ppp \. I,,/ v'J , y' IV ,y "y,M .Vi^;';^.: '»y>, n fi A A 1* -y ii\ I;^ I 7^ >] I / *■ fc J I ^ Jl THIS BOOK FORMS PART OF THE ORIGINAL LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BOUGHT IN EUROPE 1838 TO 1839 BY ASA GRAY '/ . t, r(>^' >\i \ ) ." \oo8 /-. BRITISH AMERICA. VOL II. OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH. 2-Zoq ■ \ AN HISTORICAL AND DESCRIBEE f ACCOUNT l,| '■':■ . OF V.-'■;,- ';'.-. BRITISH AMEKI(% COMPREHENDING "-—■~ CANADA UPPER AND LOWER, NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, NEWFOUNDLAND, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, THE BERMUDAS, AND THE FUR COUNTRIES: THEIR HISTORY FROM THE EARLIEST SETTLEMENT; THE STATISTICS AND TOPOGRAPHY OF EACH DISTRICT; THEIR COMMERCE, AGRICULTURE, AND fisheries; their social and political condition; AS ALSO AN ACCOUNT OF THE MANNERS AND PRESENT STATE OF THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES; TO WHICH IS ADDED, A FULL DETAIL OF THE PRINCIPLES AND BEST MODES OF EMIGRATION. BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E. WITH ^" ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY, BY JAMES WILSON, F.R.S.E. & M.W.S* R. K. GREVILLE, LL.D. AND PROFESSOR TRAILL. SIX MAPS BY WRIGHT, AND TEN ENGRAVINGS BY JACKSON. IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. II. EDINBURGH: OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT; AND SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. LONDON. MDCCCXXXIX, ENTERED IN STATIONERS* HALL. Printed by Oliver & Boyd, Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh. CONTENTS OF VOL. II. CHAPTER I. COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. Export Trade—Productive Industry—Export Trade—Wheat —Ashes—Fish—Furs — Tobacco —Timber — Miscellaneous— Manufactures — Household Stuffs — Iron Wares — Import Trade—Import Trade and Consumption—Spirits and Wines— West India Produce — British Manufactures — Miscellaneous _ Trade with the United States — Exchanges, &c. — Ex- change—Weights and Measures—Banks—Inland Communica- tion, Page 13 CHAPTER II. SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. Different Classes of People—French Habitans—Their Tenures— Outward Appearance—Mode of living—Religious and moral 6 CONTENTS. Character—Manners in Upper Canada—Mode of living—Native Indians—Their Number—Catholic Indians—Hurons of Loretto —Different Tribes—Effects of Protestant Conversion—Govern- ment Expenditure on them—Present Dress and Mode of living —Religious Instruction in Lower and Upper Canada—Educa- tion, Page 53 CHAPTER III. POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. Government under the French—British Arrangements—Constitu - tion granted to the Canadas—Division into Upper and Lower —Revenue—Military Force—Justice—Reflections on the pro- posed new Constitution—Enmity of Races—Best Modes of appeasing it—Executive Government—Its Collision with the Assembly—Origin of the late Disturbances—Remedies suggested —Views of Sir Francis Head—Distinction between Foreign and Internal Affairs—Executive Council—Representative Assembly —Its Defects—Best Mode of raising its Character—Legislative Council—Proposed Union of the Provinces—Its Advantages Dangers to be guarded against—Municipal Institutions, 77 CHAPTER IV. , GENERAL VIEW OF THE MARITIME PROVINCES. Situation and Extent—Character of the Coast—Fisheries—Forests —Early Voyages—Sir Humphrey Gilbert—His Equipment— CONTENTS. / Adventures on the Voyage—Transactions in Newfoundland— Loss of his largest Vessel—Final Catastrophe—French Voyages —Nova Scotia, Page 102 CHAPTER V. GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. Extent and Limits—Mountains—Streams—Soil—Climate—First Settlement by De Monts—Captured by the English—Colony under Sir William Alexander—Ceded to France — Contests among the Proprietors—Conquered by the New Englanders— Wars with the Indians—Cape Breton captured—Restored—Set- tlement of Halifax—Disputes with France—War—Expulsion - of the Acadians—Capture of Louisbourg—Return of the Acadians —Representative Assembly—Peace with the Indians—Nova Scotia during the American Contest—Increased by numerous Re- fugees—Subsequent Events, 114 CHAPTER VL TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF NOVA SCOTIA. General Divisions—Country on the Atlantic—District of Halifax- City—Dartmouth—Northern Part of Halifax District—South- western—Lunenburg—La Have—Queen's County—Liverpool Shelburne—Argyle and Yarmouth—Territory on the Bay of Fundy — Annapolis County—The Acadians—Digby Annapo- lis Township—Bridgetown—Basin of Minas—King's County CONTENTS. Hants—Windsor—District of Colchester^-Truro—Bay of Chig- necto—Mimidie—Country on Northumberland Strait and the Gut of Canseau—Cumberland County—Township of Wallace— Pictou District—Town—County of Sydney—Dorchester—Guys- borough—Cape Breton—Extent and Situation—Appearance of the Country—Climate—Population—Coal District—Town of Sydney—Island of Scatari—Ruins of Lbuisbourg—Arichat— Port Hood—Cheticamp—Island of St Paul—Bay of St Anne— Bras d'Or—Settlements on its Coasts, Page 152 CHAPTER VII. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE OF NOVA SCOTIA. Agriculture—Different Soils—Chief Products—Mode of Culture —Minerals—Coal—Gypsum—Sandstone—Metals—Fisheries- Timber — Commerce — Various Articles of Export and Im- port, . .189 CHAPTER VIII. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF NOVA SCOTIA. Population — Anglo-Americans — Scots in Pictou — Acadians— Negroes—Indians—Religious Professions— Education — Poli- tical Constitution—Judicial Establishment —Revenue —Mili- tary Defence, 209 CONTENTS. y CHAPTER IX. HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF NEW BRUNSWICK. Extent and Boundaries—Surface—Settlement and Progress— Statistical Tables—St John County and City—King's and Queen's Counties — Sunbury — York — Fredericton — Carleton County—Falls of the St John—Charlotte County—Town of'St An- drew— Westmoreland — Northumberland — Kent— Gloucester —Ristigouche, * Page 224 CHAPTER X. INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. Agriculture—Productions—Timber-trade—Mode of collecting the Timber—Saw-mills—Ship-building—Fishery—Exports and Im- ports—Recent Improvements—Population—Constitution—Re- venue—Military Defence, 242 CHAPTER XL PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. Situation and Extent—Surface—Climate—Soil—Discovery—Early Settlement—Capture by Britain—Plans to colonize it—Name changed to Prince Edward—Various Governors—Local Divi- sions — Charlottetown — King's County — Prince's County — vol. ii. a 2 10 CONTENTS. Agriculture — Timber-trade — Fishing — Commerce — Imports and Exports — Population — Constitution — Revenue — Edu- cation, Page257 CHAPTER XII. NEWFOUNDLAND. General Description—Abundance of Fish—The Great Bank—Dis- covery—Early Fisheries—First Attempts at Settlement—Colo- nies by Lord Baltimore and others—Persecution against the resident Fishermen—Contests with France—Extension of the Fishery—Effects of the American War—Continued Progress- Flourishing State during the last War—Subsequent Events— General Statistical Table—St John, the Capital—Eastern Coast, Ferryland, &c Conception and Trinity Bays, Harbour Grace, &c—Placentia, St Mary, &c French Coast—St Pierre and Miquelon—Labrador, its Stations—Descriptions by Cartwright and Curtis—Settlements by the Moravian Missionaries—The Cod-fishery—Modes of conducting it—Produce—The Seal- fishery — Salmon, &c. — Agriculture — Commerce — Tables — French and American Fisheries—Population, Society, Govern- ment, &c.—Native Indians—Esquimaux, 275 CHAPTER XIII. BERMUDAS. Situation—Climate—First Discovery—Shipwreck and Deliverance of May—Of Gates and Summers—First Settlement—Company formed—Its Constitution—Administrations of Moore, Tucker, CONTENTS. 11 and Butler—Improved State—Queries by the Royal Society— Subsequent Neglect—Becomes important as a Naval Station— Agriculture, Fishing, and Commerce—Naval and Military Esta- blishments— Population and State of Society — Local Divi- sions, Page 329 ENGRAVINGS IN VOL. II. Vignette—St John, Newfoundland. Dance of Habitans, Page 56 Domiciliated Indians, 72 Province Building- and St Matthew's Kirk, Hollis Street, Halifax, 156 HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF BRITISH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. Commerce of the Canadas. Export Trade—Productive Industry—Export Trade—Wheat —Ashes—Fish — Furs — Tobacco— Timber — Miscellaneous-— Manufactures — Household Stuffs — Iron Wares — Import Trade—Import Trade and Consumption—Spirits and Wines— West India Produce—British Manufactures—Miscellaneous— Trade with the United States—Exchanges, &c Exchange —Weights and Measures—Banks—Inland Communication. The Commerce of Canada, whether we consider the de- mand which it embodies for the produce of British indus- try, or the employment it affords to our shipping, is of great and increasing importance. Without a description of its mercantile relations, our account of that colony would obviously be very imperfect; we shall therefore proceed to lay before our readers as complete a view of its productive resources and trade as our limits will permit. SECTION I. EXPORT TRADE. The resources of the Canadas may be stated under the following heads:— 5. Furs and Peltries. 6. Manufactures. 7. Ship-building. 1. Produce or Agriculture. 2. Ashes. 3. Timber. 4. Produce or the Fisheries. 1. Agricultural Produce.—The cultivation of the soil is still the principal occupation of the people; VOL. II. a ] 4 COMMERCE OF THE CAN AD AS. a circumstance which almost necessarily follows from the abundance of rich land and the total absence of taxes; for these advantages more than compensate the high price of labour. The inhabitants of both provinces are great consum- ers of wheat; it having been computed that each indi- vidual, on an average, uses nine bushels yearly. Esti- mating the population at 1,000,000, which is probably below the truth, and allowing for the proper quantity reserved for seed and exportation, the annual crop must now exceed 11,000,000 bushels of wheat alone, the value of which is more than two millions sterling. The average export of wheat and flour is exhibited by the following Table :— Five Wheat and Five years Flour, brls. Wheat, flour as wheat Average of years ending bushels. bushels. each period. ending 1797 60,900 1,330,106 1,634,606 326,921 1797 1802 110,100 1,921,033 2,471,533 494,307 1802 1807 79,528 911,403 1,309,043 261,809 1807 1812 131,422 820,258 1,477,368 295,474 1812 1816 1821 4,787 148,680 23.945 5,986 393,255 1816* 1821 .1,222,877 1,966,277 1826 209,041 1,103,842- 2,149,047 429,809 1826 i 1831 255,275 2,459,677 3,736,052 747,210 18311 Since the period at which this Table concludes, the exports have been as follows :— Wheat, bushels. Wheat and Average of the four years. Years. Flour, barrels. flour as wheat bushels. Years. 