan, and the Hindu Kush, Converge towards the Pamír table-land—that central knot whence the great mountain systems of Asia radiate. With the Kuen-luen the Himalayas have a closer connection, as these two mighty ranges form respectively the northern and THE HIMAZA VAN AWOAZTA/EAN WAZZ. 37 southern buttresses of the lofty Tibetan plateau. The Himalayas project east and west beyond the Indian frontier. Their total length is about 1750 miles, and their breadth from north to South from 150 to 250 miles.” Regarded merely as a natural frontier separating India ii. from the Tibetan plateau, the Himalayas may be described as Hºiyan a double mountain wall running nearly east and west, with a Wall and trough or series of deep valleys beyond. The southernmost . of the two walls rises steeply from the plains of India to 20,000 feet, or nearly 4 miles in height. It culminates in KANCHANJANGA, 28, 176 feet, and MoUNT EVEREST, 29,002 feet, the latter being the loftiest measured peak in the world. This outer or southern wall of the Himalayas subsides on the northward into a series of depressions or upland dips, re- ported to be 13, ooo feet above the level of the sea, beyond which rises the second or inner range of Himalayan peaks. The double Himalayan wall thus formed, then descends into a great trough or line of valleys, in which the Sutlej, the Indus, and the mighty Tsan-pu (Sangpu) gather their WaterS. The Sutlej and the Indus flow westwards, and pierce through the Western Himalayas by separate passes into the Punjab. The Tsan-pu, after a long unexplored course eastwards along the valley of the same name in Tibet, finds its way through the Dihang gorge of the Eastern Himalayas into Assam, where it takes its final name of the Brahmaputra. On the north of the river trough, beyond the double Himalayan wall, rise the Karakoram and the Gangri Mountains, which form the Southern escarpment of the Tibetan table-land. Behind the Gangris, on the north, the lake-studded plateau of Tibet spreads itself out at a height averaging 15,000 feet. Broadly speaking, the double Himalayan wall rests upon the low-lying plains of India, and descends northward into a river trough, beyond which, still farther to the north, rises the Tibetan plateau. Vast glaciers, one of which is known to be 60 miles in length, slowly move their masses of ice downwards to the valleys. The higher ranges between India and Tibet are crowned with eternal snow. They rise in a region of unbroken silence, like gigantic frosted fortresses one above the other, till their white towers are lost in the sky. * Some geographers hold that the Himálayan system stretches in a continuous chain westwards along the Oxus to 68° E. long.; and that only an arbitrary line can be drawn between the Himálayan ranges and the elevated regions of Tibet to the north of them. 38 PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF INDIA. Himálayan passes. Offshoots of the Himá- layas ; on east ; and west. The Gate- ways of India. This wild region is in many parts impenetrable to man, and nowhere yields a passage for a modern army. It should be mentioned, however, that the Chinese outposts extend as far as a point only 6ooo feet above the Gangetic plain, north of Khátmándu, the capital of Nepāl. Indeed, Chinese armies have seriously threatened Khātmándu itself; and Sir David Ochterlony's advance from the plains of Bengal to within reach of that city in 1816 is a matter of history. Ancient and well-known trade routes exist, by means of which merchandise from the Punjab finds its way over heights of 18,000 feet into Eastern Türkistén and Tibet. The Mustagh (Snowy Mount), the Karakoram (Black Mount), and the Chang-chenmo are among the most famous of these passes. The Himálayas not only form a double wall along the north of India, but, as I have mentioned, at both their eastern and western extremities they send out ranges to the southward, which protect India's north-eastern and north-western frontiers. On the north-east, those offshoots, under the name of the Nágá and Patkoi mountains, etc., form a barrier between the civilised British Districts of Eastern Bengal and the wild tribes of Upper Burma. The southern continuations of these ranges, known as the Yomas, separate the coast strip of Burma on the Bay of Bengal from the interior valleys of the Irawadi, and are crossed by passes, the most historic of which, the An or Aeng, rises to 4517 feet, with gradients of 472 feet to the mile on its skilfully engineered road. On the opposite or north-western frontier of India, the mountainous offshoots run down the entire length of the British boundaries from the Himalayas to the sea. As they proceed southwards, their best marked ranges are in turn known as the Safed Koh, the Suláimán, and the Häla mountains. These massive barriers have peaks of great height, culminating in the Takht-i-Sulāimán, or Throne of Solomon, 1 1,317 feet above the level of the Sea. But, as already stated, the mountain wall is pierced at the corner where it strikes southward from the Himalayas by an open- ing through which the Indus river flows into India. An adjacent opening, the KHAIBAR PASS (34oo feet above sea- level, amid neighbouring heights rising to 68oo feet), with the Kuram Pass on the south of it, the Gwalari Pass near Dera Ismáil Khán, the Tál Pass debouching near Dera. Ghāzī Khān, and the famous Bolán Pass (58oo feet at top), still farther south, furnish (together with other less known passes) the gateways between India and Afghānistán. The A/MAZA YAN WATER-SUPPLY. 39 Hála, Brahui, and Pab mountains form the southern hilly offshoots between India and Balūchistán ; but they have a much less elevation than the Safed Koh or the Sulāimán. The Himálayas, while thus standing as a rampart and strong defence around the northern frontier of India, collect and store up water for the tropical plains below. Throughout the summer, vast quantities of water are exhaled from the Indian Ocean. This moisture gathers into vapour, and is borne north- ward by the monsoon or regular winds, which set in from the South in the month of June. The monsoon carries the water- laden clouds northward across India, and thus produces the ‘rainy season,’ on which agriculture so critically depends. But large quantities of the moisture do not condense or fall as rain in passing over the hot plains. This vast residue is eventually dashed against the Himalayas. Their lofty double walls stop its farther progress northward, and it either descends in rain on their outer slopes, or is frozen into Snow in its attempt to cross their inner heights. Very little gets beyond them ; so that, while the southern spurs of the Himalayas receive the largest measured rainfall in the world, and pour it down to the Indian rivers, the great plateau of Tibet on the north of the double Himalayan wall gets scarcely any rainfall. At Cherra-Pünji, where the monsoon first strikes the hills in Assam, 489 inches of rain, according to the returns for 25 years, fall annually. In one year (1861) as many as 805 inches were reported, of which 366 inches fell in the single month of July. While, therefore, the yearly rainfall in London is about 2 feet, and that of the plains of India from 1 to 6 feet, the rainfall at Cherra-Pünjí is 40 feet, a Himālayan Water- supply. Himálayan rainfall. depth more than is required to float the largest man-of-war; and in one year, 67 feet of water fell from the sky, or sufficient to drown a three-storied house. The mighty mountains that wall in India on the north form, in fact, a rain-screen which catches the vapour-clouds from the Southern Ocean, and condenses them for the hot Bengal plains. The outer slopes of the Himálayas swell the Indian rivers by their torrents during the rainy season; their inner ranges and heights store up the rainfall in the shape of snow, and thus form a vast reservoir for the steady supply of the Indian rivers throughout the year. This heavy rainfall renders the southern slopes of the Himálayan Himalayas very fertile, wherever there is any depth of tilth. *% But, on the other hand, the torrents scour away the surface soil, and leave most of the mountain-sides bleak and bare. 4O AA/VS/CA/, ASAEECTS OF WAV/O/A. The upper ranges lie under eternal snow; the intermediate heights form arid grey masses; on the lower slopes, plateaux, and valleys, forests spring up, or give place to a rich though Himálayan vegetation, and forests. Himalayan cultivation. simple cultivation. The temperature falls about 34° F. for each thousand feet of elevation; and the vegetation of the Himalayas is divided into three well - marked zones, the tropical, the temperate, and the arctic, as the traveller ascends from the Indian plains. A damp belt of lowland, the tarái, stretches along their foot, and is covered with dense fever- breeding jungle, habitable only by rude tribes and wild beasts. Fertile diºns or valleys penetrate their outer margin. In their eastern ranges adjoining the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, where the rainfall is heaviest, the tree-fern flourishes amid a magnificent vegetation. Their western or Punjab ranges are barer. But the rhododendron grows into a forest tree, and hundreds of square miles of it are to be found throughout the Himalayas. The deodór rises in stately masses. Thickets of bamboos, with their graceful light-green foliage, beautify the lower valleys. Higher up, the glistening-grey ilex, mountain oaks with brown young leaves, the Himalayan Cedar, drooping silver-firs, spruces, pines, and the many- hued foliage of the chestnut, walnut, and maple, not to mention a hundred trees of a lower growth hung with bridal veils of clematis in spring, and festooned with crimson virginia- Creepers in autumn, form, together with patches of the white medlar blossom, a brilliant contrast to the stretches of scarlet and pink rhododendron. At harvest-time, crops of millet run in red bright ribands down the hillsides. The branches of the trees are themselves clothed in the damper regions with a luxuriant growth of mosses, ferns, lovely orchids, and flowering Creepers. The Himalayas have enriched English parks and hothouses by the deodór, the rhododendron, and the orchid. A great extension in the cultivation of the deodór and rhodo- dendron throughout Britain dates from the Himalayan tour in 1848 of Sir Joseph Hooker, for long Director of Kew Gardens. The high price of wood on the plains, for railway sleepers and building purposes, has caused many of the hills to be stripped of their forests, so that the rainfall now rushes quickly down their bare slopes, washing away the surface soil, and leaving no tilth in which new woods might grow up. The Indian Forest Department is endeavouring to repair this reckless denudation of the Himalayan woods. The hill tribes cultivate barley, oats, and a variety of millets and small grains. Vegetables are also raised on a i AZMAZA VA M CU/C ZT/WAZYO/W. 4 I large scale. The potato, introduced from England, is a favourite crop, and covers many sites formerly under forest. The hillman clears his potato ground by burning a ring Clearing a round the stems of the great trees, and then lays out the side hill forest. of the mountain into terraces. After a few years the bark and leaves drop off the branches, and the forest stands bleached and ruined. Some of the trees rot on the ground, like giants fallen in confused flight; others still remain upright, with white trunks and skeleton arms. In the end, the rank green potato crop marks the spot where a forest has been slain and buried. Several of the ruder hill tribes follow an even more wasteful mode of tillage. Destitute of either ploughs or Oxen, they burn down the jungle, and exhaust the soil by a quick Succes- sion of crops, raised by the hoe. In a year or two the whole settlement moves off to a fresh patch of jungle, which they clear and exhaust, and then desert in like manner. Rice is only grown in the Himalayas on ground which has Irrigation an unfailing command of water—particularly in the damp hot . mill- valleys between the successive ranges that roll upwards into power. the interior. The hillmen practise an ingenious system of irrigation, according to which the slopes are laid out in terraces, and the streams are diverted to a great distance by successive parallel channels along the mountain-side. They also utilize their water-power for mill purposes. Some of them are ignorant of cog-wheels for converting the vertical movement of the mill- wheel into the horizontal movement required for the grinding- stone. They therefore place their mill-wheel flat instead of upright, and lead the water so as to dash with great force on the horizontal paddles. A horizontal rotary movement is thus obtained, and conveyed direct by the axle to the millstone above. . The chief saleable products of the Himalayas are timber, Himálayan charcoal, barley, millets, potatoes, other vegetables, honey, *: jungle products, borax, and several kinds of inferior gems. Strings of ponies and mules straggle with their burdens along the narrow pathways, which are at many places mere ledges cut out of the precipice. The hillmen and their hard-working wives load themselves also with pine stems and conical baskets of grain. The yak-cow and robust mountain sheep are the favourite beasts of burden in the inner ranges. The little yak- cow, whose bushy tail was manufactured in Europe into lace, patiently toils up the steepest gorges with a heavy burden on her back. The sheep, laden with bags of borax, are driven to marts on the outer ranges near the plains, where they are 42 PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF INDIA. Himálayan animals and tribes. shorn of their wool, and then return into the interior with a load of grain or salt. Hundreds of them, having completed their journey from the upper ranges, are sold for slaughter at a nominal price of perhaps a shilling a-piece, as they are not worth taking back to the inner mountains. The characteristic animals of the Himalayas include the yak-cow, musk-deer, several kinds of wild sheep and goat, bear, Ounce, leopard, and fox; the eagle, great vultures, pheasants of beautiful varieties, partridges, and other birds. Ethnologically, the Himalayas form the meeting-ground of the Aryan and Turanian races, which in some parts are curiously mingled, although generally distinguishable. The tribes or broken clans of non-Aryan origin number over fifty, with languages, customs, and religious rites more or less distinct. The lifelong labours of Mr. Brian Houghton Hodgson, of the Bengal Civil Service, have done much to illustrate the flora, fauna, and ethnology of the Himalayas; and no sketch of this region would be com- plete without a reference to Mr. Hodgson's work. Second Region of India— The northern River Plains, The wide plains watered by the Himalayan rivers form the second of the three regions into which India is divided. They extend from the Bay of Bengal on the east, to the Afghān frontier and the Arabian Sea on the west, and contain the richest and most densely-crowded Provinces of the Empire. One set of invaders after another have, from pre-historic times, entered by the passes on the north-eastern and north- western frontiers of India. They followed the courses of the rivers, and pushed the earlier comers southward before them towards the sea. About 165 millions of people now live on and around these river-plains in the Provinces known as the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, Assam, the North-Western Provinces, Oudh, the Punjab, Sind, Rájputéna, and other The three River- systems of N. India. (1) The Indus, with the Sutlej. (2) The Tsan-pu or Brahma- putra. Native States. The vast level tract which thus covers Northern India is watered by three distinct river-systems. One of these river- systems takes its rise in the hollow trough beyond the Hima- layas, and issues through their western ranges upon the Punjab as the Indus and Sutlej. The second of the three river-systems also takes its rise beyond the double wall of the Himalayas, not very far from the sources of the Indus and the Sutlej. It turns, however, almost due east instead of west, enters India. at the eastern extremity of the Himalayas, and becomes the Brahmaputra of Assam and Eastern Bengal. These great rivers collect the drainage of the northern slopes of the Himalayas, THE A/VER-SYSTEMS OF MORTHE RAW ZAVD/A. 43 and convey it, by long, tortuous, and opposite routes, into India. Indeed, the special feature of the Himalayas is that they thus send down the rainfall from their northern as well as from their southern slopes to the Indian plains. Of the three great rivers of Northern India, the two longest, namely the Indus with its feeder the Sutlej, and the Brahmaputra, take their rise in the trough on the north of the lofty Himalayan wall. That trough receives the drainage of the inner or northern escarpment of the Himalayas, together with such water-supply as emerges from the outer or southern escarp- ment of the high but almost rainless plateau of Tibet. The third river-system of Northern India receives the (3) The drainage of the outer or southern Himalayan slopes, and ‘. unites into the mighty stream of the Ganges. In this way jumna. the rainfall, alike from the northern and southern slopes of the Himalayas, and even from the mountain buttresses of the Tibet plateau beyond, pours down upon the plains of India. The Spur of the outer Himalayas, on which stands Simla, the Summer residence of the Government of India, forms part of the watershed between the river - systems of the Indus and Ganges. The rain that falls on the western edge of the narrow ridge below the Simla Church flows into the Arabian Sea; while the drops of the same shower which fall a few feet off, on the eastern side, eventually reach the Bay of Bengal. The INDUS (Sanskrit, Sindhus ; "Ivöös, Suv6ós) rises in an The Indus. unexplored region (lat. 32° N., long, 81° E.) on the slopes of the Sacred Kailās mountain, the Elysium or Siva's Paradise of ancient Sanskrit literature. The Indus has an elevation of about 16,ooo feet at its source in Tibet; a drainage basin of 372,700 square miles; and a total length of over 1800 miles. Shortly after it passes within the Kashmir frontier, it drops to 14, ooo feet, and at Leh it is only about 1 1,000 feet above the level of the Sea. The rapid stream dashes down ravines and wild mountain valleys, and is subject to tremendous floods. The Indus bursts through the western ranges of the Hima- layas by a wonderful gorge near Iskardo, in North-Western Kashmir—a gorge reported to be 14,000 feet in sheer depth. Its great feeder, the SUTLEJ, rises on the southern slopes of The Sutlej. the Kailās mountain, also in Tibet. It issues from one of the Sacred lakes, the Mānasarowar and Rāvana-hráda (the modern Rákhas Tál), famous in Hindu mythology, and still a religious resort and place of pilgrimage for the Tibetan shepherds. Starting at an elevation of 15,200 feet, the Sutlej passes south- west across the plain of Gugé, where it has cut through a vast 44 PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF INDIA. accumulation of deposits by a gully said to be 4ooo feet deep, between precipices of alluvial soil. After traversing this plain, the river pierces the Himalayas by a gorge with moun- tains rising to 20,000 feet on either side. The Sutlej is reported to fall from 10,000 feet above sea-level at Shipki, a Tibetan frontier outpost, to 3ooo feet at Râmpur, the capital of a Himalayan State about 60 miles inward from Simla. During this part of its course, the Sutlej runs at the bottom of a deep trough, with precipices and bare mountains which have been denuded of their forests, towering above. Its turbid waters, and their unceasing roar as the river dashes over the rapids, have a gloomy and terrifying effect. Sometimes it grinds to powder the huge pines and cedars entrusted to it to float down to the plains. By the time it reaches Biláspur, it has dropped to Iooo feet above sea-level. After entering British territory, the Sutlej receives the many waters of the Punjab (gathered from the southern slopes of the Himálayas), and falls into the Indus near Mithankot, after a course of 9oo miles. Lower A full account of the Indus will be found in the article on i. “ that river in my Imperial Gazeteer of India. About 8oo miles of its course are passed among the Himalayas before it enters British territory, and it flows for about Iooo miles more, South-west, through the British Provinces of the Punjab and Sind. In its upper part it is fordable in many places during the cold weather; but it is liable to sudden freshets, in one of which Ranjit Singh is said to have lost a force, variously stated at from 12 oo to 7ooo horsemen, while crossing by a ford. A little way above Attock, the Indus receives the Kábul river, which brings down the waters of Northern Afghānistán. The volume of those waters, as represented by the Kábul river, is about equal to the volume of the Indus at the point of junction. At Attock, the Indus has fallen, during a course of 86o miles, from its elevation of 16,ooo feet at its source in Tibet, to under 2000 feet. These 2 ooo feet supply its fall during the remaining 940 miles of its course. The discharge of the Indus, after receiving all its Punjab tributaries, varies from 40,857 to 446,086 cubic feet per second, according to the month of the year. The enormous mass of water spreads itself over a channel of a quarter of a mile to a mile (or at times much more) in breadth. The effect pro- duced by the evaporation from this fluvial expanse is so marked that, at certain seasons, the thermometer is reported to be roº F. 1 In this and all other places it is the second edition of Zhe Imperia! Gazetteer of Zndia which is referred to. - THE /AV/O US AAV/D BACAA/MA PUTACA. 45 lower close to its surface than at a distance on the surrounding arid plains. The Indus supplies a precious store of water for irrigation works at various points along its course, and forms the great highway of the Southern Punjab and Sind. In its lower course it sends forth distributaries across a wide delta, with Haidarābād in Sind as its ancient political capital, and Karáchi as its modern port. The silt which it carries down has helped to form the seaboard islands, mud-banks, and shallows, that have cut off the famous emporia of ancient trade around the Gulf of Cambay from modern commerce. The BRAHMAPUTRA, like the Sutlej, rises near to the sacred The Tsan- lake of Mānasarowar. Indeed, the Indus, the Sutlej, and . the Brahmaputra may be said to start from the same water-putra. parting in the highlands of Central Asia. The Indus rises on the western slope of the Kailās mountain, the Sutlej on its Southern, and the Brahmaputra at some distance from its eastern base. The Mariam-la and other saddles connect the The Kailās more northern Tibetan mountains, to which the Kailās be. Wºº". longs, with the double Himalayan wall on the south. They form an irregular watershed across the trough on the north of the double wall of the Himalayas ; thus, as it were, blocking up the western half of the great Central Asian trench. The Indus flows down a western valley from this transverse water- shed ; the Sutlej finds a more direct route to India by a south-western valley. The Brahmaputra, under its Tibetan name of Tsan-pu or Sangpu, has its source in 31° N. lat. and 83° E. long. It flows eastward down the Tsan-pu valley, passing not very far to the south of Lhasa, the capital of Tibet ; and probably 8oo to 9oo miles, or about one-half of its total course, are spent in the hollow trough on the north of the Himalayas. This brief account assumes that the Brahma- putra of India is the true continuation of the Sangpu of Tibet. The results of the latest researches into that long mooted question are given under article BRAHMAPUTRA in my Imperial Gazetteer of India. After receiving several tributaries from the confines of the The Chinese Empire, the river twists round a lofty eastern range of Brahma. • A- tº º g putra con- the Himalayas, and enters British territory under the name of H. the DIHANG," near Sadiyā in Assam. It presently receives Assam. two confluents, the DIBANG | river from the northward, and the Brahmaputra proper from the east (lat. 27° 20' N., long. * The use of small capitals in the case of proper names indicates that the subject is treated at length in Zhe Zmperial Gazetteer of Zndia, s.v. 46 AA/VS/CA/, A.S.PECTS OF /ZVZ)/A. Brahma- putra silt. The Brahma- putra in Bengal. 95° 50' E.). The united stream then takes its well-known appellation of the Brahmaputra, literally the ‘Son of Brahma the Creator.’ It represents a drainage basin of 361,200 square miles, and its summer discharge at Goâlpárá in Assam was for long computed at 146,188 cubic feet of water per second. Recent measurements have, however, shown that this calcula- tion is below the truth. Observations made near Dibrugarh during the cold weather of 1877–78, returned a mean low- water discharge of 116,484 cubic feet per second for the Brahmaputra at the upper end of the Assam valley, together with 16,945 cubic feet per second for its tributary the SUBANSIRI. Total low-water discharge for the united stream, over 133,000 cubic feet per second near Dibrugarh. Several affluents join the Brahmaputra during its course through Assam ; and the mean low-water discharge at Goâlpárá, in the lower end of the Assam valley, must be in excess of the previous computation at 146,188 cubic feet per second. During the rains the channel rises 30 or 40 feet above its ordinary level, and its flood discharge is estimated at over 5oo, ooo cubic feet per second. The Brahmaputra rolls down the Assam valley in a vast sheet of water, broken by numerous islands, and exhibiting the operations of alluvion and diluvion on a gigantic scale. It is so heavily freighted with silt from the Himalayas, that the least impediment placed in its current causes a deposit, and may give rise to a wide-spreading, almond-shaped mud-bank. Steamers anchoring near the margin for the night sometimes find their sterns aground next morning on an accumulation of silt, caused by their own obstruction to the current. Broad divergent channels split off from the parent stream, and rejoin it after a long separate existence of uncontrollable meandering. By centuries of alluvial deposit, the Brahma- putra has raised its banks and channel in parts of the Assam valley to a higher level than the surrounding country. Beneath either bank lies a low strip of marshy land, which is flooded in the rainy season. Beyond these swamps, the ground begins to rise towards the hills that hem in the valley of Assam on both sides. After a course of 450 miles south-west down the Assam valley, the Brahmaputra sweeps round the spurs of the Gáro Hills due south towards the sea. It here takes the name of the Jamunā, and for 180 miles rushes across the level plains of Eastern Bengal, till it joins the Ganges at Goâlânda (lat. 23° 50' N., long. 89° 46' E.). From this point the deltas of CAAAWG ZS //V 7THE BACAA/MAAUTRA. 47 the two great river-systems of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra (Jamunā, unite into one. But before reaching the sea, their combined §: streams have yet to receive, by way of the CACHAR valley, the º 5 drainage of the eastern watershed between Bengal and Burma, Meghná.) under the name of the MEGHNA river, itself a broad and magnificent sheet of water. The Brahmaputra is famous not only for its vast alluvial Brahma- deposits, but also for the historical changes which have taken Pºiº place in its course. One of the islands which it has created in its mid-channel out of the silt torn away from the distant Himalayas, covers 441 Square miles. Every year, thousands of acres of new land are thus formed out of mud and sand ; some of them destined to be swept away by the inundations of the following year; others to become the homes of an industrious peasantry or the seats of busy river marts. Such formations give rise to changes in the bed of the river—changes which within a hundred years have completely altered the course of the Brahmaputra through Bengal. In the last century, the stream, on issuing from Assam, bent close round the spurs of the Gáro Hills in a south-easterly direction. This old bed of the Brahmaputra, the only one recognised by Major Rennell in 1765–75, has now been deserted. It retains the ancient name Great of the Brahmaputra, but during the hot weather it is little º more than a series of pools. The modern channel, instead of twisting round the Gáro Hills to the east, bursts straight southward towards the sea under the name of the Jamunā, and is now separated at places by nearly Ioo miles of level land from the main channel in the last century. A floating log thrown up against the bank, a Sunken boat, or any smallest obstruction, may cause the deposit of a mud island. Every such silt-bank gives a more or less new direction to the main channel, which in a few years may have eaten its way far across the plain, and dug out for itself a new bed at a distance of several miles. Unlike the Ganges and the Indus, the Brahmaputra is little used for artificial irrigation ; but its silt-chargéd overflow annually replenishes the land. Indeed, the plains of Eastern Bengal, watered by the Brahmaputra, yield unfailing harvests of rice, mustard, oil-seeds, and the exhausting jute crop, year after year, without any deterioration. The valley of the Brahmaputra in Assam is not less fertile, although inhabited by a less industrious race. The Brahmaputra is the great high-road of Eastern Bengal The and Assam. Its tributaries and bifurcations afford innumer. " & putra as a able waterways, almost Superseding roads, and at the same high-road. 48 AA/VS/CA/, ASAEECTS OF MAV/D/A. Brahma- putra traffic. The Gangetic river- system. time rendering road construction and maintenance very difficult. The main river is navigable by steamers as high up as DIBRUGARH, about 8oo miles from the sea ; and its broad surface is crowded with country craft of all sizes and rigs, from the dug-out canoe and timber raft to the huge cargo ship, with its high bow and carved stern, its bulged-out belly, and spreading square-sails. The busy emporium of SIRAJGANJ, on the western bank of the Brahmaputra, collects the produce of the Districts for transmission to Calcutta. Over fifty thousand native craft, besides steamers, pass Sirájganj per annum. The downward traffic consists chiefly of tea (to the value of about 25 millions of rupees), timber, Caoutchouc, and raw cotton, from Assam; with jute, oil-seeds, tobacco, rice, and other grains from Eastern Bengal. In return for these, Calcutta sends northward by the Brahmaputra, European piece-goods, salt, and hardware; while Assam imports from the Bengal delta, by the same highway, large quantities of rice for the labourers on the tea plantations. The total value of the river-borne trade of the Brahmaputra was returned at a little over three millions sterling in 1882–83, and may now be taken at about fifty millions of rupees. But it is impossible to ascertain the whole produce carried by the innumerable native boats on the Brahmaputra. The railway system of India taps the Brahmaputra at Goâlânda and Dhubrí; while a network of channels through the Sundarbans supplies a cheaper means of water transit for bulky produce across the delta to Calcutta. As the Indus, with its feeder the Sutlej, and the Brahma- putra, convey to India the drainage from the northern or Tibetan slopes of the Himalayas, so the GANGES, with its tributary the Jumna, collects the rainfall from the southern or Indian slopes of the mountain wall, and pours it down upon the plains of Bengal. The Ganges traverses the central part of those plains, and Occupies a more prominent place in the history of Indian civilisation than either the Indus in the extreme west, or the Brahmaputra in the extreme east of Hindustán. It passes its whole life to the south of the Himalayas, and for thousands of years has formed an over- ruling factor in the development of the Indian races. The Ganges issues, under the name of the Bhāgirathſ, from an ice-cave at the foot of a Himalayan snowbed, 13,8oo feet above the sea-level (lat. 30° 56' 4" N., long, 79° 6' 40" E.). After a course of 1557 miles, it falls by a network of estuaries into the Bay of Bengal. It represents, with its tributaries, an GA2O WTH OF THE GAAWGAE.S. 49 enormous catchment basin, bounded on the north by a section of about 700 miles of the Himalayan ranges, on the south by the Vindhya mountains, and embracing 391, Ioo square miles. Before attempting a description of the functions performed by the Ganges, it is necessary to form some idea of the mighty masses of water which it collects and distributes. But so many variable elements affect the discharge of rivers, that calculations of their volume must be taken merely as esti- mateS. At the point where it issues from its snowbed, the infant The stream is only 27 feet broad and 15 inches deep, with an ele- º vation of 13,8oo feet above sea-level. During the first 180 Ganges. miles of its course, it drops to an elevation of Io24 feet. At this point, Hardwór, its lowest discharge, in the dry season, is 7ooo cubic feet per second. Hitherto the Ganges has been little more than a snow-fed Himalayan stream. During the next thousand miles of its journey, it collects the drainage of its vast catchment basin, and reaches Rájmahāl, in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, about I 180 miles from its source. It has here, while still about 4oo miles from the Discharge sea, a high flood discharge of 1,800,000 cubic feet of water per of Gangº. Second, and an ordinary discharge of 207,ooo cubic feet; longest duration of flood, about forty days. The maximum discharge of the Mississippi is given at 1,200,ooo cubic feet per second." The maximum discharge of the Nile at Cairo is returned at only 362,200 cubic feet; and of the Thames at Staines at 6600 cubic feet of water per second. The Meghna, one of the many outflows of the Ganges, is 20 miles broad near its mouth, with a depth, in the dry season, of 30 feet. But for a distance of about 200 miles, the sea face of Bengal entirely consists of the estuaries of the Ganges, intersected by low islands and promontories, formed out of its silt. In forming our ideas with regard to the Ganges, we must The begin by dismissing from our minds any lurking comparison of Jumna. its gigantic stream with the rivers with which we are familiar in England. A single one of its tributaries, the JUMNA, has an independent existence of 860 miles, with a catchment basin of I 18, ooo square miles, and starts from an elevation at its source of Io,849 feet above sea-level. The Ganges and its principal tributaries are treated of in my /mperial Gazetteer of Zndia, in separate articles under their respective names. The following account confines itself to a brief sketch of the work which these 1 Hydraulic Manual, by Lowis D’A. Jackson, Hydraulic Statistics, Table II. ; Appendix, p. 2 (1875). D 5o AA/VS/CA/C A.S.PECTS OF /W/D/A. Sanctity of the Ganges. Legend of the Ganges. Gangetic pilgrim- ages. Gangetic rivers perform for the plains of Northern India, and of the position which they hold in the thoughts of the people. Of all great rivers on the surface of the globe, none can compare in Sanctity with the Ganges, or Mother Gangá, as she is affectionately called by devout Hindus. From her source in the Himalayas, to her mouth in the Bay of Bengal, her banks are holy ground. Each point of junction of a tributary with the main stream has its own special claims to sanctity. But the tongue of land at Allahābād, where the Ganges unites with her great sister river the Jumna, is the true Prayág, the place of pilgrimage whither hundreds of thousands of devout Hindus repair to wash away their sins in her sanctifying waters. Many of the other holy rivers of India borrow their sanctity from a supposed underground connection with the Ganges. This fond fable recalls the primitive time when the Aryan race was moving Southward with fresh and tender recollections of the Gangetic plains. It is told not only of first-class rivers of Central and Southern India, like the Narbadá, but also of many minor streams of local sanctity. An ancient legend relates how Gangă, the fair daughter of King Himalaya (Himavat) and of his queen the air-nymph Menaka, was persuaded, after long supplication, to shed her purifying influence upon the sinful earth. The icicle-studded cavern from which she issues is the tangled hair of the god Siva. Loving legends hallow each part of her course; and from the names of her tributaries and of the towns along her banks, a whole mythology might be built up. The southern Offshoots of the Aryan race not only sanctified their southern rivers by a fabled connection with the holy stream of the north. They also hoped that in the distant future, their rivers would attain an equal sanctity by the diversion of the Ganges' waters through underground channels. Thus, the Bráhmans along the Narbadá maintain that in this iron age of the world (indeed, in the year 1894 A.D.), the sacred character of the Ganges will depart from her now polluted stream, and take refuge by an underground passage in their own Narbadá river. The estuary of the Ganges is not less sacred than her source. Ságar Island at her mouth is annually visited by a vast concourse of pilgrims, in commemoration of her act of Saving grace; when, in order to cleanse the 60,000 damned ones of the house of Ságar, she divided herself into a hundred channels, thus making sure of reaching their remains with her WOACA /OO/WE P V THE GAAWGAE.S. 5 I purifying waters, and so forming the delta of Bengal. The six years' pilgrimage from her source to her mouth and back again, known as pradać-shina, is still performed by many ; and a few devotees may yet be seen wearily accomplishing the meritorious penance of ‘measuring their length” along certain parts of the route. To bathe in the Ganges at the stated festivals washes away guilt, and those who have thus purified themselves carry back bottles of her water to their kindred in far-off provinces. To die and to be cremated on the river bank, and to have their ashes borne seaward by her stream, is the last wish of millions of Hindus. Even to ejaculate “Gangá, Gangă, at the distance of Ioo leagues from the river, said her more enthusiastic devotees, might atone for the sins committed during three previous lives. The Ganges has earned the reverence of the people by Work centuries of unfailing work done for them. She and her ºne by tributaries are the unwearied water-carriers for the densely- &nges: peopled Provinces of Northern India, and the peasantry reverence the bountiful stream which fertilizes their fields and distributes their produce. None of the other rivers of India comes near to the Ganges in works of beneficence. The Brahmaputra and the Indus have longer streams, as measured by the geographer, but their upper courses lie beyond the great mountain wall in the unknown recesses of the Himalayas. Not one of the rivers of Southern India is navigable in The water: the proper sense. . But in the North, the Ganges begins to *...* distribute fertility by irrigation as soon as she reaches the of Bengal. plains, within 200 miles of her source, and at the same time her channel becomes in some sort navigable. Thenceforward she rolls majestically down to the sea in a bountiful stream, which never becomes a merely destructive torrent in the rains, and never dwindles away in the hottest summer. Tapped by canals, she distributes millions of cubic feet of water every hour in irrigation; but her diminished volume is promptly recruited by great tributaries, and the wide area of her catchment basin renders her stream inexhaustible in the service of man. Embankments are in but few places required to restrain her inundations, for the alluvial silt which she spills over her banks affords in most parts a top-dressing of inex- haustible fertility. If one crop be drowned by the flood, the peasant comforts himself with the thought that the next crop from his silt-manured fields will abundantly requite him. The function of the Ganges as a land-maker on a great scale will be explained hereafter. 52 PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF INDIA. The The Ganges has also played a pre-eminent part in the * commercial development of Northern India. Until the open- highway of ing of the railway system, from 1855 to 1870, her magnificent Bengal. stream formed almost the sole channel of traffic between Upper India and the seaboard. The products not only of the river plains, but even the cotton of the Central Provinces, were formerly brought by this route to Calcutta. Notwithstanding the revolution caused by the railways, the heavier and more bulky staples are still conveyed by the river, and the Ganges may yet rank as one of the greatest waterways in the world. Traffic The value of the upward and downward trade of the interior *. with Calcutta, by the Gangetic channels, may be taken at about 4oo millions of rupees fer annum, of which over 153 millions go by country-boats, and, nearly 240 millions by steamers (1891). This is exclusive of the sea-borne commerce. But the adjustments which have to be made are so numerous that the calculation is an intricate one. As far back as 1876, the number of Cargo boats registered at Bámanghata, on one of the canals east of Calcutta, was 178,627 ; at Huigli, a river- side station on a single One of the many Gangetic mouths, 124,357; and at Patná, 550 miles from the mouth of the river, the number of cargo boats entered in the register was 61,571. The port of Calcutta is itself one of the world's greatest emporia for sea and river-borne commerce. Its total exports and imports landward and Seaward amounted in 1881 to about 14oo millions of rupees (Rx. 140,000,ooo), and to 1523 millions of rupees (Rx. 152,363,583) in 1891." Articles of European Commerce, such as wheat, indigo, cotton, opium, and saltpetre, prefer the railway; so also do Not. . . , the imports of Manchester piece-goods. But if we take into º account the vast development in the export trade of oil-seeds, railway. rice, etc., still carried by the river, and the growing inter- change of food-grains between interior districts of the country, it seems probable that the actual amount of traffic on the Ganges has increased rather than diminished since the open- ing of the railways. At well-chosen points along her course, the iron lines touch the banks, and these river-side stations form centres for collecting and distributing the produce of * The sign Rx. uniformly means ‘tens of rupees.” Thus, as above, Rx. I40,000,000 signifies I4OO millions of rupees. To find, therefore, the actual number of any sum in rupees in this volume which has the sign Rx. prefixed to it, multiply by ten. Thus Rx. I,000,000 signifies IO million rupees, or say Rx. 270,000 signifies 2,700,000 rupees. This system has now been adopted in the accounts of the Government of India. 7THAE GA’AºA 7" GAAWGAE TWC CITIES. 53 the surrounding country. The Ganges, therefore, is not merely a rival, but a feeder, of the railway. Her ancient Cities, such as ALLAHABAD, BENAREs, and PATNA, have thus been able to preserve their former importance; while fishing villages like SAHIBGANJ and GOALANDA have been raised into thriving river marts. For, unlike the Indus and the Brahmaputra, the Ganges is a The great river of great historic cities. CALCUTTA, PATNA, and BENARES gº are built on her banks; ACRA and DELHI on those of her tributary, the Jumna; and ALLAHABAD on the tongue of land where the two sister streams unite. Many millions of human beings live by commerce along her margin. Calcutta, with Calcutta. its suburbs on both sides of the river, contains a popula- tion of nearly a million. It has a municipal revenue of 4} millions of rupees; a sea-borne and coasting commerce in 1891 of 770 millions of rupees, with a landward trade of over 750 millions. These figures vary from year to year, but show a steady increase. Calcutta lies on the HUGLI, the most westerly of the mouths by which the Ganges enters the sea. To the eastward stretches the delta, till it is hemmed in on the other side by the MEGHNA, the most easterly of the mouths of the Ganges. More accurately speaking, the |Meghna is the vast estuary by which the combined waters of the Brahmaputra and Gangetic river-systems find their way into the Bay of Bengal. & In order, therefore, to understand the plains of Northern The part India, we must have a clear idea of the part played by the º great rivers; for the rivers first create the land, then fertilize rivers, it, and finally distribute its produce. The plains of Bengal were in many parts upheaved by volcanic forces, or deposited in an aqueous era, before the present race of man appeared. But in other parts they have been formed out of the silt which the rivers bring down from the mountains; and at this day we may stand by and watch the ancient process of land-making go On. A great Indian river like the Ganges has three distinct Three stages in its career from the Himálayas to the sea. In ºr the first stage of its course, it dashes down the Himalayas, a river. cutting out for itself deep gullies in the solid rock, ploughing is . up glens between the mountains, and denuding the hillsides Stage ; of their soil. In wading over the Sutlej feeders among the Himalayas in the rainy season, my ankles were sore from the pebbles which the stream carried with it; while even in the 54 AA/VS/CA/, ASA’/2CZ'S OF /AVD/A. Second Stage. First and second stages of a great river as a silt-collec- tor. Loss of carrying power. hot weather, the rushing sand and gravel cause a prickly sensation across the feet. The second stage in the life of an Indian river begins at the point where it emerges from the mountains upon the plains. It then runs peacefully along the valleys, searching out for itself the lowest levels. It receives the drainage and mud of the country on both sides, absorbs tributaries, and rolls forward with an ever-increasing volume of water and silt. Every torrent from the Himalayas brings its separate contribu: tion of new soil, which it has torn from the rocks or eroded from its banks. This process repeats itself throughout more than ten thousand miles; that is to say, down the course of each tributary from the Himalayas or Vindhyas, and across the plains of Northern India. During the second stage of the life of a Bengal river, therefore, it forms a great open drain, which gradually deepens itself by erosion of its channel. As its bed thus sinks lower and lower, it draws off the water from Swamps or lakes in the surrounding country. Dry land takes the place of fens; and in this way the physical configuration of Northern India has been greatly altered, even since the Greek descriptions of it 2200 years ago. As long as the force of the current is maintained by a sufficient fall per mile, the river carries forward the silt thus supplied, and adds to it fresh contributions from its banks. Each river acquires a character of its own as it advances, a character which tells the story of the country and soil in which it has spent its early life. Thus, the Indus is loaded with silt of a brown hue; the Chenāb has a reddish tinge; while the Sutlej is of a paler colour. The exact amount of fall required per mile depends upon the specific gravity of the silt which it carries. At a comparatively early stage, the Current drops the heavy particles of rock or sand which it has torn from the Himalayan precipices. But a fall of 5 inches per mile suffices to hold in suspension the great body of the silt, and to add further accretions in passing through alluvial plains. The average fall of the Ganges between Benares and the delta-head (about 461 miles) is nearly 5 inches per mile. In its upper course its average declivity is much greater, and suffices to bear along and pulverize the heavier spoils torn from the Himalayas. By the time the Ganges reaches its delta in Lower Bengal (Colgong to Calcutta), its average fall per mile has dropped to 4 inches. From Calcutta to the sea the fall varies in the numerous distributaries of the parent stream, according to the AAV ZAVD/AAV /ē/ WEAE AS A ZAND-MAA AEA'. 55 tide, from I to 2 inches. In the delta the current seldom suffices to carry the burden of its silt, except during the rains, and so deposits it." In Lower Bengal, therefore, the Ganges enters on the third Third f stage of its life. Finding its speed checked by the equal level..., of the plains, and its bed raised by the deposit of its own river, as silt, it splits out into channels, like a jet of water suddenly *. obstructed by the finger, or a jar of liquid dashed on the ground. Each of the new streams thus created throws Out in turn its own set of distributaries to right and left. The Country which their many offshoots enclose and intersect forms the delta of Bengal. The present delta of the Ganges may be The delta taken to commence at a point 1231 miles from the source of **** the river, and 326 from the sea by its longest channel. At the commencement of the delta of the Ganges the head-waters of the Huiglí break off, under the name of the Bhāgirathi, from the parent channel, and make their way south to the sea. The main volume of the Ganges pursues its course to the south-east, and a great triangle of land, with its southern base on the Bay of Bengal, is thus enclosed. * The following facts may be useful to observels in Bengal who wish to study the most interesting feature of the country in which they live, namely the rivers. Ten inches per mile is considered to be the fall which a navigable river should not exceed. The average fall of the Ganges from the point where it unites with the Jumna at Allahābād to Benares (139 miles), is 6 inches per mile; from Benares to Colgong (326 miles), 5 inches per mile ; from Colgong to the delta-head, where the Bhāgirathi strikes off (about I35 miles), 4 inches per mile ; from the delta-head to Calcutta (about 200 miles), also 4 inches per mile ; from Calcutta to the sea zić the Hügli (about 80 miles), I to 2 inches per mile, according to the tide. The fall of the Nile from the First Cataract to Cairo (555 miles), is 6% inches per mile ; from Cairo to the Sea, it is very much less. The fall of the Missis- sippi for the first hundred miles from its mouth, is 1:80 inches per mile ; for the second hundred miles, 2 inches; for the third hundred, 2.30 inches; for the fourth hundred, 2-57 inches; and for the whole section of 855 miles from the mouth to Memphis, the average fall is given as 4; inches to the mile. The following table, calculated by Mr. David Stevenson (Canal and A’iver Engineering, p. 315), shows the silt-carrying power of rivers at various velocities:— Inches Miles per per Second. Hour. 3 - O'I70 will just begin to work on fine clay. 6 ~ O'34O will lift fine sand. 8 - O'4545 will lift Sand as coarse as linseed. I 2 -- O'6819 will sweep along fine gravel. 24. — I '3638 will roll along rounded pebbles I inch in diameter. 36 - 2'O45 will sweep along slippery angular stones of the size of an egg. 56 PH/VS/CA/, ASPECTS OF JAVIDIA. The Between the Hüglí on the west and the main channel on i. the east, a succession of offshoots strike southward from the taries; Ganges. The network of streams struggles slowly seaward over the level delta. Their currents are no longer able, by reason of their diminished speed, to carry along the silt or sand which the more rapid parent river has brought down from Northern India. They accordingly drop their burden of how they silt in their channels or along their margins, producing raise their g * * tº banks almond-shaped islands, and by degrees raising their banks above sur- and channels above the surrounding plains. When they spill º over in time of flood, the largest amount of silt is deposited on their banks, or near them on the inland side. In this way not only their beds, but also the lands along their banks, are gradually raised. SECTION OF A DELTAIC CHANNEL OF THE GANGES. a The river channel ; # 5 the two banks raised by successive deposits of silt from the spill-water in time of flood ; c c the surface of the water when not in flood ; d. a the low- lying swamps stretching away from either bank, into which the river flows when it spills over its banks in time of flood ; e e the dotted lines represent the ordinary level of the river surface. The curves are necessarily exaggerated in this drawing, in order more clearly to bring out the facts. Delta The rivers of a delta thus build themselves up, as it were, riversbuild into high-level canals, which in the rainy season overflow their themselves * * * & ...” banks and leave their silt upon the low country on either side. high-level Thousands of square miles in Lower Bengal receive in this way * each summer a top-dressing of new soil, carried free of cost for more than a thousand miles by the river currents from Northern India or the still more distant Himalayas—a system of natural manuring which yields a constant succession of rich crops. Junction At Goâlânda, about half-way between the delta-head and the tºº sea, the Ganges unites with the main stream of the Brahma- putra, and putra, and farther down with the Meghna. Their combined Mºgh” waters exhibit deltaic operations on the most gigantic scale. They represent the drainage collected by the two vast river- systems of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, from an aggregate catchment basin of 752, ooo square miles on both the Tibetan and Indian sides of the Himalayas, together with the rainfall poured into the Meghna from the eastern Burmese watershed. º The forces thus brought into play defy the control even of C * e & delta. modern engineering. As the vast network of rivers Creeps A) /º/, 7A/C S WA/AS. 57 farther down the delta, they become more and more sluggish, and raise their beds still higher above the adjacent flats. Each set of channels has a depressed tract or swamp on either side, so that the lowest levels in a delta lie about half-way between the rivers. The stream constantly overflows into these depressed tracts, and gradually fills them up with its silt. The Deltaic water which rushes from the river into the swamps has some- ***P* times the colour of pea-soup, from the quantity of silt which it Carries. When it has stood a few days in the Swamps, and the river flood subsides, the water flows back from the swamps into the river channel; but it has dropped all its silt, and is of a clear dark-brown hue. The silt remains in the swamp, and by how filled degrees fills it up, thus slowly creating new land. The muddy "P") * foliage of the shrubs which have been submerged bears witness to the fresh deposit. As we shall presently see, decayed trees and stumps are found at great depths below the surface: while nearer the top the excavator comes upon the remains of old tanks, broken pottery, and other traces of buried human habita- tions, which within historical times were above the ground. The last scene in the life of an Indian river is a wilderness Last scene of forest and swamp at the end of the delta, amid whose . º life malarious solitude the network of tidal Creeks merges into the Indian sea. Here all the secrets of land-making stand disclosed. river. The river channels, finally checked by the dead weight of the sea, deposit most of their remaining silt, which emerges from the estuary as banks or blunted headlands. The Ocean currents also find themselves impeded by the Outflow from the rivers, and in their turn drop the burden of Sand which they Sweep along the coast. The two causes combine to build up breakwaters of mingled sand and mud along the foreshore. In this way, while the solid earth gradually grows outward into Land. the sea, owing to the deposits of river silt; peninsulas and making islands are formed around the river mouths from the sand º dropped by the ocean currents; and a double process of land- making goes On. The great Indian rivers, therefore, have not only supplied new solid ground by draining off the water from neighbouring lakes and marshes in their upper courses, and by depositing islands in their beds lower down. They are also constantly filling up the low-lying tracts or swamps in their deltas, and are forming banks and capes and masses of low-lying land at their mouths. Indeed, they slowly construct their entire deltas by driving back the sea. Lower Egypt was thus ‘the Fº the & e gº g e ft of gift of the Nile,” according to her priests in the age of Hero- ºil.’ 58 AA/VS/CA/, ASPAECTS OF AAWD/A. dotus; and the vast Province of Lower Bengal is in the strictest scientific sense the gift of the Ganges, the Brahma- putra, and the Meghna. The deltas of these three river- systems are in modern times united into one, but three distinct delta-heads are observable. The delta-head of the Brahmaputra commences near the bend where the river now twists due south round the Gáro Hills, 220 miles from the sea as the crow flies. The present delta-head of the Ganges begins at the point where the Bhāgirathi breaks South- ward from the main channel, also about 220 miles in a direct line from the sea. The delta of the Meghná, which represents the heavy southern rainfall of the Khási Hills together with the western drainage of the watershed between Bengal and Burma, commences in Sylhet District. The three deltas, instead of each forming a triangle like the Greek A, unite to make an irregular parallelogram, running inland 220 miles from the coast, with an average breadth also of about 220 miles. This vast alluvial basin of say 50,000 square miles was once covered with the sea, and it has been slowly filled up to the height of at least 4oo feet by the deposits which the rivers have brought down. In other words, the united river- systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna have torn away from the Himalayas and North-Eastern Bengal enough earth to build up a lofty island, with an area of 50,000 square miles, and a height of 400 feet. Care has been taken not to overstate the work performed by the Bengal rivers. Borings have been carried down in the allu- vial silt to 481 feet at Calcutta, but the auger broke at that depth, and it is impossible to say how much farther the deposits may go. There have been successive eras of vegetation, followed by repeated depressions of the surface. These successive eras of vegetation now form layers of stumps of trees, peat-beds, and carbonized wood. Passing below traces of recently submerged forests, a well-marked peat-bed is found in excavations around Calcutta at a depth varying from 20 to 30 feet; and decayed wood, with pieces of fine coal, such as occur in mountain streams, has been met with at a depth of 392 feet. Fossilized remains of animal life have been brought up from 372 feet below the present surface. The footnote 1 Bengal, the “Gift of the Ganges.’ Size of the Bengal delta. Successive depres- sions of the delta. Its subter- Iſa Ilea.I.] Structure. * “Abstract Report of Proceedings of Committee appointed to superin- tend the Borings at Fort-William, December 1835 to April 1840.’ ‘After penetrating through the surface soil to a depth of about Io feet, a stratum of stiff blue clay, I5 feet in thickness, was met with. Underlying this was a light-coloured Sandy clay, which became gradually darker in colour S/ZZ" BA’OUGAſ7' DO WAV B Y GAAWG. E.S. 59 illustrates the successive layers of the vast and lofty island, so to speak, which the rivers have built up—an island with an area of 50,000 square miles, and 4oo feet high from its foundation, although at places only a few inches above sea-level. It should be remembered, however, that the rivers have #: been aided in their work by the sand deposited by the ocean ...a currents. But, on the other hand, the alluvial deposits of off by the Ganges and Brahmaputra commence far to the north * * of the present delta-head, and have a total area greatly exceeding the 50,000 square miles mentioned in a former paragraph. The Brahmaputra has covered with thick alluvium the valley of Assam ; its confluent, the Meghnā, or rather the upper waters which ultimately form the Meghna, have done the same fertilizing task for the valleys of Cachar and Sylhet ; while the Ganges, with its mighty feeders, has prepared for the uses of man thousands of square miles of land in the broad hollow between the Himálayas and the Vindhyas, far to the north-west of its present delta. A large quantity of the finest and lightest silt, moreover, is carried out to sea, and discolours the Bay of Bengal 150 miles from the shore. The plains of Bengal are truly the gift of the great rivers. Several attempts have been made to estimate the time which * Of Sllt from the admixture of vegetable matter, till it passed into a bed of peat, at brought a distance of about 30 feet from the surface. Beds of clay and variegated down. sand, intermixed with Kankar, mica, and small pebbles, alternated to a depth of I2O feet, when the sand became loose and almost semi-fluid in its texture. At I52 feet, the quicksand became darker in colour and coarser in grain, intermixed with red water-worn nodules of hydrated oxide of iron, resembling to a certain extent the laterite of South India. At 159 feet, a stiff clay with yellow veins occurred, altering at 163 feet remarkably in colour and substance, and becoming dark, friable, and apparently con- taining much vegetable and ferruginous matter. A fine sand succeeded at I70 feet, and this gradually became coarser, and mixed with fragments of quartz and felspar, to a depth of 180 feet. At 196 feet, clay impregnated with iron was passed through ; and at 221 feet sand recurred, containing fragments of limestone, with modules of kankar and pieces of quartz and felspar; the same stratum continued to 340 feet; and at 350 feet a fossil bone, conjectured to be the humerus of a dog, was extracted. At 360 feet a piece of supposed tortoiseshell was found, and subsequently several pieces of the same substance were obtained. At 372 feet, another fossil bone was discovered, but it could not be identified, from its being torn and broken by the borer. At 392 feet, a few pieces of fine coal, such as are found in the beds of mountain streams, with some fragments of decayed wood, were picked out of the sand, and at 400 feet a piece of limestone was brought up. From 400 to 481 feet, fine sand, like that of the sea- shore, intermixed largely with shingle composed of fragments of primary rocks, quartz, felspar, mica, slate, and limestone, prevailed, and in this Stratum the bore has been terminated.’ 6o PA/VS/CA/C A.S.PEC ZTS OF WAV/D/A. ^- the Ganges and Brahmaputra must have required for ac- complishing their gigantic task. The borings already cited, together with an admirable account by Colonel Baird Smith in the Calcutta Journal of Matural History," and the Rev. Mr. Everest’s calculations, form the chief materials for such an estimate, Sir Charles Lyell” accepts Mr. Everest's calculation, made half a century ago, that the Ganges discharges 6368 millions of cubic feet of silt per annum at Ghāzipur. This would alone suffice to supply 355 millions of tons a year, or nearly the weight of 60 replicas of the Great Pyramid. ‘It is scarcely possible,” he says, “to present any picture to the mind which will convey an adequate conception of the mighty Scale of this operation, so tranquilly and almost insensibly carried on by the Ganges.” About 96 per cent. of the whole deposits are brought down during the four months of the rainy season, or as much as could be carried by 240,000 ships, each of 14oo tons burthen. The work thus done in that season may be realized if we suppose that a daily succession of fleets, each of two thousand great ships, sailed down the river during the four months, and that each ship of the daily 2000 vessels deposited a freight of 14oo tons of mud every morning into the estuary. But the Ganges at Ghāzipur is only a single feeder of the mighty mass of waters which have formed the delta of Bengal. The Ganges, after leaving Ghāzīpur, receives many of its principal tributaries, such as the GOGRA, the SON, the GANDAK, and the KUSI. It then unites with the Brahmaputra, and finally with the Meghna, and the total mass of mud brought down by these combined river-systems is estimated by Sir Charles Lyell to be at least six or seven times as much as that discharged by the Ganges alone at Ghāzipur. We have there- fore, at the lowest estimate, about 40,000 millions of cubic feet of Solid matter spread over the delta, or deposited at the river mouths, or carried out to sea, each year; according to Sir Charles Lyell, five times as much as is conveyed by the Mississippi to its delta and the Gulf of Mexico. The silt borne along during the rainy season alone represents the work which a daily succession of fleets, each of 13, ooo ships a-piece, sailing down the Ganges during the four rainy months would Ganges silt at Gházipur. Estimated silt of united river- system at the delta. * Vol. i. p. 324. The other authorities, chiefly from the /ournal of the Bengal Asiatic Society, are fully quoted in the Geology of Zndia, by Messrs. Medlicott and Blanford, vol. i. pp. 396 et seq. (Calcutta Government Press, * Principles of Geology, vol. i. pp. 478 et seq. (1875). 1879). 7A/E AE UAZZO/AWG UP OF 7'HE ZOAX/, 74. 6 I perform, if each ship of the daily 13,000 vessels discharged a freight of 14oo tons a-piece each morning into the Bay of Bengal. This vast accumulation of silt takes place every rainy season in the delta or around the mouths of the Ganges; and the process, modified by volcanic upheavals and depres- Sions of the delta, has been going on during uncounted thousands of years. General Strachey took the area of the delta and coast-line Time within influence of the deposits at 65,000 square miles, and i. to estimated that the rivers would require 45.3 years to raise it construct by 1 foot, even by their enormous deposit of 40,000 millions the delta. of cubic feet of solid earth per annum. The rivers must have been at work 13,600 years in building up the delta 3oo feet. But borings have brought up fluvial deposits from a depth of at least 4oo feet. The present delta forms, moreover, but a very small part of the vast alluvial area which the rivers have constructed in the great dip between the Himalayas and the Vindhyan mountains. The more closely we scrutinize the various elements in such estimates, the more vividly do we realize Ourselves in the presence of an almost immeasurable labour carried on during an almost immeasurable past. The land which the great Indian rivers thus create, they River. also fertilize. In the lower parts of their course we have seen *S* how their overflow affords a natural system of irrigation and manuring. In the higher parts, man has to step in, and to bring their water by canals to his fields. Some idea of the enormous irrigation enterprises of Northern India may be obtained in the four articles in Zhe Imperial Gazetteer on the Ganges and Jumna Canals. The four main canals drawn from the Ganges and Jumna rivers already irrigate an aggregate area of over two million acres, and will eventually irrigate over three millions. But besides these four great works there are many other irrigation enterprises in Upper India. Among them may be mentioned the Agra, Bári Doāb, Rohilkhand and Bijnor, Betwā, and the Sutlej-Chenab and Indus Inundation Canals. The Indian rivers form, moreover, as we have seen, the great The Rivers highways of the country. They supply cheap transit for the as high- collection, distribution, and export of the agricultural staples. “” What the arteries are to the living body, the rivers are to the plains of Bengal. But the very potency of their energy some- The Rivers times causes terrible calamities. Scarcely a year passes without as de- disastrous floods, which Sweep off cattle and grain stores and the stroyers. thatched cottages, with anxious families perched on their roofs. 62 AA/VS/CA/C A.S.PECTS OF WAV/O/A. Changes of river- beds. Deserted river- capitals. In their upper courses, where their water is carried by canals to the fields, the rich irrigated lands breed fever, and are in places rendered sterile by a saline crust called reh. Farther down, the uncontrollable rivers wriggle across the face of the country, deserting their ancient beds, and search- ing out new channels for themselves, sometimes at a distance of many miles. Their old banks, clothed with trees and dotted along their route with villages, run like high ridges through the level rice-fields, and mark the deserted course of the river. It has been shown how the Brahmaputra deserted its main channel of the last century, and now rushes to the sea by a new course, far to the westward. Such changes are on so vast a scale, and the eroding power of the current is so irre- sistible, that it is perilous to build large or permanent structures on the margin. The ancient sacred stream of the Ganges is now a dead river, which ran through the Districts of Húgli and the 24 Parganás. Its course is marked by a line of tanks and muddy pools, with temples, shrines, and burning ghāts along high banks overlooking its deserted bed. Many decayed or ruined cities attest the alterations in river- beds within historic times. In our own days, the Ganges passed close under Rájmahāl, and that town, once the Muham- madan capital of Bengal, was (1850–55) selected as the spot where the railway should tap the river-system. The Ganges has now turned away in a different direction, and left the town high and dry, 7 miles from the bank. In 1787–88, the TISTA, a great river of Northern Bengal, broke away from its ancient bed. The ATRAI, or the old channel, by which the Tístá waters found their way into the Ganges, has dwindled into a petty stream, which, in the dry weather, just suffices for boats of 2 tons burthen ; while the Tista has branched to the east- ward, and now pours into the Brahmaputra. In 1870, the RAVI, one of the Five Rivers of the Punjab, carried away the famous shrine of the Sikhs near DERA NANAK, and imperilled the existence of the town. If we go back to a more remote period, we find that the whole ancient geography of India is obscured by changes in the courses of the rivers. Thus, Hastinápur, the Gangetic capital of the Pándavas, in the Mahābhārata, is with difficulty identified in a dried-up bed of the Ganges, 57 miles north- east of the present Delhi. The once splendid capital of KANAUJ, which also lay upon the Ganges, now moulders in desolation 4 miles away from the modern river-bank. The 7A//2 RAE VERS AS /)/2STROYEA’.S. 63 remnant of its inhabitants live for the most part in huts built up against the ancient walls. A similar fate on a small scale has befallen Kushtia, the river terminus of the Eastern Bengal Railway. The channel silted up (1860–70), and the terminus had to be removed to Goâlanda, farther down the river. On the HUGLI river 1 a succession of emporia and river-capitals have been ruined from the same cause, and the permanence of CALCUTTA as a great port is only secured by a complete system of river-engineering. An idea of the forces at work may be derived from a single well-known phenomenon of the Hüglí and the Meghna, the bore. The tide advances up their broad estuaries until checked by a rapid contraction of the channel. The obstructed influx, no longer able to spread itself out, rises into a wall of waters from 5 to 30 feet in height, which rushes onwards at a rate nearly double that of a stage-coach. Rennell stated that the Hügli bore ran from Hüglí Point to Húgli Town, a distance of about 70 miles, in four hours. The native boatmen fly from the bank (against which their craft would otherwise be dashed) into the broad mid-channel when they hear its approaching roar. The Öore of the Meghna is so “terrific and dangerous” that no boat will venture down certain of the channels at spring-tide. The Indian rivers not only desert the cities on their banks, but they sometimes tear them away. Many a hamlet and rice-field and ancient grove of trees are remorselessly eaten up each autumn by the current. A Bengal proprietor has often to look on helplessly while his estate is being swept away, or converted into the bed of a broad, deep river. An important branch of Indian legislation deals with the proprietary changes thus caused by alluvion and diluvion. The rivers have a tendency to straighten themselves out. The bore. Hamlets torn away. River- Their course consists of a series of bends, in each of which the windings. current sets against one bank, which it undermines; while it leaves still water on the other bank, in which new deposits of land take place. By degrees these twists become sharper and sharper, until the intervening land is almost worn away, leaving only a narrow tongue between the bends. The river finally bursts through the slender strip of soil, or a canal is cut across it by human agency, and direct communication is thus estab- lished between points formerly many miles distant by the windings of the river. This process of eating away soil from the one bank, against which the current sets, and depositing * See article HUGLI RIVER, 7%e Imperial Gazetteer of India. 64 AA/VS/CAA, ASA’ECTS OF WAV/D/A. A railway terminus swept away. Poetry of Indian river- Il2]]] eS. Crops of the river plains. silt in the still water along the other bank, is constantly at work. Even in their quiet moods, therefore, the rivers steadily steal land from the old owners, and give it to new ones. During the rains these forces work with uncontrollable fury. I have mentioned that the first terminus of the Eastern Bengal Railway at Kushtiá had been partially deserted by the Ganges. Its new terminus at Goâlânda has suffered from an opposite but equally disastrous accident. Up to 1875, the Goálánda station stood upon a massive embankment near the water's edge, protected by masonry spurs running out to the river. About Rx. 130,000 had been spent upon these protective works, and it was hoped that engineering skill had conquered the violence of the Gangetic floods. But in August 1875, the solid masonry spurs, the railway station, and the magistrate's court, were all swept away; and deep water covered their sites. A new Goâlânda terminus had to be erected two miles inland from the former river-bank. Higher up the Ganges, fluvial changes on so great a scale have been encountered at the river-crossing, where the Northern Bengal Railway begins and the Eastern Bengal Railway ends, that no costly or per- manent terminus has yet been attempted. Throughout the long courses of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, the mighty currents each autumn undermine and then rend away many thousand acres of solid land. They afterwards deposit their spoil in their channels farther down, and thus, as has been shown, leave high and dry in ruin many an ancient city on their banks. Their work, however, is on the whole beneficent ; and a poem of Ossian might be made out of the names which the Indian peasant applies to his beloved rivers. Thus, we have the Goddess of Flowing Speech (Saraswati), or, according to another derivation, the River of Pools; the Streak of Gold (Suvarna-rekhá); the Glancing Waters (Chitra); the Dark Channel (Kāla-madī), or the Queen of Death (Kālī-madī); the Sinless One (Pápagáná = Pápahānā); the Arrowy (Sharavatá); the Golden (Suvarmamatſ); the Stream at which the Deer Drinks (Haringhdita); the Forest Hope (Bands); the Old Twister (Burabalang); besides more common names, such as the All-Destroyer, the Forest King, the Lord of Strength, the Silver Waters, and the Flooder. Throughout the river plains of Northern India, two harvests, and in some Provinces three, are reaped each year. These crops are not necessarily taken from the same land; but in most Districts the best situated fields yield two harvests within SCAEAVERY OF BAEAVGAZ A/VER PZAZMS. 65 the twelve months. In Lower Bengal, pease, pulses, oil-seeds, and green crops of various sorts, are reaped in spring; the The three early rice crops in September; and the great rice harvest of hºsts & the the year in November and December. Before the last has year. been gathered in, it is time to prepare the ground for the Spring crops, and the husbandman knows no rest except during the hot weeks of May, when he is anxiously waiting for the rains. Such is the course of agriculture in Lower Bengal. But it should always be remembered that rice is the staple crop in Rice. a limited area of India, and that it forms the everyday food of Only about 90 millions, or under one-third of the population of the Indian Empire. It has been estimated that, in the absence of irrigation, the rice crop requires an annual rainfall of at least 36 inches; and an Indian District requires an average fall of not less than 40 to 60 inches in order to grow rice as its staple crop. A line might almost be drawn across Behar, to the north of which rice ceases to be the staple food of the people; its place being taken by millets, and in a less degree by wheat. There are, indeed, rice-growing tracts in well- watered or low-lying Districts of Northern India, and in the river valleys or deltas and level strips around the southern Coast. But, speaking generally, throughout North-Western, Central, and Southern India (except in the coast-strip), rice is Consumed only by the richer classes. The products of each Province are carefully enumerated in Scenery of my separate provincial articles in The Imperial Gazetteer of ºver Andia, and an account of the most important will be found plains. under the heading of Agriculture in the present volume. They are here referred to only so far as is necessary to give a general idea of the scenery of the river plains. Along the upper and middle courses of the Bengal rivers, the Country In North- rises gently from their banks in fertile undulations, dotted Yº - • - engal. with mud villages and adorned with noble trees. Mango groves scent the air with their blossom in Spring, and yield their abundant fruit in summer. The spreading banyan, with its colonnades of hanging roots; the stately fiftal, with its green masses of foliage; the wild Cotton-tree, glowing while still leafless with heavy crimson flowers; the tall, daintily- shaped, feathery-leafed tamarind, and the quick-growing babić, rear their heads above the crop fields. As the rivers approach the coast, the palm-trees take possession of the Scene. The ordinary landscape in the delta is a flat stretch of rice-fields, In the fringed round with an evergreen border of bamboos, cocoa- delta. nuts, date-trees, areca, and other Coronetted palms. This E 66 AA/VS/CA/, ASA’ECTS OF ZAVNOAA. Crops of North- Western Bengal; of the delta. Drugs, fibres, oil-seeds, etc., Jungle products. densely-peopled tract seems at first sight bare of villages, for each hamlet is hidden away amid its own grove of plantains and wealth-giving trees. The bamboo and cocoa-nut play a conspicuous part in the industrial life of the coast-provinces; and the numerous products derived from them, including rope, oil, food, fodder, fuel, and timber, have been dwelt on with admiration by many writers. The crops also change as we sail down the rivers. In the north, the principal grains are wheat, barley, Indian corn, and a variety of millets, such as foãr (Sorghum vulgare) and bójra (Pennisetum typhoideum). In the delta, on the other hand, rice is the staple crop, and the universal diet. In a single Bengal District, Rangpur, there are 295 Separate kinds of rice known to the peasant," who has learned to grow his favourite crop in every locality, from the comparatively dry ground, which yields the December harvest, to the swamps 12 feet deep, on whose waters the September rice may be seen struggling upwards for air. Sugar-cane, oil-seeds, flax, mustard, Sesamum, palma - Christi, Cotton, tobacco, indigo, safflower and other dyes, ginger, coriander, red pepper, capsicum, Cummin, and precious spices, are grown both in the Upper Provinces and in the moister valleys and delta of Lower Bengal. A whole pharmacopoeia of medicines, from the well-known aloe and Castor-Oil, to obscure but valuable febrifuges, is derived from shrubs, herbs, and roots. Resins, gums, var- nishes, india-rubber, perfume-oils, and a hundred articles of commerce or luxury, are obtained from the fields and the forests. Vegetables, both indigenous and imported from Europe, largely enter into the food of the people. The melon and huge yellow pumpkin spread themselves over the thatched roofs; fields of potato, brinjal, and yams are attached to the homesteads. The tea-plant is reared on the hilly ranges which skirt the plains both in the North-West and in Assam ; the Opium poppy about half-way down the Ganges, around Benares and in Behar; the silkworm mulberry still farther down in Lower Bengal; while the jute fibre is essentially a crop of the delta, and would exhaust any soil not fertilized by river floods. Even the jungles yield the costly lac and the tasar silk cocoons. The mahuá, also a gift of the jungle, produces the fleshy flowers which form a staple article of food in many districts, and when distilled supply a cheap spirit. The sail, sissu, Zún, and many other indigenous trees yield * Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. vii. pp. 234–237. THE SO Ú77/7/5/8/V 7TA P/A5-/AAV/O. 67 excellent timber throughout the river plains of Northern India and on their hilly outskirts. Flowering creepers, of gigantic size and gorgeous colours, festoon the jungle; while each tank bears its own beautiful crop of the lotus and water- lily. Nearly every vegetable product which feeds and clothes a people, or enables it to trade with foreign countries, abounds on the northern river plains. Having described the leading features of the Himálayas on Third the north, and of the great river plains at their base, we come iºn of now to the third division of India, namely, the three-sided The table-land which covers the southern half or more strictly iºn peninsular portion of India. This tract, known in ancient * times as the Deccan (Dakshin), literally The South, comprises, in its widest historical application, the CENTRAL PROVINCEs, BERAR, MADRAs, BOMBAY, Mysore, with the Native Terri- tories of the Nizām, Sindhia, Holkar, and other Feudatory chiefs. It had in 1891 an aggregate population of about I 15 millions. For the sake of easy remembrance, therefore, we may take the inhabitants of the river plains and their outskirts in the north at about 165 millions, and the inhabitants of the Southern table-land at I 15 millions. The Deccan, in its local acceptation, is restricted to the The high inland tract between the Narbadá (Nerbudda) and the Deccan : Kistna rivers ; but the term is also loosely used to include the whole Country south of the Vindhyas as far as Cape Comorin. Taken in this wide sense, it slopes up from the southern edge of the Gangetic plains. Three ranges of hills support its its three northern, its eastern, and its western sides, the two latter supporting e e In Ountain meeting at a sharp angle near Cape Comorin. walls. The northern side is buttressed by confused ranges, with a The general direction of east to west, popularly known in the Vindhya aggregate as the Vindhya mountains. The Vindhyas, however, . are made up of several distinct hill systems. Two sacred peaks stand as Outposts in the extreme east and west, with a succession rather than a series of ranges stretching 800 miles between. At the western extremity, Mount Abū, famous for its exquisite Jain temples, rises, as a solitary outlier of the Aråvalli hills, 5653 feet above the Rájputána plains, like an island Out of the sea. Beyond the Southern limits of that their plain, the Vindhya range of modern geography runs almost various due east from Gujarát, forming the northern wall of the Nar- ranges; badá valley. The Sátpura mountains stretch, also east and west, to the south of the Narbadá river, and form the water- 68 A//VS/CA / ASA’/2C 7'S OF /AW/D/A. The Vindhyas the ancient barrier between Northern and Southern India. The Ghâts. Fastern Ghâts. Western Ghâts. The up- heaved southern angle. The cen- tral tri- angular plateau. shed between it and the Tápti. Towards the heart of India, the eastern extremities of the Vindhyas and Sátpuras end in the highlands of the Central Provinces. Passing still east, the hill system finds a continuation in the Káimur range and its congeners. These in their turn end in the outlying peaks and spurs that mark the western boundary of Lower Bengal, and abut on the old course of the Ganges under the name of the Rájmahál hills. On the extreme east, Mount Párasnáth— like Mount, Abui on the extreme west, sacred to Jain rites— rises to 4479 feet above the Gangetic plain. The various ranges of the Vindhyas, from 1500 to over 4ooo feet high, form, as it were, the northern wall and but- tresses which support the central table-land. But in this sense the Vindhyas must be taken as a loose convenient generaliza- tion for the congeries of mountains and table-lands between the Gangetic plains and the Narbadá valley. Now pierced by road and railway, they stood in former times as a barrier of mountain and jungle between Northern and Southern India, and formed one of the main difficulties in welding the whole into an empire. They consist of vast masses of forests, ridges, and peaks, broken by cultivated tracts of the rich cotton-bearing black soil, exquisite river valleys, and high- lying grassy plains. The other two sides of the elevated southern triangle are known as the Eastern and Western GHATs. These ranges start southward from the eastern and western extremities of the Vindhyas, and run along the eastern and western coasts of India. The Eastern Ghâts stretch in fragmentary spurs and ridges down the Madras Presidency, receding inland and leaving broad level tracts between their base and the coast. The Western Ghâts form the great sea wall of the Bombay Presidency, with a comparatively narrow strip between them and the shore. Some of them rise in magnificent precipices and headlands out of the Ocean, and truly look like colossal ‘landing-stairs’ (g/id/s) from the sea. The Eastern or Madras Ghâts recede upwards to an average elevation of 1500 feet. The Western or Bombay Ghâts ascend more abruptly from the sea to an average height of about 3000 feet, with peaks up to 4700, along the Coast; rising to 7000 feet and even 87.60 feet in the upheaved angle where they unite with the Eastern Ghâts, towards their southern extremity. The inner triangular plateau thus enclosed lies from Iooo to 3ooo feet above the level of the sea. But it is dotted with peaks and seamed with ranges exceeding 4ooo feet in height. TAE GAMA 7'S AAWD ZAVNER PLATEA Ux. 69 Its best known hills are the Nilgiris (Blue Mountains), with the Summer capital of Madras, Utakamand, over 7ooo feet above the sea. Their highest point is Dodábetta peak, 87.60 feet, in the upheaved southern angle. The interior plateau is approached by several famous passes from the level coast-strip Passes up On the western side. The Bhor-Ghāt, for example, ascends a º "is tremendous ravine about 40 miles south-east of Bombay city, Bhor Ghat to a height of 2027 feet. In ancient times it was regarded as the key to the Deccan, and could be held by a small band against any army attempting to penetrate from the Coast. A celebrated military road was constructed by the British up this pass, and practically gave the command of the interior to the then rising port of Bombay. A railway line has now been carried up the gorge, twisting round the shoulders of moun- tains, tunnelling through intervening Crags, and clinging along narrow ledges to the face of the precipice. At one point the zigzag is so sharp as to render a circuitous turn impossible, and the trains have to stop and reverse their direction on a levelled terrace. The Thalghat (1912 feet), to the north- and the east of Bombay, has in like manner been scaled both by road º and railway. Another celebrated pass, farther down the coast, connects the military centre of Belgäum with the little port of Vengurla. These ‘landing-stairs’ from the sea to the interior present scenes of rugged grandeur. The trap rocks stand out, after ages of denudation, like circular fortresses flanked by round Hill forts. towers and Crowned with nature's citadels, from the mass of hills behind ; natural fastnesses, which in the Maráthá times were rendered impregnable by military art. In the south of Bombay, the passes climb up from the sea through thick forests, the haunt of the tiger and the mighty bison. Still farther down the coast, the western mountain wall dips deep into the Pálghāt valley—a remarkable gap, 20 miles broad, The Pál- and leading by an easy route, only rooo feet in height, from ** the seaboard to the interior. A third railway and military road penetrate by this passage from Beypur, and cross the peninsula to Madras. A fourth railway runs inland from the coast of the Portuguese Settlement of Goa. On the eastern side of India, the Ghâts form a series of The rivers spurs and buttresses for the elevated inner plateau rather than º a continuous mountain wall. They are traversed by a number plateau ; of broad and easy passages from the Madras coast. Through these openings, the rainfall of the southern half of the inner plateau reaches the Sea. The drainage from the northern or 7o AA/VS/CA/, ASPAECTS OF ZAV/O/A. no exit West- ward ; its drain- age east- ward. Historical signifi- cance of the Eastern and West- ern Ghâts; and of the rainfall. Vindhyan edge of the three-sided table-land falls into the Ganges. The Narbadá (Nerbudda) and Tápti carry the rainfall of the Southern slopes of the Vindhyas and of the Sátpura Hills, by two almost parallel lines, into the Gulf of Cambay. But from Surat, in lat. 21° 28′, southward to Cape Comorin, in lat. 8° 4', no great river succeeds in piercing the Western Ghâts, or in reaching the Bombay coast from the interior table-land. The Western Ghâts form, in fact, a lofty unbroken barrier between the waters of the central plateau and the Indian Ocean. The drainage has therefore to make its way across India to the eastward, now foaming and twisting sharply round projecting ranges, then tumbling down ravines, roaring through rapids, or rushing along valleys, until the rain which the Bombay sea-breeze has dropped on the ridges of the Western Ghâts finally flows into the Bay of Bengal. In this way the three great rivers of the Madras Presidency, viz. the Godāvari, the Kistna (Krishna), and the Kāveri (Cauvery), rise in the mountains overhanging the Bombay coast, and traverse the whole breadth of the central table-land before they reach the Sea on the eastern shores of India. - The physical geography and the political destiny of the two sides of the Indian peninsula have been determined by the characteristics of the mountain ranges on either coast. On the east, the Madras country is comparatively open, and was always accessible to the spread of civilisation. On the east, therefore, the ancient dynasties of Southern India fixed their Capitals. Along the west, only a narrow strip of lowland intervenes between the barrier range and the Bombay sea- board. This western tract long remained apart from the civilisation of the eastern coast. To our own day, one of its ruling races, the Nairs, retain land tenures and social customs, Such as polyandry, which mark a much ruder stage of human advancement than Hinduism, and which in other parts of India only linger among isolated hill tribes. On the other hand, the people of this western or Bombay coast enjoy a bountiful rainfall, unknown in the inner plateau and the east. The monsoon dashes its rain-laden clouds against the Western Ghâts, and pours I oo to 200 inches of rain upon their mari- time slopes from Khándesh southward to Malabar. By the time the monsoon has crossed the Western Ghâts, it has dropped the greater part of its aqueous burden; and central Districts, such as Bangalore, obtain only about 35 inches. The eastern coast also receives a monsoon of its own ; but, AORESTS OF SOUTHERN WAVZ)/A. 7 I except in the neighbourhood of the sea, the rainfall throughout the Madras Presidency is scanty, seldom exceeding 40 inches in the year. The deltas of the three great rivers along the Madras coast form, however, tracts of inexhaustible fertility; and much is done by irrigation to husband and utilize both the local rainfall and the accumulated waters which the rivers bring down. The ancient Sanskrit poets speak of Southern India as The Four buried under forests. But much of the forest land has Fº Of gradually been denuded by the axe of the cultivator, or in Southern consequence of the deterioration produced by unchecked fires” and by the grazing of innumerable herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. Roughly speaking, Southern India consists of four forest regions—First, the Western Ghâts and the plains of the Konkan, Malabar, and Travancore between them and the Sea ; Second, the Karnātik, with the Eastern Ghâts, occupying the lands along the Coromandel coast and the outer slopes of the hill ranges behind them ; third, the Deccan, in its narrower Sense, Comprising the central tracts of the southern peninsula, the high plateaux of Haidarābād, the Ceded Districts, Mysore, Coimbatore, and Salem; fourth, the forests of the Northern Circars in the Madras Presidency. Each of these Districts has its own peculiar vegetation. Forests of That of the first region, or Western Ghâts, largely consists of Yººn virgin forests of huge trees, with an infinite variety of smaller e shrubs, epiphytic and parasitic plants, and lianas or tangled Creepers which bind together even the giants of the forest. The king of these forests is the teak (Tectona grandis, Zinn.). That prince of timber is now found in the greatest abundance in the forests of Kānara, in the Wainád, and in the Anamalai Hills of Coimbatore and Cochin. The piºn tree (Calophyllum inophyllum, Zinn.) is more especially found in the southernmost forests of Travancore and Tinnevelli; where tall straight stems, fit for the spars and masts of seagoing ships, are procured. The jack fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia, Zinn.) and its more common relation the aimi (Artocarpus hirsuta, Zam.), furnish a pretty yellow-coloured timber; the blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia, Äoxó.) yields huge logs excellent for carved furniture. The Terminalias (T. tomentosa and T. paniculata, W. and A.) with the benteak (Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Wight.) supply strong wood suitable for the well-built houses of the prosperous population of Malabar and Travancore. The dammer tree or Indian copal (Vateria indica, Zinn.) yields its useful resin. The ground vegetation supplies one of the most 72 AAE/ VS/CA/, ASPAECTS OF /AWD/A. Forests of Eastern Ghâts and Karnātik. Forests of the Deccan. Forests of Northern Madras. Scenery of southern hill country. valuable of Indian exports, the cardamom. To enumerate all the important trees and products of the Western Ghâts would, however, be impossible. In the Karnātik or Eastern Ghāt region, the forests rarely consist of large timber, owing to the drier climate and the shorter monsoon. Nor are they of a wide area. Most of the forests here consist of what is known as ‘Evergreen Scrub,” in which the prominent trees are the Eugenia jambolana, Zam., Mimusops indica, Zinn., and the strychnine (Strychnos nux- vomica, Zinn.). On the slopes of the hills deciduous forest appears with teak, Terminalias, Anogeissus, and occasional red sanders. The Deccan, or central region, which gets a share of both monsoons (namely the monsoon from the south-west from June to September, and that from the north-east from Septem- ber to January), has still some large areas covered with fine forest, and yielding good timber. Chief among these areas are the Nallamalai Hills of Karntil, the Palkonda Hills of Cuddapah, the Collegal Hills of Coimbatore, and the Shevaroy and Jawadſ ranges of Salem and North Arcot. In the Nallamalái Hills, bijasſil (Pterocarpus Marsupium, Åoxb.) and såſ (Terminalia tomentosa, W. and A.) are the prevailing timbers; the valuable red sanders-wood (Pterocarpus Santa- linus, Zinn.) has its home in the Palkonda and adjoining ranges of Cuddapah, while the growth on the hills of Coim- batore includes the precious sandal-wood (Santalum album, Zinn.). In the drier country of Bellary and Penukonda, the chief tree is the anjan (Hardwickia binata, A'oxb.), furnishing the hardest and heaviest of Indian woods. The fourth forest region is that of the Madras or Northern Circars. It stretches from the Kistna river up to the Chilká lake, and includes fine forests of almost untouched sál (Shorea robusta, Gaert.), the iron-wood (Xylia dolabriformis, Benth.), the satin-wood (Chloroxylon Swietenia, D.C.), and many other timbers of value. -- In wild tropical beauty nothing can surpass the luxuriance of an untouched Coorg forest, as viewed from one of the peaks of the Western Ghâts. A waving descent of green, broken into terraces of varying heights, slopes downward on every side. North and south run parallel ranges of mountains, wooded almost to the summit; while to the west, thousands of feet below, the view is bounded by the blue line of the Arabian Sea. Wild animals of many kinds breed in the jungle, and haunt the grassy glades. The elephant, the tiger, CA’OA'S OF SOUTHAEA’AV ZAV/D/A. 73 and the leopard, the mighty bison, the stately sambhar deer, and the jungle sheep, with a variety of smaller game, afford adven- ture to the sportsman. During the rains magnificent Cataracts dash over the precipices. The picturesque Gersoppa Falls, in the Western Ghâts, have a thunderous descent of 830 feet. In the valleys, and upon the elevated plains of the central Crops of plateau, tillage is driving back the jungle to the hilly recesses, iºn and fields of wheat and many kinds of smaller grain or millets, tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane, and pulses, spread over the open country. The black soil of Southern India, formed from the detritus of the trap mountains, is proverbial for its fertility; while the level strip between the Western Ghâts and the sea rivals even Lower Bengal in its fruit-bearing palms, rice harvests, and rich succession of crops. The deltas of the rivers which issue from the Eastern Ghâts are celebrated as rice-bearing tracts. But the interior of the central table-land of the southern peninsula is liable to droughts. The culti- vators here contend against the calamities of nature by varied systems of irrigation—by means of which they store the rain. brought during a few months by the monsoon, and husband it for use throughout the whole year. Great tanks or lakes, formed by damming up the valleys, are a striking feature of . Southern India. The food of the common people consists chiefly of small grains, such as foãr, Ödjra, and rágſ. The great export is cotton, with wheat from the northern Districts. of the table-land. The pepper trade of Malabar dates from far beyond the age of Sindbad the Sailor, and reaches back to Roman times. Cardamoms, spices of various sorts, dyes, and many medicinal drugs, are also grown. It is on the interior table-land, and among the hilly spurs Minerals; which project from it, that the mineral wealth of India lies hid. Coal-mining now forms a great industry on the north- Coal, eastern side of the table-land in Bengal; and also in the º Central Provinces. Beds of iron-ore and limestone have been worked in several places, and hold out a possibility of a new era of enterprise to India in the future. Many districts are rich in building stone, marble, and the easily - worked laterite. Copper and other metals exist in small quantities. Golconda was long famous as the central mart for the produce of the diamond districts, which now yield little more than a bare living to the workers. Gold dust has from very ancient times been washed out of the river-beds; and quartz-crushing for gold is being attempted on scientific principles, and upon a large scale, in Madras and Mysore. 74 AF/VS/CA/C A.S.PECTS OA' ZAVZ)/A. Recapitu- lation : the Three I have now briefly surveyed the three regions of Con- tinental India. The first, or the Himálayan, lies for the Regions of most part beyond the British frontier; but a knowledge of it India. Their races and lan- guages. Fourth Region of India : Burma, its valleys and moun- tains ; Its five tractS. supplies the key to the climatic and social conditions of India. The second region, or the River Plains in the north, formed the theatre of the ancient race movements which shaped the civilisation and political destinies of the whole Indian peninsula. The third region, or the Triangular Table-land in the south, has a character quite distinct from either of the other two divisions, and a population which is now working out a separate development of its own. Broadly Speaking, the Himalayas are peopled by Turanian tribes, although to a large extent ruled by Aryan immigrants. The great River Plains of Bengal are still the possession of the Indo-Aryan race. The Triangular Table-land has formed an arena for a long struggle between the Aryan civilisation from the north, and what is known as the Dravidian stock in the South. To this vast Empire of Continental India the English have added BURMA, consisting of the valley of the Irawadi (Irra- waddy), together with its delta, and the territories which stretch eastward and westward from the central valley. On the western bank of the river the country rises into a series of high ranges, and then falls into the narrow coast-strip of Arakan, along the eastern shore of the Bay of Bengal. These high ranges, known as the Yoma (Roma) mountains, are covered with dense forests, and separate the Irawadi valley from the strip of coast. The Yomas have peaks exceeding 4ooo feet, and culminate in the Blue Mountain, 7 Ioo feet. They form a sort of backbone to the more level regions of Burma on either side of them, but are crossed by passes, one of which, the An or Aeng, rises to 4517 feet above the sea- level. Turning to the eastern side of the Irawadi, the Country rises into the mountainous regions of the Shāns and other races, dwelling in the little-explored highlands which separate Burma from the frontier States of the Chinese Empire. Below the Irawadi delta, a long narrow strip, known under the comprehensive name of Tenasserim, runs south- ward between the Bay of Bengal and the Siamese dominions, as far as Point Victoria. Burma consists therefore of five well-defined tracts: the valley of the Irawadi, including Upper and Lower Burma, in the centre ; the backbone of the Yoma mountains on the A UAEA/A–/7'S AACO/DUCTS. 75 western margin of that central valley; the hill country of the Sháns and other wild tribes on the opposite or eastern edge of the Central valley; the coast-strip of Arakan, between the Bay of Bengal and the Yoma mountains; and the long isolated Southern coast-strip of Tenasserim, between the Bay of Bengal and the Siamese dominions. The central valley and the two coast-strips are extremely fertile. The outskirts of the hilly tracts are rich in teak and other valuable trees, and forest produce. A thousand creeks indent the seaboard ; and the whole of the level country, on the coast and in the lower Irawadi valley, forms one vast rice-field. The rivers float down cheaply the teak, bamboos, and timbers from the north. Tobacco, of an excellent quality, supplies the cigars which all Burmese (men, women, and children) smoke, and affords an industrial product of increasing value. Arakan and Pegu, the Its pro- two Provinces of the coast, and also the Irawadi valley, ducts. contain mineral-oil springs. Tenasserim is rich in tin mines, and contains iron-ores equal to the finest Swedish ; besides gold and Copper in smaller quantities, and a very pure lime- stone. Rice and timber form the staple exports of Burma; and rice is also the universal food of the people. Burma, including Upper and Lower Burma and Tenasserim, has an area of about I70,ooo square miles; and a population, in 1891, of Over 7 million persons. It is fortunate in still possessing wide areas of yet uncultivated land to meet the wants of its rapidly-increasing people. | 76 ) C H A P T E R II. THE PEOPLE. THE POPULATION OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE OF INDIA, includ- ing the Feudatory States and Burma, amounted in 1891 to Over 288 millions, or, as already mentioned, more than double the number which Gibbon estimated for the Roman Empire in the height of its power. But the English Government has respected the possessions of native chiefs, and more than one- third of the country still remains in the hands of its hereditary rulers. Their subjects make nearly one-fourth of the whole Indian people. The British territories, therefore, comprise about two-thirds of the area of the British Empire of India, and three-fourths of its inhabitants. The native princes govern their States with the help of British ‘Political' officers, whom the Viceroy stations at their capitals. Some of the Chiefs reign almost as independent sovereigns; others require more assistance, or a stricter control. They form a magnificent body of feudatory rulers, possessed of revenues and armies of their own. Many of them also maintain contingents of disciplined battalions at the disposal of the British Government of India, under the title of Imperial Service Troops. The more important of these princes exercise the power of life and death over their subjects; but the authority of each is limited by usage, or by treaties or engagements, acknowledging their subordination to the British Government. That Government, as Suzerain in India, does not allow its feudatories to make war upon each other, or to have any relations with foreign States. It inter- feres when any chief misgoverns his people; rebukes, and if needful removes, the oppressor; protects the weak; and firmly imposes peace upon all. The British possessions are distributed into governments (heretofore reckoned at twelve),” each with a separate head; General Survey of the People. The Feu- datory Chiefs. Their various powers. British India—the Provinces, * From the table on p. 78, it will be seen that the classification adopted by the Census of 1891 gives eleven separate governments, with certain miscellaneous territories arranged in a twelfth group. AA’ſ 77/SH WAV/D/A–AſO W G O VEA’AVE/O. 77 but all of them under the orders of the Supreme Government of India, consisting of the Governor-General in Council. The Governor-General, who also bears the title of Viceroy, holds his court and government at Calcutta in the cold weather, and during summer at Simla, an outer spur of the Himalayas, 7ooo feet above the level of the sea. The Viceroy of India, and the Governors of Madras and Bombay, are usually British statesmen appointed in England by the Queen. The heads how of the other Provinces are selected for their merit from the * Anglo-Indian services (in almost all cases from the India Civil Service), and are nominated by the Viceroy, subject in the case of the Lieutenant-Governorships to approval by the Secretary of State. The first Census for all India was taken in 1872. Although not synchronous, it yielded fairly accurate returns for the British Provinces, with less trustworthy materials for the Native States. But in many Districts it was regarded with appre- hension as a possible basis for increased taxation; and in some of the backward tracts and hill or jungle districts it led to petty risings, or threatened risings, of the peasantry. The experi- ence of the next nine years convinced the population of India that the Census meant no harm to them ; and the enumeration of 1881 furnished more correct returns both for the British and Feudatory territories, although there was still a hesitation in giving the true numbers and ages of the females. The third Census, taken in 1891, completed the process of improvement, and supplies an absolutely verified basis for the future. Its results will not, however, be published in full till some time after this volume appears; and many of its tabulations were not finished when these pages had to go to press. I owe several of the following paragraphs and all the tables to the great courtesy and kindness of Mr. Baines, the Indian Census Commissioner, who has prepared them with his own hand for this chapter, and has done me the additional favour of check- ing the figures in the proof-sheets. It should be borne in mind from the outset that the recent territorial expansion of India involves important adjustments in any attempt to compare the returns of 1891 with those of 1881. The Census of 1891 returned a population of 289,187,316 Census of souls for all India (British, Feudatory, French, and Portuguese), 1891. including tracts where the Census operations were not carried out in detail, and where a less perfect enumeration was con- ducted through the tribal chiefs or village headmen. The following tables give an abstract of the area and population:- 'º THE Gover NMENTS OR PROVINCES OF BRITISH INDIA (1891). NAME OF PROVINCE (Exclusive of the Native States attached to it). Area in Square Miles. Total Population. Average Population per Square Mile. I 2 3 i I . Commissionership of Berár,3 IO. II. I2. . Government of Madras, . . Government of Bombay— Bombay, . º Sind, ſº e Aden, e . Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, º - - e e Lieutenant-Governorship of the North-Western Provinces, . UChief Commissionership of Oudh, º . Lieutenant-Governorship of the Punjab, . fe . Chief Commissionership of the Central Provinces, . Chief Commissionership of Assam,2 . Chief Commissionership of Burma— Upper Burma, . Lower Burma, . º Commissionership of Ajmere-Merwärá, Commissionership of Coorg, Miscellaneous— Quetta, etc., 4 . © º & Port Blair, Andaman Islands, 5 , *British Balūchistán, 6. - e *Upper Burma Frontier Tracts, 7 Total for British India, e tº º o 141,189 35,630,440 252 77,275 I5,985,270 2O6 47,789). I25, I44 2,87I,774 - 18,90I, I23 60 × I51 §3) 44, O79 * 587 82,286 I5I, 543 \ 7I,346,987 47I 3, 2 34,254,254 4II º IO7,503 12,650,831 ſ 46,905, O65 # 436 IIo,667 20,866,847 I88 86,50I IO,784,294 I25 49, OO4. 5,476,833 II2 83473 2,946,933 35? I7,718 2,897,491 I63 2,7II 542,358 2OO I,583 I73,055 IO9 Not ascertained, but 27,270 very small I5,609 Not ascertained *I45,417 Included in Upper Burma *II6,493 964,993 221,434,862 229 * The population of these territories was not enumerated by individuals, but registered by households. 1 Oudh has been incorporated, since 1877, with the North-Western Provinces. Chief Commissioner of Oudh. * Assam was separated from the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal in 1874, and erected into a Chief Commissionership. Lushāi country occupied in 1888–89. The Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces is also It includes the North 3 Berár consists of the six ‘Assigned Districts’ made over to the British administration by the Nizām of Haidarābād for the maintenance of the Haidarābād Contingent, which he was bound by treaty to maintain, and in discharge of other obligations. 4 Quetta, etc., includes cantonments, railways, and civil stations only. disturbances. 5 Only the convict settlement on the Andaman Islands was enumerated. 6 This return of the population of British Balūchistán is said to be much below the actual number. 7 Portions of the Upper Khyindwin District were enumerated, but the results, after rough tabulation, as given above, were destroyed in subsequent Portions of Bhamo and Kathá were excluded from the regular census. AAE/T/SA, FE UDATORY, AAWD FOA'F/GAV. 79 THE NATIVE STATES AND GROUPS OF NATIVE STATES FORMING FEUDATORY INDIA (1891). #. Area in Total *opula- STATES, OR GROUPS of STATEs. e e tion Der Square Miles. | Population. ś. e Mile. I. Rájputána, . g e º - I30,268 I2, OI6, IO2 94. 2. Haidarābād (Nizām's Dominions), . 82,698 II, 537, O4O I39 3. Central India Agency and Bundel- khand, . * s • e e 77,808 Io,318,812 I33 4. Baroda, . º 8,226 2,415,396 294 5. Mysore, 1. 27,936 4,943,604 || I77 6. Kashmir, g tº * e º 80,900 2,543,952 3I 7. Native States under the Bombay Government, e * & cº 69,045 8, O59,298 II7 8. Native States under the Madras Government, e º e º 9,609 3,700,622 385 9. Native States under the Bengal Government, º & * e 35,834 3,296,379 92 Io. Native States under the Punjab - Government, e º º e 38,299 4,263,280 III II. Native States under the Central Provinces, º * - - 29,435 2, I60,5II 73 I2. Native States under the North- - Western Provinces, . tº d 5, IO9 792,491 I55 13. Fort Steadman in the Shán States, - - - 2,992 - tº e | I4. *Shán States (Cis-Salwin), tº 4O,OOO *372,969 9 15. *Sikkim, º º e e g I, 550 *30,45 I9 16. *Forest Tracts in Meywar, etc., (Included in Rájputéna, . e e º . Rájputána) *2O4, 24.I - © tº 17. Manipur,” 8, Ooo 25O,OOO || 31 Total for Feudatory India, º 644,717 | 66,908, I47 IO4 * The population of these States and Tracts, excepting Fort Steadman in the Shān States, was not enumerated by individuals, but registered by households. If to the foregoing figures we add the French and Portu- guese possessions, we obtain the total for all India. Thus— ALL INDIA, INCLUDING BURMA (1891). Area in Average Square Population. | Population per Miles. Square Mile. British India (1891), . 965,051 221,434,862 229 Feudatory India (1891), . • 644,717 66,908, I47 IO4. Portuguese Settlements (1887), . I,605 561,384 349 French Settlements (1891), . º 2O3 282,923 I, 393 Total for all India, including Burma, e s} I,6,II,576 289, I87,316 I79 * Mysore includes the British portion of Bangalore. * Manipur was enumerated, but, the records having been destroyed in March 1891, the results are estimated only. 8o TAZE POPULATIO/W OF MAWD/A. Census of 1872 and 1881. Density of the popu- lation, compared with France, IEngland, and other European States. It may be useful to give the figures of the two previous Census returns, premising that various circumstances, such as more perfect enumeration and the annexation of Upper Burma, make them unsuitable for an elaborate comparison with the returns of 1891. The population in 1872 was as follows:- British India, 186 millions; Feudatory States, over 54 millions; French and Portuguese possessions, nearly # of a million : total for all India, 240,931,521. In 1881 the population, allowing for subsequent transfers of territory between British and Feudatory tracts, was ; – British India, 198,860,606 ; * Feudatory States, 56,998,330 ;' French and Portuguese Settle- ments, 748,783: total for all India, 256,607,719. In 1891 the total for all India, as shown in detail in the foregoing table, was 289, 187,316. Of the 2884 millions in British India and its Feudatory States, only 90,169 persons were English, Scotch, or Irish; and the total number of persons not born in Asia was only I Io,504 (including the 90,169 just mentioned). British India as a whole supports a population much more than twice as dense as that of the Native States. If we exclude the outlying and lately-acquired Provinces of British Burma and Assam, the proportion is nearly three-fold, or 279 persons to the square mile. How thick this population is, may be realized from the fact that France had in 1891 only 186 people to the square mile; while even in crowded Eng- land, wherever the density approaches 200 to the Square mile, it ceases to be a rural population, and has to live, to a greater or less extent, by manufactures, mining, or city industries.” The following table shows the density of the population per square mile in the principal European Countries:— England and Wales (1891), . 498 Hungary (1880), . * . I25. Scotland (1891), . e . I32 German Empire (1890), . . 237 Ireland (1891), . & t • I44 Prussia (1890), . © g . 223. France (1891), . & iº . I86 Holland (1889), & & . 36O. Italy (1880), . º & . 249 Belgium (1890), g e . 54C. Austria (1880), . g & . I9I Portugal (1878), e tº • I34. Throughout large areas of Bengal, two persons have to live on the proceeds of each cultivated acre, or 1280 persons to each cultivated square mile. The Famine Commissioners reported in 1880, that over 6 millions of the peasant holdings of Bengal, or two-thirds of the whole, averaged from 2 to 3 acres a-piece. * The difference between this and the figures given in the Imperia/ Census, Table II., is due to the exclusion from the latter of all tracts not enumerated both in 1881 and 1891. * Report on the Census of England and Wales for 1871. O VA. AE-CAEO WDE/D DISTRICTS. 8I Allowing only four persons to the holding, for men, women, and children, this represents a population of 24 millions Struggling to live off 15 million acres, or a little over half an acre a-piece. Unlike England, India has few large towns, and no great Absence manufacturing centres. Thus, in England and Wales, 53'22 º per cent., or more than one-half of the population in 1891, lived in 182 towns with upwards of 20,000 inhabitants," while in British India only 4:84 per cent., or not one-twentieth of the people, live in the 225 towns of that size. India, therefore, is Population almost entirely a rural Country; and many of the so-called º towns are mere groups of villages, in the midst of which the Cattle are driven a-field, and ploughing and reaping go on. Calcutta itself has grown out of a cluster of hamlets on the bank of the Huigli; and the term ‘municipality,’ which in Europe is only applied to towns, often means in India a ‘rural union,’ or collection of homesteads for the purposes of local government. We see, therefore, in India, a dense population of husband- Over- men. Wherever their numbers exceed I to the acre, or 640 to i. the square mile, excepting in suburban districts or in irrigated tracts, the struggle for existence becomes hard. At half an acre a-piece that struggle is terribly hard. In such Districts, a good harvest yields just sufficient food for the people ; and thousands of lives depend each autumn on a few inches more or less of rainfall. The Government may, by great efforts, feed the starving in time of actual famine ; but it cannot stop the yearly work of disease and death among a steadily underfed people. In these overcrowded tracts the population reaches the stationary stage. For example, in Allahābād District, during twenty years, the inhabitants increased by only 6 persons in Io, ooo each year. During the nine years from 1872 to 1881, the annual increase was 8 persons in Io, ooo; and in the succeeding decade, but 5 persons. In still more densely-peopled localities upon the line of railway, facilities for migration have drained off the excessive population, and their total number in 1872 was less than it had been twenty years before. On the other hand, in thinly-peopled Provinces the Under. inhabitants quickly multiply. Thus, when we obtained the Fº District of Amherst in 1824 from the king of Burma, it had been depopulated by Savage native wars. The British estab- lished their firm rule; people began to flock in ; and by 1829 there were 70,000 inhabitants in Amherst District. Its popu- * Provisional Totals of the Census of England and Wales for 1891. F 82 THE POAU/A TVOAV OAP /AVD/A. The ‘im- mobile ’ Indian peasant. Move- ments of the people. lation had increased to 301,086 in 1881, and to 417,312 in 1891 ; or nearly six times its number in 1829. In some parts of India, therefore, there are more husband- men than the land can feed; in other parts, vast tracts of fertile soil still await the cultivator. In England, the people would move freely from the over-populated districts to the thinly-inhabited ones; but in India the peasant clings to his hereditary homestead long after his family has outgrown his fields. If the Indian races will only learn to migrate to tracts where spare land still abounds, they will do more than the utmost efforts of Government can accomplish to prevent famines. The Census returns for 1891 show that, with a general average of 229 persons per square mile, the population has increased by about 9 per thousand per annum; and the Dis- trict variations indicate the tendency of the relative increase to vary inversely to the local density of the population. This is plainly marked in the tracts supporting not more than 3oo persons to the square mile. In these the rate throughout is above the mean ; but beyond this limit it falls, though with less regularity. Thus, whilst in the tracts with under 3oo- persons to the square mile the rate of increase in the decade is about 14 per cent., in the more densely-peopled areas it falls to about 8 per cent. A good example of the above-mentioned irregularity may be found in the fact that out of the total area of British territory, excluding Upper Burma, 16% per cent., with 45 per cent. of the population, returns a specific popula- tion of more than double the average, that is, of 460 per square mile and over, but the mean rate of increase in this densely-peopled area is only 7.2 per cent. There cannot be said to be any migration to an extent which is sufficient to relieve a congested tract, except in the cases of, first, Bengal to Assam, and from Behar down towards Calcutta; secondly, from Madras to Ceylon and Burma; and it is only the Bengal to Assam emigration that is really permanent. In other cases, however, there is temporary displacement, due to special attractions, such as the wheat harvest, or cotton pick- ing; but the effect, though apparent in the Census returns, is obliterated by the time the season for sowing has come round again in the home Districts of the migrants. In one District, however, of Lower Burma, in a couple of Districts of Bombay, in the sub-montane tracts to the east of the North-West Provinces, and in parts of the Punjab, there have been small agricultural movements, which are probably permanent. JAAEO UAC A/V/O /A/V/D //V /AV/O/A. 83 Taking the country as a whole, however, it appears that over 90 per cent. of the inhabitants were born in the District or State in which they were residing at the time of the Census, and 6 per cent, in the tracts immediately adjoining it. Only 3 per cent. of the people came from more remote Districts. Throughout many of the hill and border tracts, land is so plentiful that it yields no rent. Any one may settle on a patch which he clears of jungle, exhaust the soil by a rapid succession of crops, and then leave it to relapse into forest. In such tracts no rent is charged; but each family of wandering husbandmen pays a poll-tax to the chief, or to the Government under whose protection it dwells. As the inhabitants increase, this nomadic system of Cultivation gives place to regular tillage. Throughout Burma we see both methods at work side by side; while on the thickly-peopled plains of India the “wandering husbandmen” have long since disappeared, and each household remains rooted to the same plot of ground during generations. In some parts of India, this change in the relation of the people to the land has taken place before our own eyes. Thus, in Bengal there was in the last century more cultivable land than there were husbandmen to till it. A hundred years of British rule has reversed the ratio; and there are now, in some Districts, more people than there is land for them to till. This change has produced a silent revolution in the rural economy of the Province. When the English obtained Bengal in the last century, they found in many Districts two distinct rates of rent current for the same classes of soil. The higher rate was paid by the thani rāyats, literally “stationary’ tenants, who had their houses in the hamlet, and formed the permanent body of cultivators. These tenants would bear a great deal of extortion rather than forsake the lands on which they had expended labour and capital in digging tanks, cutting irrigation channels, and building homesteads. They were oppressed accordingly; and while they had a right of Occupation in their holdings as long as they paid the rent, the very highest rates were squeezed out of them. The temporary or wandering cultivators, paikhās; raiyaís, were those who had not their homes in the village, and who could therefore leave it when- ever they pleased. They had no right of Occupancy in their fields; but, on the other hand, the landlord could not obtain so high a rent from them, as there was plenty of spare land in adjoining villages to which they could retire in case of oppression. The landlords were at that time competing for The nomadic system of hus- bandry. Labour and land in the last century; 84 ZTA/E POPU/A TVOAV OA' ZAV/D/A. and at the present day. Serfdom in India. Unequal pressure of the popula- tion on the land. tenants; and one of the commonest complaints which they brought before the Company's officials was a charge against a neighbouring proprietor of ‘enticing away cultivators’ by low rates of rent. . This state of things is now reversed in most parts of Bengal. The landlords have no longer to compete for tenants. It is the husbandmen who have to compete with one another for land. There are still two rates of rent. But the lower rates. are now paid by the ‘stationary’ tenants, who possess occupancy rights; while the higher or rack-rents are paid by the other class, who do not possess occupancy rights. In ancient India, the eponymous hero, or original village founder, was the man who cut down the forest. In modern India, special legislation and a Forest Department are required to preserve the woods which remain. Not only has the country been stripped of its woodlands, but in many Districts the pastures have been brought under the plough, to the detriment of the cattle. The people in such Districts can no longer afford to leave sufficient land fallow, or under grass, for their oxen and cows. It will be readily understood that in a country where, almost down to the present day, there was more land than there were people to till it, a high value was set upon the cultivating class. In tracts where the nomadic hill-system of husbandry survives, no family is permitted by the native chief to quit his territory. For each household there pays a poll - tax. In many parts of India, we found the lower classes attached to the soil in a manner which could scarcely be distinguished from praedial slavery. In spite of our legislative enactments, this system lingered on during nearly a century of British rule. Our early officers in South-Eastern Bengal, especially in the great island of Sandwip, almost raised a rebellion by their attempts to liberate the slaves. Indeed, in certain tracts where we found the population very depressed, as in Behar, the courts have in our own day occasionally brought to light the survival of serfdom. A feeling long survived in the minds of some British officers against migrations of the people from their own Districts to adjoining ones, or to Native States. - If we except the newly - annexed Provinces of Burma and Assam, the population of British India is nearly three times more dense than the population of Feudatory India. This great disproportion cannot be altogether explained by differences in the matural capabilities of the soil. It would be for the advantage of the people that they should spread themselves over the whole country, and so equalize the ZAVCRAEASE OF POPULATION, 1872–91. 85 pressure throughout. The Feudatory States lie interspersed among British territory, and no costly migration by sea is involved. That the people have not thus spread themselves Out, but crowd together within our Provinces, is partly due to their belief that, on the whole, they are less liable to oppression under British rule than under native chiefs. But any outward movement of the population, even from the most densely- peopled English Districts, used to be regarded with pain by the local officers. Indeed, the occasional exodus of a few culti- vators from the overcrowded British Province of Behar into the thinly-peopled frontier State of Nepāl, has formed a subject of sensitive self-reproach. In proportion as we can enforce good government under the native chiefs of India, we should hope to See a gradual movement of the people into the Feuda- tory States. Such a movement, as I shall presently show, seems to have begun. There is plenty of land in India for the whole population. What is required is not the diminution of the people, but their more equal distribution. t w The following paragraphs compare the increase in the popu- Increase lation during the two periods for which census-enumerations . popula- exist. The extremely slow growth of the population during 1873–91. the first period serves to illustrate the disastrous effect of famine in India; for, while the last decade (1881–91) was one Of normal prosperity, the previous period (1872–81) included the great famine of 1876–78, and was distinctly abnormal. The Census, taken in 1881, showed an increase of 15%. Census of millions for all India, or 6.4 per cent, during the nine years 1872 and since 1872. But this general statement gives but an imperfect of I88I. insight into the local increment of the people. For while in the southern Provinces, which suffered most from the famine of 1877–78, the numbers stood still, or even receded, an enormous increase took place in the less thickly-peopled Increase of tracts. Thus the British Presidency of Madras showed a the People. diminution of 1.4 per cent. ; while the Native State of Mysore, which felt the full effects of the long-continued dearth of 1876–79, had 17 per cent. fewer inhabitants in 1881 than in 1872. The Bengal population increased by II per cent, in the nine years, notwithstanding the milder scarcity of 1874. But the great increase was in the outlying, under-peopled Districts of India, where the pressure of the inhabitants on the soil has not yet begun to be felt, and where thousands of acres still await the cultivator. In Assam the increase (1872–81) was 19 per cent.—largely due to immigration; in the Central Provinces, with their Feudatory States and tracts of unreclaimed 86 THE POAULA TVOAV OF MAVO/A. Census of 1891. Increase in British Provinces. Increase in Native States, 1881-91. jungle, 25 per cent. ; in Berár (adjoining them), 20 per cent. ; while in Lower Burma——which, most of all the British Pro- vinces, stood in need of inhabitants—the nine years added 36 per cent, to the population, equivalent to doubling the people in about twenty-five years. The Census of 1891 exhibits an increase on 1881 of 27% millions for all India, British and Feudatory, calculated on the same area as that enumerated in 1881, or Io'94 per cent. ; being nearly double the advance of the previous nine years. This increase is spread in varying proportions over all the Provinces of British India, except Coorg, which shows a diminution of 5247 inhabitants, or 3 per cent., and over all the Native States of Feudatory India. The largest increase in the British Pro- vinces is again in Lower Burma, where the population has grown 247 per cent., or by very nearly one-fourth, in the ten years between 1881 and 1891. Next in order comes the out- lying Province of Sind, with an increase of 18.9 per cent. ; then the Presidency of Madras, which has shown wonderful recuperative power since the famine of 1876–78, with 15.5 per cent.; and the Bombay Presidency proper (excluding Sind) with 137 per cent. Assam and Oudh show about the same rate of progression, II per cent., and the Punjab is not far behind with Io'7 per cent. On the other hand, the Central Provinces increased by only 9.6 per cent. during the decade, Berár by 8°4, Bengal by 6:8, and the North-Western Provinces (excluding Oudh) by 4.5 per cent. The general ratio of increase in the British Provinces (exclusive of the Native States) between 1881 and 1891 is 97.0 per cent, as against 6'99 per cent. between 1872 and 1881. But the striking feature, the feature which may be called the surprise of the Census of 1891, is the enormous apparent increase in the population in the Native States. The argument that improved government in Feudatory India ought to encourage the increase of its inhabitants may seem justified, for the increase during the last decade in the Native States is 15:52 per cent., or almost four times the 4'41 per cent. of the nine preceding years. But the increase is general throughout the Native States, and must be largely attributed to improved enumeration. In only two groups of Native States, those attached to the Lieutenant-Governorship of the North-Western Provinces and the Central India Agency, is the increase of the population during 1881–91 less than Io per cent. ; in the former the increment is but 6.8 per cent., or the same ratio as Bengal; and in the latter 99 per cent, slightly POPULATION OF INDIA IV 1872 AND 1881. 87 exceeding the growth of the Central Provinces. In the Native States attached to the Punjab, in Baroda, and in the Native States under the Madras Government, the rate of increase is Io'4, Io'5, and Io:6 respectively. Everywhere else the per- centage of increase is higher than in any British Province, excepting Sind and Lower Burma. Thus the Native States attached to Bombay show an increase of 16.3 per cent., Haidarābād (the Nizām's dominions) of 17:1, Mysore of 18, the Bengal Native States of 18:3, Rájputéna of 2012, or more than Sind, and the Native States attached to the Central Pro- vinces of 263, or nearly the same as Lower Burma. The following tables compare the results of the Census taken in 1872, 1881, and 1891. It should be borne in mind, however, that the Census of 1872 was not a synchronous one; and that in some of the Native States the returns of 1872 were estimates rather than actual enumerations. I would further warn the reader that he must carefully consider the footnotes to each table. It is not possible to compare the gross totals for the British Provinces and the Feudatory States in 1881 with the gross totals for 1891, as given on p. 79. During the interval new territories have been added to British India, and readjustments have been made in the Native States. Subject to this warning, the following statements have been kindly supplied by Mr. Baines, the Indian Census Commissioner — TABLE I. POPULATION OF INDIA IN 1872 AND 1881." In 1872. In 1881.2 Increase. cº- British Provinces, . . . I86,041,191 || 199,043,492 || I3,002,3OI - 6'99 Feudatory States, . . 54,211, I58 || 56,604,37I 2,393, 2I3 4'4I French and Portuguese g Possessions, * @ } 679, I72 748,783 69,611 || Io'25 240,931,521 || 256,396,646 I5,465,125 6'42 * The figures for 1872 in this table are taken from the finally revised statements, after allowing for transfers of territory and the restoration of Mysore to Native rule. How far the increase in the French and Portu- guese Possessions is due to more accurate enumeration in 1881, cannot be exactly ascertained. * The figures for 1881 for the British Provinces in these tables differ owing to certain readjustments of territory. The large discrepancy in the figures for the Feudatory States is caused by the inclusion in Table I. of the estimated population of Kashmir and Manipur, 1,756,042, which are omitted in Table II., and by slight readjustments. 88 THE AEOPUZATIO/W OF ZAV/D/A. TABLE II.1. POPULATION OF INDIA IN 1881 AND 1891. In 1881.2 In 1891. Increase. cº- British Provinces, . . . I98,860,606 || 218,155, II5 | 19,294,509 || 976 Feudatory States, . . 54,932,908 || 63,459,819 8,526,911 I5'52 French and Portugues 8, 78 8 e 254,542,297 282,459,241 27,916,944 | Io'97 The statistical elucidation of the races and Provinces of India can only be effected by tabular forms. At the end of this volume, therefore, will be found a series of ten statements dealing with the various aspects of the Indian population.” The briefest summary of the ethnological elements which compose that population is all that can be here attempted. Analysis of the Indian popula- tion. * This table refers only to the territories enumerated in both 1881 and 1891, excluding those brought within the Census for the first time in the latter year, as well as the tracts in which the population was registered by households, and those in which a formal Census was not taken. The object is to show the relative population, irrespective of accretion of terri- tory or the extension of the Census operations. The excluded tracts are the North Lushai country, Upper Burma, and Quetta, under the head of the British Provinces; and Kashmir, Manipur, Fort Steadman, the Shán States, and a portion of Rájputána among the Feudatory States. * See footnote 2, p. 87. * Viz. –Table I. Area, villages, houses, and population, etc., in each Province of British India in 1891. ,, II. Distribution into town and country, or ‘towns and villages in British India.” - , , III. Population of British India classified according to age and sex. - ,, IV. Population of British India classified according to religion. - ,, V. Asiatic non-Indian population of British India classi- fied according to birth-place. ,, VI. Non-Asiatic population of British India classified according to birth-place. ,, VII, Town population of India, being a list of the 222 towns of British India of which the population exceeds 20,000. , , VIII. Population of British India, according to education. ,, IX. Population of all India, according to occupation. ,, X. Incidence of the Land Revenue on the area and population of British India. JTS ACA CAE AE/A2//E/WTS. 89 European writers formerly divided the Indian population Four-ſold into two races—the Hindus and the Muhammadans. But ºn when we look more closely at the people, we find that they People; consist of four well-marked elements. When the original 1872. Census for all India was taken, in 1872, these elements were, first, the recognised non-Aryan Tribes, called the Aborigines, (I) Non- and their half-Hinduized descendants, numbering over 17} ^* millions in British India. Second, the comparatively pure (2) Aryans. offspring of the Aryan or Sanskrit-speaking Race (the Brähmans and Rájputs), about 16 millions. Third, the great (3) Mixed Mixed Population, known as the Hindus, which has grown Hindus. out of the Aryan and non-Aryan elements (chiefly from the latter), III millions. Fourth, the Muhammadans, 41 millions. (4) Mu- These made up the 186 millions of people under British rule * in 1872. The same four-fold division applied to the popula- tion of the 54 millions in Feudatory India in 1872, but we do not know the numbers of the different classes. The figures for 1872 are given by themselves in the last paragraph, as the Census of 1881 and of 1891 adopted a different classification, which does not so clearly disclose the ethnical elements of the people. This difference will be more fully explained in the next chapter. - - According to the Census of 1881, the comparatively pure Altered descendants of the Aryan race (the Brähmans and Rájputs) º still numbered 16 millions in British India; the mixed popu- Census of lation, including lower caste Hindus, Aboriginal Tribes, and 188! 3 Christians, 138 millions; and the Muhammadans, 45 millions. These made up the 199 millions in British India in 1881. In the Feudatory States there appear in 1881 to have been 5} millions of Brähmans and Rájputs; 46% millions of lower caste Hindus and Aboriginal Tribes; and 5 millions of Muhammadans,—making up the 56 millions in Feudatory India in 1881. The aboriginal element of the population was chiefly returned as low-caste Hindus. Only 4% millions were separately registered as non-Aryans or Aborigines in British India; and 1% millions in the Feudatory States; making 6% millions for all India in 1881. - It is not possible to compare these figures with the returns and in of the last Census in 1891. For the Census of 1891 has º of adopted hereditary occupation and language as the joint basis " for classifying the population. This circumstance renders impossible any true comparison of Aryans and Non-Aryans as given by the Census of 1872 or of 1881, with the returns of 1891. But the Census Commissioner estimates for purposes of 90 THE AEOAUZAZTVOAW OF MAVZ)/A. Plan of this volume in dealing with the Indian Races and their history. The two raCeS of pre- historic India. comparison with my previous figures, the Brähmans and Rájputs at 19% millions for British India in 1891, or 25 millions for all India. The strictly non-Hinduized ‘aboriginals, who still remain in the state of ‘wild forest tribes,’ he estimates at II millions for British India in 1891, or about 14% millions for all India. The following chapters treat of each of the four Indian classes separately, namely the non-Aryan or so-called abori- ginal tribes; the Aryan immigrants from the north; the mixed population or Hindus ; and the Muhammadans. These are the four components which make up the present population. Their history, as a loosely-connected whole, after they had been pounded together in the mortar of Muhammadan Con- quest, will next be traced. A narrative of the events by which the English nation became answerable for the welfare of this vast section of the human family, will follow. Finally, it will be shown how the British Government is trying to discharge its solemn responsibility, and the administrative mechanism will be explained which is knitting together the discordant races of India into a great pacific Empire. Our earliest glimpses of India disclose two races struggling for the soil. The one was a fair-skinned people, which had lately entered by the north-western passes; a people of ARYAN, literally ‘noble,” lineage, speaking a stately language, worship- ping friendly and powerful gods. The other was a race of a lower type, who had long dwelt in the land, and whom the lordly new-comers drove back before them into the mountains, or reduced to servitude on the plains. The comparatively pure descendants of these two races (as returned by the original Census of India in 1872, which adopted this basis of classification) were nearly equal in numbers, total 33% millions; the intermediate castes, sprung chiefly from the ruder stock, make up the mass of the present Indian population. | 91 ) CHAPTER III. T H E N ON - A R Y A N R A C E S. THE present chapter treats of the lower tribes, an obscure The NoN- people, who, in the absence of a race-name of their own, may ºx. be called the non-Aryans or Aborigines. They have left no gines, written records; indeed, the use of letters, or of any simplest hieroglyphs, was to them unknown. The sole works of their hands which have come down to us are rude stone circles, and the upright slabs and mounds, beneath which, like the primitive Kistvaen- peoples of Europe, they buried their dead. From these we" only discover that, at some far-distant but unfixed period, they knew how to make round pots of hard, thin earthenware, not inelegant in shape; that they fought with iron weapons, and wore ornaments of Copper and gold. Coins of Imperial Rome have been dug up from their graves. Still earlier remains prove that, long before their advent, India was peopled as far as the depths of the Central Provinces, by tribes unacquainted with the metals, who hunted and warred with polished flint Flint axes and other deftly-wrought implements of stone, similar to "“” those found in Northern Europe. And even these were the successors of yet ruder beings, who have left their agate knives and rough flint weapons in the Narbadá valley. In front of this far-stretching background of the early Metal and Stone Ages, we see the so-called Aborigines being beaten down by the newly-arrived Aryan race. The struggle is commemorated by the two names which The Non- the victors gave to the early tribes, namely, the Dasyus, or 㺠“enemies,’ and the Dásas, or “slaves.” The new-comers from by the the north prided themselves on their fair complexion, and their "y" Sanskrit word for ‘colour’ (varna) came to mean “race’ or ‘caste.” Their poets, more than 3ooo years ago, praised in the Rig-Veda their bright gods, who, “slaying the Dasyus, protected the Aryan colour;' who ‘subjected the black-skin to the º * Aryan man.’ They tell us of their ‘stormy deities, who rush º ck- on like furious bulls and scatter the black-skin.” The Sacrificer gave thanks to his god for ‘dispersing the slave bands of 92 THE AWOAV-AA’ YAM RACE.S. Flat- nosed. Raw- eaterS. The “Demons’ of the Aryan I alC6. More civilised non-Aryan tribes. black descent,’ and for sweeping away “the vile Dasyan colour.” Moreover, the Aryan, with his finely-formed features, loathed the squat Mongolian faces of the Aborigines. One Vedic singer speaks of them as ‘noseless’ or flat-nosed, while another praises his own “beautiful-nosed gods. Indeed, the Vedic hymns abound in scornful epithets for the primitive tribes, as ‘disturbers of sacrifices,’ ‘gross feeders on flesh,’ ‘raw-eaters,” “lawless,’ ‘not-sacrificing,’ ‘without gods,' and ‘without rites.” As time went on, and these rude tribes were driven back into the forest, they were painted in still more hideous shapes, till they became the ‘monsters’ and ‘demons’ of the Aryan poet and priest. Their race-name Dasyu, “enemy,' thus grew to signify a devil, as the old Teutonic word for enemy, or ‘the hater’ (still used in that sense in the modern German feind), has become the English ‘fiend.” Nevertheless, all of them could not have been Savages. We hear of wealthy Dasyus, and even the Vedic hymns speak of their ‘seven castles’ and “ninety forts.” In later Sanskrit literature, the Aryans make alliance with aboriginal princes; and when history at length dawns on the scene, we find some of the most powerful kingdoms of India ruled by dynasties of non-Aryan descent. Nor were they devoid of religious rites, or of cravings after a future life. ‘They adorn, says an ancient Sanskrit treatise," “the bodies of the dead with gifts, with raiment, with jewels; imagining that thereby they shall attain the world to come.’ These ornaments are the bits of bronze, copper, and gold which we now dig up from beneath their rude stone monuments. In the Sanskrit epic which narrates the advance of the Aryans into Southern India, a non-Aryan chief describes his race as ‘of fearful Swiftness, unyielding in battle, in colour like a dark-blue cloud.’” The non- Aryans as they are. Let us now examine these primitive peoples, not as portrayed by their enemies 3ooo years ago, but as they exist at the present day. Thrust back by the Aryans from the plains, they have lain hidden away in the recesses of the mountains, like the remains of extinct animals which palaeontologists find in hill caves. India thus forms a great museum of races, in which we can study man from his lowest to his highest stages of culture. The specimens are not fossils or dry bones, but living communities, to whose widely-diverse conditions we have to adapt our administration and our laws. * Chandogya Upanishad, Muir's Sanskrit Zexts, ii. 396 (1874). * Rāmāyana (ed. Gorresio), iii. 28. 18. THE WAZ/O EA’ AWO/WAAC VAAWS. 93 Among the rudest fragments of mankind are the isolated The Andaman islanders in the Bay of Bengal. The old Arab and * European voyagers described them as dog-faced man-eaters. The English officers sent to the islands in 1855 to establish a Settlement, found themselves surrounded by naked cannibals of a ferocious type, who daubed themselves at festivals with red earth, and mourned in a suit of olive-coloured mud. They used a noise like crying to express friendship or joy; bore only names of common gender, which they received before birth, and which therefore had to be applicable to either sex; and their sole conception of a god was an evil spirit, who spread disease. For five years they repulsed every effort at inter- course with showers of arrows; but our officers slowly brought them to a better frame of mind by building sheds for them near the British Settlement, where these poor beings might find shelter from the tropical rains, and receive medicines and food. The Anamalai Hills, in Southern Madras, form the refuge Anamalai of a whole series of broken tribes. Five hamlets of long-haired," wild-looking Puliars were found living on jungle products, mice, or any small animals they could catch; and worshipping demons. The Mundavers shrink with terror from contact with the out- side world. When they first came within our observation they possessed no fixed dwellings, but wandered over the innermost hills with their cattle, sheltering themselves under little leaf sheds, and seldom remaining in one spot more than a year. The thick-lipped, small-bodied Kaders, ‘Lords of the Hills,” are a remnant of a higher race. These hills, now almost uninhabited, abound in the great stone monuments (kistvaens and dolmens) which the primitive tribes erected over their dead. The Nāirs, or aborigines of South-Western India, still The Nāirs. practise polyandry, according to which one woman is the wife of several husbands, and a man’s property descends not to his own, but to his sister's children. This system also appears among the non-Aryan Himalayan tribes. In the Central Provinces, the aboriginal races form a large Non- proportion of the population. In certain Districts, as in the ſº State of Bastar, they amounted to three-fifths of the inhabitants, of the when the first exact enumeration of them was made in 1872.1 Central e * P & †e Their most important race, the Gonds, have made some jº Gonds. * I usually take the numbers of hill and forest tribes from the enumera- tion of 1872, as the aboriginal races were more clearly brought out by that Census (the first for all India) than in the next one. The returns of Bengal for 1891 were not completed in time to be used in this work. For further explanations wide ante, pp. 88, 89, 90. 94 THE AWO/W-AAC WAAV ACA CAE.S. Tax- gathering among the Māris. The Juángs or * Leaf- wearers’ of Orissa Hill States ; clothed by Govern- ment. A relic of the Stone Age. Juáng dwellings. advances in civilisation ; but the wilder tribes still cling to the forest, and live by the chase. Some of them were reported to be using, within our own times, flint points for their arrows. The Máriás wield bows of great strength, which they hold with their feet while they draw the string with both hands. A still wilder tribe, the Märſs, fled from their grass-built huts on the approach of a stranger. Once a year a messenger came to them from the local Rájá to take their tribute, which consisted chiefly of jungle products. He did not, however, enter their hamlets, but beat a drum outside, and then hid himself. The shy Máris crept forth, placed what they had to give in an appointed spot, and ran back into their retreats. Farther to the north-east, in the Tributary States of Orissa, there is a poor tribe, numbering about Io, ooo when en- umerated in 1872, of Juángs or Patuas, literally the “leaf. wearers,” whose women wore no clothes. The only covering on the females consisted of a few strings of beads round the waist, with a bunch of leaves tied before and behind. Those under British influence were, in 1871, clothed by order of the Government, and their chief was persuaded to do the same work for others. The English officer called together the clan, and after a speech handed out strips of cotton for the women to put on. They then passed in single file, to the number of 1900, before him, made obeisance to him, and were afterwards marked on the forehead with vermilion, as a sign of their entering into civilised society. Finally, they gathered the bunches of leaves which had formed their sole clothing into a heap, and set fire to it. It is reported, however, that many of the Juáng women have since relapsed to their foliage attire. This leaf-wearing tribe had no knowledge of the metals till the nineteenth century, when foreigners came among them ; and no word existed in their own language for iron or any other metal. But their country abounds in flint weapons, so that the Juángs form a remnant to our own day of the Stone Age. ‘Their huts,’ writes the officer who knows them best, ‘are among the smallest that human beings ever deliberately constructed as dwellings. They measure about 6 feet by 8. The head of the family and all the females huddle together in this one shell, not much larger than a dog-kennel.” The boys and the young men of the village live in a building apart by themselves; and this custom of having a common abode for the whole male youth of the hamlet is found among many aboriginal tribes in distant parts of India. Proceeding to the northern boundary of India, we find the MOA&AE A/D WAAVCAE/D AWOAVCAA’ VAAVS. 95 slopes and spurs of the Himalayas peopled by a great variety Himá- of rude tribes. Some of the Assam hillmen, when we first *. came in contact with them, had no word for expressing dis- tance by miles nor any land measure, but reckoned the length of a journey by the number of quids of tobacco or betel-leaf which they chew upon the way. As a rule, they are fierce, black, undersized, and ill-fed. They eked out a wretched subsistence by plundering the more civilised hamlets of the Assam valley; a means of livelihood which they have but slowly given up under British rule. Some of the wildest of them, like the independent Abars, are now engaged as a sort of irregular police, to keep the peace of the border, in return for a yearly gift of cloth, hoes, and grain. Their very names bear witness to their former wild life. One tribe, the Akas of Assam, is divided into two clans, known respectively as ‘The Akas of eaters of a thousand hearths,’ and ‘The thieves who lurk in the * cotton-field.’ Many of the aboriginal tribes, therefore, remain in nearly the More same stage of human progress as that ascribed to them by the hº Vedic poets more than 3ooo years ago. But others have made tribes. great advances, and form communities of a well-developed type. It must here suffice to briefly describe two such races, the Santāls and the Kandhs, who inhabit the north-eastern edge of the central plateau. The Santāls have their home among the hills which abut on the Ganges in Lower Bengal. The Kandhs live 150 to 350 miles to the south, among the high- lands which look down upon the Orissa delta and Madras COaSt. The Santāls dwell in villages in the jungles or among the The mountains, apart from the people of the plains. They Sºnºs. numbered about a million in 1872," and give their name to a large District, the SANTAL PARGANAS, 140 miles north-west of Calcutta. Although still clinging to many customs of a hunting forest tribe, they have learned the use of the plough, and settled down into skilful husbandmen. Each hamlet is governed by its own head-man, who is supposed to be a Santál descendant of the original founder of the village, and who is Yºse {e govern- assisted by a deputy head-man and a watchman. The boys of ment. the hamlet have their separate officers, and are strictly con- trolled by their own head and his deputy till they enter the married State. The Santáls know not the cruel distinctions of Hindu caste, but trace their tribes, usually numbering seven, to the seven sons of the first parents. The whole village feasts, * See footnote, p. 93. 96 THE AWOAV-AAEC VA/V RACE.S. No castes, but strong tribal feeling. The six Santál Cere- monies. Santál marriages, Santál religion. hunts, and worships together; and the Santál has to take his wife, not from his own tribe, but from one of the six others. So strong is the bond of race, that expulsion from the tribe was the only Santál punishment. A heinous criminal was cut off from ‘fire and water’ in the village, and sent forth alone into the jungle. Minor offences were forgiven upon a public reconciliation with the tribe ; to effect which the guilty one provided a feast, with much rice-beer, for his clansmen. The chief ceremonies in a Santál's life, six in number, vary in different parts of the country, but are all based upon this strong feeling of kinship. The first is the admission of the newly-born child into the family,–a secret rite, one act of which consists in the father placing his hand on the infant's head and repeating the name of the ancestral deity. The second, the admission of the child into the tribe, is celebrated three or five days after birth, a more public ceremony, at which the child's head is shaved, and the clansmen drink beer. The third ceremony, or admission into the race, takes place about the fifth year, when all friends, whatever may be their tribe, are invited to a feast, and the child is marked on his right arm with the Santál spots. The fourth consists of the union of his own tribe with another by marriage, which does not take place till the young people can choose for themselves. At the end of the ceremony, the girl's clanswomen pound burning charcoal with the household pestle, in token of the breaking up of her former family ties, and then extinguish it with water, to signify the separation of the bride from her clan. The Santāls respect their women, and seldom or never take a second wife, except for the purpose of obtaining an heir. The fifth ceremony con- sists of the dismissal of the Santál from the race, by the solemn burning of his body after death. The sixth is the reunion of the dead with the fathers, by floating three fragments of the skull down the Dámodar river (if possible), the sacred stream of the race. The Santál had no conception of bright and friendly gods, such as the Vedic singers worshipped. Still less could he imagine one omnipotent and beneficent Deity, who watches over mankind. Hunted and driven back before the Hindus and Muhammadans, he did not understand how a Being could be more powerful than himself without wishing to harm him. ‘What,’ said a Santál to an eloquent missionary, who had been discoursing on the Christian God—‘what if that strong One should eat me?’ Nevertheless, the earth swarms with spirits and demons, whose ill-will the Santál tries to avert. His THE SAMTAZS UAVDER BRITISH RUZE. 97 religion consists of nature-worship, and offerings to the ghosts of his ancestors; and his rites are more numerous even than those of the Hindus. First the Race-god, next the Tribe-god Race-god ; of each of the seven clans, then the Family-god, requires in º turn his oblation. But besides these, there are the spirits of Family. his forefathers, river-spirits, forest-spirits, well-demons, moun- $º tain-demons, and a mighty host of unseen beings, whom he Demons. must keep in good humour. He seems also to have borrowed from the Hindus certain rites of sun-worship. But his own gods dwell chiefly in the ancient sai/ trees which shade his hamlets. Them he propitiates by offerings of blood, with goats, cocks, and chickens. If the sacrificer cannot afford an animal, it is with a red flower, or a red fruit, that he draws near to his gods. In some Santál hamlets the people dance round every tree, so that they may not by evil chance miss the one in which the village-spirits happen to be dwelling. Until nearly the end of the last century, the Santāls were The San- the pests of the neighbouring plains. Regularly after the * December harvest, they sallied forth from their mountains, rule. plundered the lowlands, levied black-mail, and then retired with their spoil to the jungles. But in 1789 the British Govern- ment granted the proprietary right in the Bengal lowlands to the landholders under the arrangements which four years later became the Permanent Settlement. Forthwith every landholder tried to increase the cultivated area on his revenue- farm or estate, which the Permanent Settlement had converted into his own property. The Santāls and other wild tribes were tempted to issue from their fastnesses by high wages or rent- free farms. ‘Every proprietor,’ said a London newspaper, the Morning Chronicle, in 1792, “is collecting husbandmen from They come the hills to improve his lowlands.’ The English officers found º they had a new race to deal with, and gradually won the © highlanders to peaceful habits by grants of land and ‘exemp- tion from all taxes.’ The Santáls were allowed to settle disputes “among themselves by their own customs,’ and they were used as a sort of frontier police, being paid to deliver up any of their own people who committed violent crimes. Such Criminals, after being found guilty by their countrymen, were handed over for punishment to the English judge. The Santāls gained confidence in us by degrees, and came down in great numbers within the fence of stone pillars, which the British officers set up in 1832 to mark off the country of the hill people from the plains. The Hindu money-lender soon made his appearance in their G 98 THE WONARYAN RACES The San- táls sink into debt to the Hindus. Santál rising, 1855. The Kandhs or Kondhs. Breaking up of the Iſa CC. Kandh patri- archal govern- ment. settlements, and the simple hillmen learned the new luxury of borrowing. Our laws were gradually applied to them, and before 1850 most of the Santál hamlets were plunged in debt. Their strong love of kindred prevented them from running away, and the Hindu usurers reduced them to a state of prac- tical slavery, by threatening the terrors of a distant jail. In 1848, three whole villages threw up their clearings, and fled in despair to the jungle. In June 1855, the southern Santāls started in a body, 30,000 strong, with their bows and arrows, to walk 140 miles to Calcutta and lay their condition before the Governor-General. At first they were orderly; but the way was long, and they had to live. Robberies took place; quarrels broke out between them and the police; and within a week they were in armed rebellion. The rising was put down, not without mournful bloodshed ; and their wrongs were carefully inquired into. A very simple form of adminis- tration was introduced, according to which their village head- men were brought into direct contact with the English officer in charge of the District, and acted as the representatives of the people. Our system of justice and government has been adapted to their primitive needs, and the Santāls have for years been among the most prosperous of the Indian races. The Kandhs, literally “The Mountaineers,’ a tribe about Ioo, ooo strong in 1872, inhabit the steep and forest-covered ranges which rise inland from the Orissa delta, and the Madras Districts of Ganjám and Vizagapatam. They form one of a group of non-Aryan races who still occupy the position assigned to them by the Greek geographers 15oo years ago. Before that early date, they had been pushed backwards by the advancing Aryans from the fertile delta which lies between the mountains and the sea. One section of the Kandhs was completely broken up, and has sunk into landless low-castes among the Aryan or Hindu communities at the foot of the hills. Another section stood its ground more firmly, and became a peasant militia, holding grants of land from the Hindu chiefs in return for military service. A third section fell back into the fast- nesses of the mountains, and was recognised as a wild but free race. It is of this last section that the present chapter treats. The Kandh idea of government is purely patriarchal. The family is strictly ruled by the father. The grown-up sons have no property during his life, but live in his house with their wives and children, and all share the common meal prepared by the grandmother. The clan consists of a number of * See footnote, p. 93. 7TA/E AAAW/OAS. 99 families, sprung from a common father; and the tribe is made up in like manner from a number of clans who claim descent from the same ancestor. The head of the tribe is usually the eldest son of the patriarchal family; but if he be not fit for the post he is set aside, and an uncle or a younger brother appointed. He enters on no undertaking without calling together the heads of clans, who in their turn consult the heads of families. According to the Kandh theory of existence, a state of Kandh war might lawfully be presumed against all neighbours with * whom no express agreement had been made to the contrary. ments. Murders were punished by blood-revenge, the kinsmen within Blood- a certain degree being one and all bound to kill the slayer, * unless appeased by a payment of grain or Cattle. The man who wounded another had to maintain the sufferer until he recovered from his hurt. A stolen article must be returned, or its equivalent paid ; but the Kandh twice convicted of theft was driven forth from his tribe, the greatest punishment known to the race. Disputes were settled by Combat, or by the ordeal of boiling oil or heated iron, or by taking a Solemn Oath on an ant-hill, or on a tiger's claw, or a lizard's skin. When a house-father died, leaving no sons, his land was parcelled Out among the other male heads of the village; for no woman, nor indeed any Kandh, was allowed to hold land who could not with his own hand defend it. The Kandh system of tillage represented a stage half-way Kandh between the migratory cultivation of the ruder non-Aryan * tribes and the settled agriculture of the Hindus. They did not, on the one hand, merely burn down a patch in the jungle, take a few crops off it, and then move on to fresh clearings. Nor, on the other hand, did they go on cultivating the same fields from father to son. When their lands showed signs of exhaustion, they deserted them ; and it was a rule in some of their settlements to change their village sites once in fourteen years. Caste is unknown ; and, as among the Santāls, marriage between relations, or even within the same tribe, is forbidden. A Kandh wedding consisted of forcibly Kandh carrying off the bride in the middle of a feast. The boy's º father paid a price for the girl, and usually chose a strong ture.” one, several years older than his son. In this way, Kandh maidens were married about fourteen, Kandh boys about ten. The bride remained as a servant in her new father-in-law’s house till her boy-husband grew old enough to live with her. She generally acquired a great influence over her husband; IOO THAE AWO/V-AAE WAAV ACA CAES. Serfs of the Kandh village. Kandh human sacrifices. The victims. The sacrifice. The Kandhs under Blitish rule. Human sacrifices abolished. and a Kandh might not marry a second wife during the life of his first one, except with her consent. The Kandhs employed themselves only in husbandry and war, and despised all other work. But attached to each village was a row of hovels inhabited by a lower race, who were not allowed to hold land, to go forth to battle, or to join in the village worship. These poor people did the dirty work of the hamlet, and supplied families of hereditary weavers, blacksmiths, potters, herdsmen, and distillers. They were kindly treated, and a portion of each feast was left for them. But they could never rise in the social scale. No Kandh could engage in their work without degradation, nor eat food prepared by their hands. They can give no account of their origin, but are supposed to be the remnants of a ruder race whom the Kandhs found in possession of the hills when they themselves were pushed backwards by the Aryans from the plains. The Kandhs, like the Santāls, have many deities, race-gods, tribe-gods, family-gods, and a multitude of malignant spirits and demons. But their great divinity is the Earth-god, who represents the productive energy of nature. Twice each year, at Sowing-time and at harvest, and in all seasons of special calamity, the Earth-god required a human sacrifice (meria/). The duty of providing the victims rested with the lower race attached to the Kandh village. Bráhmans and Kandhs were the only classes exempted from sacrifice, and an ancient rule ordained that the offering must be bought with a price. Men of the lower race kidnapped the victims from the plains, and a thriving Kandh village usually kept a small stock in reserve, “to meet sudden demands for atonement.’ The victim, on being brought to the hamlet, was welcomed at every threshold, daintily fed, and kindly treated till the fatal day arrived. He was then solemnly sacrificed to the Earth-god, the Kandhs, shouting in his dying ear, “We bought you with a price; no sin rests with us !’ His flesh and blood were distributed among the village lands. In 1835, the Kandhs passed under our rule, and these rites had to cease. The proud Kandh spirit shrank from com- pulsion; but, after many tribal Councils, they agreed to give up their stock of victims as a valuable present to their new suzerain. Care was taken that they should not procure fresh ones. The kidnapping of victims for human sacrifice was declared a capital offence; and their priests were led to discover that goats or buffaloes did quite as well for the OAC/G/AW OA' 7THE AWO/VCAA’ VAAW ZEA’/AA.S. To I Earth-god under British rule as human sacrifices. Until 1835 they consisted of separate tribes, always at war with each . Other and with the world. But under able English admini- Strators (especially Campbell, Macpherson, and Cadenhead), human sacrifices were abolished, and the Kandhs were formed into a united and peaceful race (1837–45). The British officer removed their old necessity for tribal wars and family blood- feuds by setting himself up as a central authority. He adjusted their inter-tribal disputes, and punished heinous crimes. Lieutenant Charters Macpherson, in particular, won over the The race more troublesome clans to quiet industry, by grants of jungle Yºu tracts, of little use to us, but a paradise to them, and where he industry. could keep them well under his eye. He made the chiefs vain of carrying out his orders by small presents of cattle, honorific dresses, and titles. He enlisted the whole race on his side by picking out their best men for the police; and drew the tribes into amicable relations among themselves by means of hill-fairs. He constructed roads, and taught the Kandhs to trade, with a view to ‘drawing them from their fastnesses into friendly contact with other men.” The race has prospered and multiplied under British rule. Whence came these primitive peoples, whom the Aryan Origin of invaders found in the land more than 3000 years ago, and who º are still scattered over India, the fragments of a pre-historic tribes. world P. Written annals they do not possess. Their oral traditions tell us little; but such hints as they yield feebly Non- point to the north. They seem to preserve dim memories of * a time when their tribes dwelt under the shadow of mightier hill ranges than any to be found on the south-west of the river-plains of Bengal. ‘The Great Mountain' is the race-god of the Santáls, and an object of worship among other tribes. Indeed, the Gonds, who numbered 1% millions in the heart of Central India in 1872, have a legend that they were created at the foot of Dewalagiri peak in the Himalayas. Till lately, they buried their dead with the feet turned northward, so as to be ready to start again for their ancient home in the north. But the language of the non-Aryan races, that record of a Non- nation’s past more enduring than rock-inscriptions or tables of †. brass, is being slowly made to tell the secret of their origin. It already indicates that the early peoples of India belonged to The three three great stocks, known as the Tibeto-Burman, the Kolarian, Aºn and the Dravidian. stocks. The first stock, or Tibeto-Burman tribes, cling to the skirts I O2 TA/A2 AWOAVCA A' VA/V ACA CAE.S. of the Himalayas and their north-eastern offshoots. They crossed over into India by the north-eastern passes, and in some pre-historic time had dwelt in Central Asia, side by side with the forefathers of the Mongolians and the Chinese. Several of the hill languages in Eastern Bengal preserve Chinese terms, others contain Mongolian. Thus, the Nāgās in Assam still use words for three and water which might almost be understood in the streets of Canton. From the subjoined footnote," and from the list of languages given on pp. Io9, Io9, it will be seen that the tribes or races of the Tibeto-Burman group settled in India are numerous, although much broken up. A recent writer has endeavoured to show that they form a large element in the Hinduized and Semi-Hinduized low-caste population and of the Muhammadan (1) The Tibeto- Burmans. * The following are the twenty principal languages of the Tibeto-Burman group :-(1) Cachari or Bodo, (2) Gáro, (3) Tipura or Mrung, (4) Tibetan or Bhutiá, (5) Gurung, (6) Murmi, (7) Newar, (8) Lepchá, (9) Miri, (IO) Aka, (II) Mishmi dialects, (I2) Dhimal, (13) Kanāwari dialects, (14) Mikir, (15) Singpho, (16) Nāgā dialects, (17) Kuki dialects, (18) Burmese, (19) Khyeng, and (20) Manipuri. “It is impossible,” writes Mr. Brandreth, ‘to give even an approximate number of the speakers included in this group, as many of the languages are either across the frontier or only pro- ject a short distance into our own territory. The languages included in this group have not, with perhaps one or two exceptions, both a cerebral and dental row of consonants, like the South-Indian languages; some of them have aspirated forms of the surds, but not of the sonants; others have aspirated forms of both. All the twenty dialects have words in common, especially numerals and pronouns, and also some resemblances of grammar. In comparing the resembling words, the differences between them consist often less in any modification of the root-syllable than in various additions to the root. Thus in Burmese we have na, “ear; ” Tibetan, 7-ma-ba; Magar, na-Āeſ Newar, naï-ſong; Dhimal, 72a-halhong; Kiranti dialects, na-ſºro, na-ré, nea-pha/ Nāgā languages, de-na-ro, fe-ma-rang; Manipuri, na-Kong ; Kupui, ka-na Sak, aka-ma, Karen, ma—Ahu ; and so on. It can hardly be doubted that such additions as these to monosyllabic roots are principally determinative syllables for the purpose of distinguishing between what would otherwise have been monosyllabic words having the same sound. These determinatives are generally aſfixed in the languages of Nepāl and in the Dhimal language; prefixed in the Lepchá language, and in the languages of Assam, of Manipur, and of the Chittagong and Arakan Hills. Words are also distinguished by difference of tone. The tones are generally of two kinds, described as the abrupt or short, and the pausing or heavy. It has been remarked that those languages which are most given to adding other syllables to the root make the least use of the tones, and, zice zersa, where the tones most prevail the least recourse is had to determinative syllables.”—This and the following quotations, from Mr. E. L. Brandreth, are condensed from his valuable paper in the /ournal of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Series, vol. x. (1877), pp. 1-32. THE THREE NOWARYAN STOCKS. IO3 masses in Bengal. He classifies them as the ‘Yellow Men of India.’l The Kolarians, the second of the three non-Aryan stocks, (2) The appear also to have entered Bengal by the north-eastern passes. * They dwell chiefly in the north, and along the north-eastern edge, of the three-sided table-land which covers the southern half of India. The Dravidians, or third stock, seem, generally (3) The speaking, on the other hand, to have found their way into the º Punjab by the north-western passes. They now inhabit the Southern part of the three-sided table-land, as far down as Cape Comorin, the southernmost point of India. It appears as if the two streams, namely the Kolarian tribes from the north-east and the Dravidians from the north-west, had converged and Their con- crossed each other in Central India. The Dravidians proved. the stronger, broke up the Kolarians, and thrust aside their India. fragments to east and west. The Dravidians then rushed forward in a mighty body to the south. It thus came to pass that while the Dravidians formed a The Compact mass in Southern India, the Kolarians survived only º as isolated tribes, so scattered as to soon forget their common up. Origin. We have seen one of the largest of the Kolarian races, the Santāls, dwelling on the extreme eastern edge of the three- sided table-land, where it slopes down into the Gangetic valley. The Kiirkus, a broken Kolarian tribe, inhabit a patch of country about 4oo miles to the west. They have for perhaps thousands of years been cut off from the Santāls by mountains and pathless forests, and by intervening races of the Dravidian and Aryan stocks. The Kürküs and Santāls have Scattered no tradition of a common origin ; yet at this day the Kūrkūs #º speak a language which is little else than a dialect of Santáli. " & The Savars, once a great Kolarian tribe, mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, are now a poor wandering race of woodcutters in Northern Madras and Orissa. Yet fragments of them have lately been found deep in Central India, and as far west as Rájputéna on the other side. The Juángs are an isolated non-Aryan remnant among the Aryan and Uriya-speaking population of Orissa. They have forgotten, and disclaim, any Connection with the Hos or other Kolarian tribes. Never- theless their common origin is attested by a number of Kolarian words which they have unconsciously preserved.” * Mr. Charles Johnston, late B.C.S., in two articles in the Asiatic Quarterly Ā’eview, July 1892, and in the forthcoming number for January 1893. * The nine principal languages of the Kolarian group are—(1) the Santál, IO4 7"HZ AWOAVCAA’ WAAV ACA CAES, The com- pact Dra- vidians of Southern India. Their offshoots beyond Sea (?). The compact Dravidians in the south, although in after-days subdued by the higher civilisation of the Aryan race which pressed in among them, were never thus broken into frag- ments." Their pure descendants consist, indeed, of small and scattered tribes; but they have given their language to 28 millions of people in Southern India. A theory has been started that some of the islands in the distant Pacific Ocean were peopled either from the Dravidian settlements in India, (2) Mundéri, (3) Ho, (4) Bhumij, (5) Korwā, (6) Kharria, (7) Juáng, (8) Rürkü, and perhaps (9) the Savar. Some of them, however, are separated only by dialectical differences. ‘The Kolarian group of languages,' writes Mr. Brandreth, ‘has both the cerebral and dental row of letters, and also aspirated forms, which last, according to Caldwell, did not belong to early Dravidian. There is also a set of four sounds, which are perhaps peculiar to Santāli, called by Skrefsrud semi-consonants, and which, when followed by a vowel, are changed respectively into g, 7, d, and 5. Gender of nouns is animate and inanimate, and is distinguished by difference of pronouns, by difference of suffix of a qualifying noun in the genitive relation, and by the gender being denoted by the verb. As instances of the genitive suffix, we have in Santáli in-ren ſtopon “my son,” but in-a/ orać “my house.” There is no distinction of sex in the pronouns, but of the animate and inanimate gender. The dialects generally agree in using a short form of the third personal pronoun suffixed to denote the number, dual and plural, of the noun, and short forms of all the personal pronouns are added to the verb in certain positions to express both number and person, both as regards the subject and object, if of the animate gender ; the inanimate gender being indicated by the omission of these suffixes. No other group of languages, apparently, has such a logical classification of its nouns as that shown by the genders of both the South Indian groups. The genitive in the Kolarian group of the full personal pronouns is used for the pos- Sessive pronoun, which again takes all the post-positions, the genitive relation being thus indicated by the genitive suffix twice repeated. The Rolarian languages generally express grammatical relations by suffixes, and add the post-positions directly to the root, without the intervention of an oblique form or genitive or other suffix. They agree with the Dravidian in having inclusive and exclusive forms for the plural of the first personal pronoun, in using a relative participle instead of a relative pronoun, in the position of the governing word, and in the possession of a true causal form of the verb. They have a dual, which the Dravidians have not, but they have no negative voice. Counting is by twenties, instead of by tens, as in the Dravidian. The Santāli verb, according to Skrefsrud, has 23 tenses, and for every tense two forms of the participle and a gerund.’ * Bishop Caldwell recognises twelve distinct Dravidian languages:– (I) Tamil, (2) Malayálam, (3) Telugu, (4) Kanarese, (5) Tulu, (6) Kudugu, (7) Toda, (8) Kota, (9) Gond, (IO) Kandh, (II) Uráon, (12) Rájmahál. “In the Dravidian group,’ writes Mr. Brandreth, ‘there is a rational and an irrational gender of the nouns, which is distinguished in the plural of the nouns, and Sometimes in the singular also, by affixes which appear to be fragmentary pronouns, by corresponding pronouns, and by the agree- ment of the verb with the noun, the gender of the verb being expressed by THE /) ACA V//D/AAV ZA/VG UAGES. IO 5 or from an earlier common source. Bishop Caldwell points out that the aboriginal tribes in Southern and Western Australia use almost the same words for Z, thou, he, we, you, etc., as the Dravidian fishermen on the Madras coast; and resemble in other ways the Madras hill tribes, as in the use of their national weapon, the boomerang. The civilisation and literature which the Dravidians developed in Southern India will be described in a later chapter on the Indian vernaculars. the pronominal suffixes. To give an instance of verbal gender, we have in Tamil, from the root sep, “to do,” Seyd-an, “he (rational) did ; ” Seyd-d!, “she (rational) did ; ” se/d-adat, “it (irrational) did ; ” se/d-ar, “they (the rationals) did ; ”seyd-a, “they (the irrationals) did ; ” the full pronouns being avam, “he ; ” aval, “she ; ” adu, “it ; ” awar, “they ; ” avei, “they.” This distinction of gender, though it exists in most of the Dravidian languages, is not always carried out to the extent that it is in Tamil. In Telugu, Gond, and Kandh, it is preserved in the plural, but in the singular the feminine rational is merged in the irrational gender. In Gond, the gender is further marked by the noun in the genitive relation taking a different suffix, according to the number and gender of the noun on which it depends. In Uráon, the feminine rational is entirely merged in the irrational gender, with the exception of the pronoun, which preserves the distinction between rationals and irrationals in the plural ; thus, as, “he,” referring to a god or a man; ad, “she” or “it,” referring to a woman or an irrational object ; but ar, “they,” applies to both men and women ; abra, “they,” to irrationals only. The rational gender, besides human beings, includes the celestial and infernal deities; and it is further sub-divided, in some of the languages, but in the singular only, into masculine and feminine. The grammatical relations in the Dravidian are generally expressed by suffixes. Many nouns have an oblique form, which is a remarkable characteristic of the Dravidian group ; still, with the majority of nouns, the post-positions are added directly to the nominative form. Other features of this group are—the frequent use of formatives to specialize the meaning of the root ; the absence of relative pronouns and the use instead of a relative participle, which is usually formed from the ordinary participle by the same suffix as that which Dr. Caldwell considers as the oldest sign of the genitive relation; the adjective preceding the sub- stantive ; of two substantives, the determining preceding the determined ; and the verb being the last member of the sentence. There is no true dual in the Dravidian languages. In the Dravidian languages there are two forms of the plural of the pronoun of the first person, one including, the other excluding, the person addressed. As regards the verbs, there is a negative voice, but no passive voice, and there is a causal form.” Bishop Caldwell's second edition of his great work, the Comparative Grammar of the Drazidian Zanguages (Trübner, 1875), forms in itself an epoch in that department of human knowledge. Mr. Beames' Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India (Tribner, 1872) has laid the foundation for the accurate study of North Indian speech. Colonel Dalton's F/hnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), and Sir George Campbell's Specimens of the Zanguages of India (Bengal Secretariat Press, 1874), have also shed new and valuable light on the questions involved. Ioé THE AWO/WLAA’YA/V ACA CAE,S. Character of the Kols. I have tried to exhibit the present characteristics of Several of the aboriginal races who have best preserved their ancient types in our own day. But much research has also been devoted to obtain a correct idea of the stage of civilisation reached by the non-Aryan races when they arrived in India. Such reconstructions of inductive history are unavoidably open to uncertainty and doubt. The following comparison of the primitive Kols and Dravidians is mainly based on a series of articles by Mr. Hewitt in the Äoya/Asiatic Society's Journal." The ancient Kols seem to have been a very primitive people, who did not know how to tame cattle or to work them in the plough. But at an early period they learned the use of iron, and made implements with which they cut down the jungle and formed clearings. These clearings grew into villages, each governed by its head-man, usually called the Munda. The more populous villages threw off in their turn new settlers, who made fresh clearings for themselves in the jungle. The Kol tribes thus settled down into a number of groups of forest hamlets, each group of hamlets having a larger parent village as their point of union. Assemblies of men, chosen from the forest hamlets, were held from time to time at the parent village, and each group of forest hamlets acknow- ledged the authority of a high priest, or a common chief. Although the ancient Kol race did not employ cattle for ploughing, they raised crops by tilling the ground with a sort of bill-hook. The Kols are a peaceable and good-humoured race, but excitable and turbulent when roused. They are ignorant, brave, witty, fond of amusement, careless of the future, and do no more work than is required to produce a simple livelihood from harvest to harvest. The Dravidians, as I have mentioned, entered the country from the north-west, and gradually spread southward and eastward. They were strongly bound together in tribes, and well understood the necessity of some firm central authority to maintain order. Each man among them was made to feel that he belonged not to his own family alone, but to the clan. The young men and women left their parents at an early age, and were brought up in large houses set apart for them. The young men lived by themselves in a sort of bachelor's hall, under the care of a head. The girls had also a common dwelling-house apart for themselves, under The Dra- vidians. * Notes on the Early History of Northern India, in six articles con- tributed to the Journal of the Aoyal Asiatic Society, vols. xx. et seq. of the new series, by J. F. Hewitt, late Commissioner of Chota Nägpur. 7A/Z ZD/CA VZZO/AAVS. Io 7 the charge of a village matron. In certain cases the girls were distributed among the widows, who were responsible for bringing them up. This curious custom of having large Separate houses for the young men and the young women, still Survives among some of the Dravidian tribes in India. It formed part of a general system, by which the Dravidian youth were trained up in the idea that they belonged not to themselves alone, but to the community. The Dravidians, when they grew into men, were thus pre- Character pared to obey the orders of a firm government, and to bear º their fair share of its charges either by giving their labour, or * by paying a part of their crops. The Dravidians are a more Silent people than the Kols, not so quick-witted or excitable, but very determined when they have once made up their minds. They were from ancient times fond of trade, and possessed large herds of cattle, of which they used the milk. The Kols, on the other hand, do not appear to have used the Cow’s milk as food. The Dravidians were great builders, and the earliest forms of Indian architecture are ascribed to them. The Dravidian tribes pushed their way through prehistoric The Dra- India with a strong hand. Unlike the Kols, they did not scatter * into forest hamlets, but settled in large agricultural encamp-in India. ments in the more open districts. They seized on the best lands which the Kols had cleared, but in other respects they Seem to have treated the Kols in a friendly way. In many parts of India the two races blended together and formed new tribes. The Dravidian settlements were ruled by kings. They also acknowledged the high importance of a military Officer, whom we should now call the Commander-in-Chief. They had village accountants in each settlement, who looked after the royal lands and collected the government dues; indeed, the present revenue system of India is still founded On the old Dravidian revenue system which grew up thousands of years ago. This is particularly true in Southern India, where the Dravidians have been settled in organized masses from the dawn of history down to the present day. The Dravidians differed from the Kols in their religion, as The two much as they did in their personal character and system of §. government. The Kols worshipped the local spirits that tº. dwelt in the trees of the forest, and ghosts. The Dravidians worshipped the productive earth herself, under the symbol of the snake, and the linga, or rude stone emblem of male repro- duction. They did not, however, entirely neglect the local spirits of the forest whom the Kols revered. The tree, with Io8 THE AWOAWAAC VA/V ACA CAE.S. the deity who dwelt in it, was united with their adoration of the snake. The Dravidians were the famous tree and serpent worshippers of ancient India. The following is a list of 142 of the principal non-Aryan languages and dialects, prepared by Mr. Brandreth for the Royal Asiatic Society in 1877, and classified according to their grammatical structure. Mr. Robert Cust has also arranged them in another convenient form, according to their geo- graphical habitat. List of Il OI! - Aryan lan- guages. TABLE OF THE NON-ARYAN LANGUAGES OF INDIA." DRAVIDIAN GROUP. Tibeto-Burman Group—continued. Tamil. Gáro. Malayálam. Páni-Koch. Telugu. Deori-Chutia. } Kanarese. Tipura or Mrung. Badaga. II. Tibetan or Bhutiá. Tulu. | Sarpa. IKudugu or Coorg. Lhopa or Bhutóni. Toda. Changlo. Kota. Twang. Gond dialects. III. Gurung. Mahādeo. i Murmi. 3. Adj. Tháksya. AZaria. | Newar. Randh or Ku. | Pahri. Uráon or Dhangar. Magar. Rájmahāli or Máler. IV. Lepchá. Miscellaneous dialects. V. Daphlá. AWazóztaſe. Miri. } A olamzz. Abar. A elkádi. Bhutiá of Lo. Yerukala. VI. Aka. Gadaba (Kolarian P). VII. Mishmi dialects. Chatſºata. KOLARIAN GROUP. Zaying or Digaret. f T a A/27/h?t. Santáli. VIII. Dhimal. Mundari. > IX. Kanāwari dialects. Ho or Larka Kol. Al/i/c/a/2. Bhum J. Z'hôars/ad. Kor wa. Szz//ec/izz. Kharria. X. \ Kiranti. Juáng. } Limbu. { Kuri. f Sunwär. {Kūrkū. Brámu. Mehto. Chepang. Savara. Váyu. TIBETO-BURMAN GROUP. XI. Rºsa. I. ( Cachari or Bodo. AVamsang or /ćipatria. Mech. Aampárá or /oboka. Hojai. AZ2//ia72. * Brackets refer to dialects that are very closely related ; t to languages beyond the circle of the Indian languages. (See ſist above and one next £age.) ZZST OF 142 AWOMARYA/V ZANGUAGES. Io9 Tibeto-Burman Group—continued, Tibeto-Burman Group—continued. } Zablung. Mulung. XII. Nāgā dialects. A harz. | AWazagãon. Zengsa. A/hota. XIII. Nāgā dialects. Azigázně. A'ezzg/la. } Aruzzg. Aztácha. Liyang or Kareng. Marám. XIV. Mikir. XV. Singpho. Jili. XVI. Burmese. XVII. Kuki dialects. Rhyeng. 7"hado. ſº A/a//a/12. Manipuri. | Maling. Rhoibu. Rupui. Tangkhul. Luhupa. Khungui. Phadang. Champhung. Kupome. Takaimi. Andro and Sengmai. Chairel. Anal and Namfau. XVIII. ( Kumi. Rami. Mru. Banjogi or Lungkhe. Pankho. Shendu or Poi. Sak. Kyau. Karen dialects. Sgaz/. Aghai. A’ed Aarenz. Awd. Taz'zt, Alſoſ gha. Aay or Gazého. 7aumg//hºl. +Lisaw. tGyarung. †Takpa. +Manyak. +Thochu. +Horpa. KHASI. Khási. TAI. Siamese or Thai. Lao. Shan. Ahom. Khamti. Aiton. ‘FTai Mow or Chinese Shan. MON-ANAM. Mon. tRambojan. +Anamese. tPaloung. We discern, therefore, long before the dawn of history, Recapitu. non-Aryan races moving uneasily over India, and violently lation— pushing in among still earlier tribes. of the Himalayas, and plunged into the tropical forests in races. search of new homes. They crossed the snows the non- Aryan Of these ancient races, fragments now exist almost in exactly the same stage of human progress as they were described by Vedic poets more than 3ooo years ago. Some are dying out, such as the Andaman islanders, among whom in 1869 only one family had as many as three children. Others are increasing like the Santāls, who have doubled themselves under British rule. But they all require special and anxious care in adapting Our Complex administration to their primitive condition and needs. including certain half-Hinduized branches, they numbered Taken as a whole, and I IO TAZ/2 AWO/WAA’ VAAV ACA CAE.S. Distribu- tion of aborigines in India in 1872. Aborigines in 1881 and 1891. Not separately returned. 17,627,758 in 1872, then about equal to three-quarters of the population of England and Wales. But while the bolder or more isolated of the aboriginal races have thus kept them- selves apart, by far the greater portion submitted in ancient times to the Aryan invaders, and now make up the mass of the Hindus. The following table shows the distribution of the aboriginal tribes throughout British India in 1872. But many live in Native States, not included in this enumeration ; and the Madras Census of 1872 did not distinguish aborigines from low-caste Hindus. Their total number throughout all India (British and Feudatory) probably exceeded 20 millions in I872 — Aboriginal Tribes and Semi-Hinduized Aborigines in 1872. (Madras Presidency and the Feudatory States not included.) Bengal, tº II, II6,883 Assam, & e º I,490,888 North-Western Provinces, . 377,674 Oudh, 90,490 Punjab, $ tº 959,72O Central Provinces, . I,669,835 Berár, 163,059 Coorg, 42,516 British Burma, I, OO4,991 Bombay, 7 II, 702 I7,627,758 As already stated, the Census of 1881 and of 1891 adopted a classification which fails to clearly distinguish the aboriginal elements in the Indian population. In the North-Western Provinces, Oudh, and the Punjab, which returned an aggregate of nearly I; millions of aboriginal or non-Aryan castes or tribes in 1872, no separate return of the aboriginal or non- Aryan element was made in 1881 or in 1891. It was merged by the enumerators in the returns of the Hindu low- castes. The same process has affected the returns of other Provinces. In Madras, for example, 27 castes, formerly in- cluded in the list of aboriginal tribes, were transferred in the Census of 1881 to the Hindu section of the population. In Bengal, the Census officers explained that the non-registration of the aboriginal element was in some cases ascribed to ‘radical differences in the system upon which the castes, and especially the sub-divisions of castes, were classified in 1872 and in 1881.’ In the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, the special officer stated that his system of classification ‘is Aſ/AV/D UAZ/AWG ZTEAV/D/E/VC//ES. III not compatible with the modern doctrine which divides the population of India into Aryan and aboriginal.’ Under these circumstances, it would be misleading to No com: attempt a comparison between the returns of the aboriginal #.". or non-Aryan population in 1872 and in 1881 and 1891. 1881, and On the one hand, there can be no doubt that the aboriginal 1891. castes and tribes are, in many parts of the Country, tending towards Hinduism ; and that many of them, as they rise in Hin- the scale of civilisation, lose their identity in the Hindu º tendencies. community. On the other hand, it is evident that the decreased returns of the aboriginal tribes and castes in 1881 and 1891 are not entirely, or indeed chiefly, due to this process. It would be erroneous, therefore, to infer that the balance of 12; millions between the 173 millions of aborigines returned for British India in 1872 and the 4; millions nominally returned in 1881, had become Hindus. A Hinduizing process is going on both among the aboriginal low-castes in Hindu Provinces, and among the aboriginal tribes who border on such Provinces. But the apparent disappearance of nearly 13 millions of aborigines between 1872 and 1881 is due, not so much to this Hinduizing process, as to differences in the system of classification and registration adopted by the Census officers. That the disappearance of the Indian aborigines is apparent and not real, can be proved. The birth-rate among some of the aboriginal races was shown by the Census of 1881 to be unusually high ; and, with excep- tions, the aboriginal tribes and Castes are numerically increas- ing, although they are partially merging their separate identity in the Hindu community. In Bengal and Assam, the aboriginal races are divided into Their nearly 60 distinct tribes." In the North-Western Provinces, F." 16 tribes of aborigines were enumerated in the Census of 1872. in 1872. In the Central Provinces they numbered 1% millions (1872); the ancient race of Gonds, who ruled the central table-land before the rise of the Maráthás, alone amounting to 1% millions. In Lower Burma, the Karens, whose traditions have a singu- larly Jewish tinge, numbered on the basis of language 356,629 in 1872, 553,348 in 1881, and 665,920 in 1891. In Oudh, the nationality of the aboriginal tribes has been Crushed tribes. I Among them may be noted the Santāls, 850,000 under direct British administration, total about a million in 1872; Kols, 300,000; Uráons or Dhangars, 200,000 ; and Mundas, 175,000—within British territory. In Assam—Cacharis, 2OO,OOO ; Khásis, 95,000. These figures all refer to 1872, for reasons stated on p. 93. : II 2 T///E AWOAVIAA’ YAAW RACE.S. buried beneath waves of Rájput and Muhammadan invaders. For example, the Bhars, formerly the monarchs of the centre and east of that Province, and the traditional fort-builders to whom all ruins are popularly assigned, were stamped out by Ibrāhīm Sharkſ of Jaunpur, in the 15th century. The Gaulis or ancient ruling race of the Central Provinces, the Ahams of Assam, and the Gonds, Chandelas, and Bundelas of Bundel- khand," are other instances of crushed races. In centres of the Aryan civilisation, the aboriginal peoples have been pounded down in the mortar of Hinduism, into the low- castes and out-castes on which the labour-system of India rests. A few of them, however, still preserve their ethnical identity as wandering tribes of jugglers, basket-weavers, and fortune-tellers. Thus, the Năts, Bediyás, and other gipsy clans, are recognised to this day as distinct from the surround- ing Hindu population. The aboriginal races on the plains have supplied the hereditary criminal classes, alike under the Hindus, the Muhammadans, and the British. Formerly organized robber communities, they have, under the stricter police of our days, sunk into petty pilferers. But their existence was recognised by the Criminal Tribes Act, passed so lately as 1871, and still enforced within certain localities of Oudh and Northern India. The non-Aryan hill races, who appear from Vedic times downwards as marauders, have at length ceased to be a disturbing element in India. But many of them figure as predatory clans in Muhammadan and early British history. They sallied forth from their mountains at the end of the autumn harvest, pillaged and burned the lowland villages, and retired to their fastnesses laden with the booty of the plains. The measures by which these wild races have been reclaimed, form some of the most honourable episodes of Anglo-Indian rule. Cleveland's Hill - Rangers from the outskirts of the Bhāgalpur District, in the last century, and the Bhils and Mhairs in more recent times, are well-known examples of how marauding races may be turned into peaceful cultivators and loyal Soldiers. An equally salutary transformation has taken place in many a remote forest and hill tract of India. The firm order of British rule has rendered their old plundering life no longer a possible one, and at the same time has opened up to them new outlets for their energies. A similar vigilance Gipsy clans. Aboriginal criminal tribes on the plains. Predatory hill races. 1 See for the origin of the Bundelas, Mr. J. Beames' A'aces of the AWorth- Western Provinces, vol. i. p. 45, etc. (1869). 7//E A//ZZ-7AC/B/2S AS SO Z/D/E/CS. II.3 is now being extended to the predatory tribes in the Native States. The reclamation of the wild Moghias of Central India, and their settlement into agricultural communities, was effected by British officers as lately as 188C-87. The hill and forest tribes differ in character from the tamer Character population of the plains. As a whole, their truthfulness, * sturdy loyalty, and a certain joyous bravery, almost amounting tribes. to playfulness, appeal in a special manner to the English mind. There is scarcely a single administrator who has ruled over them for any length of time without finding his heart drawn to them, and leaving on record his belief in their capabilities for good. Lest the traditional tenderness of the India Civil Service to the people should weaken the testimony of such witnesses, it may be safe to quote only the words of soldiers with reference to the tribes with which each was specially acquainted. ‘They are faithful, truthful, and attached to their superiors, The non- writes General Briggs ; ‘ready at all times to lay down their * lives for those they serve, and remarkable for their indomit- soldiers. able courage. These qualities have always been displayed in our service. The aborigines of the Karnātik were the sepoys of Clive and of Coote. A few companies of the same stock joined the former great captain from Bombay, and helped to fight the battle of Plassey in Bengal, which laid the foundation of our Indian Empire. They have since dis- tinguished themselves in the corps of pioneers and engineers, not only in India, but in Ava, in Afghānistán, and in the celebrated defence of Jalālābād. An unjust prejudice against them grew up in the Native armies of Madras and Bombay, produced by the feelings of contempt for them existing among the Hindu and Muhammadan troops. They have no preju- dices themselves; are always ready to serve abroad and embark on board ship ; and I believe no instance of mutiny has ever occurred among them.’ Since General Briggs wrote these sentences, the non-Aryan hill races have supplied some of the bravest and most valued of our Indian regiments, particularly the gallant little Gürkhas. Colonel Dixon's report, published by the Court of Directors, Colonel portrays the character of the Mhair tribes with admirable º minuteness. He dilates on their ‘fidelity, truth, and honesty,’ Mihairs. their determined valour, their simple loyalty, and an extreme and almost touching devotion when put upon their honour. Strong as is the bond of kindred among the Mhairs, he vouches for their fidelity in guarding even their own relatives H II.4. THE /VO/WAA’ YA/V ACA CAE.S. Outram's work among the Bllils. as prisoners when formally entrusted to their care. For Centuries they had been known only as exterminators; but, under the considerate rule of one Englishman, who honestly set about understanding them, they became peaceful subjects and well-disciplined soldiers. Sir James Outram, when a very young man, did the same good work for the Bhils of KHANDESH. He made their chiefs his hunting companions, formed the wilder spirits into a Bhil battalion, and laid the basis for the reclamation of this for- merly intractable race." Every military man who has had anything to do with the aboriginal races acknowledges that once they admit a claim On their allegiance, nothing tempts them to a treacherous or Fidelity of disloyal act. ‘The fidelity to their acknowledged chief,’ wrote the hill I alCCS. Their position 1I] Oll I modern Indian army. Captain Hunter, “is very remarkable; and so strong is their attachment, that in no situation or condition, however desperate, can they be induced to betray him. If old and decrepit, they will convey him from place to place, to save him from his enemies.’ Their obedience to recognised authority is absolute ; and Colonel Tod relates how the wife of an absent chieftain procured for a British messenger safe conduct and hospitality through the densest forests by giving him one of her husband's arrows as a token. The very officers who have had to act most sharply against them speak most strongly, and often not without a noble regret and self- reproach, in their favour. ‘It was not war,’ Major Vincent Jervis writes of the operations against the Santāls in 1855. “They did not understand yielding; as long as their national drums beat, the whole party would stand, and allow themselves to be shot down. They were the most truthful set of men I ever met.” It has been the consistent policy of the Queen's Government of India, from 1858 onwards, to utilise the non-Aryan races as soldiers and frontier police. Indeed, the rural prosperity induced in British India by railways and improved means of Communication, increased prices for agricultural produce, and fixity of tenures and of rents, has seriously interfered with the old supply of soldiers from the military races of the plains. The Rájputs of the British Districts and the Sikhs now find them- selves so well off on their own homesteads, that regimental pay has ceased to have its former attractions for them. Every decade has seen a larger number of recruits drawn from the I See inter alia, article THE DANGS, in Zhe Imperial Gazeſ/eer of Zºdia, 2nd ed. DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN RACES II 5 non-Aryan races, and from the semi-Aryan (or so-called low) Castes of the Hindu population. The splendid services of the Services Girkha regiments from the Nepāl and Himalayan highlandsºn. in Burma form a salient feature in the military history of the past six years. At this moment it is the little Gürkha who is doing the hard work of holding the eastern frontier of India against the predatory Shans and outlying tribes of the Chinese empire and the kingdom of Siam. His struggle for existence in Nepāl is still so hard, that the severest military service under the British flag is a rise in life to him. An interesting pro- posal has lately been made by Sir James Dormer, the Com- mander-in-Chief in Madras, to put fresh energy into the army of Southern India by recruiting from the non-Aryan race of the Nāirs. This race represents by its polyandric customs and The Nāirs. laws of inheritance one of the most primitive types of Indian mankind." For ages they were hereditary warriors, and they appear as a military nobility in the early Portuguese records of the 15th century. They are now distinguished alike for their success in the intellectual professions, as barristers, judges, and administrators, and for their manly vigour in arms. A scheme for incorporating them largely into the Madras army is now (1893) under consideration, and may possibly be destined to have an important effect on the military organization of Southern India. r We have seen that India may be divided into four regions Ethnical —the Himalayas on the north ; the great River Plains that * stretch southward from their foot; the Three-sided Table-land Indian which slopes upwards on the south from the River Plains, and races. covers the southern half of India; and lastly, Burma. Three of these regions, the Himalayas on the north, the Three-sided Table-land in the south, and Burma, are still the chief habitats of the non-Aryan tribes. The most important region, or the great River Plains, became in very ancient times the theatre on which a nobler race worked out its civilisation. * Wide ante, p. 93, and for fuller details my /mperial Gazetteer of India, vol. xiv.; Index, s. v. Nāirs. | 116 || THE ARYAN STOCK. Its European branches. Its Eastern branches. The Aryans in their primitive home. C H A P T E R IV. T H E ARY A. N S IN A N CIENT IN DIA. THIS nobler race belonged to the ARYAN or Indo-Germanic Stock, from which the Brähman, the Rájput, and the English- man alike descend. Its earliest home, visible to history, was in Central Asia. From that common camping-ground, certain branches of the race started for the east, others for the west. One of the western offshoots founded the Persian kingdom ; another built Athens and Lacedæmon, and became the Hellenic nation; a third went on to Italy, and reared the City on the Seven Hills, which grew into Imperial Rome. A distant colony of the same race excavated the silver-ores of pre-historic Spain; and when we first catch a sight of ancient England, we see an Aryan settlement fishing in wattle canoes, and working the tin mines of Cornwall. Meanwhile, other branches of the Aryan stock had gone forth from the primitive home in Central Asia to the east. Powerful bands found their way through the passes of the Himalayas into the Punjab, and spread themselves, chiefly as Bráhmans and Rájputs, over India. - We know little regarding these Aryan tribes in their early camping-ground in Central Asia. From words preserved in the languages of their long-separated descendants in Europe and India, Scholars infer that they roamed over the grassy steppes with their cattle, making long halts to rear crops of grain. They had tamed most of the domestic animals; were acquainted with a hard metal," probably iron, and silver; * understood the arts of weaving and sewing ; wore clothes; and ate cooked food. They lived the hardy life of the temperate Zone, and the feeling of cold seems to be one of the earliest Common remembrances of the eastern and the western, branches of the race. Ages afterwards, when the Vedic * Sanskrit, ayas, iron, or in a more general sense, metal, including gold but not copper in Sanskrit; Latin, aes, aeris, copper, bronze ; Gothic, ais, eisam ; Old German, er, iron ; modern German, eisenz. * Sanskrit, Khamjatra, silver ; Latin, argen/um ; Greek, &pywpos, &pyúploy. JAW/DO-AE UA’OPAEAAW WOAC/OS. I I 7 singers in hot India prayed for long life, they still asked for ‘a hundred winters.’ To this day the November rice in the tropical delta of the Ganges is called the haimántić (cf. Latin hiems), or crop of the ‘snowy' season. The forefathers of the Greek and the Roman, of the Englishman and the Bráhman, dwelt together in Asia, spoke the same tongue, worshipped the same gods. The languages European of Europe and India, although at first sight they seem wide * apart, are merely different growths from the original Aryan merely” speech. This is especially true of the common words of Vºeties family life. The names for father, mother, brother, sister, and º 31]] * 5 2 2 3 Speech. zeidow (Sanskrit, vidhavd), are the same in most of the Aryan languages, whether spoken on the banks of the Ganges, of the Tiber, or of the Thames. Thus the word daughter (Sanskrit, duhitri), which occurs in nearly all of them, has been derived from the old Aryan root dugh, which in Sanskrit has the form du/, to milk, and perhaps preserves the memory of the time when the daughter was the little milkmaid in the primitive Aryan household. - The words preserved alike by the European and Indian Indo- branches of the Aryan race, as heirlooms of their common ºn home in Western Central Asia, include most of the terms required by a pastoral people who had already settled down to the cultivation of the more easily-reared crops. The domestic animals of India and Europe have names derived from the same roots, for cattle, sheep (and wool), goats, swine, dogs, horses, ducks, geese, mice. Their agricultural life has cognate. words for corn (although the particular species of the cereal represented by the cognate words varied), for flax or hemp, for ploughing and grinding ; their implements have cognate terms for copper or iron, cart or waggon, boat, helm ; their household economy and industries have words from the same roots for Sewing and weaving, house, garden, yard ; also for a place of refuge, for the division of the year into lunar months, and for several of the numerals. - The ancient religions of Europe and India had a similar Common common origin. They were to some extent made up of the #. Sacred stories or myths which Our Common ancestors had learned and Indian while dwelling together in Central Asia. Certain of the Vedic religions. gods were also the gods of Greece and Rome; and the Deity is still adored by names derived from the same old Aryan root (div, to shine, hence The Bright One, Indian Deza, Latin /Deus, or Divinity), by Brähmans in Calcutta, by the Protestant clergy of England, and by Catholic priests in Peru. II.8 T//E AA’ VAAWS /AW AAVC/A2/V7' WAV/D/A. The Indo- Aryans Cn the march, and in their new settle- Innel)ts. Function of the rivers. Recollec- tions of theil non thern home. The Rig- Veda. Insufficient evidence for its Supposed dates, 3 IOI B.C. (?) I4OO H. C. (? The Vedic hymns exhibit the Indian branch of the Aryans on their march to the south-east, and in their new homes. The earliest songs disclose the race still to the north of the Kháibar Pass, in Kábul; the latest ones bring them as far as the Gangetic basin. Their victorious advance eastward through the intermediate tract can be traced in the Vedic writings almost step by step. One of their famous settlements lay between the two sacred rivers, the Saraswati, supposed to be the modern Sarsuti near Thaneswar in the Punjab, and the Drishadvati, or Ghaggar, a day’s march from it. This fertile strip of land, not more than 60 miles long by 20 broad, was fondly remembered by the Indo-Aryans as their Holy Land (Brahmāvartta), “fashioned of God, and chosen by the Creator.” As their numbers increased, they pushed eastward along the base of the Himalayas, into what they afterwards called the Land of the Sacred Singers (Brahmarshi-des/a). Their settlements included by degrees the five rivers of the Punjab, together with the upper course of the Jumna and the Country bordering on the Ganges. Here the Vedic hymns were composed; and the steady supply of water led the Aryans to settle down from their old life of wandering, half-pastoral, half-cultivating tribes into permanent communities of husbandmen. Their Vedic poets praised the rivers which enabled them to make this great change—perhaps the most important step in the progress of a race. ‘May the Indus,’ they sang, ‘the far-famed giver of wealth, hear us; (fertilizing our) broad fields with water.” The Himalayas, through whose offshoots they had reached India, and at whose southern base they long dwelt, made a lasting impression on their memory. The Vedic singer praised ‘Him whose greatness the Snowy ranges, and the sea, and the aerial river declare.’ In all its long wanderings through India, the Aryan race never forgot its northern home. There dwelt its gods and holy singers ; and there eloquence descended from heaven among men ; while in the inner lofty regions beyond the mountain-wall lay the paradise of deities and heroes, where the kind and the brave for ever repose. The Rig-Veda forms the great literary memorial of the early Aryan settlements in the Punjab. The age of this venerable hymnal is unknown. The Hindus believe, without evidence, that it existed ‘from before all time,” or at least from 31 or years B.C., nearly 5ooo years ago. European scholars have inferred from astronomical data that its com- position was going on about 14oo B.C. But these data are THE AC/G- VE/DA. II9 themselves derived from writings of comparatively modern Origin, and might have been calculated backwards. We know, however, that the Vedic religion had been at work in India long before the rise of Buddhism in the 6th century B.C. The antiquity of the Rig-Veda, although not to be dogmatically expressed in figures, is abundantly established. The earlier hymns exhibit the Aryans on the north-western frontiers of India, just starting on their long journey. Before the embassy Neverthe- of the Greek Megasthenes, at the end of the 4th century B.C., * they had spread at least to the verge of the Gangetic delta, quity. I5oo miles distant. At the time of the Periplus, circ. 70 A.D., the Southernmost point of India was apparently a seat of their worship. A temple to the queen of their god Siva stood on Cape Comorin, before the end of the first Christian century; and the inferences of European scholarship point to the com- position of at least some of the Vedic psalms at a period not later than twelve to sixteen centuries before the commence- ment of our era. The Brähmans declare that the Vedic hymns were directly Inspira. inspired by God. Indeed, in ºr own times, the young Wººf the Theistic Church of Bengal, which "rejects Bráhmanical teach- ing, was split into two sects on the crux of acknowledging or rejecting the divine authority of the Veda. The hymns seem to have been composed by certain families of Rishis or psalmists, some of whose names are preserved. The Rig-Veda. The Rig- is a very old collection of IoI 7 of these short lyrical poems, Yº chiefly addressed to the gods, and containing Io,580 verses. hymns, They show us the Aryans on the banks of the Indus, divided º into various tribes, sometimes at war with each other, some- times united against the ‘black-skinned ’ aborigines. Caste, in Caste not its later sense, is unknown. Each father of a family is the lº, priest of his own household. The chieftain acts as father and 3. priest to the tribe ; but at the greater festivals he chooses Some one specially learned in holy offerings to conduct the sacrifice in the name of the people. The chief, although hereditary, seems to have been partly elected; and his title of Vis-pati, ‘Lord of the Settlers,’ survives in the old Persian Vis-paiti, and as the Lithuanian Wiéz-patis in east-central Europe at this day. , Women enjoyed a high position, and some of the most beautiful hymns were composed by ladies and queens. Marriage was held sacred. Husband and wife were both ‘rulers of the house' (dampati); and drew near to the gods together in prayer. The burning of widows on the .ow. husbands’ funeral pile was unknown ; and the verses in the burning. I 2 O THE ARVANS IN ANCIENT INDIA. Aryan civilisation in the Veda. Spread of the Aryans eastward. The gods of the Veda. Veda, which the Brähmans afterwards distorted into a sanction for the practice, have the very opposite meaning, ‘Rise, woman, Says the Sacred text to the mourner; ‘come to the world of life. Come to us. Thou hast fulfilled thy duties as a wife to thy husband.” The Aryan tribes in the Veda are acquainted with most of the metals. They have blacksmiths, coppersmiths, and gold- Smiths among them, besides carpenters, barbers, and other artisans. They fight from chariots, and freely use the horse, although not yet the elephant, in war. They have settled down as husbandmen, till their fields with the plough, and live in villages or towns. But they also cling to their old wander- ing life, with their herds and ‘cattle-pens.’ Cattle, indeed, still form their chief wealth—the coin (Latin, pecunia) in which payments or fines are made ; and one of their words for war literally means ‘a desire for cows.’ They have learned to build “ships,' perhaps large river-boats; and have seen or heard something of the sea. Unlike the modern Hindus, the Aryans of the Veda ate beef; used a fermented liquor or beer, made from the soma plant; and offered the same strong meat and drink to their gods. Thus the stout Aryans spread eastward through Northern India; pushed on from behind by later arrivals of their own stock; and driving before them, or reducing to vassalage, the earlier ‘black-skinned ’ races, but sometimes leaving them unsubdued. They marched in whole communities from one river valley to another; each house-father a warrior, husbandman, and priest; with his wife, and his little ones, and cattle. These free-hearted tribes had a great trust in themselves and in their gods. Like other conquering races, they believed that both themselves and their deities were altogether superior to the people of the land and to their poor rude objects of worship. Indeed, this noble self-confidence is a great aid to the success of a nation. Their divinities—devas, literally “The Shining Ones,’ from the Sanskrit root diz, ‘to shine’—were the great powers of nature. They adored the Father-heaven, Dyaush-pitar in Sanskrit, the Dies-piter or /upiter of Rome, the Zeus of Greece, the Low German ZDuus, and, through the old French god-demon ZJus-ius, probably the ZXeuce of English slang; together with Mother-Earth ; also the Encom- passing Sky, Varuna in Sanskrit, Oranus in Latin, Ouranos in Greek. The Sárameyas, or two children of Indra's watch- dog, the messengers of death, are compared with the Greek Hermeias (Hermes), the conductor of the dead. Such common VE/D/C GO/DS. I 2 I ideas and names penetrate deeply into the mythology of the ancient world, although they have sometimes been made the basis for exaggerating the concord between the religious con- cepts of primitive Europe and India. Jupiter Feretrius, for whom the Romans invented conflicting derivations, may possibly be the Vritra-han, or destroyer of the old Aryan demon Vritra. On the coins of the Roman Republic, Juno Sospita is represented with a skin and horns over her. General Cunningham suggests that her epithet represents the Sanskrit Saspatní (Sasſ), a name for the moon, so called from the marks On the moon being supposed to resemble a hare (sasa). Indra, or the Aqueous Vapour that brought the precious Influence rain on which plenty or famine depended each autumn, re- º: ceived the largest number of hymns. By degrees, as the season on settlers realized more and more keenly the importance of the . periodical rains to their new life as husbandmen, he became lº the chief of the Vedic gods. ‘The gods do not reach unto thee, O Indra, or men; thou overcomest all creatures in strength.’ Agni, the God of Fire (Latin, igni-s), ranks next to Indra in the number of hymns in his honour as the friend of man, the guide of the people, the lord and giver of wealth. Judging, indeed, from the preponderance of ancient invo-Indra and cations to Agni, and from the position which the correspond. ** ing deity holds in Iranian mythology, it might appear as if Agni and not Indra had been the chief god of the race, while the Indian and old Persian branches still dwelt to- gether. Among the colder heights and on the uplands of Central Asia, to the north-west of the Himálayas, Heat was the great factor of fertility, the giver of human comfort, and the ripener of the crops. When the eastern offshoots of the Aryans descended upon the plains of India, they found, as they advanced southward, that heat was an element of pro- ductiveness which might be taken for granted, a constant factor in the husbandry of the Indus and Jumna valleys. Here it was upon moisture rather than on heat that their Moisture harvest depended. To the left of their line of march across * * the five rivers of the Punjab, a rather narrow tract stretched to the foot of the Himalayas, with an ample rainfall, now averaging 35 inches a year. But on the broad plains on their right, the water-supply was less abundant and more capricious. At the present day the tract immediately to the south of the ancient Aryan route across the Punjab receives only 20 to 3o inches per annum, diminishing through successive belts of rainfall down to Io inches. I 2.2 ZTAZAZ AAC V4 AWS //V AAVC/A2/V7' //V/O/A. As the Aryan immigrants spread south, therefore, it was no longer so necessary to pray for heat, and it became more necessary to pray for moisture. Agni, the heat-giving god, without being discredited, became less important, and receded in favour of Indra, the rain-bringing deity. In the settlements of the Punjab, Indra may have thus advanced to the first place among the Vedic divinities. He is the Cloud-Compeller, dropping bountiful showers, filling the dried-up rivers from the Himalayas, and bringing the rain-storms. His voice is the thunder; with his spear of lightning he smites open the black clouds, and rends the black bodies of the demons who have drunk up the wished-for rains. He makes the sun to shine forth again. “I will sing of the victories of Indra, of the victories won by the God of the Spear,’ chanted the Rig-Vedic psalmist. ‘ On the mountains he smote the demon of drought (Ahi); he poured out the waters and let the river flow from the mountains: like calves to cows, so do the Waters hasten to the sea.’ ‘Thou hast broken open the rain-prisons' rich in cattle. The bonds of the streams hast thou burst asunder.’” As the Aryans pushed forward into the middle and lower valley of the Ganges, they found themselves in a region of copious rainfall brought by the unfailing monsoons. The rainstorms of Indra thus became less important. His water- spouts, although well worth praying for in the Punjab, evidently belonged to an inferior grade of divine energy than that which presided over the irresistible, majestically ordered advance of the periodical rains in Bengal. Indra, the Cloud-Compeller, seems to have shared in his turn the fate of Agni, the God of Heat. He gave way to three deities on a scale commensurate with the vaster forces of nature in the Lower Gangetic valley. We shall see how the abstract but potent conception of divine energy embodied in the Brähmanical Triad of the Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer took the place alike of Agni and of Indra, and of the other Vedic gods. But meanwhile, Indra, the Giver of Rain, was the most important deity to the Aryan settlers in the Punjab. He stands forth in the Veda as the foremost Shining One. The Maruts were the Vedic Storm-Gods, “who make the * Literally, ‘Thou hast broken the cave of Vritra,” the demon who imprisons the rain and causes drought, with whom Indra is constantly waging victorious war. * The Rig-Vedic attributes of Indra are well summarized by Professor Max Duncker, Ancien/ //istory of Zºdia, pp. 47–49 (ed. I881), following Agni gives place to Indra. Indra, the rain- bringer. Indra gives place to the Triad, of Brahmā, Vishnu, Siva. Roth and Benſey; and are detailed with completeness by Muir, Sanskri: Z'exts, pp. 76–139, vol. v. (1872). THE WEZ)/C SZAWGAER AWD A/S GODS. 123 rocks to tremble, who tear in pieces the forest.’ Ushas, ‘the Other High-born Dawn” (Greek Zos), “shines upon us like a young yº wife, rousing every living being to go forth to his work.’ The " Aswins, the ‘Horsemen or Fleet Outriders of the Dawn, are the first rays of sunrise, ‘Lords of Lustre.’ The Solar Orb (Sūrya, Savitri), the Wind (Väyu), the Sunshine or Friendly Day (Mitra), the animating fermented juice of the Sacrificial Plant (Soma), and many other Shining Ones, are invoked in the Veda; in all, about thirty-three gods, “who are eleven in heaven, eleven on earth, and eleven dwelling in glory in mid-air.’ The terrible blood-drinking deities of modern Hinduism The blood- are scarcely known in the Veda. Buffaloes are indeed offered, º; of and a hymn points to a symbolism based on human sacrifices; Hinduism but actual human sacrifices, if they ever formed part of the ſº primitive Aryan worship, were apparently extinct before the the veda. time of the Vedic singers. The Great Horse-Sacrifice (Asza- med/a) seems, in some of its aspects, a substitution for the flesh and blood of a man. But, as a whole, the hymns are addressed to bright, friendly gods. Rudra, who was destined to develop into the Siva of the Hindus, and the third person or Destroyer in their Triad, is only the God of Roaring Tem- pests in the Veda. Vishnu, the second person or Preserver in the Hindu Triad, is but slightly known to the Vedic singers as the deity of the Shining Firmament; while Brahmā, as the first person, or Creator, has no separate existence in their simple hymns. The names of the dreadful Mahādeva, Durga, Káli, and of the gentler but intensely human Krishna and Rāma, are alike unknown. The Aryan settlers lived on excellent terms with their bright Attitude of gods. They asked for protection with an assured conviction º that it would be granted. ‘Give me cows, or land, or long his gods. life, in return for this hymn or offering;' ‘slay my enemy, scatter the black-skin, and I will sacrifice to thee,”—such is the ordinary frame of mind of the singer to his gods. But, at the same time, he was deeply stirred by the glory and mystery of the earth and the heavens. Indeed, the majesty of nature so filled his mind, that often when he praises any one of his Shining Gods he can think of none other for the time being, and adores him as the Supreme Ruler. Verses of the Veda may be quoted declaring each of the greater deities to be the One Supreme : “Neither gods nor men reach unto thee, O Indra ; Soma is ‘king of heaven and earth, the con- queror of all.’ To Varuna also it is said, ‘Thou art lord of all, of heaven and earth; thou art king of all those who are I 24 THAE AAC VAAWS /AW AAVC/EAVT /AW/D/A. gods, and of all those who are men.” Agni is likewise addressed as the mightiest and as the most beloved of the gods: “No One can approach thy darting, strong, terrible flames: burn thou the evil spirits, and every enemy.” The more spiritual of the Vedic singers, therefore, may be said to have worshipped One God, although not One Alone. & Some beautiful souls among them were filled not only with the splendours of the visible universe, but with the deeper mysteries of the Unseen, and the powerlessness of man to search out God. ‘In the beginning there arose the Golden Child. He was the one born lord of all that is. He established the earth and this sky. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? ‘He who gives life, He who gives strength ; whose command all the Bright Gods revere; whose shadow is immortality, whose shadow is death. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice P ‘He who, through his power, is the one king of the breathing and awakening world. He who governs all, man and beast. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice P ‘He through whom the sky is bright and the earth firm ; He through whom the heaven was established, nay, the highest heaven; He who measured out the light and the air. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? ‘He who by his might looked even over the water-clouds, the clouds which gave strength and lit the sacrifice; He who alone is God above all gods. Who is the God to whom we shall offer Our Sacrifice P’l The yearning for rest in God, that desire for the wings of a dove, so as to fly away and be at rest, with which noble hearts have ached in all ages, breathes in several exquisite hymns of the Rig-Veda : ‘Where there is eternal light, in the world where the Sun is placed,—in that immortal, imperishable world, place me, O Soma | Where life is free, in the third heaven of heavens, where the worlds are radiant, there make me im- mortal Where there is happiness and delight, where joy and pleasure reside, where our desires are attained,—there make me immortal.’” Nor was the sense of sin, and the need of pardon, absent from the minds of these ancient psalmists. As a rule, an honourable understanding seems to have existed between the * Rig-Veda, x. I21 ; translated by Prof. Max Müller, Hist. Anc. Sansk. Higher concep- tions of the Deity in the Veda. A Vedic hymn. * The Better Land.’ The sense of sin and need of forgive- IlêSS. Zić. p. 569; Chifts, vol. i. p. 29 (ed. I867), abbreviated. * Rig-Veda, ix. I 13. 7, Max Müller's translation. PRIMIT/VE ARYAN BURIAZ. I 25 Vedic sacrificer and his bright god : the god being equitably pledged to the fulfilment of the sacrificer's prayer in return for the offering, although the wisest might leave it to Indra himself to decide what was best to bestow. But even the cheerful worshippers of the Veda at times felt deeply the sinfulness of sin, and the fear of the sins of the father being visited upon the children. “What great sin is it, O Varuna,’ says a hymn of the Rig-Veda, ‘for which thou seekest to slay thy worshipper and friend ?’ ‘Absolve us from the sins of our fathers and Prayers for from those which we committed in our own persons. ‘It P* was not our own will that led us astray, O Varuna, it was necessity (or temptation); wine, anger, dice, or thoughtlessness. The stronger perverts the weaker. Even sleep bringeth sin.’’ ‘Through want of strength, thou strong and bright god,” says another hymn to Varuna, ‘have I gone wrong: have mercy, almighty, have mercy. I go along trembling like a cloud driven before the wind ; have mercy, almighty, have mercy. Through want of power (to do right) have I trangressed, O bright and mighty god : have mercy, almighty, have mercy. Whenever we men, O Varuna, commit an offence before the heavenly host, whenever we break the law through thought- lessness, have mercy, almighty, have mercy.’” The very ancient Aryans in Central Asia buried their dead, Primitive although cremation seems also to have been resorted to. In ſº Iran the custom of burial eventually gave place to that of * exposing the corpse on a mountain to the birds of heaven; a custom still practised in the Pārsi Towers of Silence at Bombay and elsewhere. We have seen that Agni, god of heat, appears to have been the chief deity of the Aryan race in Iran ; and fire was regarded by the ancient Persian as too sacred an element to be polluted by a human Corpse. The Aryan settlers in India for a time retained the custom of burial. ‘Let me not, O Varuna, go to the house of clay,’ says one hymn of the Rig-Veda.” “O earth, be not too narrow for him,” says another hymn ; ‘cover him like the mother who folds her son in her garment.' * But in time the Indo-Aryans substituted the fire for the grave; and the burning of the * Rig-Veda, vii. 86; translated in Muir's Sanskrit Texts, vol. v. p. 66 (1872). º * Rig-Veda, vii. 89. Max Müller's beautiful translation is reproduced by Professor Duncker, Ancient History of India, p. 53 (1881). See also Muir's translation, Sanskrit Zexts, vol. v. p. 67 (1872). * Rig-Veda, vii. 89. I. Muir's Sanskrit Zexts, vol. v. p. 67 (1872). * Rig-Veda, x. 18. Roth’s rendering in Duncker, Ancient Aſistory of India, p. 63 (1881). I 26 TAZ/E AA’ YA/VS /AW AAVC//E/VT /AWD/A. Corpse became a distinctive feature of the race, as contrasted with the ruder and more primitive peoples whom they found in the Punjab. While most of the aboriginal tribes buried their dead under rude stone monuments, the Aryan—alike in India, in Greece, and in Italy—made use of the funeral-pyre as the most solemn method of disposing of the mortal part of man. As the Indo- Aryan derived his natural birth from his parents; and a partial regeneration, or second birth, from the performance of his religious duties; so the fire, by setting free the soul from the body, completed the third or heavenly birth. His friends stood round the pyre as round a natal bed, and commanded his eye to go to the sun, his breath to the wind, his limbs to the earth, the water and plants whence they had been derived. But ‘as for his unborn part, do thou, Lord (Agni), quicken it with thy heat; let thy flame and thy brightness quicken it; convey it to the world of the righteous.” For the lonely journey of the soul after its separation from the body, the Aryans, both in Asia and Europe, provided faithful guides (the Sárameyas in Sanskrit, Hermeias in Greek). According to the Zend or old Aryan legend in Persia, Yama was a monarch in the old time, when Sorrow and sickness were unknown. By degrees sin and disease crept into the world; the slow necessity of death hastened its step; and the old king retired, with a chosen band, from the polluted earth into a better country, where he still reigns. The Indian version of the story makes Yama to be the first man who passed through death into immortality. Having discovered the way to the other world, he leads men thither. He became the nekro- pompos, or guide of the Aryan dead. Meanwhile his two dogs (Sárameyas)—‘black and spotted,’ ‘broad of nostril, and “with a hunger never to be satisfied’—wander as his messengers among men. ‘Worship with an offering King Yama, the Assembler of Men, who departed to the mighty waters, who found out the road for many.’" Several exquisite verses bid farewell to the dead —‘Depart thou, depart thou by the ancient paths to the place whither our fathers have departed. Meet with the Ancient Ones; meet with the Lord of Death. Throwing off thine imperfections, go * -- - - - - 13unning of the dead. Aryan legend of Rung Yama, or 1)eath. The Vedic farewell to the dead. * Rig-Veda, x. I4. I. See Dr. John Muir's Sanskrit Texts, and his essay on ‘Yama,’ Journal of the Koyal Asiatic Society, part ii., 1865, whence many of the above quotations are derived. See also Max Müller's essay on the ‘Funeral Rites of the Brähmans,’ on which the following paragraph is chiefly based. IZED/C COAVCAE PT/ONS OF /MMORTAZZZ"Y. 127 to thy home. Become united with a body; clothe thyself in a shining form.’ “Let him depart to those for whom flow the rivers of nectar. Let him depart to those who, through medi- tation, have obtained the victory; who, by fixing their thoughts on the unseen, have gone to heaven. Let him depart to the mighty in battle, to the heroes who have laid down their lives for others, to those who have bestowed their goods on the poor.” The doctrine of transmigration was unknown. The circle round the funeral-pile sang with a firm hope that their friend went direct to a state of blessedness and reunion with the loved ones who had gone before. “Do thou conduct us to Vedic heaven,” says a hymn of the later Atharva-Veda ; ‘let us be ...; with our wives and children.” “In heaven, where our friends immo- dwell in bliss, having left behind the infirmities of the body, * free from lameness, free from crookedness of limb, there let us behold our parents and our children.’ ‘May the water- shedding spirits bear thee upwards, cooling thee with their Swift motion through the air, and sprinkling thee with dew.’ ‘Bear him, carry him ; let him, with all his faculties complete, go to the world of the righteous. Crossing the dark valley which spreadeth boundless around him, let the unborn Soul ascend to heaven. Wash the feet of him who is stained with sin ; let him go upwards with cleansed feet. Crossing the gloom, gazing with wonder in many directions, let the unborn soul go up to heaven.’ The hymns of the Rig-Veda were composed, as we have The seen, by the Aryans in their colonies along the Indus, and on * their march eastward towards the Jumna and Upper Ganges. into the The growing numbers of the settlers, and the arrival of fresh Middle Aryan tribes from behind, still compelled them to advance. and. From ‘The Land of the Sacred Singers,’ in the Eastern Punjab (Brahmarshi-desha, ante, p. 118), Manu describes them as spreading through “The Middle Land' (Madhya-des/a). This comprised the river-system of the Ganges as far east as Oudh and Allahābād, with the Himalayas as its northern, and the Vindhya ranges as its southern boundary. The Ganges is only twice mentioned, and without special The emphasis, in the Rig-Veda. The advance into the Middle *gº. I and seems, therefore, not to have commenced till the close of the Rig-Vedic era. It must have been the work of many generations, and it will be referred to when we come to examine the historical significance of the two great Sanskrit epics. Between the time when the Aryans descended from 128 THE AA’ VA/VS ZAV AAVC/E/WZ' MAWD/A. Slow advance into the Middle Land. The Aryan tribes Organized into kingdoms. Origin of priestly families. Central Asia upon the plains of the Indus and the age when they passed the Ganges, they had conquered many of the aboriginal races, left others behind on their route, and had begun to wage inter-tribal wars among themselves, under rival Aryan heroes and rival Vedic priests. During this advance, the simple faith of the Rig-Vedic singers was first adorned with stately rites, and then extinguished beneath them. The Aryans in India had progressed from a loose confederacy of tribes into Several well-knit nations, each bound together by the strong central force of kingly power, directed by a powerful priest- hood, and Organized on a firm basis of Caste. Whence arose this new constitution of the Aryan tribes into nations, with castes, priests, and kings? We have seen that although in their earlier colonies on the Indus each father was priest in his family, yet the Chieftain, or Lord of the Settlers, called in some man specially learned in holy offerings to conduct the greater tribal sacrifices. Such men were highly honoured, and the famous quarrel which runs throughout the whole Veda sprang from the claims of two rival sages, Vasishtha and Viswamitra, to perform one of these ceremonies. The art of writing was unknown, and the hymns and sacrificial formulae had to be handed down by word of mouth from father to son. It thus came to pass that the families who knew these holy words by heart became the hereditary owners of the liturgies required at the most solemn offerings to the gods. Members of such households were chosen again and again to conduct the tribal sacrifices, to chant the battle-hymn, to implore the divine aid, or to pray away the divine wrath. Even the early Rig-Veda recognises the importance of these sacrifices. ‘That king,’ says a verse, ‘before whom marches the priest, he alone dwells well established in his own house; to him the people bow down. The king who gives wealth to the priest, he will conquer; him the gods will protect.’ The tribesmen first hoped, then believed, that a hymn or prayer which had once acted successfully, and been followed by victory, would again produce the same results. The hymns or Vedic prayers thus became a valuable family property for those who had com- posed or learned them. The Rig-Veda tells how the prayer of Vasishtha prevailed ‘in the battle of the ten kings,’ and how that of Viswämitra ‘preserves the tribe of the Bhārats.” The potent prayer was termed Örahman (from the root brih = ºrih, to increase), and eventually the class who offered it took the patronymic form of Bráhmans. Woe to him who despised either! The term Brähman, in this class-signification, which just THE FOUR VEDAS. I 29 makes its appearance in the Rig-Veda, becomes hardened and Set in the prose literature of the immediate post-Vedic period. Certain families thus came to have not only a hereditary Growing claim to conduct the great sacrifices, but also the exclusive nºmbers g & © of priests. knowledge of the ancient hymns, or at any rate of the traditions which explained their symbolical meaning. They naturally tried to render the ceremonies solemn and imposing. By degrees a vast array of ministrants grew up around each of the greater sacrifices. There were first the officiating priests and their assistants, who prepared the sacrificial ground, dressed the altar, slew the victims, and poured out the libations; second, the chanters of the Vedic hymns; third, the reciters of other parts of the service; fourth, the superior priests, who watched over the whole, and corrected mistakes." The entire service was derived from the Veda, or “inspired The four knowledge, an old Aryan word which appears in the Latin V* vid-ere, ‘to see or perceive ; ’ in the early Greek feid-enai, infinitive of oida, ‘I know ; ’ in the Old English, Z zwiſ, in the modern German and English, zwissen, wisdom, etc. The Rig-Veda exhibits the hymns in their simplest form, arranged (1) The in ten ‘ circles,’ according to the families of their composers, Rig-Veda. the Rishis. Some of the hymns are named after individual minstrels. But as the sacrifices grew more elaborate, the hymns were also arranged in four Collections (sam/titás) or service-books for the ministering priests. Thus, the second, or Sáma-Veda, (2) The was made up of extracts from the Rig-Vedic hymns used at Şāma- the Soma sacrifice. Some of its verses stamp themselves, by €Cl21. their antiquated grammatical forms, as older than their render- ing in the Rig-Veda itself. The third, or Yajur-Veda, consists (3) The not only of Rig-Vedic verses, but also of prose sentences, to be W. used at the sacrifices of the New and Full Moon; and at the y Great Horse-Sacrifice, when 609 animals of various kinds were offered, perhaps in substitution for an earlier Man-Sacrifice, which is also mentioned in the Yajur-Veda. The Yajur-Veda is divided into two editions, the Black and the White Yajur; its (a) both belonging to a more modern period than either the Rig hº or the Sáma Vedas, and composed after the Aryans had spread editions. far to the east of the Indus. The fourth, or Atharva-Veda, was compiled from the least (4) The ancient hymns of the Rig-Veda in the tenth book; and from * * The following pages are largely indebted to Professor Weber's Aſſistory of Zndian Literature (Tribner, 1878), -a debt very gratefully acknow- ledged. I I 30 TAWE AA’ VAAVS /AV AAVC/EAVT /AV/D/A. The four Vedas become in- sufficient. The Bráh- Illa]]2.S compiled. Sruti, or Revealed Truth. The Sūtras, or Sacred Tradi. tions; Smriti ; not “revealed.” Their subject- matter. the still later songs of the Brähmans, after they had established their priestly power. It supplies the connecting link between the simple Aryan worship of the Shining Ones exhibited in the Rig-Veda, and the complex Brähmanical system which followed. It was only allowed to rank as part of the Veda after a long struggle. The four Vedas thus described, namely, the Rig-Veda, the Sáma, the Yajur, and the Atharva, formed an immense body of sacrificial poetry. But as the priests grew in number and power, they went on elaborating their ceremonies, until even the four Vedas became insufficient guides for them. They accordingly compiled prose treatises, called Brähmanas, attached to each of the four Vedas, in order to more fully explain the functions of the officiating priests. Thus the Bráhmana of the Rig-Veda deals with the duties of the Reciter of the Hymns (hofar); the Brähmana of the Sáma-Veda, with those of the Singer at the Soma sacrifice (udgätar); the Brähmana of the Yajur-Veda, with those of the actual per- former of the sacrifice (adhvaryu); while the Brähmana of the Atharva-Veda is a medley of legends and speculations, having but little direct connection with the Veda whose name it bears. All the Bráhmanas, indeed, besides explaining the ritual, lay down religious precepts and dogmas. Like the four Vedas, they are held to be the very Word of God. The Vedas and the Bráhmanas form the Sruti, the things literally heard from God, or the Revealed Scriptures of the Hindus; the Vedas supplying their divinely-inspired psalms, and the Bráhmanas their divinely-inspired theology or body of doctrine. Even this ample religious literature failed in time to suffice. The priests composed a number of new works, called Sūtras, which elaborated still further their system of sacrifice, and which asserted still more strongly their own claims as a separate and Superior Caste. They alleged that these Sütras, although not directly revealed by God, were founded on the inspired Vedas and Brähmanas. They had therefore a lesser divine authority as sacred traditions or Smriti, literally the things remembered. The Sütras, literally “strings’ of aphorisms, were composed in the form of short sentences, for the sake of brevity, and in order that their vast number might be the better remembered in an age when writing was little practised, or unknown. Some of them, such as the Kalpa- Stitras, deal with the ritual and sacrifices; others, like the ‘Household’ or Grihyá-Stitras, prescribe the ceremonies at birth, marriage, and death ; a still larger class of Sütras treat of GA2O WZTAZ OA' THE WAAC/CAO/C CAS7"E. I3 I the doctrines, duties, and privileges of the priests. The Sütras thus became the foundation of the whole legislation and philosophy of the Bráhmans in later times. They exhibit the The Bráhmans no longer as the individual sacrificers of the Vedic º, period, but as a powerful hereditary caste, claiming supremacy formed. alike over king and people. Meanwhile, other castes had been gradually formed. As Growth the Aryans moved eastward from the Indus, some of the *. warriors were more fortunate than others, or received a larger caste share of the conquered lands. Such families had not to till º their fields with their own hands, but could leave that work riyas). to be done by the aboriginal races whom they subdued. In this way there grew up a class of warriors, freed from the labour of husbandry, who surrounded the chief or king, and were always ready for battle. It seems likely that these kins- men and Companions of the king formed an important class among the early Aryan tribes in India, as they certainly did among the mediaeval branches of the Aryan race in Europe, and still do at the petty courts of India. Their old Sanskrit names, Áshałłriya, A'djanya, and A'diſbansi, mean ‘ connected with the royal power,’ or ‘of the royal line;’ their usual modern name Æðput means ‘of royal descent.’ In process of time, when the Aryans settled down, not as mere fighting clans, but as powerful nations, in the Middle Land along the Jumna and Ganges, this warrior class grew in numbers and in power. The black non-Aryan races had to a large extent been reduced to serfdom, or driven back towards the Himalayas and the Vindhyas, on the north and on the south of the central tract. The incessant fighting, which had formed the common lot of the Aryan tribes on their actual migration eastward from the Indus, now ceased. A section of the people accordingly laid aside their arms, The culti- and, devoting themselves to agriculture or other peaceful pur-Yating º & º CaSte suits, became the Vaisyas. The sultry heats of the Middle (vaisyas). Land must have abated their old northern energy, and inclined them to repose. Those who, from hereditary family usage or from personal inclination, preferred a Soldier's life, had to go beyond the frontier to find an enemy. Distant expeditions of this sort could be undertaken much less conveniently by the general body of tribesmen, chiefly husbandmen, than in the ancient time, when the Aryan Settlements lay on the very border of the enemy's country, and had just been wrested from it. Such distant expeditions required and probably developed a military class; endowed with lands, and with serfs I 32 THE AA’ VA MS /AV AAVC/EAVT /AVD/A. The four CaSteS : (I) Brāh- mans, (2) Kshat- triyas, (3) Vais- yas, (4) Südras. The Brāh- mans, Kshat- triyas, and Súdras increase. to till the soil during the master's absence at the wars. The old companions and kinsmen of the king formed a nucleus round which gathered the more daring spirits. They became in time a distinct military caste. The Aryans on the Ganges, in the ‘Middle Land,’ thus found themselves divided into three classes—first, the priests, or Brähmans; second, the warriors and king's companions, Called in ancient times Kshattriyas, at the present day Rájputs; third, the husbandmen, or agricultural settlers, who retained the old name of Vaisyas, from the root vis, which in the Vedic period had included the whole “people.’ These three classes gradually became separate castes; intermarriage between them was forbidden, and each kept more and more strictly to its hereditary employment. But they were all recognised as belonging to the “Twice-born,' or Aryan race; they were all present at the great national sacrifices; and all worshipped the same Bright Gods. Beneath them was a fourth or servile class, called Stidras, the remnants of the vanquished aboriginal tribes whose lives had been spared. These were ‘the slave-bands of black descent,’ the Dásas of the Veda. They were distinguished from their “Twice-born Aryan conquerors as being only ‘ Once-born,' and by many contemptuous epithets. They were not allowed to be present at the great national sacrifices, or at the feasts which followed them. They could never rise out of their servile condition ; and to them was assigned the severest toil in the fields, and all the hard and dirty work of the village Community. Of the four Indian castes, three had a tendency to increase. As the Aryan Conquests spread, more aboriginal tribes were reduced to serfdom, or to lowest caste of Stidras. The warriors, or Kshattriyas, would constantly receive additions from wealthy or enterprising members of the cultivating class. When an expedition or migration went forth to subdue new territory, the whole colonists would for a time lead a military life, and their sons would probably all regard themselves as Kshattriyas. In ancient times, entire tribes, and at the present day the mass of the population throughout large tracts, thus claim to be of the warrior or Rájput caste. Moreover, the kings and fighting-men of aboriginal races, who, without being Conquered by the Aryans, entered into alliance with them, would probably assume for themselves the warrior or Kshattriya rank. We see this process going on at the present day among many of the aboriginal peoples. THE WA/S VA.S D/M/AV/SA/. I 33 The Brähmans, in their turn, appear at first to have received into their body distinguished families of Kshattriya descent. In later times, too, we find that sections of aboriginal races were also ‘manufactured' wholesale into Bráhmans. Un- mistakable cases of such ‘manufactures” or ethnical syncret- isms are recorded; and besides the upper-class agricultural Bráhmans, there are throughout India many local castes of Bráhmans who follow the humble callings of fishermen, black- Smiths, ploughmen, and potato-growers." The Vaisya or cultivating class did not tend, in this manner, The to increase. No one felt ambitious to win his way into it, ºn except perhaps the enslaved Stidras, to whom any change of g condition was forbidden. The Vaisyas themselves tended in early times to rise into the more honourable warrior class; and at a later period, to be mingled with the labouring multitude of Stidras, or with the castes of mixed descent. In many Provinces they have now almost disappeared as a distinct caste. In ancient India, as at the present day, the three conspicuous castes, besides a multitude of mixed descent, were (1) the priests and (2) warriors of Aryan birth, and (3) the serfs or Stidras, the remnants of earlier races. The Stidras had no rights, and, once conquered, ceased to struggle against their fate. But a long contest raged between the priests and warriors for the chief place in the Aryan commonwealth. In order to understand this contest, we must go back to Struggle the time when the priests and warriors were simply fellow-bºn tribesmen. The Brähman caste seems to a large extent to pºly have grown out of the families of Rishis who composed the warrior Vedic hymns, or who were chosen to conduct the great tribal Castes. sacrifices. It seems probable also that entire waves or sets of the Aryan invaders formed tribal communities who were recognised as Bráhmans. In after times, indeed, the whole Bráhman population of India pretended to trace their descent from the Seven Rishis, heads of the seven priestly families to whom the Vedic hymns were assigned. But the composers of the Vedic hymns were sometimes kings, or distinguished warriors, rather than priests; indeed, the Veda itself speaks of these Royal Rishis (Rájarshis). When the Brähmans put Rising forward their claim to the highest rank, the warriors or lºsion Kshattriyas were slow to admit it; and when the Bráhmans Brähmans. went a step further, and declared that only members of their families could be priests, or gain admission into the * See my Orissa, vol. i. pp. 239-264 (ed. 1872). I 34 THE AAC VAZVS //V AAVC/EZVZ" //V/D/A. Viswä- mitra and Vasishtha. Other cases of Kshat- triyas at- taining to Brähman- hood. priestly caste, the warriors seem to have disputed their pre- tensions. In later ages, the Brähmans, having the exclusive keeping of the sacred traditions and writings, effaced from them, as far as possible, all traces of their struggle with the Kshattriyas. The Brähmans taught that their caste had come forth from the mouth of God, divinely ordained to the priesthood from the beginning of time. Nevertheless, the Vedic and Sanskrit texts record a long contest, perhaps representing a difference in race or separate waves of Aryan migrations. The quarrel between the two sages Viswämitra and Vas- ishtha, which, as has been mentioned, runs through the whole Veda, is typical of this struggle. Viswämitra stands as a representative of the royal warrior rank, who claims to perform a great public sacrifice. The white-robed Vasishtha repre- sents the Brähmans or hereditary priesthood, and opposes the warrior's claim. In the end, Viswämitra established his title to conduct the sacrifice; but the Bráhmans explain this by saying that his virtues and austerities won admission for him into the priestly family of Bhrigu. He thus became a Bráhman, and could lawfully fill the priestly office. Vis- wāmitra serves as a typical link, not only between the priestly and the worldly castes, but also between the sacred and the profane Sciences. He was the legendary founder of the art of war, and his equally legendary son Susruta is quoted as the earliest authority on Indian medicine. These two sciences of war and medicine, together with music and architecture, form tºpa-Vedas, or supplementary sections of the divinely-inspired knowledge of the Brähmans. Another famous Royal Rishi, Vítahavya, “attained the con- dition of Bráhmanhood, venerated by mankind,” by a word of the saintly Bhrigu. Parasu-Ráma, the Divine Champion of the Brähmans, was of warrior descent by his mother's side. Manu, their legislator, sprang from the warrior caste; and his father is expressly called ‘the seed of all the Kshattriyas.” But when the Bráhmans had firmly established their supre- macy, they became reluctant to allow the possibility of even princes finding an entrance into their sacred order. King Ganaka was more learned than all the Bráhmans at his court, and performed terrible penances to attain to Bráhmanhood. Yet the legends leave it doubtful whether he gained his desire. The still more holy, but probably later, Matanga, wore his body to skin and bone by a thousand years of austerities, and was held up from falling by the hand of the god Indra himself. Nevertheless, he could not attain to Bráhmanhood. Gautama GAZO WTH OF THE BA’A HMAAVS. I 35 Buddha, who in the 6th century before Christ overthrew the Bráhman Supremacy, and founded a new religion, was a prince of warrior descent; perhaps born in too late an age to be adopted into, and utilized by, the Bráhman caste. Among some of the Aryan tribes the priests apparently The failed to establish themselves as an exclusive order. Indeed, lº, e the four castes, and especially the Brähman caste, seem only focus of to have obtained their full development amid the fertile ºwn. valleys of the Middle Land (Madhya-desha), watered by the "" Jumna and the Ganges. The early Aryan settlements to the west of the Indus long remained outside the caste system ; the later Aryan offshoots to the south and east of the Middle Land only partially carried that system with them. But in the Middle Land itself, with Delhi as its western capital, and the great cities of Ajodhya (Oudh) and Benares on its eastern frontier, the Brähmans grew by degrees into a compact, learned, and Supremely influential body, the makers of Sans- krit literature. Their language, their religion, and their laws, became in after times the standards aimed at throughout all India. They naturally denounced all who did not submit to Aryan their pretensions, and they stigmatised the other Aryan settle- i. d ments who had not accepted their caste system as lapsed the Bráh- tribes or outcasts (Vrishaſas). Among the lists of such fallen mºnical races we read the name afterwards applied to the Ionians or Greeks (Yavanas). The Brähmans of the Middle Land had not only to enforce their supremacy over the powerful warriors of their own kingdoms; they had also to extend it among the outlying Aryan tribes who had never fully accepted their caste system. This must have been a slow work of ages, and it seems to have led to bitter feuds. There were moments of defeat, indeed, when Brähman Brähman leaders acknowledged the Superiority of the warrior caste. flººmfi. “None is greater,’ says the Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad, ‘than the Kshattriya ; therefore the Brähman, under the Kshattriya, worships at the royal sacrifice (réjastøya).” It seems likely * It is easy to exaggerate the significance of this passage, and dangerous to generalize from it. The author has to thank Prof. Cowell and the late Dr. John Muir for notes upon its precise application. Weber, Hist. Ind. A.it. p. 54 (1878), describes the rājasitya as ‘the consecration of the king.’ The author takes this opportunity of expressing his many obligations to Dr. John Muir, his first teacher in Sanskrit. Dr. Muir, after an honourable career in the Bengal Civil Service, devoted the second half of his life to the study of ancient Indian literature; and his five volumes of Original Sanskrit Texts form one of the most valuable and most permanent con- tributions to Oriental learning made in our time. I36 ZTAZAZ AA’ VA/VS //V AAVC/AEAV7' ZAVZ)/A. The Brähman Supremacy estab- lished. They make a wise use of it. Four stages of a Brähman's life. First stage: The Learner (Örahma- chárà). (2) The House- holder (grihas- Žha). that numbers of the Vaisyas or cultivators would take part with the Kshattriyas, and be admitted into their caste. That the contest was not a bloodless one is attested by many legends, especially that of Parasu-Rāma, or ‘Ráma of the Axe.” This hero, who was divinely honoured as the sixth Incarnation of Vishnu, appeared on the scene after alternate massacres by Brähmans and Kshattriyas had taken place. He fought on the Brähman side, and covered India with the carcases of the warrior caste. ‘Thrice seven times,’ says the Sanskrit epic, ‘did he clear the earth of the Kshattriyas,’ and so ended in favour of the Bráhmans the long struggle. It is vain to search into the exact historical value of such legends. They suffice to indicate an opposition among the early Aryan kingdoms to the claims of the Bráhmans, and the mingled measures of conciliation and force by which that opposition was overcome. The Brähman caste, having estab- lished its power, made a wise use of it. From very ancient times its leaders recognised that if they were to exercise spiritual supremacy, they must renounce earthly pomp. In arrogating the priestly function, they gave up all claim to the royal office. They were divinely appointed to be the guides of nations and the counsellors of kings, but they could not be kings themselves. As the duty of the Südra was to serve, of the Vaisya to till the ground and follow middle-class trades or crafts, so the business of the Kshattriya was with the public enemy, and that of the Brähman with the national gods. While the Bráhman leaders thus organized the occupations of the commonwealth, they also laid down strict rules for their own caste. They felt that as their functions were mysterious and above the reach of other men, so also must be their lives. Each day brought its hourly routine of ceremonies, studies, and duties to the Bráhman. His whole life was mapped out into four clearly-defined stages of discipline. For his exist- ence, in its full religious significance, commenced not at birth, but on being invested at the close of childhood with the sacred thread of the Twice-Born. His youth and early manhood were to be spent in learning by heart from some Brähman sage the inspired Scriptures, tending the sacred fire, and serving his preceptor. Having completed his long studies, the young Bráhman entered on the second stage of his life, as a house- holder. He married and commenced a course of family duties. When he had reared a family, and gained a practical BRAHMAN IDEAL OF LIFE I 37 knowledge of the world, he retired into the forest as a recluse, (3) The for the third period of his existence; feeding on roots or fruits, †. and practising his religious rites with increased devotion. The (záma- fourth stage was that of the ascetic or religious mendicant, Pºº). wholly withdrawn from earthly affairs, and striving to attain a (4) The Condition of mind which, heedless of the joys, or pains, or Ascetic wants of the body, is intent only on its final absorption into º the deity. The Bráhman, in this fourth stage of his life, ate nothing but what was given to him unasked, and abode not more than one day in any village, lest the vanities of the world should find entrance into his heart. Throughout his whole existence he practised a strict temperance ; drinking no wine, using a simple diet, curbing the desires, shut off from the tumults of war, and his thoughts fixed on study and contempla- tion. “What is this world?” says a Bráhman sage. ‘It is even as the bough of a tree, on which a bird rests for a night, and in the morning flies away.” It may be objected that so severe a life of discipline could Brähman never be led by any large class of men. And no doubt there º Of have been at all times worldly Brähmans; indeed, the struggle for existence in modern times has compelled the great majority of the Bráhmans to betake themselves to secular pursuits. But the whole body of Sanskrit literature bears witness to the fact that this ideal life was constantly before their eyes, and that it served to the whole caste as a high standard in its two really essential features of self-culture and self-restraint. Incidents in the history of Buddha, in the 6th century before Christ, show that numbers of Bráhmans at that time lived according to this rule of life. Three hundred years later, the Greek ambassador, Megasthenes, found the Brähmans dis- coursing in their groves, chiefly on life and death. The Chinese travellers, down to the Ioth century A.D., attest the survival of the Brähmanical pattern of the religious life. The whole monastic system of India, and those vast religious revivals which have given birth to the modern sects of Hin- duism, are based on the same withdrawal from worldly affairs. At this day, Brähman colleges, called tols, are carried on without fees on the old model, at Nadiyá in Bengal, and elsewhere. As a frequent visitor to these retreats, I can testify to the stringent self-discipline, and to the devotion to learning for its own sake, often protracted till past middle life, and sometimes by grey-haired students. f The Bráhmans, therefore, were a body of men who, in an lºan early stage of this world's history, bound themselves by a rule life. I38 THE AR YA/VS ZAV AAVC/EAVZ' MAVAD/A. Its here- ditary results on the caste. The Brähman type. The work done by the Brāh- mans for India. of life the essential precepts of which were self-culture and self-restraint. As they married within their own caste, begat children only during their prime, and were not liable to lose the finest of their youth in war, they transmitted their best Qualities in an ever-increasing measure to their descendants. The Bráhmans of the present day are the result of probably 3ooo years of hereditary education and self-restraint; and they have evolved a type of mankind quite distinct from the sur- rounding population. Even the passing traveller in India marks them out, alike from the bronze-cheeked, large-limbed, leisure-loving Rájput or warrior caste of Aryan descent; and from the dark-skinned, flat-nosed, thick-lipped low-castes of non-Aryan origin, with their short bodies and bullet heads. The Brähman stands apart from both ; tall and slim, with finely modelled lips and nose, fair complexion, high forehead, and somewhat cocoa-nut shaped skull—the man of self-centred refinement. He is an example of a class becoming the ruling power in a country, not by force of arms, but by the vigour of hereditary culture and temperance. One race has swept across India after another, dynasties have risen and fallen, religions have spread themselves over the land and disappeared. But since the dawn of history, the Bráhman has calmly ruled ; swaying the minds and receiving the homage of the people, and accepted by foreign nations as the highest type of Indian mankind. The paramount position which the Bráhmans won, resulted in no small measure from the benefits which they bestowed. For their own Aryan countrymen, they developed a noble language and literature. The Bráhmans were not only the priests and philosophers; they were also the lawgivers, the Statesmen, the administrators, the men of science, and the poets of their race. Their influence on the aboriginal peoples, the hill and forest races of India, was not less important. To these rude remnants of the flint and bronze ages they brought in ancient times a knowledge of the metals and of the gods. Within the historical period, the Brähmans have incorporated the mass of the backward races into the social and religious Organization of Hinduism. Such a religious organization, and indeed any well-devised and firmly-accepted system of worship, is a great comfort to a tropical people, hemmed in by the uncontrolled forces of nature, as it teaches them how to pro- pitiate those mysterious powers, and so tends to liberate their minds from the terrors of the unseen. The reflective life of the Middle Land (Madhya-desha) led A /ø A////A/V 7/7/EO/OG V. I 39 the Bráhmans to see that the old gods of the Veda were in Brähman reality not supreme beings, but poetic fictions. For when they "*). came to think the matter out, they found that the sun, the aqueous vapour, the encompassing sky, the wind, and the dawn, could not each be separate and supreme creators, but must have all proceeded from one First Cause. They did not shock the religious sense of the less speculative castes by any public rejection of the Vedic deities. They accepted the old Its esoteric ‘Shining Ones’ of the Veda as beautiful manifestations of the tºº. divine power, and continued to decorously conduct the sacrifices in their honour. But among their own caste, the Brähmans distinctly enunciated the unity of God. To the Veda, the Bráhmanas, and the Sütras, they added a vast body of theo- logical literature, which the inferences of modern scholarship assign to a prolonged period between 8oo B.C. and Iooo A.D. The Upanishads, meaning, according to their great Bráhman expounder, “The Science of God,” and His ‘identity with the Soul;' the Aranyakas, or ‘Tracts for the Forest-Recluse;’ together with the epic and religious poems, the law-codes, and the much later Puránas, or ‘Traditions from of Old,’—contain mystic and beautiful doctrines inculcating the unity of God and the immortality of the soul, mingled with less noble dogmas, a vast accumulation of legendary lore, popular tales, and superstitions. The mass of the people were left to believe in four castes, four Vedas, and many deities. But the higher thinkers among the Brähmans recognised that in the beginning there was but one caste, one Veda, and one God. The old ‘Shining Ones’ of the Vedic singers were, indeed, Rise of the no longer suitable deities, either for the life which the Aryans gºvelis led after they advanced into Southern Bengal, or for the country gº in which they lived. The Vedic gods were the good “friends’ of the free-hearted warring tribes in Northern India, settled on the banks of fordable streams or of not overpowering rivers. The vast In Central and South-Eastern Bengal, the Brähmans required forces of deities whose nature and attributes would satisfy profoundly nature, reflective minds, and at the same time would be commensurate with the stupendous forces of nature amid which they dwelt. The storm-gods (Maruts) of the Veda might suffice to raise the dust-whirlwinds of the Punjab, but they were evidently deities on a smaller scale than those which wielded the irresistible Cyclones of Bengal. The rivers, too, had ceased to be merely bountiful givers of wealth, as in the north. Their accumulated in Bengal. waters came down in floods, which buried cities and drowned provinces; wrenching away the villages on their banks, de- I4O THE AA’ VAAWS / W AAVC/EAVT /AWD/A. The Hindu Triad : Brahmá ; Vishnu ; Siva. Bráhman philo- sophy. stroying and reproducing the land with an equal balance. The High-born Dawn, the Genial Sun, the Friendly. Day, and the kindly but confused old groups of Vedic deities, accordingly gave place to the conception of one god in his three solemn manifestations as Brahmá the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer and Reproducer. Each of these three highly-elaborated gods had his prototype among the Vedic deities, and they remain to this hour the three persons of the Hindu Triad. Brahmā, the Creator, was too abstract an idea to make a popular god; and, in a journey through India, the traveller comes on only one great seat of his worship at the present day, on the margin of the sacred lake PUSHKARA, near Ajmere. A single day of Brahmā is 2160 millions of man's years. Vishnu, the Preserver, was a more useful and practical deity. In his ten incarnations, especially in his seventh and eighth, as Rāma and Krishna, under many names and in varied forms, he took the place of the bright Vedic gods. Siva, the third person of the Triad, embodied, as Destroyer and Reproducer, the profound Bráhmanical Con- ception of death at once as a change of state and an entry into new life. He thus obtained, on the one hand, the special reverence of the mystic and philosophic sects among the Bráhmans; while, on the other, his terrible aspects associated him alike with the Rudra, or “God of Roaring Tempests’ of the Veda, and with the blood-loving deities of the non-Aryan tribes. Vishnu and Siva, in their diverse male and female shapes, now form, for practical purposes, the gods of the Hindu population. * - The truth is, that the Aryans in India worshipped—first, as they feared; then, as they admired; and finally, as they reasoned. Their earliest Vedic gods were the stupendous phenomena of the visible world; these deities became divine heroes in the epic legends; and they were spiritualized into abstractions by the philosophical schools. From the Vedic era downward— that is to Say, during a period which cannot be estimated at less than 3ooo years—the Bráhmans have slowly elaborated the forces and splendid manifestations of nature into a har- monious godhead, and constructed a system of belief and worship for the Indian people. They also pondered deeply on the mysteries of life. Whence arose this fabric of the visible world, and whence came we ourselves—we who with conscious minds look out upon it? It is to these questions that philosophy has, among all races, owed her birth; and the Bráhmans arranged their widely diverse answers to them SZX SCAOOZS OF BACAA/MAAV P///ZOSOPHY, 141 in six great systems or darsanas, literally ‘mirrors of know- ledge.’ - The present sketch can only touch upon the vast body of The six speculation which thus grew up at least 5oo years before Christ. : > The universal insoluble problems of thought and being, of mind and matter, and of Soul as apart from both, of the origin of evil, of the summum ſomum of life, of necessity and free-will, and of the relations of the Creator to the creature, are in the six schools of Brähmanical philosophy endlessly discussed. The Sánkhya system of the sage Kapila explains the visible (1) The world, by assuming the existence of a primordial matter from ânkhya ; all eternity, out of which the universe has, by successive stages, evolved itself. The Yoga school of Patanjali assumes the exist- (2) The ence of a primordial Soul, anterior to the primeval matter, and Yoga ; holds that from the union of the two the spirit of life (mahān- &#má) arose. The two Vedanta schools ascribe the visible world (3, 4) The to a divine act of creation, and assume an omnipotent god as "*** the cause of the existence, the continuance, and the dissolu- tion of the universe. The Nyāya or logical school of Gautama (5) The enunciates the method of arriving at truth, and lays special ** stress on the sensations as the source of knowledge. It is usually classed together with the sixth school, the Vaiseshika, (6) The founded by the sage Kanāda, which teaches the existence of a ... transient world composed of eternal atoms. All the six schools had the same starting-point, ex nihilo nihil ſit. Their sages, as a rule, struggled towards the same end, namely, the liberation of the human soul from the necessity of existence and from the chain of future births, by its absorption into the Supreme Soul, or primordial Essence of the universe." The Brähmans, therefore, treated philosophy as a branch of Summary religion. The more practical functions of religion are to lay º down a rule of conduct for this life, and to supply some guide religion. to the next. The Brähman solutions to the problems of prac- tical religion were self-discipline, alms, Sacrifice to and contem- plation of the deity. But besides the practical questions of the spiritual life, religion has also intellectual problems, such as the compatibility of evil with the goodness of God, and the un- equal distribution of happiness and misery in this life. Bráhman * Any attempt to fuse into a few lines the vast conflicting masses of Hindu philosophical doctrines must be unsatisfactory. Objections may be taken to compressing the endless sub-divisions and branching doctrines of each school into a single sentence. But space forbids a more lengthy disquisition. The foregoing paragraphs endeavour to fairly condense the accounts which H. H. Wilson, Albrecht Weber, Professor Dowson, and the Rev. K. M. Banarji give of the six Darsanas or Schools. I42 THE AA’ YA/VS /AV AAVC/EAV7' //V/D/A. Brährman SC16th Ce. Sanskrit grammar. Pánini. Sanskrit and Prákrit speech. philosophy exhausted the possible solutions of these difficulties, and of most of the other great problems which have since perplexed Greek and Roman sage, mediaeval Schoolman, and modern man of science. The various hypotheses of Creation, Arrangement, and Development were each elaborated; and the views of physiologists at the present day are a return, with new lights, to the evolution theory of Kapila. His Sánkhya system is held by Weber to be the oldest of the six Bráhman schools, and certainly dates from not later than 500 B.C. The works on religion published in the native languages in India in 1877 numbered 1192, besides 56 on Mental and Moral Philosophy. In 1882, the totals had risen to 1698 on Religion and Philosophy; and to 1908 in 1890 in the Native languages, besides 70 in English. The Brähmans had also a circle of sciences of their own. The Science of Language, indeed, had been reduced in India to fundamental principles at a time when the grammarians of the West still treated it on the basis of accidental resemblances; and modern philology dates from the study of Sanskrit by European scholars. Pánini was the architect of Sanskrit grammar; but a long succession of grammarians must have laboured before he reared his enduring fabric. The date of Pánini has been assigned by his learned editor Böhtlink to about 350 B.C. Weber, reasoning from a statement made (long afterwards) by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang, sug- gests that it may have been later. The grammar of Pánini stands supreme among the grammars of the world, alike for its precision of statement, and for its thorough analysis of the roots of the language and of the formative principles of words. By employing an algebraic terminology it attains a sharp succinctness unrivalled in brevity, but at times enigmat- ical. It arranges, in logical harmony, the whole phenomena which the Sanskrit language presents, and stands forth as one of the most splendid achievements of human invention and industry. So elaborate is the structure, that doubts have arisen whether its complex rules of formation and phonetic change, its polysyllabic derivatives, its ten conjugations with their multiform aorists and long array of tenses, could ever have been the spoken language of a people. This will be discussed in the chapter on the modern vernaculars of India. It is certain that a divergence had taken place before the time of Pánini (350 B.C.), and that the spoken language, or Próżriţa-b/dishd, had already assumed simpler forms by the SAAVSKAC/7' AAV/O PACAATA’/7. I43. assimilation of consonants and the curtailment of terminals. The Samskrita-bháshá, literally the ‘perfected speech,” which Pánini stereotyped by his grammar, developed the old Aryan tendency to the accumulation of consonants in words, with an undiminished, or perhaps an increased, array of inflections. In this highly elaborated Sanskrit the Brähmans wrote. It became the literary language of India, isolated from the spoken dialects, but prescribed as the vehicle for philosophy, science, and all poetry of serious aim or epic dignity. As the Aryan race mingled with the previous inhabitants of the land, the spoken Prákrits adopted words of non-Aryan origin, and severed themselves from Sanskrit, which for at least 2000 years has been unintelligible to the common people of India. The old synthetic spoken dialects, or Prákrits, gradually underwent in their turn the same decay as Latin did, into analytic vernaculars, and about the same time. The noble parent-languages, alike in India and in Italy, died; but they gave birth to families of vernaculars which can never die. An intermediate stage of the process may be traced in the Hindu drama, in which persons of good birth speak in Prá- kritized Sanskrit, and the low-castes in a bháshá, or patois, between the old Prákrit and the modern dialects. It is chiefly under the popularizing influences of British rule that the Indian vernaculars have become literary languages. Until the last century, Sanskrit, although as dead as Latin so far as the mass of the people were concerned, was the vehicle for all intel- lectual and artistic effort among the Hindus, their local ballads and the writings of religious reformers excepted. In addition, therefore, to other sources of influence, the Brähmans were the interpreters of a national literature written in a language unknown to the people. The priceless inheritance thus committed to their charge Sanskrit they handed down, to a great extent, by word of mouth. Partly º from this cause, but chiefly owing to the destructive climate of India, no Sanskrit manuscripts of remote antiquity exist. A No very fairly continuous series of inscriptions on rocks, pillars, and i. copper-plates, enable us to trace back the Indian alphabets Mss. to the 3rd century B.C. But even the ancient class of existing Sanskrit manuscripts are only four hundred years old, very few have an age exceeding five centuries, and only two date as far back as I 132 and Ioo3 A.D." The earliest Indian Ms. 1 Footnote 198a to Weber's Hisz. Ziad. Ziff. p. 182 (1878), quoting the report of Rájendrá Lálá Mitra (1874), and Dr. Rost's letter (1875). Mr. R. Cust, in a note for The Zmperial Gazetteer of /ndia, assigns the year 883 144 THE ARYANS IN ANCIENT INDIA. IOO8 A.D. Palm-leaf MSS. of Japan. va (1008 A.D.) comesirerſ the cold, dry highlands of Nepāl." In Kashmir, birch-bark was extensively used: a substitute for paper also employed in India before 500 A.D., and still sur- viving in the amulets with verses on them which hang round the neck of Hindus.” Indeed, I have seen birch-bark at this day used by native merchants in the Simla Hills for their account books. t The palm-leaf was, however, the chief writing material in ancient and mediaeval India. Two Sanskrit manuscripts on this substance have been preserved in the Monastery of Horiózi in Japan since the year 609 A.D. It seems probable that these two strips of palm-leaf were previously the property of a Buddhist monk who migrated from India to China in 520 A.D.” At any rate, they cannot date later than the first half of the 6th century; and they are the oldest Sanskrit manuscripts yet discovered. They were photographed in the Anecdota Oxoniensia, 1884. With regard to the origin of the Indian alphabets, the evi- dence is still too undigested to safely permit of cursory state- ment. Of the two characters in which the Asoka inscriptions were written (250 A.D.), the northern variety, or Ariano-Pāli, is now admitted to be of Phoenician, or at any rate of non-Indian, parentage. The southern variety, or Indo-Pāli, is believed by Some scholars to be of Western origin, while others hold it to be an independent Indian alphabet. An attempt has even been made to trace back its letters to an indigenous system of picture - writing, or hieroglyphs, in pre-historic India. * A.D. as the date of the earliest existing Sanskrit MS. at Cambridge. But this remains doubtſul. For very interesting information regarding the age of Indian MSS., see the official reports of the Search for Sanskrit Manu- scripts in Bengal, Bombay, and Madras; particularly Dr. G. Bühler's (extra number of the Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. xxxiv.A., vol. xii. 1877), and Professor P. Peterson's (extra numbers of the same Journal, xli. I883, and Xliv. 1884). * The present author has printed and sent to the India Office Library, for public reference, a catalogue of the 332 Sanskrit Buddhist MSS. collected by Mr. B. H. Hodgson in Nepāl. * Dr. Bühler's Tour in Search for Sanskrit MSS., Journal Bombay Asiatic Society, xxxiv. A., p. 29, and footnote. I877. * Anecdota Oxoniensia, Aryan Series, p. 64, vol. i. Part III. (1884.) See also Part I. of the volume, and pp. 3, 4 of Part III. - * By General Cunningham, Corpus Inscriptionalm Indicarum, pp. 52 et seq. The attempt cannot be pronounced successful. Dr. Burnell's Palaeography of Southern India exhibits the successive developments of the Indian alphabet. For the growth of the Indian dialects, see Mr. Beames' Com- 52O A. D. P The Indian Alphabets. parative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Zanguages of India ; Dr. Rudolph Hoernle’s Comparative Grammar of the Gaudian Zanguages ; two excellent SAAVSA Ae/Z" Z/7ZZACA 7'UAEA. I45 Quintus Curtius mentions that the Indians wrote on leaves in the time of Alexander (326 B.C.). They do so to this hour. Few, if any, Indian manuscripts on paper belong to a period anterior to the 16th century A.D. The earliest Indian writings are on copper or stone; the mediaeval ones generally On Strips of palm-leaves. General Cunningham possesses a short inscription, written with ink in the inside of a lid made of soapstone, dating from the time of Asoka, or 256 B.C. The introduction of paper as a writing material may be studied in the interesting collection of Sanskrit manuscripts at the Deccan College, Poona. - Sanskrit literature was the more easily transmitted by word Sanskrit of mouth, from the circumstance that it was almost entirely * written in verse. A prose style, simple and compact, had entirely in grown up during the early age following that of the Vedic Verse. hymns. But Sanskrit literature begins with the later, although still ancient, stage of Aryan development, which Superseded the Vedic gods by the Brähmanical Triad of Brahmā, Vishnu, and Siva. When Sanskrit appears definitively on the scene in the centuries preceding the birth of Christ, it adopted once and for all a rhythmic versification alike for poetry, philosophy, science, law, and religion, with the exception of the Beast Fables and the almost algebraic strings of aphorisms in the Sūtras. The Buddhist teachers and authors adhered more closely to the spoken dialects of ancient India, Práérita- bháshá, and they also have retained a prose style. But in classical Sanskrit literature, prose became an arrested develop- ment; the sloka or verse reigned supreme ; and nothing can be Prose, a clumsier than the attempts at prose in later Sanskrit romances ºs" and commentaries. Prose-writing was practically a lost art in India during eighteen hundred years. Sanskrit dictionaries are written in verse, without alphabetical Sanskrit arrangement, and form a more modern product than Sanskrit iºn- grammars. The oldest Indian lexicographer whose work sur vives, Amara-Sinha, ranked among the ‘Nine Gems’ at the court of Vikramāditya, one of several monarchs of the same name—assigned to various periods from 56 B.C. to Iojo A.D. The particular Vikramāditya under whom the ‘Nine Gems’ are said to have flourished, appears from evidence in Hiuen papers, by Mr. E. L. Brandreth, on the Gaudian Languages, in the Journ. Roy. As. Soc. vols. xi. xii.; and Mr. R. N. Cust's Linguistic and Oriental AEssays, pp. 144-171, Trübner. For a compendious view of the Indian alphabets, see Faulmann's Buch der Schrift, 119–158, Vienna, 1880. * Alexander in Zndia, lib. viii. cap. 9, v. I5. K I46 Z}/E AAC VA/VS //V A/VC/EZVZ" //V/O/A. The Amara- kosha, 550 A.D. (?) Brähman astronomy. Indepen- dent period, to 500 B.C. Second period; Greek influences, 327 B.C. to IOOO A. D. Tsiang's travels to have lived about 500 to 550 A.D. A well- known memorial verse makes Amara-Sinha a contemporary of Varāha-Mihira, the astronomer, 504 A.D. The other Sanskrit lexicons which have come down belong to the 11th, 12th, and subsequent centuries A.D. Those centuries, indeed, seem to mark an era of industry in Sanskrit dictionary-making; and there is little inherent evidence in Amara-Sinha's work (the Amara-kosha) to show that, in its present form, it was separated from them by any wide interval. The number of works on Language published in 1877 in the Indian tongues, was 604; in 1882, 738; and in 1890, Io.39. The astronomy of the Brähmans has formed alternately the subject of excessive admiration and of misplaced contempt. The truth is, that there are three periods of Sanskrit astronomy (/yoff-såstra). The first period belongs to Vedic times, and has left a moderate store of independent observations and inferences worked out by the Bráhmans. The Vedic poets had arrived at a tolerably correct calculation of the solar year, which they divided into 360 days, with an intercalary month every five years. They were also acquainted with the phases of the moon; they divided her pathway through the heavens into 27 or 28 lunar mansions; and they had made observa- tions of a few of the fixed stars. The order in which the lunar mansions are enumerated is one which must have been established ‘somewhere between 1472 and 536 B.C.’ (Weber). The planets were also an independent, although a later, dis- covery, bordering on the Vedic period. At first seven, after- wards nine in number, they bear names of Indian origin; and the generic term for planet, graha, the seizer, had its source in primitive Sanskrit astrology. The planets are mentioned for the first time, perhaps, in the Taittiriya-Aryanaka. The Laws of Manu, however, are silent regarding them ; but their wor- ship is inculcated in the later code of Yájnavalkya. The zodiacal signs and the Jyotisha, or so-called Vedic Calendar, —with its solstitial points referring to II 81 B.C., or to a period still more remote, seem to have been constructed, or at any rate completed, in an age long subsequent to the Veda. The influence of the Chinese observers upon Indian astronomy, especially with regard to the lunar mansions, is an undecided but a pregnant question. The second period of Brähman astronomy dates from the Greek and Greco-Bactrian invasions of India, during the three centuries before Christ. The influence of Greece infused new life into the astronomy of the Hindus. The Indian astrono- BRAHMAAW ASTRONOMY, 5oo B.C.—1728 A.D. 147 mers of this period speak of the Yavanas, or Greeks, as their instructors; and one of their five systems is entitled the Romaka-Siddhánta.” Their chief writer in the 6th century, Varāha-Mihira, 504 A.D., gives the Greek names of the planets side by side with their Indian appellations; and one of his works bears a Greek title, Horá-Sástra (§pm). The Greek division of the heavens into Zodiacal signs, decani, and degrees, enabled the Bráhmans to cultivate astronomy in a scientific spirit; and they elaborated a new system of their own. They rectified the succession of the Sanskrit lunar mansions, which had ceased to be in accordance with the actual facts, transferring the last two of the old order to the first two places in the new. In certain points the Brähmans advanced beyond Greek Best age of astronomy. Their ſame spread throughout the West, and found ºn e e astronomy. entrance into the Chronicon Paschale (commenced about 330 A.D.; revised, under Heraclius, 610–641 A.D.). In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Arabs became their disciples, borrowed the lunar mansions in the revised order from the Hindus, and translated the Sanskrit astronomical treatises Siddhánías under the name of Sindhends. The Brähman astronomer of the 6th century, 6th century Varāha-Mihira, was followed by a famous sage, Brahma-gupta, * in the 7th (664 A.D.); and by a succession of distinguished workers, ending with Bhāskara, in the 12th (II.5o A.D.). The Muhammadan conquest of India then put a stop to Third further independent progress. After the death of Bhāskara, H. Indian astronomy gradually declined, and owed any occasional under impulse of vitality to Arabic science. Hindu observers of Muham- note arose at rare intervals. In the 18th century (1710–1735), º Rājā Jai Singh II. constructed a set of observatories at his II 50-1800 capital Jaipur, and at Delhi, Benares, Muttra, and Ujjain. A. D His observations enabled him to correct the astronomical tables Jai Singh's of De la Hire, published in 1702, before the French accepted º the Newtonian Astronomy. The Rājā left, as a monument of 1728. his skill, lists of stars collated by himself, known as the Tij Mu-Rājā of hammad Shāhi, or Tables of Muhammad Sháh, the Emperor of .. Delhi, by whose command he undertook the reformation of the tories, Indian Calendar. His observatory at Benares survives to this 1728. day; and elsewhere, his huge astronomical structures testify, by their ruins, to the ambitious character of his observations. * That is, the Grecian Siddhánta. Another, the Paulisa-Siddhánta, is stated by Al Biruni to have been composed by Paulus al Yūnāni, and is probably to be regarded, says Weber, as a translation of the Eiaºyoyh of Paulus Alexandrinus. But see Weber's own footnote, No. 277, p. 253, Hist. Ind. Mit. (1878). 148 THE ARKANS IN ANCIENT INDIA. I3ráhman mathe- matics. Bráhman medicine. Its inde- pendent develop- Nevertheless, Hindu astronomy steadily declined. From Vedic times it had linked omens and portents with the study of the heavens. Under the Muhammadan dynasties it degenerated into a tool of trade in the hands of almanac-makers, genea- logists, astrologers, and charlatans. It is doubtful how far even Rājā Jai Singh's observations were conducted by native astronomers. It is certain that the Catholic missionaries. contributed greatly to his reputation; and that since the 16th century the astronomy of the Hindus, as of the Chinese, is deeply indebted to the science of the Jesuits. In algebra and arithmetic, the Brähmans attained to a high degree of proficiency independent of Western aid. To them, we owe the invention of the numerical symbols on the decimal system ; the Indian figures I to 9 being abbreviated forms of the initial letters of the numerals themselves," and the zero, or o, representing the first letter of the Sanskrit word for empty (stºnya). The correspondence of the numeral figures with the initial letters of their Indian names can be clearly traced in the Lündi character, a cursive form of writing still used in the Punjab, especially among the hereditary trading Castes. The Arabs borrowed these figures from the Hindus, called them the ‘Indian cyphers,’ and transmitted them to Europe. The Arabian mathematicians, indeed, frequently extol the learning of the Indians; and the Sanskrit term for the apex of a planet's orbit seems to have passed into the Latin translations of the Arabic astronomers.” The works on Mathematics and Mechanical Science, published in the native languages in India in 1877, numbered 89 ; in 1882, 166; and 225 in 1890, besides 35 in English. The medical science” of the Brähmans was also an independ- ent development. The national astronomy and the national medicine of India alike derived their first impulses from the exigencies of the national worship. Observations of the heavenly bodies were required to fix the dates of the recurring festivals; anatomical knowledge took its origin in the dissection of the victim at the sacrifice, with a view to dedicating the different parts to the proper gods. The Hindus ranked their ment, 4th medical science as an upa-Veda, or a supplementary revelation, century B.C. to century A. D. : 8th under the title of Ayur-Veda, and ascribed it to the gods. 1 Dr. Burnell, however, questioned this generally accepted view, and sug- gested that the old cave numerals of India are themselves of Greek origin. * The Sanskrit uccha has become the aux (gen. augis) of the Latin translators (Reinaud, p. 525; Weber, p. 257). * For authorities on this subject, see footnote, p. 152. VE/D/C AAVZ) AACAA/MAAW ME/D/C/AWE. I49 But their earliest medical authorities belong to the Sütra period, or later scholastic development, of the Yájur-Veda. The specific diseases whose names occur in Pánini's Grammar indicate that medical studies had made progress before his time (350 B.C.). The chapter on the human body in the earliest Sanskrit dictionary, the Amara-kosha (circ. 550 A.D.), presupposes a systematic cultivation of the Science. The works of the great traditional Indian physicians, Charaka and Susruta, were translated into Arabic not later than the 8th century. Unlike the astronomical treatises of the Brähmans, the becomes Hindu medical works never refer to the Yavanas, or Greeks, º, as authorities; and, with one doubtful exception, they con- and tain no names which point to a foreign origin. The chief seat . of the science was at Benares, far to the east of Greek influence g in India. Indeed, Indian pharmacy employed the weights and measures of Provinces still farther to the south-east, namely, Magadha and Kalinga. Arabic medicine was founded on the translations from the Sanskrit treatises, made by com- mand of the Kaliphs of Bagdad, 750-960 A.D. European medicine, down to the 17th century, was based upon the Arabic; and the name of the Indian physician Charaka repeatedly occurs in the Latin translations of Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Rhazes (Al Rasi), and Serapion (Ibn Serabi). Indian medicine dealt with the whole area of the science. Scope of It described the structure of the body, its organs, ligaments, †. muscles, vessels, and tissues. The materia medica of the Hindus embraces a vast collection of drugs belonging to the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, many of which have been adopted by European physicians. Their pharmacy contained ingenious processes of preparation, with elaborate directions for the administration and classification of medi- cines. Much attention was devoted to hygiene, to the regimen of the body, and to diet. The surgery of the ancient Indian physicians appears to Indian have been bold and skilful. They conducted amputations, * arresting the bleeding by pressure, a cup-shaped bandage, and boiling oil. They practised lithotomy; performed operations in the abdomen and uterus; cured hernia, fistula, piles; set broken bones and dislocations; and were dexterous in the extraction of foreign substances from the body. A special branch of surgery was devoted to rhinoplasty, or operations for improving deformed ears and noses, and forming new ones; a useful Nose- operation in a country where mutilation formed part of the making. I5o 7TP/E AA’ YAAWS //V AAVC/EAVZ" //V/D/A. Operation for neur- algia. Veterinary Surgery. Best age of Indian medicine, 250 B.C. to 750 A.D. Buddhist public hospitals. judicial system, and one which European surgeons have borrowed. It is practised with much success in the Residency Hospital at Indore, Holkar's capital; as jealous husbands in Native States still resort, in spite of more humane laws, to their ancient remedy against a suspected or unfaithful wife. This consists in throwing the woman violently down on the ground and slashing off her nose. I have seen a woman in hospital under the process of new nose-making, and other successful examples of the operation when completed. The ancient Indian surgeons also mention a Cure for neuralgia, analogous to the modern cutting of the fifth nerve above the eyebrow. They devoted great care to the making of surgical instruments, and to the training of students by means of operations performed on wax spread out on a board, or on the tissues and cells of the vegetable kingdom, and upon dead animals. They were expert in midwifery, not shrinking from the most critical operations; and in the diseases of women and children. Their practice of physic embraced the classification, causes, symptoms, and treatment of diseases, —diagnosis and prognosis. The maladies thus dealt with have been arranged into Io classes, namely—those affecting (1) the humours; (2) the general system, including fevers ; (3 to 9) the several organs and parts of the body; and (Io) trivial Complaints. Considerable advances were also made in veteri- nary Science, and monographs exist on the diseases of horses and elephants. The best era of Indian medicine was contemporary with the ascendancy of Buddhism (250 B.C. to 750 A.D.), and did not long survive it. The science was studied in the chief centres of Buddhist civilisation, such as the great monastic university of Nalanda, near Gayā. The ancient Brähmans may have derived the rudiments of anatomy from the dissection of the sacrifice; but the public hospitals which the Buddhist princes established in every city were probably the true schools of Indian medicine. A large number of cases were collected in them for continuous observation and treatment; and they sup- plied opportunities for the study of disease similar to those which the Greek physicians obtained at their hospital camps around the mineral springs. Hippokrates was a priest-physician, indeed the descendant of a line of priest-physicians, practising at such a spring; and the traditional Charaka was in many ways his Indian counterpart. To the present day, works on Hindu medicine frequently commence their sections with the words, ‘Charaka Says.’ This half-mythical authority, and Susruta, ANA, CZ/AVE OF AZZAVZ) U M E/D/C/AVAE. I5 I furnish the types of the ancient Indian physician, and probably belong, so far as they represent real personages, to about the Commencement of the Christian era. Both appear as Bráhmans; Susruta being, according to tradition, the son of the sage Viswa- mitra (p. 134); and Charaka, of another “Veda-learned Muni.’ As Buddhism passed into modern Hinduism (750–10oo A.D.), Decline of and the shackles of caste were reimposed with an iron rigour, i. e the Brähmans more scrupulously avoided contact with blood y or morbid matter. They withdrew from the medical profession, and left it entirely in the hands of the Vaidyas, a lower caste, sprung from a Bráhman father and a mother of the Vaisya or cultivating class. These in their turn shrank more and more 759 to from touching dead bodies, and from those ancient operations I850 A.D. on ‘the carcase of a bullock,” etc., by which alone surgical skill could be acquired. The abolition of the public hospitals, on the downfall of Buddhism, must also have proved a great loss to Indian medicine. The series of Muhammadan con- quests, commencing about Iooo A.D., brought in a new school of foreign physicians, who derived their knowledge from the Arabic translations of the Sanskrit medical works of the best period. These Musalmán doctors, or ſhakłms, monopolized the patronage of the Muhammadan princes and nobles of India. The decline of Hindu medicine went on until it has sunk into the hands of the village Kabiráſ, whose knowledge The consists of jumbled fragments of the Sanskrit texts, and a : by no means contemptible pharmacopoeia ; supplemented by spells, fasts, and quackery. While the dissection of the human body under Vesalius and Fabricius was giving birth to modern medicine in the 17th century, the best of the Hindu physicians were working upon the recollections of a long past age without any new lights. On the establishment of medical colleges in India by the English British Government, in the middle of the present century, the . Muhammadan youth took advantage of them in disproportion- in India. ately large numbers. But the Bráhmans and intellectual classes of the Hindus soon realized that those colleges were the doors to an honourable and a lucrative career. Having accepted the change, they strove with their characteristic industry and acuteness to place themselves at the head of it. In 1879, of the 1661 students in British medical Schools Revival of throughout India, 950 were Hindus and 284 were Muham- º madans, while the remaining 427 included Native Christians, & Pársis, Eurasians, Europeans, and all others. In 1891, these numbers had increased to 1677 Hindus, 336 Muhammadans, I52 THE ARYA/VS ZAV AAVC/EAVT /AVD-74. and 538 Native Christians, Pársis, Eurasians, Europeans, and others; total, 2551, in 1891, for British India alone. Of three Indian youths studying medicine at the University of Edinburgh when I visited that city, one belonged to the Káyasth or Hindu writer caste, another to the Vaidya or hereditary physician caste, and the third was a Brähman. The number of medical works 1 published in the native languages of India in 1877 amounted to 130 ; in 1882 to 212, besides 87 on Natural Science, not including Mathematics and Mechanics ; and in 1890 to 228, besides 117 on Natural Science: total, 345. The Bráhmans regarded not only medicine, but also the arts of war, music, and architecture, as upa-Vedas, or supplementary parts of their divinely-inspired knowledge. Viswamitra, the Vedic sage of royal warrior birth, who in the end attained to Brähmanhood (p. 134), was the first teacher of the art of war (dhanur-veda). The Sanskrit epics prove that strategy had attained to the position of a recognised science before the birth of Christ, and the later Agni Purána devotes long sections to its systematic treatment. The Indian art of music (gåndharva-veda) was destined to exercise a wider influence. A regular system of notation had been worked out before the age of Pánini (350 B.C.), and the seven notes were designated by their initial letters. This notation passed from the Bráhmans through the Persians to Arabia, and was thence introduced into European music by Guido d'Arezzo at the beginning of the 11th century.” Some, indeed, suppose that our modern word gamuf comes, not from Hindu art of war. Indian music. * For monographs on this interesting branch of Indian science, see the articles of Dr. E. Haas, “Ueber die Ursprünge der Indischen Medizin, mit besonderem Bezug auf Susruta,’ and ‘Hippokrates und die Indische Medizin des Mittelalters,’ Zeitschrift der Deutscheme Morgenländischen Gesellschaft for 1876, p. 617, and 1877, p. 647; the ‘Indische Medicin, Karaka,’ of Professor Roth in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen- Jāndischenz Gesellschaft for 1872, p. 44I ; the A’eziezy of the History of Medicine among the Asiatics, by T. A. Wise, M.D., 2 vols., 1867; H. H. Wilson’s little essay, Works, iii. 269 (ed. 1864); the excellent summary in Weber's History of Indian Literature, Trübner, 1878; Dr. Watt’s Dicſ. Economic Products of India (Calcutta, 1885, et seq.); and Dr. Allan Webb's Lecture on Z'he Historical AEelations of Ancient Hindu with Greek Medicine (Calcutta, 1850). The Calcutta editions of Susruta by Madhusädana Gupta (in 1835–36 and 1868), and of Charaka by Gangá- dhara Kavirájá (1868, et seq.), contain the original materials. * Von Bohlen, Das Alte Zndien, ii. 195 (1830); Benfey's Indien (Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopædie, xvii. 1840); quoted by Weber, Æst. Znd. Zić. p, 272, footnote 315 (1878). AZAVZ) O M US/C. I53 the Greek letter gamma, but from the Indian gåma (in Prákrit; in Sanskrit, graima), literally ‘a musical scale.’ Hindu music, after a period of excessive elaboration, Sank under the Muhammadans into a state of arrested development. Of the 36 chief musicians in the time of Akbar, only 5 were Hindus. Not content with tones and semi-tones, the Indian musicians employ a more minute sub-division, together with a number of sonal modifications, which the Western ear neither recognises nor enjoys. Thus they divide the Octave into 22 sub-tones, instead of the 12 tones and semi-tones of the European scale. This is one of several fundamental differ- ences, but it alone suffices to render Indian music barbaric to us; giving it the effect of a Scotch ballad in a minor key, Sung intentionally a little out of tune. Melodies which the Indian composer pronounces to be Its peculi- the perfection of harmony, and which have for ages touched ” the hearts and fired the imagination of Indian audiences, are condemned as discord by the European critic. The Hindu ear has been trained to recognise modifications of sound which the European ear refuses to take pleasure in. Our ears, on the other hand, have been taught to expect harmonic combina- tions for which Indian music substitutes different combinations of its own. The Indian musician declines altogether to be judged by the few simple Hindu airs which the English ear can appreciate. It is, indeed, impossible to adequately represent the Indian system by the European notation; and the full range of its effects can only be rendered by Indian instruments — a vast collection of Sound - producers, slowly elaborated during 2000 years to suit the special requirements of Hindu music. The complicated structure of its musical modes (rdigs) rests upon three separate systems, one of which consists of five, another of six, and the other of seven notes. It preserves in a living state some of the early forms which puzzle the student of Greek music, side by side with the most complicated developments. Patriotic Hindus have of late endeavoured to bring about a Revival of musical revival upon the old Sanskrit basis. About the year º 1870, Rājā Sir Surendra Mohan Tagore of Calcutta com- menced a long series of interesting works on Indian music in the English tongue, adopting as far as possible the European notation. He has trained an orchestra to illustrate the art ; and presented complete collections of Hindu instruments to the Conservatoire at Paris, and to other institutions in Europe. One of the earliest subjects which the new movement took as I54 THE AA’ VAAVS ZAV AAVC/EAVT /AW/D/A. Indian architec- ture, Greco- Bactrian and Muham- madan influences. its theme, was the celebration of the Queen of England and her ancestors, in a Sanskrit volume entitled the Victoria-Gítika (Calcutta, 1875). No Englishman has yet brought an adequate acquaintance with the technique of Indian instrumentation to the study of Hindu music. The art still awaits investigation by some eminent Western professor; and the contempt with which Europeans in India regard it, merely proves their ignor- ance of the system on which Hindu music is built up. Indian architecture (artha-săstra ), although also ranked as an upa-Veda or supplementary part of inspired learning, derived its development from Buddhist rather than from Brähmanical impulses. A brick altar sufficed for the Vedic ritual. The Buddhists were the great stone - builders of India. Their monasteries and shrines exhibit the history of the art during twenty-two centuries, from the earliest cave structures and rock-temples, to the latest Jain erections, dazzling in stucco and Overloaded with ornament. It seems probable that our Christian churches owe their steeples indirectly to the Buddhist topes. The Greco-Bactrian kingdom profoundly influenced architecture and sculpture in Northern India; the Musalmán conquerors brought in new forms and requirements of their own. Nevertheless, Hindu art powerfully asserted itself in the imperial works of the Mughals, and has left memorials which extort the admiration and astonishment of our age. The Hindu builders derived from the Muhammadans a lightness of structure which they did not formerly possess. The Hindu palace-architecture of Gwalior, the Indian-Muham- madan mosques and mausoleums of Agra and Delhi, with several of the older Hindu temples of Southern India, stand unrivalled for grace of outline and elaborate wealth of orna- ment. The Tāj-Mahal at Agra justifies Heber's exclamation, that its builders had designed like Titans, and finished like jewellers. The open-carved marble windows and screens at Ahmadābād, which look like open lace-work in marble, furnish examples of the skilful ornamentation which beautifies every Indian building, from the cave monasteries of the Buddhist period downward. They also show with what plasticity the Hindu architects adapted their Indian ornamentation to the structural requirements of the Muhammadan mosque. A beautiful example of Indian domestic architecture and interior decoration, the Darbār Room in the new wing of Osborne, has just been finished for Her Majesty by Rám Singh, a native of the Punjab, entirely from his own designs (1892). * Specifically, mirmana-silpam, or nirmāna-vidyā. A/V/D/AAW AA’ 7. I 55 English decorative art in our day has borrowed largely from Indian, * tº º decorative Indian forms and patterns. The exquisite scrolls on the rock- art. temples at Karli and Ajanta, the delicate marble tracery and flat wood-carving of Western India, the harmonious blending of forms and colours in the fabrics of Kashmir, have contri- buted to the restoration of taste in England. Indian art-work, when faithful to native designs, still obtains the highest honours at the international exhibitions of Europe. In pictorial art, the Hindus never made much progress, except in miniature-painting, for which perspective is not required. But Indian Some of the book-illustrations, executed in India under Persian painting. impulses, are full of spirit and beauty. The Royal library at Windsor contains the finest existing examples in this by-path of art. The noble manuscript of the Sháh Jahān Màmah, purchased in Oudh for £1200 in the last century, and now in possession of Her Majesty, will itself amply repay a visit. I have also seen a fine example of a profusely illustrated manu- script (Timºr's Biography) at Montreal, the seat of Earl Amherst in Kent. The specimens at the South Kensington Museum do not adequately represent Indian painting. But they are almost everything that could be desired as regards Indian Ornamental design, including Persian bookbinding, and several of the minor arts.” “In India,’ writes Sir George Birdwood,” “the Rāmāyana and Mahābhārata, Rāma and Sítá, Hanumán and Rávana, Vishnu and the Garuda, Krishna and Rádha, and the Kauravas and Pāndavas are everywhere—in sculptured stone about the temples, and on the carved woodwork of houses ; on the graven brass and copper of domestic utensils, or painted in fresco on walls: Ráma, like Vishnu, dressed in yellow, the colour of joy; Lakshmana in purple, Bharata in green, and Satrughna in red. The figures carved on the ivory combs used by the women, and painted on the back of their looking- * I gladly take this opportunity of recommending The Journal of Indian Art and Zndustry (Quaritch, London) to all who desire to study the best ex- amples of Indian art, or to accumulate a delightful collection of Indian art- illustrations. Sir George Birdwood's two monographs are still the standard works on Indian art-work, namely: (1) Handbook to the Zºdian Court of the British Section of the Universal Exhibition of Paris, 1878; by George C. M. Birdwood, M.D., C.S.I. Published by the British Royal Commis- sion, Canada Buildings, London ; and 40 Avenue de Suffren, Paris, 1878. (2) The Jndustrial Arts of India ; by George C. M. Birdwood, M.D., C.S.I. Published for the Committee of the Council on Education, by Messrs. Chapman & Hall, 1880. * MS. kindly furnished to me from 7%e Industrial Arts of India, p. 32. I 56 THE AA’ VAAWS /AW AAVC/AAV7' /AW/D/A. glasses, or wrought in their jewelry, and bed-coverings, and robes, are all illustrations of characters, scenes, and incidents, from one or other of these heroic histories. From them the later dramatists and poets have taken all their stories and songs, the historians their family genealogies, and the Brāh- mans their popular polytheism and moral teaching. They contain and show in a poetical form the whole political, religious, and social life of India, past and present.’ Brähman While the Bráhmans claimed religion, theology, and philo- law. te e g & e sophy as their special domain, and the chief Sciences and arts as supplementary sections of their divinely-inspired knowledge, they secured their social supremacy by codes of law. Their Grihyā- earliest Dharma-săstras, or legal treatises, belong to the Grihyā- sº (?) Stitra period, a scholastic outgrowth from the Veda. But their two great digests, upon which the fabric of Hindu jurisprudence has been built up, are of later date. The first of these, the The code code of Manu, is separated from the Vedic era by a series of ** Brähmanical developments, of which we possess only a few of the intermediate links. It is a compilation of the customary law, current probably about the 5th century B.C., and exhibits the social organization which the Bráhmans, after their suc- cessful struggle for the supremacy, had established in the Middle Land of Bengal. The Bráhmans, indeed, claim for their laws a divine origin, and ascribe them to the first Manu or Aryan man, 30 millions of years ago. But as a matter of fact, the laws of Manu are the result of a series of attempts to codify the usages of some not very extensive centre of Brähmanism in Northern India. They form a metrical digest of local customs, condensed by degrees from a legendary mass of Ioo,000 couplets (slokas) into 2685. They may possibly have been reduced to a written code with a view to securing the system of caste against the popular movement of Buddh- ism ; and they seem designed to secure a rigid fixity for the privileges of the Brähmans. The age of The date of the code of Manu has formed a favourite Manu. subject for speculation from the appearance of Sir William Jones’ translation' downwards. The history of those specula- tions is typical of the modernizing process which scholarship has applied to the old pretensions of Indian literature. I have refrained from anything approaching to dogmatic assertion in regard to the dates assigned to Vedic and Sanskrit works, * Calcutta, 1794; followed by Hüttner's translation into German I797. THE TWO GREAT CODES OF THE HIV/) US 157 as such assertions would involve disquisitions quite beyond the scope of this volume. It may therefore be well to take the code of Manu as a Date of single instance of the uncertainty which attaches to the date * of one of the best known of Indian treatises. Sir William Jones accepted for it a remote antiquity of 1250 B.C. to 500 B.C. Schlegel was confident that it could not be later than Iooo B.C. Professor Monier Williams puts it at 500 B.C., and Johaentgen assigns 350 B.C. as the lowest possible date. Dr. Burnell, in Older his posthumous edition of the code," discusses the question pºle with admirable learning, and his conclusions must, for the Éc. () present, be accepted as authoritative. As already pointed out, the code of Manu, or Mánava - Dharmasástra, is not in its existing metrical form an original treatise, but a versified re- cension of an older prose code. In its earlier shape it belonged to the Sütra period, probably extending from the 6th to the 2nd century B.C. Dr. Burnell's investigations Present indicate that our present code of Manu was a popular work metrical intended for princes or Rájás, and their officials, rather than ºsco a technical treatise for the Bráhmans. He shows that the A.D. present code must have been compiled between Ioo and 500 A.D.; and he thinks the latter date the more probable one, viz. Probably 5oo A.D. ‘It thus appears,’ concludes Dr. Burnell, ‘that the 500 A.P. text belongs to an outgrowth of the Brähmanical literature, which was intended for the benefit of the kings, when the Bráhmanical civilisation had begun to extend itself over the south of India.’” The second great code of the Hindus, called after Yájna- Code of valkya, belongs to a period when Buddhism had established §: itself, and probably to a territory where it was beginning to Valkya. succumb to the Bráhmanical reaction. It represents the Bráhmanical side of the long religious controversy (although a section of it deals with the organization of Buddhist monas- teries), refers to the execution of deeds on metal plates, and 6th cen- altogether marks an advance in legal precision. It is based more tury A.P.(?) specially on the customs and state of Society in the kingdom of Mſthila, now the Tirhuit and Purniah Districts, after the Aryans had securely settled themselves in the Gangetic Pro- vinces to the east and south-east of their old Middle Land of Bengal. The Mitákshará commentary of the law which bears Mitäk- the name of Yájnavalkya is in force over almost all India * * The Ordinances of Manu, by the late Arthur Coke Burnell, Ph.D., C.1. E., of the Madras Civil Service. Trübner, 1884. Pp. xv.–xlvii. * Idem, xxvii. 158 THE AAC VAAVS ZAV AAVC/EZWZT /AW/D/A. Scope of Hindu law. Its rigid CaSte system. Legal division of the people. except Lower Bengal proper; and the Hindus, as a whole, allow to Yájnavalkya an authority only second to that of Manu. Yájnavalkya’s Code was compiled apparently not later than the 6th or 7th century A.D. (although a well-known recen- sion is ascribed to the IIth century). It is right again to mention that much earlier periods have been assigned to Yájnavalkya (as to Manu) than those adopted here. Duncker still accepts the old date of 600 B.C. as that at which Manu's code ‘must have been put together and written down.” These codes deal with Hindu law in three branches, namely —(1) domestic and civil rights and duties; (2) the administra- tion of justice; (3) purification and penance. They stereo- typed the unwritten usages which regulated the family life and social organization of the old Aryan communities in and around the Middle Land of Bengal. They did not pretend to supply a body of law for all the numerous races of India, but only for Hindu communities of the Brähmanical type. It is doubtful whether they correctly represented the actual cus- tomary law even among the Hindu communities in the Middle Land of the Ganges. For they were evidently designed to assert and maintain the special privileges of the Brähmans. This they effected by a rigid demarcation of the employments of the people, each caste or division of a caste having its own hereditary occupation assigned to it; by stringent rules against the intermingling of the castes in marriage; by for- bidding the higher castes, under severe penalties, to eat or drink or hold social intercourse with the lower; and by punishing the lower castes with cruel penances, for defiling by their touch the higher castes, or infringing on their privileges. They exhibit the Hindu community in the four ancient classes of priests, warriors, cultivators, and serfs (Sidras). But they disclose that this old Aryan classification failed to re- present the actual facts even among the Aryan communities in Northern India. They admit that the mass of the people did not belong to any one of the four castes, and they very inadequately ascribe it to concubinage or illicit connections. The ancient Bráhmanical communities in Northern India, as The actual revealed by the law-codes, consisted—First, of an Aryan division of the people. element divided into priests, warriors, and cultivators, all of whom bore the proud title of the Twice-Born, and wore the sacred thread. Second, the subjugated races, ‘the once-born ? Südras. Third, a vast residue termed the Varna-Sankara, literally the ‘mingled colours;’ a great but uncertain number * Azczemż History of Zºdia, by Professor Max Duncker, p. 195, ed. 1881. AZAV/O UV ZA W. I59 of castes, exceeding 3oo, to whom was assigned a mixed descent from the four recognised classes. The Census of India proves that the same division remains the fundamental One of the Hindu community to this day. When the Bráhmans spread their influence eastward and Growth of southward from the Middle Land of Bengal, they carried º du their laws with them. The number of their sacred law-books (Dharma-Sástras) amounted to at least fifty-six, and separate schools of Hindu law sprang up. Thus the Dáyabhága version of the Law of Inheritance prevails in Bengal; while the Mitákshará commentary on Yájnavalkya is current in Madras and throughout Southern and Western India. But all modern recensions of Hindu law rest upon the two codes of Manu or of Yájnavalkya ; and these codes, as we have seen, only recorded the usages of Certain Brähmanical centres in the north, and perhaps did not fairly record even them. As the Brähmans gradually moulded the population of India into Hinduism, such law-codes proved too narrow a basis for dealing with the rights, duties, and social organi- zation of the composite people. Later Hindu legislators Based on accordingly inculcated the recognition of the local usages or fºomy land-law of each part of the country, and of each class or tribe. While binding together and preserving the historical unity of the Aryan twice-born castes by systems of law founded on their ancient codes, they made provision for the customs and diverse stages of civilisation of the ruder peoples of India, over whom they established their ascendancy. By such provisions, alike in religion and in law, the Bráhmans incorporated the Indian races into that loosely coherent mass known as the Hindu population. It is to this plastic element that Hinduism owes its success; Plasticity and it is an element which English administrators have some- tº indu. times overlooked. The races of British India exhibit many " stages of domestic institutions, from the polyandry of the Náirs to the polygamy of the Kulin Brähmans. The structure of their rural organization varies, from the nomadic husbandry of the hillmen, to the long chain of tenures which in Bengal descends from the landlord through a series of middle-men to the actual tiller of the soil. Every stage in industrial progress is represented ; from the hunting tribes of the Central Plateau to the strong trade-guilds of Gujarát. The Hindu legis- lators recognised that each of these diverse stages of social development had its own usages and unwritten law. Even the code of Manu acknowledged custom as a source of law, I6o ZTAE/Z AAC VAAWS ZAV AAVC/EAV7" //WZD/A. and admitted its binding force when not opposed to express law. Vrihaspati says, “The laws (dharma) practised by the various Countries, castes, and tribes, they are to be preserved; otherwise the people are agitated.” Devala says, “What gods there are in any country, . . . and whatsoever be the custom and law anywhere, they are not to be despised there ; the law there is such.” Varāha-Mihira says, “The custom of the country is first to be considered; what is the rule in each country, that is to be done.’ A learned English judge in Southern India thus summed up the texts: “By custom only can the Dharma-săstra [Hindu law] be the rule of others than Brähmans [who form only about one-thirtieth of the popula- tion of the Madras Presidency]; and even in the case of Brähmans it is very often superseded by custom.’" The English, on assuming the government of India, wisely declared that they would administer justice according to the customs of the people. But our High Courts enforce the Bráhmanical codes with a comprehensiveness and precision unknown in ancient India. Thus in Bengal, the non-Hindu custom of sagai, by which deserted or divorced wives among the lower castes marry again, was lately tried according to ‘the spirit of Hindu law; ' while in Madras, judges have pointed out a serious divergence between the Hindu law as now administered, and the actual usages of the people. Those usages are unwritten and uncertain. The Hindu law is printed in many accessible forms; * and Hindu barristers are ever pressing its principles upon our courts. The Hindu law is apt to be applied to non-Hindu, or semi-Hindu, castes; and to override their non-Hindu or only semi-Hinduized customs. Efforts at comprehensive codification in British India are . thus surrounded by special difficulties. For it would be improper to give the fixity of a code to all the unwritten half-fluid usages current among the 3oo unhomogeneous castes of Hindus ; while it might be fraught with future injustice Incor- poration of local CuSt0 mS into Hinduism. Perils of modern codifica- tion. * Dr. Burnell's Dāya-vibhágha, Introd. p. xv. See also Hindu Law as administered by the High Court of Judicature at Madras, by J. Nelson, M.A., District Judge of Cuddapah, chaps. iii. and iv. (Madras, 1877); and Journal Roy. As. Soc. pp. 208–236 (April 1881). * For the latest treatment of Hindu law from the philosophical, scholarly, and practical points of view, see the third edition of West and Bühler's Z)igest of the Hindu Law of Inheritance, Partition, and Adoption. 2 vols. Bombay, 1884. From the writings of Mayne, Burnell, and Nelson in Madras, and those of Sir Raymond West and Dr. Bühler in Bombay, a new and more just conception of the character of Hindu law and of its relations to Indian custom may be said to date. ,SECUZAA’ Z/TEAEA TURE OF THE A/VAW/D U.S. I61 to exclude any of them. Each age has the gift of adjusting Codes its institutions to its actual wants, especially among tribes jof whose customs have not been reduced to written law. Many fittest of those customs will, if left to themselves, die out. Others ** of them, which prove suited to the new social developments under British rule, will live. A code should stereotype the survival of the fittest; but the process of natural selection must be the work of time, and not an act of express legislation. This has been recognised from time to time by the ablest Restricted of Anglo-Indian codifiers. They restrict the word code to ...” the systematic arrangement of the rules relating to Some well-codifica- marked section of juristic rights, or to some executive depart-tion. ment of the administration of justice. “In its larger sense,” write the Indian Law Commissioners in 1879, of a general assemblage of all the laws of a community, no attempt has yet been made in this country to satisfy the conception of a code. The time for its realization has manifestly not arrived.’ The number of works on Law, published in the native languages of India in 1877, was 165; in 1882, 181; and I 17 in 1890, besides 77 in English, total, 194. The Bráhmans were not merely the depositaries of the Secular sacred books, the philosophy, the science, and the laws of * the ancient Hindu commonwealth; they were also the creators Hindus. and custodians of its secular literature. They had a practical monopoly of Vedic learning, and their policy was to trace back every branch of knowledge and of intellectual effort to the Veda. In this policy they were aided by the divergence which, as we have seen, arose at a very early date between the written and spoken languages of India. Sanskrit literature, apart from religion, philosophy, and law, consists mainly of two Its chief great epics, the drama, and a vast body of legendary, erotic, branches. and mystical poetry. The venerable epic of the Mahābhārata ranks first. The The Mah orthodox legend ascribes it to the sage Vyāsa, who, according bhārata ; to Bráhman chronology, compiled the inspired hymns into the four Vedas, nearly five thousand years ago (31 of B.C.). But one beauty of Sanskrit is that every word discloses its ancient origin in spite of mediaeval fictions, and Vyāsa means simply the “arranger,’ from the verb ‘to fit together.' No fewer than twenty-eight Vyāsas, incarnations of Brahmá and Vishnu, came down in successive astronomical eras to arrange and promulgate the Vedas on earth. Many of the legends in L I62 THE AA’ VAAWS /AV AAVC/EAV7" /AW/D/A. the Mahābhārata are of Vedic antiquity, and the main story deals with a period assigned, in the absence of conclusive evidence, to about 1200 B.C.; and certainly long anterior to Its date ; Its growth. Central Story of the Mahá- bhārata. I2th century B.C. (?) the time of Buddha, 543 B.C. But its compilation into its present form seems to have taken place many centuries later. Pánini (350 B.C.) makes no clear reference to it. The inquisitive Greek ambassador and historian, Megasthenes, does not appear to have heard of it during his stay in India, 3oo B.C. Dion Chrysostomos supplies the earliest external evi- dence of the existence of the Mahābhārata, circ. 75 A.D. The arrangement of its vast mass of legends must probably have covered a long period. Indeed, the present poem bears traces of three separate eras of compilation; during which its collection of primitive folk-tales grew from 88oo slokas or couplets, into a cyclopædia of Indian mythology and legendary lore extending over eighteen books and 220,000 lines. The twenty-four books of Homer’s Ziad comprise only 15,693 lines; the twelve books of Virgil's Aneid, only 9868. The central story of the Mahābhārata occupies scarcely One-fourth of the whole, or about 50,000 lines. It narrates a pre-historic struggle between two families of the Lunar race for a patch of country near Delhi. These families, alike descended from the royal Bharata, consisted of two brotherhoods, cousins to each other, and both brought up under the same roof. The five Pándavas were the miraculously born Sons of King Pándu, who, smitten by a curse, resigned the sovereignty to his brother Dhrita-ráshtra, and retired to a hermitage in the Himalayas, where he died. The ruins of his capital, Hastinépura, or the ‘Elephant City,’ are pointed out beside a deserted bed of the Ganges, 57 miles north-east of Delhi, at this day. His brother Dhrita-ráshtra ruled in his stead, and to him one hundred sons were born, who took the name of the Kauravas from an ancestor, Kuru. Dhrita-ráshtra acted as a faithful guardian to his five nephews, the Pándavas, and chose the eldest of them as heir to the family kingdom. His own Sons resented this act of Supersession; and so arose the quarrel between the hundred Kauravas and the five Pándavas which forms the main story of the Mahābhārata. The nucleus of the legend probably belongs to the period when the Aryan immigrants were settling in the upper part of the triangle of territory between the Jumna and the Ganges, and before they had made any considerable advances to the east of the latter river. It is not unreasonable to assign this period to about the 12th century B.C. ,STOA’ Y OF 7"HE MAAAAAAACA 7'4. 163 The hundred Kauravas forced their father to send away Its outline. their five Pándava cousins into the forest. The Kauravas then tried to destroy the five Pándavas by burning down the woodland hut in which the Pándava brethren dwelt. The five escaped, however, and wandered in the disguise of Bráhmans to the court of King Draupada, who had proclaimed a Swayam-vara, or maiden's-choice,—a tournament at which his daughter would take the victor as her husband. Arjuna, one of the Pándavas, bent the mighty bow which had defied the strength of all the rival chiefs, and so obtained the fair princess Draupadſ, who became the common wife of the five brethren. Their uncle, the good Dhrita-ráshtra, recalled them to his capital, and gave them one-half of the family territory towards the Jumna, reserving the other half for his own sons. The Pándava brethren hived off to their new settlement, Indra-prastha, afterwards Delhi, clearing the jungle, and driving out the Nāgās or forest-races. For a time peace reigned; but the Kauravas tempted the eldest of the Pándavas, Yudishthira, ‘firm in fight,’ to a gambling match, at which he The lost his kingdom, his brothers, himself, and last of all his wife. gºing - Their father, however, forced his sons to restore their wicked gains to their cousins. But Yudishthira was again seduced by the Kauravas to stake his kingdom at dice, again lost it, and had to retire with his wife and brethren into exile for twelve years. Their banishment ended, the five Pāndavas returned at the head of an army to win back their kingdom. Many battles followed. Other Aryan tribes between the Jumna and Final the Ganges, together with their gods and divine heroes, joined º in the struggle, until at last all the hundred Kauravas were Kauravas. slain, and of the friends and kindred of the Pándavas only the five brethren remained. Their uncle, Dhrita-ráshtra, made over to them the whole Reign of kingdom ; and for a long time the Pándavas ruled gloriously, º celebrating the Asva-medha, or ‘Great Horse-Sacrifice,” in token • of their holding imperial sway. But their uncle, old and blind, ever taunted them with the slaughter of his hundred sons, until at last he crept away, with his few surviving ministers, his aged wife, and his sister-in-law the mother of the Pāndavas, to a hermitage, where the worn-out band perished in a forest fire. The five brethren, smitten by remorse, gave up their kingdom ; and, taking their wife Draupadſ and a faithful dog, they departed to the Himalayas to seek the Their pil. heaven of Indra on Mount Meru. One by one the sorrowful #. to pilgrims died upon the road, until only the eldest brother, & I64 THE AA’ VAAWS /AW AAVC/EAVT /AVD/A. Slow growth of the central Story. The poly- andry of Draupadi. Yudishthira, and the dog reached the gate of heaven. Indra invited him to enter, but he refused, if his lost wife and brethren were not also admitted. The prayer was granted, but he still declined, unless his faithful dog might come in with him. This could not be allowed, and Yudishthira, after a glimpse of heaven, was thrust down to hell, where he found many of his old comrades in anguish. He resolved to share their sufferings rather than enjoy paradise alone. But, having triumphed in this crowning trial, the whole scene was revealed to be maiyā or illusion, and the reunited band entered into heaven, where they rest for ever with Indra. Even this story, which forms merely the nucleus of the Mahābhārata, is the collective growth of far-distant ages. For example, the last two books, the 17th and 18th, which narrate ‘the Great Journey’ and ‘the Ascent to Heaven,” are the product of a very different epoch of thought from the early ones, which portray the actual life of Courts and camps in ancient India. The Swayam-vara or husband-choosing of Draupadi is a genuine relic of the tournament age of Aryan chivalry. Her position as the common wife of the five brethren preserves a trace of even more primitive institutions —institutions still represented by the polyandry of the Náirs and Himalayan tribes, and by domestic customs which are survivals of polyandry among the Hinduized low-castes all over India. Thus, in the Punjab, among Ját families too poor to bear the marriage expenses of all the males, the wife of the eldest son has sometimes to accept her brothers-in-law as joint husbands. The polyandry of the Ghakkars, the brave people of Ráwal Pindi District, was one of their characteristics which specially struck the advancing Muhammadans in Ioo3 A.D. The Kárakat Vellālars of Madura, at the opposite extremity of the peninsula, no longer practise polyandry; but they preserve a trace of it in their condonement of cohabitation with the husband’s kindred, while adultery outside the husband's family entails expulsion from Caste. Such polyandric customs became abhorrent to the Bráhmans. The Bráhmans justify Draupadí's position, however, on the ground that as the five Pāndava brethren were divinely be- gotten emanations from One deity, they formed in reality only one person, and could be lawfully married to the same woman. No such afterthought was required to uphold the honour of Draupadſ in the age when the legend took its rise. Through- out the whole Mahābhārata she figures as the type of a high- born princess, and a chaste, brave, and faithful wife. She shares THE RAMA VAAVA. I65 in every sorrow and triumph of the five brethren; bears a son to each ; and finally enters with the true-hearted band into the glory of Indra. Her five joint husbands take a terrible vengeance on insult offered to her, and seem quite unaware that a later age would deem her position one which required explanation." The struggle for the kingdom of Hastinápura forms, how- ever, only a fourth of the Mahābhārata. The remainder con- The rest of sists of later additions. Some of these are legends of the early º Aryan settlements in the Middle Land of Bengal, tacked on to & the central story; others are mythological episodes, theological discourses, and philosophic disquisitions, intended to teach the military caste its duties, especially its duty of reverence to the Brähmans. Taken as a whole, the Mahābhārata may be said to form the cyclopaedia of the Heroic Age in Northern India, with the struggle of the Pándavas and Kauravas as its original nucleus, and the Submission of the military power to priestly domination as its later didactic design. The second great Indian epic, the Rāmāyana, recounts the The advance of the Aryans into Southern India. Unlike the * Mahābhārata, its composition is assigned not to a compiler " (Vyāsa) in the abstract, but to a named poet, Válmiki. On the other hand, the personages and episodes of the Rāmāyana have an abstract or mythological character, which contrasts with the matter-of-fact stories of the Mahābhārata. The heroine of the Rámāyana, Sítá, is literally the ‘field-furrow,” to whom the Vedic hymns and early Aryan ritual paid divine honour. She represents Aryan husbandry, and has to be defended Its alle- against the raids of the aborigines by the hero Ráma, an incar- ãºe. nation of the Aryan deity Vishnu, and born of his divine nectar. Ráma is regarded by Weber as the analogue of Balaráma, the ‘Ploughbearer' (Halabhrit). From this abstract point of view, the Rāmāyana exhibits the progress of Aryan plough- husbandry among the mountains and forests of Central and Southern India; and the perils of the agricultural settlers from the non-ploughing nomadic cultivators and hunting tribes. The abduction of Sítá by an aboriginal or demon prince, who Its central carried her off to Ceylon; her eventual recovery by Ráma; idea, and the advance of the Aryans into Southern India, form the * The beautiful story of Sávitri, the wife faithful to the end, is told in the Mahābhārata by the sage Márkandeya in answer to Yudishthira's question whether any woman so true and noble as Draupadi had ever been known. Sávitri, on the loss of her husband, dogged the steps of Yama, King of Death, until she wrung from him, one by one, many blessings for her family, and finally the restoration of her husband to life, from the reluctant god. I66 ZAZE AA’ YA/VS //V AAVC/EZVZ" ZAV/O/4. central story of the Rāmāyana. It differs, therefore, from the central legend of the Mahābhārata, as commemorating a period when the main arena of Aryan enterprise had extended itself far beyond their ancient settlements around Delhi; and as a product of the Brähman tendency to substitute abstract per- sonifications for human actors and mundane events. The nucleus of the Mahābhārata is a legend of ancient life; the nucleus of the Rámāyana is an allegory. Its most modern form, the Adhyātma Rāmāyana, still further spiritualizes the story, and elevates Rāma into a Saviour and deliverer, a god rather than a hero." Its reputed author, Válmiki, is a conspicuous figure in the epic, as well as its composer. He takes part in the action of the poem, receives the hero Rāma in his hermitage, and afterwards gives shelter to the unjustly banished Sítá and her twin sons, nourishing the aspirations of the youths by tales of their father's prowess. These stories make up the main part of the Rámāyana, and refer to a period which has been loosely assigned to about I ooo B.C. But the poem could not have been put together in its present shape many centuries, if any, before our era. Parts of it may be earlier than the Mahá- bhārata, but the Compilation as a whole apparently belongs to a later date. The Rāmāyana consists of seven books (Kándas) and 24,000 slokas, or about 48,000 lines. As the Mahābhārata celebrates the Lunar race of Delhi, so the Rāmāyana forms the epic chronicle of the Solar race of Ajodhya or Oudh. The two poems thus preserve the legends of two renowned Aryan kingdoms at the two opposite, or eastern and western, borders of the Middle Land of Northern India (Madhya-desha). The opening books of the Rāmāyana recount the wondrous birth and boyhood of Rāma, eldest son of Dasaratha, King of Ajodhya ; his marriage with Sítá, as victor at her Swayam-vara, or tournament, by bending the mighty bow of Siva in the public contest of chiefs for the princess; and his appointment as heir-apparent to his father's kingdom. A ganána intrigue ends in the youngest wife of Dasaratha obtaining this appointment to the royal succession for her own son, Bharata, and in the exile of Rāma, with his bride Sítá, for fourteen years to the forest. The banished pair wander south to Prayág (Allahābād), already a place of later than the Mahá- bhārata Legend. Vālmīki. Outline of the Rāmā- yana. The local legend. * The allegorical character of the Rāmāyana has allowed scope for various speculations as to its origin. Such speculations have been well dealt with by the Honourable Mr. Justice Kāshináth Trimbak Telang in his essay, Was the Admdºvazza copied from Homer ? (Bombay, 1873.) THE ABDUCTIO/W AAVD RAESCUAE OF SITA. 167 Sanctity; and thence across the river to the hermitage of Válmiki, among the Bánda jungles, where a hill is still pointed out as the scene of their abode. Meanwhile Rāma's father, the king, dies, and the loyal youngest brother, Bharata, although the lawful successor, refuses to enter on the inheritance, but goes in quest of Ráma to bring him back as rightful heir. A contest of fraternal affection takes place. Bharata at length returns to rule the family kingdom in the name of Ráma, until the latter shall come to claim it at the end of the fourteen years of banishment appointed by their late father. So far, the Rāmāyana merely narrates the local chronicles of The . the court of Ajodhya. In the third book the main story sººn begins. Rávana, the demon or aboriginal king of the far South, Smitten by the fame of Sítá's beauty, seizes her at the hermitage while her husband is away in the jungle, and flies off with her in a magical chariot through the air to Lanka or Ceylon. The next three books (4th, 5th, and 6th) recount the expedition of the bereaved Ráma for her recovery. He makes alliances with the aboriginal tribes of Southern India, under the names of monkeys and bears, and raises a great army. The Monkey general, Hanumán, jumps across the straits between India and Ceylon, discovers the princess in captivity, and leaps back with the news to Ráma. The Monkey troops then build a cause- way across the narrow sea, the Adam’s Bridge or line of submarine rocks well known to modern geography, -by which Ráma marches across, and, after slaying the monster Rävana, delivers Sítá. The rescued wife proves her unbroken chastity, Her during her stay in the palace of Rávana, by the ancient ordeal ** of fire. Agni, the god of that element, himself conducts her out of the burning pile to her husband; and, the fourteen years of banishment being over, Rāma and Sítá return in triumph to Ajodhya. There they reigned gloriously; and Rāma celebrated the Great Horse-Sacrifice (Asva-medha) as a token of his imperial sway over India. But a famine having smitten the land, Ráma regarded it as a judgment of heaven on some secret guilt in the royal family, and doubts arose in his heart as to his wife's purity while in her captor's power at Ceylon. He banishes the faithful Sítá, who wanders forth again to Válmiki’s hermitage, where she gives birth to Rāma's two sons. After sixteen years of exile, she is reconciled to her repentant husband, and Rāma and Sítá and their children are at last reunited." * Respectful mention should here be made of Growse's translation of the Hindi version of the Rāmāyana by Tulsi Dás. (4to, Allahābād, 1883.) I68 ZTAE/AE AA’ VAAWS /AV AAVC/A2AV7' ZAVZ)/A. Later The Mahābhārata and the Rámáyana, however overladen * with fable, form the chronicles of the kings of the Middle Land of the Ganges, their family feuds, and their national enter- prises. In the later Sanskrit epics, the legendary element is more and more overpowered by the mythological. Among them the Raghu-vansa and the Kumára-sambhava, both Raghu- assigned to Kálidasa, take the first rank. The Raghu-vansa * celebrates the Solar line of Raghu, King of Ajodhya ; more particularly the ancestry and the life of his descendant Rāma. Kumāra- The Kumāra-sambhava recounts the birth of the War-god.” * It is still more didactic and allegorical, abounding in sentiment and in feats of prosody. But it contains passages of exquisite beauty of style and elevation of thought. From the astrological data which these two poems furnish, Jacobi infers that they cannot have been composed before 350 A.D. Kálidāsa. The name of Kálidasa has come down, not only as the composer of these two later epics, but as the father of the Sanskrit drama. According to Hindu tradition, he was one of the ‘Nine Gems’ or distinguished men at the court of Vikramāditya. This prince is popularly identified with the King of Ujjain who gave his name to the Samvat era, commencing in the year 57 B.C. But, as Holtzmann points out, it may be almost as dangerous to infer from this latter King Vik- circumstance that Vikramāditya lived in 57 B.C., as to place * Julius Caesar in the first year of the so-called Julian Calendar, namely, 4713 B.C. Several Vikramādityas figure in Indian history. Indeed, the name is merely a title, “A very Sun in Prowess,” which has been borne by victorious monarchs of many of the Indian dynasties. The date of Vikramāditya has been variously assigned from 57 B.C. to IoSo A.D. ; and the 550 A.D.(?) works of the poets and philosophers who formed the ‘Nine Gems’ of his court, appear from internal evidence to have been composed at intervals during that long period. The Vikramāditya under whom Kälidasa and the ‘Nine Gems’ are traditionally said to have flourished, ruled over Málwā probably about 500 to 550 A.D. Age of the In India, as in Greece and Rome, scenic representations Sanskrit seem to have taken their rise in the rude pantomime of a very drama. e & * * early time, possibly as far back as the Vedic ritual; and the * Translated into spirited English verse by Mr. Ralph T. H. Griffith, M.A., who is also the author of a charming collection of “Idylls from the Sanskrit,” based on the Mahābhārata, Rāmāyana, Raghu-vansa, and Káli- dāsa's Seasons. - 7"HE SAMSA R/T ZOA’AMA. I69 Sanskrit word for the drama, nétaka, is derived from mata, a dancer. But the Sanskrit dramas of the classical age belong to the period between the 1st century B.C. and the 8th cen- tury A.D., and as far down as the I Ith and 12th. They make mention of Greek (or Bactrian) slaves, are acquainted with Buddhism in its full development, and disclose a wide diverg- ence between Sanskrit and the dialects used by the lower classes. The Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana appear in the Sanskrit drama as part of the popular literature, in fact, as Occupying very much the same position which they still hold. No dramas are known among the works which the Indians who emigrated to Java, about 500 A.D., carried with them to their new homes. Nor have any dramas been yet found among the Tibetan translations of the Sanskrit classics. The most famous drama of Kálidasa is Sakuntalá, or the Sakuntalá. ‘Lost Ring.” Like the ancient epics, it divides its action between the court of the king and the hermitage in the forest. Prince Dushyanta, an ancestor of the noble Lunar race, weds by an irregular marriage a beautiful maiden, Sakuntalá, at her father's hermitage in the jungle. Before returning to his Capital, he gives his bride a ring as a pledge of his love. Smitten by a curse from a holy man, she loses the ring, and cannot be recognised by her husband till it is found. Sakun- talá bears a son in her loneliness, and sets out to claim recog- nition for herself and child at her husband's court. But she is as one unknown to the prince, till, after many sorrows and trials, the ring comes to light. She is then happily reunited with her husband, and her son grows up to be the noble Bharata, the chief founder of the Lunar dynasty whose achievements form the theme of the Mahābhārata. Sakun- talá, like Sítá, is the type of the chaste and faithful Hindu wife; and her love and sorrow, after forming the favourite romance of the Indian people for perhaps eighteen hundred years, have furnished a theme for the great European poet of Our age. ‘Wouldst thou,” says Goethe, ‘Wouldst thou the young year's blossoms, and the fruits of its decline, And all by which the soul is charmed, enraptured, feasted, fed,— Wouldst thou the earth and heaven itself in one sole name combine 2 I name thee, O Sakuntalá and all at once is said.’ Sakuntalá has had the good fortune to be translated by Sir Other William Jones (1789), and to be sung by Goethe. But other dramas; of the Hindu dramas and domestic poems are of almost equal interest and beauty. As examples of the classical period, I7o THE AR WAAVS //V AAVC/EAV7" //V/D/A. may be taken the Mrichchakati, or “Toy Cart,” a drama in ten acts, on the old theme of the innocent cleared and the guilty punished ; and the poem of Nala and Damayantſ, or the ‘Royal Gambler and the Faithful Wife.” Such plays and poems frequently take an episode of the Mahābhārata or Rámāyana for their subject; and in this way the main incidents in the two great epics have been gradually dramatized or reduced to the still more popular form of household song. The modern drama was one of the first branches of Hindu secular literature which accepted the spoken dialects; and the native theatre forms the best, indeed almost the only, school in which an Englishman can acquaint himself with the in-door life of the people. In our own day there has been a great dramatic revival in India: new plays in the vernacular tongues issue rapidly from the press; and societies of patriotic young natives form themselves into dramatic companies, especially in Calcutta and Bombay. Many of the pieces are vernacular render- ings of stories from the Sanskrit epics and classical dramas. Several have a political significance, and deal with the phases of development upon which India has entered under the influence of British rule. One Bengalſ play, the Nil-darpan," or the ‘Indigo Factory,’ became the subject of a celebrated trial in Calcutta; while others—such as Ekei ki bale Sabh- yafai ? ‘Is this what you call civilisation ?’ — suggest many serious thoughts to a candid English mind. In 1877, Io.2 dramas were published in India in the native tongues; in 1882, 245; and 263 in 1890, besides 6 in English. Closely allied to the drama is the prose romance. In 1823, Dr. H. H. Wilson intimated that Hindu literature contained collections of domestic narrative to an extent surpassing those of any other people. The vast growth of European fiction since that date renders this statement no longer accurate. But Wilson's translations from the Vrihat-kathá may still be read with interest,” and the Sanskrit Beast-stories now occupy an even more significant place in the history of Indo-European literature than they did then. Many fables of animals familiar to the Western world, from the time of AEsop downwards, had their original home in India. The relation between the fox and the lion in the Greek versions has no reality in nature. It was based, however, upon the actual relation between the Sanskrit, and modern. Recent dramatic revival. The Hindu novel. Beast- stories; * Literally, ‘The Mirror of Indigo.” - * Oriental Quarterly Magazine, Calcutta, March 1824, pp. 63–77. Also vol. iii. of Wilson's Collected Works, pp. 156–268. London, 1864. SAAVSATA’/7' W. VACAC POA. TAC V. I7 I lion or the tiger, and his follower the jackal, in the Sanskrit stories." Weber thinks that complete cycles of Indian fables may have existed in the time of Pánini (350 B.C.). The Sanskrit Panchatantra, or Book of Beast Tales, was translated their into the ancient Persian as early as the 6th century A.D., and * from that rendering all the subsequent versions in Asia Minor ward. and Europe have been derived. The most ancient animal fables of India are at the present day the nursery stories of England and America. The graceful Hindu imagination delighted also in fairy tales; and the Sanskrit compositions of this class are the original source of many of the fairy tales of Persia, Arabia, and Christendom. The works of fiction published in the native languages in India in 1877 numbered 196; in 1882, 237 ; and 296 in 1890, besides 12 in English. In mediaeval India, a large body of poetry, half-religious, Sanskrit half-amorous, grew up around the legend of the youthful º, Krishna (the eighth incarnation of Vishnu) and his loves with poetry. the shepherdesses, the playmates of his sweet pastoral life. Kálidasa, according to Hindu tradition, was the father of the erotic lyric, as well as a great dramatic and epic poet. In his Megha-dûta or ‘Cloud Messenger,’ an exile sends a message by a wind-borne cloud to his love, and the countries beneath its long aerial route are made to pass like a panorama before the reader's eye. The Gita Govinda, or Divine Herds- man of Jayadeva, is a Sanskrit ‘Song of Solomon’ of the 12th century A.D. A festival once a year celebrates the birthplace of this mystical love-poet, in the Birbhum District of Lower Bengal; and many less famous compositions of the same class now issue from the vernacular press throughout India. In 1877, no fewer than 697 works of poetry were published in the native languages in India; in 1882, 834; and in 1890, I 2.28. The mediaeval Brāhmans displayed a marvellous activity in The theological as well as in lyric poetry. The Purānas, literally irºna; { e Writin orc & • Al --> 8th to 16th The Ancient Writings,’ form a collection of religious and ..., philosophical treatises in verse, of which the principal ones A.D. number eighteen. The whole Purānas are said to contain 1,600,ooo lines. The really old ones have either been lost * See, however, Weber's elaborate footnote, No. 221, for the other view, Aſist. Znd. Złł. p. 21 I. Max Müller's charming essay on the Migration of Fables (Chifts, vol. iv. pp. 145–209, Ed. 1875) traces the actual stages of a well-known story from the East to the West. 172 THE AR WAAVS /AW AAVC/E/WT /AVD/A. Contents of the Purānas. Their SectS. Their influence. or been incorporated in new compilations; and the composi- tion of the existing Purānas probably took place from the 8th to the 16th century A.D. As the epics sang the wars of the Aryan heroes, so the Puránas recount the deeds of the Brähman gods. They deal with the creation of the universe; its success- ive dissolutions and reconstructions; the stories of the deities and their incarnations; the reigns of the divine Manus; and the chronicles of the Solar and Lunar lines of kings, who ruled, the former in the east and the latter in the west of the Middle Land (Madhya-desha). The Purānas belong to the period after the mass of the people had split up into their two existing divisions, as wor- shippers of Vishnu or of Siva, about or after 700 A.D. They are devoted to the glorification of one or other of these two rival gods, and thus embody the sectarian theology of Brähmanism. While claiming to be founded on Vedic inspira- tion, they practically superseded the Veda, and have formed during ten centuries the sacred literature on which Hinduism rests." An idea of the literary activity of the Indian mind at the present day, may be formed from the fact that 4890 works were published in India in 1877, of which 4346 were in the native languages. Only 436 were translations, the remaining 4454 being original works or new editions. The number of Indian publications constantly increases. In 1882, 61.98 works were published in India, 55.43 being in the native languages. The translations numbered 505, and the Original works, including new editions, 5693. In 1890, the number of publications registered in India (and for which the details are available) had risen to 7885, of which 7217 were in the Indian languages. Only 756 of them were translations. These figures show the publications officially registered under the Act. A large number of unregistered pamphlets or brochures must be added, together with the daily and weekly issue of vernacular newspapers. A general return gives the grand total of Indian publications in 1890 at 9725. In 1890, there were also 558 newspapers circulating in 16 different languages (vernacular, classical, and English) in India. The largest circulation of any vernacular daily journal was Indian works published in 1877, in 1882, and in I890. * The foregoing pages have very briefly reviewed the most important branches of Sanskrit literature; the influence of that literature upon Hinduism, and on the modern races and vernaculars of India, will be dealt with in chapters viii. and xiii. ABSENCE OF TERRITORIAL HISTORY, 173 returned at 1.5oo, and of any weekly at 20,000 copies. Both of these widely circulated papers were in the Bengali tongue. This chapter has attempted to trace the intellectual and Absence of * * - - . territorial religious development of the early Aryans in India, and their i. constitution into castes and communities. Regarding their territorial history, it has said almost nothing. It has, indeed, indicated their primeval line of march from their Holy Land among the seven rivers of the Punjab, to their Land of the Sacred Singers between the upper courses of the Jumna and the Ganges; and thence to their more extensive settlements in the Middle Land of Bengal (Madhya-desha) stretching to beyond the junction of these two great rivers. It has also told very briefly the legend of their advance into Southern India, in the epic rendering of the Rāmāyana. But the fore- going pages have refrained from attempts to fix the dates or to fill in the details of these movements. For the territorial extension of the Aryans in India is still a battle-ground of inductive history. t Even for a much later period of Indian civilisation, the data Its induc- continue under keen dispute. This will be amply apparent ** in the following chapters." These chapters will open with the great upheaval of Buddhism against Brähmanism in the 6th century before Christ. They will summarize the struggles of the Asiatic races in India during a period of twenty-three hundred years. They will close with the great military revival of Hinduism under the Maráthá Bráhmans in the 18th century of Our era. An attempt will then be made, from the evidence of the vernacular literature and languages, to present a view of Indian thought and culture, when the European nations came in force upon the scene. - Meanwhile, the history of India, so far as obscurely known The Brāh- to us before the advent of the Greeks, 327 B.C., is essentially º a literary history, and the memorials of its civilisation are history. mainly literary or religious memorials. The more practical aspects of those long ages, which were their real aspects to the people, found no annalist. From the commencement of * Namely, on Buddhism, the Greeks in India, the Scythic Inroads, the Rise of Hinduism, Early Muhammadan Rulers, the Mughal Empire, and the Maráthá Power. We still await the complete evidence of coins and inscriptions; although valuable materials have been already obtained from these precious memorials of the past. Mr. Justice Telang's Introduction to the Mudrárákshasa, with Appendix, shows what can be gathered from a minute and critical examination of the historical data incidentally contained in the Hindu drama. - I 74 7TA/A2 AAC VA/VS /AW AAVC/E/W7" //W/D/A. The six attacks on Brähman- ism, 6th century B.C. to 19th cen- tury A. D. (I) Buddh- ism. (2) Greeks and Scythians. (3) Non- Aryan tribes. (4) Hindu SectS. (5) Mu- hamma- dans. the post-Vedic period, the Brähmans strove with increasing success to bring their metrical descriptions of the life and civilisation of India more and more into accord with their own priestly ideas. In order to understand the long domination of the Bráhmans, and the influence which they still wield, it is necessary also to keep in mind their position as the great literary caste. Their priestly supremacy has been repeatedly assailed, and was during a space of nearly a thousand years rivalled and for a time overpowered by Buddhism. But throughout twenty-two centuries the Bráhmans have been the counsellors of Hindu princes and the teachers of the Hindu people. The Brāh- mans still represent the early Aryan civilisation of India. Indeed, the essential history of India is a narrative of the extension of their civilisation throughout India, and of attacks on its continuity,+that is to say, of the extension of, and the attacks upon, the Brähmanical system of the Middle Land, and of the modifications and compromises to which that system has had to submit. Those attacks mark out six epochs. First, the religious uprisings of the non-Aryan and the partially Brähmanized Aryan tribes on the east of the Middle Land of Bengal; initiated by the preaching of Buddha in the 6th century B.C., culminating in the Buddhist kingdoms about the commence- ment of our era, and melting into modern Hinduism about the 8th century A.D. Second, warlike inroads of non-Bräh- manical Aryans and Scythic races from the north-west; strongly exemplified by the Greek invasions in the 4th cen- tury B.C., and continuing under the Greco-Bactrian empire and its Scythic rivals to probably the 5th century A.D. Third, the influence of the so-called aborigines or non-Aryan tribes of India and of the non-Aryan low-castes incorporated into the Hindu community; an influence ever at work—indeed, by far the most powerful agent in dissolving Brähmanism into Hinduism, and specially active after the decline of Buddhism about the 7th century A.D. Fourth, the reaction against the low beliefs, priestly oppression, and bloody rites which re- sulted from this compromise between Brähmanism and aboriginal worship. The reaction received an impetus from the preaching of Sankara Achárya, who founded his great Sivaite sect in the 8th century A.D. It obtained its full development under a line of ardent Vishnuite reformers from the 12th to the 16th centuries A.D. The fifth solvent of the ancient Bráhmanical civilisation of India will be found S/X SO Z VAZAV7 S OF PACAA/MAAV/SM. I75 in the Muhammadan invasions and the rule of Islám, Iooo to 1765 A.D. The sixth, in the English Supremacy, and in (6) Eng- the popular upheaval which it has produced in the 18th * and 19th centuries. Each of these six epochs will, so far as space permits, receive separate treatment in the following chapters. [ 176: ) C H A P T E R V. BUDDHISM IN INDIA (543 B.C. To Iooo A.D.). THE first great solvent of Bráhmanism was the teaching of Gautama Buddha. The life of this celebrated man has three sides, its personal aspects, its legendary developments, and its religious consequences upon mankind. In his own person, Buddha appears as a prince and preacher of ancient India. In the legendary developments of his story, Buddha ranks as a divine teacher among his followers, as an incarnation of Vishnu among the Hindus, and as a Saint of the Christian church, with a day assigned to him in both the Greek and Roman calendars. As a religious founder, he left behind a system of belief which has gained more disciples than any other creed in the world; and which is now more or less accepted by 500 millions of people, or nearly one-half the human race. According to the Páli texts, Buddha was born 622 B.C., and died 543 B.C." Modern calculations fix his death about 478 B.C.” The story of Buddha's earthly career is a typical one. It is based on the old Indian ideal of the noble life which we have seen depicted in the Sanskrit epics. Like the Pāndavas in the Mahābhārata, and like Ráma in the Rāmāyana, Buddha is the miraculously born Son of a king, belonging to one of the two great Aryan lines, the Solar and the Lunar ; in Buddha's case, as in Ráma's, to the Solar. His youth, like that of the epic heroes, is spent under Brähman tutors, and, like the epic heroes, he obtains a beautiful bride after a display of unex- pected prowess with the bow ; or, as the northern Buddhists relate, at an actual Szwayam-vara, by a contest in arms for the princess. A period of voluntary exile follows an interval of Buddhism. Gautama Buddha. The story of Buddha, modelled on the epic type. 1 Childers’ Dictionary of the Pál; Language, s.v. Buddho, p. 96. The accepted traditional dates of Indian Buddhism are followed in this chapter. * General Cunningham's Corpus Znscriptionum Indicarum, p. vii.; Oldenberg’s Buddha, sein Zeben, etc. (Hoey's excellent translation, p. 197). Wide post, p. 198. AAA’ ZY Z/AEAE OF POW/D/DA/A. 177 married happiness, and Buddha retires like Ráma to a Brähman's hermitage in the forest. The sending back of the charioteer to the bereaved father's Buddha capital forms an episode in the story of both the young princes. ** As in the Rāmāyana, so in the legend of Buddha, it is to the jungles on the south of the Ganges, lying between the Aryan settlements and the aboriginal races, that the royal exile repairs. After a time of seclusion, the Pándavas, Ráma, and Buddha alike emerge to achieve great conquests; the two The former by force of arms, the last by the weapons of the Spirit. i. Up to this point the outline of the three stories has followed the same type; but henceforth it diverges. The Sanskrit epics depict the ideal Aryan man as prince, hermit, and hero. In the legend of Buddha, that ideal has developed into prince, hermit, and Saint. Gautama, afterwards named Buddha, “The Enlightened,’ Parentage and Siddhártha, “He who has fulfilled his end,’ was the only º:º son of Suddhodana, King of Kapilavastu. This prince, the Buddha. chief of the Sakya clan, ruled over an outlying Aryan settle- ment on the north-eastern border of the Middle Land, about 622 B.C. a hundred miles to the north of Benares, and within sight of the snow-topped Himalayas. A Gautama Rājput of the noble Solar line, he wished to see his son grow up on the warlike model of his race. But the young prince shunned the His lonely sports of his playmates, and retired to solitary day-dreams in Youth, 6% nooks of the palace garden. The king tried to win his son to I–IC). a practical career by marrying him to a beautiful and talented girl; and the youthful Gautama unexpectedly proved his manliness by a victory Over the flower of the young chiefs at a tournament. For a while he forgot his solemn speculations on the unseen, in the sweet realities of early married life. But in his drives through the city he deeply reflected on the His mar. types of old age, disease, and death which met his eye; and riºd life. he was powerfully impressed by the calm of a holy man, who &. I9–29. seemed to have raised his Soul above the changes and sorrows of this world. After ten years, his wife bore to him an only son; and Gautama, fearing lest this new tie should bind him too closely to the things of earth, retired about the age of thirty to a cave among the forest-clad spurs of the Vindhyas. The His Great story of how he turned away from the door of his wife's lamp- * lit chamber, denying himself even a parting caress of his new- 29-30." born babe lest he should wake the sleeping mother, and galloped off into the darkness, is one of the many tender episodes in his life. After a gloomy night ride, he sent back M 178 BUD/).H.I.S.M., 543 B.C. TO Iooo A.D. his one companion, the faithful charioteer, with his horse and jewels to his father. Having cut off his long Rájput locks, and exchanged his princely raiment for the rags of a poor passer-by, he went on alone a homeless beggar. This abandon- ment of earthly pomp and power, and of loved wife and new- born son, is the Great Renunciation which forms a favourite theme of the Buddhist scriptures in Sanskrit, Pāli, Tibetan, and Chinese. It has furnished, during twenty centuries, the type of self-sacrifice which all Indian reformers must follow if they are to win the trust of the people. - For a time Buddha studied under two Bráhman recluses, near RAJAGRIHA, in Patná District, learning from them that the path to divine knowledge and tranquillity of Soul lies through the subjection of the flesh. He then buried himself deeper in the south-eastern jungles, which at that time covered Gayá District, and during six years wasted himself by austerities in company with five disciples. The temple of BUDDHA-GAYA". marks the site of his long penance. But instead of earning peace of mind by fasting and self-torture, he reached a crisis of religious despair, during which the Buddhist scriptures affirm that the enemy of mankind, Mára, wrestled with him in bodily shape. Torn with doubts as to whether, after all his penance, he was not destined to perdition, the haggard ascetic, in a final paroxysm, fell senseless to the earth. When he recovered, the mental struggle had passed. He felt that the path to Salvation lay not in self-torture in a mountain cave, but in preaching a higher life to his fellow- men. His five disciples, shocked by his giving up penance, forsook him; and Buddha was left in solitude to face the ques- tion whether he alone was right and all the devout minds of his age were wrong. The Buddhist scriptures depict him as sitting serene under a fig-tree, while the great Enemy and his crew whirled round him with flaming weapons. “When the conflict began between the Saviour of the World and the Prince of Evil,” says one of their sacred texts,” “the earth shook, the sea uprose from her bed, the rivers turned back to the mountains, the hill-tops fell crashing to the plains, the sun was darkened, and a host of headless spirits rode upon the tempest.’ * The magnificent volume by General Sir A. Cunningham, Mahābodhi ; or, the Great Buddhist Zemple at Buddha-Gayd (W. H. Allen & Co., 1892), and Buddha-Gayd, the Hermitage of Sážya Muni, by Rájendralála Mitra (Calcutta, I878), are the two standard works on this venerable seat of Buddhism. - Buddha’s forest life, at. 30–36 Or 29–34. 588 B.C. His spiritual crisis. His temp- tation. * The Madhurattha-Vilásinſ, journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society, vol. vii. p. 812. Rhys Davids' Buddhism, p. 36. AOPULAR PREACHING OF BUD/DAA. 179 From his temptation in the wilderness the ascetic emerged with his doubts for ever laid at rest, seeing his way clear, and His ‘En- henceforth to be known as Buddha, literally ‘the Enlightened.” º This was Buddha's second birth; and the pipal fig or Bo (Bodhi), literally “The Tree of the Enlightenment,’ under whose spreading branches its pangs were endured, has become the sacred tree of 500 millions of mankind. It is the Ficus religiosa of Western science. The idea of a second birth was familiar to the twice-born Aryan castes of ancient India, and was represented by their race-ceremony of investing the boy at the close of childhood with the sacred thread. In this, as in its other features, the story of Buddha adheres to ancient His story Aryan types, but gives to them a new spiritual significance. º Having passed through the three prescribed stages of the types. Aryan saintly life, as learner, householder, and forest recluse, —he now entered on its fourth stage as a religious mendicant. But he developed from the old Bráhmanical model of the wandering ascetic, intent only on Saving his own soul, the nobler type of the preacher, striving to bring deliverance to the souls of others. Two months after his temptation in the wilderness, Buddha Public commenced his public teaching in the Deer-Forest, on the |. of outskirts of the great city of Benares. Unlike the Brähmans, a. 36.8o. he addressed himself, not to one or two disciples of the sacred caste, but to the mass of the people. His first converts were laymen, and among the earliest were women. After three months of ministry, he had gathered around him sixty disciples, whom he sent forth to the neighbouring countries with these He sends words: “Go ye now and preach the most excellent Law.” The º essence of his teaching was the deliverance of man from the sins and sorrows of life by self-renunciation and inward self- control. While the sixty disciples went on their missionary tour among the populace, Buddha converted certain celebrated hermits and fire-worshippers by an exposition of the philo- sophical side of his doctrine. With this new band he journeyed on to Rájágriha, where the local king and his subjects joined the faith, but where also he first experienced the fickleness of the multitude. Two-thirds of each year he spent as a wandering preacher. The remaining four months or the rainy season he abode at Some fixed place, often near Rájágriha, teaching the people who flocked around his little 1. According to the Ceylonese texts, Buddha “ obtained Buddhahood’ in 588 B.C. This would make him thirty-four, not thirty-six years of age. Childers’ Pali Dictionary, s. v. Buddho, I8o A UD/D//ZSM, 543 B.C. TO Iooo A.D. dwelling in the bamboo grove. His five old disciples, who had forsaken him in the time of his sore temptation in the wilderness, penitently rejoined their Master. Princes, mer- chants, artificers, Brähmans and hermits, husbandmen and serfs, noble ladies and repentant courtesans, were yearly added to those who believed. Buddha preached throughout a large part of Behar, Oudh, and the adjacent Districts in the North-Western Provinces. In after ages monasteries marked his halting-places; and the principal scenes of his life, such as AJODHYA, BUDDHA-GAYA, SRAVASTI, the modern SAHET MAHET, RAJAGRIHA, etc., be- came the great places of pilgrimage for the Buddhist world. His visit to his aged father at Kapilavastu, whence he had gone forth as a brilliant young prince, and to which he returned as a wandering preacher, in dingy yellow robes, with shaven head, and the begging bowl in his hand, is a touching episode which appeals to the heart of universal mankind. The old king heard him with reverence. The son, whom Buddha had left as a new-born babe, was converted to the faith; and his beloved wife, from the threshold of whose chamber he had ridden away into the darkness, became one of the first of Buddhist nuns. The Great Renunciation took place, according to the tradi- tional dates of Indian Buddhism, in the twenty-ninth year of the life of the Master. After about seven years of self- preparation, his public ministry commenced in his thirty-sixth, and during forty-four years he preached to the people. In prophesying his death, he said to his followers: ‘Be earnest, be thoughtful, be holy. Keep stedfast watch over your own hearts. He who holds fast to the law and discipline, and faints not, he shall cross the ocean of life and make an end of sorrow.’ He spent his last night in preaching, and in comfort- ing a weeping disciple; his latest words, according to one account, were, ‘Work out your salvation with diligence.’ He died calmly, at the age of eighty," under the shadow of a fig- tree, at Kusinagara, the modern KASIA, in Gorakhpur District. Such is the story of Gautama Buddha's life derived from Indian sources, a version of the story which has the value of gospel truth to about 35 millions of devout believers, in British India and Burma, Ceylon, Siam, and Anam. These 35 millions represent the followers of the Southern Canon of Buddhism. But the two branches even of Indian or Southern He con- verts the people, in the Gangetic valley. Buddha COnvertS his own family. He pro- phesies his death. Buddha’s last words, 543 B.C. Different versions of the Legend. * According to some accounts ; according to others, at about seventy. But the chronology of Buddha's life is legendary. A ZTAEA2 VFAA’S OA' A' OZD/D//A. I8I Buddhism have each their own version, and the Buddha of the Burmese differs in important respects from the Buddha of the Ceylonese." Still wider is the divergence which the Northern or Tibetan Buddhists give to the legend of the life and to the teaching of their Master. The Southern texts dwell upon the early career of Buddha up to the time of his En- lightenment in his thirty-fourth or thirty-sixth year. The incidents of that period have a peculiar pathos, and appeal to the most sacred experiences of humanity in all ages. They form the favourite episodes of European works on Buddhism. But such works are apt to pay perhaps too little attention to the fact that the first thirty-four years of Buddha's life were only a self-preparation for a social and religious propaganda prolonged to an extreme old age. The forty-six years of intense personal labour, during which Later Buddha traversed wide regions, converted nations, withstood #º. kings, eluded assassins, and sifted out false disciples, receive more attention in the Northern legends. These legends have lately been compiled from the Tibetan texts into a work which furnishes a new and most interesting view of Buddha's life.” The best authority on the Southern Buddhism of Burma states that the history of the Master ‘offers an almost complete blank * The original Pāli text of the Commentary of the jātañéhas is assigned to Ceylonese scribes, circ. 450 A.D. The first part of it was published by Fausboll in 1875 (Copenhagen); and Mr. Rhys Davids' translation, with valuable introduction and notes, appeared under the title of Buddhast Birth Stories in 1880 (Truibner, London). Mr. Childers’ Dictionary of the Aíli Zanguage is a storehouse of original materials from Ceylonese sources, and has been used for verifying all statements in the present chapter. A compendious view of Southern Buddhism, ancient and modern, will be found in Spence Hardy's Manual of Buddhism, translated from Singalese Ms. The Burmese branch of Southern Buddhism is well represented by Bishop Bigandet's Zife or Legend of Gaudama (third edition, 2 vols., Trubner, 1880), and by Mr. Alabaster's The Wheel of the Law, a transla- tion or paraphrase of the Siamese Pathama Sambodhiyan. Mr. Rhys Davids' Buddhism and his Hibbert Zectures give an excellent summary of the faith. The French works, the original authorities in Europe, have (in some respects) been superseded by Oldenberg's Buddha, sein Meðem, etc. * The Zife of the Buddha, and the AEarly History of his Order, derived from Zibetan Works in the BAEah-hyur and Bstan-hgyur, translated by W. Woodville Rockhill, Second Secretary to the United States Legation in China (Tribner & Co., London, 1884). Mr. Beal's Si-yu-Ki, or Buddhist Records of the Western World, translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang, throws curious side-lights upon the traditions which the Chinese Pilgrim brought with him or heard in India regarding the local incidents of Buddha's life. I82 A C/D/DH/SM, 543 B.C. TO fooo A.D. as to what regards his doings and preachings during a period of nearly twenty-three years.” The texts of the Northern Buddhists fill up this blank. Southern Buddhism modelled its biographies of the Master upon the Indian epic type. Such biographies, as I have already mentioned, reproduce the three stages in the life of an Aryan hero, depicted by the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana; except that the three ideal stages have developed from those of prince, hermit, and warrior, to those of prince, hermit, and saint. In the Northern conditions of China and Tibet, Buddha appears by no means as an Aryan hero. He is rather the representative of a race with birth-customs and death-rites of its own—of a race dwelling amid the epic Aryan kingdoms of India, but with traces of a separate identity in the past. He is a Sakya (perhaps a Scythic) prince, whose clan had settled to the South of the Himalayas, and preserved relics of a non- Aryan type. From this point of view the function of Buddh- ism in incorporating the various races of India, Aryan and non-Aryan, emerges into a strong light. Buddhism did for ancient India somewhat the same service which we shall find Hinduism doing for mediaeval and modern India. It created a religious community, in which all tribes and castes might find entrance. In the case of Buddhism, the bond of union was a spiritual One, and the admission to the common body was complete. In the case of Hinduism, we shall see that the bond of union is one of ritual and the acceptance of priestly guidance, which has but partially succeeded in creating a common religion for the Indian peoples, and which has stereotyped the wide diversities of the Indian races in the lesser, although still strong, distinctions of the Indian castes. The artificial character which the Southern legends give to the life of Buddha, arose from their tendency to assimilate him to epic Indian types. It was intensified by the equally Indian tendency to convert actual facts into philosophical abstractions. Gautama or Sakya-Muni became only a link in a long series of just men made perfect. According to the Ceylonese texts, a Buddha is a human being who has obtained perfect self- control and infinite knowledge. Having attained Enlighten- ment himself, he spends the rest of his life in preaching the truth to others. At his death he is re-absorbed into the Divine Essence, and his religion flourishes for a certain period until it dies out, and a new Buddha appears to preach anew the Northern Texts. The Indian epic type. The Tibetan type. The philo- sophical type of the Southern Buddha. 4 From the fifty-sixth to the seventy-ninth year of his life. Bishop Bigandet’s Zºſe or Zegend of Gaudama, vol. i. p. 260, and footnote. AOZATYCA/, ASPAECTS OF P U/D/DA/A. 183 lost truth. The attainment of Buddhahood is the final result of virtue and self-sacrifice during many previous lives. Innumerable Buddhas have been born in this world; 24 of whom are separately named. Gautama was only the latest Buddha, and, according to the Ceylonese scriptures, his doctrine is destined to give place to the Metteya Buddha, or Buddha of Kindness, who is next to come." The Buddha of the Northern legends is a reformer of a more The concrete type. The Tibetan texts give prominence to the Nº political aspects of his Reformation. Incidentally, indeed, type. they amplify several of the touching episodes familiar to Southern Buddhism. The ‘great Fear” which impelled the young prince forth from his palace into the darkness to seek a higher life; the dirt and stones thrown at the wanderer by the village girls; the parables of the Mango-tree, the Devout Slave, and many others; the rich young man who left all for the faith and was not exceeding sorry; and Buddha's own retirement from Benares to avoid the gifts and honours which were being thrust upon him, receive fresh illustration from the Tibetan texts.” But it is from the political and historical aspects that the Political Tibetan life of Buddha possesses its special value. We learn º from them that Buddhism was in its origin only one of gº many conflicting sects; indeed, that alike to its royal patrons and opponents it appeared at first as a new religious Order rather than in the light of a new faith.” The early struggles of Buddhism were neither with the old Aryan gods, nor with the Bráhmans as a caste; but with rival orders of philosophers or ascetics, and with Schismatics among its own followers. In the Tibetan scriptures, the gods of the Veda, Brahmá, Indra, - and the Shining Ones, appear in friendly relations with Buddha, and attend upon him in more than one crisis of his life. The Bráhmans were no longer a caste altogether devoted to a spiritual life. The Tibetan texts disclose them as following partly religious, partly secular avocations, and as among ‘the great nobles’ of an Indian kingdom. The Bráhman attitude to the new faith was by no means one of confederate hostility. The main body of Brähmans con- tinued non-Buddhistic, and taught their doctrines at royal Courts. But many conspicuous converts were drawn from * Mr. Childers' Pāli Dictionary, p. 96, Sanskrit, Maitraya. * The materials for the following paragraphs are derived mainly from Mr. Rockhill’s work (1884), already cited. * Rockhill, op. cit. Also Rhys Davids’ Hibbert Lectures, p. 156. 184 BC/D/D//ZSM, 543 B.C. TO Tooo A.D. Buddha’s real op- ponents. His magical artS. Wholesale Sakya con- VC1 S101). Schism of Devadatta. among them, and the Tibetan texts almost uniformly speak of Brähmans with respect. The opponents of the Buddha, according to the Tibetan sacred books, were rival sects whom he found in possession of the field, and the false brethren who arose among his own disciples. The older hostile sects were confuted, sometimes by fair discussion, but more often by miracles or superior magical feats. Indeed, transformations and wonders seem for a time to have furnished the most potent arguments of the new faith. But eventually Buddha forbade resort to such testimonies, and magic became to the Orthodox Buddhist an unholy art. In his later years, Buddha more than once insists that his doctrine is essentially one to be understanded of the people; that he was keeping back no secret for an initiated few ; and that he was the preacher of a strictly popular religion without any esoteric side. It was from among his own disciples that his bitterest enemies came. The Sakya race of Kapilavastu had adopted his teaching as a nation, without much pretence of individual conversion. Buddha's modest beginnings, first with the five followers, then with the sixty, then with the thousand, now took a national development. In the fervour of the new movement, the Sakyas proclaimed that one man out of every family must enter the Buddhist mendicant order; and it was from this ordinance, to which Buddha was compelled to give a reluctant assent, that the troubles of his later life arose. I beg it to be borne in mind that the picture of early Buddhism in this and the following paragraphs is derived from the Tibetan texts or Northern Canon. The discontent among the forced disciples found a leader in Buddha's Own Cousin, Devadatta, who aspired by superior asceticism to the headship. For the schism which he created, Devadatta won the Support of the Heir-apparent of Magadha. A struggle, partly religious, partly political, ensued. Devadatta was for a time triumphant. He abetted the murder of the Magadha king, the father of his ally; forced the aged Buddha into retirement; and plundered and oppressed the people. The miraculous deliverances of ‘the Blessed One' from the catapult, and from the wild elephant let loose against him in a narrow street, mark, however, the turning-point in the fortunes of the schism. Devadatta was confuted by magical arts, and his royal patron was converted to the true faith. The traitor disciple having thus failed to usurp the spiritual leadership of the Sakyas, attempted to seduce the wife whom Buddha had SZA UGATEA2 OA' 7"HAE SAA VA.S. 185 left in solitude. The apostate hoped with her aid to stand forth as the king or temporal leader of the Sakya race. His Contemptuous rejection by the loyal Sakya princess, his acts of despairing cruelty, and his fall into hell with a lie in his mouth, His fall fitly close the career of the first great schismatic. into hell. Throughout the Tibetan texts, Buddha figures as a typical Buddha, Sakya ; first as a young Kshattriya or prince of the royal line, º 3. and then as a saintly personage who turns back an army sent ge against his nation by the force of his piety alone. Such spiritual weapons, however, proved a feeble defence in early India. Eventually, the Sakya capital was attacked by over- whelming numbers. For a time the enemy were repulsed without the Buddhists incurring the sin of taking life. But their firm adherence to their Master’s commandment, ‘Thou shalt not kill,’ in the end decided the fate of the Sakya city. Some escaped into exile, and founded settlements in distant parts as far as the other side of the Punjab frontier. The fall of the city ended in the slaughter of 77,ooo Sakyas, and in the dispersion of the remnants of the race. The story of the five hundred Sakya youths and five hundred Sakya maidens who were carried into captivity is a pathetic one. The five Disasters hundred youths were massacred in cold blood; and the faithful” Sakya maidens, having refused to enter the harem of their Conqueror, were exposed to the populace with their hands and feet chopped off. How Buddha came to them in their misery, dressed their wounds, and comforted them with the hope of a better life, ‘so that they died in the faith,’ is affectingly told. The foregoing narrative touches only on one or two aspects Other of the Tibetan texts. It suffices to show the characteristic º divergences between the Northern and the Southern legend. Tibetan In the Northern, there is a gradually developed contrast be “s" tween two main figures, the traitor Devadatta and his brother Ananda, the Beloved Disciple. The last year of Buddha's ministry is dwelt on by both. But its full significance and its most tender episodes are treated with special unction in the Northern version of the Book of the Great Decease. The Fo-wei-kian-king," or ‘Dying Instruction of Buddha,’ trans- lated into Chinese between 397 and 415 A.D. from a still earlier Sanskrit text, gives to the last scene a peculiar beauty. ‘It was now in the middle of the night,’ it says, “perfectly * Translated in Appendix to the Catalogue of the Manuscripts presented by the Japanese Government to the Secretary of State for India, and now in the India Office.—Concluding letter of Mr. Beal to Dr. Rost, dated Ist September 1874, Sec. 5. 186 BUD/DHISM, 543 B.C, TO Iooo A.D. Chinese text of Buddha’s dying dis- COlli SC, The doctrines of Buddha. Law of A arma. quiet and still ; for the sake of his disciples, he delivered a summary of the law.” After laying down the rules of a good life, he revealed the inner doctrines of his faith. From these a few sentences may be taken. ‘The heart is lord of the senses : govern, therefore, your heart; watch well the heart.’ ‘Think of the fire that shall consume the world, and early Seek deliverance from it.’ “Lament not my going away, nor feel regret. For if I remained in the world, then what would become of the church P It must perish without fulfilling its end. From henceforth all my disciples, practising their various duties, shall prove that my true Body, the Body of the Law (Dharmakaya), is everlasting and imperishable. The world is fast bound in fetters; I now give it deliverance, as a physician who brings heavenly medicine. Keep your mind On my teaching; all other things change, this changes not. No more shall I speak to you. I desire to depart. I desire the eternal rest (AVärvána). This is my last exhortation.’ The secret of Buddha's success was that he brought spiritual deliverance to the people. He preached that salvation was equally open to all men, and that it must be earned, not by propitiating imaginary deities, but by our own conduct. His doctrines thus cut away the religious basis of caste, impaired the efficiency of the sacrificial ritual, and assailed the Su- premacy of the Bráhmans as the mediators between God and man. Buddha taught that sin, sorrow, and deliverance, the State of a man in this life, in all previous and in all future lives, are the inevitable results of his own acts (Karma). He thus applied the inexorable law of cause and effect to the Soul. What a man sows, he must reap. As no evil remains without punishment, and no good deed without reward, it follows that neither priest nor God can prevent each act bearing its own consequences. Misery or happiness in this life is the unavoidable result of our conduct in a past life; and our actions here will determine our happi- ness or misery in the life to come. When any creature dies, he is born again in some higher or lower state of existence, according to his merit or demerit. His merit or demerit, that is, his character, consists of the sum-total of his actions in all previous lives. By this great law of Karma, Buddha explained the inequal- ities and apparent injustice of man's estate in this world as the Consequence of acts in the past ; while Christianity Compensates those inequalities by rewards in the future. A System in which our whole well-being, past, present, and to A/OA’A/ COZ) E. 187 come, depends on ourselves, theoretically leaves little room for the interference, or even existence, of a personal God." But the atheism of Buddha was a philosophical tenet, which, So far from weakening the sanctions of right and wrong, gave them new strength from the doctrine of Karma, or the Metempsychosis of Character. To free ourselves from the thraldom of desire and from the The libera- fetters of selfishness, was to attain to the state of the perfect Hºl. disciple, Arahat, in this life, and to the everlasting rest after death, Mirzāna. Some Buddhists explain AVärvána as absolute Mīrzāna. annihilation, when the soul is blown out like the flame of a lamp. Others hold that it is merely the extinction of the sins, sorrows, and selfishness of individual life. The fact is, that the doctrine underwent processes of change and develop- ment, like all theological dogmas. “But the earliest idea of AVärvána,’ says one of the greatest authorities on Chinese Buddhism, ‘seems to have included in it no more than the enjoyment of a state of rest consequent on the extinction of all causes of sorrow.” The great practical aim of Buddha's teaching was to subdue the lusts of the flesh and the cravings of self; and AVārzſáma has been taken to mean the extinction of the sinful grasping condition of heart which, by the inevit- able law of Áarma, would involve the penalty of renewed individual existence. As the Buddhist strove to reach a state of quietism or holy meditation in this world, namely, the state of the perfect disciple or Arahat; so he looked forward to an eternal calm in a world to come, AVärzáma. Buddha taught that this end could only be attained by the Moral practice of virtue. He laid down eight precepts of morality, * with two more for the religious orders, making ten command- ments (dasa-sila) in all. He arranged the besetting faults of mankind into ten sins, and set forth the special duties ap- The Ten plicable to each condition of life; to parents and children, to º pupils and teachers, to husbands and wives, to masters and Servants, to laymen and the religious orders, In place of the Brähman rites and sacrifices, Buddha prescribed a code of practical morality as the means of salvation. The four essen- * “Buddhism,’ says Mr. Beal, Catema of Buddhist Scriptures, p. 153, ‘ declares itself ignorant of any mode of personal existence compatible with the idea of spiritual perfection, and so far it is ignorant of God.” * Beal, Catema of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 157, ed. I87 I ; and the Buddhist Zºrºfitaka, App., Letter to Dr. Rost, sec. 6. Max Muller deals with the word from the etymological and Sanskrit side in his Chifts from a German Workshop, vol. i. pp. 279, 290, ed. I867. But see, specially, Childers' Pāli Zictionary, s.v. Nilbánam, pp. 265–274. I88 BUD/DH/SM, 543 B.C. TO Iooo A.D. tial features of that code were—reverence to spiritual teachers and parents, control over self, kindness to other men, and reverence for the life of all sentient creatures. He urged on his disciples that they must not only follow the true path themselves, but that they should preach it to all mankind. Buddhism has from the first been a missionary religion. One of the earliest acts of Buddha's public ministry was to send forth the Sixty; and he carefully formulated the four chief means of Conversion. These were, companionship with the good, listening to the law, reflection upon the truths heard, and the practice of virtue. He also instituted a re- ligious Order, one of whose special duties it was to go forth and preach to the nations. While, therefore, the Brähmans kept their ritual for the twice-born Aryan castes, Buddhism addressed itself not only to those castes and to the lower mass of the people, but to all the non-Aryan races throughout India, and eventually to almost the whole Asiatic world. Buddhism thus supplied, as I must repeat, a bond of union between the widely diverse elements of the Indian population. It created a true Church universal for India, in which differences of race and of colour were merged in a common religious practice and belief. Two features of the Buddhist Order were its fortnightly meetings and public confession, or ‘Dis- burdenment’ of sins. On the death of Buddha, according to the traditional Indian chronology in 543 B.C., five hundred of his disciples met in a vast Cave near Rájágriha to gather together his sayings. This was the First Council. They chanted the lessons of their master in three great divisions—the words of Buddha to his disciples; 1 his code of discipline ; * and his system of doctrine.” These became the Three Collections 4 of Buddha's teaching; and the word for a Buddhist Council 9 means literally ‘a singing together.’ A century afterwards, a Second Council, of seven hundred, was held at Vaisali, to settle disputes between the more and the less strict followers of Buddhism. It condemned a system of ten ‘Indulgences’ which had grown up ; but it led to the separation of the Buddhists into two hostile parties, who afterwards split into eighteen sects. During the next two hundred years Buddhism spread over Northern India, perhaps receiving a new impulse from the Missionary aspects of Buddhism. The First Council, 543 B.C. (?) Second Buddhist Council, 443 B.C. (?) * Szátras. * Vinaya. * Abhidharma. * Piłażas, lit. ‘baskets; aſterwards the five AVääyas. * Sangāti in Pāli, BUD/DHIST COUNCIZ UNDER ASOKA. 189 Greek kingdoms in the Punjab. About 257 B.C., Asoka, the Third King of Magadha or Behar, became a zealous convert to the Pºiº faith." Asoka was grandson of the Chandra Gupta whom we ... ...(?) shall meet as an adventurer in Alexander's camp, and after- wards as an ally of Seleukos, Asoka is said to have supported 64,000 Buddhist priests; he founded many religious houses, and his kingdom is called the Land of the Monasteries (Vihára or Behar) to this day. Asoka did for Buddhism what Constantine afterwards The work effected for Christianity; he organized it on the basis of a of Asoka: State religion. This he accomplished by five means—by a Council to settle the faith, by edicts promulgating its prin- ciples, by a State Department to watch over its purity, by missionaries to spread its doctrines, and by an authoritative revision or canon of the Buddhist scriptures. In 2.44 B.C., (1) His Asoka convened at Patná the Third Buddhist Council, of one Great thousand elders. Evil men, taking on them the yellow robe Council. of the Order, had given forth their own opinions as the teaching of Buddha. Such heresies were now corrected; and the Buddhism of Southern Asia practically dates from Asoka's Council. - In a number of edicts, before and after the synod, he pub- * Much learning has been expended upon the age of Asoka, and various dates have been assigned to its principal events. But, indeed, all Buddhist dates are open questions, according to the system of chrono- logy (or ‘working-back') adopted. The middle of the 3rd century B.C. may be taken as the era of Asoka. The following dates from General Cunningham’s Corpus /mscriptionzema Indicarum, p. vii. (1877), exhibit the results of one important line of research on this subject :— B.C. 264 ASOKA, Struggle with brothers, 4 years. 26O Comes to the throne. 257 Conversion to Buddhism. 256 Treaty with Antiochus. 255 Mahindo ordained. 25 I Earliest date of rock edicts. 249 Second date of rock edicts. 248 Arsakes rebels in Parthia. 246 Diodotus rebels in Bactria. 244 Third Buddhist Council under Mogaliputra. 243 Mahindo goes to Ceylon. 242 Barābār cave inscriptions. 234 Pillar edicts issued. 23.I Queen Asandhimitta dies. 228 Second Queen married. 226 Her attempt to destroy the Bodhi tree. 225 Asoka becomes an ascetic. 224 Issues Rúpnáth and Sásserám edicts. 223 Dies. 2I 5 DASARATHA’s cave inscriptions, Nāgārjuni. I9o BU/D/D//ZSM, 543 B.C. TO Looo A.D. lished throughout India the cardinal principles of the faith. Such edicts are still found graven deep upon pillars, Caves, and rocks, from the Yusafzai valley beyond Peshāwar on the north-western frontier, through the heart of Hindustán and the Central Provinces, to Káthiáwär on the west, and Orissa on the east, coast of India. Tradition states that Asoka set up 84,000 memorial columns or topes. The Chinese Pilgrims came upon them in the inner Himalayas. Forty-two inscrip- tions still surviving show how widely these royal sermons were spread over India itself." In the year of the Council, Asoka founded a State Depart- ment to watch over the purity, and to direct the spread, of the faith. A Minister of Justice and Religion (Dharma Mahāmātra) directed its operations; and, as one of its first duties was to proselytize, this Minister was charged with the welfare of the aborigines among whom his missionaries were sent. Asoka did not think it enough to convert the inferior races, without looking after their material interests. Wells were to be dug, and trees planted, along the roads; a system of medical aid for man and beast was established throughout his kingdom (2) His edicts. (3) His Depart- ment of Public Worship. 1 Major-General Cunningham, Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India, enumerates I4 rock inscriptions, 17 cave inscriptions, and II inscribed pillars. The rock inscriptions are at—(1) Sháhbāzgarhi in the Yusafzai country, 40 miles east-north-east of Peshāwar ; (2) Kálsi on the west bank of the Jumna ; (3) Girnár in Káthiáwár, 40 miles north of Somnáth ; (4 to 7) Dhauli in Cuttack, midway between Cuttack and Puri, and Jaugada in Ganjām District, 18 miles north-north-west of Berhampur, -two inscriptions at each, virtually identical; (8) Sásserám, at the north-east end of the Káimur range, 70 miles South-east of Benares; (9) Rúpnáth, a famous place of pilgrimage, 35 miles north of Jabalpur; (IO and II) Bairát, 41 miles north of Jaipur ; (12) the Khandgiri Hill, near Dhauli in Cuttack; (13) Deotek, 50 miles South-east of Nágpur ; (I4) Månsera, north-west of Ráwal Pindi, inscribed in the Bactrian character. The cave inscriptions, 17 in number, are found at—(1, 2, 3) Barābār, and (4, 5, 6) Nāgārjuni Hills, both places 15 miles north of Gayā; (7 to 15) Khandgiri Hill in Cuttack, and (16 and 17) Rāmgarh in Sargūja. The eleven inscribed pillars are—(1) the Delhi-Siwálik, at Delhi; (2) the Delhi- Meerut, at Delhi; (3) the Allahābād; (4) the Lauriyā-Araráj, at Lauriyā, 77 miles north of Patná ; (5) the Lauriyá-Navandgarh, at another Lauriyā, 15 miles north-north-west of Bettiá; (6 and 7) two additional edicts on the Delhi-Siwálik, not found on any other pillar; (8 and 9) two short additional edicts on the Allahābād pillar, peculiar to itself ; (IO) a short mutilated record on a fragment of a pillar at Sánchi, near Bhilsa ; (II) at Rámpura in the Tarái, north-east of the second Lauriyā, near Bettiá. The last-named pillar and the rock inscription at Mänsera (No. 14) are recent discoveries since the first edition of this work was published. The Mánsera rock inscription is interesting as being the second in the Bactrian character, and for its recording twelve Edicts complete. ASOAA’S AWO UAE 7/EEAV E/D/CTS. I9 I and the conquered Provinces, as far as Ceylon." Officers were appointed to watch over domestic life and public morality,” and to promote instruction among the women as well as the youth. Asoka recognised proselytism by peaceful means as a State (4) Mis- duty. The Rock Inscriptions record how he sent forth mis-jº sionaries ‘to the utmost limits of the barbarian countries,’ to “intermingle among all unbelievers,’ for the spread of religion. They shall mix equally with soldiers, Brähmans, and beggars, with the dreaded and the despised, both within the kingdom ‘and in foreign countries, teaching better things.” Conversion is to be effected by persuasion, not by the Sword. Buddhism was at once the most intensely missionary religion in the world, and the most tolerant. This character of a proselytizing faith, which wins its victories by peaceful means, so strongly impressed upon it by Asoka, has remained a pro- minent feature of Buddhism to the present day. Asoka, however, not only took measures to spread the religion, he also endeavoured to secure its orthodoxy. He collected the (5) Re: body of doctrine into an authoritative version, in the Magadhi *: language or dialect of his central kingdom in Behar ; a ver- Buddhist sion which for two thousand years has formed the canon *P* (pitakas) of the Southern Buddhists. In this way, the Magadhſ dialect became the Páli or sacred language of the Ceylonese. Mr. Robert Cust thus summarizes Asoka's Fourteen Edicts; Edicts of but it should be noted that such a summary only endeavours A*. to present a bird’s-eye view of many local, and not always concurrent, inscriptions:— I. Prohibition of the slaughter of animals for food or sacrifice. 2. Provision of a system of medical aid for men and animals, and of plantations and wells on the roadside. 3. Order for a quinquennial humiliation and republication of the great moral precepts of the Buddhist faith. 4. Comparison of the former state of things, and the happy existing state under the king. 5. Appointment of missionaries to go into various countries, which are enumerated, to convert the people and foreigners. 6. Appointment of informers (or inspectors) and guardians of morality. 7. Expression of a desire that there may be uniformity of religion and equality of rank. * Rock Inscriptions, Edict ii., General Cunningham's Corpus Inscrip- tionalm, p. I 18. * Rock Inscriptions, Edict vi., etc., Corpus Znscriptionum, p. 120. These Inspectors of Morals are supposed to correspond to the Sixth Caste of Megasthenes, the 'Ezríazoºrol of Arrian. * Rock Inscriptions, Edict v., etc., Corpus Inscriptionum, p. 120. I92 BUD/D.H.I.S.M., 543 B.C. TO Iooo A.D. Fourth Council, IKanishka, (4O A. D. P) 8. Contrast of the carnal pleasures of previous rulers with the pious enjoyments of the present king. 9. Inculcation of the true happiness to be found in virtue, through which alone the blessings of heaven can be propitiated. Io. Contrast of the vain and transitory glory of this world with the reward for which the king strives and looks beyond. II. Inculcation of the doctrine that the imparting of dharma or teaching of virtue to others is the greatest of charitable gifts. I2. Address to all unbelievers. I3. (Imperfect); the meaning conjectural. I4. Summing up of the whole. The fourth and last of the great Buddhist Councils was held under King Kanishka, according to one tradition four centuries after Buddha's death. The date of Kanishka is still uncertain; but, from the evidence of coins and inscriptions, his reign has been fixed in the 1st century after Christ, or, say, 40 A.D." Kanishka, the most famous of the Saka Con- querors, ruled over North-Western India, and the adjoining countries. His authority had its nucleus in Kashmir, but it extended to both sides of the Himalayas, from Yarkand and Khokand to Agra and Sind. Kanishka's Council of five hundred drew up three com- mentaries on the Buddhist faith. These commentaries sup- plied in part materials for the Tibetan or Northern Canon, completed at subsequent periods. The Northern Canon, or, as the Chinese proudly call it, the ‘Greater Vehicle of the Law,’ includes many later corruptions or developments of the Buddhism which was originally embodied by Asoka in the “Lesser Vehicle,” or Canon of the Southern Buddhists (244 B.C.). The Buddhist Canon of China, a branch of the ‘Greater Vehicle,” was gradually arranged between 67 and 1285 A.D. It includes 144o distinct works, comprising 5586 books. The ultimate divergence between the Canons is great. They differ not only, as we have seen, in regard to the legend of Buddha's life, but also as to his teaching. With respect to doctrine, one example will suffice. According to the Northern or ‘Greater Vehicle,' Buddhist monks who transgress wilfully after ordina- tion may yet recover themselves; while to such castaways the Southern or ‘Lesser Vehicle’ allowed no room for repentance.” * Greater Vehicle.’ * Lesser Vehicle.” * The efforts to fix the date of Kanishka are little more than records of conflicting authorities. See Dr. James Fergusson's paper in the Journal of the ſºoyal Asiatic Society, Article ix., April 1880; and Mr. E. Thomas’ comprehensive disquisition on the Sáh and Gupta coins, pp. 18–79 of the A'eport of the Archæological Survey of Western Zndia for 1874–75, 4to, London, 1876. * Beal, Calena, p. 253. B UDZ)//ZSM AS A MAZZO/WAZ A.A. Z/G/OM. 193 The original of the Northern Canon was written in the Northern Sanskrit language, perhaps because the Kashmir and Northern sºn priests, who formed Kanishka's Council, belonged to isolated Canons. Himalayan settlements which had been little influenced by the growth of the Indian vernacular dialects. In one of these dialects, the Magadhi of Behar, the Southern Canon had been Compiled by Asoka and expanded by commentators. Indeed, the Buddhist compilations appear to have given the first literary impulse to the Prákrits or spoken Aryan dialects in India; as represented by the Páli or Magadhi of the Ceylonese Buddhist scriptures, and the Maháráshtrf of the ancient sacred books of the Jains. The Northern priests, who compiled Kanishka's Canon, preferred the ‘perfected' Sanskrit, which had become by that time the accepted literary vehicle of the learned throughout India, to the Prākrit or “natural’ dialects of the Gangetic valley. Kanishka and his Kashmir Council (40 A.D.P) became to the Northern or Tibeto-Chinese Buddhists, what Asoka and his Patná Council (244 B.C.) had been to the Buddhists of Ceylon and the South. Buddhism was thus organized as a State religion by the Buddhism Councils of Asoka and Kanishka. It started from Brāh-...nal manical doctrines; but from those doctrines, not as taught in religion of hermitages to clusters of Bráhman disciples, but as vitalized India ; by a preacher of rare power in the cities of Northern India. Buddha did not abolish caste. On the contrary, reverence to Bráhmans and to the spiritual guide ranked among the four great sets of duties, together with obedience to parents, control over self, and acts of kindness to all men and animals. He introduced, however, a new classification of mankind, on the spiritual basis of Believers and Unbelievers. The Believers took rank in the Buddhist community, at its re- first, according to their age and merit; in later times, as laity." . and clergy” (i.e. the religious orders). Buddhism carried y transmigration to its utmost spiritual use, and proclaimed Our own actions to be the sole ruling influence on Our past, present, and future states. It was thus led into the denial of any ex- ternal being or God who could interfere with the immutable law of cause and effect as applied to the Soul. But, on the other hand, it linked together mankind as parts of one uni- versal whole, and denounced the isolated self-seeking of the human heart as ‘the heresy of individuality.’” Its mission ! Užasáka. * Sramama, Öhińshºt (monk or religious mendicant), Öhºshºní (nun). * Sakdyaditthi. N I94 B UD/D//ZSM, 543 B.C. TO Tooo A.D. and practical morality. Spread of Buddhism. In the South, Ceylon, etc. , 244 B.C. to 638 A.D. was to make men more moral, kinder to others, and happier themselves; not to propitiate imaginary deities. It accordingly founded its teaching on man’s duty to his neighbour, instead of on his obligations to God; and constructed its ritual on the basis of relic-worship or the commemoration of good men, instead of on sacrifice. Its sacred buildings were not temples to the gods, but monasteries (vihāras) for the religious orders, with their bells and rosaries; or memorial shrines," reared Over a tooth or bone of the founder of the faith. The missionary impulse given by Asoka quickly bore fruit. In the year after his great Council at Patná (244 B.C.), his son Mahindo” carried Asoka's version of the Buddhist scriptures in the Magadhi language to Ceylon. He took with him a band of fellow-missionaries; and soon afterwards, his sister, the princess Sanghamittá, who had entered the Order, followed with a company of nuns. It was not, however, till six hundred years later (410–432 A.D.) that the Ceylonese Canon was written out in Pāli, the sacred Magadhí language of the Southern Buddhists. About the same time, missionaries from Ceylon finally established the faith in Burma (450 A.D.). The Burmese themselves assert that two Buddhist preachers landed in Pegu as early as 207 B.C. Indeed, some Burmese date the arrival of Buddhist missionaries just after the Patná Council, 244 B.C., and point out the ruined city of Tha-tun, between the Sitaung (Tsit-taung) and Salwin estuaries, as the scene of their pious labours. Siam was converted to Buddhism in 638 A.D.; Java received its missionaries direct from India between the 5th and the 7th century, and spread the faith to Bali and Sumatra.” While Southern Buddhism was thus wafted across the Ocean, another stream of missionaries had found their way * Stiºpas, topes, literally ‘heaps or tumuli; dagobas or dhātu-gopas, “relic-preservers; ' chaityas. - * Sanskrit, Mahendra. * All these dates are uncertain. They are founded on the Singalese chronology, but the orthodox in the respective countries place their national conversion at remoter periods. Occasionally, however, the dates can be tested from external sources. Thus we know from the Chinese traveller Fa-Hian, that up to about 414 A.D. Java was still unconverted. Fa- Hian says, “Heretics and Brähmans were numerous there, and the law of Buddha is in nowise entertained.’ The Burmese chroniclers go back to a time when the duration of human life was ninety millions of years; and when a single dynasty ruled for a period represented by a unit followed by 140 cyphers. See Zhe Imperial Gazetteer of India, Article SANDOWAY. AUD/D//ZST INA/UENCE ON CHRISTIANITY. 195 by Central Asia into China. Their first arrival in the Chinese In the empire is said to date from the 2nd century B.C., although it §º was not till 65 A.D. that Buddhism there became the esta-etc., 2nd blished religion. The Graeco-Bactrian kingdoms in the Punjab, *X and beyond it, afforded a favourable soil for the faith. The 532 A. D. Scythian dynasties who succeeded the Graeco-Bactrians accepted Buddhism ; and the earliest remains which recent discovery has unearthed in Afghānistán are Buddhist. Kanishka's Council, soon after the commencement of the Christian era, gave the great impetus to the faith beyond the Himalayas. Tibet, South Central Asia, and China, lay along the regular mis- sionary routes of Northern Buddhism; the Kirghiz are said to have carried the religion as far west as the Caspian ; on the east, Buddhism was introduced into the Corea in 372 A.D., and thence into Japan in 552. Buddhist doctrines are believed to have deeply affected Buddhist religious thought in Alexandria and Palestine. The question º: is yet undecided as to how far the Buddhist ideal of the holy tianity. life, with its monks, nuns, relic-worship, bells, and rosaries, influenced Christian monachism ; and to what extent Buddhist philosophy aided the development of the Gnostic heresies, particularly those of Basilides and Manes, which rent the early Church. It is certain that the analogies are striking, and have been pointed out alike by Jesuit missionaries in Asia, and by oriental scholars in Europe.” The form of abjuration for those who renounced the Gnostic doctrines of Manes, expressly mentions Böööa and the XKvětavós (Buddha and the Scythian or Sakya)—seemingly, says Weber, a separation of Buddha the Sakya into two. At this moment, the Chinese in San Francisco assist their devotions by pictures of the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy, imported on thin paper from Canton, which the Irish Roman Catholics identify as the Virgin Mary with the Infant in her arms, an aureole round her head, an adoring figure at her feet, and the Spirit hovering in the form of a bird.” * For the latter aspect of the question, see Weber, founding on Lassen, Renan, and Beal, Hisz. Zied. Ziff. p. 309, note 363, ed. I878. - * See also posé, pp. I97, 198. Polemical writers, Christian and Chinese, have with equal injustice accused Buddhism and Christianity of consciously plagiarizing each other's rites. Thus Kuang-Hsien, the distinguished member of the Astronomical Board, who brought about the Chinese perse- cution of the Christians from 1665 to 1671, writes of them : “They pilfer this talk about heaven and hell from the refuse of Buddhism, and then turn round and revile Buddhism.”—The Death-blow to the Corrupt Doctrines of Z’’ien2-chee (i.e. Christianity), p. 46 (Shanghai, 1870). See also the remarks of Jao-chow—“The man most distressed in heart’—in the same collection. r06 BUD/D//ZSM, 543 B.C. TO Tooo A.D. But it is right to point out that the early Nestorian Chris- tians in China may have been the source of some of these resemblances. The liturgy of the Goddess of Mercy, Kwan- yin, in which the analogies to the Eastern Christian office are most strongly marked, has been traced with certainty Only as far back as 1412 A.D. in the Chinese Canon." Professor Max Müller endeavoured to show that Buddha himself is the original of Saint Josaphat, who has a day assigned to him by both the Greek and Roman churches.” Buddha as Professor Müller's Essay” led me to an examination of the gºtian whole evidence bearing on this subject.* The results may be thus summarized. The Roman Martyrology at the end of the saints for the 27th November, states: “Apud Indos Persis finitimos Sanctorum Barlaam et Josaphat (commemoratio), quorum actus mirandos Joannes Damascenus conscripsit.” Among the Indians who border on Persia, Saints Barlaam and Josaphaſ, z0/lose wonderfu/works have been written of by St. /o/izz Legend of of Damascus. The story of these two saints is that of a young jºr Indian prince, Josaphat, who is converted by a hermit, Barlaam. Josaphat. Josaphat undergoes the same awakening as Buddha from the pleasures of this world. His royal father had taken similar precautions to prevent the youth from becoming acquainted with the sorrows of life. But Josaphat, like Buddha, is struck by successive spectacles of disease, old age, and death ; and abandons his princely state for that of a Christian devotee. He converts to the faith his father, his subjects, and even the magician employed to seduce him. For this magician, by name Theudas, the Buddhist schismatic Devadatta is supposed to have Supplied the original; while the name of Josaphat is. itself identified by philologers with that of Boddhisattwa, the complete appellation of Buddha.” - This curious transfer of the religious teacher of Asia to the * For an excellent account from the Chinese texts of the worship and liturgy of Kwan-yin, ‘the Saviour,” or in her female form as the Goddess of Mercy, see Beal’s Catema of Buddhist Scriptures, 383-397 (Trübner, 1871). * Chifts from a German Workshop, vol. iv. pp. 177–189, ed. 1875. * Contemporary A'eview, July 1870. * For a list of the authorities, and an investigation of them from the Roman Catholic side, by Emmanuel Cosquin, see Revue des Questions. Aſistoriques, lvi. pp. 579–600; Paris, October 1880. * The earlier form of Josaphat was Ioasaph in Greek and Youasaf or Youdasf in Arabic, an evident derivation from the Sanskrit Boddhi- sattwa, through the Persian form Boudasp (Weber). The name of the magician Theudas is in like manner an accurate philological reproduction. of Devadatta or Thevdat. ZEGEND OF BARZAAM AMD JOSAPHA7, 197 Christian Martyrology has an equally curious history. Saint Early John of Damascus wrote in the 8th century in Greek, and i. an Arabic translation of his work, belonging to the 11th 0. century, still survives. The story of Josaphat was popular in the Greek Church, and was embodied by Simeon the Meta- phrast in the lives of the saints, circ. 1150 A.D. The Greek form of the name is 'Iodoraq." By the 12th century, the Life of Barlaam and Josaphat had already reached Western Europe in a Latin form. During the first half of the 13th century, Vincent de Beauvais inserted it in his Speculum Aſistoriale; and in the latter half of that century it found a place in the Golden Legend of Jacques de Voragine. Mean- while, it had also been popularized by the troubadour, Guy de Cambrai. From this double source, the Golden Legend of the Church and the French poem of the people, the story of Barlaam and Josaphat spread throughout Europe. German, Provençal, Italian, Polish, Spanish, English, and Norse versions carried it from the southern extremity of the Continent to Sweden and Iceland. In 1583, the legend was entered in the Roman Martyrology for the 27th day of November, as we have already seen, upon the alleged testimony of St. John of Damascus. A church in Palermo still (1874) bears the dedication, Divo Josaphat.” The Roman Martyrology of Gregory XIII., revised under the auspices of Urban VIII., has a universal acceptance throughout Catholic Christendom ; although, from the statements of Pope Benedict XIV., and others, it would appear that it is to be used for edification, rather than as a work resting on infallible authority.” However this may be, the text of the two legends, and the names of their prominent actors, place beyond doubt the identity of the Eastern and the Western story. It is difficult to enter a Japanese Buddhist temple without AJapanese being struck by analogies to the Christian ritual on the one º hand, and to Hinduism on the other. The chantings of the logies to priests, their bowing as they pass the altar, their vestments, º rosaries, bells, incense, and the responses of the worshippers, tianity. remind one of the Christian ritual. ‘The temple at Rokugo,’ 1 See the valuable note in Colonel Yule's Marco Polo, vol. ii. pp. 302– 309 (2nd ed., 1875). * Yule, op. cit. p. 308. 3 This aspect of the question is discussed at considerable length by Emmanuel Cosquin, pp. 583–594. He gives the two legends of Buddha and of Barlaam-Josaphat in parallel columns, pp. 590–594 of the A’ez'zte des Questions Historiques, vol. lvi., already cited. 198 BUDDHISM, 543 B.C. To ſooo A.D. writes a recent traveller to a remote town in Japan, “was very beautiful, and, except that its ornaments were superior in solidity and good taste, differed little from a Romish church. Serpent Crna Iſle Il- tation. Buddha as an avatár of Vishnu. Buddha's personality denied. His date. The low altar, on which were lilies and lighted candles, was draped in blue and silver; and on the high altar, draped in Crimson and cloth of gold, there was nothing but a closed shrine, an incense-burner, and a vase of lotuses.’” In a Buddhist temple at Ningpo, the Chinese Goddess of Mercy, Kwan-yin, whose resemblance to the Virgin Mary and Child has already been mentioned (pp. 195, 196), is seen standing on a serpent, bruising his head with her heel. The Hindus, while denouncing Buddha as a heretic, have been constrained to admit him to a place in their mythology. They regard him as the ninth, and hitherto last, incarnation of Vishnu, the Lying Spirit let loose to deceive men until the tenth or final descent of Vishnu, on the white horse, with a flaming sword like a comet in his hand, for the destruction of the wicked and the renovation of the world. While, on the one hand, a vast growth of legends has arisen around Buddha, tending to bring out every episode of his life into strong relief, efforts have been made, on the other hand, to explain away his personal identity. No date can be assigned with certainty for his existence on this earth. The Northern Buddhists have fourteen different accounts, ranging from 2422. to 546 B.C.” The Southern Buddhists agree in starting from the Ist of June 543 B.C. as the day of Buddha's death. This latter date, 543 B.C., is usually accepted by European writers; but Indian chronology, as worked back from inscriptions and Coins,” gives the date 478 B.C. Another line of research brings his death as far down as 412 B.C. Some scholars, indeed, have argued that Buddhism is merely a religious development of the Brähmanical Sánkhya philosophy of Kapila (ante, p. 141 ; that Buddha's birth is placed at a purely allegorical site, Kapilavastu, ‘the abode of Kapila;’ that his mother is * Miss Bird's Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, vol. i. p. 295 (ed. 1880). * Csoma de Körös, on the authority of Tibetan Mss., Tibetan Gram- mar, p. I99. A debt long overdue has at length been paid to one of the most single-minded of Oriental scholars by the publication of Dr. Theodore Duka's Zife and Works of Alexander Csoma de Körös. (Trübner, 1885.) * General Cunningham works back the date of Buddha's death to 478. B.C., and takes this as his starting-point in the Corpus Inscriptionum Zndicarum, p. vii. The subject is admirably discussed by Mr. Rhys Davids in the Znternational Mumismata Orientalia (Ceylon fasciculus), pp. 38–56. He arrives at 412 B.C. as the most probable date. Dr. Oldenberg fixes it at about 480 B.C. A U/D/D///S// AAV/D BACAA/MA/V/S//. I99 called Máyádevſ, in reference to the Máyá doctrine of Kapila's System ; and that his own two names are symbolical ones— Siddartha, “he who has fulfilled his end,' and Buddha, “the Enlightened.’ Buddhism and Brähmanism are unquestionably united Links with by intermediate links. Certain of the sacred texts of the * Bráhmans, particularly the Vrihad Aranyaka and the Atharva Upanishad of the Yoga system, teach doctrines which are essentially Buddhistic. According to Wilson and others, Buddha had possibly no personal existence;" Buddhism Buddhism was merely the Sánkhya philosophy widened into a national gº religion; and the religious life of the Buddhistic orders was system (?). the Old Bráhmanical type popularized.” The theory is at any rate so far true, that Buddhism was not a sudden invention of any single mind, but a development on a broader basis of a philosophy and religion which preceded it. Such specula- tions, however, leave out of sight the two great traditional features of Buddhism—namely, the preacher's appeal to the people, and the undying influence of his beautiful life. Senart's still more sceptical theory of Buddha as a Solar Myth, has Completely broken down under the critical examination of Oldenberg. Buddhism never ousted Bráhmanism from any large part of Buddhism India. The two systems coexisted as popular religions from *. the death of Buddha during thirteen hundred years (543 B.C. manism. to about 8oo A.D.), and modern Hinduism is the joint product of both. The legends of Buddha, especially those of the Northern Canon,” bear witness to the active influence of Bráhmanism during the whole period of Buddha's life. After his death, certain kings and certain eras were intensely Buddhistic; but the continuous existence of Bráhmanism is abundantly proved from the time of Alexander (32.7 B.C.) * Professor H. H. Wilson went so far as to say, ‘It seems not impossible that Sakya Muni is an unreal being, and that all that is related of him is as much a fiction as is that of his preceding migrations and the miracles that attended his birth, his life, and his departure.’ The arguments are dealt with by Weber, Hist. Ind. Zit. pp. 284–290, ed. 1878. * Dr. Oldenberg's Buddha, sein Zeben, contains valuable evidence on this subject (Hoey's transl. pp. 46, 48 to 59, etc.). See also Zhe Sámkhya Aphorisms of Kaffila, Sanskrit and English, with illustrative texts from the Commentaries by Dr. Ballantyne, formerly Principal of the Benares College, 3rd ed. (Tribner, 1885.) * See the Life of the Buddha and the Æarly History of his Order, derived from the Tibetan texts, by Mr. Woodville Rockhill of the U. S. Legation in China; also Oldenberg's Buddha. 2OO BUD/DHISM, 543 B.C. TO 1000 A.D. Buddhism and Bráh- manism, 4OO A.D. to 645 A.D. Fa-Hian, 399 A.D. Hiuen Tsiang, 629 A.D. downwards. The historians who chronicled Alexander's march, and the Greek ambassador Megasthenes, who succeeded them (3oo B.C.) in their literary labours, bear witness to the pre- dominance of Brähmanism in the period immediately preceding Asoka. Inscriptions, local legends, Sanskrit literature, and the drama, disclose the survival of Brähman influence during the next six centuries (244 B.C. to 400 A.D.). From 4oo A.D. we have the evidence of the Chinese Pilgrims, who toiled through Central Asia into India to visit the birthplace of their faith.l “Never did more devoted Pilgrims,’ writes the greatest living student of their lives,” “leave their native country to encounter the perils of travel in foreign and distant lands; never did disciples more ardently desire to gaze on the sacred vestiges of their religion; never did men endure greater sufferings by desert, mountain, and sea, than these simple-minded, earnest Buddhist priests.” Fa-Hian entered India from Afghānistán, and journeyed down the whole Gangetic valley to the Bay of Bengal in 399–413 A.D. He found Bráhman priests equally honoured with Buddhist monks, and temples to the Indian gods side by side with the religious houses of the Buddhist faith. Hiuen Tsiang, a still greater Pilgrim, also travelled to India from China by the Central Asia route, and has left a fuller record of the state of the two religions in the 7th century. His wanderings extended from 629 to 645 A.D. Everywhere throughout India he found the two systems eagerly competing for the suffrages of the people. By this time, indeed, Bráh- * The Si-yet-Éi, or Buddhist Records of the Western World, translated from the Chinese, by Samuel Beal (Trübner, 2 vols., 1884), has completed and perfected the work begun by Julien and Rémusat. Mr. Beal's volumes throw a flood of light on the social, religious, and political condition of India from the 5th to the 7th century A.D. The older authorities are Foe Koue Ki, ou AEelation des Koyaumes Bouddhigues; Voyages dams Za Zartarie, "Aſghanistan et P/nde à la ſin du iv. siècle, par Chi-Fa-Aſian, translated by A. Rémusat, reviewed by Klaproth and Landresse, 1836. Mr. Beal's Travels of the Buddhist Pilgrim Fa-Hian, translated with Notes and Prolegomena, 1869; Julien's Voyages des Pelerins Bouddhistes, t. i.; Azºtočre de la Pºe de Hiouen- 7%.sang et de ses Voyages dams /'Ande, trans- lated from the Chinese, 1853, t. ii. and iii.; Mémoires sur les Contrées Occidentales, £ar Hiouen-7%.sang, translated from the Chinese, 1857-59. C. J. Neumann's Piłgerfahrten Buddhistischer Priester zon China mach Zadien, aus dem Chinesischen ilbersetzt, 1883, of which I have yet seen only one volume ; General Cunningham's Ancient Geography of Zndia, and his Aeports of the Archaeological Survey of Zºdia (various dates). * Sºyu-ki, Mr. Beal's Introduction, pp. ix. x. COUAVC/Z OA' S/ZA/D/TVA. aoi manism was beginning to reassert itself at the expense of the Buddhist religion. The monuments of the great Buddhist monarchs, Asoka and Kanishka, confronted him from the moment he neared the Punjab frontier; but so also did the temples of Siva and his “dread’ queen Bhimá. Throughout North-Western India he found Buddhist convents and monks Surrounded by “swarms of heretics, i.e. Brähmanical sects. . The political power was also divided, though Buddhist Sovereigns still predominated. A Buddhist monarch ruled over ten kingdoms in Afghānistán. At Peshāwar, the great monastery built by Kanishka was deserted, but the populace remained faithful. In Kashmir, the king and people were devout Buddhists, under the teaching of 5oo monasteries and 5ooo monks. In the country identified with Jaipur, on the other hand, the inhabitants were devoted to heresy and war. Buddhist influence in Northern India seems, during the 7th Buddhism century A.D., to have centred in the fertile plain between the .."; Jumna and the Ganges, and in Behar. At Kanauj (Kanya-Ali. kubja), on the Ganges, Hiuen Tsiang found a powerful Buddhist monarch, Síláditya, whose influence reached from the Punjab to North-Eastern Bengal, and from the Himalayas to the Narbadá river. Here flourished Ioo Buddhist convents and Io,000 monks. But the king's eldest brother had been lately slain by a sovereign of Eastern India, a hater of Buddh- ism ; and 200 temples to the Brähman gods reared their heads under the protection of the devout Síláditya himself. Siláditya appears as an Asoka of the 7th century A.D., and he practised with primitive vigour the two great Buddhist virtues of spreading the faith and charity. The former he attempted by means of a General Council in 634 A.D. Twenty-Council of One tributary sovereigns attended, together with the most sº learned Buddhist monks and Bráhmans of their kingdoms. But the object of the convocation was no longer the undis- puted assertion of the Buddhist religion. It dealt with the two phases of the religious life of India at that time. First, a discussion between the Buddhists and Bráhman philosophers of the Sánkhya and Vaiseshika schools; second, a dispute between the Buddhist sects who followed respectively the Northern and the Southern Canons, known as ‘the Greater and the Lesser Vehicle of the Law.” The rites of the popu- lace were of as composite a character as the doctrines of their teachers. On the first day of the Council, a statue of Buddha was installed with great pomp ; on the second, an image of the Sun-god ; on the third, an idol of Siva. 2O2 BUD/DHISM, 543 B.C. TO Tooo A.D. Síláditya's charity. Síláditya held a solemn distribution of his royal treasures every five years. Hiuen Tsiang describes how on the plain near Allahābād, where the Ganges and the Jumna unite their waters, the kings of the Empire, and a multitude of people, were feasted for seventy-five days. Síláditya brought forth the stores of his palace, and gave them away to Bráhmans and Buddhists, to monks and heretics, without distinction. At the end of the festival, he stripped off his jewels and royal raiment, handed them to the bystanders, and, like Buddha of old, put on the rags of a beggar. By this ceremony the monarch commemorated the Great Renunciation of the founder of the Buddhist faith. At the same time he discharged the highest duty inculcated alike by the Buddhist and Bráhmanical religions, lºy namely almsgiving. The vast monastery of Nalandal formed of Nal- anda. a seat of learning which recalls the universities of mediaeval Europe. Ten thousand monks and novices of the eighteen Buddhist Schools here studied theology, philosophy, law, science, especially medicine, and practised their devotions. They lived in lettered ease, supported from the royal funds. But even this stronghold of Buddhism furnishes a proof that Buddhism was only one of two hostile creeds in India. During the brief period with regard to which the Chinese records afford information, it was three times destroyed by the enemies of the faith.” Hiuen Tsiang travelled from the Punjab to the mouth of the Ganges, and made journeys into Southern India. But everywhere he found the two religions mingled. Buddh-Gayá, which holds so high a sanctity in the legends of Buddha, had already become a great Bráhman centre. On the east of Bengal, Assam had not been converted to Buddhism. In the south-west, Orissa was a stronghold of the Buddhist faith. But in the seaport of Tamlik, at the mouth of the Huigli, the temples to the Brähman gods were five times more numerous than the monasteries of the faithful. On the Madras coast, Buddhism flourished; and indeed throughout Southern India the faith seems still to have been in the ascendant, although struggling against Brähman heretics and their gods. - Mingling of Buddh- ism and Bráhman- ism, 629– 645 A.D. 1 Identified with the modern Baragãon, near Gayå. The Great Monas- tery can be traced by a mass of brick ruins, 1600 feet long by 400 feet deep. General Cunningham's Anciené Geography of India, pp. 468–470, ed. 1871. * Beal's Catema of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 371, ed. 1871. AOA.F./GAV CONQUESTS OF BUZ)/D.H.I.S.M. 203 During the 8th and 9th centuries A.D., Brähmanism became Victory of the ruling religion. There are legends of persecutions, insti- sº gated by Brähman reformers, such as Kumārila Bhatta and 900 A.D. Sankara Achárya. Local evidence of these persecutions has lately been collected in many parts of India, and some native Indian scholars believe that the extirpation of Buddhism was effected by a general suppression instigated by the Bráhmans and enforced by a central governing power. Of any such centrally organized and forcible suppression, Sufficient proofs are not forthcoming. Force no doubt played a part (see Aost, pp. 240, 241), but the downfall of Buddhism seems to have largely resulted from natural decay, and from new movements of religious thought, rather than from any general suppression by the sword. Its extinction is contemporaneous with the rise of Hinduism, and belongs to a subsequent chapter. In the 11th century, it was chiefly outlying States, like Kashmir and Orissa, that remained faithful. When the Muhammadans come permanently upon the scene, Buddhism as a popular faith has almost disappeared from the interior Provinces of India. Magadha, the cradle of the religion, still continued Buddhist under the Pál Rájás down to the Musal- mán Conquest of Bakhtiyár Khilji in 1199 A.D." During nearly a thousand years Buddhism has been a Buddhism banished religion from its native home. But it has won mº greater triumphs in its exile than it could have ever achieved 1033A.p. in the land of its birth. It has created a literature and a religion for nearly half the human race, and has affected the beliefs of the other half. Five hundred millions of men, or perhaps forty per cent. of the inhabitants of the world, still acknowledge, with more or less fidelity, the holy teaching of Buddha. Afghānistán, Nepāl, Eastern Türkistan, Tibet, Mon- golia, Manchuria, China, Japan, the Eastern Archipelago, Siam, Burma, Ceylon, and India, at one time marked the magnificent circumference of its conquests. Its shrines and Its foreign monasteries stretched in a continuous line from what are now * the confines of the Russian Empire to the equatorial islands of the Pacific. During twenty-four centuries Buddhism has encountered and outlived a series of powerful rivals. At this day it forms, with Christianity and Islám, one of the three great religions of the world; and the most numerously followed of the three. * MS. materials supplied to the author by General Cunningham, to whose Archaeological Reports and kind assistance this volume is deeply indebted. 2O4. B UDDH/SM, 543 B.C. TO looo A.D. Buddhist survivals in India. Buddhist popula- tion, 1881 and 1891. *** t l | In India its influence has survived its separate existence. The Buddhist period not only left a distinct sect, the Jains, but it supplied the spiritual basis on which Brähmanism finally developed from the creed of a caste into the religion of the people. A later chapter will show how important and how permanent have been Buddhistic influences on Hinduism. The Buddhists in British India in 1881 numbered nearly 3% millions, of whom 3% millions were in British Burma; and I66,892 on the Indian continent, almost entirely in North- Eastern Bengal and Assam. Together with the Jain sect, the Buddhist subjects of the Crown in British India amounted to close on four millions in 1881. One of the remarkable features of the following ten years was the enormous addition to the Buddhist population under British government. In 1891, the total number of Buddhist subjects of the Crown, including the Jains, was over 7% millions; namely, 7,095,398 Buddhists and 495,001 Jains. The increase was chiefly due to the annexation of Upper Burma in 1886; but the Buddhist population, both in Lower Burma and on the Indian continent, disclosed also a rapid rate of growth. In 1891, the Buddhists in British Burma (Upper and Lower) numbered 6,888,075, and 206,033 on the continent of British India, together with 1290 in the Andaman Islands. The Buddhists, apart from the annexation of new Buddhist populations, are increasing more rapidly than any other considerable section of the Indian peoples. Their rate of growth, calculated on the same areas, reached the high figure of 24% per cent, during the ten years ending 1891. The revival of Buddhism is always a possibility in India. In 1885, an excellent Buddhist journal was started in Bengali, at Chittagong; and during 1891–92 a new central Buddhist Society, with local branches and a monthly English journal, was organized in Calcutta. Its motto, taken from the ancient Maházágga Vinaya Piłakam, and printed at the top of its publications, runs thus: “Go ye, O Bikkhus,” or unpaid Buddhist missionaries, ‘and wander forth for the gain of the many, the welfare of the many, in compassion for the world. Proclaim, O Bikkhus, the doctrine glorious. Preach ye a life of holiness, perfect and pure.” The first number of its journal opens with the following * The Buddhists proper were returned in 1881 for British India at 3,418,476; of whom 3,251,584 were in British Burma; I55,809 in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal; and 6563 in Assam. The Jains proper were returned at 448,897 in British India by the Census of 1881. For the returns of 1891, see the text above. JAIN DOCTRZAVES AAWD TEMPZES. 2O5 words: ‘The Mahá Bodhi Society has commenced its mission for the resuscitation of Buddhism in the land of its birth.’" The Jains number about half a million in British India. The Jains. Like the Buddhists, they deny the authority of the Veda, except in so far as it agrees with their own doctrines. They disregard sacrifice; practise a strict morality; believe that their past and future states depend upon their own actions rather than on any external deity; and scrupulously reverence the vital principle in man and beast. They differ from the Buddhists chiefly in their ritual and objects of worship. The veneration of good men departed is common to both, but the Jains have expanded and methodized such adoration on lines of their own. The Buddhists admit that many Buddhas have appeared in successive lives upon earth, and attained Mirvâna or beatific extinction; but they confine their reverence to a comparatively small number. The Jains divide time into successive eras, Jain doc- and assign twenty-four /inas or just men made perfect, to each.” “in”. They name twenty-four in the past age, twenty-four in the present, and twenty-four in the era to come ; and place colossal statues of white or black marble to this great company of Saints in their temples. They adore above all the two latest, or twenty-third and twenty-fourth /inas of the present era—namely, Pársvanāth 8 and Mahāvīra. The Jains choose wooded mountains and the most lovely Jain retreats of nature for their places of pilgrimage, and cover them º with exquisitely-carved shrines in white marble or stucco. & Párasnáth Hill in Bengal, the temple city of Pálitána in Káthiáwār, and Mount Abū which rises with its gems of architecture like a jewelled island from the Rájputéna plains, form well-known scenes of their worship. The Jains are a wealthy community, usually engaged in banking or wholesale commerce, devoid indeed of the old missionary spirit of Buddhism, but closely knit together among themselves. Their charity is boundless; and they form the chief supporters of the beast hospitals, which the old Buddhistic tenderness for animals has left in many of the cities of India. * Journal of the Mahá Bodhi Society, Calcutta, May 1892. * Under such titles as Jagata-prabhu, ‘lord of the world;’ Kshinakarmá, ‘freed from ceremonial acts; ' Sarvajna, ‘all knowing;' Adhiswara, ‘suprême lord; 'Tirthankara, “he who has crossed over the world; ' and Jina, “he who has conquered the human passions.” * Popularly rendered Párasnáth. 2O6 BUD/D.HISM, 543 B.C. TO Iooo A.D. Relation of Jainism to Buddh- ism. Jains earlier than Buddh- ists (?). Antiquity of the Jains. Jainism is, in its external aspects, Buddhism equipped with a mythology—a mythology, however, not of gods, but of Saints. But in its essentials, Jainism forms a survival of beliefs anterior to Asoka and Kanishka. According to the old view, the Jains are a remnant of the Indian Buddhists who saved them- selves from extinction by compromises with Hinduism, and so managed to erect themselves into a recognised caste. Accord- ing to the later and truer view, they represent in an unbroken succession the Nigantha sect of the Asoka edicts. The Jains themselves claim as their founder, Mahāvīra, the teacher or contemporary of Buddha; and the Niganthas appear as a sect independent of, indeed opposed to, the Buddhists in the Rock Inscriptions of Asoka and in the Southern Canon (pitakas). Mahāvīra, who bore also the spiritual name of Vardhamāna, ‘The Increaser,’ is the 24th Jina or ‘Conqueror of the Pas- sions,’ adored in the present age of Jain chronology. Like Buddha, he was of princely birth, and lived and laboured in the same country and at the same time as Buddha. According to the southern Buddhistic dates, Buddha ‘attained rest 543 B.C., and Mahāvīra in 526 B.C. But according to the Jain texts, Mahāvīra was the predecessor and teacher of Buddha. A theory has accordingly been advanced that the Buddhism of Asoka (244 B.C.) was in reality a later product than the Nigantha or Jain doctrines." The Jains are divided into the Swetāmbaras, ‘The White Robed,’ and the Digambaras, ‘The Naked.” The Tibetan texts make it clear that sects closely analogous to the Jains existed in the time of Buddha, and that they were antecedent and rival orders to that which Buddha established.” Even the Southern Buddhist Canon preserves recollections of a struggle between a naked sect like the Jain Digambaras, and the decently robed Buddhists.” This Digambara or Nigantha sect (Nirgrantha, “those who have cast aside every tie’) was very distinctly recognised by Asoka's edicts; and both the Swetāmbara and Digambara * This subject was discussed in Mr. Edward Thomas' /aimism, or the Aarly Faith of Asoka, in Mr. Rhys Davids’ article in The Academy of 13th September 1879; in his Hibbert Zectures, p. 27; and in the AWumîs- mata Orientalia (Ceylon fasciculus), pp. 55, 60. * Mr. Woodville Rockhill’s Zife of the Buddha, from the Bkah-Hgyur and Bstan-Hgyur in zariis locis. I884. * See for example the curious story of the devout Buddhist bride from the Burmese sacred books, in Bishop Bigandet's Zife of Gaudama, pp. 257–259, vol. i., ed. I882. - .S UAE VIVAZS OF B UZ)/D///S//. 2O7 orders of the modern Jains find mention in the early copper- plate inscriptions of Mysore, circ. 5th or 6th century A.D. The Jains in our own day feel strongly on this subject, and the head of the Jain community at Ahmadābād, with whom I fully discussed the point, argued with great earnestness and learning to prove that their faith was anterior to Buddhism. Until quite recently, however, European scholars did not admit the pretensions of the Jains to pre-Buddhistic antiquity. H. H. Wilson questioned their importance at any period earlier than twelve centuries ago.! Weber regarded ‘the Jains as merely one of the oldest sects of Buddhism ;’ and Lassen believed that they had branched off from the Buddhists.” M. Barth, after a careful discussion of the evidence, still thought that we must regard the Jains ‘as a sect which took its rise in Buddhism.’ ” On the other hand, Oldenberg, who brings the latest light from the Páli texts to bear on the question, accepts the identity of the Jain sect with the Niganthas ‘into whose midst the younger brotherhood of Buddha entered.’ 4 . The learned Jacobi has now investigated this question from Jacobi's the Jain texts themselves." Oldenberg had proved, out of . the Buddhist scriptures, that Buddhism was a true product of question. Brähman doctrine and discipline. Jacobi shows that both ‘Buddhism and Jainism must be regarded as religions developed out of Brähmanism not by a sudden reformation, but prepared by a religious movement going on for a long time.” And he brings forward evidence for believing that Jainism was the earlier outgrowth ; that it was probably founded by Pársvanáth, now revered as the 23rd Jina; and merely reformed by Mahāvīra, the contemporary of Buddha." The outfit of the Jain monk, his alms - bowl, Jainism rope, and water vessel, was practically the equipment of the †. * AEssays and Zectures on the A’eligion of the Hindus, by H. H. Wilson. Dr. Reinhold Rost's edition, p. 329, vol. i. (1862). * Weber's Indische Studien, xvi. 210; and Lassen's Indische Alterthums- Áunde, iv. 763 & seq. * Barth’s Ateligions of Zºdia, ed. I882, p. 15I ; also Barth's A'ezzle de !’Aſistoire des Aeligions, iii. 90. * Auddha, his Zife, his Doctrine, his Order, by Prof. Hermann Olden- berg. Hoey's translation (1882), p. 67. See also his pp. 66 and (foot- note) 77, and I75. - - * Jaina Sūtras, Part I., the Achârânga Sūtra, and the Kalpa Sūtra, by Hermann Jacobi, forming vol. xxii. of the Sacred Books of the AEast. Clarendon Press, 1884. * Jacobi, off. cit., Introduction, xxxii. " Jacobi, off. cit, xxxiv. 208 BUD/DHISM, 543 B.C. TO Tooo A.D. Date of the Jain Scriptures. Jains an indepen- dent sect. Modern Jainism. Survivals of Buddh- ism in India. previous Brähman ascetic." In doctrine, the Jains accepted the Bráhman pantheistic philosophy of the Atmán, or Universal Soul. They believed that not only animals and plants, but the elements themselves, earth, fire, water, and wind, were endowed with souls. Buddha made a further divergence. He combated the Bráhman doctrine of the Universal Soul; and the Jain dogma, of the elements and minerals being endowed with souls, finds no place in Buddhist philosophy.” Jacobi believes that the Jain texts were composed or collected at the end of the 4th century B.C.; that the origin of the extant Jain literature cannot be placed earlier than about 3oo B.C.; and that their sacred books were reduced to writing in the 5th century A.D.” He thinks that the two existing divisions of the Jains, the Swetāmbaras and the Digambaras, separated from each other about two or three hundred years after the death of the founder; but ‘ that the development of the Jain church has not been at any time violently interrupted.’ That, ‘in fact, we can follow this development from its true beginning through its various stages, and that Jainism is as much independent from other sects, especially from Buddhism, as can be expected from any sect.’ “ In its external aspects, modern Jainism may be described as a religion allied in doctrine to ancient Indian Buddhism, but humanized by Saint-worship, and narrowed from a national religion to the exclusive requirements of a sect. The noblest survivals of Buddhism in India are to be found, however, not among any peculiar body, but in the religion of the people; in that principle of the brotherhood of man, with the reassertion of which each new revival of Hinduism starts; in the asylum which the great Vaishnav Sect affords to women who have fallen victims to caste rules, to the widow and the outcast; in that gentleness and charity to all men, which take the place of a poor-law in India, and give a high significance to the half-satirical epithet of the ‘mild’ Hindu. In the foregoing chapter I have endeavoured to give a con- tinuous view of Buddhism from the 6th century B.C., when it developed out of Brähmanism, down to the close of the 19th * For slight differences, see Jacobi, xxviii. * Jacobi, off. cit. xxxiii. * Op. cit. xxxv. and xliii. * Op. cit. xlvi. THE ETERMAZ VERITY OF BUD/D.H.I.S.M. 209 century A.D. The brevity imperiously imposed on such a sketch by the limits of this volume, renders it at many points less satisfactory than I could have wished. But, so far as I am aware, no similar presentment has yet been offered, and the reader can at once verify and amplify the details in each branch of the subject from the authorities cited in the foot- notes. Our recent conquest of an extensive and ancient Buddhist kingdom, and the addition of over 4 millions of Buddhists to the subjects of the British Crown, effected by the annexation of Upper Burma in 1886, made it necessary that such a continuous survey should now be attempted ; while the rapid increase of the Buddhist population within the British Provinces themselves, forms perhaps the most striking disclosure of the Census of 1891. A revival of Buddhism is, I repeat, one of the present possibilities in India. The life and teaching of Buddha are also beginning to exercise a new influence on religious thought in Europe and America. As that teaching becomes more accurately known to the Western world, it will be divested of the mystical pretensions with which certain of its modern professors have obscured it. Buddhism will stand forth as the embodiment of the eternal verity that as a man sows he will reap ; asso- ciated with the personal duties of mastery over self and kindness to all men ; and quickened into a popular religion by the example of a noble and beautiful Life. | 21o | C H A P T E R V I. THE GREEKS IN INDIA (327 To 161 B.C.). RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY have been the great contributions of India to the world. We now come to deal with India, not as a centre of influence upon other nations, but as acted on by them. THE ExTERNAL HISTORY OF INDIA commences for us with the Greek invasion in 327 B.C. Some indirect trade between India and the Mediterranean seems to have existed from very ancient times. Homer was acquainted with tin,' and other articles of Indian merchandise, by their Sanskrit names; and a list has been made of Indian products mentioned in the Bible.” The ship captains of Solomon and Hiram not only brought Indian apes, peacocks, and sandal-wood to Palestine; they also brought their Sanskrit names.” This was about Iooo B.C. The Assyrian monuments show that the rhinoceros and elephant were among the tribute offered to Shalmaneser II. (859–823 B.C.).” But the first Greek historian who speaks clearly of India is Hekataios of Miletos (549–486 B.C.); the knowledge of Herodotos (450 B.C.) ended at the Indus; and Ktesias, the physician (401 B.C.), brought back from his residence in Persia only a few facts about the products of India, its dyes and fabrics, monkeys and parrots. India to the east of the Indus was first made known to Europe by the historians and men of science who accompanied Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. Their narratives, although now lost, furnished materials to Strabo, Pliny, and Arrian. Soon after- External SOłlrCeS of the history of India. Early Greek writers, 549–40 I B. C. * Greek, Kassiteros; Sanskrit, Kastíra; hence, the Kassiterides, the Tin or Scilly Islands. Elephas, ivory, through the Arabian eleph (from Arabic el, the, and Sanskrit ibha, domestic elephant), is also cited. * Sir G. Birdwood's scholarly Handbook to the British Indian Section of the Paris AExhibition of 1878, pp. 22–35. For economic intercourse with ancient India, see Del Mar’s History of Money in Ancient Countries, chaps. iv. and v. (1885). * Hebrew, Kophim, tukijim, almugim–Sanskrit, Aapí, sížhá, zalgukam. * Professor Max Duncker's Ancient History of India, p. 13 (ed. 1881). AZEXAMDAEAE ZAV ZAVZ)/A, 327–325 B.C. 2 I I wards, Megasthenes, as Greek ambassador resident at a court Megas- in the centre of Bengal (306–298 B.C.), had opportunities for º the closest observation. The knowledge of the Greeks con-i.c. cerning India practically dates from his researches, 3oo B.C." Alexander the Great entered India early in 327 B.C.; crossed Alexan- the Indus above Attock, and advanced, without a struggle, #: over the intervening territory of the Taxiles” to the Jehlam #27–32; (Jhelum) (Hydaspes). He found the Punjab divided into B.C. petty kingdoms jealous of each other, and many of them inclined to join an invader rather than to oppose him. One of these local monarchs, Porus, disputed the passage of the Jehlam with a force which, substituting chariots for guns, about equalled the army of Ranjit Singh, the ruler of the Punjab in the present century.” Plutarch gives a vivid description of the battle from Alexander's own letters. Having drawn up his troops at a bend of the Jehlam, about 14 miles west of the modern field of Chilianwāla,” the Greek general crossed under cover of a tempestuous night. The * The fragments of the Indika of Megasthenes, collected by Dr. Schwanbeck, with the first part of the Indika of Arrian ; the Periplus Maris Erythraei, with Arrian's account of the voyage of Nearkhos ; the Indika of Ktesias; and Ptolemy's chapters relating to India, have been edited in four volumes with prolegomena by Mr. J. W. M'Crindle, M.A. (Trübner, 1877, 1879, 1882, and 1885). They originally appeared in the Indian Antiquary, to which this volume is much indebted. A new and important work by Mr. M'Crindle is promised shortly (1892), by Messrs. Constable & Co., under the title of The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great. General Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India, with its maps, and his Kefforts of the Archaeological Survey, Vincent's Commerce and AWazigation of the Ancients (2 vols. 4to, 1807), and the series of maps, on an unfortunately small scale, in General- Lieutenant von Spruner's Historisch-Geographischeme Atlas (Gotha), have also been used for this chapter. - The Takkas, a Turanian race, the earliest inhabitants of RAWAL PINDI DISTRICT. They gave their name to the town of Takshāsila, or Taxila, which Alexander found “a rich and populous city, the largest between the Indus and Hydaspes,’ identified with the ruins of DERI SHAHAN. Taki or Asarār, on the road between Lahore and Pindi Bhatiyán, was the capital of the Punjab in 633 A.D. When names are printed in small capitals, the object is to refer the reader to the fuller information given in The Imperial Gazetteer of India. * Namely, “30,000 efficient infantry ; 4OOO horse ; 300 chariots ; 200 elephants’ [Professor Cowell]. The Greeks probably exaggerated the numbers of the enemy. Alexander's army numbered ‘about 50,000, including 5000 Indian auxiliaries under Mophis of Taxila.’—General Cunningham, Amc. Geog. of India, p. 172. See his lucid account of the battle, with an excellent map, pp. I 59–177, ed. I871. * And about 30 miles south-west of Jehlam town. 2 I 2 THE GREEKS IAW /AWD/A. chariots hurried out by Porus stuck in the muddy margin of the river. In the engagement which followed, the elephants of the Indian prince refused to face the Greeks, and, wheeling round, trampled his own army under foot. His son fell early in the onset; Porus himself fled wounded; but, on tendering his submission, he was confirmed in his kingdom, and became the conqueror's trusted friend. Alexander built two memorial cities on the scene of his victory, Bucephala on the West bank, near the modern JALALPUR, named after his beloved charger, Bucephalus, slain in the battle ; and Nikaia, the present Mong, on the east side of the river. Alexander advanced south-east through the kingdom of the younger Porus to Amritsar, and, after a sharp bend backward to the west, to fight the Kathaei at Sāngala, he reached the Beas (Hyphasis). Here, at a spot not far from the modern battle-field of Sobrãon, he halted his victorious standards." He had resolved to march to the Ganges; but his troops were worn out by the heats of the Punjab summer, and their spirits broken by the hurricanes of the south-west monsoon. The native tribes had already risen in his rear, and the Conqueror of the World was forced to turn back, before he had crossed even the frontier Province of India. The Sutlej, the eastern Districts of the Punjab, and the mighty Jumna, still lay between him and the Ganges. A single defeat might have been fatal to his army; if the battle on the Jehlam had gone against him, not a Greek would probably have reached the Afghān side of the passes. Yielding at length to the clamour of his men, he led them back from the Beas to the Jehlam. He there embarked 8ooo of his troops in boats previously prepared, and floated them down the river; the remainder marched in two divisions along the banks. The country was hostile, and the Greeks held only the land on which they encamped. At Mültán, then as now the capital of the Southern Punjab, Alexander had to fight a pitched battle with the Malli, and was severely wounded in taking the city. His enraged troops put every soul within it to the sword. Farther down, near the confluence of the five rivers of the Punjab, he made a long halt, built a town, Alexandria, the modern Uchh, and received the submission of the neighbour- ing States. A Greek garrison and Satrap, whom he here left behind, laid the foundation of a more lasting influence. Having Alexander . in the Punjab, 327–326 B. C. Alexander in Sind, 325 B.C. * The change in the course of the Sutlej has altered its old position relative to the Beas at this point. The best small map of Alexander's route is No. v. in General Cunningham's Anc. Geog. of Zndia, p. 104, ed. 1871. A&ESULTS OF THE GREEK FXPEDITION. 213 constructed a new fleet, suitable for the greater rivers on which he was now to embark, he proceeded southward through Sind, and followed the course of the Indus until he reached the ocean. In the apex of the delta he founded or refounded a city—Patala—which survives to this day as Haidarābād, the native capital of Sind." At the mouth of the Indus, Alexander beheld for the first time the majestic phenomenon of the tides. One part of his army he shipped off under the Com- Leaves mand of Nearkhos to coast along the Persian Gulf; the other º t he himself led through Southern Balūchistán and Persia to 325 B.C. Susa, where, after terrible losses from want of water and famine on the march, he arrived in 325 B.C.” During his two years' campaign in the Punjab and Sind, Results of Alexander captured no province, but he made alliances, ... founded cities, and planted Greek garrisons. He had trans-327–32; ferred much territory from the tribes whom he had half-B.C. subdued, to the chiefs and confederations who were devoted to his cause. Every petty court had its Greek faction ; and the detachments which he left behind at various positions from the Afghān frontier to the Beas, and from near the base of the Himalayas to the Sind delta, were visible pledges of his return. At Taxila (DERI-SHAHAN) and Nikaia (MONG) in the Northern Punjab ; at Alexandria (UCHH) in the Southern Punjab ; at Patala (HAIDARABAD) in Sind; and at other points along his route, he established military settlements of Greeks or their allies. A body of his troops remained in Bactria. In the partition of the Empire after Alexander's death in 323 B.C., Seleukos, Bactria and India eventually fell to Seleukos Nikator, the sº-sº founder of the Syrian monarchy. # * * Meanwhile, a new power had arisen in India. Among the Chandra Indian adventurers who thronged Alexander's Camp in the º: e * For its interesting appearances in ancient history, see General Cun- ningham's Anc. Geog. of India, pp. 279-287, under Patala or Nirankot. It appears variously as Pattala, Pattalene, Pitasila, etc. It was formerly identified with Tatta (Thatha), near to where the western arm of the Indus bifurcates. See also M'Crindle's Commerce and AWazigation of the Airythraean Sea, p. 156 (Trübner, 1879). An excellent map of Alexander's campaign in Sind is given at p. 248 of Cunningham's Azec. Geog. of Zndia. * The stages down the Indus and along the Persian coast, with the geographical features and incidents of Nearkhos' Voyage, are given in the second part of the Indika of Arrian, chapter xviii. to the end. The river stages and details are of value to the student of the modern delta of the Indus.-M“Crindle's Commerce and AWazigation of the AErythraean Sea, pp. I53-224 (1879). 2I4 THE GA2AAAS //V /AV/)/A. Punjab, each with his plot for winning a kingdom or crushing a rival, Chandra Gupta, an exile from the Gangetic valley, is said to have played a part. According to a doubtful story, he tried to tempt the wearied Greeks on the Beas with schemes of conquest in the rich south-eastern Provinces; but, having personally offended Alexander, he had to fly the camp (326 B.C.). In the confused years which followed, he managed, with the aid of plundering hordes, to found a kingdom on the ruins of the Nanda dynasty in Magadha, or Behar (316 B.C.)." He seized their capital, Pataliputra, the modern Patná ; established himself firmly in the Gangetic valley, and Com- pelled the Punjab principalities, Greek and native alike, to acknowledge his suzerainty.” While, therefore, Seleukos Nikator was winning his way to the Syrian monarchy during the eleven years which followed Alexander's death, Chandra Gupta was building up an empire in Northern India. Seleukos reigned in Syria from 312 to 280 B.C.; Chandra Gupta in the Gangetic valley from 316 to 292 B.C. In 312 B.C., the power of both had been consolidated, and the two new sovereignties were soon brought face to face. About that year, Seleukos, having recovered Babylon, pro- ceeded to re-establish his authority in Bactria and the Punjab. In the Punjab he found Greek influence decayed. Alex- ander had left a mixed force of Greeks and Indians at Taxila. But no sooner had he departed from India, than the Indians rose and slew the Greek governor. The Macedonians next massacred the Indians. A new governor, sent by Alexander, murdered the friendly Punjab prince, Porus; and was himself driven out of India by the advance of Chandra Gupta from the Gangetic valley. Seleukos, after a war with Chandra Gupta, determined to ally himself with the new power in India rather than to oppose it. In return for 5oo elephants, he ceded to the Indian king the Greek settlements in the Punjab and the Kábul valley; gave his daughter to Chandra Gupta in marriage; and stationed an ambassador, Megasthenes, at the Gangetic court (306–298 B.C.). Chandra Gupta became familiar to the Greeks as Sandrokottos, King of the Prasii and Gangaridae ; his capital, Pataliputra,” or Patná, was rendered 316 B.C.; 312 B.C. Seleukos in India, 312–306 B.C. 306–298 B. C. * Corpus /uscriptionum Indicarum, i. 7. Jacobi's Jaina Siłłras, xliii. * For the dynasty of Chandra Gupta, see AVumismata Orientalia (Ceylon fasciculus), pp. 4I-5O. * The modern Patnā, or Pattana, means simply ‘the city.” For its identification with Pataliputra by means of Mr. Ravenshaw's final dis- coveries, see General Cunningham's Anc. Geog. of Zºdia, p. 452 et seq. THE WAV/D/A OF MEGASTHEAVES. 215 into Palimbothra. On the other hand, the Greeks and kings of Grecian dynasties appear in the rock inscriptions under Indian forms.1 Megasthenes has left a lifelike picture of the Indian people. The India Notwithstanding some striking errors, the observations which º he jotted down at Patná, three hundred years before Christ, 300 B.C. give as accurate an account of the social organization in the Gangetic valley as any which existed when the Bengal Asiatic Society commenced its labours at the end of the last century (1784). Up to the time of Megasthenes, the Greek idea of India was a very vague one. Their historians had spoken of two classes of Indians,—certain mountainous tribes who dwelt in Northern Afghānistán under the Caucasus or Hindu Kush, and a maritime race living on the coast of Balūchistán. Of the India of modern geography lying beyond the Indus, they practically knew nothing. It was this India to the east of the Indus which Megasthenes opened up to the Western world. He describes the classification of the people, dividing them, His seven however, into seven castes instead of four,”—namely, philo- º Sophers, husbandmen, shepherds, artisans, soldiers, inspectors, people. and the counsellors of the king. The philosophers were the Bráhmans, and the prescribed stages of their life are indicated. Megasthenes draws a distinction between the Bráhmans (Bpaxpóves) and the Sarmanai (20ppmåvat), from which some scholars infer that the Buddhist Sramanas or monks were a recognised order 3oo B.C., or fifty years before the Council of Asoka. But the Sarmanai might also include Brähmans in the first and third stages of their life as students and forest recluses.” The inspectors,” or sixth class of Megasthenes, have been identified with the Buddhist supervisors of morals, after- wards referred to in the sixth edict of Asoka. Arrian's name for them, Tio Kotrou, is the Greek word which has become our modern Bishop, or overseer of souls. * The Greeks as Yonas (Yavanas), from the I&oys; or Ionians. In the Inscriptions of Asoka, five Greek princes appear : Antiochus (of Syria); Ptolemy (Philadelphos of Egypt); Antigonos (Gonatos of Macedon); Magas (of Kyrene); Alexander (II. of Epirus).--Weber, Hist. Ind. Zit. pp. 179, 252. But see also Wilson, Journ. Aoy. As. Soc. vol. xii. (1850); and Cunningham's Corpus Znscrip. Indic. pp. I25, 126. * Ancient India as described by Megasthemes and Arriazz, being fragments of the Indika, by J. W. M'Crindle, M.A., p. 40, ed. 1877. * Brahmachárins and Vănaprasthas (52%guo). Weber very properly declines to identify the Xopºvoz exclusively with the Buddhist Sramanas. —Hisz. Jºad. Zif. p. 28, ed. I878. * The #topol (Diodorus, Strabo), ºríazoro (Arrian). 216 THE GA’A.A.A.S IN JAV/D/A. ‘Errors” of Megas- thenes. The Old Indian rivers. Kalanos, the Brāh- Iſla Il. It must be borne in mind that Indian society, as seen by Megasthenes, was not the artificial structure described in Manu, with its rigid lines and four sharply demarcated castes. It was the actual society of the court, the camp, and the capital, at a time when Buddhist ideals were conflicting with Bráhmanical types. Some of the so-called errors of Megas- thenes have been imputed to him from a want of due apprecia- tion of this fact. Others have been proved by modern inquiry to be no errors at all. The knowledge of India derived by the Greeks chiefly, although by no means exclusively, from Megasthenes, includes details which were scarcely known to Europeans in the last century. The Aryan and Aboriginal elements of the population, or the White and Dark Indians; the two great harvests of the year, in spring and autumn ; the Salt-mines; the land-making silt brought down by the rivers from the Himalayas ; the great changes in the river- courses; and even a fairly accurate measurement of the Indian peninsula—were among the points known to the Greek writers. From those sources, the present writer, when engaged on the Statistical Survey of India, derived pregnant hints in regard to the changes in the physical configuration of the country during the past 22 centuries. The account which Megasthenes gives of the size of the Indus and its lakes, points to the same conclusion as that reached by the most recent observations, in regard to the Indian rivers being originally lines of drainage through great watery regions. In their upper courses they gradually scooped out their beds, and thus produced a low-level channel into which the fens and marshes eventually drained. In their lower courses they conducted their great operations of land-making from the silt which their currents had brought down from above. In regard to the action of the rivers and their magnitude, as in several other matters, the ‘exaggerations' of Megasthenes are proved to be nearer the truth than was suspected even by English writers until the Statistical Survey began its work in 1871. The Brähmans deeply impressed Alexander by their learning and austerities. One of them, Kalanos by name, was tempted, notwithstanding the reproaches of his brethren, to enter the service of the conqueror. But, falling sick in Persia, Kalanos determined to die like a Bráhman, although he had not con- sistently lived as one. Alexander, on hearing of the philo- sopher's resolve to put an end to his life, vainly tried to dissuade him ; then loaded him with jewels, and directed ZAVDO-GAEEEK TREATY, 256 B.C. 2 I 7 that he should be attended with all honours to the last Scene. Distributing the costly gifts of his master as he advanced, 323 B.C. wearing a garland of flowers, and singing his native Indian hymns, the Bráhman mounted a funeral pile, and Serenely perished in the flames. The Greek ambassador observed with admiration the ab-Indian sence of slavery in India, the chastity of the women, and the º courage of the men. In valour they excelled all other Asiatics; they required no locks to their doors; above all, no Indian was ever known to tell a lie. Sober and industrious, good farmers and skilful artisans, they scarcely ever had recourse to a lawsuit, and lived peaceably under their native chiefs. The kingly government is portrayed almost as described in Manu, with its hereditary castes of councillors and soldiers. Megasthenes mentions that India was divided into I 18 king-Petty doms; some of which, such as that of the Prasii under Kingdoms. Chandra Gupta, exercised suzerain powers. The village system is well described, each little rural unit seeming to the Greek an independent republic. Megasthenes remarked the exemption of the husbandmen (Vaisyas) from war and public services; and enumerates the dyes, fibres, fabrics, and pro- ducts (animal, vegetable, and mineral) of India. Husbandry depended on the periodical rains ; and forecasts of the weather, with a view to “make adequate provision against a coming deficiency, formed a special duty of the Bráhmans. But mark the judicious proviso : ‘The philosopher who errs in his predictions observes silence for the rest of his life.’ Before the year 3oo B.C., two powerful monarchies had thus Indo, begun to act upon the Bráhmanism of Northern India, from tºº, the east and from the west. On the east, in the Gangetic 256 B.C. valley, Chandra Gupta (316–292 B.C.) firmly consolidated the dynasty which during the next century produced Asoka (264-223 B.C.), established Buddhism throughout India, and spread its doctrines from Afghānistán to China, and from Central Asia to Ceylon. On the west, the heritage of Seleukos (312–280 B.C.) diffused Greek influences, and sent forth Graeco-Bactrian expeditions to the Punjab. Antiochos Theos (grandson of Seleukos Nikator) and Asoka (grandson of Chandra Gupta), who ruled these probably conterminous monarchies, made a treaty with each other, 256 B.C. In the next century, Eukratides, King of Bactria, conquered as far as Alexander's royal city of Patala, the modern Haidarābād in the Sind delta; and sent expeditions into Cutch and Gujarát, 218 THE GA2/2A, KS MAV ZAV/D/A. Greeks in India, 181—I61 B.C. Greek in- fluence on Indian art. Greek and Hindu types of sculpture. 181-16I B.C. Menander advanced farther into North-Western India, and his coins are found from Kábul, near which he probably had his capital, as far as Muttra on the Jumna. The Buddhist successors of Chandra Gupta profoundly modi- fied the religion of Northern India from the east of the Gangetic valley; the Greek empire of Seleukos, with its Bactrian and later offshoots, deeply influenced the science and art of Hindustán from the west. We have already seen how much Brähman astronomy owed to the Greeks, and how the builders’ art in India received its first impulse from the architectural exigencies of Buddhism. The same double influence, of the Greeks on the west and of the Buddhists on the east of the Bráhmanical Middle Land of Bengal, can be traced in many details. What the Buddhists were to the architecture of Northern India, that the Greeks were to its sculpture. Greek faces and profiles constantly occur in ancient Buddhist statuary. They enrich almost all the larger museums in India, and examples may be seen at South Kensington. The purest specimens have been found in the Punjab, where the Greeks settled in greatest force. In the Lahore collection I saw, among other beautiful pieces, an exquisite little figure of an old blind man feeling his way with a staff. Its subdued pathos, its fidelity to nature, and its living movement dramatically held for the moment in sculptured suspense, are Greek, and nothing but Greek. It is human misfortune, that has culminated in wandering poverty, age, and blindness—the very curse which Sophocles makes the spurned Teiresias throw back upon the doomed king— ‘Blind, having seen ; Poor, having rolled in wealth ; he with a staff Feeling his way to a strange land shall go.” As we proceed eastward from the Punjab, the Greek type begins to fade. Purity of outline gives place to lusciousness of form. In the female figures, the artists trust more and more to swelling breasts and towering chignons, and load the neck with constantly-accumulating jewels. Nevertheless, the Grecian type of countenance long survived in Indian art. It is perfectly unlike the coarse, conventional ideal of beauty in modern Hindu sculptures. I have traced this Greek type Southward as late as the delicate profiles on the so-called Sun Temple or ‘Black Pagoda' at Kanārak, built in the 12th cen- tury A.D. on the far eastern Orissa shore of the Bay of Bengal. Not only did the Greek impulse become fainter and fainter AOREIGN INFLUENCES ON INDIA. 219 in Indian sculpture with the lapse of time, but that impulse Greek. itself was gradually derived from less pure and less vigorous.” die Sources. The Greek ideal of beauty may possibly have been brought direct to India by the officers and artists of Alexander the Great. But it was from Graeco-Bactria, not from Greece itself, that the practical masters of Greek sculp- ture came to the Punjab. Indeed, important evidence has been collected to show that the most prolific stream of such artistic inspirations reached India from the Roman Empire, and in Imperial times, rather than through even the indirect Grecian channels represented by the Bactrian kingdom. It must suffice here to indicate the ethnical and dynastic Foreign influences thus brought to bear upon India, without pausing º to assign dates to the individual monarchs. The chronology of the twelve centuries intervening between the Graeco-Bactrian period and the Muhammadan conquest still depends on a mass of conflicting evidence derived from inscriptions, legend- ary literature, unwritten traditions, and coins." Four systems of computation exist, based upon the Vikramāditya, Saka, Seleucidan, and Parthian eras. In the midst of the confusion, we see dim masses moving southward from Central Asia into India. The Graeco-Bactrian kings or expeditions are traced by coins as far as Muttra on the Jumna. Their armies occupied for a time the Punjab, as far south as Gujarát and Sind. Sanskrit texts are said to indicate their advance through the Middle Land of the Brähmans (Madhya-desha) to Sáketa (or AJODHYA), the capital of Oudh, and to Patná in Behar.” Megasthenes was only the first of a series of Greek ambassadors to Bengal.” A Grecian Greeks in princess became the queen of Chandra Gupta at Patná (circ. ** 306 B.C.). Graeco-Bactrian girls, or Yavanis, were welcome gifts, and figure in the Sanskrit drama as the personal attend- ants of Indian kings. They were probably fair-complexioned slaves from the northern regions. It is right to add, however, * Report of the Archaeological Survey of Western Zndia for 1874–75, p. 49 (Mr. E. Thomas' monograph). * Goldstucker assigned the Yavana siege of Sáketa (AJODHYA), men- tioned in the Mahābhāshya, to Menander ; while the accounts of the Gárgi Sanhitá in the Yuga Purána speak of a Yavana expedition as far as Patná. But, as Weber points out (A/ist. Ind. Ziff. p. 251, footnote 276), the question arises as to whether these Yavanas were Graeco-Bactrians or Indo-Scythians. See, however, Æeport of Archaeological Survey of Westeriz Zºdia for 1874–75, p. 49, and footnote. * Weber, Hist. Ind. Zit. p. 251 (ed. 1878), enumerates four. 22 O THE GREEKS ZAV ZAVD/A. that the Sanskrit word Yavana has a much wider application than merely to the Greeks or even to the Bactrians. The Greek survivals in India. credentials of the Indian embassy to Augustus in 22–20 B.C. were written on skins; a circumstance which perhaps indicates the extent to which Greek usage had overcome Bráhmanical prejudices. During the century preceding the Christian era, Scythian or Tartar hordes began to supplant the Graeco- Bactrian influence in the Punjab. The term Yavana, or Yona, which originally applied to several non-Bráhmanical races, and especially to the Greeks, was also extended to the Sakae or Scythians. It probably includes many widely various tribes of invaders from the west. Patient effort will be required before the successive changes in the meaning of Yavana, both before and after the Greek period, are worked out. The word travelled far, and has survived with a strange vitality in out-of-the-way nooks of India. The Orissa chroniclers called the sea-invaders from the Bay of Bengal, Yavanas, and in later times the term was applied to the Musalmáns." At the present day, a vernacular form of the word is said to have supplied the local name for the Arab settlers on the Coromandel coast.” - The “Yavanas;’ ancient and modern. * Hunter's Orissa, vol. i. pp. 25, 85, and 209 to 232 (ed. 1872). * Bishop Caldwell gives Yavanas (Yonas) as the equivalent of the Sonagas or Muhammadans of the western coast : Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Zanguages, 2nd edition, p. 2 (Tribner, 1875). | 221 | C H A P T E R V II. scythic INROADS INTO INDIA (126? B.C. To 544 A.D.). THE foregoing chapters have dealt with two streams of migra- Migrations tion which, starting from Central Asia, poured through the tºº. north-western passes of the Himalayas, and spread themselves 2. out upon the plains of Bengal. Those two great series of expeditions are represented by the early Vedic tribes, and by the Graeco-Bactrian armies. The first of them gave their race- type to Indian civilisation; the second impressed an influence Aryan, on Indian science and art; and in both cases the results have proved more important and more permanent than the mere numerical strength of the invaders would seem to justify. But the permanent settlement of the early Vedic tribes, and the shorter vehement impact of the Greek or Graeco-Bactrian invaders, alike represent movements of the Aryan section of the human race. Another great family of mankind, the Turanian, had also its home in Central Asia. The earliest and Tura- migrations of the Turanians in Asia belong to a period In 12.I), absolutely pre-historic; nor has inductive history yet applied its scrutiny to Turanian antiquity with the success which it has achieved in regard to primitive Aryan migrations. - Yet there is evidence to show that waves of Turanian origin Scythic overtopped the Himálayas or pierced through their openings . into India from very remote times. The immigrants doubtless towards represented many different tribes, but in the dim twilight of * Indian history they are mingled together in confused masses known as the Scythians.” There are indications that a branch of the Scythian hordes, who overran Asia about 625 B.C., made its way to Patala on the Indus, the site selected by Alexander in 325 B.C. as his place of arms in that delta, and long the capital of Sind under the name of Haidarābād. One portion of these Patala Scythians seems to have moved westwards by the Persian Gulf to Assyria; another section is supposed to have found its way north-east into the Gangetic valley, and to have branched off into the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, among 1 It is in this indeterminate sense that I have usually had to employ the word Scythian in the present chapter. Indian archaeologists have probably applied it in certain cases to Aryan as well as to Turanian migrations. 222 SC V7'H/C ZWROADS AAWD AWAGA ACACES. whom Buddha was born." During the two hundred years before the Christian era, the Scythic movements come a little more clearly into sight, and in the first century after Christ those movements culminate in a great Indian Sovereignty. About 126 B.C., the Tartar tribe of Su is said to have conquered the Greek dynasty in Bactria, and the Graeco- Bactrian settlements in the Punjab were overthrown by the Yue-Chi.” - Two centuries later, we touch solid ground in the dynasty whose chief representative, Kanishka, held the Fourth Buddh- ist Council, circ. 40 A.D., and became the royal founder of Northern Buddhism. But long anterior to the alleged Yue- Chi settlements in the Punjab, tribes of Scythic origin had found their way into India, and had left traces of non-Aryan origin upon Indian civilisation. The sovereignty of Kanishka in the first century A.D. was not an isolated effort, but the ripened fruit of a series of ethnical movements. Certain scholars believe that even before the time of Buddha there are relics of Scythic origin in the religion of India. It has been suggested that the Asva-medha, or Great Horse- Sacrifice, in some of its developments at any rate, was based upon Scythic ideas. “It was in effect,’ writes Mr. Edward Thomas, ‘a martial challenge, which consisted in letting the victim who was to crown the imperial triumph at the year's end, go free to wander at will over the face of the earth; its sponsor being bound to follow its hoofs, and to conquer or conciliate’ the chiefs through whose territories it passed. Such a prototype seems to him to shadow forth the life of the Central Asian communities of the horseman class, “among whom a captured steed had so frequently to be traced from Camp to camp, and surrendered or fought for at last.” The curious connection between the Horse-Sacrifice and the Man- Sacrifice of the pre-Buddhistic religion of India has often been noticed. That connection has been explained from the Indian point of view, by the substitution theory of a horse for a human victim. But among the early shepherd tribes of Tibet, the Yue-Chi settle- ments, 126 B.C. (?) Kanishka, 40 A.D. (?) Pre- Buddhistic Scythic influences. The Horse- Sacrifice. * Catema of the Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, by S. Beal, pp. 126–130. See also Herodotus, i. IO3 to IO6; Csoma de Körös, Journal As. Soc. Beng. I833; and H. H. Wilson, Ariana Antigua, p. 212, quoted by Weber, Hist. Ind. Lif. p. 285, ed. 1878. * De Guignes, supported by Professor Cowell on the evidence of coins. Appendix to Elphinstone's History of Zndia, p. 269, ed. 1866. * Report of Archaeological Survey of Western India, pp. 37, 38 (1876). But see, in opposition to Mr. Thomas’ view, M. Senart in the French Journe. Asiatigue, 1875, p. I26. BUD/DHA A SCVTA/AM (?). 223 two sacrifices coexisted as inseparable parts of the Great Oath. Each year the Tibetans took the Little Oath to their chiefs, and sacrificed sheep, dogs, and monkeys. But every third year they solemnized the Great Oath with offerings of men and horses, oxen and asses." Whatever significance may attach to this rite, it is certain Buddha, a that, with the advent of Buddhism, Scythic influences made * themselves felt in India. Indeed, it has been attempted, on evidence derived from the Tibetan or Northern Canon of Buddhism, to establish a Scythic origin for Buddha him- self. One of his earliest appearances in the literature of the Christian Church is as Buddha the Scythian. It is argued that by no mere accident did the Fathers trace the Manichaean doctrine to Scythianus, whose disciple Terebinthus took the name of Buddha.” As already stated, the form of abjuration of the Manichaean heresy mentions Bööða and >kv6tavós (Buddha and the Scythian or Sakya), seemingly, says Weber, a separation of Buddha Sakya-muni into two.” The Indian Buddhists of the Southern school would dwell lightly on, or pass over altogether, a non-Aryan Origin for the founder of their faith. We have seen how the legend of Buddha in their hands assimilated itself to the old epic type of the Aryan hero. But a Scythic origin would be congenial to the Northern school of Buddhism : to the school which was consolidated by the Scythic monarch Kanishka, and which supplied a religion during more than ten centuries to Scythic tribes of Central Asia. We find, therefore, without surprise, that the sacred books Meaning of Tibet constantly speak of Buddha as the Sakya. In them, **** Buddha is the heir-apparent to the throne of the Sakyas; his doctrine is accepted by the Sakya race; and a too strict adherence to its tenets of mercy ends in the destruction of the Sakya capital, followed by the slaughter of the Sakya people.* If we could be sure that Sakya really signified Scythian, this * Early History of Tibet, in Mr. Woodville Rockhill's Ziſe of the Buddha, from the Tibetan Classics, p. 204 (Tribner, 1884). * “I believe the legend of Sakya was perverted into the history of Scythianus.”—Beal’s Catema of the Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 129 (Trübner, 1871). * Weber's History of Indian Ziterature, p. 309, footnote 363 (Trübner, 1878). But Buddhism probably reached the Early Church through the Scythians; so that Buddha might be called Skuthianos, as the Scythian religious founder, without implying that he was a born Scythian. Wide post, chap. ix. * Wide ante, p. 185. 224 SCYTHIC INROADS AAWD AWAGA RACES. evidence would be stronger. But the exact meaning of Sakya, although generally taken to be the Indian representative of Scythian, as the Persian Sakae was the equivalent of Scythae, has yet to be determined. At one time it seemed as if the Tibetan records might settle the point. These hopes have, however, been disappointed, as the earliest Tibetan records prove to be a reflex of foreign influences rather than a deposi- tory of indigenous traditions. Tibet, Khoten, and other countries to the north of the Himalayas, on adopting Buddhism, more or less unconsciously re-cast their national traditions into Buddhist moulds. These countries formed the meeting-place of two distinct streams of civilisation,-the material civilisation of China, and the religious civilisation of India. Some of the early Tibetan legends seem to be clumsy copies of the stories of the first Chinese sovereigns recorded in the Bamboo Books.” The Tibetan classics further obscure the historical facts, by a tendency to trace the royal lines of Central Asia to the family or early converts of Buddha; as certain mediaeval families of Europe claimed descent from the Wise Men of the East; and as noble genſes of Rome found their ancestors among the heroes of the Trojan war. Thus the first Tibetan monarch derived his line from Prasenadjit, King of Kosala, the life-long friend of Buddha; and the dynasty of Khoten claimed as its founder a son of King Dharmasoka. The truth is, that while Tibet obtained much of its material civilisation from China, its medicine, its mathematics, its weights and measures, its chronology, its clothing, its mul- berries, tea, and ardent spirits; it received its religion and letters from India, together with its philosophy and its ideal of the Spiritual life. The mission of the seven Tibetan nobles to India to find an alphabet for the yet unwritten language of Tibet, is an event recorded of the 7th century A.D. The Indian monastery of Nalanda was reproduced in the great HSamyas, or religious house at Lhasa. The struggle between Chinese and Indian influences disclosed itself alike in the public disputations of the Tibetan sects, and in the inner intrigues of the palace. One of the great Tibetan monarchs is said to have married two wives, an Indian princess who brought Buddhist images from Nepāl, and a Chinese princess who brought silk-brocades and whisky from China.3 We must therefore receive with caution the evidence as to the Artificial nature of Tibetan traditions. Sources of Tibetan ideas and traditions. * Early Histories of Tibet and Khoten, in Mr. Rockhill's Life of the Buddha, p. 232, etc. - - - * Zalem, p. 203. * Zalem, pp. 213–215. T/BETAAW TRAD/TIONS AAWD CUSTOMS. 225 Original signification of the word Sakya, derived from the records of a nation which was so largely indebted for its ideas and its traditions to later foreign sources. That evidence should, however, be stated. The Tibetan Evidence Sacred books preserve an account of the Sakya creation; of #.º the non-sexual procession of the ancient Sakya kings; and of as to the the settlement of the Sakyas at Kapila, the birthplace of Sakyas. Buddha. Their chief seat was the kingdom of Kosala, near the Southern base of the Himalayas. Tibetan traditions place the early Indian homes of the Sakyas on the banks of the Bhāgirathſ, as distinctly as the Vedic hymns place the homes of the primitive Aryans on the tributaries of the Indus. They claim, indeed, for Buddha a Kshattriyan descent from the noble Ishkvaku or Solar line. But it is clear that the race customs of the Indo-Sakyas differed in important respects from those of the Indo-Aryans. At birth, the Sakya infant was made to bow at the feet of a Sakya race tribal image, Taksha Sakya-vardana, which, on the presenta- *. tion of Buddha, itself bowed down to the divine child. In regard to marriage, the old Sakya law is said to have allowed a man only one wife.” The dead were disposed of by burial, although cremation was not unknown. In the flopes or funeral * mounds of Indian Buddhism is apparently seen a reproduction of the royal Scythian tombs of which Herodotus speaks.” Perhaps more remarkable is the resemblance of the great Co-decease of Buddha's companions to the Scythian holo- Causts of the followers, servants, and horses of a dead monarch.4 On the death of Buddha, according to the Tibetan texts, a co- decease of 18, ooo of his disciples took place. On the death of the faithful Maudgalyayana, the co-decease of disciples amounted to 70,000 ; while on that of Sariputra, the co- decease of Buddhist ascetics was as high as 80,000. The composite idea of a co-decease of followers, together with the Buddhist funeral mound over the relics of an illustrious person- age, was in accordance with obsequies of the Scythian type. Whatever may be the Scientific value of such analogies, the Scythic influence of the Scythian dynasties in Northern India is a * historical fact. The Northern or Tibetan form of Buddhism, ...” represented by the Scythian monarch Kanishka and the Fourth A.D. * Mr. Rockhill's Zife of the Buddha, p. 17. * Zalem, p. 15. * Herodotus, iv. 71, 127. - * The slaughter of the king's concubine, cup-bearer, and followers is also mentioned in Herodotus, iv. 7 I and 72. - * Mr. Rockhill’s Zife of the Buddha, p. 141, footnote 3, and p. 148. P 226 SCVTA/C / WROADS AAWD AWAGA ACA CAE.S. Councill in 40 A.D., soon made its way down to the plains of Hindustán, and during the next six centuries competed with the earlier Buddhism of Asoka. The Chinese Pilgrim in 629–645 A.D. found both the Northern or Scythic and the Southern forms of Buddhism in full vigour in India. He spent fourteen months at China-pati, where Kanishka is said to have kept his Chinese hostages in the Punjab ; and he records the debates between the Northern and Southern sects of Buddhists in various places. The town of China-pati, ten miles west of the Beas river,” bore witness to later ages of the political connection of Northern India with the Trans-Himá- layan races of Central and Eastern Asia. The Scythic influ- ence in India was a dynastic as well as a religious one. The evidence of coins and the names of Indian tribes or reigning families, such as the Sákas, Huns, and Nāgās, point to Scythian settlements as far south as the Central Provinces.” Some scholars believe that the Scythians poured down upon India in such masses as to supplant the previous population. The Jats or Játs,” who now number 4% millions, and form one- fifth of the inhabitants of the Punjab, are identified with the Getae ; and their great sub-division the Dhe with the Dahae, whom Strabo places on the shores of the Caspian. This view has received the Support of eminent investigators, from Professor H. H. Wilson to General Cunningham, the late Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.” The existing division between the Játs and the Dhe has, indeed, been traced back to the contiguity of the Massa-getae or Great Getae,” and the Dahae, who dwelt side by side in Central Asia, and who may have advanced together during the Scythian movements towards India on the decline of the Graeco-Bactrian Empire. Without pressing such identifications too closely in the service of particular theories, the weight of authority is in favour of a Scythian Origin for the Játs, the most numerous and valuable section of the agricultural population of the Scythic settle- ments in India. Scythian elementsin the popu- lation. (1) The Jäts. * Mumismata Orientalia (Ceylon fasc.), p. 54. * General Cunningham's Azac. Geog. of India, p. 200. * Muir's Sanskrit Zexts, chap. v. vol. i. (1868); Sir C. Grant's Gazetteer of the Central Provinces, lxx., etc. (Nágpur, 1870); Reports of the Archaeo- logical Survey of India and of Western Zndia ; Professor H. H. Wilson (and Dr. F. Hall), Vishnu Purdza, ii. 134. * The word occurs as Játs and Jats; but the identity of the two forms has been established by reference to the Aán-á-Akbari. Some are now Hindus, others Muhammadans. * See among other places, part iv. of his Archaeological Reports, p. 19. ° Massa means “great’ in Pehlevi. THE RA/PUT.S. 227 Punjab." A similar descent has been assigned to certain of the Rájput tribes. Colonel Tod, still the standard historian of Rájásthān, strongly insisted on this point. The relationship between the Játs and the Rájputs, (2) The although obscure, is acknowledged; and although the jus * commuðū no longer exists between them, an inscription seems to show that they intermarried in the 5th century A.D.” Professor Cowell, indeed, regards the arguments for the Scythic descent of the Rájputs as inconclusive.” But authorities of weight have deduced, alike from local investigation 4 and from Sanskrit literature,” a Scythic origin for the Játs and for certain of the Rájput tribes. The question has lately been discussed, with the fulness of local knowledge, by Mr. Ibbetson, Census officer for the Punjab in 1881. His conclu- sions are—First, that the terms Rájput and Ját indicate in the Punjab a difference in occupation and not in origin. Second, that even if they represent distinct waves of migration, sepa- rated by an interval of time, ‘they belong to one and the same ethnic stock.” Third, ‘that whether Játs and Rájputs were or were not originally distinct,” “the two now form a common stock; the distinction between Ját and Rájput being social rather than ethnic.’” We shall see that earlier migrations of * It should be mentioned, however, that Dr. Trumpp believed them to be of Aryan origin (Zeitsch. d. ZXeutsch. Morg. Gesellsch. xv. p. 690). See Mr. J. Beames’ admirable edition of Sir Henry Elliott's Glossary of the A’aces of the AVorth-Western Provinces, vol. i. pp. 130–137, ed. I869. * Inscription discovered in Kotah State ; No. 1 of Inscription Appendix to Colonel Tod's Annals and Antiquities of Æðjósthān, vol. i. p. 701, note 3 (Madras Reprint, 1873). Although Tod is still the standard historian of Rájputána, and will ever retain an honoured place as an original investigator, his ethnical theories must be received with caution. * Appendix to Elphinstone's Hist. Ind. pp. 250 et seq., ed. I866. * Tod’s Adjäsähäzz, pp. 52, 483, 500, etc., vol. i. (Madras Reprint, 1873). * Dr. Fitz-Edward Hall's edition of Professor H. H. Wilson's Vishna, Aurdina, vol. ii. p. 134. The Húnas, according to Wilson, are ‘the white Huns who were established in the Punjab, and along the Indus, as we know from Arrian, Strabo, and Ptolemy, confirmed by recent dis- coveries of their coins and by inscriptions.” “I am not prepared,’ says TJr. Fitz-Edward Hall, ‘to deny that the ancient Hindus when they spoke of the Húnas included the Huns. In the Middle Ages, however, it is certain that a race called Hāna was understood by the learned of India to form a division of the Kshattriyas.” Professor Dowson's Dict. Hind. Mythology, etc., p. I22. * See the ethnographical volume of the Punjab Census for 1881, paras. 