1832 1833 1834 1835 44,886 92,393 480,000 660,000 412,566 704,430 1832 1833 1834 1835 1,121,965 780,000. 77,898 86,327 802,056 57,367 489,002 Canada was the seat of active war from * Four years only. 1812 to 1815. •f It may be proper to state, that many of the tables introduced into this chapter are derived from a private source. They are much more specific, and also of more recent date, than the statements of the Board of Trade. These, as well as other tables, have already been used by the writer in two articles on the trade of the Canadas, which appeared in the Scottish Magazine. COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. lb From this statement, it might seem that the agricul- ture of Canada is not increasing in any great degree; whilst, in point of fact, it is advancing with most rapid strides. During the last two years, a considerable quan- tity of the wheat from the upper province has found its way into the United States, where there was a deficiency, estimated at not less than 2,000,000 bushels. As this scarcity still continues, it is not improbable that the New York millers will outbid the Montreal merchants for some time to come.'* This is a most fortunate cir- cumstance, not only for the farmer, but for the general importer; because prices having been thereby kept up beyond a remunerating rate, production has been pro- portionably stimulated, notwithstanding the discourag- ing- state of the English markets, whence alone a demand had previously sprung. . A portion of the flour exported from Lower Canada is received from the state of New York, of which the * Since the above was written, we have met with the following statement in an American newspaper:— From one of the statements appended to the Report by the Com- mittee of the House of Representatives, on the Ways and Means, we gather the following facts respecting the amount of exportations from Canada to the United States, in the articles of wheat and flour, for several years past. For the year 1836, unfortunately, no return had been received of the flour. CANADA WHEAT. CANADA FLOUR. Bushels. Value in Dollars. Cwt. Value in Dols. 1825 992 985 118 266 1826 1,375 1,318 33 82 1827 1,059 898 47 92 1828 810 656 6 L2 1829 261 301 151 339 1830 422 492 192 579 1831 '585 586 5 14 1832 1,163 1,144 3 3 1833 1,581 1,575 36 106 1834 1.222 1,210 26 66 1835 236,'l94 196,351 28,483 69,976 1836 115,850 103,899 Including flour, the transmission of wheat from Canada to the United States in 1835 amounted to nearly 380,000 bushels. 16 COMMERCE OF THE CAN AD AS. quantity amounts to about 36,000 barrels annually.* The remainder is supplied by the upper and lower pro- vinces, but in what proportions it would be difficult to say. We may, however, attain to an approximation in the following manner :— The consumption of Montreal and Quebec must, for the most part, be charged upon the production of the upper province and the United States, inasmuch as it is chiefly by the trade of the interior that these two cities are supported. The whole may amount to about 700,000 bushels annually. Now, supposing that only 500,000 bushels are received from Upper Canada and the States, the remainder will be the quantity supplied by the lower province for export. The following is merely a reduction of this statement to figures :— Exported from Canada, 1830, 1833 4,476,291 Received from Upper Canada, Wheat, bushels 1,285,552 Ditto ditto, Flour ditto....1,092,780 Ditto from United States, ditto ditto.... 722,015 Total received from Upper Canada and the United States 3,700,347 Consumed in the cities 2,000,000 Surplus afforded by Upper Canada 1,700,347 Ditto ditto Lower ditto 2,775,944 4,476,291 The demand for corn from the United States has not only drained the Canadian markets of their own surplus, but by raising the prices has actually caused a consider- able export of foreign wheat from this country. As early as 1833, a small quantity was sent to Quebec from England ; a further supply was shipped from Arch- angel: in 1835 the amount reached three or four hundred thousand bushels; and in 1836, as we learn from a recent account, it amounted to 480,000 bushels. This is mostly ground by the Canadian millers, part being consumed and part perhaps shipped to the West * 144,403 barrels from the United States in the four years end- ing 1833, which is 36,100 per annum. COMMERCE OP THE CAN AD AS. 17 Indies. If it be all consumed, it will liberate, of course, just so much for the use of the United States. There is no reason, however, why the whole should not be re-ex- ported in the form in which it originally went out. The duty on foreign wheat during the latter part of the year 1836 was about 39s. per quarter; the expense of sending it to Canada and back may vary from 17s. to 20s.; while the duty on wheat from the colony never exceeds 5s. Thus, under all circumstances, and at the highest cost of transmission, the corn-laws operate as an encourage- ment of this process to the extent of from 14s. to 17s. per quarter. From tins fact some persons have inferred, that Canada does not grow a sufficient quantity of wheat for her own consumption. It might as well be said, that she does not produce timber enough for this purpose, as several cargoes have been exported thither from the Baltic, and afterwards shipped for England. In both cases the cause is the same—a high discriminating duty. The average price of wheat during the five years end- ing 1825 was 4s. 6^d. per bushel; and in that year the duty with respect to Canada was reduced from 12s. 6d. per quarter to 5s. The consequence is, that agriculture has been greatly promoted, the quality of the produce much improved, and the price has advanced from 25 to 30 per cent. The average price of wheat for the six years ending 1831 was 6s. 1-^d., that of Upper Canada selling at 6s. 6d. to 7s. 6d., and for a short period at 8s. 6d.; while the red wheat of Lower Canada brought from 5s. to 5s. 6d. Since the above period, the prevail- ing prices have been about 6s. for the wheat of the up- per province, and 5s. for that of the lower; at which rates the farmer is abundantly remunerated. The expenses attending the shipment of grain are as follows :— Cleaning- and shipping 4£d. per bushel. Average freight 9s. per quarter. Insurance (average) 3 per cent. Landing charges and commissions 4s. 6d. to 5s. (5d. per quarter. Duty, when the price is 71s.,—6d.; when the price is under 71 s., —5s. 18 COMMERCE OF THE CAN AD AS. The quality of Canadian wheat is about equal to that of Dantzic and Konigsberg, though at times the finest samples have commanded prices as high as the best growths in Kent and Sussex. Wheat is not the only description of agricultural pro- duce exported from Canada, though the quantity of other articles has been hitherto inconsiderable. The following statement gives a view of the particulars for the year 1835 :— Barley bushels 910 Oats 3682 Malt 800 Bran cwts. 521 Potatoes bushels 450 Oatmeal brls. 68 Indian Dust 61 Flax Seed bushels 3341 Clover brls. 13 Pease bushels 1912 Beans 12 Indian Corn 50 Apples brls. 814 Onions brls. 127 Honey lbs. 500 Ditto cases 2 Bees'Wax boxes 2 Beef brls. 3525 Pork 7555 TT , (... casks 3 "amsand J kegs 17 Ton£ues 1 lbs. 11,978 Butter 64,607 Lard 15,155 Cheese 2742 Tobacco 5632 Of the articles in this list, the most important in a com- mercial point of view are undoubtedly flax, tobacco, and salted provisions. For the production of flax and hemp the soil and climate of Canada are extremely well adapted, and a considerable quantity of both is grown for the use of the colonists. Hitherto it is only flax- seed that has been exported; but little is wanting to secure the ultimate production of both hemp and flax to a great extent, though the manufactures of linens, lin- seed oil, and cordage within the colony, which we shall hereafter notice, will prevent the existence of an ex- portable surplus for some time to come. The cultivation of tobacco has increased in a surpris- ing degree within the last ten or twelve years: though it had long been grown by the farmers for domestic use, it was not until 1825 or 1826 that it became an object of commerce. In one or other of those years, a few hhds. were received at Montreal from Amherstburg in the upper province; and as it was found to be of saleable COMMERCE OP THE CANADAS. 19 quality, tlie supply has continued to augment ever since, so that the quantity is now almost sufficient to supersede importation from the United States. The following is a statement of the leaf-tobacco received from both sources during the last four years :— Upper United Years. Canada, hhds. States. hhds. Total. Lbs. 1832 209 55 264 295,680 1833 335 87 422 472,640 1834 353 353 395,360 1835 536 8 544 609,280 1836 1189 1189 1,331,680 1 In 1834 and 1835, 42,000 lbs. were imported by sea from the States; but even this is only one-fourth of the quantity received in 1832 and 1833 by inland conveyance. Whilst the receipt of leaf-tobacco from Upper Canada has been so rapidly increasing, the import of the manu- factured article from all sources has been falling off. The manufacture is now carried on to a considerable ex- tent in the cities of Quebec and Montreal; and Upper Canada, for the most part, furnishes the raw material. The following statement of the total import of prepared tobacco, both by sea and by inland conveyance, from the United States, will fully illustrate the above obser- vations :— Years. Tobacco, lbs. Years. Tobacco, lbs. 1832 1833 2,177,280 1,327,190 1834 1835 514,510 645,740 Most of the remaining articles in the list will increase in the same proportion as wheat, inasmuch as many of them are produced, in the upper province at least, in rotation with that crop. 2. Ashes.