421, 422 et seq., by Mr. Denzil Jelf Ibbetson, of the Bengal Civil Service, p. 220 (Government Press, Calcutta, 1883). - 228 SCYTHIC INROADS AND WAGA RACES Indian struggle against the Scythians. Samezaf era, 57 B.C. Central Asian hordes also supplied certain of the Nāgā, or So-called aboriginal, races of India. - The Scythic settlements were not effected without a struggle. As Chandra Gupta had advanced from the Gangetic valley, and rolled back the tide of Graeco-Bactrian conquest, 312–306 B.C., so the native princes who stemmed the torrent of Scythian invasion are the Indian heroes of the first century before and after Christ. Vikramāditya, King of Ujjain, appears to have won his paramount place in Indian story by driving out the invaders. An era, the Samvat, beginning in 57 B.C., was founded in honour of his achievements. Its date 1 seems at variance with his legendary victories over the Scythian Kanishka in the first century after Christ.” But the very title of its founder suffices to commemorate his struggle against the northern hordes, as Vikramāditya Sakāri, or Vikramāditya, the Enemy of the Scythians. The name of Vikramāditya, “A very Sun in Prowess,’ was borne, as we have seen, by several Indian monarchs. In later ages, their separate identity was merged in the ancient renown of the Slayer of the Scythians, who thus combined the fame of many Vikramādityas. There was a tendency to assign to his period the most eminent Indian works in science and poetry, works which we know must belong to a date long after the first century of our era. His reign forms the Augustan era of Sanskrit literature; and tradition fondly ascribes the highest products of the Indian intellect during many later cen- turies to the poets and philosophers, or Nine Gems, of this Vikramāditya's court. As Chandra Gupta, who freed India from the Greeks, is celebrated in the drama Mudrá-rákshasa ; so Vikramāditya, the Vanquisher of the Scythians, forms the Sáka or . Scythian era, 78 . A.D. central royal personage of the Hindu stage. - - Vikramāditya's achievements, however, furnished no final deliverance, but merely form an episode in the long struggle between the Indian dynasties and new races from the north. Another popular era, the Sáka, literally the Scythian, takes its commencement in 78 A.D.,” and is supposed to commemorate the defeat of the Scythians by a king of Southern India, * Samvatsara, the ‘Year.’ The uncertainty which surrounds even this long-accepted finger-post in Indian chronology may be seen from Dr. J. Fergusson's paper ‘On the Sáka and Samvat and Gupta eras” (Journal Aoy. As. Soc., New Series, vol. xii.), especially p. 172. * The Hushka, Jushka, and Kanishka family of the Ráſá Tarangini, or Chronicles of Kashmir, are proved by inscriptions to belong to the 4th century of the Seleucidan era, or the Ist century A.D. * Monday, 14th March 78 A.D., Julian style. THE SEAVAS, GUPTAS, AAWD VALABA/S. 229 Saliváhaná." During the seven centuries which followed, three powerful monarchies, the Senas, Guptas, and Valabhís, esta- blished themselves in Western and Northern India. On the Sena (Sah) western coast the Senas and Singhas, the Sátraps of Suráshtra º to or Gujarát, are traced by coins and inscriptions from 60 or 235 A.D. 70 B.C. to after 235 A.D.” After the Senas come the Guptas of KANAUJ,” in the North-Western Provinces, the ancient Middle Land. The Gupta Guptas introduced an era of their own, commencing in 319 § A.D. ; and ruled in person or by viceroys over Northern India A.D. during 150 years, as far to the south-west as Kāthiáwär. The Gupta dynasty was overthrown by foreign invaders, apparently a new influx of Huns or Tartars from the north-west (450–470 A.D.). The Valabhís succeeded the Guptas, and ruled over Cutch, Valabhi North-Western Bombay,4 and Málwā, from 480 to after 722 A.D.” ; The Chinese Pilgrim, Hiuen Tsiang, gives a full account of A.D. the court and people of Valabhí (630–640 A.D.). Buddhism was the State religion, but heretics, i.e. Bráhmans, abounded; and the Buddhists themselves were divided between the Northern school of the Scythian dynasties, and the Southern or Indian school of Asoka. The Valabhis seem to have been overthrown by the early Arab invaders of Sind in the 8th century. The relations of these three Indian dynasties, the Senas, Long Guptas, and Valabhis, to the successive hordes of Scythians, : who poured down on Northern India, are obscure. There Scythic is abundant evidence of a long-continued struggle, but the invaders. efforts to affix dates to its chief episodes have not yet pro- ...” duced results which can be accepted as final. Two Vikram- àditya Sakāris, or Vanquishers of the Scythians, are required for the purposes of chronology ; and the great battle of Korūr near Multán, in which the Scythian hosts perished, has been shifted backwards and forwards from 78 to 544 A.D." * General Cunningham ; see also Mr. Edw. Thomas' letter, dated 16th September 1874, to The Academy, which brings this date within the period of the Kanishka family (2 B.C. to 87 A.D.). • * By Mr. Newton. See Mr. E. Thomas on the Coins of the Sáh Kings, Archaeol. Æep. Western Zndia, p. 44 (1876); and Dr. J. Fergusson, Jozermal A'oy. As. Soc., 1880. 3 Now a town of only 16,646 inhabitants in Farukhābād District, but with ruins extending over a semicircle of 4 miles in diameter. * Lāt-desha, including the collectorates of SURAT, BROACH, KAIRA, and parts of BARODA territory. - * The genealogy is worked outin detailby Mr. E. Thomas, utsuf. pp. 80–82. * 78 A.D. was the popularly received date, commemorated by the Sáka era; ‘between 524 and 544 A.D.’ is suggested by Dr. Fergusson (p. 284 of Journal Aoy. As. Soc. vol. xii.) in 1880. 23o SCVTAIC INROADS AAWD NAGA RACES. The Húnas or White Huns. The truth seems to be that, during the first six centuries of the Christian era, the fortunes of the Scythian or Tartar races rose and fell from time to time in Northern India. They more than once sustained great defeats; and they more than once overthrew the native dynasties. Their presence is popularly attested during the century before Christ by Vikram- àditya Sakári (57 B.C. P); during the first century after Christ it is represented by the Kanishka family (2 B.C. to 87 A.D.); it was noted by Cosmas Indico-pleustes about 535 A.D. Dr. James Fergusson" held that it was the White Huns who overthrew the Guptas between 465 and 470 A.D. He places the great battles of Korūr and Maushari, which “freed India from the Sákas and Hünas,” between 524 and 544 A.D. But these dates still lie in the domain of inductive, indeed almost of conjectural, history. Cosmas Indico-pleustes, who traded in the Red Sea about 530 A.D., speaks of the Huns as a powerful nation in Northern India in his days.” Within the past few years (1889–92) the whole evidence on the subject has been thoroughly re-examined by the greatest Indian archaeologist now living, General Sir Alexander Cun- ningham. His researches have not yet been published (1893), but he has kindly permitted me to peruse his manuscript, and to state the main results. General Cunningham finds the earliest European notice of the great horde of Ephthalites or White Huns, who took Khorasan from the Sassanians and overran Northern India, in the historian Priscus, who heard of them in the camp of Attila in A.D. 448. He traces them through the Chinese Pilgrim Sung-yun, 520 A.D., and Cosmas Indico-pleustes, who mentions their king Gollas on the west bank of the Indus in 530 A.D. Procopius (died 565 A.D.) also refers to them and Theophanes (second half of 6th century A.D.). General Cunningham deals successfully with the variants of the name, and shows that, although the Greek historians do not use the initial aspirate in their rendering of the word, the Armenian and Indian writers do. General Cunningham finds the earliest Indian mention of the Huinas in the Bhitari inscription of Skanda Gupta, 450–80 A.D., in which the king is said to have ‘joined in close conflict with the Hūnas.” According to the Chinese Pilgrim Sung- yun, who was in the Gandhára territory, on the west of the * /ournal Atoy. As. Soc. pp. 282-284, etc. (1880). -r * Zopographia Christiana, lib. xi. p. 338; apud Fergusson, ut supra. * Mr. Fleet's Inscriptions of the Guptas, p. 56. AA’Aº-AA’YA/VS //V //V/D/A. 23 I Indus near Attock, in 520 A.D., two generations had already passed away since the Huina conquest of that region—which General Cunningham assigns to 465–70 A.D. He believes that about that time, also, the Huinas came into conflict with the Indians on the Lower Indus. While Greek and Scythic influences had thus been at work The pre- in Northern India during nine centuries (32.7 B.C. to 544 A.D.), 㺺t in another (so-called indigenous) element was profoundly affect- ancient ing the future of the Indian peoples. A previous chapter has * traced the fortunes, and sketched the present condition, of the pre-Aryan ‘aborigines.’ The Brähmanical Aryans never accom- plished a complete subjugation of these earlier races. The tribes and castes classified as purely non-Aryan numbered in 1872 about 18 millions in British territory; while the castes who claimed a pure Aryan descent were under I6 millions." But the immense mass of the population of British India (aggre- gating 221 millions in 1891) is now believed to consist of non-Aryan elements, profoundly modified by Aryan influences, yet little affected by any intermixture of Aryan blood. The pre-Aryans have influenced the popular dialects of every Province, and in Southern India they give their speech to over 30 millions of people. The Vedic settlements along the five rivers of the Punjab were merely colonies or confederacies of Aryan tribes, who had pushed in among a non-Aryan population. When an Its Aryan family advanced to a new territory, it had often, as in hiº. the case of the Pándava brethren, to clear the forest and drive -- out the aboriginal people. This double process constantly repeated itself; and as late as 1657, when the Hindu Rájá founded the present city of BAREILLY, his first work was to cut down the jungle and expel the old Katheriyas. The ancient Brähmanical kingdoms of the Middle Land (Madhya- desha), in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, were surrounded by non-Aryan tribes. All the legendary advances beyond the northern centre of Aryan civilisation, narrated in the epic poets, were made into the territory of non-Aryan races. When we begin to catch historical glimpses of India, we find * This latter number included both Brähmans (IO,574,444) and Kshat- triyas and Rájputs (5,240,495). But, as we have just seen, some of the Rájput tribes are believed to be of Scythic origin, while others have been incorporated from confessedly non-Aryan tribes (ante, pp. I32, I33, 227). Such non-Aryan Rájputs more than outnumber any survivals of the Vaisyas of pure Aryan descent. The Census of 1891, recognising the difficulty of classification by race - castes, has adopted as an alternative basis, the classification by religion and language. 232 SCYTHIC INROADS AAWD NAGA RACES. Pre- Aryan kingdoms in North- ern India. The the countries even around the northern Aryan centre ruled by non-Aryan princes. The Nandas, whom Chandra Gupta succeeded in Behar, appear as a Stidra or non-Aryan dynasty; and, according to one account, Chandra Gupta and his grandson Asoka came of the same stock." - The Buddhist religion did much to incorporate the pre- Aryan tribes into the Indian polity. During the long struggle of the Indo-Aryans against Graeco-Bactrian and Scythian" inroads (327 B.C. to 544 A.D.), the Indian aboriginal races must have had an increasing importance, whether as enemies or allies. At the end of that struggle, we discover them ruling in some of the fairest tracts of Northern India. In almost every District throughout Oudh and the North-Western Provinces, ruined towns and forts are ascribed to non-Aryan races who ruled at different periods, according to the local legends, between the 5th and 11th centuries A.D. When the Muhammadan Conquest Supplies a firmer historical footing, after Iooo A.D., non-Aryan tribes were still in possession of several of these Districts, and had only lately been ousted from others. The Statistical Survey of India has brought together many survivals of these obscure races. It is impossible to follow that survey through each locality; the following paragraphs indicate, with the utmost brevity, a few of the results. Starting from the West, Alexander the Great found RAWAL. PINDI District in the hands of the Takkas or Takshaks, from whom its Greek name of Taxila was derived. This people has been traced to a Scythian migration about the 6th century B.C.” Their settlements in the 4th century B.C. seem to have extended from the Paropamisan range * in Afghānistán to deep into Northern India. Their Punjab capital, Takshāsīla, or Taxila, was the largest city which Alexander met with between the Indus and the Jehlam (32.7 B.C.).” . Salihávana, from whom Takshaks of Ráwal Pindi District. The Takshaks. 6th cen- tury B.C.; 327 B.C. 1 The Mudrá-rážshasa represents Chandra Gupta as related to the last of the Nandas; the Commentator of the Vishnu Purāna says he was the son of a Nanda by a low-caste woman. Prof. Dowson's Dict. Hindu Mythology, etc., p. 68 (Tribner, 1879). * Such dates have no pretension to be anything more than intelligent conjectures based on very inadequate evidence. With regard to the Tak- shaks, see Colonel Tod and the authorities which he quotes, Æðjásthān, vol. i. p. 53 £assim, pp. 93 et seq. (Madras Reprint, 1873). * Where Alexander found them as the Parae-takae—pahári or Hill Takae (?). -- * Arrian. The Brähman mythologists, of course, produce an Aryan pedigree for so important a person as King Taksha, and make him the son of Bharata and nephew of Rāma-chandra. AVAGAS AAWD TAA SAAAA.S. 233 the Sāka or Scythian era took its commencement (78 A.D.), is The held by some authorities to have been of Takshak descent.1 º In the 7th century A.D., Taki,” perhaps derived from the same A. D. race, was the capital of the Punjab. The Scythic Takshaks, indeed, are supposed to have been the source of the great Serpent Race, the Takshakas or Nāgās, who figure so 1893 A.D. prominently in Sanskrit literature and art, and whose name is still borne by Nāgā tribes of our own day. The Takkas remaining to the present time are found only in the Districts of Delhi and Karnāl. They number about 15,ooo, of whom three-fourths have adopted the faith of Islám. The words Nāgā and Takshaka in Sanskrit both mean The a “snake,” or tailed monster. As the Takshakas have been Nägas. questionably connected with the Scythian Takkas, so the Nágás have been derived, by conjecture in the absence of evidence, from the Tartar patriarch Nagas, the second son of Elkhán.” Both the terms, Nágás and Takshakas, seem to have been loosely applied by the Sanskrit writers to a variety of non-Aryan peoples in India, whose religion was of an anti-Aryan type. We learn, for example, how the five Pándava. brethren of the Mahābhārata burned out the Snake-king Takshaka from his primeval Khándava forest. The Takshaks and Nāgās were the Tree and Serpent worshippers, whose rites and objects of adoration have impressed themselves deeply on the architecture and sculpture of India. They probably included, in a confused manner, several different races of Scythic origin. The chief authority on Tree and Serpent worship in India Indo- selected the term “Scythian' for the anti-Aryan elements, §. which entered so largely into the Indian religions both ancient and modern.” The Chinese records give a full account of the Nāgā geography of ancient India. According to those records, the Nāgā kingdoms were both numerous and power- * Tod, Adjästhān, vol. i. p. 95 (ed. 1873). * Taki, or Asartir, 45 miles west of Lahore. General Cunningham, Azac. Geog. of India, p. 161, and Map VI. (ed. I87I). This Taki lies, however, considerably to the south-east of the Takshāsila of Alexander's expedition. * Tod, Adjásthān, vol. i. p. 53 (ed. I873); a very doubtful authority. * Dr. J. Fergusson's 7'ree and Sergenſ Worship, pp. 71, 72 (India Museum, 4to, 1868). For the results of more recent local research, see Mr. Rivett-Carnac's papers in the Journal of the As. Soc., Bengal, ‘The Snake Symbol in India,” “Ancient Sculpturings on Rocks,’ ‘Stone Carv- ings at Máinpuri,' etc.; the Honourable Ráo Sáhib Vishvanāth Nārāyan Mandlik’s ‘Serpent-Worship in Western India,’ and other essays in the Aomâay As. Soc. /ozerſzał also, A’efforts of Azchaeological Survey, Western India. 633 A.D. 3. 234 SCYTHIC INROADS AAWD AWAGA AACES. they perhaps became the Dragon races of China. The Ghakkars of Ráwal Pindi, IOO8–1857 A. D. ful, and Buddhism derived many of its royal converts from them. The Chinese chroniclers, indeed, classify the Nágá princes of India into two great divisions, as Buddhists and non-Buddhists. The Serpent-worship, which formed so typical a characteristic of the Indo-Scythic races, led the Chinese to confound those tribes with the objects of their adorations; and the fierce Indo-Scythic Nágás would almost seem to be the originals of the Dragon races of Chinese Buddhism and Chinese art. The compromises to which Buddhism submitted, with a view to winning the support of the Nágá peoples, will be referred to in the following chapter, on the Rise of Hinduism. As the Greek invaders found Ráwal Pindi District in possession of a Scythic race of Takkas in 327 B.C., so the Musalmán conqueror found it inhabited by a fierce non-Aryan race of Ghakkars thirteen hundred years later. The Ghakkars for a time imperilled the safety of Mahmuid of Ghazni in Ioo8. Farishta describes them as Savages, addicted to polyandry and infanticide. The tide of Muhammadan conquest rolled on, but the Ghakkars remained in possession of their sub-Hima- layan tract." In 1205 they ravaged the Punjab to the gates of Lahore; in 1206 they stabbed the Muhammadan Sultán in his tent; and in spite of conversion to Islám by the Sword, it was not till 1525 that they made their submission to the Emperor Bábar in return for a grant of territory. During the next two centuries they rendered great services to the Mughal dynasty against the Afghān usurpers, and rose to high influence in the Punjab. Driven from the plains by the Sikhs in 1765 A.D., the Ghakkar chiefs maintained their independence in the Murree (Marri) Hills till 1830, when they were crushed after a bloody struggle. In 1849, Räval Pindi passed, with the rest of the Sikh territories, under British rule. But the Ghakkars revolted four years afterwards, and threatened Murree, the Summer capital of the Punjab, as lately as 1857. The Ghakkars are now found in the Punjab Districts of Râwal Pindi, Jehlam, and Hazára. They number about 26, ooo. They are described by their British officers as ‘a fine spirited race, gentlemen in ancestry and bearing, and clinging under all reverses to the traditions of noble blood.’” The population of Ráwal Pindi District has been selected to * For a summary of their later history, see article on RAWAL. PIND1 DISTRICT, Zhe Zmperial Gazetteer of Zndia. * * 7%e /m/erial Gazetteer of Zndia, article RAwal PINDI DISTRICT. THE BA/AAC.S AAW/O ATOCAſ. 235 illustrate the long-continued presence and vitality of the pre-Pre- Aryan element in India. Other parts of the country must be #." more briefly dealt with. Proceeding inwards into the North- District. Western Provinces, we everywhere find traces of an early Buddhist civilisation in contact with, or overturned by, rude non-Aryan tribes. In Bareilly District, for example, the wild Ahirs from the north, the Bhils from the south, and the Bhars from the east, seem to have expelled highly-developed Aryan communities at some period before Iooo A.D. Still farther to the east, all remains of pre-historic masonry in Oudh and the North-Western Provinces are assigned either to the ancient Buddhists, or to a non-Aryan race of Bhars. The Bhars appear to have possessed the north Gangetic The Bhars plains in the centuries coeval with the fall of Buddhism. in Oudh. Their kingdoms extended over most of Oudh. Lofty mounds covered with ancient groves mark the sites of their forgotten cities; and they are the mysterious ‘fort-builders’ to whom the peasantry ascribe any ruin of unusual size. In the Central valley of the Ganges, their power is said to have been crushed by the Sharki dynasty of Jaunpur in the end In Jaun- of the 14th century. In the Districts north of the Gan-P" getic plain, the Bhars figure still more prominently in local traditions, and an attempt has been made to trace their con- tinuous history. In GORAKHPUR DISTRICT, the aboriginal In Gorakh- Thárus and Bhars seem to have overwhelmed the early P" outposts of Aryan civilisation several centuries before Christ. Their appearance on the scene is connected with the rise of Buddhism. They became vassals of the Buddhist kingdom of Behar on the south-east; and on the fall of that power, about 550 A.D., they regained their independence. The Chinese Pilgrim in the 7th century comments in this region on the large number of monasteries and towers—the latter probably a monument of the struggle with the aboriginal Bhars, who were here finally crushed between the 7th and the Ioth centuries A.D. The Bhar population of Oudh and the North-Western Provinces now numbers about 35o, ooo. As we advance still farther eastward into Bengal, we find that the non-Aryan races have within historical time supplied a large part of the Hindu population. In the north, the Koch The established their dominion upon the ruins of the Aryan *:::::, kingdom of Kāmrūp, which the Afghān King of Bengal had Bengal. overthrown in 1489. The Koch gave their name to the Native State of KUCH BEHAR ; and their descendants, together In Kuch with those of other non-Aryan tribes, form the mass of the Behar. 236 SCYTH/C ZWROADS AWD AWAGA RACES. In Rang- pur. Kuch Behar Rájás. Ahams of Assam. Pre- Aryan element south of the Ganges. Aborigines in Central India ; people in the neighbouring British Districts, such as RANGPUR. They number more than I} million in Northern Bengal and Behar. One part of them got rid of their low origin by becom- ing Musalmāns, and thus obtained the social equality which Islám grants to all mankind. The rest have merged more or less imperfectly into the Hindu population ; and about three- quarters of a million of them claim, in virtue of their position as an old dominant race, to belong to the Kshattriya caste. They call themselves Rájbansis, a term exactly corresponding to the Rájputs of Western India. The Hinduized Rájás of Kuch Behar obtained for their ancestors a divine origin from their Bráhman genealogists, in order to efface their aboriginal descent; and among the nobility all mention of the Koch tribe was avoided. The present Mahārājá married the daughter of the celebrated theistic apostle, Keshab Chandra Sen, the leader of the Brahmo Samāj. He is an honorary major in the British army, and takes a prominent part in Calcutta and Simla society. Proceeding still eastward, the adjacent valley of Assam was, until the last century, the seat of another non-Aryan ruling race. The Ahams entered Assam from the south-east about 1350 (?) A.D.; had firmly established their power in 1663; gradually yielded to Hinduism ; and were overpowered by fresh Buddhist invasions from Burma between 1750 and 1825, when the valley was annexed to British India. The Ahams have been completely crushed as a dominant race; and their old national priests, to the number of 253,860, have been forced to become tillers of the soil for a living. But the people of Assam are still so essentially made up of aboriginal races and their Hinduized descendants, that not 150,000 persons of even alleged pure Aryan descent can be found in a population of 5% millions. The foregoing summary has been confined to races north of the Ganges. Passing to the Southern Gangetic plain, we find that almost every tract has traditions of a pre-Aryan tribe, either as a once-dominant race, or as lying at the root of the local population. The great Division of Bundelkhand con- tains several crushed peoples of this class, and takes its name from the Bundelas, a tribe of at least semi-aboriginal descent. As we rise from the Gangetic plains into the highlands of the Central Provinces, we reach the abiding home of the non- Aryan tribes. One such race after another—Gaulis, Nágás, ZASTING AWONARYAAV ZAVFLUENCES. 237 Gonds, Ahirs, Bhils—ruled from the Sátpura plateau.” Some of their chiefs and leading families now claim to be Kshattriyas; and a section of one of the lowest races, the Chauhāns, bor- rowed its name from the noble ‘Chauhān' Rájputs. In the Lower Provinces of Bengal, we find the delta in Lower peopled by masses of pre-Aryan origin. One section of them * has merged into low-class Hindus; another section has sought a more equal Social organization by accepting the Creed of Muhammad. But such changes of faith do not alter their ethnical type; and the Musalmán of the delta differs as widely in race from the Afghān, as the low-caste Hindu of the delta differs from the Brähman. Throughout Southern India, the in non-Aryan elements form almost the entire population, and iºn have supplied the great Dravidian family of languages, which tº are spoken by 30 millions of people. Two of our oldest and most faithful allies in the Madras Presidency, the enlightened dynasty of Travancore, and the ancient princes of Pudukottài, are survivals of the time when non-Ayran sovereigns ruled over g Southern India. The Scythic inroads, and the ancient Nāgā and so-called Scythic aboriginal tribes, have, however, not merely left behind ºl Nágá & Cº - ſº º tº gº influences remnants of races in individual Districts. They have affected on the character of the whole population, and profoundly influenced Hinduism. the religious beliefs and domestic institutions of India. In the Veda we see highly-developed communities of the Aryan stock, worshipping bright and friendly gods, honouring woman, and assigning to her an important position in the family life. Hus- band and wife were the Dampati, or joint rulers of the Indo- Aryan household. Traditions of the freedom of woman among the ancient Aryan settlers survive in the Swayam-vara, or Maiden's Own Choice of a husband, in the epic poems. The curtain of Vedic and Post-Vedic literature falls upon On the the scene before the 5th century B.C. When the curtain rises ºgon on the domestic and religious life of mediaeval India, in the domestic Purānas about the Ioth century A.D., a vast change had taken ºf tº º & e e sº tº modern place. The people were no longer sharply divided into civilised India. Aryans and rude non-Aryans, but into Castes of a great mixed * See CENTRAL PROVINCEs, 77te Zmperial Gazetteer of Zandia. The Gaulis are locally believed to have been earlier fort-builders than the Gonds (see, for example, article SAONER); and some of the Gond chiefs trace their descent through 54 generations to a well-recorded ancestor assigned to 91 A.D. (see Z'he Zmperial Gazetteer of India, article SARANGHAR). 238 SCVTA/C ZAVROADS AAWD AWAGA AACES. The appeal to the Veda. population. The process of amalgamation of the Aryans and non-Aryans on the basis of a common religion, which had been begun by Buddhism in the 6th century B.C., was being carried on by Hinduism in the Ioth century A.D. The Bráhmans had indeed an esoteric or philosophical religion of their own. But the popular religion of the Hindus, that is, of the Indian races who had come under Brähman influences, was already, in the Ioth century, not the old Vedic worship of bright and friendly gods, but a composite product of Aryan Spiritual conceptions and non-Aryan superstitions. The posi- tion of woman had also altered for the worse. Husband and wife were no longer ‘joint rulers’ of the household. The ^ Maiden's Own Choice had fallen into disuse, or survived only as a Court pageant; the custom of child-marriage had grown up. The widow had been condemned to a life of privation, or had been taught the merit of extinguishing her existence on her husband's funeral pile. The following chapter will exhibit this amorphous growth, popularly known as Hinduism. Orthodox Hindus are unfor- tunately in the habit of claiming the authority of the Veda for their mediaeval institutions, for the evil as well as for the good. As a matter of fact, these mediaeval institutions, which form the basis of modern Hinduism, are the joint product of non- Aryan darkness and of Aryan light. The Scythic and Nāgā and so-called aboriginal races, with their indifference to human suffering, their polyandric households, and their worship of fear and blood, have left their mark deep in the Hindu law- codes, in the terrorizing of the Hindu religion, and in the degradation of woman. English scholarship has shown that the worst feature of Hinduism, widow-burning, had no author- ity in the Veda. When it is equally well understood that the other dark features of Hinduism also rest not upon the Vedic scriptures, but are the result of a human compromise between Aryan civilisation and non-Aryan barbarism, the task of the Indian reformer will be half accomplished. It is with a true instinct that the great religious movements of India in our day reject the authority of mediaeval Hinduism, and appeal back to the Veda. For the Veda represents the religious conceptions and tribal customs of the Aryans in India before those conceptions and customs were modified by compromises with the lower races. At the end of the last chapter I mentioned that a great reformation of Indian faith and practice on the basis of Buddhism is always a possibility. I should LASTING WON-AAE VAN INFLUENCES. 239 not close the present one without adding that a similar reformation is equally possible, and, as a matter of fact, has been attempted again and again, by applying the test of the Veda to the composite Hinduism which forms the main common link between the Indian races. [ 24o C H A P T E R V III. RISE OF HINDUISM (750 To 1520 A.D.). FROM these diverse races, pre-Aryan, Aryan, Scythic, and Nágá, the population of India has been made up. The task of organizing them fell to the Brähmans. That ancient caste, which had never quitted the scene even during the height of the Buddhistic supremacy, stepped forward to the front of the stage upon the decay of the Buddhist faith. The Chinese Pilgrim, about 640 A.D., had found Brähmanism and Buddhism coexisting throughout India. The conflict of creeds brought forth a great line of Brähman apostles, from the 8th to the 16th century A.D., with occasional successors down to our own day. The disintegration of Buddhism, as we have seen, occupied many hundred years, perhaps from 3oo to Iooo A.D." The Hindus take the 8th century as the turning-point in the struggle. About 750 A.D. arose a holy Brähman of Bengal, Kumārila Bhatta by name, preaching the old Vedic doctrine of a personal Creator and God. Before this realistic theology, the impersonal abstractions of the Buddhists succumbed; and, according to a later legend, the reformer wielded the sword of the flesh not less trenchantly than the weapons of the spirit. A Sanskrit writer, Mádhava-Achárya, of the 14th century A.D., relates how Sudhanwan, a prince in Southern India, ‘com- manded his servants to put to death the old men and the children of the Buddhists, from the bridge of Rāma [the ridge of reefs which connects India with Ceylon] to the Snowy Mountain : let him who slays not, be slain.'” RISE OF HINDU- ISM. Kumārila, 750 (?) A. D. Persecu- tion (?) of Buddhism. * From the language of the Saddharma Pundarika, translated into Chinese before the end of the 3rd century A.D., H. H. Wilson infers that even at that early date ‘the career of the Buddhists had not been one of uninterrupted success, although the opposition had not been such as to arrest their progress’ (AEssays, vol. ii. p. 366, ed. 1862). The existence of Buddhism in parts of India is abundantly attested down to IOOO A. D. * Quoted by H. H. Wilson, zºt suffra. Lassen's Zndische Aſterſhºlms- Åunde, vol. iv. p. 708; Colebrooke's Essays, p. 190. See also post, footnote I to p. 259. ZTAE/A, ACA CAE-OAC/G/AW OF CASTE. 24I It is needless to say that no sovereign existed at that time True value in India whose power to persecute extended from the Hima- of the layas to Cape Comorin. So far as the legend has any truth, it refers to one of many local religious reprisals which took place at the Indian courts during the struggle between the Buddhists and the Bráhmans. Such reprisals recurred in later days, on a smaller scale, between the rival Hindu sects. The legend of Kumārila is significant, however, as placing on a religious basis the series of many-sided evolutions which resulted in Hinduism. These evolutions were the result of ethnical processes, more subtle than the scheming of any caste of men. The Bráhmans gave a direction to Hinduism, but it was the natural development of the Indian races which produced it. Hinduism is a Social organization and a religious con- Twofold federacy. As a Social organization, it rests upon caste, with #: its roots deep down in the ethnical elements of the Indian isº. people. As a religious confederacy, it represents the coalition caste and of the old Vedic faith of the Brahmans with Buddhism on * the one hand, and with the ruder rites of the pre-Aryan and Indo-Scythic races on the other. The ethnical basis of caste is disclosed in the twofold Caste basis division of the people into the “twice-born' Aryan castes, tº indu. including the Brähmans, Kshattriyas (Rájputs), and Vaisyas; " and the “once-born' non-Aryan Südras. The Census proves The race- that this classification remains the fundamental one to the . of present day. The three “twice-born' castes still wear the sacred thread, and claim a joint, although an unequal, inherit- ance in the holy books of the Veda. The “once-born castes are still denied the sacred thread, and their initiation into the old religious literature of the Indo-Aryans has only been effected by the secular teaching of our Anglo-Indian schools. But while caste has thus its foundations deep in the dis- tinctions of race, its superstructure is regulated by another system of division, based on the occupations of the people. The early classification of the people may be expressed either ethnically, as ‘twice-born' Aryans and ‘once-born” non-Aryans; or socially, as priests, warriors, husbandmen, and Serfs. On these two principles of classification, according to race and Modified to employment, still further modified by geographical position, º has been built up the ethnical and social organization of and ‘lo. Indian caste. cality.’ From the resulting cross-divisions arises an excessive com-Com- º - - & e e lexit plexity, which renders any º exposition of Caste Superficial. . *. legend. 242 A&MSAE OF AZ/AVDU/SM As a rule, it may be said that the Aryan or “twice-born' castes adhere most closely to the ethnical principle of division ; the ‘once-born' or distinctly non-Aryan to the same principle, but profoundly modified by the concurrent principle of employ- ment; while the so-called mixed progeny of the two are classi- fied solely according to their occupation. But even among the Bráhmans, whose pride of race and continuity of tradition should render them the firmest ethnical unit among the Indian Castes, classification by employment and by geo- graphical situation plays a very important part ; and the Bráhmans, so far from being a compact unit, are made up of Several hundred castes, who cannot intermarry, nor eat food Cooked by each other. They follow every employment, from the calm pandits of Behar in their stainless white robes, and the haughty priests of Benares, to the potato-growing Bráh- mans of Orissa, ‘half-naked peasants, struggling along under their baskets of yams, with a filthy little Bráhmanical thread over their shoulder.” The truth is, that in Orissa, as in Malabar and in other parts of India, there is evidence that large classes of the non-Aryan population have become nomin- ally Brähmans, just as other large classes of the non-Aryan population have become nominally Rájputs or Kshattriyas.” In many parts of India, Brähmans may be found earning their livelihood as porters, shepherds, cultivators, potters, and fishermen, side by side with others who would rather starve, and see their wives and little ones die of hunger, than demean themselves to manual labour, or allow food prepared by a man of inferior caste to pass their lips. Classification by locality introduces another set of distinctions among the Brähmans. In Lower Bengal jails, a convict Brähman from Behar or the North-Western Provinces used to be highly valued, as the only person who could prepare food for all classes of Brähman prisoners. In 1864, the author saw a Brähman felon try to starve himself to death, and Submit to a flogging rather than eat his food, on account of Scruples as to whether the birthplace of the North-Western Brähman, who had cooked it, was equal in Sanctity to his own native district. The Bráhmans are popularly divided into ten great septs, according to their locality; five on the north, and five on the Even the Brähmans not an ethnical unit. The Brāh- man Caste analyzed. * See my Orissa, vol. i. pp. 238 et seq. (ed. 1872), where 25 pages are devoted to the diversities of the Brähmans in occupation and race. Also Hindu Tribes and Castes, by the Rev. M. A. Sherring, Introd. xxi. vol. ii. (4to, Calcutta, 1879). * Wide post, pp. 243, 244, and their footnotes. AAVA/, VS/S OA’ CASTE. 243 South of the Vindhya range." But the minor distinctions are innumerable. Thus, the first of the five northern Brähman septs, the Sáraswatas in the Punjab, consists of 469 classes.” Sherring enumerated 1886 separate Bráhmanical tribes.” Dr. Wilson, of Bombay, carried his learned work on caste to the length of two volumes, aggregating 678 pages, before his death ; but he had not completed his analysis of even a single caste—the Brähmans. It will be readily understood, therefore, how numerous are The lower the sub-divisions, and how complex is the constitution, of . the lower castes. The Rájputs now number 590 separately-plex. named tribes in different parts of India.” But a process of synthesis as well as of analysis has been going on among the Indian peoples. In many outlying Provinces, we see non- Aryan chiefs and warlike tribes turn into Aryan Rájputs before our eyes.” Well-known legends have been handed down of large bodies of aliens being incorporated from time to time even into the Brähman caste." But besides these ‘manu- factured Bráhmans,’ and the ethnical syncretisms which they * Thus tabulated according to a Sanskrit mnemonic S/oÁa :— I. The five Gauras north of the Vindhya range— (1) The Săraswatas, so called from the country watered by the river Saraswati. (2) The Ådnyakučjas, so called from the Kányakubja or Kanauj country. (3) The Gauras proper, so called from Gaur, or the country of the Lower Ganges. (4) The CWłęalas, of the Province of Utkala or Odra (Orissa). (5) The Maithilas, of the Province of Mithila (Tirhut). II. The five Dravidas south of the Vindhya range— (1) The Maháráshtras, of the country of the Maráthſ language. (2) The Andhras or Zailangas, of the country of the Telugu language. (3) The Orazidas proper, of the country of the Dravidian or Tamil language. (4) The Åarmátas, of the Karnātika, or the country of the Canarese language. (5) The Gurjaras, of Gurjarāshtra, or the country of the Gujarátí language. * Compiled by Pandit Rádhá Krishna, quoted by Dr. J. Wilson, Zaza'Zazz Caste, part ii. pp. 126-133. * Hindu Tribes and Castes, pp. xxii.-xlvi. vol. ii. (4to, Calcutta, 1879). * See Sherring, Hindu Tribes and Castes, vol. ii. pp. lv.-lxv. * See Sherring, Hindu Tribes and Castes, vol. ii. p. lxvii. * Hunter's Orissa, vol. i. p. 247 (in Oudh), p. 248 (in Bhāgalpur), p. 254 (in Malabar), etc. 244 AC/SA, OF HAVO Ú/SM. represent, there once went on a process of amalgamation among the Hindus by mixed marriages.” The Südras, says Mr. Sherring, “ display a great intermingling of races. Every caste exhibits this confusion. They form a living and practical testimony to the fact that in former times the upper and lower classes of native society, by which I mean the Hindu and non- Hindu population of India, formed alliances with one another on a prodigious scale, and that the offspring of these alliances were in many instances gathered together into separate castes and denominated Stidras.’” The Hindu custom now forbids marriage between (1) per- sons of the same gotra or kindred, and (2) persons of different castes. But this precise double rule has been arrived at only after many intermediate experiments in endogamous and exo- gamous tribal life. The transitions are typified by the polyandry of Draupadi in the Mahābhārata, and by many caste customs relating to marriage, inheritance, and the family tie, which survive to this day. Such survivals constitute an important branch of law, in fact, the domestic ‘common law of India,” and furnish one of the chief difficulties in the way of Anglo- Indian codification. Thus, to take a single point, the rules regarding marriage exhibit every phase from the compulsory polyandry of the old Náirs, the permissive polyandry of the Punjab Játs, and the condonement of adultery with a husband's brother or kinsman among the Kárakat Vellālars of Madura ; to the law of Levirate among the Ahirs and Nuniyás, the legal re-marriage of widows among the low-caste Hindus, and the stringent provisions against such re-marriages among the higher castes. At this day, the Nāirs exhibit several of the stages in the advance from polyandric to monogamous institutions. The conflict between polyandry and the more civilised marriage system of the Hindus is going on before our eyes in Malabar. Among the Koils, although polyandry is forgotten, the right of disposing of a girl in marriage still belongs, in certain cases, to the materna/ uncle, a relic of the polyandric system of The build- ing up of CaSteS. The slow develop- ment of Hindu marriage law. Survivals Of the process. * See two interesting articles from opposite points of view, on the synthetic aspects of caste, by the Rev. Mr. Sherring, of Benares, and by Jogendra Chandra Ghose, in the Calcutta Review, Oct. 1880. * Calcutta Review, CXlii. p. 225. * Among many treatises on this subject, Arthur Steele's Zaw and Custom of Hindu Castes (1868) deals with Western India; Nelson's View of Hindu Law (1877), and Burnell's Dayavibhāga, etc., may be quoted for the Madras Presidency; Beames’ admirable edition of Sir Henry Elliot's Tribes of the AVorth-Western Provinces, and Sherring's Hindu Tribes (besides more strictly legal treatises), for Bengal. * OCC UAEA 7TWOAV' AAS/S OA’ CASZTE. 245 succession through females. This tribe, like the Kandhs, also preserves the form of marriage by ‘capture.’ The Brážmanas indicate that the blood of the Hindus Ancient was, even in the early post-Vedic period, greatly intermingled." º: The ancient marriage code recognised as lawful, unions of men of higher caste with females from any of the lower ones, and their offspring” had a quite different social status from the progeny 8 of illicit concubinage. The laws of Manu disclose how widely such connections had influenced the structure of Indian society perhaps 2000 years ago; and the British Census of 1891 proves that the so-called mixed castes still form the great body of the Hindu population. The most recent evidence points to the conclusion, however, that the so-called mixed castes are not the result of any general mixture of blood or race between the Aryans and non-Aryans in India; but rather of a mixture of Aryan civilisation, language and religion, with non-Aryan customs, dialects and rites. In dealing with Indian caste, we must therefore allow, not only for the ethnical and geographical elements into which it is resolvable, but also for the synthetic processes by which it has been built up. The same remark applies to the other principle of classifi- The oc- cation on which caste rests, namely, according to the employ- sº ments of the people. On the one hand, there has been a caste. tendency to erect every separate employment in each separate Province into a distinct caste. On the other hand, there has Changes been a practice (which European observers are apt to over- * tº, look) of the lower Castes changing their occupation, and in castes. some cases deliberately raising themselves in the social scale. Thus the Vaisya caste, literally the zis or general body of the Aryan settlers, were in ancient times the tillers of the soil. They have abandoned this laborious occupation to the Südra and mixed castes, and are now the merchants and bankers of India. ‘Fair in complexion,’ writes the most accurate of recent students of caste,” “with rather delicate 1 The Taittiriya Brähmana of the Krishna Yajur Veda (quoted by Dr. J. Wilson, Caste, i. pp. 127-132) enumerates 159 castes. * Azazeloma. * Pratiloma. For an arrangement of 134 Indian castes, according to their origin, or ‘procession’ from (I) regular full marriage by members of the same caste, (2) anuloma, (3) pračiloma, (4) Vrátya-Santati, (5) adultery, (6) incest, (7) degeneration; Wilson, Zndiazz Caste, ii. pp. 39–70. * The Rev. M. A. Sherring (deceased, alas ! since the above was written, after a life of noble devotion and self-sacrifice to the Indian people), Calcutta A'ez'iew, October 1880, p. 22O. 246 A&MSAE OF HIW/O UVSM. The Vais- yas. Gold- Smiths of Madras. features, and a certain refinement depicted on their coun- tenances, sharp of eye, intelligent of face, and polite of bearing,” the Vaisyas ‘must have radically changed since the days when their forefathers delved, sowed, and reaped.’ Indeed, so great is the change, that a heated controversy is going on in Hindu society as to whether the Bengalí baniyās, or merchant-bankers, are really of Vaisya descent or of a higher origin. Such a rise in the social scale is usually the unconscious work of time, but there are also legends of distinct acts of self- assertion by individual castes. In Southern India, the gold- Smiths strenuously resisted the rule of the Brähmans, and for ages claimed to be the true spiritual guides, styling themselves dicháryas, ‘religious teachers,’ and wearing the sacred thread. Their pretensions are supposed to have given rise to the great division of castes in Madras, into the ‘Right-hand,” or the cultivating and trading castes who supported the Brāh- mans; and the “Left-hand,’ chiefly craftsmen who sided with the artisan opposition to Bráhman supremacy." In Bengal, a similar opposition came from the literary class. The Dattas, a sept of the Kāyasth or writer - caste, re- nounced the position assigned to them in the classification of Hindu society. They claimed to rank next to the Brāh- mans, and thus above all the other castes. They failed; but a native author” states that one of their body, within the memory of men still living, maintained his title, and wore the sacred thread of the pure “twice-born.” The Statistical Survey of India has disclosed many self-assertions of this sort, although of a more gradual character and on a smaller scale. Thus, in Eastern Bengal, where land is plentiful, the Sháhas, a section of the Surfs or degraded spirit-sellers, have, in our own time, advanced themselves first into a respectable cultivating caste, and then into prosperous traders. Some of the Telís or oil-pressers in Dacca District, and certain of the Tâmbulis or pān-growers in Rangpur, have in like manner risen above their hereditary callings, and become bankers and grain merchants. These examples do not include the general opening of professions effected by English education — the great solvent of caste. The Dattas of Bengal. The Sháhas. Telis, Tâmbulis, etC. * This subject is involved in much obscurity. The above sentences embody the explanation given in Nelson's View of the Hindu Zaw, as administered by the High Court of Madras, p. 140 (Madras, 1877). * Jogendra Chandra Ghose, Calcutta Review, czlii. p. 279 (October 1880). CASTE AS A TRADE-G UZZZ). 247 There is therefore a plasticity as well as a rigidity in caste. Plasticity Its plasticity has enabled caste to adapt itself to widely # e separated stages of social progress, and to incorporate º II]. the various ethnical elements which make up the Indian people. Its rigidity has given strength and permanence to the corporate body thus formed. Hinduism is internally loosely coherent, but it has great powers of resistance to external pressure. Each caste is to some extent a trade-Caste, as guild, a mutual assurance Society, and a religious sect. As a i. trade-union, it insists on the proper training of the youth of guilds. its craft, regulates the wages of its members, deals with trade- delinquents, supplies courts of arbitration, and promotes good fellowship by social gatherings. The famous fabrics of medi-fi aeval India, and the chief local industries in our own day, werej developed under the Supervision of caste or trade-guilds of this' sort. Such guilds may still be found in many parts of India, but not always with the same complete development." In AHMADABAD DISTRICT,” when I visited it ten years ago, each trade formed (and I am told still forms) a separate guild. All heads of artisan households are ranged under their proper guild. The objects of the guild are to regulate com-Its . . petition among the members, and to uphold the interest of º the body in disputes with other craftsmen. To moderate competition, the guild appoints certain days as trade holidays, when any member who works is punished by a fine. A special case occurred in 1873 among the Ahmadābād bricklayers. Men of this class sometimes added 3d. to their daily wages by working extra time in the early morning. But several families were thereby thrown out of employment. Accord- ingly the guild met, and decided that as there was not employ- ment for all, no man should be allowed to work extra time. The decisions of the guild are enforced by fines. If the Working offender refuses to pay, and the members of the guild all º: belong to one caste, the offender is put out of caste. If the guild. guild contains men of different castes, the guild uses its influence with other guilds to prevent the recusant member from getting work. The guild also acts in its corporate capacity against other crafts. For example, in 1872, the Ahmadābād cloth - dealers resolved among themselves to reduce the rates paid to the sizers or tágidis. The sizers’ * The Statistical Accounts or Gazetteers of the Bombay Districts devote a special section to such trade-guilds in every District. * See the article, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. 248 RISE OF HINDUISM guild refused to prepare cloth at the lower rates, and An Indian remained six weeks on strike. At length a compromise was '*' arrived at, and both guilds signed a stamped agreement. Besides its punitive fines, the guild draws an income from fees levied on persons beginning to practise its craft. This custom prevails at Ahmadābād in the cloth and other industries. But no fee is paid by potters, carpenters, and inferior artisans. Guild An exception is made, too, in the case of a son succeeding to funds. his father, when nothing need be paid. In other cases, the amount varies, in proportion to the importance of the trade, from 45 to 24.50. The revenue from these fees and from punitive fines is expended in feasts to the members of the guild, in the support of poor craftsmen or their orphans, and Guild in charity. A favourite device for raising money in Surat is * for the members of a trade to agree to keep a certain date as a holiday, and to shut up all their shops except one. The right to keep open this one shop is let by auction, and the amount bid is credited to the guild-fund. Trade. Within the guild, the interests of the common trade often º * supersede the race element of the theoretically common caste. Thus, in Surat, each class of craftsmen, although including men of different castes and races, combines to form a guild, with a council, a head-man, and a common purse for charity and in trade entertainments. In Ahmadābād, Broach, and many industrial *3 centres, the trade organization into guilds coexists with, or dominates, the race-structure of caste. A twofold organization in the vil- also appears in the village community. Caste regulates the º theoretical position of every family within it; but the low- castes often claim the headship in the village government. Low-caste Thus in Bárásat Sub-district, Bengal, of 5818 enumerated Y. village heads, only 15 were Brähmans or Rájputs, 4 were Káyasths, while 3524 belonged to the Slidra or inferior castes, down to the detested cow-skinners and corpse-bearers; the residue being Muhammadans, with 13 native Christians. In Southern India, the village head is sometimes of so low a caste that he cannot sit under the same roof with his colleagues in the village government. He therefore hands up his staff, which is set in the place of honour, while he himself squats Caste and on the ground outside. The trade-guild in the cities, and the iº. village community throughout the country, act, together with caste, as mutual assurance Societies, and under normal con- No poor. ditions allow none of their members to starve. Caste, and the *..." trading or agricultural guilds concurrent with it, take the place of a poor-law in India. CASTE ZO/SC/PZ/AWE. 249 It is obvious that such an organization must have some Casſe weapons for defending itself against lazy or unworthy members. * The responsibility which the caste discharges with regard to feeding its poor, would otherwise be liable to abuses. As a matter of fact, the caste or guild exercises a surveillance over each of its members, from the close of childhood until death. If a man behaves well, he will rise to an honoured place in his caste ; and the desire for such local distinctions exercises an important influence in the life of a Hindu. But the caste has its punishments as well as its rewards. Those Caste pun- punishments consist of fine and excommunication. The fine * usually takes the form of a compulsory feast to the male members of the caste. This is the ordinary means of purifica- tion, or of making amends for breaches of the caste code. Excommunication inflicts three penalties: First, an interdict Excommu. against eating with the fellow-members of the caste. Second, * an interdict against marriage within the caste. This practically amounts to debarring the delinquent and his family from respectable marriages of any sort. Third, cutting off the delinquent from the general community, by forbidding him the use of the village barber and washerman, and of the priestly adviser. Except in very serious cases, excommunica- tion is withdrawn upon the submission of the offender, and his payment of a fine. Anglo-Indian law does not enforce Caste-decrees. But caste punishments exercise an efficacious restraint upon unworthy members of the community, just as caste rewards supply a powerful motive of action to good ones. A member who cannot be controlled by this mixed discipline of punishment and reward is eventually expelled; and, as a rule, an ‘out-caste’ is really a bad man. Imprison- ment in jail carries with it that penalty; but may be condoned after release, by heavy expiations. Such is a brief Survey of the nature and operation of caste. Recapitu- But the cross-divisions on which the institution rests ; its con- º of flicting principles of classification according to race, employ- e ment, and locality; the influence of Islám in Northern India, of the ‘right-handed' and ‘left-handed' branches in the South ;' and the modifications everywhere effected by social or sectarian movements, render a short account of caste full of difficulties. Hinduism is, however, not only a social organization resting The religi- upon caste; it is also a religious federation based upon worship. #. sº * See Crole's Statistical Account of Chinglepud District, pp. 33, 34 (1879), ism, 250 A’/SE OF AM/AWD UASM. Its stages of evolu- tion. Buddhist influences on Hindu- ism. Beast hospitals. As the various race elements of the Indian peoples have been welded into caste, so the simple old beliefs of the Veda, the mild doctrines of Buddha, and the fierce rites of the non- Aryan tribes, have been thrown into the melting-pot, and poured out thence as a mixture of alloy and dross to be worked up into the Hindu gods. In the religious as in the Social structure, the Bráhmans supplied the directing brain- power. But both processes resulted from laws of human evolution, deeper than the workings of any individual will; and in both, the product has been, not an artificial manufac- ture, but a natural development. Hinduism merely forms one link in the chain of Indian religions. We have seen that the career of Buddha was but a combination of the ascetic and the heroic Aryan types as both recorded in the Indian epics. Indeed, the discipline of the Buddhists organized so faithfully the prescribed stages of a Brähman's existence, that it is difficult to decide whether the Sarmanai of Megasthenes were Buddhist clergy or Bráhman recluses. If accurate scholarship cannot accept Buddhism as simply the Sánkhya philosophy turned into a national religion, it admits that Buddhism is a natural development from Bráhmanism. An early set of intermediate links is found in the darsanas, or philosophical systems, between the Vedic period and the establishment of Buddhism as a national religion under Asoka (1400 P to 250 B.C.). A later set is preserved in the compromises effected during the final struggle between Buddhism and Bráhmanism, ending in the reassertion of the latter in its new form as the religion of the Hindus (700 to Iooo A.D.). While, however, Buddhism derived the personal type of its founder from the heroes and ascetics of the Aryan epics, and much of its doctrine from the Aryan philosophers of ancient India, it owed its widespread acceptance as the religion of the Indian peoples, to its systematic incorporation of the non-Aryan races and dynasties. Buddhism not only breathed into Hinduism its noble spirit of charity; it also bequeathed to Hinduism many of its institutions unimpaired, together with its scheme of religious life, and the material fabric of its worship. At this day, the mahájan, or bankers' guild, in Surat, devotes part of the fees that it levies on bills of exchange to animal hospitals; true survivals of Asoka's second edict, which provided a system of medical aid for beasts, 250 years before Christ. The cenobitic life, and the division of the people into laity A UDDA/ST EZEMENTS IN HINDU/SM. 251 and clergy, have passed almost unchanged from Buddhism into the present Hindu sects, such as the Vaishnavs or Vishnuites. The Hindu monasteries in our own day vie with the Monas- Buddhist convents in the reign of Silāditya; and Puri is, in * many respects, a modern unlettered Nalanda. The religious houses of the Orissa delta, with their revenue of 24.5o,ooo a year," are but Hindu developments of the Buddhist cells and rock-monasteries, whose remains still honeycomb the adjacent hills. If we examine the religious life of the Vishnuite commu- nities, we find their rules are Buddhistic, with Brähmanical reasons attached. Thus the moral code of the Kabir-panthis The reli- consists of five rules:* First, life, whether of man or beast, * life. must not be violated ; because it is the gift of God. Second, humanity is the cardinal virtue ; and the shedding of blood, whether of man or beast, a heinous crime. Third, truth is the great principle of conduct ; because all the ills of life and ignorance of God are due to original delusion (máyá). Fourth, retirement from the world is desirable ; because the desires of the world are hostile to tranquillity of soul, and to the undisturbed meditation on God. Fifth, obedience to the spiritual guide is incumbent on all. This last rule is common to every sect of the Hindus. But the Kabīr-panthis direct the pupil to examine well his teacher's life and doctrine before he resigns himself to his control. If we did not know that Buddhism was itself an outgrowth from primitive Bráhmanism, we might hold this code of the Hindu Vishnu-worshippers to be simple Buddhism, with the addition of a personal God. But knowing, as we do, that Bráhmanism and Buddhism were themselves closely connected, and that they combined to form Hinduism, it is difficult to discriminate how far Hinduism was made up by direct transmission from Buddhism or from Brähmanism. The influence of Buddhism on the Christianity of the Western Buddhist world has been referred to at p. 197. Whatever uncertainties º may still obscure that question, the effect of Buddhism upon religions. the present faiths of Eastern Asia admits of no doubt. The best elements in the teaching of Buddha have survived in modern Hinduism ; and Buddhism carried with it essential * Report by the Committee of native gentlemen appointed to inquire into the Orissa maths, dated 25th March 1869, par. I5. * H. H. Wilson's Religion of the Aindus, vol. i. p. 94 (ed. 1862). 252 AC/SAE OF AZZZWZO UVS// doctrines of Brähmanism to China and Japan, together with certain features of Indian religious art. The Snake ornamenta- tion, which figures so universally in the Hindu religion of India, is said to have been carried by Buddhism alike to the east and the west. Thus, the canopy or baldachino over Buddha's head delights in twisted pillars and wavy pat- terns. These wave-like ornaments are conventionalized into cloud curves in most of the Chinese and Japanese canopies ; but some of them still exhibit the original figures thus symbolized as undulating Serpents or Nāgās. A serpent baldachino of this sort may be seen in a monastery at Ningpo. It takes the place of the cobra-headed canopy, which in Hinduism shelters the head of Siva, or of Vishnu as he slept upon the waters at the creation of the world. The twisted columns which support the baldachino at St. Peter's in Rome, and the fluted ornamentation so common Over Protestant pulpits, are said to have a serpentine origin, and an Eastern source. The association of Buddha with two other figures, in the Japanese temples, perhaps represents a recol- lection of the Bráhman Triad. The Bráhmanical idea of trinity, in its Buddhist development as Buddha, Dharma (the Law), and Sangha (the Congregation), deeply penetrates the Buddhism of Japan. The Sacred Tooth of Buddha at Ceylon is a reproduction of the phallic linga of India. Buddhism readily coalesced with the pre-existing religions of primitive races. Thus, among the hill tribes of Eastern Bengal, we see the Khyaungthas, or ‘Children of the River,’ passing into Buddhists without giving up their aboriginal rites. They still offer rice and fruits and flowers to the spirits of hill and stream ; * and the Buddhist priests, although condemning the custom as unorthodox, do not very violently oppose it. In Japan, a Buddhist Saint visited the hill-slope of Hotoke Iwa in 767 A.D.; declared the local Shinto deity to be only a manifestation of Buddha ; and so converted the old idolatrous high-place into a Buddhist shrine. Buddhism has thus served as a link between the ancient faiths of India and the modern worship of the Eastern world. It has given sanctity to the centres of common pilgrimage, to which the great faiths of Asia resort. Thus, the Siva-worshippers ascend the top of Adam's Peak in Ceylon, to adore the footprint of their phallic god, the Sivapada; the Buddhists repair to the spot to revere * The authority for this statement is an unpublished drawing shown to Serpent Orſha.[16]] - tation: in Handu- ism ; in Buddh- ism; in Chris- tian art. Coalition of Buddh- ism with earlier religions: in India ; in Japan; Shrines COIIll IſlC)11 to various faiths. Adam's Peak. me by Miss Gordon Cumming. * See my Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. vi. p. 40, etc. AWOWARYAN EZEMENTS IN HIVDU/SM. 253 the same symbol as the footmark of Buddha ; and the |Muhammadans venerate it as a relic of Adam, the Semitic father of mankind. Many common shrines of a similar character exist in India. Sakhi The famous place of pilgrimage at Sakhi Sarwar crowns the * high bank of a hill stream at the foot of the Suláimán range, in the midst of desert scenery, well adapted to penitents who would mortify the flesh. To this remote spot the Muham- madans come in honour of a Musalmán saint ; the Sikhs, to venerate a memorial of their theistic founder, Nának ; and the Hindus, to perform their own ablutions and rites. The mount near Madras, associated in Catholic legend with the martyrdom of St. Thomas, was originally a common hill- shrine for Muhammadans, Christians, and Hindus. Such hill-shrines for joint worship are usually either rock-fortresses, like Kálinjar in the North-Western Provinces and Chunar Overhanging the Ganges, or river-islands, like the beautiful islet on the Indus just below the new railway bridge at Sukkur. The object of common adoration is frequently a footmark in stone. This the Hindus venerate as the footprint of Vishnu or Siva (Vishnupad or Sivapad); the Buddhists regard it as the footprint of Buddha; the Jains, of Mahávira or Párasnáth ; while the Musalmáns revere it as the footprint of Muhammad (Kadam-rasu/). The mingled architecture of some of these pilgrim-sites attests the various races and creeds that combined to give them sanctity. Buddhism, which in some respects was at first a revolt against Bráhman Supremacy, has thus done much to maintain the continuity between the ancient and the modern religions of India. Hinduism, however, derived its elements not merely from Non- the two ancient Aryan faiths, the Bráhmanical and the * Buddhist. In its popular aspects, it drew much of its in Hindu- strength, and many of its rites, from the Nāgā and other ism. non - Aryan peoples of India. Buddhists and Brähmans alike endeavoured, during their long struggle, to enlist the masses on their side. The Nāgā kingdoms were divided, as we have seen, by the Chinese geographers into those which had accepted Buddhism, and those which had not. A chief feature in Nāgā-worship was the reverence for dragons Nāgārites. or tailed monsters. This reverence found its way into mediaeval Buddhism, and became an important element in Buddhist mythology. The historian of Tree and Serpent ...P.": e g e worship in worship goes So far as to say that ‘Buddhism was little more Hinduism. 254 A2/SE OF Aſ/AW/O Ú/S// than a revival of the coarser superstitions of the aboriginal races, purified and refined by the application of Aryan morality.’” The great monastery of Nalanda owed its foundation to the Supposed influence of a tailed monster, or Nāgā, in a neigh- bouring tank. Many Hindu temples still support Colonies of sacred crocodiles ; and the scholar who has approached the subject from the Chinese point of view, comes to the con- clusion that “no superstition was more deeply embedded in the [ancient] Hindu mind than reverence for Nāgās or dragons. Buddhism from the first had to contend as much against the under current of Nāgā reverence in the popular mind, as against the Supercilious opposition of the philosophic Bráhman in the upper current. At last, as it would seem, driven to an extremity by the gathering cloud of persecution, the Buddhists sought escape by closing with the popular Creed, and endeavouring to enlist the people against the priests; but with no further success than such a respite as might be in- cluded within some one hundred years.’” This conception of the process is coloured by modern ideas, but there can be no doubt that Hinduism incorporated many aboriginal rites. It had to provide for the non-Aryan as well as for the Aryan elements of the Indian people, and it combined the Brähmanism and Buddhism of the Aryans with the fetish-worship and religion of terror which swayed the non- Aryan races. Some of its superstitions seem to have been brought by Turanian or Scythian migrations from Central Asia. Serpent-worship is closely allied to, if indeed it does not take its origin in, that reverence for the symbols of human reproduction which formed one of the most widely-spread religions of pre-historic man. Phallic or generative emblems are on earth what the sun is in the heavens. The Sun, as the type of celestial creative energy, was a primitive object of Aryan adoration. Later Bráhmanism, and its successor Hindu- ism, have adopted not only the self-erecting Serpent, but the /imga and yoni, or the organs of male and female Creative energy, from the non-Aryan races. The worship of the phallic emblem or linga finds only a doubtful sanction, if any at all, in those ancient Scriptures ; * Phallic emblems in Hindu- ism. The Hindu Zéziga and 3/0722. | Fergusson’s Tree and Serpent Worship, pp. 62, with footnote, et seg. (4to, 1868). This view must be taken subject to limitations. * Catema of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, pp. 415, 416. By Samuel Beal (Trubner, 1871). * H. H. Wilson's Aeligion of the Aſindus, vol. i. p. 220 (ed. 1862). AA. TſSA. WOA'SAH/A2 //V Aſ/AVD UASA/. 255 but the Puránas disclose it in full vigour (Iooo A.D.); and the Muhammadans found it in every part of India. It is not only the chief religion to the south of the Vindhyas, but it is universally recognised by the Hindus. Such symbolism fitted well into the character of the third person of their Triad—Siva, the Reproducer, as well as the All-Destroyer. To the Bráh- mans it supplied a popular basis for their abstruse doctrines regarding the male and female energy in nature. Phallic The . worship harmonized also with their tendency to supply each god º with a correlative goddess, and furnished an easily-understood symbolism for the Sážta sects, or worshippers of the divine creative power, so numerous among the Hindus. For the semi- aboriginal tribes and half-Hinduized low-castes, this conception of Siva as the All-Destroyer and Reproducer, organized on a philosophical basis their old religion of propitiation by blood.” The fetish and tree worship of the non-Aryan races also Fetish- entered largely into Hinduism. The first Englishman * who #. tried to study the natives as they actually are, and not as the Bráhmans described them, was struck by the universal pre- valence of a worship quite distinct from that of the Hindu deities. A Bengal village has usually its local god, which it The sala- adores either in the form of a rude unhewn stone, or a stump, * or a tree marked with red lead. Sometimes a lump of clay placed under a tree does for a deity; and the attendant priest, when there is one, generally belongs to the half- Hinduized low-castes. The rude stone represents the non- Aryan fetish ; and the tree seems to owe its sanctity to the non-Aryan belief that it forms the abode of the ghosts, or gods, of the village. We have seen how, in some Santáli hamlets, the worshippers dance round every tree ; so that they may not, by any evil chance, miss the one in which the village spirits happen to dwell. 1 Sa/#2. * The relation of these rites of the semi-Hinduized low-castes to the religion of the non-Aryan races is treated at considerable length, from personal observation, in my Azzºza's of Aºzara! Bengal, pp. 127–136 and I94, 5th edition. * Dr. Francis Buchanan, who afterwards took the name of Hamilton. His survey of the North-Eastern Districts of Bengal, 1807–13, forms a noble series of MS. folios in the India Office, much in need of a competent editor. Montgomery Martin made three printed volumes out of them by the process of drawing his pencil through the parts which did not interest him, or which he could not understand. These he published under the title of the History, Antiquities, Zopography, and Statistics of Æastern India (3 vols., 1838). 256 A’/SAE OF AZZAV/D UASM. Vishnuite As the non-Aryan phallic emblems were utilized by Hindu- * ism in the worship of Siva, the All-Destroyer and Reproducer, so the household fetish sálagrám has supplied a symbol for the rival Hindu deity Vishnu, the Preserver. The sailagrám (often an ammonite or curved stone) and the fu/asſ plant are the insignia of Vishnuism, as universally as the ſinga is of Sivaism. In both cases the Brähmans enriched the popular fetish-worship with deep metaphysical doctrines, and with admirable moral codes. The Sivaite devotee carries round his neck, or hidden about his person, a miniature phallic emblem, linga, the stilagrám and fulas; are the objects of reverence among all the Vishnuite sects." The great Vishnuite festival of Bengal, the rath -játra, when Jagannāth, the ‘Lord of the World,' is dragged in his car to his garden-house, is of Buddhist origin. But it has many a humbler counterpart in the forest excursions which the Bengal villagers make in their holiday clothes to some Jungle sacred tree in the neighbouring grove or jungle. These jungle rites. rites find special favour with the low-castes, and disclose curious survivals of the non-Hinduized element in the wor- shippers. Blood sacrifices and the eating of flesh have long been banished from the worship of the Vishnuite sects. But on such forest festivals, the fierce aboriginal instincts in the mixed castes, who accept in ordinary life the restraints of Hinduism, break loose. On the outskirts of the hill-country which abuts on the Ganges near Rájmahāl, even Cowherds have been known to feed on swine-flesh, which at all other times they regard with abhorrence. The ceremonies, where they can pretend to any conscious meaning, have a propitiatory or necromantic tinge. Thus, in Birbhum District the mixed and low-castes even of the chief town repair once a year to the jungle, and make offerings to a ghost who dwells in a bel-tree.” Buchanan-Hamilton describes such sacrifices as ‘made partly from fear, and partly Non- to gratify the appetite for flesh.” In examining the forest tribes *. on the west of Lower Bengal, I found that the rites of the ing into non-Aryan hillmen gradually merged into the Hinduism of the Hinduism, plains.4 The evidence shows that the Hindus derived from * See, inter alia, pp. I5, 39, 50, 54, II6, II 7, 140, 149, 179, 181, 246, vol. i. of H. H. Wilson's Aeligion of the Hindus (ed. 1862). * Or they used to do so when I was an officer in that District (1863– 66); and I believe they still keep up the festival. * History, etc., of Eastern India, from the Buchanan MSS., vol. i. p. 194. * Hunter's Annals of A'at?"a! Bengal, p. 194, 5th edition. AAAAMAN Fowypzks of HINDUSM as: non-Aryan sources their phallic emblem the Zinga, their house- hold fetish the stilagrám, their village gods gräm-devatas, with the ghosts and demons that haunt So many trees, and the bloody rites of their national deity, Siva. Among the Hindus, these superstitions are often isolated and unconnected with each other; among the Santáls and other non-Aryan races, they form riveted links in a ritual of fear and propitiation. The same phenomena are observable in regard to many other of the non-Aryan races. There is the strictly non-Aryan nucleus of the tribe maintaining its non-Aryan customs and worship, and not yet subjected to Bráhman influences. Spreading outward from this recognisable non-Aryan centre, there is a sort of penumóra in which the inhabitants are con- scious of their connection with the non-Aryan nucleus, and adhere to many of the non-Aryan rites, but have obtained Hindu or even Brähman priests, and have in varying degrees come under their ritualistic guidance. Still further beyond, there is an outer circle of population, who can be proved by modern research to be identical in Origin with the non-Aryan nucleus, but who have themselves forgotten their connection with it, and have become recognised low-castes of the general Hindu community. The development of Hinduism out of pre-existing religious Bláhman types, although a natural evolution, bears the impress of #. human guidance. Until the 12th century A.D., the Brähmans supplied the directing energy in reaction to the Buddhists, and founded their reforms on a reassertion of the personality of God. But even before that period, Buddhism had ceased to struggle for existence in India; and the mass of the people began to strike out religious sects upon popular rather than on Brähmanical lines. The work of the early Brähman reformers was accordingly carried on after the 12th century, in part by low-caste apostles, who popularized the Old Brähmanical Low- conception of a personal God, by infusing into it the Buddhist iºde. doctrine of the spiritual equality of man. Many of the Hindu sects form brotherhoods, on the Buddhist model, within which the classification by Caste gives place to one based on the various degrees of perfection attained in the religious life. Most of the Hindu reformations since the 12th century The thus preserve what was best in each of the two ancient º faiths of India—namely, the personal God of the Brähmans, j and the spiritual equality of the Buddhists. Among the Hindus, every preacher who would really appeal to the R 258 A’ſ.S.E OF HIZV/D U/SM. The Hindu Acta Sanc- torum. Miracles Of the religious founders. popular heart must fulfil two conditions, and conform to a certain type. He must cut himself off from the world by a solemn act, like the Great Renunciation of Buddha ; and he must come forth from his solemn communing with a simple message. The message need not be original. On the con- trary, it must consist of a reassertion, in some form, of the personality of God and the equality of men in His sight. Hinduism boasts a line of religious founders stretching in almost unbroken succession from about 700 A.D. to the present day. The lives of the mediaeval saints and their wondrous works are recorded in the Bhakta-Málá, literally, ‘The Garland of the Faithful,” compiled by Nābhājí about three centuries ago." This difficult Hindi work was popularized by later versions and commentaries,” and a vast structure of miracle and fable has been reared upon it. It is the Golden Legend and Acta Sanctorum of Hinduism. The same wonders are not recorded of each of its apostles, but divine interpositions occur in the life of all. The greater ones rank as divine incarnations prophesied of old. Some were born of virgins; others overcame lions; raised the dead; their hands and feet when cut off sprouted afresh ; prisons were opened to them ; the sea received them and returned them to the land unhurt, while the earth opened and swallowed up their slanderers. Their lives were marvellous, and the deaths of the greatest of them a solemn mystery. Thus on Kabir’s decease, both the Hindus and Musal- máns claimed the body, the former to burn it, the latter to bury it, according to their respective rites. While they wrangled over the Corpse, Kabir suddenly stood in the midst, and, commanding them to look under the shroud, vanished. This they did. But under the winding-sheet they found only some beautiful flowers, one-half of which they gave to be burned by the Hindus in their holy city, Benares, while the other half was buried in pomp by the Musalmáns. His name lives in the memory of the people ; and to this day pilgrims from Upper India beg a spoonful of rice-water from the Kabir Monastery at Puri, at the extreme Southern point of Bengal. Kabir’s death. 1 H. H. Wilson, writing in the Asiatic Æesearches (Calcutta, 1828), says about ‘250 years ago.”—See /ournal of the Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society, vol. iii. p. 4. * The best known are those of Nārāyan Dás, about the time of Sháh Jahān (1627–58); the táká of Krishna Dás (1713); and a later version ‘in the more ordinary dialect of Hindustán.”—Wilson's Ateligions of the Aſındıts, vol. i. pp. 9, IO (ed. I862). AACAA/M/AAW S/V4 VTAE SAE CZ.S. 259 The first in the line of apostles was Kumārila, a bhatta or Kumārila Brähman of Behar. The legend relates that he journeyed #º. into Southern India, in the 8th century A.D., commanding princes and people to worship one God. He stirred up a persecution against the Buddhists or Jains in the State of Rudrapur, a local persecution which later tradition magni- fied into a general extermination of the Buddhists from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin." In Hindu theology he figures as a teacher of the later Mimánsá philosophy, which ascribes the universe to a divine act of screation, and assumes an all- 2 powerful God as the cause of the existence, continuance, and dissolution of the world. The doctrine of this personal deity, ‘the one existent and universal soul,” “without a second ’ (adwaita), embodies the philosophical argument against the Buddhists. Kumārila bequeathed his task to his famous disciple Sankara Achárya, in whose presence he is said to have solemnly committed his body to the flames. With the advent of Sankara Achárya we touch firmer historical Sankara ground. Born-in, Malabar, he wandered over India as an itiner- * ant preacher as far north as Kashmir, and died at Kedarnāth tury A.D. in the Himalayas, aged 32. One of his disciples has narrated his life's work under the title of ‘The Victory of Sankara,’ ” a record of his doctrines and controversial triumphs. Sankara moulded the later Mimánsá, or Vedantic philosophy, into its final form, and popularized it as a national religion. It is scarcely too much to say that, since his short life in the 8th or 9th century, every new Hindu sect has had to start with a personal God. He addressed himself to the high-caste philosophers on the one hand, and to the low-caste multitude on the other. He left behind, as the twofold result of his life's work, a His two- compact Brähman sect and a popular religion. fold work. The Bráhman sect are the Smārtas, still powerful in Southern His sect of India. Sankara taught that there was one sole and supreme iºn. God, Bráhma-para-Brähma, distinct alike from any member of the old Bráhman Triad, or of the modern Hindu pantheon; the * The local persecution is recorded by Ananda Giri, a disciple of Sankara about the 8th or 9th century A. D., and the author of the Sankara- Vºjaya. The magnified version appears in the Sarza ZXarsazza Sangraha of Mādhava-Achārya, in the 14th century. See, however, my analytical catalogue of the Mackenzie MSS. in the India Office Library. * The Sankara-Vijaya of Ananda Giri, published in the Bibliotheca Indica, and critically examined by Káshináth Trimbak Telang in vol. v. of the Zºdian Antiguary. But, indeed, Sankara is the first realistic figure in almost every Hindu hagiology, or book of Saints, from the Sarza ZXarsazza Sangraha of Mādhava-Achārya downwards. 26o A2/SE OF AZZZVZ) UASM. Ruler of the universe and its inscrutable First Cause, to be worshipped, not by sacrifices, but by meditation, and in spirit and in truth. The Smārta Bráhmans follow this philosophic side of his teaching; and of the religious houses which he founded some remain to this day, controlled from the parent monastery perched among the western ranges of Mysore." But Sankara realized that such a faith is for the few. To those who could not rise to so high a conception of the god- head, he allowed the practice of any rites prescribed by the Veda, or by later orthodox teachers, to whatsoever form of the godhead they might be addressed. Tradition fondly narrates that the founders of the most famous central sects of Hinduism —Sivaites, Vishnuites, Sauras, Sáktas, Gánapatyas, Bhairavas— were his disciples.” But Siva-worship claims Sankara as its apostle in a special sense. Siva-worship represents the popular side of his teaching, and the piety of his followers has elevated Sankara into an incarnation of Siva himself.” Nothing, however, is altogether new in Hinduism, and it is needless to say that Siva had won his way high up into the pantheon long before the preaching of Sankara, in the 9th century A.D. Siva is the Rudra of the Vedas, as developed by Brähman philosophy, and adapted by Sankara and others to popular worship. Rudra, the Storm-God of the Vedic hymns, had grown during this process into Siva, the Destroyer and Reproducer, as the third person of the Bráhman Triad. The Chinese Pilgrims supply evidence of his worship before the 7th century A.D., while his dread wife had a temple at the southernmost point of India at the time of the Periplus (2nd century A.D.), and gave her name to Cape Comorin.” Siva ranks high in the Mahābhārata, in various passages of uncertain date ; but does not reach his full development till the Purānas, probably after the Ioth century A.D. His worship in Bengal is said to have been formulated by Paramata Kálanála at Benares.” His re- ligion for the people. Growth of Siva- worship; 1 See SRINGIRI (7%e Imperial Gazetteer of India) for a brief account of the chief-priest of the Smārta sect, which has its head-quarters in this monastery. Also the Statistical Account of Mysore and Coorg, by Lewis Rice, vol. ii. p. 413, etc. (Bangalore Government Press, 1876.) * Wilson's Religion of the Hindus, vol. i. p. 28 (1862). * This rank is claimed for Sankara by Mādhava-Achārya in the 14th century A. D. ; indeed, Siva's descent as Sankara is said to have been fore- told in the Skanda Purāna. Sankara is one of the names of Siva. * From Kumāri or Kanyá-kumári, the Virgin Goddess, a name of Durgā, wife of Siva. * As Visweswara, or Lord of the Universe, under which name Siva is still the chief object of worship at Benares. - S/VA-IVOA’SA/ZAZ 26 I kara's teaching gave an impulse to it throughout all India, ecially in the south ; and later tradition makes Paramata tself a disciple of Sankara. I'... the hands of Sankara's followers and apostolic suc- its philo- cessors, Siva-worship became one of the two chief religions º of India. As at once the Destroyer and Reproducer, Siva represented profound philosophical doctrines, and was early recognised as being in a special sense the god of the Bráhmans." To them he was the symbol of death as merely a change of life. On the other hand, his terrible aspects, preserved in his its terrible long list of names, from the Roarer (Rudra)* of the Veda to * the Dread One (Bhima) of the modern Hindu pantheon, well adapted him to the religion of fear and propitiation prevalent among the ruder non-Aryan races. Siva, in his twofold character, thus became the deity alike of the highest and of the lowest castes. He is the Mahá-deva, or Great God of modern Hinduism ; and his wife is Devi, pre-eminently THE Goddess. His universal symbol is the Zinga, the emblem of reproduction ; his sacred beast, the bull, connected with the same idea ; a trident tops his temples. His images partake of his double nature. The Brähnnanical Twofold conception is represented by his attitude as a fair-skinned man, sº of seated in profound thought, the symbol of the fertilizing Ganges 2 above his head, and the bull (emblem alike of procreation and of Aryan plough-tillage) near at hand. The wilder non-Aryan aspects of his character are signified by his necklace of skulls, his collar of twining serpents, his tiger-skin, and his club with a human head at the end. His five faces and four arms have also their significance from this double aspect of his character, Aryan and non-Aryan. His wife, in like manner, appears in and of , . her Aryan form as Umá, ‘Light,’ the type of high-born love- º his liness; in her composite character as Durgā, a golden-coloured woman, beautiful but menacing, riding on a tiger; and in her terrible non-Aryan aspects, as Kāli, a black fury, of a hideous countenance, dripping with blood, Crowned with Snakes, and hung round with skulls. As an Aryan deity, Siva is Pasu-pati, the Lord of Animals Their two- and the Protector of Cows; Sambhu, the Auspicious ; Mrityun- º of jaya, the Vanquisher of Death ; Viswanatha, Monarch of All. In his non-Aryan attributes, he is Aghora, the Horrible; Viru- * A Sanskrit text declares Siva to be the didideva, or special god of the Brähmans; Vishnu, of the Kshattriyas ; Brahmā, of the Vaisyas ; and Ganesa, of the Súdras. * From the root rud, weep. 262 A2/SAE O/7' Aſ/AWZO OVZ.S.)/. Twofold aspects of Siva- worship. Iſuman offerings, I866. Garlands of skulls. páksha, of Mis-shapen Eyes; Ugra, the Fierce; Kapála-mă Garlanded with Skulls. So also Devi, his female form, as Aryan goddess is Umá, the lovely daughter of the mou Tº king Himavat; ' Arya, the Revered; Gauri, the Brillians, Or Gold-coloured ; Jagad-gauri, the World's Fair One ; Bhaváisi, the Source of Existence; and Jagan-mâtá, the Mother of the Universe. Her non-Aryan attributes appear in her names of Káli or Syāmā, the Black One ; Chandi, the Fierce; Bhairavi, the Terrible; Rakta-danti, the Bloody-Toothed. The ritual of Siva - worship preserves, in an even more | Striking way, the traces of its double origin. The higher :* minds still adore the Godhead by silent contemplation, as | prescribed by Sankara, without the aid of external rites. The ordinary Brähman hangs a wreath of blossoms around the Sivaite linga, or places before it offerings of flowers and rice. | But the low - castes pour out the lives of countless goats at the feet of the terrible Káli, and until lately, in time of pesti- lence and famine, tried in their despair to appease the relent- less goddess by human blood. During the dearth of 1866, in a temple to Kāli within Ioo miles of Calcutta, a boy was found with his neck cut, the eyes staring open, and the stiff clotted tongue thrust out between the teeth. In another temple at Huigli (a railway station only 25 miles from Calcutta), the head was left before the idol, decked with flowers.” Such Cases are true survivals of the regular system of human sacri- fices which we have seen among the non-Aryan tribes.” They have nothing to do with the old mystic Purusha-medha or Man-Offering, whether real or symbolical, of the ancient Aryan faith; * but they form an essential part of the non-Aryan religion of terror, which demands that the greater the need, i the greater shall be the propitiation. Such sacrifices are now forbidden, alike by Hindu custom and English law. H. H. Wilson found evidence that they were regularly offered by the Kāpālika sect of Sivaite Hindus * Monarch of the Himálayas. * The Calcutta Englishman of 19th May 1866; Annals of Aural Bengal, p. 128, 5th edition. * As among the Kandhs, ante, chap. iii. * See Dr. Haug's Origin of Zºrá//ſtanism, p. 5 (Poona, 1863). The | Purusha-Sukta of the A'ig-Veda, X. 90, verses 7–15; and the Purusha-medha { of the Saſaſat/a Ará/mana, i. 2, 3, 6, and xiii. 6, i. 1; and of the Aiſaraya Bráſ, mana, ii. 8, with other passages quoted throughout Dr. Muir's Sanskrit 7 exts, seem to have an allegorical and mystical significance, rather than to reſer to a real sacrifice. See also Wilson's Essay on Human Sacrifices, Journal Aoy. As. Soc. vol. viii. p. 96 (1852). - i S/VA/TE RATES A/V/O SECTS. 263 eight Centuries ago; and representatives of those hideous votaries of Siva, ‘smeared with ashes from the funeral pile, and their necks hung round with human skulls,’ survive to this day." Colonel Keatinge mentions that he has seen old sacrificial troughs near Jaintiapur, now used only for goats, which exactly fitted the size of a man. The new troughs are reduced to the dimensions of the animals at present offered ; Animals and the greater length of the ancient ones is explained by a . for human legend of human sacrifices. The Statistical Survey of India offerings. has brought to light many traditions of such offerings. The non-Aryan hill tribes between Sylhet and Assam hunt a monkey at sowing-time, and crucify it on the margin of the village lands, apparently as a substitute for the spring Man- Sacrifice.” A human life was sometimes devoted to the pre- servation of an artificial lake, or of a river embankment; a watchman of aboriginal descent being sacrificed,” or a virgin princess walled up in the breach.4 Another Sivaite festival was the Charak-Pujá, or Hook-Swing- The ing Festival, during which men were suspended from a pole by º a hook thrust through the muscles of the back, and then swung in the air, in honour of Kálí. In 1863, I carried out the orders of Government for abolishing this festival in a border District, Birbhum, lying between the Hindu plains and the non-Aryan highlands. The local low-castes, in reality non- Aryans, and only half-Hinduized, assembled round the poles and foretold a great famine from the loss of their old propitiatory rites. As they thought the spring ceremonies absolutely essential before commencing tillage, I suggested they might swing a man by a rope round his waist instead of with a hook through his back. This compromise was accepted by some, but the better-informed cultivators gloomily assured me that the ceremonies would have no good effect on the crops without the spilling of blood.” The thirteen chief sects of Siva-worshippers faithfully The represent the composite character of their god. Sankara left gº behind him a succession of teachers, many of whom rose to sects. the rank of religious founders. The Smārta Brähmans still * H. H. Wilson's Aeligion of the Hindus, vol. i. p. 264. * As among the Kandhs, ante, chap. iii. * See SAKRAYPATNA, The Imperial Gazetteer of Zndia. * See ANANTASAGARAM, The Zmperial Gazetteer of Zndia. * It is right to say that very little blood was lost, and the wounds caused were slight; indeed, slighter than those sometimes left behind by the skewers which were fixed through the cheek or tongue of the Swinger during the performance. 264 Ae/SAE OF AZAV/DU/SM Grada- tions of Siva- worship. Sivaite corpse- eaterS. Non- Aryan types, spiritual- ized by the Sákta or Tantrik Sect. maintain their life of calm monastic piety. The Pandis, or ascetics, divide their time between begging and meditation. Some of them adore, without rites, Siva as the third person of the Aryan Triad. Others practise an apparently non-Aryan ceremony of initiation, by drawing blood from the inner part of the novice's knee, as an offering to the god in his more terrible form, Bhairava. The Dandis follow the non-Aryan custom of burying their dead, or commit the body to some sacred stream.” The Yogás include every class of devotee, from the speechless mystic, who by long suppressions of the breath loses the consciousness of existence in an un- earthly union with Siva, to the impostor who sits upon air, and the juggler who travels with a performing goat. The thirteen Sivaite sects descend, through various gradations of self- mortification and abstraction, to the Aghorts, whose abnegation extends to eating carrion, or even human Corpses, and gashing their own bodies with knives. Within the last few years, a small Aghori community took up their abode in a deserted building on the top of a mount near Ujjain. To inspire terror and respect, they descended to the burning ghdī, Snatched the charred bodies from the funeral pile, and retreated with them to their hill. The horror- stricken mourners complained to the local officer of the Mahārājá Sindhia, but did not dare to defend their dead against the squalid ministers of Siva. In the end, the Mahā- rājā’s officer, by ensuring a regular supply of food for the devotees, put a stop to their depredations. The lowest Sivaite sects follow non-Aryan rather than Aryan types, alike as regards their use of animal food and their bloody worship. These non-Aryan types are, however, spiritualized into a mystic symbolism by the Sivaite Sážías, or worshippers of the creative energy in nature (Sážti). The ‘right-hand” adorers” follow the Aryan ritual, with the addi- tion of an offering of blood.” Their Tantras or religious works take the form of a dialogue between Siva and his lovely Aryan bride,4 in which the god teaches her the true forms of prayer and ceremonial. But the ‘left-hand ' worship 5 is an organized fivefold ritual of incantation, lust, gluttony, drunken- * Cf. the Santāls and the Dāmodar river, ante, chap. iii. * Dakshinas or Bhāktas. 3 The ba/2. * Usually in the form of Umá or Pârvati. * Vāmis or Vāmācharis, whose worship comprises the fivefold Makāra, ‘which taketh away all sin,” namely—mansa (flesh), matsya (fish, the symbol of ovarian fertility), madya (intoxicating spirits), matihuma (sexual intercourse), mudrā (mystical gesticulations). S/VA AAV/D V/SA/AWU COMPAA’A.D. 265 ness, and blood. The non-Aryan origin of these secret rites is attested by the use of meats and drinks forbidden to all respectable Hindus; perhaps also by the community of women, possibly an unconscious survival of the non-Aryan forms of polyandry and primitive marriage by capture." The Kánchuliyas, one of the lowest of the Sivaite sects, not only Secret enforce a community of women, but take measures to pre- **** vent the exercise of individual selection, and thus leave the matter entirely to divine chance. Even their orgies, however, are spiritualized into a mystic symbolism ; and the Dread Goddess surely punishes the votary who enters on them merely to gratify his lusts. Siva-worship thus became a link between the highest and Siva and the lowest castes of Hindus. Vishnu, the second person * d. of the Aryan Triad, supplied a religion for the intermediate classes. Siva, as a philosophical conception of the Brähmans, afforded small scope for legend; and the atrocities told of him and his wife in their terrible forms, as adapted to the non-Aryan masses, were little capable of refined literary treatment. But Vishnu, the Preserver, furnished a congenial theme for sacred romance. His religion appealed, not to the fears, but to the hopes of mankind. Siva-worship com- bined the Brähmanical doctrine of a personal God with non- Aryan bloody rites; Vishnu-worship, in its final form as a popular religion, represents the coalition of the same Brāh- manical doctrine of a personal God, with the Buddhist principle of the spiritual equality of man. Vishnu had always been a very human god, from the time Vishnu when he makes his appearance in the Veda as a solar myth, ; the “Unconquerable Preserver’ striding across the universe in god. three steps.” His later incarnations made him the familiar friend of man. Of these ‘descents’ ” on earth, ten to twenty- * Cf. also the festival of the Rukmimá-haran-ekádasí at Puri. See Hunter’s Orissa, vol. i. p. 131. * Probably at first connected with the rising, zenith, and setting of the Sun in his daily course. * Azałdzas. The ten chief ones are : (1) the Fish incarnation, (2) the Tortoise, (3) the Boar, (4) the Man-Lion, (5) the Dwarf, (6) Parasu-ráma or Ráma with the Axe, (7) Rāma or Rāma-chandra, (8) Krishna, (9) Buddha, and (Io) Kalki, on the White Horse, yet to come. The first four are mythological beasts, perhaps representing the progress of animal life through the eras of fishes, reptiles, and mammals, developing into half- formed man. From another aspect, the Fish represents the yoni, or ovarian 266 AC/SAE OF AZZAV/D UASM. two in number, Vishnu-worship, with the unerring instinct of a popular religion, chose the two most beautiful and most human for adoration. As Rāma and Krishna, Vishnu attracted to himself innumerable loving legends. Rāma, his seventh incarnation, was the hero of the Sanskrit epic, the Rāmāyana. In his eighth incarnation, as Krishna, Vishnu becomes the high-souled prince of the other epic, the Mahābhārata; he afterwards grew into the central figure of Indian pastoral poetry; was spiritualized into the Supreme god of the Vishnuite Puránas; and now flourishes as the most popular deity of the Hindus. - The worship of Vishnu, in one phase or another, is the religion of the bulk of the middle classes; with its roots deep down in beautiful forms of non-Aryan nature-worship, and its top sending forth branches among the most refined Brähmans and literary coteries. It is a religion in all things graceful. Its gods are heroes or bright friendly beings, who walk and converse with men. Its legends breathe an almost Hellenic beauty. The pastoral simplicities and exquisite ritual of Vishnu belong to a later age than Siva - worship, with its pandering to the grosser superstitions of the masses. Whatever may be the philosophical priority of the two creeds, Vishnuism made its popular conquests at a later period than Sivaite rites. In the 11th century, the Vishnuite doctrines were gathered into a religious treatise. The Vishnu Purána dates from about 1045 A.D.," and probably represents, as indeed its name implies, ‘ancient’ traditions which had coexisted with Sivaism and Buddhism for centuries. It derived its doctrines from the Vedas, not, however, in a direct channel, but filtered through the two great epic poems, the Rámāyana and the Mahābhārata. The Vishnu Purāma forms one of the eighteen Purānas or Sanskrit theological works, in which the Brähman Vishnu as a hero. His later develop- mentS. The Vishnu Purána, circ. IO45 A. D. fertility; the Tortoise, the linga ; the Boar, the terrestrial fertilizer; and the Man-Lion, the celestial. These four appeared in the Satya Yuga, an astronomical period anterior to the present world. The fifth or Dwarf incarnation represents early man in the Treta Yuga, or second astronomical period, also long anterior to the present mundane one. The next three incarnations represent the Heroic Age; the ninth or Buddha, the Religious Age. The tenth stands for the end of all things, according to the Hindu apocalypse, when Vishnu shall appear on a white horse, a drawn sword, blazing like a comet, in his hand, for the destruction of the wicked and the renovation of the world. The Bhāgavata Purāna gives twenty-two incarnations of Vishnu. * Preface to the Vishnu Purāma. H. H. Wilson, p. cxii. (ed. I864). V/SA/AWOW WOA&SAIZA. 267 moulders of Vishnuism and Sivaism embodied their rival systems. These works especially extol the second and third The members of the Hindu Triad, now claiming the pre-eminence i. for Vishnu as the sole deity, and now for Siva ; but in their higher flights rising to a recognition that both are but forms for representing the one eternal God. Their interminable dialogues are said to run to 1,600,ooo lines.” But they exhibit only the Bráhmanical aspect of what were destined to become the two national faiths of India, and they are devoid of any genuine sympathy for the people. The Vishnu Purána starts with an intolerance equal to Bráhman- that of the ancient code of Manu. It still declares the º priests to have sprung from the mouth, and the low-castes ſoa5 A.D. from the feet, of God.” Its stately theogony disdains to touch the legends of the people. It declares, indeed, that there is One God; but He is the God of the Bráhmans, to whom He gives the earth as an inheritance, and in His eyes the ruder Indian races are as naught. This is the general tenor of its doctrines, although more enlightened, perhaps because later, passages occur. In the Vishnu Purána, Buddha is still an arch-heretic, who teaches the masses to despise the Veda, but whose disciples are eventually crushed by the bright Aryan gods. It is true that in the concluding book, when treating of the last Iron Age, to which this world has now come, some nobler idea of God’s dealing with man gleams forth. In that time of universal dissolution and darkness, the Sage Consoles us with the assurance that devotion to Vishnu will suffice for salvation to all persons and to all castes.” Vishnuism had to preach a different doctrine before it could Popular become, as it has for ages been, a religion of the people. yºu. The first of the line of Vishnuite reformers was Rāmānuja, a Bráhman of Southern India. In the middle of the 12th cen-Rāmānuja, tury, he led a movement against the Sivaites, proclaiming the º II 50 unity of God, under the title of Vishnu, the Cause and the `` Creator of all things. Prosecuted by the Chola king, who tried to enforce Sivaite conformity throughout his dominions, Rāmānuja fled to the Jain sovereign of Mysore. This prince he converted to the Vishnuite faith by expelling an evil spirit from his daughter. Seven hundred monasteries, of which four still remain, are said to have marked the spread of his doctrine before his death. Rámánuja accepted converts from 1 Preface to the Vishnu Purāma, p. xxiv. H. H. Wilson (ed. 1864). * Vishnu Purāma, lib. i. cap. vi. p. 89. H. H. Wilson (ed. 1864). * Vishnu Purāna, lib. vi. cap. ii. H. H. Wilson, p. cxxxviii. 268 A*/SE OF AZAV/D U/SM. Rāmā- nand, I3OO-I4OO A. D. His low- Caste. disciples. every class, but it was reserved for his successors to formally enunciate the brotherhood of man. At the end of the 13th century A.D. according to some authorities, or at the end of the 14th according to others, the great reformation, which made Vishnu-worship a national religion of India, took place. Rāmānand stands fifth in the apostolic succession from Rāmānuja, and spread his doctrine through Northern India. He had his head-quarters in a monastery at Benares, but wandered from place to place preaching the One God under the name of Vishnu, and choosing twelve disciples, not from the priests or nobles, but among the despised castes. One of them was a leather- dresser, another a barber, and the most distinguished of all was the reputed son of a weaver. The list shows that every caste found free entrance into the new creed. The life of a disciple was no life of ease. He was called upon to forsake the world in a strictly literal sense, and to go about preaching or teaching, and living on alms. His old age found an asylum in some monastery of the brother- hood. Rámānuja had addressed himself chiefly to the pure Aryan castes, and wrote in the language of the Brähmans. Rāmānand appealed to the people, and the literature of his sect is in the dialects familiar to the masses. The Hindí vernacular owes its development into a written language, partly to the folk-songs of the peasantry and the war-ballads of the Rájput court-bards, but chiefly to the literary requirements of the new popular faith. Vishnuism has deeply impressed itself on the modern dialects of Northern India." Rabſr, one of the twelve disciples of Rámánand, carried his doctrines throughout Bengal. As his master had laboured to gather together all castes of the Hindus into one common faith, so Kabir, seeing that the Hindus were no longer the whole inhabitants of India, tried, about the beginning of the 15th century, to build up a religion that should embrace Hindu and Muhammadan alike. He rejected caste, denounced image-worship, and condemned the hypocrisy and arrogance of the Brähmans. According to Kabir, the chief end of man Rabir, 1380–142O A. D. His doc- trines. * The three best known sets of such religious treatises are — (1) the voluminous works ascribed to Kabir (circ. I400 A.D.) and his followers, preserved at the head-quarters of his sect, the Åaôár Chazará at Benares; (2) the Granth, or scriptures of various Bhāgats or Vishnuite religious founders, especially of Dadu in Rájputána, and of the Sikh Gurūs, beginning with Nának (1469); and (3) the Bhaktamd/d, or Roll of the Bhaktas or apostles, the Golden Legend of Vishnuism already referred to. V/SAAVU/TE AC/E FORMAEA’.S. AAP/A’. 269 is to obtain purity of life, and a perfect faith in God. The writings of his sect acknowledge that the God of the Hindu is also the God of the Musalmán. His universal name is The Coalition Inner, whether He be invoked as the Alf of the Muhammadans, sº or as the Rāma of the Hindus. “To Ali and to Ráma we owe Islám, our life,’ say the scriptures of his sect,' ‘and should show like ***** tenderness to all who live. What avails it to wash your mouth, to count your beads, to bathe in holy streams, to bow in temples, if, whilst you mutter your prayers or journey on pilgrimage, deceitfulness is in your heart? The Hindu fasts every eleventh day; the Musalmán on the Ramazán. Who formed the remaining months and days, that you should venerate but one? If the Creator dwell in tabernacles, whose dwelling is the universe? The city of the Hindu God is to the The One east [Benares], the city of the Musalmán God is to the west ºf [Mecca]; but explore your own heart, for there is the God both of the Musalmáns and of the Hindus. Behold but One in all things. He to whom the world belongs, He is the father of the worshippers alike of Alí and of Ráma. He is my guide, He is my priest.” Kabir was pre-eminently the Vishnuite apostle to Bengal; but his followers are also numerous in the Central Provinces, Gujarát, and the Deccan. Kabir’s teaching marks another great stride in the Vishnuite Brother- reformation. His master Rámánand had asserted an abstract º: of equality of castes, because he identified the deity with the worshipper. He had regarded the devotee as but a manifesta- tion of the divinity, and no lowness of birth could degrade the godhead. As Vishnu had taken the form of several of the inferior animals, such as the Boar and the Fish incarnations, so might he be born as a man of any caste. Kabir accepted this doctrine, but he warmed it by an intense humanity. All the chances and changes of life, the varied lot of men, their differences in religion, their desires, hopes, fears, loves, are but the work of Māyā, or illusion. To recognise the one divine Spirit under these manifold illusions, is to obtain emancipation The Rest and the Rest of the Soul. That Rest is to be reached, not ** by burnt-offerings or sacrifices, but, according to Kabir, by faith (bhakti), by meditation on the Supreme, by keeping His Faith. holy names, Hari, Rám, Govind, for ever on the lips and in the heart. The labours of Kabīr may be placed between 1380 and * The Vážak of Bhagodás, one of Kabir’s disciples. The rival claims of the Hindus and Musalmáns to Kabir’s body have already been mentioned. * Sabda, lvi, Abridged from H. H. Wilson's Works, i. 81 (ed. 1864). 27o A’/SAE OF AZZAWZO UVSM. 1420 A.D. In 1486 was born Chaitanya, who spread the Vishnuite doctrines, under the worship of Jagannāth, through- out the deltas of Bengal and Orissa. Signs and wonders attended Chaitanya through life, and during four centuries he has been worshipped as an incarnation of Vishnu. Extricat- ing ourselves from the halo of legend which surrounds and obscures the apostle, we know little of his private life except that he was the son of a Brähman settled at Nadiyā, near Calcutta; that in his youth he married the daughter of a celebrated saint; that at the age of twenty-four he forsook the world, and, renouncing the state of a householder, repaired to Orissa, where he devoted the rest of his days to the propagation of the faith. He disappeared miraculously in 1527 A.D. With regard to Chaitanya's doctrine we have ample evidence. No race or caste was beyond the pale of salvation. The Musalmāns and Hindus shared his labours, and profited by his preaching. He held that all men are alike capable of faith, and that all castes by faith become equally pure. Implicit belief and incessant devotion were his watchwords. Con- templation rather than ritual was his pathway to salvation. Obedience to the religious guide is the great characteristic of his sect; but he warned his disciples to respect their teachers as second fathers, and not as gods. The great end of his system, as of all Indian forms of worship, is the liberation of the soul. He held that such liberation does not mean the mere annihilation of separate existence. It consists in nothing more than an entire freedom from the stains and the frailties of the body. The liberated soul dwells for ever, either in a blessed region of perfect beauty and sinlessness, or it soars into the heaven of Vishnu himself, high above the myths and mirages of this world, where God appears no more in His mortal incarnations, or in any other form, but is known in His Supreme essence.” The followers of Chaitanya belong to every caste, but they acknowledge the rule of the descendants of the original disciples (gosdins). These gosáins number about 25,000 in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal alone. The sect is open alike to the married and the unmarried. It has its celibates Chaitanya, I486–1527 A. D. Chait- anya’s life. Chait- anya’s teaching. * Libera- tion of the soul. The Chait- anya Sect. * Besides the notices of Chaitanya in H. H. Wilson's Works, the reader is referred to a very careful essay by Babu Jogendra Chandra Ghosh, entitled Chaitanya’s Ethics (Calcutta, 1884). Mr. Ghosh bases his works upon the original writings of Chaitanya and his followers. The present author is indebted to him for a correction of one year in the date of Chaitanya's birth, re-calculated from the Chaitanya Charitàmrita. V/SAAVUZZTAE CAEAWOAZTES. 271 and wandering mendicants, but its religious teachers are gener- ally married men. They live with their wives and children Its. . in clusters of houses around a temple to Krishna; and in this º way the adoration of Chaitanya has become a sort of family worship throughout Orissa. The landed gentry of that pro- vince also worship him with a daily ritual in their household chapels. After his death, a sect arose among his followers, who asserted the spiritual independence of women." In their monastic enclosures, male and female cenobites live in celibacy; the women shaving their heads, with the exception of a single lock of hair. The two sexes chant the praises of Vishnu and Chaitanya together, in hymn and solemn dance. One im- The place portant doctrine of the Vishnuite sects is their recognition of º, the value of women as instructors of the outside female com- murfity. For long, their female devotees were the only teachers admitted into the zanónas of good families in Bengal. Fifty years ago, they had effected a change for the better in the state of female education, and the value of such instruction was assigned as the cause of the sect having spread in Calcutta.” Since that time, Vishnuite female ascetics of various sorts have entered the same field. In some instances the bad crept in along with the good, and an effort made in 1863 to utilize them in the mechanism of Public Instruction failed.” The analogy of woman's position in the Vishnuite sects to Modern that assigned to her by ancient Buddhism is striking. But ºniº the analogy becomes more complete when the comparison is made with the extra-mural life of the modern Buddhist nun on the Punjab frontier. Thus, in LAHUL (Lāhaul), some of the nuns have not, as in Tibet, cloisters of their own. They are attached to monasteries, in which they reside only a few months of the year; and which they may permanently quit, either in order to marry or for other sufficient reasons. In 1868, I heard of seventy-one such Buddhist nuns in Láhul, able to read and write, and very closely resembling in their life and disci- pline the better orders of Vishnuite female devotees in Bengal. One of them was sufficiently skilled in astronomy to calculate eclipses.” The death of Chaitanya marked the beginning of a spiritual * The Spashtha Dayakas. * Wilson's Religion of Hindus, vol. i. p. 171 (ed. 1862). * The official details of this interesting and once promising experiment at Dacca will be found in Appendix A to the Report of the Director of Public Instruction, Bengal, for 1863–64, pp. 83-90 ; for 1864–65, pp. 155–158; and in each subsequent Annual Report to 1869. * Sherring's Hindu Zºričes, vol. ii. p. 9 (4to, Calcutta). 272 AºASE OF HIWVOUASM. Vallabha- Swāmi, circ. I52O A. D. Child worship. Krishna- worship. A religion of plea- Slllſe, decline in Vishnu-worship. About 1520, Vallabha - Swāmi preached in Northern India that the liberation of the soul did not depend upon the mortification of the body; and that God was to be sought, not in nakedness and hunger and solitude, but amid the enjoyments of this life. An opulent sect had, from an early period, attached itself to the worship of Krishna and his bride Rádhá ; a mystic significance being, of course, assigned to their pastoral loves. Still more popular among women is the modern adoration of Krishna as the Bála Gopāla, or the Infant Cowherd, a faith perhaps uncon- sciously stimulated by the Catholic worship of the divine Child. The sect, however, deny any connection of their Infant god with the babe Jesus, and maintain that their worship is a legitimate and natural development of Vishnuite conceptions. Another influence of Christianity on Hinduism may possibly be traced in the growing importance assigned by the Krishna sects to bhakti, or faith, as an all-sufficient instrument of Salvation. Vallabha-Swami was the apostle of Vishnuism as a religion of pleasure. When he had finished his life's work, he descended into the Ganges; a brilliant flame arose from the spot; and, in the presence of a host of witnesses, his glorified form ascended to heaven. The special object of his homage was Vishnu in his pastoral incarnation, in which he took the form of the divine youth Krishna, and led an arcadian life in the forest. Shady bowers, lovely women, exquisite viands, and everything that appeals to the sensuousness of a tropical race, are mingled in his worship. His daily ritual consists of eight services, in which Krishna’s image, as a beautiful boy, is delicately bathed, anointed with essences, splendidly attired, and sumptuously fed. The followers of the first Vishnuite reformers dwelt together in secluded monasteries, or went about Scantily clothed, living upon alms. But the Vallabha-Swamſ sect performs its devotions arrayed in costly apparel, anointed with oil, and perfumed with camphor or sandal. It seeks its Converts, not among weavers, or leather- dressers, or barbers, but among wealthy bankers and mer- chants, who look upon life as a thing to be enjoyed, and upon pilgrimage as a holiday excursion, or an opportunity for trade. In a religion of this sort, abuses are inevitable. It was a revolt against a system which taught that the Soul could approach its Maker only by the mortification of the body. It declared that God was present in the cities and marts of men, not less than in the cave of the ascetic. Faith and love were VZSAAVU/7Z SAE CTS. 273 its instruments of Salvation, and voluptuous contemplation its approved spiritual state. It delighted to clothe the deity in a beautiful human form, and mystical amorous poems make a large part of its canonical literature. One of its most valued theological treatises is entitled The Ocean of Love, Prem Love Ságar, and although its nobler professors always recognised “” its spiritual character, to baser minds it has become simply a religion of pleasure. The loves of Rádhá and Krishna, that woodland pastoral redolent of a wild-flower aroma as ethereal as the legend of Psyche and Cupid, are sometimes materialized into a sanction for licentious rites. I have described in detail certain of the Vishnuite sects, in Numerous Order to show the wide area of religious thought which they Vºuie cover, and the composite conceptions of which their beliefs are © made up. But any attempt at a complete catalogue of them The is beyond the scope of this work. H. H. Wilson divided º them into twenty principal sects, and the branches or lesser Vishnuite brotherhoods number not less than a hundred. Their series sects. of religious founders continued until the present century, when they began to merge into the more purely theistic movements Theistic of our day. Indeed, the higher Vishnuite teachers have . always been theistic. The Statistical Survey of India has disclosed many such reformations, from the Kartābhájás 1 of the Districts around Calcutta, to the Satnāmis.” of the Central Provinces. Some of these sects are poor local brotherhoods, with a single religious house; others have developed into wide- spread and wealthy bodies; while one theistic church has grown into a great nation, the Sikhs, the last military power The Sikhs. which we had to subdue in India.” Nának Sháh, the spiritual Nának founder of the Sikhs, was nearly contemporary with Kabir, and . taught doctrines in the Punjab differing but little from those of the Bengal apostle.4 The Vishnuite sects now include almost the whole Hindu population of Lower Bengal, excepting the highest and the lowest castes. In many of their commun- ities, caste is not acknowledged. Such sects form brother- Brother- hoods which recognise only spiritual distinctions or degrees ; hoods. and a new social organization is thus provided for the un- 1 See Hunter's Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. i. pp. 73–75 (Twenty- Four PARGANAS); vol. ii. pp. 53-55 (NADIYA). * See my Imperial Gazetteer of India, article CENTRAL PROVINCEs. 3 See my Imperial Gazetteer of India, articles AMRITSAR and PUNJAB. For the theological aspects of the Sikhs, see Wilson's Religion of the Aindus, vol. i. pp. 267–275 (ed. I862). 4 H. H. Wilson's Ateligion of the Hindus, vol. i. p. 269. S 274 ACASA OA' AAAWD UNSM. Jagannāth. His Bráh- manical and Buddhist origin. fortunate, the widow, or the out-caste. In lately Hinduized Provinces like Assam, Vishnu-worship has become practically the religion of the people. The Car Festival of Jagannāth is perhaps the most typical ceremony of the Vishnuite faith. Jagannāth, literally “The Lord of the World,’ represents, with unmistakable clearness, that coalition of Bráhman and Buddhist doctrines which forms the basis of Vishnu-worship. In his temple are three rude images, unconsciously representing the Bráhmanical Triad. His Car Festival is probably a once-conscious reproduction of the Tooth Festival of the Buddhists, although its original significance has dropped out of sight. The Chinese Pilgrim Fa-Hian gives an account of the yearly procession of Buddha's Sacred Tooth from its chapel to a shrine some way off," and of its return after a stay there. This was in the 5th century A.D.; but the account applies so exactly to the Car Festival of Jagannāth at the present day, that Fergusson pronounces the latter to be ‘merely a copy.’” - A similar festival is still celebrated with great rejoicing in Japan. As in the Indian procession of Jagannāth, the Japanese use three cars;” and Buddha sits in his temple, together with two other figures, like the Jagannāth Triad of Orissa. It is needless to add, that while Jagannāth is historically of Buddhist or composite origin, he is to his true believers the one supreme ‘Lord of the World.” The calumnies in which some English writers have indulged with regard to Jagannāth, are exposed in my work on Orissa. That work carefully examined the whole evidence on the subject, from 1580, when Abul Fazl wrote, through a long series of travellers, down to the police reports of 1870.4 I came to the conclusion which H. H. Wilson had arrived at from quite different sources,” that self-immolation was entirely opposed to the worship of Jagannāth, and that the deaths at the Car Festival were almost always accidental. In a closely- packed, eager throng of a hundred thousand men and women at Purſ, numbers of them unaccustomed to exposure or hard labour, and all of them tugging and straining to the utmost at the car, under a blazing Sun, deaths must occasionally occur. Car Festi- val of Jagannāth. English calumnies. * From the chapel at Anurádhapura to Mehentele. * History of Architecture, vol. ii. p. 590 (ed. 1867). - * See, among several interesting notices by recent travellers, Miss Bird's Omēeaten Tracks in Japan, vol. i. pp. III, II 5, etc. (ed. 1880). * Hunter's Orissa, vol. i., particularly pp. 306–308; also pp. 132-136. * Namely, the descriptions of the Car Festival or Æath:/ātra in the work of Krishna Dás. Z/BEZS OW/AGANNATH. 275 There were, however, isolated instances of pilgrims throwing themselves under the wheels in a frenzy of religious excite- ment. At one time, several unhappy people were killed or Self-im- injured every year, but they were ascertained by the police º investigation, promptly conducted on the spot, to be almost tised. invariably cases of accidental trampling. At an early period, indeed, the priests at Purſ, probably by permitting a midnight sacrifice once a year within their precincts to the wife' of Siva, had fallen under suspicion of bloody rites.” But such rites arose from the ambition of the priests to make Purſ the sacred city of all worships and all sects. The yearly midnight offerings to the Dread Goddess within Jagannáth’s sacred precincts represent the efforts made from time to time towards a coalition of the Sivaite and Vishnuite worship, like the chakra or sacred disc of Vishnu which surmounts the pre-historic temple to Káli at Tamluk.” Such compromises had nothing to do with the worship of His the true Jagannāth. A drop of blood even accidentally spilt sº in his presence pollutes the officiating priests, the people, and the consecrated food. The few suicides that occurred at the Car Festival were for the most part those of diseased and miserable objects, who took this means to put themselves out of pain.” The official returns now place the facts beyond doubt. Nothing could be more opposed to Vishnu-worship than self-immolation. Any death within the temple of Jagannāth renders the place unclean. The ritual suddenly stops, and the polluted offerings are hurried away from the sight of the offended god. According to Chaitanya, the Orissa apostle of Jagannāth, Evidence the destruction of the least of God's creatures is a sin jº. against the Creator. Self-slaughter he would have regarded nāth; with abhorrence. The copious literature of his sect frequently describes the Car Festival, but makes no mention of self- sacrifice, and contains not a single passage which could be twisted into a sanction for it.” Abul Fazl, the minister of Akbar, who conducted the survey of India for the Mughal * Bimalá, the “Stainless One.’ * See statement from the Haft-iſſlim (1485–1527 A.D.) in Hunter's Orissa, vol. i. p. 306. * See my Imperial Gazetteer of India, article TAMLUK. * See authorities quoted in Hunter's Orissa, vol. i. p. 134; Stirling's account, Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. p. 324; Calcutta A'éziew, vol. x. p. 235; Report of Statistical Commissioner to the Government of Bengal, 1868, part ii. p. 8; Puri Police Reports; Lieut. Laurie's Orissa, 1850. * H. H. Wilson's Religion of the Hindus, vol. i. p. I55 (ed. 1862). 276 A2/SAE OF AZZAV/O Ú/SM. against self- slaughter. Libels on Jagan- náth. His gentle doctrines. Emperor, is silent about self-immolation to Jagannāth, al- though, from the context, it is almost certain that had he heard of the practice he would have mentioned it. In 1870, I compiled an index to all accounts by travellers, historians, and the official records, of alleged cases of self-immolation at the Car Festival, from the 14th century downwards." The list proved that such suicides did at rare intervals occur, although they were opposed to the spirit of the worship. An Indian procession means a vast multitude of excitable beings ready for any extravagance. Among Indian proces- sions, that of Jagannāth to his country-house stands first ; and the frenzied affrays of the Muharram might as fairly be assigned to the deliberate policy of the British Govern- ment, as the occasional suicides at the Car Festival may be charged against the god. The travellers who tell the most sensational stories are the ones whose narratives prove that they went entirely by hearsay, or who could not themselves have seen the Car Festival at Purí. The number of deaths, whether voluntary or accidental, as registered by the dis- passionate candour of English officials, has always been insignificant, indeed far fewer than those incident to the party processions of the Musalmáns; and under improved police arrangements they have practically ceased. So far from en- couraging religous suicides, the gentle doctrines of Jagannāth tended to check the once common custom of widow-burning. Even before the Government put a stop to satà in 1829, our officials observed its comparative infrequency at Puri. Widow- burning was discountenanced by the Vishnuite reformers, and is stigmatized by a celebrated disciple as ‘the fruitless union of beauty with a corpse.' The worship of Siva and Vishnu operates as a religious bond among the Hindus, in the same way as caste supplies the basis of their social organization. Theoretically, the Hindu religion starts from the Veda, and acknowledges its divine authority. But, practically, we have seen that Hindu- ism takes its origin from many sources. Vishnu-worship and Sivaite rites represent the two most popular combinations of these various elements. The highly-cultivated Brähman is a pure theist; the less cultivated worships the divinity under Some chosen form, ishta-devaſſó. The conventional Brāhman, especially in the South, takes as his “chosen deity,” Siva in his deep philosophical significance, with the phallic linga as his The religi- OliS 726.232/S of Hindu- ism. The “chosen god,' ishta- devatá. * Hunter's Orissa, vol. i. pp. 305-308. . A.4 7TE OF THE AIZAWDU 7TRZAZO. 277 emblem. The middle classes and the mercantile community adore some incarnation of Vishnu. The low-castes propitiate Siva the Destroyer, or rather one of his female manifestations, Such as the dread Kálí. - But every Hindu of education allows that his special object Practical of homage is merely his ishta-devatá–his own chosen form hºne under which to adore the deity, PARAM-ESWARA. He admits that there is ample scope for adoring God under other mani- Its toler- festations, or in other shapes. Unless a new sect takes the * initiative, by rejecting caste or, questioning the authority of the Veda, the Hindu is slow to dispute the orthodoxy of the movement. Even the founder of the Brähma Samáj, or modern theistic church of Bengal, lived and died a Hindu." The Indian vernacular press cordially acknowledges the merits of distinguished Christian teachers, like Dr. Duff of Calcutta, or Dr. Wilson of Bombay. At first, indeed, our missionaries, in their outburst of proselytizing zeal, spoke disrespectfully of Hinduism, and stirred up some natural resentment. But, as they more fully realized the problems involved in conversion, they moderated their tone, and now live on friendly terms with the Bráhmans and religious natives. - An orthodox Hindu paper, which had been filling its Hindu columns with a vigorous polemic entitled ‘Christianity . Destroyed,’ no sooner heard of the "death of the late Mr. tianity. Sherring, than it published a eulogium on that devoted mis- sionary. It dwelt on ‘his learning, affability, solidity, piety, benevolence, and business capacity.’ The editor, while a stout defender of his hereditary faith, regretted that “so little of Mr. Sherring's teaching had fallen to his lot.’” The Hindus are among the most tolerant religionists in the world. Of the three members of the Hindu Triad, the first person, Modern . fate of the Brahmá, has now but a few scattered handfuls of followers; Hi wº * & ſº indu the second person, Vishnu, supplies a worship for the middle Triad. classes; around the third person, Siva, in his twofold aspects, has grown up that mixture of philosophical symbolism with propitiatory rites professed by the highest and by the lowest * The best short account of this deeply-interesting movement, and of its first leader, Rammohan Roy, will be found under the title of Zºdiazz Theistic Reformers, by Professor Monier Williams, in the Journal of the Aoyal Asiatic Society, Jan. 1881, vol. xiii. See also his Modern Zndia (Trübner, 1879); and Miss Collet’s Brahmo Year Book (Williams & Norgate, annually). - * The Kazyż-bachazz Sudha, quoted in the Chronicle of the Zondon Mis- sionary Society for November 1880, p. 792. 278 RISE OF HINDUISM. The One God, PARAM- ESWARA, Recapitu- . lation. Three Western influences; (I) Chris- tianity, (2) Islám, (3) British Rule. castes. But the educated Hindu willingly recognises that, beyond and above his chosen deity of the Triad, or his favourite incarnation, or his village fetish, or his household sd/agrám, dwells the PARAM-ESWARA, the One First Cause, whom the eye has not seen, and whom the mind cannot conceive, but who may be worshipped in any one of the forms in which He manifests His power to men. The foregoing chapters indicate how, out of the early Aryan and non-Aryan races of India, as modified by Greek and Nágá and Scythic invasions, the Hindu population and the Hindu religion were built up. We shall next consider three series of influences which, within historic times, have been brought to bear, by nations from the West, upon the composite people thus formed. The first set of these influences is represented by the early Christian Church of India, a Church which had its origin in a period long anterior to the mediaeval Hinduism of the 9th century, and which is numerously repre- sented by the Syrian Christians of Malabar in our own day. The second foreign influence brought to bear upon India from the West consisted of the Muhammadan invasions, which eventually created the Mughal Empire. The third influence is represented by the European settlements, which culminated in the British Rule. | 279 | C H A P T E R IX. CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA (circa Ioo P TO 1891 A.D.) CHRISTIANITY now forms the faith of over 24 millions of the Christian- Indian population. Coeval with Buddhism during the last nine º coeval centuries of Buddhist Indian history, the teaching of Christ Buddhism has, after the lapse of another nine hundred years, twelve times for 990 more followers than the teaching of Buddha upon the Indian” continent, exclusive of Burma. Christianity, while a very old religion in India, is also one of the most active at the present day. The Census of 1891 disclosed that the Christians in British and Feudatory India had increased by 22 per cent., or more than one-fifth, since 1881; and this increase, while perhaps partly the result of more perfect enumeration, represents to a large extent a real growth. The total number of Christians in all India, including Burma, was 2,601,355 in 1891. The origin of Christianity in India is obscure. Early Origin tradition, accepted popularly by Roman Catholics, and doubt- tºº, fully by Protestants, connects it with St. Thomas the Apostle, India. who is said to have preached in Southern India, on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts; to have founded several The churches; and finally, to have been martyred at the Little º: Mount, near Madras, in 68 A.D. The Catholic tradition º narrates further, that a persecution arose not long after, in which all the priests perished; that many years later, the Patriarch of Babylon, while still in communion with Rome, heard of the desolate state of the Indian Church, and sent forth bishops who revived its faith; that about 486 A.D., Nestorianism spread from Babylon into Malabar. To Roman Catholic orthodoxy this tradition has a twofold Value value. It assigns an apostolic origin to the Christianity. Of tiºn. India; and it explains away the fact that Indian Christianity, when it emerges into history, formed a branch of the un- orthodox Nestorian Church. Modern criticism has questioned, and now rejects, the evidence for the evangelistic labours of the Doubting Apostle in Southern India. It has brought to light the careers of two later missionaries, both bearing the 28o CHR/STIAN/TY IN INDIA. name of Thomas, to whom, at widely separated dates, the honour of converting Southern India is assigned. Gibbon dismisses the question of their respective claims in a Con- venient triplet: — ‘The Indian missionary St. Thomas, an Apostle, a Manichaean, or an Armenian merchant.'" This method of treatment scarcely satisfies the present century; and the Statistical Survey of India has thrown fresh light on the Syrian Christians of the Southern Peninsula. The Syrian Jacobites still number 3oo, ooo,” or more than double the number of native Protestants on the continent of India (exclusive of Burma) up to 1861. Indeed, until within the past ten years, the remnants of the ancient Syrian Church had still a larger native following in India than all the Protestant sects put together.” It would be unsuitable to dismiss So ancient and so numerous a body without some attempt to trace their history. That history forms the longest continuous narrative of any religious sect in India except the Buddhists and Jains. The Syrian Church of Malabar had its origin in the period when Buddhism was still triumphant; it witnessed the birth of the Hinduism which superseded the doctrine and national polity of Buddha; it saw the arrival of the Muhammadans who ousted the Hindu dynasties; it suffered cruelly from the Roman Catholic inquisitors of the Portuguese ; but it has Survived its persecutors, and has formed a subject of interest to Anglican inquirers during the past eighty years. * Syrian Christians of India. Their numbers and antiquity. * Decline and Fall of the Åoman Æmpire (4to edition, 1788), vol. iv. p. 599, footnote I22. * According to the Madras Catholic Directory for 1891, Syrian Catholics numbered 221,551. They are under the jurisdiction of the Roman Vicars- Apostolic of Kotáyam and Trichúr, but are still distinguished as ‘Catholics of the Syrian Rite.’ According to the Missiones Catholicæ, the Syrian Jacobites numbered 336, IOO in 1891; but see posé, p. 294. * See Protestant Missions in India, Burma, and Ceylon, Statistical Tables, 1881, drawn up under the authority of the Calcutta Missionary Conference. This valuable compilation returns 138,731 Native Protest- ant Christians in 1861, and 224,258 in 1871, in India, exclusive of Burma. - * From the time of Claudius Buchanan and Bishop Heber downwards. See Asiatic Æesearches, vol. vii., “Account of St. Thomé Christians on the coast of Malabar,’ by Mr. Wrede; Buchanan’s Christian A’esearches 272 Asia, 4th ed. (1811), pp. IO6, I45; Heber's Journal, vol. ii.; Bishop Middleton's Zife, by Dr. Le Bas, chapters ix.-xii. (1831); Hough's Hist, of Christianity iſz Zjedia, 5 vols. (1839–60). The evidence has been re- examined from the Protestant point of view in a recent able work, Zhe Syrian Church in India, by Professor George Milne Rae, M.A., formerly of the Madras Christian College. Blackwood & Sons (1892). THREE ZEGENDS OF ST. THOMAS 281 The three legends of St. Thomas, the missionary of Southern The three India, may be summarized as follows. According to the º Chaldaean Breviary and certain Fathers of the Catholic Church, Thomas. St. Thomas the Apostle converted many countries of Asia, and 52 to 68 found a martyr's death in India. The meagre tradition of the “” (?) early Church was expanded by the Catholic writers of the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries. The abstract by Vincenzo Maria makes the Apostle commence his work in Mesopotamia, First and includes Bactria, Central Asia, China, ‘the States of the gend: Great Mogul,” Siam, Germany, Brazil, and Ethiopia, in the Thomas circle of his missionary labours. The apostolic traveller is º then said to have sailed east again to India, converting the (68 A.D.). island of Socotra on the way, and, after preaching in Malabar, to have ended his labours on the Coromandel coast." The final development of the tradition fills in the details of his death. It states that on the 21st December 68 A.D., the Brähmans stirred up a tumult against the Apostle, who, after being stoned by the crowd, was finally thrust through with a spear upon the Little Mount, and his body entombed at Mailapur, a suburb of Madras. The Second legend assigns the conversion of India to Second Thomas the Manichaean, or disciple of Manes, towards the #. end of the third century. Another legend ascribes the honour the Mani- to an Armenian merchant, Thomas Cana, in the eighth century. º D.) This story relates that Mar Thomas, the Armenian, settled in * * * * A s Malabar for purposes of trade, married two Indian ladies, and Third grew into power with the native princes. He found that such #. Christians as existed before his time had been driven by the Ar- persecution from the coast into the hill-country. Mar Thomas ºn Secured for them the privilege of worshipping according to .p. ?). their faith, led them back to the fertile coast of Malabar, and became their archbishop. On his death, his memory received the gradual and spontaneous honours of canonization by the Christian communities for whom he had laboured, and his name became identified with that of the Apostle. Whatever may be the claims of the Armenian Thomas as The three the re-builder of the Church in Southern India, he was pro- tº bably not its founder. Apart from the legends of Patristic literature, there is local evidence that Christianity flourished in Southern India before the eighth century. About the sixth the third century, while Buddhism was still at the height of its power, *; Kalyān, on the Bombay coast, appears to have been the seat * Zhe Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian. Colonel Yule's 2nd edition, vol. ii. p. 343, note 4 (1875), 282 CAHA’/ST/AAVITY ZAV ZAV/D/A. the second legend ; and the first. of a Christian bishop from Persia." We shall presently see that a missionary from Alexandria came to India about I90 A.D. . The claims of Thomas the Manichaean have the European support of the Church historians, La Croze,” Tillemont, and others. The local testimony of a cross dug up near Madras in 1547, bearing an inscription in the Pehlvi tongue, has also been urged in his favour. The inscription is probably of the 7th or 8th century A.D., and, although somewhat variously deciphered, bears witness to the sufferings of Christ.” For the claims of St. Thomas the Apostle, a longer and more ancient series of authorities are cited. The apocryphal history of St. Thomas, by Abdias, dating probably from the 2nd century, narrates that a certain Indian king, Gondaphorus, sent a merchant called Abban to Jesus, to seek a skilful architect to build him a palace. The story continues that the Lord sold Thomas to him as a slave expert in that art.* The * Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, vol. xiii. part i., Thána District, pp. 66, 200, etc. It is not necessary to dispute whether the seat of this bishopric was the modern Kalyān or Quilon (Coilam), as the coast from Bombay southward to Quilon bore indefinitely the name of Caliana. * Histoire du Christianisme des /ndes, 2 vols. 12mo (The Hague, 1758). * Professor Haug reads it thus: “Whoever believes in the Messiah, and in God above, and also in the Holy Ghost, is in the grace of Him who born the pain of the cross.” Dr. Burnell deciphers it more diffidently — “In punishment [P] by the cross [was] the suffering of this [one]: [He] who is the true Christ and God above, and Guide for ever pure.’ Yule's Marco A’olo, 2nd ed., p. 345, vol. ii.; at p. 339, the cross is figured. See also Professor Milne Rae's Syrian Church in India, pp. 119–123 (1892). * This legend forms the theme of the Hymnus in Festo Sanct; 7% oma Apostoli, ad Vesperas, in the Mozarabic Breviary, edited by Cardinal Lorenzana in 1775. Its twenty-one verses are given as an appendix in Dr. Kennet's Madras monograph. Three stanzas will here suffice:— “Nuncius venit de Indis Quaerere artificem: Architectum construere Regium palatium : In ford deambulabat Cunctorum venalium. Habeo servum fidelem, Locutus est Dominus, Ut exquiris talem, aptum Esse hunc artificem: Abbanes videns, et gaudens, Suscepit Apostolum.’ The hymn assigns the death of the Apostle to the priest of a Sun temple which had been overthrown by St. Thomas :-- [Åootnote continued one next page. THE INDIA' OF THE FATHERS 283 Apostle converted King Gondaphorus, and then journeyed on to another country of India, under King Meodeus, where he was slain by lances.” The existence of a King Gondaphorus has been established by coins, which would place him in the last century B.C., or within the first half of the first century of our era.” But, apart from difficulties of chronology, it is clear that the Gondaphorus of the coins was an Indo-Scythic monarch, reigning in regions which had no connection with Malabar. His coins are still found in numbers in Afghānistán and the Punjab, especially from Peshāwar to Ludhiana. He was essentially a Punjab potentate. The mention of St. Thomas the Apostle in connection with India by the Fathers, and in the Offices of the Church, does not really bring him nearer to Malabar, or to the supposed site of his martyrdom at Madras. For the term ‘India,’ at the period to which these authorities belong, referred to the countries beyond Persia, including Afghānistán and the basins of the Upper Oxus, and perhaps of the Indus and Ganges, but certainly not to the southern half of the peninsula. In the early accounts of the labours of St. Thomas, the vague term India is almost always associated with Persia, Media, or Bactria.” Nor does the appellation of St. Thomas as the Apostle of India in the Commemorations of the Church, help to identify him with the St. Thomas who preached on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts. For not only does ‘Tunc sacerdos idolorum Furibundus astitit, Gladio transverberavit Sanctum Christi martyrem. Glorioso passionis Laureatum sanguine.’ * Colonel Yule's Marco Polo, 2nd edition, vol. ii. p. 243. Dr. Kennet, in an interesting monograph, entitled St. Thomas, the Apostle of India, p. 19 (Madras, 1882), says:—‘The history of Abdias was published for the first time by Wolfgang Lazius, under the title of Abdia Babyloniae, Episcopi et Apostolorum Discipuli, de Historia certaminis Apostolici, libri decem ; /ulio Africano /nterprete. Basiliae, I532.’ The Acts of St. Thomas are translated in the Ante-Nicene Library, and have been criticised at some length in Mr. Rae’s Syrian Church in India, chaps. ii. iii. iv. (1892). * For the various dates, see Colonel Yule's Marco Polo, 2nd edition, vol. ii. p. 343. Colonel Yule's Cathay deals with the Chinese and Central Asian aspects of the legend of St. Thomas (2 vols., 1866). * Thus the Paschal Chronicle of Bishop Dorotheus (born A.D. 254) says: ‘The Apostle Thomas, after having preached the gospel to the Parthians, Medes, Persians, Germanians [an agricultural people of Persia mentioned by Herodotus, i. I25], Bactrians, and Magi, suffered martyrdom at Cala- [Aootnote continued on next page. Wide meaning of “India,” in the Fathers, 284 CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. the indeterminate character of the word still adhere to their use of ‘India,' but the area assigned to the Apostle's labours is so wide as to deprive them of value for the purpose of local identification. Thus, the Chaldaean Breviary of the Malabar Church itself states that “by St. Thomas were the Chinese and the Ethiopians converted to the Truth,’ while one of its anthems proclaims: ‘The Hindus, the Chinese, the Persians, and all the people of the Isles of the Sea, they who dwell in Syria and Armenia, in Javan and Roumania, call Thomas to remembrance, and adore Thy Name, O Thou our Redeemer l’ Candid inquiry must therefore decline to accept the con- nection of St. Thomas with the ‘India’ of the early Church as proof of the Apostle's identity with Thomas the missionary to Malabar. Nevertheless, there is evidence to indicate that Christianity had reached Malabar before the end of the second century A.D., and nearly a hundred years previous to the supposed labours of Thomas the Manichaean (circa 277 A.D.). In the 2nd century a Roman merchant fleet of one hundred sail steered regularly from Myos Hormus on the Red Sea, to Arabia, Ceylon, and Malabar. It may have found the ancient Jewish colony, the remnants of which still remain to this day as the Beni-Israels," upon the Bombay coast. Whether these Jews emigrated to India at the time of the Dispersion, or at a later period, local tradition assigns to their settlements an origin anterior to the second century of our era. The Red Sea fleet from Myos Hormus, which traded with the Bombay coast of India, must in all likelihood have brought with it Jewish merchants or others acquainted with the new religion of Christ, which, starting from Palestine, had penetrated throughout the Roman world. Part of the fleet, moreover, touched at Aden and skirted the Persian Gulf, themselves early seats of Christianity. Indeed, even after the direct sea-course to Malabar by the trade-winds was known, the main navigation to India for Some time hugged the Asiatic coast. Christian merchants from that coast, both of Jewish and other race, and in the Church Offices. First glimpse at Indian Christians, circa I90 A. D. The Roman fleet from Egypt. Jew settle- ments in ancient Malabar. mina, a town of India.’ Hippolytus, Bishop of Portus (circa 220 A.D.), assigns to St. Thomas, Parthia, Media, Persia, Hercania, the Bactri, the Mardi; and, while ascribing the conversion of India to St. Bartholomew, mentions Calamina, a city of India, as the place of St. Thomas' martyr- dom. The Metropolitan Johannes, who attended the Council of Nicaea in 325, subscribed as Bishop of ‘India Maxima and Persia.' Dr. Kennet's monograph (Madras, I882); Hough, i. pp. 30 to II6. * For their present numbers and condition, see the Bombay Gazetteer, by Mr. J. M. Campbell, LL.D., of the Bombay Civil Service, vol. xi. pp. 85 and 421; vol. xiii. p. 273. INDIAN CHRISTIANS, 196 A.D. 285 would in the natural course of trade have reached Malabar within the 2nd century A.D." The Buddhist polity, then supreme in Southern India, was favourable to the reception of a faith whose moral characteristics were humanity and self- sacrifice. Perhaps earlier Jewish settlers had familiarized the native mind with the existence of an ancient and imposing religion in Palestine. When that religion was presented in its new and more attractive form of Christianity, no miraculous intervention was required to commend it to the tolerant Buddhist princes of Southern India. About 190 A.D., rumours, possibly brought back by the Red Malabar Sea fleet, of a Christian community on the Malabar Coast, º fired the zeal of Pantaenus of Alexandria. Pantaenus, in his A.D. earlier years a Stoic philosopher, was then head of the cele- Pantaenus, brated school which formed one of the glories of his city. He . * became the first missionary to India; and although it has to India: been questioned whether he reached India Proper, the evi. º dence seems in favour of his having done so. He ‘found his "" own arrival anticipated by some who were acquainted with the Gospel of Matthew ; to whom Bartholomew, one of the Apostles, had preached; and had left them the same Gospel in the Hebrew, which also was preserved until this time.’” His mission to India may be placed at the end of the 2nd century. ‘Pantaenus,’ says Jerome, “was a man of such learning, both in the sacred scriptures and in secular know- ledge, that Demetrius, the Bishop of Alexandria, sent him to India at the request of ambassadors of that nation. And there he found that Bartholomew, one of the twelve Apostles, had preached the advent of Our Lord Jesus Christ, according to the Gospel of Matthew written in Hebrew, which he brought away with him on his return to Alexandria.” Early in the 3rd century, St. Hippolytus, Bishop of Portus (circ. 220 A.D.), Hippoly- also assigns the conversion of India to the Apostle Bartholo- º ... mew. To Thomas he ascribes Persia and the countries of a sº e Central Asia, although he mentions Calamina, ‘a city of India,” as the place where Thomas suffered death. * The Roman trade with the Southern coast of India probably dates from, or before, the apostolic period. Of 522 silver denarii found near Coimbatore in 1842, no fewer than 135 were coins of Augustus, and 378 of Tiberius. Another find near Calicut about 1850 contained an aureus of Augustus, with several hundred coins, none later than the Emperor Nero. * Dr. Kennet, quoting Eusebius, in his monograph on St. Thomas, the Apostle of Zndia, p. 9 (Madras, 1882). * Zööer de Våris ///ustribus, quoted by Professor Milne Rae, Zhe Syrian Church in India, pp. 66, 367 (1892). 286 CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. Cosmas Indico- pleustes, circ. 547 A. D. Nestorian- ism in Asia. Side by side with Buddhism for IOOO years. Indeed, the traditions of the early Christian writers tend to connect St. Thomas with the India of the ancient world,— that is to say, with Persia and Afghānistán, and St. Bartholo- mew with the Christian settlements on the Malabar coast. Cosmas Indico-pleustes writes of a Christian Church in Ceylon, and on the Callian or Malabar sea-board (circ. 540 A.D.). But he makes no mention of its foundation by St. Thomas, which, as an Alexandrian monk, he would have been almost sure to do had he heard any local tradition of the circumstance. He states that the Malabar Bishop was consecrated in Persia; from which we may infer that the Christians of Southern India had already been brought within the Nestorian fold. There is but slight evidence for fixing upon the Malabar coast as the seat of the orthodox Bishop Frumentius, sent forth by Athanasius to India and the East, circ. 355 A.D. The traditional connection of either St. Thomas or St. Matthew, or of any other missionary of the early apostolic age, with the Indian peninsula (that is to say, with India in the modern sense of the word), must be regarded as apocryphal. When Indian Christianity first clearly emerges into history, it formed part of the Nestorian Church. At a very early date in our era, Edessa, the Athens of Syria, had become a centre of Christian teaching, whence missionaries issued to the Eastern world. In the 5th century, Nestorianism, driven forth from Europe and Africa, became definitively the doc- trine of the Asiatic Church, and Syriac became the sacred language of Christian colonies far beyond the geographical limits of Syria. Bishops, priests, and deacons from Syria spread a certain uniformity in matters of faith and ritual through Persia and along the Persian and Arabian sea-boards, and thence to the Christian settlements on the Indian coast. It should be remembered, therefore, that during the thousand years when Christianity flourished in Asia, from the 5th to the 15th century, it was the Christianity of Nestorius. The Jacobite sect dwelt in the midst of the Nestorians; and for nearly a thousand years, the Christianity of these types, together with Buddhism, formed the two highest religions of Central Asia. How far Buddhism and Christianity mutually influenced each other's doctrine and ritual in Asia still remains a complex problem. But Christianity in western Central Asia offered a longer resistance than Buddhism to the advancing avalanche of Islám ; and in the countries to the west of Tibet the Christian faith survived its Buddhist rival. “Under the reign of the Caliphs,’ says Gibbon, “the Nestorian Church THE WESTORIAN CHURCH, 287 was diffused from China to Jerusalem and Cyprus; and their numbers, with those of the Jacobites, were computed to surpass the Greek and Latin communions.’” - The marvellous history of the Christian Tartar potentate, Prester John, king, warrior, and priest, is a mediaeval legend based on the ascendancy of Christianity in some of the Central Asian States.” The travellers in Tartary and China, from the 12th to the 15th century, bear witness to the Its wide extensive survival, and once flourishing condition, of the * Nestorian Church, and justify Pierre Bergeron's description of it as ‘epandue par toute l'Asie.” The term Catholicos, which the Nestorians applied to their Patriarch, and the Jacobites to their Metropolitan, survives in the languages of Central Asia. The mediaeval travellers preserve it in various forms;4 and the British Embassy to Yarkand, in 1873, still came upon a story of ‘a poor and aged /ăţlić, or Christian priest.” - From their first appearance in Indian local history, the Thomas Malabar Christians obeyed bishops from Persia of the Nes- º torian rite.” By the 7th century, the Persian Church had 2 adopted the name of Thomas Christians, and this title would in time be extended to all its branches, including that of Malabar. The early legend of the Manichaean Thomas in and of the 3rd century, and the later labours of the Armenian India. Thomas, the rebuilder of the Malabar Church, in the 8th, endeared that name to the Christians of Southern India. In their comparative isolation and ignorance, they perhaps con- founded the three names, and concentrated their legends of * Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, p. 598, vol. iv. (4to ed. 1788). Gibbon quotes his authorities for this statement in a footnote. The whole subject of early Christianity in Central Asia and China has been discussed with exhaustive learning in Colonel Yule's Cathay, and the Way Zhither. Hakluyt Society, 2 vols., 1866. * “Voyage de Rubruquis en Tartarie,’ chap. xix., in the quarto volume of Voyages en Asie, published at the Hague in 1735. Guliemus de Rubru- quis was an ambassador of Louis IX., sent to Tartary and China in 1253 A.D. Colonel Yule also gives the story of Prester John in Marco Polo, vol. i. pp. 229–233 (ed. I875). - . * “Traité des Tartares,’ par Pierre Bergeron, chap. iii. in the Hague quarto of Voyages en Asie, above quoted (I'735). * /dthaláž, Jatolic, /atelic ; originally Gáthalić. - * Dr. Bellew's ‘History of Kāshgar,’ in the Official Aeport of Sir Douglas Forsyth's Mission, p. 127. (Quarto, Foreign Office Press, Cal- cutta, 1875.) - * Mr. Campbell's Bombay Gazetteer, Thána District, chap. iii. (Bombay, 1882.) * 288 CHR/ST/AAV77"V ZAV ZAVD/A. Legend of St. Thomas localized ; } - the three Thomases, in the person of the Apostle. Before the 14th century, they had completed the process by believing that their St. Thomas was Christ. The fitness of things soon required that the life and death of the Apostle should be localized by the Southern Indian Church. Patristic literature clearly declares that St. Thomas had suffered martyrdom at Calamina, probably in some in spite of difficulties, at Madras. I3th cen- tury form of the legend. . Mixed worship at the shrine. country east of Persia, or in Northern India itself. The tradition of the Church is equally distinct, that in 394 A.D. the remains of the Apostle were transferred to Edessa in Mesopotamia.” The attempt to localize the death of St. Thomas on the southern coast of India started, therefore, under disadvantages. A suitable site was, however, found at the Mount, near Madras, one of the many famous hill shrines of ancient India which have formed a joint resort of religious persons of diverse faiths, – Buddhist, Muhammadan, and Hindu (ante, pp. 252, 253). Marco Polo, in an account of Mailapur, where St. Thomas was said to be buried, gives the legend in its undeveloped form in the 13th century. The Apostle had, it seems, been acci- dentally killed outside his hermitage by a fowler, who, “not seeing the saint, let fly an arrow at one of the peacocks. And this arrow struck the holy man in the right side, so that he died of the wound, sweetly addressing himself to his Creator.’ 8 Miracles were wrought at the place, and conflicting creeds claimed the hermit as their own. “Both Christians and Saracens, however, greatly frequent it in pilgrimage,’ says Marco Polo truthfully, although evidently a little puzzled.4 ‘For the Saracens also do hold the Saint in great reverence, and say that he was one of their own Saracens, and a great prophet.” Not only the Muhammadans and Christians, but also the Hindus, seem to have felt the religious attractions of the spot. About thirty years after Marco Polo, the Church itself was, according to Odoric, filled with idols.” Two cen- turies later, Joseph of Cranganore, the Malabar Christian, still testifies to the joint worship of the Christian and the heathen at St. Thomas' tomb. The Syrian bishops sent to India in * The Jacobites, or followers of Jacobus Baradaeus, prefer in the same way to deduce their name and pedigree from the Apostle James. Gibbon, iv. 603, footnote (ed. I788). * For the authorities, see Dr. Kennet's Madras monograph, St. 7% omas, the Apostle of India (1882); and Colonel Yule's critical note, Marco Polo, vol. ii. p. 342 (2nd edition, 1875). . - * Colonel Yule's Marco Polo (2nd edition, 1875), vol. ii. p. 340. * Zden, ii. pp. 338, 339. * Zdem, ii. p. 344. A/AWAZ Z/2 GAZAV/D OA' ST. THOMAS, 289 1504 heard ‘that the church had begun to be occupied by Some Christian people. But Barbosa, a few years later, found it half in ruins, and in charge of a Muhammadan fakár, who kept a lamp burning.’” - Brighter days, however, now dawned for the Madras legend. The Portuguese zeal, in its first fervours of Indian evangelization, º:º felt keenly the want of a sustaining local hagiology. Saint Catherine had, indeed, visibly delivered Goa into their hands; and a parish church, afterwards the cathedral, was dedicated to her in 1512. Ten years later, the Governor Duarte de Menezes became ambitious of enriching his capital with the bones of an apostle. A mission from Goa despatched to the Coro- by the mandel coast in 1522, proved itself ignorant of, or superior to, ºr the well-established legend of the translation of the saint's guese. remains to Edessa in 394 A.D., and found his sacred relics at the ancient shrine near Madras, side by side with those of a king whom he had converted to the faith. They were brought Relics at with pomp to Goa, the Portuguese capital of India, and Goa. enshrined anew in the Church of St. Thomas.” The finding of the Pehlvi cross, mentioned on a previous Final form page (282), at St. Thomas' Mount in 1547, gave a fresh iº. colouring to the legend. So far as its inscription goes, it points to a Persian, and probably to a Manichaean origin. But at the period when it was dug up, no one in Madras could decipher its Pehlvi characters. A Bráhman impostor, knowing that there was a local demand for martyrs, accord- ingly came forward with a fictitious interpretation. The simple story of Thomas’ accidental death from a stray arrow, had before this grown into a cruel martyrdom by stoning and a lance-thrust, with each spot in the tragedy fixed at the Greater and Lesser Mount near Madras. The Brähman pretended to supply a confirmation of the legend from the inscription on the cross—a confirmation which continued to be accepted until Dr. Burnell and Professor Haug published their decipherments in our own day. “In the 16th and 17th centuries,’ says Colonel Yule, “Roman Catholic ecclesiastical story-tellers seem to have striven in rivalry who should most recklessly expand the travels of the Apostle.’ The lying interpretation of the Brähman, and the visible King relics in the church at Goa, seem to have influenced the #: mbassy, * Colonel Yule's Marco Polo (2nd edition, 1875), vol. ii. p. 344. * /öid. Colonel Yule's Cathay (2 vols. I866) should also be referred to by students of the legend of St. Thomas, and his alleged labours in Asia and India. T 290 CA/A2/ST/AAV/TV ZAV ZAV/D/A. popular imagination more powerfully than the clear tradition of the early Church regarding the translation of the Apostle's relics to Edessa. Even a story of our own King Alfred was pressed into the service of St. Thomas of Madras. ‘This year,’ 883 A.D., the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle had said, ‘Sighelm and Athelstane carried to Rome the alms which the king had vowed to send thither, and also to India to St. Thomas and to St. Bartholomew.” Gibbon suspects ‘that the English ambassadors collected their cargo and legend in Egypt.” It is certain that they never visited the Coromandel coast. The ‘India’ of Alfred was still the India of the early Church, and his messengers may perhaps have reached the ancient shrine of St. Thomas at Edessa. The legend of St. Thomas' death has in our own century been illustrated by the eloquence and learning of bishops and divines of the Anglo-Indian Church. “But,’ concludes Colonel Yule, ‘ I see that the authorities now ruling the Catholics at Madras are strong in disparagement of the special sanctity of the localities, and of the whole story connecting St. Thomas with Mailapur,’ the alleged place of his burial.3 As a matter of history, the life of the Nestorian Church in India was a troubled one. A letter from the Patriarch Jesajabus to Simeon, Metropolitan of Persia, shows that before 660 A.D., the Christians along the Indian coast were destitute of a regular ministry.* In the 8th century, the Armenian Mar Thomas found the Malabar Christians driven back into the recesses of the mountains. In the 14th century, Friar Jordanus declared them to be Christians only in name, without baptism. They even confounded St. Thomas with Christ.” A mixed worship, Christian, Muhammadan, and Hindu, went on at the old joint shrine near Madras. In some districts of Southern India the Church developed, like the Sikhs in the Punjab, into a military sovereignty. In others, it dwindled away; its remnants lingering in the mountains and woods, or adopting heathen rites. The family names of a but to which shrine (?) Troubles of the ancient Indian Church. * Hough, i. p. IO4 (1839); Dr. Kennet's Madras monograph, St. Thomas, the Apostle of India, pp. 6, 7 (1882). * Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. iv. p. 599, footnote I23 (ed. I788); Hough, vol. i. pp. IO5–IO7. * Colonel Yule's Marco Polo, ii. p. 344 (ed. 1875). * Asseman: Bibliotheca, quoted by Bishop Caldwell, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Zanguages, p. 27, footnote (ed. 1875). Jesajabus died 660 A.D. * Jordanus, quoted in Mr. J. M. Campbell's Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xiii. part i. p. 200 (ed. 1882). AOA&TUGUESE PROSEZ YZZZZZVG. 29I forest tribe in Kånara, now Hindus, bear witness to a time when they were Christians; and there were probably other similar reversions to paganism. The downfall of the Nestorian Church in India was due, however, neither to such reversions to paganism nor to any persecutions of native princes ; but to the pressure of the Portuguese Inquisition, and the proselytizing energy of Rome. Before the arrival of Vasco da Gama in 1498, the St. Thomas Christians had established their position as a powerful military The St. caste in Malabar. The Portuguese found them firmly organ- ğı. ized under their spiritual leaders, bishops, archdeacons, and a military priests, who acted as their representatives in dealing with the caste; Indian princes. For long they had Christian kings, and at a later period chiefs, of their own.” In virtue of an ancient charter, ascribed to Cherumal Perumal, Suzerain of Southern India in the 9th century A.D., the Malabar Christians en- joyed all the rights of nobility.” They even claimed precedence of the Nāirs, who formed the heathen aristocracy. The St. Thomas Christians and the Nāirs were, in fact, the most important military castes on the south-west coast.* They supplied the bodyguard of the local kings; and the Christian powerful caste was the first to learn the use of gunpowder and fire-arms. º They thus became the matchlock-men of the Indian troops of Southern India, usually placed in the van, or around the person of the prince. The Portuguese, by a happy chance, landed on the very Portu- Province of India in which Christianity was most firmly estab- #. lished, and in which Christians had for long formed a recog- at their nised and respected caste. The proselytizing energy of the conversion *- º - to Rome. new-comers could not, however, rest satisfied with their good fortune. That energy was vigorously directed both against the natives and the ancient Christian communities. Indeed, the Nestorian heresy of the St. Thomas Christians seemed to the * The Maráthi Sidis. For an interesting account of them, see Mr. J. M. Campbell's Bombay Gazetteer, Kánara District, vol. xv. part i. p. 397 (ed. 1883). - * Aſistoire du Christianisme des Indes, par M. V. La Croze, vol. i. p. 72, ii. p. 133, etc. (2 vols. I2mo, The Hague, 1758). * Idem, i. p. 67. For details, see The Syrian Church of Malabar, by Edavalikel Philipos, p. 23, and footnote (Oxford, 1869). Local legend vainly places Cherumal Perúmal and his grant as far back as 345 A.D. * For the military aspects of the Christian caste of St. Thomas, see La Croze (op. cit.), ii. pp. 128, 129, 130, I40, I55, etc. The History of the Church of Malabar and Synod of Diamper, by the learned Michael Geddes, Chancellor of the Cathedral Church of Sarum (London, I694), an earlier and independent work, bears out this view. 292 CAE/ACAST/AAVZZTV ZAV ZAV/D/A. Synod of Diamper, I599. Reversions and Con- versions, 1653-1663. Malabar Christians freed by the Dutch, 1663; fervour of the friars to be a direct call from heaven for inter- ference by the orthodox Church. The Portuguese established the Inquisition, as we shall presently see, at Goa in 1560. After various Portuguese attempts, strongly resisted by the St. Thomas Christians, the latter were incorporated into the Catholic Church, by the labours of Alexis de Menezes, Archbishop of Goa, in 1599. The Synod held by him at Udayampura (or Diamper), near Cochin, in that year denounced Nestorius and his heresies, and put an end for a time to the existence of the Indian Nestorian Church. No document could be more exhaustively complete than the Acts and Decrees of the Synod of Diamper, in its pro- visions for bringing the Malabar Christians within the Roman fold." The sacred books of the St. Thomas congregations, their missals, their consecrated oil and church ornaments, were publicly burned ; and their religious nationality as a separate caste was abolished. But when the firm hand of Archbishop Menezes was withdrawn, his parchment con- versions began to lose their force. Notwithstanding the watchfulness of the Goa Inquisition over the new converts, the Decrees of the Synod of Diamper fell into neglect,” and the Malabar Christians chafed under a line of Roman Catholic prelates from 1601 to 1653. In 1653 they renounced their allegiance to their Catholic bishop. A Carmelite mission was despatched from Rome in 1656 to restore order. The vigorous measures of its head, Joseph of St. Mary, brought back a section of the old Christian Communities; and Joseph, having reported his success at Rome, returned to India as their bishop in 1661. He found the Protestant Dutch pressing the Portuguese hard on the Malabar coast, 1661–1663. But the old military caste of Malabar Christians rendered no assistance to their Catholic Superiors, and remained tranquil spectators of the struggle, till the capture of Cochin by the Dutch brought about the ruin of the Portuguese power in 1663. The Malabar Christians, thus delivered from the temporal power of the Portuguese, reasserted their spiritual independ- ence. The Portuguese had compelled the native princes to persecute the old Christian communities; and by confiscations, imprisonments, and various forms of pressure, to drive the * The Acts and Decrees of the Synod of Diamper (i.e. Udayampura) occupy 346 pages of the Chancellor of Sarum's History of the Church of Malabar, pp. 97–443 (ed. I694). * La Croze, ii. p. 193. MAZABAR CHRISTIANS SZAWCE 1665. 293 Indian Nestorians into reconciliation with Rome." Such a persecution of a long-recognised caste, especially of a valued military caste, was as foreign to the tolerant spirit of Hinduism as it was repugnant to the policy of the Indian princes, and it has left a deep impression on the traditions of the south- western coast. The native Jacobite historian of the Church of Malabar rises to the righteous wrath of an old Scottish Covenanter in recounting the bribing of the poorer chiefs by the Portuguese, and the killings, persecutions, and separations of the married clergy from their wives. The new Dutch masters of the southern coast, after a short antagonism to the Carmelite prelate and the native bishop whom he left behind, lapsed into indifference. They allowed the Roman mission- aries free scope, but put an end to the exercise of the temporal power in support of the Catholic bishop.” The chief spiritual weapon of conversion, a weapon dexterously used by the Portuguese Viceroys, had been the interruption of the supply of Nestorian bishops from Persia. This they effected by watching the ports along the west receive a coast of India, and preventing the entrance of any Nestorian {. prelate. The Syrian Church in India had therefore to struggle 1665.” on under its archdeacon, with grave doubts disturbing the mind of its clergy and laity as to whether the archidiaconal consecration was sufficient for the ordination of its priests. The overthrow of the Portuguese on the seaboard put an end to this long episcopal blockade. In 1665, the Patriarch of Antioch sent a bishop, Mar Gregory, to the orphaned Syrian Church of India. But the new bishop belonged to the Jacobite instead of the Nestorian branch of the Asiatic Church. Indian Nestorianism may therefore be said to have received its death-blow from the Synod of Diamper in I599. Since the arrival of Mar Gregory in 1665, the old Syrian Malabar Church of India has remained divided into two sects. The 9” † o SII). Ce Pazheia Kºttakár, or Old Church, owed its foundation to 1665; Archbishop Menezes and the Synod of Diamper in 1599, and its reconciliation, after revolt, to the Carmelite bishop, Joseph of St. Mary, in 1656. It retains in its services the Syrian (1) Syrian language and in part the Syrian ritual. But it acknowledges º the Supremacy of the Pope, and his Vicars-Apostolic. Its 1891. members are now known as Catholics of the Syrian Rite, to distinguish them from the converts made direct from heathenism * La Croze, ii. pp. 169, 176, 183, 189, 192, 198, 203, etc. * Zdem, pp. 204, 205. - 2.94 CAEWA’/S7/AAV/TV /AV ZAV/O/A. to the Latin Church by the Roman missionaries. The other section of the Syrian Christians of Malabar is called the Putten Åiſtakār, or New Church. It adheres to the Jacobite tenets introduced by its first Jacobite bishop, Mar Gregory, in 1665. The present Jacobites of Malabar condemn equally the errors of Arius, Nestorius, and the Bishops of Rome." They hold that the Bread and Wine in the Eucharist become the Real Body and Blood of Christ, and give communion in both kinds mixed together. They pray for the dead, practise con- fession, make the sign of the cross, and observe fasts. But they reject the use of images; honour the Mother of Jesus and the Saints only as holy persons and friends of God; allow the consecration of a married layman or deacon to the office of priest ; and deny the existence of purgatory. In their Creed they follow the Council of Nicaea (325 A.D.). They believe in the Trinity; assert the One Nature and the One Person of Christ, and declare the procession of the Holy Ghost to be from the Father, instead of from the Father and the Son.” The Syrian Catholics and Syrian Jacobites of Malabar main- tain their differences with a high degree of religious vitality at the present day. Their congregations keep themselves distinct from the Catholics of the Latin Rite converted direct from heathenism, and from the Protestant sects. The Syrian Catholics numbered 221,551 in 1891. The Catholic Arch- bishop of Verapoli, to whose kind assistance this chapter is indebted in many ways, estimated the Syrian Catholics at 200,ooo, and the Jacobites at Ioo, ooo about 1880. The Missiones Catholicæ, published by the Propaganda, return the Jacobites at 336, Ioo in 1891. This is probably an excessive estimate: a safer figure would be perhaps in round numbers 3oo, ooo. In 1876, the Jacobite Church of Malabar, or the ecclesiastical province of Malankarai, was divided into seven bishoprics. A disputed succession to its patriarchate, or office of Metran, plunged the Syrian Jacobite Church of Southern India into ten years of litigation, from 1879 to 1889. The case was carried from the Court of First Instance to the High Court of Travancore, and thence to the Royal Court (2) Jaco- bites, 3OO,OOO (?) in 1890. Tenets of the Malabar Jacobites. Nesto- rianism extinct in Malabar. * The Syrian Christians of Malabar, being a Catechism of their doctrine and ritual, by Edavalikel Philipos, Chorepiscopus and Cathanar (i.e. priest) of the Great Church of Cottayam in Travancore, pp. 3, 4, 8 (Parker, 1869). * Condensed from Catechism of E. Philipos, op. cit., pp. 9-13, 17, 19. AAA’ Z Y POA” TUG UESE MISS/O M.S. 295 of Travancore or Final Court of Appeal; the sitting bench in each Court consisting of a Christian and one or more Hindu judges. The Syrian Christians in India, whether Catholic or Jacobite, owe their survival as organic bodies in no small measure to the fact that they practically formed themselves into castes, dwelling in the territories of a Hindu dynasty—that is to say, with all their surroundings in favour of the perpetuation of any hereditary aggregate of persons who can constitute themselves into a recognised caste. If the Buddhists had in like manner amalgamated into a coherent caste, they would now be numbered probably by millions instead of by hundreds of thousands on the continent of India, exclusive of Burma. Roman friars had visited India since the 13th century. Portu- The first regularly equipped Catholic mission, composed of .” SIOnaries, Franciscan brethren, arrived from Portugal in 15oo. Their 1500 A.D., attacks on the native religions seemed part of the Portuguese policy of aggression on the Native States. The pious Portuguese monks were popularly identified with the brutal Portuguese soldiery, whose cruelties have left so deep a stain on early European enterprise in India. The military attempts of the identified Portuguese, and their ill-treatment of the native princes and yºur the native population, provoked unmerited hatred against the aggres- disinterested, if sometimes ill-judged, zeal of the Portuguese signs. missionaries. Native reprisals, which certain writers have dignified by the Native re name of persecutions, occasionally took place in return for rº Portuguese atrocities. But the punishments suffered by the tions.” friars were usually inflicted for disobedience to the native civil power, or for public attacks on native objects of veneration; such attacks as are provided for by the clauses in the Anglo- Indian Penal Code, which deal with words or signs calculated to wound the religious feelings of others. Attacks of this kind led to tumults among an excitable population, and to serious breaches of the peace, often attended with bloodshed. The native princes, alarmed at the combined Portuguese assault on their territory and their religion, could not be expected to decide in such cases with the cold neutrality of an Anglo- Indian magistrate. A Roman Catholic friar is said to have been killed in 15oo ; but this is disputed. For some time, indeed, missionary work was almost con-Slow fined to the Portuguese settlements, although King Emmanuel Pºšº (1498–1521) and his son John III. (1521–57) had much at heart the conversion of the Indians. Their first bishop in India 296 CAIRZSZZAAV/TV ZAV /AVD/A. was Duarte (?) Nunes, a Dominican (1514–17); and John de Albuquerque, a Franciscan, was the first bishop of Goa (1539–53). With St. Francis Xavier, who arrived in 1542, began the labours of the Society of Jesus in the East, and the progress of Christianity became more rapid. St. Francis' name is associated with the Malabar Coast, and with the maritime tracts of Madura and Southern Madras. He completed the conversion of the Páravárs in Tinnevell District. His relics repose in a silver shrine at Goa.” Punnaikāyal, in Tinnevelli, was the scene, in 1549, of the death of Father Antonio Criminale, the protomartyr of the Society of Jesus; and in the following year, Several other lives were lost in preaching the gospel. Goa became an Archbishopric in 1557. The labours of the Archbishop of Goa, Alexis de Menezes, an Augustinian, in reconcil- ing the Indian Nestorians to Rome, have already been mentioned. The Jesuit ‘mission of Madura’ dates from 1606, and is associated with the names of Robert de Nobili (its founder, who died 1656), John de Britto (killed in Madura 1693), Beschi the great scholar (who died about 1746), and other illustrious Jesuits, chiefly Portuguese.” They laboured in Madura, Trichinopoli, Tanjore, Tinnevelli, Salem, etc. The mission of the Karnātik, also a Jesuit mission, was French in its origin, and due in some measure to Louis XIV. in 17oo. Its centre was at Pondicherri. The early Jesuit missions are particularly interesting. Their priests became perfect Indians in all secular matters, dress, food, etc., and had equal success among all castes, high and low. In the south of the peninsula, they had a share in bringing, as we have seen, the old Christian settlements of the Syrian Rite into communion with Rome, and converted large sections of the native population throughout extensive districts. The Society of Jesus had also several less important missions in the North of India. During the 17th and 18th centuries, religious troubles and difficulties arose in Southern India through the action of the Catholic missionaries in regard to caste observances. Other difficulties were caused by the Portuguese king and his ecclesiastical nominees claim- ing a monopoly of the missions. The Dutch adventurers also for a time persecuted the Catholics along the coast. * See article TINNEveLLI DISTRICT, Zhe Imperial Gazetteer of India. Xavier and the Jesuits, I542. St. Francis Xavier. Alexis de Menezes. The Madras Jesuits. Good work done by the Jesuits. * See article GOA, idem. * See articles MADURA and TINNEVELLI, idem. AASYS OF POACTUG UESE RULE. 297 Yet in the 16th century it seemed as if Christianity was destined to be established by Jesuit preachers throughout a large part of India. The literary activity of missionaries belonging to the Order was also very great. Their early efforts in the cause of education, and in printing books in the various languages, are remarkable. De Nobili and Beschi have been named. Fathers Arnauld and Calmette should not be forgotten. Even apart from works of scholarship, the early Indian Letters Jesuits have left literary memorials of much interest and value. jº. Their letters, addressed to the General of the Order in Europe, 46th and afford a vivid glimpse into the state of India during the 16th º and 17th centuries. One volume," which deals with the period º ending in 1570, furnishes by way of preface a topographical guide to the Jesuit stations in the East. Separate sections Jesuit are devoted to Goa, Cochin, Bassein, Thána, and other places i. in Western India, including the island of Socotra, in which Albuquerque had already found remnants of the Christians of St. Thomas. The letters, as a whole, disclose at once the vitality and Basis of the weakness of the Portuguese position in the East. The ºne. Lusitanian conquest of India had a deeper fascination, and º appeared at the time to have a higher moral significance for Christendom, than afterwards attached to our more hesitating and matter-of-fact operations. The Portuguese progress formed a triumph of military ardour and religious zeal. They resolved not only to conquer India, but also to convert her. Only by slow degrees were they compelled in secret to realize that they had entered on a task the magnitude of which they had not gauged, and the execution of which proved to be altogether beyond their strength. All that chivalry and enthusiastic piety could effect, they accomplished. But they conquest failed to fulfil either their own hopes, or the expectations which and sº they had raised in the minds of their countrymen at home. VCISIOIl. Their Viceroys had to show to Europe results which they were not able to produce ; and so they were fain to accept the shadow for the substance, and in their official despatches to represent appearances as realities. In their military narratives, every petty Rājā or village chief who sent them a few pump- kins or mangoes, becomes a tributary Rex, conquered by their * A'erum a Societafe Jesu in Oriente Gestarum Volumen, Coloniae, anno I574. It purports to have been translated into Latin from the Spanish. I have to thank Mr. Ernest Satow, formerly of H.B.M.'s Japanese Lega- tion, for a loan of this curious volume. 298 CAE/A2/ST/AAWZZ"V ZAV ZAVZ)/A. arms or constrained to submission by the terror of their name. In their ecclesiastical epistles the whole country is a land flowing with milk and honey, and teeming with a population eager for Sacramental rites. - The Swift downfall of the Portuguese power, based upon conquest and conversion, will be exhibited in a later chapter. But the Portuguese are the only European nation who have created, or left behind them, a Christian State polity in India. To this day, their East India settlements are territorially arranged in parishes; and the traveller finds himself surrounded by churches and other ecclesiastical features of a Christian country, among the rice-fields and jungles of Goa and Damán. This parochial organization of Portuguese India was the direct result of the political system imposed on the Viceroys from Europe. But, indirectly, it represents the method adopted by the Society of Jesus in its efforts at conversion. The Jesuits worked to a large extent by means of industrial settlements. Many of their stations consisted of regular agricultural com- munities, with lands and a local jurisdiction of their own. Indeed, both in the town and country, conversion went hand in hand with attempts at improved husbandry, or with a train- ing in some mechanical art. This combination of Christianity with organized labour may best be understood from a description of two individual settle- ments:" Thána, a military agricultural station; and Cochin, a collegiate city and naval port. Thána, says a Jesuit letter- writer in the middle of the 16th century, is a fortified town where the Brethren have a number of converts. Once on a time a wrinkled and deformed old man came to them from distant parts, greatly desiring to be made a Christian. He was accordingly placed before a picture of the Blessed Virgin, and, having sought to kiss the Child, was forthwith baptized. He died in peace and joy next morning. Many boys and girls were likewise bought from the barbarians for a few pence a-piece. These swelled the family of Christ, and were trained up in doctrine and handicrafts. During the day they plied their trades as shoemakers, tailors, weavers, and iron-workers; on their return at evening to the College, they sang the Catechism and Litanies in alternate choirs. Others of them Parochial organiza- tion of Portu- guese India. Thána, a Jesuit station, I550 A.D. Christian craftsmen. 1 The following details were abstracted and condensed chiefly from the A'erum a Societate Jesu in Oriente Gestarum Volumen, already referred to. This book is no longer in the author's possession, and as he is unable to procure a copy, the pages cannot be cited, nor the exact words verified. * JESUIT SYSTEM OF WORK 299 were employed in agriculture, and went forth to collect fruits, or to work with the adult Christian cultivators in the fields. There was also a Christian village, the Hamlet of the Trinity, 3ooo paces off, upon temple lands bought up and Consecrated by the Order. The Society had, moreover, certain farms, yielding 3oo pieces of gold a year. This money Sup- Christian ported the widows and orphans, the sick, and catechumens "* while engaged in their studies. The poorer converts were encouraged in agriculture by a system of advances. Every- thing seemed to prosper in the hands of the Jesuit Brethren, and their very goats had kids by couplets and triplets every year. The husbandmen ‘are all excellent cultivators and good men,’ well skilled in the Mysteries, and constant in the practice of their faith, assembling daily together ad signum angelica salutationis. ‘Even in the woods, boys and men are heard Chanting the Ten Commandments in a loud voice from the tops of the palm-trees.’ The management of the mission stations seems to have been Jesuit rural admirable. Four or five Brothers of the Order regulated alike ...” the secular and the spiritual affairs of each community. One of them was a Surgeon, who cured ulcers, Sores, and dangerous maladies. The Christian village of the Trinity had, moreover, Certain gardens which the inhabitants held in common, well irrigated, and rich in vines, figs, and medicinal fruits. The Catechism was publicly rehearsed once on ordinary days, twice on holidays. They held frequent musical services; the youths chanting the psalms, robed in white. The Thána choristers, indeed, enjoyed such a reputation that they were invited to sing at the larger gatherings at Bassein ; and were much em- ployed at funerals, at which they chanted the ‘Misericordia' to the admiration alike of Christians and heathens. Besides their civil and secular duties in the town of Thána, and at the Christian village and farms, the Brethren of the Order visited a circle of outposts within a distance of thirty thousand paces; ‘to the great gain of their countrymen, whom they strengthen in their faith; and of the natives (barbari), whom they re- claim from their errors and superstitions to the religion of Christ.’ The station of Thána discloses the regulated industry, Cochin, a spiritual and secular, which characterized the Jesuit settlements ºlegiate in India. Cochin may be taken to illustrate the educational CITV, labours of the Order and its general scheme of operations. The College of the Society, writes Father Hieronymus in 3OO CA/AC/ST/AAVITY AW /AW/D/A. Jesuit work at Cochin. 1570," has two grammar schools, attended by 260 pupils, who have made excellent progress both in their studies and in the practice of the Christian sacraments. They are all skilled in the tenets of the faith; many of them have learned the Catechism, arranged in questions and answers, and are now teaching it to the heathen. The rites of confession and com- munion are in Constant use, and resorted to on Saints' days by 3oo or 4oo persons. An equal Concourse takes place when Jesuit College at Cochin. indulgences are promulgated; and on a late Occasion, when the jubilee granted by the Pope in 1568 was celebrated, “such was the importunity of those seeking confession, that our priests could not find a breathing space for rest from morning to night.” At the College Church alone a thousand persons received the Eucharist, chiefly new communicants. A whole- sale restitution of fraudulent gains took place, with a general reconciliation of enemies, and a great quickening of the faith in all. “So vast was the concourse at this single church, with- out mentioning the other churches in the city, that we had from time to time to push out the throngs from the edifice into the courtyard, not without tears and lamentation on their part.’ - The College of the Order likewise ministered to the Portu- guese fleet stationed off Cochin; and the writer relates, with perhaps pardonable exaggeration, the strict discipline which the Brethren maintained among both officers and men. During the winter they had also collected a fund, and with it redeemed five Portuguese, who, the year before, had fallen into captivity among ‘the Moors.’ These men, on coming to offer up public thanksgiving in church, edified the worthy fathers by relating how the Christians still remaining in captivity continued firm in the Catholic faith, although sorely tormented incommodi's ef cruciaſibus. They told how one youth, in particular, ‘who had attended our school, on being tied to a tree and threatened by the Moors with bows and arrows, had bravely answered that he would give up his life rather than his faith.” Upon which the Moors seem to have laid aside their lethal weapons, and let the lad off with a few kicks and cuffs. Another boy had at first apostatized ; but his fellow-captives, foremost among them a nobleman of high station, threw themselves at his feet, and begged him to stand firm. The boy burst into tears, and declared that he had been led astray by terror, but that he would now rather die than abandon his religion. He proved himself as good as his word, rushed in front of his persecutors, * Letter to the General of the Order, dated Cochin, February 1570. AT/AWEACA A&MES AAWD CO/VVERS/O M.S. 3OI and openly proclaimed himself to be still a Christian. ‘The Moors,’ as usual, seem to have taken the affair with much good nature; and, after another little comedy of tying him to a tree and threatening to shoot him and cut his throat, let their young apostate go. ‘I come now, continues Father Hieronymus, ‘to the harvest Jesuit . of this year. He goes on to describe the work of itinerating, "“” from which we gather that the King of Cochin was friendly rather than otherwise to the members of the Order and their converts, protecting them by letters patent, and even giving rise to hopes of his own conversion. No fewer than 220 natives were baptized in one day; and the Father adduces, as a proof of their sincerity, the fact that they did not expect any material advantage from their conversion. ‘For neither do they look for a present of new clothes at their baptism, nor for anything else from us, excepting spiritual food. They think themselves greatly honoured by the name of Christians, and labour to bring others to the truth.” Among the converts the Náirs figure a good deal; and an acolyte of this race, notwithstand- ing that he was harassed by the ‘older Christians,’ brought in other Nāirs, by twos and threes, for baptism. The worthy Father uses “Nóir' as the name of “a certain military class,” and so touches on the actual position held by this people three and a half centuries ago. - Conversion was not, however, always without its troubles. Conver- The story of a young Moor, whose mother was a cruel woman, “” and buried him in the ground up to his mouth for turning Christian, is told with honest pride. His unkind parent likewise placed a huge stone round his head, designing that he should die a slow and painful death. But the boy managed to peep through a cleft in the stone, and spied some travellers passing that way, whereupon, although he had formerly known nothing of Latin, he managed to shout out the two words, “Axopio Christum.” On hearing this, the travellers dug up the lad and took him before the Governor, who, in an obliging manner, gave over the boy to the College to be baptized, and sent the mother to prison. The neophytes seem to have been spirited lads; and the Father narrates how about two thousand of them took part in the military games held when the fleet was lying off Cochin, and distinguished themselves so greatly with various sorts of darts and weapons, that “they came next to the Portu- guese soldiers.’ - The College took advantage of the illness of the king during Efforts at g g e I gº the course of the year to try to convert him; but his majesty, º 3O2 CA/A2/ST/AAW/TV /AV ZAV/OMA. The Madura Mission, 17th and 18th cen- turies. although civil and friendly, declined their well-meaning efforts. They were more successful with two “petty Rájás' (reguli) in the neighbourhood, who, “being desirous of the Portuguese friendship,” professed an interest in spiritual matters on behalf of themselves and people. Three hundred, apparently of their Subjects, promised to get themselves baptized as soon as a church should be built. “But,’ concludes the candid chronicler, ‘as this particular people have a grievously bad reputation as liars, it is much to be prayed for that they will keep their word.” From another instance of a royal conversion, it appears that the introduction of Christianity, with ‘letters of privilege’ to converts, was a favourite method among the weaker Rájás for securing a Portuguese alliance. The story of the Catholic missions thus graphically told by the Rerum Gestarum Volumen of the 16th century, is con- tinued for the 17th and 18th, as regards some of them, by the letters from the Jesuit Fathers in what used to be known as the ‘Madura mission.” Many of these letters have been edited by Le Père Bertrand in four volumes, which throw an important light, not only upon the progress of Christianity in India, but also upon the Social and political state of the native kingdoms in which that progress was made.” The keynote to the policy of the Society of Jesus, in Indian evangelization, was —‘The Christian religion Cannot be regarded as naturalized in a country, until it is in a position to propagate its own priesthood.’” This is the secret of the wide and permanent success of the Catholic missions; it was also the source of their chief troubles. For, in founding Christianity on an indigenous basis, the Fathers had to accept the necessity of recognis- ing indigenous customs and native prejudices in regard to caste. The disputes which arose divided the Jesuit mission- aries for many years, and had to be referred, not only to the General of the Order, but to the Pope himself. The Question des A'ites Malabares occupies many pages in Père Bertrand’s Question of caste. volumes.” In the end, one division of the missionaries was told 1 Mémoires Historiques sur les Missions des ordres religieux (I vol., 2nd ed., Paris, 1862): Za Mission du Maduré d'après des documents inédits (3 vols., Paris, 1848, 1850, 1854). The first edition of the Mémoires Historiques (Paris, 1847) formed apparently an introduction to the three volumes of Letters which constitute Père Bertrand’s La Mission du Maduré. The author takes this opportunity of acknowledging his obligations to the authorities of St. Xavier's College, Calcutta, for the loan of Père Bertrand's works, and for much kind assistance in his inquiries. * Condensed from Père Bertrand, Missions, vol. i. p. I. * For example, Mémoires Historiques, vol. i. pp. 353 et seg. Indeed, this MIRACLES AAWD MARTYROOMS. 3O3 off for the low-castes, while another ministered to the Indians of higher degree. A similar distinction was rigidly main- tained in some churches. Père Bertrand gives the plan of a Madura church as laid before the Sovereign Pontiff in 1725, which shows a systematic demarcation between the high and low castes even during divine service. Whatever may have been lost of the primitive Christian equality by this system, it had the merit of being adapted to native habits of thought, and it was perhaps unavoidable in an Indian church which endeavoured to base itself upon an indigenous priesthood." The adoption of native terms by the Jesuit Fathers, such as guru, teacher; samydist, hermit, etc., also led to embittered discussions. - The letters disclose, however, other and more agreeable Letters aspects of the early missions to India. A few of them complain gº, dia of the dangers and discomforts of missionary life in a tropical 17th and climate and among a suspicious people.” But, as a rule, they lºº are full of keen observation and triumphant faith. Some of llº 16 S. them are regularly divided into two parts; the first being devoted to the secular history of the period, or ‘Evenements Political politiques;’ the second to the current affairs and progress of * the mission. Others are of a topographical and statistical character. Many of them record signs and wonders vouch- Safed on behalf of their labours. A pagan woman, for ex- ample, who had been possessed of a devil from birth, is delivered from her tormentor by baptism, and enters into a state of joy and peace. Another native lady, who had deter- mined to burn herself on her husband’s funeral pile, and had Miracles. resisted the counter entreaties of her family and the village head, miraculously renounced her intention when sprinkled with ashes consecrated by the priest. Throughout, the letters breathe a desire for martyrdom, and a spiritual exultation in sufferings endured for the cause. One very touching epistle is written by De Britto from his prison the day before his execution. “I await death,’ he writes to the Father Superior, ‘and I await it with impatience, Martyr- It has always been the object of my prayers. It forms to-day * volume is largely devoted to the polemics of the question. Also Za Mission du Maduré, vol. ii. pp. I40 et seq.; vol. iv. pp. 404 to 496; and in many other places of Père Bertrand's work. 1 The plan of the church is given at p. 434 of Père Bertrand's Mission du Maduré, vol. iv., ed. I854. The merits of the question are so fully discussed in that volume that it is unnecessary to reopen the question here. * For example, Zeffre du Père Balthazar, dated Tanjore, I653, op. cit., vol. iii. pp. I et seg. 3O4. CA/AR/ST/AAV/TV ZAV ZAVZ) /A. the most precious reward of my labours and my sufferings.” Another letter relates the punishment of Father de Saa, several of whose teeth were knocked out by blows, so that he almost died under the pain (A.D. 1700). His tormentor was, however, miraculously punished and converted to the faith.” The more striking events take place in the Madura mission. But in other parts of India, also, there were triumphs and sufferings. ‘Even here,’ writes Père Petit from Pondicherri, ‘we are not altogether without some hope of martyrdom, the crown of apostleship.’” It is natural that such writers should regard as martyrs the few brethren who fell victims to popular tumults stirred up by their own preaching. Penalties for sectarian affrays, or for insults to the native religions, such as would now be punished by the Indian Penal Code, figure as ‘persecutions.’ The Salvationists have suffered several ‘persecutions’ of this sort from Anglo- Indian magistrates. Nor are the literary labours of the Fathers without a fitting record. Bishop Caldwell lately expressed his regret that the biography of Father Beschi, the Tamil scholar and poet, should yet be unwritten.” But the defect is supplied, not only in an elaborate notice of Beschi's life and works, but also by Beschi's own letters to the General of the Order.” Several epistles of De Nobili are of scarcely less interest in the annals of Indian Christianity. The arguments of the Catholic missionaries were enforced by the weapons of the secular power. In 1560 the Portuguese established the Inquisition at Goa, under the Dominican Order. At first the establishment was of a modest and tenta- tive character; the functionaries numbering only five, and the whole salaries amounting in 1565 to 24,71 a year." But by degrees it extended its operations, until in 1800 the functionaries numbered 47. The Goa Inquisition has formed the subject of much exaggerated rumour, and the narrative of one of its prisoners startled and shocked Europe during the 17th century." Dr. Claudius Buchanan recalled public attention to the subject by his vividly-coloured letters at the beginning of Literary labours of the Jesuits. The Portu- guese In- quisition, I 560-1812. * Za Mission du Maduré, vol. iii. p. 447. Letter dated 3rd February 1693. * Vol. iv. pp. 63–68. * Vol. iv. p. 158. * A Political and General History of the District of Timmezelli, by Bishop Caldwell (Madras Government Press, 1881), p. 239. * Père Bertrand, vol. iv. pp. 342–375. - ° O Chronista de 7?ssuary, vol. iv. p. 51. Quoted, Fonseca's Goa, p. 217. 7 Åelation de //nguisition de Goa, by the Physician Dellon, who was confined in one of its cells in 1674. Pyrard, Fryer, and other travellers have also left notices of the Goa Inquisition. THE INQUISITION AT GOA. 305 the nineteenth century. The calmer narrative of Da Fonseca, derived from the archives of Goa, proves that the reality was sufficiently terrible. No continuous statistics exist of the punishments inflicted. But the records repeatedly speak of the necessity for additional cells, and in 1674 they numbered two hundred. Seventy-one autos dafé, or general jail deliveries, Number of are mentioned between 1600 and 1773. The total number of *** persons condemned on these occasions is unknown. But at a few of the autos it is said that ‘4046 persons were sentenced to various kinds of punishment, of whom 3034 were males and IoI2 females.’” These punishments included IoS men and 16 women condemned to the flames, of whom 57 were burned alive and 64 in effigy. It is not necessary to inquire how far such examples of Christians religious punishment in Portuguese territory were responsible * Of for the persecution of the Catholic missionaries in Cochin and religious Malabar. Nor, in passing judgment on the Hindu princes, i.” should we forget the perpetual military aggressions and occasional cold-blooded massacres by the Portuguese on the southern and western coasts. Christian missions in Northern India had scarcely anything to fear from the Native powers. Indeed, under Akbar, and almost throughout the entire period of the Mughal Emperors until the accession of Aurangzeb, Christianity seems to have been regarded with an enlightened interest, and certainly without disfavour, by the Delhi court. More than one of the Mughal queens and princes are said to have been Christians; and the faith was represented both by Imperial grants and in the Imperial seraglio. Many of the great Hindu Feudatories also displayed a courteous indiffer- ence to the Christian missionaries, and a liberal recognition of their scientific and secular attainments. The Inquisition at Goa was temporarily suspended in 1774, Inquisition but re-established in 1779. It was abolished in 1812, and the ºne", - - - “… º. 1812. ancient palace in which it had been held was pulled down in 1820. The déðris was finally removed in 1859, on the occasion of the exposition of the body of St. Francis Xavier.” * See his Letters and Journal, dated 1808, pp. 150–176 of Christian A'esearches in Asia, 4th ed. (1811). * Da Fonseca's Goa, p. 220. The original authorities quoted are O Chronista de Zissuary, Historia dos Principaes Actos e Procedimentos da Inquisicäo em Portugal, Lisboa, 1845, p. 38; and F. N. Xavier in the Gabinée Zitterario, vol. iii. pp. 89 and 280; Marragão da Inquisicäo de Goa, pp. I43 et seq. (AVoza Goa, I866). * A popular account of its history will be found in Mr. E. Rehatsek’s ‘Holy Inquisition at Goa,’ Calcutta Review, No. 145, April 1881. U 306 CHAEIST/AAV77"Y VAV ZAVZ)/A. The Jesuits Sup- pressed, I759–73. In 1759, Portugal broke up the Society of Jesus, seized its property, and imprisoned its members. France did the same in 1764; and to prevent greater evils, Clement xiv. in 1773 was forced to suppress the Society altogether. The French Revolution followed. These events deprived the Indian Jesuit missions alike of priests and of funds, and for a long time they languished, served in the south only by a few priests from Goa and Pondicherri. That dismal period, however, pre- sents some illustrious names; among them two well-known writers, the Abbé Dubois of Mysore, and the Carmelite Fra Paolino de San Bartolomeo (in India 1774–90). In the absence of priests to sustain the courage of the Christians, every occasional or local persecution told. Tiptſ, about 1784, forcibly circumcised 30,000 Catholics of Kánara, and deported them to the country above the Ghâts. Many native Christians lived and died without ever seeing a priest; they baptized their own children, taught them the prayers, and kept up daily worship in their churches. The Jesuits re-estab- lished, I814. Number of Roman Catholics in India. Former organiza- tion of the Roman Catholic missions. Better days, however, dawned. In 1814, the Society of Jesus was re-established; under Gregory XVI, its missions began a new life, and have since made great progress. Their prosperity is, however, hampered by the action taken in Europe against the religious orders. The claims of Portugal to appoint the bishops, and through them to rule the Indian Church, as opposed to the right of the Pope, have occasioned schisms in the past, and still give rise to discord. The Roman Catholics throughout all India, British, Feuda- tory, and Foreign, numbered altogether 1,594,901 Souls, as shown in the tables to be presently given from Catholic ecclesiastical returns for 1891. The Census of 1891 gives a total of 1,315,263 Roman Catholics in British and Feudatory India alone ; or, adding 316,975 for the French and Portuguese Settlements, a total of 1,632,238 for all India, including Burma. - The Roman Catholic missions are maintained by many of the European nations, and are nearly equally divided between the secular and regular clergy. Almost every mission contains a mixture of races among its priests; even Holland, Scotland, and Germany being ably represented. Although all are directed by Europeans, over two-thirds of the priests are natives. It is also worthy of remark that, in the list of bishops during the last 300 years, the names of several natives are found, some of them Bráhmans. Until the establishment in 1886 of the new Catholic hierarchy for India, to be presently THE PORTUGUESE ‘A’A/DAQOA/DO.” 3O7 mentioned, the Roman Catholic missions were governed by vicars and prefects-apostolic. There were seventeen of these vicars (all titular bishops) and three prefects, all dependent on the Congregation de propaganda ſide at Rome. Within the territories assigned to ten of these vicars-apostolic, the Arch-Double bishop of Goa (appointed by the King of Portugal) had an lºſiº “extraordinary jurisdiction’ over a certain number of persons and churches outside his diocese in various parts of India, but chiefly in the Bombay and Madras Presidencies. Within the French possessions also there was a species of double jurisdic- tion. There was a prefect-apostolic of Pondicherri, a priest whose jurisdiction was only over ‘those who wear hats,” while a vicar-apostolic (a bishop), resident in the same place, had jurisdiction over all other Catholics in French territory, as well as over all Catholics of several adjacent British districts. The independent jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa, and The the dissensions to which it gave rise, have been referred to.” It had its origin in the right of patronage (Padroado) over bishoprics and benefices in the East, granted by the Popes to the Portuguese Crown. By the Pontifical acts erecting the sees of Goa (1534), Cochin (1558), Angamale (1610, trans- ferred to Cranganore 1609), and S. Thomé or Mailapur (1606), the Portuguese king was charged with the support of the Catholic churches in India, and in return was granted the privilege of patronage of bishoprics, etc. On the ruin of the Portuguese power in India by the Dutch, the King of Portugal was no longer in a position to fulfil his part of the agreement: the churches and missions were neglected, the bishoprics generally vacant. The Popes therefore were forced to act independently of Portugal: they began to send bishops and missionaries direct to India, and by various measures the limits of the Portuguese jurisdiction were gradually curtailed. Curtailed. Such action produced long and unceasing disputes between Rome and Portugal. Eventually, in 1838, as all the Padroado bishoprics had been vacant for many years, Gregory XVI., by the Brief Mulţa prac/are, suppressed the sees of Cochin, Cranganore, and Mailapur, annexed their territories to the vicariates-apostolic created by him or his predecessors, and limited the Goanese jurisdiction to Portuguese possessions. The Indo-Portuguese clergy as a body declined to obey, and Concordat a schism continued until 1863. Meanwhile, in 1857, Pius of 1857. IX. had been beguiled by hope of peace into a Concordat with the King of Portugal. The work of Gregory XVI. was to be undone, and the Padroado restored. All British India was to 308 CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. be gradually cut up into Portuguese dioceses, and the bishops and missionaries of the Propaganda were to be withdrawn. Pending the delimitation of the dioceses, it was agreed that such churches as were then under the apostolic vicars should remain under the same, while those which then acknowledged the Goanese jurisdiction should continue under the Arch- bishop of Goa. The Goanese jurisdiction, till then Schismatic, was thus legalized over certain persons and churches in ten vicariates, as mentioned above. Though joint commissioners were appointed by Rome and Portugal in 1862 to fix the limits of the dioceses, their labours only proved that the Padroado was incapable of supplying the place of the Propa- ganda clergy. Pius IX. declined to proceed further, and the Concordat remained a dead letter. Meanwhile the temporary jurisdiction exercised by the Archbishop of Goa outside his diocese gave rise to frequent disputes, indeed, to occasional riots and faction fights between the supporters of the Padroado and those of the Pope or Propaganda. Finally, in 1886 a new Concordat was issued, by which the Padroado was limited to one ecclesiastical province, consisting of the metropolitan see of Goa, and three suffragan sees (Damán, Cochin, and Mailapur). In addition, the Portuguese king was allowed a voice in selecting bishops for Bombay, Quilon, Trichinopoli, and Mangalore. He abandoned his pretended right over the rest of India. The title of honorary Patriarch was conferred on the Archbishop of Goa, and in some other ways the pre- eminence of his see was secured. The Pope was thus at last free to make his arrangements for the rest of India. On September 1, 1886, he issued a constitution converting the sixteen vicariates then existing in India Proper, and also the prefecture of Central Bengal, into regular dioceses, grouped into six ecclesiastical provinces. No change was made in Burma, but by agreement with the French Government the prefecture of Pondicherri was suppressed. In 1887 the diocese of Nāgpur was formed from part of the diocese of Vizagapatam, and the Catholics of the Syrian Rite, all, or almost all, resident within the present dioceses of Cochin, Verapoli, and Quilon, were separated from diocesan jurisdic- tion and made subject to two vicars-apostolic (Kotáyam and Trichūr), appointed for their exclusive care. Three new prefectures have also been erected : Käfiristan and Kashmir (1887), Assam (1889), and Rájputána (1892)." The Con- ‘Propa- gandists’ and ‘Pa- droadists.” Concordat of I886. Institution of Catholic hierarchy, I886. Subse- quent changes, I887–92. * Since 1883 a small portion of territory east of Dārjíling has belonged to the vicariate-apostolic of Tibet. This arrangement was made by Rome, ZAWDZAN CATHOZ/C STAT/ST/CS. 309 cordat of 1886 has doubtless enabled Rome to establish some Defects of of the missions on a firmer basis, by limiting the sphere of ...” the Padroado; on the other hand, it has perpetuated a useless, 1886. if not mischievous, institution, which had been existing only in a precarious and temporary manner. It has perpetuated the divisions and disputes caused by the double jurisdiction, for the Portuguese prelates are allowed jurisdiction over many churches outside their dioceses. Various missions, against the wishes of the people, have been removed from the missionaries of the Propaganda and handed over to the Portuguese régime. Much indignation is felt among British Catholics at their enforced subjection to Portugal in religious matters, and representative bodies, such as the Bombay and Madras Catholic Unions, have lately petitioned the Pope and the British Government on the subject. As the ecclesiastical and civil divisions of India do not Distribu- correspond, it is difficult to compare missionary with official º, statistics. The Catholics in French territory numbered, Catholics, according to the Madras Catholic Directory for 1891, 35,727, 1899-91, and in Portuguese territory, partly according to the same and partly according to the Annuario da archidioc. de Goa for 1890, 281,248. This left 1,277,926 Catholics for British India and the Native States, according to the books just named ; in reality, 1,315,263, according to the British Census of 1891. Catholics are most numerous in the Native States of Travancore and Cochin (comprised in the dioceses of Verapoli, Quilon, and Cochin, and the vicariates of Kotáyam and Trichtir). The archdiocese of Goa, with some 657 native priests for a small territory containing over 300,000 Catholics, is a witness to the proselytizing system of the early Portuguese. The Catholics of the Syrian Rite comprised within the small in Cochin, area of the vicariates of Kotáyam and Trichtir, are chiefly ºn. the descendants of the Nestorians converted to Rome in the " 16th century, and number about 221,000. Their two bishops (vicars-apostolic) are Europeans: all their priests, some 405 in number, are natives. - The Trichinopoli and Pondicherri dioceses represent parts and other of the famous Jesuit missions of Madura and of the Karnátik. Pºº. In the islands of Bombay, Bassein, and Salsette, and along the fertile maritime strip or Konkan between the Western Ghâts to give the missionaries intended for Tibet a base of operations on the Indian as well as on the Chinese frontier. Aden belongs to the vicariate- apostolic of Arabia. Its Catholic population is about 1500. 3 Io CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. Roman Catholic ecclesi- astical divisions and popu- lation, 1891. Confused jurisdic- tions, 1891. Catholic progress. and the sea, the Roman Catholics form an important section of the native population. In South Kānara there are over 3ooo Catholic Bráhmans, a prosperous and intelligent Com- munity. - The following tables show the present ecclesiastical divisions of India and the Roman Catholic population of each, as returned by the authorities of the Church. The total number of Catholics in British India and Native States, according to these authorities, is 1,277,926, or 37,337 less than the British Census figures for 1891. Considering that the ecclesiastical figures do not tally geographically with those of the Census, the discrepancy is small, and perhaps due to my taking too low an estimate for the diocese of Mailapur, regarding which there is no return. The number taken (50,000) was the estimated number when the Concordat of 1886 was being arranged. My figures for the archbishopric of Goa are from the Amnuario of that diocese for 1890; for Assam, from the Propaganda's annual Missiones Catholicæ for 1891, published at Rome; the rest are from the Madras Catholic Directory for 1891. With the exception of the four dioceses which form the ecclesiastical province of Goa under the Portuguese Padroado, all the rest of the divisions are under the Congregation of the Propaganda at Rome. Of the four Portuguese dioceses, those of Goa and Damán consist partly of Portuguese and partly of British territory; the diocese of Mailapur consists wholly of British territory, and that of Cochin partly of British and partly of Native territory. The archdiocese of Pondicherri is partly composed of French territory and partly of British. The Roman Catholics in India steadily increase; and, as in former times, the increase is chiefly in the south. The number of Catholics in British and French India and the Native States, but exclusive of the Portuguese Possessions, rose from 732,887 in 1851, to 934,4oo in 1871, to 1,103,560 in 1881, and to over 1,350,000 in 1891 ; or to over 1,600,ooo inclusive of returns for the Portuguese Settlements in 1890. The recent reorganization of the Church has given an impetus to native missions under the Propaganda, and a more rapid increase may now be expected. In the Padroado dioceses, however, missionary work seems practically extinct. In 1891, the Census returned 862,897 Roman Catholics in the British Possessions, and 452,366 in the Native States: total, 1,315,263. Of the 1,315,263 Roman Catholic Chris- |Sentence continued on page 312. CA 7TP/O Z/C POPOWZAZZOAV OA' ZAV/D/A. 3 II ROMAN CATHOLIC POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA AND NATIVE STATES. (Chiefly according to the ‘Madras Catholic Directory’ for 1891. For the Census figures for British India in 1891, see next page.) Ecclesiastical Diocese or Division Number Province. - tº * Goa, . Archdiocese of Goa (within British territory), . 27,OI3 3 3 . Diocese of Damán (within British territory), 66,056 2 3 2 3 2 3 Cochin, te * e 7O,445 3 5 s * ,, , , Mailapur, 5O,OOO Agra, . . Archdiocese of Agra, 8,403 5 5 ° . Diocese of Allahābād, 8,325 2 3 2 3 ,, Lahore, º ë * g te 4,200 2 3 Prefecture-apostolic of Käfiristan and Kashmir, 3,250 5 5 s e 2 3 5 3 Rájputána, . * gº tº º Bombay, . Archdiocese of Bombay, I6,279 53 . Diocese of Poona, . & 7,665 Calcutta, Archdiocese of Calcutta, 55,000 3 3 . | Diocese of I)acca, . 7,682 3 * 33 , Krishnagar, . * 2,758 3 3 . | Prefecture-apostolic of Assam, 48O Madras, . Archdiocese of Madras, . 44,336 5 3 . | Diocese of Haidarābād, . II,9IO 5 3 . . , , Nágpur, 6,465 2 3 & 3 5 ,, Vizagapatam, º { { o g 9,991 Pondicherri, Archdiocese of Pondicherri (within British territory), . t º § g & Q I78,849 3 9 Diocese of Coimbatore, . 28,040 3 2 ,, , , Mangalore, . 69,783 3 * 5 * 5 3 Mysore, 30,690 3 5 9 3 ,, Trichinopoli, I74,756 Verapoli, Archdiocese of Verapoli, 54,699 5 5 . Diocese of Quilon, . 86, ooo Vicariate-Apostolic of Kotáyam (for Syrian Rite), . tº g e & tº tº ſº I2O,OOO Vicariate-Apostolic of Trichúr(for Syrian Rite), IOI,551 2 3 3 3 Northern Burma, . 3,900 2 3 5 5 Eastern Burma, . 8,400 5 5 5 3 Southern Burma," 2I, OOO Total in British India and Native States, I,277,926 * Exclusive of British troops. RoMAN CATHOLIC POPULATION OF PORTUGUESE INDIA. (According to ‘Ammuario da archidioc. de Goa’ for 1890, and ‘Madras Catholic Directory’ for 1891.) sº. Diocese. Number. Goa, . . Archdiocese of Goa, 279, I46 Damán, . Diocese of Damán, I,725 Diu, . . |Diocese of Damán, 377 Total in Portuguese Settlements in India, 281,248 3I 2 CAE/A2/STIA/VITY //V /AWD/A. ROMAN CATHOLIC POPULATION OF FRENCH INDIA. (According to the ‘Madras Catholic Directory’ for 1891.) siń. . - Diocese. Number. Pondicherri, . Archdiocese of Pondicherri, º p e 22,300 Kárikâl, 25 5 5 tº & ſe 12,787 Chandarnagar, 3 2 ; 5 * lº & 3OO Yanáon, . 5 3 5 5 & º e IOO Mahé, 2 3 5 5 tº . Say, 24O Total in French Settlements in India, . 35,727 Total in British, Native, and Foreign India in 1891, . ge e º º tº . I,594,901 Sentence continued from Žage 310.] tians thus enumerated by the Census of 1891 in the British Possessions and the Feudatory States, no fewer than 1,244,283 were natives of India. In the Feudatory States, only 2103 out of 452,366 were not natives of India; and the great proportion of the non-natives among the Roman Catholics in British India were soldiers in British regiments and Eurasians in the three Presidency Towns. For the 316,975 in Portuguese and French India, I have not yet the materials to discriminate between the nationalities, but I am informed that at least 315,000 may be taken as born in India. - The principal Catholic colleges in India are those of the Society of Jesus, at Calcutta, Bombay, Trichinopoli, Mangalore, and Dārjíling. England, being a Protestant country, supplies few priests, and hence Catholic missions have much difficulty in maintaining colleges in which English is the vehicle of higher education. Nevertheless in nearly every diocese or mission there is a college; in some more than one. The statistics of Catholic schools are incomplete, owing mainly to want of information about the Padroado dioceses. In British India and the Native States, the children in Catholic schools in- Creased from 28,249 in 1871, to 44,699 in 1881. In 1891 the number of educational institutions" in the Propaganda missions was 1529, with about 63,944 pupils. There were also II 7 orphanages, with 6474 inmates. Most of these are also schools, but I cannot ascertain how many of them, if any, have been reckoned in the 1529. In India and Burma there are 22 seminaries for candidates for the priesthood: 18 belong to Propaganda missions, 4 to the Padroado. Catholic colleges, Catholic Schools, and ecclésias- tical semi- naries. * Missiones Catholicæ, Rome, 1891, and Madras Catholic Directory for I891. ACOMA/V CATHO/C/C M/SS/O WS. 3I 3 The Roman Catholics work in India with slender pecuniary Catholic resources. The Propaganda missions derive their main º support from two great Catholic organizations, the Association 1891. " for the Propagation of the Faith, and the Society of the Holy Childhood. In 1891 the former contributed about 4,26,498 to Indian missions, and the latter 24, 15,880, making a total of A 42,378. Some benefactions reach India from other sources, and few of the missions are entirely dependent on foreign aid. The native Christians are not illiberal in supporting their churches and priests, and the Indian Government pays about three lacs of rupees" a year in salaries and allowances to certain bishops and priests, mainly for services rendered to the army. As to the Padroado dioceses, the bishops and priests have to be supported by the Portuguese Crown as one of the conditions of the privilege of patronage. The small Salaries paid are, however, charged on the revenues of Goa. The total cost of the Padroado is estimated at about Rx, 122,000 a year, one-half of which, or say Rx. 64,000, are spent within British territory. In 1891 there were in India and Burma, The under the Propaganda, 26 archbishops and bishops, with 1246 § C priests, of whom 607 were natives. Under the Padroado there clergy in were 4 archbishops and bishops, with about 815 priests, of # whom Only about 12 were Europeans. Total, 30 Roman tº Catholic archbishops and bishops for India and Burma in 1891—but the number varies slightly. The priests of the Pro- paganda deny themselves the comforts considered necessaries for Europeans in India. They live the frugal and abstemious life of the natives, and their influence reaches deep into the life of the communities among whom they dwell. The first Protestant missionaries in India were Lutherans, First Pro- Ziegenbalg and Plutschau, who in 1705 began work, under the testant g º mlSSIOnS, patronage of the King of Denmark, at the Danish settlement . of Tranquebar. Ziegenbalg and many of the early Lutheran missionaries were men of great ability; and, besides their translations of the Scriptures, some of their writings still hold a high place in missionary literature. Ziegenbalg began the Transla- translation of the Bible into Tamil, and his successor Schultze tº of the completed it in 1725. This was the first Protestant transla- tº tion of the Scriptures in India. Schultze also translated the whole Bible into Hindustání, Ziegenbalg died in 1719, leaving 355 converts. In spite of the patronage of the Kings of Denmark and England, and the assistance of friends in * Report of the Finance Committee, 1886 (Calcutta, 1887), vol. ii. p. 148. 3I4 CA/A2/ST/.4/VITY MAV ZAV/O/A. Schwartz in Tan- jore, I750–98. Serampur mission- aries. Kier- mander in Calcutta, I758. Great Britain, the Lutheran mission made at first but slow progress, and was much hindered and opposed by the local Danish authorities. Gradually it extended itself into Madras, Cuddalore, and Tanjore ; Schools were set up, and conversion and education went hand in hand. It is not generally known that the success, indeed, the con- tinued existence, of the Lutheran missions in Southern India was largely due to the generous aid of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. This body of British philanthropists helped the King of Denmark to support Ziegenbalg. On Ziegenbalg's death in 1719 funds from Denmark failed, and the Danish missions were adopted by the Society. Its first Indian Committee was formed in 1709; Plutschau attended a meeting of the Society in 1712, and Ziegenbalg delivered a ‘Malabaric speech' before it in 1715. The Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge entirely maintained the Indian Lutheran missions for more than a century, indeed until 1824, when they were handed over to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Schwartz, to be mentioned in the next para- graph, was appointed and paid by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. One of its minutes still records the sailing of that great missionary for India by The Zynn in January 17:#. Kiernander was also their man. The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge thus claims to have pre- ceded even the Baptist Carey by about eighty years, although the fact has been obscured by the Danish names of its agents. The truth was, that no Englishman suitable for the work cared to go to India, and almost the only Protestant communities which had the true missionary spirit in the first half of the 18th century were the Lutherans. But from 1729 to 1824 all the money sent out for the support of the Lutheran missions in India was subscribed by the British Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and that Society both appointed the Lutheran missionaries and directed their work. In 1750 arrived the pious Schwartz, whose name is bound up with the history of Tanjore and adjacent Districts until his death in 1798. He was the founder of the famous Tinne- velli missions." Next to the Lutherans come the Baptists of Serampur, with the honoured names of Carey, Marshman, and Ward. In the 18th century the English East India Company did not discourage the labours of Protestant missionaries. It had allowed Kiernander, originally sent out by the Danes, to establish himself at Calcutta in 1758. But subsequently * See article TINNEVELLI, Zhe Zmperial Gazetteer of /ndia. AROTESTANT MISSION WORK. 3 T 5 it put every obstacle in the way of missionaries, and deported them back to England on their landing. Carey arrived in Carey, I793. In 1799, to avoid the opposition of the English East 4793. India Company, he established himself with four other mis- sionaries at Serampur (15 miles from Calcutta), at that time, like Tranquebar, a Danish possession. Then began that won- derful literary activity which has rendered illustrious the group of ‘Serampur missionaries.” In ten years the Bible was trans-31 transla- lated and printed, in whole or part, in 31 languages; and by ºfthe I816 the missionaries had about 7oo converts. The London Missionary Society (established 1795) entered the field in 1798, and its missions have steadily grown in importance. The opposition of the East India Company continued till Official 1813, when it was removed by the new Charter. The same Sºon document provided for the establishment of the bishopric of drawn, Calcutta, and three archdeaconries, one for each Presidency. 1813. Up to this period the Established Church of England had attempted no direct missionary work, although some of the East India Company's chaplains had been men of zeal, like the ardent Henry Martyn (1806–11). The first Bishop of Bishopric Calcutta (Middleton) arrived in 1814. From this time the of ºak Church of England has constantly kept up a missionary . connection with India, chiefly by means of its two great Societies—the Church Missionary Society, which sent out its first representative in 1814; and the Society for the Propaga- tion of the Gospel, which commenced its Indian labours in 1820 by sending out Dr. Mill as head of Bishop's College, Calcutta. Their most successful stations are in Southern India, where they have gathered in the seed sown by the Lutheran missions. The second Bishop of Calcutta was the well-known Heber (1823–26). In 1835, under a new Charter Indian of the East India Company, the See of Madras was established, is 9. and in 1837, that of Bombay. In 1877, owing to the extension & of mission work in Tinnevelli, two missionaries were appointed bishops, as assistants to the Bishop of Madras; the dioceses of Lahore and Rangoon were also separated from Calcutta. The missionary bishopric of Travancore and Cochin was established in 1879, that of Chutiá Nágpur in 1890, and a bishopric of Lucknow in 1892. The financial relations of the various Indian bishoprics to the Government will be detailed at page 320. On the deaths of the two Assistant Bishops in Tinne- velli, their offices were not filled up. The first missionary of the Church of Scotland was Dr. 316 CA/AC/ST/AAVZZTV /AV ZAV/D/A. Presby- terian missions, 1830–63. Other missions. Half a century of Pro- teStant missions, 1830-1881. Alexander Duff (1830–63), to whom the use of English as the vehicle of higher education in India is largely due. Mis- sionaries of numerous other Protestant societies (European and American) have since entered India, and established numbers of churches and schools. They have furnished memorable names to the roll of Indian educators, such as Judson (Baptist) in Burma, 1813—50, and John Wilson (Pres- byterian) of Bombay, 1843–75. I now propose to exhibit the progress of Protestant missions in India in two forms. I shall first condense the facts and figures from the mission records themselves for the first half- century for which we have a fairly trustworthy record, 1830 to 1881. I shall then conclude this section by a table showing the detailed progress during the last thirty years of that period, for which the information is comparable and complete. I then pass altogether from the mission records to the official enumerations since the first Census of India in 1872, and exhibit in a table at p. 319 the results of the Census enumera- tions in 1872, 1881, and 1891. The half-century of Protestant missionary work from 1830 to 1881 may be summarized as follows:–In 1830 there were 9 Societies at work, and about 27,ooo native Protestants in all India, Ceylon, and Burma. By 1870 there were no fewer than 35 societies at work; and in 1871 there were 318,363 converts (including Ceylon, etc., as above). In 1852 there were 459 Protestant missionaries, and in 1872 there were 606. Between 1856 and 1878, the converts made by the Baptist Societies of England and America, in India, Ceylon, and Burma, increased from about 30, ooo to between 8o, ooo and 90,000. Those of the Basel missions of Switzerland multiplied from Ioéo to upwards of 6ooo from 1856 to 1878; those of the Wesleyan Methodist missions of England and America, from 7500 to 12,000 ; those of the American Board, from 3302 to about 12,000 ; those of the Presbyterian missions of Scotland, England, Ireland, and America, connected with Io societies, from 821 to Io, ooo; those of the missions of the London Missionary Society, from 20,077 to 48,000 ; and those of the Church Missionary Society and of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, from 61,442 to upwards of 164,000," from 1856 to 1878. The increased activity of the Protestant missionary bodies * The Rev. M. A. Sherring, in the Chronicle of the Zondon Missionary Society, August 1879. º AROGRESS OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS. 317 in India, during the past third of a century, may be seen from Great the table" on the following page. Between 1851 and 1890, the *Nº, number of mission stations increased threefold; while the Protest. number of Native Protestant Christians has multiplied by ants, 1851– more than fivefold, the number of communicants by nearly 1890. fifteenfold, and the number of churches or congregations by sixteenfold. This was largely due to the extended employment of native agency in the work. The native ordained pastors \ . increased from 21 in 1851 to 797 in 1890, and the native lay \ preachers from 493 to 3491. The Protestant Church in India | greatly gained in strength by making a freer use of, and Extended reposing a more generous confidence in, its native agents. *: Its responsible representatives reported the increase of Native agency. Christians in India, Burma, and Ceylon,” from 1851 to 1861, at 53 per cent.; from 1861 to 1871, at 61 per cent. ; from 1871 to 1881, at 86 per cent. ; and from 1881 to 1890, at 53% per cent, for nine years only. - The activity of the Protestant missions has not, however, School been confined to the propagation of their faith. Their services Fººt, t to education, and especially in the instruction of the people in missions. the vernacular languages, will hereafter be referred to. But the vast extension of these services during the half-century under review, is less generally recognised. The number of pupils in Protestant mission schools and colleges rose from 64,0A3 in 1851 to 196,360 in 1881, and to 295,401 in 1890. Its rapid The standard of instruction was raised at an equal pace, and lººp. the mission institutions successfully competed with the Govern- 1851.90. ment colleges at the examinations of the Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Lahore, and Allahābād Universities. Female educa- Female tion has always formed a subject of peculiar care among the * missionary bodies. The number of girls' day Schools belonging to Protestant missions in India alone rose from 285 in 1851 to I 120 in 1881, and to 1507 in 1890. This is exclusive of girls’ boarding schools and zanáma work. The total number of female pupils under Protestant mission teaching in India alone, and exclusive of Burma, multiplied from II,193 in 1851 to 57,893 in 1881, and to Io.4,159 in 1890. The great success of the missionaries of late years in their * Compiled from The Statistical Tables for 1890, issued under instruc- tions of the Calcutta Missionary Conference (Calcutta, I892). It should be remembered that the statistical organization was more perfect in 1881 and 1890 than in 1851. * The table given on page 318 deals only with India and Burma, and excludes Ceylon. 3.18 CHA2/ST/AAW/7"Y VAW AAV/D/A. Extended use of native agency. Denomi- national Statistics, 1890. school work, as in their preaching, is due to the extended use of native agency. The following table may be left to speak for itself:- SUMMARY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN INDIA AND BURMA, 1851 TO 1890. Number Number Number Number Number 1I] 1I] 1Il 1I]. 1I] I851. 1861. 1871. 1881. I890. Stations, . te º º 222 337 448 601 ||Not given. Foreign a and Eurasian or- dained agents, 339 50I 517 622 857 Native ordained agents, 2I I43 3O2 575 797 Foreign and Eurasian lay - preachers, º e i s e e • * is * c → 77 II.8 Native lay preachers, 493 I,677 2,344 2,856 3, 49 I Churches or congregations, 267 643 2,631 4, 180 || 4,863 Native Christians, . 91,092 | 198,097 |286,987 |492,882 |648,843 Communicants, . © . |I4,661 43,415 | 73,330 |138,254 |215,759 Male pupils in Schools, . 52,8500 64,828 |IOO,750 |I38,477 | 190,984 Female pupils in Schools, . II, I93%| 17,035 27,627 57,893 IO8,067 Total male and female - pupils in mission schools, 64,O43%. 81,863 I28,377 196,36Oc 299,05 Id a Including British, European, American, and all others not natives of India. b The pupils for 1851 were in India only ; no returns being available for Burma for that year. c The return of total pupils is exclusive of 65,728 boys and girls attending Sunday schools. The returns for 1851 and 1861 are as a whole less com- plete than those for 1871 and 1881. d Exclusive of 144,263 pupils attending Sunday Schools. According to the missionary returns, therefore, the Christian population for all India, British, Feudatory, French, and Portuguese, in 1890, was as follows:–Syrian Jacobites, say ! 300,ooo (p. 294); Roman Catholics, 1,594,901 (pp. 311, 312); Native Protestants, 648,843 (p. 318), thus leaving a balance of say 57,611 for European Protestants and others to make up the Census total of 2,601,355 for all India (p. 319). The foregoing pages have briefly traced the history of Chris- tianity in India, and disclose the recent progress made by its main branches, Catholic and Protestant, chiefly from the records of the missions themselves. It remains to test this progress from the official enumerations taken since the first Census of all India in 1872. In comparing the results, it General Statistics of Chris- tian popu- lation in India. must be borne in mind that the figures have been derived | CHR/STIAN POPULATION IN JAVIDIA. 319 from various sources, and that the areas of enumeration in Some cases overlap each other. Thus, the jurisdictions of the Catholic bishops and prelates supply a basis for calculation which differs from the territorial areas adopted by the Census of British India. Every effort has been made to allow for such causes of error, and to render the following table a true presentment of the Christian population of India, British, Feudatory, and Foreign. According to the Census, the total The number of Christians in all India, including Burma, has risen º, from 1,782,977 in 1872, to 2,601,355 in 1891, showing an 1872 to increase of 45.8 per cent. In British India and the Feudatory "9" Native States the increase was from 1,517,977 in 1872, to 2,284,380 in 1891, or over 50 per cent. In the British territories alone the number of Christians increased from 897,682 in 1872, to 1,491,662 in 1891, or by 66 per cent. TOTAL CHRISTIAN POPULATION IN INDIA IN 1872, 1881, AND 1891, ACCORDING TO CENSUS RETURNS. Increase | Increase | Increase 1872. I88I. 1891. 1872–1881. 1881–1891. 1872–1891. In British India, . . 897,682 1,168,489; 1,491,662. 30'2 27:6 66"I In Native States, . . 620,295| 694,036 792,718 II'9 I4'2 27'7 In Portuguese India, 235,000 252,477 281,248 7'4 II "3 19'6 In French India, . . 30,000 33,226 35,727 Io'7 7' 5 I9 Total, . 1,782,977 2,148,228 2,601,355. 20'4 2 I 45'8 The Government of India maintains a moderate ecclesiastical The staff, with a view, not to converting the natives, but to provide #. for the spiritual wants of its European Soldiers and officials, as astical it provides for their medical requirements. The salaries paid ºil. in India for the State Ecclesiastical Establishment averaged " Rx. 161,525 for the ten years ending 1891, besides about Rx. 27,ooo in the military accounts. But this sum does not include the maintenance of churches and buildings, and various other ecclesiastical charges. Sir Theodore Hope, lately member of the Viceroy's Council, made a special study of this department of finance, and has kindly supplied me with an estimate of the entire cost in recent years. He calculates Its cost, the gross average amount spent on the Indian Ecclesiastical *9. Establishment at Rx. 229,740, besides pension charges in 32O CAE/ACAST/AAVZ 7"Y WAV /AVD/A. Strength of the Ecclesi- astical Establish- ment, I892. Roman Catholic clergy. Christian ministra- tions, 1891. England of 2445,078. This would give a joint total, taking the rupee at Is, 3d, of RX. 302,000, or Say 24, 189,000 sterling per annum on an average of recent years. In 1892 the State ecclesiastical staff consisted of 159 chap- lains of the Church of England, and 13 Presbyterian chaplains. The Anglican clergy in India were directed by eight bishops. Three of these—the Bishop of Calcutta, who is the Metro- politan for all India (salary, Rs. 45,977 per annum), and the Bishops of Madras and Bombay (Rs. 25,600 each) — are entirely paid by the Indian Government. Three others—the Bishops of Lahore, Rangoon, and Lucknow—are also Govern- ment servants, and are consecrated under letters-patent. But their bishoprics were endowed by voluntary gifts with a minimum income of £800 a year, in consideration of which the Government gives the pay of a senior chaplain (Rs. 9600) to each. The two remaining bishops, those of Chutia Nāgpur and Travancore, hold special positions. The Bishop of Chutiá Nágpur receives no pay from the Government, but the See is endowed with funds equal to about 24, 17,ooo, raised by volun- tary donations. The Bishop of Travancore is a stipendiary of the Church Missionary Society. The Indian Government maintains no Roman Catholic establishment. But certain of the 3o Roman Catholic bishops receive allowances for furnishing ecclesiastical military returns, and certain priests for services rendered to the troops. The Indian Ecclesiastical Establishment is assisted by a smaller body of ministers, sent out to India by private sub- scriptions, and principally represented by the Additional Clergy Society, and by the Anglo-Indian Evangelization Society (Nonconformist). The Government ecclesiastical staff is distributed among the military and official centres, while the other Societies endeavour to supply the wants of the smaller stations, particularly the little clusters of Europeans along the lines of railway and in the planting districts. Taken together, and including Roman Catholics and Protestants, they minis- tered in 1891 to 168,000 Europeans and 79,842 Eurasians, according to Sir Theodore Hope's tables; total, 247,842. They render valuable services, both spiritual and temporal, to the increasing population of Eurasians and pure descendants of Europeans who form so serious a problem in the develop- ment of British rule in India. In this difficult task they receive the cordial assistance of the missionary bodies of all creeds. | 321 | C H A P T E R X. EARLY MUHAMMADAN RULERS (71 I TO 1526 A.D.). WHILE Buddhism was giving place to Hinduism throughout India, and Christianity under Nestorian bishops was spreading along the Coast of Malabar, a new faith had arisen in Arabia. Muhammad, born in 570 A.D., created a conquering religion, Early and died in 632. Within a hundred years after his death, his tº: followers had invaded the countries of Asia as far as the Hindu tions to Kush. Here their progress was stayed, and Islám had to Bombay 6 Consolidate itself, during three more centuries, before it grew º *- strong enough to grasp the rich prize of India. But, almost from the first, the Arabs had fixed eager eyes upon that wealthy country. Fifteen years after the death of the prophet, Usmān sent a sea-expedition to Thána and Broach on the Bombay coast (647 ? A.D.) Other raids towards Sind took place in 662 and 664, with no permanent results. In 711, however, the youthful Kásim advanced into Sind, to Muham- claim damages for an Arab ship which had been seized at an ºften Indian port. After a brilliant campaign, he settled himself in in Sind, the Indus valley; but the advance of the Musalmāns depended 7”). on the personal daring of their leader, and was arrested by his death in 714 A.D. The despairing valour of the Hindus struck the invaders with wonder. One Rájput garrison pre- ferred extermination to submission. They raised a huge funeral pile, upon which the women and children first threw themselves. The men then bathed, took a solemn farewell of each other, and, throwing open the gates, rushed upon the besiegers and perished to a man. In 750, the Rájputs are Their said to have expelled the Muhammadan governor, but it was gº not till 828 A.D. that the Hindus regained Sind. The armies of Islám had carried the Crescent from the India on Hindu Kush westward, through Asia, Africa, and Southern º Europe, to distant Spain and France, before they obtained Muham. a foothold in the Punjab. This long delay was due, not * º e -- ~ e e * * conquest, only to the daring of individual tribes, such as the Sind food A.D. Rájputs just mentioned, but to the military organization of X K 322 AAA’/ Y //UAE/AA/MA/OAAW A2 OZAA’.S. Hindu kingdoms —(1) of the North ; (2) of the South. Hindu power of reSIStance. Slow pro- gress of Muham- madans in India. the Hindu kingdoms. To the north of the Vindhyas, three Separate groups of princes governed the great river-valleys. The Rájputs ruled in the north-west, throughout the Indus plains, and along the upper waters of the Jumna. The ancient Middle Land of Sanskrit times (Madhya-desha) was divided among powerful kingdoms, with their suzerain at Kanauj. The Lower Gangetic valley, from Behar downwards, was still in part governed by Pál or Buddhist dynasties, whose names are found from Benares to jungle-buried hamlets deep in the Bengal delta." The Vindhya ranges stretched their wall of forest and mountain between the Northern and Southern halves of India. Their eastern and central regions were peopled by fierce hill tribes. At their western extremity, towards the Bombay coast, lay the Hindu kingdom of Málwā, with its brilliant literary traditions of Vikramāditya, and a vast feudal array of fighting men. India to the south of the Vindhyas was occupied by a number of warlike princes, chiefly of non-Aryan descent, but loosely grouped under three great Over-lords, represented by the Chera, Chola, and Pándya dynasties.” * Each of these groups of Hindu kingdoms, alike in the North and in the South, had a certain power of coherence to oppose to an invader ; while the large number of the groups and units rendered conquest a very tedious process. For even when the Over-lord or central authority was vanquished, the separate groups and units had to be defeated in detail, and each State supplied a nucleus for subsequent revolt. We have seen how the brilliant attempt in 71 I, to found a lasting Muhammadan dynasty in Sind, failed. Three centuries later, the utmost efforts of two great Musalmán invaders from the north-west only succeeded in annexing a small portion of the frontier Punjab Province, between 977 and 1176 A.D. The Hindu power in Southern India was not completely broken till the battle of Tālikot in 1565; and within a hundred years, in 1650, the great Hindu revival had commenced, which, under the form of the Maráthá Confederacy, was destined to break up the Mughal * For example, at Sābhār, on the northern bank of the Burigangá, once the capital of the Bhuiya or Buddhist Pál Rājā Harischandra. In 1839, the only trace that remained of his traditional residence was a brick mound, covered with jungle. See my Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. v. pp. 72, 73, II8. In Lower Bengal, the Buddhist Páls had given place to the Brähmanized Sens of Nadiyá before the Muhammadans reached that Pro- vince for the first time in II99. * See The Imperial Gazetteer of India, articles CHERA, CHOLA, and PANDYA. MUHAMMA DAN INVASIONS 323 Empire in India. That Empire, even in the North of India, had only been consolidated by Akbar's policy of incorporating Their Hindu chiefs and statesmen into his government (1556–1605). Sº º º • Z short- Up to Akbar's time, and even during the earlier years of his lived. reign, a series of Rájput wars had challenged the Muham- madan Supremacy. In less than two centuries after his death, the successor of Akbar was a puppet in the hands of the Hindu Maráthás at Delhi. - The popular notion that India fell an easy prey to the Muham- Musalmáns is opposed to the historical facts. Muhammadan * rule in India consists of a series of invasions and partial only conquests, during eight centuries, from Subuktigin's inroad in Pº" 977, to Ahmad Sháh's tempest of invasion in 1761 A.D. These invasions represent in Indian history the overflow of the nomad tribes of Central Asia, towards the south-east; as the Huns, Türks, and various Tartar tribes disclose in early European annals the westward movements from the same great breeding-ground of nations. At no time was Islám triumphant throughout the whole of India. Hindu dynasties always ruled over large areas. At the height of the Muham- madan power, the Hindu princes paid tribute, and sent agents to the Imperial Court. But even this modified supremacy of and tem- Delhi did not last for 150 years (1560–1707). Before the end Porary. of that brief period, the Hindus had begun the work of re- conquest. The Hindu chivalry of Rájputéna was closing in upon Delhi from the south ; the religious confederation of the Sikhs was growing into a military power on the north- west. The Maráthás had combined the fighting powers of Hindus the low-castes with the statesmanship of the Bráhmans, and .