—The production of pot and pearl ashes in Canada takes its rise from the progress of colonisation. Before agriculture can be prosecuted, the forest must be removed; and it then becomes a question whether the 20 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. felled wood can be converted to any useful purpose. Viewed as timber it is useless, because only a very small proportion of the trees would answer the purpose of exportation; and to select these would be an expensive and troublesome process, to which the settler cannot submit. Nor can he allow the lumberer to do so, as the latter would leave the ground encumbered with branches and brushwood, so as to render the subsequent clearing a more arduous business than if the forest had been wholly untouched. This being the case, the usual course is to burn the wood on the ground, and if the price be re- munerating, the wood-ashes are converted into the ashes of commerce. If, however, the rate be discouraging, they are harrowed in for the improvement of the soil. The process by which ashes are at present manufac- tured in Canada is rude and even wasteful in the extreme. In the first place, they are carelessly col- lected; are sometimes left exposed to rain, by which a portion of the salt is washed away; and the solution is made in tubs inartificially constructed, without much attention to economy or neatness. The alkali, when evaporated, is subjected to heat in an iron cauldron, and partially deprived of its water of crystallization. It is then cooled, broken into stone-like masses, resembling felspar, and barrelled for exportation. Pearl-ashes re- ceive a further process of calcination. Within the last few years, the ashes of Canada have had to sustain a competition with two articles of British manufacture, which are now extensively used where the American production was formerly employed,—we mean British soda, and the chlorides of lime and soda. Had it not been for the introduction of these substitutes, especially the latter, the consumption of ashes would now have been enormous, perhaps not much less than three or four times what it is at present. But owing to these causes the demand has rather decreased than aug- mented, as the following statement of the exportation of the six years ending in 1835, compared with the average of the previous six, will show :— COMMERCE OF THE CAN AD AS. 21 ASHES EXPORTED. Years. Pot, barrels. Pearl, barrels. Both, barrels. ~1830~~ 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 39,753 29,829 24,960 22,077 15,442 22,441 15,550 19,085 14,002 12,479 6,200 5,638 45,303 48,914 38,962 34,576 21,642 28,079 Average, 25,754 10,492 36,246 Average of previous 6 years, 42,224 showing a decrease of nearly 6000 barrels. The quan- tity shipped in 1836 was 33,689 barrels, being still some- what under the recent average. As there is great room for economy in the manufac- ture of ashes, we are of opinion that not only may a further diminution be prevented, but an actual increase secured. The prices of that article have been high for some time, showing, that in spite of all disadvantages, a considerable demand still exists. Indeed we know that for some manufactures ashes are absolutely necessary. 3. Timber.—At the present moment timber is one of the principal resources of Canada, and it will for many years form an important article of export; but, as a portion of the trade is the result of a legislative mono- poly,* that portion can only last as long as the monopoly is maintained. The following is a statement of the export of all articles of timber to Great Britain, Ireland, and the colonies in 1835 :— This monopoly arises out of high duties on European timber, with low duties on the Canadian. Thus, Foreign. Colonial. Timber, per load £2 15 0 19 0 0 4 4 0 £0 10 0 2 0 0 0 8 0 Deals, per hundred Staves, per hundred 22 COMMERCE OP THE CANADAS. Oak tons 19,798 Ash 3,319 Elm 16,054 Pine 303,340 Birch, &c 1,517 Masts pieces 508 Spars 2,633 Staves, stand- ard pieces 1,969.536 Puncheon 3,559,184 Pipe ... 545,998 Barrel ... 350,471 Total stave's '. 6,772,158 .. pieces Deals Deal Ends. Boards Battens Batten Ends Oars Handspikes Hoops Trenails Knees l--athwood cords Shooks packs Shingles bundles 2,123,853 101,581 8,821 27,196 65 16,471 28,618 23,000 3,011 120 2,452 2,282 25,500 Besides the amount carried by sea to this country and the "West Indies, there is a considerable quantity of boards, scantling, and other sawn timber prepared for the United States and for home consumption. The trade with Independent America has arisen within the last few years, and is owing to the fact, that the woods in those parts of New York and Vermont which used to furnish the chief supply are now cut down. A short time ago, timber which is now furnished by Canada was re- ceived from the States just mentioned; and such is the rate at which the demand increases, that, according to the opinion of well-informed individuals, the saw-mills now at work will erelong be insufficient to meet it. The timber-trade of Canada with the West Indies and the United States, as it exists without protection, cannot be affected by any change of the duties. On the other hand, the advantage which the colony now enjoys with the mother-country may be destroyed by the re- moval of those restrictions by which it was originally created. The discontinuance of the privilege has in fact been long contemplated by the British government, on the broad principle that it entails an annual loss on the community of about £1,500,000, without conferring a real benefit on any one class. It would be quite at variance with our present design to describe the effects which are likely to result from this change. In general terms we must state our con- viction that it will be beneficial not only to the mother COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 23 country but to the colony. The great question is,—Has Canada other means of employing her capital and la- bour, independently of the timber-trade; and the answer is, that she has such means, and, moreover, that there is not the slightest impediment to prevent the transfer. At the commencement of this chapter we enumerated seven classes of products as forming her staple commo- dities. Of these a portion of one only is threatened, and the industry and capital thereby liberated will find employment in the others. Here a second question arises,—Would industry be as productive in these as in the timber-trade I There is ground for believing that it would be more so. That trade has been compared to a lottery wherein the prizes are extremely high, but the blanks numerous. The persons who embark in it make no sober calculation of the average profits,—they throw for the high prizes, and the result is often a real loss. The price of timber in Canada is trifling; but in England, being augmented by high charges, it is five times the original cost; so that a fluctuation of 20 per cent, on the price in this country amounts either to a total loss or a profit of 100 per cent. Hence a trifling decline in our market is completely ruinous to the colonial shipper. Being thus in some measure a gambling enterprise, spe^ dilations in timber are extremely seductive, and have now the effect of drawing capital from more profitable employments, to which it will again flow whenever the question is settled. To prove the facility of the transfer, it will be only necessary to observe, that the capital employed in the preparation of timber is principally of a floating descrip- tion; consisting of the subsistence of the labourer, which must be advanced him, and of the value of the stock waiting sale at Quebec. This could of course be realized and transferred at once without any difficulty. With regard to the fixed capital, such as mills and wharfs, we have already seen that the increasing demand for sawn timber for the American and West India markets, added to the home consumption, will employ the whole, and 24 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. probably at no very distant period call new machinery into operation. The mills of Lower Canada have been valued at £145,000, producing 2,338,000 pieces of deals. But the total export of deals from both provinces is only 2,250,000; hence that portion of the mill-property in both provinces engaged in cutting for export would not probably exceed £150,000,—a sum utterly insignificant when compared with other features of the trade. Inasmuch, then, as the productive industry and ex- portable surplus of the Canadas will not be permanently impaired by the contemplated alteration of the timber- duties, it follows that the trade in British goods will suffer no diminution; so that our manufacturers will get the benefit of the new market, which cannot fail to spring up in the northern states of Europe as a conse- quence of the increased demand for their timber. Before the countries on the Baltic were deprived of this trade by the imposition of high duties, they were our custo- mers to a considerable extent; and that they will again become so on its restoration appears abundantly certain. If our readers, however, feel any doubt on this point, we must refer to the evidence of Mr Norman and Mr Solly, given before the Committee on the Timber-trade in 1834. In writing on this subject we are not absolutely called upon to trace the effects of the proposed alteration on our shipping; nevertheless, it may not be amiss to indi- cate the general state of the argument. The vessels employed in conveying timber from our provinces in America to Great Britain and Ireland were, in the year 1834, computed at 684, measuring 204,000 tons, and navigated by 8700 men. But a portion of the timber-trade, occupying 111 ships, measuring 36,000 tons, and worked by 1400 men, would be retained by the colonies. Hence the net quantity of shipping re- duced to seek other employment will be Ships. Tons. Men. 573 167,400 7300 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 25 The owners of second-class vessels say these would be thrown out of employment,—the friends of free trade say No ;—a portion will find employment in the Baltic trade. The opponents of the proposed measure merely urge as an argument their original proposition in other terms,—and therefore beg the question. They say we can neither build nor sail so cheaply as the people in the north of Europe, therefore we must be beaten at open competition. The other party reply in sundry ways,—first, they bring proof that the British shipowner actually does compete with foreign owners. On the average of ten years, ending with 1834, the competition was tolerably equal, as there were imported from the north of Europe,— In British ships 69,806 loads. In foreign ships of all countries 75,766 ... Now, it is quite clear, that what they now do, they will be much better able to do, when timber, the raw mate- rial of ships, shall be reduced in price by the reduction of duty. Then, with regard to the argument, that foreigners can build more cheaply, even if we admit for the present purpose its full force, it does not touch the question. For, if Norway could build at half the price of England, she still could not enter into competition with our enormous stock of old ships,—a stock which our im- mense mercantile navy must always keep up. Other countries build inferior ships. Great Britain merely waits till her best ships become inferior by wear and tear. From this circumstance, our shipowners must almost monopolize the second class carrying-trade, or, at all events, share it with no other nation besides the Americans. Much direct and positive evidence was given before the timber-trade committee in 1834 on the above points ;* whence we must confess we feel no apprehension that our * See Mr Norman's evidence, 743, et seq.; and Mr I. Solly's evidence, 1617, et seq. 2 26 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. commercial marine will be injured by the change. The whole quantity of shipping exposed to the hazard of being thrown out of employment will be about 42,000 tons, arising from the shorter duration of the Baltic voyage. A portion of this will be absorbed by the in- creased export of other articles from America, and by the intercolonial coal-trade, which will be so much stimu- lated by the change of duties, that coals will no longer go to Canada from Newcastle, as ballast, without paying freight. It is therefore manifest that the cessation of employment will be small indeed; not more in fact than will be met by the wear, tear, and loss of ships, amounting on the average to 97,000 tons annually, and which will in less than a year reduce the supply within the limits of the demand. 4. Produce of the Fisheries.—All the North American colonies, especially Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, engage in the fisheries; but in Canada this branch of industry is subordinate to agriculture and the manu- facture of ashes. Still the gulf and lower portion of the St Lawrence furnish a considerable quantity of fish and oil for home consumption, and leave a small surplus for export. Of this, the following is a statement for the year 1835 :■— Cod-fish, dry cwts. 53,744 do. pickled....packs 260 do. sounds....barrels 8 Salmon tierces 286 do barrels 219 do kits 21 Herrings barrels 401 It ought to be remarked that this trade is not in- creasing. 5. Furs and Peltries.—Montreal wTas formerly the emporium of a very considerable portion of the fur-trade, which was carried on by two rival companies,—the Hudson's Bay and the North-west. After the failure of the latter association, most of the skins were carried direct to the residents at Hudson's Bay, who have an establishment also at La Chine, near Montreal. But Herrings boxes 50 Mackerel barrels 388 Shad 3 Fish-oil gallons 11,411 Blubber 270 Seal-skins packs do loose 600 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 27 although not a single bale of furs were shipped from that city, we should be justified in ranking the fur-trade among the resources of Canada, because a large importa- tion of British goods takes place through Montreal, and wages are paid to the hunters by drafts on the Company in London. There is, however, a small though not an increasing exportation of this article from Canada, as will appear from the following account for 1835 :— Racoon 165 Wolverine 26 Martins' Tails 713 Cat 7 Deer 24 Elk 27 te::::::::::::::::::::::::l»3 Wolf 5 Castorum, lbs 298 Beaver Skins 9150 Bear and Cub 268 Buffalo 88 Fisher 284 Fox 1473 Lynx 202 Mink 4894 Musk Rat 56,888 Martin 8907 Otter 2068 6. Manufactures.—Of the principal manufacture in the Canadas, namely that of ashes, we have already treated in a former section; we now, therefore, proceed to notice such other articles as have gradually sprung up in thextwo provinces. In a country covered during a great part of the year with snow, the business of agriculture is for the most part necessarily suspended. Under such circumstances, the farmer naturally seeks for his family such occupa- tions as can be carried on within doors: and what so ob- vious and useful as domestic manufactures \ Accordingly, we find that the coat of the Canadian farmer, or habitant, as he is sometimes called, is nsually of a kind of gray homespun, or itoffe du pays, a warm and substantial cloth, made of mixed wool of good quality. In the lower province this gray coat, with a red cap and coloured sash, may be considered a national dress, so that the extent of the manufacture must be considerable. In addition to this etoffe du pays, a coarse kind of cotton is made, but only in small quantities. Coarse linens are also produced; and at the prize-shows of the 28 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. agricultural societies samples of sheeting are occasionally exhibited quite equal to that of Russia. In every Canadian house are to be seen carpets and mats formed of threads obtained from old materials. Straw-hats are also made, as well as a kind of grass- hat and bonnet, not inferior to fine leghorn. Worsted stockings and socks, together with red caps and leather mittens lined with blanket or hare-skin, are very common. Besides these manufactures, there are others, some of which furnish commodities for exportation; among the most important of which are iron and iron-wares. This metal, in various states, is found abundantly in Canada; but that which is worked at the smallest expense is known as bog-ore. Oh the St Maurice, about nine miles above the town of Three Rivers, is an iron-work in active operation. It forms part of the Jesuits' estates, and supplies a large proportion of the stoves made use of in the country. Of these, about three hundred and fifty are annually exported to the other colonies, besides a considerable number of ploughs and axes, which are highly esteemed. Nails are also cut near Montreal. Soap and candles, at one time wholly imported from England, are now manufactured to some extent in the principal towns. The quantity of the former exported in 1833 was 5664 lbs. ; in 1834,35,030 lbs.; and in 1835, 59,772 lbs., showing a progressive increase. Of candles, the export in 1833 was 12,717 lbs.; in 1834,20,751 lbs.; and in 1835, 21,336 lbs. Leather is also tanned to a considerable extent, not only in the neighbourhood of Quebec and Montreal, but also in almost every parish in Canada. Near the latter city is a considerable village commonly called "The Tanneries." Almost every habitant has a mo- cassin (a kind of shoe without seam at the bottom) made of native leather, besides which about 10,000 lbs. are exported. Linseed oil is another manufacture introduced within the last six or eight years. It increases greatly, and COMMERCE OP THE CANADAS. 29 furnishes a corresponding surplus for export, the quan- tity in 1833 being 208 gallons; in 1834, 271 gallons; and in 1835, 994 gallons, besides about 100 tons of oil-cake. Ale and beer of excellent quality are coming into extensive use in both provinces. Ten years ago the latter beverage was not seen except in the principal towns; now it is to be found in almost every country inn. The quality of the ale is excellent, and about 20,000 gallons are annually shipped to the West Indies and other colonies. Whisky is largely produced in both the Canadas, but that of the lower province is most esteemed. This spirit, aided by malt liquor, has contributed to keep down the consumption of rum, which has not increased since 1820, though the population has more than doubled. One of the most interesting manufactures, if such it can be called, is that of maple-sugar; which is, in fact, nothing more than the evaporated sap of the maple-tree {Acer saccharinum) cast into moulds about the size of a brick. The quantity produced in the two provinces has been reckoned at 32,500 cwts., equal to more than 2000 hhds. of West India sugar. Bricks are made near Montreal, and a large portion or entire suburb of the town is built of them. For resisting the effects of climate, they are considered better than the English; but as the supply does not keep pace with the demand, about 500,000 are still imported from the mother-country. Starch, blue, cider, and a few other articles, are also made in Canada, but in so small quantities as to render them unworthy of notice. The quality of the cider, however, is very superior, especially when "concen- trated" or frozen, and the icy, that is the aqueous portion, thrown away. Cordage is also manufactured, partly from native and partly from imported hemp. We had almost forgotten to mention paper, which is every where rising into importance. There are several VOL. II. B 30 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. mills in both provinces, and at one,—that at Jacques Cartier, near Quebec,—an article of excellent quality is made. It is to be observed that these manufactures, with the exception of whisky, exist wholly without protec- tion. The duty on British goods, whether of cotton, linen, or iron, is only 2^ per cent., which merely ope- rates as a source of revenue and as nothing else. The duty on foreign spirits, however, is high enough to en- courage the native production. It is Is. Id. on rum and Is. 7d. on brandy, which is about 50 per cent, in the one case, and 45 per cent, in the other. Domestic manufac- tures are supported more by the habits of the people than by cheapness. In fact, the ctoffe du pays is imitated in Great Britain at .a much lower price than the Cana- dian cloth usually sells at in the native markets. 