%. were subjecting the Muhammadan kingdoms throughout all the Musal- India to tribute. As far as can now be estimated, the º º e - I707–61. advance of the English power at the beginning of the present century alone saved the Mughal Empire from passing to the Hindus. This chapter will necessarily confine its survey to the essential stages in the spread of the Musalmán Conquest, and will pass lightly over the intermediate princes or minor dynasties who flit across the scene." 1 The Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone's History of India is still the standard popular work on the Muhammadan period. Professor Cowell's edition (Murray, 1866) incorporated some of the new materials accumu- lated since Mr. Elphinstone wrote. But much of the original work is a reproduction of Firishta, and requires to be rewritten from Sir Henry Elliot's Aersian Aſistorians, and the results of the Archaeological and Statistical Surveys. The present chapter has chiefly used, besides 324 AAA’ſ Y MUHAMMA/)AAW R U/A. R.S. The annexed summary presents a view of the whole — SUMMARY OF MUHAMMADAN CONQUERORS AND DYNASTIES of INDIA (Iooſ-1857). I. Hous E OF GHAZNI (Türki). IOOI–II86. Mahmūd of Ghazni to Sultán Khusrú. Pp. 325–28. II. House of GHOR (Afghān). 1186–1206. Muhammad Ghori (Shahab-ud-din). Pp. 328-3 I. III. SLAVE KINGs (chiefly Türkſ). 1206-1290. Kutab-ud-din to Bal- ban and Kaikubád. Pp. 331-33. IV. House of KHILJI (Türki?). 1290–1320. Jalāl-ud-din to Nāsīr- ud-din Khusrú. Pp. 333–36. V. Hous E OF TUGHLAK (Punjab Türks), I320-1414. Pp. 336-39. I32O. Ghiyás-ud-din Tughlak. P. 336. 1325. Muhammad Tughlak. Pp. 336–38. 1351. Firuz Tughlak. P. 338. 1414. End of the dynasty. P. 339. [Irruption of the Mughals under Timir (Tamerlane) in 1398– 99, leaving behind him a fifteen years’ anarchy under the last of the line of Tugh- lak, until the accession of the Sayyids in 1414. Pp. 338–39.] VI. THE SAYYIDS. 1414–1450. Curtailed power of Delhi. P. 339 passim. VII. THE LODIs (Afghāns). 1450–1526. Feeble reigns; inde- pendent States. P. 339. VIII. House OF TIMUR (Mughal), I526–1857. Pp. 344-7I. I526–1530. Bábar. P. 344. 1530–1556. Humāyún. Pp. 344, 346. [Sher Sháh, the Afghān gover- nor of Bengal, drives Humá- yún out of India in 1540, and his Afghān dynasty rules till 1555. P. 346.] 1556–1605. Akbar the Great. Pp. 346–58. 1605–1627. Jahāngir. Pp. 358-60. 1628–1658. Sháh Jahān, deposed. Pp. 360–63. 1658–1707. Aurangzeb or Alam- gir I. Pp. 364–70. 1707–1712. Bahádur Shāh, or Sháh Alam I. P. 370. 1712. Jahandar Shāh. P. 370. 1713–1718. Farrukhsiyyar. P.370. 1719–1748. Muhammad Shāh (after two boy Emperors). Pp. 37O, 37 I. [Irruption of Nádir Sháh the Persian, 1738 – 1739. Pp. 37 I-73.] 1748–1754. Death of Muhammad Sháh ; and accession of Ahmad Sháh, deposed I754. P. 37 I. I754–1759. Alamgir II. P. 37 I. [Six invasions of India by Ahmad Shāh Durání, the Afghān, 1748 – 1761. Pp. 37 I-73.] I759–1806. Sháh Alam II., titular Emperor. P. 37 I. 1806–1837. Akbar II., titular King of Delhi. P. 371. 1837–1857. Muhammad Bahádur Sháh, titular King of Delhi; the seventeenth and last Mu- ghal King of Delhi; died a State prisoner at Rangoon in 1862. P. 371. Elphinstone, the following works for the Muhammadan period :—(1) Sir Henry Elliot's History of India as told by its own Historians, i.e. the Arab and Persian travellers and writers, edited by Professor Dowson, 8 vols. 1867–77 (Trübner); (2) Mr. Edward Thomas' Chronicles of the Pathán Áºngs of Delhi, especially for reigns from II93 to 1554, for which period he gives the initial dates of the Hijra years (Tribner, 1871); (3) Mr. Edward Thomas’ A'evenue Aesources of the Mughal Empire, with his manuscript marginal notes; (4) Lieut.-Colonel Briggs’ Translation of AAPGAAAAW ZAVC U/CS/O M. 325 The first collision between Hinduism and Islám on the Punjab frontier was the act of the Hindus. In 977, Jaipál, the Hindu chief of Lahore, annoyed by Afghān raids, led his troops up the passes against the Muhammadan kingdom of Ghazni, in Afghānistán. Subuktigin, the Ghaznívide prince, after severe fighting, took advantage of a hurricane to cut off the Hindu retreat through the pass. He allowed them, how- First Türkſ invasions. ever, to return to India, on the surrender of fifty elephants, Subukti. and the promise of one million dirhams (about 24, 25,000). Tradition relates how Jaipál, having regained his capital, was counselled by the Bráhman, standing at his right hand, not to disgrace himself by paying ransom to a barbarian ; while his nobles and warrior chiefs, standing at his left, implored him to keep faith. In the end, Subuktigin swept down the passes to enforce his ransom, defeated Jaipál, and left an Afghān officer with Io, ooo horse to garrison Peshāwar. Subuktigin was soon afterwards called away to fight in Central Asia, and his. Indian raid left behind it only this outpost.” But henceforth the Afghāns held both ends of the passes. - In 997, Subuktigin died, and was succeeded by his son, Mahmuid of Ghazní, aged sixteen. This valiant monarch reigned for thirty-three years,” and extended the limits of his father's little Afghān kingdom from Persia on the west, to I gln, 977 Muhammad Kásim Firishta's History of the Rise of the Muhammadan Aower in India; (5) Reports of the Archaeological Survey of Western India, and materials supplied by the Statistical Survey of the various Provinces of India ; (6) Professor Blochmann's Aſſiz-à-AAEðará (Calcutta, 1873), together with Gladwin’s older translation (2 vols., 1800). (7) Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole's History of the Moghul Fmperors of Hindustán, from their coins, 1892. (8) Valuable MS. notes supplied to me by Mr. Edward Thomas and Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole. (9) MS. suggestions kindly made by Mr. H. G. Keene; also his Moghul Fmpire, and other works. When the dates or figures in this chapter differ from Elphinstone's, they are derived from the original Persian authorities, as adopted by Sir Henry Elliot and Mr. Thomas. * The Tárážh Yamānā, written circ. 1020, by Al 'Utbi, a secretary of Sultán Mahmūd, is the contemporary authority for this invasion. It is translated in Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vol. ii. pp. 18–24. The materials for the invasions of Subuktigin are Firishta, i. pp. 11–25 (ed. 1829); and Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vols. ii. iii. iv. and vi. - * His chronicler, Al 'Utbi, never mentions Delhi or Lahore. * The Zabakót-i-Năsără (Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vol. ii. p. 270) speaks of the ‘36th year of his reign.” But the dates 997 to IO3O seem authoritative. The original materials for the invasions of Mahmūd are Aſirishta, i. pp. 37–82; and Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vols. i. ii. iii. and iv. º A. D Mahmūd of Ghazni, IOOI-IO3O. 326 FAA’ſ Y MUAAMMADA W RUZERS. deep into the Punjab on the east. Having spent four years in consolidating his power to the west of the Kháibar Pass, he led forth, in Ioor A.D., the first of his seventeen 1 invasions of India. Of these, thirteen were directed to the subjugation of the Punjab ; one was an unsuccessful incursion into Kashmir; the remaining three were short but furious raids against more distant cities—Kanauj, Gwalior, and Somnáth. Jaipál, the Hindu frontier chief of Lahore, was again defeated. According to Hindu custom, a twice-conquered prince was deemed unworthy to reign ; and Jaipál, mounting a funeral pile, solemnly made over his kingdom to his son, and burned himself in his regal robes. Another local chief, rather than yield himself to the victor, fell upon his own sword. In the sixth expedition (Ioo8 A.D.), the Hindu ladies melted their ornaments, while the poorer women spun cotton, to support their husbands in the war. In one great battle, the fate of the invaders hung in the balance. Mahmuid, alarmed by a coalition of the Indian kings as far as Oudh and Málwā, entrenched himself near Peshāwar. A sortie which he made was driven back, and the wild Ghakkar tribe 3 burst into the camp and slaughtered nearly 4ooo Musalmáns. But each fresh expedition ended by strengthening the Muhammadan foothold in India. Mahmuid carried away enormous booty from the Hindu temples, such as Thaneswar and Nagarkot, and his sixteenth and most famous expedition was directed against the temple of Somnáth in Gujarát (1024 A.D.). After bloody repulses, he stormed the town ; and the Hindu garrison, leaving 5ooo dead, put out in boats to sea. The idol of Somnáth was merely one of the twelve famous Mahmūd’s Seventeen invasions, IOOI-Io26. Patriotic devotion of the Hindus, IOO8 A.D. Mahmud's progress in India, IOOI-IO24. * This number, and subsequent details, are taken from the authorities translated in Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vols. ii. iii. iv.; and critically examined in the Appendix to his second volume, pp. 434–478 (1869). ' - - * * Firishta says, “30,000 Ghakkars with their heads and feet bare,’ Colonel Briggs' Firishta, vol. i. p. 47 (ed. 1829). Elphinstone gives the number of Mahmūd’s expeditions somewhat differently from the number and order adopted in the above text from the Persian authorities, translated by Sir Henry Elliot. Thus Elphinstone gives the expedition of 1008 A.D. as the fourth (p. 328), while Sir Henry Elliot gives it as the sixth (Persian Historians, vol. i. p. 444). In the same way, Elphinstone gives the Somnáth expedition as the twelfth (p. 334, ed. 1866), while Sir Henry Elliot gives it as the sixteenth (vol. ii. p. 468). These instances must suffice to indicate the differences between Elphinstone and the later materials derived from Sir Henry Elliot and Mr. Edward Thomas. In subsequent pages, the more accurate materials will be used without pausing to point out such differences. A/AA/MUD OF GAZAZAW/. 327 Zingas or phallic emblems erected in various parts of India. But Mahmūd having taken the name of the ‘Idol-Smasher,’ Expedi- the modern Persian historians gradually converted the plunder sº of Somnáth into a legend of his pious zeal. Forgetting the Iozº.” Contemporary accounts of the idol as a rude stump of stone, Firishta tells how Mahmūd, on entering the temple, was offered an enormous ransom by the priests if he would spare the image.” But Mahmūd cried out that he would rather be Fiction of remembered as the breaker than the seller of idols, and clove * the god open with his mace. Forthwith a vast treasure of god. jewels poured forth from its vitals, which explained the liberal offers of the priests, and rewarded the disinterested piety of the monarch. The growth of this myth can be clearly traced,” but it is still repeated by uncritical historians. The Zinga or solid stone fetish of Somnáth had no stomach, and could contain no jewels. Mahmuid carried off the temple gates, with fragments of the The phallic emblem, to Ghazni,” and on the way nearly perished * with his army in the Indus desert. But the famous ‘Sandal-wood gates. gates of Somnáth,” brought as a trophy from Ghazní by order of Lord Ellenborough in 1842, and paraded through Northern India, were as clumsy a forgery as the story of the jewel- bellied idol itself. Mahmuid died at Ghazní in Io 30 A.D. As the result of seventeen invasions of India, and twenty- Results of five years' fighting, Mahmūd had reduced the western districts Nº. of the Punjab to the control of Ghazni, and left the remem- 1930. brance of his raids as far as Kanauj on the east and Gujarát in the south. He never set up as a resident sovereign in India. His expeditions beyond the Punjab were the adven- tures of a religious knight-errant, with the plunder of a temple- city, or the demolition of an idol, as their object, rather than serious efforts at conquest. But as his father Subuktigin had The left Peshāwar as an outpost garrison, so Mahmūd left the º & e tº y conquered. Punjab as an outlying Province of Ghazni. 1 Colonel Briggs' Firishta, vol. i. pp. 72, 73 (ed. 1829). * Sir H. Elliot's History of India from the Persian Historians, vol. ii. p. 270, from the Tabakół-i-Năsără ş also Appendix, vol. ii. p. 476; vol. iv. pp. 182, 183, from the Habſbu-s-Siyar of Khondamir. But see, even in 1832, H. H. Wilson in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xvii. pp. 194 et seq. A foundation for Firishta's invention is, however, to be found in the con- temporary account of Al Biruni (970–IO29 A.D.), who says that the top of the linga was garnished with gems of gold. ° Of the four fragments, he deposited one in the Jamá Masjid at Ghazni, another at the entrance of his palace, and the third he sent to Mecca, and the fourth to Medina. Tabakół-i-Maisirſ. 328 AAA’/ Y A/OAZAA/M/A/DA/V Aº U/AA’.S. Mahmūd's justice and thrift. Ferdousi. House of Ghor, II 52-II86. Obtains the Punjab, II86. The Muhammadan chroniclers tell many stories, not only of Mahmud's valour and piety, but also of his thrift. One day a poor woman complained that her son had been killed by robbers in a distant desert of Irak. Mahmuid said he was very sorry, but that it was difficult to prevent such accidents so far from the capital. The old woman rebuked him with these words, ‘Keep therefore no more territory than you can rightly govern.' The Sultán forthwith rewarded her, and sent troops to guard all caravans passing that way. Mahmud was an enlightened patron of poets, and his liberality drew the great Ferdousi to his court. The Sultán listened with delight to his Sháh-nāmah, or Book of Kings, and promised him a dirham, meaning a golden one, for each verse on its completion. After thirty years of labour, the poet claimed his reward. But the Sultán, finding that the poem had run to 60,000 verses, offered him 60,000 silver dirhams, instead of dirhams of gold. Ferdousi retired in disgust from the court, and wrote a bitter satire which still records the alleged base birth of the monarch. Mahmūd forgave the satire, but remembered the great epic, and, repenting of his meanness, sent Ioo,ooo golden dirhams to the poet. The bounty came too late. For, as the royal messengers bearing the bags of gold entered one gate of Ferdousi's city, the poet's Corpse was being borne out by another. During a century and a half, the Punjab remained under Mahmūd's successors, as a Province of Ghazni. But in 1152, the Afghāns of Ghor' overthrew the Ghaznívide dynasty; and Khusrú, the last of Mahmūd’s line, fled to Lahore, the capital of his Outlying Indian territory. In 1186, this also was wrested from him ; * and the Ghorian prince Shahāb-ud-din, better known as Muhammad of Ghor, began the conquest of India on his own account. But most of the Hindu princi- palities in India fought hard, and some of them still survive, seven centuries after the torrent of Afghān invasion swept over their heads. On his first expedition towards Delhi, in 1191, Muhammad * Ghor, one of the oldest seats of the Afghān race, is now a ruined town of Western Afghānistán, I2O miles south-east of Herāt. The feud between Ghor and Ghazni was of long standing and great bitterness. Mahmūd of Ghazni had subdued Ghor in IOIO A.D. ; but about 1051 the Ghorian chief captured Ghazní, and dragged its chief inhabitants to Ghor, where he cut their throats, and used their blood for making mortar for the fortifications. After various reprisals, Ghor finally triumphed over Ghazní in II 52. * Zabakót-i-Mäsiri. Sir H. Elliot's Persian Historians, vol. ii. p. 281. AOUSE OF GAZOA', I 186–1206. 329 of Ghor was utterly defeated by the Hindus at Thaneswar, Muham- badly wounded, and barely escaped with his life. His scattered ë.” hosts were chased for 40 miles. But he gathered together invasions, the wreck at Lahore, and, aided by new hordes from Central hº Asia, again marched into Hindustán in 1193. Family quarrels defeat, among the Rájputs prevented a united effort against him. I 191. The cities of Delhi and Kanauj stand forth as the centres of Dissen- rival Hindu monarchies, each of which claimed the first place lºng in Northern India. A Chauhān prince, ruling over Delhi and the Hindu Ajmere, bore the proud name of Prithwi Rājā or Suzerain. Pº The Ráhtor King of Kanauj, whose capital can still be traced across 8 square miles of broken bricks and rubbish,” cele- brated a feast, in the spirit of the ancient Horse-Sacrifice,” to proclaim himself the Over-lord. At such a feast, all menial offices had to be filled by royal Court vassals; and the Delhi monarch was Summoned as a gate- º at keeper, along with the other princes of Hindustán. During 12th ceh- the ceremony, the daughter of the King of Kanauj was tº A.P. nominally to make her Swayam-vara, or ‘Own Choice' of a husband, a pageant survival of the reality in the Sanskrit epics. The Delhi Rājā loved the maiden, but he could not brook to stand at another man's gate. As he did not arrive, the Kanauj king set up a mocking image of him at A Sway- the door. When the princess entered the hall to make her ..." choice, she looked calmly round the circle of kings, then, Maiden's stepping proudly past them to the door, threw her bridal 9” garland over the neck of the ill-shapen image. Forthwith, says the story, the Delhi monarch rushed in, sprang up with the princess on his horse, and galloped off towards his northern capital. The outraged father led out his army against the runaways, and, having called in the Afghāns to attack Delhi on the other side, brought about the ruin of both the Hindu kingdoms. The tale serves to record the dissensions among the Rájput Distribu- princes, which prevented a united resistance to Muhammad of º Ghor. He found Delhi occupied by the Tomára clan, Ajmere cirº riš4. by the Chauháns, and Kanauj by the Ráhtors. These Rájput States formed the natural breakwaters against invaders from the north-west. But their feuds are said to have left the King of Delhi and Ajmere, then united under one Chauhán Over- lord, only 64 out of his Io'8 warrior chiefs. In II 93, the Afghāns again swept down on the Punjab. Prithwi Rájá of * See article KANAUJ, 7%e Zmperial Gazetteer of Zndia. * Asza-medha, described in a previous chapter. 33o AAA’ Z Y A/OAZAA/M/A/OAAW A2 UZAZA’.S. Rájput migrations into Ráj- putána. Delhi and Ajmere 1 was defeated and slain. His heroic princess burned herself on his funeral pile. Muhammad of Ghor, having occupied Delhi, pressed on to Ajmere; and in I 194 overthrew the rival Hindu monarch of Kanauj, whose body was identified on the field of battle by his false teeth. The brave Ráhtor Rájputs of Kanauj, with other of the Rájput clans in Northern India, quitted their homes in large bodies rather than submit to the stranger. They migrated to the regions bordering on the eastern desert of the Indus, and there founded the military kingdoms which bear their race-name, Rájputéna, to this day. History takes her narrative of these events from the matter- of-fact statements of the Persian annalists.” But the Hindu court-bard of Prithwi Rájá left behind a patriotic version of the fall of his race. His ballad-chronicle, known as the Prithwáráſ Rásau of Chánd, is one of the earliest poems in Hindi. It depicts the Musalmán invaders as beaten in all the battles except the last fatal one. Their leader is taken prisoner by the Hindus, and released for a heavy ransom. But the quarrels of the Rájput chiefs ruined the Hindu cause. Setting aside these patriotic songs of the defeated Hindus, Benares and Gwalior mark the south-western limits of Muhammad of Ghor's own advance. But his general, Bakhtiyār Khilji, conquered Behar in 1199,” and Lower Bengal down to the delta in I2O3. On the approach of the Musalmáns, the Brähmans advised Lakshman Sen, the King of Bengal, to remove his residence from Nadiyā to some more distant city. But the prince, an old man of eighty, could not make up his mind until the Afghān general had seized his capital, and burst into the palace one day while his majesty was at dinner. The monarch slipped out by a back door without having time to put on his shoes, and fled to Purſ in Orissa, where he spent his remaining days in the service of Jagannāth.* Muham- madan conquest of Bengal, I2O3. * Descended from the eponymous Rājā Aja of Ajmere, circ. 145 A.D. ; and on the mother's side, from Anang Pál Tuar, Rájá of Delhi, who adopted him ; thus uniting Delhi to Ajmere. See article AJMERE-MER- wARA, in The Imperial Gazetteer of India. * Firishta (i. 161-187), the Tabakót-i-Năsirſ of Minháju-s-Sirāj, and others; translated in Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vols. ii. v. and vi. * Aſistory of Bengal from the first Muhammadan /nzasion to 1757, by Major Charles Stewart, p. 25 (Calcutta, 1847). The nearly contemporary authority is the Tabakół-i-Năsări (1227–41); Sir H. Elliot's Persian His- torians, vol. ii. pp. 3O7–309. * Stewart, p. 27. The Zabakdº-i-AVäsiri merely says ‘ he went towards THE S/A VE KINGS, 1206–1290. 33 I Meanwhile the Sultán, Muhammad Ghorſ, divided his time between campaigns in Afghānistán and Indian invasions; and he had little time to consolidate his Indian conquests. Even in the Punjab, the tribes were defeated rather than sub- dued. In 1203, the Ghakkars issued from their mountains, took Lahore," and devastated the whole Province.” In 1206, a party of the same clan swam the Indus, on the bank of which the Afghān camp was pitched, and stabbed the Sultán to death while asleep in his tent.” Muhammad of Ghor was no religious knight-errant like Muham- Mahmuid of Ghazní, but a practical conqueror. The objects ë. of his distant expeditions were not temples, but Provinces, work in Subuktigin had left Peshāwar as an outpost of Ghazni (977 tºo. A.D.); and Mahmūd had reduced the western Punjab to an outlying Province of the same kingdom (1030 A.D.). That was the net result of the Türkſ invasions of India. But Muhammad of Ghor left the whole north of India, from the delta of the Indus to the delta of the Ganges, under Muham- madan generals, who on his death set up for themselves. His Indian Viceroy, Kutab-ud-din, proclaimed himself Northern sovereign of India at Delhi, and founded a line which lasted *. from 1206 to 1290. Kutab claimed the control over all the Muhammadan leaders and soldiers of fortune in India from Kutab- Sind to Lower Bengal. His name is preserved at his capital º by the Kutab Mosque, with its graceful colonnade of richly- 3. sculptured Hindu pillars, and by the Kutab Minár," which raises its tapering shaft, encrusted with chapters from the Kurán, high above the ruins of old Delhi. Kutab-ud-din had started life as a Türkſ slave, and several of his successors rose first by valour or intrigue from the same low condition to the throne. #. His dynasty is accordingly known as that of the Slave Kings. Under them India became for the first time the seat of resident Muhammadan sovereigns. Kutab-ud-din died in 12 Io.” Sanknát” (sic) (Jagannāth P); Sir H. Elliot's Persian Historians, vol. ii. p. 3O9. * Airishta, vol. i. pp. 182–184. * As far south as the country near Múltán, Zöju-/-Ma-dsºr; Sir H. Elliot's Persian Historians, vol. ii. pp. 233—235; Tárikh-i-Affé, v. 163. The Muhammadan historians naturally minimize this episode. * Sir H. Elliot’s Persian Historians, vol. ii. pp. 235, 297, 393. Brigg's Airishta, vol. i. pp. 185, 186. * The Imperial Gazetteer of India, article DELHI CITY. * The original materials for Kutab-ud-din Aibak's reign are to be found in Firishta, vol. i. pp. 189–202 (ed. 1829); and the Persian Historians, translated by Sir Henry Elliot, vols. ii. iii. iv. and v. 332 EAAA. Y. MUAAMMADAM RUZZA'.S. The Slave dynasty found itself face to face with the three perils which have beset the Muhammadan rule in India from the outset, and beneath which that rule eventually succumbed. First, rebellions by its own servants, Musalmán generals, or viceroys of Provinces; second, revolts of the Hindus ; third, fresh invasions, chiefly by Mughals, from Central Asia. Altamsh, the third and greatest Sultán of the Slave Kings (1211–36 A.D.), had to reduce the Muhammadan Governors of Lower Bengal and Sind, both of whom had set up as inde- pendent rulers; and he narrowly escaped destruction by a Mughal invasion. The Mughals under Changiz Khán swept through the Indian passes in pursuit of an Afghān prince; but their progress was stayed by the Indus, and Delhi remained untouched. Before the death of Altamsh (1236 A.D.), the Hindus had ceased for a time to struggle openly; and the Muhammadan Viceroys of Delhi ruled all India on the north of the Vindhya range, including the Punjab, the North- Western Provinces, Oudh, Behar, Lower Bengal, Ajmere, Gwalior, Málwā, and Sind. The Khálif of Bághdād acknow- ledged India as a separate Muhammadan kingdom during the reign of Altamsh, and struck coins in recognition of the new Empire of Delhi (1229 A.D.)." Altamsh died in 1236. His daughter Raziyā was the only lady who ever occupied the Muhammadan throne of Delhi (1236–39 A.D.). Learned in the Kurán, industrious in public business, firm and energetic in every Crisis, she bears in history the masculine name of the Sultán Raziyā. But the favour which she showed to the master of the horse, an Abyssinian slave, offended her Afghān generals; and, after a troubled reign of three and a half years, she was deposed and put to death.” Mughal irruptions and Hindu revolts soon began to under- mine the Slave dynasty. The Mughals are said to have burst through Tibet into North-Eastern Bengal in 1245; 8 and, The Slave Kings, I2O6–90. Its diffi- culties. Altamsh, I2 II–36. The Empress Raziyā, I236–39. Mughal irruptions, I245–88. * Chronicles of the Pathán Kings of Delhi, by Edward Thomas, p. 46 (Milne, 1871). Original materials for Shams-ud-din Altamsh: Airishta, vol. i. pp. 205–212 (1829); Sir Henry Elliot’s Persiazz Aſistorians, vols. ii. iii. iv. * Thomas' Chronicles of the Pathdra Kings, pp. 104–108; Firishta, vol. i. pp. 217–222; Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vols. ii. and iii. * This invasion of Bengal is discredited by the latest and most critical historian, Mr. Edward Thomas, in his Pathán Kings of Zelhi, p. 121, note (ed. I87I). On the other side, see Firishta, vol. i. p. 231, but cf. Col. Briggs' footnote; and the Załażāţ-7-AWasāri, in Sir H. Elliot's Persiazz Aſistorians, vol. ii. pp. 264, 344; ‘In March 1245, the infidels of Changiz Khán came to the gates of Lakhnautí’ (Gaur). ~, AAV/O OF SAEA VE D VMASTV. 333 during the next forty-three years, repeatedly swept down the Afghān passes into the Punjab (1245–88). The wild Indian tribes, such as the Ghakkars" and the hillmen of Mewat, ravaged the Muhammadan lowlands almost up to the capital. Rájput revolts foreshadowed that inextinguishable vitality of Rájput the Hindu military races, which was to harass, from first to * last, the Mughal Empire, and to outlive it. Under the Slave Kings, even the North of India was only half subdued to the Muhammadan Sway. The Hindus rose again and again in Málwā, Rájputana, Bundelkhand, along the Ganges, and in the Jumna valley, marching to the river bank opposite Delhi itself.” The last monarch but one of the Slave line, Balban (1265–87 Balban, A.D.), had not only to fight the Mughals, the wild non-Aryan 1265–87. tribes, and the Rájput clans ; he was also compelled to massacre his own viceroys. Having in his youth entered into a compact for mutual support and advancement with forty of his Türkſ fellow-slaves in the palace, he had, when he came to the throne, to break the powerful confederacy thus formed. Some of his provincial governors he publicly scourged; others were beaten to death in his presence; and a general, who failed to reduce the rebel Muhammadan Viceroy of Bengal, was hanged. Balban himself moved down His to the delta, and crushed the Bengal revolt with a merciless º skill. His severity against Hindu rebels knew no bounds. Hindus. He nearly exterminated the Jadtin Rájputs of Mewat, to the South of Delhi, putting Ioo, ooo persons to the Sword. He then cut down the forests which formed their retreats, and opened up the country to tillage. The miseries caused by the Mughal hordes in Central Asia, drove a crowd of princes and poets to seek shelter at the Indian court. Balban boasted that His fifteen no fewer than fifteen once independent sovereigns had fed on ºpen his bounty, and he called the streets of Delhi by the names of their late kingdoms, such as Bāghdād, Kharizm, and Ghor. He died in 1287 A.D.” His successor was poisoned, and the Slave dynasty ended in 1290.4 In that year Jalāl-ud-din, a ruler of Khilji, succeeded to * For an account of the Ghakkars, vide ante, p. 234, chap. vii. * Thomas’ Pathdn Kings, p. 131. * Materials for the reign of Balban (Ghiyás-ud-din Balban): Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vol. iii. pp. 38, 97, 546, 593 (1871); Airishta, vol. i. pp. 247–272 (1829). * Mr. E. Thomas’ Pathón Áings, pp. 138–142. 334 AAA’ Z Y MUAE/AM/M/A/XAAV /& U/AAC.S. House of the Delhi throne, and founded a line which lasted for thirty łº, years (1290–1320 A.D.). The Khilji dynasty extended the Muhammadan power into Southern India. Alá-ud-din, the nephew and successor of the founder, when Governor of Karra," near Allahābād, pierced through the Vindhya ranges with his cavalry, and plundered the Buddhist temple city of Alá-ud- Bhilsa, 3oo miles off. After trying his powers against the sºn rebellious Hindu princes of Bundelkhand and Málwā, he raids, conceived the idea of a grand raid into the Deccan. With a I294. band of 8ooo horse, he rode into the heart of Southern India. On the way he gave himself out as flying from his uncle's court, to seek service with the Hindu King of Rājāmahendri. The generous Rájput princes abstained from attacking a refugee in his flight, and Alá-ud-din surprised the great city of Deogiri, the modern Daulatābād, at that time the capital of the Hindu kingdom of Maháráshtra. Having suddenly galloped into its streets, he announced himself as only the advance guard of the whole imperial army, levied an immense booty, and carried it back 7oo miles to the seat of his Governorship, on the banks of the Ganges. He then lured the Sultán Jalāl-ud-din, his uncle, to Karra, in order to divide the spoil; and murdered the old man in the act of clasping his hand (1295 A.D.).” Reign of Alá-ud-din Scattered his spoils in gifts or charity, and pro- ãº- claimed himself Sultán (1295–1315 A.D.).” The twenty years isis. of his reign founded the Muhammadan sway in Southern Alá-ud- India. He reconquered Gujarát from the Hindus in 1297 ; * of captured Rintimbur,4 after a difficult siege, from the Jaipur Northern Rájputs in 1300; took the fort of Chitor, and partially sub- º jected the Sesodia Rájputs (1303); and, having thus reduced * the Hindus on the north of the Vindhyas, prepared for the conquest of the Deccan. But before starting on this great expedition, he had to meet five Mughal inroads from the north. In 1295 he defeated a Mughal invasion under the walls of his capital, Delhi; in 1304–5 he encountered four others, sending all prisoners to Delhi, where the chiefs were trampled by elephants, and the common soldiery slaughtered in cold blood. He crushed with equal severity several rebellions which took 1 Forty miles north-west of Allahābād, once the capital of an important fief, now a ruined town. See The Imperial Gazetteer of India, article RARRA. * Thomas' Pathdn K?ngs, p. 144. * Materials for the reign of Alá-ud-din Khilji : Sir Henry Elliot's Aersian Aſistorians, vol. iii. (1871); Firishta, vol. i. pp. 321–382 (1829). * See article RINTIMBUR, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. A H//// DYNASTY, 1290–1320. 335 place among his own family during the same period; first putting out the eyes of his insurgent nephews, and then beheading them (1299–1300). Having thus arranged his affairs in Northern India, he under- His con- took the conquest of the South. In 1303 he had sent his sº eunuch slave, Mâlik Käfur, with an army through Bengal, to India, attack Warangal, the capital of the Hindu kingdom of Teling-'3°37'5. àna. In 1306, Káfur marched victoriously through Málwā and Khándesh into the Maráthá country, where he captured Deogiri, and persuaded the Hindu king Rám Deo to return with him to do homage at Delhi. While the Sultán Alá-ud-din was conquering the Rájputs in Márwär, his slave general His Káfur made expeditions through the Karnātik and Mahá- * ráshtra, as far south as Adam's Bridge, at the extremity of Käfur. India, where he built a mosque. The Muhammadan Sultán of India was no longer merely an Extent of Afghān King of Delhi. Three great waves of invasion from * Central Asia had created a large Muhammadan population in power in Northern India. First came the Türkis, represented by the º house of Ghazni ; then the Afghāns (commonly so called), 300. represented by the house of Ghor; finally the Mughals, having failed in their repeated attempts to conquer the Punjab, took service in great numbers with the Sultáns of Delhi. Under the Slave Kings the Mughal mercenaries had become so power- ful as to require to be massacred (1286). About 1292, three Muham- thousand Mughals, having been converted from their old Tartar * rites to Muhammadanism, received a suburb of Delhi, still in India, called Mughalpur, for their residence. Other immigrations of ***3* Mughal mercenaries followed. After various plots, Alá-ud-din slaughtered 15, ooo of the settlers, and sold their families as slaves (II31 A.D.). The unlimited supply of soldiers which Alá-ud-din could Mughal thus draw upon from the Türki, Aſghān, and Mughal races." in Northern India and the countries beyond, enabled him 1286-1311. to send armies farther south than any of his predecessors. But in his later years the Hindus revolted in Gujarát; the Rájputs reconquered Chitor ; and many of the Muham- madan garrisons were driven out of the Deccan. On the Hindu capture of Chitor in 1303, the Hindu garrison preferred death * to submission. The peasantry still chant an early Hindí ballad, telling how the queen and thirteen thousand women threw themselves on a funeral pile, while the men rushed upon the swords of the besiegers. A remnant cut their way to the Arávalli Hills; and the Rájput independence, although in 336 EAA'ZY MUHAMMADAM RUZERS. Arenegade Hindu Emperor, I316–2O ; Khusrú. House of Tughlak, I32O-I4I4. abeyance during Alá-ud-din's reign, was never crushed. Having imprisoned his sons, and given himself up to paroxysms of rage and intemperance, Alá-ud-din died in 1315, helped to the grave, it is said, by poison given by his favourite general, Káfur. During the four remaining years of the house of Khilji, the actual power passed to Khusrú Khán, a low-caste renegade Hindu, who imitated the military successes and vices of his patron, Malik Káfur, and then personally superintended his murder." Khusrú now became all in all to the debauched Emperor Mubarik, slew him, and seized the throne. While outwardly professing Islám, Khusrú desecrated the Kurán by using it as a seat, and degraded the pulpits of the mosques into pedestals for Hindu idols. In 1320 he was slain, and the Khilji dynasty disappeared.” The leader of the rebellion was Ghiyás-ud-din Tughlak, who had started life as a Türki slave, and risen to the frontier Governorship of the Punjab. He founded the Tughlak dynasty, which lingered on for ninety-four years (1320–1414), although submerged for a time by the invasion of Timur (Tamerlane) in 1398. Ghiyás-ud-din Tughlak (1320–25 A.D.) removed the capital from Delhi to a spot about four miles farther east, and called it Tughlakābād. His son and successor, Muhammad Tughlak (1325–51), was an accomplished scholar, a skilful captain, and a severely abstinent man.” But his ferocity of temper, perhaps inherited from the tribes of the steppes, rendered him merciless as a judge and careless of human suffering. The least opposition drove him into outbursts of insane fury. He wasted the treasures accumulated by Alá-ud-din in buying off the Mughal hordes, who again and again Swept down on the Punjab. On the other hand, in fits of ambition, he raised an army for the invasion of Persia, and sent out an expedition of Ioo,ooo men against China. The first force broke up for want of pay, and plundered his own dominions; the second perished almost to a man in the Himalayan passes. He planned great conquests into Southern India, and dragged the whole inhabitants of Muham- mad Tughlak, I325–5I. Muham- mad Tughlak’s mad ex- peditions, I325–5I. His cruelties. * Thomas’ Pathán Kings, pp. 178, 179. * /dem, pp. 184, 185. * Materials for his reign : Sir Henry Elliot’s Persian Historians, vols. i. iii. v. vi. vii.; Firishta, vol. i. pp. 408-443 (ed. I829). Elphinstone's narrative of this reign is an admirable specimen of his spirited style of work, pp. 403–4 IO (ed. I866). REVOLTS UNDER MUHAMMAD TVGHZAK. 337 Delhi, 800 miles off, to Deogiri, to which he gave the name of Daulatābād, Twice he allowed the miserable suppliants to return to Delhi; twice he compelled them on pain of death to quit it. One of these forced migrations took place amid the horrors of a famine; the citizens perished by thousands, and in the end the king had to give up the attempt. Having drained his treasury, he issued a forced currency of copper His forced coins, by which he tried to make the king's brass equal to * other men's silver." During the same century, the Mughal conqueror of China, Kublai Khán, had expanded the use of paper notes, early devised by the Chinese ; and Kai Khātū had introduced a bad imitation of it into Persia. Tughlak's forced currency quickly brought its own ruin. Foreign mer- chants refused the worthless brass tokens, trade came to a stand, and the king had to take payment of his taxes in his own depreciated coinage. Meanwhile the Provinces began to throw off the Delhi yoke. Revolt Muhammad Tughlak had succeeded in 1325 to the greatest º: e g e ovinces, Empire which had, up to that time, acknowledged a Muham-1338–51. madan Sultán in India. But his bigoted zeal for Islám forbade him to trust either Hindu princes or Hindu officers; and he thus found himself compelled to fill every high post with foreign Muhammadan adventurers, who had no interest in the stability of his rule. The annals of the period present a long series of outbreaks, one part of the Empire renouncing its allegiance as soon as another had been brought back to subjection. His own nephew rebelled in Málwā, and, being He flays caught, was flayed alive (1338). The Punjab governor revolted * €W. (1339), was crushed, and put to death. The Musalmán Vice- roys of Lower Bengal and of the Coromandel coast set up for themselves (about 1340), and could not be subdued. The Hindu kingdoms of Karnāta and Telingána recovered their independence (1344), and expelled the Musalmán garrisons. The Muhammadan governors in the Deccan also His reign revolted, while the troops in Gujarát rose in mutiny. Mu- º hammad Tughlak rushed with an army to the south to take vengeance on the traitors, but hardly had he put down their rising than he was called away by insurrections in Gujarát, Málwā, and Sind. He died in 1351, while chasing rebels in the lower valley of the Indus. Muhammad Tughlak was the first Musalmán ruler of India who can be said to have had a revenue system. He increased * Thomas’ Patházz Á?ngs, p. 243. See his valuable monograph, entitled “Muhammad Bin Tughlak’s Forced Currency,’ off. cit., pp. 239–26I. Y 338 EARZY MUHAMMADAM RUZZA'.S. the land-tax between the Ganges and the Jumna ; in some Districts tenfold, in others twentyfold. The husbandmen fled before his tax-gatherers, leaving their villages to lapse into jungle, and formed themselves into robber clans. He cruelly punished all who trespassed on his game preserves; and he invented a kind of man-hunt without precedent in the annals of human wickedness. He surrounded a large tract with his army, ‘and then gave orders that the circle should close towards the centre, and that all within it (mostly inoffensive peasants) should be slaughtered like wild beasts. This sort of hunt was more than once repeated ; and on a subsequent occasion there was a general massacre of the inhabitants of the great city of Kanauj. These horrors led in due time to famine ; and the miseries of the country exceeded all powers of description.” His successor, Firuz Tughlak (1351–88), ruled mercifully, but had to recognise the independence of the Muhammadan kingdoms of Bengal and the Deccan, and suffered much from bodily infirmities and court intrigues.” He undertook many public works, such as dams across rivers for irrigation, tanks, Caravan-Saráis, mosques, colleges, hospitals, and bridges. But his greatest achievement was the old Jumna Canal. This work drew its waters from the Jumna, near a point where it leaves the mountains, and connected that river with the Ghaggar and the Sutlej by irrigation channels.” Part of it has been reconstructed by the British Government, and spreads a margin of fertility on either side to this day. But the dynasty of Tughlak soon sunk amid Muhammadan mutinies and Hindu revolts; and under Mahmūd, its last real king, Northern India fell an easy prey to the great Mughal invasion of 1398. - In that year, Timür (Tamerlane) swept through the Afghān passes at the head of the united hordes of Tartary. He defeated the Tughlak king Mahmuid under the walls of Delhi, and entered the capital. During five days a massacre raged; “some streets were rendered impassable by heaps of dead,” 4 while Timlir calmly looked on and held a feast in honour of his victory. On the last day of 1398 he resumed Muham- mad Tughlak's revenlle exactions, I 325–5 I. His “man- hunt.” Firuz Sháh Tughlak, 1351–88. His canals. Mahmūd Tughlak. Timur’s (Tamer- lane's) invasion, I398. * Elphinstone's History of Zndia, pp. 405, 406 (ed. 1866). - * Materials for his reign : Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vols, i. iii. iv. vi. viii.; Frishta, vol. i. pp. 444-465 (ed. I829). * Thomas’ Pathém Kings, p. 294. See article JUMNA CANAL, WESTERN, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. * Airishta, vol. i. p. 493. His whole account of Timár's invasion is very vivid, vol. i. pp. 485-497 (ed. I829). HINDU ING DOMS OF THE DECCAM. 339 his march, with a ‘sincere and humble tribute of grateful praise' to God, in Firuz's marble mosque on the banks of the Jumna. He crossed the Ganges, and proceeded as far as Hardwar, after another great massacre at Meerut. Then, skirting the foot of the Himalayas, he retired through their north-western passes into Central Asia (1399). Timlir left no traces of his power in India, save ruined Ruin of cities. On his departure, Mahmuid Tughlak crept back from .. his retreat in Gujarát, and nominally ruled till 1412. The " ' " Tughlak line ended in 1414. It was succeeded by the Sayyid dynasty, who ruled from The 1414 till 1450. The Afghān house of Lodſ followed, from $ºyids: p º I4I4-5O. I45o to 1526. But some of these Sultāns reigned over only a few miles round Delhi; and during the whole period, the Hindu princes and the local Muhammadan kings were prac- tically independent throughout the greater part of India. The house of Lodi was crushed beneath the Mughal invasion The Lodis, of Bábar in 1526. I450-1526. Bábar founded the Mughal Empire of India, whose last Hindu representative died a British State prisoner at Rangoon in ºns 1862. Before entering on the story of that great Empire, we Ijeccan. must survey for a moment the kingdoms, Hindu and Muham- madan, on the south of the Vindhya range. The three ancient kingdoms, Chera, Chola, and Pándya occupied, as we have Chera, seen,” the Dravidian country peopled by Tamil-speaking races. º Pándya, the largest of them, had its capital at Madura, and o traces its foundation to the 4th century B.C. The Chola kingdom had its headquarters successively at Combaconum and Tanjore. Talkad, in Mysore, now buried by the sands of the Kāveri, was the capital of the Chera kingdom. The I 16th king of the Pándya dynasty was overthrown by the Muhammadan general Malik Káfur, circ. 1304. But the Musal- mans failed to establish their power in the extreme south, and a series of Hindu dynasties ruled from Madura over the old Pándya kingdom until the 18th century. No European kingdom can boast a continuous succession such as that of Madura, traced back by the piety of genealogists to the 4th century B.C. The Chera kingdom enumerates fifty kings, and the Chola sixty-six, besides off-shoot dynasties. But authentic history in Southern India begins with the Kingdom Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar or Narsinha, which flourished sº * At the beginning of this chapter; and articles, CHERA, CHOLA, Irisis55. PANDYA, in Zhe Imperial Gazetteer of India. 34O AARZY MUHAMMADAAW ſº Z.E.R.S. Muham- madan States in the Deccan, I3O3. The Bahmani dynasty, I347-I525. from 1118 to 1565 A.D. The capital can still be traced within the Madras District of Bellary, on the right bank of the Tungabhadra river, vast ruins of temples, fortifications, tanks, and bridges, now inhabited by hyaenas and Snakes. For at least three centuries, Vijayanagar dominated the Southern part of the Indian peninsula. Its Rájás waged war and made peace on equal terms with the Muhammadan Sultāns of the Deccan. Those Sultáns derived their origin from the conquest of Alá-ud-din (post 1303 A.D.). After a period of confused fighting, the Bahmani kingdom of the Deccan emerged as the representative of Muhammadan rule in Southern India. Its founder, Zafar Khán, an Afghān general during the reign of Muhammad Tughlak (1325–51), defeated the Delhi troops, and set up as Musalmán sovereign of the Deccan. Having in early youth been the slave of a Brähman who had treated him kindly and foretold his future greatness, he took the title of Bahmanſ," and transmitted it to his successors. The rise of the Bahmani dynasty is usually assigned to the year 1347, and it lasted for 178 years, until 1525; * although its process of disintegration and dissolution began as early as 1489. Its successive capitals were Gulbargah, Warangal, and Bidar, all in the Haidarābād territory; and it loosely corresponded with the Nizām's dominions of the present day. At the height of their power, the Bahmani kings claimed sovereignty over half the Deccan, from the Tungabhadra river in the south to Orissa in the north, and from Masulipatam on the east to Goa on the west. Their direct government was, however, much more confined. In their early struggle against the Delhi throne, they derived support from the Hindu southern kingdoms of Vijayanagar and Warangal. But, during the greater part of its career, the Bahmani dynasty represented the cause of Islám against Hinduism on the south of the Vindhyas. Its alliances and its wars alike led to a mingling of the Musalmán and Hindu populations. For example, the King of Málwā invaded the Bahmanſ dominions with a mixed force of 12,000 Afghāns and Rájputs. Composite armies, I347-I525. * His royal name in full was Sultán (or Sháh) Alá-ud-din Gángo Bahmaní. * These extreme dates are taken from Thomas’ Pathán Kings, pp. 340, 341. Materials for the Bahmani dynasty: Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Aſistorians, vols. iv. vii. viii.; Firishta, vol. ii. pp. 283–558 (ed. 1829). POWAWEAZZ OF VI/AYANAGAR. 34 I The Hindu Rājā of Vijayanagar recruited his armies from Afghān mercenaries, whom he paid by assignments of land, and for whom he built a mosque. The Muhammadan Bahmanſ troops, on the other hand, were often led by con- verted Hindus. The Bahmani army was itself made up of Minging two hostile sects of Musalmáns. One sect consisted of Shiás, : i. chiefly Persians, Türks, or Tartars from Central Asia; the máns. other, of native-born Musalmáns of Southern India, together with Abyssinian mercenaries, both of whom professed the Sunni faith. The rivalry between these Musalmán sects frequently imperilled the Bahmani throne. The dynasty Fall of reached its highest power under the Bahmani Alá-ud-din II. º about 1437, and was broken up by its discordant elements iº9-1325. between 1489 and I 525. . - Out of its fragments, five independent Muhammadan king- Five Mu- doms in the Deccan were formed. These were—(1) The Adil * Sháhí dynasty, with its capital at Bijápur, founded in 1489 by of the a son of Amurath II., Sultán of the Ottomans; annexed by the Pºss Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1686–88. (2) The Kutab I4ö9-Iböö. Sháhi dynasty, with its capital at Golconda, founded in 1512 by a Türkomán adventurer; also annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687–88. (3) The Nizām Sháhí dynasty, with its capital at Ahmadnagar, founded in 1490 by a Brähman renegade from the Vijayanagar court; subverted by the Mughal Emperor Sháh Jahán in 1636. (4) The Imad Shāhī dynasty of Berár, with its capital at Ellichpur, founded in 1484 also by a Hindu from Vijayanagar; annexed to the Ahmadnagar kingdom (No. 3) in 1572. (5) The Barid Sháhi dynasty, with its capital at Bidar, founded 1492–98 by a Türki or Georgian slave. The Barid Sháhſ territories were small and undefined; independent till after 1609. Bidar fort was finally taken by Aurangzeb in 1657. Space precludes any attempt to trace the history of these Fall of local Muhammadan dynasties of Southern India. They pre- ºn served their independence until the firm establishment of the of Vijaya- Mughal Empire in the north, under Akbar's successors. For *g” a time they had to struggle against the great Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. In 1565 they combined against that power, Battle of and, aided by a rebellion within Vijayanagar itself, they º overthrew it at Tálikot in 1565. The battle of Tálikot marks the final downfall of Vijaya- nagar as a centralized Hindu kingdom. But its local Hindu chiefs or Náyaks seized upon their respective fiefs, and the Muhammadan kings of the South were only able to annex a 342 FARZY MUHAMMA/) AAV /& U/AA’.S. Independ- ent Náyaks and Pále- gárs of Southern India. Independ- ence of Bengal, I340– I576; of Guja- rāt, 1391– I573; of Jaun- pur, I 394– I478. part of its dominions. From the Náyaks are descended the well-known Pálegárs of the Madras Presidency, and the present Mahārājá of Mysore. One of the blood-royal of Vijayanagar fled to Chandragiri and founded a line, which exercised a prerogative of its former sovereignty by granting the site of Madras to the English in 1639. Another Scion, claiming the same high descent, lingers to the present day near the ruins of Vijayanagar, and is known as the Rájá of Anagundi, a feudatory of the Nizám of Haidarābād. The independence of the local Hindu chiefs in Southern India, throughout the Muhammadan period, is illustrated by the Manjarābād family, which maintained its authority from 1397 to 1799." Lower Bengal threw off the authority of Delhi in 1340. Its Muhammadan governor, Fakir-ud-din, set up as sovereign, with his capital at Gaur, and stamped coin in his own name. A succession of twenty independent kings ruled Bengal until 1538, when it was temporarily annexed to the Mughal Empire by Humaylin. It was finally incorporated with that Empire by Akbar in 1576. The great Province of Gujarát in Western India had in like manner grown into an independent Muham- madan kingdom, which lasted for two centuries, from 1391 till Conquered by Akbar in 1573. Málwā, which had also set up as an independent State under its Muhammadan governors, was annexed by the King of Gujarát in 1531. Even Jaunpur, including the territory of Benares, in the very centre of the Gangetic valley, maintained its independence as a separate Musalmán State for nearly a hundred years from 1394 to 1478, under the disturbed rule of the Sayyids and of the first Lodi at Delhi. The position of the early Muhammadan rulers of Delhi was a very difficult one. Successive Musalmán hordes of Türks, Afghāns, and Tartars swept down the passes, and wrested India from the preceding invaders of their own Muhammadan faith. The Delhi Empire was therefore beset by three per- petual dangers. First, new Muhammadan invasions from Central Asia; second, rebellious Muhammadan generals or governors within India; third, the Hindu races whom the early Delhi kings neither conciliated nor crushed. It was reserved for Akbar the Great to remedy the inherent weakness of the position; and, by incorporating the Hindus into his government, to put a curb alike on Muhammadan invaders Weakness of the early Delhi Sultáns. * See article MANJARABAD, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. WEAKNESS OF EARLY DELHI SUZZANS. 343 from without, and on too powerful Muhammadan subjects within. None of the earlier Delhi dynasties had sufficient permanence to allow of a really imperial policy of this kind being deliberately carried out. Seven distinct dynasties, all foreign to India, and some of them representing races bitterly hostile to each other, arose and perished between Iooſ and I526 A.D. The Mughal house of Bábar, who succeeded to the inheritance of India in 1526, produced a succession of great emperors whose rule endured to the year 1707; and the mere process of breaking up their dominions occupied nearly a century more. The seven dynasties or sets of earlier Delhi Sultáns from 1001 to 1526 had, moreover, one common feature —a fanatical Muhammadanism—which rendered the Native races of India infidels and abominations in their eyes. Bábar and his son belong to the later period, when mediaeval Islám, like to mediaeval Christianity, had lost something of the bigotry common to both of them down to the fifteenth century. The early Sultáns of Delhi completely failed to conquer many of the great Hindu kingdoms, or even to weld the Indian Muhammadan States into a united Muhammadan Empire. | 344 State of India in I526. Early life of Bábar, I482-1526. Invades India, I526. Battles of Pánipat. Conquers Northern India, I526–30. Humaylän, Emperor, I 530-56. C H A P T E R XI. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526 TO 1761 A.D.). WHEN, therefore, BABAR invaded India in 1526, he found it divided among a number of local Muhammadan kings and Hindu princes. An Afghān Sultán of the house of Lodi, with his capital at Agra, ruled over what little was left of the historical kingdom of Delhi. Bábar, literally the Lion, born in 1482, was the sixth in descent from Timlir the Tartar. At the early age of twelve, he succeeded his father in the petty kingdom of Ferghāna on the Jaxartes (1494); and, after romantic adventures, conquered Samarkand, the capital of Tamerlane’s line, in 1497. Overpowered by rebellion, and driven out of the valley of the Oxus, he seized the kingdom of Kábul in 1504. During twenty-two years he grew in strength on the Afghān side of the Indian passes, till in 1526 he burst through them into the Punjab, and defeated the Delhi sovereign, Ibrāhīm Lodi, at Pánípat. This was the first of the three great battles which decided the fate of India on that same plain, viz. in 1526, 1556, and 1761. Having entered Delhi, he received the allegiance of the Muhammadans, but was speedily attacked by the Rájputs of Chitor. In 1527, Bábar defeated them at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra, after a battle memorable for its perils and for Bábar's vow, in his extremity, never again to touch wine. He rapidly extended his power as far as Mültán and Behar. He died at Agra in 1530, leaving an Empire which stretched from the river Amu in Central Asia to the borders of the Gangetic delta in Lower Bengal. His son HUMAYUN succeeded him in India, but had to make over Kábul and the Western Punjab to his rival brother Kâmrān." Humaylin was thus left to govern a new conquest, A. D. * REIGN OF HUMAYUN :— I 530. Accession to the throne. Capture of Lahore and occupation of the Punjab by his rival brother Kámrán. Final defeat of the Lodis under Mahmūd Lodi, and acquisition of Jaunpur by Humáyún. I532. Humáyún's campaigns in Málwā and Gujarát. [Aootnote confinited on A. 346. GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE MUGHAL EMPERORs." (Dates according to the Muhammadan era ; the dates in brackets are according to the Christian era, as converted by Mr. Stanley Zane-Poole.) TIMUR b. 736, f 807 Miróin Shāh b. 769, f 8Io Abu'l-Sa'id 7th Khaze of Traztsoxiamta. ð. 830, f 872 Umar Shaikh b. 860, f 899 . Bºdó, Bać/zz 27. I2O2, d. 1203 (1788) 1. BABAR b. 888. Gov. 27, Farghāzzah, etc., 903-Ir; inz Katózel, 911-37; Ist Mughal Emperor of Hindustán, 933-37 (1526-30) 2: HUM AYUN 9. 913, S. s # 963 (1556) | Muhammad Hākim 3. A KBAR b. 949, s. 963, f 1014 (1605) Gov. of Kābzal, f 993 4. JAHANGIR ð. 977, s. wº i 1037 (1627) | | Khusrut Parwſz | Jahāndār | Shahrīyār ð. 1014, f Io95? | 5. SHAH-JAHAN &. Tooo, s. 1037, d 1068 (1658), fro76 ð. IoI4, f Io97 (1627) 6. AlJRANGZEB 'A LAM GIR Muradhawºn ð. IO27, S. wº f 1118 (1707) Shzejá' £r. 1068, f Iozo (1660) fºr. & f Ioč8 (1658) ð. 995, f Iogr ð. 997, f Io96 | AXafzoo.2 ÅacA/23/2 Dárá fºr. & d. 1037 (1627-28) f Ioč9 | Muhammad A’zazzz f Io98 fºr. & f III.8 | | 7. BAHADUR SHAH-'ALAM Akbar ð. IoS3. s. m; # 1124 (1712) | R &zzz Bakhsh i III.7 circ. Aamºusan Raftasian # II.24 f II24 22. & f III9 (1708) | | 8. JAHANDAR Khujistah Akhtar Niku-Siyar Muhayyſ-as-Sunnah ð. Ioyr, s. & f 1124 (1712) Jahán-Shāh 27. & f II31. II24 9. FARRUKH-SIYAR | | II. RAFI'-AD-DAULAH 10. RAFI'-AD-DARAJAT b. Io98, s. 1124, f 1131 (1719) s. & f 1131 (1719) s. & f 1131 (1719) Žr. & d. II31. | Iö7-d/ºzzzz 14. 'ALAM GIR II. b. Io99, s. 1167, f 1173 (1759) 15. SHAH-'ALAM b. II.40, s. 1173, # 1221 (1806) 16, MUHAMMAD ARBAR II. &. II73, s. 1221, † 1253 (1837) I2. MUHAMMAD RUSHAN AIKHT AIR Shd/º-Jazhdºza III. à. III.4, s. 1131, f 1161 (1748) fºr. II73, d. 1174 (1760) 13. AHMAD ô. Ir40, s. 1161, d. 1167 (1754), f r188 17. BAHADUR II b. 1189, s. 1253, d. 1275 (1857), f 1862 1 Emperors' names are printed in capitals; those of temporary or usurping rulers, in italics... b. born; s. succeeded; Ar, proclaimed; g, deposed; f died. For various collateral members of the family, not necessarily the pedigree of the Emperors, see the fuller genealogical table at the end of Vol. I. of H. Blochmann's translation of Abul Fazl's 4 &t-z-AAE&art. I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole for this Genealogical Tree, 346 THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. Humáyún expelled by Sher Sháh. Afghān dynasty of Delhi, I540–56. Humáyún regains his throne. Akbar the Great, I556-1605. and at the same time was deprived of the base from which his father had drawn his supplies. The Mughal hordes who had accompanied Bábar were more hateful to the long-settled Indian Afghāns than the Hindus themselves. After ten years of fighting, Humayun was driven out of India by the Bengalſ Afghāns under Sher Sháh, the Governor of Bengal. While flying through the desert of Sind as an exile to Persia, his famous son Akbar was born to him, in the petty fort of Umarkot (1542). Sher Shāh set up as Emperor, but was killed while storming the rock-fortress at Kálinjar (1545). His son succeeded to his power. But under his grandson, the third of the Afghān house, the Provinces revolted, includ- ing Málwā, the Punjab, and Bengal. Humaylin returned to India. His son Akbar, only in his thirteenth year, with Bairám in command, defeated the Indo-Afghān army, after a desperate battle, at Pánipat (1556). India passed finally from the Afghāns to the Mughals. Sher Sháh's line disappears; and Humaylin, having recovered his Kábul dominions, reigned again for a few months at Delhi, but died in 1556. * AKBAR THE GREAT, the real founder of the Mughal Empire, as it existed for two centuries, succeeded his father at the age of fourteen." Born in 1542, his reign lasted for almost fifty years, from 1556 to 1605, and was therefore Contemporary with that I 539. Humāyún defeated by Sher Sháh, the Afghān ruler of Bengal, at Chapar Ghát, near Baxár, the Mughal army being utterly routed. Retreats to Agra. * I540. Humāyūn finally defeated by Sher Shāh near Kanauj, and escapes to Persia as an exile. Sher Sháh ascends the Delhi throne. I556. Humáyún's return to India, and defeat of the Afghāns at Pánipat by his young son Akbar. Humāyún remounts the throne, but dies in a few months, and is succeeded by Akbar. For dates see Thomas’ Pathézz Āings, pp. 379, 380. Materials for Humāyún's reign : Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vols. iv. v. vi. ; Firishta, vol. ii. pp. 154–180 (1829); Elphinstone, pp. 441–472 (1866); Erskine’s History of Zazaia, etc., zender Báðar and Humdyzłzz. * Materials for reign of Akbar: the Ain-i-Akbará of Abul Fazl (old translation by Francis Gladwin, 2 vols., 18OO ; best edition by Professor Blochmann (Calcutta, 1873, left unfinished at his death); General Sir Alexander Cunningham’s monograph on ‘Some Copper Coins of Akbar’ (Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1885); Sir Henry Elliot's Aersian Historians, vols. i. v. and vi.; Aſārishta, vol. ii. pp. 1812–1882; Elphinstone, pp. 495–547 (1866); Graf F. A. Von Noer's Kaiser AAEbar, 2 vols. (Leiden 1880). The poetical aspects of Akbar's character may be found in P. van Limburg-Brower's Dutch Romance of Akbar (Mark- ham's translation, 1879); and in Lord Tennyson's beautiful ‘Dream of Akbar,’ in his posthumous volume of poems (1892). An admirable popular account of Akbar's reign is given in Colonel Malleson's Akbar, ‘Rulers of India’ Series (1890). AA BAA”.S WORK ZAV ZAV/D/A. 347 of our own Queen Elizabeth (1558–1603). His father, Humá- yún, left but a small kingdom in India, scarcely extending beyond the districts around Agra and Delhi. At the time of Humčyūn's death, Akbar was absent in the Punjab under the guardianship of Bairám Khán, fighting the revolted Afghāns. Bairám, a Türkomán by birth, had been the support of the exiled Humayun, and held the real command of the army which restored him to his throne at Pánſpat in 1556. He now became the Regent for the youthful Akbar, under the honoured Bairám title of Khán Bába, equivalent to ‘the King's Father.” Brave ; and skilful as a general, but harsh and overbearing, he raised many enemies; and Akbar, having endured four years of Akbar thraldom, took advantage of a hunting-party to throw off his º minister's yoke (1560). The fallen Regent, after a struggle 1560. between his loyalty and his resentment, revolted, was defeated, and pardoned. Akbar granted him a liberal pension; and Bairám was in the act of starting on a pilgrimage to Mecca, when he fell beneath the knife of an Afghān assassin, whose father he had slain in battle. The chief events in the reign of Akbar are summarized below." º - WOrk II). A. D. * REIGN OF AKBAR, I556–1605:— India. I542. Born at Umarkot in Sind. 1555–56. Regains the Delhi throne for his father by the great victory over the Afghāns at Pánipat (Bairām Khān in actual command). Succeeds his father after a few months in 1556, under regency of Bairām Khán. I56O. Akbar assumes the direct management of the kingdom. Revolt of Bairám, who is defeated and pardoned. I566. Invasion of the Punjab by Akbar's rival brother Hâkim, who is defeated. I561–68. Akbar subjugates the Rájput kingdoms to the Mughal Empire. I572–73. Akbar's campaign in Gujarát, and its reannexation to the Empire. I576. Akbar's reconquest of Bengal : its final annexation to the Mughal Empire. I581–93. Insurrection in Gujarát. The Province finally subjugated in I593 to the Mughal Empire. I586. Akbar's conquest of Kashmir: its final revolt quelled in 1592. I592. Akbar's conquest and annexation of Sind to the Mughal Empire. I 594. His subjugation of Kandahár, and consolidation of the Mughal Empire over all India north of the Vindhyas as far as Kābul and Kandahár. I595. Unsuccessful expedition of Akbar's army to the Deccan against Ahmadnagar under his son Prince Murád. - I599. Second expedition against Ahmadnagar by Akbar in person. Captures the town, but fails to establish Mughal rule. I6OI. Annexation of Khándesh, and return of Akbar to Northern India. I605. Akbar's death at Agra. AV. B.-Such phrases as ‘Akbar's conquest’ or ‘Akbar's campaign” mean the conquest or campaign by Akbar's armies, and do not necessarily imply his personal presence. - 348 THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. Concilia- tion of Hindus. Akbar extends the Empire. Reduction of Rájputs, 1561–68. Employ- ment of Hindus, Mán Singh. Todar Mall. India was seething with discordant elements. The earlier invasions by Türks, Afghāns, and Mughals had left a power- ful Muhammadan population in India under their own chiefs. Akbar reduced these Musalmán States to Provinces of the Delhi Empire. Many of the Hindu kings and Rájput nations had also regained their independence; Akbar brought them into political dependence to his authority. This double task he effected partly by force of arms, but in part also by alliances. He enlisted the Rájput princes by marriage and by a sympathetic policy in the support of his throne. He then employed them in high posts, and played off his Hindu generals and Hindu ministers against the Mughal party in Upper India, and against the Afghān faction in Bengal. On his accession in 1556, he found the Indian Empire confined to the Punjab, and the districts around Agra and Delhi. He quickly extended it at the expense of his nearest neighbours, namely, the Rájputs. Jaipur was reduced to a fief of the Empire; and Akbar cemented his conquest by marrying the daughter of its Hindu prince. Jodhpur was in like manner overcome; and Akbar caused his heir, Salim, who afterwards reigned under the title of Jahāngir, to marry the grand-daughter of the Rájá. The Rájputs of Chitor were overpowered after a long struggle, but disdained to mingle their high-caste Kshattriyan blood even with that of an Emperor. They found shelter among the mountains and in the deserts of the Indus, whence they afterwards emerged to recover most of their old dominions, and to found their capital of Udaipur, which they retain to this day. They still boast that alone among the great Rájput clans, they never gave a daughter in marriage to a Mughal Emperor. Akbar pursued his policy of conciliation towards all the Hindu States. He also took care to provide a career for the lesser Hindu nobility. He appointed his Hindu brother-in- law, the son of the Jaipur Rájá, to be Governor of the Punjab. Rājā Mán Singh, also a Hindu relative, did good war-service for Akbar from Kábul to Orissa. He ruled as Akbar's Governor of Bengal from 1589 to 1604; and again for a short time under Jahāngir in 1605–6. Akbar's great finance minister, Rájá Todar Mall, was likewise a Hindu, and carried out the first land settlement and survey of India. Out of 415 mansabdars, or commanders of horse, 51 were Hindus. Akbar abolished the jaziah, or tax on non-Musalmáns, and placed all his subjects upon a political equality. He had the Sanskrit sacred books and epic poems translated into Persian, and AAAAA”.S AE///V/O U POZ/CY, 349 showed a keen interest in the literature and religion of his Hindu subjects. He respected their laws, but he put down Reform of their inhuman rites. He forbade trial by ordeal, animal * sacrifices, and child-marriages before the age of puberty. He º legalized the re-marriage of Hindu widows, but he failed to abolish widow-burning on the husband's funeral pile, although he took steps to insure that the act should be a voluntary One. Akbar thus incorporated his Hindu subjects into the effect- Indian ive machinery of his Empire. With their aid he reduced ..." the independent Muhammadan kings of Northern India. He states subjugated the Musalmán potentates from the Punjab to º: • Behar. After a struggle, he also wrested Bengal from its y Akbar. Afghān princes of the following of Sher Shāh, who ruled it from 1539 to 1576. Since the latter date, Bengal remained during nearly two centuries a Province of the Mughal Empire, under governors appointed from Delhi (1576–1765). In 1765 it passed by an imperial grant to the British. Orissa, on the Bengal seaboard, submitted to Akbar's armies under his Hindu general, Todar Mall, in 1574. On the opposite coast of India, Gujarát was reconquered from its Muhammadan king in 1572–73, although not finally subjugated until 1593. Málwā had been reduced in 1570–72. Kashmir was conquered in 1586, and its last revolt quelled in 1592. Sind was also annexed in 1591–92; and by the recovery of Kandahár in 1594, Akbar had extended the Mughal Empire from the heart of Afghānistán across all India north of the Vindhyas to Orissa and Sind. The magnificent circumference of Mughal conquest in Northern India and Afghānistán was thus complete. Akbar also removed the seat of the Mughal government Capital from Delhi to Agra, and founded Fatehpur Sikri to be the iºn future capital of the Empire. From this latter project he was, to Agra, however, dissuaded, by the superior position of Agra on the great water-way of the Jumna. In 1566 he built the Agra fort, whose red sandstone battlements majestically overhang the river to this day. His efforts to establish the Mughal Empire in Southern Akbar's India were less successful. Those efforts began in 1586, but sº during the first twelve years were frustrated by the valour and India. statesmanship of Chānd Bibi, the Queen-Regent of Ahmadnagar. This celebrated lady skilfully united the Abyssinian and the Persian factions" in the Deccan, and strengthened herself by an alliance with Bijápur and other Muhammadan States of * Professing the hostile Sunni and Shiah creeds. 35o THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. the South. In 1599, Akbar led his armies in person against the princess; but, notwithstanding her assassination by her mutinous troops, Ahmadnagar was not reduced till the reign of Sháh Jahán, in 1637. Akbar subjugated Khāndesh; and with this somewhat precarious annexation his conquests in the Deccan ceased. He returned to Northern India, perhaps feeling that the conquest of the South was beyond the strength of his young Empire. His last years were rendered miserable by the intrigues of his family, and by the misconduct of his beloved son, Prince Salim, afterwards Jahāngir. In 1605 he died, and was buried in the noble mausoleum at Sikandra, whose mingled architecture of Buddhist design and Arabesque tracery bear witness to the composite faith of the founder of the Mughal Empire. In 1873, the British Viceroy, Lord Northbrook, presented a cloth of honour to cover the plain marble slab beneath which Akbar lies. Akbar's conciliation of the Hindus, and his interest in their literature and religion, made him many enemies among the pious Musalmáns. His favourite wife was a Rājput princess; another of his wives is said to have been a Christian ; and he Ordered his son, Prince Murád, when a child, to take lessons in Christianity. On Fridays (the Sabbath of Islām) he loved to collect professors of many religions around him. He listened impartially to the arguments of the Bráhman and the Musal- mán, the Pársf, the ancient fire-worshipper, the Jew, the Jesuit, and the sceptic philosopher. The history of his life, the Akbar-nāmah, records such a conference, in which the Christian priest Redíf disputed with a body of Muhammadan muſ/is before an assembly of the doctors of all religions, and is given the best of the argument. Starting from the broad ground of general toleration, Akbar was gradually led on by the stimulant of cosmopolitan discussion to question the truth of his inherited beliefs. The counsels of his friend Abul Fazl, coinciding with that sense of superhuman omnipotence which is bred of despotic power, led him at last to promulgate a new State religion,-- ‘the Divine Faith,’ based upon natural theology, and com- prising the best practices of all known creeds. Of this eclectic creed Akbar himself was the prophet, or rather the head of the Church. Every morning he worshipped in public the sun, as Only annexed Khándesh. His death. Akbar’s religious principles. His new faith. * Abul Fazl is accused, by the unanimous voice of the Muhammadan historians, of leading away Akbar's religious sympathies from Islám. See the valuable biography of Shaikh Abul Fazl-à-’Aſ/dimí, prefixed to Bloch- mann's Ain-i-Akbará, p. xxix., etc. AA BAA”.S A&AE FORMS. 35 I the representative of the divine soul which animates the universe, while he was himself worshipped by the ignorant Divine multitude. It is doubtful how far he encouraged this popular º, adoration, but he certainly allowed his disciples to prostrate tº themselves before him in private. The stricter Muhammadans accused him, therefore, of accepting a homage permitted only to God." - Akbar not only subdued all India to the north of the Akbar's Vindhya mountains, he also organized it into an Empire. He . e partitioned it into Provinces, over each of which he placed Empire. a Governor, or Viceroy, with full civil and military control. This control was divided into three departments—the military, the judicial, including the police, and the revenue. With a Army view to preventing mutinies of the troops, or assertions of * independence by their leaders, he reorganized the army on a new basis. He substituted, as far as possible, money pay- ments to the Soldiers, for the old system of grants of land (jāgārs) to the generals. Where this change could not be carried out, he brought the holders of the military fiefs more directly under control of the central authority at Delhi. He further checked the independence of his provincial generals by a sort of feudal organization, in which the Hindu tributary princes took their place side by side with the Mughal nobles. The judicial administration was presided over by a lord Akbar's justice (Már-£ad/) at the capital, aided by Kázás or law-officers . of in the principal towns. The police in the cities were under a’ 5 Superintendent or kołºwd!, who was also a magistrate. In country districts where police existed at all, they were left to the management of the landholders or revenue-officers. But throughout rural India, no regular police force can be said to have existed for the protection of person and property until after the establishment of British rule. The Hindu village had and police. its hereditary watchman, who in many parts of the country was taken from the predatory castes, and as often leagued with the robbers as opposed them. The landholders and revenue officers had each their own set of myrmidons, who plundered the peasantry in their names. - Akbar's revenue system was based on the ancient Hindu Akbar's customs, and survives to this day. He first executed a survey º: * Akbar's perversion from Islám has formed the subject of much learned censure by Mullā ‘Abdul Kādir Badāānī and other Musalmán writers. The question is exhaustively dealt with by Blochmann in a ‘Note” of 46 pages: 'Ain-i-Akbará, pp. 167–213. See also Sir Henry Elliot's Persiazz Aſistorians, vol. v. pp. 477 et seq. 352 THE MUGHAZ BMPIRE, 1526–1761. Akbar's land TeVenile, His total YeVelllle. to measure the land. His officers then found out the produce of each acre of land, and settled the Government share, amounting to one-third of the gross produce. Finally, they fixed the rates at which this share of the crop might be com- muted into a money payment. These processes, known as the land settlement, were at first repeated every year. But to save the peasant from the extortions and vexations incident to an annual inquiry, Akbar's land settlement was afterwards made for ten years. His officers strictly enforced the payment of a third of the whole produce, and Akbar's land revenue from Northern India exceeded what the British take at the present day. From his fifteen Provinces, including Kābul beyond the Afghān frontier, and Khándesh in Southern India, Akbar demanded I4 millions Sterling per annum; or, excluding Kábul, Khándesh, and Sind, 12% millions. The British land-tax from a much larger area of Northern India was only Rx. 11% millions in 1883.” Allowing for the difference in area and in the purchasing power of silver, Akbar's tax was about three times the amount which the British take. Two later returns show the land revenue of Akbar at 16; and 17% millions sterling, The Provinces had also to support a local militia (bùmà = bhūmi) in contradistinction to the regular royal army, at a cost of at least Io millions sterling. Excluding both Kábul and Khándesh, Akbar's demand from the soil of Northern India exceeded 22 millions Sterling per annum, under the two items of land revenue and militia cess. There were also a number of miscellaneous taxes. Akbar's total revenue is estimated at 42 millions.” * Namely, Bengal, Rx. 3,816, 796; Assam, Rx. 385,504; North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Rx. 5,700,816; and Punjab, Rx. 1,889,807; total, Rx. II,792,923. –Administration A'efforts (1882–83). * PROVINCES OF THE DELHI EMPIRE UNDER AKBAR, CIRC. I580. Land-tax in Rupees. I. Allahābād, . º g • . 5,310,677 2. Agra, º º e tº . I3,656,257 3. Oudh, e g o & º 5, O43,954 4. Ajmere, . p e º o 7, I53,449 5. Gujarát, . º e e . IO,924, I22 6. Behar, e º e º e 5,547,985 7. Bengal, te g e - . I4,961,482 8. Delhi, º 6. tº g . I 5,040,388 9. Lahore, . * . e . I3,986,460 --- Carry forward, . Rs. 91,624,774 Aſ OGAE/A/, 7.4 XA 7TWOZV. 353 Since the first edition of this work was written, the author The large has carefully reconsidered the evidence for the large revenue º totals under the Mughal Emperors. The principal authority taxation. On the subject is Mr. Edward Thomas, F.R.S., who has Summed up the results of a lifetime devoted to Indian numis- matics, in his ſevenue Æesources of the Mughal Empire from A. D. I 593 to A.D. 1707.* No one can study that work without acknowledging the laborious and accurate research which Mr. Thomas has devoted to the points involved. His results were Are they to accepted without reserve in the first edition of my /mperia/ . relied Gazetteer of Zndia. Since the publication of this work, how- ever, the author has received several communications from Mr. H. G. Keene, questioning the soundness of Mr. Thomas’ conclusions. Those conclusions point to a comparatively heavier taxation under the Mughal Emperors than under British rule; and have been made the basis of contrasts flattering to the British administration. The author felt it, therefore, incumbent on him to submit Mr. Keene's views to the Scrutiny of the three most eminent Indian numismatists of Our time, General Sir Alexander Cunningham, Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, and Mr. Edward Thomas himself. Mr. Thomas, after examining the counter-statements, ad- Brought forward, * Rs. 91,624,774 IO. Mültán, . & tº tº º 9,600,764 II. Málwā, & g tº w * 6,017,376 I2. Berár, & e e gº . I7,376, II.7 13. Khándesh, . 7,563,237 I4. Ahmadnagar (only nominally a Province, yielded no revenue), I5. Tatta (Sind), ë & * º I,656,284 Total, . Rs. 133,838,552 I6. Kábul (omitting payments in kind), g 8,071,024 Grand Total, . RS. I41,909,576 The land revenue was returned at 16% millions Sterling in 1594, and 4, 17,450,000 at Akbar's death in I605. The aggregate taxation of Akbar was 32 millions Sterling ; with IO millions for militia cess (bºwel): total, 42 millions sterling. See Thomas' Revenue Aesources of the Mughal Ampère, pp. 5–21 and p. 54 (Trübner, 1871). These and the following conversions are made at the nominal rate of Io rupees to the pound Sterling. But the actual rate was then about 8 or 9 rupees to the 4. The real revenues of the Mughal Emperors represented, therefore, a consider- ably larger sum in Sterling than the amounts stated in the text and foot- notes. The purchasing power of silver, expressed in the staple food-grains of India, was two or three times greater than now. * This monograph was written as a supplement to Mr. Thomas' Chronicles of the Pathán Áings of Delhi. (Trübner & Co., 1871.) Z 354 THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. hered to his former conclusions. General Cunningham is inclined to think that the great totals of revenue recorded by Muhammadan writers could not have been actually enforced from India at the different periods to which they refer. He is of opinion that individual items may be reduced by a technical scrutiny.' But that scrutiny only affects certain of the entries. He rests his general conclusion on wider grounds, and believes that the revenues recorded by the Muhammadan writers represent rather the official demand than the amounts actually realized. The whole question has been carefully re-considered for the present edition of The Indian Empire by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, who has kindly drawn up for me the following paragraphs. They may be regarded as conclusive, but I feel not the less obliged to Mr. Keene for pressing the question. ‘The revenue of the Mughal Empire has been recorded at various periods of the 16th and 17th centuries by Native administrators and by European travellers. Most of the statistics have been carefully collected in the late Edward Thomas' Revenue Æesources of the Mughal Empire in India, 1871 ; but the deductions from these authentic data have been disputed by Mr. H. G. Keene. The confusion has arisen merely from mistaken valuations of the money in which the revenue is stated. Mr. Keene reduced all the statistics by fixing the rupee at the erroneous value of Is. 6d. The ground of this low estimate is a misconception of the value of the French livre with which the rupee was compared by French travellers. Keene puts the livre tournois of 1600–17oo at Iod., whereas, according to Bailly (Hist. Financière de la Aºrance, ii. 298) the Azºre tournois of 1643–61 (i.e. of Bernier and Tavernier, etc.) was equal to I-95 franc of to-day, or about 1s. 6%d. Taking this corrected value, it will be seen from the following data, out of many others, that French and English travellers agree as to 2s. 3d. for the average exchange of the rupee:–1615, Sir T. Roe, 2s. 2d.; 1640–67, Tavernier, 1% livre (30 sols) = 2s. 3}d. ; 1659–66, Bernier, 30 sols, 1666, Thevenot, 30 or 29 sols ; 1673, Fryer, 2s. 3d. ‘in the Com- pany's books;’ 1689, Ovington, 2s. 3d. Perfectly unworn rupees fetched rather more ; worn specimens fell to 2s., but no lower : but 2s. 3d. was the ordinary price. Reducing the various estimates of revenue to English pounds sterling of the time, at this value of 2s. 3d. for the rupee, and neglecting * See General Cunningham's Letter, dated 5th July 1883, printed in the General Cunning- ham's view. Mr. Stan- ley Lane- Poole's view. paper ‘On some Copper Coins of Akbar,’ in the /ozurnal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. liv, part I., 1885. MUGAA / RE WEAVUES. 355 sums below a lakh (100,000 rupees), we find that in round Totals figures the revenue of the Mughal Emperors from 1594 to arrived at by Mr. 1707, as recorded by the authorities cited by Thomas, and Stanley by two others which have since been published in Elliot and Dowson's History of India, was as follows:— Akbar, . I 594 4, 18,650,000 2 3 I 605 I9,43O,OOO Jahāngir, I628 18,760,000 2 3 [another estimatej I9,680,000 Sháh-Jahān, . I648 24,750, OOO 3 3 g I655 30,000,000 Aurangzeb, . I66o circ. 25, 4 IO,OOO 22 I666 26,700,000 5 3 1667 30,850,000 2 3 later 4O,OOO,OOO 5 3 I697 43,500,000 3 2 1707 33,950,000 ‘These figures show a consistent progress in the wealth of the country. The decrease in 1660 and 1707 is explained by the civil wars and famine that accompanied Aurangzeb's accession in 1658, and by the protracted campaigns in the Deccan which preceded his death in 1707. The figures agree with Thomas’, if it is remembered that he took the conventional value (2s.) of the rupee, whilst it is here given at its true value (2s. 3d.) at the time. The return of Nizām-ud-din Ahmad in the Tabakóż-Ż- Akbarí, of 640,00,00,000 murdd; tankahs, in 1593, has been neglected in the above list, because it has been the subject of dispute. Thomas maintained that the murdd; tankah was one- twentieth of the rupee, or a double dam, which would make the return equivalent to 24, 36,000,ooo, instead of 24, 18,000,ooo. Tankah and dém, however, are interchangeable terms in the inscriptions of the coins themselves; the dam was the recognised fiscal unit in the revenue returns ; and there is no reason to assume a distinct basis of reckoning. The return of 4, 18,650,000 in 1594 makes the sum of 24, 18,000,ooo in 1593 probable and consistent. “Thomas explained his erroneous estimate of £36,000,ooo (based on the double dam hypothesis) by the theory that this sum represented the gross revenue from all sources, whilst the later returns of £18,650,000, etc., he believed to represent merely the yield of the land-tax, which averaged a third of the produce. There is more to be said in favour of this theory (though not of its primary evidence, the double dém hypothesis) than has been sometimes allowed. William Hawkins, who lived at the court of Jahāngir in 1609–II, states Lane- Poole. His con- clusions. Land revenlle or groSS revenue (?) 356 THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526-1761. that the Emperor's revenue amounted to 50 crores of rupees, or 456,250,000. He adds “from his crown lands;” but this is obviously absurd, and his statement at the best would seem to be only a rough guess. Bernier, in giving the estimate of circ. 1660, distinctly adds “from his lands alone;” and Catrou, in commenting on Manucci's return of 1697, explains (pre- sumably on the authority of his Venetian informant) that the sum derived from taxes other than the land-tax would more than double the revenue he has recorded. Finally, Gemelli Careri, who visited the camp of Aurangzeb at Galgala in 1695, says he was told that the revenue the Emperor drew “from only his hereditary countries,” excluding the conquered kingdoms of the Deccan (Bijápur and Golconda), was eighty crores of rupees, or 490,000,000. If we understand by this the revenue of Hindustán prior to the conquest of Bijápiir, etc., but including the tribute from the Deccan, the sum is rather more than double the revenue (£40,000,ooo) returned at some period later than 1666, and thus fits in accurately enough with Catrou's statement that the gross revenue was more than double that derived from rent alone, and almost justifies Hawkins' estimate for the reign of Jahāngir. One would expect a considerable increase by I695 from the jaziah or poll-tax on Hindus, which had never been levied from the accession of Akbar till reimposed by Aurangzeb in 1680. This tax produced nearly 24, 30,000 from the town of Burhānpur alone; but it was irregularly levied, and cannot be regarded as a fixed source of revenue. It would, however, go far to substantiate Gemelli Careri's estimate of the gross income. It is true, the native historians do not say that the cited returns of revenue from the various Provinces represent the land-tax only ; but they were writing for natives, who would not need to be told so obvious a fact, if such it were. ‘On the whole, it is impossible to reject the statements of Bernier and Catrou, that the returns they quote are of land revenue only. And if this be admitted, it is obvious that to be consistent the native returns must also be confined to the same source of income. The conclusion thus reached is that the revenue from land rose from about 19 millions under Akbar to 43% millions towards the end of the reign of Aurangzeb ; but that the gross revenue from all sources was about double these sums, and reached the total of £90,000,ooo in 1695.” * See Thomas' Revenue Resources, 1871; S. Lane-Poole's History of the Gross Mughal revenues; = double the land- tax. AZughal Emperors, illustrated by their Coins, xcii.—xciv.; and his Aurangzeb, “Rulers of India’ Series, chap. v. REVENUES OF THE MUGHAL EMPERORS AT THIRTEEN VARIOUS PERIODS FROM 1593 To 1761," FROM A SMALLER POPULATION THAN THAT OF BRITISH INDIA—AT THE NOMINAL RATE OF 2S. PER RUPEE : BUT SEE azz/e, P. 354. 13 Sháh Alam, 1761, 2 5 2 I 594, 3 2 3 3 5 4. 2 3 I605, 5 Jahāngir, I609–II, 6 2 3 I628, 7 | Sháh Jahān, 1648–49, . 8 Aurangzeb, 1655, 9 2 3 1670 ? IO 3 3 I695, II 5 5 I697, I 2 3 5 I7O7, Abul Fazl MSS. : not for all India, º Official Documents : not for all India, . Indian Authorities quoted by De Läet, . Captain Hawkins, e e te ſº Abdul Hamid Láhori, . 35 g Official Documents, . º e º | Later Official Documents, . g e } Gemelli Careri, Manucci (Catrou). Ramusio, . ſe e º & e Official Statement presented to Ahmad). Shāh Abdāli on his entering Delhi, . ) Mughal Emperors. Authority. Land Revenue. Revºº all I Akbar, A.D. I 593, . Nizām-ud-din Ahmad : not for all India, A32,OOO,OOO Allowance for Provincial Troops (Özémá), nett A, 16,574,388 zzeti I:6,582,440 7teſ? I'7,450, OOO neſt I7,500,000 neſt 22,000,000 gross 26,743,970 nett 24,056, I 14 gross 35,641,431 zzełł 34,505,890 72éff 38,719,400 zzett 30, 179,692 7teſt 34,506,640 IO,OOO,OOO neté Á42, OOO,OOO 7tet: 50,000,000 72é# 86,oooooo metá 77,438,800 1 The above Table is reproduced from Mr Edward Thomas' Revenue Resomerces of the Mughal EmAire, published in 1871. Mr. Thomas has kindly revised it for me, from matelials collected since that date. The words nett and gross are inserted by his direction. i p | § 358 THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. Rájá Todar Mall. Abul Fazl. Akbar's Hindu minister, Rājā Todar Mall, conducted the revenue settlement, and his name is still a household word among the husbandmen of Bengal. Abul Fazl, the man of letters and Finance Minister of Akbar, compiled a Statistical Survey of the Empire, together with many vivid pictures of his master's court and daily life, in the Ain-i-Akbarſ—a work of perennial interest, and one which has proved of great value in carrying out the Statistical Survey of India at the present day." Abul Fazl was killed in 1602, at the instigation of Prince Salim, the heir to the throne. SALIM, the favourite son of Akbar, succeeded his father in 1605, and ruled until 1627 under the title of JAHANGIR, or Conqueror of the World. The chief events of his reign are summarized below.” His reign of twenty-two years was spent in reducing the rebellions of his sons, in exalting the influence Jahāngir, Emperor, I605–27. * The old translation is by Gladwin (1800); the best is by the late Mr. Blochmann, Principal of the Calcutta Madrasa, or Muhammadan college, whose early death was one of the greatest losses which Persian Scholarship has sustained in this century. A. D. * REIGN OF JAHANGIR, 1605–27 :— I605. Accession of Jahāngir. I606, Flight, rebellion, and imprisonment of his eldest son, Khusrú. 16IO. Málik Ambar recovers Ahmadnagar from the Mughals, and re- asserts the independence of the Deccan dynasty, with its new capital at Aurangābād. I6II. Jahāngir's marriage with Nûr Jahán. - 1612. Jahāngir again defeated by Mâlik Ambar in an attempt to recover Ahmadnagar. 1613–14. Defeat of the Udaipur Rājā by Jahāngir's son, Sháh Jahān. Unsuccessful revolt in Kábul against Jahāngir. 1615. Embassy of Sir T. Roe to the court of Jahāngir. I616–17. Temporary reconquest of Ahmadnagar by Jahāngir's son, Shāh Jahán. I62I. Renewed disturbances in the Deccan ; ending in treaty with Shāh Jahán. Capture of Kandahár from Jahāngir's troops by the Persians. I623–25. Rebellion against Jahāngir by his son, Sháh Jahān, who, after defeating the Governor of Bengal at Rájmahāl, seized that Province and Behar, but was himself overthrown by Mahābat Khán, his father's general, and sought refuge in the Deccan, where he unites with his old opponent, Málik Ambar. - I626. The successful general, Mahābat Khán, seizes the person of Jahāngir. Intrigues of the Empress Nūr Jahán. I627. Jahāngir recovers his liberty, and sends Mahābat Khán against Sháh Jahān in the Deccan. Mahābat joins the rebel prince against the Emperor Jahāngir. 1627. Death of Jahāngir. Materials for Jahāngir's reign : Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vols. v. vi. and vii. ; Elphinstone, pp. 550–603. JA HAAVG/AE, 1605–1627. 359 of his wife, and in drunken self-indulgence. In spite of long wars in the Deccan, he added little to his father's territories. India south of the Vindhyas still continued apart from the Northern Empire of Delhi. Mālik Ambar, the Abyssinian minister of Ahmadnagar, maintained, in spite of reverses, the independence of that kingdom. At the end of Jahāngir's Rebellion reign, his rebel son, Prince Sháh Jahān, was a refugee in the *** Deccan, in alliance with Málik Ambar against the Mughal troops. The Rájputs also began to reassert their independ- ence. In 1614, Prince Sháh Jahán, on behalf of the Emperor, defeated the Udaipur Rájá. But the conquest was only partial and for a time. Meanwhile, the Rájputs formed an Revolt important contingent of the imperial armies, and 50oo of fººt. their cavalry aided Sháh Jahān to put down a revolt in Kábul. The Afghān Province of Kandahár was wrested from Jahāngir by the Persians in 1621. The land-tax of the Mughal Empire remained at 17% millions under Jahāngir, but his total revenues were estimated at 50 millions sterling." } The principal figure in Jahāngir's reign is his Empress, Nur The Em- Jahān,” the Light of the World. Born in great poverty, but ſº of a noble Persian family, her beauty won the love of Jahāngir while they were both in their first youth, during the reign of Akbar. The old Emperor tried to put her out of his son's way, by marrying her to a brave soldier, who obtained high employment in Bengal. Jahāngir, on his accession to the throne, commanded her divorce. Her husband refused, and was killed. His wife, being brought into the imperial palace, lived for some time in chaste seclusion as his widow, but in the end emerged as Nūr Jahán, the Light of the World. She surrounded herself with her relatives, and at first influenced Jahāngir for his good. But the jealousy of the imperial princes and of the Mughal generals against her party led to intrigue and rebellion. In 1626, her successful general, Mahābat Khán, found himself compelled, in self-defence, to turn against her. He seized the Emperor, whom he kept, together with Nûr Jahán, in captivity for six months. Jahāngir died in the following year, 1627, in the midst of a rebellion against him by his son, Sháh Jahān, and his greatest general, Mahábat Khán. Jahāngir's personal character is vividly portrayed by Sir Jahāngir's Thomas Roe, the first British Ambassador to India (1615). ãº. * Mr. Edward Thomas Revenue Resources of the Mughal Empire, pp. 21–26 and p. 54. See table on p. 357, in this chapter. - * Otherwise known as Nūr Mahál, the Light of the Palace. 360 THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. Agra continued to be the central seat of the government, but the imperial army on the march formed in itself a splendid capital. Jahāngīr thought that Akbar had too openly severed himself from the Muhammadan faith. The new Emperor con- formed more strictly to outward observances, but lacked the inward religious feeling of his father. While he forbade the use of wine to his subjects, he spent his own nights in drunken revelry. He talked religion over his cups until he reached a certain stage of intoxication, when he ‘fell to weeping, and to various passions, which kept them to midnight.” In public he maintained a strict appearance of virtue, and never allowed any person whose breath smelled of wine to enter his presence. A courtier who had shared his midnight revels, and indiscreetly referred to them next morning, was gravely examined as to who were the companions of his debauch, and one of them was bastinadoed so that he died. During the day-time, when sober, Jahāngir tried to work wisely for his Empire. A chain hung down from the citadel to the ground, and communicated with a cluster of golden bells in his own chamber, so that every suitor might apprise the Emperor of his demand for justice without the intervention of the courtiers. Many European adventurers repaired to his court, and Jahāngir patronized alike their arts and their religion. In his earlier years he had accepted the eclectic faith of his father. It is said that on his accession he had even permitted the divine honours paid to Akbar to be continued to himself. His first wife was a Hindu princess; figures of Christ and the Virgin Mary adorned his rosary; and two of his nephews embraced Christianity with his full approval." SHAH JAHAN hurried north from the Deccan in 1627, and proclaimed himself Emperor at Agra in January 1628.” He His drunken feasts. Jahāngir's justice. His religion. Sháh Jahán, Emperor, 1628–58. * Elphinstone's Hist, p. 560 (ed., 1866), on the authority of Roe, Hawkins, Terry, Coryat. * Materials for Sháh Jahān's reign : Sir Henry Elliot's Persian His- torians, vols. vi. vii. and viii.; Elphinstone, pp. 574-603. A. D. REIGN OF SHAH JAHAN, 1628–58 — 1627. Imprisonment of Núr Jahán on the death of Jahāngir, by Asaf Khán on behalf of Sháh Jahán. 1628. Sháh Jahān returns from the Deccan and ascends the throne (January). He murders his brother and kinsmen. 1628–30. Afghān uprisings against Sháh Jahān in Northern India and in the Deccan. [Åootnote continated on next page. SHAH /A HAM, 1628–1658. 361 put down for ever the court faction of the Empress Nūr Jahán, by confining her to private life upon a liberal allowance; and by murdering his brother Shahriyār, with all other members of the house of Akbar who might prove rivals to the throne. He was, however, just to his people, blameless in his private habits, a good financier, and as economical as a magnificent court, splendid public works, and distant military expeditions could permit. - - Under Sháh Jahān, the Mughal Empire was finally shorn of Sháh its Afghān Province of Kandahār; but it extended its con- * quests in the Deccan, and raised the magnificent buildings in Kandahár Northern India which now form its most splendid memorials. * in After a temporary occupation of Bálkh, and the actual re- * conquest of Kandahár by the Delhi troops in 1637, Shāh Jahān lost much of his Afghān territories, and the Province of Kandahár was severed from the Mughal Empire by the Persians in 1653. On the other hand, in the Deccan, the kingdom of Ahmadnagar (to which Ellichpur had been united in 1572) was at last annexed to the Mughal Empire in 1636. Bidar fort was taken in 1657, while the remaining two of the Conquests five Muhammadan kingdoms of Southern India," namely º Bijápur and Golconda, were forced to pay tribute, although tº not finally reduced until the succeeding reign of Aurangzeb. But the Maráthás now appear on the scene, and commenced, 1629–35. Sháh Jahān's wars in the Deccan with Ahmadnagar and Bijápur; unsuccessful siege of Bijápur. 1634. Sháhji Bhonsla, grandfather of Sivaji, the founder of the Maráthá power, attempts to restore the independent King of Ahmadnagar, but fails, and in 1636 makes peace with the Emperor Shāh Jahān. 1636. Bijápur and Golconda agree to pay tribute to Sháh Jahán. Final submission of Ahmadnagar to the Mughal Empire. 1637. Reconquest of Kandahár by Sháh Jahán from the Persians. 1645. Invasion and temporary conquest of Bálkh by Sháh Jahān, Bálkh was abandoned two years later. 1647–53. Kandahár again taken by the Persians, and three unsuccessful attempts made by the Emperor's sons, Aurangzeb and Dárá, to recap- ture it. Kandahár finally lost to the Mughal Empire, 1653. 1655–56. Renewal of the war in the Deccan under Prince Aurangzeb. His attack on Haidarābād, and the temporary submission of the Golconda king to the Mughal Empire. 1656. Renewed campaign of Sháh Jahān's armies against Bijápur. 1657–58. Dispute as to the succession between the Emperor's sons. Aurangzeb defeats Dárá; imprisons Murád, his other brother ; deposes his father by confining him in his palace, and openly assumes the government. Sháh Jahān dies, practically a State prisoner in the fort of Agra, in 1666. * Wide ante, end of chap. x. 362 THE MUGAZAZ AEMP/AEAE, 1526–1761. Sháh Jahān's buildings. Tāj Mahál. unsuccessfully at Ahmadnagar in 1637, that series of persistent Hindu attacks which were destined in the next century to break down the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb and his brothers carried on the wars in Southern India and in Afghānistán for their father, Sháh Jahān. Save for one or two expeditions, the Emperor lived a mag- nificent life in the North of India. At Agra he raised the exquisite mausoleum of the Tāj Mahāl, a dream in marble, designed by Titans and finished by jewellers.” His Pearl Mosque, the Mott Masjid, within the Agra fort, is perhaps the purest and loveliest house of prayer in the world. Not con- tent with enriching his grandfather Akbar's capital, Agra, with these and other architectural glories, he planned the re-transfer of the seat of Government to Delhi, and adorned that city with buildings of unrivalled magnificence. Its Great Mosque, or /amd Masjid, was commenced in the fourth year of his reign, and completed in the tenth. The palace at Delhi, now the fort, covered a vast parallelogram, 1600 feet by 3200, with exquisite and sumptuous buildings in marble and fine stone. A deeply-recessed portal leads into a vaulted hall, rising two storeys like the nave of a gigantic Gothic cathedral, 375 feet in length ; ‘the noblest entrance,’ says the historian of architecture, ‘to any existing palace.’” The ZXiwán-i-Khās, or Court of Private Audience, overlooks the river, a master- piece of delicate inlaid work and poetic design. Sháh Jahán spent many years of his reign at Delhi, and prepared the city for its destiny as the most magnificent capital in the world under his successor Aurangzeb. But exquisite as are its public buildings, the manly vigour of Akbar's red-stone fort at Agra, with its bold sculptures and square Hindu construction, has given place to a certain effeminate beauty in the marble structures of Sháh Jahán.8 Delhi Mosque. Sháh Jahān's palace at Delhi. * Sháh Jahān's architectural works are admirably described in Dr. James Fergusson's Hist. Architecture, vol. iii. pp. 589–602 (ed. I876). See also article AGRA. CITY, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. * Fergusson's Hist. Architecture, vol. iii. p. 592. See also article DELHI CITY, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. * PROVINCES OF THE DELHI EMPIRE UNDER SHAH JAHAN, I648–49 :— In India— Land-tax in Rupees. I. Delhi, , e * & . 25,000,000 2. Agra, . & † tº . 22,500,000 3. Lahore, . e * º . 22,500, OOO 4. Ajmere, * g tº . I5, OOO,OOO Carry forward, * Rs. 85,000,000 SHAH /AHAAW'S REVENUES. 363 Akbar's dynasty lay under the curse of rebellious sons. As Rebellion Jahāngir had risen against his most loving father, Akbar ; and sº as Sháh Jahán had mutinied against Jahāngīr; so Sháh Jahán zeb, 1657. in his turn suffered from the intrigues and rebellions of his family. In 1658, Sháh Jahán, old and worn out, fell ill; and his son Aurangzeb, after a treacherous conflict with his brethren, deposed his father, and proclaimed himself Emperor Shāh in his stead. The unhappy old Sháh Jahān was kept in con- #. d, finement for seven years, and died a State prisoner in the fort 1658. of Agra in 1666. - Under Shāh Jahān, the Mughal Empire attained its highest union of strength with magnificence. His son Aurangzeb added to its extent, but at the same time sowed the seeds of its decay. Akbar's land revenue of 17% millions had Shāh been raised, chiefly by new conquests, to 22 millions sterling łº, under Shāh Jahán. But this sum included Kashmir, and º five Provinces in Afghānistán, some of which were lost during Sháh Jahán's reign. The land revenue of the Mughal Empire within India, under Sháh Jahān, reached 20% millions stg. The magnificence of Sháh Jahán's court was the wonder of Euro- pean travellers. His Peacock Throne, with its tail blazing in the shifting natural colours of rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, was valued by the jeweller Tavernier at 6% millions sterling. Brought forward, - Rs. 85,000, OOO 5. Daulatābād, . º & . I3,750,000 6. Berár, . e º - . I3,750, OOO 7. Ahmadābād, . te . . I 3,250,000 8. Bengal, . e e - . I2,500,000 9. Allahābād, º ſº - . IO, OOO,OOO IO. Behar, . º s - . IO, OOO,OOO II. Málwā, . e e º . IO, OOO,OOO 12. Khándesh, - to º . IO,OOO,OOO I3. Oudh, . ſe º -> tº 7,500,000 I4. Telingána, e e - e 7,500,000 I5. Múltán, e t -> º 7,000, OOO I6. Orissa, . º © º º 5,000,000 17. Tatta (Sind), . s - ſe 2,000, OOO 18. Baglánah, . º º © tº 500,000 Land Revenue of India, Rs. 207,750,000 I9. Kashmir, s o º e 3,750,000 2O. Kábul, . º te º e 4,000, OOO 2I. Bālkh, . e s e º 2, OOO,OOO 22. Kandahár, t e © º I,5OO,OOO 23. Badakhshan, . e o tº I, OOO,OOO - Total Rs. 220,000,000 —Mr. Edward Thomas' Revenue A’esources of the Mughal Empire, p. 28. 364 THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. Aurang- zeb’s usurpa- tion, 1658. His reign, 1658-1707. AURANGZEB proclaimed himself Emperor in 1658, in the room of his imprisoned father, with the title of Alamgir, the Conqueror of the Universe, and reigned until 1707. Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire reached its widest limits." But his long rule of forty-nine years merely presents on a more magnificent stage the old unhappy type of a Mughal reign. In its personal character, it commenced with his rebellion against his father ; consolidated itself by the murder of his brethren ; and darkened to a close amid the mutinies, intrigues, and gloomy jealousies of his own Sons. Its public aspects consisted of a magnificent court in Northern India ; Conquests of the independent Muhammadan kings in the South ; and wars against the Hindu powers, which, alike in Rájputána and the Deccan, were gathering strength for the overthrow of the Mughal Empire. The chief events of the reign of Aurangzeb are summarized below.” The year after his accession, he defeated and put to death his eldest brother, the noble but impetuous Dárá * Materials for Aurangzeb's reign : Sir Henry Elliot's Persian His- torians, vols. vii. and viii.; Elphinstone, pp. 598–673. A. D. * REIGN OF AURANGZEB, 1658–1707:— 1658. Deposition of Sháh Jahān, and usurpation of Aurangzeb. 1659. Aurangzeb defeats his brothers Shujá and Dárá, Dárá, his flight being betrayed by a chief with whom he sought refuge, is put to death by order of Aurangzeb. 1660. Continued struggle of Aurangzeb with his brother Shujá, who ultimately fled to Arakan, and there perished miserably. I661. Aurangzeb executes his youngest brother, Murád, in prison. I662. Unsuccessful invasion of Assam by Aurangzeb's general, Mir Jumlá. Disturbances in the Deccan. War between Bijápur and the Maráthás under Sivaji. After various changes of fortune, Sivaji, the founder of the Maráthá power, retains a considerable territory. 1662–1665. Sivaji in rebellion against the Mughal Empire. In 1664 he assumed the title of Rájá, and asserted his independence; but in 1665, On a large army being sent against him, he made submission, and proceeded to Delhi, where he was placed under restraint, but soon afterwards escaped. 1666. Death of the deposed Emperor, Sháh Jahán. War in the Deccan, and defeat of the Mughals by the King of Bijápur. 1667. Sivaji makes peace on favourable terms with Aurangzeb, and ob- tains an extension of territory. Sivaji levies tribute from Bijápur and Golconda. 1670. Sivaji ravages Khāndesh and the Deccan, and there levies for the first time chaudh, or a contribution of one-fourth of the revenue. 1672. Defeat of the Mughals by the Maráthá Sivaji. I677. Aurangzeb revives the jaziah or poll-tax on non-Muhammadans. [Footnote continued on next page. A URAAVGZEB'S SOUTHERN WARS. 365 (1659). After another twelve months’ struggle, he drove out He mur- of India his second brother, the self-indulgent Shujá, who º perished miserably among the insolent Savages of Arakan (1660–61). His remaining brother, the brave young Murád, was executed in prison the following year (1661). Aurangzeb, having thus killed off his brethren, set up as an orthodox sovereign of the strictest sect of Islám ; while his invalid father, Sháh Jahán, lingered on in prison, mourning over his murdered sons, until 1666, when he died. Aurangzeb continued, as Emperor, that persistent policy of Subjuga- the subjugation of Southern India which he had so brilliantly sºn commenced as the lieutenant of his father, Sháh Jahán. Of India. the five Muhammadan kingdoms of the Deccan, three, namely Bidar, and Ahmadnagar-with-Ellichpur, had fallen to Aurang- zeb's arms before his accession to the Delhi throne.” The two others, Bijápur and Golconda, struggled longer, but Aurangzeb was determined at any cost to annex them to the Mughal Empire. During the first half of his reign, or exactly twenty-five years, he waged war in the south by means of his generals (1658–83). A new Hindu power Rise of the had arisen in the Deccan, the Maráthás.” The task before * Aurangzeb's armies was not only the old one of subduing power. the Muhammadan kingdoms of Bijápur and Golconda, 1679. Aurangzeb at war with the Rájputs. Rebellion of Prince Akbar, Aurangzeb's youngest Son, who joins the Rájputs, but whose army deserts him. Prince Akbar is forced to fly to the Maráthás. 1681. Aurangzeb has to continue the war with the Rájputs. [1672–1680. Maráthá progress in the Deccan. Sivaji crowns himself an independent sovereign at Räigarh in 1674. His wars with Bijápur and the Mughals. Sivaji dies in 1680, and is succeeded by his son, Sambhaji.] 1683. Aurangzeb invades the Deccan in person, at the head of his Grand Army. 1686–88. Aurangzeb conquers Bijápur and Golconda, and annexes them to the Empire (1688). 1689. Aurangzeb captures Sambhaji, and barbarously puts him to death. 1692. Guerilla war with the Maráthás under independent leaders. 1698. Aurangzeb captures Gingi (Jinji) from the Maráthás. 1699–1701. The Maráthá war. Capture of Sátára and Maráthá forts by the Mughals under Aurangzeb. Apparent ruin of Maráthás. 1702–5. New and unexpected successes of the Maráthás. 1706. Aurangzeb retreats to Ahmadnagar, and 1707. Miserably dies there (February). * See article AKYAB, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. * The five kingdoms have been described at end of chapter x. * For the rise and history of the Maráthás, see next chapter, xii. 366 THE MUGAAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. Sivaji CTOWIOS himself. Aurang- zeb’s Southern campaign, 1683-1707. His 20 years' Maráthá War, 1688-1707. His ‘ Grand Army’ worn out, I705. Aurangzeb hemmed in. but also of crushing the quick growth of the Maráthá Con- federacy. During a quarter of a century his efforts failed to conquer Bijápur and Golconda (1658–73). In 1670, the Maráthá leader Sivají levied chauth, or one-fourth of the revenues, as tribute from the Mughal Provinces in Southern India; and in 1674 enthroned himself an independent sovereign at Räigarh. In 1680–81, Aurangzeb's rebel son, Prince Akbar, gave the prestige of his presence to the Maráthá army. Aurangzeb felt that he must either give up his magnificent life in the north for a soldier's lot in the Deccan, or he must relinquish his most cherished scheme of conquering Southern India. He accordingly prepared an expedition on an unrivalled scale of numbers and splendour, to be led by himself. In 1683 he arrived at the head of his Grand Army in the Deccan, and spent the next half of his reign, or twenty-four years, in the field. Golconda and Bijápur fell after another long struggle, and were finally annexed to the Mughal Empire in 1688. But the conquests of these last two of the five Muham- madan kingdoms of the Deccan only left the arena bare for the Maráthás. Indeed, the attacks of the Maráthás on the two Muhammadan States had prepared the way for the annexa- tion of those States by Aurangzeb. The Emperor waged war during the remaining twenty years of his life (1688–1707) against the rising Hindu power of the Maráthás. Their first great leader, Sivaji, had proclaimed himself king in 1674, and died in 1680. Aurangzeb captured his son and successor, Sambhaji, in 1689, and cruelly put him to death ; seized the Maráthá capital, with many of their forts, and seemed in the first year of the new century to have almost stamped out their existence (1701). But after a guerilla warfare, the Maráthás again sprang up into a vast fighting nation. In 1705 they re- covered their forts; while Aurangzeb had exhausted his health, his treasures, and his troops, in the long and fruitless struggle. His soldiery murmured for arrears; and the Emperor, now old and peevish, told the malcontents that if they did not like his service they might quit it, while he disbanded some of his cavalry to ease his finances. Meanwhile the Maráthás were pressing hungrily on the imperial camp. The Grand Army of Aurangzeb had grown during a quarter of a century into an unwieldy capital. Its movements were slow, and incapable of concealment. If Aurangzeb sent out a rapid small expedition against the Mar- àthäs who plundered and insulted the outskirts of his camp, AURAAVGZEB'S DEATH, 1707. 367 they cut it to pieces. If he moved out against them in force, they vanished. His own soldiery feasted with the enemy, who prayed with mock ejaculations for the health of the Emperor as their best friend. In 1706, the Grand Army was so dis- His Organized that Aurangzeb opened negotiations with the Mar- º àthás. He even thought of submitting the Mughal Provinces to their tribute or chauth. But their insolent exultation broke off the treaty, and the despairing Aurangzeb, in 1706, sought shelter in Ahmadnagar, where he died the next year. Dark Suspicion of his sons' loyalty, and just fears lest they should Subject him to the fate which he had inflicted on his own father, left him alone in his last days. On the approach of death, he Aurang- gave utterance in broken sentences to his worldly counsels 㺠and adieus, mingled with terror and remorse, and closing 1707.” in an agony of desperate resignation: “Come what may, I have launched my vessel on the waves. Farewell ! Farewell Farewell | * * The conquest of Southern India was the one inflexible purpose of Aurangzeb's life, and has therefore been dealt with here in a continuous narrative. In the North of India, great events had also transpired. Mr Jumlá led the imperial Mir. troops as far as Assam, the extreme eastern Province of * India (1662). But amid the pestilential Swamps of the rainy to Assam, season, the army melted away, its supplies were cut off, and 1902. its march was harassed by swarms of natives, who knew the country and defied the climate. Mir Jumla succeeded in extricating the main body of his troops, but died of exhaustion and a broken heart before he reached Dacca in Eastern Bengal. In the west of India, Aurangzeb was not more fortunate. During his time the Sikhs were growing into a power, but it was not till the succeeding reigns that they commenced the series of operations which in the end wrested the Punjab from the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb's bigotry arrayed Aurang- against him the Hindu princes and peoples of Northern India. º He revived the jaziah or insulting poll-tax on non-Musalmáns policy. (1677), drove the Hindus out of the administration, and Qppresses oppressed the widow and children of his father's faithful Hidus. Hindu general, Jaswant Singh. A local sect of Hindus was forced into rebellion in 1676; and in 1677 the Rájput States The combined against him. The Emperor waged a protracted war * revolt, * Aurangzeb's Zetters form a popular Persian book in India to this day. His counsels to his sons are edifying and most pathetic; and the whole work is written in a deeply religious tone, which could scarcely have been assumed. 368 THE MUGHAZ AEMPIRE, 1526–1761. and can- not be subdued. Aurang- zeb’s ICVCIllies. The land revenue, 30 to 38 millions. Maximum Mughal land-tax. against them ; at one time devastating Rájputána, at another time saving himself and his army from extermination only by a Stroke of genius and rare presence of mind. In 1679, his son, Prince Akbar, rebelled and joined the Rájputs with his division of the Mughal army. From that year the permanent alienation of the Rájputs from the Mughal Empire dates; and the Hindu chivalry, which had been a source of strength to Akbar the Great, became an element of ruin to Aurangzeb and his Successors. The Emperor sacked and slaughtered throughout the Rájput States of Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Udaipur. The Rájputs retaliated by ravaging the Muhammadan Province of Málwā, defacing the mosques, insulting the ministers of Islám, and burning the Kurán. In 1681, the Emperor patched up a peace in order to allow him to lead the Grand Army into the Deccan, from which he was destined never to return. All Northern India except Assam, and the greater part of Southern India, paid revenue to Aurangzeb. His Indian Provinces covered nearly as large an area as the British Empire at the present day, although their dependence on the central Government was less direct. From these Pro- vinces his nett land-revenue demand is returned at 30 to 38 millions sterling ; a sum which represented at least three times the purchasing power of the land revenue of British India at the present day. But it is doubtful whether the enormous demand of 38 millions was fully realized during any series of years, even at the height of Aurangzeb's power before he left Delhi for his long Southern wars. It was estimated at only 30 millions in the last year of his reign, after his absence of a quarter of a century in the Deccan. Fiscal oppressions led to evasions and revolts, while some or other of the Provinces were always in open war against the Emperor. s - • Thefollowing statementsexhibit the Mughal Empire in its final development, just before it began to break up. The standard return of Aurangzeb's land revenue was neſt 24, 34,505,890; and this remained the nominal demand in the accounts of the central exchequer during the next half-century, notwith- standing that the Empire had fallen to pieces. When the Afghān invader, Ahmad Shāh Durání, entered Delhi in 1761, the treasury officers presented him with a statement showing the land revenue of the Empire at 24, 34,506,640. The highest land revenue of Aurangzeb, after his annexations in Southern India, and before his final reverses, was 38% millions sterling; PROVINCES UNDER AURANGZEB, 369 of which close on 38 millions were from Indian Provinces." Highest The total revenue of Aurangzeb was estimated in 1695 at 8o º 8O millions, and in 1697 at 77% millions sterling.” The gross millions, taxation levied from British India, deducting the opium excise, I695. which is paid by the Chinese consumer, averaged 35% millions Sterling during the ten years ending 1879; and 40% millions from 1879 to 1883. The following table, and that on p. 357, showing the growth of the revenues of the Mughal Empire from Akbar to Aurangzeb, may be contrasted with the taxation of British India, as given in chapter xv. * PROVINCES OF THE DELHI EMPIRE UNDER AURANGZEB. LAND REVENUE OF AURANGZEB | LAND REVENUE OF AURANGZEB IN 1697 (according to Manucci). IN 1707 (according to Ramusio). Rupees. - Rupees. I. Delhi, , I2,550,000 I. T)elhi, . 30,548,753 2. Agra, . 22,203,550 2. Agra, . 28,669,003 3. Lahore, 23,305, OOO 3. Ajmere, I6,3O8,634 4. Ajmere, 2I,900, OO2 4. Allahābād, . II,413,581 5. Gujarát, 23,395,000 || 5. Punjab, 20,653,302 6. Málwā, 9,906,250 6. Oudh, . 8,058, 195 7. Behar, I2, I5O,OOO 7. Múltán, 5,361,073 8. Mültán, 5,025, OOO 8. Gujarát, I5,196,228 9. Tatta (Sind), 6,002,OOO 9. Behar, IO, I79,025 IO. Bakar, 2,400,000 || Io, Sind, . b 2,295,42O II. Orissa, 5,707,500 II. Daulatābād, 25,873,627 12. Allahābād, . 7,738,OOO | 12. Málwā, IO,O97, 54I 13. Deccan, I6,2O4,750 13. Berár, . I5,350,625 I4. Berár, . e I5,807,500 || 14. Khándesh, . II, 2I 5,750 15. Khándesh, . II, IO5,OOO | I5. Bidar, 9,324,359 16. Baglána, . . 6,885, OOO | 16. Bengal, I3, II 5,906 17. Nande (Nandair), 7,2OO,OOO 17. Orissa, 3,570, 500 18. Bengal, 4O,OOO,OOO | 18. Haidarābād, 27,834,OOO I9. Ujjain, 2O,OOO,OOO | 19. Bijápur, 26,957,625 20. Rájmahāl, IO,O5O,OOO * -- 21. Bijápur, 50,000,000 Total, . 292,023, I47 22. Golconda, 50,000,000 || 20. Kashmir, 5, 747,734 ... — 21. Kábul, 4,025,983 Total, . 379,534,552 --- 23. Kashmir, 3,505,OOO Grand Total, . 3OI,796,864 24. Kábul, 3,2O7,250 or 430, 179,686 Grand Total, . 386,246,802 or £38,624,680 The above lists are taken from Mr. Edward Thomas' A'ezemzte Kesozºrces of the Mughal Empire, pp. 46 and 50. The whole subject is admirably discussed in his chapter entitled ‘Aurangzeb's Revenues, pp. 33 et seg. The four returns of the land revenue for his reign are, nett, 24 millions in 1655; 34% millions in later official documents; 38% millions in 1697; 30 millions in 1707. - * Mr. Edward Thomas' Revenue Resources of the Mughal Empire, p. 54, etc. (1871)—at nominal rate of 2s. to the rupee : but see p. 354. 2 A 37 O THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. Character of Aurang- zeb. Decline of the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb tried to live the life of a model Muhammadan Emperor. Magnificent in his public appearances, simple in his private habits, diligent in business, exact in his religious observances, an elegant letter-writer, and ever ready with choice passages alike from the poets and the Kurán, his life would have been a blameless one, if he had had no father to depose, no brethren to murder, and no Hindu subjects to oppress. But his bigotry made an enemy of every one who did not share his own faith; and the slaughter of his kindred compelled him to entrust his government to strangers. The Hindus never forgave him ; and the Sikhs, the Rájputs, and the Maráthás, immediately after his reign, began to close in upon the Empire. His Muhammadan generals and viceroys, as a rule, served him well during his vigorous life. But at his death they usurped his children's inheritance. The succeed- ing Emperors were puppets in the hands of the too powerful soldiers or statesmen who raised them to the throne, controlled them while on it, and killed them when it suited their purposes to do so. The subsequent history of the Empire is a mere record of ruin. The chief events in its decline and fall are summarized below." 1 THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE. From death of Aurangzeb to that of Muhammad Bahádur Shāh, 1707–1862. A. D. ſ - 1707. Succession contest between Muázzim and Azam, two sons of Aurangzeb ; victory of the former, and his accession under the title of Bahádur Shāh; controlled by the General Zul-fikar Khán. Revolt of Prince Kambaksh; his defeat and death. 17IO. Expedition against the Sikhs. - 1712. Death of Bahádur Shāh, and accession of his eldest son, Jahāndar Sháh, after a struggle for the succession ; an incapable monarch, who only ruled through his Wazir, Zul-fikar Khán. Revolt of his nephew, Farukhsiyyar ; defeat of the Imperial army, and execution of the Emperor and his prime minister. I713. Accession of Farukhsiyyar, under the auspices and control of Husain Ali, Governor of Behar, and Abdullá, Governor of Allahābād. I716. Invasion by the Sikhs; their defeat, and cruel persecution. I719. Deposition and murder of Farukhsiyyar by the Sayyid chiefs Husain Ali and Abdullá. They nominate in succession three boy Emperors, the first two of whom died within a few months after their accession. The third, Muhammad Shāh, commenced his reign in September 1719. I72O. Murder of Husain Ali, and overthrow of the Sayyid “king-makers.” I720–48. The Governor of the Deccan, or Nizām-ul-Mülk, establishes his independence, and severs the Haidarābād Provinces from the Mughal Empire. - 1732–43. The Governor of Oudh, who was also Wazir of the Empire, becomes practically independent of Delhi. [Footnote continued on next page. AºAZZ OA' 7//E A/UGAZAZ F///2/ACA. 37 I For a time, Mughal Emperors still ruled India from Delhi. But of the six immediate successors of Aurangzeb, two were The six under the control of an unscrupulous general, Zul-fikar Khán," while the four others were the creatures of a couple of Sayyid adventurers, who well earned their title of the “king-makers.’ From the year 1720, the breaking up of the Empire took a more open form. The Nizām-ul-Mulk, or Governor of the 1735–51. General decline of the Empire; revolts within, and invasion of Nádir Sháh from Persia (1739). The Maráthás obtain Málwā (1743), followed by the cession of Southern Orissa and tribute from Bengal (1751). First invasion of India by Ahmad Shāh Durání, who had obtained the throne of Kandahár (1747); his defeat in Sirhind (1748). 1748. Death of Muhammad Sháh. - 1748–50. Accession of Ahmad Sháh, his son ; disturbances by the Rohillá Afghāns in Oudh, and defeat of the Imperial troops. 1751. The Rohillá insurrection crushed with the aid of the Maráthás. 1751–52. Second invasion of India by Ahmad Shāh Durání, and cession of the Punjab to him. 1754. Deposition of the Emperor, and accession of Alamgir II. 1756. Third invasion of India by Ahmad Shāh Durání, and sack of Delhi. 1759–61. Fourth invasion of India by Ahmad Shāh Durání, and murder of the Emperor Alamgir II. by his Wazir, Ghāzī-ud-din. The Maráthá conquests in Northern India. The Maráthás complete their organiza- tion for the conquest of Hindustān; capture of Delhi. 1761–1805. The third battle of Pánipat (1761), between Afghāns under Ahmad Shāh and the Maráthás; defeat of the latter. From this time the Mughal Empire ceased to exist, except in name. The victory of Baxár, gained by Major Munro, breaks the Mughal power in Bengal. The Diwání, or administration, of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa is granted by the Emperor to the British in 1765. The nominal Emperor on the death of Alamgir II. was Shāh Alam II., an exile, who resided till 1771 in Allahābād, a pensioner of the British. In 1771 he threw in his fortunes with the Maráthás, who restored him to a fragment of his hereditary dominions. The Emperor was blinded and imprisoned by rebels. He was afterwards rescued by the Maráthás, but was virtually a prisoner in their hands till 1803, when the Maráthá power was overthrown by Lord Lake. Sháh Alam died in 1806, and was succeeded by his son. 1806–1837. Akbar II., who succeeded only to the nominal dignity, and lived till 1837; when he was followed by 1837-62. Muhammad Bahádur Sháh, the seventeenth Mughal Emperor, and last of the race of Timür. For his complicity in the Mutiny of 1857 he was deposed and banished for life to Rangoon, where he died, a British State prisoner, in 1862. Two of his sons and grand- son were shot by Hodson in 1857, to prevent a rescue, and for their participation in the murder of English women and children at Delhi. 1 Sir Henry Elliot's Persian Historians, vol. vii. pp. 348-558 (Trübner, 1877). - - Puppet” 37.2 THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. Independ- enCe of the Deccan, 1720–48; of Oudh, I732–43. Hindu risings. Oppres- sion of the Sikhs, 1710–16. Rájput independ- ence, I7 I5. The Maráthá chauth, I75I. Deccan," established his independence, and severed the largest part of Southern India from the Delhi rule (1720–48). The Governor of Oudh,” originally a Persian merchant, who had risen to the post of Wazir or Prime Minister of the Empire, erected his own dynasty in the Provinces which had been committed to his care (1732–43). The Hindu subjects of the Empire were at the same time establishing their independence. The Sikh sect in the Punjab, driven by oppression into revolt, had been mercilessly crushed in 1710–16. The indelible memory of the cruelties then inflicted by the Mughal troops nerved the Sikh nation with that hatred to Delhi which served the British cause so well in 1857. In 1716, the Sikh leader Banda was carried about by the insulting Mughals in an iron cage, tricked out in the mockery of imperial robes, with scarlet turban and cloth of gold. His son's heart was torn out before his eyes, and thrown in his face. He himself was then pulled to pieces with red-hot pincers, and the Sikhs were exterminated like mad dogs (1716). The Hindu princes of Rájputéna were more fortunate. Ajit Singh of Jodhpur asserted his independence, and Rájputána practically severed its connection with the Mughal Empire in 1715. The Mārāthās having enforced their claim to black - mail (chauth) throughout Southern India, burst through the Vindhyas into the North, obtained the cession of Málwā (1743) and Orissa (1751), with an imperial grant for tribute from Bengal (1751). But the great Hindu military revival represented by the Maráthá power demands a separate section for itself, and will be narrated in the next chapter. While the Muhammadan governors and Hindu subjects of the Empire were thus asserting their independence, two new sets of external enemies appeared. The first of these con- sisted of invasions from the north-west. In 1739, Nadir Sháh, the Persian, swept down with his destroying host, and, after a massacre in the streets of Delhi and a fifty-eight days’ sack, went off with a booty estimated at 32 millions sterling.” Six times the Afghāns burst through the passes under Ahmad Sháh Durání, plundering, slaughtering, and then scornfully retiring to their homes with the plunder of the Empire. In 1738, Kábul, the last Afghān Province of the Mughals, had Invasions from the north- west, 1739–61. Nádir Sháh, I739. * Chin Kilich Khán or Asaf Jáh, a Türkomán Sunni. * Saádat Alí Khán, a Persian Shiah. * Mill's A'istory of British India, vol. ii. p. 456 (Wilson's edition, 1840). IWVASIONS FROM THE WORTH, 373 been severed from Delhi; and in 1752, Ahmad Sháh, the Ahmad Afghān, obtained the cession of the Punjab. The cruelties tºo. inflicted upon Delhi and Northern India during these six invasions form an appalling tale of bloodshed and wanton Afghān cruelty. The miserable capital opened her gates, and was fain yº to receive the Afghāns as guests. Yet on one occasion it suffered for six weeks every enormity which a barbarian army can inflict upon a prostrate foe. Meanwhile the Afghān Cavalry were scouring the country, slaying, burning, and mutilating in the meanest hamlet as in the greatest town. They took especial delight in sacking the holy places of the Hindus, and murdering the defenceless votaries at the shrines. A horde of 25,000 Afghān horsemen swooped down upon Misery the sacred city of Muttra during a festival, while it was fºre thronged with peaceful Hindu pilgrims engaged in their 1747-61. devotions. “They burned the houses,’ says the Tyrolese Jesuit Tieffenthaler, who was in India at that time, ‘together with their inmates, slaughtering others with the sword and the lance ; hauling off into captivity maidens and youths, men and women. In the temples they slaughtered cows,’ the sacred animal of the Hindus, ‘and smeared the images and pavement with the blood.’ The border-land between Afghānistán and Afghān India lay silent and waste; indeed, districts far within the * frontier, which had once been densely inhabited, and which are now again thickly peopled, were swept bare of inhabitants, Another set of invaders came from the sea. In the wars Invaders between the French and English in Southern India, the last º the vestiges of the Delhi authority in the Madras Presidency dis- appeared (1748–61). The victory of Baxár, gained by Major Munro in 1764, broke the Mughal power in Northern India, and drove the Emperor himself to seek shelter in our camp. Bengal, Behar, and Orissa were handed over to the English by an imperial grant in 1765. We technically obtained these Fall of the fertile Provinces as the nominee of the Emperor; but the third *P* battle of Pánípat had four years previously reduced the throne of Delhi to a shadow. This third battle of Pánípat was fought Battle of in 1761, between the Afghān invader Ahmad Sháh and the * Maráthá powers, on the memorable plain on which Bábar in g 1526, and Akbar in 1556, had each won the sovereignty of India. - That sovereignty was now, after little more than two centuries The of Mughal rule, lost for ever by their degenerate descendants. * The Afghāns defeated the Maráthás at Pánipat in 1761 ; and - 374 THE MUGHAZ EMPIRE, 1526–1761. during the anarchy which followed, the British patiently built up a new power out of the wreck of the Mughal Empire. - Mughal pensioners and imperial puppets still reigned at Delhi Last of the Mughals, 1862. Causes of the fall of the Mughal Empire. over a numerous seraglio, under such lofty titles as Akbar II. or Alamgir (Aurangzeb) II. But their power was confined to the palace, while Maráthás, Sikhs, and Englishmen struggled for the real sovereignty of India. The last nominal Emperor emerged for a moment as a rebel during the Mutiny of 1857, and died a State prisoner in Rangoon in 1862. Akbar had rendered a great Empire possible in India by conciliating the native Hindu races. He thus raised up a powerful third party, consisting of the native military peoples of India, which enabled him alike to prevent new Muham- madan invasions from Central Asia, and to keep in subjection his own Muhammadan Governors of Provinces. Under Aurangzeb and his miserable successors this wise policy of conciliation was given up. Accordingly, new Muhammadan hordes soon swept down from Afghānistān; the Muhammadan Governors of Indian Provinces set up as independent poten- tates ; and the warlike Hindu races, who had helped Akbar to create the Mughal Empire, became, under his foolish posterity, the chief agents of its ruin. | 375 | C H A P T E R XII. THE MARATHA POWER (1634 TO 1818 A.D.). THE British won India, not from the Mughals, but from the British e India Hindus. Before we appeared as conquerors, the Mughal won, not Empire had broken up. Our conclusive wars were neither with from the the Delhi king, nor with his revolted governors, but with the Nº. UIU TITOIſ) two Hindu confederacies, the Maráthás and the Sikhs. Our the last Maráthá war dates as late as 1818, and the Sikh Confedera- Hindus, tion was not finally overcome until 1849. About the year 1634, a Rājput soldier of fortune, SHAHJI Rise of the BHONSLA by name, began to play a conspicuous part in Mºha. Southern India." He fought on the side of the two independent i. Muhammadan States, Ahmadnagar and Bijápur, against the 1634. Mughals; and left a band of followers, together with a military fief, to his son Sivaji, born in 1627.” Sivaji formed a national Sivaji. party out of the Hindu tribes of South-Western India, as * The original authorities for the Maráthá history are—(1) James Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, 3 vols. (Bombay reprint, 1863); (2) Edward Scott Waring's History of the Maráthás (4to, 1810); (3) Major William Thorne's Memoir of the War in India conducted by General Zord Lake (4to, 1818); (4) Sidney J. Owen’s Selections from the Despatches of the Marquis of Wellesley (1877); (5) his Selections from the Indian Despatches of the Duke of Wellington (1880); and (6) Henry T. Prinsep's Marrative of Political and Military Transactions of British India under the Marquis of Hastings (4to, 1820). The very brief notice of the Maráthás which the scope of the present work allows, precludes an exhaustive use of these storehouses. But it should be mentioned that the later history of the Maráthás (since 1819) has yet to be written. Mr. H. G. Keene's volume on Mādhava Ráo Sindhia in the ‘Rulers of India’ Series, gives an able account of the chief Maráthá leader in the second half of the 18th century. Major Ross of Bladensburg's Lord Hastings in the same series deals with the last Maráthá war, and the extinction of the Maráthá Confederacy as a military power. The leading incidents of that history are described in separate articles in my Imperial Gazetteer of Zndia. To save space, this chapter confines itself, as far as practicable, to referring in footnotes to those articles. Ample materials will be found in the Gazetteers of the Bombay Districts and of the Central Provinces. * Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. i. p. 9o (ed. 1863). 376 THE MARATHA POWER, 1634–1818. opposed alike to the imperial armies from the North, and to the independent Muhammadan kingdoms of the Deccan. There were thus, from 1650 onwards, three powers in the Deccan : first, the ever-invading troops of the Delhi Empire; second, the forces of the two remaining independent Muhammadan States of Southern India, namely, Ahmadnagar and Bijápur ; third, the military organization of the local Hindu tribes, which ultimately grew into the Maráthá Confederacy. During the eighty years' war of Sháh Jahán and Aurangzeb, with a view to the conquest of Southern India (1627–1707), the third or Hindu party fought from time to time on either side, and obtained a constantly-increasing importance. The Mughal armies from the North, and the independent Muham- madan kingdoms of the South, gradually exterminated each other. Being foreigners, they had to recruit their exhausted forces chiefly from outside. The Hindu confederacy drew its inexhaustible native levies from the wide tract known as Mahārāshtra, stretching from the Berärs in Central India to near the south of the Bombay Presidency. The Maráthás were therefore courted alike by the imperial generals and by the independent Muhammadan sovereigns of the Deccan. With true Hindu statecraft, their leader Sivaji from time to time aided the independent Musalmán kingdoms of the Deccan against the Mughal avalanche from the north. Those kingdoms, with the help of the Maráthás, long proved a match for the imperial troops. But no sooner were the Delhi armies driven back, than the Maráthás proceeded to despoil the independent Musalmán kingdoms. On the other hand, the Delhi generals, when allied with the Maráthás, could com- pletely overpower the independent Muhammadan States. SIVAJI saw the strength of his position, and, by a course of treachery, assassination, and hard fighting, won for the Maráthás the practical supremacy in Southern India." As a basis for his operations, he perched himself safe in a number of impregnable hill forts in the Bombay Presidency. His troops consisted of Hindu spearmen, mounted on hardy ponies. They were the peasant proprietors of Southern India, and could be dispersed or called together on a moment's notice, at the proper seasons of the agricultural year. Sivaji had therefore the command of an unlimited body of troops, without the expense of a standing army. With these he 1 The career of Sivaji is traced in Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, Three parties in the Deccan, I650. Strength of the Hindu or third party. Courted by the other two. Sivaji, born 1627, died 1680. His hill forts. His army of horse- Iſleſ). vol. i. pp. 90–220. The Bombay reprint of Grant Duff's History, in three volumes, 1863, is invariably referred to in this chapter. SIVA/I AAWD SAMBAA/Z. 377 swooped down upon his enemies, exacted tribute, or forced them to come to terms. He then paid off his soldiery by a His part of the plunder; and, while they returned to the sowing or * reaping of their fields, he retreated with the lion's share to his hill forts. In 1659 he lured the Bijápur general into an ambush, stabbed him at a friendly conference, and exter- minated his army. In 1662–64, Sivají raided as far as the extreme north of the Bombay Presidency, and sacked the imperial city of Surat. In 1664 he assumed the title of King Coins (Rājā), with the royal prerogative of coining money in his own "*Y. name." The year 1665 found Sivaji helping the Mughal armies against the independent Musalmán State of Bijápur. In 1666 he was induced to visit Delhi. Being coldly received by the Visits Emperor Aurangzeb, and placed under restraint, he escaped to º the south, and raised the standard of revolt.” In 1674, Sivaji enthroned himself with great pomp at Ráigarh, weighing him-Enthrones Self in a balance against gold, and distributing the precious * counterpoise among his Brähmans.” After sending forth his pied, hosts as far as the Karnātik in 1676, he died in 1680. I68o. The Emperor Aurangzeb would have done wisely to have Aurang- left the independent Musalmán Kings of the Deccan alone, * until he had crushed the rising Maráthá power. Indeed, a policy, great statesman would have buried the old quarrel between the *7°7' Muhammadans of the north and south, and united the whole forces of Islám against the Hindu confederacy which was rapidly organizing itself in the Deccan. But the fixed resolve of Aurangzeb's life was to annex to Delhi the Muhammadan kingdoms of Southern India. By the time he had carried out this scheme, he had wasted his armies, and left the Mughal Empire ready to break into pieces at the first touch of the Maráthás. - SAMBHAJI succeeded his father Sivají in 1680, and reigned Sambhaji, till 1689.4 His life was entirely spent in wars with the Portu- 1680–89. guese and Mughals. In 1689, Aurangzeb captured him. The Emperor burnt out his eyes with a red-hot iron, cut out the tongue which had blasphemed the Prophet, and struck off his head. His son SAHU, then six years of age, was also captured, and Sahu, kept a prisoner till the death of Aurangzeb. In 1707 he was 7°7. * Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. i. p. 146. * /alem, vol. i. chap. v. ad finema. * Idem, vol. i. pp. 191-193. 4 For the career of Sambhaji, see Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. i. pp. 220–26I. 378 THE MAAEATHA POWER, 1634–1818. Rise of the title of Peshwä.” Peshwás. restored, on acknowledging allegiance to Delhi. But his long captivity among the Mughals left him only half a Maráthá." He wasted his life in his seraglio, and resigned the rule of his territories to his Bráhman minister Bálaji Vishwanáth, with the This office became hereditary, and the power of the Peshwā superseded that of the Maráthá kings. The Sátára and family of Sivaji only retained the little principalities of Sátára Rolhápur ; the last of and Kolhápur. Sátára lapsed, for want of a direct heir, to the British in 1848. Kolhápur has survived through their clemency, and was ruled, under their control, by the last adopted representative of Sivaji's line 8 until 1883. On his death, in December 1883, another Maráthá youth of high family was placed by the British Government, in virtue of the adoption samad, on the State cushion of Kolhápur. The Brähman PESHWAs firmly built up at Poona the great Maráthá Confederacy. In 1718, Bălaji, the first Peshwā, marched an army to Delhi in support of the Sayyid “king- makers.' * In 1720° he extorted an imperial grant of the chauff, or ‘one-fourth of the revenues of the Deccan. The Maráthás were also confirmed in the sovereignty of the countries round Poona and Sátára. The second Peshwā, Bájí Ráo (1721–40), converted the tribute of the Deccan granted to his father into a practical sovereignty. In fifteen years he wrested the Province of Málwä from the Empire (1736), together with the country on the north-west of the Vindhyas, from the Narbadá to the Chambal." In 17397 he captured Bassein from the Portuguese. Málwä was finally ceded by the Delhi Emperor to the Maráthás in 1743. The third Peshwā, Bālaji Bájí Ráo, succeeded in 1740, and carried the Maráthá terror into the heart of the Mughal Empire.” The Deccan became merely a starting-point for his almost yearly expeditions to the north and the east. Within the Deccan itself he augmented his sovereignty, at the expense of the Nizām, after two wars. The great centres of the Maráthá power were now fixed at Poona in Bombay and Nágpur Sivaji's line. Progress of the Peshwás, 1718. Second Peshwä conquers the Deccan, I 72 I-40. Third Peshwá, I740–61. Conquests in the Deccan. * The career of Sahu is traced in Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. i. pp. 297-306. * For Bălaji's career, see Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. i. pp. 307-339. - * See articles KOLHAPUR and SATARA, Imperial Gazetteer of India. * Vide ante, p. 371. * Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. i. pp. 324, 325. * Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. i. pp. 393-395. * For Báji Ráo's career, see off. cit., vol. i. pp. 344–4IO. * His career is sketched in op. cit., vol. ii. pp. I–II5. A'ſ VE MAA'A THA PA2AAVC/H.E.S. 379 in the Berárs. In 1741–42, a general of the Berár branch Expedi- of the Maráthás known as the Bhonslas, swept down upon º d it : Bengal; but, after plundering to the suburbs of the Muham- madan capital Murshidābād, he was driven back through Orissa to Bengal, by the Viceroy, Ali Vardí Khán. The ‘Maráthá Ditch, or **** semicircular moat around part of Calcutta, records to this day the panic which then spread throughout Bengal. Next year, 1743, the head of the Berár Maráthás, Raghuji Bhonsla, himself invaded Bengal in force. From this date, in spite of quarrels between the Poona and Berár Maráthás over the spoil, the fertile Provinces of the Lower Ganges became a plundering ground of the Bhonslas. In 1751 they obtained a formal grant from the Viceroy, Ali Vardi, of the chauth or ‘quarter- revenue' of Bengal, together with the cession of Orissa. In Northern India, the Poona Maráthás raided as far as the to the Punjab, and drew down upon them the wrath of Ahmad Sháh, Fº the Afghān, who had wrested that Province from Delhi. At the third battle of Pánípat, the Maráthás were overthrown, by Pánipat, the combined Muhammadan forces of the Afghāns and of 1761. the Provinces still nominally remaining to the Mughal Empire (1761). The fourth Peshwā, Madhu Ráo, succeeded to the Maráthá Fourth, sovereignty in this moment of ruin." The Hindu confederacy º, seemed doomed to destruction, alike by internal treachery and by the superior force of the Afghān arms. As early as 1742, the Poona and Berár branches had taken the field against each other, in their quarrels over the plunder of Bengal. Before 1761, two other branches, under Holkar and Sindhia, had set up for themselves in the old Mughal Province of Málwā and the neighbouring tracts, now divided between the States of Indore and Gwalior. At Pánſpat, Holkar, the head of the Indore branch, deserted the Hindu line of battle when he saw the tide turn, and his treachery rendered the Maráthá rout complete. The fourth Peshwá was little more than the nominal centre of the five great Maráthá branches, with their The five respective headquarters at Poona, the seat of the Peshwās ; . at Nágpur, the capital of the Bhonslas, in Berār; at Gwalior, the residence of Sindhia; at Indore, the capital of Holkar ; and at Baroda, the seat of the rising power of the Gáekwárs. Madhu Rāo, the fourth Peshwā, just managed to hold his own against the Muhammadan princes of Haidarābād and Mysore, and against the Bhonsla branch of the Maráthás in Berär. 1 For his career, see Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. ii. pp. II 5–172. 38o THE MARATHA POWER, 1634–1818. His younger brother, Nārāyan Ráo, succeeded him as fifth Peshwá in 1772, but was quickly assassinated." --- From this time the Peshwā’s power at Poona begins to recede, as that of his nominal masters, the lineal descendants of Sivaji, had faded out of sight at Sátára and Kolhápur. The Peshwās came of a high Bráhman lineage, while the actual fighting force of the Maráthás consisted of low-caste Hindus. It thus happened that each Maráthá general who rose to independent territorial sway, was inferior in caste, although possessed of more real power than the Peshwá, the titular head of the Confederacy. Of the two great Northern houses, Holkar was descended from a shepherd,” and Sindhia from a slipper-bearer.” These potentates lay quiet for a time after their crushing disaster at Pánipat. But within ten years of that fatal field, they had finally established themselves throughout Málwā, and invaded the Rájput, Ját, and Rohillá Provinces, from the Punjab on the west to Oudh on the east (1761–71). In 1765, the titular Emperor, Sháh Alam, had sunk into a British pensioner after his defeat at Baxár. In 1771 he made overtures to the Maráthás. Holkar and Sindhia nominally restored him to his throne at Delhi, but held him a virtual prisoner till 1803–4, when they were over- thrown by our second Maráthá war. The third of the Northern Maráthá houses, namely, the Bhonslas of Berár and the Central Provinces, occupied them- selves with raids to the east. Operating from their basis at Nágpur,4 they had extorted, by 1751, the chauth or ‘quarter- revenue' of Bengal, together with the sovereignty of Orissa. The accession of the British in Bengal (1756–65) put a stop to their raids in that Province. In 18o3, a division of our army drove them out of Orissa. In 1817, their power was finally broken by our last Maráthá war. Their headquarter territories, now forming the Central Provinces,” were admini- stered under the guidance of British Residents from 1817 to 1853. On the death of the last Raghují Bhonsla, without issue, in 1853, Nágpur lapsed to the British. The fourth of the Northern Maráthá houses, namely, Baroda," extended its power throughout Gujarát, on the north- Fifth Peshwá, I772. Decline of the Peshwás, 1772-1818. Progress of the Northern Maráthás. Sindhia and Holkar, 1761-1803. The Bhonslas of Berar, I75I-1853. The Gáekwárs of Baroda. * Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. ii. pp. 174–178. * See article INDORE, 7%e Zmperial Gazetteer of India. * See article Gwalior, The Zmperial Gazetteer of India. * See article NAGPUR, 7%e Imperial Gazetteer of India. * See article CENTRAL PROVINCEs, 7 he Zmperial Gazetteer of Zndia, * See article BARODA, Zhe Imperial Gazetteer of India. TA/AE 7THA’AºA. MAA’ATA/A WAA’.S. 381 western coast of Bombay, and the adjacent peninsula of Káthiáwär. The scattered but wealthy dominions known as the Territories of the Gáekwár were thus formed. Since the last Maráthá war, in 1817, Baroda has been ruled by the Gáekwár, with the help of a British Resident and a subsidiary force. In 1874, the reigning Gáekwár, having attempted to Baroda in poison the Resident, was tried by a High Commission, consist. *74. ing of three European and three native members, found guilty, and deposed. But the British Government refrained from annexing the State, and raised a descendant of the founder of the family from poverty to the State cushion. While these four Northern houses of the Maráthás were pursuing their separate careers, the Peshwá's power was being broken to pieces by family intrigues. The sixth Peshwā, Sixth , Madhu Ráo Nārāyan, was born after his father's death, and ; during his short life of twenty-one years the power remained * in the hands of his minister, Näná Farnavis. Raghubă, the uncle of the late Peshwā, disputed the birth of the posthumous child, and claimed for himself the office of Peshwä. The infant's guardian, Náná Farnavis, having invoked the aid of the French, the British sided with Raghubá. These alliances brought on the first Maráthá war (1779–81), ending with the First Mar- treaty of Salbái (1782). That treaty ceded the islands of . Salsette and Elephanta with two others to the British, secured to Raghubă a handsome pension, and confirmed the child- Peshwá in his sovereignty. The latter, however, only reached manhood to commit suicide at the age of twenty-one. - His cousin, Bájí Ráo II., succeeded him in 1795 as the Seventh Seventh and last Peshwä. The Northern Maráthá house of i. Holkar now took the lead among the Maráthás, and forced the ;3. Peshwā into the arms of the English. By the treaty of Bassein in 1802, the Peshwä agreed to receive and pay for a British force to maintain him in his dominions. The Northern Maráthá houses combined to break down this treaty. The second Maráthá war followed (18o3–4). General Wellesley Second crushed the forces of the Sindhia and Nágpur houses on the Marathé great fields of Assaye and Argaum in the south, while Lord i803-4. Lake disposed of the Maráthá armies at Laswäri and Delhi in the north. In 1804, Holkar was completely defeated at Díg. These campaigns led to large cessions of territory to the British, the overthrow of the French influence in India, and the replacement of the titular Delhi Emperor under the protection of the English. In 1817–18, the Peshwä Holkar Last Mar- and the Bhonsla Maráthás at Nágpur took up arms, each on tº 382 THE MARATHA POWER, 1634–1818. his own account, against the British, and were defeated in detail. That war finally broke the Maráthá power. The Peshwā Bāji Ráo surrendered to the British, and his terri- tories were annexed to our Bombay Presidency (1818). The Peshwä remained a British pensioner at Bithlir, near Cawnpur, End of the on a magnificent allowance, till his death. His adopted son * grew up into the infamous Náná Sáhib of the Mutiny of 1857, when the last relic of the Peshwás disappeared from the eyes of men. 1 For a summary of the events of this last Maráthá war (1817–18), zide post, pp. 472, 473. Also Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, vol. iii. passim ; and Major Ross of Bladensburg's volume on Lord Hastings, in the ‘Rulers of India’ Series (Clarendon Press, 1893). A vivid account of the military aspects of Maráthá life, that is to say, of its really essential aspects, will be found in Captain (afterwards Colonel) Thomas Duer Broughton's Letters written in a Maráthá Camp during the Year 1809. Constable's admirable reprint. London, I892. [ 383 ] C H A P T E R XIII. THE INDIAN VERNACULARS AND THEIR LITERATURE. THE foregoing chapters have Summarized the successive The three settlements of Asiatic peoples on the south of the Himalayas, i.in and their struggles for supremacy in India. The remainder of hi. this volume will deal with altogether different aspects of Indian history. For the three essential stages in that history are—first, the long struggle for India by the races of Asia Struggle narrated in the previous pages; second, a shorter struggle for º i. India by European nations; third, the consolidation of India Afte under British rule. The second and third phases of Indian races; history occupy the following chapters. From the great contest É. of five thousand years, England emerged the victor. We j have seen how the tidal waves of Asiatic populations— (3) con. pre-Aryan, Aryan, Scythic, Afghān, and Mughal—swept across solidation India from the north ; and how Hindu and Muhammadan, jºin Mughal and Maráthá, fought for the supreme power on the British Indian continent. The chapter which follows the present * one will exhibit the briefer, but not less eventful, struggles of the European maritime powers to enter India from the sea. The Conquest of India by the British, and an account of the administration which they have established throughout its widely-separated Provinces, will conclude this volume. The inroads under Alexander the Great and his successors Greek & i.e inroads had proved momentary episodes, episodes, moreover, of an temporary, Asiatic rather than of a European type. The Greek and ana.m. Graeco-Bactrian hosts entered India from the north; they Asiatic in effected no settlements beyond the frontier Province ; and the tyPe. permanent element in their forces consisted of Asiatic rather than of European troops. The civilisation and organization of India, from a prehistoric period many thousand years before Christ down to the 15th century A.D., had been essentially the work of Asiatic races. Since the end of that century, when the Portuguese landed on the Malabar coast, the course of Indian history has been profoundly influenced by European nationS. 384 THE INDIAN VERMACULARS. Asiatic civilisation of India, as found by the European Powers. India in the Ist century A. D. Before entering on this new period, therefore, it is desir- able to obtain a clear idea of India, as moulded by the survival of the fittest among the Asiatic peoples who had struggled for the Indian Supremacy during thousands of years. The social constitution of the Indian races on the twofold basis of religion and caste, has been fully explained. Their later political organization under the Afghāns, Mughals, and Maráthás, has been more briefly summarized. It re- mains, however, to exhibit the geographical distribution of the Indian races, and the local landmarks, literatures, and languages, which the Europeans found on their arrival in India. Before the beginning of the Christian era, Northern India was partitioned out among civilised communities in which the Aryan element prevailed, while the Southern peninsula was covered with forests, and dotted with the settlements of non- Aryan peoples. The Northern Aryans had a highly developed literary language, Sanskrit. They spoke less artificial cognate dialects, called Prákrits, which (equally with the Sanskrit) had grown out of the primitive Indo-Germanic tongue. The non-Aryans of Southern India at that period knew nothing of the philosophy or sciences which flourished in the North. They had not even a grammatical settlement of the principles of their own language ; and they used vernaculars so uncouth as to earn for them, from the civilised Aryans, the name of Mlechchhas, meaning the people of imperfect utterance or broken speech.” When the European nations arrived in India during the 16th and 17th centuries, all this had changed. The stately Sanskrit of the Northern Aryans had sunk into a dead language, still used as a literary vehicle by the learned, but already pressed hard by a popular literature in the speech of the people. The Prákrits, or ancient-spoken dialects, had given place to the modern vernaculars of Northern India. In Southern India a still greater change had taken place. The obscure non-Aryan races had there developed a political organization and a copious literature, written in vernaculars of their own, vernaculars which, while richly endowed for literary uses, remained non-Aryan in all essen- tials of structure and type. India in the I6th century A. D. 1 For the ideas connoted by this word, and its later application to the Huns and Musalmáns, see Mr. Justice K. T. Telang's Assay on the Mudrā- rážhasa, pp. 4–7, 12, etc., and footnotes. Bombay. THE ZOACA V//D/AAV A&O UTE. 385 Leaving aside, for the moment, the changes among the The Dra- Aryans in the North, let us briefly examine this survival of * prehistoric non-Aryan life in the Southern peninsula. The non-Aryan races of the South were spoken of by Sanskrit authors under the general name of Dravidas, and their languages under the vague term Paisàchí. The latter term covered, however, a wider linguistic area, from the speech of the Bhotas of Tibet to that of the Pándyas or Tamil-speaking tribes of Southern India. Modern philology, rejecting any generic term, proves that the Scattered non-Aryan languages of India belong to separate stocks. Some of the isolated tribes, who still survive in their hill and forest retreats around Bengal, entered from the north- east, and brought with them dialects akin to the Chinese. The great body of Dravidian speech in the South seems, however, to have had its origin, equally with the Aryan languages, to the north-west of the Himalayas. It would appear that long The before the Aryan invasions, a people speaking a very primitive Pºlian Central Asian language, had entered by the Sind passes. ſº These were the Dravidas or Dravidians of later times. Other non-Aryan races from the north pushed them onwards to the present Dravidian country in the South of the peninsula. But the Dravidians had left more than one colony on their line of march. The Brāhuis of the Sind frontier, the Gonds and Kus of the Central Provinces, the Uráons of Chutié Nágpur, with a tribal offshoot in the Rájmahál hills overlooking the Gangetic valley," remain to this day as landmarks along the Dravidian route through India. The Dravidian language contains words apparently belonging The . . to a phase of human speech anterior to the separation of the #: Indo-Germanic from the Scythian stocks.” It presents affinities to the present Ugrian of Siberia, and to the present Finnish of Northern Europe; while its analogies to the ancient Behistun tablets of Media have been worked out by the great Dravidian Scholar of our times.” Those tablets recorded the life of * /ntroduction to the Malto Zanguage, p. iv. (Agra, 1884), by the Rev. Ernest Droese ; to whom the author is indebted for valuable local details which he hopes to incorporate hereafter in a larger work. * Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Zanguages, by Bishop Caldwell, p. 46, ed. 1875. Unfortunately, the paging of that edition repeats itself, running as far as p. I54 in the introduction, and commencing again (in a slightly different type) at p. 1 of the Grammar itself. Except when otherwise mentioned, the pages cited in this book refer to the first or introductory series of Bishop Caldwell’s numerals. * Zalem, pp. 68–72 and IO6. 2 B 386 THE ZAV/D/AAV VAEA’AVA COZAA’.S. Its place in philo- logy. The Dra- vidians in Sanskrit literature. Pre-Aryan . Dravidian civilisa- tion. Darius Hystaspes in the old Persian, together with a rendering in the speech of the Scythians of the Medo-Persian Empire. They date from the 5th century B.C., and they indicate a common starting-place of the Turanian family of languages, whose fragments have been scattered to the shores of the Baltic, the Steppes of Northern Siberia, and the Malabar coast. This family belongs to the primaeval agglutinative phase of human speech, as opposed to the inflectional stage which the later Aryan migrations into India represent. The Dravidians found refuge, after their long wanderings, in the sea-girt extremity of the Indian peninsula. In that isolation their Turanian speech has preserved its primitive type, and forms one of the most ancient relics of the prehistoric world. The extrusion of the Dravidians from Northern India had taken place before the arrival of the Aryan-speaking races. The Dravidians are to be distinguished from the later non- Aryan immigrants, whom the Vedic tribes found in possession of the valleys of the Indus and Ganges. These later non- Aryans were in their turn subjugated or pushed out by the Aryan new-comers; and they accordingly appear in the Vedic hymns as the “enemies” (Dasyus) and ‘serfs' (Sidras) of the Indo-Aryan settlers. The Dravidian non-Aryans of the south, on the other hand, appear from the first in the Sanskrit as friendly forest folk, the monkey armies who helped the Aryan hero Ráma on his march through Southern India against the demon king of Ceylon. The Tamil language still preserves evidence of a Dravidian civilisation before the southern advance of the Aryans which the Rāmāyana represents. “They had “kings,”’ writes Bishop Caldwell,” “who dwelt in “strong houses,” and ruled over small “districts of country.” They had “minstrels” who recited “songs" at “festivals,” and they seem to have had alphabetical “characters” written with a stylus on palmyra leaves. A bundle of those leaves was called a “book.” They acknow- ledged the existence of God, whom they styled Kö or King. They erected to his honour a “temple,” which they called Kö-il, God’s house. Marriage existed among them. They were acquainted with the Ordinary metals, with the exception of tin, lead, and zinc ; with all the planets ordinarily known to the ancients, excepting Mercury and Saturn. They had numerals up to a hundred, some of them up to a thousand. * Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Zanguages, condensed from pp. I I7, II8. C/V/Z/SAEA’S OF /OACA V//D/AAVS. 387 They had “medicines;” “hamlets” and “towns,” but no cities; “canoes,” “boats,” and even “ships” (small decked Coasting vessels). ‘They were well versed in “agriculture,” and delighted Dravidian in “war.” They were armed with “bows” and “arrows,” ” with “spears” and “swords.” All the ordinary or necessary arts of life, including “spinning,” “weaving,” and “dyeing,” existed among them. They excelled in “pottery,” as their places of sepulture show. They were ignorant, not only of every branch of “philosophy,” but even of “grammar.” Their undeveloped intellectual condition is especially apparent in words relating to the operations of the mind. To express “the will,” they would have been obliged to describe it as “that which in the inner part says, I am going to do so and so.” While the Dravidians appear in Sanskrit literature as friends Legend of or allies, the Aryans were not their conquerors, but their "º" ‘instructors' or ‘fathers.’ The first Brähman settlers in the South came as hermits or sages, who diffused around them a halo of higher civilisation. The earliest of such Bráhman Colonies among the Dravidians, led by the holy Agastya, has long faded into the realms of mythology. “The Vindhya Mountains,’ it is said, ‘prostrated themselves before Agastya,” still fondly remembered as the Tamir-muni, pre-eminently the Sage to the Tamil race. He introduced philosophy at the court of the first Pándyan king, wrote many treatises for his royal disciple, and now lives for ever in the heavens as Canopus, the brighest star in the Southern Indian hemisphere. He is worshipped as Agasteswara, the Lord Agastya, near Cape Comorin. But the orthodox still believe him to be alive, although invisible to sinful mortals, hidden away in the conical mountain called Agastya’s Hill, from which the sacred river of Tinnevelli springs. The legend serves to indicate the influence of Sanskrit Brähmanic civilisation and learning among the Dravidian race. That * influence was essentially a friendly one. The Brähmans Dra- became the ‘fathers’ of the less advanced race; and although Vidians. they classified the non-Aryan multitude as Sūdras, yet this term did not connote in Southern India the ideas of debase- ment and servitude which it affixed to the non-Aryan races in the North. The Buddhist missionaries were probably the first Aryan instructors of the Dravidian kings and peoples, and their labours must have begun before the commencement of the Christian era. 388 THE WAV/D/AAV VAE RAWA CU/ARS. Com- Iſlen Ce- ment of that influence. Dravidian speech developed into ver- nacular literatures. The Dravidian dialects. The Tamil. Bishop Caldwell takes the Aryan emigration under Vijaya, from Magadha in Bengal to Ceylon, circa B.C. 550, as the starting-point of Aryan civilisation in Southern India. Dr. Burnell, however, believes that Aryan civilisation had not penetrated deeply among the Dravidians until the advent of Kumārila, the Brähman reformer from Behar in the 8th century A.D." Brähman hermits had doubtless taught the Dravidian peoples, and Bráhman sages had adorned Dravidian courts long before this latter date. But it was from the great religious revival of the 8th century A.D. that the continuous and widespread influence of Bráhman civilisation in Southern India took its rise. The Bráhman apostles of the Sivaite and Vishnuite faith, from the 8th to the 12th century A.D.,” composed their religious treatises in Sanskrit. The intellectual awakening produced by their teaching, also gave the first impulse to the use of the vernacular languages of India for literary purposes. The Dravidians gratefully acknowledge that they owe the settlement of the grammatical principles of their speech to Sanskrit sages, among whom the legendary Agastya holds the highest rank. But the development of that speech into a vernacular literature was chiefly the work of the Dravidians themselves. Indeed, the first outburst of their vernacular literature sprang from the resistance of their previous Buddh- istic faith to the Brähmanical religious revival. Before the arrival of the European nations in the 16th and 17th centuries, four Dravidian dialects had developed lite- ratures. The Tamil, the Telugu, the Kánarese, and the Malayalam are now literary languages of established reputa- tion. But space compels me to concentrate attention on the oldest and most influential of the vernacular literatures of Southern India,-the Tamil. This language, in its structure and its vocabulary, forms the best representative of cultivated Dravidian speech. It has not feared to incorporate such philosophical, religious, and abstract terms as it required from the Sanskrit. But its borrowings in this respect are the mere luxuries or delicacies of the language, and they have left unaffected its robust native fabric. “Tamil,’ writes Bishop Caldwell, ‘can readily dispense with the greater part or the whole of its Sanskrit, and, by dispensing with it, rises to a purer and more refined style.’” He maintains that the Ten Com- Dr. Burnell's article in the Indian Antiquary for October 1872. * Vide ante, pp. 259 and 267. * Comparative Grammar, pp. 50, 51. EARZIESZ 7AMIZ POETS. 389 mandments can be translated into classical Tamil with the addition of a single Sanskrit word. That word is ‘image.’ According to native tradition, Tamil was first cultivated First culti- by the sage Agastya. Many works, besides a grammar and rººf treatises on philosophy and science, are ascribed to him. His name served indeed as a centre around which Tamil Compositions of widely separated periods, including some of recent date, gather. The oldest Tamil grammar now extant, the Tol-Kāppiyam, is assigned to one of his disciples. But the rise of a continuous Tamil literature belongs to a later period. The Sivaite and Vishnuite revival of the Brähman apostles in Southern India, from the 8th century onwards, stirred up a counter movement on the part of the Jains. Jain cycle Before that period, the Buddhism of the Dravidian kingdoms iº, had modelled itself on the Jain type. We shall see hereafter that early Buddhism in Northern India adopted the Prákrit or vernacular speech for its religious treatises. On the same analogy, Buddhism in Southern India, as the religion of the people, defended itself against the Brähmanical revival of the 8th century by works in the popular dialects. The Dravidian Buddhists or Jains created a cycle of Tamil literature, anti-9th to 13th Bráhmanical in tone, stretching from the 9th to the 13th º Century A.D. - Its first great composition, the Kural of Tiruvalluvar, not later Its great than the Ioth century A.D., is said to have been the work of º a poet sprung from the Pariah or lowest caste. It enforces the Kºp. 6) Old Sánkya philosophy in 1330 distichs or poetical aphorisms, dealing with the three chief desires of the human heart— wealth, pleasure, and virtue. To the sister of its author, a Pariah poetess, are ascribed many compositions of the highest moral excellence, and of undying popularity in Southern India. The Jain period of Tamil literature includes works on ethics and language; among them the Divākaram, literally the ‘Day-making’ Dictionary. The period culminated in the The Jain Chintámani, a romantic epic of 15,000 lines by an unknown “P” Jain author. Indeed, it is worthy of remark that several of the best Indian authors, whether Sanskrit or vernacular, have left no indication of their names. As it was the chief desire of an Indian sage to merge his individual existence in the Uni- versal Existence; so it appears to have been the wish of many Indian men of letters of the highest type, to lose their literary individuality in the school or cycle of literature to which they belonged. - Contemporaneous with the Jain cycle of Tamil literature, 390 TA/AE //VVD/AAV VAEACAVA COW/AAC.S. the great adaptation of the Rāmāyana was composed by Kambar for the Dravidian races. This work is a Tamil para- phrase or imitation, rather than a translation of the ancient Sanskrit epic. A stanza prefixed to the work states that it was finished in the year corresponding to 886 A.D. But that stanza may itself be a later addition ; and Bishop Caldwell, after a careful examination of the whole evidence, places the work after IIoo A.D. . Between this period and the 16th century, two encyclopaedic collections of Tamil hymns in praise of Siva were gradually formed. They breathe a deeply religious spirit, and the earlier collection (post 1200 A.D.) still holds its place in the affections of the Tamil-speaking people. The later collection was the work of a Sivaite devotee and his disciples, who devoted themselves to uprooting Jainism (circ. 1500 A.D.). During the same centuries, the Vishnuite apostles were equally prolific in Tamil religious song. Their Great Book of the Four Thousand Psalms constitutes a huge hymnology, dating from the 12th century onwards. After a period of literary inactivity, the Tamil genius again blossomed forth in the 16th and 17th centuries, with a poet-king as the leader of the literary revival. In the 17th century arose an anti-Brähmanical Tamil litera- ture known as the Sittar school. The Sittars or Sages were a Tamil sect, who, while retaining Siva as the name of the One God, rejected everything in Siva-worship inconsistent with pure theism. They were quietists in religion, and alchemists in science. They professed to base their creed upon the true original teaching of the Rishis, and indeed assumed to themselves the names of these ancient inspired teachers of mankind. They thus obtained for their poems, although written in a modern colloquial style, the sanction of a venerable antiquity. Some scholars believe that they detect Christian influences in works of the Sittar school. But it must be remembered that the doctrines and even the phraseology of ancient Indian theism and of Indian Buddhism approach closely to the Subsequent teaching, and, in some instances, to the very language of Christ." The Tamil writers of the 18th and 19th centuries are classified as modern. The honours of that period are divided The Tamil Rāmā- yana. Tamil Sivaite hymno- logies. Tamil Vishnuite hymno- logy. The Sittar Tamil poets. Their pure theism. Modern Tamil writers. * The following specimens of the Sittar school of Tamil poetry are taken from Bishop Caldwell's Comparative Grammar, pp. 147, 148. The first is a version of a poem of Siva-vákya, given by Mr. R. C. Caldwell, the Bishop's son, in the Zºdiazz Antiguary for 1872. He unconsciously MO/OAA’AW TAM/Z WR/TERS. 39 I between a pious Sivaite and the Italian Jesuit, Beschi. This missionary of genius and learning not only wrote Tamil prose Beschi. of the highest excellence, but he composed a great religious epic in classical Tamil, which has won for him a conspicuous rank among Dravidian poets. His work, the Tembávani, gives a Tamil adaptation of the narrative and even of the geography of the Bible, suited to the Hindu taste of the 18th century. - approximates the verses to Christian ideas, for example, by the title, “The Shepherd of the Worlds,” which Bishop Caldwell states may have meant to the poet only “King of the Gods.’ THE SHEPHERD OF THE WORLDs, How many various flowers Did I, in bygone hours, - Cull for the gods, and in their honour strew ; In vain how many a prayer I breathed into the air, And made, with many forms, obeisance due. Beating my breast, aloud How oft I called the crowd To drag the village car; how oft I stray'd, In manhood’s prime, to lave Sunwards the flowing wave, And, circling Saiva fames, my homage paid. But they, the truly wise, Who know and realize Where dwells the Shepherd of the Worlds, will ne'er To any visible shrine, As if it were divine, Deign to raise hands of worship or of prayer. THE UNITY OF GOD AND OF TRUTH. God is one, and the Veda is one ; The disinterested, true Guru is one, and his initiatory rite one ; When this is obtained his heaven is one ; There is but one birth of men upon the earth, And only one way for all men to walk in : But as for those who hold four Vedas and six shastras, And different customs for different people, And believe in a plurality of gods, Down they will go to the fire of hell ! GOD IS LOVE. The ignorant think that God and love are different. None knows that God and love are the same. Did all men know that God and love are the same, They would dwell together in peace, considering love as God. 392 THE INDIAN VERNACULARS, The modern Tamil Press. Aryan languages of North- ern India; Sanskrit. Was San- skrit ever a Vernal- cular P Dr. John Muir's affirmative 2.InSWer. Since the introduction of printing, the Tamil press has been prolific. A catalogue of Tamil printed books, issued in Madras up to 1865, enumerated 1409 works. In the single year 1882, no fewer than 558 works were printed in the vernaculars in Madras, the great proportion of them being in Tamil ; and the number is still increasing. While the non-Aryans of Southern India had thus evolved a copious literature, and cultivated spoken dialects out of their isolated fragments of prehistoric speech, a more stately linguistic development was going on in the Aryan North. The achievements of Sanskrit as a literary vehicle in the various departments of poetry, philosophy, and Science, have been described in chapter iv. at such length as the scope of this work permits. But Sanskrit was only the most famous of several Aryan dialects in the North. One of its eminent modern teachers defines it as ‘that dialect which, regulated and established by the labours of the native grammarians, has led for the last 2000 years or more an artificial life, like that of the Latin during most of the same period in Europe.” The Aryan vernaculars of modern India are the descendants not of Sanskrit, but of the spoken languages of the Aryan immigrants into the North. The Bráhmanical theory is that these ancient spoken dialects, or Prákrits, were corruptions of the purer Sanskrit. European philology has disproved this view, and the question has arisen whether Sanskrit was ever a spoken language at all. This question has a deep significance in the history of the Indian vernaculars, and it is necessary to present, with the utmost brevity, the views of the leading authorities on the subject. Dr. John Muir, that clarum ef venerabile momen in Anglo-Indian scholarship, devotes many pages to “reasons for supposing that the Sanskrit was originally a spoken language.’” He traces the Sanskrit of the philosophical period to the earlier forms in the Vedic hymns, and concludes “that the old spoken language of India and the Sanskrit of the Vedas were at one time identical.” Professor Benfey gives the results of his long study of the question in even greater detail. He believes that Sanskrit- speaking migrations from beyond the Himalayas continued to Professor Benfey's view ; * Professor Whitney's Sanskrit Grammar, p. ix. Leipzig, 1879. * Muir's Sanskrit Texts, vol. ii. pp. 144-160, ed. 1874. * Idem, p. 160, and Dr. Muir's long footnote, No. 181. SAAWSA. AE/T AAV/D ARAA. AEMTS. 393 follow one another into India down to perhaps the 9th century B.C. That Sanskrit became the prevailing Indian vernacular affirma- dialect throughout Hindustán, and as far as the southern "* borders of the Maráthá country. That it began to die out as a spoken language from the 9th century B.C., and had become extinct as a vernacular in the 6th century B.C.; its place being taken by derivative dialects or Prákrits. But that it still lingered in the schools of the Bráhmans; and that, about the 3rd century B.C., it was brought back into public life as a sacred language, with a view to refuting the Buddhistic teachers who wrote in the vernacular or Prákrit dialects, Professor Benfey also holds that about the 5th century A.D. Sanskrit had diffused itself over the whole of India as a literary language. We know that a subsequent revival of Sanskrit for the Purānic or orthodox treatises of the Brähmans, as opposed to the new doctrines of the reformers, who used the vernacular, actually took place about the Ioth Century A.D. Lassen inclines to the same general view. He thinks that, Lassen's in the time of Asoka, the main body of Aryans of Northern Y". India spoke local dialects; while Sanskrit still remained the speech of Brähmans, and of dignitaries of State. Sanskrit scholars of not less eminence have come to the Sanskrit conclusion that Sanskrit was not at any time a vernacular nº a º º spoken tongue. Professor Weber assigns it to the learned alone. He inguage. thinks that the Prākrits, or Aryan vernaculars of Northern Weber's India, were derived directly from the more ancient Vedic view. dialects; while Sanskrit was ‘the sum of the Vedic dialects constructed by the labour and zeal of grammarians, and polished by the skill of learned men.’ Professor Aufrecht Aufrecht's agrees ‘in believing that Sanskrit proper (i.e. the language view. of the epic poems, the law books, nay, even that of the Brähmanas) was never actually spoken, except in Schools or by the learned.’ The question has been decided, however, not by Sanskrit Evidence scholars in Europe, but by students of the modern Aryan from vernaculars in India. During the past twenty years, a bright F. light has been brought to bear upon the language and literature speech, of ancient India, by an examination of the actual speech of the people at the present day. Two learned Indian civilians, Mr. Salmon Growse and Mr. John Beames, led the way from not always concurrent points 394 THE //V/D/AAW VEACAVA COW/AA’.S. The new study of the ver- naculars, I872–92. Results disclosed by the ver- naculars. Diver- gence of Sanskrit and I’rákrit. of view. In 1872, Mr. Beames' Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Zanguages of India opened up a new field of human knowledge, and began to effect for the Aryan dialects of the North, what Bishop Caldwell's great work accomplished for non-Aryan speech in Southern India. Dr. Ernest Trumpp's Grammar of the Sindhá Zanguage followed, and would probably have modified some of Mr. Beames’ views. Another learned German officer of the Indian Government, Professor Rudolf Hoernle, further specialized the research by his Comparative Grammar of the Gaudian Zanguages (1880), with particular reference to the Hindí. The same scholar and Mr. George Grierson, of the Civil Service, undertook a Comparative AJictionary of the Bihárá Zanguage, which will enable every European inquirer to study the structure and framework of a modern Aryan vernacular for himself. These and other cognate works have accumulated a mass of new evidence, which seems to settle the relationship of the present Aryan vernaculars to the languages of ancient India. They prove that those vernaculars do not descend directly from Sanskrit. They indicate the existence of an Aryan speech older than Sanskrit—older, perhaps, than the Vedic hymns; from which the Sanskrit, the Prākrits or ancient spoken dialects of India, and the modern vernaculars, were alike derived. Passing beyond the Vedic period, they show that ancient Aryan speech diverged into two channels. The one channel poured its stream into the ocean of Sanskrit, a language ‘at once archaic and artificial, elaborated by the Bráhmanical schools.” The other channel branched out into the Prákrits or ancient spoken vernaculars. The artificial Sanskrit (Samskrita, i.e. the perfected language) attained its complete development in the grammar of Pánini (circ. 350 B.C.).3 The Prākrits (i.e. naturally evolved dialects) found Pánini and their earliest extant exposition in the grammar of Vararuchi, Vararuchi. about the 1st century B.C.4 But the 4ooo algebraic aphorisms 1 Three volumes, Trübner & Co. The first volume was published in 1872; the last in 1879. * Hoernle and Grierson's Comparative Dictionary of the Bihárá Zanguage, pp. 33 and 34. Secretariat Press, Calcutta, 1885. It should be remem- bered that Indian grammarians, when speaking of the Vedic language technically, do not call it Sanskrit, but Chhandas. They restrict the technical application of Sanskrit to the scholastic language of the Brāh- mans, elaborated on the lines of the earlier Vedic. * Vide ante, pp. I42–145. * Hoernle's Comparative Grammar of the Gaudian Zanguages, pp. xviii. et seq., ed. 1880. A&O UTES OF PAEAA A' IT SAEEE CA. 395 of Pánini mark the climax of the labours of probably a long antecedent series of Sanskrit elaborators, while Vararuchi stands at the head of a long series of subsequent Prákrit grammarians. The spread of the Aryans from Northern India is best The marked by the southern advance of their languages. The º three great routes of Prákrit speech to the Southward were— sºuth. down the Indus valley on the west; along the Ganges valley to the east; and through certain historical passes of the Vindhyas in the centre. Between 500 B.C. and 500 A.D., the Their. western or Apabhramsa dialects of Präkrit had spread across º the Indus basin, and down the Bombay Coast. During the same period dialects of Eastern or Magadhi Prákrit had occupied the valleys of the Jumna and the Ganges. Aryan tribes, speaking the Maháráshtrí and Saurasenſ Prákrits, had poured through the Vindhyan passes, one of their great lines of march being that followed by the Jabalpur Railway at the present day. The Mahārāshtri dialect reached as far south as Goa on the western coast. The peninsula, to the South and east of the Mahārāshtrf linguistic frontier, was inhabited by the Dravidian or Paisàchſ-speaking races. By degrees the main Prákrits, or spoken Aryan dialects, Classifica differentiated themselves into local vernaculars, each occupying #. a more contracted area. A series of maps has been compiled, tº showing the stages of this process between 500 B.C. and 1800 A.D." Various classifications have been framed, both of the modern vernaculars and of the ancient Prákrits. Vararuchi, Vara; the earliest Prákrit grammarian extant, enumerates four classes º S in the 1st century B.C., Mahārāshtri, now Maráthi; * Saura-classes. seni, now the Braj of the North-Western Provinces; Magadhi, now Bihárſ; and Paisàchi, loosely applied to outlying non- Aryan dialects from Nepāl to Cape Comorin. Apart from the last-named Paisàchí, the literary Prákrits The two really divide themselves between two great linguistic areas. ...its. Sauraseni, with the so-called Maháráshtri, Occupied the upper part of the North-Western Provinces, and sent forth offshoots 1 Prefixed to Hoernle and Grierson’s Comparative Dictionary of the Bihári Language. See also the Language Map appended to Hoernle's Comparative Grammar of the Gaudian Zanguages. 2 Mr. Beames thinks that there is as much of the Magadhi and Saura- senſ type in the modern Maráthſ as there is of the Mahārāshtri Prákrit, Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Zanguages, vol. i. p. 34, ed. 1872. He holds that Maráthi reproduces the name rather than the sub- stance of Mahārāshtri. 396 THE ZAV/D/AAV VAEA&AWA CUZAA’.S. Prákrits developed by Buddh- ists, for their Scriptures; and by the Jains. The Prákrits also remained spoken languages. through the Vindhya passes as far south as Goa. Magadhſ spread itself across the middle valley of the Ganges, with its brightest literary centre in Behar. These were the two parents of the most highly developed of the Aryan vernaculars of modern India. The Apabhramsa, or ‘broken' dialects of the Indus region, may for the moment be left out of sight. The Prākrits, or spoken Aryan dialects of ancient India, received their first literary impulse from Buddhism. As the Bráhmans elaborated Sanskrit into the written vehicle for their orthodox religion, so the teachers of the new faith appealed to the people by works in the popular tongues. The Buddhist missionaries to Ceylon, circ. 307 B.C., carried with them the spoken Prákrit of the Gangetic kingdom of Magadha. This dialect of Northern India became the Pāli, or language of the Buddhist scriptures in Ceylon. While the early Buddhists thus raised the Eastern or Magadhi Prākrit of Behar to a Sacred language, the Jains made use of the Mahār- àshtri Prákrit of Western India for their religious treatises. In this way, the two most characteristic of the spoken Aryan dialects of ancient India obtained a literary fixity, during the centuries shortly before and after the commencement of our €I2. - - The Prákrits also remained the speech of the people, and underwent those processes of development, decay, and re- generation to which all spoken languages are subject. On the one hand, therefore, we have the literary Magadhi and Mahārāshtri Prákrits of the beginning of the Christian era, the former embalmed in the Buddhist scriptures of Ceylon, the latter in the Jain sacred books of Western India. On the other hand, we have the spoken representatives of these two ancient Prákrits in the modern vernaculars of Behar and of the Maráthá country." The evolution of the modern vernaculars from the ancient Prákrits is involved in deep obscurity. The curtain falls on the era of Präkrit speech within a few hundred years after the birth of Christ, and does not again draw up until the Ioth century. When it rises, Prákrit dialects have receded from Evolution of modern Verna. Cll- lars from Prákrits. * This statement leaves untouched the question how far Maráthſ is the direct representative of Mahārāshtri, or how far it is derived from the Sauraseni Prákrit. As already mentioned, both the Sauraseni and Mahār- āshtri poured through the Vindhya passes into South-Western India, and combined to form the second of the two main Prákrits referred to in the classification on the previous page. AAEAA AC/TS AAWD VERAWA CU/AACS. 397 the stage, and their place has been taken by the modern vernaculars. During the dark interval, linguistic changes had Obscure taken place in the old Prákrits not less important than those *:::::: which transformed Latin into Italian and Anglo-Saxon into A.D. English. Those changes are now being elucidated by the Series of comparative grammars and dictionaries mentioned on pp. 393, 394. It is only practicable here to state the most important of the results. The old Prákrits were synthetical in structure. The The . modern Aryan vernaculars of India are essentially analytical. º During the eight centuries while the curtain hangs down before the stage, the synthetic inflections of the Prākrits had worn out. The terminals of their nouns and verbs have given place to post-positions, and to the disjointed modern particles to indicate time, place, or relation. The functions performed in the European languages by prepositions for the nouns, are discharged, as a rule, by post-positions in the modern Indian vernaculars. The process was spontaneous, become and it represents the natural course of the human mind. º ‘The flower of synthesis,” to use the words at once eloquent lars. and accurate of Mr. Beames, “budded and opened; and when full-blown began, like all other flowers, to fade. Its petals, that is its inflections, dropped off one by one ; and in due course the fruit of analytical structure sprung up beneath it, and grew and ripened in its stead.’” As regards their vocabularies, the Aryan vernaculars of Three modern India are made up of three elements. One class of º their words is named Tatsama, “the same as’ the corresponding culars: words in Sanskrit. A second class is termed Tadbhava, ‘similar Sanskrit in nature or origin' to the corresponding words in Sanskrit. The º third class is called Desaja, or ‘country-born.’ This classifica- adºhovas; tion is an ancient one of the Indian grammarians, and it is so Non- far artificial that it refers the modern vernaculars to Sanskrit %. standards; while we know that the modern vernaculars were derived not from the Sanskrit, but from the Prākrits. It Suffices, however, for practical purposes. The great body of modern Indian speech belongs to the Their second or Tadbhava class of words, and may be taken loosely º to represent its inheritance from the old spoken dialects or work; Prákrits. But the vernaculars have enriched themselves for literary purposes by many terms imported directly from the and Sans- Sanskrit, to represent religious, philosophical, or abstract ideas. º * Mr. Beames' Comparatize Grammar of the Modern Aryan Zanguages of Zndia, vol. i. p. 45 (ed. I872). 398 THE //WZO/AAW VAZACAVA CO/CAA’.S. These are the Tatsamas, ‘the same as' in Sanskrit. The different vernaculars borrow such ‘identical’ words from Sanskrit in widely varying proportions. The strongest of the vernaculars, such as Hindſ and Maráthſ, trust most to their own Tadbhava or Prákrit element; while the more artificial of them, like the Bengalſ and Uriyā, are most largely indebted to direct importations of Sanskrit words. The third element in modern vernacular speech is the Desaja, or ‘country-born.’ This represents the non-Aryan and other words not derived either from the Sanskrit or the Prákrits. At one time it was supposed, indeed, that the modern vernaculars of India were simply made up of the Sanskrit of the Aryan settlers, modified by, and amalgamated with, the speech of the ruder non-Aryan races whom they subdued. Modern philology renders this theory no longer tenable. It has proved that Sanskrit played a comparatively unimportant function in the formation of those vernaculars. It also tends to show that the non-Aryan element is less influential than was supposed. Both in structure and in vocabulary the modern vernaculars of India are the descend- ants neither of the written Sanskrit, nor of the aboriginal tongues, but of the Prākrits or spoken dialects of the ancient Aryans. In regard to grammatical structure, this position is now firmly established. But the proportion of aboriginal or non- Aryan words in the modern Indian vernaculars still remains undetermined. The non-Aryan scholars, with Brian Hodgson and Bishop Caldwell at their head, assign a considerable influ- ence to the non-Aryan element in the modern vernaculars." Dr. Ernest Trumpp believes that nearly three-fourths of the Sindhi words commencing with a cerebral are taken from some non-Aryan or Scythic language, which he would prefer to call Tátár. He thinks, indeed, that there is very strong proof to show that the cerebral letters themselves were borrowed, by the Prākrits and modern Indian vernaculars, from some idiom anterior to the introduction of the Aryan languages into India. Bishop Caldwell states that the non-Aryan element, even in the Northern Indian languages, has been estimated at one- tenth of the whole, and in the Maráthſ at one-fifth.” Non- Aryan element in the ver- naculars; less im- portant than formerly Supposed. Proportion of non- Aryan words; in Sindhi, in Gangetic Verlla Cll- lars, in Maráthſ. * See Mr. Brian Houghton Hodgson's Aborigines of India, Calcutta, 1849; and pp. I–I52 of vol. ii. of his Miscellaneous AEssays (Triibner, 1880). Also the Rev. Dr. Stevenson's paper in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay. * Bishop Caldwell's Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Zanguages, THAE AWOAW-4 AE WAAV EZAZMAEAV7. 399 J Such generalizations are not now accepted by the most eminent students of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars. Mr. Beames strongly expresses his view that the speech of the conquering Aryans completely overmastered that of the aboriginal tribes. The early grammarians were wont to regard as Desaja, or non- Aryan, all words for which they could not discover a Tatsama or Tadbhava origin. But the more delicate processes of modern philology have reduced the number of this class, and tend still further to diminish it. The truth is, that until a complete examination is made with the new lights, both of the vocabulary and of the structure of the Indian vernaculars, no final conclusion can be arrived at. Dr. Hoernle thus sums up the existing knowledge in regard to the group of Indian vernaculars on which he is the highest authority: ‘That there are non-Aryan elements in the Bihārī, I have no doubt. Considering that the Aryans immigrated into India, and absorbed large masses of the indigenous population into their ranks, it would be a wonder if no portion of the aboriginal languages had become incorporated into the Aryan speech. But what the several constituents of that aboriginal portion are, and what proportion they bear to the Aryan element in the vernacular language, it is impossible at present to form any scientific Opinion. And what is more, it is impossible to say whether the assumed aboriginal portion of the Aryan speech was Dravidian, or some other language, such as Kolarian or Tibeto-Burman.' " Introd. p. 57 (ed. 1875). Lassen held that the aboriginal tribes not only introduced ‘peculiar varieties into the Prákrit dialects,” but also ‘occa- sioned very great corruptions of sound and form in the Indo-Aryan lan- guages’ (Zndische Alterthumskunde, ii. II49). But the more recent inves- tigations of Beames, Hoernle, and Grierson render these dicta doubtful. 1 Letter from Dr. Rudolf Hoernle to the author, dated 28th May 1885. Dr. Hoernle continues—‘Attempts have been made now and then (e.g. in The Indian Antiguary) to show that some particular selected words of the North Indian languages are really Dravidian. But these, even supposing they had been successful, would not enable any one to pronounce an opinion on the general question of the proportion of non-Aryan words in the Gaudian languages. As a matter of fact, some of these attempts, notably those referring to the genitive and dative post-positions (ká, Áe, Ää, etc.), have been conspicuous failures. It is now, I think, generally admitted that these post-positions are thoroughly Aryan. The truth is, that the way in which the question of the non-Aryan element in the vernaculars should be approached has been hitherto almost entirely misconceived. A little consideration must convince any one that whatever aboriginal ele- ments there may be in the vernaculars, they must have been incorporated into them before the present vernacular times, that is, in the period when Sanskrit and Prákrit flourished. The question therefore properly stands The real proportion still unknown. Present position of the question. 4OO ZTATE /AVD/AAV VAEACAVA CULARS, Fourfold compo- sition of the verna- culars: (1) Prākrit element; (2) Abori- ginal element; (3) Sans- krit bor- rowings; (4) Persian terms. The seven Aryan Vernal- culars: At present, therefore, we cannot advance farther than the four following conclusions:–First, that in grammatical struc- ture and in their vocabularies, the modern analytical ver- naculars of India represent the old synthetic Prákrits; after a process of development, decay, and regeneration, which has been going on, as the result of definite linguistic laws, during the past fifteen hundred years. Second, that the modern vernaculars contain a non-Aryan element, derived from the so-called aborigines of India; but that this element has very slightly affected their grammatical structure, and that the proportion which it holds in their vocabularies is yet undeter- mined. Third, that the modern vernaculars have enriched themselves, for literary and philosophical purposes, by direct and conscious borrowings from the Sanskrit. Fourth, that they have also imported many terms connected with the administration, the land revenue, judicial business, and official life, from the Persian court language of the Afghān and Mughal dynasties. The Aryan vernaculars of modern India may be distributed according to their geographical areas into Seven main lan- guageS. Towards the North-Western frontier, Sindhi is spoken by the descendants of the shepherd tribes and the settlements who were left behind by the main stream of the prehistoric Aryan immigrants. The Sindhí language abounds in words of non- Aryan origin; it contains very few Tatsamas, i.e. Sanskrit words in their original shape; and it is almost destitute of an original literature. The Punjabi language is spoken in the (I) Sindhi; (2) Pun- jabi ; thus—What are the aboriginal elements in Sanskrit and Prákrit? The vernaculars arose from Prákrit (and in a certain sense from Sanskrit) according to certain phonetic laws peculiar to the Aryan languages. Hence it is next to useless to try to refer Bihári (or any Aryan) vernacular words direct to the Dravidian. They must in the first place be referred back (by the well-known Aryan phonetic laws) to their earlier forms in Prákrit and Sanskrit. Only when this is done, the question can properly be asked whether they are Aryan or non-Aryan. And in order to decide this question, it will, among other points, have to be considered whether they possess correlates in the other Aryan languages (e.g. of Europe). But there is every probability that there is a considerable number of words in Sanskrit and Prákrit which are not Aryan, but only Aryanized. The question, however, has never been systematically or satisfactorily in- vestigated. Some attempts have latterly been made in this direction, by showing that not a few Sanskrit words are, in reality, Prākrit words Sanskritized. The next step will be to show that some Prākrit words are non-Aryan words Prákritized (i.e. Aryanized).’ THE MODERN WERNACULARS 4O I ; valleys of the Indus and its tributaries. Like the Sindhi, it Contains few Tatsamas, i.e. words borrowed directly from the Sanskrit. Gujaráti occupies the area immediately to the south of (3), Guja- Punjabí; while Hindſ is conterminous with the Punjabſ on ráti; the east. These two languages rank next to Punjabi in respect to the paucity of words borrowed directly from the Sanskrit. They are chiefly composed of Tadbhava, i.e. words representing the Prākrits or old spoken dialects. Maráthſ (5) Mará. is spoken in the Districts to the south and east of the Gujar." àthſ frontier; Bengalſ succeeds to Hindſ in the east of (6)Bengali; Bengal and the Gangetic delta; while Uriyā occupies the (7) Uriyā. Mahánadi delta and the coast of the Bay of Bengal from near the mouth of the Huigli to the northern Districts of Madras. These three last - named vernaculars, Maráthſ, Bengali, and Uriyā, are most largely indebted to modern and artificial importations direct from the Sanskrit. With the exception of Sindhi, the modern vernaculars of Vernacu- India have each a literature of their own. Some of them, intº indeed, possess a very rich and copious literature. This subject. still awaits careful study. The lamented Garcin de Tassy has Garcin de shown how interesting, and how rich in results, that study may “” be rendered. His history of Hindí literature," and his yearly review of works published in the Indian vernaculars, form a unique monument to the memory of a scholar who worked under the disadvantage of never having resided in India. But the unexhausted literary stores of the Indian vernaculars can only be appreciated by personal inquiry among the natives themselves. The barest summary of the written and unwritten works in the modern Indian vernaculars is altogether beyond the scope of the present work. I can merely indicate the wealth of unprinted, and in many cases unwritten, works handed down from generation to generation, arranged in geographical areas. The chapter will then conclude by selecting for description a few authors from three of the most advanced of the vernaculars—namely Hindſ, Maráthi, and Bengalí. It will not touch on the Persian or Musalmán literature of the Delhi Empire. As regards the isolated vernacular of Orissa, the present Vernacu- writer has elsewhere given an analytical catalogue of Io'7 Uriyā. lar writers authors, with a brief description of 47 Uriyá manuscripts of in Uriyā; * Aſistoire de la Zittérature Hindozzie et Hindoustanzie, par M. Garcin de Tassy, 3 vols. large 8vo, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1870–71.) * 2 C 4O2 THE /M//D/AAV VAEA’AVA COZARS. Vernacular undetermined authorship." Several of the Uriyá poets and literature in Uriyā; theologians were prolific authors, and have left behind them a number of distinct compositions. Thus, Dina Krishna Dás (circ. 1550 A.D.) was so popular a writer as to earn for himself the title of ‘The Son of God Jagannāth.’ His separate works number fifteen, and embrace a wide range of subjects, from ‘The Waves of Sentiment,’ an account of the youthful sports of Krishna, to severe medical treatises. Another Orissa poet of the 16th century composed 23 works, on religious and metaphysical subjects, such as ‘A Walk round the Sacred Enclosures of the Purí Temple,’ and ‘The Sea of the Nectar of Faith.” The greatest of the Uriyā poets, Upen- dra Bhanj, a Rájá of Gumsar, belongs to nearly the same period. He left behind him 42 collections of poems and treatises, some of them of great length. Messrs. Hoernle and Grierson have lately exhibited the local literature of Behar, and its sub-divisions, with admirable learning and distinctness.” It must suffice here to refer the student to their lists of works in Bihári and the modern dialects of the Gaudian group. An idea of the wealth of poetry current in Rájputéna may be gathered from the following statement. The figures are taken from a manuscript note forwarded to the author by the Rev. John Traill, Presbyterian missionary at Jaipur. Besides the ordinary Hindſ works, such as translations from the Sanskrit, the Rájputs have a vast store of religious poetry and traditional song, still living in the mouths of the people. The works of only a single sect can be specified in detail. Dadu, a religious reformer, born at Ahmadābād in 1544, left behind him a Báni, or body of sacred poetry, extend- ing to 20,000 lines. His life, by Jai Gopāl, runs to 3ooo lines. Fifty-two disciples spread his doctrine throughout Rájputéna and Ajmere, each of them leaving a large collection of religious verse. The literary fertility of the sect may be inferred from the works of nine of the disciples. The poems and hymnology of Gharib Dás are said to amount to 32,000 lines; Jaisà is stated to have composed 124,000 lines; Prayág Dás, 48, ooo lines; Rajab-ji, 72,Ooo lines; Bakhna-jí, 20,000 lines; Bābā Banwärí Dás, 12,000 lines; Shankar Dás, 4400 lines; Sundar Dás, 120,000 lines; and Mádhu Dás, 68, ooo lines. in Bihári. Rájputéna literature. Dadu, Sacred poetry of a single Sect. * Hunter's Orissa, vol. ii., App. ix., ed. 1872. * Comparative Dictionary of the Bihári Zanguage, pp. 38–42, 4to. (Calcutta, I885.) 7TAZAZ MO/O AEA2AV VAEA2AVA COZAA’.S. 403 These figures are stated on the authority of Mr. Traill, Dadu and they are subject to the qualification that no European lº scholar has yet collected the writings of the sect. They are given as reported by the natives among whom the poems are still current. It is to be regretted that so little has yet been done to edit the stores of vernacular literature in the Feudatory States of India. A noble task lies before the more enlightened of the native princes; and in this task they would receive the willing assistance of English scholars now in India. A very brief notice of the most distinguished authors in Selected Hindi, Maráthſ, and Bengalſ must conclude this chapter. For * practical purposes, those three vernaculars represent the tº highest modern development of the Indo-Aryan dialects. { This is, of course, exclusive of the non-Aryan Dravidian litera- ture in the South of India, which has already been dealt with at the beginning of the chapter. The monastic literature of Burma is almost entirely a reproduction of the ancient Buddhist writings, and does not come within the scope of this work. Hindí ranks, perhaps, highest among the Indian vernaculars Hindi in strength and dignity. At the head of Hindſ authors is authors: Chand Bardāi. Chand was a native of Lahore, but lived at Chand the court of Prithwi Rájá, the last Hindu sovereign of Delhi, *... at the close of the 12th century." His poems are a col- tury A.D. lection of ballads, in which he recites, in his old age, the gallant deeds of the royal master whom he had served, and whose sad fate he had survived. They disclose the ancient Prákrit in the very act of passing into the modern vernacular. In grammatical structure they still retain many relics of the synthetic or inflectional type; although the analytical forms of the modern vernaculars are beginning to crowd out these remnants of the earlier phase of the Indian speech. Chand's ballads have been printed, but they also survive in the mouths of the people. They are still sung by wandering bards throughout North-Western India and Rájputána, to near the mouths of the Indus, and to the frontier of Balūchistán. The vernacular literatures derived their chief impulse, how- Later ever, not from court minstrelsy, but from religious movements. * Each new sect seems to have been irresistibly prompted to authors: embody its doctrines in verse. Kabir, the Indian Luther of 15th cen- the 15th century, may be said to have created the sacred “Y”; literature of Hindí.” His Ramainís and Sabdas form an * For Prithwi Rájá, zide ante, chap. x. p. 329. * For Kabir's work as a religious reformer, vide ante, pp. 258, 268. 4O4. THE WAV/D/AAV VAZACAVA COW/AA’.S. I6th cen- tury; I7th cen- tury; I8th cen- tury; I9th cen- tury. Maráthſ literature. Náma Deva, I3th century A. D. Dnyā- noba, I3th century A. D. Tukarám, 17th cen- tury A.D. immense body of religious poetry and doctrine. In the following century, Sür Dás of Mathura, Nábhāji and Keshava Dás of Bijápur, wrote respectively the Stirságar, the Bhakta- Málá, and the Rāmchandrika. A brief notice of the Bhakta-Málá has already been given at page 258. In the 17th century, Bihári Lál, of the ancient city of Amber near Jaipur, com- posed his famous Satsai; and Bundelkhand produced its prince of poets, Lál Kavi, the author of the Chhatra Prakás. All these were natives of western Hindustán, except Kabir, who belonged to the Benares District. The last troubled years of the Mughal dynasty in the 18th century brought about a silence in Hindi literature. That silence was effectually broken by the introduction of the printing press in the 19th century. It has been suc- ceeded by a great outburst of Hindí activity in prose and verse. Every decade now produces a rich crop of new Hindſ publica- tions, to some extent reproductions or translations of ancient authors, but also to a large and increasing extent original work. The Maráthás are scarcely more celebrated as a military than as a literary race. Their language is highly developed, and possesses structural complications attractive to the Indian student. The first Maráthſ poets of fame were Mukunda Ráj and Náma Deva, about the end of the 13th century. Like their contemporary Dnyanoba, the author of the celebrated Dnyaneshwari, they were deeply impressed with the spiritual aspects of life. Indeed, almost all the Maráthſ writers are religious poets. About the year 1571, Sridhar compiled his huge Maráthi adaptation or paraphrase of the great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana, together with the Bhāgavata. Maráthi poetry reached its highest flight in the Abhangas or spiritual poems of Tukarám or Tukoba. He was born in 1608 A.D. at a village called Dehu, about 16 miles from Poona; the Son of a corn - dealer of the Stidra caste. ‘Tukarám’s ancestors,’ says the most recent monograph on the subject" by an Indian scholar, ‘were men of piety. Withoba was the tutelary deity of the family. His father Balhoji in his old age wished to retire from the world, leaving the manage- ment of the domestic affairs with his son Sivaji. But Sivaji was of a religious turn of mind. He did not like to entangle himself in domestic ties. He therefore declined his father's 1 * Tukarám, the Saint and Poet of the Deccan,’ in the Zazdiazz AVational Magazine for June 1891, pp. 207 eſ seq. (Calcutta.) TUKARAM IN THE TEMPLE OF WITHOBA. 405 request. The charge then devolved on Tukarám, who was Native only thirteen years of age. Tukarám carried on his business for tºy.9 e º - º Tukarám; Some years. But in the twentieth year of his age, a series of Calamities fell upon him. He lost his parents; one of his wives died; his eldest brother left the house on a pilgrimage ; and he himself lost one of his children. To fill the cup of his sufferings, famine made its appearance, and he met with a heavy loss in his business. The surviving wife of Tukarám, named Jija-bai, was not a good woman. She was of an irascible temper. In this pitiable condition Tukarám used to pass his time in worshipping Vithoba and singing his name. Some of his neighbours joined him. Tukarám was of a charitable disposition. Notwithstanding his straitened circum- stances, he used to give food to the poor. His wife did not like this. She began to reprove him, using harsh expressions. She went to the length of snatching away from the hands of Tukarám the alms he was going to give to the helpless. The singing of Bhajans was considered by her as a disturbance. The friends of Tukarám became an eyesore to her. She con- sidered them as stumbling-blocks in the way of her husband's work, and called them lazy men that led her lord astray.’ Disgusted by his wife's ill - treatment, Tukarám left his the Mar- house, and took shelter in the neighbouring temple of Vithoba. ** ~ 1 * tº - * and poet. This deity is popularly regarded as a form of Krishna, but is in reality of Jain or Buddhist origin, and marks one of the many half-forgotten links between ancient Buddhism and the modern Vishnuite worship. Tukarám spent most of his days in meditation on a hill about four miles off, returning to the temple of Vithoba in the evening, and occasionally visiting his own house. About this time, continues the Indian monograph above quoted, Tukarám met with Bábá Chaitanyà, apparently a follower of the great Bengal apostle Chaitanyá." ‘Bābā edified Tukarám with religious instructions, and soothed him with good words. A new light dawned upon Tukarám. The native He now realized the doctrine of salvation by faith in God and #. jºr the utterance of His holy name. Tukarám had hitherto te confined himself to his own religious development. He now thought of the duty he owed to his fellow-creatures. He commenced to sing Bhajans and to perform Kathás. At first he used to sing the Abhangas (or hymns) of the famous saint Náma Deva. But he was soon inspired by the power divine, and it is said that Abhangas, breathing noble sentiments, began to flow from his lips extemporaneously. There is nothing on * See ante, p. 270. 406 THE INDIAN VERNACULARS, Mayúr Pandit, I8th cen- tury A.D. p Bengali literature : its geo- graphical area ; and linguistic features. some extent an artificial creation. record to show that Tukarám had any education. The fact of his having been initiated into his business at the early age of thirteen shows that he knew nothing more than the Ordinary calculations which a Bania is required to know. In these Abhangas, Tukarám expounded the doctrines of the Vedas and the Purānas. The earnestness with which Tukarám began to sing, attracted to him men of all sects and Castes. People began to look upon him as a teacher from heaven. They forgot at that time that he was a Sudra, and they began to pay him the homage that is usually given to a Brähman. The Shāstrăs say—One who knows Brahmá is a Brähman,— and people seem to have followed this doctrine in the case of Tukarám.’ His fame spread widely during his life as a holy man and a religious teacher; his poems and hymns are repeated by thousands of devout Hindus in Southern India to this day. In the i8th century, Mayúr Pandit or Moropanth poured forth his copious Maráthſ song in strains which some regard as even more elevated than the poems of Tukarám. Besides its accumulations of religious verse, Maráthi pos- sesses a prose literature, among which the chief compositions are the Bakhars or Annals of the Kings. It is also rich in love songs, and farcical poetry of a broad style of wit. Bengalſ is, in some respects, the most modern of the Indian vernaculars. As a spoken language, it begins on the north, where Hindi ends on the south; that is to say, in the Gangetic valley below Behar. From Rájmahál on the north to the Bay of Bengal, and from Assam on the east to Orissa on the west, Bengalſ forms the speech of about 50 millions of people in the valleys and deltas of the Brahmaputra and the Ganges. The language exhibits clearly-marked dialectical modifications in the north, the east, and the west, of this great area. But for literary purposes, Bengali may be regarded as a linguistic entity. Indeed, literary Bengali of the modern type is to Much more than the Hindſ, it has enriched itself by means of words directly im- ported from the Sanskrit. Such words not only supply the philosophical, religious, and abstract terms of Bengalí litera- ture, but they enter largely into the every-day language of the people. This is to some extent due to the circumstance that the Bengalis have very rapidly adopted Western ideas. With the introduction of such ideas arose the necessity for new terms; and for these terms, Bengali writers naturally turned towards the Sanskrit. PAE/WGAZZ ZZZTEACA 7TUA’A. 4O7 The process has not been confined, however, to philo-Sanskrit- Sophic works. Even in poetry, the best Bengali writers of the #. present day affect a more classical style than that of their pre- Bengali. decessors from the 14th to the 18th century. In 17 lines of Bengali verse taken from a contemporary periodical, the Aanga-darshana, there are only six or seven words which are not Sanskrit importations. “If we progress in this direction a Century longer,’ writes a native author, ‘the Bengalí language will be distinguishable from the Sanskrit only by the case terminations and mood and tense terminations.’" The frame- work of the colloquial language still continues to be derived from the Prákrit, although Sanskrit terms are diffusing them- Selves even among the spoken language of the educated Classes. Bengali literature commences with the vernacular poets Three of the 14th century. During its first 200 years, Bengali pººl song was devoted to the praises of Krishna, and the loves literature: of the young god. In the 16th century two great revolu- (1) 14th to tions, religious and political, took place in Bengal. In º the political world, the independent Afghān dynasty of ’’ Bengal succumbed to the advancing Mughal power; and Bengal was finally incorporated as a Province of the Delhi Empire. In religion, a reformation of the Sivaite religion was effected under Brähman impulses, and Krishna-worship (2), 16th to receded from its literary pre-eminence. During the next º 250 years Bengali poetry found its chief theme in the praises of Káli or Chandſ, the queen of Siva, who is alike the god of Destruction and of Reproduction. Early in the 19th century, European influences began to impress them- selves on Bengalſ thought. Bengali literature accordingly (3) 19th entered upon a third period, the period through which it is century. still passing, and which corresponds to the imported Western civilisation of India in the 19th century. Putting aside Jayadeva of Birbhum, the Sanskrit singer in the 12th century, Bengali poetry commences with Bidyāpati Bidyāpati Thakur, a Brahman of Tirhut. Bidyāpati adorned the court; * *. of King Sivasinha of Tirhut in the 14th century; and a tury. deed of gift, still existing, proves that he had made his fame * The Literature of Bengal, by Arcy Dae, p. 43. (Calcutta, 1877.) This interesting volume is based on the more elaborate Bengali work of Pandit Rāmgati Nyaratna. A complete treatment of the subject is still a desider- atum, which it is hoped that Bengali research will before long Supply. Mr. Dae, whose volume has been freely used in the following pages, would confer a benefit both on his countrymen and on European students of the Indian vernaculars, by undertaking the task. 408 THE INDIAN VERNACULARS Chandí Dás, I5th century. Verses by Bidyāpati. before 1400 A.D. Although popularly claimed as the Chaucer of Bengal, he wrote in what must now be regarded as a Bihārī rather than a Bengali dialect; and recited in learned verse the loves of Rádhá and Krishna. About the same period, Chandi Dás, a Birbhum Brähman, took up the sacred strain in the Bengalf tongue. Originally a devotee of the goddess Chandi, queen of Siva, he was miraculously converted to the worship of Krishna, whose praises he celebrated in a less learned, but more forcible colloquial style. To these two poets and their followers, Krishna was a lover rather than a deity; and his mistress Rádhá, more of a pastoral beauty than a goddess. But their poetry constantly realizes that beneath the human amours of the divine pair, lies a deep spiritual significance. This didactic side of their poetry may be illustrated by three verses of Bidyāpati to Krishna under his title of Mādhava, ‘The Honeyed One.’ A HYMN TO KRISHNA. ‘O ! Mādhava our final stay, The Saviour of the world Thou art, In mercy look upon the weak, To Thee I turn with trustful heart. Half of my life in sleep has past ; In illness—boyhood—years have gone, In pleasure's vortex long I roamed, Alas ! forgetting Thee, the One. Unnumbered beings live and die, They rise from Thee and sink in Thee, (Thou uncreate and without end 1) Like ripples melting in the sea.’” At the beginning of the 16th century, the great religious reformer Chaitanyຠgave a more serious turn to the poetry of Bengal. He preached the worship of Vishnu, and the doctrine of Saving faith in that deity. Krishna was the pastoral incar- nation of the god; but the Vishnuism taught by Chaitanyá spiritualized the human element in the amours which the earlier poets had somewhat warmly sung. Chaitanyà declared the spiritual equality of mankind, and combated the cruel distinctions of caste. His doctrine amounted to a protest against the Hinduism of his day, although it has been skilfully Religious IY) OVC- ments of the I6th century: The Vishnuite Revival; * Slightly altered from the rendering of Mr. Dae's Ziterature of Bengal, p. 60. (Bose & Co., Calcutta, 1877.) * Wide ante, pp. 270, 27.I. SOME AEAEAVGAZ/ AOETS. 4O9 incorporated by the later Hinduism of our own. The opposi- tion excited by Chaitanyà's Vishnuite reformation took the form of a revival of the worship of Siva and his queen. There were thus, in the 16th century, two great religious The movements going on in Bengal; the one in favour of Vishnu, i. the second person of the Hindu Triad; and the other in favour of Siva, the third person of that Trinity. The more serious aspect which Chaitanyà gave to Vishnuism did not lend itself to popular Song so easily as the human loves of Krishna, cele- brated by the earlier Vishnuite poets. On the other hand, the counter revival of Sivaism accepted as its objects of adoration Bengali Some form or other of the goddess of Destruction and Repro- i. a duction under her various names' of Umá, Pârvati, Durgā, Ráli, or Chandí. These names suggested alike the terrors and the mercies of the queen of Siva, and appealed in a special manner to a people dwelling amid the stupendous catastrophes of nature in a deltaic Province like Bengal. The result was an outburst of Bengalſ song, which took as Kirtibás its theme the praises of Chandſ, the wife of Siva. Kirtibásº Ojhā, a Brähman of Nadiyá District in the 16th century, marks the transition stage. Kirtibás drew his inspiration from The the Sanskrit epics, and his great work is the Bengalſ version of ºftion the Rāmāyana. His translation is still recited by Ghattaks or bards at a thousand religious and festive gatherings every year throughout Bengal. Its modern versions have received much re-touching from later poets of the classical or Sanskritizing school; but an old copy of 1693 proves that Kirtibás wrote in a strong colloquial style, with a ring and rhythm of peculiar beauty. The Rāmāyana recites the achievements of the heroic His Ben- incarnation of Vishnu, and Kirtibás Ojhā may therefore be º(Z//2(!- claimed as a Vishnuite poet. But in reality his work marks the Sanskrit revival which gave the impulse to the Sivaite or Chandſ poets of the next two and a half centuries. These Sivaite poets kept possession of Bengalſ literature Sivaite and during the 250 years which elapsed before the commencement º 6th of the third or present period. First among them was Makunda to 18th Rám Chakravarti, a Bráhman of Bardwan District, and a con- century; temporary of Kirtibás Ojhā in the 16th century. He was Makunda driven from his home by the oppressions of Muhammadan Rám. officers, and his verses give a life-like picture of the Muham- madan land settlement of Lower Bengal. All classes, he says, were crushed with an equal tyranny; fallow lands were entered * For the different names of the wife of Siva, and the aspects of the goddess which these names connote, zide ante, pp. 261, 262. 4 IO THE //V/D/AAV VAEACAVA COZAA’.S. as arable, and by a false measurement three-fourths of a bighd were taxed as a full bighâ. In the collection of the revenue, the oppressions were not less than in the assessment. The treasury officers deducted more than one rupee in seven for short weight and exchange. The husbandmen fled from their lands, and threw their cattle and goods into the markets, ‘so that a rupee worth of things sold for ten annas.” Makunda Rám’s family shared the common ruin; but the young poet, after a wandering life, found shelter as tutor in the family of Bánkurá Deb, a powerful landholder of Birbhum and Midnapur Districts. He was honoured with the title of Kabi Kankan, or the Jewel of Bards, and wrote two great poems, besides minor Songs. The His most popular work is the story of Kālketu, the hunter. º, Kálketu, a Son of Indra, King of Heaven, is born upon earth by Ma- as a poor hunter. In his celestial existence he had a devoted * wife, and she, too, is born in this world, and becomes his faithful companion throughout their allotted earthly career. Their mortal births had been brought about by the goddess Chandſ, queen of Siva, in order that she might have a city founded and dedicated to herself. The poor hunter and his wife Fullorá, after years of hardship, are guided to a buried treasure by their kind patroness Chandí. With this the hunter builds a city, and dedicates it to the goddess. But, misled by a wicked adviser, he goes to war with the King of Kalinga on the south, is defeated, and cast into prison. In due time Chandſ rescues her foolish but faithful servant. At last the hunter and his wife die and ascend to heaven. He lives again as the son of Indra, while Fullorá again becomes his celestial spouse. The The other poem of Makunda Rám narrates the adventures sº of a spice merchant, Dhanapati, and his son Srimanta Makunda Sadagar. A celestial nymph, Khulloná, is sent down to live Rám. on earth as penance for a venial offence. She grows into a beautiful girl, and is wedded by the rich merchant Dhanapati, who has, however, already a first wife. Before the marriage can be consummated, the king of the country sends off the merchant to Eastern Bengal to procure a golden cage for a favourite bird. The bride is left with his elder wife in the family home upon the banks of the Adjai, a river which separates Birbhum and Bardwan Districts in South- Western Bengal. A wicked handmaid excites the jealousy of the elder wife, and the girl-bride is condemned to menial offices, and sent forth as a goat-herd to the fields. The kind SOMA, BAEAVGA // POETS. 4 II goddess Chandſ, however, converts the elder lady to a better frame of mind; the girl-bride is received back; and on the return of her husband becomes his favourite wife. In due time she bears him a son, Srimanta Sadágar, the hero of the Subsequent story. The king next sends the merchant for spices to Ceylon, and Voyage his voyage down the great rivers of Bengal and across the sea #ºn d is vividly described. From the towns mentioned on his route, Adióa. it appears that in those days the water-way from Bardwan tº Seylon, * , ſº © e I6th Cen- District and the neighbouring country, to the Bay of Bengal, tury. lay by the Hüglí as far down as Calcutta, and then struck South-eastward by what is now the dead river of the Adi- Gangá." The poor merchant is imprisoned by the King of Ceylon, and there languishes until he is sought out by his brave son, Srimanta Sadágar, from whom the poem takes its name. Srfmanta is also seized, and led out to execution by the cruel king. But the good goddess Chandí delivers both father and son, and the beautiful Khulloná receives back with joy her lost treasures from the sea. In the 17th century, the second of the two great Sanskrit Kási Rām epics, the Mahābhārata, was translated by Kási Räm Dás. : º This poet also belonged to Bardwan District. His version still holds its place in the affections of the people, and is chanted by professional bards throughout all Bengal. The Bengali more tender episodes are rendered with feeling and grace; º but the fiery quarrels and heroic spirit of the Sanskrit original lose much in the Bengalſ translation. The 18th century produced two great Bengali poets. In Bengali I 720, Rám Prasād Seri, of the Vaidya caste, was born in ãº, Nadiyā District. Sent at an early age as clerk to a Calcutta century. office, he scribbled verses when he should have been casting Rām. up accounts, and was reported for punishment by the chief gººd Clerk. The native head of the business read the rhymes, dis- missed the poet, but assigned to him a pension of Rs. 3o a month. With this he retired to his village, and wrote poetry for the rest of his life. Rám Prasād was a devout Tantrik or worshipper of the wife of Siva, and his poems consist chiefly of appeals to the goddess under her various names of Kálí, Sakti, etc. His songs, however, are more often complaints of her Cruelty than thanksgivings for her mercies.” The little Hindu court of Nadiyā then formed the centre of The Court learning and literature in Bengal, and the Rájá endowed Rám º * See article HUGLI RIVER in The Imperial Gazetteer of Zndia. tury. * Dae's Literature of Bengal, p. 147. (Calcutta, 1877.) 4I 2 THE //W/O/AAV VAEA’AVA CUZAA’.S. Bhārat Chandra Rái. Prasād with 33 acres of rent-free land. The grateful poet in return dedicated to the prince his Kabiramjan, or version of the tale of Æidyā Sundar. The fame of this version has, however, been eclipsed by the rendering of the same story by a rival poet, Bhārat Chandra. Two other well-known works, the Kālī Kūrſan and the Krishna Kiriam, in honour respect- ively of Kãli and Krishna, with many minor poems, have also come down from the pen of Rám Prasād. The other great Bengal poet of the 18th century was Bhārat Chandra Rái, who died 1760. The son of a petty Rājā, he was driven from his home by the oppressions of the Rájá of Bardwón, and, after many adventures and imprisonment, ob- tained the protection of the chief native officer of the French Settlement at Chandarnagar. The generosity of the Rājā of Nadiyā’, afterwards raised him to comfort, and he devoted his life to three principal poems. His version of the Bidyā Sundar is a passionate love poem, and remains the accepted rendering of that tale to the present day. The goddess Káli interposes at the end to save the life of the frail heroine. His other two principal poems, the Ammadā Mangal and the Mänsimha, form continuations of the same work; and, like it, are devoted to the glorification of the queen of Siva under her various names. With the printing press and the Anglo-Indian School arose a generation of Bengalís whose chief ambition is to live by the pen. The majority find their career in official, mercantile, or professional employment. But a large residue become writers of books; and Bengal is at present passing through a grand literary climacteric. Nearly 1300 works per annum are pub- lished in the vernacular languages of Lower Bengal alone. It is an invidious task to attempt to single out the most distinguished authors of our own day. Amid such a climax of literary activity, much inferior work is produced. But it is not too much to say that in poetry, philosophy, science, the novel and the drama, Bengali literature has, in this century, produced masterpieces without rivals in its previous history. In two departments it has struck out entirely new lines. Bengalſ prose practically dates from Râm Mohan Räi; and Bengali journalism is essentially the creation of the third quarter of the present century.” Recent Bengali literature, I9th cen- tury. * Mr. Dae says, inadvertently, the Rájá of Bardwan. * From no list of 19th century Bengali authors should the following names be omitted :—Rám Mohan Rái, Akkhai Kumār Datta, Iswar A’A. CE/V7' BAEAVGAZZ Z/7′EACA 7"UA’A. 4 IS As Bengali poetry owed its rise in the 14th century, and its Bengali fresh impulse in the 16th, to outbursts of religious song; so ºth º e tº s y. Bengalí prose is the offspring of the religious movement headed by the Rājā Rám Mohan Rái in the 19th. This great theistic reformer felt that his doctrines and arguments required a more serious vehicle than verse. When he died in 1833, he at once received the position of the father of Bengalí prose,_ a position which he still enjoys in the grateful memories of his Countrymen." Of scarcely less importance, however, in the Creation of a good prose style, were two rival authors born in 1820. Akkhai Kumār Datta enforced the theistic doctrines of the Brähma Samāj with indefatigable ability in his religious journal, the Tatwabodhini Patriká. Reprints of his articles still rank as text-books of standard Bengalſ prose. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, also born in 1820, devoted himself to social reform upon orthodox Hindu lines. The enforced Celibacy of widows, and the abuses of polygamy, have formed the subject of his life-long attacks. An older worker, Iswar Chandra Gupta, born 1809, took the Modern lead in the modern popular poetry of Bengal. His fame has º been eclipsed, however, by Madhu Sudan Datta, born 1828, 19th cen. who now ranks higher in the estimation of his countrymen than tury. any Bengali poet of this or any previous age. Madhu Sudan's epic, the Meghndid Badh Kābya, is reckoned by Bengali critics as second only to the masterpieces of Válmiki, Kálidasa, Homer, Dante, and Shakspeare. This generous appreciation is characteristic of the catholic spirit of Hinduism. For Madhu Sudan Datta became a Christian, lectured as professor Madhu in a Christian college, went to England, and returned to i. Bengal only to die, after a too brief career, in 1875. His epic 1823.5. relates the death of Meghnad or Indrajit, greatest of the sons of Rávana, and takes its materials from the well-known episode in the Admáyana. Among Bengali poets still living, Hem Chandra Banarji occupies perhaps the highest place of honour. In the Bengalſ drama, Dina Bandhu Mitra, born 1829, died The 1873, led the way. His first and greatest work, the AVá/ i. IIla. Chandra Vidyasagar, Iswar Chandra Gupta, Madhu Sudan Datta, Hem Chandra Banarji, Bankim Chandra Chattarji, Dina Bandhu Mitra, and Nabin Chandra Sen. 1 Rājā Rám Mohan Rái (Rammohun Roy) is also well known for his English works, of which it is pleasant to record that a collected reprint has been issued under the editorship of Babu Gogendra Chandra Ghose, M.A. (Calcutta, 1885.) 4 I4. 7A/A2 /AV/D/AAV VAEA2AVA CU/LAA’.S. The mean- ing of this chapter. Assaults on the indigenous civilisation of India, Darſan, or Mirror of Indigo, startled the community by its picture of the abuses of indigo planting a quarter of a century ago. It was translated into English by the well-known missionary and philanthropist, the Rev. James Long ; and formed the ground of an action for libel, ending in the fine and imprisonment of the latter gentleman. In prose fiction, Bankim Chandra Chattarji, born 1838, ranks first. The Bengali prose novel is essentially a creation of the last half-century, and the Durgesh Mandini of this author has never been surpassed. But many new novelists, dramatists, and poets are now estab- lishing their reputation in Bengal; and the force of the literary impulse given by the State School and the printing press seems still unabated. It is much to be regretted that so little of that intellectual activity has flowed into the channels of biography and critical history. But the returns of recent Bengalí litera- ture for 1891 show that the tide is at last setting in towards scientific and historical writing. The same practical tendency is observable in Bengalí journalism. It is perhaps a sign of the times that the leading native paper in Bengal, the Hindu Patriot, has this year converted itself from a weekly paper, distinguished for its political and social essays, into a daily paper, depending for its circulation chiefly on its news. This chapter has dealt at some length with the vernacular literature of India, because a right understanding of that litera ture is necessary for the comprehension of the chapters which follow. It concludes the part of the present book which treats of the struggle for India by the Asiatic races. In the next chapter the European nations come upon the scene. How they strove among themselves for the mastery will be briefly narrated. The conquest of India by any one of them formed a problem whose magnitude not one of them appreciated. The Portuguese spent the military resources of their country, and the religious enthusiasm of their Church, in the vain attempt to establish an Indian dominion by the Inquisition and the sword. This chapter has shown the strength and the extent of the indigenous literature of religious thought and civilisation which they thus ignorantly and unsuccessfully strove to overthrow. The Indian races had themselves confronted the problems for which the Portuguese attempted to supply solutions from without. One religious movement after another had swept across India; one philosophical School after another had pre- sented its explanation of human existence and its hypothesis of a future life. A popular literature had sprung up in every AAVG Z/SAT WOAZ/AVTERACEACA2AWCE. 4I5 Province. The Portuguese attempt to uproot these native growths, and to forcibly plant in their place an exotic civilisa- tion and an exotic creed, was foredoomed to failure. From any such attempt the Dutch and the French wisely abstained. One secret of the success of the British power has been its English non-interference with the customs and the religions of the * people. [416 C H A P T E R XIV. EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS (1498 TO 18TH CENTURY A.D.). The Portu- THE Muhammadan invaders of India had entered from the guese in India. north-west. Her Christian conquerors approached by sea from the south. From the time of Alexander the Great (327 B.C.) to that of Vasco da Gama (1498 A.D.), Europe held little direct intercourse with the East. An occasional traveller brought back stories of powerful kingdoms and of untold wealth; but the passage by sea was scarcely dreamed of, and by land, wide deserts and warlike tribes lay betweeen. Com- merce, indeed, struggled overland and ziá the Red Sea. It was carried on chiefly through Egypt, although partly also across Syria, under the Roman Empire; and in later mediaeval times by the Italian cities on the Mediterranean, which traded to the ports of the Levant.” But to the Europeans of the Vasco da Gama, I498. 1 The following is a list of the most noteworthy early travellers to the East, from the 9th century to the establishment of the Portuguese as a conquering power in India in the 16th. The Arab geographers will be found in Sir Henry Elliot's first volumes of the Indian Historians. The standard European authority is The Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian, edited by Colonel Henry Yule, C.B., 2 vols., 2nd edition, 1875. The author's best thanks are due to Colonel Yule for the assistance he has kindly afforded both here and in those articles of Z'he Imperial Gazetteer of India which came within the scope of Colonel Yule's re- searches. The authorities for the more ancient travellers and Indian geographers are, as already stated, M'Crindle's Megasthemes and Arriam, his Kºesías, and his AWazigation of the Erythraan Sea, which originally appeared in the Zndian Antiguary, and were republished by Messrs. Trübner. The Commerce and AWazigation of the Ancients in the Indiant Ocean, by Dr. William Vincent, Dean of Westminster (2 vols. 4to, 1807), may still be perused with interest, although Dr. Vincent's materials have been supplemented by fuller and more accurate knowledge. A. D. 883. King Alfred sends Sighelm of Sherburn to the shrine of Saint Thomas in ‘India.” But what ‘India' is doubtful, see ante, p. 29O. 851–916. Sulāimán and Abu Zaid, whose travels furnished the A’elations of Reinaud. 912–30. The geographer Mas’udi. 1159–73. Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela; visited Persian Gulf, reported on India. [Aootnote continued one next page. A.YACST A2O/07'UGOESAE VOYAGES. 4I 7 I5th century, India was an unknown land, which powerfully attracted the imagination of spirits stimulated by the Renais- sance, and ardent for discovery. The materials for this period have been collected by Sir George Birdwood in his admirable official Report on the Old Records of the India Office (1879), to which the following paragraphs are largely indebted. The history of the various European Settlements will be found in greater detail, under their respective articles, in my Zmperia/ Gazetteer of India. In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed westward under the Spanish flag to seek India beyond the Atlantic, bearing with him a letter to the great Khán of Tartary. He found America instead. An expedition consisting of three ships, under Vasco da Gama, started from Lisbon five years later, in the 1260–71. The brothers Nicolo and Maffeo Polo, ſather and uncle of Marco Polo ; make their first trading venture through Central Asia. 1271. They started on their second journey, accompanied by Marco Polo ; and about 1275, arrived at the Court of Kublai Khán in Shangtu, whence Marco Polo was entrusted with several missions to Cochin China, Khanbulig (Pekin), and the Indian Seas. 1292. Friar John of Monte Corvino, afterwards Archbishop of Pekin; spent thirteen months in India on his way to China. I3O4–78. Ibn Batuta, an Arab of Tangier ; after many years in the East, attached himself to the Court of Muhammad Tughlak at Delhi, 1334–42, whence he was despatched on an embassy to China. 1316–30. Odorico di Pordenone, a Minorite friar ; travelled in the East and through India by way of Persia, Bombay, and Surat (where he collected the bones of four missionaries martyred in 1321), to Malabar, the Coromandel coast, and thence to China and Tibet. 1328. Friar Jordanus of Severac, Bishop of Quilon. 1338–49. John de Marignolli, a Franciscan friar ; on his return from a mission to China, visited Quilon in 1347, and made a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas in India in 1349. 1327–72. Sir John Mandeville; wrote his travels in India (supposed to be the first printed English book, London, I499); but beyond the Levant his travels are invented or borrowed. 1419–40. Nicolo Conti, a noble Venetian ; travelled throughout Southern India and along the Bombay coast. 1442–44. Abd-ur-Razzak; during an embassy to India, visited Calicut, Mangalore, and Vijayanagar, where he was entertained in state by the Hindu sovereign of that kingdom. 1468–74. Athanasius Nikitin, a Russian; travelled from the Volga, through Central Asia and Persia, to Gujarát, Cambay, and Chaul, whence he proceeded inland to Bidar and Golconda. 1494–99. Hieronimo di Santo Stefano, a Genoese ; visited the ports of Malabar and the Coromandel coast as a merchant adventurer, and, after proceeding to Ceylon and Pegu, Sailed for Cambay. 1503–8. Ludovico di Varthema. Travels trans, in the Hakluyt Series. Portuguese voyages. 2 D 4.18 EAA/Y EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS State of India on arrival of Portu- guese. Rājā of Calicut’s letter, I498. Portuguese expedi- tion, I5OO. south-eastern direction. It doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and cast anchor off the city of Calicut on the 20th May 1498,' after a protracted voyage of nearly eleven months. An earlier Portuguese emissary, Covilham, had reached Calicut overland about 1487. From the first, Da Gama encountered hostility from the Moors, or rather Arabs, who monopolized the sea- borne trade; but he seems to have found favour with the Zamorin, or Hindu Rājá of Calicut. An Afghān of the Lodi dynasty was then on the throne of Delhi, and another Afghān king was ruling over Bengal. Ahmadābād formed the seat of a Muhammadan dynasty in Gujarát. The five independent Muhammadan kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijápur, Ellichpur, Golconda, and Bídar had partitioned out the Deccan. But the Hindu Rājā of Vijayanagar still ruled as paramount in the South, and was perhaps the most powerful monarch to be found at that time in India, not excepting the Lodi dynasty at Delhi. After staying nearly six months on the Malabar coast, Da Gama returned to Europe, bearing with him the following letter from the Zamorin to the King of Portugal: ‘Vasco da Gama, a nobleman of your household, has visited my kingdom and has given me great pleasure. In my kingdom there is abundance of cinnamon, cloves, ginger, pepper, and precious stones. What I seek from thy country is gold, silver, coral, and scarlet.’ The safe arrival of Da Gama at Lisbon was celebrated with national rejoicings as enthusiastic as those which had greeted the return of Columbus. If the West Indies belonged to Spain by priority of discovery, Portugal might claim the East Indies by the same right. The Portu- guese mind became intoxicated by dreams of a mighty Oriental Empire. The early Portuguese navigators were not traders or private adventurers, but admirals with a royal commission to open up a direct commerce with Asia, and to purchase Eastern com- modities on behalf of the King of Portugal. A second expedition, consisting of thirteen ships and seven hundred soldiers, under the command of Pedro Alvares Cabral, was despatched in 15oo. On his outward voyage, Cabral was driven westward by stress of weather, and discovered Brazil. Ultimately he reached Calicut. He established a factory, or * According to Correa, Zendas da India, an excellent authority, Vasco da Gama spent over three months at Melinda on the south-east coast of Africa, and did not reach Calicut until August 1498. But the received date is May or June. A ZME//DA F/A2S7" V/CAEA&O Y. 4 IQ agency for the purchase of goods there; but as soon as he left Calicut, the factor was murdered by the Muhammadan merchants. In spite of this disaster, he left a factor behind him at Cochin, when he returned to Portugal. In 1502, the King of Portugal obtained from Pope Alex- Portuguese ander v1. a bull constituting him “Lord of the Navigation, . Conquest, and Trade of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India.’ seas, 1500- In that year Vasco da Gama sailed again to the East, with * a fleet numbering twenty vessels. He formed alliances with the Rājās of Cochin and Cannanore, and the Ráni of Quilon, and bombarded the Zamorin of Calicut in his palace. In 1503, the great Affonso de Albuquerque sailed to the East in command of one of three expeditions from Portugal. The Portuguese arrived only just in time to succour the Rájá of Cochin, who was being besieged by the Zamorin of Calicut. They built a fort at Cochin, and, to guard against any future disaster, left 150 Portuguese soldiers under Duarte Pacheco to defend their ally. When they departed, the Zamorin, Or Hindu Rájá of Calicut, again attacked Cochin, but he was defeated by Pacheco both by land and sea, and the prestige of the Portuguese was by these victories raised to its height. In 1505, a large fleet of twenty sail and fifteen hundred Vice- men was sent under Francisco de Almeida, the first Portuguese . of tº * * meida, Viceroy of India. Almeida was the first Portuguese statesman 1565-09. in India to develop a distinct policy. He saw that, in the face of the opposition of the Muhammadan merchants, whose monopoly was infringed, it was necessary to fortify factories in India, in which to carry on trade. But he wished these forts to be as few as possible, and that the chief power of Portugal should be on the sea. Almeida had also a new danger to meet. The Sultán of Egypt perceived that the discovery of the direct sea-route from Europe to India round the Cape of Good Hope was ruining the transit trade through Egypt. He therefore despatched a fleet to exterminate the Portuguese forces in Asia. The Sultán's admiral won a victory off Victory Chaul, in 1508, in which Almeida's son was killed; but on º 2nd February 1509, the Egyptians were utterly defeated off * * the island of Diu. The danger of a general union of the Moslems against the Portuguese was thus averted for the time, and the quarrels between the Turks and Egyptians which ensued gave time for the Christians to firmly con- solidate their power in India. In 1509, Albuquerque succeeded as Governor, and widely extended the area of Portuguese influence. He abandoned 420 EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. Albu- querque takes Goa, I5IO. Cruelties of Portu- guese in India. Albu- querque's policy of concilia- tion. the system of Almeida, and resolved to establish a Portuguese Empire in India, based on the possession of important points along the coast, and on playing off the native princes against each other. Having failed in an attack upon Calicut, he in 15Io seized Goa, which has since remained the capital of Portuguese India. Then, sailing round Ceylon, he captured Malacca, the key to the navigation of the Indian Archipelago, and opened a trade with Siam and the Spice Islands. Lastly, he sailed back westward, and, after penetrating into the Red Sea and taking Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, returned to Goa only to die in 1515. In 1524, Vasco da Gama came out to the East for the third time, and he too died at Cochin, after a rule of only three months. For exactly a century, from 15oo to 1600, the Portuguese enjoyed a monopoly of Oriental trade.” ‘From Japan and the Spice Islands to the Red Sea and the Cape of Good Hope, they were the sole masters and dispensers of the treasures of the East; while their possessions along the Atlantic coast of Africa and in Brazil completed their maritime Empire.’” But the Portuguese had neither the political strength nor the personal character necessary to maintain such an Empire. Their national temper had been formed in their contest with the Moors at home. They were not traders, but knights-errant and Crusaders, who looked on every pagan as an enemy of Portugal and of Christ. Only those who have read the contemporary narratives of their conquests, can realize the superstition and the cruelty with which their history in the Indies is stained. Albuquerque alone endeavoured to conciliate the goodwill of the natives, and to live in friendship with the Hindu princes, who were better pleased to have the Portuguese, as firmly governed by him, for their neighbours and allies, than the Muhammadans whom he had expelled or subdued. The justice and magnanimity of his rule did as much to extend and confirm the power of the Portuguese in the East, as his courage and the success of his military achievements. In such veneration was his memory held, that the Hindus of Goa, and even the Muhammadans, were wont to repair to his * For a full account of the Portuguese in India, and the curious phases of society which they developed, see article GOA, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Also for local notices, see articles DAMAN, DIU, BASSEIN, CALICUT. * This and the following paragraphs are condensed from Sir George Birdwood's official Report on the Miscellaneous Old A’ecords in the India Office, dated Ist November 1878 (folio, 1879). AWOWAVO /) A C UAVA/A G O VAEA’AVOA’. 