7. Ship-building is an important employment in all the North American Colonies. The folio whig is a state- ment of the number of the vessels built in Canada during the eleven years ending 1835, with their tonnage :— g Year. Ships. Tons. Year. Ships. Tons. j 1825 61 22,625 1831 9 3,250 I 1826 59 17,823 1832 13 3,952 I 1827 35 7,540 1833 11 4,601 1 1828 30 7,272 1834 18 8,382 I 1829 21 5,465 1835 14 6,768 | 1830 11 3,059 Average 26 8,249 These ships are built of oak, and are of much better workmanship than those of the lower provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, which for the most part are constructed of pine. The character of the Canadian build is much higher than it was a few years since,— the Quebec and Montreal shipwrights being men of respectability and character. The number of ships built in 1836 was 22, measuring 10,086 tons. SECTION II. IMPORT TRADE. We have now given as comprehensive a view as our limits will permit, of the productive industry and re- COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 31 sources, in other words, of what forms the "purchase- money" of the Canadas; it now remains to point out in what manner that purchase-money is laid out. The following Table will exhibit the value of imports, distinguishing the sources whence the same were re- ceived :— From Ships. Tons. Men. Valucofgoods, chiefly British, paying 2J p. c. Value of other goods. Great Britain 779 249,845 10,746 £1,329,215 £255,552 163 47,264 2,071 8,122 4,913 1 220 12 440 102 Gibraltar 5 583 34 2,651 4,140 9 2,309 81 1,296 1,426 Spain 1 195 10 0 0 3 493 26 432 1,600 Holland 2 545 25 0 18 7 1,922 84 0 0 Brit. Amer. Colonies British West Indies.. 169 17,254 835 2,261 83,572 40 5,825 303 498 195,026 24 5,507 273 4,824 10,464 Other parts 4 1,257 54 0 0 Total 1207 47 38 333,219 6,700 5,501 14,554 371 £556,813 7,060 3,553 New Carlisle 298 Total 1292 345,420 15,-23 £1,349,739 £567,426 Grand total ste Currency rling £1,91 7,265 0,598 2,3C 3. Spirits and Wines. 4. Miscellaneous Arti- cles. The importation and consumption of these provinces we shall describe under the following heads :— 1. British Manufactures. 2. East and West India Produce. 1. British Manufactures, it will be seen by the foregoing Table, form a very large share of the whole importation. In 1835 the total value of articles im- ported was £2,300,598 currency,* of which £1,620,000 was for English commodities. Of the remaining £680,000, paid in the purchase of foreign goods, nearly half, or The money and exchanges are explained at page 40. 32 COMMERCE OP THE CANADAS. £306,602, was imported from Great Britain in British ships. To give an idea of the progress of consumption, it will be sufficient to state that in 1827 the importation from the mother-country amounted to little more than £1,000,000 currency; that the average of the five years ending 1832 was £1,323,000; whilst the sum for 1835, as we have stated, exceeded £1,600,000. Of the British manufactures consumed we can only give a general description. From the manner in which the official statements are published in Canada no detail of quantities can be obtained; all such commodities being classed together as "goods paying 2^ per cent, duty." From a return of the importation of 1833, we find that, estimating the whole amount, that is, articles of all kinds, from all places, at 1000, British piece-goods form no less than 3G0 parts, divided as follows :— Whole importation 1000 Woollen Manufactures 153 parts. Cotton ditto 147 Linen ditto 31 Silk ditto 29 "360 The large proportion of woollen goods arises from the severity of the climate,—a circumstance which also ac- counts for the kinds chiefly in demand. They are mostly of the coarser and warmer sorts, such as blan- kets, flushings, flannels, and the coarse cloths produced in the manufacturing towns of Yorkshire. The plain and simple habits of the people have a considerable ef- fect on consumption, and to this circumstance is owing the small proportion of silks and linens required. The large quantity of cottons shows that, although the inha- bitants are far from luxurious on the one hand, they are equally removed from indigence on the other. These cottons are chiefly power-loom shirtings, striped and checked cloths, printed calicoes, ginghams, muslins, cambrics, and also fustians, velveteens, and similar fa- brics. They are usually obtained from Manchester and COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 33 Glasgow. The linens are supplied by Dundee and Bel- fast,—the coarser kinds from the former town, the finer from the latter. Silks and fancy goods are sent out by the general merchants resident in London. The iron-trade in Canada is extremely important. We stated in a former part of this chapter, that there were some iron-works in the provinces; they do not, however, produce a sufficiency for consumption, and hence the demand from England is considerable. We have in our possession a statement of the average impor- tation down to 1834, which is probably somewhat less than the amount to which it has now attained. It is as follows:— Flat and Round, tons 1,062 Flat bars 164,558 Ditto bundles 10,605 Hoop 18,725 Pig tons 830 Sheet bundles 2,386 Canada Plates...boxes 6,505 Nails packages 10,296 Ovens and Pans ... 9,567 Fr37ing- Pans bundles 810 Spades & Shovels ... 2,749 Tin Plates boxes 6,080 This Table was derived from a private source, and is as accurate as the imperfect weekly returns will per- mit; but to give an idea how little the Canadian cus- tom-house entries are to be relied on, we may state that stoves and steam-engines are both described as so many "pieces of castings!" Hardware is not included hi the above list, nor could it be. We may, however, mention, that there are in Montreal several houses who confine themselves to this trade, and import largely. Bristol and Liverpool furnish the wrought iron goods; Glasgow the castings; and Birmingham and Sheffield, of course, supply the hardware. There are many other articles coming under the head of manufactures which must not be omitted, more espe- cially as many of them find rival productions in the provinces to compete with them. Bricks, we have already stated, are imported, although some are made in Canada. The supply of these last, however, does not keep pace with building, as the con- sumption of English bricks is still increasing. In 1831, 34 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 276,000 were imported; in 1832, 440,000; and in 1833, not fewer than 533,000. Earthenware has not varied thirty packages for the three years ending 1833,—the average importation being 3350 crates. Glassware is also increasing; the chief article is window-glass, the importation of which, be- tween 1831 and 1833, rose from 10,000 to 17,000 boxes. The importation of soap and candles has also aug- mented, notwithstanding an increased production. In 1831, 256 boxes of candles and 6314 of soap were re- ceived; in 1832, the quantity had risen to 809 of the former and 9760 of the latter, whilst in 1833 the num- ber of boxes amounted respectively to 1314 and 14,752. The great increase of 1833 was in consequence of a large exportation from Great Britain to obtain drawback, which ceased in that year. Few other articles require notice under this general head. Blacking is consumed to the extent of about 1500 casks; linseed oil, 900 casks; olive oil, 230 pipes and 150 boxes; palm oil, about 150 casks (250 in 1833); tobacco-pipes, 3000 boxes; gunpowder, 2000 packages; and, lastly, starch, 1200 boxes. 2. East and West India Produce.—The importa- tion and consumption of rum have been stationary for many years. This is owing to several causes; namely, to the increased distillation of whisky, already noticed, to the growing taste of the people for beer, and to the great efforts of the temperance societies, which, it is be- lieved, have diminished the use of spirits generally. Rum is drunk chiefly in Lower Canada, whilst whisky is preferred in the upper province. The average importation of rum for the five years ending with 1833 was 1,189,262 gallons; that of 1835 was only 976,058 gallons; and the annual consumption may be estimated at 10,000 puncheons. The importa- tion last year was only 524,440 gallons. Whilst the demand for rum has been thus stationary, the quantity of sugar required has steadily increased. The average importation of the five years ending in 1832 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 35 was 4,603,993 lbs., that of 1335,4,572,941 lbs. A high price indicated that this quantity was not sufficient for consumption, which may therefore be estimated at about 3500 hhds. of 15 cwt. each, or 5,880,000 lbs., the mean importation of 1831-32. The refined sugar brought in during the same period averaged 914,575 lbs.; in 1835 it was 1,410,999; and as the price was not below a re- munerating rate, the average consumption may be stated at 1000 hhds. of 12 cwt. each, or 1,344,000 lbs. Tak- ing maple-sugar into the account, we have the following- estimate of the total consumption of sugar of all kinds in the two Canadas :— lbs. hhds. Raw sugar 5,880,000 or 3500 Refined ditto 1,344,000 or 1000 Maple ditto 3,640,000 or 2200 10,804,000 6700 or about 10 lbs. of sugar per annum to every individual. Last year the supply of raw sugar was small, being only 3,154,215 lbs.; that of refined sugars was unusually large,' namely, 2,357,025 lbs. The two together, 5,513,240, were, however, far below the consumption. The quantity of molasses used is about 1200 pun- cheons. It will probably increase, as distillation from this article has lately been introduced in imitation of the New Englanders. Of coffee the consumption can- not be ascertained, as a considerable portion is brought from the United States, and some smuggled; of pimen- to, about 120 bags are required; and of pepper about 1800. We can give no satisfactory information as to the con- sumption of tea in Canada, owing to the peculiar state of the trade. For the last eight or ten years the mar- ket has been supplied by the East India Company direct from China. Their importations were very irregular, but they always kept a large stock, which is not yet sold off. Owing to the economical manner in which the United States conduct this branch of commerce, a great deal of smuggling has been carried on in spite of the 36 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. Company; but as the trade of the colony is now in pri- vate hands, it is probable that this evil will entirely cease. The following is a statement of the importation of tea into Canada in 1836 :— lbs. From Great Britain 513,720 From British American Provinces 35,590 From China .132,576 681,886 The West India produce consumed is for the most part imported direct from the place of growth, and chiefly from Grenada, Jamaica, and Demerara. Hali- fax in Nova Scotia has recently become an entrepot for exchanging the productions of Canada and the West Indies; the former paying for her purchases in flour and other provisions. St John in Newfoundland also enjoys a small intercolonial trade. 