42 I tomb, and there utter their complaints, as if in the presence of his shade, and call upon God to deliver them from the tyranny of his successors. Yet these successors were not all tyrants. Some of them. The suc- were great statesmen; many were gallant soldiers. The names jº. of four of them stand out brightly in the history of the Portu- querque; guese in India. Nuno da Cunha, Governor from 1528 to Nuno da 1538, first opened up direct and regular trade with Bengal. ºs. After 1518 one ship annually visited Chittagong to purchase merchandise for Portugal; but Da Cunha, hearing of the wealth of the province, and the peaceful, industrious character of its inhabitants, resolved to make a Settlement there. He sent 4oo Portuguese soldiers to assist the Muhammadan king of Bengal against Sher Sháh in 1534, and was intending to follow in person, when important events on the other side of India detained him. His intervention had the effect of causing The Portu- many Portuguese to settle in Bengal. They were never formed #. into a regular governorship, but remained in loose dependence on the Captain of Ceylon. Yet they became very prosperous, and their headquarters, Huigli, grew into a wealthy city. After the capture of Hügli by Sháh Jahān in 1629, the bravest of the Portuguese in Bengal became outlaws and pirates, and in conjunction with the Arakanese and the Maghs preyed upon the sea-borne commerce of the Bengal coast. The event which prevented Nuno da Cunha from establishing the Portu- guese power in Bengal was the approach of a great Turkish and Egyptian fleet. Suláimán (Solyman) the Magnificent had consolidated the Turkish power by the conquest of Egypt, and prepared to accomplish the task which the Sultan of Egypt had attempted thirty years before. But the Portuguese were now in a better position to resist than they had been in the days of the Viceroy Almeida. Nuno da Cunha had obtained possession of the island of Diu, a place much coveted by Albuquerque, from the King of Gujarát in 1535, and it was there that the storm broke. Besieged by the King of Gujarát Defence by land and by the vast Turkish and Egyptian fleet, Diu º stood a terrible siege in 1538; and the defenders at last beat off the assailants. Nuno da Cunha did not live to see this glorious result, for he was maligned by enemies and sent home in custody, and it was reserved for his successor to relieve Diu. --- João de Castro, who ruled from 1545 to 1548, was no João de unworthy countryman of Albuquerque and Da Cunha. He ºs. relieved Diu, which again had to stand a siege by the King of 4.22 EAA/ Y EUROPAEAAW SETTLEMENTS. João de Castro, I545–48. C. de Braganza, I558–61. Luis de Athaide, I 568–81. Defence of Goa, I570. Gujarát, whom he defeated in one of the greatest victories ever won by the Portuguese in India. He had also to defend Goa against the King of Bijápur, and with similar successes. But it was not only as a warrior, but as a statesman, that João de Castro won his fame. In the three short years of his government he tried to reform the errors of the Portuguese colonial system. The trade of India was a royal monopoly, and crowds of officials lived by peculation and corruption in order to enhance their salaries from the Crown. João de Castro endeavoured to cleanse the Augean stable, and by his own upright character set a shining example to his compatriots. It was during his rule that the Portuguese, in addition to being a trading and a governing power, became a proselytizing power. Hitherto Catholic priests had come to India to tend the souls of the Portuguese. But now began the era of mis- sions to the heathen. This development of missionary effort was largely due to the inspiring exertions of Saint Francis Xavier, who was Castro's intimate friend. The Jesuits followed the missionary pioneer of their Order, and the whole authority of the Portuguese Government was practically placed at the disposal of the Christian missionaries after this epoch. Constantino de Braganza, a prince of the royal house of Portugal, attempted, and not without some success, to take up the task which had proved too hard for De Castro, during his rule from 1558 to 1561. But he is better remembered as the conqueror of Damán, one of the places still belonging to Portugal. Luis de Athaide, who was Viceroy from 1568 to 1571, and from 1578 to 1581, had during his first viceroyalty to meet a formidable league of opponents. The defeat of the Hindu Rājā of Vijayanagar at Tālikot in 1565, left the Muhammadan princes of the Deccan at liberty to act against the Portuguese. A great league was formed by them, which included even the half-savage King of Achín. All the Portu- guese Settlements on the Malabar coast as well as Malacca were besieged by overwhelming forces. But the Portuguese commanders rose to the occasion. Everywhere they were triumphant. The Viceroy, in 1570, defended Goa for ten months against the King of Bijápur, and eventually repulsed him ; the undisciplined Indian troops were unable to stand against the veteran soldiers of Portugal; 200 of whom, at Malacca, routed 15,000 natives with artillery. When, in 1578, Malacca was again besieged by the King of Achín, the small Portuguese garrison destroyed Io, ooo of his men, and all the DOWNFAZZ OF POATUGUESE IN INDIA. 423 Achin cannon and junks. Twice again, in 1615 and for the last time in 1628, Malacca was besieged, and on each occasion the Achinese were repulsed with equal bravery. But the increased military forces sent out to resist these attacks proved an insup- portable drain on the revenues and population of Portugal. In 1580, the Portuguese Crown was united with that of Spanish Spain, under Philip II. This proved the ruin of the maritime * and commercial supremacy of Portugal in the East. The in- 580. terests of Portugal in Asia were henceforth subordinated to the European interests of Spain; and the enemies of Spain, the Dutch and the English, preyed on the Portuguese as well as on the Spanish commerce. In 1640, Portugal again became a separate kingdom. But in the meanwhile the Dutch and English had appeared in the Eastern Seas; and before their indomitable competition, the Portuguese empire of the Indies withered away as rapidly as it had sprung up. The period of the highest development of Portuguese commerce was pro- -bably from 1590 to 161 o, on the eve of the subversion of their commercial power by the Dutch, and when their political administration in India was at its lowest depth of degradation. At this period a single fleet of Portuguese merchantmen sailing from Goa to Cambay or Surat would number as many as 150 or 250 carracks. Now, only one Portuguese ship sails from Lisbon to Goa in the year." The Dutch besieged Goa in 1603, and again in 1639. Both attacks were unsuccessful on land; but the Portuguese were gradually driven off the sea. In 1683 the Maráthás plundered Downfall to the gates of Goa, and in 1739 they sacked Bassein, the º Northern capital. The further history of the Portuguese in india, India is a miserable chronicle of pride, poverty, and sounding 1939-1739. titles. The native princes pressed upon them from the land. On the sea they gave way to more vigorous European nations. The only remaining Portuguese possessions in India are Portu- Goa, Damán, and Diu, all on the west coast, with a total area i. of 2365 square miles, and a total general population (Native 1881. and European), according to the last Census,” of 561,384 in 1891. About 30, ooo of so-called “Portuguese' half-castes are found in Bombay, and 20,000 in Bengal, chiefly in the * Reproduced, without verification, from Sir George Birdwood's Report, • 7O. - p * Census of Portuguese India for 1881 takes a distinction between “actual’ and ‘nominal' population. The enumeration seems to have been conducted with greater completeness in the Portuguese Settlements in 1891, but I have so far been able to obtain only the gross total, without being able to analyse or examine its details. 424 AEARZY Z UAE’OPEAAW SETT/AA/EAVZ.S. Mixed de- neighbourhood of Dacca and Chittagong. The latter are * known as Firinghis; and, excepting that they retain the Roman Catholic faith and European surnames, they are scarcely to be distinguished either by colour, language, or habits of life from the natives among whom they live. Their complexion is in many cases darker than that of the surrounding Indian population; and, as a rule, they are a thriftless, feeble class. The Nor do the Portuguese succeed in obtaining any share º worth mentioning in the modern trade of British India. While India. French and Germans are taking advantage of the commercial activity of British rule in the East to enter on Indian commer- cial enterprise in increasing numbers, the few Portuguese traders or employés born in Portugal and resorting to British India are decreasing. Their total, which amounted to 426 in 1872, had fallen to 133 in 1881, and was returned at 149 by the Census of 1891. The efforts by the British Government to establish a commercial solidarity of interest with Portugal in India have also failed. The construction of a railway, to a large extent with British private capital, and under the supervision of private British engineers, designed to connect the main Portuguese. Settlement of Goa with the interior of India, and debouch at the Port of Marmagáo, led, about 1885, to a customs treaty being negotiated, which placed the Goa and the British systems on a fairly homo- geneous basis. But after some years the Portuguese declined to renew their engagements, and they are now (1892) in a state of political and commercial isolation in India. I have much pleasure, however, in closing this paragraph with an acknow- ledgment of the courtesy with which the Lisbon authorities have aided the efforts of the British Government to carry out a historical investigation into the Indo-Portuguese records of the past. Mr. Frederick Danvers, of the India Office, has made two visits to Portugal with this object, under orders of the Secretary of State for India. His Report, of which the proof- sheets have reached me as I am sending this chapter to press, deals with the public records at Lisbon and Evora for a period of about three hundred years. It throws a flood of fresh light on Indo-Portuguese history, and adds, among other discoveries, a new and important chapter to the history of the Maráthás. The Dutch The Dutch were the first European nation who broke **, through the Portuguese monopoly. During the 16th century, I602-1824. ge Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam became successively the great emporiums whence Indian produce, imported by the Portuguese, was distributed to Germany, and even to England. TH AE AEROGA’AºSS OF THE ZD UTCA/. 425 At first the Dutch, following in the track of the English, attempted to find their way to India by sailing round the northern coast of Europe and Asia. William Barents is honourably known as the leader of three of these arctic expeditions, in the last of which he perished. The first Dutchman to double the Cape of Good Hope Dutch was Cornelius Houtman, who reached Sumatra and Bantam Jºdia in 1596. Forthwith private companies for trade with the panies. East were formed in many parts of the United Provinces; but in 1602 they were all amalgamated by the States-General into ‘The Dutch East India Company.’ Within fifty years the Dutch had established factories on the continent of India, in Ceylon, in Sumatra, in the Persian Gulf, and in the Red Sea, besides having obtained exclusive possession of the Moluccas. In 1619 they laid the foundation of the city of Their Batavia in Java, as the seat of the Supreme government of º the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, which had previously $ been at Amboyna. At about the same time the Dutch dis- covered the coast of Australia; while in North America they founded the city of New Amsterdam or Manhattan, now New York. During the 17th century the Dutch were the foremost mari- Dutch time power in the world. Their memorable massacre of the . English at Amboyna, in 1623, forced the British Company to seas, 1600– retire from the Eastern Archipelago to the continent of India, 1700. and thus led to the foundation of our Indian Empire. The long naval wars and bloody battles between the English and the Dutch within the narrow seas were not terminated until William of Orange united the two countries in 1689. In the Eastern Archipelago the Dutch ruled without a rival, and expelled the Portuguese from almost all their territorial possessions. In 1635 they occupied Formosa; in 1640 Their they took Malacca, a blow from which the Portuguese never ºf recovered; in 1647 they were trading at Sadras, on the Pálár ; : river; in 1651 they founded a colony at the Cape of Good Hope, as a half-way station to the East; in 1652 they built their first Indian factory at Pālakollu, on the Madras coast; in 1658 they captured Jaffnapatam, the last stronghold of the Portuguese in Ceylon. Between 1661 and 1664 the Dutch wrested from the Portuguese all their earlier Settlements on the pepper-bearing coast of Malabar; and in 1669 they ex- pelled the Portuguese from St. Thomé and Macassar. The fall of the Dutch colonial empire resulted from its short-sighted commercial policy. It was deliberately based 426 EAA/ Y EUROPEAAW SETT/ACMEAVTS. Their short- sighted policy. Stripped of their Indian posses- sions, I759-181 I. Dutch relics in India. Early English adven- turers, I496-1596. The North-east passage, I553. upon a monopoly of the trade in spices, and remained from first to last destitute of sound economical principles. Like the Phoenicians of old, the Dutch stopped short of no acts of cruelty towards their rivals in commerce; but, unlike the Phoenicians, they failed to introduce their civilisation among the natives with whom they came in contact. The knell of Dutch supremacy was sounded by Clive, when in 1759 he attacked the Dutch at Chinsurah both by land and water, and forced them to an ignominious capitulation. During the great French wars between 1795 and 1811, England wrested from Holland every one of her colonies; although Java was restored in 1816, and Sumatra exchanged for Malacca in 1824. At present, the Dutch flag flies nowhere on the mainland of India. But quaint houses, Dutch tiles and carvings, at Chinsurah, Negapatam, Jaffnapatam, and at petty ports on the Coromandel and Malabar coasts, with the formal canals in Some of these old Settlements, remind the traveller of scenes in the Netherlands. The passage between Ceylon and the mainland still bears the name of the Dutch governor, Palk. In the Census of 1872, only 70 Dutchmen were enumerated throughout all British India, 78 in 1881, and II9 in 1891." The earliest English attempts to reach India were made by the North-west passage. In 1496, Henry VII. granted letters patent to John Cabot and his three sons (one of whom was the famous Sebastian) to fit out two ships for the ex- ploration of this route. They failed, but discovered the island of Newfoundland, and sailed along the coast of America from Labrador to Virginia. In 1553, the ill-fated Sir Hugh Willoughby attempted to force a passage along the north of Europe and Asia, the successful accomplishment of which has been reserved for a Swedish savant of our own day. Sir Hugh perished miserably ; but his second in command, Chancellor, reached a harbour on the White Sea, now Archangel. Thence he penetrated by land to the Court of the Grand Duke of Moscow, and laid the foundation of ‘the Russia Company for carrying on the overland trade between India, Persia, Bokhara, and Moscow.’ Many English attempts were made to find a North-west passage to the East Indies, from 1576 to 1616. They have left on our modern maps the imperishable names of Frobisher, The North-west passage, I576-1616. * For local notices of the Dutch in India, see articles SADRAS, PALA- KOLLU, CHINSURAH, NEGAPATAM, PALK's PASSAGE, etc., in their respective volumes of my //uperial Gazetteer of Zndia. AAA’ Z Y FAVG Z/S// A ZO WAEAVTO'A' FA’.S. 427 Davis, Hudson, and Baffin. Meanwhile, in 1577, Sir Francis Drake had circumnavigated the globe, and on his way home had touched at Ternate, one of the Moluccas, the king of which island agreed to supply the English nation with all the cloves which it produced. The first modern Englishman known to have visited the Stephens, Indian peninsula was Thomas Stephens, in 1579. William of ; Malmesbury states, indeed, that in 883 Sighelmus of Sherborne, in India, sent by King Alfred to Rome with presents to the Pope, pro- '579. ceeded thence to ‘India,” to the tomb of St. Thomas, and brought back jewels and spices. But, as already pointed out, it by no means follows that the ‘India’ of William of Malmesbury meant the Indian peninsula. Stephens (1579) was educated at New College, Oxford, and became Rector of the Jesuit College in Salsette. His letters to his father are Said to have roused great enthusiasm in England to trade directly with India. In 1583, three English merchants, Ralph Fitch, James New- Fitch, berry, and Leedes, went out to India overland as mercantile Nº. 7 adventurers. The jealous Portuguese threw them into prison 1583. at Ormuz, and again at Goa. At length Newberry settled down as a shopkeeper at Goa; Leedes entered the service of the Great Mughal ; and Fitch, after a lengthened peregrination in Ceylon, Bengal, Pegu, Siam, Malacca, and other parts of the East Indies, returned to England." The defeat of the ‘Invincible Armada’ in 1588, at which time the Crowns of Spain and Portugal were united, gave a fresh stimulus to maritime enterprise in England ; and the Successful voyage of the Dutch Cornelius Houtman in 1596 showed the way round the Cape of Good Hope, into waters hitherto monopolized by the Portuguese. The following paragraph on the early history of the English English . East India Companies is condensed, with little change, from ºf India Sir George Birdwood's official report.” In 1599, the Dutch, panies. who had now firmly established their trade in the East, raised the price of pepper against us from 3s. per lb. to 6s. and 8s. The merchants of London held a meeting on the 22nd September at Founders' Hall, with the Lord Mayor in the chair, and agreed to form an Association for the purposes of trading directly with India. Queen Elizabeth also sent Sir John Mildenhall by Constantinople to the Great Mughal to apply for privileges for an English Company. On the 31st * Condensed from Åeport on Old Records in the India Office, pp. 75–77. * Condensed from Åeport on Old Records in the India Office, pp. 77 et seq. 428 EAA/ Y EUROPEAAW SETTLEMAEAVTS. December 16oo," the English East India Company was in- corporated by Royal Charter, under the title of ‘The Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies.’ The original Company had only 125 shareholders, and a capital of £70,000, which was raised to 24,400,000 in 1612–13, when voyages were first undertaken on the joint- Stock account. * Courten's Association, known as ‘The Assada Merchants,’ from a factory subsequently founded by it in Madagascar, was established in 1635, but, after a period of internecine rivalry, was united with the London Company in 1650. In 1654–55, the ‘Company of Merchant Adventurers’ obtained a Charter from Cromwell to trade with India, but united with the original Company two years later. A more formidable rival subsequently appeared in the English Company, or ‘General Society trading to the East Indies, which was incorporated under powerful patronage in 1698, with a capital of 2 millions sterling. According to Evelyn, in his Diary for March 5, 1698, ‘the old East India Company lost their business against the new Company by ten votes in Parliament; SO many of their friends being absent, going to See a tiger baited by dogs.” However, a compromise was effected through the arbitration of Lord Godolphin” in 1708, by which the amalgamation of the ‘London’ and the ‘English ' Companies was finally carried out in 1709, under the style of ‘The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies.' About the same time, the Company advanced loans to the English Government aggregating 43,200,ooo at 5 per cent. interest, in return for the exclusive privilege to trade to all places between the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of Magellan.” The early voyages of the Company from 16oo to 1612 are distinguished as the “separate voyages,’ twelve in number. The subscribers individually bore the expenses of each voyage, and reaped the whole profits. With the exception of the fourth, all these separate voyages were highly prosperous, the profits hardly ever falling below Ioo per cent. After 1612, the voyages were conducted on the joint-stock account. The English were promptly opposed by the Portuguese. First Charter, 31st De- cember I6OO. Later Com- panies, I635, I655, 1698, 1708. Amalga- mated Company, I709. English Voyages, I6OO-I2. 1 Auber gives the date as the 30th December, Analysis of the Constitution of the East /ndia Company, by Peter Auber, Assistant-Secretary to the Honourable Court of Directors, p. ix. (London, 1826.) * Under the award of Lord Godolphin, by the Act of the 6th of Queen Anne, in 1708, cap. I7. Auber's Analysis, p. xi. * Mill, Hist. Brit. Zmed. vol. i. p. 151 (ed. I840). Auber gives a de- tailed statement of these loans, from I708 to I793; Analysis, p. xi. etc. AAA’ Z Y EAVG Z/S// VOYAGES. 429 But James Lancaster, even in the first voyage (1601–2), First. established commercial relations with the King of Achin and * at Priaman in the island of Sumatra ; as well as with the 1661-6." Moluccas, and at Bantam in Java, where he settled a “House of Trade’ in 1603. In 1604, the Company undertook their second voyage, commanded by Sir Henry Middleton, who extended their trade to Banda and Amboyna. The success of these voyages attracted a number of private merchants to the business; and in 1606, James I. granted a licence to Sir Edward Michelborne and others to trade ‘to Cathay, China, Japan, Corea, and Cambaya.' But Michelborne, on arriving in the East, instead of exploring new Sources of commerce like the East India Company, followed the pernicious example of the Portuguese, and plundered the native traders among the islands of the Indian Archipelago. He in this way secured a considerable booty, but brought disgrace on the British name, and seriously hindered the Company’s business at Bantam. In 1608, Captain D. Middleton, in command of the fifth Voyages, voyage, was prevented by the Dutch from trading at Banda, * but succeeded in obtaining a cargo at Pulo Way. In this year also, Captain Hawkins proceeded from Surat, as envoy from James I. and the East India Company, to the court of the Great Mughal. He was graciously received by the Emperor (Jahāngir), and remained three years at Agra. In 1609, Captain Sharpay obtained the grant of free trade at Aden, and a cargo of pepper at Priaman in Sumatra. In 1609, also, the Company constructed the dockyard at Deptford, which was the beginning, observes Sir William Monson, ‘of the increase of great ships in England.’ In 1611, Sir Henry Middleton, in command of the sixth voyage, arrived before Cambay. He resolutely fought the Portuguese, who tried to beat him off, and obtained important concessions from the Native Powers. In 16Io—I I, also, Captain Hippon, com- manding the seventh voyage, established agencies at Masuli- patam, and in Siam, at Patania or Patany on the Malay Peninsula, and at Pettipollee. We obtained leave to trade at Surat in 1612. In 1615, the Company's fleet, under Captain Best, was Swally attacked off Swally, the port of Surat, at the mouth of the fight, tº / , , * º I615. river Tápti, by an overwhelming force of Portuguese." But the assailants were utterly defeated in four engagements, to * For this date and account of the engagement, see Bombay Gazetteer, SURAT and BROACH, vol. ii. pp. 77, 78. (Bombay Government Press, 1877.) 430 FAA’ZY A. UAEOPEAAW SETTLEMEAVTS. Sir Thomas Roe, 1615. Treaty with Dutch, 1619. English attacked by Dutch, I62O. the astonishment of the natives, who had hitherto considered them invincible. The first-frijit of this decisive victory was the pre-eminence of our factory at Surat, with subordinate agencies at Gogra, Ahmadābād, and Cambay. Trade was also opened with the Persian Gulf. In 1614, an agency was established at Ajmere by Mr. Edwards of the Surat factory. The chief seat of the Company's government in Western India remained at Surat until 1684–87, when it was transferred to Bombay." In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe was sent by James I. as am- bassador to the court of Jahāngir, and succeeded in placing the Company's trade in the Mughal dominions on a more favourable footing. In 1618, the English established a factory at Mocha; but the Dutch compelled them to resign all pre- tensions to the Spice Islands. In that year also, the Company failed in its attempt to open a trade with Dábhol, Baticăla, and Calicut, through a want of sincerity on the part of the Zamorin, or Calicut Rájá. In 1619 we were permitted to establish a factory and build a fort at Jask, in the Persian Gulf. In 1619, the ‘Treaty of Defence’ with the Dutch, to pre- vent disputes between the English and Dutch Companies, was ratified. When it was proclaimed in the East, the Dutch and English fleets, dressed out in all their flags, and with yards manned, saluted i. other. But the treaty ended in the smoke of that stately Salutation, and the perpetual strife between the Dutch and English Companies went on as bitterly as ever. Up to this time, the English Company did not possess any territory in sovereign right in the ‘Indies,” except- ing in the island of Lantore or Great Banda. The island was governed by a commercial agent of the Company, who had under him thirty Europeans as clerks and warehousemen. This little band, with 250 armed Malays, constituted the only force by which it was protected. In the islands of Banda and Pulo Roon and Rosengyn, the English Company had factories, at each of which were ten agents. At Macassar and Achin they possessed agencies ; the whole being subordinate to a head factory at Bantam in Java. In 1620, the Dutch, notwithstanding the Treaty of Defence concluded the previous year, expelled the English from Pulo Roon and Lantore; and in 162 I from Bantam in Java. The fugitive factors tried to establish themselves, first at Pulicat, and * Orders issued, 1684; transfer commenced, 1686; actually carried out, 1687. Bombay Gazetteer, vol. ii. p. 98. THE MASSA CRAZ OF AMPO VAWA. 43 I afterwards at Masulipatam on the Coromandel coast, but were effectually opposed by the Dutch. In 1620, the Portuguese also attacked the English fleet under Captain Shillinge, but were defeated with great loss. From this time the estimation in which the Portuguese were held by the natives declined, while that of the English rose. In 1620, too, the English Company established agencies at Agra and Patná. In 1622 they joined with the Persians, attacked and took Ormuz from the Portuguese, and obtained from Shāh Abbas a grant in per- petuity of the customs of Gombroon. This was the first time that the English took the offensive against the Portuguese. In the same year, 1622, Our Company succeeded in re-establish-Masuli- ing their factory at Masulipatam. patam fac- e ... tory, 1622. The massacre of Amboyna, which made so deep an im- i. pression on the English mind, marked the climax of the sacre of Dutch hatred to us in the Eastern seas. After long and bitter ºne. recriminations, the Dutch seized our Captain Towerson at 3. Amboyna, with 9 Englishmen, 9 Japanese, and I Portuguese sailor, on the 17th February 1623. They tortured the prisoners at their trial, and found them guilty of a conspiracy to surprise the garrison. The victims were executed in the heat of passion, and their torture and judicial murder led to an outburst of indignation in England. Ultimately, commissioners were ap- pointed to adjust the claims of the two nations; and the Dutch had to pay a sum of 24.3615 as satisfaction to the heirs of those who had suffered. But from that time the Dutch remained masters of Lantore and the neighbouring islands. They monopolized the whole trade of the Indian Archipelago, until the great naval wars which commenced in 1793. In 1624, English the English, unable to oppose the Dutch, withdrew nearly all º their factories from the Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula, pelago, Siam, and Java. Some of the factors and agents retired to *4. the island of Lagundy, in the Strait of Sunda, but were forced by its unhealthiness to abandon it. Driven out of the Eastern Archipelago by the Dutch, and thus almost cut off from the lucrative spice trade, the English English betook themselves in earnest to founding Settlements on the ; to Indian seaboard. In 1625–26, the English established a 1625. factory at Armagãon on the Coromandel coast, subordinate to Their Masulipatam.' But in 1628, Masulipatam was, in consequence ... factories, 1625–53. 1 These brief chronological abstracts follow, with a few omissions, addi- tions, and corrections of dates, Sir George Birdwood's official Report on the Old Records in the India Office (folio), p. 83. For notices of the Indian towns mentioned, see the articles in The Imperial Gazetteer of India. 432 EAAE/ Y EVA’OPEAAW SEZZZZMAEAVTS. of the oppressions of the native governors, for a time aban- doned in favour of Armagáon, which now mounted 12 guns, and had 23 factors and agents. In 1629, our factory at Bantam in Java was re-established as an agency subordinate to Surat; and in 1630, Armagáon, reinforced by 20 soldiers, was also placed under the Presidency of Surat. In 1632, the English factory was re-established at Masulipatam, under a grant, the ‘Golden Firman,’ from the King of Golconda. In I634, by a farmán dated February 2, the Company obtained from the Great Mughal liberty to trade in Bengal. But their ships were to resort only to Pippli in Orissa, now left far inland by the sea. The Portuguese were in the same year expelled for a time from Bengal. In 1634–35, the English factory at Bantam in Java was again raised to an independent Presidency, and an agency was established at Tatta, or ‘Scindy.” In 1637, Courten's Association (chartered 1635) settled agencies at Goa, Baticăla, Kárwär, Achín, and Rájápur. Its ships had the year before plundered some native vessels at Surat and Diu. This act disgraced the Company with the Mughal authorities (who could not comprehend the distinction between the Company and the Association), and depressed the English trade with Surat, while that of the Dutch proportionately increased. In 1638, Armagáon was abandoned as unsuited for commerce; and in 1639, Fort St. George, or Madaraspatam (Chennapat- am)," was founded by Francis Day, and the factors at Armagáon were removed to it. It was made subordinate to Bantam in Java, until raised in 1653 to the rank of a Presidency. In 1640, the Company established an agency at Bussorah, and a factory at Kárwär. Trade having much extended, the Company's yard at Deptford was found too small for their ships, and they purchased some copyhold ground at Blackwall, which at that time was a waste marsh, without an inhabitant. Here they opened another dockyard, in which was built the Aoya/ George, of 1200 tons, the largest ship up to that time constructed in England. Our factory at Huiglí in Bengal was established in 1640, and at Balasor in 1642. In 1645, in Consequence of professional services rendered by Mr. Gabriel Boughton, surgeon of the Aſopezwell, to the Emperor Sháh Jahán, additional privileges Trade to Bengal, I634. Bantam Presi- dency, I635. Madras founded, I639. Hügli, I64O. * Bishop Caldwell derives Madras from the Telugu maduru, the sur- rounding wall of a fort. It took its native name of Chennapatam from Chennappa, the father-in-law of the Nayakkur or Chief of Chengalpat. Comparative Grammar of the ZOrazidian Zanguages, p. Io (ed. I875). FAWGZ/SH FACTORIES, 1639–85. 433 were granted to the Company; and in 1646, the Governor of Bengal, who had also been medically attended by Boughton, made concessions which placed the factories at Balasor and Huiglí on a more favourable footing. In 1647, Courten's Association established its colony at Assada, in Madagascar. Mada- In 1652, Cromwell declared war against the Dutch on account ;" of their accumulated injuries against the English Company. In 1653, the English factory at Lucknow was withdrawn. No record has been found of its establishment. In 1658, the Company established a factory at Kásimbázár (spelt ‘Castle Bazaar’ in the records), and the English establishments in Bengal were made subordinate to Fort St. George, or Madras, instead of to Bantam. In 1661, Bombay was ceded to the British Crown as part of Bombay the dower of Catharine of Braganza, but was not delivered up º until 1665. King Charles II. transferred it to the East India Company, for an annual payment of 24, Io, in 1668. The seat of the Western Presidency was removed to it from Surat in 1684–87. The Company's establishments in the East Indies Our fac. thus consisted in 1665 of the Presidency of Bantam in Java, . with its dependencies of Jambí, Macassar, and minor agencies Bantam: in the Indian Archipelago; Fort St. George and its dependent factories on the Coromandel coast and Bengal; Surat, with Madras; its affiliated dependency of Bombay ; and factories at Broach, Bombay; Ahmadābād, and other places in Western India; also at Gombroon (Bandar Abbas) and Bussorah in the Persian Gulf Persian and Euphrates valley. In 1661, the factory at Biliapatam was Gulf; founded. In 1663, the English factories established at Patná, Balasor, and Käsimbazár were ordered to be discontinued, and Bengal. purchases to be made only at Huigli. In 1664, Surat was pillaged by the Maráthá Sivaji, but Sir George Oxenden bravely defended the English factory; and the Mughal Emperor, in admiration of his conduct, granted the Company an exemption from customs for one year. - In 1681, Bengal was separated from Madras, and Mr. Bengal (afterwards Sir William) Hedges arrived at Huigli, the chief ºted Bengal factory, in July 1682, as the newly-appointed ‘agent Madras, and governor’ of the Company's affairs ‘in the Bay of Bengal, I68I. and of the factories subordinate to it, at Käsimbázár, Patná, Balasor, Maldah, and Dacca. A corporal of approved fidelity, with 20 soldiers, to be a guard to the agent’s person at the factory of Hügli, and to act against interlopers.’ Mr. Hedges' Diary, from the signing of his commission in November 1681, to his return to England in April 1687, has been edited, with 2 E. 434 EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS valuable notes and commentaries, by the late Sir Henry Yule, and presents a very remarkable picture of life and government in India at the close of the 17th century." In 1684, Sir John Child was made ‘Captain-General and Admiral of India;' and Sir John Wyborne, ‘Vice-Admiral and Deputy-Governor of Bombay.” In 1687, the seat of the Presidency was finally transferred from Surat to Bombay. In 1686, Kásimbázár, in common with the other English factories in Bengal, had been condemned to confiscation by the Nawāb Sháistá Khán. The Huigli factory was much oppressed, and the Company’s business throughout India suffered from the wars of the Mughals and Maráthás. Sir John Child was appointed ‘Governor-General,” with full power in India to make war or peace; and was ordered to proceed to inspect the Company's possessions in Madras and Bengal, and arrange for their safety. On the 20th of Decem- ber 1686, the Company's Agent and Council were forced by the exactions of the Muhammadan Governor to quit their factory at Hügli. They retired down the river to Sutanati (Calcutta). Tegnapatam (Fort St. David) was founded in this year (1686), and definitively established in 1691–92. In 1687–88, the Company's servants, broken in spirit by the oppressions of the native Viceroy, determined to abandon their factories in Bengal. In 1688, Captain Heath of the Resolution, in command of the Company’s forces, embarked all its servants and goods, sailed down the Hügli, and anchored off Balasor on the Orissa coast. They were, however, soon invited to return by the Emperor, who granted them the site of the present city of Calcutta for a fortified factory. In 1689, our factories at Vizagapatam and Masulipatam on the Madras coast were seized by the Muhammadans, and the factors were massacred. But in this same year the Company determined to consoli- date their position in India on the basis of territorial sovereignty, to enable them to resist the oppression of the Mughals and Maráthás. With that view, they passed the resolution which was destined to turn their clerks and factors throughout India into conquerors and proconsuls: ‘The increase of our revenue * The Diary of William Hedges, Esq., during his Agency in Bengal, etc. (1681–87). By Colonel [Sir] Henry Yule, C.B., K.C.S.I., 3 vols., Hakluyt Society's Publications, 1887 to 1889. * Sir George Birdwood's Report on the Old Records of the India Office, p. 85, quotes this title from the MSS. It is therefore, nominally, a century Bombay a Presi- dency, 1687. ‘Governor- General.’ Calcutta founded, I686. English resolve to quit Bengal, 1687–88. The Com- pany em- barks on territorial sway, 1689. older than is usually supposed ; but Hastings was the first real Governor- General, I 774. EWGZSH AND OTHER COMPANIES. 435 is the subject of our care, as much as our trade; ’tis that must maintain our force when twenty accidents may interrupt our trade; ’tis that must make us a nation in India. Without that we are but a great number of interlopers, united by His Majesty's Royal Charter, fit only to trade where nobody of power thinks it their interest to prevent us. And upon this account it is that the wise Dutch, in all their general advices that we have seen, write ten paragraphs concerning their govern- ment, their civil and military policy, warfare, and the increase of their revenue, for one paragraph they write concerning trade.” The subsequent history of the English East India Company and its Settlements will be narrated in the next chapter. The Portuguese at no time attempted to found a Company, Other but kept their Eastern trade as a royal enterprise and monopoly. #. The first incorporated Company was the English, established Com- in 16oo, which was quickly followed by the Dutch in 1602. Panies: The Dutch conquests, however, were made in the name of the Dutch ; State, and ranked as national colonies, not as semi-commercial possessions. Next came the French, whose first East India French. Company was founded in 1604; the second, in 161 I ; the third, in 1615; the fourth (Richelieu’s), in 1642 ; the fifth (Colbert's), in 1664. The early French Companies consisted of trading adventurers, who left no establishments in India; and when, after the troublous period of the Fronde, Louis XIV. became firmly seated on the throne of France, it was to the Mauritius and Madagascar that the king's ministers looked for a field for commercial expansion. The Mauritius was occupied in 1652, and an attempt was made to form Settle- ments in Madagascar. Colbert, however, hoped to win a share in the profitable Indian trade, and the fifth French East India Company was founded by him in 1664, with the intention of rivalling the success of the English and the Dutch in India itself. Pondicherri was acquired in 1674, and Chandarnagar in 1688; but want of support from France brought the Com- pany's affairs in India to a very low ebb, and the Company felt obliged to cede its right of monopoly to some enterprising merchants of Saint-Malo. The brilliant schemes of Law drew fresh attention to the Indian trade, and the powers, possessions, and assets of Colbert's Company were taken over by his great Company of the West, which is chiefly remem- bered by its project of developing the colony of Louisiana in America. On the downfall of Law, a sixth East India Com- 436 EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS French posses- Sions. Danish Company; Scotch ; Spanish ; German, pany was formed by the union of the French East and West India, Senegal, and China Companies, under the name of ‘The Perpetual Company of the Indies,’ in 1719. The exclusive privileges of this Company were, by the French king's decree, suspended in 1769; and the Company was finally abolished by the National Assemby in 1790. Dumas and Dupleix, who were successively governors of the French factories and possessions in India, first conceived the idea of founding an Indian Empire upon the ruins of the Mughal dynasty; and for a time the French nation success- fully contended with the English for the supremacy in the East. The French Settlements in India are still five in number, with an area of 203 square miles, and a population of 282,923 souls in 1891. The brilliant history of our great national rivals is summarized under the article FRENCH POSSESSIONs in The Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. iv. (2nd edition). The first Danish East India Company was formed in 1612, and the second in 1670. The Settlements of Tranquebar and Serampur were both founded in 1616, and acquired by the English by purchase from Denmark in 1845. Other Danish Settlements on the mainland of India were Porto Novo; with Eddova and Holcheri on the Malabar coast. The Company started by the Scotch in 1695 may be regarded as having been still-born. The ‘Royal Company of the Philippine Islands,’ incorporated by the King of Spain in 1733, had little to do with India proper. Of more importance was ‘The Ostend Company,’ incor- porated by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1722;" its factors and agents being chiefly persons who had served in the Dutch and English Companies. This enterprise forms the subject of Carlyle’s ‘Third Shadow Hunt’ of the Emperor Karl v1.2 ‘The Kaiser's Imperial Ostend East India Company, which convulsed the diplomatic mind for seven years to come, and made Europe lurch from side to side in a terrific manner, proved a mere paper Company; never sent ships, only pro- duced Diplomacies, and “had the honour to be.” Carlyle's picturesque paragraphs do not disclose the facts. The Ostend Company formed the One great attempt of the German Empire, then with Austria at its head, to secure a share of the Indian or Ostend Company. Described by Carlyle. * The deed of institution is dated 17th December 1722. * History of Friedrich ZZ. of Prussia, called Frederick the Great, by Thomas Carlyle, vol. i. pp. 555–557 (3rd ed., 1859). GAEA2A/A/V E. Z. COMPA/V/AE.S. 437 trade. It not only sent ships, but it founded two Settle- ments in India which threatened the commerce of the older European Companies. One of its Settlements was at Coblom. Its Indian or Covelong, between the English Madras and the Dutch . Sadras, on the south-eastern coast. The other was at Bánki- pur, or ‘Banky-bazaar,’ on the Huigli river, between the English Calcutta and the Dutch Chinsurah. Each of these German Settlements was regarded with hatred by the English Threaten- and Dutch; and with a more intense fear by the less successful . sºme French, whose adjacent Settlements at Pondicherri on the Ostend Madras coast, and at Chandarnagar on the Hügli, were also 99"P”). threatened by the Ostend Company. - So far from the German Association being ‘a mere paper Company,’ and never sending ships, as Carlyle supposes, its formation was the result of a series of successful experimental voyages. In 1717, Prince Eugène ordered two vessels to Sail for India, under the protection of his own passports. The profits Its experi- of the expedition led to others in succeeding years, and each º voyage proved so fortunate, that the Austrian Emperor found 1717–22. it necessary to protect and consolidate the property of the adventurers by a Charter in 1722. This deed granted to the Ostend Company more favourable terms than any of the other European Companies enjoyed. Its capital was one million Their great sterling; and so great were the profits during its first years, * that its shares brought in 15 per cent. The French, Dutch, and English Companies loudly complained of its factories, built at their very doors, both on the Huiglí river and on the Madras coast. These complaints were warmly taken up by their respective Governments in Europe. For the object which the Emperor Karl VI. had in view Political was political not less than commercial. Prince Eugène had 3. of urged that an India Company might be made to form the Company. nucleus of a German fleet, with a first-class naval station at Ostend on the North Sea, and another at Fiume or Trieste on the Adriatic. Such a fleet would complete the greatness of Germany by sea as by land; and would render her inde- pendent of the Maritime Powers, especially of England and Holland. The Empire would at length put its ports on the Baltic and the Adriatic to a proper use, and would thence- forth exert a commanding maritime influence in Europe. O tº e tº e te g stend The existing Maritime Powers objected to this ; and the Company Ostend Company became the shuttlecock of European oppºsed diplomacy for the next five years. The Dutch and English by the Maritime felt themselves particularly aggrieved. They pleaded the Powers; 438 EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. and sacri- ficed to the Pragmatic Sanction, I727. Ostend Settle- ment destroyed, I733; and dis- appeared from the map. Ostend Company bankrupt, I784; and extin- guished, I793. treaties of Westphalia and Utrecht. After long and loud alter- cations, the Emperor Sacrificed the Ostend Company in 1727 to gain the acceptance of a project nearer his heart—the Prag- matic Sanction for the devolution of his hereditary dominions. To save his honour, the sacrifice at first took the form of a suspension of the Company's Charter for seven years. But the Company was doomed by the Maritime Powers. Its shareholders did not, however, despair. They made attempts to transfer their European centre of trade to Hamburg, Trieste, Tuscany, and even Sweden. Meanwhile the other European Companies in Bengal had taken the law into their own hands. They stirred up the Muhammadan Government against the new-comers. In 1733, the Muhammadan military governor of Hüglí picked a quarrel, in the name of the Delhi Emperor, with the little German Settlement at Bánkipur, which lay about eight miles below Húgli town on the opposite side of the river. The Muhammadan troops besieged Bánkſpur; and the garrison, reduced to four- teen persons, after a despairing resistance against overwhelming numbers, abandoned the place, and set sail for Europe. The Ostend agent lost his right arm by a cannon ball during the attack; and the Ostend Company, together with the German interests which it represented, became thenceforward merely a name in Bengal. Its chief Settlement, Bánkipur or ‘Banky- bazaar,’ has long disappeared from the maps; and I could only trace its existence from a chart of the last century, aided by the records of that period, and by repeated personal inquiry on the spot." The Ostend Company, however, still prolonged its existence in Europe. After a miserable struggle, it became bankrupt in 1784; and was finally extinguished by the arrangements made at the renewal of the English East India Company's Charter in 1793. What the Emperor of Austria had failed to effect, Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, resolved to accomplish. Having got possession of East Friesland in 1744, he tried to convert its capital, Embden, into a great northern port. Among other measures, he gave his royal patronage to the Asiastic Trading Company, started Ist September 1750, and founded the Prussian Com- panies. Asiatic Trading Com- pany of Embden, I75O. * There is an interesting series of MSS. labelled The Ostenders in the India Office. See also the Abbé Raynal's History of the Settlements and 7%rade of the Europeans in the AEast and West Andies, Book v. (pp. 176–182, vol. ii. of the 1776 edition); and the article BANKIPUR on the Húglí in my /mperial Gazetteer of Zndia. - GZA'MAAW F. Z. COMPAAV/AES. 439 Bengalische Handelsgesellschaft on the 24th January 1753. Embden The first of these Companies had a capital of 24, 170,625; ºr but six ships sent successively to China only defrayed their fiels. own expenses, and yielded a profit of Io per cent. in seven gesell- years. The Bengal Company of Embden proved still more º unfortunate ; its existence was summed up in two expeditions which did not pay, and a long and costly lawsuit.” The failure of Frederick the Great's efforts to secure for Their Prussia a share in the Indian trade, resulted to some extent * from the jealousy of the rival European Companies in India. The Dutch, French, and English pilots refused to show the Dutch and way up the dangerous Huigli river to the Embden ships, “ or º any other not belonging to Powers already established in ... the y India.’ ” It is due to the European Companies to state that in ɺlen thus refusing pilots to the new-comers, they were carrying out jº. the orders of the Native Government of Bengal to which they were then strictly subject. ‘If the Germans come here, the The , Nawāb had written to the English merchants on a rumour of Nº. the first Embden expedition reaching India, ‘it will be very against the bad for all the Europeans, but for you worst of all, and you Prussians. will afterwards repent it ; and I shall be obliged to stop all your trade and business. . . . Therefore take care that these German ships do not come.' * “God forbid that they should come,” was the pious response of the President of the English Council; ‘but should this be the case, I am in hopes they will be either sunk, broke, or destroyed.’ They came, nevertheless, and some years later the English English Court of Directors complain that their Bengal servants are *ś º - • privately anxious to trade privately with the Embden Company. “If trade any of the Prussian ships,’ wrote the Court, ‘want the usual Fº assistance of water, provisions, or real necessaries, they are to C.). be supplied according to the customs of nations in amity one with the other. But you are on no pretence whatsoever to have any dealings with them, or give the least assistance in their mercantile affairs.’ ” The truth is that the German Com- * These dates are taken from Carlyle's Frederick the Great, vol. iv. pp. 367, 368 (ed. I864). Carlyle’s account of the Embden Companies is un- fortunately of slight historical value. * The commercial details of these Companies are given by the Abbé Raynal, op. cit. ii. pp. 20I, 202. - * Despatch from the Calcutta Council to the Court of Directors, dated 6th September 1754, para. II. * Letter from the Nawāb of Murshidābād; Bengal Consultations of 19th August I75I. * Letter from the Court of Directors to the Calcutta Council, March 25 I756, para. 7 I. 440 EARZY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. Frederick sacrifices the Com- pany. Swedish Company, I 73 I. Causes of failure : of the Portu- guese ; of the Dutch ; of the French. Causes of failure of the Ger- Iſla IIS, Revival of German trade in India. pany had effected an entrance into Bengal, and found the French, English, and Dutch merchants quite willing to trade with it on their private account. But the German investments were made without experience, and the Embden Company was before long sacrificed by the Prussian king to the exi- gencies of his European diplomacy. The last nation of Europe to engage in maritime trade with India was Sweden. When the Ostend Company was sus- pended, a number of its servants were thrown out of em- ployment. Mr. Henry Köning, of Stockholm, took advantage of their knowledge of the East, and obtained a Charter for the ‘Swedish Company,’ dated 13th June 1731. This Company was reorganized in 1806, but did little ; and, after many troubles, disappeared from India. Such is a summary of the efforts by European nations to obtain a share in the India trade. The Portuguese failed, because they attempted a task altogether beyond their strength; the conquest and the conversion of India. Their memorials are the epic of the Lusiads, the death-roll of the Inquisition, an indigent half-caste population, and three decayed patches of territory on the Bombay coast. The Dutch failed on the Indian continent, because their trade was based on a mono- poly which it was impossible to maintain, except by great and costly armaments. Their monopoly, however, still flourishes in their isolated island dominion of Java. The French failed, in spite of the brilliancy of their arms and the genius of their generals, from want of steady support at home. Their ablest Indian servants fell victims to a corrupt court and a careless people. Their surviving Settlements disclose that talent for careful administration, which, but for French monarchs and their ministers and their mistresses, might have been displayed throughout a wide Indian Empire. The German Companies, whether Austrian or Prussian, were sacrificed to the diplomatic necessities of their royal patrons in Europe; and to the dependence of the German States in the wars of the last century upon the Maritime Powers. But the Germans have never abandoned the struggle. The share in the Indian trade which Prussian King and Austrian Kaiser failed to grasp in the 18th century, has been gradually acquired by German merchants in our own day. An important part of the commerce of Calcutta and Bombay is now conducted by German firms; German mer- A UAEOPEAN TRADERS, 1872-91. 44 I cantile agents are to be found in the rice districts, the jute districts, the cotton districts; and persons of German nation- ality have rapidly increased in the Indian Census returns." England emerged the prize-winner from the long contest of Çauses of the European nations for India. Her success was partly the º: good gift of fortune, but chiefly the result of four elements in India. the national character. There was—first, a marvellous patience and self-restraint in refusing to enter on territorial conquests or projects of Indian aggrandizement, until she had gathered strength enough to succeed. Second, an indomitable per- sistence in those projects once they were entered on ; and a total incapacity, on the part of her servants in India, of being stopped by defeat. Third, an admirable mutual con- fidence of the Company’s servants in each other in times of trouble. Fourth, and chief of all, the resolute support of the English nation at home. England has never doubted that she must retrieve, at whatever strain to herself, every disaster which may befall Englishmen in India ; and she has never sacrificed the work of her Indian servants to the exigencies of her diplomacy in Europe. She was the only European Power Fixed which unconsciously but absolutely carried out these two #: principles of policy. The result of that policy, pursued during i.". two and a half centuries, is the British India of to-day. The increasing extent to which the chief continental nations European of Europe now resort to British India, may be inferred from º II]. the following table. These figures are exclusive of Euro- 1881, and peans in French and Portuguese territory, and in the Native 1891. States:— * See table on next page. [COMPARATIVE TABLE. 442 EAAEI, V EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF EUROPEANS IN BRITISH INDIA, BORN IN THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF EUROPE (ExCLUSIVE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND), IN 1872, 1881, AND 1891. NAME of Country. Number in 1872. Number in 1881. Number in 1891. Austria, * tº 53 294 . 4 II Belgium, Temper of the Sepoys. Other alleged CallSCS of the Mutiny. The vartous motives assigned for the Mutiny appear inadequate to the European mind. The truth seems to be that Native opinion throughout India was in a ferment, pre- disposing men to believe the wildest stories, and to rush into action in a paroxysm of terror. Panic acts on an Oriental population like drink upon a European mob. The annexation. policy of Lord Dalhousie, although dictated by the most enlightened considerations, was distasteful to the Native mind. The spread of education, the appearance at the same moment of the steam-engine and the telegraph wire, seemed to reveal a deep plan for substituting an English for an Indian civilisation. The Bengal Sepoys especially thought that they could see farther than the rest of their countrymen. Most of them were Hindus of high caste; many of them were recruited from Oudh. They regarded our reforms on Western lines as attacks on their own nationality, and they knew at first hand what annexation meant. They believed it was by their prowess that the Punjab had been conquered, and that all India was held. The numerous dethroned princes, or their heirs and widows, were the first to learn and take advantage of this spirit of disaffection and panic. They had heard of the Crimean war, and were told that Russia was the perpetual enemy of England. Our munificent pensions to their families had supplied the funds with which they could buy the aid of skilful intriguers. ; On the other hand, the Company had not sufficiently opened up the higher posts in its service to natives of education, talent, or proved fidelity. It had taken important steps in this direction in respect to the lower grades of appointments. But the prizes of Indian official life, many of which are now thrown open to £atives of India by the Crown, were then the monopoly of a handful of Englishmen. Shortly before the Mutiny, Sir Henry"Lawrence pointed out that even A CA USES OF THE MUZZAVY. 489 : the army supplied no career to a Native officer which could Satisfy the reasonable ambition of an able man. He insisted on the serious dangers arising from this state of things; but his warnings were unheeded till too late. In the crisis of the Mutiny they were remembered. He was nominated provisional Governor-General in event of any accident happening to Lord Canning; and the Queen's proclamation, on the transfer of the Government from the Company to the Crown at the end of the great struggle, affirmed the principle which he had so powerfully urged. “And it is our further will,’ are Her Majesty's gracious words, “that, so far as may be, our subjects, of whatever race or creed, be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of which they may be qualified by their education, ability, and integrity duly to discharge.” Under the Company this liberal policy was unknown. The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, therefore, found ºpy of the Indian princes, especially the dethroned dynasties, hostile to the Company; while a multitude of its own Native officers were either actively disloyal or indifferent to its fate. In this critical state of affairs, a rumour ran through the The , , Native army that the cartridges served out to the Bengal #: regiments had been greased with the fat of cows, the sacred animal of the Hindus; and even with the lard of pigs— animals which are unclean alike to Hindu and Muhammadan. No assurances could quiet the minds of the Sepoys. Indeed, the evidence shows that a disastrous blunder had in truth been made in this matter—a blunder which, although quickly ". remedied, was remedied too late. As a matter of fact, cows' tallow had, with a culpable ignorance, been used in the ammunition factories. Steps were quickly taken to prevent - the defiling cartridges from reaching the hands and mouths of the Sepoys. But no assurances could quiet their perturbed and excited minds. Fires occurred nightly in the Native lines; ..officers were insulted by their men; confidence was gone, and only the form of discipline remained. A .." In addition, the outbreak of the storm found the Native The army regiments denuded of many of their best officers. The º: administration of the great Empire to which Dalhousie had put the corner-stone, required a larger staff than the Civil Service could supply. The practice of selecting able military men for civil posts, which had long existed, received a sudden and vast, development. Oudh, the Punjab, the Central Provinces, and Lower Burma, were administered to a large extent by picked 490 Aſ/STORY OF PAE/T/SAT A207/A2. t officers from the Company's regiments. Good and skilful commanders remained; but the Native army had nevertheless been drained of many of its brightest intellects and firmest wills at the very crisis of its fate. At the same time the British troops in India had, in spite of Lord Dalhousie's solemn warnings and repeated remonstrances, been reduced far below the strength which the great Governor-General declared to be essential to the safety of our rule. His earnest representations on this subject, and as to the urgent necessity for a reform alike of the Native and the British armies of India, were lying disregarded in London when the panic about the “greased cartridges’ spread through the Native regiments, and the storm burst upon Bengal. In the following narrative, only the briefest summary can be attempted of the development of the revolt. The events of which it treats belong to our own day. Any detailed account of them would involve the criticism of measures on which history has not even yet pronounced her calm verdict, and would lead to personal praise or blame of still living men. Each episode of the Mutiny is fully described, from the local point of view, in my Imperial Gazetteer of India, under the name of the town or district in which it occurred." On the afternoon of Sunday, Ioth May 1857, the Sepoys at Meerut (Mirath), broke into open mutiny.” They broke into the jail, liberated the prisoners, and rushed in a wild torrent through the cantonments, cutting down a few Europeans. They then streamed off to the city of Delhi, to stir up the Native garrison and the criminal population of that great city, and to place themselves under the authority of the discrowned Mughal Emperor. Meerut was the largest military station in Northern India, with a strong European garrison of foot, horse, and guns, sufficient to overwhelm the mutineers before ever they reached Delhi. But as the Sepoys acted in irrational haste, so the British officers, in but too many cases, acted with equally irrational indecision. The news of the outbreak was telegraphed to Delhi, and nothing more was done that night. Outbreak of the Mutiny, May 1857. At Meerut. .** * The Mutiny of 1857 has already a copious literature. Sir John Kaye's Aistory of the Sepoy War (3 vols.), with its able and eloquent continuation by Colonel Malleson, C.S.I., as The History of the Indian Mutiny (3 vols.), forms the standard work. Two excellent popular accounts, respectively from the political and the military point of view, will be found in Sir Henry Cunningham's Zord Camming, and Sir Owen Burne's Cyde and Strathnairm, both in the ‘Rulers of India’ series. Sir Charles Aitchison's Zord Zazwrence in the same series should also be consulted. *See article MEERUT, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. *A. THE SEAOY MUTINY, 1857. 49 I At the moment when one strong will might have saved India, no soldier in authority at Meerut seemed able to think or act. The next morning the Muhammadans of Delhi rose, and all that At Delhi. the Europeans there could do was to blow up the magazine. A rallying centre and a traditional name were thus given to the revolt, which forthwith spread like wild-fire through the North-Western Provinces and Oudh down into Lower Bengal. The same narrative must suffice for all the outbreaks, although each episode has its own story of sadness and devotion. The Sepoys rose on their officers, usually without warning, sometimes Spread after protestations of fidelity. The Europeans, or persons of sº, Christian faith, were frequently massacred ; occasionally, also, summer the women and children. The jail was broken open, the **57. treasury plundered, and the mutineers marched off to some centre of revolt, to join in what had now become a national War. In the Punjab the Sepoys were anticipated by measures of repression and disarmament, carried out by Sir John Lawrence and his lieutenants, among whom Edwardes and Nicholson stand conspicuous. The Sikh population never wavered. Loyalty of Crowds of willing recruits came down from the Afghān hills. ** And thus the Punjab, instead of being itself a source of danger, was able to furnish a portion of its own garrison for the siege of Delhi. In Lower Bengal many of the Sepoys mutinied, and then dispersed in different directions. The Native armies of Madras and Bombay remained true to their colours. In Central India, the contingents of some of the great chiefs sooner or later. joined the rebels, but the Muham- madan State of Haidarābād was kept loyal by the authority of its able minister, the late Sir Sālār Jang. A The main interest of the Sepoy War gathers round the three cities of Cawnpur, Lucknow, and Delhi. Cawnpur contained Cawnpur. one of the great Native garrisons of India. At Bithūr, not far off, was the palace of Dundhu Panth, the heir of the last Peshwā (ante, pp. 382, 473), who had inherited his savings, but had failed to procure a continuance of his pension ; and whose more familiar name of Náná Sáhib will ever be handed Náná down to infamy. At first the Náná was profuse in his pro- Sáhib. fessions of loyalty; but when the Sepoys at Cawnpur mutinied * on the 6th June, he put himself at their head, and was pro- claimed Peshwä of the Maráthás. The Europeans at Cawnpur, numbering more women and e children than fighting men, shut themselves up in an ill-chosen º' e º chosen hasty entrenchment, where they heroically bore a siege for position. p 492 Aſ/STOA Y OF BAC/TVSA. AEU/A2. nineteen days under the sun of a tropical June. Every one had courage and endurance to suffer or to die; but the directing mind was again absent. On the 27th June, trusting to a safe-conduct from the Náná as far as Allahābād, they Surrendered, and, to the number of 450, embarked in boats on the Ganges. Forthwith a murderous fire was opened upon them from the river bank. Only a single boat escaped, and but four men, who swam across to the protection of a friendly Rájá, ultimately survived to tell the tale. The rest of the men were massacred on the spot. The women and children, numbering 125, were reserved for the same fate on the 15th July, when the avenging army of Havelock was at hand." Sir Henry Lawrence, the Chief Commissioner of Oudh, had foreseen the storm. He fortified and provisioned the Residency at Lucknow, and thither he retired with all the European inhabitants and a weak British regiment on 2nd July. Two days later, he was mortally wounded by a shell. Whatever opinion may be formed of Sir Henry Lawrence's capacity as a soldier in his one unfortunate engagement, he clearly per- ceived the main strategic and political points in the struggle. Lawrence had deliberately chosen his position; and the little garrison held out under unparalleled hardships and against enormous odds, until relieved by Havelock and Outram on 25th September. But the relieving force was itself invested by fresh swarms of rebels; and it was not until November that Sir Colin Campbell (afterwards Lord Clyde) cut his way into Lucknow, and effected the final deliverance of the garrison 4 (16th November 1857). Our troops then withdrew to more urgent work, and did not finally re-occupy Lucknow till March 1858. º The siege of Delhi began on 8th June, one month after the original outbreak at Meerut. Siege in the proper sense of the word it was not; for the British army, encamped on the historic “ridge,’ at no time exceeded 8ooo men, while the rebels within the walls were more than 30,000 strong. In the middle of August, Nicholson arrived with a reinforcement from the Punjab ; but his own inspiring presence was even more valuable than the reinforcement he brought. On 14th Sep- tember the assault was delivered, and, after six days' desperate fighting in the streets, Delhi was again won. Nicholson fell at the head of the storming party. Hodson, the fierce leader Massacre of Cawn- pur. Lucknow. Sir Henry Lawrence. Siege of Delhi, June to Sept. 1857. Nicholson. * See article CAwNPUR, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. * See article LUCKNow, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. SUPPRESS/OW OF THE MUTINY 493 of a corps of irregular horse, hunted down next day the old Mughal Emperor, Bahádur Sháh, and his sons. The Emperor was afterwards sent a State prisoner to Rangoon, where he lived till 1862. As the mob pressed in on the guard around the Emperor's sons, near Delhi, Hodson found it necessary to shoot down the princes (who had been captured uncondition- ally) with his own hand." After the fall of Delhi and the final relief of Lucknow, the Oudh war loses its dramatic interest, although fighting went on in * various parts of the country for eighteen months longer. The population of Oudh and Rohilkhand, stimulated by the presence of the Begam of Oudh, the Nawāb of Bareilly, and Náná Sáhib himself, had joined the mutinous Sepoys en masse. In this quarter of India alone it was the revolt of a people rather than the mutiny of an army that had to be quelled. Sir Colin Campbell (afterwards Lord Clyde) conducted the by Lord campaign in Oudh, which lasted through two cold seasons.” Clyde. Valuable assistance was lent by Sir Jang Bahádur of Nepāl, at the head of his gallant Gürkhas. Town after town was occupied, fort after fort was stormed, until the last gun had been recaptured, and the last fugitive had been chased across the frontier by January 1859. In the meanwhile, Sir Hugh Rose (afterwards Lord Strath- Sir Hugh nairn), with another army from Bombay, was conducting an §. even more brilliant campaign in Central India. His most I.ii. formidable antagonists were the disinherited Rání or Princess of Jhānsſ, and Tántia Topi, whose military talent had previously inspired Náná Sáhib with all the capacity for resistance which he ever displayed. The Princess died fighting bravely at the head of her troops in June 1858.” Tántia Topf, after doubling backwards and forwards through Central India, was at last betrayed and run down in April 1859. The Company’s Charter had been granted from time to time Renewals for periods of twenty years, and each renewal had formed an ºf the opportunity for a national inquest into the management of lº, India. The Parliamentary Inquiry of 1813 abolished the Charter, Company's monopoly of Indian trade, and compelled it to I813–15. direct its energies in India to the good government of the people. The Charter Act of 1833 did away with its Chinese trade, and nominally opened up administrative offices in India 1 See article DELHI CITY, The Imperial Gazetteer of Zndia. * See article BAREILLY, The Imperial Gazetteer of Zndia. * See article JHANSI, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. 494 HISTORY OF BRITISH RULE. Its privileges curtailed. Downfall of the Company, 1858. Its history epito- Inized, 1773-1858. Act of I784. Act of 1833. Act of I853. to the natives, irrespective of caste, creed, or race. The Act of 1853 abolished the patronage by which the Company filled up the superior or covenanted branch of its Civil Service. It laid down the principle that the administration of India was too national a concern to be left to the chances of benevolent nepotism; and that England's representatives in India must be chosen openly, and without favour, from the youth of England. The Mutiny sealed the fate of the East India Company, after a life of more than two and a half centuries. The original Company received its Charter of Incorporation from Elizabeth in 16oo. Its political powers, and the constitution of the Indian Government, were derived from the Regulating Act of 1773, passed by the Ministry of Lord North. By that statute the Governor of Bengal was raised to the rank of Governor-General; and, in conjunction with his Council of four other members, he was entrusted with the duty of superintending and controlling the Governments of Madras and Bombay, so far as regarded questions of peace and war: a Supreme Court of Judicature was appointed at Calcutta, to which the judges were appointed by the Crown ; and a power of making rules, ordinances, and regulations was conferred upon the Governor-General and his Council. Next came the India Bill of Pitt (1784), which founded the Board of Control, strengthened the Supremacy of Bengal over the other Presi- dencies, and first authorized the historical phrase, ‘Governor- General-in-Council.’ The new Charter Act which abolished the Company's Chinese trade in 1833, introduced successive reforms into the constitution of the Indian Government. It added to the Council a Law-member, who need not be chosen from among the Company's servants, and was entitled to be present only at meetings for making Laws and Regulations. It accorded the authority of Acts of Parliament to the Laws and Regula- tions so made, subject to the disallowance of the Court of Directors. It appointed a Law Commission; and it gave the Governor-General-in-Council a control over the other Presi- dencies, in all points relating to the civil or military admini- stration. The Charter of the Company was renewed for the last time in 1853, not for a definite period of years, but only for so long as Parliament should see fit. On this occasion the number of Directors was reduced, and, as above stated, their patronage as regards appointments to the covenanted Civil Service was taken away, to make room for the principle of open competition. AV/D/A UAV/D EAC THE CA’O WAV, 495 The Act for the better government of India (1858), which India finally transferred the entire administration from the Company ºned to the Crown, was not passed without an eloquent protest from Crºwn, the Directors, nor without acrimonious party discussion in 1858. Parliament. It enacts that India shall be governed by, and in the name of, the Queen of England through one of her principal Secretaries of State, assisted by a Council of fifteen members. The Governor-General received the new title of . The Viceroy. The European troops of the Company, numbering W*)' about 24,000 officers and men, were amalgamated with the Royal service, and the Indian navy was abolished. By the Indian Councils Act (1861), the Governor-General's Council, and also the Councils at Madras and Bombay, were aug- mented by the addition of non-official members, either natives or Europeans, for legislative purposes only. By another Act, also passed in 1861, High Courts of Judicature were constituted out of the old Supreme Courts at the Presidency towns. It fell to the lot of Lord Canning both to suppress the India Mutiny and to introduce the peaceful revolution which ...he followed. It suffices to say that he preserved his equanimity 1853-62. unruffled in the darkest hours of peril, and that the strict impartiality of his conduct incurred alternate praise and blame from partisans of both sides. The epithet then scornfully levelled at him of ‘Clemency’ Canning is now remembered only to his honour. On the 1st November 1858, at a grand Queen's darbār held at Allahābād, he published the Royal Proclama-..." tion, which announced that the Queen had assumed the Nov. 1858. Government of India. This document, which is, in the truest and noblest sense, the Magna Charta of the Indian people, proclaimed in eloquent words a policy of justice and religious toleration; and granted an amnesty to all except those who had directly taken part in the murder of British subjects. Peace was proclaimed throughout India on the 8th July 1859. In the following cold weather, Lord Canning made a viceregal progress through the Northern Provinces, to receive the homage of loyal princes and chiefs, and to guarantee to them the right of adoption. The suppression of the Mutiny increased the debt of India Cost of the by about 40 millions sterling, and the military changes which *). ensued augmented the annual expenditure by about 1o millions. To grapple with this deficit, a distinguished political economist and parliamentary financier, Mr. James Wilson, was sent out from England as Financial Member of Council. He re- 496 Aſ ZSTO AE V OA' BA’/7”/SAT A3 U/A. Financial reforms. Legal reforms. Lord Elgin, 1862–63. Lord Lawrence, 1864–69. Events of his Vice- royalty. Lord Mayo, 1869–72. Ambálá darbār, 1869. organized the customs system, imposed an income-tax and a licence duty, and created a State paper currency. He died in the midst of his splendid task; but his name still lives as that of the first and greatest Finance Minister of India. The Penal Code, originally drawn up by Macaulay in 1837, passed into law in 1860; together with Codes of Civil and Criminal Pro- cedure in 1861. Lord Canning left India in March 1862, and died before he had been a month in England. His successor, Lord Elgin, only lived till November 1863. He expired at the Himálayan station of Dharmsálá, and there he lies buried. He was succeeded by Sir John (afterwards Lord) Lawrence, the saviour of the Punjab. The chief incidents of Lord Lawrence's rule were the Bhutan war, followed by the annexa- tion of the Bhutan Dwórs in 1864, and the terrible Orissa famine of 1866. In a later famine in Bundelkhand and Upper Hindustán in 1868–69, Lord Lawrence laid down the principle, for the first time in Indian history, that the officers of the Government would be held personally responsible for taking every possible means to avert death by starvation. An inquiry was conducted into the status of the peasantry of Oudh, and an Act was passed with a view to securing them in their customary rights. After a period of fratricidal war among the sons of Dost Muhammad, the Afghān territories were concentrated in the hands of Sher Ali, and the latter was acknowledged as Amír by Lord Lawrence." A commercial crisis took place in 1866, which seriously threatened the young tea industry in Bengal, and caused widespread ruin in Bombay. Sir John Lawrence retired in January 1869, after having passed through every grade of Indian service, from an Assistant Magistracy to the Viceroyalty. On his return to England he was raised to the peerage. He died in 1879, and lies in Westminster Abbey. Lord Mayo succeeded Lord Lawrence in 1869, and urged on the material progress of India. The Ambalá darbār, at which Sher Alí was recognised as Amír of Afghānistán, although in one sense the completion of what Lord Lawrence had begun, owed its success to Lord Mayo. The visit of His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh in 1869–70 * On the subject of Anglo-Indian Codification, vide ante, chap. iv. pp. I60, I61. #- PRINCE OF WAZES Tour. 497 gave great pleasure to the natives of India, and introduced a tone of personal loyalty into our relations with the feudatory princes. g * Lord Mayo reformed several of the great branches of the Lord administration, created an Agricultural Department, and intro-Mºyo's tº tº g g reforms. duced the system of Provincial Finance. The impulse to p.a. local Self-government given by the last measure has done finance. much, and will do more, to develop and husband the revenues of India; to quicken the sense of responsibility among the English administrators; and to awaken political life among the people. Lord Mayo also laid the foundation for the reform of the Salt Duties. He thus enabled his successors to abolish Customs. the old pernicious customs-lines which walled off Province time. from Province, and strangled the trade between British India and the Feudatory States. He developed the material resources of the country by an immense extension of roads, railways, and canals, thus carrying out the beneficent system of Public Works which Lord Dalhousie had inaugurated. Lord Mayo's splendid vigour defied alike the climate and the vast tasks which he imposed on himself. He anxiously and labori- ously studied with his own eyes the wants of the farthest - Provinces of the Empire. But his life of noble usefulness was Lord cut short by the hand of an assassin, in the convict settlement * § death, of the Andaman Islands, in 1872. r. - 1872. His successor was Lord Northbrook, whose ability found Lord pre-eminent scope in the department of finance." During his .º Viceroyalty, a famine which threatened Lower Bengal in 1874 1872-76. was successfully obviated by a vast organization of State relief; the Maráthá Gáekwár of Baroda was dethroned in 1875 for misgovernment and disloyalty, but his dominions were continued to a child selected from the family; and the Prince Prince of of Wales made a tour through the country in the cold weather Yº of 1875–76. The presence of His Royal Highness evoked a 18; 76. passionate burst of loyalty never before known in the annals of British India. The feudatory chiefs and ruling houses of India felt for the first time that they were incorporated into the Empire of an ancient and a splendid dynasty. * It would be unsuitable to attempt anything beyond the barest sum- mary of events in India since the death of Lord Mayo in 1872. Four of the five Viceroys who have ruled during the past twenty years are, happily, still living (1892); their policy forms the subject of keen con- temporary criticism ; and the administrators, soldiers, and diplomatists who gave effect to that policy still hold possession of the scene. jº 2 I 498 AZSTORY OF BAe ITVSAſ. At ULF. Lord Lytton, 1876–80, The ‘Empress of India.” Famine of 1877–78. Afghān affairs, 1878–81. Marquess of Ripon, 1880–81. Lord Lytton followed Lord Northbrook in 1876. On January 1, 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India at a darbār of unparalleled magnificence, held in the old Delhi cantonment behind the historic “ridge’—the “ridge’ from which in 1857 the British had reconquered the revolted Mughal capital. But while the princes and high officials of the country were flocking to this gorgeous scene, the shadow of famine was darkening over Southern India. Both the mon- soons of 1876 had failed to bring their due supply of rain, and the season of 1877 was little better. This long-continued drought stretched from the Deccan to Cape Comorin, and subsequently invaded Northern India, causing a famine more widespread than any similar calamity since 1770. Despite vast importations of grain by sea and rail, despite the most strenuous exertions of the Government, which incurred a total expenditure on this account of II millions sterling, the loss of life from actual starvation and its attendant train of diseases was lamentable. The deaths from want of food, and from the diseases incident to a famine-stricken population, were estimated at 5% millions. In the autumn of 1878, the affairs of Afghānistán again forced themselves into notice. Sher Alí, the Amír, who had been hospitably entertained by Lord Mayo, was found to be favouring Russian intrigues. A British embassy was refused admittance to his capital, while a Russian mission was received with honour. This led to a declaration of war. British armies advanced by three routes — the Kháibar (Khyber), the Kuram, and the Bolān; and without much opposition occupied the inner entrances of the passes. Sher Alí fled to Afghān Türkistan, and there died. A treaty was entered into with his son, Yákub Khán, at Gandamak, by which the British frontier was advanced to the crests or farther sides of the passes, and a British officer was admitted to reside at Kábul. Within a few months the British Resident, Sir Louis Cavagnari, was treacherously attacked and mas- sacred, together with his escort, and a second war became necessary. Yákub Khán abdicated, and was deported to India. At this crisis of affairs, a general election in England re- sulted in a defeat of the Conservative Ministry. Lord Lytton resigned simultaneously with the Home Government, and the Marquess of Ripon was nominated as his successor in April 1880. In that year a British brigade received a defeat J.O.RZ) • Å2/AOAV’.S A&AEATO AEM.S. 499 between Kandahár and the Helmand river from the Herät troops of Ayub Khān; a defeat promptly and completely retrieved by the brilliant march of General Sir Frederick Roberts from Kábul to Kandahár, and by the total rout of Ayūb Khán's army on 1st September 1880. Abdur Rahmán Khán, the eldest male representative of the stock of Dost Muhammad, was recognised by us as Amír. The British forces Afghān retired from Kábul, leaving him, as our friend, in possession *:::::: of the capital. The withdrawal of our troops from Kandahár IööO—84. was also effected. Soon afterwards Ayūb Khān advanced with an army from Herät, defeated the Amír Abdur Rahmān's troops, and captured Kandahár. His success was short-lived. The Amír Abdur Rahmán marched south with his forces from Kábul, completely routed Ayūb Khán, re-occupied Kandahár, and still reigns as undisputed Amír of Afghānistán (1892). In 1884 a Boundary Commission was appointed, with the Consent of the Amír, to settle, in conjunction with Russian Commissioners, the north-western frontier of Afghānistán. The Native State of Mysore, which had been administered Mysore, by the British on behalf of the Hindu ruling family since 1831, *. was replaced under its hereditary dynasty on the 25th March 1881. During the remaining years of Lord Ripon's administration Lord (1881–84) peace was maintained in India. The Viceroy took Ripon's advantage of this lull to carry out certain important reforms in i. the internal government of the country. The years 1882–84 are stration, memorable for these great measures. By the repeal of Lord ** Lytton's Vernacular Press Act, he set free the Native journals from the last restraints on the free discussion of public questions. His scheme of local self-government developed the municipal institutions which had been growing up since India passed to the Crown. By a series of enactments, larger powers of local self-government were given to rural and urban boards, and the elective principle received a wider application. Where rural Local boards did not exist, he endeavoured to utilize the local materials 99Wº: available for their formation; and from this point of view he ment Acts. may be said to have extended the principle of local self- government from the towns to the country. Where rural boards already existed, he increased their powers; and as far as possible sought to give them a representative basis. An attempt to extend the jurisdiction of the rural criminal Amend- courts over European British subjects, independently of the 㺠race or nationality of the presiding judge, excited Strong public Procedure. feeling, and ended in a compromise. The principle was asserted 5oo A/STORY OF PAEAT/SH RULE. Depart- ment of Agri- culture, 1881–84. Revenue reforms. Education Commis- sion, 1882–83. in regard to Native officers belonging to the Superior Civil Service who had attained to a certain standing, namely District Magistrates and Sessions Judges. At the same time, the European community received a further extension of trial by jury, which enables European British subjects to claim a jury, if they see fit to do so, in nearly all cases before the District criminal tribunals. One of the earliest acts of Lord Ripon's Viceroyalty was the re-establishment of the Department of Revenue and Agriculture in accordance with the recommendation of the Famine Com- mission. This department had been originally instituted by Lord Mayo; but, some years after his death, its functions had been distributed between the Finance and Home Departments. It was now reconstituted substantially on its former basis, as a distinct secretariat of the Government of India. It at once took up the recommendations of the Famine Commission; both those bearing on famine relief, and those dealing with Organic reforms in the administration of the land revenue. Agri- cultural improvements, exhibitions of Indian produce, whether in India or in Europe, and works elucidating the raw produce of the country, received its special attention. Its reforms in the administration of the land revenue were largely directed to prevent re-settlements in temporarily settled districts from bearing too heavily on the cultivators. Such re-settlements are in future, except in special cases, to avoid re-measurement and vexatious inquisitions, and are to leave to the landlord or husbandman the entire profits accruing from improvements carried out by himself. Henceforth, an enhancement of the land revenue is to be made mainly on the grounds (1) of a rise in prices, (2) of an increase in the cultivated area, and (3) of improvements which have been made at the expense of the Government. The Agricultural Department superintends a variety of important operations bearing on the development of the country and the welfare of the people; including surveys, emigration, the meteorological bureau, the extension of veterinary aid, and the statistics of internal commerce. Lord Ripon also appointed an Education Commission with a view to the spread of popular instruction on a broader basis. This Commission, after hearing evidence and collecting data throughout the Presidencies and Provinces of India, reported in 1883. The result of its labours was a Resolution of the Governor-General-in-Council, which, while encouraging all grades of education, provided specially for the advance of ZOA D DUFFER/W, 1884–88. 5o I primary instruction at a more equal pace with higher educa- tion. The Recommendations of the Commission, and the Government Resolution based upon them, gave encourage- ment to the indigenous schools which in some Provinces had not previously received a sufficient recognition from the State Department of Public Instruction. The Commission's Recommendations strongly affirmed the principle of self-help in the extension of high schools and colleges, and laid particular stress on the duty of assisting primary education from provincial and municipal funds. They endeavoured to provide for backward sections of the people, particularly the Muhammadans, who for various causes had found themselves unable to avail themselves fully of the State system of public instruction, or in regard to whom that system had proved defective. The general effect of the Com- mission's labours, and of the Government Resolution based thereon, is to give a more liberal recognition to private effort of every kind, and to schools and colleges conducted on the system of grants-in-aid. In 1882, Lord Ripon's Finance Minister, Sir Evelyn Baring, Abolition abolished the import duties on cotton goods; and with them, 3. ºoms almost the whole import customs, saving a few exceptions, such 382.” as those on arms, liquors, etc., were abolished. In 1884, a Committee of the House of Commons took evidence on railway extension in India, and embodied their recommenda- tions in a Parliamentary Report. The condition of the agricultural population in Bengal occupied the close attention of Lord Ripon throughout his whole Viceroyalty. After keen Bengal discussions, prolonged during many years, he left a Tenancy Tºney º e g * , ill. Bill, regulating the relations of landlord and tenant in Bengal, almost ready to be passed by his successor. The Marquess of Ripon retired from the Viceroyalty at the end of 1884, and was succeeded by the Earl of Dufferin (after-Earl of wards Marquess of Dufferin and Ava). In the spring of 1885, ; Lord Dufferin passed the Bengal Tenancy Bill through its final stage in the Legislature; and held a darbār at Râwal Pindi for the reception of the Amír of Afghānistán. The result of the meeting was to strengthen the British relations with that ruler. During the summer of the same year, 1885, the hostile Burmese attitude of the King of Independent Burma forced itself upon º the attention of the British Government. After repeated but fruitless remonstrances, a British expedition was despatched 5O2 Aſ/STOA’Y OF PAC/T/SAE/ R U/A. Russian attack on the from Bengal and Madras to Rangoon. Timely warning was given to the Burmese sovereign of our intentions and just demands. But King Thebau, who had inaugurated his reign by a family massacre, and had steadily refused to redress the wrongs of certain British subjects whom he had injured, remained defiant. He vainly sought aid against the English from foreign powers, and even tried to intrigue with the French. As all our pacific proposals were rejected, a military force under General Prendergast moved up the Irawadi in a flotilla of steamers. The opposition encountered was insigni- ficant. On November 28, 1885, the capital, Mandalay, was occupied without fighting; King Thebau surrendered, and was sent a prisoner to Rangoon. His dominions of Upper Burma." were annexed to the Empire of British India by Proclamation on the 1st of January 1886. In the following February, Lord Dufferin proceeded in person to Burma to settle the admini- stration of the new Province. Eventually King Thebau was deported for safe custody to British India, where he still lives on a liberal pension (1892). Early in 1886, also, a great Camp of Exercise was held on the memorable battle-plain of Pánipat in the Punjab. The fortress of Gwalior was given back to its hereditary chief, the Mahārājā Sindhia, as a pledge of the goodwill and friendship of the British Government. One of the most important series of measures during Lord Dufferin's Viceroyalty was directed to the strengthening of the Afghans at North-Western frontier of India. A Boundary Commission Penjdeh, 1885. was appointed in concert with Russia for the delimitation of the Afghān frontier on the Oxus and towards Central Asia. The Penjdeh incident occurred during these operations, and opened the eyes of both India and England to the danger of aggression from Russia. It evoked a great outburst of loyalty to the British Power among the princes and peoples of India. During the critical time, when it seemed likely that the Russian attack on the Afghāns at Penjdeh must lead to a declaration of war by Great Britain, the Indian princes vied with each other in munificent offers of aid in money and men. Some of them placed their whole armies unreservedly at our disposal; some pleaded earnestly that they might be allowed to maintain their troops at their own expense while fighting for us against the Russians; others offered to supply transport and commissariat materials; while movements took place among the natives in some of the British Provinces with a view to the formation of bodies of volunteers. The Russian J.O.R.D ZAAWSDO WAVE, 1888–93. 503 concessions happily rendered a war unnecessary, but the out- burst of Indian loyalty to the British Power which it evoked was destined, as we shall see presently, to leave permanent and valuable results behind. During 1887 the new territories of Upper Burma were being The gradually reduced to order, and the daćait bands dispersed. §. In the same year the Jubilee (or fiftieth year of the reign) of #337; " Her Majesty the Queen-Empress Victoria was celebrated with universal enthusiasm throughout India. A great Commission inquired into the question of more largely employing Native officers in the higher branches of the administration. The Earl of Dufferin retired in 1888, and was created Marquess of Dufferin and Ava for the signal services which he had rendered during his Viceroyalty. The Marquess of Lansdowne succeeded Lord Dufferin, and Marquess still remains Viceroy at the time when this book is written. . Under Lord Lansdowne's rule (with Sir Frederick, afterwards 1888 to Lord, Roberts as his Commander-in-Chief) the defences of the *93. North-Western frontier of India have been strengthened, and the passes from Afghānistán have been secured against any possible invaders. At the same time, the Native chiefs have been allowed to take a more important position than before in the armies of India. A number of them had, as we have seen, come forward with offers of money and troops to aid in the defence of the country. Under Lord Lansdowne these offers were accepted, and a maturely planned system of Imperial Contingents was organized and initiated. Many of the Feu- datories now maintain regiments, carefully drilled and armed, which in time of war would serve with the troops of the British Government. These regiments, or Imperial Contingents, are kept up free of cost to the British Government, and are a free- will offering to it from the loyalty of the Native princes, who have greatly prospered under the Queen's rule. While the Native princes proved thus zealous to aid the Progress Sovereign Power, the peoples and races in the British Pro- *. vinces were making progress in the lessons of local self-govern- ment. ment. Municipal Councils and District Boards have, during the past thirty years, been gradually created throughout India. Such Councils and Boards received a powerful impulse, with extended opportunities for usefulness, from the measures of Lord Ripon. Their members consist chiefly of Native gentle- men, many of whom are elected by their fellow - citizens. These Municipal Councils and District Boards now manage 504 AZSTORY OF BARZZYSH RUZZ. The Indian National Congress. Lord Cross' Act, 1892. Manipur, 1891. many branches of the Local Administration. Their legal powers and their practical ability to do good work are in- creasing. The statistics and composition of the Indian Municipalities and Local Boards will be given in detail in the chapter on Administration." At the same time, a ‘National Congress’ of delegates from all parts of India has since 1886 been held each December in one of the provincial capitals, such as Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, and Allahābād. This Congress discusses plans for opening a larger share in the work of legislation, alike in the Viceregal and Provincial Legislative Councils, to natives of India. It desires, among other things, that a proportion of the members of the Viceregal and Provincial Legislative Councils should be elected, and not all appointed as hereto- fore by the Government. The more advanced party in the Indian Congress advocated, in 1890, the adoption of a system for all India, of popular elections for members of the Legis- lative Councils. It even went so far as to divide out the various Presidencies and Provinces into electoral areas. But wiser counsels prevailed in the Congress, and it was felt, both in England and India, that such a scheme of universal repre- sentation by electoral areas was greatly in advance of the actual conditions and requirements of the Indian races. In 1892, the British Parliament passed an Act which increased the number of the members of those Councils, and introduced a stronger non-official element. But it left the question of the election or the nomination of such members to be worked out by the Local Governments in India, in accordance with the needs and conditions of the separate Provinces. The scheme is being gradually adapted to the widely varying facts of the Indian Presidencies and their local populations. But it promises (1892) to result in a real expansion of the Supreme and Provincial Legislatures, and in the incorporation, in a larger measure, of carefully chosen or elected members in the task of Indian legislation. Side by side with this political movement, efforts (which to a partial extent have been embodied in legislation by Lord Lans- downe) are being made to reform certain evils in the social and domestic life of the Hindus, arising out of the customs of the enforced celibacy of Hindu widows and the marriage of very young children. The military events of Lord Lansdowne's Viceroyalty have not been confined to the development of the Imperial Service * Wide post, pp. 540–542. At OSS/A/V A GGA2A.S.SYO/VS. 5o 5 Contingents referred to on p. 503. An unfortunate accident occurred, in 1891, on the eastern Bengal frontier. The petty State of Manipur became the scene of a domestic revolution, which ended in the flight of the lawful prince to British territory. The Chief Commissioner of Assam, Mr. Quinton, proceeded, under Lord Lansdowne's instructions, to inquire into the matter. On his arrival at Manipur, Mr. Quinton and the officer commanding his escort, together with others, were lured to a conference by the usurping Raja, and treacherously murdered. The two junior officers, on whom the command of the escort unexpectedly devolved, led an ignominious retreat to the British territories, and, after a full inquiry into their conduct, were dismissed the army. The momentary weak- ness thus shown seriously imperilled several of our outposts on the frontier of Eastern Bengal and Northern Burma. But the young subalterns in charge of them held out with a gallantry of personal devotion and a heroic originality of resource which defied every stratagem of the enemy, and beat back the overwhelming numbers brought against them. The affair ended as brilliantly as it had begun disgracefully for the British arms. Manipur was taken possession of by Our troops. But Lord Lansdowne's Government confined its just vengeance to the treacherous 'usurper and his confederates; declined to annex the State; and reconstituted the Native Government of Manipur, under the guidance of a British Political Agent. The Russian aggressions on the Pamirs seemed for a time Russian to threaten a more serious danger beyond the opposite or aggres- SIOIlS OI). North-Western frontier of India. Throughout 1891 and 1892 the the Russian officers in Central Asia intruded in force on the ** lofty inhospitable regions which had been regarded as beyond their sphere of influence, and thus excited the fears of China on the east and of Afghānistán on the south. The events to which these aggressions may lead are still undeveloped (January 1893). Meanwhile, they have induced both China and Afghānistán to appreciate more highly the friendly alliance of the British Government, and have resulted in the strengthening of the British position in the hill country towards Chitral, which commands the south-eastern descent from the Pamirs towards India. The conduct of Our Small bodies of troops engaged in the operations amid these most difficult mountains has been admirable, and the Imperial Contingent of Kashmir has had an opportunity of rendering good Service. I891–92. 506 BAE/TISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. Burmese progreSS. The Fall in the Rupee. One of the most remarkable features of Lord Lansdowne's Viceroyalty has been the progress of Burma. Lord Dufferin laid a firm foundation for the future prosperity of that country. Under Lord Lansdowne and his able lieutenant, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, the Chief Commissioner of Burma, the advance- ment alike of the old and the new Provinces has been rapid. Railways and roads have opened up the country, and a beginning of irrigation works for the protection of the peasantry of Upper Burma against the calamity of drought has been made. The old internal disturbances from daćaits, or armed banditti, have been masterfully put down. The frontier tribes have, however, still to be reckoned with (January 1893). They never yielded a real allegiance to the native kings of Burma; and their hereditary habits of plundering and of raiding down upon the villages of the plains cannot be eradicated in a day. But a well-planned series of frontier operations each cold season is teaching them that pillage is not a paying profession for races living on a British frontier. It should be added, that the actual frontier of Burma on the eastward toward. China and Siam is still undetermined. But arrangements are now in progress to settle the north-eastern frontier of Burma by a Joint Delimita- tion Commission of Chinese and British officers; while the adjustment of its south-eastern frontier towards Siam has already reached a satisfactory stage. The most serious difficulty with which Lord Lansdowne's Viceroyalty has had to contend is the fall in the rupee. . The demonetization of silver by Germany and other Western nations, together with the increased production from the silver mines throughout the world, caused a steady depreciation of the silver currency of India (1874–1893). The rupee, which formerly was nearly equal to two shillings, has fallen to nearly fourteen pence; thus greatly increasing the burden of the interest on the gold debt of India, and of pensions, Public Works' material, military stores or equipment, and other charges payable in England in gold. The European officials in India, and certain classes of the commercial community, have also suffered, and the subject is now under consideration by Lord Herschell's Committee sitting at Westminster (January 1893). [ 507 | C H A P T E R XVI. BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. THE Act of 1858,” which transferred India from the Company Control of & º India in to the Crown, also laid down the scheme of its government. England. Under the Company, the Governor-General was an autocrat, Under the responsible only to the distant Court of Directors. The Company. Court of Directors had been answerable to the shareholders, or Court of Proprietors, on the one hand; and, through the Board of Control, to the Sovereign and to Parliament on the other. The Act of 1858 did away with these intermediary Under the bodies between the Governor-General and the British Ministry. “” For the Court of Directors, the Court of Proprietors, and the Board of Control, it substituted a Secretary of State, aided by a Council appointed by the Crown. The Secretary of State for India is a Cabinet Minister, who The comes into and goes out of office with the other members of jºy the Ministry. His Council was originally appointed for life, His and consisted of 15 persons. Its members are now appointed Council in for ten years only;” but may be re-appointed for another "gººd. five years for special reasons. Their number also may be diminished by the Secretary of State, by his abstaining from filling vacancies, so long as the total shall not be reduced to fewer than ten members.” The Secretary of State rules in all ordinary matters through the majority of his Council. But in affairs of urgency, and in questions which belong to the Secret Department, including political correspondence, he is not required to consult his Council. The Viceroy or Governor- Office of General is appointed by the Crown, and resides in India. * His ordinary term of office is five years. The Supreme authority in India is vested by a series of Acts Admini- of Parliament 4 in the Viceroy or Governor-General-in-Council, i. * 21 and 22 Vict. c. 106. * Under 32 and 33 Vict. c. 97. * By 52 and 53 Vict. c. 65. *The chief of these Acts are 13 Geo. III. c. 63; 33 Geo. III. c. 52; 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 85; 21 and 22 Vict. c. IO6; and 24 and 25 Vict. c. 67. 508 BR/T/SA. AZ)MINISTRATION OF INDIA. subject to the control of the Secretary of State in England. Fvery executive order and every legislative statute runs in the name of the ‘Governor-General-in-Council;” but in certain cases” a power is reserved to the Viceroy to act independently. The Governor-General's Council is of a two- fold character. First, the ordinary or Executive Council,” ordinarily com- posed of five official members besides the Viceroy, and the Commander-in-Chief in India, which may be compared with the Cabinet of a constitutional country. It meets regularly at short intervals, usually once a week, discusses and decides upon questions of foreign policy and domestic administration, and prepares measures for the Legislative Council. Its members divide among themselves the chief Departments of State, such as those of Foreign Affairs, Finance, War, Public Works, etc. The Viceroy combines in his own person the duties of constitutional Sovereign with those of Prime Minister;4 and has usually charge of the Foreign Department. As a rule, the Viceroy is himself the initiating Member of Council for Foreign and Feudatory Affairs. Second,” the Legislative Council, which is made up of the same members as the preceding, with the addition of the Governor of the Province in which it may be held; certain officials selected by the Governor-General from Bengal, Madras, Bombay, or other Provinces; and nominated members, repre- sentative of the non-official Native and European communities. The official additional members thus appointed to the Legis- lative Council must not exceed in number the non-officials, ‘Governor- General-in- Council.’ Executive Council. * A style first authorized by 33 Geo. III. c. 52, sec. 39. * “Cases of high importance, and essentially affecting the public interest and welfare’ (33 Geo. III. c. 52, Sec. 47); ‘when any measure is proposed whereby the safety, tranquillity, or interests of the British possessions in India may, in the judgment of the Governor-General, be essentially affected' (3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 85, Sec. 49); ‘cases of emergency” (24 and 25 Vict. c. 67, Sec. 23). * This is the lineal descendant of the original Council organized under the Charters of the Company, first constituted by Parliamentary sanction in 1773 (13 Geo. III. c. 63, Sec. 7). * The mechanism and working of the Governor-General’s Council, and of the Secretariats, and chief Departments of the Indian Administra- tion, are described in my Zife of the Earl of Mayo, vol. i. pp. 189–202 (2nd ed.). * Originally identical with the Executive Council, upon which legislative powers were conferred by 13 Geo. III. c. 63, sec. 36. The distinction between the two Councils was first recognised in the appointment of ‘the fourth member' (3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 85, sec. 40). THE ZEG/SZAZY VE COUAVC/Z. 5o 9 and the number of the nominated additional members must The now not exceed sixteen or be less than ten. The meetings of Regislºtive * g s * Council. the Legislative Council are held when and as required, usually once a week. They are open to the public; and a further guarantee for publicity is insured by the proviso that draft Bills must be published a certain number of times in the Gazette. As a matter of practice, these draft Bills have usually been first subjected to the criticism of the several Provincial governments. Provincial Legislative Councils have also been appointed for the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and for the Lieutenant-Governorships of Bengal, and of the North-Western Provinces with Oudh. The members of these local Legislative Councils are appointed, in the case of Madras and Bombay, by the Governors of those Provinces; and in Bengal, and the North-Western Provinces with Oudh, by the Lieutenant-Governors, subject to the approval of the Governor-General. The Acts of these Provincial Legislative Councils, which can deal only with provincial matters, are subject to sanction by the Governor-General. An important Act dealing with the Legislative Councils has Lord . recently been passed.” By it the number of the nominated Cºss' Act, additional members has been raised to not less than ten or” more than sixteen for the Governor-General's Legislative Council; to not less than eight or more than twenty for the Madras and Bombay Legislative Councils; and to not more than twenty for the Bengal, or more than fifteen for the North- Western Provinces with Oudh, Legislative Councils. Further, Expansion by section 2 of this Act, power is given to the Governor- ; the . * * , e. g º egislative General's and to the local Legislative Councils to discuss the Councils. annual financial statements of the Supreme and local govern- ments, and to ask questions about them; but it is distinctly laid down that “no member . . . shall have power to submit or propose any resolution, or to divide the Council in respect of any such financial discussion, on the answer to any question asked.” The most important feature of the Act is paragraph 4 of section 1 : “The Governor-General-in-Council may from time to time, with the approval of the Secretary of State in " Council, make regulations as to the conditions under which such nominations, or any of them, shall be made by the Governor-General, Governors, and Lieutenant-Governors re- spectively, and prescribe the manner in which such regulations shall be carried into effect.’ Under this paragraph it becomes lawful for the Viceroy to permit all or a certain proportion * By 55 and 56 Vict, c. I4, Sec. I. * 55 and 56 Vict. c. 14. 510 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. of the Legislative Councils to be elected by their fellow- citizens. .# High The Presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and the Lieutenant- }: * Governorships of Bengal and the North-Western Provinces, ustice. gº & e tº & have each a High Court," supreme both in civil and criminal business, but with an ultimate appeal to the Judicial Com- mittee of the Privy Council in England. The Chief Justices of these High Courts are appointed in England, from among the distinguished leaders of the English Bar, and the puisne judges are selected in certain proportions” from the Indian Civil Service and from the English or the local Bars. The legal capacity of the natives of India has long been recognised, and Native judges sit upon the Bench in all the High Courts, and have proved thoroughly competent for their important duties. Of the minor Provinces, the Punjab has a Chief Court with five judges; Oudh, a Chief Court with two judges, styled the Judicial and the Assistant Judicial Com- missioner; 8 while the Central Provinces and Upper Burma have each a Judicial Commissioner, who sits alone. Lower . Burma has a Judicial Commissioner and a Recorder. In this Province, the Judicial Commissioner has jurisdiction over • the territory outside Rangoon (save that in cases of European British subjects the Recorder has the powers of a High Court). The Recorder has jurisdiction in the town of Rangoon, and in all criminal cases in any part of Burma where the accused are European British subjects. The Judicial Commissioner and the Recorder of Rangoon sit together as a “Special Court’ for certain purposes. Appeals from the Recorder of Rangoon in civil suits, where the sub- ject-matter ranges from Rs. 3ooo to Rs. Io, ooo, lie to the High Court at Calcutta. The latter Court also decides references from the ‘Special Court’ of Rangoon when the members are equally divided in opinion. For Assam, the High Court at Calcutta is the highest judicial authority, except in the three Hill Districts, namely, the Gáro Hills, the Khási and Jaintia Hills, and the Nāgā Hills. In these Districts, the Chief Commissioner of Assam is judge without appeal * Constituted out of the Supreme Courts and the Sudder (Sadr) Courts in 1861 (24 and 25 Vict. c. IO4). * The proportion laid down by 24 and 25 Vict. c. IO4, sec. 2, is : ‘ Pro- vided that no less than one-third of the Judges of such High Courts respectively, including the Chief Justice, shall be Barristers, and not less than one-third shall be members of the Covenanted Civil Service.” * Constituted by Act 14 of 1891 (Administration A'eport of the AWorth- Western Prozſinces and Oudh for 1890–91, p. xi.). AA’O V/AVC/A/. A VDMZAV/STRA TVOAV. 5 II in civil and criminal matters. Special rules apply to the Dwärs bordering on Bhutan. The law administered in the Indian Courts consists mainly The law of-(1) the enactments of the Indian Legislative Councils fish (Imperial and Provincial), and of the corresponding legislative bodies which preceded them ; (2) statutes of the British Parliament which apply to India; (3) the Hindu and Muhammadan laws of inheritance, and their domestic law, in causes affecting Hindus and Muhammadans; (4) the Custom- ary Law affecting particular castes and races. Much has been done towards consolidating special sections of the Indian law;1 and in the Indian Penal Code, together with the Codes of Civil and Criminal-Procedure, we have memorable examples of such efforts. |But although the Governor-General-in-Council is theoretically supreme over every part of India alike,” his actual authority is not everywhere exercised in the same direct manner. For ordinary purposes of administration, British India is partitioned Provincial into Provinces, each with a government of its own; and cer- *. tain of the Native States are attached to those Provinces with which they are most nearly connected geographically. These Provinces, again, enjoy various degrees of independence. The two Presidencies of Madras and of Bombay, including Sind, Madras. retain many marks of their original equality with Bengal. They Bombay. each have an army of their own. They are each administered by a Governor appointed direct from England. They have each an Executive and a Legislative Council, whose functions are analogous to those of the Councils of the Governor-General, although subject to his control.” They thus possess a domestic Legislature; and in administrative matters, also, the interference of the Governor-General-in-Council is sparingly exercised. Of the other Provinces, Bengal, or rather Lower Bengal, Bengal. occupies a peculiar position. Like the North-Western Pro- vinces and the Punjab, it is administered by a single official, with the style of Lieutenant-Governor, who is controlled by no Executive Council; but Bengal has possessed a Legislative Council, a sign of its early pre-eminence, since 1861, whereas Minor the North-Western Provinces only obtained a Legislative *. Council in 1887, and the Punjab does not yet possess one. The other Northern Provinces, Assam, Oudh, and the Central Provinces, whether ruled by a Lieutenant-Governor or a Chief ** Ante, chap. iv. pp. 160, 161. * 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 85, secs. 39 and 65. * 24 and 25 Vict, c. 67, Sec. 42. # 512 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. - * * Commissioner, may be regarded from a historical point of view as fragments of the original Bengal Presidency," which, as thus Heads of Provinces. Minor admini- strations. defined, would be co-extensive with all British India not included under Madras or Bombay. Garrisons, however, on the Madras or Bombay establishment may be posted in outlying tracts of the old Bengal territories. The Lieutenant-Governors and most of the Chief Commissioners are chosen from the Cove- nanted Civil Service. In executive matters they are the practical rulers, but, excepting the Lieutenant-Governors of Bengal and the North-Western Provinces, who are ex officio Presidents of their Legislative Councils, they have no legislative authority. “Töcomplete the total area of territory under British admini- stration, it is necessary to mention, besides Bengal and the North-Western Provinces, and the Punjab and Oudh, certain quasi-Provinces, under the immediate control of the Viceroy. These are—BURMA, part of which was annexed in 1826, part in 1852, and part in 1886; the CENTRAL PROVINCEs, prin- .cipally composed of the Nágpur territories of the Bhonsla dynasty which lapsed in 1853 ; ASSAM, annexed in 1826; AJMERE, transferred from Rájputéna ; BERAR, or the Districts assigned by the Nizām of Haidarābād for the support of the Haidarābād Contingent; and the little territory of Coorg, in the extreme south.” The State of Mysore was under British administration from 1831 to 1881, when it was restored to its Native Rájá, on his attaining his majority. Another difference of administration, although now of less importance than in former times, derives its name from the old Regulations, or laws and judicial rules of practice which preceded the present system of Acts of the Legislature. From these Regulations certain tracts of country have been from time to time exempted—tracts which, owing to their backward state of civilisation or other causes, seemed to require excep- tional treatment. In non-Regulation territory, broadly speak- ing, a larger measure of discretion is allowed to the officials, both in the collection of revenue and in the administration of civil justice; strict rules of procedure yield to the local exigencies; and the judicial and executive departments are to a great extent combined in the same hands. A wider field is also permitted for the selection of the administrative body, which is not entirely confined to the Covenanted Civil Service, but includes military officers on the * The -Regula- tions.” Non-Regu- lation territory. * See article BENGAL PRESIDENCY, The Imperial Gazetteer of India. * For the constitution of each of these Provinces, see their articles in . The Zmperial Gazetteer of Zndia. ZO UZZZZ,S OA' ZD/STRACT OAZAZ/CAEA’.S. 5 I3 staff and also uncovenanted civilians. The title of the highest executive official in a District of a Regulation Province is that of Collector-Magistrate. In a non-Regulation District, the Deputy corresponding officer is styled the Deputy Commissioner; and º the Supreme authority in a non-Regulation Province (with the exception of the Punjab) is called, not a Lieutenant-Governor, but a Chief Commissioner. The Central Provinces, Assam, and Burma are examples of non-Regulation Provinces; but non-Regulation Districts are to be found also in Bengal, Sind, and the North-Western Provinces. Their character is always disclosed by the term ‘Deputy Commissioner” as the title of the chief executive Officer of the District. Alike in Regulation and in non-Regulation territory, the The ‘Dis- unit of administration is the District—a word of very definite º meaning in official phraseology. The District officer, whether unit. known as Collector-Magistrate or as Deputy Commissioner, is the responsible head of his jurisdiction. Upon his energy and personal character depends ultimately the efficiency of our Indian Government. His own special duties are so numerous and so various as to bewilder the outsider ; and the work of his subordinates, European and Native, largely depends upon the stimulus of his personal example. His position has been com- pared to that of the French préfet, but such a comparison is The unjust in many ways to the Indian District officer. He is not 3. JI a mere subordinate of a central, bureau, who takes his colour Collector. from his chief, and represents the political parties, or the Mºgº c + e e - . trate. permanent officialism of the capitul. The Indian Collector is a strongly individualized worker in every department of rural wellbeing, with a large measure of local independence and of personal initiative. *s # * As the name of Collector - Magistrate implies, his main Duties functions are twofold. He is a fiseaſ officer, charged with the %. CtOr- collection of the revenue from the land and other sources; he Magis- also is a revenue and criminal judge, both of first instance and ** in appeal. But his title by no means exhausts his multifarious duties. He does in his smaller local sphere all that the Home Secretary superintends in England, and a great deal more ; for he is the representative of a paternal and not of a constitutional Government. Police, jails, education, municipalities, roads, sanitation, dispensaries, the local taxation, and the Imperial revenues of his District, are to him matters of daily concern. He is expected to make himself acquainted with every phase of the social life of the natives, and with each natural aspect of the country. He should be a lawyer, an accountant, a 3. 3. ºf & * *:::: 2 K. 514 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. The Indian Civil Service. Hailey- bury, 1805. surveyor, and a ready writer of State papers. He ought also to possess no mean knowledge of agriculture, political economy, and engineering. The best method of selecting and training the men who administer the government of India and form the Covenanted Civil Service, has long been recognised as presenting serious difficulties. While the East India Company was mainly in- terested in its commercial transactions, it was the practice of the Directors to nominate young men of business habits as writers in their factories. Their work was that of clerks in commercial houses, and they did not need any special aptitude. Dr. Fryer, describing his visit to Surat in 1674, notes that ‘some Bluecoat Boys also have been entertained under notion of apprentices for seven years, which being expired, if they can get security, they are capable of em- ployments.’ He also says that ‘the Company, to encourage young men in their service, maintain a master to learn them to write and read the language, and an annuity to be annexed when they gain a perfection therein, which few attempt and fewer attain.'" But when the East India Company became a ruling power, a change came over the position of its servants, and men of higher standing and character, and of greater ability, applied for nominations to its service. But no attempt was made to train them for their multifarious duties, until Lord Wellesley established his College at Fort William (18oo) for the instruction of Civil Servants on their arrival in India.” The Court of Directors did not approve of Lord Wellesley's College, and in 1805 they established a College at Haileybury, near Hertford, at which all covenanted civilians had to go through a two years’ Course of special training after their nomination, before they proceed 2d to India to take up their appointments. The limits of age for admission to Haileybury were fixed at over sixteen and under twenty years of age. It was held that these limits might exclude eligible candidates, and it was therefore declared by an Act of Parliament,” some years later, that candidates nominated as writers in the Indian Civil Service by a Director of the East India Company, between the ages of eighteen and twenty-two, could proceed to India at once without going to Haileybury, on passing a qualifying examination. At the revision of the Company's Charter in * Fryer's Travels in India and Persia between 1672 and 1681, quoted in Aarly Records of British India, by J. Talboys Wheeler, pp. 30, 31. * Wellesley's Despatches ; Owen's Selection (Oxford, 1887), pp. 710–752. * 7 Geo. IV. c. 56. THE ZAAWD SYSTEM IN MADA’.A.S. 527 22 millions; in 1881 (after the great famine of 1876–78), the Census returned it at 30,827,218; and the Census of 1891 exhibits a striking rise to 35,630,440, or an increase on 1853 of no less than 13% millions, or 61 per cent, more than one- half. The cultivated land held by husbandmen direct from the State by raiyaſwdri tenure has increased during the same period (between 1853 and 1890) from 12,078,535 to 21,043,050 acres, about 75 per cent., or three - fourths. The area of Exceeds tillage has, therefore, not only kept pace with the increase ºwth of population, but has extended at a ratio of 14 per cent. popula- more rapidly. This resulted partly from the fact that the tion. inferior lands, now reclaimed, could not support so large an average of people as the Superior lands, which were already in cultivation at the commencement of the period. The Government recognised this, and has accordingly increased its rental from raiyaſwdré tracts only from Rx. 3,022,422 to Rx. 3,961,832—being only 31 per cent, or less than one-third, while the area of cultivation increased by about 75 per cent., or three-fourths. The Government, in fact, has reduced its average rental over the total area of cultivation from Rs. 2. 8 an acre in 1853 to RS. I. I4 an acre in 1890, or over 25 per cent, say one-fourth." According to the Ordinary theory of rent, rates should have risen enormously during that period; and they have risen enormously wherever the land is held by private proprietors. As regards the Madras Presidency, the facts may be recapi- Reduction tulated thus:–During the 38 years ending 1890, the area of ** cultivation had increased about 75 per cent., Or three-fourths; in Madras, the population by 61 per cent, or nearly two-thirds; and the 1853-90. Government rental by only 31 per cent., or less than one-third ; while the average rates of land-tax per cultivated acre had been actually reduced by about one-fourth, from Rs. 2. 8, or (taking the rupee at its cla exchange value of 2s.) from 5s, an acre in 1853 to Rs. 1. 4, Or, at the same rate, 3s. 9d., in 1890. Instead of taking advantage of the increase of population to enhance the rental, the Madras Government has realized the fact that the increase in numbers means a harder struggle for life, and has reduced instead of enhancing, according to the economic laws of rent, the average rates throughout its domains. Bombay has also a land system of its own, which requires 1 The later figures are derived from Diwán Bahádur S. Srinivasa Ragha- vaiyangar's Memorandum on the Progress of the Madras Ā’residency during the last Aorty Years (Madras, 1892), Tables, pp. lxxxii. lxxxiii. 528 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. to be distinguished from the rāyaſwdri of Madras, although resembling it in principle. In the early days of our rule, no regular method existed throughout the Bombay Presidency; and at the present time there are tracts where something of the old confusion survives. The modern ‘Survey tenure,’ as it is called, dates from 1835–37, when it was first introduced into one of the #6/uks of Poona District : it has since been gradually extended over the greater part of the Presidency. As its name implies, the Settlement is preceded by survey. Each field is measured, and an assessment placed upon it according to the quality of the soil and the crop." This assessment holds good for a term of thirty years. The ordi- nary rates vary in different Districts from Rs. 2. 4, or (taking the rupee at its old nominal rate of 2s.) 4s. 6d. an acre, in the rich black-soil lands of Gujarát, to 6 amas 8 pies, about Iod, an acre, in the hills of the Konkan. The primary characteristic of the Bombay system is its simplicity. The Government fixes a minimum area as the revenue assessment unit, b-low which it merely registers sub- divisions. This minimum area, technically called a ‘field,’ varies from 20 acres upward. fillerent Bombay Districts. The ‘field' is therefore the unit, and its actual occupier is the person recognised by the revenue law. He knows exactly what he will have to pay, and the State knows what it will receive, during the currency of the term. The assess- ment is, in fact, a quit-rent liable to be modified at intervals of thirty years. The Bombay system is also characterized by its fairness to the tenant. He possesses “a transferable and heritable property, Continuable without question at the expira- tion of a Settlement lease, on his consenting to the revised rate.” To borrow a metaphor from English law, his position has been raised from that of a villein to that of a copyholder. In place of the bare permission to occupy the soil, he has received a right of property inºr" Some of the Bombay peasants have proved unequal to the responsibilities of property which they had not won by their own exertions. In rich districts, the men who were recorded as the actual occupiers are able to let their land to poorer cultivators, and so live off the toil of others upon fields which they themselves had formerly to till. But these proprietary rights give the peasant a power of borrowing which he did not possess before. In certain parts, especially in the dry Land system of Bombay. The *Survey ...fenure’ of , Bombay. &- Its rates. Its sim- plicity. Its advan- tages to the pro- vident. Its disad- vantages to the im- provident. * I have given an account of the history and method of the Bombay ‘Survey tenure’ in my Bombay, 1885–90, pp. 225–246. BOMAA Y REZ/EF ACTS, 1879, 1881. 529 Districts of the high-lying Deccan, the husbandmen have sunk hopelessly into debt to the village bankers. The peasant was often improvident, the seasons were sometimes unfortunate, the money-lender was always severe. Amid the tumults of Native rule, the usurers lent com- Debts paratively small sums. If the peasant failed to pay, they #. could not evict him or sell his holding; because, among other peasant. reasons, there was more land than there were people to till it. The Native Government, moreover, could not afford to lose a tenant. Accordingly, the bankrupt peasant went on, year after year, paying as much interest as the money-lender could Squeeze out of him ; until the next Maráthá invasion or Muhammadan rebellion swept away the whole generation of usurers, and so cleared off the account. Under our rule there is no chance of such relief for insolvent debtors; and our rigid enforcement of contracts, together with the increase of the population, has armed the creditor with powers formerly unknown. For the peasant’s holding under the British Government has become a valuable property, and he can be readily sold out, as there are always plenty of husbandmen anxious to buy in. The result is twofold. In the first place, the village banker lends larger sums, for the security is in- creased ; and, in the second place, he can push the peasantry to extremities by eviction, a legal process which was econo- mically impossible, and politically impermissible, under Native rule. In Bengal, the cry of the peasant is for protection against Bombay the landlord. In South-western India, it is for protection Kºsº against the money-lender. After a careful inquiry, the Govern- and #331. ment determined to respond to that cry. In 1879 it practically said to the village bankers: ‘A state of things has grown up under British rule which enables you to push the cultivators, by means of our Courts, to extremities unknown under the Native dynasties, and repugnant to the customs of India. Hence- forth, in considering the security on which you lend money, please to know that the peasant cannot be imprisoned or sold out of his farm to satisfy your claims; and we shall free him from the life-long burden of those claims by a mild bankruptcy law.” Such is the gist of the Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Acts of 1879 and 1881. The Act of 1879 provided, in the first place, for small Its pro- rural debtors of Rs. 50 and under. If the Court is satisfied Yisiºns for g ... the hus- that such a debtor is really unable to pay the whole sum, it bandman; may direct the payment of such portion as it considers that he 2 L 530 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. as a rural Insolvency Act. Rural Insolvency Procedure. ‘Concilia- tors.” Commis- sion of Inquiry, I891–92. Results of the Act. can pay, and grant him a discharge for the balance. The Act gave powers to the Court to go behind the letter of the bond, to cut down interest, and to fix the total sum which may seem to the judge to be equitably due, To debtors for amounts exceeding Rs. 50, it gave the full protection of an Insolvency Act. No agriculturist shall henceforth be arrested or imprisoned in execution of a decree for money. In addition to the old provisions against the sale of the necessary implements of his trade, no agriculturist's immoveable property shall be attached or sold in execution of any decree, unless it has been specifically mortgaged for the debt to which such decree relates. But even when it has been specifically mortgaged, the Court may order the debtor's holding to be cultivated, for a period not exceeding seven years, on behalf of the creditor, after allowing a sufficient portion of it for the support of the debtor and his family. At the end of the seven years the debtor is discharged. If the debtor himself applies for relief under the Insolvency clauses, the procedure is as follows:—His moveable property, less the implements of his trade, are liable to sale for his debts. His immoveable property, or farm, is divided into two parts, one of which is set aside as ‘required for the support of the insolvent and members of his family dependent on him,’ while the remainder is to be managed on behalf of his creditors. But ‘nothing in this section shall authorize the Court to take into possession any houses or other buildings belonging to, and Occupied by, an agriculturist.’ Village arbitrators or ‘conciliators’ were appointed by the same Act, and every creditor must first try to settle his claims before them. If the effort at arbitration fails, the ‘conciliator’ shall give the applicant a certificate to that effect. No such suit shall be entertained by any Civil Court, unless the plaintiff produces a certificate from the local ‘conciliator’ that arbitra- tion has been attempted and failed. The Act of 1879 was Somewhat modified by the amending Act of 1881. After having been in operation for twelve years, a Commission was appointed in 1890 to inquire into the working and results of the Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Acts. On the general question of the advantages of the special legislation, the Commissioners reported : ‘One great effect of the Act has undoubtedly been to make the professional money-lender more cautious in advancing loans except on the security of the land, and the agriculturist more reluctant to borrow where the security of the land is required. The evidence collected by AOMAA Y ZAAWD COMMISS/OM, 1890–92. 531 the Commission during their local inquiries shows that this result has been accompanied by a marked reduction in un- necessary borrowing. . . . The position of the rāyat is much stronger and more independent than it was. Some have become more thrifty, and manage to get along without borrowing. Dealings with fellow - rāyats have to a much greater extent than formerly taken the place of dealings with professional money-lenders.’ The Commissioners, however, add : ‘The fact remains that a large and increasing area is still being annually transferred from the cultivating to the trading and other classes. . . . The Act, by reducing the burden of debt, by exempting land from liability to sale in execution of money decrees, and by making clear to the zºdiyaf the results of the contracts which he enters into, has un- doubtedly largely checked the transfer of the land, both by the voluntary action of the parties and by the action of the Court. It has, however, unquestionably failed to stop that process.’ With regard to the working of the Act, the Commissioners make many important suggestions, and recommend various modifications. The most striking remarks in this part of the report deserve quotation. ‘The Commission considers that the law regarding the exemption of immoveable property from attachment and sale in execution of money decrees should now be extended to agriculturists in other parts of India—at any rate, with prospective effect.” Further : ‘The Commission recommends that the amount of the standing crop which is liable to attachment should be limited to one-half, and that this half should be sold subject to the payment by the pur- chaser of the Government revenue due on the crop attached.” The system of unofficial ‘conciliators’ is condemned : “The Commission is strongly of opinion that in its present shape that system Ought not to be retained.” Several reasons are given for this condemnation : the difficulty of finding fit and proper g gº * * * I Dersons to discharge the functions of ‘conciliators,’ the absence I 5 of power to examine on Oath or to reject unfair agreements, and the use made of the system to evade the Stamp and Registration Laws. The Commission therefore suggests ‘that the law should be amended so as to provide that no “con- ciliator” shall record any agreement unless he considers it reasonable; that when a “conciliator” records an agreement, he shall also draw up a statement showing what the facts as stated by the parties are, and that the agreements so recorded shall be subject to the ordinary Stamp and Registration Laws.’ If unofficial conciliation, safeguarded in this or some similar Report of the Com- mission, I892. Working of the system. Recom- menda- tions of the Com- mission, 892. 532 AAZZZSA. A DMZW/STRATION OF IND/A. form, is not found to give any material relief to the Courts, it might be altogether abolished. But the experiment, if made at all, should be provided for by a separate Act. It has no special connection with the relief of agricultural in- debtedness. The general recommendations of the Bombay Commission deserve particular attention. It is reported that “no com- plaints of the assessment being too heavy were made,’ and ‘that the revenue is on the whole moderate.” But, on the other hand, considering the uncertainty of the weather in the Deccan, “it seems obvious that a revenue system which aims at securing a fixed annual payment is unsuited to such a country. Such a system could only work smoothly if the good seasons occurred regularly, and the rāyats were sufficiently provident to save the surplus of good against the losses of bad years; but, unfortunately, in the Deccan good seasons do not occur regularly, and the average raiyat is not provident. . . . The present rigidity of collection ought to be modified. Under standing orders, the Commission believes, the Collector has power to suspend collections in cases of an abnormal failure of the harvest over a considerable area. Hitherto this power has been much too sparingly exercised, and Collectors should be compelled or encouraged to make use of it with reasonable regard to the rāyat’s ability to pay. . . . A signifi- cant indication of the value of an elastic system of revenue collection is afforded by the absolute or comparative immunity from debt enjoyed by the cultivators in several indim villages examined by the Commission. One of the chief causes assigned for this immunity by the people themselves was, that in bad seasons the ind mdar suspended the collection of the rent. The Commission sees no reason why the adoption of a similar system in Government villages should not be attended by similarly good results.” The Commission also advocated that more care should be taken to collect the land revenue at suitable periods, and discussed the possibility of passing a law of tenant right, for the protection of rāyats who have parted with their holdings, whether by sale or by mortgage with possession, but who have been continued on the land as tenants at will, liable to summary eviction. The report, as a whole, contains most valuable data on the position and prospects of the rāyats generally in the Bombay Presidency." Further recCnh. In en- dations, 1892. * Refort of the Commission appointed to inquire into the Working of the ZXeccan Agriculturists' A'elief Act (Calcutta, 1892), pp. 5, 6, 12, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 67, 68, 73, 74. ZAND SYSTEM. N.-W. P. PUM/AB ; OUDA. 533 The North-Western Provinces and the Punjab have practically Land one land system. In those parts of India, the village com- Nº. munity has preserved its integrity more completely than else-vinces and where. Government therefore recognises the village, and not *. the zamíndār's estate or the rāyaf's field, as the unit of land administration. The village community takes various forms. Sometimes it holds all the village lands in joint-ownership; the Corporate share of each co-owner being represented by a fractional part” of the gross rental. Sometimes part of the lands is held in common and part in severalty; while sometimes no common lands remain, although a joint responsibility for the Govern- ment revenue still subsists. The Settlement in the North-Western Provinces and the Land Punjab is more comprehensive than in Madras or Bombay. isºlº In addition to measurement and agricultural appraisement, it Western includes the duty of drawing up an exhaustive record of all ºnce customs and sub-tenures existing in every village. The pro-Punjab. prietors are alone responsible for the revenue; but while the State limits its claims against them, it defines the rights of all other parties interested in the soil. The term of settlement in the North-Western Provinces and in the Punjab is thirty years. The principle of assessment is that the Government revenue shall be equal to one-half of the rent, leaving the other half as the share of the landlord or landholding body, that is liable for due payment, and has the trouble of collecting it from the cultivators. The average rate of assessment is Rs. 1. I2. 3, or 3s. 6; d. per cultivated acre, in the North- Western Provinces, and 15 anas 7 pies, or IS. II;d., in the Punjab–converting at the old rate of 2s. to the rupee. Oudh, the Indian Province acquired only in 1856, has a Land peculiar land system, arising out of its local history. The ë. of Oudh talukdārs resemble English landlords more closely even The ºz. than do the zamíndārs of Bengal. In origin, they were not dārs. revenue-farmers but territorial magnates, whose influence was derived from feudal authority, military command, or hereditary sway. Their present status dates from the pacification after the Mutiny of 1857. The great failukdārs were then invited to become responsible each for a gross sum for the estates which they were found to hold prior to our annexation of Oudh. The exceptional position of the failukdārs was recognised by conferring upon them, not only the privilege of succession by primogeniture, but also the power of bequest by will—a land- right unknown to Hindu and Indian-Muhammadan law. Land not comprised in tä/ukdār; estates was settled in the ordinary 534 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. way with its proprietors or zamíndārs for a term of thirty years. The whole of Oudh has since been accurately surveyed. The Central Provinces contain many varieties of land tenure, from the feudatory chiefs, who pay a light tribute, to the village communities, who are assessed after Survey. Population is sparse and agriculture backward, so that the incidence of land revenue is everywhere low. The survey was conducted generally on the Punjab system, adopting the ‘estate’ as the unit of assessment. But in the Central Provinces the British Government gave proprietary rights to the former revenue-farmers, or fiscal managers of villages, under Native rule. It thus created a body of landholders between itself and the cultivators. Of the rental paid by the husbandmen, the Government takes nominally one-half as land-tax, and allows one-half to the proprietary body. The current Settlement, for a term of thirty years, will expire in 1897. The gross land revenue realized from territory under British administration in India amounted to Rx. 21,876,047 in 1882–83. During the ten years ending 1882–83, it averaged Rx. 21,283,764, which was raised to about Rx. 22% millions by the inclusion of certain local rates and cesses levied on land. The average annual cost of collecting the land revenue during the ten years ending 1882–83 was Rx. 2,945,151. The neſt land revenue realized from British India, deducting charges of collection, during the ten years ending March 1883, averaged therefore Rx. 18,338,613. In 1882–83, the land revenue of British India was Rx. 21,876,047 gross, and Rx. 18,833,451 72eff.1 It is instructive to compare these figures with those for the last decade. During the ten years ending 1890–91, the gross land revenue of British India averaged Rx. 22,789,857, or a yearly increase on the ten years ending 1882–83 of Rx. 1,506,093. The average cost of collecting this augmented land revenue was Rx. 3,391,906, or an increase of Rx. 446,755. Deducting the charges for collection, the meff land revenue for the ten years ending in March 1891 averaged Rx. 19,397,951, or an increase of Rx. 1,059,338. Even more striking is a comparison between the last years of the two periods, for the land revenue of British India in 1890–91 was Rx. 24,045,209 gross, and Rx. 20,368,613 nett, showing an improvement of Rx. 2,169,162 gross, and Rx. 1,535,162 neſt since 1882–83.” The local rates * Parliamentary Return. Land system of Central Provinces, Land reWelllle of British India, 1882–83. Land reventle of British India, 1890–91. Increase since 1882. * Statistical Abstract relating to British Yndia from 1881–82 to 1890–91, p. 97 (elsewhere quoted as Statistical Abstract, 1890–91). ZAAWD REVENUE, 1890–91. 535 and cesses calculated and levied on the land revenue, and known as ‘provincial rates,’ amounted in 1890–91 to Rx. 3,491,240," making the total burden on the land in that year Rx. 27,536,449. In interpreting the meaning of these figures, it is necessary to exclude Bengal, for which the detailed statistics are not available to me. In the other Provinces of British India, the cultivated area in 1890–91 was 165,799,792 acres, of which I38,890,947 acres were actually Cropped,” and the gross land revenue, including rates and Cesses, Rx. 22,842,615. This shows that the incidence of the land revenue averaged for the Incidence whole of British India, excepting Bengal, Rs. 1.6, or (taking iºn, the rupee at its old nominal value of 2s.) about 2s. 9d. per per acre, cultivated acre. Nevertheless this statement is somewhat too º-9. general, as it deals solely with the cultivated area; it is advan- tageous to compare it, in order to comprehend the actual weight of the land revenue, with the average amount levied on each fully assessed cultivable acre. The surveyed area of British India, excluding Bengal, was 508,527,453 acres (1890). Slightly less than one-half - of this extent, 249,182,382 acres, was fully assessed, the Incidence remainder being, like Bengal, for various reasons assessed at ...} privileged rates. The land revenue, excluding rates and acre, cesses, assessed on this fully-assessed area was Rx. 19,757,814, 1890-91. giving an average of I2 anas 8 pies, or (taking the rupee at its old nominal value of 2s.) about Is. 7d. per acre. The incidence varied per fully-assessed acre from Rs. 2. 6. 6 in Sind, and Rs. 2. 5. I in Upper Burma, to 6 amas I pie in the Punjab, and 3 anas 3 pies in the Central Provinces. Taking the whole surveyed area, that is, excluding Bengal, but includ- ing the partially-assessed Districts in the other Provinces, the incidence of the land revenue on the population in 1890–91 averaged Rs. 1. 8. I, or (taking the rupee' as before) about 3s. per head. It averaged per head from Rs. 3. 2. 2 in Sind, and Rs. 2. 9. 3 in Berár, to I2 anas 2 pies in ASSam, and Io anas 2 pies in the Central Provinces.” THE SALT DUTY-Salt ranks next to land revenue among Salt e the items of actual taxation in India; Opium being chiefly i. paid for by the Chinese consumer. Broadly speaking, the salt consumed in India is derived from four sources—(1) importa- * Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India, 1890–91, p. IO9. * Statistical Affstract, 1890–91, p. I44. * Zdem, pp. I47, I48. 536 BAZZZZS// ADM/M/STRATION OF JAVZ)/A. Sources of salt. Equaliza- tion of Salt duty. Systems of manu- facture. Process of manu- facture. tion by sea, chiefly from the mines of Cheshire; (2) Solar evaporation in shallow tanks along the seaboard; (3) gather- ings from the Salt Lakes in Rájputéna; (4) quarrying in the Salt Hills of the Northern Punjab. Until recently, the tax levied upon salt varied very much in different parts of the country; and a numerous preventive staff was stationed along a continuous barrier hedge, which almost cut the peninsula into two fiscal sections. The reforms of Sir J. Strachey in 1878, by which the higher rates were reduced while the lower rates were raised, and their subsequent equalization over the whole country, have effectually abolished this engine of oppression. Com- munication is now free ; and it has been found that prices are lowered by thus bringing the consumer nearer to his market, even though the rate of taxation be increased. In the Punjab and Rájputéna, salt administration has become, as in Lower Bengal, a simple matter of weighing quantities and levying a uniform tax. In Bombay, the manufacture is conducted at a minimum of expense by the Government in large central brine-works on the Rann of Cutch in Gujarát, and also at numerous small sea-salt factories in the Konkan, leased to private individuals, but kept under a thorough system of excise supervision. Along the eastern coast, from Orissa to Cape Comorin, the process of evaporating sea-water is mainly Carried on as a private industry, although under official super- vision and on Government account. The process of manufacture in Madras is exceedingly simple, and at the same time free from temptations to smuggling. The season lasts from about January to July, in which latter month the downpour of rain usually puts a stop to Operations. A site is selected in the neighbourhood of one of the back- waters or inlets which abound along the coast. Before commencing, the proprietor of the salt-pan must each year obtain the consent of the Collector of the District, and must engage to supply a certain quantity of salt. The first step is to form a series of pans or reservoirs of varying degrees of shallowness, by banking up the earth, with interconnecting channels. Into the outer and deepest of these pans, the sea- water is baled by means of a lever and bucket-lift, and there allowed to stand for some days, until it has by evaporation acquired the consistency of brine. The brine is then passed through the channels into the remainder of the series of gradually shallowing pans. At last it becomes crystallized salt, and is scraped off for conveyance to the wholesale depôt. ZTAZA, SA/ 7" ZO U 7"V. 537 It is estimated that, in a favourable season, this process may be repeated de novo from twelve to fifteen times, according as the weather permits. But a single shower of rain will spoil the whole operation at any stage. Like the poppy cultivation in Bengal, the manufacture of Working Salt in Madras is a monopoly, which can be defended by the * oly circumstances of the case. No one is compelled to manufac- in Madras. ture, and rights of property in a salt-pan are strictly respected; while the State endeavours, by means of a careful staff of Supervisors, to obtain the maximum of profit with a minimum of interference. The system as at present carried on has been gradually developed from the experience of nearly a century. The manufacturers belong to the same class as the ordinary cultivators; and, as a rule, their condition is somewhat more prosperous, for they possess a hereditary privilege carrying with it commercial profits. They do not work upon a system of advances, as is the case with so many other Indian industries; but they are paid at a certain rate when they bring their salt to the Government depôt. This rate of payment, known as Audivaram, is at present fixed at an average of I and 5.8 pies, or (at the old nominal rate of exchange) about 24d. per maund of 82% lbs. ; the other expenses of the Salt Department for Cost of supervision, etc., raise the total cost to 3 anas 5'6 pies (or *. about 5%d.) per maund. The price charged to the consumer by the Madras Government since the enhancement of the Salt duty in January 1888, has been Rs. 2. II (or about Duty on 5s. 4d. at the nominal rate of exchange) per maund. It has Salt. been found in practice that the system of handing over the manufacture of salt to private enterprise led to too great an increase in the price, and the Government of Madras has therefore again commenced manufacturing, and has laid in a reserve store of salt, by means of which the sale price can be kept down, in case the supply runs short or the market is unduly manipulated." The equal rate of salt duty which now prevails throughout Equaliza- all continental India is Rs. 2. 8 per maund, or (at the old #, of nominal rate of 2s. to the rupee) 6s. 9d. a cwt. In Burma, Only I rupee per maund, or 2s. 4d. a cwt., is charged for local consumption, and a transit duty ad valorem for salt sent across * Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India, 1890–91, p. 93; Diwán Bahádur S. Srinivasa Raghavaiyangar, in his Memorandum on the Progress of the Madras Presidency during the last Forty Years (Madras, 1892), gives a table of the prices charged for Government salt since 1805, p. 65. 538 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. Excise admini- stration. the frontier. The total salt revenue of British India in 1882–83 was returned at Rx. 6, 177,781, the average for ten years being RX. 6,627, 194. The increase of the salt duty from Rs. 2 to Rs. 2. 8 in con- tinental India, and from 3 amas to I rupee in Burma in 1888, has naturally brought about a great rise in the revenue raised from Salt. The total receipts in 1890–91 amounted to Rx. 8,523,368, showing a marked increase on the two previous years with the same rate. It is interesting to observe the sources of this income, as illustrating the previous paragraphs. Thus, of Rx. 5,610, 141 levied as excise on manufactured salt, Rx. 2, Io9,397 was raised in Bombay, Rx. 1,711,402 in Madras, Rx. I 7,251 in Burma, nothing in Bengal, and Rx. 1,772,091 in the rest of India. On the other hand, of the other large item of the salt revenue, the duty levied on Salt imported by Sea, out of Rx. 2,449,081 raised in 1890–91, Rx. 2,306,666 came from Bengal, and Rx. I40,648 from Burma. It cost in 1890–91 only Rx. 429,013 to collect the salt revenue of Rx. 8,523,368, or say 5 per cent." ExCISE DUTIES in India are not a mere tax levied through the private manufacturer and retailer, but (like salt) a species of Government monopoly. The only excisable articles are intoxicants and drugs; and the object of the State is to check consumption, not less than to raise revenue. The details vary in the different Provinces, but the general plan of administra- tion is the same. The right to manufacture, and the right to retail, are both monopolies of Government, let out to private individuals upon strict conditions. Distillation of country spirits is permitted under two systems—either to the highest bidder under official supervision, or only at certain centres set apart for the purpose. The latter is known as the sadr or central distillery system. The right of sale is also farmed out to the highest bidder, subject to regulations fixing the quantity of liquor that may be sold at one time. The brewing of beer from rice and other grains, a process universal among the hill tribes and other aboriginal races, is practically untaxed and unrestrained. The numerous European breweries at the Hill Stations pay a tax at the rate of 4 anas a gallon. A large business in brewing is now done at Simla, Marri (Murree), Kasauli, Masūri, Nāini Tál, Solán, the Nilgiris, and in other Hill Districts. An attempt is being made to establish breweries on the plains. In 1890–91, there were altogether 22 breweries Central distillery system. Rice-beer. Breweries. * Statistical Abstract, 1890–91, pp. IOO-IO3. AEXCZSZ OAV ZAQUORS AAWD ZXRUGS. 539 in India, which produced 5,192,572 gallons of beer and porter, a large proportion of which is purchased by the Commissariat Department for the use of the European soldiers. This pro- portion, however, has decreased from over four-fifths of the total amount brewed in 1888 to three-fifths in 1890, owing to the dislike of the British soldier to consume the beer supplied to him by the State. The Government has consequently, since the beginning of 1891, allowed the regiments to arrange for their own supplies independently, and it is probable that both importations on account of Government and purchases by the Commissariat of Indian beer will show a further decrease.1 Excise duties are also levied upon the sale of a number of intoxicating or stimulant drugs, of which the most important are opium and ganjā or öháng. Opium is issued for local Opium. Consumption in India from the Government manufactories at Patná and Benares, and sold through private retailers at a monopoly price. This drug is chiefly consumed in Assam, Burma, and the Punjab. Gámjá is an intoxicating preparation Gámjá. made from the flowers and leaves of Indian hemp (Cannabis sativa, var. indica). The cultivation of hemp for this purpose is chiefly conducted in a limited area of Rájshāhī District, Bengal, and in the valleys of the Himalayas, whence the drug is imported to India under the name of charas. Its use Charas. is a frequent cause, not only of crime, but also of insanity. Government attempts to check consumption—first, by fixing the retail duty at the highest rate that will not encourage Smuggling; and second, by continually raising that rate as experience permits. Strictly speaking, gānjá consists of the flowering and fruiting heads of the female plant; bháng or siddhi, of the dried leaves and small stalks, with a few fruits; while charas is the resin itself, collected in various ways as it naturally exudes. No duty is at present levied upon tobacco in any part Tobacco. of British India. The plant is universally grown by the cultivators for their own smoking, and, like almost everything else, was subject to taxation under Native rule; but the impos- sibility of accurate excise supervision caused the British Govern- ment to abandon this impost. The total excise revenue of British India in 1882–83 was returned at Rx. 3,609,561, the average for ten years being Rx. 2,774,073. In 1890–91 it had risen, not like the salt revenue by fresh taxation, but by careful * Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India, 1890–91, p. 215; Statistical Tables for British India (Calcutta, 1892), pp. vii., 52. 54o BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. Total excise revenue, I890–91. Municipal admini- Stration. The Old ‘Council of Five;’ administration, to Rx. 4,947,780, an increase on 1882–83 of more than 37 per cent. To collect this increased amount cost Rx. 175,053, or about 3% per cent. of the whole. The average of the total excise revenue for the ten years ending 1890–91 was Rx. 4,249,264, and of its cost of Collection, Rx. 122,525.” The excise revenue does not, however, include the whole of the income derived from the taxation of intoxicants. More than three-quarters of the import duties levied in the customs departments on sea-borne goods are collected from imported liquors. These customs dues have increased 50 per cent. in the last decade, from Rx. 407, 123 in 1881–82 to Rx. 600,901 in 1890–91,” and should be taken into calculation in con- sidering the efforts of the Indian Government to check the increase of intemperance. THE MUNICIPALITIES at present existing in India are a creation of the Legislature; indeed, a recent branch of our system of administration. Their origin is to be traced, not directly to the Native panchāyat, but to the necessity for reliev- ing the District officer from certain details of his work. The pancháyaf or elective Council of Five is one of the institutions most deeply rooted in the Hindu mind. By it the village community was ruled, the head-man being only its executive official, not the legislator or judge. By it caste disputes were Settled; by it traders and merchants were organized into powerful guilds, to the rules of which even European outsiders formerly had to submit. By a development of the panchāyat, the Sikh army of the Khálsd was despotically governed, when the centralized system of Ranjit Singh fell to pieces at his death. The village organization was impaired or broken up under Mughal rule. Municipal institutions have developed under the British rule in place of the old Hindu mechanism of rural government, which had thus worn out. Police, roads, and Sanitation are the three main objects for which a modern Indian municipality is constituted. In rural tracts, these departments are managed (in different Provinces) by the Collector, or by one of his subordinate staff, or by a Local Fund Board. Within municipal limits, they are delegated to a Committee, who, at first, derived their practical authority from the Collector's sanction, implied or expressed. Except in the larger towns, the municipalities can scarcely be said as yet to exhibit the attributes of popular representation or of vigorous corporate life. But the Local Government Acts, Munici- palities succeed it. * Statistical Abstract, 1890–91, p. 105. * Za'em, p. Ioz. MUNICIPAL STATISTICS, 1890-91. 54. which received a new impulse during Lord Ripon's Viceroyalty (ante, p. 499), have strengthened the rural and municipal boards. As education advances, they will be further developed. In 1882–83, the municipalities in British India, exclusive Municipal of the three Presidency cities, numbered 783, with 12,923,494 ..". inhabitants. In that year the municipalities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras governed a population of 13 millions; the members of the three municipal bodies numbered 171, of whom 93 were elected. * * : . Increased life and vigour has been given to municipal Municipal institutions in India by the extension of the elective principle, . under the Local Self-Government Acts (1882–84). In f important places the majority of the municipal bodies are elected by the local taxpayers, but in certain small towns all, and in every town some, of the administrators are nominated by the Government, or have seats ex officio. In Upper Burma alone there are no elected members in the sixteen munici- palities, which, despite the recent date of the annexation, have already been constituted. The 758 municipalities, excluding the Presidency towns, of British India consisted, in 1890–91, A of Io,585 members, of whom 5848 were elected, and 4737 || nominated or ex officio. But this does not fairly exhibit the advance made by the elective principle, for the nominated municipal commissioners of small towns or in backward Provinces are included. It is more instructive to point out that in the Io'ſ municipalities of the North-Western Provinces there were 1218 elected to 317 nominated members, and that | in the 145 municipalities of Bengal the proportion was II 54 to 944. Out of the aggregate number of municipal com- missioners concerning whom information is available, 6790 were natives and 839 Europeans. The population within municipal limits was, according to the Census of 1891, no less than 15,024,308, of whom 1,580,715 resided in the three Presidency towns. The larger the town and the more vigorous Presidency the municipality, the greater is the power of local administra-mºnici. tion conceded to it, and the larger the proportion of elected palities. members. Thus, in the three municipalities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, 138 out of the 180 municipal com- missioners were elected in 1890–91. They have to face serious difficulties in meeting the problems of draining and keeping healthy large urban populations. They have grappled with their task, and the Tansa Water-works Scheme for supplying Bombay with pure water, for instance, which has just been completed, in spite of grave engineering obstacles, * * 542 BAZTISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. District and Local Boards. is a credit to the local authorities. The financial statistics of the Indian municipalities are given in a later section of this chapter (p. 558).” The establishment of rural local self-government has been undertaken later than that of urban self-government, and presents peculiar difficulties, owing to the nature of the population and the distances to be traversed to attend meetings. Nevertheless, District and Rural Boards have been formed in every Province, except Burma, to administer and allot local taxation. The principle of election has been admitted as far as possible, and in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh 1284 out of 1564 members of the District Boards were elected, and in Bengal 323 members out of 793. The greater part of the expenditure of these Rural Boards is devoted to local roads, but as the idea of local self-government develops, they receive charge of primary education and sanitation. It is more difficult to get members to attend these Boards than in the municipalities, but with increased responsibility and powers it is hoped that this difficulty will lessen.” FINANCE.-It is difficult to present a view of Indian finance, which shall be at once concise and intelligible. The subject is full of controversies, and obscured by different presentments of the same sets of accounts. In the first place, the aggregate revenue and expenditure are officially returned according to a system which, although necessary for Indian purposes, is apt to mislead the English critic. The Indian Government is not a mere tax-collecting agency, charged with the single duty of protecting person and property. Its system of administration is based upon the view that the British Power is a paternal despotism, which owns, in a certain sense, the entire soil of the country, and whose duty it is to perform the various functions of a wealthy and an enlightened proprietor. It collects its own rents. It provides, out of its own capital, facilities for irrigation, means of Communication, public buildings, Schools, and hospitals. It also takes on itself the businesses of a railway owner, and of a manufacturer on a grand scale, in the case of opium and salt. These departments Swell the totals on both sides of the balance-sheet with large items, neither of the nature of taxation nor of administrative expenditure. Imperial finance. Its ob- Scurities. The “busi- ness’ of the Indian Govern- ment. * Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India, 1890–91, pp. 30–39, and Table on p. 47. * Zdem, pp. 39–44. MMAEAC/A/, ///VA/VCAE OF //V/O/A. 543 In the second place, the methods of keeping the Indian Changes public accounts have been subjected to frequent changes. sº during recent years, to such an extent as to vitiate all com- parative statements for long periods of time. The commercial traditions, inherited from the days of the Company, regulated the Indian accounts until about the year 1860. From that date efforts have been made to bring the methods of Indian accounting into conformity with the English system of public accounts. It results that the same entries represent different facts at different periods. Thus, under the Company, the items usually represented the nett sums; they now represent the gross sums. At one period, the gross receipts are shown, with a per confra for the charges of collection or for refunds. At another time, important classes of charges have been transferred from the Imperial to the Provincial Budgets, to be brought back again after an interval of a few years to the Imperial Budget, and again transferred to Local Finance. Capital expenditure on public works, at one period charged to current revenue, is at another period excluded, as being “extraordinary’ or ‘reproductive.’ The entire nett income of The result. the railways, whether the property of the State or of guaranteed º companies, has now been entered as Imperial revenue, an * the interest to shareholders as Imperial expenditure. The Indian accounts represent, therefore, not only the Indian taxation and the cost of administration; they represent the trade expenses and profits of the Government as a great railway owner, Canal maker, Opium manufacturer, salt mono- polist, and pioneer of new industries. They also represent these profits and expenses under diverse systems of account at different periods. The following pages will first endeavour to exhibit the actual taxation of British India, as compared with that of the Mughal Empire. They will then show the gross revenue and expenditure of British India, whether of the nature of taxation or otherwise, and analyze its principal items. THE ACTUAL TAXATION paid by the people of British India Gross during the ten years ending 1879 averaged Rx. 35 millions. º, The subjoined tables show the gross items, exclusive of the India. opium duty which is paid by the Chinese consumer, tributes from foreign or Feudatory States, forest receipts, and the Mint. The actual taxation arranges itself under seven branches, as given on the next two pages, from 1869 to 1891. ST A T E M E N T I. ACTUAL TAXATION OF BRITISH INDIA, 1869–79. Compiled from the Zarliamentary Aeturn dated 8th /u/y 1880. 1869–70. 1870–71. 1871–72. 1872–73. 1873–74. 1874–75. 1875–76. 1876–77. 1877–78. 1878–79. Rx. Rx. Rx, Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Land Revenue, . 21,088,OIg | 20,622,823 20,520,337 2I,348,669 2I,037,912 2I,296,793 21,503,742 | 19,857, 152 19,869,667 22,330,586 Excise, . e 2,253,655 2,374,465 2,369, Io9 2,323,788 2,286,637 || 2,346,143 || 2,493,232 2,523,045 2,457,075 | 2,619,349 Assessed Taxes, . I, IIO,224 2, O72, O25 825,241 58o, I39 2O, I36 2,747 5IO 3IO 86, IIo 900,92O Provincial Rates, . * > * > tº e º tº $ tº tº º º gº tº º tº tº º tº e ſº ſº tº e 238,504 || 2,638,835 Customs, 2,429, 185 2,6ro,789 2,575,990 || 2,653,890 2,628,495 || 2,678,479 || 2,721,389 2,483,345 2,622,296 || 2,326,561 Salt, . 5,888,707 || 6, IO3,28o 5,966,595 || 6, 165,630 || 6, 150,662 | 6,227,301 || 6,244,415 || 6,304,658 || 6,460,082 | 6,941, I2O Stamps, 2,379,316 2,510,316 || 2,476,333 2,608,512 2,699,936 2,758,042 | 2,835,368 || 2,838,628 2,993,483 || 3, IIo,54o TOTAL, 35, I49, IOG | 36,296,698 || 34,733,605 || 35,680,628 || 34,823,778 |35,309,505 || 35,798,656 || 34,007, I38 34,727,217 | 40,867,911 Total for Ten Years ending 1879, . Deduct Refunds, Drawbacks, and adjusting Payments, as per Parliamentary Statement, . tº e Gross Taxation for Ten Years ending 1879, Yearly Average of Gross Taxation, . & Rx. 357,394,242 ge 4,379,234 Rx. 353,015,008 RX, 35,3OI,500 M. B.-I do not go into the economic question as to whether the Land Revenue of India is of the nature of taxation or of rent ; but simply reproduce the official classification without criticising it. ACTUAL TAxATION OF BRITISH INDIA FROM 1879–80 TO 1890–91. Compiled from the 7 wenty-fourth and Zhyenty-sixth Statistical Abstracts relating to British Zºzd'éa. 1879–80. 1880–81. 1881–82. 1882–83. 1883–84. 1884–85. 1885–86. 1886–87. 1887–88. 1888–89. 1889–90. 1890–91. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Land Revenue, l . , 21,861,150 21,112,995 || 21,948,022 21,876,047 22,361,899 21,832,211 22,592,371 || 23,055,724 || 23,189,292 23,016,404 || 23,981,399 || 24,045,209 Salt, . 7,266,413 | 7,115,988 7,375,62o 6,177,781 6,145,413 6,507,236 6,345,128 | 6,657,644 | 6,670,728 7,675,634 || 8,187,739 8,523,368 Stamps, 3,193,739 || 3,250,581 || 3,381,372 3,379,681 || 3,513,201 || 3,606,622 3,663,174 || 3,751,280 || 3,876,298 || 3,927,oë8 4,087,908 || 4,068,969 Excise, 2,838,021 | 3,135,226 || 3,427,274 3,609,561 3,836,961 4,011,867 4,152,136 || 4,375,174 4,534,655 4,705,346 || 4,891,894 || 4,947,780 Customs, 2,280,793 2,539,612 2,361,388 1,296,119 | 1,187,266 | 1,029,943 | 1,199,976 | 1,246,293 1,348,837 I,332,784 I,596,686 1,743,218 Assessed Taxes, . 785,318 558,720 536,829 517,81 I 526,087 5II,828 503,034 1,354,735 | 1,431,436 | 1,520,940 | 1,595,274 | 1,617,396 Provincial Rates, 2,882,125 | 2,776,370 2,895,490 2,683,015 2,878,731 2,791,461 2,960,315 2,999,861 3,035,323 3,054,254 || 3,419,055 || 3,491,240 TOTAL, 41,107,559 | 40,489,492 || 41,925,995 || 39,540,015 40,449,558 40,291,168 || 41,416,134 || 43,440,711 44,086,569 45,232,450 47,660,955 || 48,437,180 Rx. 514,077,786 S T A T E M E N T II. Total for the Twelve Years ending 1890-91, Deduct Refunds, Drawbacks, Assignments, Compensations, and adjusting Payments, (According to the Twenty-fourth and Twenty-sixth Statistical Abstracts, p. Gross Taxation for the Twelve Years ending 1890–91, Yearly Average of Gross Taxation, 1 Excluding Land Revenue due to Irrigation. 93.) I9, 183,590 . Rx. 494,894, I96 Rx. 41,241, I83 § 546 ſ; R/T/SH ADMINISTRATION OF JAVIDIA. Nett and grOSS taxation of British India. Statement I. was compiled from a special Parliamentary Return, and shows the nett taxes, after deducting drawbacks and items not of the nature of actual taxation. Statement II. shows the revenue from the same items during the twelve following years, 1880–91. The average of these twelve years is Rx. 41% millions, against Rx. 35% millions during the ten years ending 1879. The nett taxation of British India, that is to say, the sums realized, less the cost of collection, averaged 32 millions ! during the ten years ending 1879. Returns of nett taxation, however, depend much upon the method on which they are prepared. But the final accounts as presented to Parliament enable us to arrive accurately at the gross taxation paid by the Indian people, which, as above shown, was Rx. 35% millions during the ten years ending 1879, or, according to the former Census, and taking the rupee at its old nominal value, Rs. 1. 13, or 3s. 8d. per head. During the last twelve years the gross taxation has increased from Rx. 35% millions to Rx. 41} millions, or more than 16 per cent. ; but the population has increased proportionately, and the rate of actual taxation per head, according to the Census of 1891, taking the average of the last twelve years, and the rupee at its old exchange value, is Rs. 1, 13. Io, or 3s. 8d. Taking the year 1890–91 by itself, the actual gross taxation, after deducting refunds, etc., was Rx. 46,691,425, giving a rate, according to the Census of that year, of Rs. 2. I. 9, or (at the old rate of exchange) of 4s. 2; d. per head of the population, or Say 2s. 8d. at present exchange of IS. 3d. per rupee. This rate contrasts alike with that now paid by the taxpayer in England and with that formerly paid in India under the Mughal Empire. The 37% millions of people in Great Britain and Ireland pay 80 millions of Imperial taxation,” besides heavy local and municipal burdens. The revenues of the Mughal Empire, derived from a much smaller population than that of British India, varied, as we have seen,” from 42 millions nett under Akbar in 1593 to 80 millions under Aurangzeb in 1695. The trustworthiness of these returns has been discussed in a previous chapter; and they must be taken subject to the qualifications therein indicated. English and * Indian taxation. * Compiled from the Parliamentary Return, 8th July 1880, pp. 4, 5. * Customs, 19% millions; Inland revenue, 60% millions: total Imperial taxation, 80 millions. The gross revenue of the United Kingdom in 1890–91 was 499,698,683, beside a heavy local taxation. * Ante, chap. xi. p. 357, etc.; Table of Mughal Revenues (1593 to 1761). * 7AXATION UNDER THE MUGHAZS 547 If we examine the items in the Mughal accounts, we find Indian the explanation of their enormous totals. The land-tax then, º as now, formed about one-half of the whole revenue. The Mughals, nett land revenue demand of the Mughal Empire averaged Rx. 25 millions from 1593 to 1761 ; or Rx. 32 millions during the last century of that Empire, from 1655 to 1761. The annual nett land revenue raised from the much larger area of much British India, during the ten years ending 1890–91, has been *. RX. 19% millions (gross, Rx. 22% millions). But besides the land revenue there were under our predecessors not less than forty imposts of a personal character. These included taxes upon religious assemblies, upon trees, upon marriage, upon the peasant's hearth, and upon his cattle. How severe some of them were may be judged from the poll-tax. For the purposes of this tax, the non-Muhammadan population was Mughal divided into three classes, paying respectively Rs. 40, Rs. 20, Pº" and Rs. Io annually to the Exchequer for each adult male. The lowest of these rates, if now levied from each non-Musal- mán male adult, would alone yield an amount exceeding our whole actual taxation. Yet, under the Mughals, the poll-tax was only one of forty burdens. We may briefly sum up the results. Under the Mughal Summary. Empire, 1593 to 1761, the existing returns of the Imperial demand averaged about Rx. 60 millions a year. During the ten years ending 1879, the Imperial taxation of British India, with its far larger population, averaged Rx. 35% millions, and for the twelve years ending 1890–91, Rx. 41% millions. Under the Mughal Empire, the land-tax, between 1655 and 1761, averaged Rx. 32 millions. Under the British Empire, the nett land-tax has, during the ten years ending 1879, averaged Rx. 18 millions, and Rx. 194 millions during the twelve years ending 1890–91. Not only is the taxation of British India much less than Taxation that raised by the Mughal Emperors, but it compares favour. *J*P* ably with the taxation of other Asiatic countries in our own day. The only other Empire in Asia which pretends to a civilised government is Japan. The author has no special acquaintance with the Japanese revenues; but German statists show that over I 1 millions Sterling are there raised from a population of 34 million people, or, deducting certain items, a taxation of about 6s. a head. In India, where we try to govern on a higher standard of efficiency, the rate of actual gross taxation averaged 3s. 8d. a head for the ten years ending 1879, and 3s. 8; d. per head for the twelve years ending 1890–91. 548 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. Taxation of a Province under the Mughals, and under the British. The land-tax. Rates per a CIC, If, instead of dealing with the Imperial revenues as a s hole, we concentrate our survey on any one Province, we find these facts brought out in a still stronger light. To take a single instance. After a patient scrutiny of the records, I found that, allowing for the change in the value of money, the ancient revenue of Orissa represented eight times the quantity of the staple food which our own revenue now represents." The Native revenue of Orissa supported a magnificent court, with a crowded seraglio, swarms of priests, a large army, and a costly public worship. Under our rule, Orissa does little more than defray the local cost of protecting person and property, and of its irrigation works. In Orissa, the Rájá's share of the crops amounted, with dues, to 60 per cent, and the mildest Native Governments demanded 33 per cent. The Famine Commis- sioners estimate the land-tax throughout British India” “at from 3 per cent. to 7 per cent. of the gross out-turn.' Ample deductions are allowed for the cost of cultivation, the risks of the season, the maintenance of the husbandman and his family. Of the balance, Government nomina/ly takes one- third or a half; but how small a proportion this bears to the crop may be seen from the data collected by the Famine Commissioners. Their figures dealt with 176 out of the 199 millions of people in British India. These 176 millions cultivated, when the inquiry was made in 1879, 188 millions of acres, grew 331 millions sterling worth of produce, and paid 18% millions of land revenue. While, therefore, they raised over Rs. 17.8 worth of produce per acre, they paid to Government under one rupee of land-tax per acre. Instead of thus paying 5% per cent., they would, under the Mughal rule, have been called upon to pay from 33 to 50 per cent. of the crop. The two systems, indeed, proceed upon entirely different principles. The Native Governments, write the Famine Commissioners, often taxed the land ‘to the extent of taking from the occupier the whole of the surplus after defraying the expenses of culti- vation.” The British Government objects to thus “sweeping off the whole margin of profit.” What becomes of the surplus which our Government refrains * The evidence on which these statements are based was published in my Orissa, vol. i. pp. 323-329. (Smith, Elder, & Co., 1872.) * Report of the Indian Famine Commission, part ii. p. 90, as presented to Parliament, 188o. * Report of the Indian Famine Commission, part ii. p. 90, as presented to Parliament, 1880. JAWC//D/E/VCAE OF 7TA XA 7TWOAV. 549 from taking? It goes to feed a greatly increased population. Increase The tax-gatherer now leaves so large a margin to the husband- ºpiº man, that the Province of Bengal, for example, feeds three times as many mouths as it did in 1780, and has a vast surplus of produce, over and above its own wants, for exportation. “In the majority of Native Governments,’ writes the highest living authority on the question,' ‘the revenue officer takes all he can get ; and would take treble the revenue we should assess, if he were strong enough to exact it. In ill-managed Taxation States, the cultivators are relentlessly squeezed ; the difference ºve between the Native system and ours being, mainly, that the cultivator in a Native State is seldom or never sold up, and that he is usually treated much as a good bullock is treated, i.e. he is left with enough to feed and clothe him and his family, so that they may continue to work.’ John Stuart Mill studied the condition of the Indian people more deeply than any other political economist, and he took an indulgent view of Native institutions. His verdict upon the Mughal Govern- ment is that, ‘except during the occasional accident of a humane and vigorous local administrator, the exactions had no practical limit but the inability of the peasant to pay more.’ The Famine Commission, after careful inquiries, stated” that Incidence throughout British India the landed classes pay revenue at the ; i." rate of Rs. 2. 12 per head, including the land-tax for their India. farms, or Rs. o. 14 without it. The trading classes pay Rs. I. Io per head ; the artisans Rs. I—equal to four days' wages in the year; and the agricultural labourers under RS. o. I4. The whole taxation, including the Government rent for the land, averaged, as we have seen, under Rs. 1. I4 per head during the ten years ending 1879. But the Famine Commis- sioners declare that ‘any native of India who does not trade or own land, and who chooses to drink no spirituous liquor, and to use no English cloth or iron, need pay in taxation only about 7d. a year on account of the salt he consumes. On a family of three persons, the charge amounts to Is. 9d., or about four days' wages of a labouring man and his wife.’” * Report by Mr. (now Sir) Alfred Lyall, C.B., formerly Governor- General's Agent in Rájputána, afterwards Foreign Secretary to the Govern- ment of India, and Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh ; quoted in the Despatch of the Governor-General-in-Council to the Secretary of State, 8th June 1880. “Condition of India,’ Blue Book, pp. 36, 37. * A'eport of the Famine Commission, part ii. p. 93 (folio, 1880). * Zdem, part ii. p. 93. 550 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. Gross balance- sheet of British India. Analysis of Indian reWenlieS in 1891. Not of the nature of taxation. Revenue from taxation. ſ GROSS REVENUES.—But it should always be borne in mind that the actual taxation of the Indian people is one thing, and the gross revenues of India are another. As explained in a previous paragraph of this chapter, the revenues include many items not of the nature of taxation. The following table, Com- piled from the Statistical Abstract for 1890–91, exhibits the gross Imperial revenue and expenditure of India for that year, according to the system of accounts adopted at the time. For the reasons already given, it is practically impossible to analyze these gross totals in such a way as to show the actual amount raised by taxation, and the actual amount returned in protec- tion to person and property. The actual taxation has there- fore been dealt with in the two separate statements already given. It is equally impossible to compare the gross totals with those for previous years, owing to changes that have been made from time to time in the system of entering the accounts. The only profitable plan is to particularize some of the items, and to explain their real meaning. The list of items shows how large a portion of the gross revenue is not of the nature of taxation proper. Public works, including railways and irrigation and navigation canals, yielded in 1890–91 no less than Rx. 19,408,556, or over 22% per cent. of the total. Adding the items of post-office and telegraphs, which also represent payment for work done or services rendered, the proportion would rise to over 25 per cent. Then the sum of Rx. 7,879, 182 gross, or Rx. 5,698,355 nett, derived from Opium, being an additional 6% per cent. of the gross revenue, is not a charge upon the native tax-payer, but a con- tribution to the Indian exchequer by the Chinese consumer of the drug. Add to these the tributes from Feudatory States, produce of the forests, etc., and upwards of one-third of the total gross revenue is accounted for. The whole revenue of British India of the nature of actual taxation, including Land Revenue, Excise, Assessed Taxes, Provincial Rates, Customs, Salt, and Stamps, amounted in 1878 to Rx. 34,727,217, or I rupee I3 anas and 2 pies, which was equivalent (at the old nominal rate of 2s. to the rupee) to about 3s. 7#d. per head. In 1890–91 the gross actual taxation of British India was RX. 48,437,180, Or, taking the figures of the new Census and the old nominal value of the rupee, an average of 2 rupees 3 anas, or 4S, 4}d. per head. IMPERIAL REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF BRITISH INDIA FOR 1890–91. Land Revenue, . º . . . . . Rx. 24,045,209 Land Revenue, . Rx. 3,676,596 Opium, º • s - • e - 7,879, 182 Opium, . º º 2,180,797 Salt, º e º º º & - 8,523,368 Salt, we * * tº - 429, or 3 Stamps, . ſº º -> © * º 4,068,969 Stamps, . e g - e & t I3O, OI9 Excise, . . e & - • º - - 4,947,78o Excise, . e I75,053 Provincial Rates, º º te - 3,491; 24O Provincial Rates, 54,04O Customs, e te & º º e - 1,743,218 Customs, 134,652 Assessed Taxes, * * * * - 1,617,396 Assessed Taxes, 29,246 Forests, . º © e - º e - I,448,002 Forests, . º 784, II3 Registration, ... .. • º 365,449 Registration, . - º º - * I96,731 Tributes from Native States, * 760,421 Post-office, . g 49 to g º º 1,396,744 Post-office, . º º * º * * I,4O2,503 Telegraphs, º 763,980 Telegraphs, . 781,034 Mint, . . . . . . . a * 121,888 Mint, . : - e e - * - e e - 354; I52 General Administration, & º - º * & 1,740,465 Law and Justice, º * tº - & - * & - 633,915 Law and Justice, . * 3.625,891 Police, . e & s - - t - º º - 369,383 Police, . te º -> e º - * 3,859,683 Marine, . te º se e º & - - g * 225,606 Marine, . e º * º º • t 559,257 Education, . - e ſº - 2O3,745 Education, . & - e g - º I,37I,735 Medical, * e º e a e º e e s a IOI,75I Ecclesiastical, g e º º is a tº 166,005 i. and Minor Departments, e º - º º - 77,669 Medical, e o e w º e e 4. 806,937 ailways, - • I7,235,978 Political e º • s º - 770,541 i.; Reproductive Public Works, . - e { 2,172,578 Scientific and Minor Departments, º º º - & & 485,747 Buildings and Roads—Non-productive Public Works, .649,289 Railways (Working Expenses, Charges against Capital, Interest, etc.), 17,923,269 Military, e - º tº - º G - - * t 785,635 Irrigation, . º e o e - º e - º º 2,742,128 Interest, . . . º e 931,O5O Buildings and Roads, . g tº º 5,730,907 Superannuation Funds, 357,553 Military, • a e e tº - 20,690,068 Stationery and Printing, 92,472 Special Defence Works, tº 491,837 Exchange, . - - - 78,198 Interest, i- º & º º - 4, IQ5,304 Miscellaneous, º º 398,904 Famine Relief and Insurance, . . 6oo, Ooo Territorial and Political Pensions, - 527,569 Civil Furlough and Absentee Allowances, 232,747 Superannuation Allowances and Pensions, - 3,051,54I Stationery and Printing, º & - & tº 592,436 Refunds and Drawbacks, c 235,663 Assignments and Compensations, . - 1,51O,O92 Miscellaneous, sº e e º e 274,223 Rx. 138,627 4,812 . Rx, 82,256,917 2O3,439 Rx. 82,053,478 GROSS Compiled from the Twenty-sixth Statistical Abstract relating to British India. REVENUE. ExPENDITURE. Total Revenue, . Rx. 85,741,649 Total Expenditure, . . . e º Deduct Provincial Adjustments, . º e Railway Construction charged against Revenue, º t Nett Expenditure, 1 Gross Receipts of State Railways and Nett Traffic Receipts of Guaranteed Companies. 2 Including Rx. 708,996, portion of Land Revenue due to Irrigation. 552 BRITISH A DMVAW/STRATION OF INDIA. Nature of the land- tax. 1890–91. Excise. Stamps. Customs, 1890–91. The land revenue, amounting to Rx. 24,045,209 in 1890–91, forms by far the largest item. Whether it should be properly regarded as a tax, or only as rent, is a problem for political economists to settle; but in any case, it is paid without question, as an immemorial right of the State. It yielded in 1890–91, 28 per cent, or nearly one-third, of the gross reWenlle. Of the other items of taxation, excise and stamps are practically creations of British rule. The excise is a tax upon intoxicating liquors and deleterious drugs, levied both on the manufacture and on the sale, according to different systems in different Provinces. Like the corresponding duty in England, it is voluntarily incurred, and presses hardest upon the lowest classes. But, unlike the English excise, it can hardly be called an elastic Source of revenue, for the rate is intentionally kept so high as to discourage consumption. No duty whatever is levied upon tobacco. Stamps, as in England, form a complex item. The stamp revenue in India is chiefly derived from fees on litigation, and only a comparatively trifling amount from Stamps proper on deeds of transfer, etc. Customs are divided into import and export duties, both of which have been so greatly lightened in recent years, that their permanent maintenance may be considered doubtful. Duties on exports have been altogether abolished, with the single exception of that on rice, which brings in from Rx. 6oo, ooo to over Rx. 9oo, ooo per annum. The average for the ten years ending 1890–91 was Rx. 740,757, the amount for the last-mentioned year (1890–91) Rx. 924,838, and there has been a steady increase since 1878. This export duty is levied at the rate of 3 amas a maund, or, at the old value of the rupee, about 6d. per cwt., being equivalent to an ad valorem rate of Io per cent. The Rx. 1,743,218 received from customs in 1890–91 was practically made up of Rx. 6oo,901 levied on imported liquors and Rx. 165,040 on imported mineral oils, such as petroleum, together with Rx. 924,838 levied on exported rice. The receipts from all other import customs, chiefly levied on arms, ammunition, and drugs, amounted in 1890–91 to only Rx. 28,497, or I; per cent. Of the total ; and the balance of the customs revenue was made up by Rx. 6221 from land customs, and Rx. I 7,721 from miscellaneous receipts, wharf-rents, and fees." The import duty on cotton goods was finally abolished in * Finance and Revenue Accounts of the Government of India for the year 1890–91, p. 37. JAW/D/AAV ACA2 WAEAVOA'S AAWAZYZZZO. 553 March 1882, having been reduced in 1878, and again in Cotton 1879. Imported cotton manufactures had previously formed Pº the most important item of the customs revenue. From 1874 to 1882 the duty on cotton goods varied from Rx. 941,672 in 1878 to Rx. 574,915 in 1881–82, the average being about Rx. 750,000 during the nine years preceding the total abolition of the duty. The Salt-tax, which now yields over Rx. 8,000,ooo a year, is a The salt- problem of greater difficulty. It is an impost upon an article * of prime necessity, and it falls with greatest severity upon the lowest classes. On the other hand, it may be urged that it is familiar to the people, is levied in a manner which arouses no discontent; and is the only means available of spreading taxation proper over the community. The reforms of 1878 and 1882, referred to on a previous page, have equalized the incidence of the salt-tax over the entire country, with the incidental result of abolishing arbitrary and vexatious customs- lines. As stated on a previous page, the rate is now a uniform One of Rs. 2.8 per maund, or (at the old nominal value of the rupee) 6s. 9d, per cwt., throughout British India, except in Burma, where the rate is one rupee per maund. Direct taxation is no novelty in India, the Native Govern- Assessed ments having from time immemorial made the non-agricultural taxes. classes pay their share of the expenses of the State. In the Provinces which passed early under British rule, we found this taxation mixed up with a complicated mass of ‘ Octroi’ and transit duties falling more or less upon the general population ; and when (about 1844) the salt-tax was imposed upon the latter, the old system of direct and indirect taxation was, perhaps too indiscriminately, swept away. The financial necessities arising out of the Mutiny of 1857 History having compelled the Government to revert to direct taxation, iºns. the form of the English income-tax was adopted instead of tax. the Native model that had been discarded about 1844. Ignorant and unlettered millions were called upon, at short notice, to assess themselves or prove rights of exemption, to send in elaborate returns and calculations, and to understand and watch their own interests under the system of notices, surcharges, claims, abatements, instalments, penalties, etc., consequent thereon. The result was a long train of abuses. Renewed direct taxation thus made a disadvantageous start. Furthermore, with the English form came the English idea that the tax was to be a convenient means for rectifying Budget inequalities, and a standing reserve in emergencies, 554 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF IND/A. Rates of income- tax, I860– 1877. Present arrange- Innent. Measures taken in I886. Hence, incomes which had been taxed 2 per cent. in 1860, were exempted in 1862; the 4 per cent, rate was reduced to 3 per cent. in 1863, and the whole tax was dropped in 1865. In 1867 it reappeared as a ‘licence-tax' at a rate of 2 per cent. at more than, but reaching down to, incomes of Rs. 200. In 1868 it was made a “certificate-tax,’ at rates one-fifth lower, and starting with a Rs. 5oo limit. In 1869 it became again an “income-tax' at I per cent, on all incomes and profits of Rs. 5oo and upwards. In the middle of the same year it was suddenly nearly doubled. In 1870 came a further rise to 3% per cent, followed in 1871 by a fall to about I per cent., with a minimum of Rs. 750, which in 1872 was relaxed to Rs. Iooo. To this succeeded four years of total abolition. In 1877 a new start was made, upon somewhat improved lines, to levy a ‘licence-tax,” but the system of local legislation led to local inequalities of incidence and of maximum, and the measure was admittedly provisional. In 1886 the defences of India involved a large additional taxation. This led to a re-examination of the subject, and it was recognised that the perpetual changes in rate, incidence, name, form, classification, and procedure, evidenced by twenty- three Acts in some twenty years, had rendered successful direct taxation impossible. It was noted that the Native Governments levied without difficulty or demur ‘sums far larger than the Rx. 500,ooo which cost the British Government so much unpopularity and outcry. Their system consisted of a tradi- tional acquaintance with individuals and their circumstances, a careful record of the names and revenues of non-agricultural householders, a rudely equitable apportionment between man and man, a fixed reluctance to vary assessments without grave cause, and the employment of the ordinary land-revenue agency. A measure was then framed, such as, with due allowance for modern circumstances, would by its provisions, and still more by the Rules framed under it, give the utmost scope for the application of these fundamental principles. A suitable permanent agency, under effective supervision, was to shun petty increases and changes from year to year; to use the power of assessment with care, tact, and moderation; to learn and record the real means of parties; to prevent the unfair escape of individuals; and by patient, continuous endeavours to build up a framework of taxation which could be smoothly worked upon. Act II. of 1886 remains in force up to the present time, and is reported to have fulfilled the anticipations which had been formed of the new departure, and to show a INDIAN PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. 555 yearly increase corresponding to the growth of India in wealth Income- and population. The nett receipts of the assessed taxes, º 'º' deducting the cost of collection, have been since the intro- duction of the new system :- - 1886–87. I887–88, 1888–89. 1889–90, 1890–91. 1891-92, 1892–93. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. I,277,51o I,382,808 I,477,514 I,567,593 I,588, I5o I,614,9001 I,613,4001 GROSS EXPENDITURE.-Putting aside the cost of collection Indian . and civil administration, which explain themselves, the most ;. important charges are the Army, Interest on Debt, Famine 91. Relief, Loss by Exchange, and Public Works, to which may be added the complex item of payments in England. Military Army ex- expenditure has averaged Rx. 19,484,591 during the ten Pºº" years ending 1890–91, and in 1890–91 was Rx. 20,690,068. Of this amount, Rx. I4,799,128 were spent in India and Rx. 5,890,140 in England, in both cases slightly exceeding the average for the decade, which was Rx. I4, 178,8oo in India and Rx. 5,305,790 in England. In connection with military expenditure must be noted an item for special de- fence works, which has appeared in the Indian accounts since 1886–87. Under this head there was spent in 1890–91 the sum of RX. 491,837, the average for the five years being Rx. 550,51 I. In 1877–78, the total of the Indian Public Debt (exclusive Public of Capital invested on railways and other productive public ; * * * * e 9I. works) was returned at over Rx. 1343 millions, being Rs. 6. 12. 2, or (taking the rupee at its old nominal value of 2s.) just 13s.6}d. per head of the population. In 1890–91, it was returned at over Rx. 207 millions, or, taking the figures of the new Census, at Rs. 9. 5. 8, or, according to the old rate of exchange, 18s. 8%d. per head of the population. Part of this was of the nature of obligations or deposits not bearing interest. The charge for interest was Rx. 5 millions in 1877–78, and only Rx. 4, 195,304 in 1890–91. The above ‘Public Debt” is independent of Rx. 1263 millions invested in railways and productive works in 1877–78, which had increased to over Rx. 167; in 1890–91.” In 1840, the Public Debt amounted to only 30 millions, Its growth and gradually rose to 52 millions in 1857. Then came the **49. Mutiny, which added upwards of 40 millions of debt in four years. The rate of increase was again gradual, but slow, till about * Estimates for 1891–92, 1892–93. * Statistical Abstract for 1890–91, p. 302. 556 BAEITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. 1874, when Famine Relief conspired with Public Works to Cause a rapid augmentation, which has continued to the present time. A significant feature in this augmentation is the large proportion of debt contracted in England. No charge has recently pressed harder upon the Indian exchequer than that of Famine Relief. Apart from loss by reduced revenue, the two famines of 1874 and 1877–78 caused a direct expenditure on charitable and relief works amounting in the aggregate to just over Rx. I4 millions. From 1878–79 to 1882–83 the expenditure on ‘Famine Relief’ was returned at Rx. 3% millions (of which the greater portion was expended on Public Works in the nature of insurance against famine, and not on actual relief); making a total of nearly Rx. 17% millions during the ten years 1874 to 1883 inclusive. This amounted to an annual charge of Rx. 1; millions for ‘Famine Relief.” Since 1882–83 the need of special expenditure under this head has not been so imperative. Nevertheless, during these eight years up to 1890–91, Rx. 6% millions more has been spent on ‘Famine Relief and Insurance,” or an average sum of Rx. # of a million a year." LOSS by exchange is due to the circumstance that large payments in gold require to be made in England by means of the depreciated rupee. In the table on p. 551 it is not treated as a separate item, but spread over the different branches of Indian expenditure. The average amount spent in England during the six years from 1885–86 to 1890–91 was 24, 14,869,127, and the actual figure for 1890–91 was 24, 15,568,875. An analysis of this expenditure shows that the principal items were—Interest on Debt, 24, 2,513,000 ; Interest on State and Guaranteed Railways, 24, 5,702,207 ; Effective Military Charges (including payment for British forces, troop service, etc.), 24, 1,325,463; Non-Effective Military Charges (including re- tired pay, pensions, etc.), £2,095,632 ; Indian Service Funds (pensions to Civil officers, etc.), 24, 1,406,606; and Stores, chiefly military, 24, 1,522, IoS.” To meet these large and necessary disbursements, money has to be transmitted to England, and a considerable loss is caused by the depreciated value of silver as against gold. In 1869–70, the loss by exchange was more than balanced by an entry of gain by exchange on the other side of the ledger. In 1876–77, the loss amounted to Rx. 2, 161,713; between 1878–79 and 1884–85, when the rupee was worth a varying fraction more Famine Relief. Loss by exchange. * Statistical Abstract for 1890–91, p. 94. * /demu, pp. IoS, Io9. J.OCA / F/AWA/WCAE. 557 than Is. 7d., it averaged Rx. 3,395,528; and between 1887–88 and 1890–91, when the rupee had fallen to a varying fraction over Is. 4d., the average loss was Rx. 6,678,084." In 1890–91, however, the rupee rose once more to slightly over Is. 6d. in value, and the loss on exchange Consequently was only Rx. 5,217,896. The actual loss on the payment of the Home Charges of 24, 15,568,875 was Rx. 5,087,144, and the difference is accounted for by the fact that the Secretary of State for India cannot draw bills for exactly the amount required at the moment, but has to watch the market and seize favour- able opportunities. The expenditure on Public Works is provided from three Public g * e w Works ex- sources—(1) the capital of private companies, with a Govern- penditure. ment guarantee; (2) loans for the construction of railways and canals; (3) current revenue applied towards such works as are not directly remunerative. In 1877–78, the capital raised for guaranteed railways amounted to Rx. 97% millions, and the capital invested on State railways and other productive public works to Rx. 29 millions: total, Rx. I26% millions on railways and productive works. In 1890–91, the capital of the guaranteed railways was reduced to Rx. 71% millions; the capital invested Railways. on State railways and other productive public works amounted to Rx. 95; millions: total on railways and productive public works, Rx. 167% millions in 1890–91. During the interval, 64 millions sterling of capital had been transferred from the guaranteed to the State railway account, owing to the purchase of the East India, the Eastern Bengal, and the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi railways by the Government. Independent of Imperial finance, and likewise independent Local of certain sums annually transferred from the Imperial * exchequer to be expended by the provincial governments, there is another Indian budget for local revenue and expendi- ture. This consists of an income derived mainly from cesses upon land, four-fifths of which are classified as Provincial Rates, and expended to a great extent upon minor public works and education. In 1877–78, local revenue and expenditure were each returned at about Rx. 3% millions, and in 1890–91 the local revenue amounted to Rx. 3,579,910, and the local expenditure to Rx. 3,989,060, of which Rx. 1,600,095 was spent on public works, and Rx. 585,661 on education.” Yet a third budget is that belonging to the municipalities. 1 Statistical Abstract for 1890–91, p. I35. * Finance and Revenue Accounts of the Government of India for 1890–91, pp. 18, 19. 558 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF JAVIDIA. Municipal finance, I876–91. Constitu- tion of the army. The three Presidency towns of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay had in 1876–77 a total municipal income of Rx. 668,400, of which Rx. 519,322 was derived from taxation, being at the rate of Rs. 3.8 per head of population. In addition, there were 89.4 minor municipalities, with a total population of 12,381,059. Their aggregate income was Rx. 1,246,974, of which Rx. 979,088 was derived from taxation, being at the rate of 12 amas 8 pies per head. In 1890–91 the total muni- cipal revenue of the three capital towns was Rx. 1, 106,400, namely, of Bombay, Rx. 586, Ioo; of Calcutta, Rx. 420,000 ; and of Madras, Rx. Ioo,3oo; while their expenditure was RX, I,575,600, namely, in Bombay, Rx. 1,013, ooo; in Calcutta, Rx. 447,ooo; and in Madras, Rx. I 15,600. Their debt amounts (1891) to Rx. 5,698,000, of which Rx. 3,285,000 belongs to Bombay, Rx. 2, 126,000 to Calcutta, and Rx. 287,000 to Madras; while the incidence of municipal taxation on the population varies from Rs. 6 in Bombay, and Rs. 5. Io. II in Calcutta, to Rs. 1. 15 in Madras. An idea of the import- ance of the Presidency towns may be formed from the fact that the whole municipal income of all the other 758 munici- palities in India amounted in 1890–91 to only Rs. 1,929,614, and their total expenditure to Rx. 2,438,096." In the Presi- dency towns, rates upon houses, etc., are the chief source of income ; but in the District municipalities, excepting in Bengal and Madras, octroi duties are more relied upon. The chief items of municipal expenditure are conservancy, roads, and police. THE INDIAN ARMY.-The constitution of the Indian army is based upon the historical division of British India into the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. There are still three Indian armies, each composed of both European and Native troops, and each with its own Commander-in-Chief and separate staff, although the Commander-in-Chief in Bengal exercises supreme authority over the other two. There may also be said to be a fourth army, the Punjab Frontier Force, which, until 1885, was under the orders of the Lieutenant- Governor of the Province. The Bengal army garrisons Bengal Proper and Assam, the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, a portion of Central India and Rájputána, and the Punjab. In 1877–78 its total strength was Io.4,216 officers and men, of whom 63,933 were The three Presidency armies. 1 Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India, 1890–91, pp. 30, 31, 36, 38; and Statistical Abstract for 1890–91, p. 143. THE ZAVD/AAV ARMY. 559 Native troops. In 1890–91, the Bengal army numbered The 130,375 officers and men, of whom 84,053 were Native * troops. In the Bengal Native army, the distinguishing feature is the presence of 12 batteries of artillery, and an exceptionally large proportion of cavalry, both of which arms are massed in the Punjab. The Madras army extends beyond the limits of that The Presidency into Mysore, the Nizām's Dominions, the Central * Provinces, also to Burma across the Bay of Bengal, and to º the Andaman convict settlements. In 1877–78, its total strength was 47,026 officers and men, of whom 34,293 were Native troops. In 1890–91, the Madras army numbered 46,072 of all ranks, of whom 32,123 were natives. In the Madras Native army, the distinguishing features are the large proportion of Sappers and miners, the Small proportion of cavalry, and the entire absence of artillery. * The Bombay army occupies Bombay Proper and Sind, The the Native States of Central India, and the outlying station º of Aden in the Red Sea. In 1877–78, its total strength was 38,355 officers and men, of whom 26,645 were Native troops. In 1890–91, the Bombay army numbered 41,771 officers and men, of whom 28,672 were natives. The total established strength of the European and Native Total army in British India in 1877–78 (exclusive of Native artificers ºh, and followers) consisted of 189,597 officers and men, of ‘’’ whom 64,276 were Europeans, and 124,871 were Native troops. The four chief arms of the service were thus com- posed —(1) Artillery, 12,239 Europeans and 901 natives; (2) Cavalry, 4347 Europeans and 18,346 natives; (3) engineers, 357 Europeans (all officers) and 3239 natives; (4) infantry, 45,962 Europeans and Io.2, 183 natives. In 1890–91, the 1891. total European and Native army in British India consisted of 218,218 officers and men, of whom 73,370 were Europeans and 144,848 were Native troops. The artillery consisted of 12,723 Europeans and 3757 natives ; the cavalry of 5679 Europeans and 23,348 natives, besides a bodyguard of 199 troopers; engineers, 254 Europeans (all officers) and 4015 natives ; infantry, 53,701 Europeans and I 13,529 natives. British Staff Officers, Invalid and Veteran Establishment, etc., IoI 3. Total Europeans, 73,370. POLICE.-Excluding the village watch, still maintained as a Police. Subsidiary police in many parts of the country, the regular police of all kinds in British India in 1890 consisted of a 560 BAE ITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. Police of India, 1890. total strength of 150,591 officers and men, being an average of One policeman to about 6% Square miles of area, and to about 1468 of the population. The total cost of maintenance was Rx. 2,583,963, of which Rx. 2,418,973 was payable from Im- perial or provincial revenues. The former figure gives an average cost of Rs. 26. I3. 8, or (at the old rate of exchange of 2s. to the rupee) of about 24, 2 13s. 8%d. per square mile of area; and of I and 9 pies, or (at the old rate of exchange) Jails, 1890. Educa- tion. In ancient India. about 2%d, per head of population. The average pay of each constable was Rs. 7 a month, or 24,88s. a year. In 1890, the total number of places of confinement in British India, including Central and District jails and lock-ups, was 746; the total number of prisoners admitted during the year, or remaining over from the previous year, was 495,820 ; the daily average was 88,353." The places of transportation for all British India are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, where there are two penal establishments, containing, in 1890–91, a daily average of 11,804 convicts.” PUBLIC INSTRUCTION in India is directly organized by the State, and is assisted by grants-in-aid, under careful inspection. But at no period of its history has India been without some system of popular education, independent of State organization or aid. The origin of the Deva-Nágari alphabet is lost in antiquity, though it is generally admitted not to be of indigenous invention. Inscriptions on stone and copper, the palm-leaf records of the temples, and in later days the wide- spread manufacture of paper, indicate not only the general knowledge, but also the common use, of the art of writing. From the earliest times the Brähman caste preserved, first by oral tradition, then in manuscript, a literature unrivalled in its antiquity and for the intellectual subtlety of its contents. The Muhammadan invaders introduced the profession of the chronicler, and attained a high degree of historical excellence, compared with European writers of the same mediaeval period. Throughout every change of dynasty, vernacular instruction has been given, at least to the children of respectable classes, in each large village. On the one hand, the fols or seminaries for teaching Sanskrit philosophy at Benares and Nadiyā recall the schools of Athens and Alexandria; on the other, the importance attached to instruction in accounts reminds one of Village schools. Sanskrit tols. 1 Statistical Abstract for 1890–91, pp. 68, 69. * Report on the Administration of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands for 1890–91, p. 2. \ \ MISSIONARY AND STATE SCHOOLS. 561 the picture which Horace has left of a Roman education. Even at the present day, a knowledge of reading and writing, taught by the Buddhist monks, is as widely diffused throughout Burma as in many countries of Europe. Our own efforts to stimulate education have been most successful, when based upon the existing indigenous institutions. During the early days of the East India Company's rule, the Our first & G * efforts at promotion of education was not recognised as a duty of . Government. Even in England, at that time, education was entirely left to private, and mainly to clerical, enterprise. A State system of instruction for the whole people is an idea of the latter half of the nineteenth century. But the enlightened mind of Warren Hastings anticipated this idea by founding the Calcutta Madrasa for Muhammadan teaching (1781), and by Calcutta extending his patronage alike to Hindu pandiºs and European *tº: students. Lord Wellesley's schemes of Imperial dominion led Colleges. to the establishment of the college of Fort William for young civilians. Of the Calcutta seminaries, the Sanskrit College was founded in 1824, when Lord Amherst was Governor-General ; the Medical College, by Lord William Bentinck in 1835; the Hüglí Madrasa, by a wealthy Native gentleman in 1836. The Sanskrit College at Benares had been established in 1791, the Agra College in 1823. Meanwhile, the Christian missionaries made the field of Mission vernacular education their own. Discouraged by the author “” ities, and under the Company liable to deportation, they not only devoted themselves with courage to their special work of evangelization, but they were also the first Europeans to study the vernacular dialects spoken by the people. Nearly two centuries ago, the Jesuits at Madura, in the extreme South, had so mastered Tamil as to leave works in that language which are still acknowledged as classical by Native authors. About 1810, the Baptist mission at Serampur, above Calcutta, raised Bengalſ to the rank of a literary prose dialect. The interest of the missionaries in education, which has never ceased to the present day, although now comparatively over- shadowed by Government activity, had two distinct aspects. They studied the vernacular, in order to preach to the people, and to translate the Bible; they also taught English, as the channel of Western knowledge. After long and acrimonious controversy between the advo-State cates of English and of vernacular teaching, the present system ãº. was based, in 1854, upon a comprehensive Despatch sent out 1354. 3. by Sir C. Wood (afterwards Lord Halifax). In the midst of 2 N Indian Universi- ties, 1857. Education Commis- sion of 1882–83. Educa- tional statistics, 1878–91. / A 562 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. the tumult of the Mutiny, the three Indian Universitie were founded at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay in 1857." Schools for teaching English were by degrees established in every District; grants-in-aid were extended to the lower ver- nacular institutions, and to girls' Schools. A Department of Public Instruction was organized in every Province, under a Director, with a staff of Inspectors. In some respects this scheme may have been in advance of the time; but it supplied a definite outline, which has gradually been filled up. A net- work of schools was extended over the country, graduated from the indigenous village institutions up to the highest colleges. All received some measure of pecuniary support, granted under the guarantee of regular inspection; while a series of scholarships at once stimulated efficiency, and opened a path to the university for the children of the poor. In 1882–83, an Education Commission, appointed by Lord Ripon's Government, endeavoured to complete the scheme inaugurated in 1854 by the Despatch of Lord Halifax. It carefully examined the condition of education in each Province, indicated defects, and laid down principles for further develop- ment. The results of its labours have been to place public instruction on a broader and more popular basis, to encourage private enterprise in teaching, to give a more adequate recognition to the indigenous schools, and to provide that the education of the people shall advance at a more equal pace along with the instruction of the higher classes. Female education and the instruction of certain backward classes of the community, such as the Muhammadans, received special attention from the Commission. The general effect of its recommendations is to develop the Department of Public Instruction into a system of truly national education for India, conducted and supervised in an increasing degree by the people themselves. In 1877–78, the total number of educational institutions of all sorts in British India was 66,202, attended by an aggregate of 1,877,942 pupils, showing an average of one school to every 14 square miles, and one pupil to every Too of the population. In 1890–91, the total number of inspected schools of all classes in British India had risen to 138,350, with an aggregate of 3,698,361 Scholars, showing an average of one school to every 7 square miles of area, and, according to the Census of 1891, of One pupil to every 59 of the population. Male ! By Act II. of 1857 for Calcutta; by Act XXII. of 1857 for Bombay; and by Act XXVII. of 1857 for Madras. THE INDIAN UAV/WEAS/TIAES. 563 pupils numbered 3,382,048, showing one boy at School to every 33 of the male population; and female pupils, 316,313, or one girl at School to every 343 females." These figures, how- ever, only include State-inspected or aided schools and pupils. The Census Report of 1891 returned 2,593,887 boys and I62,248 girls as under instruction throughout British India, besides 9,903,664 males and 447,924 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. The figures are evidently below the truth, and it will be remarked that the Census returns the total number of boys attending school at nearly 8oo, ooo less, and of girls at 154,000 less, than those returned as attending the State-inspected schools alone. In 1877–78, the total expenditure upon education from all Educa- sources was Rx. 1,612,775, of which Rx. 782,240 was contri- *. buted by the provincial governments, Rx. 258,514 was derived 1378-91. from local rates, and Rx. 32,008 from municipal grants. These items may be said to represent State aid; while endowments yielded RX. 37,218, Subscriptions Rx. IoS,853, and fees and fines Rx. 277,039. The degree in which education has been popularized, and private effort has been stimulated, may be estimated from the fact that in Bengal the voluntary payments now greatly exceed the Government grants; while in Madras they exceed them by about Rx. 50,000, and in Bombay the two sources of receipt are nearly equal. In 1890–91 the total educational expenditure throughout British India amounted to Rx. 2,907,057, of which Rx. 821, 182 was contributed by the provincial governments, Rx. 505,614 was derived from local rates, Rx. I 35, 184 from municipal funds, Rx. 839,855 from fees and fines, and Rx. 603,221 from Subscriptions, endow- ments, and other sources.” - The three Universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay The were incorporated in 1857, on the model of the University of Indian London. They are merely examining bodies, with the privi-j" lege of Conferring degrees in arts, law, medicine, and civil engineering. Their constitution is composed of a Chancellor, Their con- Vice-Chancellor, and Senate. The governing body, or Syndi- stitution. cate, consists of the Vice-Chancellor and certain members of the Senate. A fourth University, on a similar plan, but including the teaching element, and following more Oriental lines, has been founded at Lahore for the Punjab; and a fifth was established at Allahābād, in 1887, for the North-Western Provinces. The Universities control the whole course of * Statistical Abstract for 1890–91, pp. 193, 197. * /alem, pp. 198–20I. 564 BAEITISH ADMINISTRATION OF JAWD/A. higher education in India by means of their examinations. The entrance examination for matriculation is open to all; but when that is passed, candidates for higher stages must enrol themselves in one or other of the affiliated colleges. University In the ten years ending 1877–78, 9686 candidates success- ºś. fully passed the entrance examination at Calcutta, 6381 at 1891. Madras, and 2610 at Bombay ; total, 18,677. For the ten years ending 1882–83, out of 23,226 candidates at Calcutta, Io,200 successfully passed the entrance examination; at Madras, Out of 28,575 candidates, 9715 passed ; and at Bombay, Out of II,871 candidates, 3557 passed. Total passed entrance examination in the ten years ending 1882–83, 23,472. During the ten years ending 1890–91, Out of 30,845 candidates at Calcutta," 14,452 Successfully passed the entrance examination ; at Madras, out of 59,062 candidates, 17,243 passed; and at Bombay, out of 23,831 Candidates, 6990 passed. To the matriculated students of the older universities in the Presidency towns must now be added those of their more recently founded rivals. In the three years out of the last six up to 1890–91, for which the figures are given, 2788 candidates offered themselves for the entrance examination at the Punjab University, of whom Io21 passed; while in the three years 1888–91, out of 3623 candidates at Allahābād, 1761 passed. Total recorded as passing the entrance examina- tion at the five Indian Universities during the ten years ending 1890–91, 41,467. It is worthy of mention, that the foundation of the new Universities has not lessened the number of candi- dates at those originally established. Many fall off at this stage, and very few proceed to the Number of higher degrees. During the ten years ending 1882–83, Io96 Graduatº graduated B.A. and only 281 M.A. at Calcutta; 896 B.A. and 22 M.A. at Madras; 456 B.A. and 34 M.A. at Bombay: total of B.A.’s and M.A.’s in the ten years, 2725. In the ten years ending 1890–91, 253 I graduated B.A. and 429 M.A. at Calcutta; 2729 B.A. and only 44 M.A. at Madras ; I 583 B.A. and 40 M.A. at Bombay; while during six years I37 graduated B.A. and 7 M.A. at the Punjab University, and during three years 179 B.A. and 18 M.A. at Allahābād. Total number of B.A.’s during the period 7159, and of M.A.'s 538. Calcutta possesses the great majority of graduates in law, while Bombay is similarly distinguished in engineering and medicine. In 1877–78, the total expenditure on the Univer- * The figures for Calcutta are really for nine years only, as those for 1884–85 are not stated ; see Statistical Abstract for 1888–89, p. 189. CO//ZG ES AAWD SCHOOZ.S. 565 sities was Rx. 22,093; in 1882–83, Rx. 19,591 ; and in 1890–91, RX. 49,126. - The colleges or institutions for higher instruction may be Colleges. divided into two classes—those which teach the arts course of the Universities, and those devoted to special branches of knowledge. According to another principle, they are classified into those entirely supported by Government, and those which only receive grants-in-aid. The latter class comprises the missionary colleges. In 1877–78, the total number of colleges, including medical and engineering colleges and Muhammadan madrasas, was 82, attended by 8894 students. Of these, as many as 35 colleges, with 3848 students, were in Lower Bengal; and 2 I colleges, with 1448 students, in Madras. In 1877–78, the total expenditure on the colleges was RX. I86, 162, or at the rate of Rs. 209. 5 per student. In 1890–91, the total number of colleges, including medical and engineering Colleges and Muhammadan madrasas, had risen to I39, attended by 15,958 male and 80 female students. Of these, 48 colleges, with 6725 students, were in Bengal; 40 Colleges, with 3723 students, in Madras; and 13 colleges, with 1855 students, in Bombay." In the same year, the total expenditure on colleges in British India was Rx. 277,866, or Rs. 173.4 per student. The boys' schools include many varieties, which may be Boys' sub-divided either according to the character of the instruction *: given, or according to the proportion of Government aid which they receive. The higher schools are those in which English upper is not only taught, but is also used as the medium of instruction. ** They educate up to the standard of the entrance examination at the Universities, and generally train those candidates who seek employment in the upper grades of Government service. One of these schools, known as the zilá or District school, is established at the headquarters station of every District; and with many others receive grants-in-aid. The total number of high schools in 1882–83 was 530, of which 492 were for males and 38 for females; the attendance in the year comprising 68,434 males and II 65 females. The middle schools, as their name implies, are inter-middle mediate between the higher and the primary schools. Gener. “” ally speaking, they are placed in the smaller towns or larger villages; and they provide that measure of instruction which is recognised to be useful by the middle classes themselves. Some of them teach English; others only the vernacular. * Statistical Abstract for 1890–91, pp. 190-193. 566 BAE/TISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. This class includes the tahsil; schools, established at the head- quarters of every fahsil or Sub-division in the North-Western Provinces. In 1882–83, the middle schools numbered 3796, with an attendance of 170,642 pupils. In 1890–91, the number of institutions for secondary education, including both higher and middle schools, had risen to 5005, of which 4545 were for males, and 460 for females; and they were attended during the year by 436,980 males and 35,908 females." The total expenditure on both higher and middle Schools in 1882–83 was Rx. 492,541, or at the rate of Rs. 20.8 per pupil; in 1890–91 it was Rx. 950,899, but the number of pupils had also nearly doubled, so that the rate per pupil was nearly identical with that of the former year, or Rs. 20. I.” - The lower or primary schools complete the series. They are dotted over the whole country, and teach only the vernacular. Their extension is the best test of the success of our educational system. No uniformity exists in the primary school system through- out the several Provinces. In Bengal, up to the last fifteen years, primary instruction was neglected; but since the reforms inaugurated by Sir G. Campbell in 1872, by which the benefit of the grant-in-aid rules was extended to the pāthsåſås or road- side schools, this reproach has been removed. In 1871–72, the number of primary Schools under inspection in Lower Bengal was only 2451, attended by 64,779 pupils. By 1877–78, the number of schools had risen to 16,042, and the number of pupils to 360,322, being an increase of about sixfold in six years. By March 1883, when Sir G. Campbell's reforms had received their full development, the primary schools in Bengal had increased to 63,897, and the pupils to I, II8,623, being an increase of over seventeenfold in the eleven years ending 1882–83. In 1890–91, the number of Government and public, that is of State supported or State aided, primary schools in Bengal is returned at 49,755, attended by I, II 5,662 scholars; to which must be added Io,587 private elementary schools with 99,967 pupils, making a total of 60,342 primary Schools, teaching 1,215,629 boys and girls.” Private Schools have steadily diminished; the Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India for 1890–91, in which the figures differ somewhat from those just given, says that there were “48o fewer private educational institutions in 1890–91 than in the Primary schools. Increase of primary schools in Bengal ; .* Słażistical Affstract for 1890–91, p. I92. * /alem, p. 204. * Zdem, pp. I90, I9 I. AA2/MAAC V. E.D UCAT/OAV. 567 previous year,’ and also that “a difficulty has been found in keeping up a sufficient number of lower primary schools.” In 1877–78, the expenditure on primary schools in Bengal from all sources was Rx. 78, ooo; towards which Government Contributed only Rx. 27,ooo, thus showing how State aid stimulates private outlay in primary education. The total expenditure in 1882–83 was returned at Rx. 318,680, and in 1890–91 at Rx. 268,533. This increase, however, is more apparent than real, and results from a large number of Schools previously private being brought under the inspection of the Education Department, and included in its financial StatementS. The North-Western Provinces owe their system of primary in North- instruction to their great Lieutenant-Governor, Mr. Thomason, }: * whose constructive talent can be traced in every branch of the y administration. In addition to the tahsili or middle schools already referred to, a scheme was drawn up for establishing halkabandī or primary schools in every central village (whence their name), to which the children from the surrounding hamlets might resort. The system in the North-Western Provinces has been developed by means of the educational cess added to the land revenue. Sir William Muir, during his long service in the North-Western Provinces, ending in the Lieutenant-Governorship, did much for both the primary and the higher education of the people. In Bombay, the primary schools are mainly supported out of in local funds raised by a cess added to the land revenue. Bombay; In Burma, on the other hand, primary education is still in Burma; left to a great extent in the hands of the Buddhist monks, who receive little or no aid from our Government. These monastic Schools are only open to boys; but there are also lay teachers who admit girls to mixed classes. The local administration shows a wise disposition to avail itself of the indigenous monastic system. Government has comparatively few schools of its own in Burma, the deficiency being supplied by several missionary bodies, who obtain State aid. In some localities of the Madras Presidency, also, the in Madras. missionaries possess a practical monopoly of primary education at the present day. In 1877–78, the amount of money expended upon lower and Primary primary schools in British India was Rx. 406,135, or just one- ºn fourth of the total educational budget. In 1882–83, the total * Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India for 1890–91, p. 203. 568 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. Girls’ schools. expenditure on lower and primary schools throughout British India was Rx. 912,353 of the total educational expenditure of the year, Rx. 2, IoS,653. Under the recommendations of the Education Commission of 1882–83, the importance assigned to primary instruction, and the proportion of the public educational funds devoted to it, will constantly tend to increase. But in 1890–91 only Rx. 917,068, or less than one-third of the total educational expenditure (Rx. 2,907,057), was spent under this head, a sum which is more than double that devoted to primary education in 1877–78, but hardly shows so great a proportional increase as had been expected. Of late years something has been done, although not much, to extend the advantages of education to girls. In this, as in other educational matters, the missionaries have been the pioneers of progress. In a few exceptional places, such as Tinnevelli in Madras, the Khási Hills of Assam, and among the Karen tribes of Burma, female education has made real progress; for in these localities the missionaries have sufficient influence to overcome the prejudices of the people. But elsewhere, even in the large towns and among the English- speaking classes, all attempts to give a modern education to women are regarded with scarcely disguised aversion, and have obtained but slight success. Efforts were at one time made by the Bengal Government to utilize the female members of the Vishnuite sects in female education, but without permanent success. Throughout the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, with their numerous and wealthy cities, and a total female population of 22,601,484 according to the Census of 1891, Only 89.99 girls attended school in 1877–78, and 13,870 in 1890–91. In Lower Bengal, the corresponding number was less than 12, ooo in 1877–78, but had increased to 57,361 in 1882–83, and to 88,558 in 1890–91. Madras (87,715 female Scholars in 1890–91) presses close upon Bengal; Bombay had 69,282 ; and then there is a long drop to the Punjab (22,657) and Burma (18,440). The following statistics show the great advance which has recently been made in female education :- Total girls’ Schools throughout British India in 1877–78, 2002 ; number of pupils, 66,615; mixed schools for boys and girls, 2.955 ; pupils, 90,915: total amount expended on girls’ Schools, Rx. 78,729, of which Rx. 27,ooo was devoted to the 12,000 girls of Bengal. The total number of girls’ schools in 1882–83 in British India was 3487, attended by 162,317 pupils. This branch of instruction has received a marked development from the recommendations of the Education AVORMAZ AAWD SPECZAZ SCHOOZ.S. 569 Commission, so that in 1890–91 there were 6447 girls' Schools in British India, of which 5 III were Government or public institutions. They were attended by 316,313 pupils, or nearly double as many as in 1882–83. The amount spent on female education in 1890–91 was Rx. 241,820, as against Rx. I51,422 in 1882–83; and of this sum Rx. 66,653 was expended in Bengal, Rx. 52,946 in Madras, and Rx. 46,915 in Bombay. In 1877–78, the normal, technical, and industrial schools Normal numbered 155, with a total of 6864 students; the total ex- * penditure was Rx. 54,260, or an average of Rs. 79 per student, schools, In 1890–91 the number of these special institutions had risen to 578, attended by 20,438 students. The expenditure had grown in proportion to Rx. 160,329, showing an almost identical average of Rs. 78. 7 per student. The most important of these institutions, from their place in the Scheme of general education, are the normal schools. Of these there were 158, attended by 4190 males and 784 females, in 1890–91, costing Rx. 63,030, or Rs. 126. II per student. Schoolmistresses, as well as schoolmasters, are trained ; and here also the missionaries have shown themselves active in anticipating a work which Government subsequently took up. Of schools of art, the oldest is that founded by Dr. A. Schools Hunter at Madras in 1850, and taken in charge by the of Art. Education Department in 1856. This institution, and the Art Schools at Calcutta and Bombay, established on its model, have been successful in developing the industrial capacities of the students, and in training workmen for public employment. Their effect on Native art is more doubtful, and in some cases they have tended to supersede Native designs by hybrid European patterns. Museums have been established at the Provincial capitals and in other large towns. Schools for Europeans have also attracted the attention of Schools Government. Foremost among special schools are the asylums º in the hills for the orphans of British soldiers (e.g. Utakámand and Sanáwar), founded in memory of Sir Henry Lawrence. Closely connected with the subject of education is the Vernacu- steady growth of the vernacular press, which is ever active *P* in issuing both newspapers and books. The Serampur missionaries first cast type in the vernacular languages, and employed Native compositors. The earliest vernacular news- First news- paper was issued in Bengali by the Baptist Mission at P*P* Serampur, in 1818. For many years the vernacular press preserved the marks of its origin, being limited almost º exclusively to theological controversy. The missionaries were period. 570 BRZZZS// ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. The politi- cal period. Statistics of Native journal- ism. encountered with their own weapons by the Theistic sect of the Brähma Samāj, and also by the orthodox Hindus. As late as 1850, most of the vernacular newspapers were still religious or sectarian, rather than political. But during the last forty-two years, the vernacular press has gradually risen into a powerful engine of political discussion. - The number of newspapers published in the several ver- naculars in continental India, excluding Burma, is returned at 463, and their aggregate sale is estimated at over 250,000 copies. But the circulation proper, that is the actual number of readers, is very much larger. In Bengal, the vernacular press suffers from the competition of English newspapers, some of which are entirely owned and written by natives. In the North-Western Provinces and Punjab, from Lucknow to Lahore, over Ioo newspapers are printed in Hindustání or Urdu, the vernacular of the Muhammadans throughout India. Many of them are conducted with considerable ability and enterprise, and may fairly be described as representative of Native opinion in the large towns. The Bombay journals are about equally divided between Maráthſ and Gujarátí. Those in the Maráthſ language are characterized by the traditional independence of the race of Sivají; the Gujarátí newspapers are mainly the organs of the Pársis, and of the trading com- munity generally. The vernacular newspapers of Madras, printed in Tamil and Telugu, are politically unimportant, and are still largely devoted to religion. NUMBER OF VERNACULAR NEWSPAPERS, 1890–91. 5 . g 3– • *.* 5 Pº gº Q o 3 || 5 | ##| ##| 3 |##3 - 't O ~ * > § {: ##| | H & & 9 Bengal, . 63 5 44 8 6 Madras, . . . . 92 I 32 28 27 4. Bombay, including Sind, 138 Not particularized. North-Western Provinces and Oudh, . 96 2 59 . I5 2O Punjab, . 67 2 58 I 6 Central Provinces, . * 3 . 3 Assam, 4. tº tº I 2 I tº & * Burma, Vernacular and English Newspapers not distinguished. | - - - TOTAL, 463 IO I97 54 , 60 4 IAWD/AAW PUBLICATIONS, 1878–91. 57I The table on the preceding page shows the number of news- papers in the vernacular" published in 1890–91. It is exclusive of Native newspapers in English. The most curious remark made with regard to the verna- cular press in 1890–91 refers to the only paper published in Assamese, a monthly, “which was started in 1888, but has ceased to appear since September 1890, owing, it is reported, to the proprietor having gone on a pilgrimage.’” As regards books, or rather registered publications, in the vernacular languages, Bombay takes the lead ; Lower Bengal, the Punjab, the North-Western Provinces, and Madras follow in order. In a previous chapter, the exact number of works published in the Native languages of India, in the various departments of literature, has been stated.” The following figures refer to the years 1878, 1882–83, and 1890–91, and comprise the whole registered publications, both in the Native languages and in English. There is probably a considerable number of minor works which escape registration. Total of registered publications in 1878, 4913. Of these, 576 were in English or European languages, 3148 in vernacular dialects of India, 516 in the classical languages of India, and 673 were bi-lingual, or in more than one language. No fewer than 2495 of them were original works, 2078 were republica- tions, and 34o were translations. Religion engrossed I5oz of the total; poetry and the drama, 779; fiction, 182; natural Science, 249 ; besides 43 works on philosophy or moral Science. Language or grammar was the subject of 612 ; and law of no fewer than 249 separate works. History had only 96 books devoted to it; biography, 22 ; politics, 7 ; and travels or voyages, 2. In 1882–83, the registered publications numbered 6198, of Books. Book Statistics, Book which 655 were in English or European languages, 4208 in º vernacular dialects of India, 626 in the classical languages of India, and 709 bi-lingual, or in more than one language. Of the total number of published works in 1882–83, II6o were returned as educational, and 5038 as non-educational works. Original works numbered 3146; republications, 2547; and translations, 505. Publications relating to religion numbered 1641; poetry and the drama, Io99; fiction, 238; natural and 1 This table has been compiled from the Administration Aeports of the different Provinces for 1890–91, as I have not been able to obtain any special Report on the Indian Vernacular Press for that year. * Assam Administration Aeport for 1890–91, p. 1166. * Ante, chap. iv. 572 BAE/TISH ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. Book statistics, I890. mathematical science, 281 ; philosophy and moral science, 160; history, 143; language, 784; law, 338; and medicine, 235. Politics were represented in 1882–83 by only II publications, travels and voyages by only 4, while works classed as miscellaneous numbered 1231. The following tables give the statistics of all registered publications in British India and the Native State of Mysore in 1890. Registered publications include books, pamphlets, and periodicals :— [TABLE I. TABLE I.—CHARACTER OF PUBLICATIONS IN 1890. Publications in Description of Publications: N P º Fº T AME OF ProvincE. English or | Vernacular Classical More than e - g tional tional OTAL, O 1 | Republi- | Transla- || Works. º, ºr ºf ºn | W: |*|*|*| wº Madras, 222 624 5 I I25 598 389 35 2O9 813 I O22 Bombay, including Sind, 84 I634 I48 178 I37O 47O 2O4. 262 1782 2O44. Bengal, 222 II39 II6 254 I429 I29 I73 628 I IO3 I731 North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 86 62I I5 I 249 864 IO8 I35 I O2 IOO5 IIo? Punjab, e G & e 46 I23O I43 I58 998 4OO I79 365 I2 I2 I577 Central Provinces, I 8 I 3 II 2 5 8 I3 Burma, o © e e 3 122 24 90 48 II I4. I35 I49 ASSam, . 24 I 24. I 17 8 25 Mysore, including Bangalore, 4. I48 36 I3 Io'7 78 I6 58 I43 2OI Berár, . I6 I6 I6 I6 TOTAL, e º 668 5566 647 IOO4. 5507 I622 756 I66O 6225 7885 § TABLE II.-SUBJECTS OF PUBLICATIONS IN 1890. > d5 & # T. NAME OF PROVINCE. & # à .# # # * # - # # #, Madras, º I4 || 2 || 29 9 || I6 I4O 49 I5 I44 || 293 IO4 Bombay, including Sind, . º 73 || 26 || 79 || IO5 || 35 | I48 26 || 44 782 74 || 42O Bengal, dº o 4 |I9 || 48 || 90 58 | 403 22 || 54 354 || 3O | II9 North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 2 I2 | 19 || 65 || 34 222 || 2I 42 | II7 || 54 || II5 Punjab, 3 I2 22 22 8 2O7 71 82 245 3 427 Central Provinces, I 2 I 5 I Burma, 39 2 I 9 4. 17 24. Assam, . I I I9 2 Mysore, including Bangalore, 3 33 I5 8 34 3 4. II 6 28 Berár, 2 I4. TOTAL, Ioo |72 269 || 308 || 160 | 1165 | 194 247 | 1708 || 460 | 1240 i --- 24 , re 3 § 5.5 .# j} e Up "E – # T; # *5 | E | #: £4 cr: § 3 2. 3: I55 24 I9 I3O | 67 || 26 4O4 || 49 || 76 34I 2 54 388 || 3 || 77 I 2 5 I 2 I I 47 4. 5 I518 151 260 .--- TOTAL. IO22 2O44 I73I IIo'7 I577 I3 I49 25 2OI I6 | 7885 * Philosophy includes Mental and Moral Science, and, in the case of Madras, probably many works classed in other Provinces under the head of Religion. [ 575 C H A P T E R XV II. AGRICULTURE AND PRODUCTS, THE cultivation of the soil forms the occupation of the Agricul- Indian people to a degree which it is difficult to realize in * England. As the land-tax is the mainstay of the Imperial revenue, so the rāyat or cultivator constitutes the unit of the Social system. The village community contains many mem- bers besides the cultivator, but they all exist for his benefit, and all are maintained from the produce of the village fields. Even in considerable towns, the traders and handicraftsmen frequently possess plots of land of their own, on which they raise sufficient grain to supply their families with food. Ac- Cording to the returns of the General Census of 1872, the The work adult males directly engaged in agriculture amounted to nearly ºf almºst * * * * the whole 35 millions, or 56.2 per cent of the total. To these must be people. added almost all the day-labourers, who numbered 7% million in 1872; males, or 12.3 per cent. ; thus raising the total of persons directly supported by cultivation to 68.5 per cent. ; more than two-thirds of the whole adult males in 1872. The Census of 1881 returned a total of 51,274,586 males as engaged in in 1881; agriculture throughout British and Feudatory India. Adding to these 7% million of adult day-labourers, there is a total of upwards of 58% million persons directly supported by cultivation, or 72 per cent. of the whole male population engaged in 1881 in some specified Occupation. The number of persons indirectly connected with agriculture is also very great. The Famine Commissioners estimated in 1879 that 90 per cent of the rural population live more or less by the tillage of the soil. India is, therefore, almost exclusively a country of peasant farmers. The Census of 1891 adopted a different system of enumera- 1891. tion. It gives the whole population, including women and children, dependent on agriculture, instead of the number of adult males actually engaged in agricultural pursuits. It returns 175,381,239 men, women, and children as dependent on agriculture or the care of cattle for their livelihood in 1891, 576 A GA2/C U/ 7'OA’/2 AAV/O PA2O/DUCTS. Landless labouring class, 1891. Various Systems of agri- culture. Irrigation. Manure. Rotation of crops. or 61'o6 of the whole population of British and Feudatory India. Adding to these the number of persons engaged in earthwork and general labour, most of whom are employed on the land, which amounted to 25,468,017, there was a total of 200,849,256, or 69'92 per cent. Of the whole population in 1891 Supported by the cultivation of the soil or pasturing cattle. There is still enough land in India for the whole people, but the Indian peasant clings to his native District, however Overcrowded. Migration or emigration has hitherto worked on too small a scale to afford a solution of the difficulty. Agriculture is carried on in the different Provinces with an infinite variety of detail. Everywhere the same perpetual assiduity is found, but the inherited experience of generations has taught the cultivators to adapt their simple methods to differing circumstances. The deltaic Swamps of Bengal and Burma, the dry uplands of the Karnātik, the black-soil plains of the Deccan, the strong clays of the Punjab, the desert sand of Sind or Rájputéna, require their separate modes of cultiva- tion. In each case the Indian peasant has learned, without scientific instruction, to grow the crops best suited to the soil. His light plough, which he may be seen carrying a-field on his shoulders, makes but Superficial scratches; but what the furrows lack in depth, they gain by repetition, and in the end pulverize every particle of mould. Where irrigation is necessary, Native ingenuity has devised the means; although in this as in other matters connected with agriculture, a wide field remains for further development and improvement. The inundation channels in Sind, the wells in the Punjab and the Deccan, the tanks in the Karnātik, the terraces cut on every hillside, water at the present day a far larger area than is com- manded by Government canals. Manure is copiously applied to the more valuable crops, whenever manure is available; its use being limited only by poverty and not by ignorance. The scientific rotation of crops is not adopted as a prin- ciple of cultivation. But in practice it is well known that a succession of exhausting crops cannot be taken in consecutive seasons from the same field, and the advantage of fallows is widely recognised. A mutation of crops takes the place of their rotation. The Žežite culture of Indian husbandmen is in many respects well adapted to the soil, the climate, and the Social-conditions of the people. The periodicity of the seasons usually allows of two, and in some places of three, harvests in the year. For inexhaustible fertility, and for retentiveness of moisture in a --→ SZAZZST/CS OF AC/CE CUZZYVATION. 577 dry season, no Soil in the world can surpass the regar or ‘black Cotton-Soil of the Deccan. In the broad river basins, the floods annually deposit a fresh top-dressing of silt, thus Superseding the necessity of manures. The burning sun and the heavy rains of the tropics combine, as in a natural forcing- house, to extract the utmost from the soil. A subsequent Section will deal with possible improvements in Indian agri- culture—improvements now necessary in order to support the increasing population. As the means of communication im- prove, India seems destined to compete still more largely with America as the granary of Great Britain. The name of rice has from time immemorial been closely Rice. associated with Indian agriculture. The rice-eating population - was estimated, by a special inquiry, at over one-third of the whole, or say about 93 millions in 1890–91. If, however, we except the deltas of the great rivers, and the long strip of land fringing the coast, rice may be called a rare crop throughout the remainder of the peninsula. But where rice is grown, it is in a pre-eminent degree the staple crop. In Lower Burma, out of a total cultivated area of 2,833,520 Statistics acres, in 1877–78, as many as 2,554,853 acres, or 90 per * cent, were under rice. In 1890–91, the cultivated area in in different Lower Burma had risen to 5,000,722 acres, of which 4,398,405 Provinces. acres, or 87.9 per cent., were under rice. Upper Burma, which previously to its annexation imported its rice from British territory, now grows a large quantity, for out of its cultivated area of 2,848,694 acres, 1,350,486 acres were in 1890–91 under rice.” In Bengal, of 56,351,578 cultivated acres, 31,858,817 are nominally under the winter rice,” besides the autumn paddy. In its district of Rangpur, of about 1% millions cultivated acres, over 1 million acres are nominally under the two rice-crops (1892). The Province of Orissa, the deltas of the Godávari, Kistna, and Kāveri (Cauvery), and the lowlands of Travancore, Malabar, Kānara, and the Konkan, chiefly grow rice. Throughout the interior of the country, except in Assam, which is agriculturally a continua- tion of the Bengal delta, the cultivation of rice Occupies but a subordinate place. In the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, rice is grown in damp localities, or with the help of irrigation, and forms a favourite food for the upper classes; * A'eport of the Indian Famine Commission, part ii. p. 81 (folio, 1880). * A'eturns of Agricultural Statistics of British India and the Avative State of Mysore, Calcutta, 1892, p. 5. * Two Returns by Department of Zand Records, Calcutta, Oct. 1892. 