3. Spirits and Wines.—We have already given the importation of rum under the foregoing head; it re- mains only to state that of brandy and gin. The de- mand for both these articles has been progressively in- creasing during the last few years, more especially for brandy, which rose into high estimation during the pre- valence of cholera in 1832. The average supply for the five previous years was 109,092 gallons; in 1832 it was 184,000; and in 1835 not less than 283,000 gallons. As the population increases in wealth, it is likely to be substituted for other liquors, and the quality of that now obtained is certainly much better than it was a few years ago. The average importation of gin during the five years ending 1832 was 61,000 gallons, or about 500 pipes; the quantity landed in 1835 was 92,000 gallons. The present consumption of brandy cannot be much less than 1800 pipes, that of gin 750. Of wines, the total consumption of all kinds has been estimated at 3500 pipes, distinguished as follows :—■ COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 37 Port 500 Madeira 200 Sherry 200 Teneriffe, and other low white wines 700 Spanish, and other low red wines 1600 French, German, &c 300 3500 There is every reason to believe that the above esti- mate may be relied on. But, to enable the reader to form his own judgment, we add a statement of the average importation of the five years ending 1832, com- pared with that in 1835 and 1836. It will be seen that the importation of 1835 was small, being not more than 1600 pipes, whilst that of 1836 was excessive, being fully 5000 pipes:-— Importation. Description of Wine. Average of five years end- ing 1832. 1855. 1836. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Port 54,910 21,293 69,415 99,748 53,658 299,003 93,400 17,000 23,955 25,100 44,000 12,080 482,149 43.056 33,800 36,000 Madeira Teneriffe, &c Spanish, &c Other kinds Total 183,455 607,085 London enjoys the chief part of this trade to Canada, as there is a discriminating duty of £7, 7s. per tun of 252 gallons on wines " direct from the place of growth." A considerable quantity of low white and red wines is brought from the Mediterranean, after having been landed at Gibraltar. By this expedient the high duty is avoided. 4. Miscellaneous Articles.—Coals, salt, and fruits, remain to be noticed. The first and second of these are imported from Great Britain as ballast; hence, if they sell at a price to cover cost, shipping charges, and a profit on the outlay, the shipowner is content. The consumption is about 25,000 tons, and is rapidly in- creasing; though the trade will certainly experience a change on any alteration taking place in the duties on 38 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. timber. At present the shipowner looks to the home- ward freight of 45s. to 50s. per load to pay him. When coals shall cease to be carried as ballast, the price will advance slightly in Quebec and Montreal; and this will enable the coal-owners of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton to come into the market. The steam-boats now use coals mixed with wood, which is found to generate steam very rapidly, so that the consumption is likely to in- crease to an indefinite extent. The western parts of Upper Canada will probably be supplied from Ohio or from native mines, as the expense of transport must render a supply by sea almost impossible. The curing of provisions being a growing branch of Canadian industry, the consumption of salt is consider- able. The average importation of the five years ending 1832 was 286,000 minots; that of 1835 was only 228,000, which was a decidedly short supply. The im- portation of 1836 was 281,588 bushels; but as the price continued very high up to the latest accounts, the con- sumption is greater than the amount now specified. The annual demand may be considered about 10,000 tons, and is supplied from Liverpool, St Ubes, Lisbon, the native salt-springs, and the salt-works of Salina, in the state of New York. The use of dried fruits in Canada is becoming worthy of notice in a commercial point of view. They are im- ported from Malaga and Gibraltar, with wines, spirits, oils, fresh fruits, and other Mediterranean productions. The average arrival for the three years ending 1833 is as follows, and the figures may be taken as a fair indi- cation of the present demand :— Raisins boxes 10,000' Ditto barrels 1,800 Figs packages 1,400 Almonds 500 Tallow is imported for the use of the Quebec and Montreal soap-boilers, to the extent of about 800 casks from Great Britain, besides 250 casks and 800 barrels from the United States and Upper Canada: a consider- COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS* 39 able quantity of palm-oil is likewise imported for the same destination. For the rope-walks already alluded to about 250 tons of hemp are also required. We have stated in a former part of this chapter, that the total value of the articles imported into Canada in 1835 was no less than £2,300,000 currency. The ex- ports, on the other hand, do not altogether exceed £1,800,000, including the various commodities smuggled into the United States, and the wood sawn for the same market, of which no account is kept. How then is the balance of £600,000 liquidated? By the funds brought into the colony by immigrants, by Government expen- diture, and by the transfer of capital from this country for investment in the colony. This brings a market to the farmer's door for produce, which under other cir- cumstances he would send to a foreign market, and causes an importation of goods for which no remittance has to be made. If it be found that importation annually exceeds exportation by five, six, or seven hundred thou- sand pounds, without raising the rate of exchange, we may be sure that such balance represents capital drawn from other sources, such as those which we have just enumerated. A notion of the inland trade with the United States may be gathered from what has been already stated. A portion of the ashes, flour, and other provisions consumed in Canada, are derived from thence. In early spring, teas, coffee, fruits, tobacco, and various groceries, are imported from New York by the way of Lake Cham- plain. The exports at St John, on that lake, the chief seat of this trade, amounted, in 1832, to £8197; and the imports to £146,807. In 1833, the former were £20,500, the latter £104,500. Of the imports fully two-thirds consisted of agricultural produce. There entered this port in 1833, inwards, 336 vessels, 68,513 tons, and 2336 men; outwards, 326 vessels, 68,493 tons, and 2324 men. An intercourse with the United States is also carried on from different points in Upper Canada, the duties on which amounted, in 1835, to above £10,000, 40 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 4. Tariff of Duties. 5. Inland Communication. Of this there was paid at Toronto £3750; Kingston, £1517; Burlington, £1438; Port-Stanley, £835; Brockville, £549. When commodities are exported on American account, the transmission of a bill of exchange on New York easily closes the transaction. Shipments are also made to the West Indies from that city, as well as some of the more southern towns, by order of Canadian houses. These are usually paid for by drafts on London. SECTION III. MONEY, BANKS, DUTIES, &C. There are a few subjects which remain to be illus- trated in order to complete this chapter; they are, 1. Money and Exchang-es. 2. Weights and Measures. 3. Banks. 1. Money and Exchanges.—In the Canadas accounts are kept and sales and purchases are made in pounds, shillings, and pence, Halifax currency. This currency is about 20 per cent, inferior to the British, though the denominations and proportions are the same. The pound currency is four Spanish dollars, each dollar being called 5s. But the average value of the dollar in the London market is only 4s. 2d.; hence 4s. 2d. sterling = 5s. cur- rency; or 16s. 8d. sterling — £1 currency; or £100 sterling = £120 currency. This is a very simple statement, and can be understood by any one ; but from the language of exchange made use of in Canada, the comparison puzzles almost every body, including even many of the mercantile class, to whom the terms are necessarily familiar. The cause of this difficulty is the assumption of a par of exchange departing very widely from the average value of the currency. This erroneous par is 4s. 6d. taken as the value of the dollar, or £90 sterling equal to £100 currency; the rule being, add one-ninth to sterling to obtain currency. To make up the difference between the erroneous par and the average value of the currency,—say the approximate par,—it is necessary to COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 41 make use of a nominal premium of exchange. Thus, when exchange is really wholly undisturbed, or, in other words, at par (£100 sterling selling for £120 currency), it is said to be at 8 per cent, premium. Thus, Billon London sterling, £100; or dollar sterling- £042 Premium 8 per cent. U 0 0 4 "108 0 4 6 Add one-ninth, 12 0 0 6 Value of'£100 st.,currency 120, or value of dollar 0 5 0 cur. The better way would be to quote the dollar, or the pound, or the £100, at what each is respectively worth. Government exchange is thus quoted, so are sovereigns; but the merchant still persists in adopting language which must of necessity mislead even him who uses it. The commissary-general of Canada quotes his drafts at 4s. 2d. or 4s. if d. per dollar, as the case may be; that is, on being paid so many times 5s. currency, he will deliver a bill on the treasury of as many times 4s. 2d. or 4s. If d. sterling. Sovereigns are quoted in the Canadian price-lists at 24s. currency (more or less). Thus 4s. 2d. sterling per dollar; 24s. currency per sovereign; ex- change at 8 per cent, premium; and £100 sterling — £120 currency, all mean the same state of the exchange. Fluctuations in the rate of exchange of course revolve round the nominal premium of 8 per cent, as around a pivot, so that 6 per cent, premium is in fact 2 discount, and 10 per cent, only 2 premium. 2. Weights and Measures.—The weights and mea- sures generally in use are those of Great Britain, but with the old English measures of capacity. The ?ninot, sometimes used in Lower Canada, is an old French measure, 90 of which are commonly estimated at 100 English or Winchester bushels, although the true pro- portion is from 90 to 98. 3. Banks.—In Lower Canada there are four banks, and two others are about to be put in operation. Those already established are the Montreal Bank, with a capital of £250,000; the (Montreal) City Bank, capi- 42 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. tal £200,000; the People's Bank, capital paid up £75,000; and Quebec Bank, capital £75,000; giving the amount of banking capital employed in this province £600,000. The houses about to commence business are the Bank of North America,* the chief office of which is in London, and a country bank at Trois Rivieres. The former of these will have an office at Montreal and Quebec, at which last the Montreal Bank has also a branch; so that there will be in Lower Canada six banks, having eight offices, and employing an aggregate capital of about £800,000. The value of the notes circulated by the four banks now in operation amounts to about £400,000; the de- posits to nearly £400,000 more; and the loans they are enabled to make to the public average about £1,200,000; while the aggregate reserve of specie kept as a safeguard against sudden calls is not quite £200,000. The banks in the upper province are four in number, and possibly by this time five ;—the Bank of Upper Canada, with a capital of £200,000, that of Kingston, or the Midland District, with a capital of £100,000, toge- ther with the Agricultural and People's Banks, the paid capital of which probably amounts to £100,000 more. This will make the banking capital in that province £400,000, enjoying a circulation of £400,000, deposits to the amount of nearly £300,000, and lending to the public by way of discount about £800,000 or £900,000, with a reserve of specie falling somewhat short of £200,000. The Bank of North America is expected to have a branch at Toronto; besides which the following appli- cations to the legislature for additional charters are advertised in the official Gazette. 1. To increase the capital of the Bank of U. C. to £500,000 2. do. do. of the Commercial Bank to... 500,000 d. For a Bank in Prince Edward District capital J 00,000 4. Do Niagara do. 200,000 5. Do Dundas do. 100,000 6. Do Western District do. 200,000 7. Do Brockville do. 200,000 * It has since commenced. COMMERCE OF THE CAN AD AS. 43 8. For a Bank in St Catherines capital not stated. 9. Do Cobourg- do. do. 10. Do Prescott do. £100,000 11. Do Chatham do. 50,000 Should all these applications be granted, they would raise the total banking capital of Upper Canada to upwards of £2,000,000; a sum far from excessive when compared with the population and trade, according to the proportions which obtain in other commercial countries. All the banks, with the exception of the People's Bank of Montreal, and the Agricultural Bank of To- ronto, are on the American principle of limited liability. The People's Bank of Lower Canada is an association en commandite; that is, the directors are liable for all engagements, whilst the risk of the shareholders is con- fined to the amount of their contributions. By this law the public has the additional security of the whole pro- perty of the managing directors, with all the advantage of skill, prudence, and vigilance, which joint-stock banks do not provide.* In Lower Canada there is a growing feeling against special charters. Those of the existing banks expired in 1837, and were temporarily renewed by the authority of the crown. A general law will probably be hereafter passed by the Assembly, providing for the publication of accounts, and giving the president or cashier the power of suing and being sued, with such simple regu- lations as may be deemed necessary; leaving it to the parties to declare themselves a societe en commandite, or remain an ordinary partnership, as they shall judge the one or the other most likely to gain them the confidence of the public. 4. Tariff.—The duties on imported goods levied in Canada are imposed partly by the authority of the British government, and partly by that of the colonial legislature. The former are called crown duties, and the * See a treatise on the commanditi principle by the writer of this chapter, entitled, " The Safety-principle of Joint Stock Banks and other Companies, exhibited in a Modification of the Law of Part- nership." 8vo, M'Crone. London, 1837. 44 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. latter provincial duties; the first being in sterling money, and the latter in currency. In charging the duties, the dollar is received at 4s. 4d., which is 2d. less than the old par, but 2d. more than its real value. The provincial duties have no object besides the in- crease of revenue, not discriminating in any way with respect to the sources of supply ; all commercial restric- tions being contrary to the spirit of Canadian legislation. The crown duties, on the other hand, seem to be framed rather for the purpose of forcing the trade into particular channels, than for simple revenue; and the royal re- ceipts are certainly trifling compared with what they would be were the imports equalized. The following is a table of the principal duties, crown and provincial:— Wine. In wood from the United Kingdom Madeira . . • per tun French . . .... All other wines And further on all wines,* per cent. In hottles, if bottled in the United Kingdom, the same as in wood. Not bottled in the United Kingdom, an additional duty-]- per tun And for every dozen of foreign bottles In wood from Gibraltar and Malta the same duty as wine in wood from the United Kingdom. In bottles, the same as in bottles from the place of growth. Wine from place of growth. Madeira . . per tun All others, except French And further* . . percent. Crown, sterling. d. £ 0 10 010 7 10 Provincial, currency. d. per gal. 9 * This further duty is only charged when its amount, if any, shall exceed that of the previous duties, in which case the excess is payable (3d and 4th William IV., c. 59, sect. 11); but this is not likely to occur except with very high-priced wines; it may therefore be considered as almost nominal. -|- This further duty will, in every case, exceed the previous duties: the excess will therefore be charged; the amount payable cannot, however, be shown by the table, and it will vary according to the value of the article. COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 45 0 1 3 20 0 0 In bottles, a further* duty per tun And every dozen of bottles Spirits from the United Kingdom or the British Colonies: Brandy, foreign . . per gal, Geneva, ditto Cordials, ditto Rum Ditto, British Plantation Whisky, British Foreign Molasses, British Plantation And further, if foreign. From place of growth, brandy and all spirits . . per gal. CofFee from the United Kingdom and British Plantations . per lb. If foreign . . per cwt. Cocoa, foreign British Plantation Sugar, refined, British or Colonial, per lb. Foreign-]- . . . per cent Muscovado, British Plantation Foreign . . . per cwt. Pimento from the Colonies per lb. From the United Kingdom Teas, Hyson Bohea . all others Tobacco, British manufactured Foreign-!-ditto . percent. Leaf-)- ditto Snuff, British manufactured Foreign-]- . . percent. Playing Cards . . per pack Salt:j: .... per minot All goods, wares, and merchandise not otherwise specified Nearly all British manufactures fall under the last condition, and pay an ad valorem duty of 2^ per cent. In addition to the crown duties specified above, the act 3d and 4th Wm. IV., c. 59, imposes others of 7^, 15, 20, and 30 per cent.; but, as in most cases they amount to a prohibition, they are seldom levied. The * See Note f, P- 44. + See Note *, ibid. + This duty is drawn back if the salt be reshipped for the use of the fisheries. VOL. II. C Crown, Provincial, sterling. currency. £ s. d. "d. 7 7 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 ... (; 0 1 0 ... fj 0 1 0 ... 6 0 1 0 ... b* 0 0 6 ... 6 0 0 3 ... 3 0 1 0 ... 0 0 0 1 5 20 0 0 ... G per lb. 2 2 per cent. 2h ... 2\ per lb. 1 ... 1 ... 0£ ... Oh per cent. 2^ 2l per lb. 0 2 ... 4 ... 3 ... 3 ... 2 ... 4 ... 4 2£ per cent. 46 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. duty of 7^ per cent, is occasionally paid, but the excess only is levied; so that when the goods are liable to the provincial duty of 2| per cent., 5 per cent, only is payable to the crown. The duty of £7 per tun on wines from the place of growth, is not unfrequently paid; so that the Canadi- ans may be said to be taxed to that extent for the pur- pose of forcing a circuitous trade in place of one that is direct. For this exaction they are but ill requited by the monopoly of timber to the British market,—a re- striction which entails the greatest evil on those whom it professes to benefit. 5. Inland Communications.