2 O 578 AGA2/CUZZ'UAEA, AAWD PRODUCTS. but the local supply requires to be supplemented by im- portation from Bengal. In Madras generally, the area under Methods of rice culti- vation: in Madras; in Bengal ; rice in 1890–91 amounted to about 30 per cent. of the whole food-grain area, deducting current fallows and land cropped more than once, and including pulses. In Bombay proper, the corresponding proportion is only 11.3 per cent, and in the outlying Province of Sind, 27.8 per cent." In the Central Provinces, the proportion rises as high as 30.3 per cent, but in the Punjab it falls to 3.4 per cent.” In scarcely any of the Native States, which cover the centre of the peninsula, is rice grown to a large extent. - Rice is in fact a local crop, which can only be cultivated profitably under exceptional circumstances, although under those circumstances it returns a larger pecuniary yield than any other food-grain in India. According to the Madras system of classification, rice is a ‘wet crop, i.e. it demands steady irrigation. In a few favoured tracts, the requisite irrigation is supplied by local rainfall, but more commonly by the periodical overflow of the rivers, either directly or in- directly through artificial channels. It has been estimated that rice requires 36 to 40 inches of water in order to reach its full development. But more important than the total amount of water, is the period over which that amount is distributed. While the seedlings are in an early stage of growth, 2 inches of water are ample; but when the stem is strong, high floods are almost unable to drown it. In some Districts of Bengal, a long-stemmed variety of rice is grown, which will keep its head above 12 feet of water. Throughout Bengal, there are two main harvests of rice in the year—(1) the dus or early crop, sown on comparatively high lands, during the spring showers, and reaped between July and September; (2) the dman or winter crop, sown in low-lying lands, from June to August, usually transplanted, and reaped from November to January. The latter crop com- prises the finer varieties, but the former is chiefly retained by the cultivators for their own food supply. Besides these two great rice harvests of the Bengal year, there are several intermediate ones in different localities. The returns from Rangpur District specify no fewer than 295 distinct varieties of rice.” The average out-turn per acre in Bengal has been * Bombay Administration Report for 1890–91, part ii., Statistical Returns, pp. 68, 7.O. . - - * Statistical Abstract for 1890–91, p. 145. * See Hunter's Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. vii. pp. 234–237 (1876). THE WAV/D/AAW AſOO/O STAAZZZS. 579 estimated at 15 maunds, or 1234 lbs., of cleaned rice from the diman crop, and To maunds, or 823 lbs., from the dius crop." In 1877–78, when famine was raging in Southern India, the exports of rice from Calcutta (much of it to Madras) amounted to nearly 17 million cwts. In Lower Burma there is but a single harvest in the year, in Burma. corresponding to the diman of Bengal. The grain is reddish in Colour, and of a coarse quality; but the average out-turn is much higher than in Bengal, reaching in some places an average of 2000 and 25oo lbs. per acre. In 1877–78, the Burmese export of rice exceeded 13 million cwts. ; in 1882–83 it exceeded 21% million cwts., of an estimated aggregate value of over Rx. 5% millions; and in 1890–91 it exceeded 24% million cwts, valued at over Rx. 8% millions. Besides being practically the sole crop grown in the deltaic swamps, rice is also cultivated on all the hills of India, from Coorg to the Himalayas. The hill tribes practise one of two Hill culti- methods of cultivation. They either cut the mountain slopes Vation. into terraces, to which sufficient water is conveyed by an ingenious system of petty canals; or, they trust to the abundant rainfall, and scatter their seeds on clearings formed by burning patches of the jungle. In both cases, rice is the staple crop wherever the moisture permits. It figures largely in the nomadic system of hill cultivation. - On the next page I tabulate such information as I have The three been able to collect, with a view to showing the ratio which chief food- the three principal classes of food-grains in the Indian †ss, Provinces bear to each other. A scrutiny of the figures will and 1891. disclose in certain cases discrepancies which I cannot explain. In other cases such discrepancies are the result of my having obtained more complete data for one year than another. For the great Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, which is under a Permanent Settlement, trustworthy figures were altogether wanting at the first two periods dealt with. Under its last two Lieutenant-Governors, Sir Steuart Bayley and Sir Charles Elliot, important progress has been made in the systematic collection of statistics; and On p. 577 I have quoted the admirable Reports which are now being punctually issued by the Department of Land Records and Agriculture, Bengal. I have not yet, however, been able to collate the agricultural statistics of Bengal so as to fit them into the following tables. 1 Åeturn of the Yield per Acre of the Principal Croſs cultivated in India (Simla, I892), p. 2. ' 58o AGAZC UZZTURAE AAVZ) PRO/DUCTS. RATIO OF AREA UNDER THE THREE PRINCIPAL CLASSES OF INDIAN FOOD-GRAINS. 1878. Ratio of Area under principal Food-Grains. Total Popu- Population lation PROvINCE. Wheato (British eating }." Millets. | Rice. India). Rice- Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Millions. Millions. Punjab, º & º 54 4I 5 18; I North-Western Provinces, 57 * 9 44 4. Bengal and Assam, . . . . No figures available. 74 46 Central Provinces, . 27 39 34 9% 3 Berár, ſº ge e g I7 82 I 2% e tº º Bombay, . 7 83 IO I6; 2 Madras, g s we 67 33 3I IO Mysore, 84 I6 4. I 1883. Ratio of Area under principal Fº" rºl, º, PROVINCE. Wheat (British eating #. g Millets. Rice. India). Rice. Per cent. | Per cent. |Per cent. | Millions. | Millions. Punjab, 6I 36 ... 3 Iö# I S--" North-Western Provinces, 97 3 44 4. Bengal, . No figures available. 69% 43 ASSam, . º tº * & sº e 5O 4% 3 Central Provinces, . sº 45 & © tº 55 9% 3 | Berár, 97 e e = 3 2% (2. Bombay, . I5 7I I4. I6% 2 Madras, sº e g 57 33 3I IO Mysore, , 4. & © & 96 4. T 1891. Ratio of Area under principal É.” p P Total. PROVINCE. . º Wheat. Millets. Rice, 1891). e Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Millions. Punjab, . . . . 59 35 20; North-Western Provinces, 38 I5 47 34} Oudh, te p g 3I I4 55 I2% Bengal, Complete figures not yet 7I} - available. - ASSam, . * e i º tº a tº IOO 5% Central Provinces, 44 I4. 42 Io; Berár, . . . . 27 72 I 2} Bombay, including Sind, . I2 76 I2 18% Madras, , tº & * 66 34 35% Mysore, 8I I9 5 STATISTICS OF WHEAT CUZZYVATION. 581 The tables on the preceding page show the ratio which the areas under the three principal classes of food-grains bear to each other. They do not show the proportion which those areas bear to the whole cultivated area of the respective Provinces. Recent exports of wheat to Europe have drawn attention Wheat. to the important place which this crop occupies in Indian agriculture. It is grown to some extent in almost every Dis- trict. But, broadly speaking, it may be said that wheat does not thrive where rice does ; nor, indeed, anywhere south of the Deccan. The great wheat-growing tracts of India are in the north. The North-Western Provinces and Oudh in Statistics 1890–91 had 15 per cent. of the total food grain area, in- º cluding pulses, under pure wheat, and in the Punjab the tion. proportion rises to 37 per cent. Wheat is also largely grown in Behar, and to a less extent in the western Districts of Bengal. In the Central Provinces, wheat covers 31 per cent. of the food-grain area, being the chief cereal in the Districts of Hoshangábád, Narsinghpur, and Ságar, while in the neighbour- ing Province of Berár it covers 22 per cent." In Bombay, the corresponding proportion was only 9 per cent., but in Sind it was 16 per cent.” The wheat returns vary from year to year, but disclose a tendency upwards. Their significance may be learned from the fact, that in Great Britain the area under wheat is only 3 million acres, or less than one-half the amount in a single Indian Province, the Punjab. It has been estimated that the total area under wheat in India, which amounted to Over 20 millions of acres in 1890–91, is equal to the total area under the same crop in the United States. Nor is the out-turn contemptible, averaging about 13 bushels Out-turn per acre in the Punjab, as compared with an average of I5; of wheat. bushels for the whole of France. The quality, also, of the grain is high enough to satisfy the demands of English millers. The price of Indian wheat in Mark Lane varies considerably from year to year ; the best qualities averaging somewhat lower than Australian or Californian produce. The abolition, in 1873, of the old Indian export duty on wheat, laid the foundation of the Indo-European wheat-trade, which, since this wise measure, has attained to large dimensions. The extent of the wheat trade largely depends on the price of wheat in England and the success or failure of the harvest in other wheat-producing countries. The amount of wheat * Returns of Agricultural Statistics of British India and the Wative State of Mysore, p. 5. * Bombay Administration Aleport, part iii., Statistical Returns, p. 70. 582 AGRICULTURE AND PRODUCTS Wheat cultiva- tion. Millets. Chief varieties. exported from India has, within the ten years ending 1890–91, risen as high as 22,263,624 cwts. in 1886–87, and fallen as low as 13,538,169 cwts, in 1887–88. The average for the ten years was 17,355,089 cwts, and the actual export in 1890–91 was 14,320,496 cwts." According to the system of classification in Upper India, wheat ranks as a rabá crop, being reaped at the close of the cold weather in April and May. Wherever possible, it is irri- gated; and the extension of canals through the Doāb has largely contributed to the substitution of wheat for inferior cereals. Taking India as a whole, it may be broadly affirmed that the staple food-grain is neither rice nor wheat, but millet. Excluding special rice tracts, varieties of millet are grown more extensively than any other crop, from Madras in the south, to at least as far as Rájputéna in the north. The two most common kinds are great millet (Sorghum vulgare), known as ſodir or jazvárá in the languages derived from the Sanskrit, as fonna in Telugu, and as cholam in Tamil; and spiked millet (Pennisetum typhoideum), called bájra in the north and kambu in the south. In Mysore and the neigh- bouring Districts, ragá (Eleusine corocana), called ndchani in Bombay, takes the first place. According to the Madras system of classification, these millets all rank as “dry crops,’ being watered only by the local rainfall, and sown under either monsoon ; farther north, they are classed with the Áhar{for autumn harvest, as opposed to wheat. The following statistics show the importance of millet culti- vation throughout Southern and Central India. In Madras, before the famine of 1876–78, cholam covered 4,610, ooo acres; ragſ, 1,636,ooo acres; Zaragu or aurica/u (Paspalum miliaceum), 1,054, ooo acres; kambu, 2,909, ooo acres; samai or millet proper (Panicum frumentaceum), 1,185,000,—mak- ing a total of 11,384, ooo acres under “dry crops,’ being 52 per cent. of the cultivated area. In 1890–91 cholam covered 4,429,084 acres; Áambu, 2,746,812 acres; ragi, 1,639, Io9 acres; varagu or auricalu, 1,502,176 acres; Italian millet (Panicum Italicum), 1,084,039 acres; and samai or millet proper, 511,987,-making a total of II,913,207 acres under ‘dry crops,” or more than one-half of the total cultivated area of the Madras Presidency.” Statistics of millet cultiva- tion : in Madras; 1 Statistical Tables for British India (Calcutta, 1892), p. 147. * Madras Administration Aleport for 1890–91, part iii., Statistical Returns, p. lxxxviii. M/ZZZTS, PUZSAES, AAWD O/Z-SEEDS. 583 In the Mysore uplands, the proportion under “dry crops,’ in Mysore; chiefly ragi, rises to 52 per cent. of the cultivated area, or 81 per cent. Of the food-grain and pulse area. The total under all millets, ſodir and Ödjra, in Bombay and Sind, may be taken at about 65 per cent. ; and of foãr, báñra, and ragù in the Central Provinces, 9.9 per cent. ; in the Punjab, 23 per cent. ; and in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 5.7 per cent, and other of the total area under food-grains and pulses. It should be * remembered that these figures vary from year to year. Indian corn is cultivated to a limited extent in all parts of Minor the country; barley, in the upper valley of the Ganges, through-ºº: out the Punjab, and in the Himalayan valleys; oats, only as an experimental crop by Europeans. Joãr and ragſ, but not ôóra, are valuable as fodder for cattle. Pulses of many sorts form important staples. In Madras, Pulses: the area under pulses in 1875 was 2,057,000 acres, or 9 per in 1875, cent. ; in Bombay, about 830,000 acres; in the Punjab, 4 million acres, or 21 per cent. The area under pulses in 1890–91 was returned as under:-In Madras, 2, I I I,614 acres, and 1890. or 8-9 per cent. of the cultivated area; in Bombay and Sind, 2,477,690 acres, or 8.9 per cent. also ; in the Punjab, 4,194,385 acres, or 20 per cent. of the cultivated area. The principal varieties of pulses grown, with many Native names, but generically known to Europeans as gram and dail, are— Cicer arietinum, Phaseolus Mungo and P. radiatus, Dolichos biflorus, D. sinensis and D. Lablab, Cajanus indicus, Ervum Lens, Lathyrus sativus, and Pisum sativum. Oil-seeds also form an important crop in all parts of the Oil-seeds: country; oil being universally required, according to Native custom, for application to the person, for food, and for lamps. In recent years, the cultivation of oil-seeds has received an extraordinary stimulus owing to their demand in Europe, espe- cially in France. But as they can be grown after rice, etc., as a second crop, this increase has hardly tended to diminish the production of food-grains. The four chief varieties grown are mustard or rape-seed, linseed, #/ or gingelly (Sesamum), and castor-oil. Bengal and the North-Western Provinces are at present the chief sources of supply for the foreign demand, but gingelly is largely exported from Madras, and, to a less extent, from Burma. Area in 1875 under oil-Seeds — In in 1875, Madras, about 1,200,ooo acres, or nearly 6 per cent. Of the cultivated area ; in Bombay, 628,000 acres; in the Central Provinces, 1,358,571 acres, or nearly 9 per cent.; in the Punjab, 780, ooo acres, or 4 per cent. Area under oil-seeds 584 A GAC/C UZZ'UA' E A/V/O AEA2O/DUCTS. and 1890. in 1890–91—In Madras, 1,918,705 acres, or 8 per cent. of the total cultivation ; in Bombay and Sind, 1,948,352 acres, or 6-9 Vege- tables. Fruits. Spices. per cent. ; in the Central Provinces, 1,982,603 acres, or 127 per cent. ; and in the Punjab, 934,691 acres, or 4.4 per cent. of the area under cultivation. In the year 1877–78, the total export of oil-seeds from India amounted to 12,187,618 cwts., valued at Rx. 7,360,684; in 1878–79, to 7,21 1,826 cwts., valued at Rx. 4,682,535; and in 1882–83, to I3,147,982 cwts, valued at Rx. 7,205,924. The export for the ten years ending 1890–91 averaged 15,472,882 cwts., valued at Rx. 9,224,824; and the actual export in 1890–91 amounted to 14,801,857 cwts, valued at Rx. 9,345,991." Vegetables are everywhere cultivated in garden plots for household use, and also on a larger scale in the neighbourhood of great towns. Among favourite Native vegetables, the follow- ing may be mentioned:—The egg-plant, called brinjä/or baigan (Solanum melongena), potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower, radishes, onions, garlic, turnips, yams, and a great variety of cucur- bitaceous plants, including Cucumis Sativus, Cucurbita maxima, Lagenaria vulgaris, Trichosanthes dioica, and Benicasa cerifera. Of these, potatoes, cabbages, and turnips are of recent intro- duction. Almost all English vegetables can be raised by a careful gardener. Potatoes thrive best on the higher elevations, such as the Khási Hills, the Nilgiris, the Mysore uplands, and the slopes of the Himalayas; but they are also grown on the plains and even in deltaic Districts. They were first introduced into the Khási Hills in 1830. They now constitute the prin- cipal crop in these and other highland tracts. The annual export from the Khási Hills to Bengal and the Calcutta market has been estimated at considerably over 7ooo tons, valued at RX, 5o, ooo. Among the cultivated fruits are the following: — Mango (Mangifera indica), plantain (Musa paradisiaca), pine-apple (Ananassa Sativa), pomegranate (Punica Granatum), guava (Psydium Guyava), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), jack (Artocarpus integrifolia), custard-apple (Anona squamosa), ..?afta70 (Carica Papaya), shaddock (Citrus decumana), and several varieties of fig, melon, orange, lime, and citron. The mangoes of Bombay, of Mültán, and of Maldah in Bengal, and the Oranges of the Khási Hills, enjoy a high reputation; while the guavas of Madras and other Provinces make an excellent preserve. - Among spices, for the preparation of curry and other hot * Statistical Zables for Aritish Zºdia (Calcutta, 1892), p. 147. SPICES; PAZMS; SUGAR. 585 dishes, turmeric and chillies hold the first place, and are very widely cultivated. Next in importance come ginger, , Coriander, aniseed, black Cummin, and fenugreek. The pepper vine is confined to the Malabar coast, from Kánara to Travan- Core. Cardamoms are a valuable crop in the same locality, and also in the Nepālese Himálayas. The pān creeper (Piper Betle), which furnishes the ‘betel leaf,’ is grown by a special Caste in most parts of the country. Its cultivation requires constant care, but is highly remunerative. The areca palm, which yields the ‘betel-nut,’ is chiefly grown in certain favoured localities, such as the deltaic Districts of Bengal, the Konkan of Bombay, and the highlands of Southern India. Besides ‘betel-nut' (Areca Catechu), the palms of India Palms. include the cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifera), the bastard date (Phoenix Sylvestris), the palmyra (Borassus flabelliformis), and the true date (Phoenix dactylifera). The cocoa-nut, which loves a Sandy soil and a moist climate, is found in greatest perfection along the strip of coast-line which fringes the south- west of the peninsula, where it ranks next to rice as the staple product. The bastard date, grown largely in the country round Calcutta, and in the north-east of the Madras Presidency, supplies both the jaggery sugar of commerce, and intoxicating liquor for local consumption. Spirit is also distilled from the palmyra palm in many Districts, especially in the Bombay Presidency and in the south of Madras. The true date is almost confined to Sind. Sugar is manufactured both from the sugar-cane and from Sugar. the bastard date-palm. The best cane is grown in the North- Western Provinces, on irrigated land. It is an expensive crop, requiring much attention, and not yielding a return within the year. The profits are proportionately large. In Bengal, the manufacture from the cane has declined during the present Century; but in Jessor District, the making of date-sugar is a thriving and popular industry." The preparation of Sugar is almost everywhere in the hands of natives; the exceptions being a few large concerns, such as the Aska factory in the Madras District of Ganjām, the Cossipur factory in the suburbs. of Calcutta, the Rosa factory at Sháhjahánpur, and the Ashta- grám factory in Mysore. These European factories use Sugar- cane instead of the date juice, and have received honourable notice at exhibitions in Europe. - Cotton holds a most important place among Indian agricul-Cotton. * A full account of the manufacture will be found in my Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. ii. pp. 280–298. 586 A GA2/CULTURAE AAV/O PRO/DUCTS. The American War, 1862, Cotton Districts, Cotton area in Bombay; in 1876; tural products. From the earliest times, cotton has been grown in sufficient quantities to meet the local demand; and in the last century there was some slight export from the country, which was carefully fostered by the East India Com- pany. But the present importance of the crop dates from the crisis in Lancashire caused by the American War. Prior to 1860, the exports of raw cotton from India used to average less than Rx. 3 millions a year; but after that year they rose by leaps, until in 1866 they reached the enormous total of Rx. 37 millions. Then came the crash, caused by the restora- tion of peace in the United States; and the exports steadily fell to just under Rx. 8 millions in 1879. Since then the trade has recovered, and the total value of raw cotton exports in 1890–91 amounted to Rx. 16% millions. The fact is that Indian cotton has a short staple, and is inferior to American cotton for spinning the finer qualities of yarn. But while the cotton famine was at its height, the cultivators were intelligent enough to make the most of their opportunity. The area under cotton increased enormously, and the growers managed to retain in their own hands a fair share of the profit. The principal cotton-growing tracts are — the plains of Gujarát and Káthiáwär, whence Indian cotton has received in the Liverpool market the historic names of Surat and ZXolera ; the highlands of the Deccan ; and the deep valleys of the Central Provinces and Berár. The best Native varieties are found in the Central Provinces and Berár, passing under the trade names of Hinganghat and Amráoti. These varieties have been successfully introduced into the Bombay District of Khándesh. Experiments with seed from New Orleans have been conducted for several years past on the Government farms in many parts of India. But it cannot be said that they have resulted in success except in the Bombay District of Dhārwär, where exotic cotton has now generally supplanted the indigenous staple. In 1875–76, the area under cotton in the Bombay Presidency, including Sind and the Native States, amounted to 4,516,587 acres, with a yield of 2,142,835 cwts. Of this total, 583,854 acres, or 13 per cent., were sown with exotic cotton, including seed procured from the Central Provinces and also from New Orleans, with a yield of 248,767 cwts. The average yield was about 53 lbs. per acre, the highest being in Sind and Gujarát, and the lowest in the Southern Maráthá country. In 1875–76, the total exports were 3,887,808 cwts., from the bombay Presidency, including the produce of the Central INDIAN COTTOM STATISTICS. 587 Provinces and Berár, valued at Rx.1o,673,761. In 1890–91, the total area under cotton in the Bombay Presidency, includ- ing Sind and the Native States, was 5,923,639 acres,” and in Bombay and Sind alone it was 3,157,694 acres. The average yield was 115 lbs. of cleaned cotton per acre in Gujarát, and 96 lbs. in the Deccan and the Karnātik.” The exports of raw Cotton from Bombay and Sind in 1890–91, including the pro- duce of the Central Provinces and Berár, were 4,683,236 cwts., valued at Rx. 13,223,368, besides cotton twist and yarn, and manufactured piece-goods to the value of Rx. 6,141,393 and Rx. 705,868 respectively.” In 1877–78, the area under cotton in the Central Provinces was 837,083 acres, or under 6 per cent. of the total cultivated area, chiefly in the Districts of Nāgpur, Wardhá, and Räipur. The average yield was about 59 lbs. per acre. The exports from the Central Provinces to Bombay, including re-exports from Berár, were about 300,000 cwts., valued at Rx. 672, ooo. In 1877–78, the area under cotton in Berár was 2,078,273 acres, or 32 per cent. of the total cultivated area, chiefly in the two Districts of Akola and Amráoti. The average yield was as high as 67 lbs. of cleaned cotton per acre. The total export was valued at Rx. 2,354,946, almost entirely railway- borne. In 1890–91, the area under cotton in the Central Provinces had decreased to 797,380 acres, or 5 per cent. of the then cultivated area, chiefly in the Districts of Wardhā, Nágpur, Nimár, and Chhindwārá.4 In the same year, the area under cotton in Berár was 2,451,608 acres, or 36.6 per cent. of the cultivated area. The importance of cotton to the cultivator in Berár may be gauged from the fact that ‘the cotton crop in 1889–90, most of which was exported, fetched more than thrice the whole land’ revenue of the entire Pro- vince.’ 5 In Madras, the average area under cotton is more than 1,500,000 acres, chiefly in the upland Districts of Bellary, Anantápur, Cuddapah, and Karntil, and the low plains of * Annual Ā’eport of the Director of Zand Records and Agriculture for 1890–91 (Bombay, 1891), p. 14. . - - * Return of the Vield per Acre of the Principal Crops cultivated in India (Simla, 1892), p. 4. - * Bombay Administration Aleport for 1890–91, part iii., Statistical Re- turns, p. II.5. * Central Provinces Administration AEeport for 1890–91, Statistical Tables I. * Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India, 1890–91, p. I55. and 1891. Cotton cultivation in Central Provinces, 1878; in Berár. 1890. In Madras; 588 A GA2/COZZ'UA' A' AAV/D PA2O/DUCTS. Kistna, Coimbatore, and Tinnevelli. The total exports in 1876–77 were 460, ooo cwts., valued at about Rx. I, ooo, ooo. In 1890–91, Cotton was grown on 1,737,722 acres in Madras, or on 7.3 per cent. of the cultivated area of the Presidency." In the same year, the total value of the cotton exports from Madras, raw and manufactured, was Rx. 2,983,668. In Lower Bengal the cultivation of cotton seems on the decline. The local demand has to be met by imports from the North- Western Provinces and the bordering hill tracts, where a short-stapled variety of cotton is extensively cultivated. The total area under cotton in Lower Bengal has been estimated at only 162,000 acres, yielding 138,000 cwts. of cleaned Cotton. Of this, 31,000 acres were in Sáran, 28,000 in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, and 20,000 in Cuttack. Throughout the North-Western Provinces, and also in the Punjab, sufficient Cotton is grown to meet the wants of the village weavers. The total export of raw cotton from Indian ports in 1878–79 was 2,966,569 cwts., valued at Rx. 7,914,091, besides Cotton twist and yarn to the value of Rx. 937,698, and cotton manu- factures valued at Rx. 1,644,125. By 1890–91 the exports of raw Cotton from all Indian ports had increased to 5,924,987 CwtS., valued at Rx. 16,533,943; besides cotton twist and yarn to the value of Rx. 6,627, 165, and cotton manufactures valued at Rx. 2,869,768. Total value of cotton exports in 1890–91, raw and manufactured, Rx. 26,030,876. The cotton-mills of Bombay will be treated of in the next chapter under ‘Manufactures.’ But apart from weaving and spinning, the cotton trade has given birth to other industries, for cleaning the fibre and pressing it into bales for carriage. In 1876–77, there were altogether 2506 steam gins for cleaning cotton in the Bombay Presidency, besides 22 in the Native States. In addition, there were 130 full-presses worked by steam power, and 183 half-presses worked by manual labour. In 1882–83, there were altogether 2787 steam gins for cleaning cotton in the Bombay Presidency, 96 steam Cotton presses, and I4I cotton presses worked by manual labour. In 1890–91, there were 175 cotton ginning, cleaning, and pressing mills, of sufficient size to be reckoned among large industries in the Bombay Presidency proper, besides 21 in Sind.” And it is reported that “a few small steam-ginning factories have stopped work owing to the expense of employing in Bengal; in the IN. -W. Provinces and Punjab. Total COttoll exports; 1878 and I891. Cotton- cleaning : 1877, and 1883. * Madras Administration Report for 1890–91, part iii., Statistical Returns, p. xcii. * Statistical Tables for British India (Calcutta, 1892), pp. 56–60. JUTE COLTIVATION IN BEAVGAZ. 589 certificated engineers, now required under the Steam Boilers Inspection Act, hand-gins to some extent taking their place.” Cotton gins and presses are also numerous at the chief marts in the North-Western and Central Provinces, and Berár. Jute ranks next to Cotton as a fibre crop. The extension Jute. of its cultivation has been equally rapid, but it is more limited in area, being practically confined to Northern and Eastern Bengal. In this tract, which extends from Purniah to Goâl- The jute párá, for the most part north of the Ganges and along both #: banks of the Brahmaputra, jute is grown on almost every variety of soil. The chief characteristic of the cultivation is that it remains entirely under the control of the cultivator. Practically a peasant proprietor, he increases or diminishes his cultivation according to the state of the market, and keeps the profits in his own hands. The demand for jute in Europe has contributed more than any administrative measure to raise the standard of comfort throughout Eastern Bengal. The plant that yields the jute of commerce is called Žáž The jute or koshta by the natives, and belongs to the family of mallows Pº" (Corchorus olitorius and C. Capsularis). It sometimes attains a height of 12 feet. The seed is generally sown in April, the favourite soil being chars, or alluvial Sandbanks thrown up by the great rivers; and the plant is ready for cutting in August. When it first rises above the ground, too much water will drown it; but at a later stage, it survives heavy floods. After being cut, the stalks are tied up in bundles, and thrown into standing water to steep. When rotted to such a degree Prepara- that the outer coat peels off easily, the bundles are taken out ion of of the water, and the fibre is extracted and carefully washed. "“” It now appears as a long, Soft, and silky thread ; and all that remains to do is to make it up into bales for export. The final process of pressing is performed in Steam presses at the Mechan- central river marts, principally at Howrah or in the outskirts ism of jute of Calcutta. The trade is to a great extent in the hands of “ natives. Beſdrás, or travelling hucksters, go round in boats to all the little river marts, to which the jute has been brought by the cultivators. By their agency the produce is conveyed to a few great centres of trade, such as Sirâjganj and Nārāinganj, where it is transferred to wholesale merchants, who ship it to Calcutta by steamer or large Native boats, according to the urgency of demand. - In 1872–73, when speculation was briskest, it is estimated * Annual Report of the Director of Land Åecords and Agriculture (Bombay, 1891), p. 15. 590 AGRICULTURE AND PRODUCTS Jute out- turn and exports, I873; 1878; 1891. Aspects to the hus- bandman, Indigo. Its decline in Lower Bengal. Its culti- vation in . Behar ; that about I million acres were under jute, distributed over 16 Districts, which had a total cultivable area of 23 million acres. The total export from Calcutta in 1872–73 was about 7 million cwts., valued at Rx. 4,142,548. In 1878–79, the total export of raw jute from India was 6,021,382 cwts., valued at Rx. 3,800,426, besides jute manufactures to the value of Rx. 1,098,434. In 1890–91, the total exports of raw jute from Indian ports amounted to II,985,967 cwts., of the value of Rx. 7,602, oro, besides jute manufactures, principally in the shape of gunny-bags, of the aggregate value of Rx. 2,481,962. The total number of steam jute mills in Bengal (of which one was worked by Government at Alipur Jail, two were private property, and the remainder owned by joint-stock companies) was 24 in 1890–91, affording employment to 60,739 persons." Jute is an exhausting crop to Soils without river-inundation. This fact is well known to the cultivators, who generally allow jute-fields to lie fallow every third or fourth year. A fear has sometimes been expressed that the profits derived from jute may have induced the peasantry to neglect their grain crops. But the apprehension seems to be groundless. For the most part, jute is grown on flooded lands which would otherwise often lie untilled. It only covers a very small portion of the total area, even of the jute Districts, say 4 per cent.; and the fertility of the rice-fields of Eastern Bengal is such that they could support a much denser population than at present. Jute, in short, is not a rival of rice, but a sub- sidiary crop, from which the cultivator makes a certain additional income in hard cash. Indigo is one of the oldest, and, until the introduction of tea- planting, ranked as the most important, of the Indian staples grown by European Capital. In Bengal proper, its cultivation has greatly declined since the first half of this century. English indigo planters have forsaken the Districts of Hüglí, the Twenty-four Parganás, Dacca, Faridpur, Rangpur, and Pabná, now dotted with the sites of ruined old factories. In Nadiyá, Jessor, Murshidābād, and Maldah, the industry is still carried on ; but it has not recovered from the depression and actual damage caused by the indigo riots of 1860, and the emancipation of the peasantry by the Land Act of 1859. Indigo of a superior quality is manufactured in Midnapur, along the frontier of the hill tracts. The cultivation on the old scale still flourishes in Behar, from which is derived one-half of the total exports from * Statistical Tables for British India (Calcutta, 1892), pp. 48, 49. AAWD/GO CUZZT/WA TVOAV, 59 I Calcutta. Complete statistics of area are not available, as there are many small indigo concerns throughout the country. in Native hands. Some years ago, it was estimated that in Tirhut alone there were 56 principal concerns, with 70 out- works, producing annually about 20,000 maunds of dye ; in Sáran, 30 principal concerns and 25 Outworks, producing about 12, ooo maunds ; in Champáran, 7 large Concerns, producing also 12, ooo maunds." The Behar Indigo Planters’ Associa- tion, the responsible mouthpiece of the Behar indigo interest, had, in 1885, 73 factories belonging to the Association in the Indigo Districts of Behar. Under these head factories there were 220 out-factories, most of them in charge of European assistants. The area under indigo cultivation in the above concerns was approximately 250,000 acres, giving employment to 75,900 persons, exclusive of a large staff (Native and European) for management and Supervision. The estimated outlay, at the rate of a little over Rx. 3 per acre, is about Rx. 750,000 annually spent in the Districts.” It has been estimated that the total amount of money annually distributed by the planters of Behar cannot be less than Rx. I million. In 1890–91, there were in Behar 17o concerns and factories, together with 45 outworks in the District of Champáran. On these works are employed in ordinary times 68,795 persons, and in the working season 121,724 persons; but among these are enumerated those engaged in the cultivation of indigo in Champáran. The out-turn of indigo in the year 1890–91 in Behar was estimated at 55,829 maunds, valued at Rx. 1,207,530.” Across the border of Bengal, in the North-Western Provinces, indigo is grown on Over 3oo,000 acres, and manufactured to a considerable extent by Native cultivators. In the Punjab, also, indigo is an important Native crop, especially in the Districts of Multán, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghāzī Khán. In Madras, the total area under indigo is about 250,000 acres, grown and manufactured entirely by the natives, chiefly in the north-east of the Presidency, extending along the coast from Kistna to South Arcot, and inland to Karnūl and Cuddapah. In 1877–78, the total export of indigo from all India was 1 The factory mauzzd of indigo weighs 74 lbs. IO oz. * I gladly take this opportunity of thanking Mr. E. Macnaghten, Officiating Secretary to the Behar Indigo Planters' Association, for the foregoing figures, and for other valuable materials. I should add that in this and in my other works I have to thank both Indigo and Tea Planters for much kind aid. * Statistical Tables for British India (Calcutta, 1892), pp. 67, 68. in N • * W º Provinces; in Madras. 592 A GAC/CC/ZZTURAE AAV/O PA2O/DUCTS. Indigo exports. System of indigo- planting. Indigo- planting in Bengal; in Behar. I 20,605 cwts, valued at Rx. 3,494,334 ; in 1882–83, 141,041 cwts, of the value of Rx. 3,913,00I. The export for the ten years ending 1890–91 averaged 144,315 cwts, valued at Rx. 3,938,237. In 1890–91 it was lower than in any previous year of the decade, being only I 18,425 cwts, valued at Rx. 3,073,125. In Bengal, indigo is usually grown on low-lying lands, with Sandy soil, and liable to annual inundation; in Behar, on Comparatively high land. A common practice is for the planter to obtain from the Zamāndār or landlord a lease of the whole village area for a term of years; and then to require the záyats or cultivators to grow indigo on a certain portion of their farms every year, under a system of advances. The Seed, of which an excellent kind comes from Cawnpur, is generally sown about March; and the crop is ready for gather- ing by the beginning of July. A second crop is sometimes obtained in September. When cut, the leaves are taken to the factory, to be steeped in large vats for about ten hours, until the process of fermentation is completed. The water is then run off into a second vat, and subjected to a brisk beating, the effect of which is to separate the particles of dye and cause them to settle at the bottom. Finally the sediment is boiled, strained, and made up into cakes for the Calcutta market. In recent years, steam has been introduced into the factories for two purposes: to maintain an equable tempera- ture in the vats while the preliminary process of fermentation is going on, and to supersede by machinery the manual labour of beating. In the middle of the present century, the abuses connected with indigo-planting became a serious problem for the Indian Legislature. In some Districts, particularly in Lower Bengal, in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, indigo-planting was worked by a system of advances to the cultivators, which plunged them into a state of hopeless hereditary indebtedness to the planters. The Land Law of 1859 (Act x.), by defining and improving the legal status of the cultivator throughout Bengal, gave a death-blow to this system in Districts in which it had been abused. The results on indigo-planting in several Districts around Calcutta have been described in a previous paragraph. The system pursued in Behar had, from an early period, been different. Instead of compelling the cultivator to give up his best lands to indigo by the pressure of hereditary indebtedness, the Behar planters to a large extent obtained lands of their own on lease, or by purchase, and cultivated at OP/UM.G.ROWING DISTRICTS 593 their own risk, or by hired labour. This system has, however, its own complications, and for a time gave rise to strained relations between the planters, the Native landholders, and the cultivators. In 1877, the Government of Bengal expressed dissatisfac- Behar tion at the condition of the Indigo Districts of Behar, and #. proposed to issue a Commission of Inquiry. A responsible Associa- Association was, however, formed by the planters themselves, * in communication with the Bengal Government, to re-adjust, as far as necessary, the relations between the planters, Native landholders, and cultivators. The Association thus formed has been productive of much good, both by preventing the occurrence of disputes, and by arbitrating between the parties when disputes arise. In 1881, the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal publicly thanked the Association for its “most cordial and loyal Co-operation in correcting the abuses which he had Occasion to mention in 1877.’ The Annual Reports from the District Officers have been satisfactory. In 1884, the Secretary to the Association was able to state that every dispute referred to the Association had been amicably adjusted. The relations between capital and labour and land in overcrowded tracts, almost entirely dependent on the local crops raised, are, however, always apt to be strained. The opium of commerce is grown and manufactured in two Opium, special tracts: (1) the valley of the Ganges round Patná and Benares; and (2) a fertile table-land in Central India, corre- sponding to the old kingdom of Málwā, for the most part still under the rule of Native chiefs, among whom Sindhia and Holkar rank first. In Málwā, the cultivation of poppy is free, in Bengal and the duty is levied as the opium passes through the British ºw. º Presidency of Bombay ; in Bengal, the cultivation is a Govern- 5 ment monopoly. Opium is also grown for local consumption throughout Rájputéna, and to a very limited extent in the in Rāj- Punjab and the Central Provinces. Throughout the rest of Putana. India it is absolutely prohibited. In the Ganges valley, the cultivation is supervised from two agencies, with their head- quarters at Patná and Ghāzipur, at which two towns alone the manufacture is conducted. In the year 1872, the Bengal area under poppy was Bengal 560,000 acres; the number of chests of opium sold was 9”; 42,675; the sum realized was Rx. 6,067,701, giving a nett 1872; revenue of Rx. 4,259,376. The whole of this was exported from Calcutta to China and the Straits Settlements. In and 1890–91, the number of chests of Bengal opium sold for 1890–91. 2 P 594 AGAZCUZTUAEA. AAVZ) PRODUCTS. Total Indian Out-turn. Bengal opium system: advances; cultiva- tion ; manufac- ture. Tobacco. export was 57,000, the sum realized was Rx. 5,979,926, the nett revenue being Rx. 3,801,410. The amount of opium exported from Bombay raises the average exports of opium to over Rx. Io millions, of which about 6 millions represent nett profit to Government. In 1878–79, 91,200 chests of Opium were exported from India, of the value of Rx. 12,993,985, of which Rx. 7,700,ooo represented the nett profit to Government. In 1890–91, 85,753 chests of Bengal and Málwā opium were exported, weighing II 9,627 cwts., and of the value of Rx. 9,261,814, of which Rx. 5,698,385 represented the nett profit to Government. This, however, was the smallest profit realized during the ten years ending 1890–91, the average for which amounted to Rx. 6,540,304. Under the Bengal system, annual engagements are entered into by the cultivators to sow a certain quantity of land with poppy; and it is a fundamental principle that they may engage or refuse to engage, as they please. As with most other Indian industries, an advance of money is made to the cultivator before he commences operations, to be deducted when he delivers over the opium at the subordinate agencies. He is compelled to make over his whole produce, being paid at a fixed rate, according to quality. The best soil for poppy is high land which can be easily manured and irrigated. The cultivation requires much attention throughout. From the commencement of the rains in June until October, the ground is prepared by repeated ploughing, weeding, and manuring. The seed is sown in the first fortnight of November, and several waterings are necessary before the plant reaches maturity in February. After the plant has flowered, the first process is to remove the petals, which are preserved, to be used afterwards as coverings for the opium-cakes. The juice is then collected during the month of March, by scarifying the capsules in the afternoon with an iron instrument, and scraping off the exudation next morning. The quality of the drug mainly depends upon the skill with which this operation is performed. In the beginning of April, the cultivators bring in their opium to the subordinate agencies, where it is examined and weighed, and the accounts are settled. The final process of preparing the drug into balls for the Chinese market is conducted at the two central agencies at Patná and Ghāzipur. This generally lasts until the end of July, but the balls are not dry enough to be packed in chests until October. Tobacco was introduced into India by the Portuguese in ZOBACCO MANUFACTURE. 595 1605 (Watts). It is now grown in every District for local Consumption. The soil and climate are favourable; but the quality of Native cured tobacco is so inferior, as to scarcely find a market in Europe. The principal tobacco-growing Chief tracts are Rangpur and Tirhut in Bengal, Kaira in Bombay, º the deltas of the Godāvari and the Kistna, and Coimbatore g and Madura Districts in Madras. The two last-mentioned Districts supply the raw material for the well-known ‘Trichi- nopoli cheroot,’ almost the only form of Indian tobacco that finds favour with Europeans; the produce of the /dmkás or alluvial islands in the Godávari is manufactured into ‘Coco- nadas.” The tobacco of Northern Bengal is largely exported to Burma; as the Burmese, who are great smokers, do not grow sufficient for their own needs. The manufacture of tobacco in Madras, Burma, and Bengal is now making progress under European supervision, and promises to supply an important new staple in the exports of India. In 1876–77, the total registered imports of tobacco into Tobacco Calcutta from the inland Districts were 43,092,420 lbs., * valued at Rx. 261,000, of which more than half came from the 1877; single District of Rangpur. Tobacco is also grown for export in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The tobacco of Tirhut is chiefly exported towards the west. The total area under tobacco in that District is estimated at 40,000 acres, the best quality being grown in parganá Saressa of the Tájpur Sub- division. In 1890–91, the imports of tobacco from the inland and Districts into Calcutta were 39,797,753 lbs." I890–91. A private firm grows and manufactures tobacco in Northern Tobacco- India for the European market. The scene of its opera-curing: tions is two abandoned stud-farms, at Ghāzipur in the North-Western Provinces, and at Püsá in Darbhangah District, Bengal. In 1878–79, about 240 acres were cultivated with tobacco, the total crop being about 160,000 lbs. Five English or American curers were employed. Some of the produce was exported to England as ‘cured leaf;' but the larger part was put upon the Indian market in the form of ‘manufactured smoking mixture.’ This mixture is in demand at regimental messes and canteens, and has also found its way to Australia. The enterprise may now be said to have passed beyond the stage of experiment. An essential condition of success is skilled supervision in the delicate process of tobacco-curing. Tobacco to the value of Rx. 128,330 was exported from India in 1878–79, and to the value of Rx. 138,134 in 1890–91. * Bengal Administration Aleport for 1890–91, p. 139. * *... APPROxIMATE AREA IN ACRES OCCUPIED BY THE PRINCIPAL CROPS IN SOME INDIAN PROVINCES IN 1877–78 AND 1882–83. * *—#3. Madras. Bombay and Sind. Punjab. Central Provinces. Lower Burma. Mysore. º * 1877–78. 1882-83. 1877–78. 1882-83, 1877–78. 1882–83. 1877–78. 1882–83. 1877–78. 1882–83. 1877–78. 1881–82.1 | 1877-78. 1882–83. Rice, 4,600,000 || 5,608,751 1,707,000 | 1,871,315 | 400,000 || 775,367 || 4,550,000 |4,416,054 |2,555,ooo 3,380,996 || 540,000 554,752 3I, OOO 22,827 Wheat, I6,000 27,051 915,Ooo 1,626,544 |7,ooo,000 6,734,357 3,600,000 |3,619,704 tº e º II, OOO 21,058 525,008 || 746,391 Millet and inferior grains, Io,600,000 |ro,942,384 |6,734,000 |12,008,795 |6,ooo, Ooo 8,905,149 |) 2,760,000 |2,368,542 }* 5,618,174 tº ſº tº 3,400,ooo 3,139,560 } Pulses, 1,600,000 | 1,955,946 | 945,000 | 1,776,773 |3,200,000 |2,664,962 |} 18O,Ooo 409,243 Oil-seeds, 800,000 | 1,063,988 || 808,000 | 1,336,385 | 8oo, Ooo 1,039,633 | 1,360,000 1,600,225 I5,OOO I9,339 || I3O,OOO 147,464 || 460,000 || 545,030 Cotton, 1,000,000 | 1,456,423 |1,420,000 | 2,640,748 | 660,000 | 860,631 840,000 || 612,687 IO,OOO 4,74 O I5,OOO 20,893 |2,080,000 |2,139,188 Tobacco, . 60,000 78,707 41,000 59, I37 80,000 66,790 48,000 22,866 17, OOO I5,746 I9, OOO I2,986 I7,OOO 24,722 Indigo, woooo 508,774 24,OOO 17,736 IIo,000 | 162,903 85 7oo 79 24 tº º tº e ſº Sugar-cane, 2I,OOO 46,216 54,000 66,31o sº 4OI,O45 IOO,OOO 53,938 4O,OOO 7,22I I3,OOO 24,076 5,000 4, 53C 1 The statistics available for Mysore are those for 1881–82, the last year in which the State was under British administration. § <º ***,- i II. APPROXIMATE AREA IN ACRES OCCUPIED BY THE PRINCIPAL CROPS IN SOME INDIAN PROVINCES IN 1882–83 AND I 890–91. - Madras. - Bombay and Sind. Punjab. Central Provinces. Lower Burma. Mysore. Berár. 1882–83. 1890–91. 1882–83. 1890–91. 1882–83. 1890–91. 1882–83. 1890–91. 1882–83. 1890–91. 1881–82. 1890–91.1 | 1882–83. 1890–91. Rice, e 5,608,751 | 6,159,628 || 1,871,315 2,297,064 775,367 || 691,783 || 4,416,054 |4,005,324 |3,380,996 |4,398,405 || 554,752 | 684,761 22,827 18,875 Wheat, 27, OSI 18,258 | 1,626,544 2,318,578 (6,734,357 |7,487,764 3,619,704 |4,113,974 21,058 2,543 746,391 || 817,215 Millet and inferior grains, Io,942,384 |12,245,425 |12,008,795 |15,770,887 |8,905,149 (7,646,271 }*. 5,062,138 * tº 75,576 |3,139,560 | 3,989,789 |2,777,785 |2,759,319 Pulses, I,955,946 | 2,111,614 | 1,776,773 || 2,477,690 |3,664,962 |4,194,385 Oil-seeds, 1,063,988 || 1,918,705 | 1,336,385 1,948,352 |1,039,633 | 934,691 | 1,600,225 1,982,603 19,339 || Io9,170 || 147,464 || 253,096 || 545,039 || 517,881 | Cotton, I,456,423 | 1,737,722 || 2,640,748 || 3,157,694 | 86o,631 | 846,976 612,687 797,380 4374O 9,608 20,893 55,248 |2,139,188 |2,45rºto8 Tobacco, . 78,707 || - 89,989 59; I27 IO4,392 66,790 44,978 22,866 20,833 15,746 23,967.| 12,986 I5, IOS 24,722 || 22,282 Indigo, 508,774 || 255,511 I7,736 II,232 | 162,903 85,995 85 39 79 50 e - e. 2 e - e 99 Sugar-cane, 46,216 56,870 66,310 65,817 | 401,045 || 323,735 53,938 47,627 7,221 II, 32O 24,076 38,404 43 530 2,07I 1 The figures for 1890–91 are derived from the Administration Reports of Madras, Bombay, and the Punjab for that year; and from Returns of the Agricultural Statistics of British India and the Wative State of Mysore for 1890–91 (Calcutta, 1892), for the Central Provinces, Lower Burma, Berár, and Mysore. § 598 AGRICULTURE AND PRODUCTS. Uncer- tainty of Indian crop statistics. Coffee. Coffee all ea. Introduc- tion into India. Its progress, 1840–60. Before proceeding to crops of a special character, such as coffee, tea, and cinchona, I have tried to give a general view of the area covered by Indian staples in certain Provinces. The tables on the two preceding pages must be taken as approximate only. They represent, however, the best informa- tion available. The figures show various changes from the earlier estimates, incorporated in some of the foregoing paragraphs. But it is necessary to again warn the reader, that Indian agricultural returns do not always stand the test of statistical analysis. In most cases the local returns have to be accepted without the possibility of verification; alike in the preceding pages, and in these tabular statements. The cultivation of coffee is confined to Southern India, although attempts have been made to introduce the plant both into Lower Burma and into the Bengal District of Chittagong. The coffee tract may be described as a section of the land- ward slope of the Western Ghâts, extending from Kánara in the north to Travancore in the extreme south. This tract includes almost the whole of Coorg, the Districts of Kadūr and Hassan in Mysore, and the Nilgiri Hills enlarged by the recent annexation of the Wainád. The cultivation by Europeans has extended to the Shevaroy Hills in Salem District, and to the Palni Hills in Madura. Unlike tea, coffee was not introduced into India by European enterprise; and even to the present day its cultivation is largely conducted by natives. The Malabar coast has always enjoyed a direct commerce with Arabia, and yielded many Converts to Islám. One of these converts, Bába Buidan, is said to have gone on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and to have brought back with him the coffee berry, which he planted on the hill range in Mysore still called after his name. According to local tradition, this introduction of the berry into Mysore happened in the 17th century. The shrubs thus sown lived on, but the cultivation did not spread until the beginning of the present century. - The State of Mysore and the Bába Buidan range also witnessed the first opening of a coffee garden by an English planter about sixty years ago (1830). The success of this experiment led to the extension of coffee cultivation into the neighbouring tract of Manjarābād, also in Mysore, and into the Wainad Sub-division of the Madras District of Malabar. From 1840 to 1860, the enterprise made slow progress; but since the latter date, it has spread with great COAEAZAZ CULTYIVA TVOAV. 599 rapidity along the whole line of the Western Ghâts, clearing away the primeval forest, and opening a new era of prosperity to the labouring classes. The following statistics relate to the years 1878 and 1890–91. In 1877–78, there were under coffee—in Mysore, Coffee I 28,438 acres, almost confined to the two Districts of Hassan . and Kadūr; in Madras, 58,988 acres, chiefly in Malabar, the are 5 Nilgiris, and Salem; in Coorg, 45,150 acres: total, 232,576 acres, exclusive of Travancore. In 1890–91, the total area under coffee cultivation in the Native State of Mysore was 129,775 acres; in Madras, 70,219 acres, of which 34,956 were in the Malabar District, 23, 171 in the Nilgiris, 61.30 in Salem, 3091 in Madura, and 1886 in Timnevelli. In Coorg, 62,678 acres out of a total cultivated area of 139,748 acres, or nearly 45 per cent. of the whole Province, were devoted to coffee. The whole area under coffee in British India was 133,016 acres, to which must be added the area in Mysore, making a total of 262,791 acres in 1890–91. It is also being grown in Travancore and Cochin. The average out-turn is 5 or 6 cwts. per acre of mature exports, plant. The total Indian exports (from Madras) in 1877–78 1878, were 33,399,352 lbs., valued at Rx. 1,355,643, of which about one-half was consigned to the United Kingdom. The average amount of coffee exported from India during the ten years ending 1890–91 was 36,758,400 lbs., and the average value was Rx. 1,491,594. The amount exported in the year 1890–91 was the smallest for many years, being only and 1891. 26,321,792 lbs., but the value, Rx. I,463,787, was nearly up to the average. Nearly one-half of the coffee exports in 1890–91 were to the United Kingdom, and more than one-third to France. Nearly two-thirds of the coffee exports in 1882–83 were to the United Kingdom, and over one-fourth to France. Considerable judgment is required to select a suitable site Sites for for a coffee-garden, for the shrub will only thrive under special * circumstances, which it is not very easy to anticipate before- hand. It is essential that the spot should be sheltered from the full force of the monsoon, and that the rainfall, though ample, should not be excessive. The most desirable elevation elevation ; is between 25oo and 35oo feet above sea-level. The climate must be warm and damp. Almost any kind of forest land will do, but the deeper the upper stratum of decomposed vegetable matter the better. The site chosen for a garden is first cleared with the axe clearing. of jungle and undergrowth, but sufficient timber-trees should 6oo A GA2/CO//, 7'UA' A' AAV/D PA’O/DUCTS. be left to furnish shade. In the month of December, the berries are sown in a nursery, which has previously been dug, manured, weeded, and watered as carefully as a garden. Between June and August, the seedlings are planted out in pits dug in prepared ground at regular intervals; an operation which demands the utmost carefulness in order that the roots may not be injured. In the first year, weeding only is required; in the second year, the shrubs are ‘topped,’ to keep them at an average height of about three feet; in the third year they commence to bear, but it is not until the seventh or eighth year that the planter is rewarded by a full crop. The season for blossoming is March and April, when the entire shrub burgeons in a snowy expanse of flower, with a delicate fragrance. Showers or heavy mists at this season contribute greatly to the fecundity of the blossoms. The crop ripens in October and November. The berries are picked by hand, and collected in baskets to be “pulped on the spot. This operation is performed by means of a revolving iron cylinder, fixed against a breastwork at such an interval that only the ‘beans’ proper pass through, while the husks are rejected. The beans are then left to ferment for about twenty- four hours, when their saccharine covering is washed off. After drying in the sun for six or eight days, they are ready to be put in bags and despatched from the garden. But before being shipped, they have yet to be prepared for the home market. This is done at large coffee-works, to be found at the western ports and in the interior of Mysore. The berries are here ‘peeled' in an iron trough by broad iron wheels, worked by steam power; and afterwards ‘winnowed, graded, and sorted for the market. The cultivation of tea 1 in India commenced within the memory of men still living, and the industry now surpasses even indigo as a field for European capital. Unlike coffee- planting, the enterprise owes its origin to the initiation of Government, and it was slow to attract the attention of the natives. Early travellers reported that the tea-plant was in- digenous to the southern valleys of the Himalayas; but they were mistaken in the identity of the shrub, which was the Osyris nepalensis. The real tea (Camellia theifera), a species of the camellia, grows wild in Assam, being commonly found throughout the hill tracts between the valleys of the Brahma- putra and the Bárak. It there sometimes attains the dimen- Coffee : cultiva- tion ; picking; pulping ; peeling. Home of the tea-plant, ASSam. * First grown as a curiosity at Sibpur, near Calcutta, from Canton seed, by Colonel Kyd, in 1780, in his garden. A/STORY OF INDIAN TEA-PZANTING. 601 sions of a large tree; and it has been plausibly inferred that Tea. Assam is the real home of the plant, which was thence intro- duced at a prehistoric date into China. The re-discovery of the tea-plant growing wild in Assam is Dis- generally attributed to two brothers named Bruce, who brought º back Specimens of the plant and the seed, after the conquest of the Province from the Burmese in 1826. In January 1834, under the Governor-Generalship of Lord William Bentinck, a Committee was appointed ‘for the purpose of submitting a plan for the introduction of tea-culture into India.’ In the following year, plants and seed were brought from China, and widely distributed throughout the country. Government itself undertook the formation of experimental plantations in Upper State ex- Assam, and in the sub-Himalayan Districts of Kumāun and º Garhwāl in the North-Western Provinces. A party of skilled manufacturers was brought from China, and the leaf which they prepared was favourably reported upon in the London market. Forthwith private speculation took up the enterprise. The Assam Tea Company, still the largest, was formed in Private 1839, and received from the Government an extensive grant º, of land, with the nurseries which had been already laid out. In 1839–51. Kumāun, retired members of the civil and military services came forward with equal eagerness. Many fundamental mis- takes as to site, soil, and methods of manufacture were made in those early days, and bitter disappointment was the chief result. But while private enterprises languished, Government steadily persevered. It retained a portion of its Assam gardens in its own hands until 1849, when the Assam Com- pany began to emerge from its difficulties. Government also carried on the business at Kumāun, under the management of Dr. Jameson, as late as 1855. . The real progress of tea-planting on a large scale in Rapid Assam dates from about 1851, and was greatly assisted by the ;: promulgation of the Waste-Land Rules of 1854. By 1859 there were already 51 gardens in existence, owned by private individuals; and the enterprise had extended from its original headquarters in Lakhimpur and Sibsagar as far down the Brah- maputra as Kāmrūp. In 1855 the tea-plant was discovered wild in the District of Cachar in the Bárak valley, and Euro-Cachar, pean Capital was at once directed to that quarter. At about the same time, tea-planting was introduced into the neighbour- hood of the Himalayan Sanatorium of Dārjíling, among the Dârjiling. Sikkim Himalayas. The success of these undertakings engendered a wild 602 A GA2/C UZ TOWA’/º AAV/D PA’O/OOCTS. Crisis of 1865. Subse- quent history. Statistics of Indian tea, 1877–78 to 1882–83. Provincial statistics of tea, 1878 : ASSam ; Bengal; N.-W. Provinces; Punjab; spirit of speculation in tea companies, both in India and at home, which reached its climax in 1865. The industry recovered but slowly from the effects of the disastrous crisis, and did not again reach a stable position until 1869. Since that date it has rapidly but steadily progressed, and has been ever opening new fields of enterprise. At the head of the Bay of Bengal, in Chittagong District, side by side with coffee on the Nilgiri Hills, on the forest-clad slopes of Chutiá Nágpur, amid the low-lying jungle of the Bhutan Dwórs, and even in Arakan, the energetic pioneers of tea-planting have established their industry. Different degrees of success may have rewarded them, but in few cases have they abandoned the struggle. The market for Indian tea is practically inexhaustible. There is no reason to suppose that all the suitable localities have yet been tried; and we may look forward to the day when India will not only rival, but supersede, China in her staple product. - The total exports of tea in 1877–78 from British Indian ports amounted to 33% million lbs., valued at a little over Rx.3 millions. During the next five years the exports had risen to 58% million lbs. in 1882–83, valued at Rx.3% millions. The detailed figures for all India, including exports across the frontier by land, will be presently given. The progress of the tea industry in the various Provinces may best be illustrated by a review of the statistics of the production in the two years 1877–78 and 1890–91. In 1877–78, the total area taken up for tea in Assam, including both the Brahmaputra and the Bárak valleys, was 736,082 acres, of which 538,961 acres were fit for cultivation ; the total number of separate estates was 1718; the total out- turn was 23,352,298 lbs., at the average rate of 286 lbs. per acre under mature plant. In Bengal, the area taken up was 62,642 acres in 1878; 20,462 acres were under mature plant, including 18, 120 acres in the single District of Dārjīling; the number of gardens was 221 ; the out-turn was 5,768,654 lbs., at the rate of 282 lbs. per acre under mature plant. In the North-Western Provinces there were, in 1876, 25 estates in the Districts of Kumāun and Garhwäl, with an out-turn of 578, Ooo lbs., of which 350,000 lbs. were sold in India to Central Asian merchants; and in 1871, 19 estates in Dehra Dün, with 2024 acres under tea, and an out-turn of 297,828 lbs. In the Punjab there were, in 1878, Io,046 acres under tea, almost entirely confined to Kángra District, with an out-turn of I, II 3, Io9 lbs., or 11 1 lbs. per acre. In ZAVD/AAW TEA STATISTICS, 1878–91. 603 2 Madras, the area, under tea in 1878 on the Nilgiris was 3160 Madras. acres; the exports from the Presidency were 183,178 lbs., valued at Rx. 19,308. - In 1890–91, the area actually under cultivation in Assam Provincial - i StatistiCS was 230,822 acres, or close upon 13 per cent of the whole. cultivated area of the Province. Besides the area already 1890–91 : Occupied with tea, some 760,000 acres have been taken up for plantation purposes, and immense tracts yet untouched are still available. The total out-turn from 867 tea estates in Assam in 1890–91 is returned at 94,406,193 lbs., of which Assam ; 53,604,762 lbs. were manufactured in the Brahmaputra valley Or Assam proper, and 40,801,431 lbs. in the Surmä valley Districts of Cachar and Sylhet. Average out-turn, 409 lbs. per acre of mature plant. In Bengal, the area under tea cultivation Bengal; in 1890–91 was 85,573 acres. There were also 46,459 acres taken up for tea, but not actually under plant. The total number of plantations was 416, with an out-turn of 30,292,842 lbs., being at the rate of 354 lbs. per acre of mature plant. More than seven-eighths of the Bengal tea come from Dārjīling and Jalpäigurí Districts, on the lower slopes or submontane tracts of the Himalayas. The cultivation, however, is rapidly extending in other localities, as in Chittagong, on the east Coast of the Bay of Bengal, and in the elevated plateau of Chutiá Nágpur. In the Punjab, out of 92.29 acres under tea Punjab : in 1890–91, no fewer than 917.7 acres were in Kángra District. The total out-turn in 1890–91 is not returned, but may be estimated at about a million lbs. In the North-Western Provinces, 7977 acres were in 1890–91 devoted to the cultiva- tion of tea, of which 4552 acres were in Dehra Dun and 2863 in Kumāun. In Madras, 5738 acres were under tea in 1890–91, Madras. of which 5266 acres were in the Nilgiris, but the out-turn is not stated, although the exports amounted to 912,704 lbs., valued at Rx. 80,534. - The following figures exhibit the exports of tea in 1878, Tea 1883, and 1891. In 1877–78 the total export of tea by sea º from British India amounted to 33,656,715 lbs., valued at 1883, and Rx. 3,061,867. In 1882–83 the amount was 58,233,345 lbs., 1891. valued at Rx. 3,738,842. In 1890–91 it had risen to I Io, I94,819 lbs., valued at Rx. 5,504,293, of which Io'ſ, or 4,993 lbs., valued at Rx. 5,219,233, was tea grown in India. With the exceptions of Madras, which exported 912,704 lbs. of tea in I890–91, valued at Rx. 80,534, of Bombay and Karáchi, which in the same year exported 1,551,581 lbs., worth Rx. 97,426, five-sixths of which went to Persia, and of Chittagong, at which 604 A GAC/CUZZ'UA' A' AAV/O AEA’O/DUCTS. Tea culti- vation. Varieties of the tea-plant. an export trade in tea is springing up, the whole exports of . Indian tea are shipped from Calcutta. The bulk of the tea goes to the United Kingdom, which absorbed Ioo,212,434 lbs., valued at Rx. 4,926,449 in 1890–91, or ten-elevenths of the total export of Indian tea. The Calcutta Tea Syndicate, established a few years ago with a view to opening new markets for Indian tea, has succeeded in establishing a firm and an in- creasing trade in tea with the Australian colonies. Exports to Australia, which in 1881–82 amounted to 871,913 lbs., valued at Rx. 63,404, were developed in 1882–83 to 2,713,268 lbs., valued at Rx. I 77,167, and to 5,118,762 lbs., valued at Rx. 194,008, in 1890–91. The next most important customer to Australia is Persia, which in 1890–91 took 4, 195,295 lbs. Of tea, valued at Rx. 338,991. For a time the exports to the United States increased from 195,686 lbs., valued at Rx. 14,675, in 1881–82, to 671,264 lbs., valued at Rx. 50,988, in 1882–83; but the stringent tariff regulations recently made have caused a decrease to 79,457 lbs., valued at Rx. 3764, in 1890–91." The trans-frontier export from the Punjab into Central Asia has steadily decreased of late years; and in 1882–83 the exports of Indian tea across the Punjab frontier was only 488,200 lbs., valued at Rx. 29,924, as against an export of 1,217,840 lbs., valued at Rx. 181,634, in 1877–78. The processes of cultivation and manufacture are very similar throughout the whole of India, with the exception that in Upper India the leaf is prepared as green tea for the markets of Central Asia. Three main varieties are recognised—Assam, China, and hybrid. The first is the indigenous plant, some- times attaining the dimensions of a tree; yielding a strong and high-priced tea, but difficult to rear. The China variety, originally imported from that country, is a short bushy shrub, yielding a comparatively weak tea and a small out-turn per acre. The third variety is a true hybrid, formed by crossing the two other species. It combines the qualities of both in varying proportions, and is the kind most sought after by planters. In all cases the plant is raised from seed, which in size and appearance resembles the hazel-nut. The seeds are sown in carefully-prepared nurseries in December and January, and at first require to be kept shaded. About April the Seedlings are sufficiently grown to be transplanted, an operation which continues into July. Seed. * Statement of the Trade of British India, 1886–87 to 1890–91 (London, 1892), pp. 68, 69. THAE WOACA OF A 7TEA-GAA’ DA2AV, 605 The site selected for a tea-garden should be well drained Sites for and comparatively elevated land; as it is essential that * water should not lodge round the roots of the plants. In Assam, which may be taken as the typical tea district, the most favourite situation is the slopes of low hills, that everywhere rise above the marshy valleys. On the summit may be seen the neat bungalow of the planter, lower down the coolie lines, while the tea bushes are studded in rows with mathematical precision all round the sides. The best soil is virgin forest Soil. land, rich in the decomposed vegetable matter of ages. Great pains are expended to prevent this fertile mould from being washed away by the violence of the tropical rains. In bringing new land into condition, the jungle should be cut down in December, and burned on the spot in February. The ground is then cleaned by the plough or the hoe, and marked out for the seedlings by means of stakes planted at regular intervals of about 4 feet from each other. For the first two years, the work of the planter is to keep Work of the young shrubs clear of weeds. Afterwards, it is necesary ***. to prune the luxuriance of the bushes in the cold season a ſcieſ) : every year. The prunings should be buried round the roots of the plant for manure. The plants begin to come into bearing in the third year, and gradually reach their maximum yield in their tenth year. The produce consists of the “flushes,’ ‘flushes;" or successive shoots of young leaves and buds, which first appear in the beginning of the rainy season. There are from five to seven full flushes in the season from March to November. The bushes are picked about every ten days by picking; women and children, who are paid by weight on bringing their baskets to the factory, when the operation of manufacture forthwith begins. - The leaf is first spread out lightly on trays or mats in order that it may “wither,’ i.e. become limp and flaccid. Under wither. favourable conditions, this result is effected in a single night; ing;' but sometimes the natural process has to be accelerated by exposure to the sun or by means of artificial heat. The next operation is known as ‘rolling,’ performed either by the rolling ; manual labour of coolies or by machinery. The object of this is to twist and compress the leaf into balls, and set up fermentation. The final stage is to arrest fermentation by drying: drying, which may be effected in many ways, usually by the help of machinery. The entire process of manufacture after ‘withering' does not take more than about four hours and a half. All that now remains is to sort the tea in sieves, sorting. 606 A GA2/CUZZ'UA' A' AAV/D PRO/DUCTS. Cinchona. Clements Markham, 1860. Nilgiri planta- tions. Varieties. according to size and quality, thus distinguishing the various grades from Flowery Pekoe to Broken Congou, and to pack it for shipment in the well-known tea chests. The introduction of the quinine-yielding cinchona into India is a remarkable example of success rewarding the indefatigable exertions of a single man. When Mr. Clements Markham undertook the task of transporting the seedlings from South America to India in 1860, cinchona had never before been reared artificially. The experiment in arboriculture has not only been successfully conducted, but it has proved remunerative from a pecuniary point of view. A cheap febri- fuge has been provided for the fever-stricken population of the Indian plains, while the surplus bark sold in Europe repays the interest upon the capital expended. These results have been produced from an expenditure of about Rx. Ioo, ooo. The headquarters of cinchona cultivation in Southern India are on the Nilgiri Hills, where Government owns four plantations, from which seeds and plants are annually dis- tributed to the public in large quantities; and there are already several private plantations, rivalling the Government estates in area, and understood to be very valuable properties. The varieties of cinchona most commonly cultivated are C. officinalis and C. succirubra ; but experiments have been conducted with C. calisaya, C. pubescens, C. lanceolata, and C. pitayensis. Now that the success of the enterprise is secure, the Madras Government is curtailing its own opera- tions. No fresh land is being taken up, but the plantations are kept free from weeds. A quinologist’s department is maintained, and quinine is being manufactured under its super- intendence by the fusel oil process. From the central establishment of the Government on the Nilgiris, cinchona has been introduced into the Palni Hills in Madura District, into the Wainád, and into the State of Travancore. Plantations have also been opened by Govern- ment near Merkära in Coorg, and on the Bába Buidan Hills in Mysore. The total area under cinchona in Government and private plantations, in 1890–91, was 13,407 acres in the Madras Presidency, of which lo,992 were on the Nilgiris, 63 acres in Coorg, and 371 acres in the Native State of Mysore." But it is reported ‘that the cultivation of cinchona is being gradually abandoned in Coorg, owing to the low price of bark Spread of cinchona ; in Southern India ; 1 Åeturns of the Agricultural Statistics of British India and the AVaſize State of Mysore for 1890-91 (Calcutta, I892), pp. 5, 9, 39. CZAWCHONA CULTIVATIOAV. 607 in the market, and because the shade of cinchona trees injures Cinchona ; the coffee plants.'" Failure has attended the experiments made at Mahábaleshwar in the Bombay Presidency, in Tsit- taung (Sitang) District in Burma, and at Nongklao in the Khási Hills, Assam. The success of the Government cinchona plantation at in Bengal. Dárjiling, in Bengal, rivals that of the original plantation on the Nilgiris. The area has been gradually extended, and the bark is manufactured into quinine on the spot by a Govern- ment quinologist, entirely by the fusel oil process, which has, during the last few years, successfully taken the place of the old acid and alkali method of manufacture. The species mostly grown is C. succirubra, which yields a red-coloured bark, rich in its total yield of alkaloids, but comparatively poor in quinine proper. Successful efforts are being made to increase the cultivation of C. calisaya, which yields the more valuable bark; and a policy has been adopted of replacing the red bark by the calisaya and hybrid varieties, which resulted in the col- lection of IoS,848 lbs. of calisaya bark and 66,730 lbs. of hybrid bark, to Ioff, 150 lbs. of red bark in 1890–91.” The febrifuge, as issued by the Bengal Government, is in the form of a white powder, containing the following alkaloids:– Quinine, cinchonidine, cinchonine, quinamine, and what is Cinchona. known as amorphous alkaloid. It has been authoritatively Alkaloids. described as “a perfectly safe and efficient substitute for quinine in all cases of ordinary intermittent fever.” It has been substituted for imported quinine, in the proportion of three-fourths to one-fourth, at all the Government dispensaries, by which measure alone an economy of more than Rx. 20,000 a year has been achieved ; and it is now eagerly sought after by private druggists from every part of the country. The successful replacement of red bark by the calisaya on the Government plantations has led to a decrease in the issue of the cinchona febrifuge, and the manufacture of quinine has proportionately increased, Thus, in 1890–91, no less than 37.89% lbs. of quinine were issued, as against 3837 lbs. of cinchona febrifuge and 20 lbs. of crystallized febrifuge.8 The following show the out turn and financial results of the Cinchona two large Government plantations in 1877–78 and in 1890–91 : . —In 1877–78, the crop on the Nilgiris gave 138,808 lbs. of bark, of which I 32,951 lbs. were shipped to England, and the * Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India, 1890–91, p. I57. - * Bengal Administration A'eport for 1890–91, p. 133. * /dem, p. 134. 608 A GA2/COZTUACA. AAV/O PA’O/DUCTS. rest supplied to the Madras and Bombay Medical Departments. At Dárjiling, the crop in 1877–78 amounted to 344,225 lbs. of bark, which was all handed over to the quinologist, and yielded 5162 lbs. of the febrifuge. In 1890–91, the four Government plantations on the Nilgiri Hills contained 1,762, ooo cinchona trees. The total out-turn of bark (exclusive of stocks in hand) was 133,351 lbs. The actual receipts on account of the Government plantations amounted to Rx. 2887; but this sum does not include the value of 850 packets, or 61 lbs. of quinine supplied to Collec- tors of Districts for distribution, 7.2 lbs. in stock with the Government quinologist, 1500 lbs. of quinine and 1200 lbs. of febrifuge in stock at the end of the year, nor the value of bark supplied to Messrs. Kemp & Co. of Bombay. If credit could have been taken for the above items, the receipts would have been Rx. 7355. The actual expenditure was Rx. 7491, of which Rx. 1837 were the quinologist's charges, and Rx. 5654 the general expense of maintaining the plantations." The Government plantations in Dârjiling contained 4,155,861 cinchona trees in 1891. They yielded 293,972 lbs. of dry bark; and 4031 lbs. of cinchona febrifuge, with 401 o lbs. of sulphate of quinine, were manufactured under the superintend- ence of the Government quinologist in Bengal during the year. The revenue derived from the sale of quinine, cinchona febri- fuge, bark, and other products of the plantations, including credit from the Medical Department, the Commissariat, etc., was Rx. I 1,857, showing a profit over the expenses of the year's working of Rx. 1704. ‘A result which,’ according to the Benga/ Administration Report for 1890–91,” “may be con- sidered as satisfactory and quite sufficient. The object of starting the cinchona plantations was not to aim at a profit, but to secure for the people a cheap remedy for fever, the com- monest of all tropical diseases. The quinine manufactured at the Government factory can now be sold at one rupee per ounce, while quinine cost a good many rupees per ounce twenty-nine years ago, when the cinchona enterprise was initiated by the Government of Bengal. This is a matter for much congratulation. Hardly any greater blessing to a fever- stricken country can be imagined than cheap quinine.’ The total profit of the Indian Government’s cinchona plantations in the Nilgiris and Dárjíling, deducting the slight loss from the Cinchona statistics, I890–91 : (I) for Madras ; (2) for Bengal. former, amounted in 1890–91 to Rx. 1568. * Madras Administration A'eport for 1890–91, pp. 73, 74. * P. 134. AAA’/ V SZZA-FACTOR/ES. 609 These profits, however, do not represent the whole of the gains. During the years in which the cinchona febrifuge was issued, the saving by its use in the place of imported quinine has been immense, and the indirect profit secured in this way will be still greater, when the Indian-manufactured quinine entirely takes the place of imported quinine. Quinine and cinchona bark are also becoming an important staple of export trade. Cinchona now covers 13,481 acres in the Madras Presidency and Coorg, more than 12, ooo acres of which are in private hands. The average export for the five years ending 1890–91 was 2,132,156 lbs., of an average value of RX. I46,469 ; and the actual export for 1890–91 was 2,995,845 lbs., valued at Rx. I 33,78o." I Sericulture in India is a stationary, if not a declining Silk. industry. The large production in China, Japan, and the Mediterranean countries controls the European markets; and, on an average of years, the imports of raw silk into India exceed the exports. The East India Company from the first The Com- took great pains to foster the production of silk. As early as º iſk. 1767, two years after the grant of the financial administration factories. of Bengal had been conferred upon the Company, we find the Governor, Mr. Verelst, personally urging the zamándars, gathered at Murshidābād for the ceremony of the Punyd, ‘to give all possible encouragement to the cultivation of mulberry.’ In 1769, a colony of reelers was brought from Italy to teach Italian the system followed in the filatures at Novi. The first silk º prepared after the Italian method reached England in 1772, ‘’” and Bengal silk soon became an important article of export. Similar efforts started at Madras in 1793 were abandoned after a trial of five years. The silk-worm is said to have been introduced into Mysore by Tipu Sultán, and for many years Tipá's ex- it continued to prosper. But recently the Mysore worms have Periments, been afflicted by an epidemic ; and, despite the enterprise of an I'7C) tº. Italian gentleman, who imported fresh breeds from Japan, the business has dwindled away. - Bengal has always been the chief seat of mulberry cultiva- Bengal tion. When the trading operations of the Company ceased fººtoriº: * e tº g * I799-1833. in 1833, it owned II head factories in that Province, each supplied by numerous filatures, to which the cultivators brought in their cocoons. The annual export of raw silk from Calcutta was then about 1 million lbs. In earlier days the weaving of silk formed a large portion of the business of the Company. In 1779, Rennell wrote that at Kásimbázár alone about 4oo,ooo * Statement of Zºrade of British /ndia, 1886–87 to 1890–91, pp. 40, 41, 2 Q 6Io A GA2/CO//, 7'UA’A. AAV/O AEA2O/DUCTS. Silk area of Bengal. Silk pro- duction, I890. Silk statistics, 1878, 1883, I891. lbs. weight of silk was consumed in the local European factories. In 1802, Lord Valentia describes Jangipur as ‘the greatest silk station of the Company, with 600 furnaces, and giving employment to 3ooo persons.” Under the new Charter of 1833, the Company's silk trade and its commerce with China were to cease. But it could not suddenly throw out of employ- ment the numbers of people employed upon silk production, and its factories were not entirely disposed of until 1837. When the Company abandoned the trade on its own account, sericulture was taken up by private enterprise, and still clings to its old headquarters. At the present time, the cultivation of the mulberry is mainly confined to the Rájshāh; and Bardwan Divisions of Lower Bengal. This branch of agriculture, together with the rearing of the silk-worms, is con- ducted by the peasantry themselves, who are free to follow or abandon the business. The destination of the cocoons is two- fold. They may either be sent to small Native filatures, where the silk is roughly wound, and usually consumed in the hand- looms of the country; or they may be brought to the great European factories, which generally use steam machinery, and consign their produce direct to Europe. There were 81 silk filatures in Bengal of sufficient size and importance to be reckoned among the Large Industries of India in 1890. They employed during the working season of that year a daily average of 15,799 persons, and turned out 554,329 lbs. Of silk. Of these, 17, employing 2085 persons and producing 71,502 lbs. of silk, belonged to the Bengal Silk Company in the District of Murshidābād. Mention should also be made of the silk filature established by Lister & Co., the great Bradford manufacturers, in the Dehra Duin District of the North- Western Provinces. The principal silk mill is that belonging to the Sassoon and Alliance Silk Mills Company in Bombay. It employed 725 hands and turned out 562,427 yards of manufactured silk cloth in 1890." The exports of silk vary considerably from year to year, being determined partly by the local yield, and still more by the prices ruling in Europe. The following are the returns for 1877–78, 1882–83, and 1890–91. In 1877–78, about 1% million lbs. of silk were exported, viz.:-Raw silk, 658, ooo lbs. ; chasan, or the outer covering of the cocoon, 823,000 lbs. ; the aggregate value was Rx. 750,439. In the same year, the imports of raw silk (chiefly received at Bombay and Rangoon) were a little over 2 million lbs., valued at Rx. 678,069. By * Staſistical Zables for British Zndia, p. 74. SZZA STAZZSZZCS, 1878–91. - 6II 1882–83, the imports of raw and manufactured silk had con-Silk . siderably exceeded the exports of the Indian production. In º that year the exports of raw silk amounted to only 665,838 2 lbs., valued at Rx. 596,836, besides silk manufactures valued at Rx. 306,928. On the other hand, the imports of foreign silk into British Indian ports in the same year amounted to 2,386, I 50 lbs., valued at Rx. 1,074, 156, besides 9,671,261 yards of manufactured silk, and 2989 lbs. of silk thread, valued at Rx. 977,768. The same feature is to be observed in the returns for 1890–91, in which the imports still exceeded the 1891. exports. In that year the exports of Indian raw silk amounted to 502,603 lbs., of chasan to I, II 2,213 lbs., and of Cocoons to I45,695 lbs., valued in the aggregate at Rx. 521,069. Also 2,002,959 yards of manufactured silk, 221, 121 yards of mixed silk goods, with 900 lbs. of silk thread; value in all, Rx. 203,181. Against these amounts there were imported into India 2,406,239 lbs. of raw silk, valued at Rx. I, I 15,068, together with Io,032,619 yards of manufactured silk, 1,997,677 yards of mixed silk goods, and 91.25 lbs. of silk thread, valued at Rx. 1,386,362. It is worthy of record that the chief countries to which raw silk is exported are France, which takes Rx. 238,539 worth, the United Kingdom Rx. I 78,147 worth, and Italy Rx. Io2,207 worth ; while it is mainly imported from Hong Kong Rx. 618,874 worth, the Straits Settlements Rx. 275,095 worth, and the China Treaty Ports Rx. 194,237 worth.” The cultivation of the mulberry is chiefly carried on in the Mulberry Bengal Districts of Rajshahi, Bográ, Maldah, Murshidābād, "..." Birbhum, Bardwan, and Midnapur. No Complete statistics are available, but in Rájshāh; alone the area under mulberry is estimated at 8o,ooo acres. The mulberry grown as food for the silk-worms is not the fruit-tree with which we are familiar in England, but a comparatively small shrub. Any fairly good land that does not grow rice will grow mulberry. But the shrubs must be preserved from floods ; and the land generally requires to be artificially raised in square plots, with broad trenches between, like a chess-board. The mulberry differs from most Indian crops in being a perennial, i.e. it will yield its harvest of leaves for several years in succession, provided that care be taken to preserve it. It is planted between the months of November and January. Three growths of silk- worms are usually obtained in the year—in November, March, and August. Besides the silk-worm proper (Bombyx mori), fed upon the 1 Statement of the Trade of British India, 1886–87 to 1890–91, p. 83. 61.2 A GA2/CUZZ'UA' A' AAV/O PA2O/DUCTS. Jungle silks: (tasar) in Bengal; in Central Provinces; in Assam. mulberry, several other species of silk-yielding worms abound in the jungles of India, and are utilized, and in some cases domesticated, by the natives. Throughout Assam, especially, an inferior silk is produced in this way, which has from time immemorial furnished the common dress of the people. These ‘wild silks' are known to commerce under the generic name of tasar or fusser, but they are really the produce of several distinct varieties of worm, fed on many different trees. The worm that yields tasar silk in Chutiá Nágpur has been identified as the caterpillar of Antheroea paphia. When wild, it feeds indiscriminately upon the sail (Shorea robusta), the baer (Zizyphus jujuba), and other forest trees; but in a state of semi-domestication, it is exclusively reared upon the disan (Terminalia tomentosa), which grows conveniently in clumps. The cocoons are sometimes collected in the jungle, but more frequently are bred from an earlier generation of jungle cocoons. The worms require constant attention while feeding, to protect them from crows and other birds. They give three crops in the year—in August, November, and May — of which the second is by far the most important. The tasar silk-worm is also found and utilized throughout the Central Provinces, in the hills of the Bombay Presidency, and along the southern slopes of the Himalayas. During the past twenty years, repeated attempts have been made to raise this industry out of its precarious condition, and to introduce tasar silk into the European market. That the raw material abounds is certain ; but the great difficulty is to obtain it in a state which will be acceptable to European manufacturers. Native spun tasar thread is only fit for Native hand-looms. In Assam, two distinct qualities of silk are made, the erid and mugā. The former is obtained from the cocoons of Phaloena cynthia; and the worm is fed, as the Native name implies, upon the leaves of the castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis). This variety may be said to be entirely domesticated, being reared indoors. Mugd silk is obtained from the cocoons of Saturnia assamungis. The moth, which is remarkable for its size, is found wild in the jungle ; but the breed is so far domesticated that cocoons are brought from one part of the Province to another, and the stºm tree is artificially propagated to supply the worms with food. The collection of lac is in a somewhat similar position to that of tasar silk. The lac insect abounds on certain jungle trees in every part of the country; and from time immemorial it has been collected by the wild tribes, in order to be worked SA/EZ Z-ZAC A/V/D ZAC-ZD YAE. 613 up into lacquered ware. But European enterprise has not yet placed the industry upon a stable and an organized basis. Although lac is to be found everywhere, foreign exportation is almost entirely confined to Calcutta, which draws its supplies from the hills of Chutiá Nágpur, and in a less degree from Assam and Mírzápur in the North-Western Provinces. Lac is known to commerce both as a gum (shell-lac) and as a dye. In 1878 the total exports of lac of all kinds were 104,717 Lac cwts., valued at Rx. 362,244. In 1882–83 the exports of lac ºis, of all kinds made 138,844 cwts, of the value of Rx. 699,113, 1883. In 1890–91 the export had risen to 147,415 cwts, of the value 1891. of Rx. 781,951. Lac (ldź) is a cellular, resinous incrustation of a deep Orange Descrip- colour, secreted by an insect (Coccus lacca) round the branches tion of 'ae. of various trees, chiefly kiſsiſm (Schleichera trijuga), Žalás (Butea frondosa), Žifal (Ficus religiosa), and baer (Zizyphus jujuba). The principal component is resin, forming about 60 or 70 per cent., from which is manufactured the shell-lac of Shell-lac. commerce. Lac-dye is obtained from the small cells of the Lac-dye. incrustation, and is itself a portion of the body of the female insect. The entire incrustation, while still adhering to the twig, is called Stick-lac. In order to obtain the largest quantity Stick-lac. of dye, the stick-lac should be gathered before the young come out, which happens twice in the year—in January and July. The dye is first extracted by repeated processes of washing and straining, while the shell-lac is worked up from what remains in a hot and semi-liquid state. For all articles in which a fast colour is not required, lac- Uses of dye can never compete with the cheaper and less permanent * aniline dyes; while for more lasting colours, cochineal is preferred. Lac-dye, however, is said to be superior even to cochineal in resisting the action of human perspiration ; and it is probable that in the event of the supply of cochineal falling off, lac-dye might be used in its stead to produce the regimental scarlet. It has largely replaced Cochineal of late years in dyeing officers' coats; and a further extension of its use for similar purposes seems possible. The chief establishment in India for manufacturing lac was for long near Dorandá, in Lohārdagá District, Chutiá Nāgpur, to which stick-lac is brought in from all the country round as far as the Central Provinces. In 1877–78 this factory had to cease working, and its place has been taken by a factory at Cossipur, near Calcutta, which in 1890–91 turned out nearly 17,ooo cwts. Of shell-lac and lac-dye, valued at Rx. 72,500. 614 AGRICULTURE AND PRODUCTS Model farms. The small Sll CCCSS attained. Saidapet farm. The efforts of Government to improve the Native methods of agriculture, by the establishment of model farms under skilled European supervision, have not been generally suc- cessful. In too many cases, the skilled agriculturists from Europe have been gardeners rather than farmers. In other cases, believing only in their own maxims of high cultivation —deep ploughing, subsoil drainage, manuring, and rotation of crops—they have despised the ancient rules of Native experience, and have not adapted their Western learning to the circumstances of a tropical country. Nevertheless, many valuable experiments have been made, and much information, chiefly of a negative character, has been gained. The Government model farms have been abandoned in Bengal, in Assam, and in the Punjab. In the North-Western Provinces experiments with manures and seeds are carried on at the Cawnpur Agricultural Station, and a Native gentleman, Rái Bahádur Chandhri Debi Singh, maintains a Demonstration Farm at Asaura." In Bombay there are three model farms, maintained by the Provincial Government at Bhadgāon, Poona, and Nādiad, as well as one at Haidarābād in Sind; ? and in the Central Provinces one at Nágpur. The Saidapet (Sydapet) farm, near the city of Madras, is the only establishment at which experiments have been conducted on a scale and with a perseverance sufficient to yield results of value. This farm was started by a former Governor, Sir William Denison, in 1865, and was for many years under the able management of |Mr. Robertson, Agricultural Reporter to the Madras Govern- ment. It covered in 1884 an area of 300 acres in a ring fence, of which 139 acres were under crop, and 36 acres under timber, chiefly casuarina. Important experiments have been made, of which some produced encouraging results, indicating the general direction in which improvements may be effected in the agricultural practice of the Presidency. It was proved that many of the common “dry crops’ can be profitably cultivated for fodder at all seasons of the year. Those most strongly recommended are yellow cholam (Sor- ghum vulgare), guinea grass (Panicum jumentosum), and horse-gram (Dolichus biflorus). Sugar-cane and rice also yield excellent fodder, when cut green. Attention has been given to Subsoil drainage, deep ploughing, the fertilizing powers of various manures, and the proper utilization of irrigation water. Its results. * Administration Report of the AVorth-Western Provinces and Oudh for I890–91, pp. 95, 96. * Bombay Administration Aeſort for 1890–91, pp. 95, 96. PROBZEM OF IMPROVED 7/ZZAGE. 615 Doubts, however, were entertained as to whether the results Saidápet of the experiments at the Madras Government Farm were ºut. equal to the Outlay upon them, and the farming operations College, at Saidapet were given up, except so far as required for the 189*. practical instruction of agricultural pupils. A College of Agriculture has been established at Saidapet, in connection with the model farm, with subordinate branches in the Districts, so as to diffuse as widely as possible the agricul- tural lessons that have been already learned. In 1890–91 the College was attended by only 29 pupils. The total expendi- ture upon it was Rs. 20,733, and the cost to Government of educating each student amounted to Rs. 604." To many it seems doubtful whether such experiments can Is success be made to yield profitable results. The Hindu Patriot put Possible? the case in very pithy words: ‘The Native cultivators have nothing to learn so far as non-scientific agriculture is Con- cerned, and the adoption of scientific agriculture is wholly beyond their means.” If the only alternative lay between a strictly scientific and an altogether unscientific husbandry, a candid observer would have to concur in the Hindu Patriot’s conclusion. But the choice is not thus limited. In England one little improvement takes place in one district, another small change for the better in another. Strictly scientific The pro- farming trebles the produce; a field which produces 730 lbs. plem of of wheat without manure can be made to yield 2342 lbs. by #. manure. But the native of India has neither the capital nor the knowledge required to attain this result. If, therefore, the problem before him was to increase his crops threefold, even his best wishers might despair of his success. But the task before him is a much less ambitious one ; namely, to gradually increase by perhaps Io or 20 per cent, the produce of his fields, and not by 3oo per cent. at a stroke. Wheat land in the North-Western Provinces, which now Out-turn gives only 840 lbs. an acre, is said to have yielded I 140 lbs. in of crops. the time of Akbar, and would produce 18oo lbs. in Norfolk. The average return of food-grains in India shows about 700 lbs. per acre; in England, wheat averages over 17oo lbs. Mr. Hume, a former Secretary to the Government of India in its Department of Agriculture, declared that, “with proper manuring and proper tillage, every acre, broadly speaking, of land in the Country can be made to yield, 30, 50, or 70 per cent. more of every kind of crop than it at present produces ; and with a fully corresponding increase in the profits of cultivation.’ * Madras Administration Report for 1890–91, p. 187. 616 A GA2/CUZZ'UA’A. AAV/D AEA2O/DUCTS. The three impedi- ments : (1) Want of cattle. The first impediment to better husbandry in India is the few- ness and weakness of the cattle. “Over a great portion of the Empire,’ wrote the Secretary to the Agricultural Department in India, ‘the mass of the cattle are starved for six weeks every year. The hot winds roar, every green thing has disappeared, no hot-weather forage is grown; the last year's fodder has generally been consumed in keeping the well-bullocks on their legs during the irrigation of the spring crops ; and all the husbandman can do is just to keep his poor brutes alive on the chopped leaves of the few trees and shrubs he has access to, the roots of grass and herbs that he digs out of the edges of fields, and the like. In good years, he just succeeds; in (2) Want of manure. bad years, the weakly ones die of starvation. But then come the rains. Within the week, as though by magic, the burning Sands are Carpeted with rank, luscious herbage, the cattle will eat and over-eat; and millions die of one form or other of cattle disease, springing out of this starvation followed by Sudden repletion with rank, juicy, immature herbage.’ Mr. Hume estimates “the average annual loss of cattle in India by preventable disease” at Io million beasts, worth 7% millions Sterling. He complains that, up to the time when he wrote, no real attempt had been made to bring veterinary knowledge within reach of the people, or to organize a system of village plantations which would feed their cattle through the summer. The Department of Agriculture, as re-established under Lord Ripon's Government, has endeavoured to remedy these Omissions, particularly in regard to the diffusion of veterinary knowledge. The statistics and breeds of agricultural stock will be dealt with on pp. 618–621. - The second impediment to improved husbandry is the want of manure. If there were more stock, there would be more manure; and the absence of firewood compels the people to use up even the droppings of their cattle for fuel. Under such circumstances, agriculture ceases to be the manufacture of food, and becomes a mere spoliation of the soil. Forage crops, such as lucerne, guinea grass, and the great stemmed millets, might furnish a large supply of cattle food per acre. Government has considered whether their cultivation could not be promoted by reducing the irrigation rates on green fodder crops. A system of village plantations would not only supply firewood, but would yield leaves and an undergrowth of fodder sufficient to tide the cattle over their six weeks' struggle for life each summer. In some Districts, Govern- ment has land of its own which it could thus plant ; in WAAV7" OA' MAAWUA’Aº AAV/D WAZTEA’. 617 others, it is only a sleeping partner in the soil. In Switzer- land, the occupiers of allmends, or communal lands, are, at least in some cantons, compelled by law to keep up a certain number of trees. It seems a fair question whether plantations ought not in many parts of India to be made an incident of the land tenure. They would go far to solve the two funda- mental difficulties of Indian agriculture—the loss of Cattle, and the want of manure. The system of State Forestry at present pursued will be described in a subsequent section. Meanwhile, the natives set an increasing value on manure. Utiliza- The great cities are being converted from centres of disease º into sources of food-supply. For a time, caste prejudices e stood in the way of utilizing the night-soil. ‘Five years ago,' wrote the Secretary to the Poona Municipality in 1885, ‘agri- culturists would not touch the Žoudrette when prepared, and could not be induced to take it away at even a nominal charge. At present, the out-turn of manure is not enough to keep pace with the demand, and the peasants buy it up from four to six months in advance.’ At Amritsar, in the Punjab, 30, ooo donkey-loads were sold in one year. A great margin still exists for economy, both in the towns and villages; but the husbandman is becoming more alive to the utilization of every Source of manure, and his prejudices are gradually giving way under the stern pressure of facts. The third impediment to improved agriculture in India is (3) Want the want of water. Sir J. Caird believed that if only one-third of water. of the cultivated area were irrigated, India would be secure against famine. A gradual extension of irrigation might suffice to raise the food-supply annually by more than 1% per cent, in most years; and thus more than keep pace with the general increase of the population. Since India passed to the Crown, great progress has been made in this direction. Money has been invested by millions of pounds; 200 millions of acres are now under cultivation ; and in the five British Provinces which require it most, 32 per cent. of the cultivated area, or say one- third, was in 1891 artificially supplied with water. Those Provinces are the Punjab, the North-West, Oudh, Sind, and Madras. Looking to what has of late years been done, and to what yet remains to be done by wells and petty works with the aid of loans from the State, we may still reckon on a vast increase of food from irrigation. The pecuniary and statistical aspects of irrigation will be dealt with hereafter. Having thus summarized the three impediments to improved 618 A GA2/COZ 7'UA' A' AAVZ) AA2O/DUCTS, Agricul- tural stock. Want Of fodder. Famous breeds. husbandry, it may be profitable to examine in detail the three subjects immediately connected with them, namely, the Agri- cultural Stock of India, Forests, and Irrigation. Throughout the whole of India, excepting in Sind and the western districts of the Punjab, horned cattle are the only beasts used for ploughing. The well-known humped breed of cattle predominates everywhere, being divided into many varieties. Owing partly to unfavourable conditions of climate and soil, partly to the insufficiency of grazing ground, and partly to the want of Selection in breeding, the general con- dition of the cattle is miserably poor. As cultivation advances, the area of waste land available for grazing steadily diminishes, and the prospects of the poor beasts are becoming worse rather than better. Their only hope lies in the introduction of fodder crops as a regular stage in the agricultural Course. There are, however, some fine breeds which are carefully fostered. In Mysore, the amrit mahāl, a breed said to have been formed by Haidar Alí for military purposes, is kept up by the local authorities. In the Madras Districts of Nellore and Karntil, the indigenous breed has been greatly improved under the stimulus of cattle shows and prizes, founded by British officials. In the Central Provinces, there is a high - class breed of trotting bullocks, in great demand for wheeled carriages. The large and handsome oxen of Gujarát in Bombay, and of Hariáná in the Punjab, are excel- lently adapted for drawing heavy loads in a sandy soil. The statistics of live stock for various Provinces of India will be given in the form of a table on p. 62 I. The worst cattle are always to be found in deltaic tracts, Buffaloes, but here their place is to a large extent taken by buffaloes. Camels. Horses. These last are more hardy than ordinary cattle, their character being maintained by crossing the cows with wild bulls, and their milk yields the best ghi, or clarified butter. In Lower Burma, the returns show that the total number of buffaloes is nearly equal to that of cows and bullocks. Along the Sind valley of the Indus, and in the sandy desert which stretches into Rájputéna, Camels Supersede cattle for all agricultural operations. In the Punjab, the total number of camels was 190,974 in 1890. The breed of horses has generally deteriorated since the demand for the Native strains, for military purposes, declined upon the establishment of British supremacy. In Bengal proper, and in Madras, it may be broadly said that Native Z/VE-S7'OCK STAT/ST/CS, 1890–91. 6 I 9 breeds scarcely now exist. The chief breeds in Bombay are those of the Deccan and of Káthiáwár, in both of which Provinces Government maintains establishments of stallions. The Punjab, however, is the chief source of remounts for our Native cavalry; the total number of horses and ponies in that Province in 1891 being returned at 225,820. About the beginning of the present century, a Stud Department was organized by Government to breed horses for the use of the Govern- Bengal army. This system was abolished as extravagant and º inefficient by Lord Mayo in 1871. Remounts are now obtained in the open market; but the Government still maintains a number of stallions, including horses imported from England, or half English bred, and high-class Arabs. Excellent horses are bred by the Balūchī tribes along the western frontier. & Horse fairs are held yearly in the various Provinces of Horse India. The principal ones in the Punjab, the part of India *. which furnishes the main supply of the Native cavalry re- mounts, are at Ráwal Pindi, Dera Ghāzī Khān, Amritsar, Shāhpur, and Mültán, at each of which places over Iooo horses, donkeys, and mules were exhibited in 1890–91. In in the that year prizes to the value of Rx. 910 were awarded at these * principal fairs. The average price of remounts for the Native cavalry has risen of late years from Rx. 17 to about Rx. 22. Horse shows are also held at Gujrát, Jalālābād, Lahore, Jhang, Karnāl, and Siálkot. They are ordinarily well attended and successful, and prizes to the value of Rx. 6oo were awarded at them in 1890–91. The Government also maintained in 1890–91, I:27 horse stallions, of which 85 were of English and 39 of Arab stock. In recent years, much attention has been paid in the Punjab to the breeding of mules for military Mules. purposes; and the value of these animals has been conspicu- ously proved in the course of the operations in Afghānistán. In 1890–91, the Government maintained 187 donkey stallions, of which 89 were imported from Europe, 36 from Arabia, 21 from Persia, and the remainder were of various Native breeds." Some of the mules bred reach the height of 15 hands. The best ponies come from Burma, Manipur (the original home of Ponies: the game of polo), and Bhutan. - The catching of wild elephants is now either a Government Elephants. monopoly, or is conducted under strict Government Supervision. The chief source of supply is the North-East Frontier, especi- ally the range of hills running between the valleys of the Brahmaputra and the Bárak. During the year 1877–78, about * Punjab Administration Aleport for 1890–91, pp. 115–117. 62o A GA2/C U/CTUA2A. AAV/D PA2O/DUCTS. Numbers caught, 1878 and I891. Sheep and goats. Pigs. Statistics of Live Stock. 260 elephants were captured in the Province of Assam, yielding, for licence fees and royalties, Rx. 3600 to Govern- ment. Of these, 17o were captured by lessees of the privilege, and 90 by the Government Áhedā department. In 1890–91, the number of elephants caught was 259, yielding a Govern- ment revenue of Rx. 3567 for licence fees and royalties." Elephants are also captured to a smaller extent in the moun- tains bordering Orissa; in Mysore and Coorg, among the Western Ghâts; and in Burma, for the timber trade. They are used by Government for transport, and are eagerly bought up by Native chiefs and landowners as objects of display. The wild elephant will be treated of in the subsequent chapter on Indian zoology. Sheep and goats are commonly reared in the wilder parts of the country for the sake of their wool. Their flesh-weight for the butcher and their yield of wool are both very low. In Mysore, and at the Saidapet farm, near Madras, attempts have been made to improve the breed of sheep by crossing with merino rams, but hitherto without much success, except at Saidapet. Pigs of great size and most repulsive appearance are everywhere reared : they are eaten only by the lowest castes. The table on the opposite page summarizes the information collected regarding live stock in those parts of India where the statistics can be obtained with some approximation to accuracy. But they must be regarded as intelligent estimates rather than as verified returns. * Assam Administration Aleport for 1890–91, p. I31. [APPROxIMATE APPROXIMATE NUMBERS OF LIVE STOCK AND OF CERTAIN AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS IN THE INDIAN PROVINCES IN 1882–83 AND 1890–91. Madras. Bombay.1 Punjab. Berár. Lower Burma. Piº Oudh.2 pº** 1882–83. 1890–91. 1882–83. 1890–91. 1882–83. 1890–91. || 1882–83. 1890–91. | 1882–83. 1890–91. 1890–91. 1890–91. 1882–83. Bulls and Bullocks, . 3,687,782 4,226,3324|| 3,344,518 || 3,078,3654 6,121,417 | 9,948,360 || 1,540,007 | 1,530,282 || 917,861 965, III || 13,175,915 6,166,987 Cows, 3,453,129 3,888,4814|| 2,321,728 | 1,906,7744 5,356,477 Buffaloes, . 1,483,938 2,397,5664|| 1,534,053 | 1,207,8384 2,936,112 || 299,064 || 332,782 || 687,360 | 683,569 || 3,230,436 | 1,234,084 Horses and Ponies, . 38,130 46,106 I37,774 I40,128 IIo, OII 225,820 36,172 35,561 8,366 | II,036 333,284 I42,747 Io3,849 Mules and Donkeys, . I24,731 I27,3O2 78, I79 54,2OI 251,068 501,823 27,707 20,675 I 282,588 65,077 24,660 Camels, 5O 42 I, 3O4. 125,584 || 190,974° 996 ... 6 ... 6 ... 6 ... 6 59 Sheep and Goats, 8,941,813 | 12,560,076 || 3,470,692 3,279,953 || 3,864,013 | 6,607,373 || 404,006 494,035 || 25,782 || 32,282 || 4,152,295 | 1,784,331 828,592 Carts, 313,528 443,549 || 412,751 || 482,663 92,855 I79,736 || II9,562 | I22,340 || 212,38o | I73,462 456,905 92,205 313,637 Ploughs, 2,013,OII | 2,536,167 || 1,088,357 | 1,084,171 || I,8o3,278 2,207,850 || Io9,687 | 125,925 || 356,903 ||384,733 || 2,986,479 | T,474,573 892,769 1 The figures for Bombay include Sind for 1882-83, and exclude Sind for 1890–91 ; see Bombay Administration Report for 1890–91, Statistical Returns, p. 73. 2 The figures for 1882–83 for the North-Western Provinces and Oudh are not available. 3 The figures for 1890–91 for the Central Provinces are not available. 4. For Madras and Bombay there is a return of young stock (Calves and Buffalo Calves) not included in these figures, namely, for Madras, 1,497,530 head; for Bombay, 918,578. 5 This figure is for 1890; see Punjab Administration Report for 1890–91, p. cix.; that for 1890–91 is not available. 6 Figures not available. § 622 A GA2/COZZTUAEA, AAW/D PA2O/DUCTS. Forests. Destruc- tion of jungle. Growth of the Forest Depart- ment, 1844–85. Indian timber- trees. Teak. Sá/. The forests of India are beginning to receive their proper share of attention, both as a source of natural wealth and as a department of the administration. Until the third quarter of this century, the destruction of forests by timber-cutters, by charcoal-burners, and above all by nomadic cultivation, was allowed to go on unchecked. The extension of tillage was considered as the chief care of Government, and no regard was paid to the improvident waste of jungle on all sides. But as the pressure of population on the soil became more dense, and the Construction of railways increased the demand for fuel, the question of forest conservation forced itself into notice. It was recognised that the inheritance of future generations was being recklessly sacrificed. The im- portance of forests, as affecting the general meteorology of a Country, was also being taught by bitter experience in Europe. On many grounds, therefore, it became necessary to preserve what remained of the forests in India, and to repair the mischief of previous neglect, even at considerable expense. In 1844 and 1847, the subject was actively taken up by the Governments of Bombay and Madras. In 1864, Dr. Brandis was appointed Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India ; and in the following year the first Forest Act passed the Legislature (No. VII. of 1865). The regular training of candidates for the Forest Department in the schools of France and Germany dates from 1867, and a Forest Department was opened at the Royal Indian Engineering College at Cooper's Hill in 1885. In the interval which has since elapsed, sound principles of forest administration have been laid down and gradually enforced. Indiscriminate timber-cutting has been prohibited ; the burning of the jungle by the hill tribes has been confined within bounds; large areas have been surveyed and demarcated ; plantations have been laid out ; and forest conservation has become a reality in India. From a botanical point of view, the forests may be divided into several distinct classes, determined by varying conditions of soil, climate, and rainfall. The king of Indian forest trees is the teak (Tectona grandis), which rivals the British oak as material for ship-building. The home of the teak is in the Bombay Ghâts, Kánara, Cochin, Travancore, and the Burmese peninsula, where it flourishes under an excessive rainfall. Second to teak is the sa! (Shorea robusta), which is indigenous along the lower slopes of the Himálayas from the Sutlej basin east to Assam, among the hills of Central India, and in the Eastern Ghâts down to the Godávari river. On the Hima- AAW/D/AAW FOA’A.ST. AAEA.A.S. 623 layas of North-Western India, the distinguishing timber-tree is the deodóra (Cedrus Deodara); while on the North-Eastern Deodóra. Himalayan frontier its place is occupied by Pinus Kasya and other trees, such as Oak and chestnut, of a temperate zone. These noble trees supply the most valuable timber, and form the chief care of the Forest Department. But they are only the aristocracy of countless species, yielding timber, firewood, and other products of value. In the south of the South peninsula, the mountain range of the Western Ghâts, from º Travancore northward into Kánara, is clothed with an in- exhaustible wealth of still virgin forest. Here there are three separate vegetations. (1) An evergreen belt on the seaward The three face of the mountains, where grow the stately piºn (Calophyllum * inophyllum), valuable as spars for ships, the anjalli or wild jack (Artocarpus hirsuta), and a variety of ebony (Diospyros Ebenum). (2) A belt of mixed forest, varying from Io to 40 miles in width, which yields teak, blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia), and Lagerstroemia microcarpa, and here and there continuous avenues of lofty bamboos. (3) A dry belt, extend- ing over the central plateau, in which the vegetation declines in size and abundance. The precious Sandal-wood (Santalum Sandal- album), limited almost entirely to Mysore and Kánara, thrives * best on a stony soil, with a light rainfall. In the Bombay Presidency, the chief forest areas, excluding Kánara, are to be found in the mountainous extension of the Western Ghâts, known as the Sahyādri range, and in the delta of the Indus in the outlying Province of Sind. The Sind river-valley forests present many peculiar features. Sind They are locally reported to have been formed as game * preserves by the Mirs or Musalmán rulers, and are divided into convenient blocks or Čelás, fringing the course of the Indus. Being absolute State property, their management is embarrassed by no difficulties, excepting those caused by the uncontrollable floods of the river. They furnish abundant firewood, but little timber of value, their chief produce being babi!! (Acacia arabica), Öahán (Populas euphratica), and tamarisk (Tamarix dioica). In the Punjab, the principal Punjab forests of deodóra (Cedrus Deodara) lie beyond the British * frontier, in the Himalayan valleys of the great rivers; but many of them have been leased from the bordering States, in order to secure a Supply of firewood and railway sleepers. On the Punjab plains, the only woods are those growing on the rākhs or upland plateaux which rise between the con- verging river basins. The chief trees found here are varieties 624 A GA2/COZZ'OA&AE A/VD AEA’O/DUCTS. of Prosopis, Capparis, and Salvadora; but the Forest De- partment is laying out more valuable plantations of Sissu (Dalbergia Sissoo), baer (Zizyphus jujuba), and Kikar. Forests The North-Western Provinces present the Himalayan type Fº of forest in Kumáun and Garhwäl, where the characteristic trees are the chil (Pinus excelsa) and chir (Pinus longifolia), with but little deodóra. Farther west occurs a forest-belt of sál, which may be said to form the continuous boundary between Nepāl and British territory. Owing to the facility of water communication and the neighbourhood of the great cities of Hindustán, these sail forests have long ago been stripped of their valuable timber, and are but slowly recovering of Oudh under the care of the Forest Department. Oudh and i.i Northern Bengal continue the general features of the North- Western Provinces; but the hill station of Dārjíling is surrounded by a flora of the temperate zone. Calcutta has, from its foundation, drawn its supply of fire- Sundarban wood from the inexhaustible jungles of the SUNDARBANs, * which have recently been placed under Forest Conservancy rules. This tract, extending over 5ooo square miles, is a dismal swamp, half land, half sea or brackish water, overgrown by an almost impenetrable jungle of timber trees and under- wood. The most valued wood is the sundºiri (Heretiera littoralis), which is said to give its name to the tract. Assam and Chittagong, like the Malabar coast and Burma, still possess vast areas of virgin forest, although the more access- ible tracts have been ruthlessly laid waste. Besides să/ Assam and Pinus Kasya, the timber-trees of Assam include mahor or * nágeswar (Mesua ferrea), stºm (Artocarpus Chaplasha), and järu! (Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae). Ficus elastica, yielding the CaOutchouc of commerce, was formerly common, but the Supply is now chiefly brought from beyond the frontier. Plantations of teak, tún (Cedrela Toona), sissu, and Ficus elastica are now being formed and guarded by the Forest Burmese Department. In Burma, the importance of teak exceeds that * of all the other timber-trees together. Next come iron-wood (Xylia dolabriformis) and Acacia Catechu, which yields the Central cutch of commerce. Throughout the centre of the Indian * peninsula, forests cover an extensive area; but their value is chiefly local, as none of the rivers are navigable. Towards the east, sail predominates, and in the west there is some teak; but fine timber of either species is comparatively scarce. Ráj- putána has a beautiful tree of its own, the Aongeissus pendula, with small leaves and drooping branches. A'OA’A.SZ" A/AWAAVCE. 625 From the administrative point of view, the Indian forests Forest are classified as ‘reserved” or as ‘open.” The reserved forests tºº. are those under the immediate control of officers of the Forest Reserved, Department. They are managed as the property of the State, forests. with a single eye to their conservancy and future development as a source of national wealth. Their limits are demarcated after survey; nomadic cultivation by the hill tribes is pro- hibited ; cattle are excluded from grazing; destructive creepers are cut down ; and the hewing of timber, if permitted at all, is placed under stringent regulations. The open forests are ‘Open less carefully guarded; but in them, also, certain kinds of * timber-trees are preserved. A third class of forest lands Planta- consists of plantations, on which large sums of money are “” spent annually, with a view to the rearing and development of timber-trees. It is difficult to present, in a summary view, the entire Forest financial aspects of the labours of the Forest Department. º In 1872–73, the total area of reserved forests in India was 1883– estimated at more than 6,000,000 acres; and the area has * been more than doubled since that date. In the same year, 1873. the total forest revenue was Rx. 477,ooo, as compared with an expenditure of Rx. 295,000, thus showing a surplus of Rx. 182,000. By 1882–83, both the total revenue from forests and the 1882–83. profits over expenditure had nearly doubled since 1873, and by 1890–91 had nearly trebled. The following table gives 1890-91. the total and nett revenue from forests in each Province of British India for those years:– [TOTAL 2 R § FORESTS IN EACH PROVINCE OF BRITISH INDIA, 1882-83 AND 1890–91. 1882–83. 1890–91. Increase or Decrease. PROVINCE. Revenue. Expenditure. Nett Revenue. Revenue. Expenditure. Nett Revenue. Revenue. Nett Revenue. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Bengal, 69,396 38,213 31, 183 72,739 4I,333 31,406 + 3,343 | + 223 North-Western Provinces and Oudh, . IOI, 34O 83,772 I7,568 163,788 90,594 73, I94 + 62,448 —H 55,626 Punjab, 76,671 56,oS4 20,617 83,437 64,995 I8,442 + 6,766 – 2, I75 Burma, 1 250,389 I21,870 I28,519 432, I97 I38,794 293,4O3 +181,808 +-I64,884 Central Provinces, tº tº * 97,765 4I, I44 56,621 I21,346 73,362 47,984 + 23,581 — 8,637 ASSam, g ë g & 24,861 I7, I75 7,686 32,679 27,349 5,33O + 7,818 – 2,356 Madras, . . . 90,644 64,486 26, 158 I79, 54I I23,921 55,620 —H 88,897 —H 29,462 Bombay, including Sind, 2O9, O35 I26,248 82,787 328,822 I85,673 I43, I49 +II9,787 + 60,362 Ajmere, Coorg, etc., . * I5,393 I3,O3I 2,362 33,453 35,428 — I,975 —H 18,060 — 4,337 Receipts and Charges in England (in- - c/uding Æxchange), . e - tº & 3,361 6,546 — 3,185 2,664 — 2,664 — 3,361 —H 521 ToTAL, . e s 938,855 568,539 370,316 1,448, OO2 784, II3 663,889 +509, I47 +293,573 TOTAL AND NETT REVENUE FROM i Burma included i 1890–91 Upper Burma. AVOA/A/D/C COW/LTZ WA 7TWOAV. 627 The average forest revenue for the ten years ending 1882–83 Was Rx. 703,424 per annum; the average expenditure, Rx. 467,624 ; average surplus, Rx. 235,800. The average forest revenue for the ten years ending 1890–91 was Rx. 1,145,117 ; the average expenditure, Rx. 693,408; and the average surplus, Rx. 451,709. But the above figures fail to exhibit the true working of the Forest Department, which is gradually winning back for India the fee-simple of her forest wealth, when it was on the point of being squandered beyond the possibility of redemption. The practice of nomadic cultivation by the hill tribes may Nomadic Conveniently be described in connection with forest conserva- º tion, of which it is the most formidable enemy. In all the " " ' great virgin forests of India, in Arakan, on the North-East Its area; Frontier of Assam and Chittagong, throughout the Central Provinces, and along the line of the Western Ghâts, the aboriginal tribes raise their crops of rice, cotton, and millets by a system of nomadic tillage. A similar method has been found in Madagascar; and, indeed, from its simplicity and its appropriateness, it may fairly be regarded the most primitive form of agriculture followed by the human race. Known as faungya in Burma, 77%m on the North-East Frontier, dahya in Central India, Ki/ in the Himalayas, and Äumdrí in the Western Ghâts, it is practised without material differences by tribes of the most diverse origin. The essential features of such husbandry are the burning Its down of a patch of forest, and sowing the crop with little or no ". tillage in the clearing thus formed. The tribes of the Bombay Coast break up the cleared soil with a sort of hoe-pick and Spade, or even with the plough ; in other parts of India, the Soil is merely scratched, or the seed scattered on the surface without any cultivation. In some cases a crop is taken off the Same clearing for two or even three years in succession; but more usually the tribe moves off every year to a fresh field of Operations. Every variety of implement is used, from the bill- hook, used alike for hewing the jungle and for turning up the Soil, to the plough. Every degree of permanence in the cultivation may be observed, from a one-year's Crop to the stage at which an aboriginal tribe, such as the Kandhs, visibly passes from nomadic husbandry to regular tillage. To these nomad cultivators the words rhetorically used Forest. by Tacitus of the primitive Germans are strictly applicable sº —Arza Zer ammos mutan: ; et sufferest ager. The wanton destruction wrought by them in the forest is incalculable. In 628 A GAC/CUZZ'UA' A' AAV/O PA’O/DUCTS. Restraints On it. Merits of nomadic tillage. Irrigation: Its function in India, addition to the timber-trees deliberately burned down to clear the soil, the fire thus started not unfrequently runs wild through the forest, and devastates many square miles. Wher- ever timber has any value from the proximity of a market, the first care of the Forest Department is to prohibit these fires, and to assign heavy penalties for any infringement of its rules. The success of a year's forest operations is mainly estimated by the degree in which the reserves have been saved from the flames. But vast tracts of country yet remain in which it would be equally useless and impossible to place restraints upon nomad cultivation. The system yields a larger return for the same amount of labour than permanent plough-husbandry. A virgin soil, manured many inches deep with ashes, and watered by the full burst of a tropical rainfall, returns forty and fifty-fold of rice, which is the staple grain thus raised. In addition to rice, Indian corn, millet, oil-seeds, and cotton are sometimes grown in the same clearing, the seeds being all thrown into the ground together, and each crop ripening in succession at its own season. Except to the eyes of a forest officer, a patch of nomadic tillage is a very picturesque sight. Men, women, and children all work together with a will, for the trees must be felled and burned, and the seed sown, before the monsoon breaks. Save on the western coast and the Ghâts (where the plough is occasionally used), the implement generally employed for all purposes is the daio or hill-knife, which performs the office alike of axe, hoe, dibbler, and sickle. In a tropical country, where the rainfall is capricious in its incidence and variable in its amount, the proper control of the water-supply becomes one of the first cares of Government. Its expenditure on irrigation works may be regarded as an investment of the landlord's capital, by which alone the estate can be rendered profitable. Without artificial irrigation, large tracts of country would lie permanently waste, while others could only be cultivated in exceptionally favourable seasons. Irrigation is to the Indian peasant what high cultivation is to the farmer in England. It augments the produce of his fields in a proportion far larger than the mere interest upon the capital expended. It may also be regarded as an insurance against famine. When the monsoon fails for one or two seasons in succession, the cultivator of “dry lands’ has no hope ; while abundant crops are raised from the fortunate fields commanded by irrigation works. This contrast was JZVZ)/A/V /ACA’/GA TVO/V AACAFA.S. 629 painfully realized in Southern India during the terrible years from 1876 to 1878, the limit between famine and plenty being marked by the boundaries of the irrigated and non-irrigated areas. It would, however, be an error to conclude that any Outlay will absolutely guarantee the vast interior of the penin- Sula from famine. Much, indeed, can be done, and much is during being done, year by year, to store and distribute the scanty and ** irregular water-supply of this inland plateau. But engineering possibilities are limited, not only by the expense, but by the unalterable laws of nature. A table-land with only a moderate rainfall, and watered by few perennial streams, broken by many hill ranges, and marked out into no natural drainage basins, Can never be completely protected from the vicissitudes of the Indian seasons. Irrigation is everywhere dependent upon the two supreme Irrigation considerations of water-supply and land-level. The sandy * desert which extends from the hills of Rájputána to the basin of the Indus, is as hopelessly closed to irrigation, from its almost entire absence of rainfall, as is the confused system of hill and valley in Central India, with its unmanageable levels. Farther west, in the Indus valley, irrigation becomes possible, and in no part of India has it been conducted with greater perseverance and success. The entire Province of Sind, and Sind. several of the lower Districts of the Punjab, are absolutely dependent upon the floods of the Indus. Sind has been com- pared to Egypt, and the Indus to the Nile; but the conditions of the Indian Province are much the less favourable of the two. In Sind, the average rainfall is barely Io inches in the year; the soil is a thirsty sand; worst of all, the river does not run in confined banks, but wanders at its will over a wide valley. The rising of the Nile is a beneficent phenomenon, which can be depended upon with tolerable accuracy, and which the industry of countless generations has brought under control for the purposes of cultivation. The inundation of the The un- Indus is an uncontrollable torrent, which sometimes does as #. much harm as good. Broadly speaking, no crop can be grown in Sind except under Irrigation irrigation. The cultivated area of over two million acres may ..". be regarded as entirely dependent upon artificial water-supply, although not entirely on State irrigation works. The water is drawn from the river by two classes of canals—(1) inundation channels, which only fill when the Indus is in flood; and (2) perennial channels, which carry off water by means of dams at all seasons of the year. The former are for the most part 630 A G/C/C U/L 7'UA' E A/V/D PA2O/DUCTS. Irrigation in Sind, in 1877; 1891. Irrigation in Bombay, 1877. the work of ancient rulers of the country, or of the cultivators themselves; the latter have been constructed since the British conquest. In both cases, care has been taken to utilize abandoned beds of the river. Irrigation in Sind is treated as an integral department of the land administration. In 1876–77, about 900,ooo acres were returned as irrigated from works for which capital and revenue accounts are kept. The chief of these are the Ghār, Eastern and Western Nära, Sukkur (Sakhar), Fuleli, and Pinyari Canals; the total receipts were about Rx. 190,000, almost entirely credited under the head of land revenue. In the same year, about 445, Ooo acres were irrigated from works for which revenue accounts only are kept, yielding about Rx. 75,000 in land revenue. The actual area cultivated by means of canal irrigation in Sind, in 1890–91, was 2,014,911 acres, to which must be added 489,572 acres irrigated from other sources, making a total of 2,504,483 acres irrigated out of the 2,884,810 acres cultivated in the Province. The gross revenue from all sources, mainly Collected as land revenue, amounted to Rx. 225,393, and the maintenance charges or working expenses to Rx. 84,887, leaving a nett revenue of Rx. I40,506. The nett actual receipts from productive irrigation works returned 7'18 per cent, and those from Ordinary irrigation works 23:53 per cent. on the capital outlay incurred to the end of the year. Total capital outlay up to the end of 1890–91, Rx. 1, 193,928, of which Rx. 858,875 had been expended on productive works and Rx. 335,053 on Ordinary irrigation works. In the Bombay Presidency, irrigation is conducted on a Comparatively small scale, and mainly by private enterprise. Along the coast of the Konkan, the heavy local rainfall, and the annual flooding of the numerous small creeks, permit rice to be grown without artificial aid. In Gujarát (Guzerāt) the supply is drawn from wells, and in the Deccan from tanks; but both of these are liable to fail in years of deficient rainfall. Government has now undertaken a few comprehensive schemes of irrigation in Bombay, conforming to a common type. The head of a hill valley is dammed up, so as to form an immense reservoir, and the water is then conducted over the fields by channels, in Some cases of considerable length. In 1876–77, the total area in Bombay (excluding Sind) irrigated from Government works was about 180,000 acres, yielding a revenue of about Rx. 42,000. In the same year, the expenditure on irrigation (inclusive of Sind) was Rx. 65,000 under the head of extraordinary, and Rx. 170,000 under the head of ordinary; IRA/GATION IN THE PUN/AA. 63 I total, Rx. 235,000. In 1890–91, the area irrigated by Govern- 1891. ment works in Gujarát and the Deccan amounted to IIo,882 acres, yielding a revenue of Rx. 45, 199, against an expenditure of Rx. 53,077, showing a deficit of Rx. 7878. But it is not to be hastily assumed that irrigation in the Bombay Presidency proper is therefore unprofitable. On the contrary, it is of the nature of famine insurance. When the rainfall is short, the Government works are largely used, and their value to agri- culture in bad seasons compensates for their poor financial returns at other times." Besides these Government works, irrigation is carried on to a much larger extent in Bombay by private individuals from tanks, ponds, and watercourses. The total irrigated area in the Bombay Presidency (excluding Sind) amounted to 782,023 acres, of which, as has been Stated, only IIo,882 were irrigated by Government canals, out of the Cultivated area of 25,032,763 acres. In some parts of the Punjab, irrigation is only one degree Irrigation less necessary than in Sind, but the sources of supply are more º, numerous. In the northern tract, under the Himalayas, and 1873–96: in the upper valleys of the Five Rivers, water can be obtained by digging wells from Io to 30 feet below the surface. In the south, towards Sind, “inundation channels’ are usual. The upland tracts which rise between the basins of the main rivers are now in course of being supplied by the perennial canals of the Government. According to the returns for 1878–79, out 1879; of a grand total of 23,523,504 acres under cultivation, 5,340,724 acres were irrigated by private individuals, and 1,808,005 acres by public ‘channels;” total area under irrigation, 7, 148,729 acres, or 3o per Cent. Of the cultivated area. In I890, out of a total Cultivated area of 21,231,358 acres, 1890. 2,475,741 acres were irrigated by Government canals, 884, Io9 acres by private Canals, and 4, 127,633 from other sources, such as wells and tanks, making a total irrigated area of 7,487,483 acres, or 35 per cent. Of the cultivated area.” The three principal Government works in the Punjab are the Western Jumna Canal, the Bári Doāb Canal, and the Sirhind, The three the main branch of which, and some of its distributaries, were Fº opened in November 1882. Almost all the works included in Canals. the sanctioned project of the Sirhind Canal were practically completed in 1889–90, but some extensions of the original * On this question, see my Bombay, 1885 to 1890: A Study in Indian Administration?, pp. 3O4–3O7. * Punjab Administration A'eport for 1890–91; Statistical Tables, p. cviii. 632 AGRICULTURE AND PRODUCTS. Scheme have been proposed, and are now in progress." An account of each of these works is given in separate articles in The Imperial Gazetteer of India.” Up to the close of 1877–78, the capital outlay on the three great Punjab Canals was Rx. 3,645, 189; the total income in that year was Rx. 263,053, of which Rx. 171,504 was classified as direct, and Rx. 91,549 as indirect; the total revenue charges on works in operation were Rx. 224,316, of which RX. I46,419 was for maintenance, and Rx. 77,897 for interest, thus showing a surplus of Rx. 38,737. On the Western Jumna Canal, taken singly, the nett profit was Rx. 83, II 2 in 1877–78, and Rx. Io9,365 in 1890–91. In 1890–91, the gross revenue from the Punjab Canals, including, besides the three great canals, the Swāt River pro- tective work and the Sutlej and Indus Inundation Canals, amounted to Rx. 686,454, of which the Bárí Doāb Canal contributed RX. 193,604, the Sirhind Canal Rx. 168,522, and the Western Jumna Canal Rx. 162,689. The working ex- penses came to Rx. 302,586, showing a nett revenue of Rx. 383,868, equal to a return of 6 per cent. on the capital expended on the canals already opened. This capital, up to the end of 1890–91, amounted to Rx. 6,372,442. This is exclusive of the Muzaffargarh Inundation Canal, which has no capital account, but which in 1890–91 yielded a return of RX. 39,560, against working expenses Rx. 20, 158, leaving a Surplus over expenditure of Rx. 19,402.8 The capital outlay on the three great Punjab Canals, ex- clusive of contributions by Native States towards the construc- tion of the Sirhind Canal, amounted at the close of 1890–91 to Rx. 5,091,377, being nearly five-sixths of the total capital expended on irrigation works in the Province. Area irrigated from Government canals in 1890–91 :—Sirhind Canal, 6oo, I62 acres; Bārī Doāb Canal, 535,045 acres; Western Jumna Canal, 388,505 acres; Swāt River Canal, 88,875 acres; Chenāb Canal, 52,390 acres; inundation canals, I, I 77,765 acres; total, 2,842,742 acres.* This total exceeds that given before of the acreage of crops raised under irrigation for various reasons, such as the inclusion of the area in the Native Punjab Canal finance, 1890–91. Punjab Canal statistics, I890–91. * Punjab Administration Keport for 1890–91, p. 162. * See articles JUMNA CANAL, Eastern and Western, BARI DOAB CANAL, SIRHIND CANAL, in Zhe Imperial Gazetteer of India. * Punjab Administration Aeport for 1890–91 ; Statistical Tables, pp. cxxii., cxxiii. * Zalem, p. I57. IAEAE/GATION IN THE AW-W. PROV/WCES. 633 State of Jind, which is irrigated by the Western Jumna Canal. The ordinary irrigated area in the Punjab, from Government works as well as by private individuals, may now be taken at about 8 million acres, out of a total cultivated area of over 21 million acres. The North-Western Provinces present, in the great doãº, or Irrigation high land between the Ganges and the Jumna, a continuation "...". of the physical features to be found in the Punjab. The Provinces. local rainfall, indeed, is heavier, but before the days of artificial irrigation almost every drought resulted in a terrible famine. It is in this tract that the British Government has been perhaps most successful in averting such calamities. In Sind, irriga- tion is an absolute necessity; in Lower Bengal, it may be regarded almost as a luxury; in the great river basins of Upper India, it serves the twofold object of averting famines caused by drought; of introducing more valuable crops and higher methods of agriculture. Concerning private irrigation from wells in the North- Western Provinces, details are not available. The great Four great Government works are the Ganges Canal, the Eastern Jumna ãº, Canal, the Agra Canal, and the Lower Ganges Canal. Up to 2 the close of 1890–91, the total outlay upon these four works 1890–91. had been Rx. 7,440,501, of which Rx. 2,855,614 had been expended on the Ganges Canal, and Rx. 3,329,980 on the Lower Ganges Canal. The actual amount spent on them during 1890–91 was Rx. 45,125. The gross income in that year was Rx. 644, 169, of which Rx. 533,472 was derived from water rates, and Rx. I Io,697 was collected with the land revenue ; the working expenses amounted to Rx. 262,805, leaving Rx. 381,364 for Surplus profits, or 5'12 per cent. On the total Capital expended. By far the best financial return is shown by the Eastern Jumna Canal, which earned in 1890–91, after deducting working expenses, no less than 22 per cent. On the capital spent upon it, while the Ganges Canal earned 7'13 per cent., the Agra Canal 3'98 per cent, and the Lower Ganges Canal only 2 per cent. Deducting further simple interest charges on the capital expended on their construction, which amounted for the year 1890–91 to Rx. 277,254, the great works show a clear nett profit of Rx. 104,11o, or 1.4 per Cent. The other canals in the N.-W. Provinces, not classed as productive works, included, in 1890–91, the following—namely, 1 A full account of each of these works will be found under article GANGES CANAL, in my Zmperial Gazetteer, vol. iii. 634 A GA2/C U/CTURE AAWD AEA2O/DUCTS. Minor canals, N.-W. P. the Duin Canals, the Rohilkhand Canals, the Bijnaur Canals, the Bundelkhand irrigation works, and the Betwá Canal, con- structed as a famine insurance work. Total capital expended on all Government canals in the North-Western Provinces up to the end of 1890–91, Rx. 8, IO7,625, namely Rx. 7,440,50 I on the four great canals, Rx. 417,815 on the Betwá Canal, and Rx. 249,309 on the minor works. Of this sum RX. 48,325 was spent during the latter year. With the exception of the Betwā, the construction estimates of all the above canals were finally closed at the end of 1890–91. Other schemes are, however, contemplated, especially in Bundelkhand, and Rx. 28, 12 I has been spent up to the end of 1890–91 on irrigation Surveys in connection with Bundelkhand Irrigation, the Sardá Canal, and the Cawnpur Branch of the Lower Ganges Canal. The gross revenue of the canals in the N.-W. Provinces, including water-rates, increased land revenue due to the canals, and navigation charges, in 1890–91, was Rx. 677,317; the charges against revenue amounted to Rx. 291,932, thus leaving a nett revenue of Rx. 385,385, or over 5 per cent. On the total capital outlay, exclusive of the Betwá Canal.” The total area irrigated by the canals under the direct control of the Irrigation Department in the North-Western Provinces during 1890–91 was 2,014, II4 acres, of which I,464,284 were supplied by the Ganges and Lower Ganges Canals or their branches. This is exclusive of the 104, 135 acres irrigated by the canals under the charge of the Com- missioner of Kumáun. Of the irrigated area, including Kumāun, 763,608 acres were under wheat ; 747,067 acres under other food crops; 226, 175 acres under indigo and other dyes ; 199,248 acres under Sugar-cane, and 70,458 acres under cotton and other fibres.” These figures include the returns for both harvests; the area irrigated from Government canals, including, except in Kumāun, private canals, is elsewhere given as 1,672,380 acres.* Besides the canal irrigation, a vast area in the North-Western Provinces is supplied with water from wells, tanks, and miscellaneous works. The total area ordinarily irrigated in the North-Western Provinces (excluding Oudh) may be estimated at 7 to 8 million acres. It is officially returned for 1890–91 at 7,293,4O4 acres, namely 1,701,254 Total canal revenue in N.-W. P., I890–91. Irrigated area, 1890–91; * Administration Aleport for the AWorth-Western Provinces and Oudh for 1890–91, p. 129. - * /dem, Appendices, pp. IO6-IIO. * /aem, Appendices, p. 105. * A'eturns of the Agricultural Statistics of British Zºdia and the AVative State of A/ysore, p. 4. //PAC/GA T/OAV: O Ú/)/7, BAEAVGAZ. 635 acres irrigated by canals, government and private, 3,652,826 acres Supplied by wells, and 1,939,324 from tanks and other sources." The total area irrigated during 1882–83 was Irrigated 1,974, 175 acres, of which 1,462,023 were supplied by the #. Ganges and Lower Ganges Canals or their branches. Of the irrigated area, 728,385 acres were under wheat; 662,693 acres under other food crops; 316, 145 acres under indigo ; I98,322 acres under sugar-cane, and 52,493 acres under Cotton. These figures show an increase in the area irrigated by Govern- ment canals of 39,939 acres during the period from 1883 to 1891, notably an increase of 35,223 acres in wheat, and of I7,965 acres in cotton, and a decrease of at least 89,970 acres in indigo. - No irrigation works have yet been introduced into Oudh by Irrigation Government. A fair local rainfall, the annual overflow of the " Oudh. rivers, and an abundance of low-lying Swamps, combine to furnish a water-supply which is ample in all ordinary years. According to the Settlement returns, out of a total cultivated area of 8,875, 122 acres, 2,607,849 acres, or 29 per cent., were irrigated by private individuals in 1890–91. This total is made up of 1,371,450 acres supplied by tanks, I, 159,760 acres by wells, and 76,639 acres by other sources.” Throughout the greater part of Bengal Proper there is Irrigation Scarcely any demand for artificial irrigation, but Government nº has undertaken to construct works in those exceptional tracts where experience has shown that drought or famine is to be feared. In the broad valleys of the Ganges and the Brahma- putra, and along the deltaic seaboard, flood is a more frequent Calamity than drought; and embankments here take the place of canals. The Public Works Department in Lower Bengal has over 2000 miles of embankments under its charge, upon Embank- which Rx. 75,673 was expended in 1890–91, either as direct ". outlay or in advances to landowners. The wide expanse of Northern Bengal and Behar, stretching from the Himalayas to the Ganges, is also rarely visited by drought ; although, when drought does come, the excessive density of the population brings the danger of famine very near. In Sáran District it has been found necessary to carry out a scheme for utilizing the discharge of the river Gandak. The great irrigation works in Lower Bengal are two in The Orissa number, and belong to two different types:–(1) In the delta “* * A'eturns of the Agricultural Statistics of British India and the Native State of Mysore, p. 4. Zdent, p. 4. 636 A GAC/CUZZ'URAE AAV/D AA’O/DUCTS. of Orissa, an extensive system of canals has been constructed on the pattern of those lower down the Coromandel coast. They store up the water by means of a weir or anicut thrown across the Mahánadí river." The Orissa works are intended to avert the danger of both drought and flood, and also to be useful for navigation. In average seasons, i.e. in five years out of six, the local rainfall is sufficient for the rice crop, which is here the sole staple of cultivation ; and therefore it is not to be expected that these canals will be directly or largely re- munerative. But, on the other hand, if they save the Province from a repetition of the disastrous year 1865–66, the money will not have been expended in vain. A canal, originally designed as a branch of the Orissa works, runs through Mid- napur District and debouches on the Hügli. (2) In South Behar, the flood discharge of the Son has been intercepted, after the system of engineering followed in the North-West, so as to irrigate the thirsty strip of land along the south bank of the Ganges, where distress has often been severely felt.” In this case, also, the expenditure must be regarded rather as an insurance fund against famine than as reproductive outlay. The works are not yet complete, but the experience already gained proves that irrigation is wanted even in ordinary seasons. By the end of 1890–91, the total direct capital outlay (ex- cluding interest) on State navigation and irrigation canals in Bengal was Rx. 7,080,561; the gross income for the year was Rx. 218,232 (including the Calcutta Canals and Nadiyā river works, for which capital and revenue accounts are not kept), and the working expenses Rx. 267, I35, showing a deficit of Rx. 48,903. Adding to this the amount of interest on capital, which in 1890–91 amounted to Rx. 238,711, calculated at 4 per cent., the total nett deficit for the year amounted to Rx. 287,614. The four chief navigation and irrigation canals, however, showed a deficit (excluding interest) of only Rx. 454 of revenue over working expenses. The great deficit of current expenditure over current revenue occurred in the Orissa coast canals, embankments, drainage works, etc.” The area irrigated from Government canals in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal is about 450,000 acres. Including private works, about 1 million acres out of a total estimated area of 544 million acres under cultivation, are irrigated in Lower Bengal. The Son Canals. Irrigation in Bengal, I890–91. 1 See article MAHANADI, The Imperial Gazetteer. * See article SON CANALS, Zhe Zmperial Gazetteer. * Bengal Administration Aeport for 1890–91, pp. 202–2 off. J/0/C/GA 7TWO.M. MAZDA2A S. 637 In the Madras Presidency, and generally throughout Southern India, facilities for irrigation assume a decisive importance in determining the character of agriculture. Crops dependent on the rainfall are distinguished as “dry crops,’ comprehend- ing the large class of millets. Rice is grown on ‘wet land,’ which means land capable of being irrigated. Except on the Malabar or western coast, the local rainfall is nowhere sufficiently ample, or sufficiently steady, to secure an adequate water-supply. Everywhere else, water has to be brought to the fields from rivers, from tanks, or from wells. Of the total cultivated area of Madras, 17 per cent. was returned by the Famine Commissioners in 1878 as assessed as ‘wet land; ’ or 5% millions of acres out of an estimated cultivated area of 32 millions. But the actual irrigated area from all sources, including tanks and wells, was returned by the Famine Com- missioners at about 7 millions of acres. From time immemorial, the industrious population of the Madras Districts has made use of all the means available to store up the rainfall, and direct the river floods over their fields. The upland areas are studded with tanks, which sometimes cover square miles of ground ; the rivers are crossed by innumerable anicuts or dams, by which the floods are diverted into long aqueducts. Most of these works are now the property of Government, which annually expends large sums of money in maintenance and repairs, looking for remuneration only to the augmented land revenue. The average rate of assessment is about 5 rupees per acre on irri- gated land, as compared with the general rate of Rs. 1. I2. 9 per acre on the whole cultivated area. It is therefore not only the duty, but the manifest advantage, of Government to extend the facilities for irrigation in Madras wherever the physical aspect of the country will permit. The deltas of the Godāvari, the Kistna, and the Kāveri (Cauvery), have within recent years been traversed by a network of canals, and thus guaranteed against risk of famine." Smaller works of a similar nature have been carried out in other places; while a private company, with a Government guarantee, has undertaken the more difficult task of utilizing on a grand scale the waters of the Tungabhadra” amid the hills and vales of the interior. The assessed irrigated area in the Presidency, of 5% million acres, yielded in 1878 a land revenue of Rx. 2,000,ooo. Of this total, 1,680, 178 acres, with a revenue 9 : Irrigation in Madras. “Dry’ and ‘wet’ land. Petty native works. Irrigation works in the Madras deltas. * See article GODAVARI RIVER, The Imperial Gazetteer. * See article TUNGABHADRA, Zhe Imperial Gazetteer. 1878. 638 A GA2/C UZZ'UA' A' AAW/O AEA’O/O ÚCTS. Madras irrigation works, I890–91. Madras irrigation finance, 1890–91. of Rx. 739,778, were irrigated in 1878 by eight great systems, for which revenue and capital accounts were kept. The minor works consisted of about 35,000 tanks and irrigation Canals, and about I 140 anicuts or dams' across streams. The whole area under irrigation from public and private Sources in Madras was in 1878, as already stated, about 7 million acres, out of a total cultivated area of 32 million a CICS. In 1890–91, the Madras irrigation scheme included seven main systems, classified as productive public works; namely, the Godávari delta system, the Kistna delta system, the Penner (Ponnaiyār) anicut system, the Sangam anicut system, the Karnlil - Cuddapah canal (purchased from the Madras Irrigation Company in July 1882), the Kāveri delta system, and Srivaikuntham anicut system. An account of each of these works separately will be found in The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Irrigation and navigation works, not classified as productive, include those known as the Chedambaram tank System, the Pálár anicut system, the Pelandorai anicut system, the Madras water-supply and irrigation extension project, and the Buckingham Canal. There are also a number of minor irrigation and protective works, for which neither capital nor revenue accounts are kept. The area irrigated by productive public works in Madras in 1890–91 was 2,346,732 acres; and that by all other Government irrigation works, 3,167,452 acres making a total of 5,514, 184 acres. The acquisition of the Karntil-Cuddapah Canal during 1882 materially raised the outlay invested in productive public works, and greatly reduced the returns yielded in former years by this class of works in Madras. The total capital outlay, direct and indirect, incurred on the seven productive public works up to the end of 1890–91, amounted to Rx. 5,627,326. The gross revenue, including share of enhanced land revenue, in the latter year amounted to Rx. 820, 168; the working expenses and collection charges in the Civil Department came to Rx. IQ5,804, leaving a nett revenue of Rx. 624,364. From this sum, moreover, must be deducted the old irrigation revenue minus old maintenance charges to obtain the real financial result of the expenditure of the British Government. This came to Rx. 251,925 for 1890–91, leaving a true nett revenue of Rx. 372,439, equal to 6-61 per cent. On the total capital outlay up to the end of the year. If, however, the purchase money for the Karntil-Cuddapah Canal be excluded from the account, the nett returns would be I I-8 per cent. on the ZRAE/GATION IV M/NOR PROVINCES. 639 Capital outlay." With regard to irrigation and navigation Canals not classified as productive, for which capital and revenue accounts are kept, the capital outlay, direct and indirect, incurred up to the end of 1890–91, amounted to RX, I,405,531. The gross revenue during 1890–91, including share of land revenue debitable to these works, was Rx. 131,923; the expenditure was Rx, 46,535, the amount due to old irriga- tion, Rx. 56,486, leaving a nett revenue of Rx. 28,902, equal to 2 per cent, on the total capital Outlay.” In Mysore, tanks, anicuts, and wells dug in the dry beds of Irrigation rivers afford the means of irrigation. Since the late disastrous "**** famine of 1876–78, comprehensive schemes of throwing em- bankments across river valleys have been undertaken by Government. The whole area under irrigation from public and private sources in Mysore in 1890–91 was 912,408 acres, out of a total cultivated area of 5,353, 157 acres.” In the Central Provinces, irrigation still remains a private In Central enterprise. According to the Settlement returns, out of a total Provinces ; cultivated area of 15,587,566 acres, 706,058 acres, or 4.5 per cent., are irrigated by private individuals. The only Govern- ment work is a tank in the District of Nimár. In Lower Burma, as in Lower Bengal, embankments take In Burma. the place of canals, and are classed as “irrigation works’ in the reports. Within the last few years, Government has spent large sums in Lower Burma under this heading, to save the low rice-fields along the Irawadi from destructive inundation. The amount expended in 1890–91 was Rx. 39,712. In Upper Burma there are several large irrigation works, most of which are at present damaged and in need of repairs. The most important of these works are the Kyaukse Irrigation System, the Minbu Irrigation System, the Nyaungyan and Minhla tanks in Yamethin District, the Mu Canal in Shwebo District, and the Madaya Canal in Mandalay District. Now that the country is settling down, projects for improving and restoring all these works are now under preparation.* The foregoing paragraphs have given the Provincial statistics Statistics of irrigation, so far as available. The differences in the local ºritish systems, and the variety of sources from which the outlay on 1363 to irrigation works is derived, render a single generalized state-1891. * Madras Administration Aleport for 1890–91, pp. 106, Ioz. * /dem, pp. II6, II 7. * Returns of the Agricultural Statistics of British India and the AVative State of Mysore, p. 39. r * Burma Administration A'effort for 1890–91, p. 67. 640 A GAC/CUZTURE AAWD ARO/DUCTS. ment for all India misleading. Apart from private irrigation works, and certain classes of Government works, the capital expended by the Government on irrigation was returned at Rx. 19 millions during the sixteen years ending 1882–83. Including Rx. 13 million expended on the Madras Irrigation Company's works (taken over by Government), the total outlay would amount to nearly Rx. 21 millions during the same period. During the eight years from 1882–83 to 1890–91, no less than Rx. 19,502,609, chargeable to revenue, has been spent on irrigation, showing an average of RX. 2,437,826 a year. The actual amount expended under this head in 1890–91 was Rx. 2,742,128, of which RX, I,224,448 was chargeable to Imperial, Rx. 1,509,546 to Provincial, and Rx. 8224 to Local Funds." This statement, although it alto- gether fails to disclose the whole expenditure on Indian irriga- tion, suffices to show the magnitude of the operations involved. The following table shows the extent of cultivation and the average area ordinarily irrigated in the Provinces for which the facts can be obtained. They were specially collected by the Indian Famine Commission, and published in its Report of 1880. But they must be taken as only approximate estimates. They differ from data obtained from other sources; as may be seen by comparing the figures in this table with the later ones for 1890–91 given in the table on the next page:– ORDINARY AREA OF CULTIVATION AND OF IRRIGATION IN CERTAIN PROVINCEs, AS ESTIMATED IN 1880. sº º gº & Perce PROVINCE. Area ordinarily Area ordinarily ;g ºf cultivated. irrigated. cultivation. Acres. Acres. Punjab, e e . 2I, OOO,OOO 5,500, OOO 26°2 N.-W. Provinces and Oudh, 36,000,000 | 11,500,000 32'O Bengal, . g e • 54,500, OOO I, OOO,OOO I '8 Central Provinces, . • I5,500, OOO 77O,OOO 5'O Berár, tº e e g 6,500,000 IOO,OOO I'5 Bombay, . º * • 24,500,000 450,000 I '8 Sind, . e tº e º 2,250,000 I,8OO,OOO 8O'O Madras, . g {} . 32, OOO,OOO 7,300,000 23'O Mysore, . ſº tº e 5,000, OOO 800,000 I6'O Total for the Provinces for which the facts X | 197,250,000 || 29,220,000 I4'8 were ascertained, * Statistical Abstract zelating to British India from 1881–82 to 1890–91, p. I23. JD/STRIBUTION OF /RAE/GATIOAV. 641 With the above table may be compared the following figures giving, from a Government return, the areas cultivated and irrigated in 1890–91. These figures do not exactly correspond with the irrigation statistics in all the foregoing Provincial paragraphs, for they only give the actual irrigated area, whereas the latter sometimes include the results of crops gathered at both the Indian harvests. Percentage of PROVINCE. Area cultivated, Area irrigated, irrigation to I890-91. 1890–91. cultivation, I890–91. Acres. Acres. Punjab, º tº e . 20,854,092 7,461,530 35'7 North-Western Provinces, . 25,266,549 7,293, 4O4. 28:8 Oudh, e 8,875, I22 2,607,849 29'3 Central Provinces, I5,587,566 706, os8 4'5 Upper Burma, 2,848,884 517,339 I8' I Berár, º 6,697,281 38,846 ‘5 Ajmere-Merwärá, 217,228 70,398 32°4 Bombay, 25,032,763 782,023 3' I Sind, 2,884,810 2,504,483 86-8 Madras, 23,702,280 6,321,2O7 26'6 Mysore, 5,353, I57 9I2,408 17°o *...***{|13,31973, 29.2issis ava It will be seen from the preceding tables that irrigation is Distribu- most resorted to in the Provinces with the scantiest or most tº ºf - e e - - irrigation precarious rainfall. In Sind, tillage depends almost entirely over India: on an artificial water-supply; and four-fifths of the cultivated Sind; area are ascertained to be irrigated. In Northern India, the Northern deficient rainfall of the Punjab and the high-lying dodós, or India; intermediate river-plains of the North-Western Provinces, also demands a large measure of irrigation. The irrigated area, accordingly, amounts to from over one-fourth to one-third of the whole cultivation. In Madras, it is over one-fourth; in Southern Mysore, it is one-sixth ; in the Central Provinces, it is one- India ; twentieth. But the dry uplands of Bombay, the Central Central Provinces, and Berár, where the proportion of irrigated lands” sinks to about one-half per cent, undoubtedly require a larger artificial water-supply than they possess at present. The black soil of these tracts, however, is very retentive of moisture. To a certain extent it stores up and husbands the rainfall. It thus lessens the necessity for irrigation. In Bengal, where the Lower Bengal. * Atefeerzz of Agricultzeral Statistics of British Zzadła azed Mysore, pp. 4, 5. g 2 S 642 A GAC/CUZZ'UA' A' AAV/O PRO/DUCTS. Famines. Natural calamities. Causes of Scarcity; irrigated area is only I-8 per cent of the cultivated area, the abundant rainfall and the inundations of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Mahánadi, and of the river-systems Con- nected with these main arteries, take the place of canals or an artificial water-supply. FAMINES.–In any country where the population is dense and the means of communication backward, the failure of a harvest, whether produced by drought, by flood, by blight, by locusts, or by war, causes intense distress. Whether such distress shall develop into famine is merely a matter of degree, depending upon a combination of circumstances—the Com- parative extent of the failure, the density of the population, the practicability of imports, the facilities for transport, the resources of private trade, and the energy of the administration. Drought, or a failure of the regular rainfall, is the great cause of famine. No individual foresight, no compensating influences, can prevent those recurring periods of continuous drought with which large Provinces of India are afflicted. Even an average rainfall in any one year, if irregularly dis- tributed, or at the wrong seasons, may affect the harvest to a moderate degree; so also may flood or blight. The total failure of one monsoon may result in a general scarcity. But and of real famine proper, or widespread starvation, is usually caused by a famine. Water Supply. succession of seasons of drought. The cultivators of India are Seldom dependent upon a single harvest, or upon the Crops of one year. In the event of a partial failure, they can draw for their food-supply either upon their own grain-pits or upon the stores of the village merchants. The first sufferers, and those who also suffer most in the end, are the class who live by daily wages. But small is the number that can hold out, either in capital or credit, against a second year of insufficient rainfall; and even the third season sometimes proves adverse. The great famines in India have been caused by drought, and usually by drought continued over two or three years. It becomes necessary to inquire into the means of husband- ing the water-supply. That supply can be derived only from three sources—(1) Local rainfall; (2) natural inundation; and (3) artificial irrigation from rivers, canals, tanks, or wells. Any of these sources may exist separately or together. In only a few parts of India can the rainfall be entirely trusted, as both sufficient in its amount and regular in its distribution. These favoured tracts include the whole strip of coast beneath the Western Ghâts, from Bombay to Cape Comorin; the ZZV/D/AAW FAA//AWAE.S. 643 greater part of the Provinces of Assam and Burma; together Favoured with the deltaic districts at the head of the Bay of Bengal. In Provinces. these Provinces the annual rainfall rarely, if ever, falls below 6o to Too inches; artificial irrigation and famine are there alike unknown. - The rest of the Indian peninsula may be described as The irriga. liable, more or less, to drought. In Orissa, the scene of the º: most intense famine of recent times, the average rainfall g exceeds 6o inches a year; in Sind, which has been excep- tionally free from famine under British rule, the average drops to less than 10 inches. The local rainfall, therefore, is not the only element to be considered. Broadly speaking, artificial irrigation has protected, or is now in course of protecting, certain fortunate regions, such as the eastward deltas of the Madras rivers and the upper valley of the Ganges. The rest, and by far the greater portion, of the country is still exposed to famine. Meteorological science may possibly teach us to foresee what is coming." But it may be doubted whether administrative efforts can do more than alleviate the calamity when once famine has declared itself. Lower Bengal and Oudh are watered by natural inundation as much as by the local rainfall; Sind derives its supplies mainly from canals filled by the floods of the Indus; the Punjab and the North- Western Provinces are dependent largely upon wells; the Deccan, with the entire south, is the land of tanks and reser- voirs. But in all these Provinces, when the rainfall has failed over a series of years, the canal supply must likewise fail after no long interval. Waterworks on a scale adequate to guarantee the whole of India from drought not only exceed the possi- bilities of finance; they are also beyond the reach of engineering skill. The first great famine of which we have any trustworthy Summary record is that which devastated the lower valley of the Ganges º in 1769–70. One-third of the population of Bengal is credibly 1770-1878: reported to have perished. The previous season had been bad; and, as not uncommonly happens, the break-up of the 1769–70. drought was accompanied by disastrous floods. Beyond the importation into Calcutta and Murshidābād of a few thousand hundredweights of rice from the Districts of Bákarganj and Chittagong, it does not appear that any public measures for relief were taken or proposed.” - - * See the chapter on Indian Meteorology at the end of this volume. * A full account of the famine of 1769–70 is given in Hunter’s Anitals of *** * 644 AGRICULTURE AND PRODUCTS. Famines of I780–83; I790-92; 1838. Famines of I861 and of I866. Famine of I873-74. The next great famine was that which afflicted the Karnātik from 1780 to 1783, and has been immortalized by the genius of Burke. It arose primarily from the ravages of Haidar Alf’s army. A public subscription was organized by the Madras Government, from which sprang the ‘Monegar Choultry,” a permanent Madras institution for the relief of the native poor. In 1783–84, Hindustán Proper suffered from a prolonged drought, which stopped short at the frontier of British territory. Warren Hastings, then Governor-General, advocated the con- struction of enormous granaries, to be opened only in times of necessity. One of these granaries, or golás, stands to the present day in the city of Patná, but it was never used until the scarcity of 1874. In 1790–92, Madras was again the scene of a two-years' famine, which is memorable as being the first occasion on which the starving people were employed by Government on relief works. Famines again occurred in Southern India in 1802–4, 1807, 1812, 1824, 1833, 1854, and 1866. A terrible dearth in 1838 caused great mortality in the North-Western Provinces. But so little was done by the State in these calamities, that few administrative lessons can be learned from them. In 1860–61, however, a serious attempt was made to alleviate an exceptional distress in the North-Western Provinces. About half a million persons are estimated to have been relieved, at an expenditure by Government of about Rx. 750,000. Again, in 1865–66, which will ever be known as the year of the Orissa famine, the Government attempted to organize relief works and to distribute charitable funds. But on neither of these occasions can it be said that its efforts were successful. In Orissa, especially, the admitted loss of one-fourth of the population proves the danger to which an isolated Province is exposed. The people of Orissa died because they had no surplus stocks of grain of their own; and because importation, on an adequate scale, was physically impossible by Sea or land. Passing over the prolonged drought of 1868–70 in the North-Western Provinces and Rájputéna, we come to the Behar scarcity of 1873–74, which first attracted the interest of England. Warned by the failure of the rains, and watched and stimulated by the excited sympathy of the public in England, the Government carried out a costly but comprehensive scheme Rural Bengal, pp. 19–55 (5th ed.). The official record of this and the subsequent famines will be found in the A’eport of the Zndian Famine Commission, presented to Parliament 1880, part i., paras. 62–84. AAM/AWE OF 1876–78. 645 of relief. By the expenditure of Rx. 64 millions, and the importation of 1 million tons of rice, all loss of life was pre- vented. The comparatively small area of distress, and the facilities of communication by rail and river, allowed of the accomplishment of this feat, which remains unparalleled in the annals of Indian famine. The famine of 1876–78 is the widest spread and the most Famine of prolonged that India has experienced. The drought com- 1876–78. menced in Mysore by the failure of the monsoon in 1875; and the fear of distress in the North-Western Provinces did not pass away until 1879. But it will be known in history as the great famine of Southern India. Over the entire Deccan, from Poona to Bangalore, the south-west monsoon failed to bring its usual rainfall in the summer of 1876. In the autumn Failure of of the same year, the north-east monsoon proved deficient in * *7% the south-eastern Districts of the Madras Presidency. The main food crop perished throughout an immense tract of Country; and, as the harvest of 1875 had also been short, prices rapidly rose to famine rates. In November 1876, starvation was already at work, and Government adopted measures to keep the people alive. The next eighteen months, until the middle of 1878, were devoted to one long Campaign against famine. The Summer monsoon of 1877 Failure of proved a failure; some relief was brought in October of that rain, 1877. year by the autumn monsoon ; but all anxiety was not removed until the arrival of a normal rainfall in June 1878. Meanwhile the drought had reached Northern India, where Scarcity in it found the stocks of grain already drained to meet the famine Nºm in the South. Bengal, Assam, and Burma were the only 1377-78. Provinces which escaped in that disastrous year. The North- Western Provinces, the Punjab, Rájputéna, and the Central Provinces suffered from drought throughout the summer of 1877, and, from its consequences, far into the following year. When once famine gets ahead of relief operations, the flood Famine in of distress bursts its embankments, and the people simply the South. perish. Starvation and the long attendant train of famine- diseases sweep away their hundreds of thousands. In 1876–78, the importation of grain was left free, and within twelve months 268,000 tons were brought by land, and 166,000 tons by sea, into the distressed Districts of Southern India. The total expenditure of Government upon famine relief Famine in 1876–78 may be estimated at Rx. II millions, not includ- sº ing the indirect loss of revenue, nor the amount debited 1876–78. against the State of Mysore. For this large sum of money 646 A GA2/CUZTUA2A2 AAV/D PRO/DUCTS. Cholera. Decrease of birth- rate, 1877–78. Total deaths from famine of 1876–78. Famine a weak check on popula- tion. there is but little to show in the shape of works constructed. The largest number of persons in receipt of relief at one time in Madras was 2,591,900 in September 1877; of these only 634,581 were nominally employed on works, while the rest were gratuitously fed. From cholera alone, the deaths were returned at 357,430 for Madras, 58,648 for Mysore, and 57,252 for Bombay. Dr. Cornish, the Sanitary Commissioner of Madras, well illustrated the effects of the famine by the returns of births and deaths over a series of years. In 1876, when famine, with its companion cholera, was already begin- ning to be felt, the births registered in Madras numbered 632, I 13, and the deaths 680,381. In 1877, the year of famine, the births fell to 477,447, while the deaths rose to I,556,312. In 1878, the results of the famine showed them- selves by a still further reduction of the births to 348,346, and by the still high number of 810,921 deaths. In 1879, the births recovered to 476,307, still below the average, and the deaths diminished to 548, 158. These figures are only approximate, but they serve to show how long the results of famine are to be traced in the vital statistics of a people. With regard to the deaths, the Famine Commissioners thus reported : ‘It has been estimated, and in our opinion on Sub- stantial grounds, that the mortality which occurred in the Provinces under British administration during the period of famine and drought extending over the years 1877 and 1878 amounted, on a population of 197 millions, to 5% millions in excess of the deaths that would have occurred had the seasons been ordinarily healthy; and the statistical returns have made certain what has long been suspected, that starvation and distress greatly check the fecundity of the population. It is probable that from this cause the number of births during the same period has been lessened by 2 millions; the total reduction of the population would thus amount to about 7 millions. Assuming the ordinary death-roll, taken at the rate of 35 per thousand, on 190 millions of people, the abnormal mortality of the famine period may be regarded as having increased the total death-rate by about 40 per cent.’ But when estimated over a period of years, the effect of famine as a check upon the population is small. The Famine Commissioners calculated that, taking the famines of the thirty years before their inquiry, as to which alone an estimate of any value could be made, the abnormal deaths caused by famine and its diseases have been less than 2 per thousand of the Indian population per annum. As a matter of fact, cultivation AAMINE OF 1876–78 SUMMARIZED. 647 quickly extended after the famine of 1876–78, and there were in Bombay and Madras I 20, ooo more acres under tillage shortly after the long protracted scarcity than before it. The famine of 1876–78 affected, directly, a population of Famine of 58% million persons, and an area of 257,300 square miles. º The average number daily employed by the State on relief rized. works was 877,024. The average number of persons daily in receipt of gratuitous State relief was 446,641, besides private charities. Land revenue was remitted to close on Rx. 2 millions. The famine lasted from 12 months in the North- Western Provinces, to 22 months in Madras. Its total cost, including both outlay and loss of revenue, is officially returned at Rx. I I, 194,320.* A Commission was appointed to inquire into the causes of famine in India, and the means of averting or alleviating those calamities. Its report, presented to both Houses of Parliament in 1880, is replete with carefully collated facts regarding the past, and with wise suggestions for the future. During the years which have elapsed since the great calamity of 1878, there has been no scarcity in India suffi- ciently intense or widespread to deserve the name of famine. Almost every season has brought a partial failure of the rains in one Province or another. But improved means of Com- munication, and prompt measures for dealing with the distress, have prevented local scarcity from developing in any year into general famine. * Report of the Indian Famine Commission, part i., p. 24 (1880). [ 648 | Internal COmrūlli) is cations. Indian railways. Their history, 1843–71. Lord Dal- housie's trunk lines, 1853. Lord Mayo's branch lines, 1870. CHAPTER XVIII. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. THE means of communication in India may be classified under four headings—(1) railways, (2) roads, (3) rivers, and (4) canals. The existing system of railway communication in India dates from the administration of Lord Dalhousie. The first Indian line of rail was projected in 1843 by Sir Macdonald Stephenson, who was afterwards active in forming the East, Indian Railway Company. But this scheme was blighted by the financial panic that followed soon afterwards in England. Bombay, the city which has most benefited by railway enter- prise, saw the first sod turned in 1850, and the first line of a few miles opened as far as Thána in 1853. The elaborate minute, drawn up by Lord Dalhousie in the latter year, Sub- stantially represents the railway map of India at the present day, although filled in by Lord Mayo's extensions of 1869 and by subsequent lines. Lord Dalhousie's scheme consisted of well-chosen trunk lines, traversing the length and breadth of the peninsula, and Connecting all the great cities and military cantonments. These trunk lines were to be constructed by private companies, to whom Government should guarantee a minimum of 5 per cent. interest on their capital expended, and from whom it should demand in return a certain measure of subordination. The system thus sketched out was promptly carried into execution, and by 1871 Bombay was put into direct railway communication with the sister Presidencies of Calcutta and Madras. The task remaining for Lord Mayo in 1870 was the development of traffic by means of feeders, which should tap the districts of production, and thus open up the entire country. This task he initiated by the construction of minor State lines on a narrower gauge, and therefore at a cheaper rate, than the existing guaranteed railways. The railways of India are now divided into four classes. C/CASS/ES OF WAV/D/AAV ACA/Z, WA. V.S. 649 In the first place, there are the railways constructed by Four guaranteed companies, for the most part between 1855 and ; of 1875. These guaranteed railways, as a rule, follow the main lines, lines of natural communication, and satisfy the first necessities “Guaran- of national life, both commercial and political. In the second ... * c e ways. place, there is a system of branch State lines, constructed during the last fifteen years, and some of them destined to yield fruit only in the future. The third class comprises rail- ways worked by private companies under a system of Govern- ment concessions. The fourth class are railways within Native States. Each of these classes of railways has been constructed on a The four different system in regard to the method by which the capital ** was raised. The four systems may be briefly, although not adequately, described as follows. The guaranteed lines were (1) Guar- Constructed by Companies formed in England, who raised their º capital from their own shareholders under a guaranteed interest 5 of 5 per cent. from the Government of India. Profits in excess of 5 per cent, were to be shared between the Government and the Company, but the Government reserved the right of buying up the lines at their market value after certain terms of years. The construction of guaranteed railways was carried out by the Company’s staff under the supervision of Government. The State railways were constructed from capital raised by (2) State the Government direct; and they were executed by engineers ** in Government employ. The assisted railway companies (3) “As are a more recent development. They raise their capital under sisted ; a guarantee of a low interest from Government, with free grants of land, or other concessions. The guarantee is usually for a limited period; but, as presently explained, different arrange- ments are made in each case. The Native State lines are constructed from capital found (4) Native by the individual State. The execution and management of iny. these lines have, as a rule, been conducted by a staff employed by the Government of India, or by the trunk railway Companies to which they serve as feeders. The guaranteed lines have been nearly all taken over by Guaran- the Government, but are still worked by the companies which ** originally constructed them. The East Indian was transferred to Government on 1st January 1880; the Eastern Bengal Rail- way, in 1883; the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway, in 1886; the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, in 1888; and the South Indian Railway, in 1890. The lines constructed under the 650 MEAAVS OA’ COMM UAV/CATIOM, The eight great lines guaran- teed. guaranteed system comprise the following:—(1) The East Indian, running up the valley of the Ganges from Calcutta (Howrah) as far as Delhi, with a branch to Jabalpur. (2) The Eastern Bengal Railway, traversing the richest portion of the Gangetic valley, and now united with the Northern Bengal State Railway. (3) The Great Indian Peninsula, which starts from Bombay, and sends one arm north-east to Jabalpur, with a branch to Nāgpur, and another south-east to Ráichtir on the Madras Railway. (4) The Madras line, with its terminus at Madras city, and two arms running respectively to the Great Indian Peninsula junction at Ráichtir and to Calicut on the opposite coast, with a branch to Bangalore. (5) The Oudh and Rohilkhand, with its numerous branches, connecting Luck- now with Cawnpur, Benares, Aligarh, Moradábád, Bareilly, Saháranpur, and Hardwar. (6) The Bombay, Baroda, and Central India, which runs due north from Bombay through the fertile plain of Gujarát, to Ahmadābād, where it joins the Rájputóna-Málwā State Railway, and ultimately connects with the East India and Sind, Punjab, and Delhi systems at Delhi and at Agra. (7) The North-Western Railway, including the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi guaranteed line taken over by the State in 1886, connecting Delhi with Peshāwar, and Karáchi' The State railways. with Lahore and Delhi. (8) The South Indian (the only guaranteed line on the narrow gauge), in the extreme south, from Tuticorin to Madras city, with branches to Arconum, Erode, Negapatam, Tinnevelli, and Pondicherri. The State lines are too numerous to be individually described. They include the extension from Lahore to Peshāwar on the North-West Frontier, and the other lines in that quarter, which with the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway now form the North-Western State Railway; the Sind-Pishin Railway, with the Quetta loop, beyond the Indus; the Rájputóna-Mälwā State Railway connecting Ahmadābād with Delhi, Agra, Cawnpur, and Khándwā; and the Northern Bengal State Railway, now united with the Eastern Bengal Railway. The last-named line starts from Sára-ghat opposite the Damukdiha station of the Eastern Bengal Railway, whence it runs northward to the foot of the Himalayas. A small 2 feet gauge railway is thence carried up to the sanatorium of Dárjiling, now within twenty-four hours' journey of Calcutta. Among other State lines, the following may be specified. The Tirhiit State Railway with its various branches intersects Northern Behar, and is intended to extend to the Nepāl frontier on one side, and to Assam on the other. The Dacca ASS/STE/D ACA/Z WA Y.S. 65 I and Maimansingh Railway is worked in connection with the Eastern Bengal Railway; and the Bengal-Nāgpur Railway passes through the great wheat-growing Districts of the Central Provinces, and meets the Great Indian Peninsula line from Bombay via Bhusáwal at Nágpur. Shorter State lines or branches from the trunk railways are numerous. In Burma, a State line runs up the Irawadi valley from Rangoon to Prome, and another from Rangoon to Taung-ngu with an extension from Taung-ngu to Mandalay. A third line is under construction (1893) on the right bank of the Irawadi from Sagaing to Mohaung, with branches from Manle to Bhamo, and on the left bank of the river from a point opposite Sagaing to Myohaung on the Taung-ngu-Mandalay line. . Of the lines constructed by assisted railway companies, of Assisted which the first four have been taken over by the State, but "* are worked by the companies which constructed them, the principal are the Bengal and North-Western, running from the Sonpur station of the East Indian Railway through Oudh to Naipalganj on the borders of Nepāl; the Bengal Central line from Calcutta to Khülná, bordering on the Sundarbans; the Southern Maráthá Railway in the Deccan, which runs from the Portuguese frontier near Dhārwär to the Kistna river opposite Bezwäda in the Madras Presidency, with branches to Poona, Bijápur, and Harihar; the Rohilkhand and Kumāun line ; the Delhi, Ambála, and Kálka Railway; the Assam line to the recently-opened coal measures in Lakhimpur District ; the little 2 feet gauge Dârjiling-Himalayan Railway (above mentioned); two short lines from the East Indian Railway to the shrine of Tarakeswar in Hüglí District, and to Deogarh in the Santál Parganás, which are annually resorted to by large numbers of pilgrims from all parts of India. Other lines belonging to the assisted class are projected or have com- menced Construction. The Nagpur-Bengal line, which con- nects the Chhatisgarh wheat plateau with the Hügli river, and thus completes an almost straight line of communication between Calcutta and Bombay, was made upon this system. The Indian Midland Railway, which runs from Bhopāl wiá Jhānsi and Gwalior to Agra, with branches from Jhānsi to Mánikpur on the East Indian Railway and to Cawnpur, was also made on the assisted system ; as well as other lines belonging to the inner circle of communication in the interior of India. The principle adopted in the assisted system is for 652 MAEAAWS OF COMMUAV/CATVOAV. The ‘assisted’ system. Native railways. Railway Statistics, 1878 and 1891: 1878. Government to guarantee a low rate of interest, or to give a guarantee for a limited period. The Company has therefore the keenest inducement to make the railway pay, as its profits, above the low guaranteed rate, depend on its own exertions, and on the economical working of the line. The Government recoups itself for the money advanced under the low guarantee before the line has begun to pay, by taking a share of the profits of the line when they exceed the guaranteed interest. This is the general principle of the assisted railways in India. But it is worked out differently in the case of almost every separate line; especially as regards the rate of interest guaran- teed, and the duration or limits of the guarantee. Besides these there were on 31st December 1891, 1435% miles of railway opened in Native States, which have been constructed at the expense of the chiefs. The principal of these are the Gáekwár of Baroda’s Railways, the Bhaunagar- Gondal-Porbandar Railway, and the Morvi Railway in Western India, the Bhopal-Itársi line in Central India, the Jodhpur line in Rájputéna, the Nizám’s Railways in Haidarābād, the Mysore Railway in Southern India, and the Rájpura-Patiñla-Bhátinda line in the Punjab. The railways passing through the States of Gwalior and Indore are not included in this list, as they were constructed, not at the cost of the chiefs themselves, but out of the proceeds of a loan made to the Government by the Mahārājás Sindhia and Holkar, and are worked entirely by Government in connection with the Rájputána-Málwä Rail- way. Lastly, the West of India Portuguese Railway connect- ing Marmagão, the finest port in the territory of Goa, with the Southern Maráthá Railway near Dhārwär, must be mentioned. It was constructed by the hypothecation of the annual sum of 4 lakhs of rupees agreed to be paid to Portugal on the con- clusion of the Portuguese Treaty in 1878, and is worked by the Southern Maráthá Railway Company. The two following paragraphs exhibit the railway statistics of India for the years 1878 and 1891. They indicate the progress which has been made during the thirteen years since the materials for the first edition of this book were compiled. In 1878, the total mileage open for traffic was 8215 miles, of which 6044 miles belonged to guaranteed railways, and 21 71 miles to State railways; total capital expended, RX. I I5,059,454, being RX. 95,430,863 on the former, and RX. I9,628,591 on the latter class; number of passengers Conveyed, 38,519,792 ; number of tons of goods and minerals, 8, 171,617 ; number of live stock, 594,249 ; gross receipts, RA/LWAY STATISTICS, 1891. 653 RX. Io,404,753; gross expenses, Rx. 5,206,938; nett earnings, Rx. 5,197,815, of which only Rx. 195,787 is credited to the State railways; percentage of gross expenses to gross receipts, 5o'o.4, varying from 34-97 in the case of the East Indian main line to an average of 78-27 for all the State lines. These figures showed I mile of railway to every Io9 square miles of area in 1878, as compared with the area of British India, or to 180 square miles, as compared with the area of the entire peninsula. The average cost of construction per mile was almost exactly Rx. 14, ooo. The guaranteed railways, embrac- ing the great trunk lines throughout India, are on the ‘broad gauge' of 5 feet 6 inches; the State lines follow, as a rule, the narrow or metre gauge of 3.281 feet. - The total extent of railways open for traffic in India on 31st Railway December 1891 was 17,209 miles, of which 8182 were State * lines worked by companies, and 4623 State lines worked by the State—total State lines, 12,805 miles; 2.588 miles were worked by “guaranteed' and 380 miles by “assisted’ companies —total companies’ lines, 2968% miles; 593 miles, belonging to Native States, were worked by companies, 124 miles by State Railway Agency, and 7.18% by the Native States them- selves—total lines belonging to Native States, 1435%. There were also at the same date 2795 miles of railway either under construction or Sanctioned. The proportion stands at 1 mile of railway to every 56 Square miles of area in 1891 as com- pared with the area of British India, or to 90 square miles as compared with the area of all India, British and Feudatory. The capital outlay on railways and connected steamer ser- Railway vices amounted on 31st December 1891 to Rx. 219,615,655. ** Of this sum, Rx. 92,324,427 was expended on the State lines worked by Companies; Rx. 66,553,755 on the State lines worked by the State ; Rx. 49,377,506 on lines owned and worked by guaranteed companies; Rx. 2,857,520 on assisted Companies’ lines; and Rx. 8,502,447 on Native State lines. The gross receipts during the calendar year 1891 amounted to Rx. 23,933,921, and the working expenses to Rx. 11,238,083. The nett revenue amounted to Rx. 12,695,838, or 578 per cent. on the total capital expended up to 31st December 1891. Of the nett revenue, State lines worked by companies contributed RX. 6,099,793; lines owned and worked by guaranteed com- panies, Rx. 3,558,495; State lines worked by the State, Rx. 2,612,265; assisted companies’ lines, Rx. 128,589; and lines in Native States, Rx. 296,696.1 Of the three guaranteed Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India in 1890–91, p. 165. 654 MEAAWS OF COMMUAV/CATIO/V. Roads. Old military routeS. The ‘ Grand Trunk Road.” Bombay inland route. railways not taken over by the State, the Great Indian Pen- insula and the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway Companies each earned 8.4 per cent. nett revenue on their capital, and the Madras Railway Company 3'3 per cent. The two former earned in nett revenue in excess of the guaranteed interest Rx. 943,590 and Rx. 328,020 respectively, while the nett earnings of the Madras Railway fell short of the guaranteed interest by Rx. 160,313." The total number of passengers carried during the calendar year 1891 was II 7,350,399, and the aggregate tonnage of goods and merchandise Carried, 25,730,025 tonS. As the railway system of India approaches its completion, the relative importance of the roads naturally diminishes. From a military point of view, rapid communication by rail has now superseded the old marching routes as completely as in any European country. Like Portsmouth in England, Bombay in India has become the national harbour for the embarkation and disembarkation of troops. On landing at Bombay, regiments proceed, after a rest, to the healthy station of Deolálí on the plateau of the Deccan, whence they can reach their ultimate destinations, however remote, by easy railway stages. - The Grand Trunk Road, running up the entire valley of the Ganges from Calcutta to the North-West Frontier, first planned as a highway of armies in the 16th century by the Afghān Emperor Sher Sháh, and brought to completion under the administration of Lord William Bentinck, is now for the most part untrodden by troops. The monument, erected to commemorate the opening of the military road up the Bhor Ghât to wheeled traffic from Bombay, remains unvisited by all but the most curious travellers. Railways have bridged the widest rivers and the most formidable swamps. They have Scaled, with their aerial zigzags, the barrier range of the Ghâts; and they have been carried on massive embankments over the shifting soil of the Gangetic delta. But although the railway system now occupies the first place, both for military and commercial purposes, the actual import- ance of roads has increased rather than diminished. They do not figure in the imperial balance-sheet, nor do they strike the popular imagination ; but their construction and repair constitute one of the most important duties of the District Extension of roads. * Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India in 1890–91, p. I67. ACOA/OS AAVZ) A2/VEA’.S. 655 official. They promote that regularity of local communication upon which the progress of civilisation so largely depends. The substitution of the post-cart for the naked runner, and of wheeled traffic for the pack-bullock, is one of the silent revolutions effected by British rule. The more important roads are all carefully metalled, the Road material almost everywhere employed being kankar or cal-” careous limestone. In Lower Bengal and other deltaic tracts, where no kind of stone exists, bricks are roughly burnt, and then broken up to supply metal for the roads. The minor streams are crossed by permanent bridges, with foundations of stone, and not unfrequently iron girders. The larger rivers Bridges have temporary bridges of boats thrown across them during of boats. the dry season, which give place to ferries in time of flood. Avenues of trees along the roads afford shade, and material for timber. The main lines are under the charge of the Public Works Department. The maintenance of the minor roads has, by a recent administrative reform, been thrown upon the shoulders of the local authorities, who depend for their pecuniary resources upon District Committees, and are often compelled to act as their own engineers. Complete statistics are not available to show the total mileage of roads in British India, or the total sum expended on their maintenance. Inland navigation is almost confined to the four great rivers, Rivers. the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Indus, and the Irawadi. These flow through broad valleys, and from time immemorial have been the chief means of conveying the produce of the interior to the sea. South of the Gangetic basin, there is not a single Indian river which can be called navigable. Most of the South Indian streams, although mighty torrents in the rainy season, dwindle away to mere threads of water and stag- nant pools during the rest of the year. The Godávari and the The Godā- Narbadá, whose volume of water is ample, are both obstructed V*Works. by rocky rapids, which engineering skill has hitherto been unable to overcome. A total sum of Rx. 1% million has been almost in vain expended upon the former river, with a view to improving it as a navigable highway. It is doubtful whether water carriage is able to compete, as regards the more valuable staples, with Communication by rail. But for cheap and bulky staples, or for slow subsidiary traffic, it is difficult to overrate the economic importance of the Indian rivers. After the East Indian Railway was fairly opened, through The steamers ceased to ply upon the Ganges; and the steam Ganges. 656 MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. The flotilla on the Indus shrank to insignificance when through communication by rail became possible between Mültán and Karáchi. On the Brahmaputra and its tributary the Bárak, and on the Irawadi, steamers still run secure from railway competition. But it is in the Gangetic delta that river navi- gation attains its highest development. There the population may be regarded as half amphibious. Every village can be reached by water in the rainy season, and every family keeps its boat. The main channels of the Ganges and Brahma- putra, and their larger tributaries, are navigable throughout the year. During the rainy months, road carriage is altogether superseded. All the minor streams are swollen by the rainfall on the hills and the local downpour; while fleets of boats sail down with the produce that has accumulated in warehouses on the river banks. The statistics of this subject belong rather to the department of internal trade," but it may be mentioned here that the number of laden boats registered in Bengal in the year 1877–78 was 4or,729. These formed but a fraction of the real total. Boat-racing forms a favourite native sport in the deltaic and eastern Districts. It is conducted with great spirit and rivalry by the villagers. In some places, the day concludes with an illuminated boat procession by torchlight. The great majority of the Bengal rivers require no attention from Government, but the network known as the three Nadiyá rivers is kept open for traffic only by close supervision. These three rivers, the Bhāgiráthi, Jalangi, and Mátábhángá, are all offshoots of the Ganges, which unite to make up the head- waters of the Huigli.” In former times the main volume of the Ganges was carried to the sea by one or other of these channels. But they now receive so little water as to be navi- gable only in the rainy season, and then with difficulty. Since the beginning of the present century, Government has under- taken the task of preventing these Huigli head-waters from further deterioration. A staff of engineers is constantly em- ployed to watch the shifting bed, to assist the scouring action of the current, and to advertise the trading community of the depth of water from time to time. In the year 1882–83, a total sum of Rx. 11,667 was expended on this account, while an income of Rx. 18,296 was derived from tolls. Brahma- putra. Minor StreamS. River trade. The Nadiyá rivers. * Dealt with in next chapter. * See article HUGLI RIVER, 7%e Imperial Gazetteer, for an account of the engineering history of these rivers. It is also given in greater detail in Hunter's Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. ii. pp. 19–32. AVA V/GA B ZF CA/WAZ.S. 657 The artificial water channels of India may be divided into Navigable two classes. (1) Those confined to navigation; (2) those “” constructed primarily for purposes of irrigation. Of the former class, the most important examples are to be found in the south of the peninsula. On both the Malabar and the Coromandel coasts, the strip of low land lying between the mountains and the sea affords natural facilities for the Con- struction of an inland canal running parallel to the shore. In Malabar, the salt-water lagoons or lakes, which form so Malabar prominent a feature in the local geography, merely required to it. be supplemented by a few cuttings to supply continuous water communication from the port of Calicut to Cape Comorin. On the east coast, the Buckingham Canal, running north from Buck. Madras city as far as the delta of the Kistna, has recently * * sº iº º º anal. been completed without any great engineering difficulties. In Bengal there are a few artificial canals, of old date, but of no great magnitude, in the neighbourhood of Calcutta. The principal of these form the system known as the Calcutta and Calcutta Eastern Canals, which consist for the most part of natural * channels artificially deepened, in order to afford a safe boat route through the Sundarbans. Up to the close of the year 1890–91, a capital of Rx. 523,287 had been expended by Government on the Calcutta Canals; the gross income in 1890–91 was Rx. 52,508; after deducting cost of repairs, working expenses, etc., charged to revenue account, a profit was left amounting to Rx. 20, 113. If, further, interest at the rate of 4 per cent, on the capital outlay be deducted, a small deficit is shown of Rx. 818. The Hijili Tidal Canal in Mid-Hijili napur District, which cuts off a difficult corner of the Higli "" river, shows a deficit of Rx. 2553 for the same year. Most of the great irrigation works, both in Northern and Southern India, have been so constructed as to be available also for navigation. The general features of these works have been already described. So far as regards Bengal, navigation Naviga- on the Orissa Canals in 1877–78 yielded Rx. 3384, and in sº 1890–91, Rx. I2, I49; on the Midnapur Canal, Rx. Io,692 in canals; 1877–78, and Rx. I I,083 in 1890–91 ; and on the Son Canals, Rx. 5965 in 1877–78, and Rx. 6562 in 1890–91 ; the aggregate, however, being considerably less than was derived from irriga- tion. In Madras, boat tolls in the Godāvari delta brought in on Madras Rx. 4496 in 1877–78, and Rx. 9660 in 1890–91, and the * Buckingham Canal in the latter year showed navigation receipts to the amount of Rx. 8552. 2 T | 658 | Trade of India. Ancient. Mediæval. Modern. The modern function of trade in India. CHAPTER XIX. COMMERCE AND TRADE. FROM the earliest days, India has been a trading country. The industrial genius of her inhabitants, even more than her natural wealth and her extensive seaboard, distinguished her from other Asiatic lands. In contrast with the Arabian peninsula on the west, with the Malayan peninsula on the east, or with the equally fertile empire of China, India has always maintained an active intercourse with Europe. Philo- logy proves that the precious cargoes of Solomon's merchant ships came from the ancient coast of Malabar. The brilliant mediaeval republics of Italy drew no small share of their wealth from their Indian trade. It was the hope of participating in this trade that stimulated Columbus to the discovery of America, and Da Gama to the circumnavigation of the Cape of Good Hope. Spices, drugs, dyes, and rare woods; fabrics of silk and cotton; jewels, and gold and silver, these were the temptations which allured the first adventurers from Europe. The East and the West were then separated by a twelve- month's voyage, full of hardships and perils. A successful venture made the fortune of all concerned, but trade was a lottery, and not far removed from piracy. Gradually, as the Native kingdoms fell, and the proud cities of mediaeval India Sank into ruin, the legendary wealth of India was found to rest upon an unstable basis. It has been reserved for our own day to discover, by the touchstone of open trade, the real source of her natural riches, and to substitute bales of raw produce for boxes of curiosities. The cotton, grain, oil-seeds, and jute of India now support a large population in England. Before entering on the statistics of Indian trade, it is well to apprehend the function which commerce has now to perform in India. The people have in some Provinces outgrown the food-producing powers of the soil; in many others, they are pressing heavily upon these powers. Agriculture, almost their Sole industry, no longer suffices for their support. New GA2O WTH OF TRAD/AWG C/TAAE.S. 659 industries have become a necessity for their well-being. Com- New merce and manufactures have therefore obtained an economical : importance which they never had before in India; for they & represent the means of finding employment and food for the rapidly increasing population. A popular sketch of the social aspects of Indian trade will therefore be first given, before arranging in more logical sequence the facts and figures con- nected with its recent history and development. A large external trade was an impossibility under the Large Mughal Emperors. Their capitals of Northern India, Agra ſºme and Delhi, lay more than a thousand miles from the river's impossible mouth. But even the capitals of the seaboard Provinces were W. chosen for military purposes, and with small regard to the gnals. Commercial capabilities of their situation. Thus, in Lower Bengal, the Muhammadans under different dynasties fixed in succession on six towns as their capital. Each of these suc- Their cessive capitals was on a river bank; but not one of them *P* possessed any foreign trade, nor indeed could have been approached by an old East Indiaman. They were simply the merely Court and Camp of the king or the viceroy for the time being. tº. Colonies of skilful artisans settled round the palaces of the nobles to supply the luxurious fabrics of Oriental life. After the prince and court had in some new caprice abandoned the city, the artisans remained, and a little settlement of weavers was often the sole surviving proof that the decaying town had Once been a Capital city. The exquisite muslins of Dacca and the Soft silks of Murshidābād still bear witness to the days when these two places were successively the capital of Bengal. The artisans worked in their own houses. The manufactures of India were essentially domestic industries, conducted by Special castes, each member of which wove at his own heredi- tary loom, and in his own village or homestead. One of the earliest results of British rule in India was the Growth of growth of great mercantile towns. Our rule derived its origin º from Our commerce; and from the first, the East India Com- under pany's efforts were directed to creating centres for maritime º trade. Other European nations, the Portuguese, the Dutch, Ulie. the Danes, and the French, competed with us as merchants and Conquerors in India, and each of them in turn attempted to found great seaports. The long Indian coast, both on the east and the west, is dotted with decaying villages which were Once the busy scenes of those nations' early European trade. Of all their famous capitals in India, not one has now the 660 CO/////EA’ CAE A/V/O ZTACAA) E. The English as city- builders. A new era of produc- tion, based on co-opera- tion and capital. Growth of industrial cities. commercial importance of Cardiff or Greenock, and not one of them has a harbour which would admit at a low tide a ship drawing 20 feet. The truth is, that it is far easier to pitch a camp and erect a palace, which, under the Native dynasties, was synonymous with founding a capital, than it is to create a centre of trade. Emporia of commerce must grow of themselves, and cannot be called suddenly into existence by the fiat of the wisest autocrat. It is in this difficult enterprise, in which the Portuguese, the Dutch, the Danes, and the French had successively failed, that the British in India have succeeded. | We make our appearance in the long list of races who have ruled that splendid empire, not as temple-builders like the , Hindus, nor as palace and tomb builders like the Musalmāns, nor as fort-builders like the Maráthás, nor as church-builders like the Portuguese; but in the more commonplace capacity of town-builders, as a nation that had the talent for selecting sites on which great commercial cities would grow up, and who have in this way created a new industrial life for the Indian people. Calcutta and Bombay, the two commercial capitals of India, are the slow products of British rule. Formerly, the industries of India were essentially domestic manufactures, each man working at his hereditary occupation, at his own loom or at his own forge. Under British rule, a new era of production has arisen in India—an era of production on a great scale, based upon the co-operation of capital and labour, in place of the small household manufactures of ancient times. To Englishmen, who have from our youth grown up in the midst of a keen commercial civilisation, it is not easy to realize the change thus implied. The great industrial cities of British India are the type of this change. Under Native rule, the country had reached what political economists of Mill's school called ‘the station- ary stage of civilisation. The husbandmen simply raised the food-grains necessary to feed them from one harvest to another. If the food-crops failed in any district, the local population had no capital and no other crops wherewith to buy food from other districts; so, in the natural and inevitable course of things, they perished. Now, the peasants of India supplement their food-supply with more profitable crops than the mere food-stuffs on which they live. They also raise an annual surplus of grain for exportation, which is available for India’s own wants in time of need. Accordingly, there is a ZWD/AAV EXPORTS, 1700–1891. 66I much larger aggregate of capital in the country; that is to say, a much greater national reserve or staying power. The so- Called ‘stationary stage' in India has disappeared, and the Indian peasant is keenly alive to each new demand which the markets of the world may make upon the industrial capabilities of his country; as the history of his trade in cotton, jute, wheat, and oil-seeds proves. At the beginning of the last century, before the English Summary became the ruling power in India, the country did not pro- gº duce 24, 1,000,ooo a year of staples for exportation. During 1730-1891. the first three-quarters of a century of our rule, the exports slowly rose to about 24, Io, ooo,000 in 1834. During the half Century since that date, the old inland duties and other remaining restrictions on Indian trade have been abolished. Exports have multiplied by ten-fold. In 1881–82, India sold to foreign nations beyond the seas, Rx. 81,901,960 of mer- chandise, and in 1890–91, Rx. Ioo, 135,722 of merchandise, exclusive of Government stores and treasure. This merchan- dise, with the exception of a small percentage of re-exports, was Indian produce. In 1881–82, the total sea-borne export and import trade of India in merchandise, exclusive of Govern- ment stores and treasure, was Rx. I28,894,044, and in 1890–91, RX. I69, 170,622, or, including Government stores and treasure in 1890–91, Over Rx. 196, ooo, ooo." India has more to sell to the world than she requires to buy India's from it. During the five years ending 1879, the staples which º: she exported exceeded by an annual average of Rx. 22,000,ooo e the merchandise which she imported.” During the next five years ending 31st March 1884, the gross surplus of exports of merchandise over imports rose to Rx. 30, ooo, ooo per annum. During the seven years from 1st April 1884 to 31st March 1891, this annual surplus has averaged annually Rx. 31, 180,969.” From one-third to one-half of this favourable balance of trade India receives in hard cash. During the five years ending 1879, she accumulated silver and gold, exclusive of re-exports, at the rate of RX. 7,ooo, ooo per annum ; during What the next five years ending 1884, at the rate of over shºes Rx. Io, ooo, ooo per annum; and during the seven years º * Parliamentary Statistical Abstract, No. 26, Tables IO8, Io9 (1892). * This calculation deals with the gross surplus of exports over imports, without going into the question of re-exports of foreign goods. The total * merchandise’ exported, during the five years ending 1879, averaged Rx. 60,300,000; the total “merchandise’ imported averaged Rx. 38,000,000. Wide post, Table at p. 665, entitled Foreign Trade of India. * This also is the gross surplus, without deductions for re-exports. | ! | 662 COMMAEAQCA. AAV/D 7TACA/D/E, The * Home Charges.’ India's yearly Savings. Divisions of Indian trade. Sea-borne trade. ending 1891, at the rate of over Rx. I5,ooo, Ooo per annum. With about another third she pays interest at low rates for the capital with which she has constructed the material framework of her industrial life—her railways, irrigation works, cotton mills, coal mines, indigo factories, tea-gardens, docks, steam-navigation lines, and debt. For that capital she goes into the cheapest market in the world, London; and she remits the interest, not in cash, but in her own staples, which the borrowed capital has enabled her to bring cheaply to the seaboard. With the remaining third of her surplus exports, she pays the home charges of the Government to which she owes the peace and security that alone have rendered possible her industrial development. The Home Charges include not only the salaries of the Supervising staff in England, and the pensions of the military and Civil Services, who have given their life's work to India, but the munitions of war, a section of the army, including the cost of its recruitment and transport, stores for public works, and the matériel for constructing and working the railways. That matérieſ can be bought more cheaply in Fngland than in India; and India's expenditure on good government is as essential an item for her industrial develop- ment, and repays her as high a profit, as the interest which she pays in England for the capital with which she has constructed her dockyards and railways. But, after paying for all the Home Charges for the interest of capital raised in England for Indian railways, and other reproductive works, and for the matérie/ required for their construction and maintenance, India had from 1884 to 1891 a yearly balance of Rx. 15,000,ooo from her export trade, for which she received payment in silver and gold. The trade of India may be considered under four heads— (1) sea-borne trade with foreign countries; (2) coasting trade; (3) frontier trade, chiefly across the northern mountains; (4) internal traffic within the limits of the Empire. The sea-borne trade most powerfully attracts the imagina- tion, and we have the most trustworthy statistics regarding it. With an extensive seaboard, India has comparatively few ports. Calcutta monopolizes the commerce, not only of Lower Bengal, but of the entire river-systems of the Ganges and the Brahma- putra. Bombay is the sole outlet for the products of Western India, Gujarát, the Deccan, and the Central Provinces; Karáchi performs a similar office for the valley of the Indus ; SEA-BokME TRADE OF INDIA. 663 and Rangoon for that of the Irawadi. These four ports have The four been chosen as the termini where the main lines of railway #. debouch on the sea. In the south of India alone is the Sea-borne trade distributed along the coast. The South- western side has a line of fair-weather ports, from Goa to Cochin. On the south-east there is not a safe harbour, nor a navigable river-mouth ; although ships anchor off the shore at Madras, and in several other roadsteads, generally near . the mouth of the rivers. A Madras harbour has, however, been under construction during several years; and, in spite of destructive cyclones and storm-waves, the work is now well advanced. A project has been put forward for con- structing docks at Madras, to cover 25 acres, protected by groins thrown out at right angles from the beach, and by a breakwater. Of the total foreign trade of India, Calcutta and Bombay till recently controlled about 40 per cent, each. Madras had 6 per cent., Rangoon 4 per cent, and Karáchi 2 per cent, leaving a balance of only 8 per cent, for all the remaining ports of the country. In 1884–85, Bombay had 43’51 per cent. of the foreign trade; Calcutta, 36-97 per cent. ; , Madras, 5:43 per cent. ; Rangoon, 4.67 per cent. ; and Karáchi, 379 per cent. ; leaving only 5% per cent. for the minor ports, of which the principal are — Chittagong, Maulmain, Akyab, Minor Tuticorin, and Coconáda. In 1890–91, Bombay had 4381 Pº" of the foreign trade, including treasure; Calcutta, 34'08 per cent. ; Rangoon, 6’44 per cent. ; Madras, 5'32 per cent. ; and Karáchi, 4'40 per cent., leaving just under 6 per Cent, for the minor ports. Calcutta and Bombay form the two central The two . depôts for collection and distribution, to a degree without a * parallel in other countries. The growth of their prosperity is an index of the development of Indian commerce. When the Portuguese, the pioneers of Eastern adventure, Early discovered the over-sea route to India, they were attracted º to the Malabar coast, where they found wealthy cities already trade, engaged in active commerce with Persia, Arabia, and the 1599-1699. opposite shore of Africa. From Malabar they brought back pepper and other spices, and the cotton calicoes which took their name from Calicut. Fixing their headquarters at Goa, they advanced northward to Surat, the ancient port, not only for Gujarát, but for all Western Upper India. But with * Statement of the 7%rade of British Zndia, 1886–87 to 1890–91, pp. IO6, Io'7. 664 COMMERCAE A/V/D 7"RAADA’. Dutch monopoly, I600. English factories, 1625. English trade, 1600-17OO. Our trade advances, I700–72. the Portuguese, the trading instinct was subordinate to the spirit of proselytism and to the ambition of territorial aggrandizement. The Dutch superseded them as traders, and organized a colonial system upon the basis of monopoly and forced labour, which survives in Java to this day. Last of all came the English, planting factories at various points along the Indian coast-line, and content to live under the shadow of the Native powers. Wars with the Portuguese, with the Dutch, and with the French, first taught the English their own strength; and as the Mughal Empire fell to pieces, they were compelled to become rulers in order to protect their com- mercial settlements. Our Indian Empire has grown out of trade; but, meanwhile, our Indian trade has grown even faster than our empire." ‘The Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies’ was incorporated by Royal Charter on 31st December 16oo, having been directly called into existence by the grievance of monopoly prices imposed upon pepper by the Dutch. Its first voyage was undertaken in 1601 by five ships, whose cargoes consisted of 24, 28,742 in bullion and 4,6860 in goods; the latter being chiefly cloth, lead, tin, cutlery, glass, quicksilver, and Muscovy hides. Their destination was ‘Atcheen in the Far East’ (Sumatra). The first English factory was established at Bantam in Java, in 1603. The return cargoes, partly captured from the Portu- guese, comprised raw silk, fine Calicoes, indigo, cloves, and mace. The earliest English factories on the mainland of India were founded at Masulipatam in 16Io, and Surat in 1612–15. In 1619, ten ships were despatched to the East by the Company, with 24,62,490 in precious metals and 24, 28,508 in goods; the proceeds, brought back in a single ship, were sold for 24, IoS,887. The English made no great advance in trade during the 17th century. By the massacre of Amboyna (1623) the Dutch drove the English Company out of the Spice Islands, and the period of its great establishments (aurangs) for weaving had not yet commenced in India. Early in the 18th century, our affairs improved. During the twenty years ending 1728, the average annual exports from England of the East India Company were 24,442,350 of bullion and 24, 92,288 of goods. The average imports were valued at 24,758,042, chiefly consisting of calicoes and other woven goods, * The history of the early European Settlements in India has been already dealt with in chapter xiv. pp. 416–442. A'OA&AE/G/W TRA/D E OF /AWD/A. 665 raw silk, diamonds, tea, porcelain, pepper, drugs, and Salt- petre. In 1772, the sales at the India House reached the total value of 3 millions sterling; the shipping owned by the Company was 61,860 tons. From 1760 onwards, the Custom House returns of trade with the East Indies are given in Macpherson's History of Commerce. But they are deceptive for comparative purposes, as they include the trade with China as well as with India. In 1834, when the Company's monopoly of trade with China as well as with India ceased, the exports from India were valued at 249,674,ooo, and the imports at 24, 2,576, ooo. Shortly after that date, trade was freed from many vexatious restrictions. Inland duties were mostly abolished in Bengal in 1836, in Bombay in 1838, and in Madras in 1844; the inland Sugar duties in 1836, and the inland cotton duties in 1847. The Navigation Laws were repealed in 1848. The effect of these reforms, and the general progress of Indian Commerce, may be seen in the table below. It exhibits the foreign trade of the country, in millions of tens of rupees, for each of the ten quinquennial periods between 1840 and 1889. FOREIGN TRADE OF INDIA FOR FIFTY YEARS, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO QUINQUENNIAL PERIODs, IN MILLIONS OF TENS OF RUPEES." IMPORTS. . ExPORTs. PERIODs. Cotton Total Raw Total Manufactures. Merchandise. Treasure. Cotton. Merchandise. Treasure. I840–44, 3'I9 7:69 276 || 2:34 I3'79 o°46 I845-49, 3’75 9"I4 3'o'7 I'68 I5'67 I 32 I85O-54, 5'I5 II ‘O6 4'79 || 3 "I4 I9'O2 O'99 1855–59, 6'94 I5'58 II 27 3’II 24 '92 O'92 I860–64, IO'92 23 '97 I7'Og | I5'56 42'I5 I "O2 1865–69, I5'74 3I '70 I7-62 || 25'98 55-86 I ‘8o I870–74, 17'56 33"O4. 8'26 17:41 56°25 I'59 I875–79, I9'29 38°36 9'85 II 52 6o:32 2°8I 1880–84, 24'O4 5O "I5 II-66 13-96 79°o8 I'32 I885–89, 27'4I 6I'52 I3°62 I3'40 88:64 I'64 Average in million tº d º g * ...}} 13:39 28°22 9'99 || Io'8I 45'57 I'38 rupees. Before, however, entering on the items of Indian trade, the method which has been adopted in dealing with them ought to * Statistical Tables for British India (Calcutta, 1892), p. 131. Statistics for 1834. Inland duties abolished, I836–48. 666 CO////EA’ CAE A/V/D 7TA’A/D/2. be explained. Many of those items may be regarded as agri- Cultural productions, and as manufactures or native industries, as well as articles of export or internal trade. In such cases it has been deemed best to deal with them in each of these aspects, even at the cost of repetition. Thus cotton is treated of alike in the chapter on agriculture, and in those on trade and on manufactures. This plan will be most convenient to those who wish to consult the individual chapters, without the necessity of reading the whole volume. Steadiness of its growth. Indian trade, 1877–78. Excess of exports. India’s chief CustomerS. Indian shipping. The preceding table shows a rapid and steady growth, which only finds its parallel in the United Kingdom. The exceptional imports of silver from 1855 to 1859 were required to pay for the Mutiny; those from 1860 to 1864 represent the price of the cotton sent to Manchester during the American War. & Before examining in detail the history of some of the chief staples of trade, it may be convenient to give in this place, as an illustration of the steady growth of Indian foreign trade, the statistics of three years, 1877–78, which was a year of inflation despite the incidence of famine in Southern India; of 1882–83; and of 1890–91. In 1877–78, the total foreign sea-borne trade exceeded Rx. I 26 millions in value. The transactions on behalf of Government, such as stores, equipments, and munitions of war, show an import of Rx. 2, 138,182, and an export of Rx. 36,615. The imports of merchandise were Rx. 39,326,003, and of treasure Rx. I 7,355,460 ; total im- ports, Rx. 56,681,463. The exports of merchandise were Rx. 65,185,713, and of treasure Rx. 2,155,136; total exports, RX, 67,340,849. These figures exhibit an excess of exports over imports amounting to Rx. Io,659,386; and an excess of treasure im- ported to the amount of Rx. I5,200,324. By far the larger share of the trade of 1878, amounting to 61 per cent, was con- ducted with the United Kingdom ; next came China, with 13 per cent. ; and then the following countries in order —France, Straits Settlements, Ceylon, Italy, United States, Mauritius, Austria, Persia, Arabia, Turkey, Egypt, Australia, Aden, East Coast of Africa. The total number of vessels that entered and cleared in 1877–78 was 12,537, with an aggregate of 5,754,379 tons, or an average of 459 tons each. Of the total tonnage, 76 per cent. was British, 7 per cent. British Indian, and 15 per cent. foreign; American, Italian, and French being best represented in the latter class. The total value of the Indian foreign sea-borne trade in /AVD/AAW TRADE, 1883, 1891. 667 1882–83, including merchandise, treasure, Government stores, Indian etc., exceeded Rx. 150 millions, or 24 millions in excess of º, the total value of the trade in 1877–78. The imports of J* private merchandise amounted to Rx. 50,003,041, and of trea- Sure to Rx, 13,453, 157; total private imports, Rx. 63,456,198, or Rx. 6,774,735 above the imports of 1877–78. The exports of merchandise amounted to Rx. 83,400,865, and of treasure to RX. 980,859; total exports, Rx. 84,381,724, or RX. I7,040,875 above the exports of 1877–78. Excess of exports over im- ports in 1882–83 (exclusive of Government transactions), RX. 20,925,526. The Government transactions, such as stores, equipments, munitions of war, railway plant, etc., show an import of Rx. 2,092,670, and an export of RX. I45,458, in- cluding Rx. 61,200 of Government treasure. Of the private imports, Rx, 47,172,542, or 74.3 per cent, Suez Canal Came in 1882 ziá the Suez Canal, and Rx. I6,283,656, or 25.7 sºs - 3. per Cent, by other routes. Of the exports, Rx. 44,438,288, or 52.7 per cent, went vić the Canal, and RX 39,943,436, or 47.3 per cent, by other routes. Of the total import and export private trade, aggregating Rx. 147,837,922, RX. 91,610,830, or 61-9 per cent., passed through the Suez Canal, and Rx. 56,227,092, or 38.1 per cent., by other routes. The total number of sailing and steam vessels that entered and cleared British Indian ports from foreign countries in 1882–83, was II,715 with an aggregate burthen of 7,071,884 tons, or an average of 513 tons each. Of the total shipping, 4257 vessels with a total of 5,366,770 tons were returned as British, 2525 with 361,189 tons as British Indian, 1834 with 1,168,293 tons as foreign, and 3099 with 175,632 tons as native craft, in 1882–83. The figures for 1890–91 show a steadily increasing trade. In Indian that year, the value of the private sea-borne foreign export and ſº. import trade (exclusive of Government stores, but including treasure) was Rx. 193 millions, or 67 millions over that of 1877–78, and 43 millions over that of 1882–83. The imports of private merchandise in 1890–91 amounted to Rx. 69,034,900, and of treasureto Rx. 21,919,486; total private imports, RX. 9o,954,386, or Rx. 34,272,923 in excess of the imports of 1877–78, and Rx. 27,498, 188 in excess of those for 1882–83. The exports of merchandise amounted to Rx. Ioo, 135,722, and of treasure to Rx. 2,071,906; total private exports, Rx. Io2,207,628, or RX. 34,866,779 over the exports of 1877–78, and Rx. 17,825,904 Over those for 1882–83. Excess of private exports over private imports in 1890–91, Rx. I 1,253,242. Excluding treasure, the 668 COMMEA2C/º AAV/O ZTA2A/OA. Suez Canal trade, I890–91. Distribu- tion of Indian trade, 1890–91. Analysis of Indian imports. excess of exports of private merchandise over imports in 1890–91, Rx. 31, Ioo,822. The Government imports in the shape of stores, materials of war, railway plant, treasure, etc., amounted to RX. 2,955,470, and the exports to Rx. I42,898. Of the total trade, private and Government, merchandise and treasure to the value of Rx. 72,862,568, or 77'58 per cent. of the imports, were, in 1890–91, imported vić the Suez Canal, while Rx. 59,327,515, or 57'96 per cent. of the total exports, were exported by the same route. Of the total import and exports in 1890–91, Rx. I32,190,083, or 67.35 per cent., passed through the Suez Canal, and Rx. 64,070,299, or 32°65 per cent, proceeded by other routes. The total number of sailing and steam vessels that entered and cleared British Indian ports from foreign countries in 1890–91 was I 1,023, with an aggre- gate burthen of 7,684,954 tons, or an average of 697 tons each. Of the total shipping, 4251 vessels with a total of 6,336,435 tons were returned as British, 2023 with 294,228 tons as British Indian, 1206 with 884,684 tons as foreign, and 3543 with 169,607 tons as native craft, in 1890–91. Of the total tonnage, 82% per cent. was British, nearly 4 per cent. British Indian, and II; per cent. foreign. Of private trade, including treasure, in 1890–91, Rx. 96,064,085, or 50°25 per cent., was with the United Kingdom ; RX. 2 1,538,142, or II*I5 per cent, with China; Rx. 9,421,617, or 4.87 per cent, with the Straits Settlements; Rx. 8,956,154, or 4.63 per cent., with France; and Rx. 6,086,746, or 3’ I 5 per cent., with Germany; and then with the following countries, with which the trade exceeds Rx. 1,000,ooo, in order:- Belgium, 291 per cent. ; the United States of America, 2.87 per cent. ; Austria, 2.36 per cent. ; Italy, 2:19 per cent. ; Ceylon, 2 13 per cent. ; Australia, including New Zealand, I'59 per cent. ; the Mauritius, I'51 per cent. ; Persia, I’39 per cent. ; Arabia, ’97 per cent. ; Zanzibar and Mozambique, 81 per cent. ; Japan, ‘7 I per cent. ; Turkey, 63 per cent. ; Aden, ‘62 per cent. ; and Russia, 62 per cent. As regards imports into India, the first thing to notice is the enormous predominance of two items—cotton goods and treasure. During the fifty years ending 1888–89, cotton goods formed 35 per cent., or a little over one-third of the total, and treasure an additional 26 per cent. Next in order come metals (copper, which is largely used by native Smiths, being second to iron); Government stores, including munitions of war, boots, liquor, and clothing for soldiers, and railway plant ; PROGRAESS OF COTTOM TRADE. 669 liquors, entirely for European consumption ; coal, for the use of the railways and mills; railway plant for the guaranteed and assisted companies; salt, provisions, machinery and mill work, and manufactured silk. It will thus be seen that, with the exception of Manchester goods, no articles of European manu- facture are in large demand for native Consumption, but only for the needs of our English administration ; and few raw materials, except coal, copper, iron, mineral oil, and salt. England's export trade to India thus mainly depends upon History of piece-goods. In the beginning of the 17th century, the sº industry had not been introduced into England. The Small trade: British demand for cotton-goods or Calicoes was met by cir- cuitous importations from India itself, where cotton-weaving is an immemorial industry. In 1641, ‘Manchester Cottons,’ Man- in imitation of Indian calicoes and chintzes, were still made of ºº º g . I64I. wool. Cotton is said to have been first manufactured in c. England in 1676. To foster the nascent industry, a succes- introduced sion of statutes were passed prohibiting the wear of imported 1979. cottons; nor was it until after the inventions of Arkwright and others, and the application of steam as a motive power, had secured to Manchester the advantage of cheap production, that these protective measures were entirely removed. In the present century, Lancashire rapidly improved on her instructors. During the five years 1840–45, the annual import of Cotton Cotton- manufactures into India averaged a little over Rx. 3, ooo,000. fº In each subsequent quinquennial period, there has been a 1840-9. steady increase, until in 1877–78 the import reached the total of Rx. 20 millions, and in 1890–91 over Rx. 27 millions, or an increase of more than nine-fold in fifty-two years. The importation of treasure is perhaps still more extra- Imports ordinary, when we bear in mind that it is not consumed in oft”. the using, but remains permanently in the country. During the same period of fifty-two years, the nett import of treasure, deducting export, has reached the enormous aggregate of nearly Rx. 466 millions, or a fraction over Rs. 16. 3. O (equivalent, at the old value of the rupee = 2s., to 24, 1, 12s. 4d.) per head of the 288 million inhabitants of British and Feuda- tory India. By far the larger portion of this was silver; but the figures for gold, so far as they can be ascertained, are by no means inconsiderable. During the ten years ending 1875, when the normal value of Proportion silver as expressed in gold was but little disturbed, the total º to nett imports of treasure into India amounted to just Rx. 99 ſº [Sentence continued on page 672. 670 COMMERCE AND TRADE. FOREIGN SEA-BORNE TRADE OF BRITISH INDIA FOR 1890–91. IMPORTS. Articles. Quantities. Value. Apparel, . te e RX, I,349,898 Arms, Ammunition, etc., . 2O6,331 Books, Paper, and Stationery, e e e 877,711 Coal, Coke, etc., . ... tonS 784,664 * * * I,543,442 Cotton Twist and Yarn, lbs. 50,970,950 RX.3,768,362 Cotton Manufactures, . yards 2,OIA,443,088 27,24I,987 Total Cotton Goods, ge e - aem---s sº- 3I, OIO,349 Drugs and Medicines, . & e. 479,797 Dyes, . º º e & Cº 5II, I83 Fruits and Vegetables, e I78,891 Glass, . º º © º gº º 650,237 Gums and Resins, º e tº e IOI,932 Hardware, Cutlery, & Plated Ware, ſº º I, IQ7,614 Horses, e e e e e ‘º 286,783 Ivory, . tº tº -> te © e 346,569 Jewellery and Precious Stones, tº e tº tº tº - - - 224,42O É Ale, Beer, and Porter, . gals. 2,785,574 RX.419,772 É. Spirits, . e º • ? y I, O55,984 665, I44 j (Wines, Liqueurs, etc., , ,, 373,683 338,545 Total Liquors, . a 3 y – 4,215,241 — I,423,461 Machinery and Mill Work, . g & a s e º 2,063,863 Iron, . & º ... tonS I93,828 || RX. 2,562,307 Steel, . e º * } n 35,273 472,187 Brass, . . CWtS. I2,836 78,936 # Copper, & © * } } 446,448 I,813,591 § {Spelter, e º • y y III,944. I77,435 > | Tin, . º e • ? ) 4I,984 278,302 Lead, e e • ? ) IO3,O39 I47,906 Quicksilver, . o . lbs. 3O7, IIO 54,548 Unenumerated, . e * * * 60,935 Total Metals, e tº -— 5,646, I47 Oils, . - º e e 2,634, 187 Paints and Colours, ſº tº s 3O2,861 Perfumery, . e º º e e 27,230 Porcelain and Earthenware, 227,874 Provisions, . t º º I,476,070 Railway Plant and Rolling Stock, tº 4 tº 2,OOI,853 Salt, . e e . tonS 395,243 e tº g 779, O34 Silk, Raw, tº . lbs. 2,406,239 || Rx. I, II5, O68 Silk Manufactures, yards I2,030,296 I,386,362 Total Silk, . e tº g tº a tº- tº- 2,50I,43O Spices, tº s º lbs. 51,637, 169 813, II5 Sugar, Refined, etc., . . CWtS. 2,931,901 3,399,886 Tea, . º e o lbs. 4,77O, OO8 325, I4.I Tobacco, . te º º e tº e I51,836 Umbrellas, . . . º e 326,092 Wood, and Manufactures of, e e e - tº º I32,682 Wool, Raw, tº & . lbs. 4,236,826 Rx. II5,615 Wool Manufactures, yards I3, IIo, I84 I,818,213 Total Wool & Woollen Goods, & © e -- I,933,828 All other Articles, e º 3,903, I53 Total Merchandise, RX. 69,034,900 Treasure, e - 2I,919,486 Total Merchandiseand Treasure, Rx. 90,954,386 Government Imports, GRAND TOTAL OF IMPORTS, 2,955,470 Rx. 93,909,856 JAWD/AAW TRADE, 1890–91. 67 I FOREIGN SEA-BORNE TRADE OF BRITISH INDIA FOR 1890–91. EXPORTS. Articles. Quantities. Value. Coffee, e e t . CW'tS. 235, OI6 Rx. 1,463,787 Coir, and Manufactures of . , , 245,490 tº a º 2IO,770 Cotton, Raw, . t j j 5,924,987 RX. I6,533,943 Cotton Twist and Yarn, a tº º 6,627, 165 Cotton Manufactures, . & 2,869,768 Total Cotton & Cotton Goods, 26,030,876 Drugs and Medicines, . - - - * - - 264,849 Dyes: Indigo, . CWts. II8,425 | RX. 3,073,125 Dyes: Other Dyes, - - - 590,621 Total Dyes, Ri º - - - 3,663,746 in and Pulses : Rice º j). s } CWts. 34,963,34I Rx. I2,877,740 Grain and Pulses : Wheat, , , , I4,320,496 6,042,426 — 49,283,837 Grain and Pulses: Other 49,263,83 6 6 Sorts, e e º I9, I5 Total Grain and Pulses, * @ e s tº-e I9,539,322 Gums and Resins, . CW tS. 68,639 I58,750 Hemp, and Manufactures of, - - - 42,424 Hides and Skins, º . No. 32,742,431 4,698,77I Horns, º g tº te tº º e 2O7,7I9 Ivory, and Manufactures of, I58,602 Jewellery and Precious Stones, e s tº tº º o 56,525 Jute, Raw, . fac. - : II,985,967 Rx. 7,602,OIO ute, Manufac- agS 8,749,416 J tured, { cloth, yards º; 2,481,962 Total Jute and Jute Goods, - - - ſº IO, o&S,972 Lac, e º . CWtS. I47,252 781,449 Oils, tº * - & 586,943 Opium, . CWtS. II9,627 9,261,814 Saltpetre, t y 3 399,691 380,362 Seeds, . . • ? y I4,801,857 e - - 9,345,990 Silk, Raw, . ſº . lbs. I,905, 909 Rx. 561,093 Silk, Manufactures of, º - - e. 267,858 Total Silk and Silk Goods, - * * sºm- 828,951 Spices, º fe te . lbs. - 26,958, 198 523,81O Sugar, . . CWtS. - 985,309 615,22I Tea, e . lbs. º IIo, Ig4,819 5,504,293 Tobacco, . º o e º & g is I38, I34 Wood, and Manufactures of, tº e - - e. * - - 562,564 Wool, Raw, e e . lbs. • * 34, 133,059 | RX, I,593,003 Wool, Manufactures of, º t- - - - I69,286 Total Wool & Woollen Goods, I,762,289 All other Articles, º º 3,263,789 Total Merchandise, 1 e G RX. IOO, I35,722 Treasure, e tº e 2, O7I,906 Tººndie and Rx. Io2,207,628 Government Exports, I42,898 GRAND TOTAL OF EXPORTS, RX. IO2,350,526 1 Vi Indian Produce or Manufacture, UForeign Merchandise, o Rx. 95.902. I93 4,233,529 RX. IOO, I35,722 672 COMMEA2CE A/V/D 7"ACA/D E. Gold and silver cir- culation. Sentence continued from page 669.] millions. Of this total, 62% millions were in silver, and 36% millions in gold, the latter metal forming more than one- third of the whole. On separating the re-exports from the imports, the attraction of gold to India appears yet more marked. Of the total imports of gold, only 7 per cent, was re-exported, while for silver the corresponding portion was 19 per cent. Roughly speaking, it may be concluded that India then absorbed annually about 5 millions of silver, and 3 millions of gold ; say a total hoard of 7 to 8 millions of the precious metals each year during the decade ending 1875. - The depreciation of silver which has since taken place has caused an increase in the import of silver, and a corre- sponding decrease in the export as compared with the import of gold. The figures since 1876 do not show the normal state of things. But even in 1877–78, when the value of silver in terms of gold touched a low point, although India drew upon its hoards of gold for export to the amount of more than 1 million sterling, she at the same time imported I} millions, showing a nett import of half a million of gold. During the thirteen years from 1877–78 to 1890–91, the ratio of gold hoarded in India to silver has steadily increased. In this period gold has been imported to the value of Rx. 51,236,757, and exported to the value of Rx. 5,820,049, while silver has been imported to the value of Rx. 121,601,623, and exported to the value of RX. I 7,oo7,745, leaving a nett accumulation for the thirteen years of Rx. 45,416,708 in gold, and of Rx. IO4,593,878 in silver, or an annual average of Rx. 3,493,592 in gold, and of RX. 8,045,683 in silver. It has been estimated that the gold circulation of India amounts to 1,620,000 of gold mohars (Rs. 16 to Rs. 20 each), worth about three millions sterling; as compared with Rx. I 58 millions of silver and Rx. 2,960, ooo of copper. In addition, Io million sovereigns are said to be hoarded in India, mainly in the Bombay Presidency, where the stamp of St. George and the Dragon is valued as a religious symbol. As already stated, the nett accumulation of silver and gold in India, after allowing for re-exports, averaged Rx. 7 millions during the five years ending 1879; rose to an average of Rx. Io; millions during the next quinquennial period ending 31st March 1884, and of nearly Rx. 12 millions during the five years ending 31st March 1889; and it has reached Rx. 15% millions and Rx. 19% millions in the years 1889–90 and 1890–91 respectively. ExPORT of RAW cozzoy. 673 Turning to the exports, the changes in relative magnitude demand detailed notice. In 1877–78, raw cotton for the first time for many years fell into the second place, being sur- passed by the aggregate total of food-grains. In 1879–80, 1882–83, and 1889–90, raw cotton again advanced into the first place among the exports, but only temporarily, owing to special circumstances. Oil-seeds show as a formidable com- petitor to Cotton; raw jute more than doubles indigo, which has fallen behind tea and hides; cotton twist and yarn comes next to raw jute; while exports of cotton manufactures, jute manufactures, and raw wool all exceed coffee in value. The imports of Sugar, both in value and in quantity, greatly exceed the exports; the imports of raw silk as nearly as possible double the exports; while spices, once the glory of Eastern trade, were exported in 1890–91 to the value of only Rx. 523,810, as compared with imports of spices of nearly twice that value (Rx. 813, II 5). The export of raw cotton has been subject to excessive variations. At the close of the last century, cotton was sent to England in small quantities, chiefly the produce of the Central Provinces, collected at Mírzápur and shipped at Calcutta; or the produce of Gujarát despatched from Surat. In 1805, the cotton from Surat was valued at 24, IoS, ooo. In the same year, only 2000 bales of East Indian cotton were imported into Great Britain. But this figure fails to show the average; for by 1810, the corresponding number of bales had risen to 79,000, to sink again to 2000 in 1813, and to rise to 248,000 in 1818. Bombay did not begin to participate in this trade until 1825, but has now acquired the practical monopoly, since the railway diverted to the west the produce of the Central Provinces. In 1834, when the commerce of India was thrown open, 33,000,ooo lbs. Of Cotton were exported. Analysing the exports of cotton during the forty-five years since 1840, we find that in the first quinquennial period they averaged Rx. 2% millions in value, and did not rise per- ceptibly until 1858, when they first touched Rx. 4 millions. From that date increase was steady, even before the American exports were cut off by the war in 1861. During the American war, India made the most of her opportunity, although quality did not keep pace with the enhanced price. The export of raw cotton reached its highest value at Rx. 37% millions in 1865, and its highest quantity at 8o3 million lbs. in 1866. Thenceforth the decline was constant, although somewhat irregular, the lowest figures reached, both of quantity and Analysis of Indian exports. Export of raw COtton, Its history, 1805–34. Export of raw COtton since 1840; and since 1865. 2 U. 674 COMMERCE A/V/D 7TA’A/DA, Export of jute ; in 1828; in 1848, value, being those of 1878–79, when the exports amounted to 2,966,569 cwts, valued at Rx. 7,914,091. Since that date the trade has somewhat revived, the average annual export of raw cotton for the ten years ending 1890–91 being 5,543,787 cwts, valued at Rx. 14,761,668. The principal feature of the trade in 1877–78 was the comparatively small amount shipped to the United Kingdom, and the even distribution of the rest among continental ports. Indian cotton has a short staple, which is ill suited for the finer counts of yarn spun in the Lancashire mills. In 1877–78, out of a total of nearly 3% million cwts, less than 1% million cwts. was consigned to England; of the remainder, France took 61 1,000 cwts. ; Italy, 434,000; Austria, 407,ooo; China, 209,000 ; and Germany, Io9,ooo. The export of raw cotton in 1878–79 amounted in value to Rx. 7,914,091, and of twist and Cotton goods to Rx. 2,581,823. In 1890–91, out of a total export of 5,924,987 cwts, of raw cotton, only 1,530,172 cwts. were shipped to the United Kingdom, while 907,331 cwts, were sent to Belgium, 823,523 cwts. to Italy, 809,930 cwts. to Germany, 718,894 cwts. to Austria, 688,585 cwts. to France, I 18,769 cwts, to Hong Kong, and I 15,429 cwts. to Spain. One of the most striking developments of the Indian cotton trade is the great increase of cotton twist and yarn exported. Nearly the whole goes to China; the value shipped to Hong Kong and the Treaty Ports in 1890–91 being RX. 5,794,193, out of the total value of Rx. 6,627,165. In 1890–91, raw cotton was exported to the value of RX. I6,533,943; cotton twist and yarn, Rx. 6,627, 165; and cotton manufactures, Rx. 2,869,768. Total cotton exports, Rx. 26,030,876. Second in importance to cotton as a raw material for British manufacture comes jute. At the time of the London Exhibition of 1851, jute fibre was almost unknown, while attention was even then actively drawn to rhea or China grass, which remains to the present day unmanageable by any cheap pro- cess. From time immemorial, jute has been grown in the swamps of Eastern Bengal, and has been woven into coarse fabrics for bags and even clothing. As early as 1795, Dr. Roxburgh called attention to the commercial value of the plant, which he grew in the Botanical Gardens of Calcutta, and named ‘jute,’ after the language of his Orissa gardeners; the Bengalſ word being fāţ or koshta. In 1828–29, the total exports of jute were only 364 cwts, valued at £62. From that date the trade steadily grew, until in the quinquennial period ending 1847–48, the exports averaged 234,055 cwts. A/STORY OF /UTE EXPORTS. 675 The Crimean war, which cut off the supplies of Russian flax and hemp from the Forfarshire weavers, made the reputation of jute. Dundee forthwith adopted the new fibre as her Speciality, and the Bengal cultivators as readily set themselves to meet the demand. Taking quinquennial periods, the export of raw jute rose Later from an average of 969,724 cwts. in 1858–63 to 2,628, Ioo cwts. in 1863–68, and 4,858,162 cwts, in 1868–73. The highest figures reached prior to 1882 were in the year 1872–73, with 7,080,912 cwts, valued at Rx. 4,330,759. A falling off sub- Sequently took place, partly owing to the competition of the weaving-mills in the neighbourhood of Calcutta; but the trade continued on a permanent basis. By far the greater bulk of the exports is consigned to the United Kingdom, and a large proportion direct to Dundee. In 1877–78, out of a total of 5,450,276 cwts, 4,493,483 cwts, were sent to the United Kingdom, 845,810 cwts. to the United States, I Io,983 cwts, to ‘ Other Countries,’ chiefly France, which has prosperous weaving- mills at Dunquerque. In 1882–83, the exports of raw jute had increased to Io,348,909 cwts., valued at Rx. 5,846,926; and from that date they varied from 7 to Io million cwts. annually until 1890– 91, when the amount exported reached II,985,967 cwts., valued at Rx. 7,602, oſo, being considerably higher in quantity though not in value than the figures for any previous year. Of this quantity 6,745,358 cwts., valued at Rx. 4,742,942, were exported to the United Kingdom ; 2,715,728 cwts., valued at Rx. 1,114, 170, to the United States; 1,432,872 cwts, valued at RX, I,002,649, to Germany; 316,788 cwts, valued at Rx,21 1,699, to Austria; 3o4,704 cwts, valued at Rx. 2 Io,879, to Italy; and 295,205 cwts, valued at Rx. 200,290, to France. Jute manufactures to the number of 98,749,416 gunny-bags and 29,854,029 yards of gunny cloth, valued together at Rx. 2,481,962, were exported in 1890–91. More than one- third of the total value of manufactured jute, chiefly in the form of gunny-bags, Rx. 744,987, was shipped to Australia; and the next countries in order were the United Kingdom with Rx. 426,342, the United States with Rx. 359,979, and the Straits Settlements with Rx. 251,990. The total export trade of raw and manufactured jute amounted in 1890–91 to RX. Io,083,972. The export of raw jute is almost monopolized by Calcutta, although Chittagong, which is nearer the producing Districts, is taking an increasing share in the business. The export of grain, as already noticed, reached in 1878 a history, 1858–78; and . 1890–91. 676 COMMEA2C/º A/VZ) TACA/D E. Export of food- grains. Rice. Burmese rice. Rice trade in 1878; in 1890-91. higher total than that of cotton, although cotton has in three years since that date taken the first place in exports. The two staple cereals are rice and wheat. Rice is exported from Lower Burma, from Bengal, and from Madras. The latter Presidency usually despatches about 2% million cwts, a year, chiefly to its own emigrant coolies in Ceylon; but in 1877–78, this trade was almost entirely checked by the famine. In that year, besides supplying the necessities of Madras, Bengal was able to send nearly 6 million cwts. to foreign ports. The Burmese rice is chiefly exported for distillation or starch; the Bengal exports are chiefly intended for food, whether in Ceylon, the Mauritius, the Straits Settlements, the West Indies, or Europe. From the point of view of the English market, rice means almost entirely Burmese rice, which is annually exported to the amount of about 20 million cwts., valued at over Rx. 5 millions. In the Indian tables, this is all entered as consigned to the United Kingdom ; although, as a matter of fact, the rice fleets from Burma only call for orders at Falmouth, and are there diverted to various continental ports. Burmese rice is known in the trade as ‘five parts cargo rice,’ being but imperfectly husked before shipment, so that it contains about one part in five of paddy or unhusked rice. It has a thick, coarse grain, and is principally utilized for distillation or for conversion into starch. In 1877–78, the exports of rice to the United Kingdom amounted to Io,488,198 cwts, being slightly less than the average,_but about half of this total is known to be re- exported to foreign countries; the direct exports to the Continent were only 68,839 cwts. to Germany, and 20,117 to France. Siam and Cochin China supply the wants of China, but India has a practical monopoly of the European market. In 1878–79, after India had begun to recover from the famine, although prices continued to rule high, the total export of rice was 21% million tons, valued at 9 millions sterling (Rx. 8,978,951). The total foreign exports of rice and paddy from British India in 1890–91 amounted to 34,963,341 cwts, valued at Rx. 12,877,740. Of the total quantity only 4,300,331 cwts., valued at Rx. I,461,956, went to the United Kingdom, an amount exceeded, both in quantity and value, by the exports to Egypt, 9,700,215, valued at Rx. 2,919,277, and to the Straits Settlements, 6,452,495 cwts., valued at Rx. 2,706,607; and in value by the exports to Ceylon, 4,197,903 cwts., valued at Aº XAEO/07" OA' WHEAT. 677 RX, I,727,432. The other countries largely consuming Indian rice were — Malta, 2,316,517 cwts. ; the Mauritius, I,651,474 cwts. ; South America, 1,493,098 cwts. ; Japan, I,307,759 cwts. ; Arabia, 883,805 cwts. ; Réunion, 470,384 CWts. ; Aden, 356,189 cwts. ; the West Indies, 329,340 cwts. ; Germany, 309,720 cwts. ; and Persia, 185, 118 cwts. Of the total exports of 34,963,341 cwts, 24,645,082 cwts, or 70:5 per Cent, were exported from Burma; 7,968,382 cwts., or 22:7 per cent, from Bengal; 1,595,351 cwts, or 4.5 per cent, from Madras ; 645,972 cwts, from Bombay ; and Io8,554 cwts. from Sind. An export duty is levied on rice in India at the rate of Export 3 amas per maund, or about 6d. per cwt. A similar duty on . OI). wheat was repealed in 1873, and that trade has since con- spicuously advanced. In 1874–75, the export of wheat was about I million cwts. Export of Forthwith it increased year by year, until in 1877–78 it whº exceeded 6% million cwts., valued at nearly 3 millions sterling. In 1878–79, the quantity fell to 1 million cwts., valued at Rx. 520, 138, owing to the general failure of the harvest in the producing Districts. But as railways open up the country, and the cultivators find a steady market in England, India may, as already mentioned, some day become a rival to America and Russia in the wheat trade of the world. The Punjab is a great and rapidly developing wheat-growing tract in India; but up till recently the supplies have chiefly come from the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, being collected at Cawnpur, and thence despatched by rail to Calcutta. As indicated below, Bombay and Karáchi have now taken the place of Calcutta in the exportation of wheat, the opening of the Rájputéna-Málwā Railway and the North-Western State Railway having put Bombay and the great port of Sind in direct communication with the Punjab wheat tract. In 1877–78, out of the total of Wheat 6,340,150 cwts, Bengal exported 4,546,062 cwts., Bombay jºin 1,159,443, and Sind 607,470. The chief Countries of de- • stination were — the United Kingdom, 5,731,349 cwts. ; the Mauritius, 154,888 cwts. ; and France, I 16,674 cwts, Since 1877–78, the wheat export trade has rapidly extended, and in the year 1890–91 it stood at 14,320,496 cwts, valued at in 1890-91. Rx. 6,042,426. More than one-half of the total exports, or 8,208,935 cwts., went to the United Kingdom, 2,000,218 cwts. to Egypt, 1,920, 138 cwts, to Belgium, 1,517,888 cwts. to France, 439,685 cwts. to Italy, 56, 176 cwts. to Arabia, and 52,000 cwts, to Portugal. Of the total wheat, Karáchi exported 678 CO////EACCA. AAV/D 7A2A/)/2. Exports of oil-seeds, in 1877-78; 1890-91. Exports of indigo in 1877-78; in 1890-91; 6,767,300 cwts, or 47.2 per cent. ; Bombay, 6,212,143 cwts., or 43.3 per cent. ; and Calcutta, 1,340,126 cwts, or 9.3 per Cent, the Small balance being sent from Madras and Ran- goOn. It is said that Italy is beginning to utilize the hard, white Indian wheat for the manufacture of macaroni. Oil-seeds were freed in 1875 from their former export duty of 3 per cent. ad valorem. During the ten previous years, the average annual export was only about 4 million cwts. ; but the fiscal change, coinciding with an augmented demand in Europe, has since trebled the Indian export. In 1877–78, the export of oil-seeds amounted to 12,187,020 cwts., valued at Rx. 7% millions. Of this, Bengal contributed 7,799,220 cwts., and Bombay 3, 179,475 cwts. More than one-half of the linseed and nearly a quarter of the rape are consigned to the United Kingdom, while France takes two-fifths of the rape-seed and two-thirds of the #! or gingelly. In 1879, the export of oil- seeds fell to 7% million cwts., valued at Rx. 4,682,512. In 1890–91, exports of oil-seeds had again increased to 14,801,857 cwts., valued at Rx. 9,345,990, of which 6,912,208 cwts., valued at Rx. 4,598, IIo, went from Bombay, and 5,813,482 cwts., valued at Rx. 3,504,777, from Bengal. The principal countries of destination were—France, 5, Io8,705 cwts. ; the United Kingdom, 4,817,841 cwts. ; Belgium, 1,775,870 cwts. ; Italy, 908,802 cwts. ; the United States, 814,249 cwts. ; Hol- land, 604,436 cwts. ; Germany, 307,326 cwts. ; and Egypt, 239,524 cwts. Besides oil-seeds, British India exported in 1890–91, 4,365,875 gallons of expressed oil, 48,434 cwts, of dregs of gingelly oil, and 334,023 cwts, of oil-cake, of the total value of RX, 612,319. In actual amount, although not in relative importance, indigo holds its own, notwithstanding the competition of aniline dyes. The export of 1877–78 amounted to I2O,605 cwts, valued at Rx. 3,494,334. Of this total, Bengal sent 99,402 cwts., and Madras 16,899 cwts. Since 1877–78 the export of indigo has risen as high as 168,590 cwts. in 1883–84, and 157,1 16 cwts. in 1889–90; but in 1890–91 the amount was only 118,425 cwts, valued at Rx. 3,073,125. Of this amount, 69,819 cwts., valued at Rx. 2,051, I35, were sent from Bengal; 40,696 cwts, valued at Rx. 894, 12 I, from Madras; 5053 cwts., valued at Rx: 94,158, from Bombay ; and 2857 cwts., valued at Rx. 33,711, from Sind. The most noticeable feature in this trade is the diminishing proportion sent direct to England, and the wide distribution of the remainder. In A.X.AORTS. D YES, TEA. 679 1890–91, only 52,373 cwts, were consigned direct to the its desti. United Kingdom; 13,591 cwts. to Egypt, thence probably §. re-shipped to Europe; 13,085 cwts. to the United States; Io,582 cwts. to France; 7680 cwts. to Austria; 7 oz.9 cwts, to Germany; 6139 cwts, to Persia; 37.18 cwts to Turkey; and 2183 cwts. to Russia. Of other dyes, the export of safflower has fallen off, being Safflower. only in demand in the United Kingdom, and as a rouge in China and Japan; the export in 1877–78 was 3698 cwts., valued at Rx. I4,881. In 1890–91, the exports of safflower amounted to 3562 cwts., value Rx. 4948. The export of myrobalams, on the other hand, was greatly stimulated by the Myro- Russo-Turkish war, which interrupted the supply of valonica” and galls from Asia Minor. The quantity rose from 286,35o cwts, in 1875–76 to 537,055 cwts. in 1877–78, valued in the latter year at Rx. 230,526. In 1890–91, the exports of myro- balams were 655,267 cwts., value Rx. 3oo,733. About three- fourths of the whole is sent to the United Kingdom. Turmeric Turmeric. exports amounted to 146,865 cwts, in 1877–78, valued at Rx. 123,766, of which the United Kingdom took about one-half. In 1882–83, the exports of turmeric had dropped to 63,570 cwts., valued at Rx. 37,207, and in 1890–91 to 28,250 cwts., valued at Rx. 24, 153. Lac-dye, like other kinds of lac, shows a Lac. depressed trade, the exports in 1877–78 having been 9570 cwts., valued at Rx. 29, oog. In 1882–83, the exports of lac- dye had fallen to 3927 cwts., valued at Rx. 461 o ; and in 1890–91 to 163 cwts., valued at Rx. 502, the whole of which was sent to the United Kingdom. No Indian export has made such steady progress as tea, Exports which has multiplied more than fourteen-ſold in the space of ** twenty-three years. In 1867–68, the amount was only 7,811,429 lbs.; by 1872–73 it had reached 17,920,439 lbs. ; in 1878–79, without a single step of retrogression, it had further risen to 34,800,027 lbs., valued at Rx. 3,170,118; in 1882–83, to a total of 58,233,345 lbs., of the value of Rx. 3,738,842; in 1886–87, to 80,557,329 lbs., valued at Rx. 4,883, 143 ; and in 1890–91, to IIo, 194,819 lbs., valued at Rx. 5,504,293. Until recently, Indian tea was practically confined to the United Kingdom, but a market has recently been opened for it in Australia. The exports to the United Kingdom in 1890–91 amounted to Ioo,212,434 lbs., to Australia 5,118,762 lbs., and to Persia 4,195,295 lbs. Indian tea has now a recognised position in the London Indian and market, generally averaging about 4d. per lb. higher in 9” 68o COMMEA’ CAE A/V/D Z'AºA /D/E. Coffee, Export of Cotton manufac- tures, value than Chinese tea; but it has failed to win acceptance in most other countries, excepting Australia. The growth of the trade in Indian tea with the United Kingdom as compared with Chinese tea is shown by the following table:— PERCENTAGE of TEA IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. YEAR. From From From From China. India. Ceylon. Elsewhere. 1865, º o º 93 2°5 O 4'5 1870, ſº e e 89'06 9°17 O I '77 I875, º e t- 86°31 12.87 O'O8 O'74 1880, º º e 76°43 2I '81 O'O8 I '68 I885, s e e 65'84 3O'35 2 *OO I '8I I890, & e te 32 '99 45'54 I9'OI 2°46 The exports of coffee from India are stationary, if not declining. The highest amount during the past twenty-five years was 507,296 cwts. in 1871–72, the lowest amount 235,016 cwts. in 1890–91, valued at Rx. 1,463,787. Among manufactured goods, cotton and jute deserve notice, although by far the greater part of the produce of the Indian mills is consumed locally. The value of Indian cotton-manu- in 1877-78; factured goods exported in 1877–78 was Rx. 1,142,732 ; in in 1890-91. 1882–83, Rx. 2,093, 146; and in 1890–91, Rx. 2,869,768. The exports of twist and yarn, spun in the Bombay mills, increased from 3 million lbs. in 1874–75 to 15% million lbs. in 1877–78, valued at Rx. 682,058. The chief places of destina- tion were—China, 13,762,133 lbs.; Aden, 1,181,120 lbs. ; and Arabia, 393,371 lbs. By 1890–91, the exports of twist and yarn, nearly all from Bombay, had increased to 170,518,684 lbs., value Rx. 6,627, 165, chiefly to China, Japan, Java, Persia, and Aden. Indian-made piece-goods belong to two classes. Coloured goods, woven in hand-looms, are annually exported to Persia, Ceylon, Zanzibar, Arabia, Aden, Mozambique, Turkey in Asia, and the Straits Settlements. The total export of this class of goods amounted in 1890-91 to 65,846,188 yards, valued at Rx. 1,515,971, of which 62,503,611 yards were shipped to the eight countries mentioned. In 1877–78, grey goods from the Bombay mills were sent to Aden, Arabia, Zanzibar, and the Mekran coast, amounting to over Io million ZXPORTS 707 E MANUFACTURES. 68I yards, and valued at Rx. I41,509. By 1890–91, the export of grey goods from Bombay had increased to 76,856, 159 yards, valued at Rx. 962,281. Jute manufactures consist of gunny-bags, gunny cloth, and Exports of rope and twine, almost entirely the produce of the Calcutta * mills. In these, the value of the exports tends to increase faster than the quantity, having multipled nearly three-fold in the twelve years ending 1890–91. In 1877–78, the total export of jute manufactures was valued at Rx. 771, I:27, and in 1879–80 at Rx. 1,098,434. Gunny-bags, for the packing of wheat, rice, Gunny- and wool, were exported in that year to the number of more #ºs. than 26% millions, valued at Rx. 729,669. Of this total, Rx. 298, ooo (including by far the most valuable bags) was sent to Australia, Rx. 162,000 to the Straits, Rx. 80,000 to the United States, Rx. 77,ooo to Egypt, Rx. 32,000 to China, and RX. 81, ooo to other countries, which comprises a considerable quantity destined for England. In 1878–79, the export of gunny-bags had increased to 45% millions. Of gunny cloth in pieces, nearly 3 million yards were exported, almost entirely to the United States; in 1878–79, these exports had increased to upwards of 4 million yards. Of rope and twine, 4428 cwts. were exported in 1877–78, valued at Rx. 5443. By 1890–91, the number of gunny-bags exported had Gunny- increased to 98,749,416, of the value of Rx. 2,180,022, the #29. principal countries to which they were sent being Australia, the United States, China, and the Straits Settlements. Gunny cloth to the extent of 29,854,029 yards was also exported in the same year, to the value of Rx. 282,8o I ; as were also rope and twine, 6609 cwts., valued at Rx. 7208. The total export of Indian jute manufactures in 1890–91 was valued at Rx. 2,481,962, or treble the figure (Rx. 771,127) for 1877–78. The following statistics, being taken from Indian returns, do Countries not in all cases show the real origin of the imports or the Yºvich ultimate destination of the exports, but primarily the countries trades. with which India has direct dealings. London still retains its pre-eminence as the first Oriental mart in the world, whither buyers come from the other countries of Europe to satisfy their wants. To London Germans come for wool, Frenchmen for jute, and all nations for rare dyes, spices, and drugs. The opening of the Suez Canal restored to the maritime cities of the Mediterranean a share of the Eastern business which they once monopolized. But, on the other hand, the advantage of prior possession, the growing use of steamers, and the certainty of being able to obtain a return freight, all 682 COMMEACCE A/V/O ZTA&AWDAE. India's trade with England, with China. India’s trade with the Straits; with Ceylon; tend to favour trade with England, carried in English bottoms. As the result of these conflicting influences, the trade of India with the United Kingdom, while in actual amount it remains pretty Constant, shows a relative decrease as compared with the total trade. Taking merchandise only, the average value of English exports and imports during the two years 1867–69 amounted to slightly more than Rx. 58 millions, out of a total of nearly 86 millions, being 66 per cent. Ten years later, the average value of English trade for 1877–79 was still 58 millions, but the total value had risen to Too millions, and the proportion had therefore fallen to 56% per cent. In 1882–83, the total value of the English private imports and exports of mer- chandise had risen to 75% millions; but the proportion to the total trade of a little less than 133; millions (excluding Government stores and private and Government treasure) had fallen to 567 per cent. The bulk of English private trade with India has continued to steadily increase, but its propor- tion to Indian private trade with other countries has continued to diminish. In 1886–87, the value of English private trade with India was 81 millions out of 147 millions, the exact pro- portion to the total trade being 55'II per cent.; in 1890–91, it was over 84% millions out of 169 millions, showing a pro- portion of 50°16 per cent., or a trifle more than one-half. Next to the United Kingdom comes China, with an Indian trade in 1890–91 of over 16% millions (imports and exports), or nearly Io per cent. Of this, nearly 7% millions represent opium, and 5% millions cotton twist and yarn; the only other articles which China takes from India being raw cotton, cotton manufactures, and gunny-bags. In return, China sends silver, copper, raw silk and silk goods, Sugar, and tea, the balance of trade being adjusted through England. It is said that Chinese tea is now only consumed in India by natives, or sent across the frontier into Central Asia. The annual quantity imported into India is nearly 4 million lbs., and the price is extremely low. The trade with the Straits may be regarded as a branch of the Chinese trade. The exports are valued at over Rx. 5% millions, of which nearly 1% millions consists of opium, the rest being principally made up by rice (23 millions), cotton manufactures, and gunny-bags. The imports are tin, areca- nuts, pepper, and raw silk, valued altogether at less than one- half of the exports. The trade with Ceylon is merely a form of coasting trade, large quantities of rice being shipped in IWDZA'S TRADE WITH THE CONTINEA/T 683 native craft along the Madras coast to feed the Tamil coolies in that island. The imports are little more than a quarter of the exports in value. With the Mauritius, rice is exchanged with ... for sugar to a large amount; but the balance is decidedly in * favour of the Mauritius, which, in 1890–91, imported rice from India to the value of Rx. 702,436, and exported Sugar to India to the value of Rx. 1,666,402. Of European countries, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, India's and Austria alone deserve notice beside England. In º 1877–78, the Indian exports to France reached the large 5 total of nearly Rx. 6 millions, consisting chiefly of oil- Seeds (rape and gingelly), cotton, indigo, silk, and coffee. The direct imports in the same year were valued at only Rx. 451, ooo, principally apparel and millinery, brandy and wines, and silk goods; but the same articles are also sent in considerable, although unascertained, quantities Zió England. In 1890–91, the exports to France amounted to Rx. 7,879,269, and the direct imports to Rx. 815,824, consisting mainly of the same articles, with the addition of wheat. The trade with with Germany, which amounted in 1890–91 to Rx. 6,086,746, is Germany; notable for the sudden increase of imports from that Country. These imports were valued in 1890–91 at Rx. 1,691,649, being more than treble the value of any previous year, and more than double the imports from any other European Country except Belgium ; sugar contributed nearly one-half of this amount (Rx. 840,271), and the other most important items were woollen goods, salt, and hardware and Cutlery. The exports to Germany were valued at Rx. 4,395,097, of which three-quarters was made up by raw Cotton (Rx. 2,219,055) and raw jute (Rx. 1,002,649). The trade with. of India with Belgium shows a rapid increase; it was valued “” in 1890–91 at Rx. 5,629,094. The imports amounted to Rx. 976,759, of which the most important articles were iron, aniline dyes, and steel; and the exports to RX. 4,652,335, to which raw cotton contributed Rx. 2,517,819 ; oil-Seeds, Rx. 1,163,776; and wheat, Rx. 816,470. The trade of India with with Italy has not risen with the same rapidity as that with Italy; Germany and Belgium. It used to hold the second place to that with France, but is now only fourth in importance. Nevertheless, the value of the Indian exports to Italy has increased from Rx. I, Ioo, ooo in 1877–78 to Rx. 3,639, 130 in 1890–91; and the return imports from Rx. 250, ooo in 1877–78 to Rx. 492, 7 II in 1890–91,–total trade of India with Italy in 1890–91, Rx. 4, 131,841. The exports are raw Cotton 684 COMMEA2C/E AAWD TA2A/D/2. with Austria. India's trade with the United States. India’s trade with Asia ; with Africa. (Rx. 2,230,888), oil-seeds, hides, jute, and silk; and the imports, corals, cotton goods, silk goods, glass beads, and false pearls. The trade with Austria is the last of any import- ance with European countries, and amounted in 1890–91 to Rx. 3,582,677. The imports into India were valued at Rx. 832,795, the chief items being woollen goods, stationery, hardware and cutlery, Cotton twist, sugar, and copper; and the exports from India at Rx. 2,749,882. The greater part of the Indian exports consisted of raw cotton (Rx. 2,014,735); but there was also a considerable export of jute and indigo. The trade with the United States comes next to that with Belgium, aggregating a total for exports and imports of Rx. 5,503,992. The exports are raw jute, hides, linseed, gunny-bags, Saltpetre, and indigo ; and the imports are almost confined to mineral oils. In 1878–79, the import of ice (formerly an important item in the trade with the United States) fell off greatly, under competition from local manufac- ture at Calcutta and Bombay, and it has now entirely ceased ; while the imports to India of American kerosene oil rose to 3 million gallons in 1878–79, and to the enormous quantity of 32% million gallons in 1890–91. Next to China, the Straits Settlements, and Ceylon, the chief sea-borne trade with Asiatic countries is carried on with Persia, Japan, and Arabia. The value of the total sea-borne trade of India with Persia in 1890–91 was Rx. 2,451,125— imports, Rx. 7 Io, 182 ; exports, Rx. 1,740,943 : with Japan, Rx. 1,270,458—imports, Rx. 57,672; exports, Rx. 1,212,786: and with Arabia, excluding Aden, Rx. 1,268,607—imports, Rx. 290,707; exports, Rx. 977,900. With regard to Africa, India's trade with Egypt takes the first place, exceeding the trade with Italy. But it is probable that a large proportion of the goods consigned to Egypt are there re-shipped for exporta- tion to European countries. The total trade with Egypt in 1890–91 was valued at Rx. 4,630,908—imports, Rx. 87,306; exports, Rx. 4,543,602. The trade with the ports on the Eastern coast of Africa, Zanzibar, and Mozambique is of a more genuine character. It amounted in 1890–91 to Rx. 1,322,123. The imports were valued at Rx. 441,483, or about half the exports, Rx. 880,640. More than half of the Indian exports, valued at Rx. 545,563, consisted of manu- factured Cotton goods. The following tables summarize the private foreign trade of India in 1877–78 and 1890–91 :— DISTRIBUTION OF FOREIGN TRADE OF INDIA IN 1877–78 AND 1890–91 (Exclusive of Government Stores, and of Government and Private 7% easure).” 1877–78. 1890–91. Percentage Percentage Imports. Exports. Total. of value on Imports. Exports. Total. of value on grand total. - grand total. EUROPE— Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. United Kingdom, . g & º 32,2II, 3O3 29,613,606 61,824,909 59'2 52, IoI,868 32,755,188 84,857,056 5o"I6 France, . a g º 'º º 45I, IO5 5,967,002 6,418, IO7 6' I 815,824 7,879,269 8,695,093 5.14 Germany, g 25,482 33O,794 356,276 "4 I,691,649 4; 395, O97 6,086,746 3.59 Belgium, & II9 218,706 218,825 "2 976,759 4,652,335 5,629,094 3'34 Italy, e 349,228 1,870,ooô 2,219,234 2 “I 492,71 I 3,639, 130 4,131,841 2"44 Austria, º * * * II.3,078 1,465,891 I,578,969 I'5 832,795 2,749,882 3,582,677 2 ” II Other European countries, 23,185 584,619 607,804 *6 68,087 I,993,764 2,061,851 I "22 Total, 33,173,500 | 40,050,624 73,224, I24 7o'I 56,979,693 || 58,064,665 | II5,044,358 68°oo AFRICA— * & Egypt, . 42,461 577,752 620,213 6 87,306 4,543,602 4,630,908 2.74 Mauritius, g & 642,471 I, I48,217 1,790,688 I'7 I,7or,695 I, I69, Io2 2,870,797 I'69 Eastern coast ports, . . . . & 217,964 281,08o 499, O44 "5 441,483 880,640 I, 322, I23 73 Other African ports and islands, . 3, 4O5 I57,599 I61,004 “I II,452 764,505 775,957. 46 Total, 906,301 2,164,648 3,070,949 2'9 2,241,936 7,357,849 9,599,785 5'67 AMERICA— United States, . . . 279,717 I,932,727 2,212,444 2"I I,522,365 3,981,627 5,503,992 3'26 Other American countries, tº 708 339,167 339,875 "3 I,764 g23,462 925,226 '55 Total, 280,425 2,271,894 2,552, 3I9 '4 I,524, I29 4,905, o&Q 6,429,218 3'81 ASIA— * e China, . . . . I,423,673 || I2,743, I49 || 14,166,822 13°6 2,420,295 || 14,440,396 || 16,860,691 9'97 Straits Settlements, I, O79,702 2,581,736 3,661,438 3'5 2,300,338 5,759,264 8,059,602 4'76 Ceylon, . s 53O,555 2,544,516 3, O75, O7I 3.9 7I3,383 2,668,337 3,381,720 2.99 Persia, . 469,507 873, 193 I,342,7OO I 3 7Io, I82 I, 74O994.3 2,45I, I25 I 45 Japan, I,739 5,16o ,899 . . 57,672 r, 212,786 I,270,458 ‘75 Arabia, 323,692 682,934 1,006,626 9 29O,707 977,90I 1,268,608 ‘75 Aden, . . . . . . . I61,046 330,643 491,689 * 5 I29,575 887,561 I, or 7, 136 *60 Other Asiatic countries, g 677,564 481,683 I, I59,247 I "I I,4II, 148 808,436 2,219,584 I'3I Total, 4,667,478 20,243,014 24,910,492 23'9 8,033,300 | 28,495,624 36,528,924 2I '59 AUSTRALASIA— . gº Australia, including Tasmania and New Zealand, 298,298 455,534 753,832 ‘7 249,718 1,226,887 1,476,605 '87 Other countries unspecified, 6,124 85,608 9I,732 °of Grand Total, 39,326,002 65,185,714 IO4,511,716 IOO"O 69,034,900 | Ioo, I35,722 I69,170,622 IOO"oo 1 On p. 668 ante will be found details of the distribution of the whole foreign private trade, including treasure. § § DISTRIBUTION OF PRINCIPAL ExPORTs of RAW PRODUCE IN 1877–78 AND 1890–91 (in cavis.). Cotton. Jute. Rice. Wheat. Indigo. 1877–78. 1890–91. 1877–78. 1890–91. 1877–78. 1890–91. 1877–78. 1890–91. 1877–78. 1890–91. United Kingdom, 1,440,000 | 1,530,172 |4,493,483 6,745,358 || Io,488, 198 4,300,331 || 5,731,349 8,208,935 | 51,64I 52,373 France, . 6II, OOO 688,585 295,205 2O, II? I34,429 I 16,674 I,517,888 29,999 || IO,582 Germany, IO9,OOO | 809,930 1,432,872 68,839 3O9,74O 22,859 7,029 Belgium, 907, 33 I 893 3OI I,920, 138 88 Austria, . 4O7,OOO || 718,894 316,788 4. 6,618 7,680 Italy, 434,000 || 823,523 3O4,704 I6 I 439,685 | 1,392 677 United States, II 845,810 2,715,728 70,694 9,832 | 13,085 Egypt, 819 9,700,215 2,000,218 I2,417 | 13,591 Persia, 299 I26,824 I85, I 18 49 4, 148 6, 139 Mauritius, 3I4. I,461,931 I,651,474 154,888 . II, 745 7 China, 219,000 II9,844 26,822 6,776 - 3.18 Straits Settlements, 22,894 459 I, O22, 43 I 6,452,495 7,34I SO/AF2 CAAVAZ, ZACAA)/2. 687 The trade of India with Australia was formerly limited to India's . the export of rice, gunny-bags, and castor-oil, and the import º of copper and horses. A little coal is sent from Australia, and a little coffee from India. Hitherto Australia has pre- ferred to drink Chinese tea; but a considerable development of trade in this and other Indian products has taken place since the Melbourne and other Colonial Exhibitions. The total exports to Australia in 1890–91 aggregated RX. I,226,887; return imports, Rx. 249,718. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, while it has stimu- Trade vić lated every department of trade into greater activity, has not º materially changed its character. The use of the Canal implies steam power. In 1871–72, the first year for which statistics are available, the total number of steamers trading with India which passed through the Canal was 422, with a tonnage of 464,198. Every subsequent year shows an increase until the great fall in trade in 1878–79. In 1877–78, the number of steamers passing through the Canal was I 137, with a burthen of 1,617,839 tons, or 64 per cent. Of the total steam tonnage. Although there was a considerable falling off in the two following years, the Canal trade speedily recovered itself; and in 1880–81, 1459 Steamers of 2,133,872 tons passed the Canal. In 1890–91, the number of Canal steamers was 1717, of 3,308,576 tons, or over 42 per cent. Of the number of steamers entering and clearing Indian ports, carrying over 55 per cent. of the total steam tonnage. As might be anticipated, the imports to India, being for the most part of small bulk and high value, first felt the advantages of this route. In 1875–76, 85 per cent of the Growth of imports from Europe and Egypt (excluding treasure) passed ºnal - through the Canal, but only 29 per cent of the exports. The export trade, however, has rapidly increased, showing that such bulky commodities as Cotton, grain, oil-seeds, and jute now largely participate in the advantages of rapid transport afforded by the Canal. In 1877–78, the import trade vić the Canal amounted to 74 per cent. Of the total imports into British India, and the Canal exports to 36 per cent. of the total exports. In 1882–83, while the import trade vić the Canal remained stationary at 74 per cent., the proportion of Canal exports had increased to 52 per cent. The proportion of both import and export trade passing through the Suez Canal has increased from 45 per cent, in 1877–78 to 67 per cent. in 1890–91. The Canal has reduced the length of the voyage from London to Calcutta by about fifty days. The route round 688 COMMEA2CE A/V/D 7"RA/D E, Sir R. Temple on the balance of Indian trade. Indian COIſlnſlerCe for thirty- six years. The balance; how accounted for. Govern- ment re- mittances. Private re- 1mittanceS. the Cape was more than 11,000 miles, and occupied nearly three months; that through the Canal is less than 8ooo miles, and takes from 27 to 45 days. Sir R. Temple, when Finance Minister in 1872, drew up a valuable State Paper, in which he placed in a clear light the various means by which the apparent excess of exports over imports is liquidated. His conclusions were based on special materials reaching from 1835 to 1871. They are therefore summarized here without attempting to extend them to the period which has since elapsed. The balance of trade during recent years has already been dealt with at pp. 661, 662. - During the thirty-six years between 1835 and 1871, the value of merchandise exported from India amounted to Rx. IoI2 millions, say one thousand millions Sterling; the value of merchandise imported into India amounted to Rx. 583 millions, showing an excess of RX. 429 millions in the exports. The value of treasure imported in the same period was Rx. 312 millions, against Rx. 37 millions exported, being a nett import of Rx. 275 millions. Deducting this from the excess of merchandise exports, a balance of RX. I54 millions has to be accounted for otherwise than in the ordinary opera- tions of trade. The first item to be considered is freight. Next come all payments made in England, whether by the Indian Government or by private persons resident in India. During the thirty-six years taken, the aggregate amount of payments in England on Government account (now represented by the Secretary of State's bills) amounted to Rx, I 13 millions. These bills are drawn to meet charges due in England under such heads as civil and military pensions, interest on debt and on railway capital, military stores, etc.; and they are bought by bankers or merchants, who require to meet their own pay- ments in India. They operate, financially, as if treasure had been sent to India, and thus reduce the apparent balance of trade at one stroke from Rx. I 54 millions to Rx. 41 millions. The remaining item to be considered is the remittances to England on private account, which it is impossible to ascertain with any pretension to accuracy. In 1872, this item was estimated at Rx. 3% millions a year; but in former years it had been much less, and it is now probably much more. It includes such divers matters as the savings of officials, profits of trade and planting, interest on capital invested, etc. Together with freightage, it would make up the balance of //V/2/AAW COAST/AWG TRAZ) E. 689 RX. 41 millions yet unaccounted for, and thus finally equalize and account for the balance of India's foreign trade. The phenomena of the trade between India and China are Balance to be explained on the same principles. In 1872–73, the total §. g º IIlêSe exports from India to China were valued at Rx. I2,074,347, to trade. which opium alone contributed Rx. Io,529,673. The total imports from China were valued at only Rx. 1,355,171, showing an excess of Rx. Io,719, 176 in exports, for which India receives no direct return from China. In this case, China pays her debt to India by the excess of her exports to England, which are there placed to the credit of India. During the twenty years between 1852 and 1871, the aggregate balance of trade in favour of China in her dealings with England amounted to RX. II 2 millions. This amount was available to settle China's equally unfavourable balance with India, and was in fact paid by China for Indian opium, as certainly as if the opium had been sent to China Zió England. It is evident, therefore, that if the Chinese were to greatly increase their imports of English goods, the exchanges of India might be seriously affected. The foreign trade of India is practically monopolized by Coasting five ports, namely, Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Rangoon, and trade. Karáchi; but the entire seaboard along both sides of the pen- insula is thronged by native craft, which do a large coasting business. In the Gulfs of Kachchh (Cutch) and Cambay, on the Malabar coast, and in the southern Districts facing Ceylon, a large portion of the inhabitants are born Sailors, conspicuous alike for their daring and for their skill in navigation. In I873–74, which may be regarded as a normal year, the total number of vessels engaged in the coasting trade which cleared and entered was 294,374, with an aggregate of Io,379,862 tons; the total value of both coasting exports and imports was RX. 34,890,445. Of the total number of vessels, 280,913, with Statistics 4,843,668 tons, were native craft. Bombay and Madras divided : d between them nearly all the native craft; while in Bengal and shipping, Burma, a large and increasing proportion of the coasting traffic *74; is carried in British steamers. In 1877–78, the year of famine, in 1878, the number of ships increased to 319,624; the tonnage to I5,731,246 tons; and the value to RX. 67,814,446. By far the largest item was grain, of which a total of 1,137,690 tons, valued at Rx. 13 millions, was thrown into the famine-stricken Districts from the seaboard. In 1890–91, the number of ships and engaged in the coasting trade, with their tonnage and value of 1890–91. their cargoes, had greatly increased. 2 X. 690 COMMERCE AAWD TRADE. Frontier trade. Three main trade routes to Afghān- istán. Value of Afghān trade. Trade with Central Asia. FRONTIER TRADE-Attempts have been made to register the trade which crosses the long land frontier of India on the north, stretching from Balūchistán to China and Siam. The returns obtained for a period of five years ending 1890–91 show an annual trans-frontier landward trade averaging about Rx. 9 millions; the yearly imports averaging about Rx. 4 millions, and the exports about Rx. 5 millions. Details of this import and export trans-frontier trade for each of the five years will be found in the table on page 693. The figures, although perhaps not absolutely accurate, may be accepted as substantially correct. Three main trade routes pierce the Suláimán Mountains, across the western frontier of the Punjab and Sind. These are—(1) the Bolán Pass, which collects the trade both of Kan- dahár and Khelát, and debouches upon Sind at the important mart of Shikárpur, whose merchants have direct dealings with the remote cities of Central Asia; (2) the Gumál Pass, leading from Ghazní to Dera Ismāīl Khán, which is followed by the half-military, half-trading clan of Povindahs, who bring their own caravans of camels into the heart of India; (3) the Kháibar Pass, from Kábul to Peshāwar. The aggregate value of the annual trade with Afghānistán, previous to the last war, was estimated at Rx. I million each way, or a total of 2 millions; but it has since greatly increased. The figures for 1875–76, which, however, are stated to be incomplete, give the value of the imports from Afghānistán at Rx. 914,000, consisting chiefly of raw silk, dried fruits and nuts, manſit or madder and other dyes, charas (an intoxicating preparation of hemp) and other drugs, wood, and furs; the total exports in 1875–76 were valued at Rx. 816,000, chiefly cotton goods both of Native and European manufacture, Indian tea, indigo, and salt. In 1890–91, the total imports from Afghānistán and the neighbouring hill tracts into Sind and the Punjab amounted to Rx. 744,359, and the exports to RX, 2,220,385 ; total, RX. 2,964,744. The increase has been chiefly in the trade with Khelát, Kandahár, etc., which has been stimulated by the construction of the Sind-Pishin Rail- way, whereas the trade with Kábul and Northern Afghānistán shows a tendency to decrease. The Punjab also conducts a considerable business Zſió Kashmir with Ladākh, Yarkand, and Kashgar, estimated at about Rx. I million altogether. The chief marts on the side of India are Amritsar and Jálandhar, from which latter place the route runs northward past Kángra and Pálampur to Leh, ZTA’AAVS-A////A/CAVA/V 7TA’A/D/E. 691 where a British official has been stationed since 1867, in which year also a fair was established at Pálampur to attract the Yarkandſ merchants. Merchandise is usually conveyed across Himá- the Himalayan passes on the backs of sheep and yaks; but #. British enterprise has successfully taken mules as far as Leh. 3. In 1875–76, the total imports from Kashmir were valued at RX. 484, ooo, chiefly fashmina or shawl-wool, charas, raw silk, gold-dust and silver ingots, and borax ; the exports were valued at Rx. 342, ooo, chiefly cotton goods, food-grains, metals, salt, tea, and indigo. In 1890–91, the imports from Kashmir into the Punjab amounted to Rx. 559,954, and the exports to Rx. 566, 173; total, Rx. 1,126,127. The whole trans-frontier landward trade of the Punjab in 1890–91 was— imports, Rx, 986,539, and exports, Rx. 1,233,277; grand total, RX. 2,219,816. Farther east, the Independent State of Nepāl cuts off direct with intercourse with Tibet for a total length of nearly 700 miles, N*P* bordering the North-Western Provinces, Oudh, and Behar. Little trade is allowed to filter through Nepāl, to and from Tibet (amounting in value in 1890–91 to Rx. I 19,017 for both imports and exports); yet a very large traffic is everywhere carried on along the frontier between the Nepālís and British subjects. The Nepāl Government levies transit duties im- partially on all commodities; but it is asserted that their fiscal tariff is not intended to be protective, and does not in fact operate as such. Markets are held at countless villages Frontier along the boundary, for the exchange of rural produce and marts. articles of daily consumption ; and many Cart tracks Cross the line from our side, to lose themselves in the Nepāl farái. The principal trade route is that which starts from Patná, and pro- ceeds nearly due north through Champáran District to the capital of Khātmándu ; but even this is not passable through- out for wheeled traffic. From Khātmándu, two routes branch Nepāl off over the central range of the Himalayas, which both º ultimately come down into the valley of the Tsanpu, or great º river of Tibet. In 1877–78, the registered trade with Nepāl (which is doubt- Nepāl less below the truth) amounted to a total of Rx. 1,687,ooo, of ºt. which more than two-thirds was conducted by Bengal. The imports from Nepāl were valued at Rx. 1,054,000, the principal items being food-grains and oil-seeds, cattle, timber, and horns. Other articles of import which do not figure prominently in the returns, are musk, borax, chireča, madder, Cardamoms, chauris or yak-tails, ginger, balchar or scented grass, furs, and 692 COMMAEA’CE A/V/D 7TACA DE. Trade with hawks. The Indian exports to Nepāl in 1877–78 were valued Nepāl; 1877 and 1890. Bhutan. North-east frontier trade; 1877 and 1890. Siam trade. Internal trade of India. at Rx. 633,000, chiefly European and native piece-goods (of cotton, wool, and silk), Salt, metals, raw cotton, Sugar, and spices. To these may be added the miscellaneous articles which may be usually found in a pedlar's pack. In 1890– 91, the total imports from Nepāl into the North-Western Provinces, Oudh, and Bengal amounted to Rx. I,841,145, and the exports from British India to Rx. 1,308,518; grand total, Rx. 3,149,663. The trade with Sikkim and Bhutan is at present too insignificant to require notice, although it is possible that our future entry into Tibet may lie through these States. A certain amount of traffic is conducted with the hill tribes on the north-east frontier, who almost surround the Province of Assam from Bhutan to Manipur. According to the returns for 1877–78, the total frontier trade of Assam, including part of the trade with Bhutan, amounted to about Rx. Ioo, ooo a year. In 1890–91 it amounted to Rx. 83,334, Rx. 64,278 being imports, and Rx. 19,056 exports." It consists chiefly of the bartering of rice, Cotton cloth, salt, and metals, for the raw cotton grown by the hill tribes, and for the Caoutchouc, lac, beeswax, and other jungle produce which they collect. The trade between Burma and Siam was estimated in 1877–78 at the total value of Rx. 126,000, being Rx. 69, ooo for imports from Siam, and Rx. 57,ooo for exports. In 1890–91, the trade between Burma and Siam amounted to- imports from Siam, Rx. 76,670, and exports, Rx. 60,466; total, Rx. I 37,136. Since the annexation of Upper Burma, the Indian frontier marches with China, and an attempt is being made to register the frontier trade in this quarter. This trade is valued for 1890–91 at Rx. 167, 184; namely, imports, Rx. 58,435, and exports, RX. Io9,749. The table on p. 693 exhibits the trans-frontier land trade of India with the different border countries and tribes. THE INTERNAL TRADE of India greatly exceeds her foreign commerce; but it is impossible to estimate its amount. On the one hand, there is the wholesale business, connected with the foreign commerce, in all its stages—the collection of agricultural produce from a hundred thousand villages, its accumulation at a few great central marts, and its despatch to the seaboard. The sea-imports and manufactured articles are |Sentence continued on page 694. * Assam Administration A'effort for 1890–91, p. 74. ZTA’AAVS-APA’OAVZT/EA’ ZTACA/OA. 693 TRANS-FRONTIER LANDWARD TRADE OF INDIA WITH EXTERNAL STATES FOR THE FIVE YEARs 1886–87 To 1890–91. Landward Imports into India. FROM 1886–87. 1887–88. 1888–89. 1889–90. I890–91. Afghānistán and neighbour- Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. ing tracts and hill tribes, . 688,004 7I4,787 686,481 872,825 744, 359 Kashmír, sº º 538,657 | 693, I74 || 812,344 | 664,088 559,954 Ladākh, 22,3O7 34,538 30,362 24,875 34, IQI Tibet, . g 94, IO4. 73,218 90,363 | IO3,O2O 77,992 Nepāl, gº e I,836,734 I,898,229 I,528, 134 I,550,45I I,84I, I45 Sikkim and Bhutan, º I7,921 36,530 37,679 34,954 35,952 N.E. States beyond the Ben- gal and Assam Frontier, . 55,298 43,468 43,429 48,617 61,650 Shan States, Karennee, and Zimme, tº & 478,584 632, I58 898,863 || 361,267 539,967 Siam, . * * 34,954 44,812 38,490 63,764 76,670 Western China, . tº e º is a g tº º º I3,8171 58,435 Total Imports, . 3,766,563 4, 170,914 |4, 166, I45° 3,737,678 |4,030,315° | Landward Exports from India. INTO 1886–87. 1887–88. 1888–89. 1889–90. 1890–91. Afghānistán and neighbour- Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. Rx. ing tracts and hill tribes, . 3,963,009 2,878,480 || 2,663,815 2,823,452 2,220,385 Kashmir, tº 426,804 531,030 495,705 || 564, I95 || 566, 173 Ladākh, 22,475 3I,7I2 29,93O 22,668 28,521 Tibet, . 54,381 5I,5I2 47,484 43,505 4I,O25 Nepāl, e * 874,790 | I, I37,187 | I, II5,4IO | I, I7I,576 | I,308,518 Sikkim and Bhutan, * 23,333 29,53O 25,631 3O, O26 33,557 N.E. States beyond the Ben- gal and Assam Frontier, . 8,853 II,782 I7,399 I3,760 I6,285 Shan States, Karennee, and Zimme, g & 181,826 258,502 I93, II5 29I,742 274,798 Siam, . te tº 89,384 9I,2O6 IO3,213 IOO, Igó 60,466 Western China, . & © tº © º ſº. & e e 52,6291 IO8,749 Total Exports, 5,644,855 5,020,941 4,696,702 5, II3,749 |4,658,477% GRAND TOTAL IMPORTS AND EXPORTS, 9,4II,418 || 9,191,855 8,862,847 || 8,851,427 | 8,688,792 * These figures are for ten months only. * This total differs from that given in the Statistical Abstract relating to British India, (1892), p. 230, namely, 4,226, 145. * This total differs from that given in the Statistical Abstract relating to British Zºdia (1892), p. 230, namely, 4,025,305. * This total differs from that given in the Statistical Abstract relating to British Zºdia (1892), p. 231, namely, 4,642,477. 694 COMMERCE A/VD TRADE. Internal trade in native hands. Trading CaSteS : in Southern India ; in Northern India. oil-seeds, and wheat. Sentence continued from page 692.] distributed by the same channels, but in the reverse direction. On the other hand, there is the interchange of commodities of native growth and manufacture, sometimes between neigh- bouring Districts, but also between distant Provinces. With unimportant exceptions, free trade is the rule throughout the vast peninsula of India, by land as well as by sea. The Hindus possess a natural genius for commerce, as is shown by the daring with which they have penetrated into the heart of Central Asia, and to the east coast of Africa. Among the benefits which British rule has conferred upon them, is the removal of the internal duties and other restraints which native despotism had imposed upon trading energies. Broadly speaking, the greater part of the internal trade remains in the hands of the natives. Europeans control the shipping business, and have a share in the collection of some of the more Valuable staples of export, such as cotton, jute, But the work of distribution, and the adaptation of the supply to the demand of the consumer, naturally fall to those who are best acquainted with native wants. Even in the Presidency towns, most of the retail shops are owned by natives. The Vaisya, or trading caste of Manu, has now scarcely a separate existence; but its place is occupied by offshoots and well-marked classes. On the western coast the Pársis, by the boldness and extent of their operations, tread close upon the heels of the great English houses. In the interior of the Bombay Presidency, business is mainly divided between two classes, the Baniyás of Gujarát and the Márwāris from Rájputéna. Each of these profess a peculiar form of religion, the former being Vishnuites of the Vallabhá- charya sect, the latter Jains. In the Deccan, their place is taken by Lingayats from the south, who again follow their own form of Hinduism, which is a species of Siva-worship. Throughout Mysore, and in the north of Madras, Lingayats are also found, but along the eastern seaboard the predominating classes of traders are the castes named Chettis and Komatis. Many of these trading castes still claim Vaisya descent. In Bengal, however, many of the upper classes of Stidras have devoted themselves to wholesale trade; although here also the Jain Márwärſs from Rájputéna and the North-West Occupy the front rank. Their headquarters are in Murshidābād District, and Jain Márwāris are found throughout the valley of the Brahmaputra, as far up as the unexplored frontier of China. TRADE CAEAVSUS OF 1872, 1881, AAWD 1891. 695 They penetrate everywhere among the wild tribes; and it is said that the natives of the Khási Hills are the only hillmen who do their own business of buying and selling. In the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, the traders are generically called Baniyās; and in the Punjab are found the Khatris (Kshattriyas), who have perhaps the best title of any to regard themselves as descendants of the original Vaisyas. According to the general Census of 1872, the total number of persons throughout British India connected with commerce and trade was 3,224,000, or 5.2 per cent. of the total adult males. In 1881, throughout British and Feudatory India, 3,232, I2O adult males were returned as engaged in Commerce and trade, or 3.87 per cent. of the total male population engaged in some specific Occupation. The Census of 1891 returns the population engaged in commerce, not according to the adult males, but inclusive of the families (i.e. the women and children), who derive their subsistence from that occupa- tion. The following are the detailed figures thus obtained for 1891. The number subsisting by commerce in its stricter wholesale and primary branches, such as banking, money- lending, and general dealing, was 4,685,579. The other figures are as follows:–Engaged in the provision of food and drink, 14,575,593; Of textile fabrics and dress, 12,61 1,267; of wood, Cane, mats, etc., 4,293,012; of metals and precious stones, 3,821,433; of light, firing, and forage, 3,522,257; of leather, hides, and horns, 3,285,307; of glass, pottery, and Stoneware, 2,360,623; of drugs, dyes, and gums, 391,575; and of Supplementary requirements, 1,155,267 : engaged in the construction of buildings, 1,437,739; in the construction of vehicles and vessels, 146,508; in the work of transport and storage, 3,952,993 ;-grand total of all engaged in, or depend- ent for their livelihood on those engaged in, some branch of trade, manufacture, or commerce, 56,239, I53. Trade Census; 3. 1881, and 1891. THE LOCAL TRADE of India is conducted in the permanent Local bāzārs of the great towns, at weekly markets in the rural º: of villages, at annual gatherings held for religious purposes, or by means of travelling brokers and agents. The cultivator him- Self, who is the chief producer and also the chief customer, knows little of large cities, and expects the dealer to come to his own door. Each village has at least one resident trader, who usually Combines in his own person the functions of money-lender, grain merchant, and cloth-seller. The simple 696 COMMAAC CA. AAV/D 7TA’A/DE. The village money- lender. Travelling brokers. Religious fairs. Increase of internal trade. The chief safeguard against famine. system of rural economy is entirely based upon the dealings of this man, whom it is sometimes the fashion to decry as a usurer, but who is often the one thrifty person among an improvident population. If his rate of interest is high, it is only proportionate to the risks of his business. If he some- times makes a merciless use of his legal position, the fault rests rather with the inflexible rules of our courts, which enable him to push the cultivators to extremes not allowed under native rule, Abolish the money-lender, and the general body of cultivators would have nothing to depend upon but the harvest of the single year. The money-lender deals chiefly in grain and in specie. In those Districts where the staples of export are largely grown, the cultivators commonly sell their crops to travelling brokers, who re-sell to larger dealers, and so on until the commodities reach the hands of the agents of the great ship- ping houses. The wholesale trade thus rests ultimately with a Comparatively small number of persons, who have agencies, or rather corresponding firms, at the Central marts. Buying and selling, in their aspects most characteristic of India, are to be seen not in the large cities, nor even at the weekly markets, but at the fairs which are held periodically at certain spots in most Districts. Religion is always the original cause of these gatherings or me/dis, at Some of which nothing is done beyond bathing in the river, or performing pious ceremonies. But in the majority of cases religion merely supplies the opportunity for secular business. Crowds of petty traders attend, bringing the medley of articles which can be packed into a pedlar's wallet; and the neighbouring villagers look forward to the occasion, to satisfy alike their curiosity and their household wants. The improvement in means of communication, by the con- struction of railways and metalled roads, has directly developed internal no less than foreign trade. Facilities for rapid carriage tend to equalize prices, not only over large areas of Country, but also over long periods of time. As wheeled carts supersede pack-bullocks, and as railroads supersede carts, the whole of India will gradually become one country for the purposes of food-supply. It is by this means alone that a guarantee can be provided against the ravages of famine. The vicissitudes of a tropical climate will always cause local failures of the harvest, whether by drought or by flood, which science indeed may learn to foresee, but which no practicable schemes of irrigation ZTA’A/OA, WAEA2SO/S AAA/ZZWAE. 697 or embankment can altogether avert. But India, as a whole, has never yet been unable in any single year to yield sufficient food for her population. The real problem of famine is a problem of distribution. In former times, the inhabitants of one District might be How trade perishing Of starvation, while plenty reigned in a District but #. Ioo miles distant. In 1866, the people of Orissa were de- cimated, not so much by drought or by inundation, as by the impossibility of transport. In 1877, the distress in Madras was alleviated by the importation of nearly one million tons of grain, all of which was carried inland by two lines of rail in twelve months. Supplies were drawn, not only from the sea- board of Bengal and Burma, but from the most remote Provinces. In the year 1877–78, the Central Provinces exported grain to the amount of more than 3oo, ooo tons, and the Punjab to the amount of 400,000 tons, all of which was Conveyed south by rail. Trade has never known such a stimulus as was afforded on this occasion, when the carrying power proved barely equal to the strain. If the famine had happened before the opening of the railway, it would have resulted in a loss of life without parallel even in the annals of India. But the utility of local trade is not to be judged of only at Normal such a crisis. In normal seasons, it tends alike to regulate agion ºf e - . . . internal prices and to promote a higher standard of comfort. Within trade the last twenty-five years, the cultivators have learnt for the first time the real value of their produce. In the old days, little was grown beyond grain crops for the year's food. The slightest failure meant local distress; while a bumper harvest so depreciated the value of grain, that part of the crops was equalizes often left unreaped to rot in the fields. In 1780 and 1781, a Pº suspension of revenue had to be granted to the District of Sylhet, because the harvest was so bountiful that it would not pay the cost of carriage to market, and consequently the farmers had no means of obtaining money. Even so late as 1873, the Collector of Rangpur reported that ‘ the yield of rice was considered too good by the rāyats, as prices were thereby kept down.” The extended cultivation of staples for export, introduces such as cotton, jute, and oil-seeds, together with the substitu- .. tion of more valuable crops for the inferior grains, is now g modifying the entire system of Indian agriculture. Land is not being withdrawn from food-crops to any appreciable extent, but the raiyat is everywhere learning to cultivate high-priced Subsidiary crops which will help to pay his rent. 698 COMME/2 CE A/V/D TRA DA2. It is impossible to express in figures the precise extent of the internal trade of India. But the following statistics will Serve in some measure to show both its recent development and its actual amount. They are based upon the registration returns which were collected in two typical inland administra- tions; the Central Provinces and the Punjab. Owing to changes in the system of registration, it is not safe to institute general Comparisons between distant years, and I leave the figures in each case to speak for themselves. Inter-provincial trade statistics are now chiefly confined to railway returns and the traffic passing through certain registration centres. In 1863–64, the external trade of the Central Provinces, both export and import, was estimated to amount to Io2, ooo tons, valued at Rx. 3,909,000. By 1868–69, after the opening of the Jabalpur Railway, it had increased to 209,000 tons, valued at Rx. 6,795, ooo. In 1877–78, the year of the famine in Southern India, the corresponding figures were 635,000 tons, and Rx. 9,373,000, showing an increase in 14 years of more than six-fold in quantity, and considerably more than two-fold in value. The comparatively small increase in value is partly to be attributed to the exclusion of opium, which merely passes through in transit from Málwā. In 1882–83, the total external trade of the Central Provinces, imports and exports, as represented by the railway-borne traffic to stations outside the Chief-Commissionership, and the registered trade with adjoining Native States, was returned at over 650,000 tons, valued at Rx. 8,451,047; and in 1890–91, including railway plant and live stock which have only recently been registered, at Over 780,ooo tons, valued at Rx. 8,078,159.” In 1874–75, the total external trade of the Punjab amounted to about 600,ooo tons, valued (but probably overvalued) at about Rx. I6 millions. In 1882–83, the external trade of the Punjab trans-frontier, railway-borne, and boat traffic, was returned at nearly three-quarters of a million tons, of the value of Rx. 133 millions. In 1890–91, the external trade of the Province, including trans-frontier and railway-borne, but excluding boat traffic, had increased to over 1 million tons, valued at Rx. 17,594,358,” a large part of the increase both in weight and value being due to the growth of the trade in wheat. Another example of the growth of local trade is exhibited at Dongargãon, as described in the A’effort on the Trade and Statistics of internal trade. Central Provinces. Punjab. Growth of a mart, Dongar- gáon. * Administration A'eport of the Central Proz/inces for 1890–91. * Administration Aleport of the Punjab for 1890–91. A ſº OACA / A.4/A’. 699 A'esources of the Central Provinces, a model of what such a report should be. Dongargãon now forms the principal market for grain on the fertile plateau of Chhatisgarh, which is perhaps destined to become a regular source of wheat Supply to England. Thirty years ago, it was a petty hamlet of about 20 houses, buried in wild jungle, and only distin- guished from the neighbouring villages by a weekly baizár held on Sunday. In 1862, the enterprising agent of a Nágpur firm of native merchants settled here, and began to make purchases of grain. The number of houses has now risen to about 2000, of which the majority are tiled. Dongargãon had already a resident population of 5543 in 1881. In the busy season, the concourse daily present in the Ödizár is estimated at Ioo, ooo, with 13,000 carts and 40,000 bullocks and buffaloes. Buyers come from as far west as Bombay, while the grain of all the adjoining Districts is brought here for sale. A third example of the varying methods of Indian trade A yearly may be found in the annual fair held at Kárágolá in Purniah. Rºgoi. This fair dates from the beginning of the present century, although its site has changed from time to time. It lasts for about ten days in the month of February. During that season a little town of shops, constructed of bamboos and matting, rises on the sandy plain that stretches between the village and the bank of the Ganges. The business is entirely of a retail character, the local staples of grain, jute, and tobacco being conspicuously absent. But every article of necessity or luxury for a native household is to be bought. Cloth of all kinds, from thick English woollens to fine Dacca muslins; iron- mongery and furniture from Monghyr ; boots, shawls, silks, and brocades from the cities of the North-West ; hand-mills, curry-stones, and lac ornaments from the hills of Chutiá Nágpur ; knives, yaks’ tails, ponies, musk, and other drugs, brought down by the Nepālīs; miscellaneous ware from England, such as umbrellas, matches, Soap, paper, Candles, buttons, etc., all find a ready sale. In 1876, the attend- ance was estimated at 40,000, and in 1881 at 30, ooo persons; and the fees upon shops levied by the landowner realized Rx. 150. Such fairs are always protected by a special body of police, and the European official in charge of the District or Sub-division is usually present. | 700 | Manu- factures of India. Art work. English competi- tion. The tide In OW turned. C H A P T E R X. X. ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. INDIA may be truly described as an agricultural rather than a manufacturing country, yet it must not be inferred that she is destitute of the arts of civilised life. She has no swarming hives of industry to compare with the factory centres of Lancashire; nor any large mining population. But in all manufactures requiring manual dexterity and artistic taste, India may challenge comparison with Europe in the last century; in many of them, with England at the present day. The rival kingdoms into which the country was formerly divided, gave birth to numerous arts of luxury. When the first European traders reached the coast of India in the 16th century, they found a civilisation both among ‘Moors’ and ‘Gentoos’ at least as highly advanced as their own. In architecture, in fabrics of Cotton and silk, in gold- Smith's work and jewellery, the people of India were then unsurpassed. But while the East has stood still, as regards manufac- tures on a great scale, the West has advanced by gigantic strides without a parallel in the history of human progress. On the one hand, the downfall of the native courts deprived the skilled workman of his chief market; while, on the other, the English capitalist has enlisted in his service forces of nature against which the village artisans in vain try to compete. The tide of circumstance has compelled the Indian weaver to exchange his loom for the plough, and has crushed many of the minor handicrafts. Some consolation can be found in the establishment, within the past few years, of mills fitted out by English capital with English machinery. A living portion of our own industrial activity has been transplanted to Indian soil. Manchester is growing up in miniature at Bombay, and Dundee at Calcutta. The time may yet come when India shall again clothe her people with her own cotton; she already supplies sacks from her jute for the commerce of the world. V//, /A GAZ //V/O US7R/E.S. 7 of Historically the most interesting, and still the most im- Native portant in the aggregate, of all Indian industries are the * simple crafts in every rural hamlet. The weaver, the potter, The the blacksmith, the brazier, the oil-presser, are members of a tºne. Community, as well as inheritors of a family occupation. On the one hand, they have a secure market for their wares; and, on the other, their employers have a guarantee that their trades shall be well learned. The stage of civilisation below these village industries is represented by the hill tribes, where the weaving of clothes is done by the women of the family. An advanced stage may be found in those villages or towns which possess a little colony of weavers or braziers noted for some speciality. Yet one degree higher is the case of local arts of luxury, such as ivory-carving or the making of gold lace. Another form of native industry owes its origin to European interference. Many a village in Bengal and on the Coromandel Fortified coast still shows traces of the time when the East India Com-.” pany and its European rivals gathered large settlements of ments. weavers round their little forts, and thus formed the only industrial towns that ever existed in India. But when the Company gave up its private trade in 1813 and 1834, Such centres of industry rapidly declined; and the once celebrated muslins of India have been driven out of the market by Man- chester goods. Cotton-weaving is a very ancient industry olndia. In Cotton- England it dates back only a couple of centuries. Wool and ...; linen were England’s historical staples; but in India cotton- 5 weaving was practised before the time of the Maháðhárafa. The Greek name for Cotton fabrics, sindon, is etymologically the same as that of India, or Sind; while in later days, Calicut, on the Malabar coast, has given us ‘ calico.” Cotton cloth has always been the single material of Indian clothing for both men and women, except in Assam and Burma, where silk is preferred, perhaps as a survival of an extinct trade with China. The author of the Periplus, our earliest authority on the trade an indi- of India, enumerates a great variety of cotton fabrics among É.y. her exports. Marco Polo, the first Christian traveller, dilates on the ‘cotton and buckram’ of Cambay. When European adventurers found out the way to India, Cotton and silk always formed part of the rich cargoes they brought home. The English appear to have been specially careful to fix their earliest settlements amid weaving populations—at Surat, at Calicut, at Masulipatam, at Huigli. In delicacy of texture, in purity and fastness of Colour, in grace of design, Indian 702 A RTS AAWD MAAWUFA CTURES. Causes of its decline. Still a domestic industry. Supplies three-fifths of Indian consump- tion. Cotton- weaving in Madras, 1870; cottons may still hold their own against the world. But in the matter of cheapness, they have been unable to face the competition of Manchester. Many circumstances conspired to injure the Indian industry. In the last century, England excluded Indian cotton fabrics, not by fiscal duties, but by absolute prohibition. A change of fashion in the West Indies, on the abolition of slavery, took away the best customer left to India. Then came cheapness of production in Lancashire, due to improvements in machinery. Lastly, the high price of raw cotton during the American war, how- ever beneficial to the cultivators, fairly broke down the local weaving trade in the Cotton-growing tracts. Above all, the necessity under which England lies to export something to India to pay for her multifarious imports, has permanently given an artificial character of inflation to this branch of business. Despite all these considerations, hand-loom weaving still holds its own with varying success in different parts of the country. Regarded as a trade, it has become unremunerative. Little is made for export, and the finer fabrics generally are dying out. The far-famed muslins of Dacca and of Arní are now well-nigh lost specialities. But as a village industry, weaving is still carried on everywhere, though it cannot be said to flourish. If Manchester piece-goods are cheaper, native piece-goods are universally recognised as more durable. Comparative statistics are not available; but it may be roughly estimated that about three-fifths of the cotton cloth used is woven in the country from native thread or from imported twist. In 1870, the Madras Board of Revenue published a valu- able report on hand-loom weaving, from which the following figures are taken. The total number of looms at work in that Presidency, with its then population of 31 millions, was returned at 279,220, of which 220,015 were in villages and 59,205 in towns, showing a considerable increase upon the corresponding number in 1861, when the moharfarfa, or assessed tax upon looms, was abolished. The total estimated consumption of twist in 1870 was 31,422,712 lbs., being at the rate of 112 lbs. per loom. Of this amount, about one-third was imported twist, and the remainder country-made. The total value of the cotton goods woven was returned in 1870 at Rx. 3% millions, or (taking the rupee at its old nominal value of 2s.) A, 12 IOS. per loom ; but this was believed to be much under the truth. The export of Country-made Cotton cloth from Madras in AAAWD-ZOOMS VERSUS STEAM.M/Z.Z.S. 703 the same year, 1870, was about RX. 220,000. By 1882–83, the export of country-made cloth from Madras had dwindled to Rx. 45, 196; and the latest returns which have reached me no longer show the Madras country-made exports separately from the general volume of cloth exports from Madras. In the Central Provinces, where hand-loom weaving still flourishes, and where the statistics are more trustworthy than in some other parts of India, the number of looms in 1877–78 was returned at 87,588, employing I45,896 weavers, with an annual out-turn valued at Rx. 828, ooo. In 1882–83, there were in the Central Provinces three large cotton mills at work, besides 143,8or looms, giving employment to 164,273 workmen, with an out-turn valued at Rx. 858,219. In 1890–91, the three large cotton mills just mentioned employed 805 looms and 72,08o spindles." The number of private looms is not given, but it is stated that “there has been of late years much decay of the embroidered and stout cotton cloth home industry for which the Nāgpur country used to be celebrated.’” In 1878–79, the export of Indian piece-goods from the Central Provinces was valued at Rx. 162,642. In 1882–83, it was valued at Rx. I47,773, and in 1890–91 at Rx. I50,464. As regards Bengal, hand-loom weaving is generally on the decline. The average consumption of piece-goods throughout the Province is estimated at about Rs. 2. 8 per head, and the returns of registered trade, when I last went into the subject, showed that European piece - goods were distributed from Calcutta at the rate of about RS. I. 4 per head. In Midna- pur, Nadiyā, and Bardwan, the native weavers still hold their own, as appears from the large imports of European twist; but in the eastern Districts, which have to balance their large exports of jute, rice, and oil-seeds, the imports of European cloth rise to RS. I. 5 per head. No part of India has more cruelly felt the English com- petition than Bombay. But in Bombay, the introduction of steam machinery is already beginning to restore the work to native hands. Twist from the Bombay mills is now generally in Central Provinces, 1878; I891 ; in Bengal ; in Bombay. used by the hand-loom weavers of the Presidency, and is . largely exported to China. But it is in the finer fabrics produced for export that the Bombay Districts have suffered most. Taking Surat alone, the export by Sea of piece-goods at the beginning of the century was valued at Rx. 360,000 a * Administration Report of the Central Provinces for 1890–91, p. 44. * Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India in 1890–91, p. 216. 704 AA’7'S AAV/O MAAVUFA CTUA’AºS. Special Indian fabrics. Dacca muslins. Madras muslins. Bangalore cloths. Bombay fabrics. Indian silk- weaving, in Burma and Assam ; year. By 1845, the value had dropped to Rx. 67,ooo, rising again to Rx. 134, ooo in 1859; but in 1874 it was only Rx. 6332. It is impossible to enumerate the many special fabrics which are still produced in various parts of the country. First among these are the far-famed muslins of Dacca, which can still be obtained to order, although the quality is far inferior to what it was when Dacca was the capital of a luxurious Muhammadan court. Most of the weavers are Hindus, and the high development which their industry has reached may be judged from the fact that they employ no fewer than 126 distinct implements. The finest muslins are woven plain, but patterns of coloured silks are afterwards embroidered on them by a separate class of workmen. (For the decay of the Dacca manufactures, and the transfer of the weaving communities to agricultural employments, see article DACCA in The Zmperial Gazetteer of India.) Fine muslin is woven in small quantities at Sarail in the adjoining District of Tipperah; and Säntipur, in Nadiyā, still retains its reputation for delicate fabrics. But with these exceptions, cotton-weaving in Bengal produces only coarse articles for common use. In Madras, the fine fabrics maintain their ground better, although the trade is nowhere flourishing. Among those deserving mention are the muslins of Arni, the cloth woven by the Nairs on the Malabar coast, the chintzes of Masulipatam, the panjam or ‘I2O-thread’ cloth of Vizagapatam, and the blue sa/ampurs of Nellore. At Bangalore, the descendants of the old court weavers still manufacture a peculiar kind of cloth, printed in red and black with mythological designs. In the Bombay Presidency, Ahmadābād, Surat, and Broach are the chief centres of the manufacture of printed sárás, for which Gujarát is celebrated; while Poona, Yeola, Násik, and Dhārwär produce the fabrics dyed in the thread, which are much worn by the Maráthá races. Silk is often combined with cotton on the looms, and the more expensive articles are finished off with a border of silk or gold lace. Chāndā and Hoshangābād are the largest weaving towns in the Central Provinces. Silk-weaving is also a common industry everywhere, silk fabrics, or at least an admixture of silk with cotton, being universally affected as a mark of wealth. Throughout Lower Burma, and also in Assam, silk is the common material of clothing; usually woven by the women of the household. In Burma, the bulk of the silk is imported from China, generally in a raw state; but in Assam it is obtained from two or three SZZA A'AAA’/CS. 705 varieties of worms, which are generally fed on jungle trees, and may be regarded as semi-domesticated. Bengal is the only in Bengal. part of India where sericulture, or the rearing of the silkworm proper on mulberry, can be said to flourish. The greater part of the silk is wound in European filatures, and exported in the raw state to Europe. The native supply is either locally consumed, or sent up the Ganges to the great cities of the North-West. A considerable quantity of raw silk, especially for Bombay consumption, is imported from China. Tasar silk, from the cocoons of semi-domesticated worms, does not contribute much to the supply. (Wide ante, pp. 609-612.) As compared with cotton-weaving, the silk fabrics form a Classes town rather than a village industry. Silk fabrics are of two ãº. kinds—(1) those composed of pure silk, and (2) those with a cotton warp crossed by a woof of silk. Both kinds are often embroidered with gold and silver. The mixed fabrics are known as mashru or suft, the latter word meaning ‘permitted,’ because the strict ceremonial law will not allow Muhammadans to wear clothing of pure silk. They are extensively woven in the Punjab and Sind, at Agra, at Haidarābād in the Deccan, and at Tanjore and Trichinopoli in Madras. Pure silk fabrics are either of simple texture, or highly ornamented in the form of Áinéhabs or brocades. The latter are a speciality of Benares, Brocades. Murshidābād, Ahmadābād, and Trichinopoli. Their gorgeous hues and texture may be inferred from the following names:— Shikazgah, “hunting-ground; chand-fara, ‘moon and stars; ' mazchar, “ripples of silver;' murgala, ‘peacock's neck.’ Printed silks are woven at Surat for the wear of Pārsī and Gujaráti women. Quite recently, mills with steam machinery have been estab- Steam lished at Bombay, which weave silk fabrics for the Burmese ilk. - / / e o factories, market, chiefly lićngyás, tamains, and Žaſsoes. The silk manu- factures exported from India consist almost entirely of the handkerchiefs known as bandannas and corahs, with a small proportion of tasar fabrics. The trade, after a temporary period of depression, appears now to be increasing. In 1875–76, silk manufactures to the extent of 2,468,052 yards, valued at Rx. 238,000, were exported from India. During the next five years, ending 1880–81, the value of the annual export of manufactured silk averaged Rx. 220,422 ; but during the succeeding ten years, ending 1890–91, it averaged Rx. 331,920.” In the year 1890–91, however, it fell lower than in any previous year since 1881–82, being valued at only * Statistical Zables for British Zºdia (Calcutta, 1892), pp. 146, 147. 2 Y 706 AACTS AAWD MAAVUAEA CTOA’A.S. Embroi- dery. Camel's hair. Kashmir shawls. Leather- work. Velvet. Rx. 267,858 for 2,647,311 yards of pure silk piece-goods, and 282,754 yards of silk goods combined with other materials. Embroidery has already been referred to in the two pre- ceding paragraphs. The groundwork may be either silk, cotton, wool, or leather. The ornament is woven in the loom, or sewn on afterwards with the needle. The well-known choga, which has recently come into popular use in England for dressing-gowns, is made of patu or camel's hair, embroidered in Kashmir, the Punjab, and Sind. The still better known and more valuable Kashmir shawl, made either in Kashmir itself or at Ludhiana, and a few other towns of the Punjab, is composed of fashmina, or the soft wool of the so-called shawl- goat, which is a native of the Himalayan plateaux. Muslin is embroidered with silk and gold thread at Dacca, Patná, and Delhi. Sind and Cutch (Kachchh) have special embroideries of coloured silk and gold. Leather-work is embroidered in Gujarát. In some of the historical capitals of the Deccan, such as Gulbargah and Aurangābād, velvet (makhmal) is gor- geously embroidered with gold, to make canopies, umbrellas, and housings for elephants and horses, for use on State occasions. Not only the goldsmith, but also the jeweller lends his aid A jewelled to Indian embroidery. A chadar, or shawl made by order of a shawl. Carpets and rugs, of cotton ; of wool. late Gáekwár of Baroda, is thus described by Sir G. Birdwood: “It was composed entirely of inwrought pearls and precious stones disposed in an arabesque fashion, and is said to have cost a kror of rupees (say I million sterling). Although the richest stones were worked in it, the effect was most har- monious. When spread out in the sun, it seemed suffused with an iridescent bloom, as grateful to the eye as were the exquisite forms of its arabesques.’ Carpets and rugs may be classified into those made of cotton and those made of wool. The former, called satranſis and daris, are made chiefly in Bengal and Northern India, and appear to be an indigenous industry. They are usually white, striped with blue, red, or chocolate, and sometimes ornamented with squares and diamonds. The woollen or pile Carpets, known as Āalin and Áalicha, are those which have recently attained so much popularity in England, by reason of the low price at which the out-turn of the jail manufactories can be placed on the market. The pile carpet is indigenous to Persia and Türkistén, where the best are still made. The art came into India with the Muhammadans. ‘The foundation for the carpet is a GO ZZ) A/V/D S/Z. VEA’ WOA’A. 7 o’ſ warp of strong cotton or hempen threads ; and the peculiarity of the process consists in dexterously twisting short lengths Process of coloured wool into each of the threads of the warp, so * 1112.Illl- º e • acture. that the two ends of the twist of wool stick out in front. The projecting ends are then clipped to a uniform level, and the lines of work are compacted together by striking them with a blunt instrument’ (Birdwood). The historical Indian seats of the industry are Kashmir, the Punjab, and Seats of Sind; Agra, Mírzápur, Jabalpur, Warangal in the Deccan, wº. Malabar and Masulipatam. Velvet carpets are also made at Benares and Murshidābād, and silk pile carpets at Tanjore and Salem. At the London Exhibition of 1851, the finest Indian rugs Warangal came from Warangal, the ancient capital of the Andhra dynasty, * about 8o miles east of Haidarābād. Their characteristic feature was the exceedingly numerous count of the stitches, about 12, ooo to the square foot. “They were also perfectly harmonious in colour, and the only examples in which silk was used with an entirely satisfactory effect” (Birdwood). The price was not less than 4. To per square yard. The common rugs, produced in enormous quantities from the jails at Lahore, Jabalpur, Mírzápur, Benares, and Bangalore, sell in England at 7S. 6d. each. Gold and silver, and jewels, both from their colour and their Gold- intrinsic value, have always been the favourite material of º Oriental ornament. Even the hill tribes of Central India and jewellery. the Himalayas show skill in hammering silver into brooches, armlets, and necklets. Imitation of knotted grass and of Hill-work. leaves seems to be the origin of the simplest and most Common form of gold ornament, the early specimens consist- ing of thick gold wire twisted into bracelets, etc. A second archaic type of decoration is to be found in the chopped gold jewellery of Gujarát. This is made of gold lumps, either solid Or hollow, in the form of cubes and octahedrons, strung Cube together on red silk. Of artistic jeweller's work, the best jewellery. known examples are those from Trichinopoli, Cuttack, and Kashmir. Throughout Southern India, the favourite design is that known as szvámi, in which the ornamentation consists of figures of Hindu gods in high relief, either beaten out from the Surface or fixed on to it by solder or screws. The Trichino-Trichno- poli work proper, which has been to some extent corrupted Poli. to Suit English taste, includes also chains of rose gold, and bracelets of the flexible serpent pattern. The silver filigree 708 AACTS AAV/O MAAWUAEACTUA’/2.S. Cuttack. Kashmir. Cutch. Precious Stones. Indian iron-work. work of Cuttack, identical in character with that of ancient Greece and of Malta at the present day, is generally done by boys, whose sensitive fingers and keen sight enable them to put the fine silver threads together with the necessary rapidity and accuracy. The goldsmith's work of Kashmir is of the kind known as ‘parcel-gilt,’ and is further distinguished by the ruddy colour of the gold used. ‘Its airy shapes and exquisite tracery, graven through the gilding to the dead white silver below, softening the lustre of the gold to a pearly radiance, give a most charming effect to this refined and graceful work’ (Birdwood). The hammered repoussé silver work of Cutch (Kachchh), although now entirely naturalized, is said to be of Dutch origin. Similar work is done at Lucknow and Dacca. The goldsmith's art contributes largely to embroidery, as has already been mentioned. Gold and silver thread is made by being drawn out under the application of heat. The operation is performed with such nicety, that I rupee's worth of silver will make a thread nearly 800 yards long. Before being used in the loom, this metallic thread is generally twisted with silk. For the manufacture of cloth of gold (somdri) or cloth of silver (rupíri), the wire is beaten flat, so as to form the warp to a woof of thin silk or cotton. A third kind of metallic ornamentation is practised at Jaipur in Rájputána and Haid- arābād in the Deccan, by printing muslins with patterns of gold and silver leaf. - Precious stones are lavishly used by Indian jewellers, who care less for their purity and commercial value than for the general effect produced by a blaze of splendour. “But nothing can exceed the skill, artistic feeling, and effectiveness with which gems are used in India both in jewellery proper and in the jewelled decoration of arms and jade” (Birdwood). The general character may be learned from the following descrip- tion of a hair-comb in the Prince of Wales’ collection, made at Jaipur: ‘The setting is of emerald and ruby Jaipur enamel on gold, surmounted by a curved row of large pearls, all on a level, each tipped with a green glass bead. Below is a row of small brilliants, set among the elegantly designed green and red enamelled gold leaves which support the pearls. Then a row of small pearls, with an enamelled scroll-work set with brilliants between it and a third row of pearls; below which comes a continuous row of minute brilliants forming the lower edge of the comb, just above the gold prongs.’ The chief duty of the village Smith is, of course, to make the agricultural implements for his fellow-villagers. But in STEEZ, BAEASS, AAWD COPPER WORK. 709 many towns in India, chiefly the sites of former capitals, iron- work still attains a high degree of artistic excellence. The manufacture of arms, whether for offence or defence, must always be an honourable industry; and in India it attained a high pitch of excellence, which is not yet forgotten. The magnetic iron-ore, found commonly in the form of sand, yields a charcoal steel which is not surpassed by any in the world. The blade of the Indian falwār or sword is sometimes mar-Cutlery. vellously watered, and engraved with date and name; sometimes Sculptured in half-relief with hunting scenes; sometimes shaped along the edge with teeth or notches like a saw. Matchlocks and other fire-arms are made at several towns in the Punjab and Sind, at Monghyr in Bengal, and at Vizianagram in Madras. Chain armour, fine as lacework, and said to be of Persian Chain derivation, is still manufactured in Kashmir, Rájputéna, and * Cutch (Kachchh). Ahmadnagar in Bombay is famous for its spear-heads. Both fire-arms and swords are often damascened in gold, and covered with precious stones. In fact, the charac- teristic of Indian arms, as opposed to those of other Oriental Countries, is the elaborate goldwork hammered or cut upon them, and the unsparing use of gems. Damascening on iron Dama- and steel, known as Auft, is chiefly practised in Kashmir, and *d º s e e steel. at Gujrát and Siálkot in the Punjab. The process consists of encrusting gold upon the surface of the harder metal. Damascening in silver, which is chiefly done upon bronze, is known as bidari work, from the ruined capital of Bidar in the Nizām's Dominions, where it is still chiefly carried on. The village brazier, like the village smith, manufactures the Brass and necessary vessels for domestic use. Chief among these vessels “PP” is the ſołó, or globular bowl, universally used in ceremonial ablutions. The form of the lotá, and even the style of orna- The lotá. mentation, has been handed down unaltered from the earliest times. A lotá now in the India Museum, which was disinterred from a Buddhist cell in Kulu, and must be at least fifteen centuries old, represents Prince Siddhartha going on a high procession. Benares enjoys the first reputation in Northern Benares India for work in brass and copper, producing not only "* vessels for domestic and ceremonial use, but also images and religious emblems. In the south, Madura and Tanjore have a similar fame; and in the west, Ahmadābād, Poona, and Nāsik. At Bombay itself, large quantities of imported copper are wrought up by native braziers. The temple bells of India are well known for the depth and purity of their note. In many localities the braziers have a 7Io AACTS AAWD MAAVUFACTUAEA.S. speciality, either for a peculiar alloy or for a particular process of ornamentation. Silver is sometimes mixed with the brass, and in rarer cases gold. Bidari work, or the damascening of silver upon bronze, has already been alluded to. In this case, the metal ground is said to be an amalgam of copper, lead, and tin, made black by dipping in a solution of sal-ammoniac, saltpetre, salt, and blue vitriol. At Moradābād, in the North- Western Provinces, and at Bhilwārá in Udaipur State, Rāj- putána, tin is soldered upon the brass, and incised through in floriated patterns, which are marked by filling in the ground with a black composition of lac. At Purniah in Bengal, a variety of bidari ware is made of zinc and copper, damascened with silver, the processes of which are described at length in my Statistical Account of Bengal.” The brass or rather bell- metal ware of Murshidābād, known as khâgraí, has more than a local reputation, owing to the large admixture of silver. The demand for enormous quantities of brass-work at the lowest price for the London market, is rapidly deteriorating both the designs and the workmanship of the Benares articles. The native braziers are almost compelled to degrade their in- dustry, when they find that the most vulgar patterns, deeply but hastily carved, command a ready sale ; while their old faithful work can scarcely find an English customer, at the price necessary for production. Next to the loom of the weaver, the potter's wheel is the characteristic emblem of an ancient civilisation. From time immemorial, the potter has formed an essential member of the Hindu village community. Pottery is made in almost every village, from the small vessels required in cooking to the large jars for storing grain, and the earthenware floats used to ferry persons across a swollen stream. But although the industry is universal, it has in few Provinces risen to the dignity of a fine art. Perfection has been reached neither in the substance, as in the porcelain of China, nor in the ornamentation, as in ancient Greece. The clay in many places works up well, but the product remains mere earthen- ware, and rarely receives a high finish. In Sind and the Southern Punjab the potter's craft has risen to a high art; and here the industry is said to have been introduced by the Muhammadans. Sind pottery is of two kinds, encaustic tiles and vessels for domestic use. In both classes the colours are the same—turquoise blue, Copper green, dark purple or golden brown, under an exquisitely Bidar? Ware. Deteriora- tion of brass- work. Indian pottery. Its imper- fections. Sind pottery, * Vol. xv. pp. 355–357. TIZES, POTTERY SCUAAPTURE. 7 II transparent glaze. The usual ornament is a conventional flower pattern, Sometimes pricked in from paper, but often painted with much freedom and grace. The tiles, evidently Tiles. of the same origin as those of Persia and Turkey, are chiefly found in the ruined mosques and tombs of the old Musalmán dynasties; but the Sind industry still survives at the little towns of Saidpur and Bubri; and at Haidarābād, Karáchi, Tatta, and Hāla. Glazed tiles and pottery are also manufactured at Lahore Punjab and Múltán in the Punjab. Efforts have been made by the Bºy Bombay School of Art to foster this indigenous industry; but, pottery. as in other cases of European patronage, the Indian artisan loses his originality when set to copying alien models. Some- thing, however, has been done in the right direction by repro- ducing the old designs from the cave temples of Ajanta and Karli, in the pottery made at the Bombay School of Art. The Madura pottery also deserves mention from the elegance of its form and the richness of its colour. The earliest Indian sculptures are found in the monasteries, Sculpture. topes, and ‘rails’ of ancient Buddhism. The best specimens disclose the still fresh impulse derived from Greek or Roman artists—that impulse which has been historically treated in previous chapters, pp. 154–6 and 218, 219. With the revival of Bráhmanism, Indian sculpture degenerated. Modern Hindu statuary possesses a religious rather than an aesthetic interest." But exquisite flat-carving, and perforated arabesque windows or screens in hard sandstone and marble, are still produced at Agra and Jaipur. In the cities of Gujarát, and in other parts of India where Wood- the houses are built of wood, their fronts are ornamented ** with elaborate carving. The favourite materials are black- wood (Dalbergia latifolia), Sandal-wood, and jack-wood. The supply of sandal-wood comes from the forests of the Western Ghâts in Kánara and Mysore, but some of the finest carving in it is done at Surat and Ahmadābād. Examples of 17th century Indian carving indicate that the art received a powerful impulse from the Dutch along the Bombay coast. But Indian wood-carving is an art of very great antiquity. The early stone architecture of the Buddhists is evidently based, both in regard to structure and ornaments, on pre- existing wooden forms. Some of the patterns of modern Indian wood-carving are preserved from that earlier period in * For Indian architecture, painting, and musical instruments, See ante, chap. iv. 712 AA’7'S AAWD MAAWUAEA CZ'UA' F.S. exquisite open carving in marble, or upon lattice-work windows in hard stone. The more durable material has survived, and now tells its tale. The Burmese are also celebrated for their luxuriant wood-carving. Inlaying, Akin to wood-carving is the inlaying of the articles known as ‘Bombay boxes.’ This art is known to be of modern date, having been introduced from Shiraz in Persia towards the close of the last century. It consists of binding together in geo- Ivory- metrical patterns, strips of tin-wire, Sandal-wood, ebony, ivory, carving and stag's horn. At Vizagapatam in Madras, similar articles are made of ivory and stag's horn, with scroll-work edged in to suit European taste. At Máinpuri, in the North-Western Provinces, wooden boxes are inlaid with brass wire. The chief seats of ivory-carving are Amritsar, Benares, Murshid- abád, and Travancore, where any article can be obtained to order in ivory, from a full-sized palanquin to a lady's comb. Clay Human figures in clay, dressed to the life, are made at figures. Krishnagar in Bengal, Lucknow, Poona, and elsewhere. European The preparation of tea, coffee, and indigo has been already * described in connection with agriculture. It remains to give some account of those manufactures proper, conducted by steam machinery, and under European Supervision, which have rapidly sprung up in certain parts of India during the past few years. These comprise cotton, jute, silk, and wool, and beer, paper, leather, etc. Cotton The first mill for the manufacture of cotton yarn and cloth #9. by machinery worked by steam, was opened at Bombay in I854. The enterprise has since expanded to vast dimensions. In 1879, the total number of mills throughout India was 58, with about a million and a half spindles, and twelve thou- Sand looms, giving employment to upwards of 40,000 persons Their dis- —men, women, and children. Of this total, 30 mills, or Hºm more than half, were in the island of Bombay, which now India. possesses a busy manufacturing quarter, with tall chimney- stalks, recalling the aspect of a Lancashire town; I4 were in the cotton-growing Districts of Gujarát (Guzerāt), also in the Bombay Presidency; 6 were in Calcutta and its neighbour- hood; 3 at Madras; 2 at Cawnpur in the North-Western Provinces; I at Nágpur in the Central Provinces; I at Indore, the capital of Holkar's Dominions; and I at Haidarābād, the residence of the Nizām. By 1884, the number of steam cotton mills for which returns COTZ'O/W ///Z.Z.S. 7 I3 had been received by Government had increased to 74, with Cotton I,895,284 spindles, and 16,251 looms, giving employment to a . total of 61,836 men, women, and children. Of these, 35 were Govern- in the town and island of Bombay ; 21 were in other Districts * of the Bombay Presidency, chiefly Gujarát ; 6 in Bengal, in tº the suburbs or vicinity of Calcutta; 5 in Madras, namely, 4 in Madras town, and I in Bellary District; 3 at Cawnpur in the North-Western Provinces; 2 in the Central Provinces, namely, at Nágpur and at Hinganghat; and I each at Indore and Haidarābād in the Deccan. Private returns of the cotton industry show a somewhat Cotton different result to that quoted above. A carefully-compiled . Statement gives the figures up to the 3oth June 1884 as private follows:–On that date there were, in the town and island of *. Bombay itself, 43 cotton mills, namely, 38 in work, and 5 in course of construction, with a total paid-up capital of RX. 4,580,430; the number of spindles was 1,251,726, and of looms (in 22 mills), 11,985; giving employment to a daily average of 36,071 men, women, and children; quantity of Cotton Consumed (in 36 mills) in twelve months, 1,218,490 cwts. Elsewhere in the Bombay Presidency there were 18 mills, with a total paid-up capital for 17 mills of Rx. 943,706. The number of spindles was 289,153, and of looms, in the Only 12 mills which had them, 2314. Number of hands employed, 9293.; quantity of Cotton Consumed, 235,935 cwts. There were thus, in June 1884, in the Bombay Presi- dency, 61 mills, either in active operation or in course of Construction, with a total paid-up capital of RX. 5,452, 136, employing 45,364 hands, and consuming 1,454,475 cwts. of cotton. In the other Provinces of India there were 20 mills, namely, 6 in Bengal, 3 in the North-Western Provinces, I in the Central Provinces, I at Haidarābād, and 9 in Madras, of which 4 were under construction in June 1884. The total paid-up capital of these mills Outside the Bombay Presidency was Rx. 1,414,950 ; number of spindles, 79,176, and of looms, 1426; number of hands employed daily, I 7,472 ; quantity of cotton Consumed during the year, 371,591 cwts. Throughout India there were thus, according to private returns, 81 mills in June 1884, constructed at a cost of Rx. 6,867,086; with 1,520,055 Spindles, and I5,725 looms, consuming 1,826,016 cwts. Of Cotton during the previous twelve months, and affording employment to a daily average of 62,836 men, women, and children. For 1890–91 I have only the official statement, without 71.4 AACTS AAWD MAAWUAEACTURES. Cotton mills, 1890–91: their dis- tribution ; their capital ; propor- tion in Bombay. Nágpur Cotton Mill ; 1882, being able to check it from private returns. In 1890–91, there were 125 cotton mills, worked by steam, in India, for which returns were received by the Government, containing 23,845 looms and 3, 197,740 Spindles, and employing a daily average of I I I,998 men, women, and children. Of these mills, 89 were in the Bombay Presidency, namely, 65 in the city and island of Bombay, 9 at Ahmadābād, 4 at Surat, 3 at Broach, and I each at Baroda, Bhaunagar, Belgäum, Sholāpur, Hubli, Viramgám, Jalgáon, and Nariád. The other 36 mills are distributed as follows:–8 in Bengal, all in the suburbs or vicinity of Calcutta; 8 in the Madras Presidency, namely, 4 in the city of Madras, and 1 each at Bellary, Calicut, Tinnevelli, and Tuticorin ; 5 in the North-Western Provinces, 4 at Cawn- pur, and I at Agra; 3 in the Central Provinces, at Nāgpur, Hinganghat, and Jabalpur; 3 in the Nizām's Dominions, at Haidarābād, Gulbargah, and Aurangābād; 2 in the Punjab at Delhi; 2 in Mysore at Bangalore; 2 in the French Settlements at Pondicherri; I in Berár at Badnera; I in Central India at Indore; and I in the Native State of Travancore at Quilon. The nominal capital of these steam cotton mills was returned at Rx. Io,905,305, in addition to 5 million francs, the capital of one of the mills at Pondicherri, which is owned by a Joint- Stock Company. But this is exclusive of 9 mills belonging to private individuals, for which no capital is returned. Of the total number, IOA belong to the Joint-Stock Companies, 20 to private individuals, and I to the Baroda State. The 89 mills in the Bombay Presidency represent Rx. 7,872,755 of the capital returned, without counting 6 private concerns, and contain 18, 192 of the looms and 2,330,468 of the spindles in use in India; and in Bombay city and island alone, the 65 Cotton mills contain I4, 196 looms and 1,905,366 spindles. With regard to the factory population, 78,399 men, women, and children were on the average employed daily in the mills in the Bombay Presidency, out of a total daily average of III,998. The general character of the cotton industry and its progress may be inferred from the following returns supplied by the Empress Spinning and Weaving Mills Company at Nágpur, which in 1882 had 30,000 spindles and 45o looms at work, and employed a daily average of 3137 hands. Their con- Sumption of raw cotton up to 188o averaged 1,707,ooo lbs. a year; their out-turn has averaged 1,040,000 lbs. of yarn, valued at Rx. 45,358, and 627,700 lbs. of cloth, valued at Rx. 30,661. In 1882, the consumption of raw cotton at these mills was 3,796,240 lbs., with an out-turn of 1,804,530 lbs. Of ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES. 715 twist, and 1,494,945 lbs. of manufactured cloth, of a total value of Rx. 159,386. In 1890–91, the number of looms and and 1891. spindles worked were 7oo and 42,232 respectively; 8,358, 112 lbs. of raw cotton was spun into yarn or woven into cloth, and a daily average of 2871 hands was employed. This rapid and widespread development sufficiently proves Sound that the new industry, though still in its infancy, is being tºº. carried on under wholesome conditions, and meets a real facture. demand. Checks have from time to time occurred at Bombay, caused partly by competition with European goods recklessly thrown upon the market regardless of profit, and partly by that mismanagement to which joint-stock enterprise is peculiarly exposed. But with the revival of general commerce, the Bom- bay mills have always again started upon a career of renewed activity. Their advantages over the English manufacturer are manifest. Cheap The crop of raw material and the market for the manufactured material. article are both at their very doors, thus saving a double freight. Labour is cheap, abundant, docile, and not liable to strike. A Cheap certain amount of prejudice exists in favour of their products, abour. partly because of their freedom from adulteration, and partly No adul- from the patriotic pride naturally felt for a native industry. * Lastly, up to March 1882, they had the slight protection of a moderate customs duty of 5 per cent. ad valorem (imposed for fiscal purposes solely) upon imported goods. The cotton import duties were finally abolished, together with the general import duties upon all but a few excepted articles of mer- chandise, such as arms and ammunition, liquors, etc., by the Indian Tariff Act, XI. of 1882. & On the other hand, they labour under not a few countervailing The draw- disadvantages. The cost of erection, including spindles and * fitting up, was said (1877) to be about three times as much in Cost of India as in England. Thus a mill containing 50,000 spindles, * which in Lancashire might be set up for about 4.1 per spindle, - or a total of 2650,000, would cost at Bombay about 24, 150,000. On this capital the initial charge for interest would be only 24.25oo a year in England, calculated at 5 per cent, as Com- pared with 24, 13,500 in India, at the rate of 9 per cent. Again, High the cost of fuel, and all stores which require to be imported ** from England, tells greatly against the Bombay mills. Another important consideration which it is difficult to estimate in all its bearings, is the quality of Indian cotton, known as ‘short Short stapled, which does not admit of being spun into the finer ** kinds of yarn. Consequently the Indian mills can only turn 716 AAETS AWD MAAWUAACTUAEAE.S. Only CO2 rSé qualities made. Joint- Stock COtton mills. Bombay wages. Statistics of Bombay COtton Iſla Ill- factures. out the lower ‘counts’ of yarn, and the coarser fabrics of piece-goods, leaving English imports of the higher classes without competition. Adopting the technical language of the trade, the great bulk of the yarn spun in Indian mills consists of numbers 6, Io, and 20 mule twist. Water twist is spun in smaller quantities, generally of number 16. The maximum of either kind is number 30. The mills are capable of spinning up to 40; but as a matter of fact they never attempt this number, owing partly to the inferior quality of the cotton, and partly to the Carelessness of the work-people. As regards piece-goods, the kinds principally woven in the mills are those known as T cloths, domestics, sheetings, drills, and jeans, made entirely from the yarn spun in the same mills. Long-cloths, chadars and dhuás, are also manufactured; and recently attempts have been made to turn out drawers, stockings, night-caps, and towelling. But Manchester still possesses a practical monopoly both of the higher ‘counts’ of yarn which are used by the hand-loom weavers, and of the superior qualities of cloth. The Indian mills are almost without exception the property of Joint-Stock Companies, the shares in which are largely taken up by natives. The overlookers are skilled artisans brought from England, but natives are beginning to qualify themselves for the post. The operatives are all paid by the piece ; and, as Compared with other Indian industries, the rates of wages are high. At Bombay, boys earn from about Rs. 7 to RS. Io a month ; women, from Rs. 8 to Io; and jobbers, from Rs. 30 to even Rs. 65. Several members of one family often work together, earning between them as much as Rs. Ioo a month. The hours of work are from six in the morning to six at night, with an hour allowed in the middle of the day for meals and Smoking. The Indian Factories Act, XI. of 1881, regulates the hours of work for children and young persons, and enforces the fencing of dangerous machinery, etc. Besides supplying the local demand, these mills are gradually. beginning to find a market in foreign countries, especially for their twist and yarn. Between 1872–73 and 1890–91, the export of twist from Bombay increased from 1,802,863 lbs., valued at Rx. 97,162, in 1872–73, to 42,598,400 lbs., valued at RX, I,705,978, in 1882–83, and to 158,388,180 lbs., valued at Rx. 6,141,390, in 1890–91, or an increase of nearly eighty-eight- fold in quantity and nearly sixty-four-fold in value in eighteen years. Within the same period, the export of grey piece- WOOZ AAWD /UTE MAZZS 717 goods from Bombay increased from 4,780,834 yards, valued at Rx. 75,495, in 1872–73, to 30,730,396 yards, valued at Rx. 357,320, in 1882–83, and to 54,202,049 yards, valued at Rx. 663,810, in 1890–91. The total foreign exports of Indian twist and yarn, and of Indian manufactured grey, white, and coloured piece-goods, from all Indian ports, amounted to Rx. 7,702,639 in value in 1890–91. The above figures refer to Indian produce and manufactures only; and are exclusive of Rx. 1,794,294 of re-exported British cotton manufactures. Including these re-exports, the total exports of cotton twist, yarn, and manufactures amounted to Rx. 9,496,933 in 1890–91 from all Indian ports. The twist and yarn is mostly sent to China and Japan, the Sent to piece-goods to the coast of Arabia and south-eastern Africa. º Mr. O'Conor, who has devoted much attention to the matter, thus summarized his opinion regarding the future of the Future of Indian cotton mills: ‘Whether we can hope to secure an ** export trade or not, it is certain that there is a sufficient outlet in India itself for the manufactures of twice fifty mills; and if the industry is only judiciously managed, the manufactures of our mills must inevitably, in course of time, supersede Man- chester goods of the coarser kinds in the Indian market.’ The correctness of this opinion is further shown by Mr. O'Conor in a later Æezieze of /ndian Zºade, in which he states : “The importation of the coarser kinds of twist has long been un- important, the yarn of the Indian mills having driven it out of the market. Even the medium kinds are now diminishing, an indication that the Indian mills are beginning to make them too.” Besides cotton mills, wool-weaving by steam machinery has Wool recently been established in India, the principal mills being mills. the Egerton Mills in Gurdáspur District, Punjab, and the Cawnpur woollen mills in the North-Western Provinces. The five woollen mills, of which a return was made to Government in 1890–91, had a nominal capital of Rx. 247,500, contained 526 looms and 17, 150 spindles, and employed a daily average of 2164 hands. The bulk of the fabrics turned out by them consists of blankets, greatcoats for the police and native soldiery, and materials for servants’ clothing. The jute mills of Bengal have sprung up in rivalry to Jute mills. Dundee, as Bombay competes with Manchester; but in Bengal the capital for jute-manufacturing is almost entirely supplied by Europeans. The jute mills cluster round Calcutta, and on the 718 ARTS AND MANUFACTURES Jute mills. Number in I890–91. Varieties of gunny- bags. Out-turn of Calcutta jute mills: 1878, and 1891. Indian and foreign consump- tion : 1878, opposite side of the river in Howrah District. The industry has also taken root at Sirájganj, far away up the Brahmaputra, in the middle of the jute-producing country. In 1890–91, the total number of jute mills in India was 25, of which 24 were in Bengal and I at Cawnpur in the North- Western Provinces. There is also a mill, which works the Deccan hemp locally known as gogu into gunny-bags and cloth, at Chittivalása in Vizagapatam District, Madras. The weaving of jute into gunny cloth is an indigenous hand-loom industry in Northern Bengal, chiefly in the Districts of Purniah and Dinájpur. The gunny is made by the semi- aboriginal tribe of Koch, Rájbansi or Pāli, both for clothing and for bags; and as with other industries practised by non- Hindu races, the weavers are the women of the family, and not a distinct caste. The mills turn out bags, and also cloth in pieces to a limited extent. The bags vary in size, according to the markets for which they are intended. The largest are the twilled wool packs sent to Australia, which measure 56 inches by 26%, and weigh about Io; lbs. each. The smallest are the Hessian wheat bags for California, measuring 36 inches by 22, and weighing only 12 ounces. The average weight may be taken to be from 2 to 2% lbs. The mills in Calcutta and its neighbourhood were estimated in 1878 to keep about 4ooo looms at work; the total amount of raw jute worked up annually was about I; million cwts., which yielded about 90 million bags. The 25 steam jute mills in India in 1890–91 worked 8026 looms and 160,297 spindles, and returned their nominal capital at Rx. 3,132, ooo. The amount of raw jute worked up in the Bengal mills in that year was 3,477,680 cwts. The jute manufacturing industry afforded employment to a daily average of 61,200 men, women, and children in 1890–91. These figures are below the mark, as certain companies and private individuals have not supplied full information. The activity of the jute trade, and the general direction of the exports, will be seen by comparing the figures for 1877–78 and 1890–91 in the two following paragraphs. In 1877–78, 3 million bags were brought into Calcutta from Pabná District, being the product of the Sirâjganj mills. The total exports from Calcutta by sea and land of both power-loom and hand-made bags numbered 80 millions in 1877–78, of which not more than 6 millions were hand-made. The East Indian Railway took 20 millions for the grain marts of Behar and the North-Western Provinces (chiefly Patná and Cawnpur); JUTE STAT/ST/CS 7 IQ and I million went as far as Ludhiana in the Punjab. The total exports by sea in 1877–78 exceeded 57 million bags, of which 32 millions represent interportal, and 25 millions foreign trade. Bombay took as many as 16 millions, and Lower Burma I 2 millions. In fact, Calcutta Supplied bagging for the whole of India. In 1890–91, besides the local manufactures in Calcutta, and 1891. 24,120,220 bags were imported into that city from the interior Districts, of which 15,565,948 were power-loom and 8,554,272 hand-made. The total exports from Calcutta of power-loom and hand-made bags numbered 171,390, I 14 bags. The in- ternal exports by rail, boat, and road amounted to 19,737, 129 bags. The exports by sea numbered I 51,652,985 bags, of which 55,040,056 represented coasting, and 96,612,929 foreign exports. The foreign jute trade may be given in greater detail, for gunny-weaving is perhaps the single Indian manufacture that has secured a great foreign market. The sea-borne export Sea-borne of jute manufactures (bags and cloth) in 1872–73 was valued º of at Rx. 188,859. By 1878–79 the value had risen to Rx. 1,098,626; by 1882–83, to Rx. I,487,861 ; and by 1890–91, Growth of to Rx. 2,481,962, showing an increase of nearly Rx. 1 million the trade. during the last eight years. These figures seem to justify Mr. O'Conor’s statement in his A'ezieze of Zndian Zºrade for 1878–79, that “there is little room to doubt that in course of time India will be able, not only to supplant the manufactures of Dundee in the American and other foreign markets, but to supply England herself with bags more cheaply than they can be made in Dundee.’ On the other hand, it must be recollected that large figures, and even growing figures, do not necessarily show that a business is remunerative. Calcutta, like Bombay, sometimes suffers from the mismanagement inci- dental to joint-stock enterprises. The principal countries which take Indian guinny-bags and jute cloth are :—Australia, Rx. 744,986 in 1890–91 ; the United Kingdom, Rx. 426,342; the United States, Rx. 359,979 ; the Straits Settlements, Rx. 251,990; China, Rx. I 12,500 ; Egypt, RX. Io9,769 ; South America, Rx. 92,557; Turkey, RX. 85,618; and Cape Colony, Rx. 67,29I. Brewing has been established on a large Scale at the hill Brewing. stations for several years. There were in 1890, 22 breweries Statistics at work in India; 13 in the Punjab and the North-Western º' gº º p de *** brewing, Provinces, at Marri (Murree), Simla, Solān, Kasauli, Dalhousie, 1877–90. 720 AACTS AAV/O MAAWUAEACTUAEA.S. Beer prices. Hop imports. Masūri (Mussooree), Náini Tâl, Lucknow, Rāwal Pindi, Chakráta, and Ránikhet; I in Bombay, at Poona; 2 in Madras, at Utakamand and Coonoor ; 3 at Bangalore in Mysore; I in Bengal, at Dárjíling ; I in Burma, at Mandalay; and I in British Balūchistán, at Kirāni, near Quetta. The total quantity of beer brewed was returned at 2,162,888 gallons in 1877; 2,597,298 gallons in 1883; and 5,192,572 gallons in 1890. The quantity imported into India in 1878–79 was 2 million gallons by Government, and I million gallons on private account. In 1882–83, the Government imports were just under I; million gallons, and the private imports a little over 1 million gallons; total, 2,656,788 gallons. In 1890-91, the Government imports were only 236,700 gallons, and the private imports 2,785,574 gallons; total, 3,022,274 gallons; SO that the Indian breweries now satisfy more than one-half of the entire demand. During the last two years the purchases of beer by the Commissariat have largely decreased, mainly owing to the dislike of the British soldier to consume the beer supplied to him by the State. The Government has conse- quently, since the beginning of 1891, allowed the regiments to arrange for their own supplies independently in all places where contracts for the Supply are not in existence. It is probable, therefore, that for the future both importations on account of Government and purchases by the Commissariat of Indian beer will show a steady decrease." In 1875, 349,095 gallons of Indian beer were purchased by the Bengal Commis- sariat Department; in 1883, the quantity thus purchased was 1,936,221 gallons, as against I,486,234 gallons imported by Government. In 1890–91, the quantity of beer purchased by the Commissariat amounted to 3,093,021 gallons out of the 5,192,572 gallons brewed in India, while the imports of beer from England on behalf of the Government amounted to 236,700 gallons.” At Simla, imported beer sells at over 9 rupees per dozen quarts, while that from the local breweries can be obtained for 5 rupees per dozen. The hops are entirely imported. An experimental hop plantation of Ioo acres, established by the Mahárájá of Kashmir, has not yet proved a practical success; but efforts are still being made, both in Kashmir and in India, to successfully introduce the hop plant into the country. The imports of hops show an increase from 1529 cwts. in 1875–76, to 1940 cwts, in 1882–83, and to 3920 cwts, in 1 Statistical Tables for British India (Calcutta, 1892), p. vii. * Zalem. PAPER-MAKING, ZEATHER FACTORIES. 721 1890–91. This latter figure, however, shows some falling off Compared with some recent years, for in 1887–88 the import of hops reached 5838 cwts. The value of the hops imported was Rx. 42,983 in 1882–83, Rx. 47,438 in 1887–88, and RX, 76,927 in 1890–91.4 The steam paper mills established in the neighbourhood of Paper- Calcutta and at Bombay have almost entirely destroyed the * local manufactures of paper which once existed in many parts of the country. The hand-made article, which was strong though coarse, and formed a Muhammadan speciality, is now no longer used for official purposes. The Government possesses a large leather factory at Cawn-Leather. pur, which turns out accoutrements, saddlery, etc., of excellent quality. Two large European firms have also established leather factories at Cawnpur. Indeed, leather hand-manufac- tures have long been an important local industry in Oudh and the North-Western Provinces. They are worked so cheaply as to discourage importation from England, except in the case of articles de luxe, and saddlery or harness for the richest classes. Rice-husking by steam machinery is largely carried on at the Rice: ports of Lower Burma. husking. * Statement of the Trade of British India, 1886–87 to 1890–91, pp. 22, 23. 2 Z | 722 | Mines and minerals. Indian iron. Indigenous methods. Failure of English efforts, 1825. C H A P T E R XXI. MINES AND MINERALS, THE Indian peninsula, with its wide area and diversified features, supplies a great store of mineral wealth. In utilizing this wealth, English enterprise has met with many rebuffs. Capital has been expended in many cases with no result except disappointment. But the experience has not been thrown away; and mining industry, now established on a sure basis, is gradually rising into an important position. In purity of ore, and in antiquity of working, the iron deposits of India rank among the first in the world. They are to be found in every part of the country, from the northern mountains of Assam and Kumáun to the extreme south of Madras. Wherever there are hills, iron is found and worked to a greater or less extent. The indigenous methods of smelting the ore, handed down unchanged through countless generations, yield a metal of the finest quality in a form well suited to native wants. But they require an extravagant supply of charcoal ; and, notwithstanding the cheapness of native labour, the product cannot compete in price with imported iron from England. European enterprise, attracted by the richness of the ore and the low rate of wages, has repeatedly tried to establish ironworks on a large scale. But hitherto each of these attempts has ended in failure. The most promising early efforts were those undertaken in Madras by Mr. Heath of the Civil Service, the anticipator of the Bessemer process. In 1825, he founded a company which opened works at Porto Novo on the Coromandel coast, in the hills of Salem District, and at Beypur in Malabar. The iron and steel produced were of first-rate quality; and all went well so long as an unlimited supply of charcoal could be obtained in the neighbourhood of the furnaces. But when this essential condition of cheap production gradually ceased, the enterprise became unremunerative, and had to be abandoned. Several attempts have been made to smelt ore by means of coal, according to English methods, in the neigh- IRON. WOACAS, COAZ-MINING. 723 bourhood of Rániganj and in Birbhum and Mánbhūm. Coal abounds, and also limestone as a flux; but the company formed to work the Birbhum ores made no profit, and was compelled to wind up. Similar experiments in the Central Provinces and in Kumáun have met with similar results. In 1882–83, the Bengal Government took over the works of the Efforts by suspended Barákhar Iron Company at Khenduá in Mänbhum º District, and cast and pig iron is now manufactured on the spot. With the exception of these works, iron in India is manufactured only by peasant families of smelters, each work- ing on a very small scale. The initial difficulty in India is to find, the three elements Difficulties of iron-working, namely, the ore, the flux, and the fuel, suffi- ºian ciently near to each other. The second difficulty is the works. choking of the furnaces from the excessive quantity of ash in the coal. Coal has been known to exist in India since 1774, and is Indian said to have been worked as far back as 1775. The first “” English coal mine was opened at Rániganj in 1820. There are now about 70 working collieries in the country, with an annual out-turn of over 1 million tons. In India, as elsewhere, coal and railway extension have gone hand in hand. Coal is com- paratively worthless unless it can be brought to market by rail; and the price of coal is the chief element in determining the expenses of railway working. The history of coal in India History of is, on the whole, a record of continual progress. The first º mine, as already mentioned, dates from 1820; and it has been mining. worked regularly up to the present time. In 1878, its out- put was 50,000 tons. Until about 1840 no other mine was opened; but the commencement of the East Indian Railway in 1854 gave a fresh impetus to the industry, and since that date collieries have been set on foot at the rate of two or three every year. The largest number of additions in a single year was sever in 1874. From the Bengal collieries are supplied not only the railway itself, but also the jute mills of Calcutta, and the river steamers of Lower Bengal. Apart from Bengal, the only large Indian collieries are those of the Central Provinces; particularly the Waroró coal mines in Chándá District, and the Mohpāni colliery. Extensive coal-fields have recently been discovered at Umaria, within the Native State of Rewa, only 34 miles beyond the northern boundary of the Central Provinces, which are believed to extend into the northern portion of Jabalpur. 724 MIAWES AAWD MIZVERA/.S. Excessive ash of Indian coals. Coal statistics, 1890–91. Rániganj coal-field. The principal drawback of Indian coal is its large proportion of ash; varying from 14 to 20 per cent, as against 3 to 6 per cent. in English coal. This places Indian coal measures at a great disadvantage, alike for iron-smelting and locomotive purposes. But it has been proved that, with efficient fire- grates and proper manipulation, 135 lbs. of Waroró coal will do the work of Ioo lbs. of English coal. As a matter of fact, Indian coal is coming more and more into use on the railways, in mills, and even on steamships, and is taking the place of imported coal or wood-fuel. The total out-put of coal from Indian collieries was 2,168,000 tons in 1890–91, showing an increase of 6 per cent, above the preceding year. The total imports of coal into India by Sea were only 784, ooo tons in 1890–91. The Râniganj coal-field has been estimated at an area of 5oo square miles. In this ‘black country’ of India, which is dotted with tall chimney-stalks, many European companies are at work, besides many native firms." At first coal was raised from open workings; but regular mining is now carried on, according to the system known as ‘pillar and stall.’ The seams are entirely free from gas, so that the precautions usual in England against explosion are found unnecessary. The miners are all drawn from the aboriginal races, chiefly Santāls and Baurís, who are noted for their endurance and docility. Bauris work with the pick, but Santāls will consent to use no other instrument than the crowbar. Wages are high, and the men look well-fed, although they waste their surplus earnings in drink. The coal-fields of India lie almost entirely in the broad centre of the peninsula, between the Ganges and the Godāvari. South of the Godávari no carboniferous strata exist; and the whole Presidency of Madras is thus compelled to depend for its supply upon importation. North of the Ganges, the only extensive fields are to be found in the outlying Province of Assam. There, in the Khási and Jaintia Hills, mines have been worked on a small scale for many years; but the aggre- gate of the deposits is insignificant, and the difficulties of carriage almost insurmountable. Still farther away, in the frontier District of Lakhimpur, a large coal-field of excellent quality was discovered at Máküm ; and a private company has Distribu- tion of coal in India. Outlying beds in ASSam, * For a full account of the Rániganj coal-field, see article RANIGANJ in The Imperial Gazetteer ; and for its geological aspects, see a subsequent chapter. JAWD/AAV COAZ; SA/T. 725 been established with a view to open out the field, by means of a railway. The company obtained a lease of the coal-beds for a period of twenty years, and a light railway has been Con- structed to the mines. Coal is also found in the neighbourhood Dārjiling, of Dárjíling, and in the Salt Range of the Punjab. Punjab. Apart from these outlying beds, the central coal-fields of India have been divided by Mr. Blanford, of the Geological Survey, into the four following groups:–(1) The Dámodar The four valley, including both Rániganj and Karharbári, which yields gºal. at least nine-tenths of all the coal as yet produced in India, and finds a ready market at Calcutta. (2) The Chutiá Nág- pur group, extending over a wide area of mountainous and difficult country, as yet but imperfectly explored. (3) The Narbadá valley, south of the Sátpura range, where actual borings have hitherto proved disappointing, except in the Case of the Mohpāni colliery, which is connected by a short branch with the main line of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. (4) The Godávari valley, where coal has been traced from Nágpur southward as far as Ellore. In this coal-field the only Successful works are at Warora. Of the future of Indian coal it is difficult to speak with Future of Certainty. On the one hand, the demand is constant, and ºn increases with the construction of every fresh mile of railway, and every new factory. On the other hand, the quality is distinctly inferior to English coal, which comes out to India at a low freight—almost at ballast rates. Rániganj coal, which is the best of the Indian coals, can do only from one-half to two- thirds of the duty performed by the same amount of English coal. It contains a low proportion of fixed Carbon, and more than three times the average percentage of ash. Salt, an article of supreme necessity to the Indian peasant, Indian who eats no butcher's meat, except a festival goat or kid at Salt. rare intervals, is derived from three main sources, exclusive of importation from Europe." (1) By evaporation from sea- Its three water along the entire double line of seaboard from Bombay * to Orissa, but especially in Gujarát and on the Coromandel coast. (2) By evaporation from inland salt lakes, of which the Sámbhar Lake in Rájputéna affords the chief example. The right of working this lake was leased by Government in 1870 from the Mahārājás of Jaipur and Jodhpur, within whose territories it is situated, and who are paid a royalty upon the 1 For the administrative aspects of Indian salt, see ante, chap. xvi.; and for its geological aspects, post, chap. xxii. 726 MIZVES A/V/D MZAVEA2A/S. The Pun- jab Salt Range. Salt Supply of Madras and Ben- gal. Indian saltpetre : System of manu- facture. out-turn. (3) By quarrying solid hills of salt in the north-east of the Punjab. The last is the only source in which salt in India can be said to exist as a mineral. It occurs in solid cliffs, which for extent and purity are stated to have no rival in the world. The Salt Range runs across the two Districts of Jehlam (Jhelum) and Shāhpur, from the bank of the Jehlam river to Kálabágh in Bannu District. Similar deposits are found beyond the Indus in Kohát District, where the salt is of two kinds, red and green; and in the Hill State of Mandi bordering on Kångra District. The salt is found in the red marls and sandstones of the Devonian group. In some cases it can be obtained from open quarries; but more generally it is approached by regular mining by pick and blasting, through wide galleries. The principal mine is at Kheura in Jehlam (Jhelum) District, now called after Lord Mayo. In Southern India, salt made by evaporation is almost universally consumed. Lower Bengal, and especially Eastern Bengal, use salt imported from Cheshire, at low rates of freight, and paying the excise duty at Calcutta or other port of entry. In Orissa and South-Western Bengal, both imported salt and salt made by solar evaporation are consumed; the Solar salt being alone considered pure for religious purposes or for the priests. 3. India has almost a monopoly of the supply of natural saltpetre, upon which Europe largely depends for the manu- facture of gunpowder. It occurs with other saline substances as a white efflorescence upon the surface of the soil in many parts of the country, especially in , the upper valley of the Ganges. Its preparation leaves common Salt as one of the residuary products; and fiscal restraints have accordingly tended to limit the manufacture to the most remunerative region, which is found in North Behar. The system of saltpetre manufacture is simple, and is entirely in the hands of a special caste of natives, called Nuniyás, who are conspicuous for their capacity of enduring hard work. As is the case with most Indian industries, they work under a system of money advances from middle-men, who are themselves sub-contractors under large central houses of business. In former times, the East India Company engaged in the manufacture on its own account; and when it gave up its private trade, the works were taken over by European firms. But these have in their turn retired from the business, which is now in a state of decline (almost killed in Southern India), SAZTAETRAE, ZVD/AAW GOZZO. 727 partly owing to the general fall in price, and partly to the restrictions imposed by the Salt Preventive Department. The manufacturing season begins with the cold season in Process November. The presence of saltpetre in the soil is revealed gº." by efflorescence after a heavy fall of rain. The earth is Scraped together, and first placed in a large vessel, through which water is filtered. The brine is then boiled in pots, and crude saltpetre mixed with common salt is the result. The proportion of salt to saltpetre is said to be about one-sixth. The sale of this salt is prohibited under stringent penalties. The crude saltpetre is now handed over to the refiners, who work on a larger scale than the Nuniyäs. It is again subjected to a process of boiling in large iron boilers of English manu- facture, and is allowed to crystallize gradually in open wooden troughs. In refining, it loses nearly one-half its weight, and is now ready for the market. Over two-thirds of the whole salt- petre produced in India comes from Behar, chiefly from the Districts of Muzaffarpur, Sáran, and Champáran, though Patná is the railway station for despatch to Calcutta. Cawnpur, Gházipur, Allahābād, and Benares, in the North-Western Provinces, send small quantities; while a little comes from the Punjab. Although silver has ever been the currency of India in his- Indian torical times, that metal is nowhere found in the country, nor gold. in the adjoining States of Central Asia. Gold, on the other hand, exists in many parts of India, and probably in large quantities. The “Ophir' of King Solomon has been identified by some scholars with the Malabar coast. However that may be, India claims to rank as a gold-producing country. Many hill streams are washed for gold, alike in the extreme South, in the Central Plateau, and on the North-East and North-West Frontiers. Gold-washing is everywhere in India a miserable business, affording the barest livelihood; but the total amount of gold obtained cannot be insignificant. In recent years, attention has been prominently drawn to Gold- . the possibility of extracting gold from the quartz formation . m of Southern India, which bears many points of resemblance to the auriferous quartz reefs of Australia. The principal locali- ties are in the Wainád (Wynaad) Sub-division of the Nilgiri District, and in Kolár District of Mysore. Gold-washing has always been practised here; and the remains of old workings show that at some unknown period operations have been conducted on a large scale. Since about 1870, individual 728 MZAVES A/V/D MZAVEA2A/S. Gold out-put, 1889–91. Other metals. Copper. Nepāli IIllſle IS, ‘ Rabbit- hole” IIllſleS, pioneers have been prospecting in this region. Crushing the quartz by rude native methods, they proved that it contained a larger proportion of gold than is known to give a profit in Australia. These experiments on the southern ends of six reefs yielded an average of 7 dwts. per ton of quartz, rising in one case to 11 dwts. The best assay of the gold showed a fineness of slightly over 20 carats. In 1879, Government summoned a practical mining engineer from Australia, whose report was eminently hopeful. He described the quartz reefs as of great extent and thickness, and highly auriferous. One reef in Kolár, laid bare Ioo feet longitudinally, had given an average of 1 oz. of gold per ton. In order to attract capital, Govern- ment proposed to grant mining leases at a dead rent of Rs. 5 per acre, subject to no royalty or further tax. Several English companies with large capital entered the field, and the reports of their professional advisers held forth high hopes of success. Those hopes have not, however, been yet realized. Gold-mining in India continues, in spite of intermittent periods of speculation, to be on the whole in a depressed state; although some of the operations again hold out promise of success (1893). In 1890–91, of the numerous gold mines opened in Southern India, the official report states that only three yielded gold in any quantity; and of these mines the out-put of gold was said to be Rx. 439,000 in 1889; Rx. 577,ooo in 1890; and Rx. 720,000 in 1891.” The other Indian metals comprise copper, lead, and tin. Copper exists in many parts of the country in considerable quantities. The richest mines are in the lower ranges of the Himalayas, from Dárjíling westward to Kumáun. The ore occurs in the form of copper pyrites, often accompanied by mundic, not in true lodes, but disseminated through the slate and Schist. The miners are almost always Nepālís, and the remoteness of the situation has deterred European capital. The extent of abandoned workings shows that these mines have been known and worked for many years. The best seams show a proportion of copper slightly above the average of Cornish ore, but the ordinary yield is not more than about 4 per cent. The mines resemble magnified rabbit-holes, meandering passages being excavated through the rock with little system. * Statement exhibiting the Moral and Material Progress and Condition of Zºdia, 1890–91, p. 22 ; presented to Parliament, 1892. COPPER, LAEAD, T/AW. 729 The tools used are an iron hammer and chisel, with sometimes a small pick. After extraction, the ore is pounded, washed, and smelted on the spot. The price obtained for the metal is Rs. 2.8 per 3 sers, or at the rate of about 6 dinds a pound. Copper-ore, of fair purity and extending over a considerable area, also occurs in Singbhum District of Chutiá Nágpur, Singbhūm where there are many deserted diggings and heaps of scoriae. *PP* In 1857, a company was started to re-open the workings at these mines; but although large quantities of ore were pro- duced, the enterprise did not prove remunerative, and was finally abandoned in 1864. A similar attempt to work the copper found in Nellore District in Madras also ended in Nellore. failure. Lead occurs, in the form of Sulphuret or galena, along the Lead. Himalayas on the Punjab frontier, and has been worked at one place by an English company. Tin is confined to the Burmese Tin. peninsula. Very rich deposits, yielding about 70 per cent. Of metal, occur over a large extent of country in Mergui and Tavoy Districts of the Tenasserim Division. The ore is washed and smelted, usually by Chinese, in a very rough and unscientific way. Experiments by a European firm tend to show that the deposits, although rich and extensive, are not sufficiently deep to repay more elaborate processes. Anti- Antimony. mony, in the form of surmá largely used by the natives as a cosmetic for the eyes, is chiefly derived from the Hill States of the Punjab. It is also found in Mysore and Burma. The minerals of Rájputéna have not yet been thoroughly investi- gated ; but they include an ore of cobalt, used for colouring Cobalt. enamel. Petroleum is produced chiefly in Upper Burma, but it Petroleum, has also been found in Lower Burma, in Assam, and in the Punjab. Near the village of Ye-nan-chaung in Upper Burma, in Burma. on the banks of the Irawadi, there are upwards of Ioo pits or wells, with a depth of about 250 feet, from which petroleum bubbles up in inexhaustible quantities. The annual yield is estimated at about 15, ooo tons, of which a considerable quantity is exported. Petroleum wells are also found in the Districts of Akyab, Kyauk-pyu (Kyouk-hpyu), Pegu, and Thayet-myo, which first attracted British capital with most promising results in 1877. Private oil-refining companies having obtained a lease from Oil- Government, under favourable conditions, of certain areas at ;, a 3 Minbyin in Ramri island, Kyauk-pyu District, are working a 2 73O M/AVES AAW/O M//VEACA/C.S. in Assam ; in Punjab. Stone, etc. Lime. Kankar. Pottery. Building- Stone. Marble. number of wells by means of steam boring machinery, under the superintendence of Canadian experts, with satisfactory results. The oil when refined is of a high quality; but the expensiveness of the machinery and costly European agency proved for a time an obstacle to the financial success of the industry. The native oil-wells are constructed and managed on very economical principles, and many of them yield large profits. In Assam, petroleum occurs in the neighbourhood of the coal-fields in the south of Lakhimpur District. It was formerly worked in connection with the coal by a private European capitalist, but the enterprise failed to prove a success. A Government concession to work the oil-beds was granted to the Assam Railways and Trading Company, along with the Mákúm coal-fields; but up till 1884 no attempt had been made by the company to work the oil. In the Punjab, petroleum has been worked experimentally by the Public Works Department at two spots at Ráwal Pindi District. Petroleum also occurs in Bannu District, and probably in other neighbouring Districts of the Punjab. It is also found beyond the North-Western Frontier. The commonest and also the most useful stone of India is Áankar, a nodular form of impure lime, which is found in almost every river valley, and is used from one end of the pen- insula to the other for metalling the roads. Lime for building (chundm) is derived from two sources—(1) from burning lime- stone and Kankar, and (2) from the little shells so abundantly found in the marshes, rivers, and lakes. Calcutta derives its chief supply of limestone from the quarries of the Khási Hills in Assam, known as ‘Sylhet lime,’ and from the Susuniã quarries in Bánkurá District. Except for occasional beds of Áankar, the lower valley of the Ganges is absolutely destitute of stone; nor does the alluvial soil afford good materials for brickmaking or fine pottery. But a European firm has recently established large pottery and cement works at Rániganj in Bardwan, which employ about 500 hands, and carry out con- tracts for drainage pipes and stoneware. These works are annually increasing in importance and value. The centre of the peninsula, and the hill country generally, abounds in building-stone of excellent quality, which has been used locally from time immemorial. Among the finest Stones may be mentioned — the pink marble of Rájputéna, of which the historical buildings at Agra were constructed; AACEC/O US STOAVES. 73 I the trap of the Deccan ; the sandstone of the Godāvari and the Narbadá ; and the granite of Southern India. Quarries of slate are scattered through the peninsula, and Slate. Sometimes worked by European capital. Mica and talc are Mica and also quarried to make ornaments. Among the hills of Orissa tale. and Chutiá Nágpur, household vessels and ornaments are skilfully carved out of an indurated variety of potstone. Despite its legendary wealth, which is really due to the Precious accumulation of ages, India cannot be said to be naturally * prolific in precious stones. Under the Muhammadan rule, diamonds were a distinct source of State revenue; but at the Diamonds present day, the search for them, if carried on anywhere in British territory, is too insignificant an occupation to have attracted the notice of Government. The name of Golconda has passed into literature; but that city, once the Musalmán capital of the Deccan, was rather the home of the diamond- Cutters than the actual source of supply. It is believed that the far-famed diamonds of Golconda actually come from the sand- at Gol- stone formation, which extends across the eastern borders of * the Nizām's Dominions into the Madras Districts of Kistna and Godāvari. A few worthless stones are still found in this region. Sambalpur, on the upper channel of the Mahánadi river in Sam- in the Central Provinces, is another spot once famous for balpur; diamonds. In the last century, a British officer was despatched to Sambalpur by Clive to arrange for remittances home by means of Sambalpur diamonds. As late as 1818, a stone is Said to have been found here weighing 84 grains, and valued at 4.5oo. The river valleys of Chutiá Nágpur are also known to have yielded a tribute of diamonds to their Muhammadan conqueror. At the present day, the only place where the search for diamonds is pursued as a regular industry is the Native State of Panna (Punnah) in Bundelkhand. The stones are in Bun- found by digging down through several strata of gravelly soil, ** and washing the earth. Even here, however, the pursuit is understood to be unremunerative, and has failed to attract European capital. About other gems very little information is available. The town of Cambay in Gujarát (Guzerāt) is celebrated for its Carne- carving of carnelian, agate, and onyx. The stones come from * the neighbourhood of Ratanpur, in the State of Rájpipla. They are dug up by Bhil miners, and subjected to a process 732 MVZVES AAWD MZZVEA2A/S. Jade and ruby mines of Burma, 1886–92. Pearl fisheries. Scientific branches of the subject. Scope of the following chapters. of burning before being carved. The most valued colour for carnelians is red, but they are also found white and yellow. Lapis-lazuli is found in the mountains of the north, and is freely used in the decoration of temples and tombs. The annexation of Upper Burma in 1886 brought the famous jade and ruby mines within the British Empire. A company was formed to work them, but, although a consider- able aggregate yield reaches the market from native miners, the enterprise has not yet attained a financial success under the management of European capitalists. Inferior pearl fisheries are worked off the coast of Madura District in the extreme south, and in the Gulf of Cambay ; but the great majority of Indian pearls come either from Ceylon (which is also rich in other gems) or from the Persian Gulf. In the year 17oo, the Dutch obtained a lease of all the pearl fisheries along the Madura coast, and Sublet the right of fishing to native boatmen, of whom 7oo are said to have taken licences annually at the rate of 6o écus Or crowns per boat. I have now sketched the physical aspects of India, its past history, and its present administration and condition under British rule. It remains to briefly deal with the topics of scientific interest connected with the country: its material framework or geology; its climatic conditions, or meteorology; its animal and vegetable products; and the health statistics of its population. Each of these subjects forms the subject of many elaborate volumes, and the adequate treatment of any One of them would demand a body of scientific coadjutors not available to the author of this work. But some account of them may be useful for administrative purposes. The following pages are offered, not for the instruction of Specialists, but to the general reader who wishes to study India in all its various aspects. In previous sections, I have not hesitated to repeat myself when dealing with Indian products, such as opium, cotton, and salt ; first from the administrative, and then from the economic point of view. For such repetitions are convenient to many who desire a view of the subject under each head. In like manner, the following sections will not shrink from repetitions, in referring to certain productions, such as coal, iron, or forests, in their Scientific aspects. | 733 ] C H A P T E R XXII. GEOILOGY OF INDIA. FOR geological purposes British India may be mapped out into the four geographical divisions of the Himalayan Region, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Peninsular India, and Burma." THE HIMALAYAN REGION.—The geology of this tract is more Himá- complex and less fully known than that of the Peninsular layas. area. Until the ground has been carefully gone over by the Geological Survey, many points must remain doubtful; and large areas of the Himalayas (Nepāl and Bhutan) are still in- accessible to Europeans. The oldest rock of the Himalayas is a gneiss, differing in character from the gneiss of the Penin-Gneiss. sula, and from that of Assam and Burma. The Himalayan gneiss is usually white and grey, its felspar Orthoclase and albite; it contains much mica and mica schist, and is more uniform in character than the gneiss of the Peninsula. The latter is usually pink, its felspar being Orthoclase and oligo- clase; it contains little mica schist, but often has quartzite and hornblendic rock. Hornblende occurs in the syenitic gneiss of the Northern Himalayan (or Ladākh) range. The Central Himalayan region may be described as con- Central sisting of two gneissic axes, with a trough or synclinal valley gº between them, in which fossiliferous beds have been deposited " " and are now preserved. The gneiss of the southern or main axis (the ‘central gneiss’ of Dr. Stoliczka) is the oldest; that of the northern or Ladákh axis comes next in age. The gneiss of the Ladákh axis is generally syenitic, or is that variety of the Himalayan gneiss already described as containing hornblende. It is probably an extremely altered condition of ordinary marine sediment. The gneiss of the central axis is the Ordinary kind ; it is penetrated by granite, which ranges * This section is based upon the official Manual of the Geology of Zndia, by Messrs. H. B. Medlicott and W. T. Blanford, 2 vols., Government Press, Calcutta, 1879. Mr. W. Topley, of the English Geological Survey, conducted the preliminary condensation. 734 GAEO ZOG Y OF WAV/D/A. Lower Himá- layas. Erol limestone. Sub- IIimá- layas. Siwálik beds. along some of the highest peaks. Between these two gneissic axes occurs the basin-shaped valley, or the Hundes and Zanskar synclinal. In this valley, fossiliferous rocks are pre- served, giving representatives of the Silurian, Carboniferous, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous formations. All these seem there to have followed each other without important breaks or unconformities; but after the deposition of the Cretaceous rocks of the Himalayan region, important changes appear to have taken place in its physical geography. The Nummulitic (Eocene) strata were laid down on the eroded edges of some of the older beds, and in a long trough within the Silurian gneiss of the Ladākh axis. On the south of this true Himalayan region there is a band of country known as the Lower Himalaya, in which the beds are often greatly disturbed, and even completely inverted, over great areas; the old gneiss apparently overlying the sedimen- tary rocks. This Lower Himalayan region is about 50 miles wide, and consists of irregular ridges, varying from 5ooo to 8ooo feet in height, and sometimes reaching 12,000 feet. Resting upon the gneiss, but often through inversion apparently underlying it, in the neighbourhood of Simla, is a series of unfossiliferous beds (Schists, quartzites, sandstones, shales, limestones, etc.) known in descending order as the Krol, Infra-Krol, Blaini, and Infra-Blaini beds. In the Krol beds is a massive limestone (Krol limestone), probably representing the limestone of the Pír Panjál range, which is most likely of Carboniferous age. The Blaini and Infra-Blaini beds are probably Silurian. The Lower Himalayan range ends at the Sutlej valley, west of which the continuation of the central range is followed immediately by the third or sub-Himalayan range. This occurs almost always on the south of the Lower Himalayas, and is composed of later Tertiary rocks (Siwáliks, etc.), which stretch parallel with the main chain. Generally, the sub- Himalayas consist of two ranges, separated by a broad, flat valley (diºn or “doon'); the southern slope, overlooking the great Indo-Gangetic plain, is usually the steepest. Below Nāini Tál and Dárjíling (Darjeeling), the sub-Himalayan range is wanting; on the Bhutan frontier the whole range is occasionally absent, and the great alluvial plain slopes up to the base of the Lower Himalayan region. It is within the sub-Himalayan range that the famous Siwálik beds occur, long known for their vast stores of extinct mammalia. Of about the same age are the Manchhar beds of Sind, which SAZZ" RAAVGE, GAAWGAET/C PZA/AW. 735 also contain a rich mammalian fauna. The Lower Manchhars probably correspond to the Náhan beds, the lowest of the Siwáliks; they rest upon the Gaj beds, which are probably Upper Miocene. From this it would seem that the lowest Siwáliks are not older than Upper Miocene. The higher Siwálik beds are considered by Mr. W. T. Blanford to be Pliocene, and to this later period he also refers the mam- malian beds of Pikermi in Greece. These have a large number of fossils in common with the Siwáliks; but they contain, at their base, a marine band with Pliocene shells. The Manchhar and Siwálik beds are chiefly of fresh-water Origin. The Salt Range in the north-west of the Punjab has, in Salt tº dº e e e * g Range. addition to its economic value, a special geological importance. Representatives of most of the great European formations of Silurian and later epochs are found in it; and throughout the vast length of time represented by these formations there is here no direct evidence of any important break in suc- cession, or unconformity. The lowest beds (salt marl, probably Silurian) and the highest (Siwáliks) are found through the range. But the others cannot be traced continuously throughout ; some occur well developed in one place, some in another. All the principal fossiliferous beds of the Jurassic, Triassic, and Carboniferous formations are confined to the western part of the range. THE INDO-GANGETIC PLAIN covers an area of about 300,ooo Indo- . square miles, and varies in width from 90 to nearly 300 º miles. It rises very gradually from the Sea at either end. The lowest point of the watershed between the Punjab rivers and the Ganges is about 924 feet above sea-level. This point, by a line measured down the valley, but not following the winding of the river, is about IoSo miles from the mouth of the Ganges and 850 miles from the mouth of the Indus, so that the average inclination of the plain, from the central watershed to the Its slope sea, averages only about I foot per mile. It generally exceeds to the sea. this near the watershed; but there is here no ridge of high ground between the Indus and the Ganges, and a very trifling change of level would often turn the upper waters of one river into the other. It is not unlikely that such changes have in past time occurred. Towards the Sea, the slope becomes almost imperceptible. There is no evidence that the Indo-Gangetic plain existed as 736 GEO ZOG Y OF WAV/D/A. Its geo- logicalage. Its alluvial deposits. Its geo- logical history. such in pre-Tertiary times. The alluvial deposits made known by the boring at Calcutta, have already been described in sufficient detail." They prove a gradual depression of the area through the later Tertiary times. There are peat and forest beds, which must have grown quietly at the surface, alternating with deposits of gravel, sand, and clay. The thickness of the delta deposit is unknown; 481 feet was proved at the bore hole, but probably this represents only a very small part of the deposit. Outside the delta, in the Bay of Bengal, is a deep depression known as the ‘Swatch of No Ground'; all around it the Soundings give only 5 to Io fathoms, but they very rapidly deepen to over 3oo fathoms.” The sediment seems to be carried away from this hole by the set of the currents; so that it has remained free from silt whilst the neighbouring Sea-bottom has gradually been filled up. If so, the thickness of the alluvium is at least 1800 feet, and may be much more. The Indo-Gangetic plain dates back to Eocene times; the origin of the Himalayas may be referred to the same period. Numerous minor disturbances occurred in the area which is now Northern India during Palaeozoic and Secondary times, but the great disturbance which has resulted in the formation of the existing chain of the Himalayas took place after the deposition of the Eocene beds. Disturbances even greater in amount occurred after the deposition of the Pliocene beds. The Eocenes of the sub-Himalayan range were deposited upon uncontorted Palaeozoic rocks, but the whole has since been violently contorted and disturbed. There are some indications that the disturbing forces were more severe to the eastward during middle Tertiary times, and that the main action to the westward was of later date. It seems highly probable that the elevation of the mountain ranges and the depression of the Indo-Gangetic plain were closely related. This view gains some support from a glance at the map, where we see that the curves of the great mountain chains are strictly followed by those of the great alluvial plain. Probably both are due to almost contemporary movements of the earth's crust; these movements, though now of greatly diminished intensity, have not wholly ceased. The alluvial deposits prove depressions to have occurred in quite recent geological times; and within the Himalayan region earthquakes are still common, whilst in Peninsular India they are rare. * Vide ante, chap. i. p. 58. * See article Swatch OF No GROUND, Imperial Gazetteer of India, xiii. I42, 2nd ed. V/AWDAYYA M AAWD GONZO WAAVA BEDS. 737 PENINSULAR INDIA.—The oldest rocks here consist of gneiss, Peninsular in three tracts —throughout a very large part of Bengal and India. Madras, extending to Ceylon; among the Arávalli ranges; and in Bundelkhand. Of these formations, the gneiss of Bundelkhand is known to be the oldest, because the oldest Transition rocks rest upon it; whereas the same Transition rocks are altered and intersected by granitic dykes which proceed from the gneiss of the other tracts. The Transition rocks are of great but unknown age. The Vindhyan rocks which succeed them are of very old Palaeozoic age, perhaps pre-Silurian. Yet long before the earliest Vindhyan rocks were laid down, the Transition rocks had been altered and Contorted. In more recent times there have been local dis- turbances, and large faults have in places been found ; but the greater part of the Peninsular rocks are only slightly disturbed, and the most recent of the great and widespread earth movements of this region date back to pre-Vindhyan times. The Vindhyan series are generally sharply marked off from Vindhyan older rocks; although in the Godávari valley there is no well-rocks. defined line between these and the Transition rocks. The Vindhyan beds are divided into two groups. The Lower, with Lower an estimated thickness of only 2000 feet, or slightly more, Vindh. Cover a large area, -extending, with but little change of yans. character, from the Son (Soane) valley in one direction to Cuddapah, and in a diverging line to near Bijápur—in each Case a distance of over 700 miles. The Upper Vindhyans Upper Cover a much smaller area, but attain a thickness of about yº 12, ooo feet. The Vindhyans are well-stratified beds of sand- stone and shale, with some limestones. As yet they have yielded no trace of fossils, and their exact age is consequently unknown. So far as the evidence goes, it appears probable that they are of very ancient Palaeozoic age, perhaps pre- Silurian. The total absence of fossils is a remarkable fact, and one for which it is difficult to account, as the beds are for the most part quite unaltered. Even if they are entirely of fresh- water origin, we should expect that some traces of life from the waters or neighbouring land would be found. The Gondwéna series is in many respects the most interest. Gondwana ing and important of the Indian Peninsula. The beds are * almost entirely of fresh-water origin. Many sub-divisions have been made, but here we need only note the main division into two great groups : — Lower Gondwénas, 13, Ooo feet thick; Upper Gondwanas, II, ooo feet thick. The series is mainly 3 A 738 GAEO ZOG Y OF //V/D/A. Gondwéna fossils. Pánchet group. Tālcher grOup. Dāmodar series and coal-fields. confined to the area of country between the Narbadá and the Son (Soane) on the north, and the Kistna (Krishna) on the South ; but the western part of this region is in great part covered by newer beds. The lowest Gondwénas are very constant in character, wherever they are found; the upper numbers of the lower division show more variation, and this divergence of character in different Districts becomes more marked in the Upper Gondwéna series. Disturbances have occurred in the lower series before the formation of the upper. The Gondwana beds contain fossils which are of very great interest. In large part these consist of plants which grew near the margins of the old rivers, were carried down by floods, and deposited in the alluvial plains, deltas, and estuarine areas of the old Gondwéna period. So vast was the time occupied by the deposition of the Gondwéna beds, that great changes in physical geography and in the vegetation repeatedly occurred. The plants of the Lower Gondwénas consist chiefly of acrogens (Equisetaceae and ferns) and gymnogens (cycads and conifers), the former being the more abundant. The same classes of plants occur in the Upper Gondwanas; but there the proportions are reversed, the conifers, and still more the cycads, being more numerous than the ferns, whilst the Equisetaceae are but sparingly found. But even within the limits of the Lower Gondwéna series there are great diversities of vegetation, three distinct floras occurring in the three great divisions of that formation. In many respects the flora of the highest of these three divisions (the Pánchet group) is more nearly related to that of the Upper Gondwénas than it is to the other Lower Gondwana floras. One of the most interesting facts in the history of the Gond- wana series is the occurrence near the base (in the Tálcher group) of large striated boulders in a fine mud or silt, the boulders in one place resting upon rock (of Vindhyan age) which is also striated. There seems good reason for believing that these beds are the result of ice-action. They probably nearly coincide in age with the Permian beds of Western Europe, in which Professor Ramsay long since discovered evidence of glaciation. But the remarkable fact is that this old ice-action occurred within the tropics, and probably at no very great height above the Sea. The Dāmodar series, the middle division of the Lower Gondwénas, is the chief source of coal in Peninsular India, yielding more of that mineral than all other formations taken together. The Karharbári group is the only other coal-bearing Z).AMODAR COAZ AAWD /ROM F/EZ/).S. 739 formation of any value. The Dámodars are 84oo feet thick in the Rániganj coal-field, and about Io, ooo feet thick in the Sátpura basin. They consist of three divisions; coal occurs in the upper and lower, ironstone (without coal) in the middle division. The Râniganj coal-field is the most important in India. So far as yet known, it covers an area of about 500 square miles, running about 18 miles from north to south, and about 39 miles from east to west; but it extends farther to the east under the laterite and alluvium. It is traversed by the Dámodar river, and also the road from Calcutta to Benares and by the East Indian Railway. From its situation and importance, this coal-field is better known than any other in India. Much has been learnt concerning it since the last examination by the Geological Survey, especially from the recent reports by Mr. H. Bauermann. Rániganj coal-field. The upper or Rániganj series has eleven seams, with a Rániganj total thickness of 120 feet, in the eastern district, and thirteen cºal. seams, Ioo feet thick, in the western district. The average thickness of the seams worked is from 12 to 18 feet, but occasionally a seam reaches a great thickness—20 to 80 feet. 3.IſlS. The lower or Barákhar Series (2000 feet thick) contains four Barākhar seams, of a total thickness of 69 feet. Compared with Eng- seams. lish coals, those of this coal-field are of a poor quality; they contain much ash, and are generally non-coking. The seams of the lower series are the best, and some of these at Sánk- toria, near the Barākhar river, are fairly good for coke and gaS. The best coal in India is in the small coal-field at Karhar- Karhar. bári. The beds here are lower in the series than those of ºl. the Ráníganj field; they belong to the upper part of the Tālcher group, the lowest of the Gondwéna series. The Karharbári Coal-beds cover an area of about 1 I square miles; and have three seams, varying from 9 to 33 feet thick. The lowest seam is the best, and it is nearly as good as English steam coal. This coal-field, now largely worked, is the property of the East Indian Railway, which is thus supplied with fuel at a cheaper rate than any other railway in the world. Indian Coal usually contains phosphoric acid, which greatly lessens its value for iron-smelting." The Dámodar series, which, as we have seen, is the chief Dāmodar * The economic aspects of Indian coal have been dealt with in the chapter on Mines and Minerals. For full accounts of the Indian coal. fields, see articles RANIGANJ, KARHARBARI, etc., in Zhe Imperial Gazetteer of India. ironstone. 74o GAEO ZOG Y OF //V/D/A. source of coal in India, is also one of the most important sources of iron. The ore occurs in the middle division, coal in the highest and lowest. The ore is partly a clay ironstone, like that occurring in the coal-measures of England, partly an oxide of iron or haematite. It generally contains phos- phorus, which prevents its use in the preparation of the finer qualities of steel. A similar difficulty attends the use of the Cleveland ore of North Yorkshire. Experiments have been in progress for years in search of a process which shall, in an economical manner, obtain iron from Cleveland ore free from phosphorus, latterly, it is hoped, with some success. If this be so, India will be a great gainer. Excellent iron-ore occurs in the metamorphic rocks south of the Dámodar river. Laterite (see below) is sometimes used as ore. It is very earthy, with a low percentage of metal; but it contains only a comparatively small proportion of phosphorus." The want of limestone for flux, within easy reach, is generally a great drawback as regards iron-smelting in India. Aankar or ghutin (concretionary carbonate of lime) is col- lected for this purpose from the river beds and alluvial deposits. It sometimes contains as much as 70 per cent. of carbonate of lime; but generally the proportion is much less, and the fluxing value proportionally diminished. The real difficulty in India is to find the ore, the fuel, and the flux, in sufficiently close proximity to yield a profit. The enormous mass of basaltic rock known as the Deccan trap, is of great importance in the geological structure of the Indian Peninsula. It now covers an area of about 200,ooo square miles, and probably extended in former times over a much wider area. Where thickest, the traps are at least 6ooo feet in depth. They form the most striking physical features of the country, many of the most prominent hill ranges being the denuded edges of the basaltic flows. The great volcanic outbursts which produced this trap commenced in the Cretaceous period, and lasted into the Eocene period. Laterite is a ferruginous and argillaceous rock, varying from 30 to 200 feet thick, which often occurs over the trap area, but is also found in other tracts. As a rule, it makes rather barren land; it is highly porous, and the rain rapidly sinks into it. Laterite may be roughly divided into two kinds, high-level and low-level laterite. The former, which covers a large area of the high basaltic plains, is believed by Mr. R. B. Aankar. Deccan trap. Laterite: high-level; * For the economic aspects of Indian iron, see chapter on Mines and Minerals. J) ECCAAW TRAP, A UAE.M.A. 74I Foote to be very frequently the product of decomposition of the trap, and to have been thus formed in the place where it is now found. Sometimes the high-level laterite overlies gneiss or other rocks; and in these cases it has probably been transported. The low-level laterite is generally more low-level. Sandy in character, and is often associated with gravels. In most cases this has clearly been carried down to its present position, probably largely by sub-aerial action, aided by rains and streams. Possibly in some cases it has been spread out along the coasts by marine action. The low-level laterite fringes the coast of the Peninsula, from near Bombay on the west and Orissa on the east, to Cape Comorin. It is not continuous throughout these regions; and it is of very varying width and elevation. The age of the high-level laterite is unknown. Its formation probably extended throughout a long period of time, much of which must be of very ancient date; for the laterite, together with the underlying basalt, has suffered extensive denudation. As regards gems, the geologist comes to the same Con- Precious clusion as the economist, viz. that the precious stones of * ancient India were the product of forced labour, and that the search for them in our days can scarcely repay the working expenses. GEOLOGY OF BURMA.—The geological structure of Burma Burma: comprises three sections—Western, Middle, and Eastern, ... nearly corresponding to the Divisions of Arakan, Pegu, and Tenasserim. The geological groups met with in Arakan and Pegu are, Pegu and in the ascending order, as follow. The crystalline rocks of * Taung-ngu ; age undetermined, comprising beds of different ages. Axial or Arakan group, Occupying the northern part of Arakan range; age probably Triassic. Nummulitic group, including the entire range of Arakan; age Eocene or early Tertiary. Pegu group, occupying the whole of the country east of the Irawadi to the Sittaung river; age Miocene or middle Tertiary. Fossil-wood group, most largely developed in Eastern Prome, in which fossil-wood, in the form of silicified trunks of trees, some of them 30 to 40 feet long, is plentifully present; age probably Pliocene or newer Tertiary. Lastly, the Alluvium group, comprising older alluvial deposits in places where the river channels are excavated, and newer alluvial 742 GEO ZOG Y OF WAV/D/A. Tenas- Serim. deposits thrown down on the surface by the Irawadi and other rivers. In geological structure, Tenasserim is entirely distinct from Pegu and Arakan; the groups in ascending order are as follow. The crystalline rocks; age uncertain. Mergui group, largely developed in Mergui District; age perhaps Silurian. Maul- main group, well seen near Maulmain and Amherst; age lower Carboniferous. Tenasserim group, embracing the various coal- fields in the southern part of the Tenasserim Division ; age doubtful, but probably Tertiary. [ 743 | C H A P T E R X. XIII. METEOROLOGY OF INDIA. THE great peninsula of India, with its lofty mountain ranges Meteoro- and its extensive seaboard, exposed to the first violence of º the winds of two oceans, forms an exceptionally valuable and e interesting field for the study of meteorological phenomena. But the Department of Government which deals with these phenomena has had to contend with many obstacles; and it is only within recent years that trustworthy statistics have been obtained from a complete system of registration stations. Every year, however, is now adding to our knowledge of the meteorology of the Country, and supplying authentic materials for purposes of Comparison and induction. METEOROLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. —After the general descrip- Meteoro- tion of the country given at the beginning of this volume, lºgical it is only necessary to sketch very briefly the meteorological geography of India. The following paragraphs are con- densed from an interesting account in the official AEeport on the Meteorology of India (for 1883), by Mr. H. F. Blanford. Mr. Blanford's volume on the Meteorology of India, being the second part of The Indian Meteorologist’s Wade-Mecum (Government Press, Calcutta, 1877), should be in the hands of every student. The great mountain ranges of the HIMALAYAS and the SULAIMANs, which form the northern and north-western bound- aries of India, have been fully described." From the gorge of the Indus to that of the Dihang (Brahmaputra), a distance of 14oo miles, the Himalayas form an unbroken watershed, Himá- the northern flank of which is drained by the upper valleys * of these two rivers; while the Sutlej (Satlaj), starting from the southern foot of the Kailās peak, breaks through the water- shed, dividing it into two very unequal portions, that to the north-west being the smaller. The average elevation of the €O- graphy. * Vide ante, chap. i. pp. 35–42; also articles HIMALAYAS and SULAIMAN MoUNTAINS, The Imperial Gazetteer of ſndia. 744 ME 7'EO/CO ZOG Y OF WAV/D/A. Himá- layan air- CurrentS. Eastern Himá- layas. Western Hima- layas. Vapour- bearing winds. Punjab frontier. higher Himalayas may be taken at not less than 19,000 feet, and therefore equal to the height of the lower half of the atmosphere; indeed, few of the passes are under 16,ooo or 17,ooo feet. Across this mountain barrier there appears to be a constant flow of air, more active in the day-time than at night, northwards to the arid plateau of Tibet. There is no reason to believe that any transfer of air takes place across the Himálayas in a southerly direction; unless, indeed, in those elevated regions of the atmosphere which lie beyond the sphere of observation. But a nocturnal flow of cooled air, from the southern slopes, is felt as a strong wind where the rivers debouch on the plains, more especially in the early morning hours. This current probably contributes to lower the mean temperature of the belt of plain country which fringes the mountain zone. The Eastern Himalayas present many points of contrast with the western parts of the range. The slopes of the Sikkim and Bhutan Hills, where not denuded for the purposes of cultiva- tion, are clothed with an almost impenetrable forest, which at the lower levels abounds in figs, rattans, and representatives of a tropical humid climate. At higher levels they are covered with oaks, chestnuts, magnolias, pines, etc., of the most luxuriant growth. In the Western Himalayas, on the other hand, the spurs of the outer ranges are more sparsely clad with forest, especially on their western faces; and naked precipitous crags are of constant occurrence. The vegetation of the lower and warmer valleys, and of the fringing belt (the Tarái), is comparatively thin, and such as characterizes a warm but dry region. Pines of several species form a conspicuous feature of the landscape at lower levels. It is chiefly the outer ranges that exhibit these contrasted features; and they depend partly on the difference of latitude, but mainly on that of rainfall. In Sikkim and Bhutan this is abnormally copious, and is dis- charged full on the face of the range. As the chain recedes to the north-west, the greater is the distance to be traversed by the vapour-bearing winds in reaching it, and the more easterly is their direction. For such winds, whether coming from the Bay of Bengal (apparently their principal source) or from the Arabian Sea, turn on reaching the Gangetic valley, and blow more or less parallel to its axis and that of the mountain range. The country on either side of the Sulāimán range is characteristically arid. Dry winds from the desert tracts of AVZ) O'S AAV/O GAAWGAE ZT/C A/LA //VS. 745 Persia and Balūchistán predominate throughout the year. The scanty cultivation on the hills is dependent on the winter snows, or the rare showers which reach them from the eastward, or the supply of the larger local streams. The lower plains would be uninhabitable but for the fertilizing irrigation furnished by the great river that traverses them. At the foot of the great Himalayan barrier, and separating it from the more ancient land which now forms the highlands of the peninsula, a broad plain, for the most part alluvial, Indus stretches from sea to sea. On the west, in the dry region, Plain. this is occupied partly by the alluvial deposits of the Indus and its tributaries; partly by the saline swamps of Kachchh (Cutch), and the rolling sands and rocky surface of the desert The great of Jaisalmer (JeySulmere) and Bikaner; and partly by the º more fertile tracts to the eastward. Over the greater part of this region rain is of rare occurrence; and not infrequently more than a year passes by without a drop falling on the parched surface. On its eastern margin, however, in the neighbourhood of the Arávalli Hills, and again in the Northern Punjab, rain is more frequent, occurring both in the South-west monsoon, and also at the opposite Season in the cold weather. As far north as Sirsa and Muiltán, the average rainfall does not much exceed 7 inches. The alluvial plain of the Punjab passes into that of the Gangetic Gangetic valley without visible interruption. Up or down this Pº" plain, at opposite seasons, sweep the monsoon winds, in a direction at right angles to that of their nominal course; and in this way the vapour brought by winds from the Bay of Bengal is discharged as Snow and rain on the peaks and hill- sides of the Western Himalayas. Nearly the whole surface is under cultivation; and it ranks among the most productive as well as the most densely-populated regions of the world. The rainfall diminishes from Ioo inches at the South-east corner of the Gangetic delta to less than 30 inches at Agra and Delhi, and there is an average difference of from I5 to 25 inches between the northern and southern borders of the plain. Eastward from the Bengal delta, two alluvial plains stretch Eastern up between the hills that connect the Himalayan system with *gal. that of the Burmese peninsula. The first is that of Assam and the Brahmaputra, long and narrow, bordered on the north by the Himalayas, on the south by the lower plateau of the Gáro, Khási, and Nāgā Hills. The second, or Sylhet and Cachar valley, is chiefly occupied by swamps and ſhi/s, and separates 746 METEOA’O/OG Y OA' /AV/D/A. Central table-land. Sātpura range. Málwā plateau. Aravalli range. the Gáro, Khási, and Nāgā Hills from those of Tipperah and the Lushai country. The climate of both these plains is damp and equable, and the rainfall is prolonged and gene- rally heavy, especially on the southern slopes of the hills. A meteorological peculiarity of some interest has been noticed, more especially at the stations of Sibsagar and Silchár, viz. the great range of the diurnal variation of barometric pressure, particularly during the cool months of the year. It is the more striking, since at Rürki, Lahore, and other stations near the foot of the Himalayas, this range is less than on the open plains. º The highlands of the peninsula are cut off from the Himalayan ranges by the Indo-Gangetic plain. They are divided into two unequal parts, by an almost continuous chain of hills, loosely known as the Sátpura range, running across the country from west-by-south to east-by-north, just south of the Tropic of Cancer. This chain may be regarded as a single feature, forming the principal watershed of the peninsula. The waters to the north of it drain chiefly into the Narbadá (Nerbudda) and the Ganges; those to the south, into the Tápti, the Godāvari, the Mahánadí, and smaller streams. In a meteorological point of view, this central chain of hills is of much importance. Acting together with the two parallel valleys of the Narbadá and Tápti, which drain the flanks of its western half, it gives a more decided easterly and westerly direction to the winds of this part of India, and condenses a tolerably copious rainfall during the south-west monsoon. Separated from this chain by the valley of the Narbadá on the west, and that of the Son (Soane) on the east, the plateau of Málwā and Baghelkhand occupies the space intervening between these valleys and the Gangetic plain. On the western edge of the plateau are the ARAVALLI HILLs, which run from near Ahmadābād up to the neighbourhood of Delhi, and include one hill, Mount Abu, over 50oo feet in height. This range exerts an important influence on the direction of the wind, and also on the rainfall. At Ajmere, an old-established meteorological station at the eastern foot of the range, the wind is predominantly south-west. Both here and at Mount Abu the south-west monsoon rains are a regular phenomenon; which can hardly be said of the region of scanty and uncertain rainfall which extends from the western foot of the range and merges in the Bikaner desert. The peninsula south of the Sátpura range consists chiefly SOUTHERN WAVD/A AAWD CE YZON. 747 of the triangular plateau of the Deccan, terminating abruptly Southern on the west in the Sahyādri range (Western Ghâts), and Pº" shelving to the east (Eastern Ghâts). This plateau is swept by the south-west monsoon after it has surmounted the western barrier of the Ghâts. The rainfall is consequently light at Poona and places similarly situated under the lee of the range, and but moderate over the more easterly parts of the plateau. The rains, however, are prolonged to the north of the Sátpuras three or four weeks later than in Southern India, since they are brought there by the easterly winds which blow from the Bay of Bengal in October and the early part of November; when the re-curved southerly wind ceases to blow up the Gangetic valley, and sets towards the Karnātik. This was formerly thought to be the north-east monsoon, and is still so spoken of by some writers; but the rainy wind is really a diversion of the south-west monsoon. At the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghâts rises the Anamalai bold triangular plateau of the Nilgiris, and to the south of Hills. them come the Anamalais, Palnís (Pulneys), and Travancore Hills. These ranges are separated from the Nilgiris by a broad depression or pass known as the Pálghat gap, some 25 miles wide ; the highest point of which is about 1500 feet above the sea. This gap affords a passage to the winds, which elsewhere are barred by the chain of the Western Ghâts. The country to the east of the gap receives the rainfall of the South-west monsoon ; and during the north-east monsoon, ships passing Beypur meet with a stronger wind from the land than is felt elsewhere on the Malabar coast. According to Captain Newbold, the Pálghāt gap “affords an outlet to those furious storms from the eastward which sweep the Bay of Bengal, and, after traversing the peninsula, burst forth through it to the neighbouring sea.” In the coast-strip of low country which fringes the peninsula Southern below the Western Ghâts, the rainfall is heavy, the climate #. warm and damp, the vegetation dense and tropical. The steep slopes of the Ghâts, where they have not been artificially cleared, are also thickly clothed with forest. Ceylon should, for meteorological purposes, be included Meteoro- in this survey. The country both south and west of the ë. hills which occupy the south centre of the island is very rugged down to the coast. The rainfall is here frequent and Rainy heavy; and the temperature being high and equable, the º vegetation is dense and very luxuriant, such as is characteristic of islands in tropical seas, and also of the coast of Travancore. 748 MAETEOACOZOGY OF MAV/OMA. Drier east COaSt. The COntraSt. Lower Burma. Upper Burma. The plains on the east coast are drier, and both in climate and vegetation bear much resemblance to those of the Karnātik. When the south-west monsoon is blowing in May and June, and discharging torrents of rain on the forest-clad spurs and slopes that face to windward, the contrast presented by the eastward face of the same hills is very striking, and the two phases of climate are sharply demarcated. Newara Eliya (7000 feet), day after day, and even week after week, lies under a dense canopy of cloud, which shrouds all the higher peaks, and pours down in almost incessant rain. But let the traveller leave the station by the Badulla road, and cross over the main range at a distance of two or three miles from Newara Eliya. As he begins the descent towards Wilson's bungalow, he emerges on a panorama of the grassy downs of the lower hills, bathed in dazzling sunshine; while on the ridge above he sees the cloud-masses ever rolling across from the west, and dissolving away in the drier air to leeward. Hence the east and west coasts of Ceylon are as strongly contrasted in climate as those of the southern extremity of the Indian peninsula, In Lower Burma, the western face of the Arakan Yoma Hills, like that of the Indian Western Ghâts, is exposed to the full force of the south-west monsoon, and receives a very heavy rainfall. At Sandoway, this amounts to an annual mean of 212 inches. It diminishes to the northward; but even at Chittagong it amounts to Io.4% inches annually. - The country around Ava, as well as the hill country of North Burma, is the seat of occasional severe earthquakes, one of which destroyed Ava city in 1839. The general meridianal direction of the ranges and valleys determines the direction of the prevailing surface winds; subject, how- ever, to many local modifications. But it would appear, from Dr. Anderson’s observations of the movement of the upper clouds, that throughout the year there is, with but slight inter- ruption, a steady upper current from the south-west, such as has been already noticed over the Himalayas. The rainfall in the lower part of the Irawadi valley, viz. the delta and the neighbouring part of the Province of Pegu, is very heavy, about 190 inches; the climate is warm and equable at all seasons. But higher up the valley, and especially north of the Pegu frontier, the country is drier, and is characterized by a less luxuriant vegetation, and by a retarded and more scanty rainfall of about 56 inches. OBSERVATORIES.—Meteorological observatories have been OBSERVATORIES, MEAN TEMPERATURES. 749 established throughout India (including Burma, the Andamans, Observa- and Nepāl). These observatories are situated at all elevations, tories. from the highest, LEH (11,502 feet above mean sea-level) and CHAKRATA (705 I feet), to SAGAR ISLAND, 25 feet, and NEGA- PATAM, only 15 feet above mean sea-level. OBSERVATIONS.—The observations taken at Indian meteoro- Observa. logical stations record — (1) temperature of solar and of tions. nocturnal radiation, (2) air temperature, (3) atmospheric pres- sure, (4) direction and velocity of the wind, (5) humidity, (6) cloud proportion, and (7) rainfall. For full information on each of these subjects, the reader is referred to the valuable and deeply interesting reports of Mr. H. F. Blanford and Mr. Eliot, printed at the Government Press, Calcutta, and avail- able to all inquirers at the India Office, London. SOLAR RADIATION.—Although, theoretically, differences in Solar the height above ground of the registering thermometer produce “” little difference in the amount of radiation from the ground, yet the nature of the surface forms an important feature, the action of which differs very considerably in different parts of India, and interferes with an exact comparison of results obtained from different stations. Thus, the radiation from the parched, heated, and bare surface of the soil in the North-Western Provinces in May, must be considerably greater than from the moist grass-covered surface of the soil at the coast stations of Bengal and Western India in the same month. The following figures are obtained from Bengal stations Returns, where the instruments are believed to be accurate and com- parable. The yearly average maximum equilibrium tempera- tures of compared sun thermometers in vacuo, varied in these stations from 121.5” F. at Dárjíling (much the lowest average) and I31'3” at Goâlpárá (the next lowest), to 145.6° at Bardwan and 147'4" at Cuttack. The excess of the above over the corresponding maximum shade temperatures was — at Dárjíling, 59'I’; at Goâlpárá, 48’4”; at Bardwan, 57°; and at Cuttack, 55'8". TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR.—From the average annual mean Tempera- temperatures of 117 stations (derived from the means of three º “” or more years), the following figures are taken. In the two following stations in this list, the average mean yearly tem- Mean perature was over 82°F. :-Trichinopoli, 82°1°; Vizagapatam, tº: 82.8°. Both of these stations are in the Madras Presidency. The tures, next highest means are returned by Madras, 82°; Madura (also in Madras), 81.9°; Negapatam, 81'6"; Masulipatam, 81'3”; Kar- 75o MAETAEOACOZOG Y OF WAV/OMA. Hill stations. Monthly tempera- tureS. Atmo- spheric pressure. Wind. Cloud pro- portion. Rainfall. null, 81.2°; Sironchá, 81°; Cuttack, 80.7°; Bellary and Salem, 80'4”; Port Blair, 80'3”; Bikaner, 80°; False Point, 79'3”; Goa, 79.9°; Cochin, 79-6°; Ságar Island, 78°6’; Dísa, 79.9°; and Calcutta, 77.8°. The mean annual temperature of Bombay is 79.7°. The lowest means are obtained at the hill stations of Dârjiling, 51.8°; Simla, 55°; Murree, 56'I’; and Chakráta, 56'3”. Between these and the next coolest stations is a gap, Mastiri (Mussoorie) following with 59.2°, Ránſkhet with 60'2", Pachmarhſ with 68.7°, and Ráwal Pindi with a yearly mean of 69'3”. The highest mean monthly temperatures given are – 94.7° at Jhānsi, in May ; 94'4” at Mültán, in June; 93.7° at Lahore, Delhi, and Agra, in June. The lowest monthly means are returned by the four coldest hill stations mentioned above, the figures being —Murree—January 39°, February 39'4”; Simla–January 40'4", February 41°4° ; Chakráta—January 42'3”, February 43°4°; Dârjíling — January 39°4°, February 41.2°. The mean temperature at Leh in January is 17'1", and in December 23'1' F. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.—The mean yearly pressure in inches at the most elevated Stations is :—22-944 at Dárjiling, 23-224 at Chakráta, 23°275 at Simla, 24'059 at Ráníkhet, 26'392 at Pachmarhi, and 26'924 at Bangalore. The greatest annual mean pressures returned are:—29'889 at Cochin, 29.845 at Negapatam, 29-840 at Madras, and 29:821 at Bombay. These pressures are not reduced to the level of the sea. WIND.—The general directions of the wind in different parts of the peninsula have already been noticed in the introductory portion of this chapter describing the meteorological geography of the country. CLOUD PROPORTION.—The Reports give the averages of estimated cloud proportion for stations in India; an overcast sky being represented by Io and a clear sky by o. The greatest average annual proportions of clouded sky are repre- sented at Sibsagar by 7'19 ; at Merkära by 6-68; at Dárjíling by 6'44; at Trichinopoli by 6'04; at Coimbatore by 5:19; at Salem by 4-66. The lowest proportions recorded are:—for Jhānsi, I-20 ; Haidarābād (Sind), I-69; Mültán, I'66; Dera Ismāīl Khān, 2-oq ; Ságar (Saugor), in the Central Provinces, 2'43. RAINFALL-The average annual rainfall at 435 stations was recorded in the Meteorological Report for 1883, and from it I condense the following summary — In the Punjab the highest average fall (12491 inches) is at STA T/ST/CS OF ACA/AWAEA/./. 75 I Dharmsála, which is situated on the face of the hills, and The exposed to the full force of the monsoon; the next highest Punjab. recorded is little more than half that amount, or 71-24 inches, at Simla. The lowest average falls in the Punjab are:—5'88 inches at Muzaffargarh, 7'o'7 at Mültán, 7'o'3 at Dera Ghāzī Khán, and 8:46 at Dera Ismáil Khán. All these stations are protected by the Suláimán range from the monsoon. In Rájputéna and Central India the minimum is 12'o'7 Rájputána inches at Pachbadra, and the maximum 63.21 at Mount Abu, º ii. the highest point in this part of India. In the North-Western Provinces the heaviest rainfalls are North- at Masrúi (94.72 inches), Náini Tál (91.17), and Dehra (74:91), }. all of which lie high ; the minimum average fall is 25°28 at Muttra, the next lowest figures being 26'o6 at Aligarh, 25-66 at Agra, and 25°7'o at Bulandshahr—all stations on the plains. In Oudh the maximum rainfall is at Bahraich, 43'48 inches; Oudh. and the minimum at Rái Bareli, 32°18 inches. The following stations of Bengal have an average rainfall of Bengal. more than Ioo inches :—Baxa, 22O'91 ; Jalpäiguri, I29°21 ; Mongpú, I 28°43 ; Dârjiling, I 20-85 ; and Kuch Behár, I3o'89—all at the base of the hills; Noãkháli, III '75; Demá- giri, I 1297 ; Cox's Bázár, 141 '60; and Chittagong, IoA'58, all near the north-east corner of the Bay of Bengal. The lowest averages are returned by Keunjhar, 32-61 inches ; Baxár, 39'04; Chaprá, 39'I5 ; and Gayá, 40-29. The average rainfall throughout Bengal is 67 inches. Assam possesses in Cherra Poonjee (Chárá Punji) the Assam. station with the largest rainfall in the world. Former returns gave the fall at 368 inches; later and fuller returns at 481-8o inches. A total fall of 805 inches was reported in 1861, of which 366 were assigned to the single month of July. In 1850, Dr. Hooker registered 30 inches in twenty-four hours, and returned the fall from June to November of that year at 530 inches. In the four days 9th to 12th September 1877, 56-19 inches were registered. The cause of this extraordinary rainfall is noticed in the chapter on Physical Geography. The following stations in Assam have also a very high average rainfall:—Silchár, I 1885; Sylhet, 156'12 ; Dibrugarh, I 13:53; and Turá, I 23-80. The lowest recorded averages in Assam are at Sámaguting (52'58 inches) and Gauháti (69.26 inches), both on the northern side of the hills separating Cachar from Assam. In the Central Provinces, the highest average falls are at Central Pachmarhi, 77.85 inches, and Bālāghāt, 65.92 ; lowest * averages, Khandwā, 33°29 inches, and Arvi, 35’og inches. 752 METEOA’O ZOG Y OF ZAV/D/A. Bombay. Sind. Madras. Lower Burma. Port Blair. Sun-spot cycles. In Bombay, two stations on the Ghâts are recorded as having an average rainfall of over 250 inches, viz. –Malcolm- pet (Mahābaleshwar), 258.49; and Baura (Fort), 255-28. Next in order come Matheran, with 245'24 inches; Lonauli, with 165'13; Honáwar, 138'08; and Igatpuri, Kárwär, Vengūrla, and Ratnāgiri, with 124'19, I I6'03, I Io'89, and IO4'55 inches respectively. The lowest average rainfalls recorded in Bombay are:—1882 inches at Mandargi; 20.97 at Dhuliá; and 21:41 at Gokák. The average rainfall in Bombay is 67 inches. In Sind the average rainfall is very low, varying from 16-17 inches at Nagar, and II’og at Umarkot, to 4-65 at Shikárpur, and 4.33 at Jacobābād. In Madras the highest local averages recorded are:—132.87 inches at Mangalore; 129-68 at Cannanore; 128:21 at Mer- kāra ; 125-66 at Tellicherri; II5'o4 at Calicut; and 115°o2 at Cochin—all on the west coast. The lightest falls recorded are:—at Bellary, 17:64; Tuticorin (sheltered by the Ghâts), 1944; Güte (GOoty), 2 I-79 ; and Coimbatore, 21:34. All these stations lie low. The average fall at the stations on the east coast is about 41 inches. A fair average rainfall for Madras Presidency is 44 inches. The rainfall along the coast of Lower Burma is heavy, as might be expected, the following averages being recorded :- Sandoway, 212 °og inches; Tavoy, 197'o.2 ; Akyab, 19761 ; Maulmain, 189'37; Kyauk-pyu, I 74-79. The smallest rainfall is at Thayet-myo (47'37) and Prome (53°oo), sheltered by the Yoma range. The rainfall at Port Blair and Nancowry is also heavy, the averages being returned as I 1838 and Io9'91 inches respect- ively. SUN-SPOT CYCLES.—These alleged cycles have formed the subject of several separate papers, and the results were popularly summed up in a joint article by Mr. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., and myself, in the AVineteenth Century for November 1877. It will therefore suffice here to state the views of the Indian Meteorological Department on the intri- cate questions involved. The following are the inferences which the meteorology of India appears to suggest, if not to establish. There is a tendency at the minimum sun-spot periods to prolonged excessive pressure over India, and at the maximum Sun-Spot periods to an unusual development of the winter rains, and to the occurrence of abnormally heavy Snowfall over the Himalayan region (to a greater extent pro- SOAV.,SA’OZ’ CYCZAZ.S. 75.3 bably in the Western than the Eastern Himalayas). This appears also to be usually followed by a weak south-west monsoon. The characteristics of a weak monsoon are, great irregularity in the distribution of the rainfall over the whole of India, and the occurrence of heavy local rainfalls, which tend, by a law of rainfall and of air-motion, to recur over the same limited areas. The irregularity of rainfall distribution is often shown by the persistence of dry land winds and the prolonged absence of rain over considerable areas. These areas of drought and famine are partly marked off by nature, depending to a certain extent on the geographical features and position of the district. Thus, the rains are more likely to fall below the amount necessary for cultivation in the dry region of the Deccan or in Upper India, than over the Malabar coast area or the Province of Bengal. | 754 | Destruc- tion of life by wild animals, 1890. Slaughter of wild beasts and Snakes, I890. Mammals. Lion. C H A P T E R XXIV. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF INDIA. THE WILD ANIMALS of India have an administrative importance which happily they do not possess in England; for in India they are still destroyers of human life on a great Scale. In 1890, no fewer than 23,872 persons and 68,480 cattle were killed by wild beasts and snakes. The Government maintains, therefore, a permanent system of extirpation against these enemies of the peasant and his herds, by a regular tariff of rewards in every District payable for their slaughter. The total number of wild beasts thus destroyed in 1890, and for which rewards were claimed, amounted to 14,604, and the number of snakes killed was 5Io,659. A sum of Rs. I I5,464 was officially paid as rewards for their heads. The tiger is still the most destructive of the Indian wild beasts to man and cattle; but the leopard, the bear, the wolf, the hyaena, and the elephant each claim their yearly tale of victims. The number of human deaths from snake-bite exceeds, however, those caused by all the wild beasts of India put together. In 1890, only 2460 persons were killed by wild beasts, and 21,412 persons by snakes. On the other hand, the wild beasts killed 64,532 cattle against 3948 cattle killed by Snakes. First among the wild animals of India must be mentioned the lion (Felis leo), which is recorded to have been not un- common within historical times in Hindustán Proper and the Punjab. The lion is now confined to the Gir, or rocky hill- desert and forest of Káthiáwär. A peculiar variety is there found, marked by the almost total absence of a mane ; but whether this variety deserves to be classed as a distinct species, naturalists have not yet determined. The lion has now almost entirely disappeared; and the Official Gazetteer of Káthiáwär stated that there were in 1884 probably not more than ten or a dozen lions and lionesses left in the whole Gir forest tract. They are strictly preserved. The former extent of the lion's range, or the degree to which its presence impressed the imagination, may be inferred from the common personal TVGAA’.S. 755 names, Sinh or Singh, Sher, and Haidar, which all signify ‘lion.” Sher, however, is also applied to the tiger. The characteristic beast of prey in India is the tiger (Felis Tiger. tigris), which is found in every part of the country, from the slopes of the Himalayas to the Sundarban swamps. Sir Joseph Fayrer, the highest living authority on this subject, believes that 12 feet is the maximum length of the tiger, when measured from nose to tip of tail immediately after death. The advance of cultivation, even more than the incessant attacks of sports- men, has gradually caused the tiger to become a rare animal in large tracts of country; but it is scarcely probable that he ever will be exterminated from India. The malarious farát. fringing the Himalayas, the uninhabitable swamps of the Gangetic delta, and the wide jungles of the Central Plateau, are at present the chief home of the tiger. His favourite food appears to be deer, antelope, and wild hog. When these abound, he does not attack domestic cattle. Indeed, the natives of certain Districts consider the tiger as in some sort their protector, for he saves their crops from destruction by the wild animals on which he feeds. But when once he develops a taste for human blood, then the slaughter which he works becomes truly formidable. The confirmed man-eater, generally an old beast, disabled Man- from overtaking his usual prey, seems to accumulate his tale of #. victims in sheer cruelty rather than for food. A single tiger is known to have killed Io8 people in three years. Another killed an average of about 8o persons per annum. A third caused I3 villages to be abandoned, and 250 square miles of land to be thrown out of cultivation. A fourth, as lately as 1869, killed I27 people, and stopped a public road for many weeks, until the opportune arrival of an English sportsman, who shot him. Such cases are, of course, exceptional, and generally refer to a past period, but they explain the Superstitious awe with which the tiger is regarded by the natives. The favourite mode of shooting the tiger is from the back of elephants, or from elevated platforms (machóns) of boughs in the jungle. In Central India and Bombay, tigers are shot on foot. In Assam, they are sometimes speared from boats, and in the Himalayas they are said to be ensnared by bird-lime. Rewards are given by Government to native shikāris for the heads of tigers, varying in time and place according to the need. In 1890, no fewer than 798 persons and 29,275 Tiger cattle were returned as killed by tigers. The sum of Rs. statistics, 36,0II was paid during the year to native professional huntsmen 1890. 756 ZOOZOGY AND BOTANY OF INDIA. Leopard. Cheetah. Other species. Leopard statistics, 1890. Wolf. for the destruction of 1276 tigers. Yet even these high figures are below the average of the past ten years. The leopard or panther (Felis pardus) is far more common than the tiger in all parts of India, and at least equally destructive to life. The greatest length of the Indian leopard is about 7 feet 6 inches. A black variety, as beautiful as it is rare, is sometimes found in the extreme south of the Indian peninsula, and also in Java. The cheetah or hunting leopard (Felis jubata) must be carefully distinguished from the leopard proper. This animal appears to be a native only of the Deccan, where it is trained for hunting the antelope. In some respects it approaches the dog more nearly than the cat tribe. Its limbs are long, its hair rough, and its claws blunt and only partially retractile. The speed with which it bounds upon its prey, when loosed from the cart, exceeds the swiftness of any other wild mammal. If it misses its first attack, it scarcely ever attempts to follow, but returns to its master. Among other species of the family Felidae found in India may be mentioned the ounce or snow leopard (F. unica), the clouded tiger (F. macroscelis), the marbled tiger cat (F. marmorata), the jungle cat (F. chaus), and the common viverrine cat (F. viverrina). In 1890, the leopard killed 179 persons and 25,552 cattle in India; while the number of leopards slain by professional native hunters who claimed rewards was 3756, the rewards amounting to Rs. 35,626. Wolves (Canis lupus) abound throughout the open country, but are rare in the wooded districts. Their favourite prey is sheep, but they are also said to run down antelopes and hares, or rather catch them by lying in ambush. Instances of their attacking man are not uncommon ; and 242 persons, princi- pally children, besides 3263 cattle, were reported, in 1890, to have been killed by wolves. The number of wolves killed in 1890, and for which rewards were claimed, was 3574, the rewards amounting to Rs. 13,403. The destruction of life and cattle by wolves under Native rule was enormous, and con- tinued to be very great during the first half-century of the East India Company’s administration. As late as 1827, upwards of 3o children were carried off by wolves in a single parganá or fiscal division ; and the story of Romulus and Remus has had its counterpart in India within recent times. The Indian wolf has a dingy reddish-white fur, some of the hairs being tipped with black. By some naturalists it is regarded as a distinct species, under the name of Canis pallipes. Three different varieties, the white, the red, and the black wolf, are found in the Tibetan Himalayas. JJOG; HYAFAWA, PAEAA’. 757 The Indian fox (Vulpes bengalensis) is comparatively rare; Fox. but the jackal (Canis aureus) abounds everywhere, making night hideous by its never-to-be-forgotten yells. The jackal, Jackal. and not the fox, is usually the animal hunted by the packs of hounds kept by Europeans. The wild dog or dhole is found in very many of the wilder Dog. jungles of India, including Assam and Lower Burma. Its characteristic is that it hunts in packs, sometimes containing 3o dogs, and does not give tongue. When once a pack of wild dogs has put up any animal, whether deer or tiger, that animal's doom is sealed. They do not leave it for days, and finally bring it to bay, or run it down exhausted. These wild dogs have sometimes been half domesticated, and trained to hunt for the use of man. A peculiar variety of wild dog exists in the Karen Hills of Burma, thus described from a specimen in confinement. It was black and white, as hairy as a Skye- terrier, and as large as a medium-sized spaniel. It had an invariable habit of digging a hole in the ground, into which it Crawled backwards, remaining there all day with only its nose and ferrety eyes visible. Among other dogs of India are the pariah, which is merely a mongrel, run wild and half-starved; the poligar dog, an immense creature peculiar to the south ; the greyhound, used for coursing; and the mastiff of Tibet and Bhutan. The striped hyaena (Hyaena striata) is common, being found Hyaena. wherever the wolf is absent. Like the wolf, it is destructive both to the flocks and to children. In 1890, the hyaena killed 26 persons and 3509 cattle. Of bears, the common black or sloth bear (Ursus labiatus) Bear. is common throughout India wherever rocky hills and forests occur. It is distinguished by a white horse-shoe mark on its breast. Its food consists of ants, honey, and fruit. When dis- turbed it will attack man ; and it is a dangerous antagonist, for it always strikes at the face. The Himalayan or Tibetan Sun- bear (Ursus tibetanus) is found along the north, from the Punjab to Assam. During the summer it remains high up in the mountains, near the limit of snow, but in the winter it descends to 5ooo feet, and even lower. Its congener, the Malayan Sun-bear (Helarctos malayanus), is found in Burma, where also there is a smaller species (Helarctos eury- spilus), and a very large animal reported to be as big as the American grizzly. There were 91 persons returned as killed by bears in 1890. The elephant (Elephas indicus) is found in many parts of 758 ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF INDIA. The Elephant. Elephant- catching. Elephant Preserva- tion Act. Statistics of Ele- phant- catching, 1878–91. India, though not in the north-west. Contrary to what might be anticipated from its size and from the habits of its African cousin, the Indian elephant is now, at any rate, an inhabitant, not of the plains, but of the hills; and even on the hills it is usually found among the higher ridges and plateaux, and not in the valleys. From the peninsula of India the elephant has been gradually exterminated, being only found now in the primaeval forests of Coorg, Mysore, and Travancore, and in the Tributary States of Orissa. It still exists in considerable numbers along the faráz or submontane fringe of the Hima- layas. The main source of supply at the present time is the Confused mass of hills which forms the north-east boundary of British India, from Assam to Burma. Two varieties are there distinguished, the gunda or tusker, and the makna or hine, which has no tusks. The reports of the height of the elephant, like those of its intelligence, seem to be exaggerated. The maximum is pro- bably 12 feet. If hunted, the elephant must be attacked on foot, and the sport is therefore dangerous, especially as the animal has but few parts vulnerable to a bullet. The regular mode of catching elephants is by means of a kheda or gigantic stockade, into which a wild herd is driven, then starved into Submission, and tamed by animals already domesticated. The practice of capturing them in pitfalls is discouraged as Cruel and wasteful. Elephants now form a Government monopoly throughout India. The shooting of them is prohibited, except when they become dangerous to man or destructive to the Crops; and the right of capturing them is only leased out upon conditions. A special law, under the title of ‘The Elephants Preserva- tion Act' (No. VI. of 1879), regulated this licensing system, Whoever kills, captures, or injures an elephant, or attempts to do so, without a licence, is punishable by a fine of 500 rupees for the first offence; and by a similar fine, together with six months’ imprisonment, for a second offence. In the year 1877–78, a total of 264 elephants were captured in the Pro- vince of Assam, yielding to Government a revenue of Rs. 36,000. In 1882–83, 475 elephants were captured in Assam, yielding a revenue to Government of Rs. 85,730. In 1891, the number captured in Assam was 259, yielding a Government revenue of Rs. 35,670 for licence fees and royalties. In the season of 1873–74, no fewer than 53 elephants were captured at one catch by Mr. Sanderson, formerly the superintendent of the Kheda Department in Mysore, who has made a special study A’AIAWOCAEA’OS, A/OG, WILD ASS. 7.59 of the Indian elephant, as Sir S. Baker has of the same animal in Ceylon. Although the supply is decreasing, elephants con- tinue to be in great demand. Their chief use is in the timber trade, and for Government transport. They are also bought up by Native chiefs at high prices for ostentation. The number of persons registered as killed by wild elephants was 57 in I890; while 32 wild elephants, for which rewards were claimed, Were destroyed, the rewards amounting to Rs. 1250. Of the rhinoceros, four distinct varieties are enumerated, two The Rhi. with a single, and two with a double horn. The most familiar * is the Rhinoceros unicornis, commonly found in the Brahma- putra Valley and its wide swamps. It has but one horn, and is Covered with massive folds of naked skin. It sometimes attains a height of 6 feet; its horn, which is much prized by the natives for medicinal purposes, seldom exceeds 14 inches in length. It frequents swampy, shady spots, and wallows in mud like a pig. The traditional antipathy of the rhinoceros to the elephant seems to be mythical. The Javan rhinoceros (R. Sondaicus) is found in the Sundarbans. It also has but One horn, and mainly differs from the foregoing in being Smaller, and having less prominent ‘shields.” The Sumatran rhinoceros (R. Sumatrensis) is found from Chittagong south- ward through Burma. It has two horns and a bristly coat. The hairy-eared rhinoceros (R. lasiotis) is known from a specimen captured at Chittagong, and sent to the Zoological Gardens, London. Two are at Calcutta. The wild hog (Sus scrofa, var. indica) is well known as afford- The wild ing the most exciting sport in the world—‘pig-sticking.” It #99. frequents cultivated localities, and is the most mischievous enemy which the husbandman has to guard against ; doing more damage than elephants, tigers, leopards, deer, and ante- lope, all put together. A rare animal, called the pigmy hog (Porculia Salvania), exists in the farái of Nepāl and Sikkim, and has been shot in Assam. Its height is only Io inches, and its weight does not exceed 12 lbs. The wild ass (Equus onager) is confined to the sandy The wild deserts of Sind and Kachchh (Cutch), where, from its speed A*. and timidity, it is almost unapproachable. Many wild species of the sheep and goat tribe are to be Sheep and found in the Himalayan ranges. The Ovis ammon and O. Goats. poli are Tibetan rather than Indian species. The urial and the shapu are kindred species of wild sheep, found respectively in Ladákh and the Suláimán range. The former comes down to 2000 feet above the sea, the latter is never seen at altitudes 760 ZOOZOGY AAWD BOZAAVY OF INDIA. Antelopes. Nilgái. Deer. The Bison. lower than 12,000 feet. The barhal, or blue wild sheep, and the markhor and fahr (both wild goats), also inhabit the Himá- layas. A variety of the ibex is also found there, as well as in the highest ranges of Southern India. The sarau (Nemor- haedus rubidus), allied to the chamois, has a wide range in the mountains of the north, from the Himalayas to Assam and Burma. The antelope tribe is represented by comparatively few species, as compared with the great number found in Africa. The antelope proper (Antilope cervicapra), the ‘black buck’ of sportsmen, is very generally distributed. Its special habitat is Salt plains, as on the coast-line of Gujarát (Guzerāt) and Orissa, where herds of 50 does may be seen, accompanied by a single buck. The doe is of a light fawn colour, and has no horns. The colour of the buck is a deep brown-black above, sharply marked off from the white of the belly. His spiral horns, twisted for three or four or more turns like a Cork- screw, often reach the length of 30 inches. The flesh is dry and unsavoury, but is permitted meat for Hindus, even of the Brähman caste. The four-horned antelope (Tetraceros quadricornis) and the gazelle (Gazella bennettii) are also found in India. The chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni) is confined to the Himalayan plateaux. The mílgái or blue cow (Portax pictus) is also widely dis- tributed, but specially abounds in Hindustán Proper and Gujarát. As with the antelope, the male alone has the dark blue colour. The málgái is held peculiarly sacred by Hindus, from its fancied kinship to the cow, and on this account its destructive inroads upon the crops are tolerated. The king of the deer tribe is the sambhar or gerau (Cervus aristotelis), erroneously called “elk' by sportsmen. It is found on the forest-clad hills in all parts of the country. It is of a deep-brown colour, with hair on its neck almost like a mane ; and it stands nearly 5 feet high, with spreading antlers nearly 3 feet in length. Next in size is the swamp deer or ödra- singha, signifying “twelve points’ (Cervus duvaucelli), which is common in Lower Bengal and Assam. The chiţă/ or spotted deer (Cervus axis) is generally admitted to be the most beautiful inhabitant of the Indian jungles. Other species include the hog deer (Cervus porcinus), the barking deer or muntjac (Cervulus muntijac), and the so-called mouse deer (Tragulus meminna). The musk deer (Moschus moschi- ferus) is confined to Tibet. The ox tribe is represented in India by some of its noblest A U.FFAZO; AAT TRZA E, BIRDS. 761 species. The gaur (Bos gaurus), the ‘bison’ of sportsmen, is found in all the hill jungles of the country, in the Western Ghâts, in Central India, in Assam, and in Lower Burma. This animal sometimes attains the height of 20 hands (close On 7 feet), measuring from the hump above the shoulder. Its short curved horns and skull are enormously massive. Its Colour is dark chestnut, or coffee-brown. From the difficult nature of its habitat, and from the ferocity with which it charges an enemy, the pursuit of the bison is no less dangerous and no less exciting than that of the tiger or the elephant. Akin to the gaur, though not identical, are the gayá/ or mithſºn (Bos frontalis), confined to the hills of the North-East Frontier, where it is domesticated for sacrificial purposes by the ab- original tribes; and the tsime or banting (Bos sondaicus), found in Burma. The wild buffalo (Bubalus arni) differs from the tame buffalo The only in being larger and more fierce. The finest specimens Buffalo. COme from Assam and Burma. The horns of the bull are thicker than those of the cow, but the horns of the cow are larger. A head has been known to measure 13 feet 6 inches in circumference, and 6 feet 6 inches between the tips. The greatest height is 6 feet. The colour is a slaty black; the hide is immensely thick, with scanty hairs. Alone perhaps of all wild animals in India, the buffalo will charge unprovoked. Even tame buffaloes seem to have an inveterate dislike to Europeans. The rat and mouse family is only too numerous. Con- Rattribe. spicuous in it is the loathsome bandicoot (Mus bandicota), which sometimes measures 2 feet in length, including its tail, and weighs 3 lbs. It burrows under houses, and is very destructive to plants, fruit, and even poultry. More interesting is the tree rat (Mus arboreus), a native of Bengal, about 7 inches long, which makes its nest in cocoa-nut palms and bamboos. The voles or field mice (genus Arvicola) occasion- ally multiply so exceedingly as to seriously diminish the out- turn of the local harvest, and to require special measures for their destruction. The Ornithology of India, although it is not considered so Birds. rich in Specimens of gorgeous and variegated plumage as that of other tropical regions, contains many splendid and curious varieties. Some are clothed in nature's gay attire, others dis- tinguished by strength, size, and fierceness. The parrot tribe is the most remarkable for beauty. So various are the species 762 ZooZogy AND BOZAVY OF INDIA. that no attempt is made here even to enumerate them, but the reader is referred for details to the scientific works on the subject." Among birds of prey four vultures are found, including the common scavengers (Gyps indicus and G. bengalensis). The eagles comprise many species, but none to surpass the golden eagle of Europe. Of falcons, there are the peregrine (Falco peregrinus), the shain (Falco peregrinator), and the ſagar (Falco jugger), which are all trained by the natives for hawking; of hawks, the shikara (Astur badius), the Sparrow hawk (Accipiter nisus), and the crested goshawk (Astur trivirgatus). Kingfishers of various kinds, and herons, are sought for their plumage. No bird is more popular with natives than the maina (Acridotheres tristis), a member of the starling family, which lives contentedly in a Cage, and can be taught to pronounce words, especially the name of the god Krishna. Waterfowl are especially numerous. Of game-birds, the floriken (Sypheotides auritus) is valued as much for its rarity as for the delicacy of its flesh. Snipe (Gallinago scolopacina, etc.) abound at certain seasons, in such numbers that one gun has been known to make a bag of Ioo brace in a day. Pigeons, partridges, quail, plover, duck, teal, sheldrake, widgeon—all of many varieties—complete the list of small game. The red jungle fowl (Gallus ferrugineus), supposed to be the ancestor of our own poultry, is not good eating; and the same may be said of the peacock (Pavo cristatus), except when young. The pheasant does not occur in India Proper; but a white variety is found in Burma, and several beautiful species (con- spicuously the manaul) abound in the Himalayas. The serpent tribe in India is numerous; they swarm in the gardens, and intrude into the dwellings of the inhabitants, especially during the rainy season. Most are comparatively harmless, but the bite of others is speedily fatal.” The cobra di Capello—the name given to it by the Portuguese, from the appearance of a hood which it produces by the expanded skin about the neck—is the most dreaded (Naja tripudians). It seldom exceeds 3 or 4 feet in length, and is about an inch and a quarter thick, with a small head, covered on the fore- part with large Smooth scales; it is of a pale brown Colour Birds of prey. Game- birds. Reptiles. The ‘cobra.’ * Especially those of Jerdon, Gould, Hume, and Marshall. * Sir Joseph Fayrer's 7%amatophidia is the standard work on Indian snakes. Vincent Richards' Zand'marks of Smaže Poison Ziterature is an excellent compendium. SWAKES; CKOCOD/ZE, FISHES. 763 above, and the belly is of a bluish-white tinged with pale brown or yellow. The Russellian snake (Daboia Russellii), about 4 feet in length, is of a pale yellowish-brown, beautifully variegated with large oval spots of deep brown, with a white edging. Its bite is extremely fatal. Itinerant showmen carry about these serpents, and cause them to assume a dancing motion for the amusement of the spectators. They give out that they render snakes harmless by the use of charms or music—in reality, by extracting the venomous fangs. But, judging from the frequent accidents, they sometimes seem to dispense with this precaution. All the salt-water snakes in India are poisonous, while the fresh-water forms are innocuous. Sir Joseph Fayrer has demonstrated that none of the Deaths reputed antidotes will cure the bite of the cobra if the Snake †. is full-grown, and if its poison fang is full and be not inter-bite; fered with by clothing. The most hopeful remedy in all cases of Snake-bite is the injection of ammonia. The loss of life from this cause in India is painful to contemplate. But the extermination of snakes is attended with great difficulty, from the great number of the species, the character of the Country, the rapid undergrowth of jungle, and the scruples of the people. Something, however, is being effected by the offer of rewards. In 1890, snakes killed 21,412 persons and 1890. 3948 cattle; while 510,659 snakes were killed, for which rewards were claimed, the rewards amounting to Rs. 19,004. The other reptiles include two varieties of crocodile (C. Crocodile. porosus and C. biporcatus) and the garial (Gavialis gangeticus). Scorpions also abound. All the waters of India—the sea, the rivers, and the tanks— Fishes. swarm with a great variety of fishes," which are caught in every conceivable way, and furnish a considerable proportion of the food of the poorer classes. They are eaten fresh, or as nearly fresh as may be ; for the art of curing them is not generally practised, owing to the exigencies of the Salt monopoly. In Burma, the favourite relish of nga-fi is prepared from fish. At Goâlânda, at the junction of the Brahmaputra with the Ganges, and along the Madras coast, many establishments have been formed for salting fish in bond. The indiscriminate slaughter of fry, and the obstacles opposed by irrigation dams to breeding * The standard works on Indian fishes and their economic aspects are the Reports and official volume by Dr. Francis Day, late Inspector-General of Fisheries to the Government of India; available to all inquirers, at the India Office, London. 764 ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF INDIA. Dolphin. Insects. fish, are said to be causing a sensible diminution in the supply in certain rivers. Measures of Conservancy have been suggested; but their execution is attended with great difficulty, owing to the habits and the necessities of the poorer population. Among Indian fishes, the Cyprinidae or carp family and the Siluridae or cat-fishes are best represented. From the angler's point of view, by far the finest fish is the mahsir, found in all hill streams, whether in Assam, the Punjab, or the south. One has been caught weighing 60 lbs., which gave play for more than seven hours. Though called the salmon of India, the mahsir is really a species of barbel. One of the richest and most delicious of Indian fishes is the hiſsã, which tastes and looks like a sort of fat white salmon. It is caught in immense quantities in the rivers of the Bengal delta, and forms a staple article of food in Calcutta. The Bombay and Madras markets are still better supplied by a variety of delicate fishes. But the enhanced price of this important article of native diet throughout the country, the decreased supply, and the ever-increasing fineness of the meshes of the nets employed in catching the fry, are matters of grave concern alike to the Government and to the poorer classes of the population. In this Connection may be mentioned the susu or Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica), a mammal often erroneously called a porpoise. Both the structure and habits of this animal are very singular. It measures from 6 to 12 feet in length, and in colour is sooty-black. Its head is globular, with a long, narrow, spoon-shaped snout. Its eyes are rudi- mentary, like those of the mole; and its ear-orifices are no bigger than pin-holes. Its dentition, also, is altogether abnormal. It frequents the Ganges and Indus from their mouths right up to their tributaries within the hills. A Specimen has been taken at least I ooo miles above Calcutta. Ordinarily its movements are slow, for it wallows in the muddy bed of the river, and only at intervals comes to the surface to blow. The Susu belongs to the order Cetacea ; and inquiries have recently been directed to the point whether its blubber might not be utilized in commerce. The insect tribes in India may be truly said to be innumer- able; nor has anything like a complete classification been given of them in the most scientific treatises. The heat and the rains give incredible activity to noxious or troublesome insects, and to others of a more showy class, whose large JAV/D/AAV AZOA2A. 765 wings surpass in brilliancy the most splendid colours of art. Stinging mosquitoes are innumerable, with moths and ants of the most destructive habits, and other insects equally noxious and disagreeable. Amongst those which are useful are the bee, the silkworm, and the insect that produces lac. Clouds of locusts Occasionally appear, which leave no trace of green Locusts. behind them, and give the country over which they pass the appearance of a desert. Dr. Buchanan saw a mass of these insects in his journey from Madras to the Mysore territory, about 3 miles in length, like a long narrow red cloud near the horizon, and making a noise somewhat resembling that of a Cataract. Their size was about that of a man's finger, and their colour reddish. They are swept north by the wind till they strike upon the outer ranges of the Himalayas. FLORA.1–Unlike other large geographical areas, India is Indian remarkable for having no distinctive botanical features peculiar * to itself. It differs conspicuously in this respect from such countries as Australia or South Africa. Its vegetation is in point of fact of a composite character, and is constituted by the meeting and blending of the various floras adjoining,-of those of Persia and the south-eastern Mediterranean area to the north-west, of Siberia to the north, of China to the east, and of Malaya to the south-east. Space does not admit of a minute discussion of the local features peculiar to separate districts; but, regarded broadly, four tolerably distinct types present themselves, namely, the Himalayan, the North-Western, the Assamese or Malayan, and the Western India type. The upper levels of the Himálayas slope northward #. III.13.” 1 For the best general sketch of the flora of India, recourse must be had layas. to the introductory essay to the Flora Zndica by Hooker and Thomson in 1855. The Flora of British India, in 34 volumes, now (1893) reaching completion at Kew, will comprise descriptions of all the species known to science up to the date of publication. It forms the great national work on the botany of India. For the following paragraphs on the flora, written by Mr. W. T. Thiselton-Dyer of Kew, I am indebted to the courtesy of Messrs. A. & C. Black, publishers of the Æzecyclopædia Aritannica. Among important works on Indian Botany, published since the commencement of the Flora of British India, I should mention Brandis' Aorest Alora of Morth-Western and Central India (1874); Kurz's Forest Flora of British Burma; Beddome's Ferns of India ; and King's magnificent series of Annals of the Calcutta Botanical Gardens; a series of illustrated quarto volumes, among which these on the Oaks and figs of India are pre-eminent for their utility and scientific value. Gamble's Manual of Indian Timbers (Calcutta, 1881) is also a work of great merit. 766 ZOOZOGY AAWD BOTAAWY OF ZVD/A. Lower Himá- layas. North- West. gradually to the Tibetan uplands, over which the Siberian temperate vegetation ranges. This is part of the great tem- perate flora which, with locally individualized species but often with identical genera, extends over the whole of the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. In the Western Himalayas, this upland flora is marked by a strong admixture of European species, such as the columbine (Aquilegia) and hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha). These disappear rapidly eastward, and are scarcely found beyond Kumāun. The base of the Himalayas is occupied by a narrow belt forming an extreme north-western extension of the Malayan type described below. Above that there is a rich temperate flora, which in the eastern chain may be regarded as forming an extension of that of Northern China, gradually assuming westward more and more of a European type. Magnolia, Aucuba, Abelia, and Skimmia may be mentioned as examples of Chinese genera found in the Eastern Himalayas, and the tea-tree grows wild in Assam. The same coniferous trees are common to both parts of the range. Pinus longifolia extends to the Hindu Kush ; P. excelsa is found universally except in Sikkim, and has its European analogue in P. Peuce, found in the mountains of Greece. Abies Smithiana extends into Afghānistán ; Abies Webbiana forms dense forests at altitudes of 8ooo to 12, ooo feet, and ranges from Bhutan to Kashmir; several junipers and the common yew (Taxus baccata) also occur. The deodar (Cedrus deodara), which is indigenous to the mountains of Afghānistán and the north-west Himalayas, is nearly allied to the Atlantic cedar and to the cedar of Lebanon, a variety of which has recently been found in Cyprus. Another instance of the connection of the Western Himalayan flora with that of Europe is the holm oak (Quercus ilex), so characteristic of the Mediterranean region. The north-western area is best marked in Sind and the Punjab, where the climate is very dry (rainfall under 15 inches), and where the soil, though fertile, is wholly dependent on irrigation for its cultivation. The low-scattered jungle con- tains such characteristic species as Capparis aphylla, Acacia arabica (Čačić/), Populus euphratica (the ‘willows’ of Psalm cxxxvii. 2), Salvadora persica (erroneously identified by Royle with the mustard of Matthew xiii. 31), tamarisk, Zizyphus, Lotus, etc. The dry flora extends somewhat in a south-east direction, and then blends insensibly with that of the western peninsula; some species representing it are found in the Upper Gangetic plain, and a few are widely distributed in dry parts of the country. A/OACA OF WAESTEACAV ZAV/D/A. 767 This area is described by Sir Joseph Hooker as comprising Assam and ‘the flora of the perennially humid regions of India, as of º the whole Malayan peninsula, the upper Assam valley, the peninsula. Khási mountains, the forests of the base of the Himalayas from the Brahmaputra to Nepāl, of the Malabar coast, and of Ceylon.’ The Western India type is difficult to characterize, and is Western intermediate between the two just preceding. It occupies a India. comparatively dry area, with a rainfall under 75 inches. In respect to positive affinities, Sir Joseph Hooker has pointed out some relations with the flora of tropical Africa as evidenced by the prevalence of such genera as Grewia and Impatiens, and the absence, common to both countries, of oaks and pines, which abound in the Malayan archipelago. The annual vegeta- tion which springs up in the rainy season includes numerous genera, such as Sida and Indigofera, which are largely repre- sented both in Africa and Hindustán. Palms also in both countries are scanty, the most notable in Southern India being the wild date (Phoenix Sylvestris); Borassus and the cocoa-nut are cultivated. The forests, although occasionally very dense, as in the Western Ghâts, are usually drier and more open than those of the Malayan type, and are often scrubby. The most important timber-trees are the fiºn (Cedrela toona), sd/ (Shorea robusta), the present area of which forms two belts separated by the Gangetic plain; satin-wood (Chloroxylon Swietenia), common in the drier parts of the peninsula ; Sandal-wood, especially characteristic of Mysore; iron-wood (Mesua ferrea), and teak (Tectona grandis). [768 C H A P T E R XXV. VITAL STATISTICS OF INDIA. THE vital statistics of India 1 are derived from five chief sources. Of these, the first, or European army, consists of foreigners under special medical conditions, and subject to the disturbing influence of ‘invaliding.” The second, or Native army; the third, or jail population; and the fourth, or police; are all composed of natives, but of natives under special con- ditions as regards food, discipline, or labour. It is dangerous to generalize from returns thus obtained, with regard to the health statistics of the ordinary population of India. For that Five SOUlrCeS of health returns. * The literature of Indian health statistics and medical aid may be divided into nine chief classes:—(1) Separate treatises by a series of medical observers, dating from the latter part of the 18th century and continuing up to the present time. (2) Official special Reports of the Medical Boards of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay on the great outbreak of cholera in 1817; the Medico-Topographical Reports (1825–40) of the chief stations of the Madras Presidency, by the Medical Board of that Presidency. (3) The Transactions of the Medical Physical Society of Calcutta (1823–39), and of Bombay (1837–76); the Indian Annals of Medical Science (Cal- cutta) from 1853–80; other medical journals at different periods in the three Presidencies. (4) Reports on the Medical Education of the Natives of India, commencing with vernacular medical schools in Calcutta and Bombay (1820–30), developing (1835–57) into the Medical Colleges of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, and extending into medical schools at Haidarābād (Deccan), Nágpur, Agra, Lahore, Balrampur (Oudh), Patná, Dacca, Poona, Ahmadābād. (5) Reports on Vital Statistics by the various Medical Boards, Medical Departments, and Inspectors-General of Hospitals; since 1827 these assume a prominent place. (6) The Annual Reports of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India, since 1874, and of the Sanitary Commissioners to the local Governments; the Annual Reports of the Inspectors-General of Jails, of the Inspectors-General of Police, and of the Health Officers to municipal bodies in the various Presi- dencies and Provinces. (7) Reports by special Committees or Commis- sions, such as those on the Bardwan fever, on the cattle-plague in Bengal, the Orissa famine of 1866, the Madras famine of 1878, etc. (8) Annual Reports of the public hospitals, dispensaries, and other medical charities. (9) The Census Reports of India (Imperial and Provincial) for 1872, 1881, and 1891. The author has been unable to test all the dates in this foot- note ; but he reproduces some of them, unverified, from a memorandum supplied to him by Dr. Morehead, formerly of Bombay. A&AEGISTRATIO/W, DEATH-AEATE. 769 population, however, a system of registration exists, and this system forms the fifth source of our data on the subject. In certain Provinces, registration is carried out with some Registra- degree of efficiency. But the natives shrink from publicity º touching the details of their life. They could only be forced popula- to give uniform and absolutely trustworthy returns of births, º Wy deaths, marriages, sex, and age, by a stringent legislation and worthy. a costly administrative mechanism, from which the Govern- ment wisely abstains. In municipalities, however, registration furnishes a fairly accurate account of the vital statistics of the urban population. For the rural Districts, special areas in some Provinces were selected for statistical supervision ; and this has been now gradually extended, with the exclusion of certain exceptionally situated tracts, to practically the whole population. But the results obtained are still necessarily imperfect. In treating of the public health of India, therefore, two Sources points must always be borne in mind. The data are obtained “” either, first, from limited classes under special medical con- ditions; or second, from a general system of registration spread over the whole country, but which has hitherto failed to yield altogether trustworthy results. General averages from such sources, struck for the entire population, can only be accepted as estimates based upon the best information at present available. Subject to the above remarks, it may be stated that till Death-rate within the last five years, the evidence went to show an annual ** death-rate of about 33 per thousand in India. During the famine of 1876–78, the death-rate in Madras was ascertained to be equal to an annual rate of 53.2 per thousand. In 1877, in 1877; the death-rate among the European troops in India was 12*7 I per thousand, being the lowest recorded up to that year; in the Native army, 13:38 per thousand ; in the public jails, during the famine year of 1877, 61 '95 per thousand, rising to 176 per thousand in the Madras prisons, which were flooded by the famine-stricken population. In 1883, the death-rate in 1883; returns of European troops in India showed a mortality of Io-88 per thousand; in the Native army, including men absent from their regiments, 14:31 per thousand; and in the jails (among the convict population during a normal year), 33-64 per thousand. In 1890, the death-rate was II ‘4 per thousand in 1890. among the European troops; I5'91 in the Native army; and 30-8 among the convict population of the jails. It must be remembered that the system of freely invaliding sick soldiers 3 C 770 WZZ'AZ STATZSZT/CS OF //WZO/A. General death-rate for all India. obscures the death-rate in the Indian army, and especially among the British troops. I have briefly summarized the death-rate returns for the three classes who, although disclosing special conditions of life, are the only large sections of the Indian population under complete and continuous medical observation. I now present the registered returns for the general population for nine years, from 1882 to 1890. But these returns must be taken subject to two warnings. First, that the registration of deaths is often evaded in India, and there are good reasons for believing that the number returned is considerably below the actual facts. Second, that during the whole nine years the ratio of deaths per thousand of the population is calculated on the same total population; namely, that yielded by the Indian Census of 1881. As a matter of fact, we know that the population has increased during the decade 1881–91 by To millions, or 976 per cent. calculated on the same area. While, therefore, the incompleteness of the registration renders the apparent death- rate lower than the actual death-rate, the increase of Io millions in the population above the total on which the ratio is calculated, tends to give a higher death-rate than the actual death-rate during the later years of the period. How far these circumstances counteract each other, it is impossible to say. But both the gradually increasing completeness of the registra- tion and the known increase of the population, tend to bring out a higher apparent death-rate as the period progresses, quite apart from any actual rise in the death-rate. Subject to the foregoing remarks, the following tables exhibit the death-rate of India, and the principal causes of death, for a period of nine years, as presented to Parliament in 1892 – I. NUMBER OF REGISTERED DEATHS DURING NINE YEARS INDIA, 1882–90. Years. º Number of Deaths. Population under Registra- tlOI). Cholera. Small-pox. Fevers. Injuries. º plaints. ToTAL. 1882, 1883, I884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890, I98,775,079 I98,723,739 I98,146,858 198,018,569 I97,943,929 197,798,786 197,798,786 197,798,786 I97,798,786 350, I72 246,413 285,087 379,825 209, I5O 475,675 269,862 418,607 292,528 85,138 232,436 333,382 80,785 5I, II2 65,757 93,568 130,695 I2O,554 3,128,985 2,883, IOI 3,309,903 3,4CO,O7O 3,474,196 3,584,876 3,374,685 3,528, IoA 43 IIO,O44 281,470 263,030 275,443 295,293 265,757 29I,745 252,2OO 274,758 230,899 837, 209 894,709 958,616 943, IZ3 928,938 I,007,956 I, OTO,799 I,090,824 I,091,609 4,757,515 4,595,648 5,239,218 5,182,597 5,016,877 5,568,454 5,087, 138 5,534,689 5,933, I29 AAT/O OF REGISTERED DEATHS, 1882–90. 771 II. RATIO OF REGISTERED DEATHS DURING NINE YEARS IN INDIA, 1882–90, PER Iooo OF THE POPULATION, SHOWING THE PRIN- CIPAL DISEASES. Years. | Cholera. | Small-pox. | Fevers. C cºil s. Injuries. º º ToTAL. 1882, r’76 o°42 I5'74 I'4I o°37 4'21 23'93 1883, I'29 I "I6 I4'50 I 32 o:38 4'50 23°17 1884, I'43 I'68 I6'70 I'34 o°38 4'83 26'44 1885, I'90 O'4o 17'17 I'44 O'42 4'81 26°12 1886, I ‘O5 o°25 I7'54 I 34 O'44 4'64 25°34 1887, 2'4O O'33 I8°I2 I'47 O'4I 5"I4 28°35 1888, I 36 O'47 , 17'o'7 I ‘27 O'43 5*II 25’74 1889, 2 ” II o'66 1783 I 39 o'46 5"5 I 27-98 1890, I'47 o°6o 20°77 r"I6 O'45 5'5I 29'99 In the previous edition of this work in 1886, after carefully considering both the registration returns for the general popu- lation and the ascertained facts among the classes under special medical or statistical observation, I stated that the evidence pointed to a death-rate of 32:37 per thousand in India. If we divide the last column of the foregoing table by nine, we get an average annual death-rate of 26°34 per thousand during the nine years from the registered deaths alone. This is a rough method of calculation ; but the incomplete data furnished by the returns do not yet permit of real accuracy. The use of a fixed population for the whole ten years would alone suffice to vitiate the averages obtained. The actuarial ex- amination of the age-returns based on the Census, indicates a death-rate of approximately 40 per thousand, with a birth-rate not far below 47.5. The Indian Census Commissioner informs me that in this respect the corrected figures of the Census for 1881 agree pretty closely with those now under revision by him for 1891 (January 1893). The death-rate varies greatly at different ages. The Census officers estimate a loss of 270 infants per Iooo, or even more, in the first year of life. The proportion of deaths decreases until a fair rate is reached, at the age of eleven or twelve, but rises again after young man- hood is reached. Some Provinces show, from actuarial calcu- lations based on the returns of the Census, a death-rate of 42 and a birth-rate of nearly 50 per thousand. The present state of Indian vital statistics only permits of my placing side by side the foregoing widely diverse death-rates, arrived at by actuarial calculation and by the imperfect system of actual registration, without comment. I 773 ) A P P E N DIC E S. For Appendices I.-IX. I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. J. A. Baines, I.C.S., Imperial Census Commissioner; Appendix X. is compiled from Returns of Agricultural Statistics of British Zndia and the Native State of Mysore for 1890–91 ; and Appendix XI. is extracted from the Zndia Office Zist. † APPENDIX I.—AREA, Towns AND WILLAGEs, Houses, POPULATION, ETC., of BRITISH INDIA IN 1891. (Compiled from the Imperial Census Aeport.) PopULATION. Average NUMBER OF– **- O . 33 A ty, Area in Towns & # T. 3% § g . ## 5 #; §§ PROVINCEs. Square and º *H | . # = 2. : §, ºf : § .5 § 3's miles. Villages. OUISéS. Males. Females. Total. 5 §2 §§ 5 § *: # # 5 : § £5.5 § 3 || 3 # 3 # 55 $3.5 # F###" iſ # * Government of Madras, . º . . I4I, I89 57,08I 6,709,990 | I7,619,395 || I8,OII,045 || 35,630,440 || 252 4O 624 47 5'3 I-69 Government of Bombay, with Sind and Aden, . e º º . I25, I44 || 25,204 || 3,380,640 9,793,981 9, IO7, I42 | I8,90I, I23 I51 2O 75O 27 5'6 2°39 Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, . 151,543* 227,165 | 13,592,154 || 35,563,299 || 35,783,688 || 71,346,987 || 471 | 150 3I4 90 5'2 O "88 Lieut.-Governorship of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, IO7,503 || Ioff,2OO | 8,225, 191 24,303,601 || 22,601,484 || 46,905,085 || 436 99 442 76 5'7 I "O8 Lieut.-Governorship of the Punjab, IIo,667 || 34,842 3,127,823 II, 255,986 9,610,861 20,866,847 | 188 3I 599 28 67 I '92 Chief-Commissionership of the Cen- tral Provinces, o º . 86,50I 34,355 2,158,668 5,397,3O4. 5,386,990 | Io,784,294 | I25 40 3I4. 25 5'O I'71 Chief-Commissionership of Assam, 49, OO4 17, I6O | I, II8,885 2,819,575 2,657,258 5,476,833 || II2 35 3I9 23 4'9 I '82 Chief-Commissionership of Burma, 171,436 28,769 | 1,423,604 || 3,876,301 || 3,729,259 || 7,605,566 || 44 || 17 | 264 8 5'3 2°62 Commissionership of Ajmere-Mer- wárá, . - c e º e 2,7II 745 IOI,654 288,325 254, O33 542,358 | 200 28 728 37 5'3 2’OS Commissionership of Coorg, . I, 583 497 26,806 95,907 77, I48 I73, O55 IO9 3I 348 I7 6'5 I '92 Commissionership of Berár, 17,718 5,822 591,008 I,491,826 I,405,665 2,897,491 | 163 33 497 33 4'9 I '87 Quetta and Loralai Stations, . º e - º 2 4,543 23,864 3,406 27, 27O | ... - - - • * - - e - 6°o - - - Chief-Commissionership of the An- daman Islands, . e e 59 2,997 I3,375 2, 234 I5,609 5’2 TOTAL, 964,993 537,90I | 40,463,963 | II2,542,739 || Io9,630,213 22I, I72,952 229 56 || 4 II | 42 5'4 I'44 1 The area given for Bengal in 18 8I was I93, Ig8 square miles. 36,634 Square miles of Native States superintended by the Provincial Government. It included 5976 square miles of unsurveyed and half-submerged Sundarbans, and APPENDIX II.--TOWNS AND VILLAGES IN BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED Accord ING TO POPULATION, IN 1891. (Compiled from the Zmperial Census Aeport.) PLACES CONTAINING A PopULATION OF- Total Number PROVINCEs. of Towns Less than From From From From From From From From From Upwards and 200 In- 2OO to 5oo to IOOO to 2OOO to 3Ooo to 5OOO to Io,ooo to I5,000 to 20,000 to of Villages. habitants. 1, 5* In- Iooo In- 2000 In- || 3ooo In- || 5ooo In- || Io, ooo In- 15,000 In- 20,000 In- |50,000 In- || 50,000 In- habitants. habitants. habitants. habitants. habitants. habitants. habitants. habitants. habitants. habitants. Government of Madras, . 57,081 22,961 13,883 || Io,466 6,578 I,849 928 318 45 I6 28 9 Government of Bombay, with Sind and Aden, . . e • 25,204 6, IO6 8,776 6, O28 2,966 683 394 I66 46 I5 I6 8 Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, 227,165 I21,744 69,927 24,866 8,378 I, 477 564 II6 37 I7 29 IO Lieut. - Governorship of the North - Western Provinces and Oudh, . . . . tº . IOG,200 43,426 35,690 | 18,439 6,662 I, I6o 518 2O2 43 24. I9 I7 I.ieut. - Governorship of the Punjab, e º º . 34,842 | Io,906 12,026 7, I42 3,399 77I 396 I44 25 IO I3 IO Chief-Commissionership of the Central Provinces, • 34,355 | I7, I79 II,946 4, O73 90I I34 63 4O IO 3 4 2 Chief - Commissionership of ASSam, . e º e . . I7, I60 6,898 7,758 1,878 509 8O 28 2 Chief - Commissionership of 7 Burma, . . . . . " . . 28,769 || 16,659 9,490 2, I4T 374 4. I 2I 24. 6 6 4. 3 Commissionership of Ajmere, . 745 248 24O I45 73 I9 II 6 e tº º 2 I Commissionership of Coorg, 497 226 I62 87 I8 2 I I º, º ºs - - - Commissionership of Berár, 5,822 2, I79 2, OI9 I,069 4OO 66 52 26 6 2 3 Quetta and Loralai Stations, 2 • * > tº g tº • * * I I - - - Chief-Commissionership of the Andaman Islands, e e 59 32 2I 4. 2 TOTAL, ſº 537,90I 248,564 I7I,938 || 76,338 || 30,26o 6,282 2,977 22O 94 II.8 6o § § APPENDIX III.-PoPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SEX AND AGE, IN 1891. (Compiled from the Imperial Census Report.) MALES. FEMALES. BOTH SExEs. PROVINCEs. Male Female e Boys | Adults 15 º: i Total Girls Adults 15 º Total Children º u: Grand under 15. and up- fi º | Males. under 15. and up- “H. Females. under 15. wards. #. Total. wards. wards. Government of Madras, 6,923,171 |Io,575,175 | 121,049 || 17,619,395 || 6,788,682 |II, IoS,019 |II4,344 | 18,011,045 |13,711,853 || 21,683,194 || 235,393 || 35,630,440 Government of Bombay, with Sind and Aden, . . . . 3,806,025 5,987,956 9,793,981 3,508,233 || 5,598,909 9, Ioz,142 7,314,258 II,586,865 18,901,123 Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, 14,768, IIo 20,735,623 59,566 || 35,563,299||14,054,161 |21,681,807 || 47,720 | 35,783,688 28,822,271 42,417,430 | Io?,286 || 71,346,987 Lieut.-Governorship of the North- ^ Western Provinces and Oudh, . || 9,239,669 |15,063,932 24,303,601 | 8,287,554 |I4,313,930 22,601,484 |17,527,223 29,377,862 46,905,085 Lieut.-Governorship of the Punjab, 4,590,202 || 6,665,784 II, 255,986 3,902, I2O | 5,708,741 9,610,861 8,492,322 | 12,374,525 20,866,847 Chief- Commissionership of the Central Provinces, . . . 2,283,527 | 3,113,777 5,397,304 || 2,214,486 || 3,172,504 5,386,990 || 4,498,013 | 6,286,281 Io,784,294 Chief-Commissionership of Assam, 1,164,992 | 1,633,916 20,667 2,819,575 I, III,749 | 1,524,586 | 20,923 2,657,258 || 2,276,741 3,158,502 || 41,590 5,476,833 Chief-Commissionership of Burma, 1,460,523 2,415,778 3,876,301 | 1,439,210 | 2,290,049 3,729,259 || 2,899,733 4,705,827 7,605,560 Commissionership of Ajmere-Mer- wárá, . © & e- 1II,492 || 176,833 288,325 99, I4o 154,893 254,033 21o,632 331,726 542,358 Commissionership of Coorg, 30,694 65,213 95,907 29,564 47,584 77,148 60,258 II2,797 º I73, O55 Commissionership of Berár, . 557, COI 934,825 I,491,826 545,968 859,697 1,405,665 I, Io2,969 I,794,522 2,897,491 Quetta, etc., . I,575 22,289 e - 23,864 I, O99 2,307 3,406 2,674 24,596 27,270 Andaman Islands, 775 12,600 © e. I3,375 791 I,443 2,234 I,566 I4,O43 tº tº I5,609 ToTAL, . (44,937,756 (67,403,701 || 201,282 II2,542,739 |41,982,757 |66,464,469 182,987 | Io9,630,213 |86,920,513 | 133,868,170 || 384,269 221,172,952 APPENDIX IV.-PoPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED According To RELIGION, IN 1891. (Compiled from the Imperial Census Report.) sº & & * & , ſº ge ºf , º, tº g Minor PROVINCES. Tºp" H. and . Buddhists. | Christians. £º. Sikhs. Jains. | Pársis. Jews. and Un: specified. Government of Madras, gº 35,630,440 || 31,998,309 2,250,386 I, O36 865,528 472,808 I28 27,425 246 42 I4,532 Government of Bombay, with - Sind and Aden, * tº I8,90I, I23 || I4,659,926 3,537, IO3 697 I61,770 213,618 818 240,436 || 74,263 I2,465 27 Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, © * • & 71,346,987 || 45,220,124 || 23,437,591 I89, I22 I90,829 || 2,294,506 4I2 7, O42 I79 || I, 447 5,735 Lieutenant-Governorship of the North-Western Pro- vinces and Oudh, , , * 46,905,085 | 40,402,235 | 6,346,651 I,387 58,441 & © tº II,343 | 84,60I 342 6o 25 Lieutenant-Governorship Of the Punjab, . . . . . . 20,866,847 7,743,477 | II,634,192 5,768 53,587 s & E. I,389,934 || 39,477 | 357 27 28 Chief- Commissionership of the Central Provinces, . Io,784,294 8,831,467 297,604 322 I2,970 I,592, I49 I72 || 48,644 781 176 9 Chief- Commissionership of Assam, . . . . . . . 5,476,833 || 2,997,072 | I,483,974 7,697 I6,844 969,765 83 || I,368 ... 5 25 Chief - Commissionership of - - Burma, . . . . ; e 7,605,560 I7I,577 253,031 6,888, O75 120,768 I68,449 3, 164 gº is tº 96 35I 49 Commissionership of Ajmere- Merwärá, . . . . º e 542,358 437,988 74,265 tº º º 2,683 § 4 ſº 2I3 || 26,939 I98 7I I Commissionership of Coorg, I73, O55 I56,845 I2,665 g is tº 3,392 | " ... tº gº º II4. 39 tº g & * Commissionership of Berár, .2,897,491 2,53I,791 207,681 4. I, 359 I37, IOS I77 I8,952 4I2 2 5 Quetta, etc., e ſº s 27,270 II, 699 II, 368 g & s 3, OO8 tº a º I, I29 g = & 39 23 4. Andaman Islands, tº tº I5,609 9,433 3,980 I, 29O 483 24 395 3 gº e e tº e tº I TOTAL, . . . 22I, I72,952 I55, I71,943 49,550,491 || 7,095,398 || I,491,662 5,848,427 | I,407,968 495, OOI 76,952 I4,669 | 20,441 1 The heading ‘Animistic’ includes all Forest tribes which returned their Tribal Religion. Those of them who returned their religion as Hindu, Musalmān, Christian, or Buddhist, have been included under those titles respectively. The total of each tribe, therefore, is not given in this table in one item. § §. l APPENDIX V.—ASIATIC NON-INDIAN POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO BIRTH-PLACE, IN 1891. (Compiled from the Amperial Census Report.) d !, ºf .9% E; =% tº c 2-S. tº #~# 3 || ROVINCES. , C , C, "C * * '. § g tº ºt ge e g º, £3 & tº * & Š. Ph 5 °7; Hjá | # | #35 | # # | 3 | # # | #| 3 |###| 3 | # | # # | 3 |#" 33 † | > 8, 3. :B Tr: # | # à || 3 | # 5.3 || 3 || Tº § | 3 || 5 |# H Punjab, . Patid:/a, 55,856 || 53,629 | + 2,227 68. Maulmain, . & * . Burma, . Amherst, 55,785 | 53, Ioy | + 2,678 69. Siálkot and Cantonment, . | Punjab, . Siálkot, 55,087 || 45,762 | + 9,325 70. Tanjore, * * Madras, . Tanjore, 54,390 || 54,745 | T 355 7.I. Combaconum, . e Madras, . * . | Tanjore, 54,307 || 50,098 4,209 72. Jhānsi and Cantonment, N.-W. Provinces, . Jhānsi, 53,779 & º * & 73. Hubli, e * Bombay, . Dhārwär, 52,595 || 36,677 | + 15,918 74. A war, . º e . Rájputána, A /war, 52,398 || 49,867 2,53I 75. Firozpur and Cantonment, Punjab, . Firozpur, 50,437 || 39,570 | +10,867 76. Muzaffarpur, º . Bengal, . Muzaffarpur, 49,192 || 42,460 6,732 77. Nazvānagar, Bombay, A dithid:wdºr, 48,530 || 39,668 || + 8,862 78. Behar, * Bengal, . Patná, & 47,723 || 48,968 || - 1,245 79. Cuddalore, . Madras, . South Arcot, 47,355 || 43,545 || -- 3,810 80. Cuttack, Bengal, . Cuttack, 47,186 || 42,656 || -- 4,530 81. Arrah, Bengal, . Shahābād, . 46,905 42,998 || + 3,907 82. Udaipur, . Rájputána, Mewar, 46,693 38,214 | + 8,479 83. Coimbatore, Madras, . Coimbatore, 46,383 || 38,967 + 7,416 84. Ludhiana, . Punjab, . Ludhiana, . 45,334 || 44,163 | + 2,171 85. Tomé, . . . . . . Rájputána, Tonk, g 46,069 | 40,726 || -- 5,343 86. Kolhapur (Kärziz) and | Bombay, A ozhdºzer, . 45,815 38,599 || + 7,216 Cazzêozzzzzezzá, . 87. Gházipur, . e e . N.-W. Provinces, . Gházipur, . 44,970 || 43,232 | + 1,738 88. Vellore and Cantonment, . | Madras, . . | North Arcot, 44,925 | 40,958 || + 3,967 89. Ságar (Saugor) and Can- Central Provinces, Ságar, 44,674 || 44,416 | + 258 tonment, go. Dinápur (Cantonment), Bengal, . . . | Patná, 44,419 || 37,893 -H 6,526 91. Kämpti (Cantonment) Central Provinces, Nágpur, 43,159 || 50,987 | – 7,828 92. Jaunpur, . g sº N.-W. Provinces, . Jaunpur, 42,819 || 42,845 | – 26 93. Conjeveram, Madras, . Chengalpat, 42,548 37,275 | + 5,273 94. Shikárpur, . * e . . Sind, Shikárpur, . 42,004 || 42,496 || - 492 95. Ahmadnagar and Canton- | Bombay, Ahmadnagar, 41,689 || 37,492 | + 4, 197 Inent 96. Mangalore, tº e . | Madras, . South Kánara, . 40,922 || 32,099 || + 8,823 97. Belgäum and Cantonment, Bombay, Belgäum, 40,737 || 32,697 | + 8,040 98. Cocanáda, . e Madras, . Godāvari, . 40,553 30,441 || --Io, II2 99. Broach, Bombay, Broach, 40,168 || 37,281 | + 2,887 Too. Pálghāt, Madras, . . . . . Malabar, 39,481 | 36,339 || -H 3,142 IoI. Háthras, . g & N.-W. Provinces, . Aligarh, 39,181 || 34,932 | + 4,249 Io2. Masulipatam (Bandar), Madras, . . . . Kistna, 38,809 || 36,415 | + 2,394 Iog. Etáwah, tº & N.-W. Provinces, . Etáwah, 38,793 || 34,721 | + 4,072 IoA. Kotah, e º Rájputéna, . . A otak, 38,624 | 40,270 | – 1,646 Ios. Mºndzyż, Bombay, Cutch, 38,155 || 35,980 | + 2, 175 Ioé. Akyab, sº Burma, . . . . Akyab, e 37,938 || 33,989 | + 3,949 Ioz. Sambhal, . e e . N.-W. Provinces, . | Moradābād, 37,226 35,196 || + 2,030 Io8. Ellichpur and Cantonment, Berár, & . Ellichpur, . 36,240 || 36,173 || + 67 Io9. Serampur, . & 4 × . Bengal, . Húgli, 35,952 || 25,559 | +Io,393 Iro. South Barrackpur and Can- || Bengal, . 24 Parganás, 35,647 30,317 | + 5,330 tonment, III. Murshidābād, Bengal, . Murshidābād 35,576 || 39,231 | – 3,655 782 AAEAEEAV/D/X V/Z – COAVT/AVUE D. LIST OF THE 222 TOWNS IN INDIA OF OVER 20,000 INHABITANTS-contal. TOTAL PROVINCE OR DISTRICT OR PopULATION. D IFFER- NAME OF Town. AGENCY. STATE. ENCE, 1891. I88I. 112. Bhiwání, Punjab, . . . . Hissãr, 35,487 || 33,762 | + 1,725 I13. Budáun, N.-W. Provinces, . Budáun, . 35,372 || 33,680 || + 1,692 Ir4. Amroha, N.-W. Provinces, . . Moradābād, 35,230 36,145 || – 915 II.5. CZ7ain, . Central India, Gwalior, 34,691 || 32,932 | + 1,759 II6. Jammu, . Kashmir, Jazzzzzzzz, 34,542 - e. * * II.7. Vizagapatam, Madras, Vizagapatam, 34,487 || 30,291 | + 4,196 I 18. Bardwan, . g º . Bengal, . * Bardwan, . 34,477 34,08o + 397 119. Aurangáðdid and Canton- || Haidarābād, . Aſaidarābād, 33,887 30,219 || + 3,668 772ezz? I2O. ; N.-W. Provinces, . Pilibhit, 3. 29,721 + 4,078 mrāoti, . . º ..a 2 . . * 28,946 || 23,550 | + 5,396 *** Amrāoti Civil Station, j Berár, Amrāoti, . { 4x7O9 - e. 339 122. Húglí and Chinsurah, Bengal, . Hügli, 33,060 || 31, 177 + 1,883 I23. Dhārwär, . º Bombay, Dhárwär, 32,841 26,520 | + 6,321 I24. Pátan, Baroda, . A. adi, º 32,646 32,712 || – 66 125. Midnapur, . Bengal, . . | Midnapur, . 32,264 || 33,560 | – 1,296 126. Burhānpur, e e Central Provinces, Nimár, 32,252 || 30,017 | + 2,235 127. Mhow (Cantonment), Central India, Indore, 3I,773 27,227 4,54 I28. Junágarh, . & Bombay. . . . . A āthiózvár, 31,640 24,679 6,961 129. Brindåban, N.-W. Provinces, . Muttra, 31,611 21,467 | +10,144 130. Camzóay, Bombay, . Cambay, 31,390 || 36,007 | — 4,617 I31. Vizianagram, Madras, Vizagapatam, 30,881 - e. • tº 132. Sántipur, Bengal, . Nadiyā, 30,437 29,687 | + 750 133. Bassein, Burma, . Bassein, 30,177 28, 147 | + 2,030 134. Prome, Burma, . . . Prome, 30,022 28,813 + 1,209 135. Ratſatanz, e Central India, Ratlázyz, 29,822 31,066 | – 1,244 136. Náihátí, , . e e . Bengal, . e 24 Parganás, 29,724 21,533 + 8,191 137. Sátára and Cantonment, . Bombay, Sátára, . 29,601 || 28,601 | + 1,000 138. Ellore, e Madras, Godávari, . 29,382 25,092 | + 4,290 139. Nellore, . Madras, Nellore, 29,336 27,505 | + 1,831 140. Sukkur, . . . . . Sind, Shikárpur, . 29,302 || 27,389 + 1,913 141. Réjkot and Cantonment, . Bombay; . . . . Káth idizvaizº, 29,247 || 21,152 | + 8,095 I42. Hardwar, . º N.-W. Provinces, . Saháranpur, 29,125 28, Ioë + 1,019 143. Nadiad, Bombay, º . Kaira, 29,048 28,304 || + 744 I44. Puri, . º * Bengal, . Puri; . . . 28,794 22,095 || + 6,699 145. Rájāmahendri, . Madras, e Godávari, . . 28,397 24,555 | + 3,842 146. Guðazgah, Haidarābād, . . Haidaráðdd, . 28,200 22,834 + 5,366 147. Chandausi, N.-W. Provinces, . | Moradābād, . 28, III | 27,521 | + 590 148. Rewari, º g Punjab, . . . Gurgãon, 27,934 || 23,972 + 3,962 I49. Trivandrumſ, . º . | Madras, Trazyazcozºe, 27,887 - - a - 150. Dera Ghāzī Khān and Can- | Punjab, . D era h ázi 27,886 22,309 | + 5,577 tonment, Khán, 151. Datia, Central India, Datia, 27,566 28,346 | – 780 152. Pánipat, e e . | Punjab, . Karnāl, 27,547 || 25,022 | + 2,525 153. Cannanore and Canton- Madras, Malabar, 27,418 26,386 I, O32 ment, 154. Batála, e s Punjab, . Gurdáspur, • 27,223 24,281 + 2,942 155. Tellicherri, s e Madras, Malabar, . 27, 196 || 24,581 | + 2,615 156. Kohát and Cantonment, Punjab, . Kohát, : 27,003 18,179 | + 8,824 157. Dera Ismáil Khán and Punjab, . Dera Ismā'il 26,884 22,164 + 4,726 Cantonment, . e - Khán, 158. Gujránwála, Punjab, . . . . Gujránwála, . 26,785 22,884 || + 3,901 159. Khūrja, N.-W. Provinces, . Bulandshahr, . 26,349 27, 190 – 841 160. Adoni, Madras, . Bellary, . • 26,243 22,441 | + 3,802 I61. Mirój, Bombay, Sºft, Maráthá 26,060 | 20,616 || + 5,444 atés, 162. Mandsaur (Mandesar), Central India, . Gwalior, 25,785 22,596 | + 3, 189 163. Dehra Dún and Canton- N.-W. Provinces, . Dehra Dún, 25,684 | 18,959 || + 6,725 ment, 164. Berhampur and Canton- || Madras, Ganjām, 25,653 23,959 + 2,054 ment, 165. Krishnagar, . e Bengal, . Nadiyā, 25, 5oo 27,477 | – I,977 166. Bh47 and Cantonment, Bombay, Cutch, 25,421 22,308 || + 3,113 167. Tuticorin, . º º Madras, Tinnevelli, . 25, Io? | 16,281 + 8,826 168. Tinnevelli, . . & Madras, Tinnevelli, . 24,768 || 23,221 | + 1,547 169. Wadhwazz and Szözérô, Bombay, ... . A &thidizvaiz, 24,604 || 20, 180 | + 4,424 17o. Morár (Cantonment), Central India, Gwalior, 24,518 24,022 || + 496 171. Nāsik, e g Bombay, Násik, 24,429 || 23,766 + 663 172. Karnūl, Madras, Karnūl, 24,376 20,329 | + 4,047 A PPAEAVO IX V//- CONT/WUEZO. 783 LIST OF THE 222 Towns IN INDIA OF OVER 20,000 INHABITANTS-contal. TOTAL PROVINCE OR DISTRICT OR PoPULATION. DIFFER NAME OF Town. AGENCY. STATE. ENCE, I891. I88I. 173. Chittagong, Bengal, . Chittagong, 24,069 20,969 | + 3, Ioo I74. Bahraich, . e Oudh, Bahraich, . : ...; + 3. 175. Garag-Betigeri, . Bombay, Dhārwär, 23,899 || 17,oor + 6,898 I76. Māyavaram, . e . | Madras, . | Tanjore, 23,765 || 23,044 | + 721 177. Ráipur and Cantonment, . Central Provinces, Ráipur, 23,759 24,948 || – I, 189 I78. AE evd., º e Central India, A'ezvá, º 23,626 22,016 || + 1,610 179. Berhampur, - Bengal, . - Murshidābād, . 23,515 || 23,605 || – 9o 18o. Jha'ra-Paitan, . Rájputána, Jhdāwār, . 23,381 | 20,303 || + 3,078 181. Guntár, . e Madras, e Kistna, . 23,359 | 19,646 + 3,713 182. A didazºáðdid, . Haidarābād, . A ſaidazºáðád, 23,353 - e. - - 183. Jhang-Maghiáná, Punjab, . ang, 23,290 21,629 || + 1,661 184. Sirâjganj, . Bengal, . Pabná, e 23,267 21,037 | + 2,230 185. Viramgám, Bombay, - Ahmadābād, 23,209 | 18,990 | + 4,219 186. Aaichiºr, . Haidarābād, . Pſaidarābād, 23,174 15,387 | + 7,787 187. Å arauli, . Rájputéna, . Karauli, 23,124 25,607 || – 2,483 188. Bánda, N.-W. Provinces, . Bánda, 23,071 28,974 || - 5,903 189. Bettiá, Bengal, . • . Champáran, 22,78o 21,263 | + 1,517 190. Allegº?, Madras, Travancore, . 22,768 - a • * 191. Sásserám, . Bengal, . Shāhābād, . . 22,713 || 21,818 + 895 192. Bºnd?, Rájputána, . Biêndi, . 22,544 | 20,744 | + 1,800 193. Nagina, -> - . N.-W. Provinces, . Bijnaur, . 22,150 | 20,503 || + 1,647 194. Karnāl, . - e . | Punjab, . . Karnāl, . . 21,963 || 23, 133 - 1,170 195. Dhūliá, Bombay, e . Khándesh, . . 21,880 | 18,449 | + 3,431 196. Jaora, * † & Central India, . . Jaora, & . 21,844 | 19,902 | + 1,942 197. Matler Kot/a, • . | Punjab, . . . Miffler Koila, 21,754 20,621 | + 1,133 198. Nasirābād and Cantonment, Ajmere, . . Ajmere, . 21,710 21,320 | + 390 199. Srirângam, e - . | Madras, - . Trichinopoli, 21,632 | 19,773 || + 1,859 200. Núnach and Cañtonment, Central India, . Gwalior, 21,600 | 18,230 | + 3,370 20I. Hoshiárpur, - . | Punjab, . e Hoshiárpur, 21,552 | 21,363 | + 189 202. Hájipur, Bengal, . º . | Muzaffarpur, 21,487 25,078 – 3,591 203. Akola, Berár, . - . Akola, 21,470 | 16,614 | + 4,856 204. Srivillipatur, e . . Madras, e Tinnevelli, . 21,448 18,256 | + 3, 192 205. Rámpur-Beauleah, . . Bengal, . e . Rájshāhi, 21,407 | 19,228 + 2, 179 206. Sitápur and Cantonment, . Oudh, . & . Sítápur, 21,380 | 18,544 | + 2,836 2O7. Visnagar, . - . | Baroda, . A adž, 21,376 19,602 | + 1,774 208. A/a2zzazel, . Punjab, . • Aatid:/a 21,159 20,052 | + 1,107 209. Pélazzºuz, . º º Bombay, º Paílanpur . 21,092 17,547 | + 3,545 2Io. North Barrackpur, . Bengal, . • 24 Parganás, 20,98o | I7,702 | + 3,278 2II. Beàwar, . e • Ajmere, . - Merwärá, . 20,978 15,829 | + 5,149 212. Balasor, Bengal, . Balasor, 20,775 | 20,265 | + 51o 213. Bezwäda, Madras, Kistna, 20,741 lo,098 || +Io,643 214. Bársi, . Bombay, Sholāpur, 20,569 | 16,126 + 4,443 215. Dhordſ?, Bombay, - . Käthiazvair, 20,406 | 16,121 | + 4,285 216. Mannárgudi, Madras, -> . | Tanjore, 20,395 19,409 | + 986 217. Ránchi, Bengal, . • . Lohārdagá, 20,306 | 18,443 + 1,863 218. Kasūr, e - e Punjab, . º . Lahore, 20,290 || 17,336 | + 2,954 219. Nyaung-dun (Yandun), Burma, . © . | Thongwa, . 20,235 | 12,673 | + 7,562 220. Dindigal, e - Madras, º . | Madura, 2O,2O3 - - a e 221. Fatehpur, . N.-W. Provinces, . Fatehpur, . 20,179 21,328 - 1,149 222. Shāhābād, . Oudh, . & . | Hardoi, 20,153 | 18,510 | + 1,643 Population of 28 towns with above Ioo, ooo inhabitants, º e - 6,277,043 Population of 13 towns with between 75,000 and Ioo,ooo inhabitants, . I, O77,374 Population of 34 towns with between 50,000 and 75,000 inhabitants, 2, IoS, I59 Population of 39 towns with between 35,000 and 50,000 inhabitants, I,629,483 Population of 108 towns with between 20,000 and 35,000 inhabitants, . 2,784,273 Total Population of 222 largest towns in British and Feudatory India, 13,876,332 Population of 169 largest towns in British India (over 20,000 inhabitants), . II, O42,3O4 Population of 53 largest towns in Feudatory India (over 20,000 inhabitants), 2,834,028 Population of 213 l towns, for which comparison is possible, in 1891, e 1881, . I3,350,435 I2,O57,54O 2 3 5 3 3 5 + I,292,895 1 Omitting Mandalay, Srinagar, Jhānsi, Jammu, Vizianagram, Trivandrum, Kādarābād, Allegéi, and Dindigal. Nett variation 1881–91, . t e g APPENDIX VIII. — POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED Accord ING TO EDUCATION, IN 1891. (Compiled from the Imperial Census A&eport.) ToTAL PopULATION of ALL RELIGIONS RETURNING EDUCATION.1 Males. Females. PROVINCEs. - Not under Not under TJnder & Under * Total Males. Instruction. Insº but Total Females. Instruction. intº but Government of Madras, . . . . I7,452,346 576, O79 –2,02I,289 I7,854, I28 59, I27 I2O,324. Government of Bombay, with Sind and Aden, . . . . . . . 9,793, 98T 334,77O 952, I72 9, IO7, I42 24,981 54,699 Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, 35,503,733 883,250 2,948,794 35,735,968 34, I3O Io9,684 Lieut.-Governorship of the North- - Western Provinces and Oudh, . 24,303,601 238,440 I,257, I5O 22,6O1,484 8,4O4. 38,466 Lieut.-Governorship of the Punjab, II, 255,986 I58,849 675,941 9,610,861 7,834 I8,206 Chief - Commissionership of the Central Provinces, . g § 5,397,304 76,306 23O,592 5,386,990 3,90I 6,982 Chief-Commissionership of Assam, 2,798,908 49, III I62,553 2,636,335 3,427 5,761 Chief-Commissionership of Burma, 3,876,3OI 227,498 I,5I5,083 3,729, 259 I8,225 89,376 Commissionership of Ajmere-Mer- wärá, . s § tº ge e 288,325 6, I79 32, II4. 254, O33 47O I,54O Commissionership of Coorg, . 95,907 4, IQ2 IO,747 77, I48 6Io 676 Commissionership of Berár, I,491,826 38,502 87,128 I,405,665 976 I,722 Quetta, etc., . ſº tº 23,864 367 7, 3I2 3,406 86 383 Andaman Islands, . I3,375 344 2,789 2,234. 77 IO5 TOTAL, e II2,295,457 2,593,887 9,903,664 Io8,4O4,653 I62,248 447,924 1 The return of education was not called for from the population of North Lushāi Land, the Chittagong Hills, and part of the Vizagapatam Agency Tracts, so this return shows a population short of that in Appendix I. by 247,282 males and 225,560 females. º APPENDIX VIII.-POPULATION of BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED Accord ING TO EDUCATION, IN 1891—continued. HINDUS AND BRAHMOs. Males. Females. PROVINCEs. - Not under Not under TJnder & Under * * Total Males. Instruction. inº but Total Females. Instruction. inº but Government of Madras, e e I5,747, I43 496,038 I,782,490 I6, I22,252 36,360 77, O28 Government of Bombay, with Sind and Aden, . g ſº ſº e 7,508,857 261,255 718,392 7, 151,069 II,92I I9,769 Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, 22,45I, I38 661,455 2,256,oë3 22,743, I84 23,859 83,816 Lieut.-Governorship of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, 20,967,096 I80,565 I, O64,871 I9,435, I39 3, I53 23,663 Lieut.-Governorship of the Punjab, 4,200,982 79,347 428,614 3,542,495 I,408 5, I39 Chief - Commissionership of the Central Provinces, . © ſº 4,425,421 64,674 I93,669 4,406,046 2,324. 3,698 Chief-Commissionership of Assam, I,558,717 34,397 I24,483 I,438,355 I,373 3,485 Chief-Commissionership of Burma, I44,096 I,794. 32,367 27,481 I90 755 Commissionership of Ajmere-Mer- wärá, . e tº g ſº tº 230,877 3,621 18,987 2O7, III I39 734. Commissionership of Coorg, . 86, os'7 3,817 -- 8,707 70,788 5OI 448 Commissionership of Berár, . & I,3O3,785 32,999 74,37O I,228, OO6 643 I, OO7 Quetta, etc., . g {º te IO, O95 I69 3,381 I,6O4 9 5O Andaman Islands, . tº o 8, Ooz I4I I,4I2 I, 43I 33 26 TOTAL, tº O 78,642,266 I,82O,272 6,707,806 76,374,961 8I,913 219,618 § 3. APPENDIX VIII,-POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED According To EDUCATION, IN 1891—continued. MUHAMMADANs. Males. Females. PROVINCEs. Not under Not under Under tº TJnder tº Total Males. Instruction. Insºliº. but Total Females. Instruction. Insºbut Government of Madras, . ſº ſº I, III, II4 46,934 I55,906 I, I39,272 6,730 II,885 Government of Bombay, with Sind and Aden, . g e * I,898,992 44,545 IO8,537 I,638, III 4,387 7,325 Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, II,759,595 2O9,4OI 651,468 II,673, I28 4,924 IO,7IO Lieut.-Governorship of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, 3,243,922 50, O6I I46,777 3, IO2,729 I,927 6,222 Lieut.-Governorship of the Punjab, 6,209,442 6I,790 I41,643 5,424,750 3,772 5,534 Chief - Commissionership of the Central Provinces, . © e I53,062 6,931 I9,797 I44,542 458 I, Io& Chief-Commissionership of Assam, 763,606 IO,943 3O,32O 720,368 47I 738 Chief-Commissionership of Burma, I62,070 3,697 33,572 90,961 656 2,272 Commissionership of Ajmere-Mer- wárá, . ſº e ſº ſº º 4I, I3O 976 3, I77 33, I35 52 I26 Commissionership of Coorg, . 7,903 235 I,365 4,762 3I 45 Commissionership of Berár, . * IO3,O35 4, 3O4. 8,204 99,646 237 318 Quetta, etc., . t ſº e tº IO, IO4. IOI I,249 I,264 4. 24. Andaman Islands, . ſº º & 3,382 82 567 598 2I I5 TOTAL, . 25,472,357 44O,OOO I,302,582 24,073,266 23,670 46,322 APPENDIX VIII.--POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED Accordſ NG TO EDUCATION, IN 1891—continued. CHRISTIANs. BUDDHISTS. Males. Females. Males. Females. PROVINCEs. N N N Ot Ot Not under Ot |Under under Under under Under Under under Total Total Total Instruc- Total Instruc- * UIC- StrLHC- nStruc- e Instruc- Instruc- Males. tion. É. Females. Iº #. Males. I i. . but Females. tion. tion, but Literate. Literate. Iterate. Literate. Government of Madras, . g : 427,24I | 3I,758 || 76,726 438,287 | 15,927 | 31, 181 988 I4. 722 48 3 2 Government of Bombay, with Sind and Aden, . te * * 97,461 || 7,486 || 36,872 64,309 || 3,884 Io,697 474 TO 187 223 © tº I3 Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, 98,876 6,735 23,846 91,935 | 5,039 || I4,247 56,783 I,829 8,551 || 58,211 57 397 Lieut.-Governorship of the North- & Western Provinces and Oudh, 37,294 || 4,298 || 23,207 || 21,147 3,249 8, 138 I, 329 I5 | 728 58 4. 6 Lieut.-Governorship of the Punjab, 37,726 2,743 24,354 15,861 2,232 5, II6 2,769 4.I 296 2,999 2 39 Chief - Commissionership of the Central Provinces, e ſº 7,843 I,048 || 4,797 || 5,127 853 I,735 322 2 I86 © tº º Chief-Commissionership of Assam, 8,910 | I,426 2,792 7,934 | 1,044 I,236 4,337 49 489 3,360 3 8 Chief-Commissionership of Burma, 65,995 || 4,526 25,868 54,773 2,360 | Io,439 || 3,4Io, I54 216,986 I,416,463 | 3,477,921 | I4,958 || 75,721 Commissionership of Ajmere-Mer- wārā, . tº ſe G * g I, 567 26I 965 I, II6 247 493 e & © gº tº gº tº º © º Commissionership of Coorg, . I,868 I3O 64I I,524 76 I75 e sº e © tº tº º e tº º tº tº Commissionership of Berár, . 738 76 443 62I 57 3OO 2 © tº 2 tº e e is Quetta, etc., . g tº e 2,548 82 2,282 46o 73 297 e tº e * * tº ſº tº tº tº tº tº ſº. Andaman Islands, . ſº e 356 I7 26o I27 23 62 I,285 95 376 5 tº tº I TOTAL, 788,423 60,586 223,053 || 703,221 35,064 | 84, II6 || 3,478,443 219,04I I,427,998 || 3,542,827 | I5,027 | 76,187 & 3. APPENDIX VIII.—POPULATION of BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO EDUCATION, IN 1891—continued. SIKHS. JAINS. Males. Females. Males. Females. PROvINCEs. Not Not under Not under Not under O Total *:::::: Instruc- Total º: Instruc- Total #: Instruc- Total 1. tºº. Males. tion tion, but Females. tion tion, but Males. tion tion, but |Females. tion tion, but & Literate. * Literate. es Literate. fiterate. Government of Madras, e e I25 2 3 I I4, I32 I,24I 4,958 I3,293 84 I29 Government of Bombay, with Sind and Aden, . tº e º g 655 8 2I3 I63 I I I33,237 I3, I46 63,273 IO7, 199 765 I, I48 Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, . 344 28 I6I 68 2 5 4,464 288 2,866 2,578 I9 65 Lieut.-Governorship of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, 8, o&O 34I 2,325 3,263 2 43 45,624 3, I35 I9,062 38,977 53 306 Lieut.-Governorship of the Punjab, 783,682 13,28o 70,645 606,252 37O 2, ISI 2I, I29 I,617 IO,2OI I8,348 33 I62 Chief - Commissionership of the • y Central Provinces, . * tº I35 8 75 37 I 2 24,782 2, 17I 9,485 23,862 I67 224 Chief-Commissionership of Assam, 44 4 I6 39 e 2 I, I83 5I 853 I85 § tº ſº 2 Chief-Commissionership of Burma, 3, O24. 6 973 I4O I 7 ge & e * & & ſº & tº º ve Commissionership of Ajmere-Mer- * wärá, . g e & e e I5I 6 || 5O 62 5 I4,426 I,286 8,818 I2,513 I6 I52 Commissionership of Coorg, . we tº e tº * † e e ê º 55 5 23 59 * º º 2 Commissionership of Berár, 98 6 2O 79 2 IO, O43 I, OI2 3,837 8,909 25 25 Quetta, etc., . e * fe I, O61 I4 359 68 9 tº º º * G © tº tº e ſº e tº tº & ſº º Andaman Islands, e ſº 322 9 I72 73 I 3 tº e tº º ſº tº e TOTAL, 797,721 | I3,7IO || 75,011 || 6TO,247 377 2,209 269,078 23,952 | I23,376 |225,923 || I, I62 2, 2I5 APPENDIX VIII.-POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO EDUCATION, IN 1891—com/imated. —T- JEws. PARSIS. Males. Females. Males. Females. PROVINCEs. Not Not Not Not under Under under |Under under Under TJnder under Total Total Total Instruc- Total Instruc- I - Instruc- | Instruc- * - Instruc- | Instruc- Males. tion. à. Females. * tion, but Males. hº tion, but Females. . i. Literate. Literate. Literate. Literate. I Government of Madras, . - e I42 28 IO3 IO4. I9 62 2I I I2 2I 4 5 Government of Bombay, with Sind - and Aden, . º e - . . 37,863 || 7,211 22, II8 || 36,400 3,639 || I4,887 6,266 '91O 2, 3I4. 6, 199 373 848 Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, I34 || 7 90 45 4 2O 707 56 383 74O 47 225 Lieut.-Governorship of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, 209 2O I53 I33 I2 77 33 5 26 27 4. IO Lieut.-Governorship of the Punjab, 2I9 27 I6o I38 I4. 78 I5 I IO I2 2 4. Chief - Commissionership of the - Central Provinces, . º e 447 69 289 334 38 I49 83 9 46 93 4. 27 Chief-Commissionership of ASSam, * * * * - tº . tº tº e tº º tº a g - - - 4. • * * 2 I • * * T Chief-Commissionership of Burma, 82 2 33 I4. 5 I98 24 IO3 I53 II 36 Commissionership of Ajmere-Mer- - wárá, . tº º e º e I35 22 94. 63 I4. 2O 38 7 23 33 2 IO Commissionership of Coorg, . 24. 5 II I5 2 6 tº $ tº - - - • & © - - - - - Commissionership of Berár, 27I 37 I90 I4I I4 7o 2 º º © tº º - Quetta, etc., . o e º º 32 e - e. 2I 7 ... 2 2I I I8 2 Andaman Islands, . º º s - - - e • * - - TOTAL, © • | 39,558 || 7,428 || 23,262 || 37,394 | 3,756 | 15,376 7,388 I, OI4. 2,937 7,281 447 I, I66 3. § APPENDIX VIII.-POPULATION of BRITISH INDIA, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO EDUCATION, IN 1891—continued. ANIMISTIC. MINOR RELIGIONS AND UNSPECIFIED BY RELIGION. Males. Females. Males. Females. PROVINCEs. TJnd Nº. Under Nº. * TJnd Nº. |Und Nº. Total IlCler UIn Cler Total IłCier U111C16ºr Total IłC16ºr ll. InCier Total Il Cier U111C.6 r Instruc- Instruc- Instruc- || Instruc- Instruc- Instruc- Instruc- || Instruc- Males. tion. tion, but Females. tion. tion, but Males. tion. tion, but Females. tion. tion, but Literate. Literate. Literate. Literate. Government of Madras, . * ſº I5O,8O2 62 32I. I4O,3I5 29 638 3 49 533 2 Government of Bombay, with Sind - and Aden, . & tº { } IIo, I56 I99 248 IO3,462 IO 7 2O tº e > I8 7 T 4. Lieut.-Governorship of Bengal, I, I29,771 || 3,427 5,273 | I, I64,246 167 I59 I,92I 24. 93 I,833 I2 4O Lieut.-Governorship of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, I4. tº sº tº I II tº ſº tº I Lieut.-Governorship of the Punjab, e c º 22 3 I8 6 I 3 Chief - Commissionership of the - Central Provinces, . fº tº 785,2O2 I,392 2,244. 806,947 55 38 7 2 4 2 I I Chief-Commissionership of Assam, 462,088 2,240 3,580 466,087 536 288 I9 I I8 6 I Chief-Commissionership of Burma, 90,639 463 5,70I 77,81o 49 I4I 43 3 6 tº tº Commissionership of Ajmere-Mer- - wárá, . º is ſº te & I & 2 º' sº & sº º Commissionership of Coorg, . tº e º º e tº º & & e * & & * @ & * * * g * & Commissionership of Berár, . © 68,847 68 6o 68,261 5 4. © º ºf Quetta, etc., . te º sº º tº ſº gº e e ſº 3 2 I I Andaman Islands, . e * > g 24 I I I º TOTAL, e 2,797,529 || 7,851 | 17,428 2,827, 128 | 817 662 2,694 33 2II 2,4O5 I5 53 AAEAEAWD/X ZX. 791 APPENDIX IX. —PoPULATION OF BRITISH AND FEUDATORY INDIA, ACCORDING TO OCCUPATION." Order of Occupation or Means of Livelihood. Number of Persons supported by each Order. º itis Feudato All India. p: gºy I. Administration by State or Local Bodies, . º e 5,600, 153 3,839,643 I,760,5IO II. Defence, Military and Naval, 664,422 334, I03 33O,229 III. Service of Foreign States,” 5OO,O3O 38, 179 461,851 IV. Provision and care of Cattle, . 3,645,849 2,472,872 I, I'72,977 Y. Agriculture, . . . . . . 171,735,396 || 135,504,696 || 36,230,694 VI. Personal, Household, or Sani- tary Services, . . e . II, 22O,O72 8,505,420 2,714,652 VII. Provision of Food and Drink, 14,575,593 | 12,126,669 2,454,924 VIII. Provision of Light, Firing, and Forage, e e e 3,522,257 2,887,525 634,732 IX. Construction of Buildings, I,437,739 I, II 3,633 324, IO6 X. Construction of Vehicles and Vessels, . e e º I46,508 I35,627 Io,881 XI. Provision of Supplementary Requirements, . e e I, I55,267 99I,334 I63,933 XII. Provision of Textile Fabrics and Dress, . • . . I2,611,267 9,655,213 2,956,054 XIII. Provision of Metals and Pre- | cious Stones, e e . 3,821,433 2,897,046 924,387 XIV. Provision of Glass, Pottery, and Stoneware, {º e 2,360,623 I,669,019 691,604 XV. Provision of Wood, Cane, Mats, etc., . ſº º º 4,293,0I2 3,319, I/O 973,842 XVI. Provision of Drugs, Dyes, and Gums, e e s e 391,575 319,981 7I,594 XVII. Provision of Leather, Hides, and Horns, . • e 3,285,307 2,224,604 I,060,703 XVIII. Commerce, . & e 4,685,579 3,093,056 I,592,523 XIX. Transport and Storage, . e 3,952,993 3,242,281 7IO,7I2 XX. Learned and Artistic Profes- sions, . e o e 5,672, IQI 4,386,725 I,285,466 XXI. Sport and Amusements, I41, 18O 98,485 42,695 XXII. Earthwork and General Labour, . & o . 25,468,017 | 18,414,315 7,053,702 XXIII. Undefined and Disreputable Means of Livelihood,” e I,562,981 7O4,801 858, 18O XXIV. Means of Livelihood inde- pendent of Work, 4,773,993 || 3,204,465 | 1,569,528 TOTAL, 287,223,431 22I, I'72,952 | 66,050,479 * In this return no distinction is drawn between those who work and those whom they support by their work. The whole population depending upon the occupation is included in order to indicate the respective Sustaining power of the different orders. - * Order III. is intended to refer solely to those not in the employ of the State making the return, but it is probable that in Some cases the servants of the State itself have been included. e - e e * Order XXIII. includes those not enumerated by occupation in certain wild tracts of Rájputána, Kashmir, and the Bombay States. § l y APPENDIX X.—INCIDENCE OF THE LAND REVENUE ON AREA AND POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA IN 1890–91. (Compiled from Returns of Agricultural Statistics of British India and the Mative State of Mysore for 1890–91 : published at Calcutta, 1892.) º LAND Rº: EVENUE (COLUMN evenue Deduct . Total 8) on FULLY-AsSESS- Assess- Area not Land Re- Land Land ED AREA (COLUMN ment Der - Total fully As- venue (ex- Revenue Revenue º p Area b sessed, in- Balance cludin er head Assessed 4) PER ACRE. Population head of PROVINCE AND CLASS § y seq, I g Population #, on full of fully- Popula- OF TENURE urvey, cluding of Area fully Cesses ac- (column 2). of Popu- on Tully- assessed tion of ** less Feu- || Estates As- | Assessed. cording to lation assessed Area fullv-as- datories. sessed at Occupation) (columns Area For Culti- e S º d Privileged of District 5 and 6). (column 4). |For Total wated Area (co- Rates. (column 2). Area. Area lumns 8 only. and II). I 2 3 4. 5 6 : 7 8 9 IO II I2 Acres. Acres. Acres. R. No. R. a. A R. R. a. A. | R. a. A No. R. a. A Government of MADRAs— - Ráyatwārī,1 º e . 62,489,614 33,904,276 28,585,338 4,52,78,063 22,969,046 | I I5 6 4,51,96,400 | I 9 4 | I 12 9 || 21,696,581 || 2 I 4 Zamíndārſ, . - g . 27,571,196 2,767,898 24,8o3,298 50,84,653 7,90I, I/O | O IO 5 5o,84,653 o 3 3 • ‘º 7,90I, I7O O IO 4 Government of BoMBAY- Ráyatwāri, . - . . . . 43,174,927 | 20,889,224 22,285,703 2,24,74,885 | I o 2 | I o 5 9,994, II9 || 2 I3 O Bhāgdári and Narvadári, . 654, Ioa. 307,480 346,624 I5,40,954 || 4 7 2 | 4 7 6 392,358 || 5 I5 6 Tālukdāri, . - e - I,419,502 368,438 1,051,064 - 2,89,18,254 || 13,265,487 || 2 2 Io 3,87,048 o 5 II o 5 II • * e e Mehvási, . . . . . . . I2O,4O2 43,629 76,773 22,452 o 4 8 o 4 8 - Cº tº a Khoti and Izafat, e - 2,176,959 562,709 1,614,250 9,28,143 | O 9 2 | O 9 2 893,847 | 1 2 3 CoMMISSIONERSHIP of SIND— Rāyatwāri, . - e . . 28,406,568 23,090,994 5,315,574 75,69,096 2,413,823 || 3 2 2 1,28,02,518 || 2 6 6 || 2 6 6 (a) (a) LIEUTENANT-Governors.HIP º; ...T. amindar1, . º te Government Estates, . Not available. LIEUTENANT-GovernoRSHIP OF THE North-WESTERN PROVINCEs— - Zamíndārſ and village com- munities, . © . . 52,598,343 40,934,822 4,51,84,994 I 6 4 4,48,02,382 || 1 I 6 || 1 12 3 || 24,280,613 | I 8 8 II,663,521 32,308,652 CHIEF CoMMISSIONERSHIP OF OUDH- & Zamindári and village com- munities, . g g • | 15,337,846 I,5oo,48o 13,837,366 I,41,48,68o | II,387,741 I 3 Io 1,36,35,203 o 15 9 | I II 3 | Io,590,067 LIEUTENANT-Governors.HIP of THE PUNJAB– Zamíndāri, . . . . . 71,576,576 | 8,807,773 62,768,803 || 2,50,69,953 | 18,850,437 I 5 3 2,38,43,507 o 6 I o I5 7 (a) CHIEF CoMMIssionERSHIP OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCEs— º & * gº • | 13,605,405 *::::::::: ºš. g: O I 5 || O § 4 alguzārī, . * 27,746,877 I,893,991 25,852,88 2,21,91O | O 3 IO | O 7 Thekadárí, . º: 268,596 944; 422 68,82,611 || Io,774,891 o Io 2 I,45,808 o 2 5 o 4 3 (5) Rāyatwārí, . tº & 34I,34O £º º 34I,34O I, I5,408 o 5 5 o 6 6 Government Forest, . . 12,454,381 | 12,454,381 gº tº e tº ºf tº e CHIEF CoMMISSIONERSHI of UPPER BURMA— .* Rāyatwāri, . . . . 50,745,028 50,397,782 347,246 52,4O,4I3 2,999,725 | I I2 O 8,04,284 || 2 5 I | 2 5 I 4-3 < Zamindári and village 2. communities, . & 3,294 3,294 tº dº tº º * ſº tº gº tº # Y CHIEF CoMMissionERSHI ſa i of Lower BURMA— Rāyatwārí, . e . 56, IIo,426 50,975,656 5, I34,77O 86,34,857 ſ 85,51,039 || I Io 8 | I 13 I Zamindári and village 3,777,895 || 2 4 II (3) communities, . e I65,804 165,804 tº e 76,781 l tº e e CHIEF COMMISSIONERSHIP OF ºw 6 66 66, 368 àyatwārī, . & g g 2 I II8,315 2,329; II 33,66,381 33,00; 3 I 7 I Zamindári and village com- , 447,43 ;3 \ 5,422,745 O I2 2 ſ (5) (a) munities, . * tº . 24,062,877 | 20,266,891 3,795,986 76,947 } l 3,84,839 o I 7 C O M M I SS I o N E R S H I P OF BERA.R— Ráyatwāri, . g * . | II,339,631 4,156,989 7,182,642 67,81,763 2,630,018 || 2 9 3 65,97,207 o 14 8 o I5 9 2,534,996 C O M M I S S I O N E R S H I P OF Coorg— Rāyatwārí, . º * * I,012,260 907,163 IO5,097 3,OO,4O4 172,630 | I II Io 2,26,oo8 || 2 2 4 || 2 9 4 (a) CoMMISSIONERSHIP OF AJ- MERE-MERw ARA— Rāyatwāri, . e * 734,601 539,094 I95,507 3,08,185 297,839 I o 6 308, oro | I 9 2 § 297,889 Zamíndārſ, . e & º 980,172 975,525 4,647 4,163 54,257 O I O 4,163 o 14 4 | T I 3 54; 257 MANPUR PARGANA (CENTRAL INDIA)— Rāyatwāri, . º e 38,871 30,855 8,016 I2,31 I 4,697 || 2 9 II I2,311 | I 8 6 || 2 5 Io 4,697 TOTAL, . 508,527,453 259,345,071 || 249,182,382 |20,36,22,509 || 135,231, Io9 | I 8 I | 19,75,78,148 o I2 8 (a) (5) (3) (a) 29 II o 1 Includes whole Inám villages. (a) Not available. (b) Not available for the whole Province. § 794 AAEAAEAVZ)/X X/. APPENDIX XI. A LIST OF GOVERNORS, LIEUTENANT-GOVERNORS, AND CHIEF-COMMISSIONERS OF INDIAN PROVINCES. (Zhe names of officiating and acting Governors, Lieutenant-Governors, and Chief-Commissioners are printed in italics.) I.—GOVERNORS OF BENGAL FROM 1682 To 1758. (Until the assumption of office by Colonel Robert Clive on 27 June 1758.) | Assumed Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. William Hedges, . e July 1682 || Henry Ffrankland, . . 30 Jan. I726 William Gyfford, . g Aug. 16841 || John Stackhouse, . . 25 Feb. I732 Sir Charles Eyre, . . 26 May 1700 || Thomas Braddyll, . . 29 Jan. I739 John Beard, . * . 7 Jan. 1701 || John Forster, . g . 4 Feb. I746 Anthony Weltden, . . 20 July 1710 || William Barwell, . . I8 April 1748 John Russell, . º . 4 Mar. I7II || Adam Dawson, © . I7 July 1749 Robert Hedges, . . 3 Dec. 1713 || William Fytche, . . 5 July I752 Samuel Feake, * . . I2 Jan. 1718 || Roger Drake, . ſº . || 8 Aug. I752 John Deane, . ge . I7 Jan. 1723 * Between 1685 and 1700 the representative of the Company in Bengal was styled Agent and Chief. For the List of Governors of Bengal and of Governors-General and Viceroys of India from 1758 to I892, see ante, pp. 452, 453. II.-LIEUTENANT-GOVERNORS OF BENGAL FROM 1854. To 1892. (After the separation of the Province from the direct control of the Governor- General.) ssumed Assumed NAMEs. cº of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. Sir Frederick James Halli- Sir Augustus Rivers day, . gº * . 28 April 1854 Thompson, e . 24 April 1882 Sir John Peter Grant, . 1 May 1859 Aorace Abel Cockerell, Sir Cecil Beadon, . . 24 April 1862 officiating II Azºg. to Sir William Grey, . . . 24 April 1867 17 Sept. 1885. Sir George Campbell, . I Mar. 1871 || Sir Steuart Colvin Bayley, 2 April 1887 Sir Richard Temple, Bart., 9 April 1874 || Sir Charles Alfred Elliott, 18 Dec. 1890 Hon. Sir Ashley Eden, . 8 Jan. 1877 Sir Stezzaré Colv2zz Æayley, officiating I5 July to AVov. 1879. A PAEAEAVZ) ZX XZ-COAVZZAVUE/O. 795 III.-GOVERNORS OF FORT ST. GEORGE, OR MADRAs, FROM 1652 To 1892. Assumed NAMEs. chººne. NAMEs. Charge of Office. Aaron Baker, I tº e – 1652 || Nicholas Morse,” . . 17 Jan. 1744 Sir Thomas Chamber, . — 1659 || John Hinde,6 . g e tº º e Sir Edward Winter, e — 1661 || Charles Floyer,7 . . I6 April 1747 George Foxcroft, 2 . . 22 Aug. 1668 || Thomas Saunders,8. . Ig Sept. I750 Sir William Langhorn, George (afterwards Lord) Bart., . g º . — I670 Pigot, º * . . I4 Jan. I755 Streynsham Master, . 27 Jan. 1678 || Robert Palk, . & . 14 Nov. I763 William Gyfford,3 . . 3 July 1681 || Charles Bourchier, ". . 25 Jan. I'767 Elihu Yale,4 - . 25 July 1687 || Josias Du Pré, . . . 31 Jan. I770 Nathaniel Higginson, . 30 Oct. 1692 || Alexander Wynch, . . 2 Feb. 1773 Thomas Pitt, . - . 7 July 1698 || Lord Pigot,9 . 6 . II Dec. 1775 Gulston Addison, . . 18 Sept. 1769 || George Stratton, . . 23 Aug. I776 Admund Montague, act- John Whitehill, acting, 31 Aug. 1777 Žng, . e o . I7 Oct. 1709 || Sir Thomas Rumbold, Bt., 8 Feb. I778 William Fraser, acting, 3 Nov. 1709 John Whitehill, 10 acting, 6 April 1780 Edward Harrison, . . II July 1711 Charles Smith, acting, 8 AVov. 178o Joseph Collett, º . 8 Jan. I717 || Lord Macartney, . 22 June 1781 Aºrancis Hastings, act- Alexander Davidson, 37.9, . * @ . 18 Jan. 1720 acting, . e . 18 June 1785 Nathaniel Elwick, . . 15 Oct. 1721 ||*Maj.-Gen. Sir Archibald s James Macrae, e . . I5 Jan. I725 Campbell, º tº 6 April 1786 George Morton Pitt, . I4 May 1730 || John Holland, acting, . 7 Feb. I789 Richard Benyon, . . 23 Jan. 1735 Adward Hollazza', acág., I3 Peć. I790 * Mr. Baker was at first ‘Agent' for the Settlement of Madras, which was under the jurisdiction of the Presidency of Bantam in Java, from its foundation in 1639 till it was itself created a Presidency in 1653. In 1658, the Settlements in Bengal were sub- ordinated to Madras, and so remained until 1681. * Three months after his arrival with a commission to succeed Sir E. Winter, Mr. Foxcroft was, on a charge of disloyalty, put into confinement by Sir E. Winter, who resumed office, and retained it until 22nd August 1668, when Mr. Foxcroft was released and reinstated by Commissioners from England. * By the Company's commission, dated 14th November 1681, received 17th July 1682, the Bengal Agency was made a Government “without any subordination to Fort St. George.’ * Mr. Yale also acted during Mr. Gyfford's absence in Bengal from 8th August 1684 to 26th January 1685. * Madras having been captured by the French on the Ioth September 1746, the govern- ment of the Settlement devolved on Mr. John Hinde, the Deputy-Governor of Fort St. David. - ° Mr. Hinde died at Fort St. David on the I4th April 1747, previous to the receipt of the Court of Directors' despatch of 24th January 1747, creating Fort St. David the Head Settlement, and appointing Mr. Hinde President and Governor. 7 The Court's despatch ordering Mr. Floyer's dismissal from the service was received at Fort St. David on the 6th July 1750. * The seat of government was re-established at Madras on the 5th April 1752, four years after its restoration to the English by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 9 Governor for second time. By order of Mr. George Stratton and the majority of the Council, he was placed under arrest, and detained at St. Thomas's Mount on the 24th August 1776. He was allowed to return to the Madras Garden House on the 28th April for change of air, and died there on Ioth May 1777. * Acting Governor second time. Suspended by the Governor-General and Council under Section IX. of the Regulating Act. * Also Commander-in-Chief of the Presidency. 796 AAEAEAV/D/X X/.-COMTV/VOE/O. GOVERNORS OF FORT ST. GEORGE, OR MADRAS–continued. Assumed Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. *Maj.-Gen. Sir William Daniel (after wards Sir Medows, . g . 20 Feb. 1790 Daniel) Eliott, acting, 24 April 1854 Sir Charles Oakeley, Bart., | 1 Aug. 1792 || Lord Harris, . e . . 28 April 1854 Lord Hobart, . wº . 7 Sept. 1794 || Sir Charles Edward Tre- *Lieut. - Gen. George velyan, . . . . 28 Mar. I859 (afterwards Lord) William Ambrose More- Aarris, acting, . 21 Feb. I798 head, acting, . . 8 Jazze I36o Lord Clive (afterwards Sir Henry George Ward, 5 July 1860 Earl of Powis), . . 21 Aug. 1798 William Ambrose More- Maj.-Gen. Lord William head, acting, . . 4 Azºg. I860 Bentinck, . * . 30 Aug. 1803 || Col. Sir William Thomas William Petrie, acting, II Sept. 1807 Denison, 1. g . . I 8 Feb. I86 I Sir George Hilaro Barlow, Edward Maltby, acting, 26 AVov. 1863 Bart., ſe ſe . 24 Dec. 1807 || Lord Napier of Merchis- *Lieut.-Gen. the Hon. toun (afterwards Lord John Abercromby. Napier and Ettrick), 2 27 Mar. 1866 (Came out as Com- Alexander John (after- mander-in-Chief and zwards Sir Alexander) temporary Governor), . 21 May 1813 Arbuthnot, acting, 19 Feb. 1872 Right Hon. Hugh Elliot, 16 Sept. 1814 || Lord Hobart, . s . I5 May 1872 Maj.-Gen. Sir Thomas William Rose (after- Munro, Bart., . . . To June 1820 ward's Sir William) Aenry Sullivan Graeme, A’obinson, acting, . 29 April 1875 acting, . © . . Io July 1827 || The Duke of Bucking- Right Hon. Stephen ham and Chandos, 23 Nov. 1875 Rumbold I ushington, 18 Oct. 1827 || Right Hon. William Pat- Lieut.-Gen. Sir Frederick rick Adam, . 20 Dec. I&8o Adam, . * . 25 Oct. 1832 William Haadleston, act., 24 May 1881 George Edward Russell, Right Hon. Sir Mount- acting, tº . 4 Mar. I837 stuart Elphinstone Lord Elphinstone, . tº 6 Mar. 1837 Grant Duff, te g 5 Nov. 1881 *Lieut.-Gen. the Marquess Right Hon. Robert Bourke of Tweeddale, . 24 Sept. 1842 (afterwards Lord Con- Henry Dickinson, act- nemara, . tº . 8 Dec. I&86 ing, . e º . 23 Feb. 1848 John Henz y Garstin, Maj.-Gen. Right Hon. Sir acting, . e . I Dec. I890 Henry Pottinger, Bart., | 7 April 1848 || Lord Wenlock, 23 Jan. I891 1 Acted as Viceroy and Governor-General of India from the 2nd December 1863 to I2th January 1864. 2 Embarked for Calcutta on the 19th February 1872, for the purpose of assuming temporarily the office of Viceroy and Governor-General of India on the Earl of Mayo's death. * Also Commander-in-Chief of the Presidency. [IV.—Gover NORs. APPEAVO IX X/.-COAWTVAWUEZ). 797 IV.-GOVERNORS OF BOMBAY FROM 1662 To 1892. | Assumed Assumed NAMEs. at: of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. Sir Abraham Shipman,1 appointed ‘Gene- || Richard Bourchier, . 17 Nov. 1750 ral and Governor' on the 19th March || Charles Crommelin, 28 Feb. 1760 1662, was prevented from landing in || Thomas Hodges, 27 Jan. I'767 Bombay by the Portuguese, and died | William Hornby, 26 Feb. 1771 on the island of Anjediva in October || Rawson Hart Bodham, I Jan. I784 I664. Andrew Ramsay, acág., 9 Jan. 1788 Humfrey Cooke, Secretary to Sir Abra- || Maj.-Gen. Sir William ham Shipman, succeeded him in com- Medows, . tº . 6 Sept. 1788 mand, and came to Bombay as Gover- || Maj. - Gen. Sir Robert nor in February 1665. He remained Abercromby,4 . . 2I Jan. I790 in power till the 5th November 1666. George Dicé, acting, I AVov. 1793 Sir Gervase Lucas, . 5 Nov. 1666 John Griffith, acting, 3 Sept. 1795 Captain Henry Garey, Jonathan Duncan, . 27 Dec. 1795 acting, . e . 22 May 1667 George Brown, acting, . II Aug. 1811 Sir George Oxenden, 23 Sept. 1668 || Sir Evan Nepean, Bart., . 12 Aug. 1812 Gerald Aungier, 14 July 1669 || Hon. Mountstuart Elphin- Thomas Rolt, . º 30 June 1677 Stone, {- º . I Nov. 1819 Sir John Child, Bart.,2 27 Oct. 1681 || Maj.-Gen. Sir John Mal- Bartholomew Harris, 4 Feb. 1690 colm, º º e I Nov. 1827 Daniel Annesley, acting, Io May 1694 || Lieut.-Gen. Sir Thomas Sir {{. Gayer,3 . 17 May 1694 Sidney Beckwith, I Dec. 1830 Sir Nicholas Waite, — Nov. 1704 John Romer, acting, I7 Jazz. 1831 William Aislabie, — Sept. 1708 || The Earl of Clare, . 21 Mar. I831 Stephen Strutt, acting, — 1715 || Sir Robert Grant, . I7 Mar. I835 Charles Boone, e º — 1716 James Farish, acting, . II July 1838 William Phipps, — 1720 || Sir James Rivett-Carnac, Robert Cowan, e º — 1728 Bart., º e . 31 May 1839 John Horne, . 22 Sept. 1734 || Sir William Hay Mac- Stephen Law, . tº 7 April 1739 naghten, Bart.,” e John Geekie, acting, I5 AVov. 1742 George William Ander- William Wake, º 26 Nov. 1742 son, acting, . . 28 April 1841 1 The first four Governors held Bombay for the Crown. The island was handed over to the Company on the 23rd September 1668. For the next nineteen years (1668–1687), except for occasional visits, and during three years (1672–1675) of Governor Aungier's rule, the Governors of Bombay spent almost the whole of their time in Surat, of which factory they were presidents. During this time, Bombay was administered by an officer styled Deputy-Governor. The transfer, in 1687, of the headquarters of the Company's power to Bombay to a great extent did away with the need of a Deputy-Governor. But in spite of the change, the title continued for many years to be borne by the second member of the Council. It would seem to have fallen into disuse some time between 1720 and 1738. 2 Child was Governor and General, with his headquarters in Bombay, whither he moved from Surat on the 2nd May 1687, and where he died on the 4th February 1690. In the year 1683, Bombay was the scene of a revolt against the Company's authority. The head of the rebellion was Captain Richard Keigwin, the third member of the Council. Placing the Deputy-Governor under arrest, Keigwin ruled Bombay in the King's name from the 27th December 1683 to the 19th November 1684, when, on promise of pardon, he handed over the island to Admiral Sir Thomas Grantham. 8 Under Gayer, Waite, and Aislabie—that is, from 1694 to 1715—Bombay Governors held the title of General. During the last three years (17OI–1704) of his nominal command, Gayer was in confinement in Surat. 4 Proceeded to Madras on duty in August 1793, and thence joined the Council of the Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief in India on the 28th October 1793. 5 Was appointed Governor of Bombay by the Honourable the Court of Directors on the 4th August 1841, but, before he could take charge of his appointment, he was assassinated in Kábul on the 23rd December 184I. 798 A PAEEAWD/X XY-COM TV/VUEZO. GOVERNORS OF BOMBAY-continued. Assumed - Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMES. Charge of Office. Sir George Arthur, Bart., 9 June 1842 || Sir Philip Edmond Wode- Alestock Robert Reid, house, e e . 6 May 1872 acting, . º . 6 Aug. 1846 || Sir Richard Temple, Bt., 30 April 1877 Sir George Russell Clerk, 23 Jan. 1847 Lzone/ Robert Ash- Viscount Falkland, . . I May 1848 burner, acting, . . I3 Mar. 1880 Lord Elphinstone, . . 26 Dec. 1853 || Right Hon. Sir James Sir George Russell Clerk, II May 1860 Fergusson, Bart., 28 April 1880 Sir Henry Bartle Edward Frere, Bart., e e Sir William Robert Sey- mour Vesey Fitz- Gerald, . e o 24 April 1862 6 Mar. 1867 Jas. Braithwaite (after- wards Sir James) Aeile, acting, Lord Reay, . tº Lord Harris, . o * 27 Mar. 1885 30 Mar. 1885 I2 April 1890 V.—GOVERNORS OF AGRA, 1834, 1835. (Constituted a Presidency in 1834, but subsequently changed to a Lieutenant-Governorship.) Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Sir Charles Theophilus William Blunt, Metcalfe, Bart., . — Nov. 1834 || Alexander Ross, Assumed Charge of Office. 4 Mar. 1835 I Dec. 1835 VI.—LIEUTENANT-GOVERNORS OF THE NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES FROM 1836 To 1876. Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMEs. cººne. Sir Charles Theophilus Col. Hastings Fraser, Metcalfe, Bart., . . I June 1836 Chief Commissioner, Right Hon. the Governor- North-Western Pro- General in the North- vinces, 1 te . 30 Sept. 1857 Western Provinces (the Right Hon. the Governor- Earl of Auckland), . 1 June 1838 General administering Thomas Campbell Robert- the North - Western SOI), . º - . 4 Feb. 1840 Provinces (Earl Can- Right Hon. the Governor- ning), e sº . 9 Feb. 1858 General in the North- Sir George Frederick Ed- Western Provinces (the In OnStone, . . I9 Jan. I859 Earl of Ellenborough), 31 Dec. 1842 A'. Money, acting, . 27 Feb. 1863 Sir George Russell Clerk, 30 June 1843 || Hon. Edmund Trum- James Thomason, . 22 Dec. 1843 mond, e tº . e. 7 Mar. 1863 A. W. Begbie, acting, Io Oct. 1853 || Sir William Muir, Io Mar. I868 John Russell Colvin, 7 Nov. 1853 || Sir John Strachey, . . 7 April 1874 E. A. Reade, acting, Io Sept. I857 || Sir George Couper, Bart., 26 July 1876 * Capital removed to Allahābād, A PPEAV/D/X XZ-COAVZTVAWOWE/O. 799 VII. — CHIEF COMMISSIONERS OF OUDH FROM THE ANNEXATION OF THE PROVINCE IN 1856 To ITS AMALGAMATION witH THE NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES IN 1876. Assumed Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. Maj.-Gen. Sir Jas. Outram, I Feb. 1856 A’obert Henry (after- Colville Coverley Jack- zwards Sir Robert) son, acting, . . 8 May 1856 Davies, officiating 26 Maj.-Gen. Sir Henry Mo t- Azig. 1865. gomery Lawrence, 21 Mar. 1857 || John (afterwards Sir John) Maj. John Sherbrooke Strachey, . - . 17 Mar. I866 Banks, e . 5 July 1857 Robert Henry (after- Lieut.-Gen. Sir James zwards Sir Robert) Outram, . e . II Sept. 1857 Davies, acting, . 24 May 1867 Robert (afterwards Sir Robert Henry (afterwards Robert) Montgomery, 3 April 1858 Sir Robert) Davies, 9 Mar. 1868 Charles J. (afterwards Sir Maj.-Gen. L. Barrow, 18 Jan. 1871 Charles) Wingfield, . 15 Feb. 1859 Sir George Couper, Bt., Lieut.-Col. L. Barrow, acting, . - . 20 April 1871 officiating 20 April Sir George Couper, Bart., | 8 Dec. 1873 186O. Johzz Forães Dazyżd George Udny (after- Inglis, officiating I5 wards Sir George) Mar. £o I5 Mov. 1875, Yızle, officiating 4 and 20 July 1876 to April 1861. 15 Feb. 1877.1 1 Mr. Inglis made over charge on 15th February 1877, from which date the offices of Chief Commissioner of Oudh and Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces were amalgamated under the Order of the Government of India, Home Department, No. 45, dated 17th January 1877 (Gazette of India, 20th January 1877, Part I.). VIII.-LIEUTENANT-GOVERNORS OF THE NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES AND CHIEF COMMISSIONERS OF OUDH FROM 1877 To 1892. Assumed Assumed NAMES. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. Sir George Couper, Bart., 15 Feb. 1877 || Sir Auckland Colvin, 21 Nov. 1887 Sir Alfred Comyns Lyall, 17 April 1882 || Sir Charles Haukes Tod Crosthwaite, — I892 | IX. —CHIEF COMMISSIONER OF THE PUNJAB, 1852 To 1859. Assumed NAME. Charge of Office. John Laird Mair Lawrence (afterwards Lord Lawrence), — I852 8oo APPENDIX XZ-CONTINUED. X.—LIEUTENANT-Gover NORS OF THE PUNJAR FROM 1859 TO 1892. Assumed Assumed NAMES. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. Sir John Laird Mair Law- Sir Robert Henry Davies, 20 Jan. 1871 rence, Bart. (after- Sir Robert Eyles Egerton, 2 April 1877 wards Lord Lawrence), 1 Jan. 1859 || Sir Charles Umpherston Sir Robert Montgomery, 25 Feb. 1859 Aitchison, . º . 3 April 1882 Sir Donald McLeod, Io Jan. I865 || Sir James Broadwood Maj.-Gen. Sir Henry Lyall, -> e . 2 April 1887 Durand, tº . 1 June 1870 || Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick, — 1892 XI.-CHIEF COMMISSIONERS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES FROM 1861 to 1892. Assumed Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. Col. Edward King John Henry (afterwards Elliot, . e . II Dec. I861 Sir John) Morris, 27 May 1870 Lieut.-Col. James Anox Col. Richard Harfe Spence, officiating 27 A'eatinge, officiating Feb. to 25 April 1862. 8 July 1870 to 6 July Richard (afterwards Sir 1872. A'ichard) Temple, off- Charles (afterward's Sir ciating 25 April to 18 Charles) Grant, off- Dec. I862. ciating II April to 15 John Scarlett Campbell, AVov. 1879. officiating I2 to 17 William Brittain Jones, . 30 April 1883 Mar. I864. Charles Hazz/ºes Zod. Richard (afterwards Sir (afterwards Sir Richard) Temple, 17 Mar. I864 Charles) Crosthwaite, John Scarležá Campbell, officiating 24 April to 6 Nov. 1865. John Henry (afterwards Sir John) Morris, officiazing 4 Apré! 1867. George (afterwards Sir George) Campbell, John Henry (afterwards Sâr John) Morris, acting, . & º 27 Nov. 1867 16 April 1868 acting, . • o Charles Haukes Tod (afterwards Sir Charles) Crosthwaite, Dennis (afterwards Sir Dennis) Fitzpatrick, officiating I5 Dec. I88 Alexander (afterwards Sir Alexander) Mackenzie, Sir Antony Patrick Mac- Donnell, º s I April 1884 27 Jan. 1885 18 Mar. 1887 28 Jan. 1891 XII.-CHIEF COMMISSIONERS OF BURMA FROM 1862 To 1892. Assumed Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Chaº dice. Col. (afterwards Sir) Hon. Ashley (afterwards Arthur Purves Phayre, 31 Jan. 1862 Sir Ashley) Eden, 18 April 1871 Col. Albert Fytche, . {- Lieut. – Col. Richard Drapes Ardagh, off- ciating 7 April to 26 June 1870. I6 Feb. 1867 Augustus (after wards Sir Azgustus) Rivers Thompson, acting, Augustus (afterwards Sir Augustus) Rivers Thompson, º I4 April 1875 30 April 1877 AAEAEAEAVZ)/X X/-COAVZT/AWUEZO. CHIEF COMMISSIONERS OF BURMA—continued. 8o I Assumed Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. Charles Umpherston Charles) Crosthwaite, (afterwards Sir Charles) officiating 2 Mar, 1883 Aitchison, . g . 30 Mar. 1878 £o 28 Feb. 1884. Charles Adward (after- Charles Haukes Tod wards Sir Charles) (afterwards Sir Charles) Bernard, acting, 2 July 188o Crosthwaite, tº . 17 Mar. 1887 Charles Edward (after- wards Sir Charles) Bernard, Charles "Häuſſes Toà (afterwards Sir 4 April 1882 Antony Patrick Mac- Donnell, officiating 8 Sept. to 8 Dec. 1889. Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Io Dec. 1890 XIII.-CHIEF COMMISSIONERS OF ASSAM FROM 1874 TO 1892. Assumed Assumed NAMEs. Charge of Office. NAMEs. Charge of Office. Col. Richard Harte Keat- & Oct. 1883, and 27 Feb. inge, * º . 7 Feb. 1874 1885 to 31 Oct. 1887. Sâz Sáezzar: Colzyżzz Dennis (afterwards Sir Bayley, acting, . 22 June 1878 Dennis) Fitzpatrick, 31 Oct. 1887 Sir Steuart Colvin Bayley, 17 June 1880 || James Westland, . 16 July 1889 Sir Charles Alfred Elliott, 25 Mar. 1881 || James Wallace Quinton, . 22 Oct. 1889 Wm2. Aºrsážze Ward, William Erskine Ward, , 27 May 1891 officiatzng 8 July to 7 [ 8o3 ] I N ID E X. A Abars, an aboriginal tribe in Assam, 95. Abdur Rahmān Khán, recognised as Amír of Aſghānistán, 499; met Lord Dufferin at Râwal Pindi, 501. Aboriginal criminal tribes, II2, II3. Aboriginal tribes, non-Aryan population, chap. iii. pp. 91-II.5. Kistvaen builders, flint and bronze periods, 91 ; non-Aryans of Vedic India, 91, 92; Andaman islanders, 93; Anamalai hill- men, 93; Gonds and aboriginal tribes of the Central Provinces, 93, 94; the Juángs or leaf-wearers of Orissa, 94; tribes of the Himálayas, 95; of Assam, 95; Santāls, their tribal government, history, religion, 95-98; the Kandhs of Orissa, their tribal government, blood revenge, marriage by capture, and human sacrifice, 98-IOI ; origin of the non-Aryan tribes, IoI ; the three non-Aryan stocks—Tibeto-Burman, Dravidian, Kolarian,—their languages, IOI-IO9; statistics of non-Aryan races in 1872, 1881, and 1891, IIo, I I I ; Hinduizing tendency among aboriginal tribes, I I I ; crushed aboriginal tribes, III, II2; gipsy clans, I I2; aboriginal criminal tribes, II2, II3; the non- Aryan hill tribes as soldiers, II3; Colonel Dixon's work among the Mhairs of Rájputána, II 3, 114; Sir James Outram's work among the Bhils, II4; fidelity of the hill races, II4; their position in our Indian army, I I4; services of the Gūrkhas, I 15; the Náirs, II5. Aborigines of India, by Mr. B. H. Hodg- son, quoted, 398 (footnote I). Abú, Mount, in Rájputána, held sacred by the Jains, 67, 68, 205. Abul Fazl, Akbar's finance minister and historian, and the author of the Ain-i- Akbará, 358. Aºustºm, The, of the Hindus, 258. Adam, Mr. John, acting Governor- General (1823), 452, 473. Adams, Major, defeats of Mír Käsim by, at Gheriá and Udhunalá, 454. Adam's Peak in Ceylon, Shrine common to Buddhism, Siva-worship, and Mu- hammadanism, 252. Aden, Catholic population of, 309 (foot- note). Adil Shāhi, Muhammadan dynasty in Southern India (I490-1636 A.D.), 34I. Administration of British India.--See BRITISH ADMINISTRATION. Adoption, Hindu practice of, 485. Afghān dynasty of Delhi (1540-56 A.D.), 6 340. Afghānistán, History of, under the Duránís (1747 - 1826), 477; early British dealings with (1800 - 37), 477; Afghān dynastic quarrels, 477; Russian intrigues, 478; installation of Sháh Shujá, and occupation of Kábul by a British force (1839), 478; rising of the Afghān people, murder of the British envoy, and massacre of the British army on its retreat through the passes to India (1841-42), 478,479 ; the British army of retribution, 479 ; Lord Ellenborough's proclamation, 479 ; second Afghān war (1878-81), 498; murder of Sir L. Cavagnari, the British Resident, 498; retributive occupation of Kábul, 499; Sir F. Roberts' march from Kábul to Kan- dahár, and defeat of Ayūb Khán, 499; recognition of Abdur Rahmān Khán as Amir, 499; trade routes to Afghāni- stán, 690; value of Afghān trade, 690. Agastya, the Brähman Saint of Southern India, Legend of, 387. Aghoris, a carrion-eating sect of Sivaite devotees, 264. Agni, the Vedic God of Fire, I21, 122. Agra, capital of Akbar the Great, who built the fort, 349; Akbar's tomb at Sikandra, near, 350 ; embassy of Sir 804 MAV/DEX. Thomas Roe to the Emperor Jahāngir, 359; 430; Sháh Jahān's great architec- tural works at the Tāj Mahál and Moti Masjid, 362; deposition of Sháh Jahán and imprisonment within Agra Fort (where he died), by his usurping son Aurangzeb, 363; establishment of English factory at (I62O A.D.), 431. Agra Canal, 61 ; 633. Agricultural Relief Acts for Southern India, 529-532. Agricultural school at Saidápetin Madras, 614. Agricultural stock in India, 618-621 ; famous breeds of cattle and horses, 618, 619. Agriculture, Department of, created by Lord Mayo, 497; re-established by Lord Ripon, 500 ; 616. Agriculture and products, chap. xvii. pp. 575-647. Agriculture in India, the occupation of almost the entire population, 575, 576; various systems of agriculture, 576; rotation of crops, petite culture, 576, 577; statistics of rice cultivation in different Provinces, 577-579; hill cultivation, 579; wheat, 581 ; area under principal food-grains, 580; millets and minor cereals, 582, 583; pulses, 583; oil-seeds, 583; vegetables, fruits, and Spices, 584, 585; palms and sugar-cane, 585; cotton, 585-588; jute, 589, 590 ; indigo, 590-593; Opium, 593, 594 ; tobacco, 594, 595 ; uncertainty of Indian crop statistics, 598; approximate area under certain principal crops, 596, 597; special crops, coffee, 598-6OO ; tea, 600-606; cinchona, 606-609; silk, 609- 612; lac and lac-dye, 612, 613; model farms, their small success, 614, 615; the problem of improved husbandry, 615; the impediments to better hus- bandry, namely, want of cattle, want of manure, and want of water, 616- 618; agricultural stock, 618-621 ; forest conservancy and growth of the Indian Forest Department, 622-626; nomadic cultivation, 627, 628; irriga- tion and its function in India during famine, 628, 629; irrigation areas in the different Provinces, 629-643; irriga- tion statistics for British India, 639- 642; famines and their causes, 642, 643; summary of Indian famines, 643- 645; the great famine in Southern India (1876-78), 645-647. Agriculture in India, small holdings, 81 ; absence of large commercial towns, 81. Ahams, tribe in Assam, formerly the ruling race in that Province, now a crushed tribe, I I2; present descendants of, 236. Ahi, the Vedic Demon of Drought, I22 and footnote. Ahmadābād, Hindu architecture at, I54; castes as trade guilds at, 247, 248, Ahmadnagar, Muhammadan Kingdom of Southern India (I490-1636 A.D.), 34I. Ahmad Shāh Durání (1747-61 A.D.), 372, 373. - Aided Clergy Society, 32O. Aín-i-Akbarā, or chronicles of Akbar, translated by Professor H. Blochmann, 325 (footnote); 346 (ſootnote I); 350 (footnote); 35I (footnote). Aitchison, Sir C. U., Zord Zazyzeſzce (‘Rulers of India’ series), quoted, 490 (footnote I). Aix-la-Chapelle, Madras restored to the English by the Treaty of (1748), 445. Ajit Singh of Jodhpur, revolted against the Mughals, 372. Ajmere, establishment of an English factory at (1614 A.D.), 430. Akas, an aboriginal hill tribe in ASSam, 95. - Akbar the Great, founder of the Mughal Empire (1556-1605 A.D.), 346-358; chief events of his reign, 347 (footnote); his work in India, 347, 348; concilia- tory policy towards the Hindus, 348, 349; conquest of Rájput chiefs, and ex- tension and consolidation of the Mughal Empire, 348, 349 ; change of capital from Delhi to Agra, 349 ; his religious faith, 350 ; army, judicial, and police reforms, 35I ; his revenue survey and land Settlement of India, 352, 353 ; revenues of the Mughal Empire under Akbar, 352-358. Akbar, son of Aurangzeb, 366; his re- bellion, 368. Akbar Khán, son of Dost Muhammad, ºted Macnaghten at Kábul (1841), 4785. Akkhai Kumār Datta, Bengali prose writer, 413. Akyab, its advance under British rule, 484. Alabaster, Mr., The Wheel of the Zaw, quoted, 181 (footnote). Alá-ud-din, the second king of the Khilji dynasty (1295-1315 A.D.), 334 ; his invasion and conquest of Southern India, 334, 335 ; massacre of Mughal Settlers, 335 ; Hindu revolts, 335. Alá-ud-din II., most powerful of the Bahmaní kings, 34I. Albuquerque, second Governor of Portu- guese India (1509-15 A.D.), 42O ; his capture of Goa, and death there, 420 ; his policy towards the natives, 42O. Albuquerque, John de, first Bishop of Goa (I539-53 A.D.), 296. Alexander the Great, his expedition to AAV/OAX. India, and campaigns in the Punjab and Sind (327-325 B.C.), 2II, 212. Alexandria, the modern Uchh in the Punjab, founded by Alexander, 212. Alfred the Great’s mission to India (883 A.D.), 289, 29O. Aligarh, Defeat of the Maráthás at, by Lord Lake (1803), 468. Ali Vardi Khán, Nawāb of Bengal (174O-56); ceded Orissa to the Ma- ráthás (1751), 379; construction of the Maráthá Ditch around Calcutta as a protection against the Maráthás, 448. Aliwál, Battle of, in the first Sikh war . (1845), 481. Allahābād, place of pilgrimage, 50. Allahābād and Kora made over to the Mughal Emperor by Clive, 455 and footnote; their resumption by Hastings and sale to the Wazir of Oudh, 459. Allahābād District, small rate of in- crease of population, 81. Almeida, Francisco de, first Viceroy of Portuguese India (I505-09 A.D.), 419. Alphabets of ancient India, I44, I45. Altamsh, the third monarch of the Slave dynasty (I2 II-36 A.D.), invasion by Mughals, 332. Al 'Utbi, authority for Subuktigin's in- vasion of India, 325 (footnote I). Amara Sinha, earliest Indian lexico- grapher, I45. Ambálá darbār (1869), the, 496. Amboyna, Massacre of, 425 ; 43 I ; 664. Amherst, Lord, illustrated manuscript belonging to, I55. Amherst, Lord, Governor-General of India (1823-28), first Burmese war (1824-26); capture of Bhartpur, 473, 474. Amherst District, rapid increase of popu- lation, 81, 82; its advance in popula- tion under British rule, 484. Amir Khán, the Pindari leader (1817), 472. An or Aeng Pass over the Arakan Yoma Mountains in Burma, 38; 74. Analysis of the Constitution of the East Andia Company, by P. Auber, quoted, 428 (footnotes). Analysis of Indian foreign import and export trade, principal staples, 668- 688. Anamalai Hills, wild tribes on the, 93. Ancient India as described by Megas- thentes and Arrian, by Mr. J. M'Crindle, quoted, 2II, 215 (footnotes). Ancient land system of India, 517. Ancient mingling of castes, 245. Andaman Islanders, 93; dying out, IO9. Andaman Islands, assassination of Lord Mayo at Port Blair, 497; penal settle- ment, 56O. 805 Anecdota Oxoniensia, Aryan Series, I44 and footnote. Ammals and Antiquities of Rájásthān, by Colonel Tod, quoted, 227 (footnotes); 232 (footnote 2); 233 (footnotes). Annuario da archidioc. de Goa, quoted, 3O9, 3IO. Antelope and deer, Varieties of, 760. Antimony, 729. Antiochos Theos made treaty with Asoka, 217. Arab expeditions to Bombay and Sind (636-828 A.D.), 32 I. Arakan Oil Company, 729, 730. Aranyakas, or ‘Tracts for the Forest Re- cluse,’ 139. Archæological Survey of Western India, Mr. E. Thomas’ Papers in, quoted, 192 (footnote); 222 (footnote 3); 229 (foot- notes); 233 (footnote 4). Architecture, ancient Indian, I54; 218; under the Mughal Emperors, 362. Arcot, capture and defence of, by Clive (1751), 445 ; rival French and English nominees for the throne of, 445. Area, towns, villages, houses, population, etc., of British India, Appendix I., 774. Argaum, Battle of (1803), 381; 468. Armagãon, East India Company's ſac- tory established at (1625-26 A.D.), 43 I. Army of India, its constitution, 558-559; the armies of the three Presidencies, 558; strength, 559. Art and architecture in ancient India, I54; 217-219. Arts and manufactures, I53, I54, also chap. xx. pp. 700-72.I. English Com- petition with native art-work, 700 ; native rural industries, 701 ; forti- fied weaving settlements of the East India Company, 701 ; cotton-weaving an indigenous industry in India, 701 ; its decline, but still a domestic industly supplying three-fifths of the Indian consumption, 702; cotton-weaving in different Provinces, 702, 703; special Indian cotton fabrics, 704; Indian silk-weaving in Burma, Assam, and Bengal, 704, 705 ; classes of silk fabrics, 705; steam silk factories, 705 ; embroidery, 706; Kashmir shawls, 7O6; leather work, 706; velvet work, 706; jewelled embroidery, 706; carpets and rugs, 706, 707 ; goldsmiths' work and jewellery, 707, 708; precious stones, 708; iron work and cutlery, 708, 709; chain armour and damascene work, 709 ; brass, copper, and bell- metal work, 709, 7 IO; pottery and tile work, 7 Io, 7II ; sculpture, 7II ; wood carving, 7II ; inlaying and ivory 8o0 JAVADAX. carving, 712; European industries, cotton mills, 712-717; jute mills, 717-718; breweries, 719, 720; paper mills, 721 ; leather factories, 721. Aryan and Turanian migrations from Central Asia, I74, 22.I. Aryan races of India, number in 1881, 89. Also chap. iv. pp. I I6-175. The Aryan stock, its European and Eastern branches, II6; the Aryans in their pri- mitive home, II6, II 7; European and Indian languages merely varieties of Aryan speech, II? ; Indo-European words, II 7 ; common origin of Euro- pean and Indian religions, II 7; the Indo-Aryans on the march, and in their new settlements, II8; the Rig- Veda, its supposed dates, I 18; Vedic hymns, II9 ; caste and widow - burn- ing unknown to the Rig-Veda, II9 ; Aryan civilisation in the Veda, I2O ; eastern spread of the Aryans, I2O: the gods of the Veda, I2O ; Indra, the Cloud Compeller or rain-bringer, and Agni, the God of Fire, 121, 122; other Vedic gods, I23; the Brähmanical Triad, I23; blood-loving deities of Hinduism scarcely known in the Veda, 123; the Horse - Sacrifice a substitution for Human Sacrifice, I23; Vedic concep- tions of the Deity, I24; a Vedic hymn, I24; primitive Aryan burial, 125; burning of the dead, I26, 127 ; Vedic legend of Yama, the King of Death, 126; Vedic farewell to the dead, I26; Vedic conception of immortality, I27; Aryan advance towards the Jumna and Upper Ganges, I27; Aryan tribes organized into kingdoms, I28; origin of priestly families, I28; growth of the priest- hood, I29; the four Vedas, 129; the Brähmanas, 130; the Sūtras or Sacred traditions, 130 ; formation of the Brähnan caste, 131 ; growth of the warrior or Kshattriya caste, I31 ; the cultivating caste (Vaisya), 131; the four Hindu castes, I32 ; increase of Brähman, Kshattriya, and Südra castes, I32, 133; decrease of Vaisyas, 133; struggle between the priestly and warrior castes, I.33; rising pretensions of the Brähmans, 133, 134; well-known prehistoric legends of Kshattriyasattain- ing Brähmanhood, 134 ; the Middle- land, the focus of Brähmanism, 135; Aryan tribes outside the Brähmanical pale, I35; establishment of Brähman Supremacy, I36; four stages of a Brähman’s life, 136; the Brähman rule of life and its hereditary results on the caste, I37, I 38; work done by Brähmans for India, 138; Brähman theology, I39; the post-Vedic gods, I39, 140 ; the Hindu Triad, I40; Brähman philosophy, its six darsanas or schools, 140, I41 ; summary of Brähman religion, I4I ; Brähman science, I42; Sanskrit gram- mar, I42; Sanskrit and Prákrit speech, I42, I43; Sanskrit manuscripts, I43; the Indian alphabets, I44, I45; Sans- krit writings almost entirely in verse, I45; prose, a forgotten art, I45; Sanskrit dictionaries, I45; Brähman astronomy, I46, I47; Brähman mathe- matics, I48; Brähman medicine, I48, I49; Indian Surgery, I49, I5O ; Buddhist public hospitals, 150, I5 I; de- cline of Hindu medicine, I51 ; English Medical Colleges, I51, 152; vernacular medical publications, I5I, I52; Hindu art of war, I 52; Indian music, I52- I54; Indian architecture, I54; Indian decorative art and painting, I55, I56; Brähman law, I56-161 ; code of Manu, I56, I57; code of Yájnavalkya, I57; scope of Indian law, its rigid caste system, I58, 159; growth of Hindu law, I 59; its incorporation of local customs, I6O ; perils of modern codi- fication, I60, 161 ; secular literature of the Hindus, 161, 162; the Mahá- bhārata, 161-165; the Rāmāyana, I65-168; age of the Sanskrit drama, 168-169; Sakuntala and other Hindu dramas, I69, I70 ; the Hindu novel, I7O ; Beast stories, I70, 17 I ; Sanskrit lyric poetry, 171 ; the Purānas, 171, I72; Indian modern vernacular litera- ture, 172; intellectual and religious development of the early Aryans, I72, 173; the Brähmans in Indian history, and attacks on Brähmanism from the 6th to the 19th century, 173- I75. Aryan influences on the Dravidian races, 387-388; the modern Aryan verna- culars of India, 392-4I 5. Asiatic non-Indian population of British India, Appendix V., 778. Asoka, Buddhist King of Magadha or Behar (257 B.C.), 189-193; his Great Council (244 B.C.), 189 ; his Rock and Cave Edicts, 190 and footnote ; his Department of Public Worship, 190 ; his missionary efforts and doc- trinal code, 190 ; character of the Rock Edicts, IQI, 192 and footnote. “Assada Merchants, The,' English trad- ing company (1635-50), 428, 433. Assam, unsuccessful invasion of, by Aurangzeb's general, Mír Jumlá, 367; expulsion of the Burmese from, and annexation of Assam to British terri- tories (1826), 474; yearly settlement of the land revenue, 524-525; frontier trade of, 692-694. JAW/D/EX. Assaye, Battle of (1803), 381 ; 468. ‘Assisted’ railways in India, 651-652. Association for the Propagation of the Faith, Roman Catholic missionary organization, 313. Astronomy, Brähmanical system of, I46- I47; astronomy of the Vedas, 146; Greek influences on Indian astronomy, 146, I47; decay of astronomical science under Muhammadan rule, 147; Rājā Jai Singh's observatories in the 18th century, I47, I48. Asva-medha, or Great Horse-Sacrifice of ancient India, I23; connection of the Horse-Sacrifice with the Human Sacri- fice of pre-Buddhistic times, 222, 223. Aswins, Vedic gods, I23. Athaide, Luis de, Viceroy of Portuguese India (1568-71, 1578-81), 422. Atharva-Veda, The, 129. Atrai, river of Bengal; its changes of course, 62. Auber's Analysis of the Constitution of the East Zndia Company, quoted, 428 (footnotes). Auckland, Lord, Governor-General of India (1836-42), 477-479 ; Afghān affairs and our early dealings with Kábul, 477; Dost Muhammad, Afghān dynastic wars, 477; Russian influences in Afghānistán, and the installation of Shāh Shujá and occupation of Kábul by a British force, 478, 479 ; rising of the Afghān people, and massacre of the British army on its retreat to India, 478-479. Aufrecht, Professor, his views on Sans- krit having been a spoken tongue, 393. Aurangzeb, sixth Mughal Emperor of India (1658-1707 A.D.), 363-370 ; his rebellion and usurpation of the throne, 363, 364; chief events of his reign, 364, 365 and footnote ; murder of his brothers, 365; conquests in Southern India, 365; rise of the Maráthá power, 365, 366; Aurangzeb's Grand Army and twenty years' guerilla war with the Maráthás, 366, 367 ; his despair and death, 367; unsuccessful expedi- tion to Assam, 367; his bigotry and persecution of the Hindus, 367; revolt of the Rájputs, 367, 368; revenues of the Empire, 368, 369; Aurangzeb's character, 370. Australia, India’s 687. ‘Autos da fé” at Goa, 305. Avatars or Incarnations of Vishnu, 265 (footnote 3). Avitabile, General, one of Ranjit Singh's European officers, dismissed, 481. Ayūb Khán defeated by Roberts, 499. trade with, 685, 807 B Bábar, first Mughal Emperor of Delhi, (I526-30 A.D.), early life; defeat and overthrow of Ibrāhīm Lodi at Pánipat; conquest of Northern India, 344, 346; Genealogical Tree of the Mughal Emperors, 345. Bahádur Sháh, last Mughal Emperor, deported to Rangoon, 493. Báhmani, Muhammadan dynasty in Southern India (1347-1525 A.D.), 340. Baillie, Colonel, defeated by Haidar Ali (I780), 462. Baines, J. A., Indian Census Commis- sioner, his assistance, 77 ; 87; 89; 773. Bairām Khān, regent of the Mughal Empire during the early years of Akbar's reign, 346, 347. Báji Ráo, second Maráthá Peshwá(1721-4O A.D.); his conquest of the Deccan and Málwä from the Mughals, and capture of Bassein from the Portuguese, 378. , Bájí Ráo II., seventh and last Maráthá Peshwá (1795-1818), 381 ; second and third Maráthá wars, and annexation of the Peshwā’s territories, 331, 382 ; his death, 486. Bakhtiyār Khilji, conquered Behar and Bengal, 33O. Bălaji Bājſ Rão, third Maráthá Peshwá (1740-61); his expeditions to Bengal and to the Punjab ; defeat of, by Ahmad Shāh Durání at the third battle of Pánipat, 378-379. Bălaji Viswanáth, first Maráthá Peshwá (1718-20), extorts chauth from the Delhi Emperor for the Deccan, 378. Balance-sheet of British India, 550, 55 I. Balance of trade (India’s), 661, 662 ; Sir R. Temple's Minute on, 688-689. Balasor, East India Company’s factory founded at (1642 A.D.), 432. Balban, the last king but one of the Slave dynasty (1265-87 A.D.); his cruelties to the Hindus; Rájput revolts and Mughal inroads; his fifteen royal pensioners, 333. Bălkh, temporarily occupied by Shāh Jahān, 361. Ballantyne, Dr., 7%e Sámkhya Aft/lorisms of Kapila, quoted, 199 (footnote 2). Banda, Sikh leader, tortured to death (1716), 372. * Bankim Chandra Chattarji, novelist, 414. Bánkipur, old settlement of the Ostend East India Company on the Hüglí between Calcutta and Chinsurah ; its destruction by the Muhammadans (1753), 438. e Bantam, a Presidency of the East India Company in Java, 432. Bengali 8o3 JAV/D/EX. Baptist Mission of Carey, Marshman, and Ward at Serampur, 314. Barák river, steam navigation on, 656. Barākhar coal seams, 739. Barents, William, his Arctic expeditions, 425. Bári Doāb Canal, 61 ; 631, 632. Barid Shāhi, Muhammadan dynasty of Southern India (1492-1657 A.D.), 341- 342. Baring, Sir Evelyn (Lord Cromer), abolished customs duties, 501. Barlaam, and Josaphat (Saints). Legend of, and its analogies with that of Buddha, 196, 197. Barlow, Sir George, ad interim Gover- nor - General (1805-7); Mutiny of Vellore, 469. Baroda, Maráthá State of Western India, 380, 381 ; deposition of the late Gáek- wár for an attempt to poison the British Resident at his court, 381 ; 497. Bartholomew the Apostle, his preachings in India certified by Pantaenus the Alexandrian (2nd century A.D.), 285; conversion of India Proper ascribed to St. Bartholomew, and of Persia and Central Asia to St. Thomas, according to Hippolytus (220 A.D.), 285-286. Barth’s Aeligions of India, quoted, 207 (footnote 3); and his ſeezzle de l’Aſſis- toire des Adeligions, quoted, 207 (foot- note 3). Basel Mission, number of converts, 316. Bassein, capture of, from the Portuguese by the Maráthás (1739), 378; treaty of, at the conclusion of the second Maráthá war (1802), 381. Batavia, founded by the Dutch, 425. Baxár, defeat of the Mughal and Oudh armies at, by Major Munro, 454. Beal, Samuel, Si-yet-ki, or Buddhist A’e- cord of the Western World, translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang, quoted, 34 (footnote); 181 (footnote 2); 2OO (footnotes); 222 (footnote I); Catema of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, 187 (footnotes); 192 (foot- note 2); 196 (footnote I); 202 (foot- note 2); 254 (footnote 2). Beames, Mr. John, Comparative Gram- zmar of the Modern Aryan Zanguages of Zndia, I45 (footnote); 393; 394-395 (footnote); 397 and footnote ; Adaces of the AWorth-Western Provinces, quoted, II2 (footnote). * Bears, Species in India of, 757. Beast stories and fables, 17O ; hospitals, 25O. Bediyás, a semi-Hinduized gipsy clan of Lower Bengal, I I2. - Behistun tablets, analogy of Dravidian to Scythian inscriptions on, 385, beast Bells, manufacture of, 709, 7 Io. Benfey, Professor, article ‘Indien’ (pub- lished in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclo- £&die), quoted, I52 (footnote 2); be- lieved Sanskrit a spoken language, 392, 393. Bengal, result of increase of population in, 83, 84; conquered by the Muham- madans, 330 ; Muhammadan kingdom of, founded at Gaur, 342; conquered by Akbar, 349; chazºth of, granted to the Marāthās (1751), 379; settlement of the Portuguese in, 421; early English settlements in, 43 I ; first permission to trade (1634 A.D.), 432; factories at Hügli, Balasor, and Kásimbázár, 432- 434 ; Bengal separated from Madras, 433; English in Bengal and their early factories, 447 ; Native rulers of Bengal (1707-56), Murshid Külí Khán, Ali Vardi Khán, and Sirâj-ud-Daulá, 447, 448; capture of Calcutta, the ‘Black Hole,’ and battle of Plassey, 448, 449; Mir Jafar (I757-60), 450; 453 ; Permanent Settlement of (1793), 52O ; 525. Bengal Land Law (1859), 523. Bengal Tenancy Act, 50I ; 524. Bengali literature and authors, 406-413 ; geographical area and linguistic feat- ures of the Bengali language, 406; Sanskritizing tendency of Bengali, 407; the three periods of Bengali literature, 407 ; court poets of Bengal in the 14th and I 5th centuries, 407, 408; Vishnuite and Sivaite religious poetry, 408, 409 ; Makunda Rám and the stories of Kálketu, and the Srimanta Sadágar, 4O9-4II ; Kási Räm Dás, the trans- lator of the Mahābhārata, 4 II ; Rám Prasād, court poet of Nadiya in the 18th ceutury, 41 I-412; Bengali prose in the Igth century, and modern Ben- gali poets and authors, 412-4I4. Bentinck, Lord William, Governor- General of India (1828-35), 474-476; his financial reforms, abolition of Sati, suppression of Z'hagá, 475; the renewal of the Company's Charter, 476; My- sore taken under British administration, and Coorg annexed, 476. Berár handed over to the British by the Nizām as a territorial guarantee for his arrears of subsidy and for the pay of the Haidarābād contingent, 486. Bernier, M., estimate of the Mughal re- venues, 356. Bertrand, Père, Mémoires historiques, sur les Missions des ordres religieux, Za. Mission de Maduré, quoted (footnotes), 3O2-3O4. Beschi, Père, Jesuit missionary and Scholar, 297 ; 3O4; 391. JAW/DAX. Best, Captain, his victory at Swally (I615), 429. Bº Canal, a famine insurance work, 34. Bhāgirathi, the name of the source and head-waters of the Ganges, 48. Bhakta-Málá, the Hindu Acta Sanc- Žoržem, 258. Bhārat Chandra Rāi, famous Bengali poet of the 18th century, 412. Bhars, an aboriginal and formerly domi- nant race in Oudh, now a crushed tribe, I I2; 235; present descendants of 235. Bhartpur, repulse of Lord Lake before (1805), 469 ; capture of, by Lord Combermere (1827), 474. Bhāskara, great Indian astronomer, I47. Bhils, aboriginal tribe of Khándesh and Rájputána, formerly a predatory clan, now largely converted into peaceable cultivators and loyal Soldiers, II.3, II.4. Bhonsla, family name of the Maráthá Chiefs of Nágpur, lapsed to the British for want of heirs in 1853, 380. Bhor - Ghāt, mountain pass in the Western Ghâts, 69; 654. Bhutén, war with (1864-65), 496; trade with (1883), 692. Bible, translated into Tamil and Hindu- stání, 313; into other vernaculars, 3I5. Bidar, Muhammadankingdom of Southern India (I492-1657 A.D.), 34I. Aidaré work, damascening of silver on bronze, 7IO. Bidyāpati Thákur, court poet of Tirhát in the I4th century, 407. Bigandet, Bishop, Zife or Zegend of Gaudama, quoted, 182 (footnote); 206 (footnote 3). Bihārí Lál, Hindi poet of the 17th century, and composer of the Satsai, 4O3. Bijápur, Muhammadan kingdom of Southern India (1489-1688 A.D.), 341. Biliapatam, East India Company’s factory started at (I66I A.D.), 433. Birch-bark manuscripts, I44. Bird, Miss, Onbeaten Tracks in Japan, quoted, 198 (footnote); 274 (foot- note). Birds of prey, 762. Birdwood, Sir G., on Indian art, I55, I56; Aſandbook to the British Indian Section of the Paris AExhibition of 1878, quoted, 2 IO (footnote 2); A'eport on the Miscellaneous Old A’e- cords in the ſizdia Office, quoted, 42O (footnote 2); 423 (footnote); 431 (foot- note); 434 (footnote). Bison, The Indian, 760, 761. 809 Black Hole, The tragedy of the, at Cal- cutta (1756), 448. Black-Skins or non-Aryans, described by the Aryans, 91, 92. Blochmann, Professor H., translation of the Aizu-ā-Akbará, 325 (footnote); 346 (footnote I); 351 (footnote). Bluecoat boys sent out as clerks by the East India Company, 514. Boats, Bridges of, 655. Bolán, mountain pass over the Brahuí hills, between Sind and Afghānistán, 38. Bombay, Bishopric of, founded (1837), 315; ceded to the East India Company (I661 A.D.), 433; made a Presidency (I684-87), 434 ; the main centre of Indian foreign trade, 662, 663. Book-binding and illumination, I55. Bore, The, or tidal wave in the Húgli and Meghná, 63. Boscawen, Admiral, his ineffectual siege of Pondicherri (1748), 445. Botany of India, 765-767. Boughton, Gabriel, obtained privileges for the English in India (I645), 432. Boundaries of India, 35. Braganza, Constantino de, Viceroy of Portuguese India (1558-61), 422. Brahmā, the Creator, the first person in the Hindu Triad, 140. Brahma-gupta, early Indian astronomer, I47. Brähman founders of Hinduism, 257. Brähmanas, sacred Sanskrit writings ex- planatory of the sacrifices and duties of the priests, etc., I3O-I32. Bráhmanical castes, north and South of the Vindhyas, 242, 243, and footnote. Brähmans, the priestly caste of ancient India, I28-140 ; origin of priestly families, 128; growth of the priesthood, I29-130 ; the Brähman caste fully formed, 131-132 ; struggle between the priestly and warrior castes, and ultimate Supremacy of the Brähmans, I33-136; Viswamitra the Kshattriya, and Vasishtha the Brähman, I.33, I34; the four stages of a Brähman’s life, I36; Brähman rule of life and its hereditary results on caste, 137, 138; Brähman theology, the post-Vedic gods, I 38, I39; the Hindu Triad, I4o ; the six darsazzas or Brähman Schools of philosophy, I4I, I42 ; Sanskrit grammar and speech, I42 - 143 ; Sanskrit manuscripts and dictionaries, 143-146; Brähman astro- nomy, I46, I47; mathematics, I48; medicine, I49-152 ; war, I52 ; music, I52-154 ; architecture and decorative art, I54-I56; painting, I55 ; law, I56-16I ; secular literature, the epics, 161-167; poetry and the drama, 168- 8Io //VDEX. I7O ; novels, beast stories, and fables, I70, 171 ; post-Vedic theological literature, the Purānas, 171, 172; modern Indian literature, 172; attacks on Brähmanism from the 6th century B.C. to the IQth century A.D., 174, 175 ; the Brähman caste analyzed, 242, 243. Brahmaputra, one of the great rivers of India, 45-48; its course and tributaries, 45; discharge, 45, 46; silt islands, 46, 47; changes in course, 47; traffic, 47, 48; junction of Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghná, 56; their combined delta and estuaries, 56, 57; alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra, 59; Steam navi- gation on, 656. Brahuí hills, a southern offshoot of the north-western Himálayas, marking a portion of the boundary between India and Balūchistán, 39. Brandis, Sir D., first Inspector-General of Forests in India, 622. Brandreth, Mr. E. L., Papers on the Gaurian languages, published in the Journal of the A'oyal Asiatic Society, vol. x. pp. IO2-IO5 (footnotes); vols. xi. and xii., I45. Brass and copper work, 709. Breweries, 719, 720. Bridges of boats, 655. Briggs, General John, quoted, on the military excellence of the aborigines, II.3. Briggs’, Lieutenant-Colonel, Translation of Firishta's History of the Rise of the Muhammadan Power in Zndia, 324 (footnote); 326 (footnote); 327 (foot- note); 338 (footnotes 2 and 4); 340 (footnote); 346 (footnotes). British Administration of India, chap. xvi. pp. 507-574. Control of India in England under the Company and under the Crown, 507; Council of the Secretary of State, 507 ; the Viceroy and Governor - General in Council, 507; Executive and Legislative Coun- cils, 508, 509 ; High Courts of Justice, 5 Io; Law of British India, 5II ; Provincial administration, 5 II, 512 ; ‘Regulation' and “Non-Regula- tion' territory, 512; duties of District Officers, 512, 513; Districts, number of, in India, 515, 516; the Secretariats of the Government of India and of the Local Governments, 5 I 5-517; the land-tax, 517-535; ancient land sys- tem of India, 517; the Musalmán land- tax, 518; the Zamāndār made landlord, 518; landed property in India, and the growth of private rights, 519 ; rates of assessment, Government share of the crop, 519, 520 ; methods of assess- ment, 51.9, 520 ; the Permanent Settle- ment of Bengal, creation of proprietors by law, 52O, 521 ; intermediate tenure- holders, 522; Statistical Survey of Bengal, 522; oppression of the cultiva- tors, 522; Land Law of 1859, 523 ; subsequent enhancements of rent and appointment of a Rent Commission, 523; its recommendations, three years' tenant right, and compensation for disturbance, 523, 524; Orissa tem- porary Settlement, 524; ASSam yearly Settlement, 524 ; rºyafwdri Settle- ment in Madras, 525 ; Sir Thomas Munro's method of assessment, 525; Permanent Settlement in estates of zamíndārs and Native chiefs in Madras, 526 ; growth of cultivators into pro- prietors in Madras, and extension of tillage, 526, 527; reduction of average land-tax in Madras, 527 ; Bombay land system, the ‘survey tenure,” its advantages and disadvantages, 528; debts of the Deccan peasant, 529 ; Bombay Agricultural Relief Acts of 1879 and 1881, and rural insolvency procedure, 529; Commission of En- quiry, 1891-92, 530; results of this Act, 530 ; its working, 53I; general re- commendations, 532; Land Settlement in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, corporate holdings, 533; land system of Oudh, the Zö/ukdārs, 533, 534; land system of the Central Pro- vinces, 534; land revenue of British India, 534; Salt administration, sources of salt supply, and realization of Salt duty, 534-536; working of the salt monopoly, 536, 537; process of Salt manufacture, 536; excise on country spirits, rice - beer, opium, gdajá, and charas, 538, 539; municipal adminis- tration and statistics, 54O ; municipal statistics, 1890-91, 54I ; Imperial finance, and the “business’ of the Indian Government, 541, 542; changes in systems of account and the obscur- ities resulting therefrom, 543, 544; gross and nett taxation of British India, 543-546; English and Indian taxation, 544-546; Indian taxation under the Mughals and under the British, 547, 548 ; incidence of taxation in Native States and British territory, 548-550 ; gross balance-sheet of British India, and analysis of Indian revenues, 550, 55I ; nature of the land-tax, 552; items of taxation Summarized, 552, 553; present arrangement, 554-555; Indian expend- iture, —the army, public debt, loss by ex- change, public works, railways, etc., 555-557; local and municipal finance, 557, 558; constitution and strength of the three Presidency armies, 558, 559; AV/O AEX. police and jail statistics, 559, 560; edu- cation, 560-569; education in ancient India, village schools and Sanskrit tols, 560, 561 ; the Company’s first efforts at education, the Calcutta Madrasa and other colleges, 56I; mission Schools, 56I; State system of education, 561 - 563; the Education Commission of 1882-83, and its recommendation, 562; educa- tional statistics of British India, 562, 563; the Indian Universities and their constitution, 563, 564; colleges, middle schools, and primary schools, in the various Provinces, 565-568 ; girls' schools, 568, 569; normal and other special schools, 569; the vernacular press and native journalism, 569; registered publications in India, 570, 571.-For historical details, see ENG- LISH IN INDIA, and HISTORY OF BRITISH RULE. British Burma, its physical geography, products, etc., 74, 75.-See also BURMA. British conquest of India, not from the Mughals but from the Hindus, 375. British India, its twelve Provinces, area and population in 1891, 76-79 ; Indian census of 1872, 77, 81 ; and of 1891, 77 ; also Appendices I. to IX., 774- 79I. Britto, John de, Jesuit priest in Southern India, murdered (1693 A.D.), 296. Brocades, 705. Broughton, Colonel T. D., Zetters written 272 a Maráðhá Camp (1809), quoted, 382 (footnote). Brydon, Dr., the solitary survivor of the Kábul garrison in its retreat from Af- ghānistán, 478-479. Bucephala, memorial city on the west bank of the Jehlam, founded by Alexander, and named after his favourite charger, Bucephalus, near the modern Jalālpur, 212. Buchanan, Rev. Claudius, quoted, 3O4, 305 (footnote I). Buchanan - Hamilton, Dr. Francis, his MS. Survey of the North - Eastern Districts of Bengal, quoted, 255, 256 (footnote 3). Buckingham Canal in Madras, navigation on, 657. Buddha, the Sakya, 223, 224. Buddha, his Zife, his Doctrine, his Order, by Professor Oldenberg, quoted, 207 (footnote 4). Buddhism, and life of Gautama Buddha, chap. v. pp. 176-209. The story of Buddha modelled on the pre-existing Indian epic type, 176-179; Buddha and Ráma compared, 177; parentage of Buddha, his youth and early married life, 177 ; his Great Renunciation, 177, 8II 178; his Temptation in the forest, 178; his ‘Enlightenment,’ 179; his public teachings and disciples, 179; his con- versions in the Gangetic valley, and of his own family, 180 ; his last words and death, 180 ; different versions of the legend of Buddha, 18O, 181 ; biographies of Buddha, 181 (footnote 2), 182 (footnote I); the Southern and Northern versions, I82 - 183; political life of Buddha, 183; defeat of his opponents by magical arts, I84; overthrow of the schismatic Deva- datta, 184 ; Buddha as a Sakya prince, 185; Chinese text of Buddha's dying discourse, 186; his doctrines, 186; law of Åarma, 186-187; law of AWirzana or “liberation,’ 187; moral code of Buddhism, 187; missionary aspects of Buddhism, 188; the four great Buddhist Councils, 188-192; the work of Asoka, his great Council, 189-191 ; his Rock Edicts, 189, 190 ; Asoka's missionary efforts, 191, IQ2; his reformed canon of the Buddhist scriptures, 191, 192 ; Kanishka's Council and his three commentaries on the Buddhist faith, I92 ; the Northern and Southern canons, IQ3 ; Buddhism as a national religion, I93; its religious orders and practical morality, 193, 194; spread of Buddhism in the south to Ceylon, and in the north to China, IQ4 - IQ5 ; Buddhist influence on Christianity, IQ5, 196; Buddha as a Christian saint, I06; legend of Saints Barlaam and Josaphat, I96, 197; a Japanese temple, its analogies to Hinduism and Christianity, I97 - 198; Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, 198; Buddha's person- ality denied, 198; continuous co- existence of Buddhism and Brähman- ism, 199; modern Hinduism, the joint product of both religions, I99- 2OO ; Buddhism in India in the 7th century A.D., 20I; Council of Siláditya, 2OI ; Siláditya's charity, 202; monas- tery of Nalanda, 202; mingling of Buddhism and Brähmanism, 202 ; victory of Brähmanism, 203 ; Buddh- ism an exiled religion from India, 2O3; its foreign conquests, 203 ; Buddhist survivals in India, 204-209 ; Buddhist population in India, 1881- 1891, 204; the Jains, 205; Jain doc- trines, 205; Jain temple cities, 205; relation of Jainism to Buddhism, 2O6; antiquity of the Jains, 206, 207; date of the Jain scriptures, 208; the Jains an independent sect, 208; modern Jainism, 208. Buddhist population in India, 180 (and 812 JAW/D/EX. footnote); see also Appendix IV., 777; Buddhist influences on later religions, analogies of a Japanese temple to Hinduism and Christianity, IQ7; 225. Buffaloes, 618; 761. Bühler, Dr. G., Zour in Search of Sanskrit MSS., published in the Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society, No. xxxiv. A., vol. xii., 1877, quoted, I43 (footnote I), I44 (footnote 2); Zigest of the Hindu Zaw of /n/herit- ance, Partition, and Adoption, 160 (footnote 2). Building stone, 730. Bundelas, a Rájput tribe, formerly the ruling race in Bundelkhand, ousted by the Maráthás, II2 and foot- In Ote. Burma, its boundaries, 74; tracts, 74, 75; products and population, 75 ; great increase in population (1891), 86; Buddhism established in, IQ4; in ancient times and in the 15th century A.D., 473; encroachments on India and first Burmese war (1824-26), 474; annexation of ASSam, Arakan, and Tenasserim, 474; second Burmese war (1852), and annexation of Pegu, 484; prosperity of Burma under British rule, 484, 485; annexation of Upper Burma (Ist January 1886), 501 ; Burmese pro- gress under the Marquess of Lansdowne (1888 to 1893) and Sir Alexander Mackenzie; suppression of daćaits ; delimitation of boundaries, 506; export of rice from, 676; trans-frontier trade with China and Siam, 692; geology of 74I, 742. Burma, Upper, pacification of, 506. Burne, Sir Owen T., Clyde and Strath- nairm (“Rulers of India'series), quoted, 490 (footnote I). Burnell, Dr., Palaeography of Southern Zndia, quoted, I44 (footnote); The Ordinances of Manza, I57 (footnotes); AJáya-vibhāgha, 160 (footnote); 244 (footnote); his views on the commence- ment of Aryan civilization in Southern India, 388 and footnote. Burnes, Sir Alexander, assassination of, in Kábul (1841), 478. Bussy, Marquis de, initiated policy of subsidiary alliances and administered the “Northern Circars,’ 446; taken prisoner at Wandewash, 447. Busteed, Dr. H. E., Echoes of Old Cal- cutta, quoted, 448 (footnote); 457 (footnote). C Cabot's attempt to reach India by way of the north-west passage, 426. Cabral's expedition to India (I 500 A.D.), and establishment of Portuguese fac- tories at Calicut and Cochin, 418, 419. Cacharis, a semi-Hinduized aboriginal tribe of Assam and North - Eastern Bengal, III (footnote). Cadenhead, W., work Kandhs, IOI. Calcutta, trade borne on the Ganges to, 52 ; its importance as a city, 53; bishopric of, founded (1814), 315; founded (I686 A.D.), 434; capture of, by Sirâj-ud-Daulá, and the Black Hole, 448; re-capture of Calcutta by Clive, 449-450; Calcutta canals, 657; Calcutta as a seaport, and its share of trade, 662-663. Caldwell, Bishop, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Zanguages, quoted, IO3-IO5, and footnotes; 22O (footnote 2); 290 (footnote 4); 385 (footnotes 2 and 3); 386 (footnote); 388 (footnote 3); 390 (footnote); 398 (footnote 2); 432 (footnote). Caldwell, R. C., his version of a Tamil poem, 390 (footnote). Calicut, visits of Vasco da Gama to, and establishment of a Portuguese factory, 4I7, 418 ; attempt of the English to establish a factory at, 430. Camels, 618; camel-hair embroidered shawls, 706. Campbell, Sir Colin (Lord Clyde), relief of Lucknow by, 493; campaign in Oudh, 493. Campbell, Sir George, Specimens of the Zanguages of Zndia, quoted, IO5 (foot- note). Campbell, Sir George, his educational reforms in Bengal, 566. Campbell, General Sir John, work among the Kandhs, IOI. Canals (Irrigation) in Sind and Bombay, 630, 631 ; the three great Punjab canals, 631-632; the Doāb canals in the North- Western Provinces, 633, 634; Orissa canal system, 635 ; the Son canals and irrigation in Bengal, 636; irrigation works in the Madras deltas, 637, 638. Canning, Earl, Governor - General of India (1856-62), 488-496. The Mu- tiny of 1857-58, 488-493; downfall of the Company, 494; India trans- ferred to the Crown, and the Queen's Proclamation, 495; Lord Canning the first Viceroy, 495; financial and legal reforms, 496. Careri, Gemelli, quoted on the Mughal revenues, 356. among the JAW/DEX. Carey, William, Baptist missionary, 314, 3I5. Car-Festival of Jagannāth, 274-276; self- immolation not practised, 275; blood- less worship and gentle doctrines of, 275, 276. Carlyle, T., History of Frederick the Great, quoted, 436 (footnote 2); 439 (footnote I). - Carnelians, 73 I. Carpet-weaving, 706, 707. ‘Cartridges, The greased,’ Mutiny, 489, 490. Caste, formation of the four castes, I29-I32. Caste rewards and punishments, 249. Caste system, its religious and social aspects, 24 I-249. Castro, João de, Governor of Portuguese India (1545-48), 421, 422. Catema of Auddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, by Mr. S. Beal, quoted, 187 (footnotes); 192 (footnote 2); IQ6 (footnote I); 202 (footnote 2); 223 (footnote 2); 254 (footnote 2). Cathay and the Way 7%ither, by Colonel Yule, quoted, 283 (footnote 2); 289 (footnote 2). Catholic Missions in India, 279 - 313. Origin of Christianity in India, 279, 280 ; the three legends of St. Thomas the Apostle, Thomas the Manichaean, and Thomas the Armenian, and their respective claims as the founder of Indian Christianity, 281 - 286; Nes- torian Church in Asia side by side with Buddhism for IOOO years, its wide diffusion, 286, 287; the forcible conversion of the Nestorians, or St. Thomas Christians, to the Church of Rome, by the Portuguese, 287-291 ; Syrian and Jacobite Catholics in Malabar, 292-294; Syrian Christians in 1891, 294; labours of St. Francis Xavier, 296-297; early Jesuit priests, their conversions and literary labours, agricultural settlements, and collegiate city of Cochin, 296-304; Portuguese inquisition established at Goa, autos d'a fé, and abolition of the Inquisition, 3O4, 305; suppression of the Jesuits (1759-73), and their re-establishment (1814), 306; organization of modern Roman Catholic missions, 306; juris- diction of the Archbishop of Goa, 307; Roman Catholic hierarchy in India, 308; distribution of Roman Catholics, 309; Syrian and Roman Catholic Christians, 309; Roman Catholic dioceses (1891), 3IO ; Roman Catholic population of India, 3 II ; progress of Roman Catholicism, its missions, colleges, and Schools, 312, and the 813 313 ; Roman Catholic population in French India, 312. Catrou, M., quoted on the Mughal revenues, 356. Cattle, Breeds of, 618. Cattle, the money of the early Aryans, I 20. cºuri Sir Louis, murdered at Kábul, 49ö. Cave inscriptions of Asoka, 190, 191. Cawnpur, the Mutiny at, massacre of the garrison and the women and chil- dren, 491, 492. Census in India, history of the, 77; of 1891, its general returns, 78, 79 ; its return of density of population, 81, 82 ; adopted occupation and language instead of race as a basis for classifica- tion, 89 ; IIO. Central Asia, trans-Himálayan trade with, 690-694. Ceylon, India’s trade with, 682, 685. Chain armour, manufacture of, 709. Chaitanya, Hindu religious reformer (1485-1527 A.D.), his life and teach- 1ngs, 27O. Chait Singh, Rājā of Benares, exactions of Warren Hastings from (1780), 460. Chancellor, Richard, laid foundations of the Russia Company, 426. Chandarnagar, the French settle at (1688), 435. Chandarnagar, French Settlement in Bengal, 444, 448; bombardment and capture of, by Admiral Watson (1757), 449. Chand Bardāi, Hindi poet (12th century), 4O3. Chānd Bibí, Queen of Ahmadnagar, her resistance to Akbar, 349, 350. Chánda Sáhib, protected by Dumas, 444; French candidate for throne of Arcot 445. Chandelas, formerly a ruling race in Bundelkhand, North - Western Pro- vinces, II 2. Chandí Dás, religious poet of the 15th century, 408; hymn to Krishna, 408. Chandra Gupta, King of Magadha (326 B.C.); 213-217 ; cession of the Greek possessions in the Punjab to, by Seleukos, Alexander's successor (306 B.C.); the Embassy of Megasthenes, 2I4-218. Chang-chenmo, pass over the Himálayas, Changes of caste occupation by the Sháhas, Telis, and Tâmbulis of Bengal, 246-247. Changes of river-beds and deserted river capitals, 62. Changiz Khán invaded as far as the Indus, 332. 814 AAWD AEX. Characteriof the non-Aryan tribes, their fidelity as soldiers, II3. Charaka, traditional founder of Hindu medicine, 149; modern edition of his works, I52 (footnote I). Charak-Pujá, or Hook-Swinging Festi- val, 263. Charas, Excise duty on, 539. Charities of Indian trade guilds; 248. Charnock, Job, founds Calcutta (1686), 447. Chauth, or ‘ quarter-revenues’ exacted by the Maráthás in the Deccan and in Bengal, 378, 379. Cheetah or hunting leopard, 756. Chera, ancient Hindu dynasty in Southern India, 339. Cherra-Pünji, rainfall at, 39. Child, Sir John, ‘Captain-General and Admiral of India’(1684), also Governor- General, 434. Child-worship of Krishna, 272. Childers, Mr., Dictionary of the Páli Alanguage, quoted, I76, 179, I81, 183, 187 (footnotes). Chiliánwála, Battle of (1849), 483. China, marches with Burma, 35 ; Buddhism established in, IQ5 ; Mu- hammad Tughlak sent expeditions against, 336; India's trade with, 682 ; 680. Chinese outposts in the Himálayas, 38. Chinsurah, defeat of the Dutch at, by Clive, 426; headquarters of the Lutch Settlement in Bengal, 448. Chips from a German Workshop, by Professor Max Müller, quoted, 124 (footnote I); 171 (footnote I); 187 (footnote 2); 196 (footnote 2). Chitor, taken by Alá-ud-din Khilji (1303), 334, 335: . tº , ſº Chitral, British position strengthened at, 5O5. Chitu, Pindari leader, 472. Chola, ancient Hindu dynasty in South- ern India, 339. Christianity, Influence of Buddhism on, 195-198. Christianity in India (IOO to 1881 A.D.), chap. ix. pp. 279-32O. Chris- tianity coeval with Buddhism in India for 900 years, 279; origin of Christianity in India, 279 ; Syrian Christians in India, 28o ; the three legends of St. Thomas, 28I-283; wide meaning of India in the writings of the Christian Fathers, 283, 284; first glimpse of Indian Christians (190 A.D.), 284; ancient Roman trade with India, 284; Jew settlements in ancient Malabar, 284, 285; Indian Christians (190–547 A.D.), as described by Pantaenus, Hippolytus, and Cosmas Indicopleustes, 285, 286 ; Nestorian Church in Asia, 286 ; Nestorianism and Buddhism side by side for 1000 years, 286; wide diffu- sion of the Nestorian Church, 287; the ‘Thomas Christians’ of Persia and of India, 287; localization of the legend of St. Thomas, 288-289; embassy of Alfred the Great to India (833 A.D.), 289–290; troubles of the ancient Indian Church, 290–29I ; the Nestorian St. Thomas Christians of Malabar, a powerful and respected military caste, 291 ; Portuguese efforts at their conversion to Rome, 291– 292 ; Synod of Diamper (I599 A.D.), 292; Malabar Christians freed from Portuguese oppression by the Dutch, 292–293; Jacobite and Syrian Chris- tians in Malabar, 293-294; extinction of Nestorianism in Malabar, 294, 295 ; early Portuguese missionaries identi- fied with Portuguese aggressions, 295; Xavier and the Jesuits (1542 A.D.), 296 ; work done by the Madras Jesuits, 296, 297 ; early Jesuit stations in India, 297 ; conquest and con- version the basis of Portuguese Indian rule, 297, 298; parochial organiza- tion of Portuguese India, 298; Jesuit station of Thána (1550 A.D.), its Christian craftsmen and cultivators, 298, 299; Jesuit rural organization, 299; Cochin, a Jesuit collegiate city, 299, 3OO ; Jesuit itineraries and con- versions, 3O I, 3O2; the Madura Mission in the 17th and 18th centuries, 3O2; caste questions among Malabar Christians, 302,303 ; Christian martyr- doms, 303, 3O4 ; establishment of the Inquisition at Goa, 3O4, 305; autos da ſé, 305; persecutions and aggres- sions by Portuguese, 305; Goa Inquisi- tion abolished (1812), 305; suppression of the Jesuits (1759), 306; their re- establishment (1814), 306; organiza- tion of Roman Catholic missions in India, 306; separate jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa, 307; Roman Catholic hierarchy in India, 308; distribution of Roman Catholics, 309; the Verapoli vicariate in Travancore, 309; Syrian and Roman Catholic Christians, 309; statistics of Roman Catholic population of India, 31; 31 I; Roman Catholic population in French India, 312 ; Roman Catholic progress, 3IO, 312; Catholic missionary finance in 1891, 313; Catholic colleges and schools, 312 ; first Protestant Missions in India (I 705), 313; vernacular trans- lation of the Bible (1725 A.D.), 313; Protestant missionaries in Tanjore, Cal- cutta, and Serampur, 3I4; opposition of the East India Company to missions, MAV/DEX. 315; Bishopric of Calcutta, 315; other Indian sees, 315 ; Presbyterian and other Protestant missions, 316; statistics of Protestant missions, 316-318; in- crease of native Protestants, 317, 318; extended use of native agency, 318; rapid development of school work of Protestant missions, 317, 318; general statistics of Christian population in India, 318, 319; Protestant denomi- national statistics, 318; Indian Eccles- iastical Establishment, 319, 32O. Christian A'ésearches in Asia, quoted, 305 (footnote I). Chronicle of the Pathán Kings of Delhi, by Mr. E. Thomas, quoted, 324 (foot- note); 333 (footnotes); 334 (footnote); 336 (footnote I); 337 (footnote); 338 (footnote 3); 340 (footnote 2); 346 (footnote); 353 (footnote I). Chronological table of Governors, Gover- nors-General, and Viceroys of India (1758-1893), 452. Chronological table of Muhammadan conquerors and dynasties (IOOI-1857 A.D.), 324. Chronology of early European travellers to India, 416, 417 (footnote). Church Missionary Society, 316; number of converts, 316. Cinchona cultivation, 606-609 ; intro- duction of plant, 606; the plantations in Southern India and at Dârjiling, 606, 6O7; statistics of out-turn and financial results, 607, 608. Civil Service, regulations for admission to, 514, 515. Cleveland, Augustus, his “hill-rangers,” II2. Clive, struggle with Dupleix in the Kar- nátik, 444, 445; defence of Arcot, 445; re-capture of Calcutta, 448, 449; battle of Plassey and its results, 449, 450 ; Clive's jagir, 451, 452 ; appointed Governor of Bengal, 453; Clive's second Governorship, 455; his partition of the Gangetic valley, 455; grant of the dāwānī of Bengal, 455; reorganiza- tion of the Company’s service, 455-456. Clyde, Lord, relief of Lucknow, 492; campaign in Oudh, and suppression of the Mutiny, 493. Coal and coal mining, 73 ; 723; history of Bengal coal mining, 723, 724 ; coal in the Central Provinces, 724; Rání- ganj coal-fields, 724; outlying coal- beds, 724, 725; future of Indian coal, 725; geology of Indian coal-fields, 738, 739. Coalition of Vishnuism with Islám in Rabir’s teaching, 269. Cºns trade of India and coast shipping, 9. 815 Cobalt in Rájputána, 729. Cobra di capello, The, 762. Cochin, the Jesuit collegiate city of the I6th century, 299-301 ; first establish- ment of Portuguese factory at (I5OO A.D.), 418-419. Coffee cultivation, 598-600; its intro- duction into India, 598; area under cultivation, 598; suitable sites for gardens, 599 ; processes of preparation, 599, 6OO ; exports of, 680. Coins, Roman, found in India, 91; 285. Colbert, M., founded the fifth French East India Company (1664), 435. Colebrooke's Essays, quoted, 240 (foot- note 2). Collegal hills, 72. Colleges and high schools, 565, 566. Colleges, Jesuit, 312. a" Combermere, Lord, took Bhartpur (182% 74. Commerce and Mavigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean, by Dean Vincent, quoted, 2 II (footnote I); 416 (foot- note). Commerce and Wavigation of the Eryth. Taean Sea, by Mr. J. M'Crindle, quoted, 2I3 (footnotes I and 2); 416 (footnote). Commerce and trade, chap. xix. pp. 658-699. Ancient and mediaeval trade of India, 658; function of modern Indian trade, 658, 659; sea-borne trade impossible under the Mughals, 659; growth of trading and industrial cities under British rule, 659, 660 ; summary of Indian exports (1700-1885), 661 ; India's balance of trade, 661, 662 ; the home charges, 662 ; India's yearly trade savings, 662; the chief Indian ports of export trade, 663 ; early Portuguese trade, 663; Dutch mono poly of Eastein trade, 663 ; early English factories and advance of Eng- lish trade, 664; Company's trade in 1834, 665; abolition of inland duties (1836-48), 665; growth of Indian foreign trade (1840-84), 666, 667; Indian trade statistics (1878-85), 666–667; Indian trade in 1890-91, 667 : Suez Canal trade, 668; tabular statistics of import and export trade, (1891-92), 670, 671 ; Manchester cotton goods import trade, 669; treasure, import of, and proportion of gold to silver, 669, 672 ; raw cotton export trade, 673, 674; jute exports, 674, 675 ; rice export trade, 676; rice export duty, 677; wheat trade and exports, 677, 678; oil-seeds, 678; indigo, Safflower, myrobalams, turmeric, and lac, 678, 679 ; tea and coffee ex- ports, 679, 680; exports of cotton and jute manufactures, 680, 68 I ; India’s 816 JAWDEX. trade with different countries, 68 I-687; growth of Suez Canal trade, 687; Sir R. Temple's Minute on the balance of Indian trade, 688; coasting trade and shipping of India, 689; frontier trade, 690-691 ; trans-frontier trade with Afghānistán, Central Asia, Nepāl, Tibet, Burma, and Siam, 690-693 ; internal trade of India, 694; trading castes in Southern and Northern India, 694-695; local trade of India, village money-lenders, travelling brokers, re- ligious fairs, etc., 695, 696; internal trade the chief safeguard against famine, 696, 697; normal action of internal trade, 697; Provincial statistics of internal trade, 698-699 ; trade of Patná town, 698; the village mart of Dongargãon, 698; rural fair at Kárá- golá, 699. Common origin of European and Indian religions, I 17. Common shrines of various faiths, 252, 253; Muhammadan and Hindu wor- ship at St. Thomas’ shrine in Madras, 288. Communication, Means of.-See MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. Comorin, cape at the southernmost ex- tremity of India, 35 ; ancient temple On, II9. Comparative Dicţionary of the Bihárá Alanguage, by Messrs. Hoernle and Grierson, quoted, 394 and footnote ; 395 (footnote I); 399 (footnote); 402 (footnote). Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Manguage, by Bishop Caldwell, quoted, IO4, IO5, and footnotes; 22O (footnote 2); 290 (footnote 4); 385 (footnotes 2 and 3); 386 (footnote); 388 (footnote 3); 390 (footnote); 398 (footnote 2); 432 (footnote). Comparative Grammar of the Gaudiazz Alanguages, by Professor Hoernle, quoted, 394 and footnote ; 395 (foot- note I). Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryazz /anguages of Zndia, by Mr. John Beames, quoted, I44 (footnote); 394 ; 395 (footnote 2). Compensation for disturbance on eviction in Bengal, 524. Complexity of the Hindu caste system, 24I-243. Concordat of 1857 between the Pope and the King of Portugal, 307; of 1886, 308, 309. Condore, Battle of (1760), 446. Conflans, Marquis de, defeated (1760), 446. Congress, The Indian National, 504. Control of India in England under the Company and under the Crown, the Secretary of State's Council, 507. Coorg, annexed by Lord W. Bentinck (1834), 476. Coorg, forests of, 72, 73; diminution of population in, 86. Coote, Sir Eyre, defeat of Lally at Wande- wash (1761), 447 ; in the first Mysore war (1780), 462. Copper and copper-mining, 73; 709 ; 728, 729. Cornwallis, Marquess (1786-1793), 462- 464; his revenue reforms and the Permanent Settlement of Bengal, 462, 463; second Mysore war, 463 ; second administration of Lord Cornwallis (1805); and his death after a few weeks in India, 469. Corporate holdings of cultivated land in North - Western Provinces and the Punjab, 533. Cosmas Indicopleustes' history of the Christian Church in Ceylon and along the Malabar seaboard (547 A.D.), 286 ; noted presence of Scythians and Huns in India, 230. Cosquin, M. Emmanuel, Kevue des Ques- Žions Æistoriques, liv. 56, quoted, 196 (footnote 4); I97 (footnote 3). Cotton cultivation and manufacture, 585; the American war, its effects on Indian cotton-growing, 586; cotton districts in India, area under cultivation, and out-turn, 586, 588; cotton - cleaning, 588; imports of Manchester goods, 669; exports of raw cotton, 673, 674; exports of manufactured cotton, 680; decline of cotton-weaving owing to Manchester competition, but still a domestic industry in India, 7OI-703; steam cotton-mills in different Pro- vinces, 712-715; sound basis of Indian cotton manufacture, 715–716; exports of Bombay manufactured cotton to China and Africa, 717; future pro- spect of Indian cotton manufactures, 717. Cotton import duties, Abolition of, 552- 553. Court, General, one of Ranjit Singh's European officers, dismissed, 481. Courten’s Association, or ‘The Assada Merchants’ (1635-50), 428,432, 433. Covelong (or Coblom), old settlement of the Ostend East India Company on the Madras coast, 437. Covilham, earliest recorded Portuguese traveller to Cochin (1487 A.D.), 418; Jesuit missionary in Southern India, killed in 1500, 295. Cowell, Professor, holds Rájputs not to be Scythians, 227. Criminal Tribes Act, I 12. AAW/DEX. Criminale, Antonio, martyred (I549), 296. Crocodiles, 763. Cromer, Lord, see Baring, Sir E. Cromwell, Oliver, gave a Charter to an East India Company (1654), 428; de- clared war against the Dutch, 433. Crops of the Himālayas, 40; of the River Plains and Gangetic Delta, 64, 65; of Southern India, 73; of Burma, 75. —See also chap. xvii., Agriculture and Products, 577-609. Crop statistics for India, Uncertainty of, 598. Cross’ Act, Lord, for enlargement of the Legislative Councils, 504, 509. Crushed tribes, II2. Csoma de Áorós, Zife and Works of, by Dr. Theodore Duka, quoted, 198 (foot- mote 2). Cultivators, Rights of, reserved by the Permanent Settlement of Bengal, 521, 522; oppression of, by rack-rentingland- lords, 522, 523; the Land Act of 1859, 523; Rent Commission of 1879, and its proposed reforms in the direction of fixity of Occupation and compensation for disturbance, 523, 524. Cunha, Nuno da, Governor of Portuguese India (I528-38), 42.I. Cunningham, General Sir Alexander, quoted, 121 ; on the Huns in India, 230, 23.I ; 346 (footnote I); 354 (foot- note); Corpus Inscriptionzem ſizdi- carum, quoted, I44 (footnote 4); I89 (footnote); 190 (footnote); 191 (foot- notes); 198 (footnote 3); 214 (footnote I); Ancient Geography of Zzzdia, 2OO (footnote); 202 (footnote I); 2 II (foot- notes I and 3); 212 (footnote); 213 (footnote I); 214 (footnote 3); 233 (footnote 2); Mahābodhi, quoted, I 78 (footnote 1); Reports of the Archaeo- logical Survey of Zºdia, 233 (footnote 4). Cunningham, Sir H. S., Zord Cazzzzzzzg, (“Rulers of India’ series), quoted, 490 (footnote I). Currency Question, The, 506. Cust, Mr. R. N., Zinguistic and Oriental Essays, quoted, I45 (footnote); I43 (footnote); summary of Asoka's Edicts, I9 I, I92. Customs inland lines abolished by Lord Mayo, 497; customs import duties abolished by Lord Ripon, 501. Customs revenue, 552. Cutch, Silver jewellery of, 708. Cutlery manufactures, 709. 817 D Dacca muslins, a decaying manufacture, 7O4. Dadu, religious reformer and sacred poet of Rájputána (16th century), 402. Dae, Mr. Arcy, The Ziferature of Bengal, quoted, 407 (and footnote); 408 (and footnote); 4 II (footnote); 412 (foot- note). Dalhousie, Earl of, Governor-General of India (1848-56), 482-487; his ad- ministrative reforms, 482; inaugura- tion of the Indian railway system and the Public Works Department, 482; second Sikh war and annexation of the Punjab, 483, 484 ; second Burmese war and annexation of Pegu, 484, Lord Dalhousie's policy towards Native States, 484-486; Lord Dal- housie's annexation of Oudh, and jus- tification of the measure, 486, 487; Lord Dalhousie's scheme of trunk military railways, 648. Damán, taken by the Portuguese, 422. Damascened steel work, 709. Dāmodar, the sacred river of the Santāls, 96. Dāmodar coal tract, Geology of, 738-74O. Dandis, a sect of Sivaite religious as- cetics and mendicants, 264. Danish East India Companies (1612 and I67O A.D.), and their settlements, 436. Danish missionaries, 3I4. Danvers, Frederick, his Report on the Indo-Portuguese records, 424, Dárá, brother of Aurangzeb, defeated and put to death, 364. AJasyus, the Aryan name for the non- Ayrans, or aborigines, 91. Daulatābād, Muhammad Tughlak’s attempts to remove his capital to, 336, 337. Davids, Mr. Rhys, Buddhism, quoted, 181 (footnote); Buddhis; Birth Stories, 181 (footnote). Day, Francis, founded Madras (1639), 432. Death-rate, 769-77 I. Debt of India and its growth, 555-556. Deccan, The, or Southern India, 67 ; its mountain ranges and elevated table- land, 67, 68 ; mountain passes, 68, 69; rivers, 69, 70; forests, 71, 72; scenery, 72, 73 ; crops, 73 ; minerals, 73 ; Mºth. power in the Deccan, 375- 37ö. Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Acts, a rural insolvency law, 529-532. Pºnial Settlement, The (1789-1791), 403. Decline and fall of the Mughal Empire (I707-1857 A.D.), 370-374; and foot- 3 F 818 AVDEX. notes 370-37I ; the six puppet kings, 371, 372; independence of the Deccan and Oudh, 372; the Maráthá chau/h, 372; invasions of Nádir Shāh the Persian, and Ahmad Sháh the Afghān, 372, 373; misery of the Pro- vinces, 373; third battle of Pánipat, 373; fall of the Empire, 373, 374. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, quoted, 280 (footnote I); 290 (foot- note 2). Decline of the Peshwás (1772-1818), 380. Decorative art in India, I54-156. Deer, Varieties of, 760. Delhi, Timür's great massacre at, 338; sacked by Nádir Shah (1739), 372; by Ahmad Shāh Durání, 373; the Mutiny at, 491 ; siege and storm of (1857), 492, 493. Del Mar’s History of Money in Ancient Countries, quoted, 2 IO (footnote 2). Delta of Bengal, 55-64; deltaic distribu- taries, 55, 56; combined delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghná, 56, 57; deltaic Swamps, 57; land-mak- ing, 57, 58; size of the Bengal delta, 58; deltaic depressions, 58, 59; subter- ranean structure of the Bengal delta at Calcutta, 58, 59 (footnote); alluvial deposits of the Ganges and Brahma- putra, 59-61 ; amount of silt deposited at Ghāzipur and in the delta, 60, 61 ; age of the Bengal delta, 61. Deltaic channel of the Ganges, Section of, 6. Dion, Sir William, started the Saidé- pet model farm, 614. - Density of the Indian population, 80-82; overcrowded and under-peopled Pro- vinces, 81 ; population entirely rural, 81 ; immobility of the rural popula- tion, 82; relation of labour to land, 83, 84; unequal pressure of the popula- tion on the land, 84, 85 ; increase of population, 1872-91, 85-88. Deodárs in the Himálayas, 40. Deserted river-marts and capitals, 62, 63. Devadatta, the Buddhist schismatic, I84, 185. Devala, quoted on Indian laws, 160. Dhangars, a semi-Hinduized tribe of Bengal and Chutiá Nágpur, their numbers in 1872, III (footnote I). Dhulip Singh recognised as Rájá, 482; agreement with, 483 (footnote 2). Diamonds, 73 ; 73 I. Diamper, Synod of (I599), 292. Dictionary of Æindu Mythology, by Professor Dowson, quoted, 227 (foot- note 5); 232 (footnote I). Dig, Battle of, and defeat of Holkar, 381. Diminution of population in Madras and Mysore after the famine, 85. Dina Bandu Mitra, dramatic poet and . author of the AWil Pazºan, 413, 414. Dina Krishna Dás, Uriyá poet of the I6th century, 402. Dion Chrysostomos Mahābhārata, 162. Distillation of country spirits, 538. Distribution of Indian trade with foreign countries, 668. District officers, Duties of, 513. Districts, Number of, in India, their varying size and population, 515, 516. Diu, Almeida's victory off (1509), 419 ; defence of, by the Portuguese (1538), 42 I ; battle of (1545), 422. Diwání, or financial administration of Bengal, granted to the East India. Company (1765), 455. - Dixon, Col., quoted, on the Mhairs, II.3, II4. Dnyánoba, Maráthi poet of the 13th century, 404. ‘Doctrine of Lapse,' Lord Dalhousie's, 485. Doctrines of Buddha, 186; moral code and missionary aspects of Buddhism, 187. Dodábetta, peak in Southern India, 69. Dog, Different varieties of, 757. Dongargãon, mart in the Central Pro- vinces, 698, 699. - Dormer, Gen. Sir James, proposal to enlist Nāirs, II5. Dost Muhammad, Amir of Afghānistán, 477; made prisoner, 478; recovers the throne, 479 ; assisted the Sikhs, 483. Dowson, Professor, Dictionary of A'indie Mythology, quoted, 227 (footnote 5); 232 (footnote I). - Drake, Sir Francis, voyage round the world (I577), 427. Drama, The Indian, I68, I69; 413, 4I4. Draupadi, the wife of the five Pāndava brethren in the epic of the Mahá- bhārata, 244. Dravidians, The, aboriginal races of Southern India, their languages, IO3- IO8; Dravidians compared with the Kols, IO6-108; place of Dravidian languages in philology, 385, 386; the Dravidians in Sanskrit literature, 386; pre-Aryan Dravidian civilisation, 386; Dravidian art, 387; Brähmanical in- fluence on the Dravidians, 387, 388; development of Dravidian speech into vernacular literatures, 388; Tamil, the oldest and the most influential ver- nacular of Southern India, 388; Jain cycle of Tamil literature, earliest Tamil poets, 389 ; Tamil hymnology, 390 ; modern Tamil writers, Beschi, the Italian Jesuit and Tamil scholar, 390-39 I ; recent statistics of Tamil literature, 392. alludes to the INDEX. 819 Droese, Ernest, Introduction to the Malto Zanguage, quoted, 385 (footnote I). Droughts.-See FAMINEs. Drugs and medicines, 66. Dual system of administration in Bengal (1767-72), 456. Duarte Nunez, first Portuguese bishop in India (I514-17 A.D.), 295, 296. Dubois, Abbé, eighteenth century mis- sionary, 306. Duff, Rev. Alexander, first Presbyterian missionary to India, 316. Dufferin, Marquess of, Viceroy (1884-88), 501-503; the Rāwāl Pindi darbār, 501; Burmese affairs, 501, 502; annexation of Upper Burma, the Penjdeh incident and its results, 502 ; celebration of the Queen's Jubilee, 503. - Duka, Dr. Theodore, Zife and Works of Alexander Csoma de Korós, quoted, I98 (footnote). Dumas, Benoit, Governor of French India (1735-39), his interposition in Indian politics, 443, 444. Duncker, Professor Max, Ancient History of Zºdia, quoted, I22 (footnote); I25 (footnotes); 158 (footnote); 210 (foot- note). Dupleix, French administrator, his ambi- tion of founding a French Empire in India, and his struggles in the Karnātik with Clive, 444-445. Durání rule in Afghānistán (1747-1826), 477. Durgā, one of the forms of the wife of Siva, 261, 262. Dutch, The, in India (1602-1824 A.D.), 424-426; Dutch East India Com- panies, 425 ; Supremacy of the, in the Eastern Seas, brilliant progress, and decline, 425, 426; Dutch relics in India, 426; English ‘Treaty of Defence’ with the Dutch (1619), 430; massacre of Amboyna, and expulsion of the English from the Eastern Archipelago (I624), 431 ; Dutch conquests in India, 435; Dutch defeated by Clive at Chinsurah, 453; Dutch monopoly of Eastern trade (1600), 664. Dyes, export of, 678, 679. E Early Greek historians of India, 2IO, 2 II. Aarly History of Zibet and Khofen, in Mr. Rockhill’s Zife of the Buddha, from the Tibetan classics, 223, 224 (footnotes). Early Muhammadan rulers (7II - I526 A.D.), chap. x. pp. 321 - 343. Early Arab expeditions to Bombay Southern (636-7II A.D.), 321 ; Muhammadan settlement in Sind (7II A.D.), 321 ; expulsion of the Muhammadans from Sind (828 A.D.), 321 ; India on the eve of the Muhammadan conquest (IOOO A.D.), 321, 322; the Hindu kingdoms and Hindu power of resist- ance, 322; slow progress of Muham- madan conquest, 322, 323; Muhamma- dan conquest only partial and tempo- rary, 323; recapture of India from the Muhammadans by the Hindus (1707-61 A.D.), 323; chronology of Muhammadan conquerors and dynas ties of India (IOOI-1857 A.D.), 324 ; first Türki invasions, Subuktigin (977-997 A.D.), 325; the Seventeen invasions of Mahmūd of Ghazni (IOOI- 24 A.D.), 326-327 ; the Somnáth expedition, 327 ; Mahmūd’s conquest of the Punjab, 327, 328; the Ghor dynasty (II.52-I2O6 A.D.), 328-33 I ; Muhammad of Ghor's invasions (II9 I- I2O6 A.D.), 329; his conquest of Bengal (I2O3 A.D.), 330, 331 ; Muham- mad’s work in India and subjugation of Northern India, 33 I ; Kutab-ud- din (I2O6-IO A.D.), 33 I ; the Slave dynasty, 331-333; Altamsh (121 I-36 A.D.), 332; the Empress Raziyā (I236- 39 A.D.), 332; Mughal irruptions and Rájput revolts (1244-88), 332, 333; Balban (I265-87 A.D.), his cruelties, 333; his royal pensioners, 333; end of the Slave kings, 333; the house of Khilji (1290-132O A.D.), 334-336; Alä- ud-din's raids into Southern India (1294), 334 ; conquest of Northern India (1295-1303), 334 ; conquest of India (I3O3 - I5), 335 ; Muhammadan power and population in India (1306), 335 ; Mughal merce- naries and Hindu revolts, 335-336; Khusrú, the renegade Hindu emperor (I316-2O A.D.), 336; the house of Tughlak (I32O-I4I4 A.D.), 336-339; Muhammad Tughlak (1324-51 A.D.), his expeditions, cruelties, forced cur- rency, 336, 337; revolts, 337; Mu- hammad Tughlak’s revenue exactions, 338; Firuz Sháh Tughlak (1351- 88 A.D.); his canals, 338; Timúr's invasion (I398 A.D.), 338-339 ; ruin of the Tughlak dynasty, 339; the Say- yid, Lodi, and Bahmani dynasties (1450- I526 A.D.), 339-34I ; Muhammadan States of the Deccan, 34I ; the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, 34I ; in- dependent Náyaks and Pálegårs of Southern India, 342 ; independent Muhammadan kingdoms of Bengal, Gujarát, and Jaunpur, 342; weakness of the early Delhi Sultans, 342, 343. 82 o AV/DAX. East India Companies, and early Euro- pean Settlements; Portuguese, 416- 424; Dutch, 424-426; English, 426- 435 ; other India Companies, 435 ; French, 435-436; Danish, Scotch, and Spanish, 436; German or Ostend, 436-438, 440 ; Prussian, 438-440 ; Swedish, 440; causes of failure, 440, 44 I. East India Company (English), 427-428; first Charter, 428; amalgamated Com- panies, 428 ; early voyages, 428- 429 ; defeat of the Portuguese at Swally, 429; wars with the Dutch, 430, 43I ; massacre of Amboyna, 431 ; early English factories, 431-433; founda- tion of Calcutta (1686), 434; the Company embarks on territorial sway (1689 A.D.), 434, 435 ; downfall of the Company, and transfer of India to the Crown (1858 A.D.), 494, 495. Eastern branches of the early Aryans, II6. Eastern Gháts, mountain range along the eastern coast of India, 68, 7O ; forests of, 72. Eastern Jumna Canal, 61 ; 633. Ecclesiastical Department, The Indian, 32O. Edinburgh, Duke of, visits India, 496, 497. Education Commission appointed by Lord Ripon, 500, 501 ; its recommendations, 5OI ; 562. Education in India, 560-569; education in ancient India, 560 ; Sanskrit tols, 560-561 ; Calcutta Madrasa and other colleges, 561 ; mission Schools, 561 ; State system of education, 561, 562; educational finance, 563; Indian uni- versities, 563, 564; colleges, 565; upper, middle, and primary Schools, 565-568; girls' schools, 568, 569; normal and other special Schools, 569; vernacular press, 569; first newspaper, 569; educational classification of the population, Appendix VIII., 784-790. Edwardes, Sir Herbert, his conduct in the second Sikh war, 483; one of Lawrence's lieutenants, 49 I. Edwards, Mr., founded agency at Ajmere (1614), 430. © Elephants, domestic and wild, 619, 620; 758; elephant-catching a Government monopoly, 758; Elephant Preserva- tion Act, 758. Elgin, Lord, Viceroy of India (1862-63), 496. Elizabeth, Queen, sends an ambassador to India, 427. Ellenborough, Earl of, Governor-General of India (1842-44), 479, 480 ; the Afghān army of retribution under Generals Nott and Pollock, 479 ; Ellenborough's Somnáth proclamation, 479 ; conquest and annexation of Sind, 48o ; Gwalior outbreak, and the battles of Mahārājpur and Panniár, 480. Ellichpur, Muhammadan kingdom of Southern India (1484 - 1572 A.D.), 34I. Elliot, Sir Henry, Tribes of the AVorth- Western Proz/inces, 244 (footnote); Aſistory of Zndia as told by its own Æistorians, 324 (footnote); 325 (foot- notes) ; 326 (footnote); 340 (foot- note); 346 (footnotes); 35I (foot- note); 358 (footnote); 360 (footnote); 364 (footnote); 371 (footnote). Elphinstone, General W. K., command. ing at Kábul (1841), 478. Elphinstone, Hon. Mountstuart, sent as envoy to the Sháh of Afghānistán, 470, 477; his conduct at Poona (1817), 472; History of /ndia, quoted, 222 (footnote); 227 (footnote); 326 (foot- note); 346 (footnote); 358 (footnote); 360 (footnotes); 364 (footnote). Embden East India Company. —- See PRUSSIAN AND EMBDEN EAST INDIA COMPANIES. Embroidery work, 706. English in India, The (1496-1689 A.D.), pp. 426-44I. Attempts to reach India by the North-west passage, 426 ; Thomas Stephens, the earliest recorded English traveller in India (1579 A.D.), 427; Fitch, Newberry, and Leedes (1583 A.D.), 427; first Charter of the East India Company (16OO A.D.), 428 ; later East India Companies, 428 ; the amalgamated Company (1709 A.D.), 428 ; early English voyages to India (I6OO-I2 A.D.), 428, 429 ; British defeat of the Portuguese fleet at Swally (1615 A.D.), 429 ; Sir Thomas Roe, British Ambassador to India (1615 A.D.), 430; wars between Eng- lish and Dutch, 430, 43 I ; massacre of Amboyna, and expulsion of the British from the Eastern Archipelago, 431 ; early Indian factories in India, 431 ; Madras founded (I639 A.D.), 432 ; Hügli, Balasor, and Kásimbázár factories, 432, 433; Bombay ceded to the British Crown (1661 A.D.), and the Presidency transferred thither from Surat (1684-87 A.D.), 433, 434; Bengal separated from Madras (1687 A.D.), 434; Sir John Child, first * Governor - General,’ 434; English oppressed in Bengal by the Native Viceroys, 434; the Company starts on territorial sway (1689 A.D.), 434, 435 ; causes of England's success in India, AVZ)/2 X. 82 I and of the failure of other European powerS, 440, 44I. Erskine, W., History of India under Aabár and Humayun, 346 (footnote). Ethnical division of the population, 88, 89 ; II 5. Eugène, Prince, and the Ostend Com- pany, 437. Eukratides, King of Bactria, his expedi- tions to India, 217. European and Indian languages merely varieties of Aryan speech, 117. European Settlements (1498 to 18th cen- tury A.D.), chap. xiv. pp. 416-442. The Portuguese in India, 416-424; early Portuguese voyages, Covilham (I487 A.D.), and Vasco da Gama (1498 A.D.), 417, 418 ; state of India on arrival of Portuguese, 418; Portu- guese territorial expedition (I5OO A.D.), 418 ; Portuguese supremacy in the Eastern Seas (I5OO-1600 A.D.), 419, 42O ; capture of Goa by Albuquerque (I5IO A.D.), 42O ; Portuguese cruelties, 42O ; Albuquerque's policy of concilia- tion, 42O ; later Portuguese Viceroys, their oppressions and conquests, 42 I- 423 ; downfall of the Portuguese in India (1639-1739), 423, 424; Portu- guese possessions in 1881, 423; mixed descendants, 424. The Dutch in India (I6O2-1824), 424-426; Dutch East India Companies, 425 ; Dutch Supre- macy in the Eastern Seas (1600-1700 A.D.), 425 ; their brilliant progress, but short-sighted policy and ultimate downfall, 425, 426; Dutch relics in India, 426. The early English in India, 426-434; attempts to reach India by the North-west passage, 426; Thomas Stephens, the first authentic English traveller in India (I579 A.D.), 427; later travellers, Fitch, Newberry, and Leedes (I583 A.D.), 427; first Charter of the East India Company (16OO A.D.), 428; later East India Companies, (1635, 1655, and 1698 A.D.), 428; the amalgamated Company (1709 A.D.), 428; early English voyages (1600-12 A.D.), 428, 429 ; defeat of the Portu- guese fleet at Swally, off Surat (1615), 429-430; Sir Thomas Roe, first English Ambassador to India (1615 A.D.), 430 ; treaty with the Dutch (1619 A.D.), 430; English expelled from the Spice Islands and Java by the Dutch (1620-21 A.D.), 430 ; establishment of English factories at Agra and Patná (1620 A.D.), 430, 431 ; Masulipatam factory established (1622 A.D.), 431; English expelled from Eastern Archipelago, and retire to India, 431 ; Emperor’s Aarmázz grant- ing English liberty to trade in Bengal, 432 ; Madras founded (1639 A.D.), 432; Hügli factory established (1640 A.D.), 432 ; Kásimbázár factory (1658 A.D.), 433; Bombay ceded to the British Crown (1661 A.D.), 433 ; Presidency removed from Surat to Bombay (1684-87 A.D.), 433 ; separa- tion of Bengal from Madras (1681), 433 ; Sir John Child, first “ Governor- General’ (1686 A.D.), 434; Calcutta founded (1686), 434; the Company embarks on territorial sway (1689 A.D.), 434 ; French East India Com- panies and possessions in 1881, 435, 436; Danish, Scotch, and Spanish Companies, 436; the German or Ostend Company, 436; its Indian settlements (1772 A.D.), 437; its successful experimental voyages and political objects, 437; Ostend Com- pany bankrupt and destroyed (1783– 84 A.D.), and extinguished (I 793 A.D.), 438 ; the Prussian and Embden Companies, 438-440 ; Swedish Com- pany (1731 A.D.), 44O ; causes of fail- ure of foreign European Companies, and of English success in India, 440, 441 ; European traders in India in 1872, 1881, and 1891, 44I ; compara- tive table of Europeans in 1872, 1881, and 1891, 442. Evelyn, John, Diary, quoted, 428. Everest, Mount, peak of the Himálayas, and highest measured mountain in the world, 37. Everest, Rev. Mr., calculations regard- ing silt discharge of Ganges, 60. Exchange, LOSs by, 556-557. Excise administration, distilleries, rice- beer, opium, gānfā, charas, 538, 539; 552; expenditure and income of British India, 550-558. Excommunication from caste privileges, 249. Eºtive Council of the Governor- General, 508. Export trade of India, its origin and growth, analysis and principal staples of, 671 ; 673-686; distribution of ex- ports to different countries, 673-686; coasting trade, 689. External sources of the ancient history of India, 2IO. F Fa-Hian, Chinese Buddhist pilgrim of the 5th century A.D., 200. Famine Commissioners (1880), quoted, 8o. Famine of 1876-78, 498. Famine relief expenditure, 556. 822 AAV/DEX. Famines, 642-647; causes of scarcity and of real famine, 642; means of husbanding the water-supply, 642 ; irrigation area, 643; summary of Indian famines, 643-645; the great famine of 1876-78, its causes, 645, 646; famine expenditure, 645; mor- tality from disease and starvation, 646, 647; famine a weak check on popula- tion, 646; famine of 1876-78 summar- ized, 647. Fatehpur Sikri, (I527), 344. Faulmann, Buch der Schrift, quoted, I45 (footnote). Fauna of India, 42, 754-765.-See also ZOOLOGY. . Female education, 568, 569. Ferae Naturae of India.-See ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Ferdousi, Persian poet and historian in the days of Mahmūd of Ghazni, 328. Fergusson, Dr. James, Paper in the /ournal of the ſºoyal Asiatic Society for April 1880, quoted, 192 (footnote); 7%ree and Serpen/ Worship, quoted, 233 (footnote); 254 (footnote); //istory of Architecture, 362 (footnotes). Fetish-worship in Hinduism, 255. Feudatory India, the thirteen groups of Native States, 76; population, 79. Filatures.—See SILK. Aºnal Struggles of the Prench in India, by Colonel Malleson, 445 (footnote). Finances and taxation of India, obscuri- ties and changes in system of account, 542-550 ; taxation of British India, 543-546; taxation under the Mughals and under the British, 547, 548; taxa- tion in Native States, 549; incidence of taxation in British India, 549. Firishta's A'ise of the Muhammadan Aozº'er in India, Colonel Briggs’ trans- lation, quoted, 324 (footnote); 340 (footnote); 346 (footnotes). Firozshāh, Battle of (1845), 481. First Buddhist Council (543 B.C.), 188. Firuz Tughlak, the third king of the Tughlak dynasty (I 35I-88 A.D.), his great canals and public works, 338. Fishes, 763, 764. Fitch, Newberry, and Leedes, the first English traders in India (1583 A.D.), 427. Flint weapons of ancient India, 91. Flora of India, 765-766. Fonseca, Goa, quoted, 3O4 (footnote 6); 305 (footnote 2). Food-grains, Export of, 676-677. Forde, Colonel, won battle of Condore and stormed Masulipatam (1760), 446; recaptured Masulipatam from the French, 453. Bábar's victory at Foreign trade of India, its gradual growth, 664, 665; returns of foreign trade (1840-84), 665-667; staples of import and export sea-borne trade (1882-83), 668-687. Forest Department, Growth of, and its administration, 622-628 ; Forest Con- servancy statistics, 624-627; ‘open and “reserved ’ forests, 625. Forests of the Himálayas, 40; in Southern and South-Western India, 7I, 72 ; in Sind and Punjab, 623 ; North- Western Provinces, 624; Sundarbans, 624; Assam and Burma, 624.—See also For EST DEPARTMENT, alt supra. Forrest, G. W., Selections from Zetters, Despatches, etc., 1772-85, quoted, 460 (footnote 2). Fortified weaving settlements of the East India Company, 70I. Fourth Buddhist Council (40 A.D.), I92. Fo-wei-kian-king, Chinese translation from the Sanskrit of the ‘Dying Instruc- tions of Buddha,’ 185 and footnote. Fox, The Indian, 757. France, India’s foreign trade with, 683, 685. Francis, Sir Philip, his opposition to Warren Hastings, 456, 457; advocated a Permanent Settlement, 463. Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, his Embden Companies, 438-440. French East India Companies, and the present French possessions in India, 435, 436; French and English in the Karnātik, the first French war (1746-48), 444; capture of Madras by the French (1746), and its restoration to the Eng- lish (1748), 445; French influence in India (1798-18OO), and intrigues with Tipú Sultán and the Nizām of Haidar- âbâd, 464, 465. French Settlements in India, population of (1891), 79 ; Roman Catholic popu- lation of, 312. Frobisher's, Davis’, Hudson's, and Baffin's attempts to reach India by way of the North-west passage, 426. Frontier trade of India, 690-693. Fruits, Varieties of, 584. Fryer, Dr., 7%azels, quoted, 514. Funeral mounds and ceremonies of the Sakyas and Buddhists in ancient India, 225. G Gáekwár, family name of the chief of the Maráthá State of Baroda ; rise of the family; deposition of the late Gáekwár, 380, 381 ; 497. Gama, Vasco da, his first voyage to India, AAW/D/EX. 4I7, 418; second voyage, 419 ; vice- royalty and death, 420. Game birds of India, 762. Ganaka, King, his efforts to become a Brähman, 134. Gandamak, Treaty of, 498. Ganges, The, 43; 48-64; its river sys- tem and course, 48, 49 ; discharge, 49; Sanctity, 50 ; the fertilizer and highway of Bengal, 51, 52 ; traffic, 52, 53; great cities, 53; different stages in the life of the Ganges or any great Indian river, 53-58; as a silt collector, 54; as a land- maker, 55 ; section of a deltaic channel of the Ganges, 56; combined delta of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Meghnā, 56, 57; subterranean struc- ture of the Gangetic delta, 58 and footnote ; silt brought down by Ganges at Ghāzipur, 60 and footnote; esti- mated silt of united river system, 60 ; age of the Bengal delta, 61 ; river irrigation, 6O ; the Ganges and Jumna Canals, 61 ; Ganges floods, 61, 62 ; Saline deposits, 61 ; changes of Ganges channel, 62 ; deserted river capitals, 62; the ‘bore’ of the Ganges and Meghná, 63; the Goalánda railway station washed away by the Ganges, 64; fluvial changes, alluvion and dilu- . 62-64 ; navigation on the Ganges, 56. Ganges Canal opened by Lord Dalhousie, 482. Ganges Canals, 60, 61 ; 633, 634. Gangetic historical and commercial cities, 53 ; deserted cities, 62. Gánjá, Excise duty on, 539. Gaulis, an ancient ruling race in the Central Provinces, now a crushed tribe, II2. Gautama Buddha, the founder of the Buddhist religion, his life and doctrine. —See BUDDHISM. Geddes, Michael, Aſistory of the Church of Malabar, quoted, 291 (footnote 4); 292 (footnote I). Geography of India. — See PHYSICAL ASPECTS. Geology of India, chap. xxii. pp. 733- 742. Geology of the Himálayas, 733; the central gneissic axis, 733, 744 ; Lower Himálayas, 734; the sub-Himá- layas and Siwáliks, 734, 735; the Salt Range, 735; Indo-Gangetic plain, its age, history, and geological deposits, 735, 736 ; peninsular India, 737-74I ; the Vindhya system, 737 ; Gondwéna series, 737, 738; Pánchet and Tālcher group, 738; Dāmodar series and coal- fields, 738-74O ; Deccan trap and laterite, 740, 74I ; precious stones, 74I ; geological structure of Burma, 74I, 742. 823 Gersoppa Falls, 73. Ghakkars, a tribe in Râwal Pindi Dis- trict, their invasions of India, and their present descendants, 234; their defeat of Mahmūd of Ghazní (IOo8), 326; defeat and kill Muhammad Ghori, 331. Ghâts, Eastern, mountain range along the eastern coast of India, 68, 7O ; forests of, 72. Gháts, Western, mountain range along the western coast of India, 68 ; the Bhor-Ghàt pass, 69 ; Thal Ghát pass, 69; Pálghāt pass, 69 ; rivers of the Western Gháts, 69, 71 ; rainfall, 70 ; forests, 71, 72. Ghazni stormed by the English (1839), 478. Gheriá, defeat of Mír Kásim at, by Major Adams, 454. Ghiyás-ud-din Tughlak, founder of the Tughlak dynasty (I 32O-1324 A.D.), 336. Ghor, Dynasty of (II.52- I2O6 A.D.); Muhammad of Ghor's invasions, his first defeats and ultimate conquest of Northern India and Bengal, 328- 33 I. Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Fmpire, quoted, 280 (footnote); 290 (footnote). Gingi, taken by the French (1750), 445 ; surrender of, by the French to Sir Eyre Coote, 447. Gipsy clans, II2. Girls’ schools, 568, 569. Gita Govinda, The, or “ Divine Herds- man,’ the song of Krishna, I7I. Glaciers on the Himálayas, 37. Goa, defence of (1570), 422 ; besieged by the Dutch (1603, 1639), 423; supposed relics of St. Thomas at, 289; John de Albuquerque, first bishop of (I 539-53 A.D.), 296 ; establishment of Arch- bishopric of, 296 ; Archbishop Men- ezes (I596-99), 296 ; jurisdiction of the Goa Archbishopric, 307; capture of Goa by Albuquerque (I5IO A.D.), 42O. Goalánda railway station washed away by the Ganges, 64. Godāvari river, 70; irrigation works, improvement of navigation on, 655, 656. , Goddard, General, his march across India during the first Maráthá war, 46I. Godeheu, M., Governor of French India, signed suspension of arms with the English (1756), 446. Godolphin, Lord, amalgamated English East India Companies, 428. * Goethe, J. W. von, quoted on the Sakuntalá, I69. 824 AVZ)/2 X. Golconda, Diamonds of, 73 ; 731. Golconda, Muhammadan kingdom of Southern India (1512-1688 A.D.), 341. Gold and gold-mining in Southern India, 727, 728. Gº; and silver, imports of, 665, 669, 72. Goldsmith caste in Madras, 246. Goldsmiths' and jewellers’ work, 707, 708. Gold-washing in Indian rivers, 727. Gonds, aboriginal tribe in the Central Provinces, 93 ; II2; 237. - Gondwéna, Geology of, 737, 738. Gough, Lord, commanded in first Sikh war (1845), 481; battles of Chilianwála and Gujrát, 483. - Governors, Governors - General, and Viceroys of India (1757-1893 A.D.), 452, 453. Grammar, Sanskrit, I42, I43. Grammar of the Sindhi Zanguage by Dr. E. Trumpp, quoted, 394. ‘Grand Army,” The, of Aurangzeb, and its twenty years' campaign in the Deccan, 366, 367. “ººd Trunk Road” of India, The, 54. Grant Duff's History of the Maráthás, quoted, chap. xii. pp. 375-382, foot- notes passima. Greek influence on Indian art and archi- tecture, I54; 218, 219. Greeks in India, The (327 to 161 B.C.), chap. vi. pp. 21O-22O. Early Greek writers, 2IO; Megasthenes, the Greek Ambassador to the Court of Chandra Gupta, 2II ; Alexander the Great’s expedition to India, 211-213; his defeat of Porus, 2 II, 212 ; his advance through the Punjab and Sind, 212, 213 ; cities founded by Alexander, 212 ; results of his Indian expedition, 213; Greek military settlements, 213 ; cession of the Punjab and Sind to Chandra Gupta by Seleukos, 214; Megasthenes’ embassy to Chandra Gupta's court, 2I4 ; the India of Megasthenes, 215 - 217 ; ancient petty Indian kingdoms, 217 ; Indo- Greek treaty (256 B.C.), 217 ; later Greek invasions of India, 218 ; Greek influence on Indian art, I54; 218, 219; Greek and Hindu types of sculpture, 218; Greeks in Bengal, 219; Greek survivals in India, 220 ; the Yavanas, 22O. Gregory XVI., Pope, his action as to the Portuguese Padroado (1838), 307. Griffith, R. T. H., Idylls from the Sanskrit, quoted, 168 (footnote). Growth of trading and industrial cities under the English, 659, 660. Guaranteed railways, the eight great lines of, 649, 650. Gujarát, Muhammadan kingdom of, 342; conquered by Akbar, 349; establish- ment of the Gáekwar's power in, 380. Gujaráti language, 401. Gujrát, Battle of (1849), 483. Gunny-bags, Exports of, 681 ; 718-719. Gupta, ancient Indian dynasty in Northern India (319-470 A.D.); their struggle with and overthrow by an invasion of Scythians or White Huns, 229. Gūrkhas, their excellence as soldiers, II3 ; their good service in Burma, II5; war with the (1814 - I5), 470 ; services during the Mutiny, 492– 493. Gwalari, mountain pass over the Brahuí hills from the Punjab into Baluchistān, 38. Gwalior, stormed by Captain Popham, 461 ; restored to Sindhia, 502. H Haas, Dr. E., “Ueber die Ursprünge der Indischen Medizin, mit besonderem Bezug auf Susruta,’ and ‘Hippokrates und die Indische Medizin des Mittel- alters,’ published in the Zeitschrift der AJeutscherz, Morgenländischen Gesel/- schaft for 1876 and 1877, quoted, 152 (footnote). Hab river, the westernmost boundary of India, separating Southern Sind from Baluchistán, 35. Haidar Ali, his wars with the British, 462. Haileybury College, 514, 515. Hála mountains, a southerly offshoot of the Himalayas, marking a portion of the western boundary of India, 35. Hamont, Tibulle, his Dupleix and Zally- Zollendal, quoted, 445 (footnote). Hand-loom and steam-mill woven cotton, 7O3. - Hardinge, Lord, Governor-General of India (1844 - 48), 480; history of the Sikhs and of the first Sikh war; battles of Müdki, Firozshāh, Aliwál, and Sobráon, 480, 481. Hardy, Mr. Spence, Manual of Buddhism, quoted, 181 (footnotes). Harris, General, storming of Seringa- patam, 467. Hastings, Marquess of, by Major Ross of Bladensburg, quoted, 375 (footnote I); 382 (footnote); Governor-General of India (1814-23), 47O-473; war with Nepāl and treaty of Segauli, with cession of Himálayan tracts (1815) JAV/DEX. 471 ; Pindåri war, 472 ; third and last Maráthá war and annexation of the Peshwá's dominions (1818), 472. Hastings, Warren (1772-85), 456-462 ; his administrative reforms and policy towards Native powers, 456; first Governor-General of India (1774), 457; makes Bengal pay, 458; sale of Allahābād and Kora to the Wazir of Oudh (1773), 459 ; the Rohilla war, plunder of Chait Singh and the Oudh Begams, 459, 46O ; Hastings' impeach- ment and seven years’ trial in England, 461 ; first Maráthá war and treaty of Salbái, 461 ; first war with Mysore (1780-84), 462. Haug, Dr., Zhe Origin of Brá/i/tanism, quoted, 262 (footnote). Havelock, Sir Henry, defeat of the Cawnpur mutineers, first relief of Luck- now, 49 I, 492. Hawkins, Captain, Envoy from James I. and the East India Company to the court of the Great Mughal (1608 A.D.), 429. Hawkins, William, his statement of the Mughal revenues, 355, 356. Heath, Captain, removed English establishments from Bengal (1688), 434. Heber, Reginald, Bishop of Calcutta (1823-26), 315. Hedges, Sir William, first agent and governor in Bengal (1681-87), 433. Hekataios, the earliest Greek historian who refers to India, 2 Io. Hem Chandra Banarji, modern Bengali poet, 413 (footnote). Herschell’s Committee on the Indian Currency, Lord, 506. Hewitt, J. F., notes on the early history of Northern India in the Journal of the A'oyal Asiatic Society, vol. xx., et seq., quoted, IO6 (footnote I). High Courts of Justice in India, 5 IO. Hijili navigable canal in Midnapur District, 657. Hill cultivation, 579. Hill forts (Maráthá) in the Deccan, 376. Himálaya Mountains, The, 36-42; the double wall and trough, 37; passes and offshoots, 38; water-supply and rainfall, 39; scenery, vegetation, irriga- tion, and products, 39-42 ; animals and tribes, 42 ; geology, 733-735 ; meteor- ology, 743, 744. — See also TRANS- HIMALAYAN TRADE. Hindi literature and authors, 403, 404. Hindu architecture, I54. Hindu kingdoms of the IDeccan, 339. Hindu population of India, 89.-See also Appendix IV., 777. A/indu Tribes and Castes, by the Rev. f 825 M. A. Sherring, quoted, 242 (footnote); 243 (footnotes); 245 (footnote); 27 I (footnote). Hinduism, Rise of (750 to I52O A.D.), chap. viii. pp. 240 - 278. Disinte- gration of Buddhism, 240 ; preaching of Kumārila, 24O ; persecution of Buddhism, 240, 241 ; caste and reli- gion the twofold basis of Hinduism, 241 ; race origin of caste, 24I ; modi- fied by ‘occupation’ and ‘locality,’ 24I ; complexity of caste, 24I, 242 ; the Brähman caste analyzed, 242, 243 ; building of the caste system, 24.4; Hindu marriage law, 244 ; ancient mingling of castes, 245; ‘occupation' basis of caste, 245-248; the Vaisyas or ancient cultivating caste, 246; the ‘right- hand” and ‘left-hand’ castes of Madras, 246; the Dattas of Bengal, 246; Sháhas, Telis, and Tambulis, forcing their way to higher castes, 246; caste, a system of trade-guilds, 247; working of the Indian trade-guild, its funds, charities, rewards, and punish- ments, 247-249 ; excommunication a penalty for a breach of caste rules, 249; the religious basis of Hinduism, its stages of evolution, and how far influenced by Buddhism, 249, 250 ; beast hospitals, 250 ; monastic religious life, 251 ; analogies of Japanese wor- ship to Hinduism and Christianity, 252; serpent ornamentation in Buddh- ist, Hindu, and Christian art, 252 ; coalition of Buddhism with earlier religions, 252 ; shrines common to various faiths, 252, 253 ; non-Aryan elements in Hinduism, 253 ; phallic emblems in Hinduism, 254; fetish- worship in Hinduism, 255; the sala- grám or village deity, 255; jungle rites, 256; non-Aryan religious rites merging into Hinduism, 256, 257; Bráhman founders of Hinduism, 257; low caste apostles, 257; mediaeval Hindu saints, their miracles, 257, 258; IKabir’s death, 258; Brähman reli- gious reformers, 259, 260 ; growth of Siva-worship, 260-265; Siva-worship in its philosophical and terrible aspects, 261'; twofold aspects of Siva and of Durgā his queen, and their twofold sets of names, 261, 262; human Sacri- fices as late as 1866, 262, 263; animals substituted for human sacrifice, 263; the Charaß-Pujá or Swinging Festival, 263; the thirteen Sivaite sects, 263, 264; gradations of Siva-worship, 264, 265; secret orgies of Sivaism, 265; the ‘right-hand’ and ‘left-hand ’ forms of Siva - worship, 264, 265; Siva and Vishnu compared, 265; 826 AAV/DAX. Vishnu the Preserver always a friendly god, 265; his incarnations or avatárs, 265 (and footnote); 266; the Vishnu Purānas, 266, 267; Brähmanical and popular Vishnuism, 267; Vishnuite religious reformers, 267-272; Rāmā- nuja, 267; Rāmānand, 268; Kabir, 268, 269; Chaitanya, 270 - 271 ; Vallabhá-Swāmi, 272; Krishna-wor- ship, 272, 273; the twenty chief Vishnuite sects, 273; theistic move- ments in Hinduism, 273; the Sikhs, and Nának Sháh, their spiritual founder, 273; Jagannāth, the coalition of Brähman and Buddhist doctrines forming the basis of Vishnu-worship, 274 ; Car Festival of Jagannāth, 274 ; bloodless worship of Jagannāth, self- immolation a calumny, 275, 276 ; gentle doctrines of Jagannāth, 276; religious nexus of Hinduism, 276; practical faith of the Hindus, its toler- ance, 277; the modern Hindu Triad, 277; recapitulation, 278. Hindustání, Bible translated into, 314. Hippon, Captain, commanded seventh English voyage to Asia, 429. AZstoire de la Zgłłęražure Hızzdozzie et Aizzdozestanzie, by Garcin de Tassy, 4OI and footnote. Aistoire die Christianisme des /ndes, by La Croze, 282 (footnote); 29I (foot- note); 292 (footnote); 293 (footnotes). Aſistory of Architecture, by Mr. J. Fer- gusson, quoted, 362 (footnotes). History of British rule (1757-1893 A.D.), chap. xv. pp. 443-506. Madras, the first British territorial possession in India (1639), 443; Southern India after the death of Aurangzeb (1707), 443; French and English in the Karnātik, 443, 444; first French war and capture of Madras by the French (I746), 445; second French war (1750- 61), 445 ; Clive's defence of Arcot (I75I), 445; Sir Eyre Coote's victory of Wandewash (1760), 447; capitulation of Pondicherri and Gingi, 447 ; the English in Bengal (1634-96), 447 ; Native rulers of Bengal (1707-56), Mürshid Kūli Khán, Ali Vardi Khán, and Sirâj-ud-Daulá, 447, 448; capture of Calcutta by Sirâj-ud-Daulá (1756), 448; recapture of Calcutta and battle of Plassey, 449; Mír Jáfar (1757-61), 450-453; Zamāndāré grant of the Twenty-four Parganás, 451 ; Clive's jāgār, 451 - 452; Clive, Governor of Bengal, 453; deposition of Mír Jáfar and enthronement of Mír Kásim (1761), 453; Mir Kásim's quarrel with the English, and massacre of Patná, 454 ; first Sepoy Mutiny (1764), 454; battle of Baxár (1764), 454; Clive's second Governership (1765-67), partition of the Gangetic valley, the Diwání grant of Bengal, and reorganization of the Company's service, 455, 456; dual system of adº ministration (1767-72), abolished by Warren Hastings, 456; Warren Hastings' administration (1772-85), 456-462 ; his administrative reforms, and policy with Native powers, 457; Warren Hastings, the first Governor- General of India (1774), 457; his financial administration, and sale of Allahābād and Kora to the Wazir of Oudh, 458, 459; withholds the Emperor's tribute, 459; the Rohillá war (1773-74), 459, 460 ; plunder of Chait Singh and of the Oudh Begams, 460 ; charges against Hastings, and his impeachment, 461–462; the first Ma- ráthá and Mysore wars, 462, 463; Lord Cornwallis’ administration (1786-93), his revenue reforms, the Permanent Settlement of Bengal, and second My- sore war, 463, 464; Sir John Shore (1793-98), 464; Lord Wellesley’s ad- ministration (1798 - 1805), 464 - 469 ; French influence in India, 464 ; state of India before Lord Wellesley, 465 ; Lord Wellesley's scheme for crushing French influence in India, 466; treaties of Lucknow and with the Nizām, 466; third Mysore war, and fall of Seringa- patam, 467; Wellesley's dealings with the Maráthás, and the second Maráthá war, 467, 468; British victories and annexations (1803); British disasters, Colonel Monson's retreat, and General Lake's repulse before Bhartpur (1804- 5), 468, 469 ; India on Lord Welles- ley's departure (1805), 469 ; Lord Cornwallis' second administration as Governor - General (1805), 469 ; Sir George Barlow (1805), 469; Earl of Minto's administration (1807-13), his embassies to the Punjab, Afghānistán, and Persia, 469, 470; Marquess of Hastings’ administration (1814-23), the Nepāl war and treaty of Segauli, the Pindari campaign, the third and last Maráthá war, and annexation of the Peshwā’s territories, 470-473; Mr. Adam, pro tem. Governor - General (1823), 473; Lord Amherst (1823-28), Burmese encroachments on India, first Burmese war and annexation of ASSalm, Arakan, and Tenasserim, 473, 474 ; capture of Bhartpur, 474; Lord William Bentinck (1828-35), his financial re- forms, abolition of Satá, suppression of thagi and cruel rites, renewal of Com- pany’s Charter, Mysore taken under AV/OAX. British administration, and Coorg annexed, 474-476; Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-36), the grant of liberty to the press, .476; Lord Auckland (1836- 42), Our early dealings with Kábul, and the disastrous Afghān campaign and annihilation of our army, 477, 478; Earl of Ellenborough (1842-44), the Kábul army of retribution, the ‘Gates of Somnáth’ travesty, annexation of Sind, and Gwalior outbreak, 479, 480; Lord Hardinge (1844-48), the first Sikh war and annexation of the Cis-Sutlej tract, 480, 482; Earl of Dalhousie (1848-56), 482-487; his administrative reforms and public works, 482; second Sikh war, and annexation and pacification of the Punjab, 483 - 484 ; second Burmese war and annexation of Pegu, 484 ; Lord Dalhousie's dealings with the Native States, the doctrine of “Lapse' in the case of Sátára, Jhānsi, and Nāgpur States, 485, 486 ; Berár handed over by the Nizām of Haidarā- bād, as a territorial guarantee for arrears of subsidies and for the payment of the Haidarābād contingent, 486; annexa- tion of Oudh and Lord Dalhousie's grounds for the measure, 486, 487 ; Earl Canning (1856-62), 488-496; the Sepoy Mutiny and its causes, 488, 489; the outbreak at Meerut and Delhi, and spread of the Mutiny, 490, 49I ; loyalty of the Sikhs, 491 ; the siege of Cawnpur and massacre of the Survivors, 491 ; Lucknow, 492 ; siege and capture of Delhi, 492 ; reduc- tion of Oudh by Lord Clyde, and of Central India by Sir Hugh Rose, 493; India transferred to the Crown, the Queen's Proclamation and general amnesty, 495; Lord Canning's fin- ancial and legal reforms, 496; Lord Elgin (1862-63), his death at Dharm- sála, 496; Lord Lawrence (1864-69), the Bhutan war and Orissa famine, 496; Lord Mayo (1869-72), the Ambála darbār; internal and finan- cial reforms, and abolition of inland customs lines, his assassination, 496- 497; Lord Northbrook (1872-76), the Bengal famine of 1874, dethronement of the Gáekwár of Baroda, and visit of the Prince of Wales to India, 497; Lord Lytton (1876-80), Proclamation of the Queen as Empress of India, ſamine of 1877-78; the second Afghān campaign, 498, 499; Lord Ripon (1880- 84); end of the second Afghān campaign, rendition of Mysore to its hereditary Hindu dynasty, internal administration reforms, Local Govern- 827 ment Acts, amendment of criminal procedure, reconstitution of the Agri- cultural Department, revenue reforms, the Education Commission, abolition of customs duties, Bengal Tenancy Bill, 499-501 ; Earl of Dufferin (1884), 5OI ; annexation of Upper Burma (1886), 501 ; Russian attack on the Afghans at Penjdeh (1885), 502; the Queen's Jubilee (1887), 503; Marquess of Lansdowne (1888-93), 503; progress of self-government, 503; the Indian National Congress, 504; Lord Cross' Act (1892), 504; Manipur (1891), 5O4; Russian aggression on the Pamirs (1891-92), 505; Burmese pro- gress, 506; the fall of the rupee, 506. Aſistory of British India, by J. Mill, quoted, 372 (footnote); 428 (foot- note). Aſistory of Zndia, by the Hon. Mount- stuart Elphinstone, quoted, 323 (foot- note); 346 (footnote); 358 (footnote); 360 (footnotes); 364 (footnote). History of India as told by its own Aistorians, by Sir Henry Elliot, quoted, 324; 340 (footnote); 346 (footnotes); 351 (footnote); 358 (foot- note); 360 (footnote); 364 (footnote); 371 (footnote). Aistory of the Settlements and 7%ade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies, by Abbé Raynal, quoted, 438 (footnote). Aistory of the French in India, by Colonel Malleson, 445 (footnote). Aſſistory of the Maráthás, by James Grant Duff, quoted, chap. xii. pp. 375-382, footnotes, passim. Aſſistory of the Maráthás, by E. Scott Waring, quoted, 375 (footnote). Hiuen Tsiang, Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, 34; I42, I45; 200 and footnote ; 20I, 2O2 ; 225, 226; 229. Hodgson, Brian Houghton, his works on the Himalayas, 42; his Aborigines of Zºdia, quoted, 398 (footnote I). Hodson, Major, shot the princes at Delhi (1857), 493. Hoernle, Rudolph, Comparative Grammar of the Gazidiazz Zanguages, quoted, I44 (footnote 4), 394, 395 (footnote I); and Grierson, Comparative Grammar of the Bihdré Zanguage, quoted, 394 (footnote 2); 395 (footnote I); his views on non-Aryan elements in North Indian languages, 399 and footnote. Hog, wild, The, 759. Holkar, family name of the chief of the Maráthá State of Indore ; rise of the family to power, 380; war with the British, 381. 828 JZW/DEX. Hooker, Sir Joseph, his Himalayan tour, O 4O. Hope, Sir Theodore, supplied estimate of cost of Ecclesiastical Establishment, 3I9. Horses, Breeds of, 618; Government studs, 619; horse fairs, 619. Hough, J., History of Christianity in Andža, quoted, 280 (footnote 4); 290 (footnote I). Houtman, Cornelius, led first Dutch fleet round the Cape (1596), 425. Hügli, East India Company's factory established at (1640), 432 ; oppressed by the Mughal governor, 434; Portu- guese headquarters in Bengal, 42 I. Human sacrifice among the Kandhs, IOO ; in Siva-worship, 262 ; substitute of animals for human offerings, 263. Humáyún, second Mughal Emperor of Delhi (I530-56 A.D.), 344, 346; genea- logical tree of the Mughal Emperors, 345; expulsion from India by his Afghān Governor of Bengal (1540), 346; subsequent recovery of the throne by the second battle of Pánipat, 346. Hume, A. O., quoted, 615, 616. Huns, The, in India, 230, 23.I. I Ibbetson, D. J., on the Scythic origin of the Játs and Rájputs, 227 and footnote. Ibrāhīm Lodi, Defeat and overthrow of, by Bábar, at the first battle of Pánipat (I526 A.D.), 344. Imad Shāhi, Muhammadan dynasty of, Southern India (I484-1572), 341. Immobility of the Indian peasant, 82. Impediments to improved husbandry, namely, want of cattle, want of manure, and want of water, 616, 617. Imperial Service Troops, maintained by Native States, 76; by Native princes, O3. Import trade of India, analysis and principal staples of, 668, 669; coasting imports and exports, 670, 671 ; 690. Incarnations of Vishnu, 265, 266 and footnote. Income and Expenditure of British India, 550-558. Income-tax in India, history of, 553-555. Increase of population between 1872 and 1891, 82; 85, 86. Independent Náyaks and Pálegårs of Southern India, 342. India, origin of the name, 33-35. India on the eve of the Mughal conquest (I526 A.D.), 344. Indian Caste, by Dr. J. Wilson, quoted, 243 (footnote); 245 (footnote I). Indian products mentioned in the Bible, 2 IO. Indian society as described by Megas- thenes (300 B.C.), 215-217. Indian vernaculars and their literature, chap. xiii. pp. 383-415. Asiatic civilisation of India as found by the early European powers, 384; India in the Ist and the 16th centuries A.D., 384, 385; the Dravidians or non- Aryans, their language and its place in philology, 385-386; the Dravi- dians in Sanskrit literature, 386; pre- Aryan Dravidian civilisation, 386; Brähmanic influence on the Dravidians, 387; development of Dravidian speech into vernacular literatures, 388 ; the Tamil language, 389; Jain cycle of Tamil literature, 389; the Tamil Rāmāyana, 390; Sivaite and Vish- nuite Tamil hymnology, 390, 391 ; modern Tamil writers, 390; Beschi, the Jesuit Tamil scholar, 391 ; recent statistics of Tamil literature, 391, 392 ; Aryan languages of North India, Sanskrit, 392, 393 ; evidence as to whether Sanskrit was ever a spoken language, 392-394; Pánini and Vara- ruchi, ancient Sanskrit grammarians, 394 ; the Prākrits or ancient spoken dialects of India, their divergence from Sanskrit, 394; routes of Prákrit speech, 395; Prákrits developed by Buddhists for their Scriptures, 396 ; evolution of modern vernaculars from Prákrits, 396, 397; their Prákrit framework and Sanskrit enrichments, 397 ; non-Aryan element in the vernaculars, propor- tion of non-Aryan words, 398, 399; the fourfold composition of the verna- culars, namely, the Prākrit and aborigi- nal elements, Sanskrit borrowings and Persian terms, 400 ; the seven verna- culars of India, 400-40I ; vernacular literature and vernacular writers, 40 I, 4O2; Rájputána religious literature, 4O2 ; Hindi authors from the I2th to the 19th centuries, 403, 404 ; Maráthi literature and authors, 404; Bengali literature, its three periods, 4OI-407; Bengali religious poetry, 408-41 I ; Bengali poets from the 16th to the 18th centuries, 408-412; the court of Nadiyá, the chief seat of learning in Bengal in the last century, 4II, 412; Bengali prose literature in the 19th century, 413 ; the Bengalf drama, 413, 414. , Indigo, cultivation of, in different locali- ties, 590, 591 ; systems of indigo- planting, and out-turn in Bengal and Behar, 592 ; export of, 592 ; 678-679. Andische Alterthumskunde, by Professor AV/O AEX. Lassen, quoted, 207 (footnote); 240 (footnote); 399 (footnote). Indo-Aryan stock, its European and Eastern branches, II6, II 7; their march towards and into India, religion, etc., II 7-II9. Indo-Gangetic plain, Geology of, 735, 736; meteorology of 745, 746. Indo-Greek treaties (306 and 256 B.C.), 2I4, 217. Indra, the Vedic God of Rain, I2 I, I22 ; influence of the rainy season on Aryan mythology, I21 ; Indra displaced by the modern Brähmanical Triad, I22. Indus, great river of Northern India and Sind, 43-45; its upper waters, 43; its feeder the Sutlej, 43, 44; its inundations, 43 ; lower course, 44; irrigation facilities, 45; 629; silt de- posits, 45; Indus steam flotilla recently broken up on completion of the rail- way system, 656. Inlaying works, 712. - Inquisition established by the Portuguese at Goa (1560), 292, 3O4; autos da fé, 305; abolished (1812), 305. Inscribed pillars of Asoka, I90, 191. Inscriptions, Sanskrit, I43. Insects, Indian, 764, 765. Internal and local trade of India, 694- 698; village money-lenders, travelling brokers, and religious fairs, 696; internal trade the Safeguard against famine, 696; normal action of internal trade, 697; provincial statistics of internal trade, 698; trade statistics of a large town, village mart, and annual fair, 698, 699. Introduction to the Malto Zanguage, by the Rev. E. Droese, quoted, 385 (foot- note). In-tu, the Buddhist derivation of the word India, 34. Iron mining and smelting, difficulties of Indian ironworks, 73; 723; indigenous methods of iron-smelting, 722; failure of English efforts, 722, 723; Govern- ment efforts, 723. Ironwork, 708, 709. Irrigated area in different tracts, with statistics, 628-64I. Irrigation from hill-streams in the Himé- layas, 41 ; river irrigation in the plains, 6I. Iskardo, gorge in Kashmir, 43. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, famous modern Hindu social reformer, 413. Italy, India’s trade with, 683, 685, 686. Itinerary Jesuit missionaries in the I5th and 16th centuries; their labours and conversions, 3OI, 3O2. Ivory carving, 712. 829 J Jackal, The, 757. Jackson, Lowis D’A., Hydraulic Manual, quoted, 49 (footnote). Jacobi, Hermann, Zhe Jaina Sutras, forming vol. xxii. of Prof. Max Müller's Sacred Books of the AEast, 207 (foot- notes); 214 (footnote). Jacobite branch of the Syrian Church in India, 293, 294; 309. Jagannāth, Worship of, 274-276; his Bráhmanical and Buddhist origin, 274; the Car Festival, 275; English calum- nies against Jagannāth, self-immola- tion seldom practised, 274, 275; his bloodless worship and gentle doctrines, 275, 276. Jahāngir, fourth Mughal Emperor of India (1605-27 A.D.), 358-36O ; chief events of his reign, 358 (footnote); rebellion of his son, Sháh Jahān, 359 ; his Empress, Nūr Jáhan, 359; personal character, justice, and religious tolera- tion, 359, 36O ; received Hawkins, 429 ; and Sir T. Roe, 430. Jai Singh, Rājā of Jaipur, his astro- nomical observatories at Jaipur, Delhi, Benares, Muttra, and Ujjain in the 18th century, I47, I48. Jail statistics, 56O. Jains, the modern representatives of the Buddhists in India, 205; Jain popu- lation in India, 205 (footnote); Jain doctrines, 205 ; temple cities, 2O5 ; relation of Jainism to Buddhism, 206; antiquity of the Jains, 206, 207 ; date of the Jain Scriptures, 208; the Jains an independent sect, 208; modern Jainism, 208. Jaipál, Hindu chief of Lahore, his defeats by Subuktigin and Mahmūd of Ghāzni, 325. Jalālābād, defence of (1842), 478. Jalāl-ud-din, the first king of the Khilji dynasty (I290-95 A.D.), 333. Jamá Masjid, Sháh Jahān's great mosque at Delhi, 362. James I., King of England, gave licence to trade to Michelborne (1606), 429 ; sent Roe as Ambassador to India, 43O. Jamunā, the name of the Brahmaputra from its entering the Bengal delta to its junction with the Ganges, 46. Jang Bahádur, assistance rendered by, during the suppression of the Mutiny, 493. Japan, Buddhism established in, IQ5. Játs, The, their Scythian origin, 226, 227. Jaunpur, Muhammadan (1394-1478), 342. kingdom of 83o JAW/DAX. Java, Conquest of, by Lord Minto, 470. Jawadi Hills, 72. Jayadeva, a celebrated Sanskrit poet of the 12th century, I7I. Jaziah, or poll-tax on non-Muhammadans, its irregular receipts, 356 ; reimposed by Aurangzeb, 367. Jervis, Major Vincent, quoted, on the courage of the Santāls, II4. Jesajabus on the Malabar Christians, 29O. Jesuits in India, 295-306; first Portu- guese missionaries (1500 A.D.), 295 ; St. Francis Xavier, 296; the Madras Jesuits, 296; letters of the early Jesuit missionaries, 297; Thána, a Jesuit station (1550 A.D.), with its colony of Christian artisans and culti- vators, 298, 299; rural organization of the Jesuits, 299; the Jesuit college at Cochin, 299-30I ; Jesuit itinerary missionaries, and their conversions, 3OI, 3O2; Jesuit missions in Malabar in the 17th and 18th centuries, 3O2, 303; Jesuit martyrdoms, 303, 3O4; literary labours of the Jesuits, 3O4; establish- ment of the Portuguese Inquisition at Goa (1560), 3O4; autos da fé, 305; abolition of the Inquisition (1812), 305; the Jesuits suppressed (1759-73), 306; re-established (1814), 306. Jewellery and goldsmiths' work, 707, 708. Jewish settlements in ancient Malabar, 284, 285. Jhánsſ, Native State, lapsed to the British for want of heirs, 485-486; revolt of the ex-princess in 1857, 492, 493. Johnston, Charles, quoted, IO3 (foot- note I). Jones, Sir William, 156, 169. Jordanus on the Malabar Christians, 2C).O. Jºint, a saint of the Christian Church, analogies between him and Buddha, and asserted identity of the two, IQ6, I97. Joseph of St. Mary, Carmelite bishop in India, 292, 293. Journal Asiatigue, Paper by M. Senart, quoted, 222 (footnote). Journalism and newspapers, 57O. Juángs, a leaf-wearing tribe in Orissa, 94. Jubilee, the Queen's, celebration of, in India, 503. Judson, A., Baptist missionary in Burma, 316. Jumna, great river in Northern India, and chief tributary of the Ganges, 49. Jumna Canal, the old, made by Firuz Sháh Tughlak, 338. Jumna Canal, Eastern, Statistics of, 61 ; 632-635. Jumna Canal, Western, Statistics of, 61 ; 631. Jungle products, tasar silkworm, lac, etc., 66; 6II-613. Jungle rites in Hinduism, 256. Jute, Cultivation of, 589; export of raw and of manufactured jute, 590; 674, 675; 681 ; 717; steam jute mills, 717, 718, 7.19. IK Kabir, Vishnuite religious reformer (1380-142O), claimed as a saint by both Hindus and Muhammadans, 258; his doctrines, 268, 269 ; coalition of Vish- nuism with Islám, 269; Kabir's religi- Ous poetry, 403. Kábul severed from the Mughal Empire (1738), 372; occupied by the English (1839-41), 478; punished by Pollock and Nott (1842), 479 ; Cavagnari murdered at, 498. Kaders, aboriginal tribe of the Anamalai Hills, Madras, 93. Kailās, sacred mountain in Tibet, and the watershed from which the Indus, Sutlej, and Brahmaputra take their rise, 43, 45. Káimur, range of mountains in Central India and Bengal, an offshoot of the Vindhyas, 68. Kaisar-i-Hind, the title of the Queen- Empress, 35. Kalanos the Brähman at Alexander's court, 216. Kálí, the non-Aryan form of the wife of Siva, 261, 262. Kálidasa, famous Hindu poet and dra- matist (56 B.C.), 168; his drama of Sakuntalá, I69. Kanauj, ancient city, now deserted by the Ganges, 62; court pageant at, in the I2th century A.D., 329. Kanchanjanga, mountain in the Himá- layas, 37. - Kandahár, wrested from the Mughal Empire during the reign of Sháh Jahān, 361 ; occupation of, during the first Afghān campaign (1839), 478; defeat of Ayāb Khán at, in the second campaign (1880), 499. Kandhs, aboriginal hill tribe of Orissa and Northern Madras, 98-IoI ; their patriarchal government, 98; wars and punishments, and blood revenge, 98, 99; agriculture, 99; marriages by capture, 99; serfs attached to their villages, IOO ; human sacrifices, IOO ; the Kandhs under British rule, IOO, IoI. Kanishka, Buddhist king in North- Western India (40 A.D.), his Great Council, I92, 193; 222, 223; 225. AV/OAX. Aazz/ºar, or nodular limestone, 730 ; 74O. Kárágolá, large trading fair, 699. Karakoram, pass over the Himalayas on the trading route from the Punjab into Eastern Türkistén, 38. Karauli, Annexation of, forbidden (1849), 485, 486. Karens, an aboriginal tribe of Burma and Siam, III. Karharbári coal-field, 739. Kárikál ceded to France (1739), 444. Karim, Pindåri leader, 472. Rarma, Buddhist doctrine of, I86, 187. Rarnátik, the, English and French wars in, rival English and French candidates for the throne of Arcot (I746–61), 445. Karnūl canal purchased by Government from the Madras Irrigation Company, 638. Kartābhājás, a reformed Vishnuite sect in the districts around Calcutta, 273. Kárwár, English factory established at (1640), 432. Rashmir, conquered by Akbar, 349. Kashmir shawls, Weaving of, 706. Kásimbázár, East India Company’s factory established at (1658), 433; the chief emporium of the Gangetic trade in the middle of the 18th century, 448. Kásim's expedition and temporary con- quest of Sind (7II-7I4 A.D.), 32 I. Kásí Rám Dás, Bengali poet of Bardwan District, and translator of the Mahá- bhārata (17th century), 41 I. Kauravas, their quarrel and struggle with the five Pāndavas, as related in the Mahābhārata, I62, 163. Káveri (Cauvery) river, 70; irrigation works, 637, 638. Kaye, Sir J. W., History of the Sepoy War, quoted, 490 (footnote I). Keene, H. G., criticised Thomas' state- ment of the Mughal revenues, 353; his Mádhazya /ćdo Sindhia (“Rulers of India' series), quoted, 375. Kennet, Reverend Dr., St. Zhomas the Apostle of Zndia, quoted, 283 (footnote); 285 (footnote); 288 (footnote); 290 (footnote). IKeshava Dás, Hindi poet of the 16th century, and composer of the Rām- chandrika, 404. Kháibar, mountain pass into Afghānistán from the Punjab, 38. Khándesh, Annexation of, to the Mughal Empire by Akbar, 350. Khásis, an aboriginal tribe of Assam, III (footnote). Khilji dynasty, The (1290-1320 A.D.), 333-336; Jalāl-ud-din (1290-95), 333; 831 Alá-ud-din (1295-1315), 334; Mughal mercenaries and Hindu revolts, 335, 336; Khusrú, renegade Hindu Em- peror (I3I6-2O), 336. Khusrā Khān, renegade Hindu emperor of the Khilji dynasty (13.16-2O A.D.), 336. Rhusrú, last of the line of Mahmūd of Ghazni, defeated, 328. Kiernander, Danish Protestant missionary, 3I4. Kirki, attack on, by, and repulse of, the Maráthás (1817), 472. Kirtibás Ojhā, Sivaite religious poet of the 16th century, 409. Ristvaen builders of ancient India, 91. Roch, an aboriginal tribe in Northern Bengal, 235, 236. Kolarians, aboriginal races of Bengal and Central India, Iog ; their con- vergence in Central India, Iog; their dispersion, IO3; scattered Kolarian fragments, IO3; Kolarian languages, IO3. Kols, aboriginal race compared with the Dravidians, IO6-Io8. Köning, Henry, founder of the Swedish East Indian Company, 440. Aorós, Alexander Csoma de, Zife and Works of, by Dr. Theodore Duka, quoted, 198 (footnote); /ourma/ Asiatic Society of Bengal (1833), quoted, 222 (footnote). Krishna - worship, 272 ; a religion of pleasure, 272, 273; love songs, 273; hymn to, 408. Kshattriya or warrior caste of ancient India, I31, 135; growth of the caste, I31-133; struggle between the priestly and warrior castes, I.33, 134; cases of Kshattriyas attaining Brähmanhood, I34; legendary extermination of the Kshattriyas by Parasurāma, the sixth incarnation of Vishnu, I 35, 136. Kublai Khán, his paper notes, 337. Kuen - luen range, connection with the Himálayas, 36, 37. ISumára-sambhava, Sanskrit epic, I68. Kumārila, a Brähmanical religious re- former (750 A.D.), 240; 259; 388. Kuram, mountain pass into Afghānistán from the Punjab, 38. Kürküs, an aboriginal Kolarian tribe, IO3. Kushtia, river station of the Eastern Bengal Railway terminus, removed owing to silting of Ganges, 64. Kutab Shāhi, Muhammadan dynasty in Southern India (I512-1688 A.D.) 341. Kutab - ud-din, the first of the Slave dynasty, and the first resident Muham- madan Sovereign in India (I2O6-IO A.D.), 33 I. 832 MAVZ) EX. L Labour and land, Relation between, in former times and at the present day in India, 83, 84. La Bourdonnais, capture of Madras by a French squadron under the command of (1746), 444, 445. La Croze's Histoire du Christianisme des Andes, 282 (footnote); 291 (footnote); 292 (footnotes); 293 (footnotes). Lac industry, 612, 613; export of lac and lac-dye, 679. Lahore, Bishopric of, founded, 315. Lake, Lord, victories over the Maráthás at Laswäri and Dig, 381 ; 468. Lakshman Sen, last independent Hindu King of Bengal, his overthrow by Muhammad of Ghor (I2O3 A.D.), O. Lºkavi, Hindi poet of Bundelkhand in the 17th century, and author of the Chhatra Prakás, 404. Lally, Defeat of, at Wandewash by Coote (1761), 447; siege and surrender of Pondicherri and Gingi, 447. Lancaster, James, commanded in first English voyage to Asia, 429. Land-making powers of deltaic rivers, -59. Land revenue of India under the Mughals, 353-357; 363; land revenue of British India, 534. Land Settlement, 517-534; ancient land settlement of India, 517; Musalmán land-tax, 518; the Company’s efforts at land settlement, 518; growth of private rights, 519; the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (I793), 52O ; rights of the cultivators and intermedi- ate tenure-holders, 52 I, 522; oppres- sion of the cultivators, 522; land reform of 1859, 523; the Rent Commission (1879), and further schemes for reform, 523, 524; temporary Settlement in Orissa, 524; yearly Settlement in Assam, 524; Madras rāyatzvárá Settle- ment, 525; ‘Survey’ tenure of Bom- bay, 528; Southern India Agricultur- ists’ Relief Acts (1879 and 1881), 529; land system of the N.-W. Provinces and the Punjab, 533; tālukdārs of Oudh, 533; land system of the Central Provinces, 534; the land revenue of India, 534; nature of the land-tax, Lº Poole, Stanley, History of the Mughal AEmperors of Æindustóze from their coins, quoted, 325 (footnote); 356 (footnote); 345 (footnote); his opinion on the Mughal revenues, 354- 356; Aurangzeb (“Rulers of India’ series), 356 (footnote). Languages (Aryan) of Northern India, Sanskrit, 392 ; the evidence for and against Sanskrit ever having been a spoken language, 392–394; divergence of Sanskrit and Präkrit, 394; spread of the Prákrits, 395 ; classification of Präkrits—Māhārāshtri or Marā- thi, the Sauraseni or the Braj of the North-Western Provinces, the Magādhi or modern Bihári, and the Paisachi or non-Aryan dialects, 395, 396; evolu- tion of modern vernaculars from the Prákrits, 396, 397 ; the Sanskrit, Prákrit, and non-Aryan elements in modern vernaculars, 397-400 ; the Seven modern vernaculars, 400, 40I ; vernacular literature and writers, 402- 4I3. Languages of non-Aryan tribes, IOI-Io9; the Dravidian languages of Southern India ; Tamil, its principal develop- ment, 388-392. Lansdowne, Marquess of, Viceroy (1888- 93), 503-506; the Imperial Service Troops, progress of local self-govern- ment, 503; the Indian National Con- gress, Lord Cross' Act, social reforms, 504; the Manipur trouble, Russian aggressions on the Pamirs, 505; pacification of Upper Burma, the Currency question, 506. Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, quoted, 2O7 (footnote); 240 (footnote); 399 (footnote); his views on Sanskrit having been spoken, 393. Laswāri, Defeat of Sindhia at, 381 ; 468. Laterite, 740, 74I. Zaw and Custom of Hindu Castes, by Mr. Arthur Steele, quoted, 244 (foot- note). Law, Brähmanical codes of, 156-161 ; the Grihyā Sūtras, an outgrowth from the Vedas, I56; code of Manu and its date, I56, 157; code of Yajnavalkya, I57; scope of Hindu law, 158; its rigid caste system, I58, 159; growth of the law, I59; its incorporation of local customs, I60; perils of modern codification, I60, 161 ; modern legal literature, I6I. Law, M., took over the French East India Company, 435. Law, The, of British India, 5 II. Lawrence, Lord, Viceroy of India (1864- 69); famine in Orissa ; Bhutan war ; inquiry into the status of the Oudh peasantry ; the commercial crisis of 1866, 496. His conduct in the Punjab at the Mutiny, 491. - Lawrence, Major, his ineffectual siege of Pondicherri in 1748 in co-operation with the English fleet under Admiral Boscawen, 445. 833 Lower Ganges Canal, Statistics of, 61 ; 633, 634. . . . * e Lucknow, Missionary Bishopric of, founded (1892), 315; withdrawal of English factory at, 432 ; siege and relief of, 492. Lutheran missions, 3I4. Lyell, Sir Charles, Principles of Geology, quoted, 59. Lytton, Lord, Viceroy of India (1876-80); Proclamation of the Queen as Empress of India ; great famine of 1876-78; second Afghān war, 498. MI Macaulay, Lord, first Law Member of the Council of India, 476; his in- Scription on Bentinck's statue, quoted, 475; drew up the Penal Code (1837), 6 AAWD EX, Lawrence, Sir Henry, Resident at Lahore (1845), 482; Chief Commissioner of Oudh, 492; his warnings of the Mutiny, 488, 489; nominated pro- visional Governor-General, 489; killed at Lucknow (1857), 492. Lawrence Schools, The, 569. Lead, 729. Leaf-wearing tribe of Orissa, 94. Leather work, 706; leather factories at Cawnpur, 72.I. Leedes, J., early English trader in India, 427. Left-hand and Right-hand castes of Madras, 246. Legislative Council of the Governor- General, 509 ; of Madras, Bombay, and Bengal, 5 IO. Leopard, The Indian, 756. Aletters written in a Maráthá Camp (1809), by T. D. Broughton, quoted, 382 (footnote). Limburg-Brower, P. van, Akbar, 346 (footnote). Limestone, 73 ; 730, 731. Lion, The Indian, or maneless, of Gujarát, 754. Miterature of Bengal, 7 he, by Mr. Arcy Dae, quoted, 407 and footnote ; 408; 412 (footnote). Literature of India, 161-172; 4or-414 ; and 571-573 ; the Mahābhārata, 161- I65; the Rāmāyana, I65-167; later Sanskrit epics, 167, 168; Válmiki, the author of the Rāmāyana, 166; the poet Kálidasa, 168; the Sanskrit drama, I68, I69; the Hindu novel, I70 ; beast stories and fables, 17o ; Sanskrit lyric poetry, 17 I ; the Purānas or Brähmanical mediaeval theological writings, I 71, 172; modern Indian literature, . I72; Uriyá literature and authors, 401, 402 ; Rájputána sacred literature, 402 ; Hindí literature and authors, 403, 4O4; Bengali literature and authors, 404-414 ; 570-572. Local finance, 557. - Local and internal trade, statistics of, 695-699. Local Self-government, Lord Ripon's Acts, 499 ; progress under Lord Lansdowne, 503, 504. Locusts, 765. Lodi dynasty, The (1450-1526 A.D.), 339. London Missionary Society, 3I4; num- ber of converts, 316. Long, Rev. James, his translation of the AVíl Darpan, 414. Loss by exchange, 556, 557. Love poems in Krishna-worship, 273. Low-caste apostles in religious reforma- tions in Siva and Vishnu worship, 257, 258. 490. M'Crindle, Mr. J. W. M., Commerce and AVavigation of the Erythraean Sea, quoted, 2I3 (footnotes); 416 (footnote); Ancient Zndia as described by Megas- themes and Arrian, quoted, 215 (foot- note); 416 (footnote). Mackenzie, Sir Alexander, his work in Burma, 506. Macnaghten, Sir William, Assassination of, at Kábul (1839), 478. Macpherson, S. Charters, his work among the Kandhs, IOI. Macpherson, Sir John, acting Governor- General (1785-86), 462. Madagascar, British factory in, 428, 433 ; the French attempt to settle in, 435 ; policy of preferring, to India, 444, 465. Mādhava-Achárya, a Sanskrit religious writer of the 14th century, 240. Madhu Ráo, fourth Maráthá Peshwá (1761-72), 379. Madhu Ráo Nārāyan, sixth Maráthá Peshwá (1774-95); first Maráthá war, and treaty of Salbái, 381. Madhu Sudan Datta, Bengali epic poet of the I9th century, 413. Madras, founded in 1639, the first terri- torial British possession in India, 432 ; 443; capture of, by the French ; in- effectual siege of, by the English ; restoration to the British, 445. Madras, bishopric of, founded (1835), 315. Madras Catholic Directory, quoted, 280 (footnote 2); 309, 3IO, 3II, 312, and footnote. Madrasa, Muhammadan College of Cal- cutta, 56I. Mahābat Khán, the greatest general of Jahāngir, 359. Mahābhārata, the epic poem of the heroic age in Northern India, I61- 3 G 834 JAV/DEX. 165; the struggle between the Kaura- was and Pāndavas, I62, 163; the polyandry of Draupadi, I64. Mahārājpur, Battle of (1843), 480. Mahindo, son of Asoka, introduced Buddhism into Ceylon, 194. Mahmūd of Ghazni (IOOI-30 A.D.), 325- 328; his seventeen invasions of India, 326; patriotic resistance of the Hindus, 326; sack of Somnáth, 327; conquest of the Punjab, 327; Mahmūd's justice and thrift, 328. Mahmūd Tughlak, last king of the Tugh- lak dynasty (I 398-1412 A.D.), invasion of Timür (Tamerlane), 338, 339. Mailapur (St. Thomas' Mount), legend- ary martyrdom of St. Thomas the Apostle at, near Madras city, 28.I. Mákum coal-beds in Assam, 724. Makunda Rám, famous poet of Bardwān in the 16th century, 409, 410; story of Kálketu the hunter, 4IO; the Srimanta Sadágar, 4 IO, 4II. Malabar Christians, legendary preaching of St. Thomas the Apostle on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts (68 A.D.), 279; Thomas the Manichaean and Thomas the Armenian merchant, their rival claims as founders of Chris- tianity in Southern India, 281, 282; troubles of the ancient Indian Church, 290 ; the St. Thomas Nestorian Chris- tians of Malabar, a powerful and re- spected military caste, 29I ; Portuguese efforts at their conversion to Rome, 29I ; incorporation of the St. Thomas Christians into the Roman Catholic Church, and downfall of the Nestorian Church, 291-292 ; Synod of Diamper (I599 A.D.), 292 ; Malabar Christians under Roman Catholic prelates (1601–53 A.D.), 292 ; Malabar Christians freed from Catholic supremacy by the Dutch conquest of Cochin (1663), 292 ; first Jacobite Bishop to Malabar (1665), 293; Malabar Christians since 1665, theirdivision into Syrians and Jacobites, and present numbers, 293, 294; tenets of the Jacobites of Malabar, 294; Nestorianism extinct in Malabar, 294, 295; the Jesuit Malabar Mission in the 17th and 18th centuries, 3O2; caste among Malabar Christians, 302, 303; letters of the Jesuit missionaries of Malabar, 303. Malabar navigable back - waters or la- goons, 657. Malcolm, Sir John, sent as envoy to Persia, 470; services in the last Maráthá War, 472, 473. Mâlik Ambar, minister of Ahmadnagar, his resistance to Jahāngir, 359. Mâlik Käfur, Slave general of Alá-ud- dín (1303-15 A.D.); his conquest of Southern India, 335. Malleson, Colonel, Akbar (“Rulers of India’ series), 346 (footnote); History of the French in Zndia, and Final Struggles of the French in India, by, quoted, 445 (footnote); History of the Indian Mutiny, quoted, 490 (footnote I). Málwā, Muhammadan kingdom of, 342 ; conquered by Akbar (1570-72), 349; ceded to the Maráthás (1743), 378. Mammalia of India, 754-761. Mānasarowar, Sacred lake in the Himá- layas, 43, 45. Manchester cotton imports, 669. Mandalay occupied (1885), 502. ‘Man hunts’ of Muhammad Tughlak, 338. Manipur, population in 1891, only esti- mated, 79 (footnote 2); troubles at (1891), 505. Mán Singh, Akbar's Hindu general and Governor of Bengal, 348. Manu, the legendary founder of Sanskrit law, I56, 157. Manufactures and Arts.—See ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. Manure, Use of, 576; want of, a draw- back to improved husbandry, 616. Maráthá power, The (1634-1818 A.D.), chap. xii. pp. 375-382. British India won, not from the Mughals, but from the Hindus, 375; rise of the Maráthás, Sháhji Bhonsla, 375; Sivaji, the con- solidator of the Maráthá power, 375; state of parties in the Deccan (1650), 376; the Maráthás courted by the two rival Muhammadan powers, 376; Sivaji's hill forts, army of cavalry, tactics, etc., 376; his murder of the Bijápur general, Akbar Khán, 377; coins money in his own name, 377 ; visits Delhi (1666), 377; enthrones himself as an independent prince at Räigarh (1674), 377; death (1680), 377; Aurangzeb's mistaken policy in the Deccan, 377; Sambhaji and Sahu, successors of Sivaji, 377; the Sátára and Kolhãpur families, the last of Sivaji's line, 378; rise and progress of the Peshwás, 378 ; second Peshwá (I72 I-40), conquers the Deccan, 378 ; third Peshwá (1740-61), conquests in the Deccan, and raids from Bengal to the Punjab, 378, 379 ; defeat of the Maráthás by Ahmad Sháh the Afghan (1761), 379 ; fourth Peshwá (1761- 72), 379 ; the five great Maráthá branches, 379; fifth Peshwá (1772), his assassination, 38o ; decline of the Peshwás (1772-78), 38o ; the northern Maráthás, Sindhia and Holkar (1761- 1803), 380; the Bhonslas of Berár AAV/D/EX. (I75I-53), 380; the Gáekwárs of Baroda, 380, 381; the sixth and seventh Peshwás (1774-1818), and the three Maráthá wars, 381, 382; end of the Peshwás (1849), 382. ‘Maráthá Ditch,” The, moat constructed partly around Calcutta as a protection against the Maráthás, 379. Maráthá wars, the first (1778-81), 381; 46I ; the second (1802-4), 468; third and last, annexation of the Peshwá's dominions (1818), 381 ; 472. Maráthi literature and authors, 404. Marble carving, I54; marble building Stone, 73O. Marco Polo, by Colonel Yule, quoted, I97 (footnote); 281 (footnote); 283 (footnotes); 288 (footnote); 289 (foot- note); 416 (footnote). Mar Gregory, first Jacobite bishop to the Syrian Church in India, 293. Máriás, aboriginal tribe in the Central Provinces, 94. Māris, aboriginal tribe in the Central Provinces, 94. Markham, Clements, introduced cinchona planting into India, 606. Marriage law of the Hindus, 244, 245. Marshman, J., Baptist missionary, 3I4. Martyn, Rev. Henry, 315. Martyrdoms of Jesuit missionaries, 303, 3O4. Maruts, the Vedic Storm Gods, 122; 139. Masulipatam, East India Company's factory established at (1622), 43 I ; temporarily abandoned (1628), but re- established under a farmán from the King of Golconda (1632), 431, 432 ; murder of the Company's factors at (1689), 434 ; capital of the French in the Northern Circars, 446; stormed by Forde (1760), 446; recapture of, from the French, 453. Matanga, King, could not become a Brähman, 134. Mathematics, Brähmanical system of, I48. Mauritius, The, occupied by the French (1652), 435 ; conquest of, by the English (1809), 470; India's trade with, 683. Mausoleums, I54. - Mayo, Earl of, Viceroy of India (1869- 72), 496-497; the Ambála darbār; visit of the Duke of Edinburgh, administrative reforms, abolition of customs lines, assassination at the Andaman Islands, 496, 497; his scheme for Indian feeder lines of railway, 648. Mayár Pandit, Maráthſ religious poet of the 18th century, 406. Means of communication, chap. xviii. pp. 648-657. History of Indian 835 railways, 648; Lord Dalhousie's trunk railway lines, 648; Lord Mayo's branch or feeder lines, 648, 649; the four classes of Indian railways, “Guar- anteed,’ ‘State,’ ‘Assisted,’ and ‘Native State,’ 649-652 ; statistics of Indian railways, 652, 653; roads, the Grand Trunk Road, extension of minor roads, 654; road metal, 655; bridges of boats, 655; navigable rivers, 655-657; navigable canals, 657. Mediaeval trade of India, 658. Medical colleges in India, 151. Medicine and drugs, 66; Brähmanical System of medicine, I48-152; its in- dependent development, 4th to 8th century, 148; scope of Indian medicine, I49; Indian Surgery, I49, 150 ; Bud- dhist public hospitals, 150, I51; decline of Hindu medicine, 151; English Medi- cal Colleges, I5I ; vernacular medical literature, 151-152. Medlicott and Blanford, Geology of India, quoted, 60 (footnote); 733. Meerut, Timür's massacre at, 339; out- break of the Mutiny at, 490. Megasthenes, description of the Bráh- mans, I37; Seleukos’ ambassador to the court of Chandra Gupta, 200 ; 211; his description of India and of Indian Society (300 B.C.), 215-217; division of India into petty kingdoms, 217. Meghná, the eastern estuary of the united waters of the Brahmaputra and Ganges, 47; 53; 60 ; its ‘bore’ or tidal-wave, 63; the Meghná delta, 58. Mehidpur, defeat of Holkar at, in the last Maráthá war (1817), 472. Memoir of the War in Zndia, conducted by General Zord Zake, by Major William Thorn, quoted, 375 (footnote I). Menezes, Alexis de, Archbishop of Goa, held Synod of Diamper (1599), 292. Menezes, Duarte de, brought bones of St. Thomas to Goa, 289. Metcalfe, Charles, Lord, sent as envoy to Ranjit Singh, 470; temporary Governor- General of India (1835-36), granted liberty of the press, 476. Meteorology of India, chap. xxiii. pp. 743-753. Meteorological geography of the Himalayas and Punjab frontier, 743-745; the Indus plain, and great Indian desert, 745 ; Gangetic plain and Eastern Bengal, 745, 746; the Central Indian and Southern plateaux, 746, 747; Anamalai Hills, 747; Southern coast strip and Ceylon, 747, 748; Burma, 748; Solar radiation, 749 ; air temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity, 749, 750 ; rainfall statistics, 750-752 ; sunspot cycles, 752, 753. 836 AV/O AEX. Mhairs, aboriginal tribe in Rájputána, II.3, II4. Miání, Defeat of the Sind Mírs at, by Sir C. Napier (1843), 480. Mica, 731. Michelborne, Sir Edward, his voyage to Asia, 429. Middleton, Captain D., commanded fifth English voyage to Asia, 429. Middleton, Sir Henry, his naval defeat of the Portuguese at Cambay (16II), 429. Middleton, Thomas, first Bishop of Calcutta (1814), 315. Migration of the people, 82. Mildenhall, Sir John, sent as ambassador to India by Elizabeth, 427. Military caste of St. Thomas Nestorian Christians, 29I ; Portuguese efforts at their conversion to Rome, 29I. Military Zºransactions in Zndosian, by Orme, quoted, 445 (footnote); 447 (footnote). Mill, James, History of British India, quoted, 372 (footnote); 428 (footnote); 445 (footnote); 451 (footnote). Millets, Statistics of cultivation of, and chief varieties, 580, 582, 583. Mills, water-power, in the Himálayas, 41. Mills, Steam cotton, 712-717; jute, 717, 718. Mineral oils, 73; petroleum wells and oil-refining companies in Burma, 729, 730; petroleum in Assam and the Punjab, 730. Minerals and Mines.—See MINES AND MINERALS. Mines and Minerals, chap. xxi. pp. 722- 732. Indian iron, indigenous methods of working, 722; failure of English efforts, 722, 723; Government efforts, 722 ; Indian coal, and history of Bengal coal-mining (1820–83), 723; the Central Provinces and Bengal coal- fields, 723, 724; coal-beds in Assam, 724; future of Indian coal, 725; salt mining and manufacture, 725, 726; saltpetre, 726, 727; gold - washing, 727; gold - mining in Madras and Mysore, 727, 728; copper-mining, 729 ; lead, tin, antimony, and cobalt, 728, 729; petroleum in Burma, Assam, and the Punjab, 729, 730; lime and building stone, 73O; marble, 730; slate, 731 ; diamonds and precious stones, 731, 732; pearl fisheries, 732. —See also GEOLOGY OF INDIA. Miniature painting, I55. Minto, Earl of, Governor-General of India (1807-13); expeditions to Java and Mauritius ; embassies to the Punjab, Afghānistán, and Persia, 469, 47O. Mír Jafar, Nawāb of Bengal (1757-60); compensation for losses at Calcutta, grant to the Company of the zamíndārā of the Twenty-four Parganás, Clive's 7digir, dethronement of Mir Jafar, 450 ; 45 I. Mir Jumlá's unsuccessful expedition to Assam in the reign of Aurangzeb (1662), 367. Mír Kásim, Nawāb of Bengal (1760-63), grant of Bardwan, Midnapur, and Chittagong to the Company; his quarrel with the English, massacre of Patna, and defeat at Gheriá and Udhunélá, 453, 454. tº g Miracles of Buddhist and Hindu religious founders, 184, 185; 258; miracles of the early Jesuits, 303. Miscellaneous AEssays, by Mr. B. H. Hodgson, 398 (footnote). Missionary efforts of Asoka, 191. 4/issiones Catholicæ, quoted, 294, 3IO, 312 (footnote I). Missions, Christian, in India. — See CATHOLIC MISSIONS, CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA, PROTESTANT MISSIONs. Mixed population, 89. Model farms, the small success hitherto attained, 614. Moghias, wild tribe, reclamation of, I 13. Mohpāni colliery in the Central Pro- vinces, 723. - Moira, Earl of.-See HASTINGS, MAR- QUESS OF. Monasteries, Buddhist, 202; Hindu, 251. Monopoly, Salt, 537; opium, 539. Monson, Colonel, his retreat before Holkar (1804), 468. Monze, Cape, and promontory in Sind, marking the extreme western boundary of British India, 35. Mornington, Lord. — See WELLESLEY, MARQUESS. Moti Masjid, or Pearl Mosque, in Agra Fort, 362. - Mūdki, Battle of (1845), 481. Mughal Empire, The (1526-1761 A.D.), chap. xi. pp. 344-374. State of India in I526, 344; genealogical tree of the Mug- hal Emperors, 345; early life of Bábar (I482-1526), 344; invasion of India and defeat of Ibrāhīm Lodi at Pánipat, 344; Bábar's conquest of Northern India, (1526-30), 344 ; Humáyán (153O-56), his expulsion from India (1540), and reconquest by the second battle of Pánipat (1556), 344-346, and foot- note; Akbar the Great (1556-1605), 346-358 ; Akbar's work in India, 347 and footnote; conciliation of the Hindus, 348; extension of the Mughal Empire, and reduction of the Rájputs (1561- 68), 348; Akbar’s Hindu officers, Rájás Mán Singh and Todar Mall, 348; JAW/D/EX. Akbar's reform of Hindu customs, 349; reconquest of Bengal and Sub- jugation of Muhammadan States, 349; change of capital from Delhi to Agra, 349; annexation of Khándesh in the Deccan, 350 ; Akbar's death, 350 ; his religious principles and new faith, 350; Akbar's reorganization of the army, police, and judicial administration of the Empire, 351 ; his revenue system and land revenue, 35 I, 352 and foot- note ; large totals of Mughal taxation, 353, 357; General Cunningham's view, 354;" Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole's view, 354; totals arrived at by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, 355; his conclusions, 355; land revenue or gross revenue, 355; gross Mughal revenues; = double the land-tax, 356, 357; Jahāngir (1605-27), 358 and footnote; Rájput revolts, 359; the Empress Nūr Jahān, 359; Jahāngir's personal character, justice, and religion, 359, 36O ; Sháh Jahān (1628–58), 360- 363; loss of Kandahár, 361 ; Mughal conquests in the Deccan, 361 - 362; Sháh Jahān's buildings, the Tāj Mahál, the Jamá and Moti Masjids, and palace at Delhi, 362, 363; rebellion of Prince Aurangzeb, and deposition of Sháh Jahān (1657-58), 363; revenues of Sháh Jahān, 363; Aurangzeb's usurpa- tion and reign (1658-1707), 364-370; murder of his brothers, 365; rise of the Maráthá power, 365, 366; Aurangzeb's Southern campaign and twenty years' war with the Maráthás, 366; Aurang- zeb’s ‘Grand Army’ worn out in the struggle (1705), his despair and death (1707), 366, 367; Mir Jumlá's dis- astrous expedition to Assam, 367 ; Aurangzeb's bigoted policy, and oppression of the Hindus, 367 ; revolt of the Rájputs, 367, 368; Aurangzeb's revenues and land - tax, 368, 369 ; character of Aurangzeb, 370 ; decline and fall of the Mughal Empire, the six puppet kings (1707 - 20), 370, 37I ; independence of the Deccan, of Oudh, and of the Rájput States, 372; oppressions of the Sikhs, 372; the Maráthá chauth, 372; Persian and Afghān invasions from the north, 372, 373; third battle of Pánipat (1761), and fall of the Mughal Empire, 373; the last of the Mughals (1862), 374; causes of the fall of the Mughal Empire, 374. Mughal irruptions, early, 332, 333; mer- cenaries, 335. Muhammad of Ghor, the first king of the Ghor dynasty in India (1186-12O6), 329-33 I ; his conquests in Northern India, and overthrow of the Rájput 837 clans, 329; subjugation of Bengal, and defeat of its last independent Hindu king (I2O3 A.D.), 330, 33 I. Muhammad Ali, English candidate for throne of Arcot, 445. Muhammad Tughlak, second king of the Tughlak dynasty (I 324-51 A.D.), 336-338; expeditions to the south, 336; his cruelties, enforced change of capital, revolts, revenue exactions, 336- 338; ‘man-hunts,’ 338. Muhammadan architecture, I54; 362. Muhammadan conquest of India only partial and temporary, 323. Muhammadan population of India, 89 ; also Appendix IV., 777. Muhammadan States of the Deccan (1489-1688 A.D.), 34I. Muir, Dr. John, Sanskrit Texts, quoted, I22 (footnote); I25 (footnote); I35 (footnote); 262 (footnote); 392 (foot- notes). Muir, Sir William, his encouragement of education in the North-West Provinces, 567. Mukunda Rāj, Maráthi poet, 404. Mulberry cultivation in Bengal, 6 II. Mules, 619. Müller, Professor Max, History of Sanskrit Aiterature, translation of Rig - Veda, I24 (footnotes); I25 (footnotes); I26 (footnote); Chips from a German Workshop, I24 (footnote); 171 (foot- note); 187 (footnote); IQ6 (footnote); Contemporary A'eview for July 1870, 196 (footnote); Sacred Books of the Aast, vol. xxii., the Jaina Sūtras, by Hermann Jacobi, 207 (footnotes). Múltán, Assassination of British officers at (1848), 483. - Mundas, an aboriginal tribe of Kols in Chutiá Nágpur, III (footnote). Mundavers, a wandering pastoral tribe in the Anamalai Hills, 93. Municipal administration and statistics, 540-542 ; 558, Munro, Major (afterwards Sir Hector), Suppression of the first Sepoy Mutiny by, 454; defeat of the Imperial and Oudh armies at the battle of Baxár,454. Munro, Sir Thomas, introducer of the 7:6 yatzvárá system of land settlement in Madras, 525. Murád, brother of Aurangzeb, put to death, 365. Murshid Kūlí Khán, Nawāb of Bengal, his transfer of the capital from Dacca to Murshidābād, 447, 448. Music, Hindu, I 52-154 ; peculiarities of Indian music, I53; its modern revival, I53-I54. Muslin manufactures of Dacca and Madras, decline of industry, 704. 838 JAW/DEX. Mustagh, pass over the Himálayas on the trade route from the Punjab into Eastern Türkistán, 38. Mutiny, The, of 1857-58, 488-493; its causes, 488, 489; outbreaks at Meerut and Delhi, 490, 491 ; spread of the revolt, 491 ; loyalty of the Sikhs, 491 ; massacre at Cawnpur, 492 ; Siege and relief of Lucknow, 492; siege of Delhi, 492-493; reduction of Oudh, 493; campaigns of Sir Colin Campbell (Lord Clyde) and Sir Hugh Rose (Lord Strathnairn), 493. Muttra, sacked by the Afghāns, 373. Myrobalams, Export of, 679. Mysore, First war with, against Haidar Ali (1780-84), 462; second Mysore war (1790-92), 463; Tipú's intrigues with France, and the third Mysore war (1799), 467; fall of Seringapatam, and death of Tipú in the breach, 467; Mysore taken under British administra- tion and protection, 476; rendition of, to its ancient hereditary Hindu rulers, 499 ; 5I2. N Nabhají Dás, Hindi poet of the 16th cen- tury, and author of the Bhakta-Málá,404. Nadir Sháh's invasion of India and sack of Delhi, 372, 373. Nadiyā, the Brähman fols or colleges at, I37. - Nadiyá rivers, Engineering works to keep open the navigation of, during the dry season, 656, 657. Nágás or Serpent-worshippers, Ancient dynasties of 233, 234; 253, 254. Nágpur, the territories of the Maráthá Bhonsla family lapsed to the British for want of heirs (1853), 486. Nāirs, tribe of south-western India, their polyandry, 93; proposal to enlist in the army, II5. Nalanda, famous Buddhist monastery of the 7th century A.D., 202. Nallamalái Hills, 72. Nám Deva, Maráthſ poet of the 13th Century, 404. Náná Farnavis, Maráthá minister, 381. Náná Sáhib, not recognised as heir to the ex-Peshwá, 486; his proclamation as Peshwá at the outbreak of the Mutiny, and the massacre of the Cawnpur garrison, 491. Nának Sháh, the founder of the Sikh religion, 273; 48O. Napier, Sir Charles, conquest of Sind by (1843), 480; appointed Com- mander-in-Chief, 483. * Napier, Robert, Lord, of Magdala, his public works in the Punjab, 484. Nārāyan Ráo, fifth Maráthá Peshwá (I772), his assassination, 380. Narbadá river, 50 ; 7O. AWarratize of Aolitical and Military Transactions of British /ndia under the Marquis of Hastings, by Henry T. Prinsep, quoted, 375 (footnote). National Congress, The Indian, 504. Native States of India, their relation to the British paramount power, 76; area and population of the seventeen groups of States, 79 ; great increase in the population of (1881-91), 86, 87; Dal- housie's policy towards, 485-487. Náts, a semi-Hinduized gipsy tribe of Lower Bengal, II2. Natural calamities.—See FAMINES. Navigable canals, 657. - Náyak and Pálegár chieftains of Southern India, 342. Nelson, Mr. J., Hindu Zaw as admini- stered by the Figh Court of /udicature at Madras, quoted, 160 (footnote); 244 (footnote). Nepāl, War with, 471 ; Gürkha assist- ance in the Mutiny, 493; trade with, 692-693. Nestorianism among early Indian Chris- tians, 286 ; its wide diffusion, 287; its suppression and downfall, 29.1 - 294; Nestorian remnants, 293, 294. Newberry, James, early English trader in India, 427. Nicholson, General, assisted Lawrence in the Mutiny, 491 ; his death at the storm of Delhi, 492. Nikaia, town founded by Alexander the Great, and identified with the modern town of Mong in Gujrát District, 212. AVáſ Darpan, a famous modern Bengalí play, I70 : 413, 4I4. r AV!!gai or blue cow, 760. Nilgiri Hills in Southern India, 69. Nirvāna, Buddhist doctrine of, I87. Nizām, The, loyal in the Mutiny, 491. Nizām Shāhi, Muhammadan dynasty in Southern India (I490-1636 A.D.), 341. Nizām-ul-Mülk, the first, becomes inde- pendent in the Deccan, 371, 372. Nobili, Robert de, founder of the Madura Jesuits (I606-56), 296. Noer, Graf von, Æaiser Akbar, 346 (footnote). Nomadic cultivation, 4 I ; 83; 622; the merits and destructiveness of nomadic tillage, 628. Non-Aryan or aboriginal races, 89, 90.- See also ABORIGINAL TRIBES, chap. iii. and Appendix IV., 777. Non-Aryan rites merging into Hinduism, 256, 257. Non-Asiatic population of British India, Appendix VI., 779. AVZ)/2 X. Non-regulation territory, 512, 513. Normal schools, 569. Northbrook, Earl of, Viceroy of India (1872-76), dethronement of the Gáek- wär of Baroda ; visit of the Prince of Wales to India, 497. ‘Northern Circars,' ruled by the French, (I75I-60), 446; ceded to the English, 455. North-West passage, Attempts to reach India by way of, 426. Nott, General, his march from Kandahár to Kábul (1842), 479. AVumismata Orientalia (Ceylon fasc.), 214 (footnote). Nuncomar, Trial of, 457. Nunes, Duarte, first Portuguese bishop in India, 296. Nūr Jahān, the queen of the Emperor Jahāngir, 359. Nyāya, one of the six darsanas or Bráh- manical Schools of philosophy, I4I. O Occupation basis of caste, 245. - Ochterlony, General Sir David, threatened Khátmándu, 38 ; his campaigns in Nepāl (1814-15), 471. Odoric of Pordenone, quoted, on St. Thomas’ shrine, 288. oºls Cultivation of, 583; export of, 78. Oldenberg, Professor Hermann, Buddha, his Zife, his Doctrine, his Order, quoted, 2O7 (footnote). Opium, Excise duty on, 539 ; cultivation of, in Bengal and Málwā, 593, 594; export of, 594; Bengal opium system, 4. Origin of Christianity in India, its con- nection with St. Thomas the Apostle, 297. Orissa, by Sir W. W. Hunter, quoted, 133 (footnote); 22O (footnote); 242 (foot- note); 243 (footnote); 265 (footnote); 274 (footnote); 275 (footnotes); 4O2 (footnote). Orissa Province, annexed to the Mughal Empire by Akbar's Hindu general, Rājā Todar Mall (1574), 349; Orissa ceded to the Maráthás (I75I), 379 ; ceded to the British (1803), by the Nágpur Bhonsla on the termination of thesecond Maráthá war, 468; settlement of the land revenue, 524; canal system, 635, 636; the famine of 1866, 644. Orme's Military 7%ransactions in Indo- stazz, quoted, 445 (footnote); 447 (foot- note). Ostend East India Company, established I722; its factories at Covelong on the 839 Madras coast, and at Bánkipur on the Hügli, 436, 437; political objects of the Ostend Company, 437, 438; destruction of the Bánkipur settlement by the Muhammadans (1733), 438; bankruptcy and downfall of the Ostend Company (1784-93), 438. Oudh, Sale of Allahābād and Kora to the Wazir of, by Warren Hastings (1773), 459; the Rohillá war, 459 ; plunder of the Oudh Begams, 460 ; annexation of, 486; Lord Dalhousie's justification of the measure, 487; the Mutiny in, 491 ; inquiry into the status of the peasantry in, 496. Outram, Sir James, his work among the Bhils of Khándesh, II4; annexation of Oudh, 486; relief of Lucknow, 492. Overcrowded and under-peopled districts, 8I. Owen, Sidney J., Selections from the Despatches of the Marquis of Wellesley, quoted, 375 (footnote); Selections from the Indian Despatches of the Duke of Wellington, quoted, 375 (foot- note). Oxenden, Sir George, defended English factory at Surat against Sivaji (1664), 433. P Pab Hills, a southern offshoot of the North-Western Himálayas, forming a portion of the boundary between India and Balūchistán, 39. Pacheco, Duarte, Portuguese captain, his victories at Cochin, 419. “Padroado,” or Portuguese right of eccle- siastical patronage in India, history of, 307, 308; details of the dioceses under, 3I3. Aaikasht rayats, or temporary cultivators, 3. Painting, Indian art of, I55. Pálakollu, early Dutch trading station,425. Pálegár and Náyak chieftains of Southern India, 342. Pálghât Pass, a remarkable break or gap in the Western Ghâts, 69. Pálítána, sacred temple city of the Jains, 2O5. Palk, Dutch governor, gave his name to Palk's Straits, 426. Palm-leaf writings, I44. Palms, Varieties of, 585. Pamir table-land, 36 ; Russian aggression on the, 505. Pāndavas, the five brethren of the Mahá- bhārata; their quarrel and struggle with the Kauravas, I63-I65. Pándya, ancient Hindu dynasty in Southern India, 339. 84o AV/OAX. Pánini, the compiler of the Sanskrit grammar (350 B.C.), I42; 394. Pánipat, celebrated battlefield in Northern India ; defeat of Ibrāhīm Lodi by Bábar (1526 A.D.), 344; defeat of Afghāns by Akbar, and restoration of Hºumáyún to the throne (1556 A.D.), 346; overthrow of the Maráthás by the Afghāns under Ahmad Shāh Durání (1761 A.D.), 373; 379; camp of exercise at (1886), 502. Panna, Diamond mines of, 731. Panniär, Battle of (1843), 480. Pantaenus, the Alexandrian stoic, his evidence as to Christianity in India at the end of the 2nd century A.D., 285. Paper-making, 72.I. - Parameswara, the one First Cause, or Supreme Deity of Hinduism, 278. Párásnáth, hill in Bengal, held sacred by the Jains, 68 ; 205. Parasurāma, the sixth incarnation of Vishnu, his legendary war of extermina- tion with the Kshattriyas, 136. Parochial organization of Portuguese India, 298. Partition of the Gangetic valley by Clive (1765), 455. Passes of the Himálayas, the Khaibar, Kuram, Gwalari, Tāl, and Bolán passes, 38; of the Western Ghâts, the Bhor, Thal, and Pálghât passes, 68, 69. Patala, town founded by Alexander the Great, and identified with the modern city of Haidarābād, the historic capital of Sind, 213. Pathán Kings of Delhi, by Mr. E. Thomas, quoted, 324 (footnote); 332, 333, 334 (footnotes); 336 (footnotes); 337 (footnote); 338 (footnote); 340 (footnote); 346 (footnote). Patná, East India Company’s agency at (I62O), 431 ; massacre of, 454. Peacock Throne of Sháh Jahān, 363. Pearl fisheries, 732. Pegu, Annexation of, as the result of the Second Burmese war, 484. Peninsular India, Geology of 737-741. Penjdeh incident and its results, 502. rºam , defeat of Baillie at (1780), 402. Periplus Maris Erythraei, quoted, 34; II9. Permanent Settlement, The, of Lord ºnwalls and Sir John Shore, 463, 404. Peshāwar, taken by Subuktigin, 325. Peshwás, the rise and progress of their power (1718-1818), 378-382 ; annexa- tion of the Peshwá's dominions, 472. Petroleum or mineral oil, 75; mines and oil-refining companies in Burma, 729, 73O. Petty kingdoms of ancient India in the time of Megasthenes, 217. Phallic emblems in Hinduism, 254, Philipos, Edavalikel, Syrian Church of Malabar, quoted, 291 (footnote 2); 294 (footnote I). Philosophical and terrible aspects of Siva- worship, 260, 261. Philosophy of the Brähmans, its six darsanas or schools, I40, I4I. Physical aspects of India, chap. i. pp. 33-75. General outline, 33; origin of the name of India, 33-35; boundaries, 35, 36; the four regions of India, 36. First region: the Himálayas, 33-42. The Himálayan wall and trough, 37; Himálayan passes, 38; offshoots of the Himálayas, 38; the gateways of India, 38, 39; Himálayan water-supply and rainfall, 39; scenery, 39, 40; vegetation and forests, 39 ; cultivation, 39, 40; irrigation and mill power, 4 I ; saleable produce, 41, 42; fauna of the Himá- layas, 42. Second region: the Northern River Plains, 42-67. The three river systems of India, 42, 43 — (1) the Indus and Sutlej, 43, 44; lower course of the Indus, 44, 45; (2) the Tsan-pu or Brahmaputra, 45-48; the Kailās watershed, 45; the Brahma- putra tributaries in Assam, 45, 46; the Brahmaputra in Bengal, 46, 47 ; Brahmaputra silt deposits and islands, 46, 47; changes in Brahmaputra course, 47 ; the Brahmaputra as a high-road, 47, 48 ; (3) the Gangetic river system. 48-61 ; the growth of the Ganges and its discharge at different points, 49 ; its great tributary the Jumna, 49 ; Sancity of the Ganges, its places of pilgrimage, 50 ; the Ganges as water-carrier, fertilizer, and great water highway of Bengal, 51, 52 ; traffic on the Ganges, 52 ; great Gangetic cities, 53; first and second stages in the life of a great Indian river as a silt collector, 53, 54; loss of carrying power in second stage, 54; third stage as a land- maker, 55; the delta of Bengal, and of Gangetic deltaic distributaries, 55; character of a deltaic river, 55, 56; section of a deltaic channel of th: Ganges, 56; junction of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Meghná—their combined delta, 56; last scene in the life of an Indian river, land-making in the estuary, 57 ; Bengal, the “gift of the Ganges,’ in the same sense as Egypt the “gift of the Nile, 58; size of the Bengal delta, 58 ; suc- cessive depressions of the delta, 58, 59; its subterranean structure, 58, 59 (foot- JAV/D EX. 841 note); amount of silt brought down by the Ganges at Ghāzipur, 60 ; estimated silt of united river at the delta, 6o ; time required to construct the Bengal delta, 61 ; river irrigation by means of canals, 61 ; the rivers as highways of trade, 61 ; saline deposits from canal irrigation, 62; changes of river beds and deserted river capitals, 62; the ‘bore’ of the Hügli and Meghná, 63; destruction of river-side villages, 63, 64; poetry of the Indian river names, 64; crops of the river plains of North-Western Bengal and the delta, 64, 65; scenery of the river plains, 65, 66. Third region : the Southern Table-land, or the Deccan, 67-75. Its three supporting mountain walls, 67 ; the Vindhya mountains and their ranges, the ancient barrier between Northern and Southern India, 68; the Eastern and Western Gháts, 68; the central triangular plateau, 68; the Bhor Ghát, 69; the Thal Ghát, 69 ; the Pálghāt pass, 69 ; rivers of the inner plateau, 69, 70; historical signi- ficance of the Eastern and Western Ghâts, 70; rainfall of the Deccan, 70; the four forest regions of Southern India, 71-72; scenery of Southern India, 72 ; crops, 73; minerals, 73; recapitalution of the three regions of India, their race and languages, 74. Fourth region : Burma, 74. Pilgrimages along the Ganges, 50, 51. Pillar and Rock inscriptions of Asoka, 190 (footnote); 191. Pindari freebooters, Campaign against the (1817), 472. Pippli, early seaboard settlement and port of the East India Company, now far inland, 432. Pius IX., Pope, made ‘Concordat’ of 1857 with Portugal, 307. Plassey, Battle of (1757), 449. Pliny, quoted, 34; mentions the Savars, IO3. Police statistics, 560. Pollock, Sir George, his march from the Punjab to Kábul (1842), 479. Polyandry among the Nāirs and Himé- layan tribes, 93: polyandry of Drau- padſ, the wife of the five Pāndava brethren in the Mahābhārata, 164 ; polyandry in the Hindu marriage law, 244; modern survivals of, 244. Pondicherri, the Catholic prefect and vicar apostolic of, 307; Roman Catholic mission, 313; the French settle at (1674), 435 ; ineffectual siege of, by Admiral Boscawen's fleet and a land force under Major Lawrence (1748), 445 ; siege of, and capitulation to Sir Eyre Coote (1760), 447. Poona, Treaty of (1817), 472. Popham, Captain, storm of Gwalior for- tress during the first Maráthá war, 461. Popular Vishnuism, 267. Population of India, chap. ii. pp. 76-90. General survey of the people, 76; the Feudatory Chiefs and their powers, 76; the twelve British Provinces, 76; Census of 1872, 1881, 1891, 77; popu- lation tables of British, Feudatory, . and Foreign India, 78, 79 ; density of the population, 80 ; absence of large towns, 81 ; overcrowded dis- tricts, 81; under-peopled tracts, 81 ; immobility of the Indian peasant, 82; nomadic system of tillage, 82, 83 ; relation of labour to land in the last century, and at the present day, 83, 84; serfdom, 84; unequal division of the people, 84,85; increase of popula- tion since 1872, 87 ; Census table for 1881-91, 85-88; ethnical history of India, 89 ; fourfold division of the people, into Aryans, non-Aryans, mixed Hindus, and Muhammadans, 89, 90 ; population tables for 1881 and 1891, 88 (footnote), and Appendices I.-IX., 774-79.I. Portuguese in India, 416-424; Covilham, 418; Vasco da Gama, 417, 418; Cabral, 418 ; Francisco de Almeida, 419 : Albuquerque, 420, 421 ; João de Castro (1545-48), 42 I, 422 ; Portuguese Viceroys (1558–78), 422 ; oppressions of the Portuguese, 420, 421 ; downfall of the Portuguese power, 423 ; Portu- guese Indian possessions in 1881, 423 ; mixed descendants, 424; defeat of the Portuguese fleet at Swally off Surat (I615), 429 ; temporary expulsion of the Portuguese from Bengal, 431, 432; early Portuguese trade with India, 663. Portuguese Padroado, or right of ecclesi- astical patronage in India, history of, 307-308. Portuguese Settlements in India, popula- tion of (1807), 79 ; Roman Catholic population of, 3 II. Porus, Defeat of, by Alexander the Great, 2II, 2 I2. * Post-Vedic Gods, Rise of, I 39-140 ; the Hindu Triad, 140. Potato cultivation in the Himalayas, 41. Pottery manufactures, 7IO, 7II ; 730. Practical faith of the Hindus, its toler- ance and fairness to Christianity, 277. Prákrits, The, or spoken languages of Northern India, 394-40O. Pre-Aryan kingdoms in Northern India, 232; pre-Aryan civilisation, 386, 387. 842 IAWDEX. Pre-Buddhistic Scythian influences in India, connection of the Horse-Sacrifice with the Human Sacrifice of pre-Buddh- istic India, 222, 223; 231, 232; Scythic and Nāga influences on Hinduism, and on the religious and domestic life of modern India, 237, 238. Precious metals in India, imports of treasure, 666, 669, 672; gold-mining, 727, 728. Precious stones, 708; 731 ; 732; 74I. Predatory hill races ; their conversion from marauding tribes into peaceful cultivators and good soldiers, I I2- II.3. - Presbyterian missions, 316. Prithwi Rájá, defeated by Muhammad of Ghor, 33O. Prithwáráſ A'disau, early Hindi poem, 33O. Primary education, 566, 567. Primitive Aryan burial, 126, 127. Prince of Wales' visit to India (1875-76), 497. Prinsep, Henry T., AWarrative of Political and 4/7/itary 7% ansactions of British Zºdia under the Margazis of Æastings, quoted, 375 (footnote). Proclamation of the Queen as Empress of India, 498. Products and Agriculture.—See AGRICUL- TURE AND PRODUCTS. Protestant missions in India, 313-319; first translation of the Bible into the vernacular, 3I4; Schwartz, Kiernander, Marshman, Carey, and Ward, 3I4, 315; opposition of the Company to Christian missionaries, 314; withdrawal of the Company’s opposition, 315; Bishopric of Calcutta, 315; statistics of Pro- testant missions, 315-319. Provincial Administration, ‘Regulation' and “Non-Regulation’ territory, Dis- trict officers and their duties, 5 II-516. Prussian and Embden East India Com- panies (I750 and 1753), Dutch and English jealousy of, and their down- fall, 438-440. Ptolemy, mentions the Savars, IO3. Public Works expenditure, 557. —See also MEANS OF COMMUNICATION, RAIL- WAY SYSTEM, ROADS, CANALS, etc. Puliars, a wild aboriginal tribe in the Anamalai Hills, Madras, 93. Pulses, Cultivation of, 583. Punjab, conquered by Mahmūd of Ghazni, 327 ; ceded to Ahmad Shāh Durání (1752), 373; Ranjit Singh's rule in the, 481; garrisoned by British troops, 482 ; annexed, 483; pacified, 483, 484 ; loyalty in the Mutiny, 491. Punjabi language, 400, 40I. I’uránas, The, or “Traditions from of Old," 139; their place in Indian literature, 266, 267. Pushkāra, only great seat of worship of Brahmā, I40. Q Quinton, J. W., murdered at Manipur (1891), 505. Quintus Curtius, quoted, I45. R. Race origin of caste modified by ‘occu- pation’ and ‘locality,’ 24I, 242. Rae, G. M., Zhe Syriazz Chaurch in India, quoted, 280 (footnote 4); 282 (footnote 3); 283 (footnote I). Raghavaiyangar, S. Srinivasa, Memoran- dum on the Arogress of the Madras A residency, quoted, 527 (footnote); 537 (footnote). Raghubá, claimant to the Peshwāship, 3öI. Raghují Bhonsla invaded Bengal, 379. Raghu-vansa, Sanskrit epic, 168 Räigarh, enthronement of Sivaji as an independent monarch at, in the Deccan (I674), 377. - Railway system of India, inaugurated by Lord Dalhousie, 648; extended by Lord Mayo, 648, 649; the eight guaranteed trunk lines, 649, 650 ; State and ‘Assisted railways, 650, 65 I, 652; railways in Native States, 652; statistics of traffic and capital invested, 652-654. Rainfall, Himálayan, 39; Western Ghâts, 7o ; Southern India, 70, 71 ; statistics of rainfall for 435 Indian stations, 750-752. Rájendrála Mitra, Buddha-Gayd, quoted, I78 (footnote I). - Rájputána, Princes of, become feudatories to the British, 473. Rájputána becomes practically independ- ent of the Mughal Empire (1715), 372. Rājputána literature and Sacred poetry, 4O2. Rájputs, their reputed Scythian origin, 227; number of Rájput castes in modern India, 243; distribution of Rájputs in the I2th century A.D., 329, 330 ; Rájput revolts against the Slave kings, 333; against the Khilji dynasty, 335 ; against the Tughlak dynasty, 337-338 ; conciliation of Rájputs by Akbar, 348; revolt against Jahāngir, 359; against Aurangzeb, 367, 368. Rákhas Tál, sacred lake in the Himálayas, 43. JAV/D/EX. Rāma, the hero of the Sanskrit epic Rāmāyana, 166, 167. * Rāmānand, Vishnuite religious reformer (I3OO-I4OO A.D.); his low-caste dis- ciples, 268. Rāmānuja, Vishnuite religious reformer (II50 A.D.), 267. Rāmāyana, the Sanskrit epic relating to the Aryan advance into Southern India, I65; the story of Rāmā, his exile together with his wife Sitá; the war with the aboriginal king of Ceylon, and triumphant return, 166, 167; Tamil imitation of, 390. Rām Mohan Rái, theistic religious re- former and prose religious writer, 413. Rám Prasād Sen, court poet of Nadiyá in the 18th century, 411. Ram Singh, room decorated by, at Osborne, I54. Rangoon, bishopric of, founded, 315; its progress since annexation, 484. Ranjit Singh, the founder of the Sikh kingdom, 481-482. Rāwal Pindi, /)arbár at (1885), 501. A’āyatwārā settlement of the land in Madras, 525 ; growth of the Madras cultivator into a proprietor, 526; extension of tillage, 526-527; reduc- tion of average land-tax, 527. Raynal, Abbé, A'istory of the Settlements and Trade of the Æuropeans in the Aast and West Indies, quoted, 438 (footnote). Raziyā, Empress of Delhi (1236-39), the only lady who ever occupied that throne, 332. Reconquest of India from the Muham- madans by the Hindus (1707-61 A.D.), 323. Reform of Hindu customs by Akbar, 349. “Regulation’ and “Non - Regulation' Provinces, 512. Rehatsek, E., “Holy Inquisition at Goa,’ in Calcutta A'ez'iew, No. 145, quoted, 305 (footnote 3). A'eligion of the Aſindus, by Dr. H. H. Wilson, quoted, 251 (footnote); 254 (footnote); 256 (footnote); 258 (foot- note); 260 (footnote); 263 (footnote); 27I (footnote); 273 (footnotes) 275 (footnote). A'eligions of India, by Dr. Barth, quoted, 2O7 (footnote). Religious classification of the population of British India, Appendix IV., 777. Rennell, Major, map of Bengal in 1765, 47; quoted on silk weaving in Bengal, 609, 61O. Rent Commission of Bengal (1879), and its reforms in the extension of tenant- right and compensation for dis- turbance, 523, 524. 843 A'eport on the Miscellaneous Old Records in the Zndia Office, by Sir George Bird- wood, 42O (footnote); 423 (footnote); 427 (footnotes); 431 (footnote); 434 (footnote). Reptiles, 762; poisonous serpents, and deaths from Snake-bites, 763. Revenue of the Mughal Empire under Akbar, 352 ; growth of the Mughal revenues (I 593-1761 A.D.), 357. A'ezenzie Resources of the Mughal Empire, by Mr. E. Thomas, quoted, 324 (foot- note); 353 (footnote); 357, 359 (foot- note); 363 (footnote); 369 (footnotes). Revenue system of British India, the land-tax, 517-520; 534; Salt-duty, 535, 537; excise and opium, 538,539; muni- cipal revenues, 540, 54I ; revenue and expenditure of British India, 540-558. A'ezue de l'A'istoire des Äeligions, by Dr. Barth, quoted, 207 (footnote). Rhinoceros, The Indian, 759. Rhododendrons in the Himálayas, 40. Rice cultivation in Bengal, 65; in other Provinces of India, its numerous varieties, 578; out-turn, 578, 579 ; export of, 676; export duty on, 677. “Right-hand’ and ‘left-hand’ castes of Madras, 246. Rig-Veda, the earliest Sanskrit hymnal, II8, 129; its antiquity, I 18, I IQ ; caste and widow - burning unknown, I 19 ; the story of the Aryan advance into India, I2O ; Aryan civilisation in the Veda, I2O ; the gods of the Veda, 120- I22; Vedic conceptions of the Deity, the modern blood-loving gods unknown, I23; Vedic hymns and prayers, 124- I27; primitive Aryan form of burial, I25; cremation substituted for burial, I26; Vedic legend of Yama, the king of death, I26; the Vedic farewell to the dead, I26, 127. Rintimbur, taken by Alá-ud-din Khilji (I300), 334. Ripon, Marquess of (Viceroy of India, 1880-84); conclusion of the Afghān war, amendment of criminal procedure, revenue reforms, Education Commis- Sion, abolition of customs duties, Ben- gal Tenancy Bill, 498-50I. Rise of the Maráthá Power, 365, 366. —See also chap. xii., “The Maráthá Power,’ 375-382. Rishis, composers of the Vedas, I29. River communications, 47, 48; 51, 52 ; 655-657. River plains of India, 42-66; the great rivers, Ganges, Jumna, Indus (with Sutlej), and Brahmaputra, 43-52 ; the different stages in the life of an Indian river, 53-57; the Bengal delta and process of land-making, 57; rivers as 844 INDEX. irrigators and highways, 61 ; destruct- ive floods, 6 I-64; poetry of Indian river names, 64; crops and Scenery of the River Plains and the Bengal delta, 64-66. River systems of Northern India, 42, 43 ; of Southern India, 69, 70. River traffic on the Ganges and Gangetic channels, and of the port of Calcutta, 53. Roads, old military routes, the ‘Grand Trunk Road,” inland route from Bom- bay, extension of minor roads, 654, 655. Roberts, Sir Frederick, his march from Kábul to Kandahár, and defeat of Ayūb Khán, 499. - Rock Edicts of Asoka, I89, 190 (foot- note); I9 I and footnote. Rockhill, Mr. W. Woodville, Zife of the Auddha, and the early History of his Order, derived from Tibetan works, and translated by, quoted, 181 (foot- note); 183 (footnote); 199 (footnote); 2O6 (footnote); 223 (footnote); 224 (footnotes); 225 (footnotes). Roe, Sir Thomas, first British Ambassador to India, in the reign of Jahāngir (1615 A.D), 359: 430. Rohilkhand and Bijnaur Canals, 634. Rohillá war, 459. Roman Catholics, Distribution of, in India, 309; the Verapolivicariate, 309 ; Roman and Syrian Catholic population of India, 309-312 ; Catholic progress, colleges and Schools, 3IO, 312, 313. – See also CATHOLIC MISSIONS. Roman coins found in India, 91 ; 285 (footnote I). Roman trade with India (190 A.D.), 284. Rose, Sir Hugh (Lord Strathnairn), campaign in Central India, 493. Ross of Bladensburg, Major, his Zord Aastings (“Rulers of India'), quoted, 375 (footnote I); 382 (footnote). Rotation of crops, 576. Roth, Professor, ‘Indische Medicin, Karaka,’ published in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft for 1872, quoted, I52 (footnote). - Rudra, the Vedic god, who developed, into Siva, I23; I40. Rural population, 81 ; proportion of town to rural population, 81 ; number and population of villages and towns, Appendix II., 775. - Russia, advance of, in Central Asia to- wards Afghānistán, 478, 498, 505. “Russia Company’ founded, 426. S. Sacred Books of the East, by Professor Max Müller, quoted, 207 (footnotes). Sadras, early Dutch trading station, 425. Safed Koh, mountain range forming a portion of the western boundary be- tween British India and Afghānistán, 35; 38. Safflower, Export of, 679. Ságar Island at the mouth of the Ganges, a celebrated place of pilgrimage, 49. Sahu, son and nominal successor of Sam- bhaji, 377, 378. , - Saidépet, Government model farm at, in Madras, recently closed, 614; agri- cultural school at, 615. Saint David, Fort, founded (1686), 434 ; English escape to, when Madras is taken (1746), 445. Saint Frais, M. de, commanded French artillery at battle of Plassey, 450. Sáka or Scythian era (78 A.D.), 228. Sakhi Sarwar, place of pilgrimage in the Punjab, sacred both to Hindus and Muhammadans, 253. Sakta or Tantrik sect of Siva-worshippers, 264. Sakuntalá, famous Sanskrit drama, I69. Sakya race customs, 225. Sálár Jang, Sir, his loyalty in the Mutiny, 49 I. Salbái, Treaty of, 381 ; 462. Sale, Sir Robert, defended Jalālābād (1842), 478. Salim, Prince, Akbar's favourite son and successor, as the Emperor Jahāngir, 358-36O. Saline deposits from canal irrigation, 62. Salivāhaná, King of Southern India, his wars with the Scythians, 228, 229. Salt admininstration, 535; sources of supply and systems of manufacture, 536; the Madras monopoly, 537: equalization of duty, 536, 537; yield of salt duty, 553; the Rájputána salt lakes, and Punjab salt mines, 725, 726. Saltpetre, Manufacture of, 726, 727. Salt Range, Geology of, 735. Samarkand, conquered by Bábar (1497), 344. r Sáma-Veda, The, I29. Sambalpur, Diamonds of, 731. Sambhaji, son and successor of Sivaji, put to death by Aurangzeb, 377. Samvat and Sáka eras (57 and 78 A.D.), 228. San Bartolomeo, Fra Paolino de, 18th century missionary, 306. Sanctity of the Ganges, 50. Sandwip Island, Slavery in, 84. Sankara Achárya, a Sivaite religious re- former (9th century A.D.) 259, 260, JAV/D/EX. Sánkhya, one of the six darsanas or Bráhmanical Schools of philosophy, I4I. Sanskrit Grammar, by Professor Whit- ney, 392 (footnote). Sanskrit grammar and literature, I42-I45; 392-394; Pánini's grammar, I42 ; Sanskrit and Prakrit speech, I42; Sanskrit manuscripts, I43; the Indian alphabet, I44; Sanskrit writings almost entirely verse, I45; prose a forgotten art, I45; Sanskrit diction- aries, I45; evidence as to whether Sanskrit was ever a spoken vernacular, 392–394. Sanskrit Zexts, by Dr. John Muir, quoted, 122 (footnote); I25 (footnote); I35 (footnote); 262 (footnote); 392 (foot- notes). Santali language, IO3 (footnote 2). Santals, an aboriginal tribe of Bengal, 95 ; their village government, 95 ; social ceremonies, 96; religion, 96, 97; the Santāls under British rule, 97 ; Santál rising (1855), 98. Sátára, Native State, lapsed to the British for want of heirs (1849), 485. Satá, or widow-burning, unknown in the Rig-Veda, II9 ; abolition of the rite by Lord W. Bentinck, 475. Satnāmis, a reformed Vishnuite sect in the Central Provinces, 273. Sātpura, range of mountains in Bombay and Central India, 67. Savars, an aboriginal Kolarian tribe, IO3. Sayyid dynasty, the (1414–50 A.D.), 339. Sayyid “king-makers,’ the, 371. Scarcities.—See FAMINES. Schools.-See EDUCATION. Schultze, early Lutheran missionary, 314. Schwartz, Protestant missionary in Tan- jore, 3I4. Scott-Waring, Mr. Edward, History of the Maráthás, quoted, 375 (footnote). Sculpture, Greek and Indian types, 218, 2 IQ ; 7 II. Scythic invasions and inroads B.C. to 544 A.D.), chap. vii. pp. 221-239. Aryan and Turanian inva- sions from Central Asia, 22 I ; Scythic movements towards India, 22.I. 222 ; Ranishka's fourth Buddhist Council (40 A.D.), 222 ; pre-Buddhistic Scythic influences, 222 ; (? Scythian), 223, 224; early Tibetan traditions, 224, 225; Sakya race customs, 225 ; Scythic Buddhism in India, 225, 226; Scythic elements in the Indian population—the Játs and Rájputs, 226, 227; Indian struggle against the Scythians, 228 : Vik- ramāditya’s achievements, 228; Sen, Gupta, and Vallabhi dynasties, 229, 230 ; the pre-Aryan element in ancient (126 Buddha a Sakya | 845 India, 231 ; ancient pre-Aryan king- doms, 232-237; the Takshaks of Râwal Pindi, 232, 233; the Nāgās, 233, 234; the Ghakkars of Ráwal Pindi, 234 ; the Bhars of Oudh and the North- Western Provinces, 235; Koch king- dom of Northern Bengal, 235, 236; the Ahams of Assam, 236; Bundelas, 236; Gonds, Ahirs, and Bhils of Central India, 237; pre-Aryan ab- original tribes of Lower Bengal and Southern India, 237; Scythic and Nāgā influences on Hinduism, and on the religion and domestic life of modern India, 237, 238; possible future Hindu revivals, 239. Sea-borne trade of British India, 662- 687; the great seaports, 663; early European, Portuguese, Dutch, and English traders, 663, 664 ; advance- ment of English trade, 664, 665 ; Indian trade (1878-85), 666-667; staples of foreign sea-borne import and export trade, 666-687.-See also COMMERCE AND TRADE. Secret orgies in Siva-worship, 265. Secretariats of the Government of India, and of the minor governments, 516, 517. Secretary of State’s India Council in London, 507. Secular literature of the Hindus, I6I-I 71. —See also chap. xiii., ‘The Indian Vernaculars and their Literature,' 383- 4I5. Segauli, Treaty of, at the termination of the Gürkha war (1815), 47 I. Selections from the Despatches of the Marquis Wellesley, by Sidney J. Owen, quoted, 375 (footnote); Selec- tions from the Despatches of the Duke of Wellington, by Sidney J. Owen, quoted, 375 (footnote). Seleukos, Alexander's successor to his conquests in Bactria and the Punjab (312-306 B.C.), 213, 2I4; cession of the Punjab to Chandra Gupta, 2I4; Megas- thenes' embassy to Chandra Gupta's court at Pataliputra (the modern Patná), 2I4, 2I5. Sena dynasty of Suráshtra (70 B.C.-235 A.D.), 229. Serampur or Fredriksnagar, Settlement of the Danish East India Company (1616), acquired by the English by purchase (1845), 436; Baptist mission at, founded by Carey, Marshman, and Ward, 3I4. Serfdom in India, 84. Seringapatam, Capture of, and death of Tipú Sultán (1799), 467. Serpent-worship, among the Dravidians, IO7, Io& ; its influences on Hinduism, 233, 234; Serpent ornamentation in 846 AAV/DAX. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity, 252. - Sháh Jahān, fifth Mughal Emperor of India (1628-58 A.D.), 36O-363; chief events of his reign, 360 (footnote); loss of Kandahár (1653), 361 ; Deccan conquests, 361, 362; Tāj Mahál and other architectural works, 362 ; revenues, 362 (footnote); deposed by his rebellious son, Prince Aurangzeb, 363; magnificence of his court, 363. Sháhji Bhonslá, founder of the Maráthá Power (1634), 375. Sháh Shujā installed by the British as Amír of Kábul (1839), 478; restored to Kábul by the English, 478. Sháistá Khán, Nawāb of Bengal, con- fiscated English settlements in Bengal (1686), 434. * g Sharpay, Captain, his voyage "to Asia (1609), 429. Shawls, 155; 706; an Indian jewelled shawl, 706. Sheep as beasts of burden in the Himá- layas, 41, 42. Sheep and goats, 42 ; 620; 759. Sher Ali, recognised as Amir of Afghāni- stán, by Lawrence and Mayo, 496; his death, 498. Sher Shāh, Afghān Emperor of Delhi (1540-45), killed while storming the fortress of Kálinjar, 346. Sherring, Rev. M. A., A'indu Tribes and Castes, 242 (footnote); 243 (footnotes); 244 (footnote); 27 I (footnote). Shevaroy Hills, 72. Shillinge, Captain, defeated the Portu- guese (I62O), 43 I. Shore, Sir John, Governor-General of India (1793-98), 464. Shrines common to different faiths, 252. Shujá, brother of Aurangzeb, defeated,365. Siam marches with Burma, 35 ; delimita- tion of the frontier, 506; trans-frontier trade with, 692, 693. Sighelm of Sherborne, sent by King Alfred to shrine of St. Thomas, 290 ; 416 (footnote); 427. Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar at, 350. Sikhs, history of the, 480 ; Nának, the founder of the religious sect, 273 ; 48o; the, their revolt and persecution by the Mughals, 372; Ranjit Singh, the founder of the kingdom, 481 ; first Sikh war (1845); battles of Müdki, Firozshāh, Aliwál, and Sobrãon, 481, 482; second Sikh war (1848-49); battles of Chilianwála and Gujrát, 483; annexation of the Punjab, and its pacification, 483, 484; loyalty of the Sikhs during the Mutiny of 1857, 491. Síláditya, Buddhist King of Northern India (634 A.D.), 2OI. Silk and sericulture, 609-612 ; the Com- pany's factories, 609; area and out- turn, 610, 61 I ; silk-weaving in Bengal, Burma, and Assam, 704, 705; jungle silks (tasar), 612 ; steam silk factories, 705. Silt islands in the Brahmaputra, 46, 47; in the estuaries and along the Sea face of Bengal, 56, 57. Silver.—See PRECIOUS METALS. Silver, the depreciation in the gold value of, 506; 556, 557. Sind, great increase in population of (1891), 86; Muhammadan conquest of, (7II-828), 321 ; conquered by Akbar (I591-92), 349; conquest of, by the English (1843), 480. Sindhi language, 398, 400. Sindhia, the family name of the ruler of the Maráthá State of Gwalior in Central India; rise of the family to power, 380 ; wars with the English, 3öO. Sindhia, Mādhava Ráo, by H. G. Keene, quoted, 375 (footnote I). Singha and Sena dynasties of Surāshtra (70 B.C.-235 A.D.), 229. Sirâjganj, emporium of the trade of the Brahmaputra, 48. Sirâj-ud-Daulā, Nawāb of Bengal (1756- 57), 448-450 ; capture of Calcutta by, the Black Hole, 448; recapture of Calcutta, and the battle of Plassey, 448, 449. Sirhind canal, 632. Sittar, a theistic school of Tamil hymno- logists, 390. Siva, the Destroyer and Reproducer, the third person in the Hindu Triad, 140 ; his twofold aspects, 261, 262. Sivaji the Great, the consolidator of the Maráthá Power (1627-80), 375-377; his hill forts and guerilla warfare, 376, 377; coins money and enthrones him- self, 377. Siva-worship, 260-265; twofold aspects of Siva and his wife — their philo- sophical and their terrible forms, 26I, 262; human sacrifice, 262, 263 ; the Charak-Pujá or Swinging Festival, 263 ; the thirteen Sivaite sects, 263, 264; gradations of Siva-worship, 264; Secret Orgies in Siva-worship, 265; Siva and Vishnu compared, 265, 266. Siwálik Hills, an offshoot of the Himé- layas, geology of, 734 735. Skefsrud, quoted on the Santali language, IO4 (footnote 2). Slate, 731. Slave kings, The (I2O6-90 A.D.) 331- 333; Kutab-ud-din, 33 I ; Altamsh, the greatest of the Slave kings, 332; the Empress Raziyá, 332; Mughal inroads JAV/D/EX. and Rájput revolts, 332, 333; Balban, his cruelties and royal pensioners, 333. Slavery and serfdom, 84. Sleeman, Sir W. H., suppressed thagi, 476. Slow progress of Muhammadans in India, Hindu resistance and internal revolts; reconquest of India from the Musal- máns, 322, 323. Smārta Brähmans of Southern India, 259, 26O. Smith, Colonel Baird, Calcutta /ournal of Matural History, quoted, 60. Sobrãon, Battle of (1845), 481. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 316; number of converts, 317. Society of the Holy Childhood, Roman Catholic missionary organization, 313. Somnáth, Sack of, by Mahmūd of Ghazní (IO24A.D.), 327 ; the Proclamation and procession of the so-called gates of, by Lord Ellenborough, 479. Son canal and irrigation works, 636, 637. Spices, Cultivation of, 584, 585. Sridhar, Maráthſ poet of the 16th century, and compiler of the Maráthſ paraphrase of the Sanskrit Purānas, 404. Srimanta Sadágar, famous Bengali poem of the 16th century, by Makunda Râm, 4. IO. Stamp revenue, 552. State railway system, 650, 65 I. Statistical Survey of Bengal, completion of, 522. St. Bartholomew the Apostle, his preach- ings and alleged conversion of India testified to by Pantaenus (190 A.D.) and Hippolytus (22O A.D.), 285. St. Thomas the Apostle, the traditionary founder of Christianity in India, 279, 28o ; the three St. Thomases of India, and the legends connected with each, 281-282; tradition of the Indian King Gondaphorus and St. Thomas, 282, 283; Gondaphorus an Indo-Scythic Punjab monarch, 283; wide meaning of India in the writings of the Fathers, 283, 284 ; St. Thomas' work in Persia and Central Asia instead of in India proper, 284; localization of the legend of St. Thomas in North India or Persia, 288 ; shrine of St. Thomas at Madras, 288; mixed worship at St. Thomas’ Mount, Madras; 288 ; St. Thomas' relics at Goa, 289; the St. Thomas Nestorian Christians, a power- ful and respected military caste in Southern India, 29I ; downfall of Nestorianism, 29O-294. St. Thomas the Apostle of Zndia, by the Rev. Dr. Kennet, quoted, 283 (foot- note); 285 (footnote); 288 (footnote); 290 (footnote). 847 Steel, Mr. Arthur, Zaw and Custom of Aindu Castes, quoted, 244 (footnote). Stephen, Sir J. F., Story of AVuncomar, quoted, 457. Stephens, Thomas, the first authentic English traveller in India, and rector of the Jesuit College at Salsette (1579 A.D.), 427. Stevenson, David, Canal and Rizer AEngineering, quoted, 55. Stewart, W., History of Bengal, quoted, 330 (footnotes 3, 4). Strachey, General Sir R., calculations on the age of the Bengal delta, 61. Strachey, Sir John, Hastings and the A'ohillá War, quoted, 460 (footnote 2). Straits Settlements, India's trade with, 682; 685, 686. Strathnairn, Lord. — See ROSE, HUGH. ‘Strikes’ among Indian castes, 248. Su, a Tartar tribe, their overthrow of the Greek settlements in Bactria, 222. Subuktigin, first Türki invader of India (987 A.D.), 325. Sudhanwan’s alleged persecution of the Buddhists, 24O and footnotes. Südras, the servile caste of ancient India, SIR I32. Suez Canal, Trade with India ziá, 667, 668, 687. Sugar-cane, Cultivation of, 585. Sugar duties, Abolition of inland (1836), 665. Suláimán range of hills, marking a portion of the western boundary between British territory and Afghānis- tán, 35, 38. Sun-spot cycles, 752, 753. Sun worship, traces of, among the San- tāls, 97. Surat, beast hospital at, 250 ; English obtain leave to trade at (1612 A.D.), 429 ; defeat of the Portuguese fleet at Swally, the port of Surat, by Captain Best (I615 A.D.), 429 ; Surat, the chief seat of the Company’s govern- ment in Western India till 1684-87, when it was transferred to Bombay, 433; Surat pillaged by Sivaji (1664), 433 ; treaty of Surat between Rag- hunéth Ráo and the British, 461. Súr Dás, poet of Mathura in the 16th century, and author of the Sürságar, 4O4. Surendra Mohan Tagore, Sir, his en- couragement of Hindu music, I53, I54. Surgery, Hindu, I49, I5O. * ‘Survey’ land tenure in Bombay, its simplicity, advantages, and disadvan- tages, 528. Susruta, legendary founder of Indian 848 AAWDAE.X. medicine, 134, I49, I 5 I ; modern edi- tion of his works, I52 (footnote I). Sutlej, great river of the Punjab, and chief tributary of the Indus, 43. Sūtras, or sacred Sanskrit traditions, I3O. * Swally, Defeat of the Portuguese fleet at (I6 I5), 429. - Swedish East India Company, 440. Synod of Diamper (1599 A.D.), 292. Syrian Christians in India, their numbers and antiquity, 280; Syrian Catholics in Malabar, 293-295; Syrian and Roman Catholic Christians at the present day, 3O9, 3 II. T Tables and Summaries: population and area of British India (1891), 78; of Feudatory India, 79 ; of all India, 79; population of India in 1872 and 1881, 87; in 1881 and 1891, 88; of the non- Aryan languages of India, IO8, IO9; of the aboriginal tribes and semi- Hinduized aborigines (1872), I IO; of the reign of Asoka, 189 (footnote); of Roman Catholic population of British India and Native States, 3 II ; of Portuguese India, 3 II ; of French India, 312 ; summary of Protestant missions in India and Burma (1851- 90), 318; total Christian population in India (1872, 1881, 1891), 319; Indian ecclesiastical staff (1884), 32O ; summary of Muhammadan conquerors and dynasties (IOOI-1857), 324; genea- logical tree of the Mughal Emperors, 345; summary of the reign of Humaylän, 344, 346 (footnote); of the reign of Akbar, 347 (footnote); Akbar's land revenue, 352 (footnote 2); revenues of the Mughal Emperors, 357; summary of the reign of Jahāngir, 358 (footnote 2); of the reign of Sháh Jahān, 360 (footnote 2); provinces of the Delhi Empire under Sháh Jahán, 362 (footnote 3); summary of the reign of Aurangzeb, 364 (footnote); land revenue of Aurangzeb, 369 (foot- note); summary of the decline and fall of the Mughal Empire, 370 (foot- note); mediaeval European travellers, 416 (footnote); Europeans in British India, 442 ; rulers of British India from Clive to Lord Lansdowne, 452, 453; area and population of Districts in British India, 516; actual taxation of British India (1869-79), 544; (1879-91), 545 ; gross imperial revenue and ex- penditure of British India for 1890-91, 551; number of vernacular newspapers, 57O ; character of publications in 1890, 573; subjects of publications, 574; ratio of area under the three principal classes of Indian food-grains, (1878, 1883, 1891), 580; approximate area of the principal crops in some Indian provinces (1877, 1883, 1891), 596, 597; approximate numbers of live stock in the Indian Provinces in 1883 and 1891, 621 ; total and nett revenue from forests in British India (1883 and 1890), 626; ordinary area of cultivation and irrigation in certain Provinces (1880), 64o ; area irrigated in 1890,641. - Tāj-Mahál, The, 154 ; 362. Takht-i-Sulāimán, mountain in the Sulāi- mán range, 38. Takkas, a Turanian race, and the earliest inhabitants of Ráwal Pindi District, 2I I (footnote); their present descend- ants, 232. Takshaks, an early Scythian tribe in the Punjab, 232, 233. Tál, mountain pass over the Brahui Hills from the Punjab into Balūchistán, 38. Tālikot, Battle of, and overthrow of the Vijayanagar kingdom (I565 A.D.), 34. I. Tālukdārs or great landlords of Oudh, 533, 534. Tamil, Bible translated into, 313; the oldest and most influential of the ver- nacular literatures of Southern India, 388; first cultivation of Tamil by the sage Agastya, 389 ; Jain cycle of Tamil literature from the 9th to the 13th century, 389 ; its great Pariah poet and poetess (900 A.D. P), 389 ; the Tamil Rāmāyana, 390 ; Sivaite and Vishnuite Tamil hymnologies, 390 ; the Sittar or anti-Brähmanical Tamil poets of the 17th century, 390; modern Tamil writers, 390 ; Beschi, the Jesuit priest, 391 ; recent statistics of Tamil literature, 392. Tántia Topi, mutineer leader, campaign against, 493. Tantrik sect of Siva-worshippers, 264. Tartar overthrow of Greek conquests in Bactria, 222.-See also SCYTHIC IN- VASIONS. - Tasar, or jungle silkworm, 66; 611, 612. - - Tassy, Garcin de, Histoire de la Zittéra- ture Hindouie et Hindoustanie, quoted, 401 and footnote. Tatta, English agency established at (I635), 432. - Tavernier, his estimate of the value of Sháh Jahān's Peacock Throne, 363. Taxation of India under the Mughal Emperors (1593-1761 A.D.), 357; taxa- tion under the Mughals and the British, AV/D/EX. 548, 549; taxation in Native States, 549; incidence of taxation in British India, 549.-See also FINANCES and REVENUE Sy STEM. - Taxila, ancient town in Räval Pindi District, Punjab, the home of the Takkas, identified with the ruins of Deri Sháhan, 2II (footnote); 232. Tea cultivation and manufacture, 6oo- 606; indigenous to Assam, 600; early experiments and failures, 601, 602 ; rapid progress of the industry, 602; statistics of out-turn, 603-604; varie- ties of the plant, 6O4; the work of a tea-garden, 605; export of tea, 679, 68o. - Teak forests, 72 ; 75. - Tegnapatam (Fort St. David), East India Company's factory established at (1686-92), 434. Teignmouth, Lord ; see Shore, Sir John. Telang, K. T., his essay, Was the Admá- yama copied from Homer ? quoted, 166 (footnote); Assay on the Mudráráž- hasa, quoted, I73 (footnote); 384 (footnote). Temperature of various meteorological stations in India, 749-750.-See also METEOROLOGY OF INDIA. Temple, Sir R., Minute on the balance of Indian trade, 688. Tenancy (Bengal) Bill, 501. Tenant-right in Bengal, compensation for disturbance, 524. Tennyson, Lord, Dream of Ažbar, 346 (footnote). Zhagi or professional strangling, Sup- pression of, by Lord W. Bentinck, 475. Thal-Ghāt, mountain pass in the Western Gháts, 69. Thána, a Jesuit station (1550 A.D.), its colony of Christian craftsmen and cultivators, 298, 299. *- Thaneswar, defeat of Muhammad of Ghor at (II91), 329. Thdná ràyats, or stationary husbandmen, 575. Thebau, King of Burma, defeated and deported, 502. Theistic movements in Vishnuite religious reforms, 273; theistic hymns, 390, 39 I. . Thomas the Apostle, Thomas the Manichaean, and Thomas the Armenian merchant, conversion of India variously ascribed to.—See chap. ix., ‘Christi- anity in India,” 279-289. Thomas, Mr. E., Paper on the Sáh and Gupta coins, in the A’eport of the Archaeological Survey of Western Zndia for 1874-75, quoted, 192 (footnote); 219 (footnotes); 222 (footnote); 229 849 (footnotes); /ainism, or the AEarly Faith of Asoka, 206 (footnote); A'ezemzle Aesources of the Mughal Ampire, 324 (footnote); 353 (foot- note); 357, 359 (footnote); 362, 363 (footnote); 369 (footnote); Chronicle of the Pathdºn Aïngs of Delhi, 324 (footnote); 333, 334 (footnotes); 336 (footnotes); 337 (footnotes); 338 (footnote); 340 (ſootnote); 346 (foot- note); 353 (footnote). Thomason, John, his educational system in the North-West Provinces, 567. Thorn, Major William, Memoir of the War in India conducted by General Mord Zake, 375 (footnote). - Tibet, Catholic vicariate-apostolic of, 308 (footnote); trade with, 691, 693. Tibetian ideas and early traditions of Buddhism, 224-225. Tibeto-Burmans, non - Aryan tribes of the Lower Himālayas, their languages, IOI ; IO9. Tieffenthaler, quoted, on the ravages of the Afghāns, 373. Tiger, The Indian, 755 ; man - eating tigers, 755. - Tile pottery of the Punjab and Sind, 71 I. Timber trees, 66; 72 ; 75.-See also FOREST DEPARTMENT. Timir (Tamerlane), Invasion of India by (1398 A.D.), 338. Tin in Burma, 75 ; 729. Tinnevelli missions, 3I4. Tipú Sultán, son of Haidar Ali ; his forced conversion of Native Christians in Kånara, 306; second Mysore war (1790-92), 464; third Mysore war (1799); fall of Seringapatam, and death of Tipú, 467. Tistá, river of Bengal, its changes of course, 62. Titles of Siva and his wife in their different Aryan and non-Aryan forms, 26I, 262. - Tobacco cultivation and manufacture, growth of the trade, 75 ; 595. Tod, Colonel, Annals and Antiguities of Adjasthān, quoted, on the abor- igines, I I4; 227 (footnotes); 232 (footnote); 233 (footnotes). Todar Mall, Akbar's Hindu general and finance minister, his revenue settle- ment, 348; 358. Tolerant spirit of Hinduism, 276, 277. ZoZographia Chriszzazza (Paris, 1707), quoted, 23.I. - Towns and villages of British India classi- fied according to population, Appendix II., 775. . . . . . . Towns of British India with a popula- tion exceeding 20,000, Appendix VIII, 784-790. . 3 H 850 AVZ) AX. Towns, Absence of large, in India, 8I. Trade and Commerce.—See COMMERCE AND TRADE. Trade, Tabular statement of, with foreign countries, 685. Trade - guilds, 247; guild - funds and charities, trade Zersus caste interests, 248 ; caste a ‘mutual insurance,’ and substitute for a poor law, 248. Trade-Unions.—See TRADE-GUILDS. Trading castes in Northern and Southern India, 694, 695. Traill, Rev. John, quoted on Rájputána literature, 402. Tranquebar, Lutheran mission of, 315; settlement of the Danish East India Company (1616), acquired by the English by purchase (1845), 436. Trans-Himálayan trade, 690-694. Travancore, Missionary bishopric of, founded (1879), 315. Travellers, mediaeval European, in India, 416 (footnote). Treasure, Import of, proportion of gold to silver, gold and silver currency, 669- 672. Treaties, Early Indo-Greek (306 and 256 B.C.), 213; 217. Tree and Serpent Worship, by Dr. J. Fergusson, quoted, 254 (footnote). Tribes of the Morth-Western Provinces, by Sir Henry Elliot, 244 (footnote). . Trichinopoli cheroots, 595. Troubles of the early Indian Church, 29O. Trumpp, Dr. E., Grammar of the Sindhá Alanguage, quoted, 394; believes three- fourths of Sindhi words non-Aryan, 398. Tsan-pu, the Tibetan name for the upper waters of the Brahmaputra before it forces its way through the Himálayas, 45. Tughlak dynasty, The (I32O-I4I4 A.D.), 336-339; Ghiyás-ud-din Tughlak (1320-24), 336; Muhammad Tugh- lak (1324 - 51), 336; his cruelties, forced currency, etc., 336, 337; revolt of the Provinces, 337; revenue exac- tions, 338; ‘man-hunts,’ 338; Firuz Shāh Tughlak (1357-88), 338; Mah- múd Tughlak 338; Timür's invasion (1398), 338; ruin of the Tughlak dynasty (I399-I4I4), 339. Tukarám, Maráthá Vishnuite religious poet of the 17th century, 406. Tungabhadra irrigation works, 637. Turanian and Aryan migrations into India from Central Asia, 22.I. Turanian languages, 386. Türki invasions of India, 325. Turmeric, Export of, 679. U Udhunalá, Battle of, and defeat of Mir Kásim, 454. Umá, the Aryan form of the wife of Siva, 261, 262. ' Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, by Miss Bird, quoted, 198 (footnote); 274 (footnote). Under-peopled Districts and Provinces, I. Unequal pressure of population on the land, 84. United States, India's trade with, 684; 685 ; 686. Universities, Indian, 563-565. Upanishads, The, I39. Upendra Bhanj, Rājā of Gumsar, a famous Uriyá poet, 402. Uráons, an aboriginal tribe of Kols in Western Bengal and Chutiá Nágpur, III (footnote). Uriyā vernacular writers and poets, 4OI, 4O2. Ushas, the Vedic ‘Dawn,’ 123. Usman's Arab expedition to Thána and Broach (647 A.D.), 32 I. Usurpation of Aurangzeb, and murder of his brothers, 364, 365. V Vaidyas, Hindu caste of physicians, 152. Vaiseshika, one of the six darsanas or Brähmanical systems of philosophy, I4 I. Vaisya or cultivating caste of ancient India, I32 ; 245. Valabhi, ancient Indian dynasty in Western India and Sind (480-722 A.D.), their overthrow by Arab in- vaders of Sind, 229. Valentia, Lord, quoted on silk weaving in Bengal, 6 IO. Vallabha-Swāmi, Vishnuite religious re- former (1520 A.D.), Krishna-worship, 272. Válmiki, the reputed composer of the Rāmāyana, I66. Varāha Mihira, early Indian astronomer, 147; quoted on Hindu law, I6O. Vararuchi, Prākrit grammarian of the ISt Century B.C., 394, 395. Varuna, Vedic god, I2O, I23, 125. Vasco da Gama, his three voyages to India, and death at Cochin, 416-418. Vasishtha, an Aryan Sage, I28; type of Aryan priest, I 34. Vedantas, two of the six darsazzas, or Brähmanical systems of philosophy, I4 I. Vedas, the four Sanskrit hymnals, I 18- 130; their antiquity and inspired AV/D/EX. origin, I 19 ; caste and widow-burning unknown, II9 ; Aryan civilisation in the Veda, 120 ; the gods of the Veda, I2O-I24; a Vedic hymn, I24, 125 ; Vedic prayers, 124, 125 ; Vedic legend of Yama, the king of death, 126; Vedic conceptions of immortality, I27; the Rig-Veda composed during the march of the Aryans through Upper India, 127, 128; the Sáma-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda composed at a later date than the Rig-Veda, after the Brähmans had established their priestly power, 129; the Brähmanas, or inspired guides to the four Vedas, I3O. Vegetables, Cultivation of, 584. Vellore, Mutiny of (1806), 469. Velvet work, 706. Verapoli, Roman Catholic Vicariate, 309. Verelst, H., Governor of Bengal, en- couraged mulberry cultivation for silk in Bengal, 609. Vernacular journalism, 570, 57.I. Vernaculars (Indian) and their Litera- ture, chap. xiii. pp. 383 - 415. — See INDIAN VERNACULARS AND THEIR LITERATURE. Viceroys and Governors - General of India, 452. Victoria-Gitika, a Sanskrit ode, in celebra- tion of the sovereigns of England, I54. Victoria Point, marking the extreme eastern and southern limits of British India, at the mouth of the Kra river, the boundary between Tenasserim and Siam, 35. View of Hindu Zazy, by Mr. Nelson, C. S., 244 (footnote). Vijayanagar, Hindu kingdom of Southern India (I 185-1565 A.D.); subjugation by the Muhammadans at the battle of Talikot, 339; 34I. Vikramāditya, King of Ujjain (57 B.C.); his war with the Scythian invaders, 228. Vincent's, Dean, Commerce and AWazi- gation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean, quoted, 2II (footnote); 416 (footnote). Vindhyas, range of mountains, 67, 68; geology of, 737. Virgil, quoted, 34. Vishnu, the Preserver, the second person of the Hindu trinity, I4O.—See also HINDUISM. Vishnu Purāma, The, by Dr. H. H. Wilson, quoted, 266, 267, and foot- In OteS. Vishnu-worship, 265-276; Vishnu and Siva compared, 265; incarnations of Vishnu, 265, 266; the Vishnu Purāna, the eighteen Puránas, 266, 267 ; Brāh- manical and popular Vishnuism, 267; Vishnuite religious reformers (II 50- 851 I52O A.D.), 267-272; Vishnuite sects, 273 ; theistic movements in Vishnuism, 273; Jagannāth, 274, 275; the truth about the Car Festival, 274, 275; bloodless worship of Jagannāth, 275, 276. Vishnuite symbols in Hinduism, 256. Viswämitra, an Aryan sage, 128; link between priest and king, I 34. Vitahavya, a royal ‘Rishi,’ I34. Vital statistics of India, chap. xxv., pp. 768. The principal sources of health returns, 768; untrustworthy registration statistics, 769 ; death-rate, 769, 770. Von Bohlen, ZXas Alte /ndien, quoted, I52 (footnote). Vrihaspati, quoted on Indian laws, I60. Vyāsa, Brähman sage, the legendary compiler of the four Vedas (31OI B.C.), and of the epic of the Mahābhārata, I61. W - Wájid Ali, King of Oudh, deposed (1856), 487. e Wales, Prince of, visits India, 497. Wandewash, Battle of, and defeat of the French under Lally (I/61), 447. War, Art of, in Vedic and Sanskrit times, I52. Ward, W., Baptist-missionary, 314. Wargaum, Convention of (1779), 461. Waring, E. S., History of the Maráthás, 375 (footnote I). Warorá coal-field in the Central Pro- vinces, 724. Warren Hastings. – See WARREN. Water-mills in the Himálayas, 41. Watson, Admiral, bombardment and capture of Chandarnagar, 449. Watt, G., Dictionary of Æconomic Pro- ducts of India, quoted,’ I 52 (footnote I). Webb, Dr. Allan, The Historical Rela- tions of Ancient Hindu with Greek Medicine, quoted, I52 (footnote I). Weber, Professor, History of Indian Ziterature, quoted, I35 (footnote); I43 (footnote); I47 (footnote); I 52 (foot- note); 17 I (footnote); 199 (footnote); 215 (footnote); 219 (footnotes); 222 (footnote); 223 (footnote); //tdische Studien, quoted, 207 (footnote); his views on Sanskrit as a spoken tongue, HASTINGS, 393. Wellesley, General (afterwards Duke of Wellington)—the victories of Assaye and Argăum, 381 ; 469. - Wellesley, Marquess, Governor-General of India (1798-1803), 464-469 ; French influence in India, 464, 465; Lord 852 AAW/DEX Wellesley's scheme, 466; treaty with the Nizām, 466; third Mysore war and storming of Seringapatam, 467; second Maráthá war (1802-4) and annexations to British territory, 468; British successes and disasters, 468; founded College of Fort William for Civil servants, 514, 561. Wesleyan Methodist missions, number of converts, 316. Western Ghâts, mountain range along the western coast of India, 68, 71 ; its passes, 69; rivers, 69, 70; rainfall, 70; forests, 7 I. Western Jumna Canal, 61 ; 633. Wheat, Statistics of cultivation and out- turn of, 580-582; export of, 677. Whitney, Professor, Sanskrit Grammar, quoted, 392 (footnote). Widows, Position of, in ancient India, II9. Williams, Professor Monier, quoted, 157. Willoughby, Sir Hugh, attempt to force an eastern passage along the north of Europe and Asia, 426. Wilson, Dr. H. H., Works of, quoted, I52 (footnote I); 17O (footnote 2); I99 (footnote); Ariana Antigua, 222 (footnote I); Vishment Puróna, 227 (footnote); 266, 267 (footnotes); Assays, 240 (footnote); Aeligion of the Aindus, 251 (footnote); 254 (foot- note); 256 (footnote); 260 (footnote); 271 (footnote); 273 (footnotes). Wilson, Dr. J., Indian Caste, quoted, 243 (footnote); 245 (footnote); Pres- byterian missionary, 316. Wilson, Mr. James, his financial reforms after the Mutiny, 495, 496. - Wise, Dr. T. A., A'eview of the History of Medicine among the Asiatics, quoted, I52 (footnote). Wolf, The Indian, 756. Women, Position of, in ancient India, and in Vishnu-worship, 119 ; 271. Wood-carving, I 55; 7II. Wyborne, Sir John, Vice-Admiral and Deputy-Governor of Bombay (1684), 434. X Xavier, F. N., quoted, 305 (footnote 2). Xavier, St. Francis, his work in India, 296; friend of the Portuguese Governor, Castro, 422. y Yájnavalkya’s Code of Hindu Law, 157. Yajur-Veda, The, 129. Yak cow, The, a remarkably sure-footed beast of burden in the Himálayas, 41, 42. Yákub Khán, Amir of Afghānistán, deported, 498. Yama, the Hindu god of death, Vedic legend of, I26. Yandabu, Treaty of (1826), 474. Yavanas, the name applied to Greeks and Scythians by the Brähmans, I 35 ; 22O, - Yellow men of India, The, Iog. Yoga, one of the six darsanas or Brāh- manical systems of philosophy, I4I. Yogis, a sect of Sivaite devotees, 264. Yoma mountain range in Burma, 38. Yue-Chi settlements, 222. Yule, Colonel Sir Henry, Marco Polo, quoted, 197 (footnotes); 281 (foot- note); 283 (footnotes); 287 (footnote); 288 (footnotes); 289 (footnote); 416 (footnote); Cathay and the Way 7%ither, 283 (footnote); edited Hedges’ AXiary, 434, and footnote. Z Zafar Khán founded the Bahmani king- dom in the Deccan, 34O. Zamāndārſ grant of the Twenty-four Parganás, 451. Zamāndārs or revenue land collectors under the Mughals, converted into a proprietary body by the Permanent Settlement of Bengal, 518; 52I. Ziegenbalg, first Protestant missionary in India, 3I4. - Zoology and Botany of India, chap. xxiv. pp. 754-767. The Gujarát or maneless lion, 754; tiger, 755; leopard, cheetah, 756; wolf, fox, jackal, dog, 756, 757; bear, 757; elephant and elephant-catching, 758, 759; rhinoceros, 759 ; wild boar and hog, 759 ; sheep and goats, 759 ; antelope and deer, 760; bison and buffalo, 760, 761 ; birds of prey and game birds, 762; reptiles, 762, 763; insects, 764; Indian flora, 765-767. 4. 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