—The people of Canada are scattered over a vast extent of country, some parts of which are 800 or 900 miles distant from the port of Quebec, and 600 or 700 from that of Montreal. But owing to the facility of communication by means of lakes and rivers, the expense of transport is compara- tively small; and, from the improvements which are taking place in canals and railroads, this expense will soon be greatly reduced. The following table, drawn up by a gentleman largely engaged in the trade of the colony, may be relied on as correct:— Sandwich,! Pt. Stanley, f Buffalo,! Q,ueenston,t Sackett's To Montreal. Specified Goods. Unspecifi- ,, ed Goods. PassaSe' BlK>h. d. s. d. 52 6.1 10 50 Oil 7| 42 61 3 37 m 1 2 s. d. s. 6 08 15 3 7 4 06 3 65 s. d, 52 6 50 0 42 6 37 6 ,d. 52 6' 50 0 42 6 37 6 £ s. s. d. 6 5 45 0 5 5 30 0 4 5 25 0 3 15 22 6 From Montreal. 10: 40 10 25 10 0 SMS d. 120 0 110 0 100 0 90 0 Harbour, $ Prescott, . Quebec, . New York, 32 6 25 0 0 11 0 9 3 0 2 3 6 25 0 76 40 0 32 6 25 0 10 0 50 0 2 10 1 15 1 3 10 17 6 10 0 5 0 80 0 70 0 76 * The cabin passage is in stage-coaches and steam-boats; the steerage passage is in Durham-boats or batteaux, and above Pres- cott on the deck of steam-boats. ■f On Lake Erie. + On Lake Ontario. COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 47 The river navigation of Canada is much obstructed by falls and rapids, to obviate which canals become neces- sary. These have accordingly been constructed on a very large scale, though not always in the most judicious manner. The first was the La Chine, formed to avoid the great rapid of the same name. It is above eight miles long, 48 feet wide, and 5 deep; the cost was £1375000 sterling. It has proved of great advantage,— about 2000 boats annually passing in each direction. In 1833, the tolls amounted to £7154, while the expenses being £1917, a revenue of £5237 accrued from it. The Grenville and Rideau canals form a vast chain of internal navigation, reaching by a circuitous line from Montreal to Kingston. It was planned by the British government chiefly for military purposes, with a view- to the transportation of supplies and stores from the lower to the upper province by an interior line not ex- posed to attack from an enemy. The La Chine is taken as its commencement. The line then passes to the Ot- tawa, and to avoid three successive obstacles,—the Long Sault, the Chute a Blondeau, and the Carillon rapids, —the Grenville canal has been formed, divided into three corresponding parts, costing in all the sum of £267,254. The locks first constructed were 108 feet long and 20 broad; but subsequently, with a view to admit steam-vessels, they were enlarged to 134 feet long and 33 broad. Above this the navigation of the river is unobstructed as high as the Falls of the Chaudiere. From these to Kingston and Lake Ontario, the Rideau eanal has been formed, connecting together the river and lake of that name, and a chain of other waters, so as to form a navigable line 135 miles long. The original esti- mate was only £169,000, and the estimate on which the work was commenced was only £576,757; but, from circumstances which should have been foreseen, and from the enlargement of the original dimensions, its completion required £803,774.* The change of level * Eveh this sum has since been considerably increased by acci- dents and repairs. 48 COMMERCE OF THE CAN AD AS. being 283 feet up from the Ottawa, and 154 down to Ontario, required forty-seven locks, costing £6000 each. The whole works have been constructed in the most ex- cellent and substantial manner, and will, it is supposed, be proof even against the violent floods to which these rivers are subject. The increase of the dimensions, un- fortunately, is as yet of no value, since the larger vessels for which it is intended cannot pass through the earlier part of the Grenville Canal, or through the La Chine. To enlarge the former, and connect it on the same scale with Montreal, would require an additional expenditure of £171,515, which the committee of 1832 did not feel themselves justified in recommending. An estimate made, in the same year, of the annual expense, was £18,799, including £10,000 for casualties; a sum which the tolls cannot be expected to defray, although this has become a regular passage into Upper Canada. It is much to be regretted, in a commercial point of view, that this large sum had not been employed on the line of the St Lawrence, particularly hi removing the obstructions on that river, which forms the most direct route into Upper Canada. To secure this object, the le- gislature of the latter country have engaged in extensive works, by which they hope to render Lake Ontario ac- cessible to steamers and other large vessels. The esti- mate was £315,000; and the work being commenced in 1834, there had been spent upon it, at the end of 1835, not less than £126,000. This sum, however, would only carry the navigation to the frontier of Lower Ca^ nada; and farther operations will be required within that province to complete it. There remains still the Welland Canal, a most im- portant work, which, by avoiding the Falls of Niagara, connects Lakes Ontario and Erie, and opens a communi- cation into the most interior parts of America. It is fifty- three miles long, fifty-six feet wide at the surface, and eight deep. The expense, down to the 1st January 1835, was £411,000, which large sum was raised by private individuals, with the exception of £100,000 lent by the COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. 49 province, and £55,500 by the imperial government. It has been open since 1832, when the tolls amounted to £2432; in 1833 they had risen to £3618, and in 1834 to £4300, which, adding £982 for water privileges, made the whole revenue £5282; but deducting £3597 of ex- penses, there remained a net income of only £1685,—a most miserable return for so great an expenditure. The banks, however, during this period, are said to have fallen frequently out of repair, and the whole concern was not fully completed; but arrangements are now making for the purpose. The revenue cannot fail pro- gressively to advance, were it only from its connecting together the two American provinces, that are rising most rapidly in wealth and culture.* A railroad has been commenced through the London district, the object of which is to connect Lakes Ontario and Erie by a more northern route than the Welland Canal. A railroad and a canal have also been begun, proceeding from the Rice Lake, north of Ontario, to the borders of the latter, at Cobourg and Port-Hope. These will open the finest lands of the Newcastle District to the markets of Lower Canada. In the spring of 1837, the Assembly passed the fol- lowing votes for extensive and important improvements in the interior communications of Upper Canada: Completion of Welland Canal £245,000 Improving- navigation of River Trent 77-.500 Do Grand River 12,500 Do theTay 750 Do the Gananoqui and Wiltze 8,000 Desjardins Canal 5,900 Railroad from Lake Ontario through the Gore and London Districts 200,000 Do from Toronto to Lake Huron (by Lake Simcoe and north of the Huron tract) 100,000 Do between Lakes Ontario and Erie 5,000 Do from Cobourg to Rice Lake 10,000 * Parliamentary Report on Canal Communications in Canada (?9th June 1832), pp. 4, 5; 35; 41,42. Evans7 Agriculture in Canada; Supplement, pp. 1, 51-53, 100. 101. Pitkin s Historical View of United states, p. 549. M'Tag-g-art's Three Years in Ca- nada (2 vols 8vo, London, 1829), vol. i. pp. 165, 235, 236. 50 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. To macadamize Yonge Street, and others in Home Dis- trict £100,000 Do road from Dundas to Waterloo 25,0l>0 Do road from Brockville to St Francis, Charle- ton, Lyndhurst, Beverley, and Portland 30,000 Do road from Kingston to Napanee 30,000 Do road from Hamilton to Brandtford 30,000 Do road from Dundas Street to the Lake shore 2,500 Do road from Queenston to western boundary of Grimsby, 30,000 To improve the harbour of Whitby 9,000 Do harbour of Port Dover 3,000 Do harbour of Port Burwell (Stanley) 3,(100 Do harbour at mouth of Credit River 1,500 Do harbour at Louth, Niagara District. 1,000 Toll-bridge, Chatham 1,500* In the lower province, -besides tile La Chine Canal, some important works have been constructed. First, we may mention the port of Montreal, which is really one of the finest of the kind in the world. A quay, as already noticed, extends in the form of a crescent along the whole line of the city, leaving space for wharfage, for a road, and for ascents to an upper road; the whole is bounded by a long wall, above which is the street, with the merchants' houses and warehouses. This up- per wall acts as a defence against the ice, which, before its construction, used to do much damage on the breaking up of the winter. Communication with the United States has lately been facilitated by means of a short railroad from La Prairie on the south side of the St Lawrence, above Montreal, and St John on Lake Champlain, formed at a cost of £34,800. The old road, eighteen miles in length, at particular seasons of the year, was perhaps the worst in the world. The writer of these remarks has been seven hours in accomplishing the journey, which now occupies only from fifty to sixty minutes. The whole distance to New York, five or six years ago, required five days; some years further back ten days were neces- sary; it will shortly be done in less than thirty hours. * Upper Canada Gazette, March 1837. COMMERCE OF THE CAN AD AS. 51 The communication between Lake Champlain and the St Lawrence is also facilitated by the Chambly Canal, which opens the navigation down the Richelieu river to Sorel, forty-five miles below Montreal. This canal, with the improvement of the river connected with it, has cost nearly £90,000. During the winter, the hard snow forms a kind of natural railroad, marked out by the sleighs or vehicles of various kinds on runners instead of wheels. It is by this mode that produce is carried from the interior to the shipping-places on the border of some navigable stream, whence it is conveyed to market as soon as the mild season returns. We shall now close this chapter with a few observa- tions referring to a change which perhaps takes place in every settlement in its progress towards maturity. In the early periods of most of our colonies, commerce properly so called remains in the hands of the mother- country, or is supported by capital drawn from thence. In such circumstances the settlers confine themselves to the retail trade; and it is not until they have advanced in wealth and intelligence, that they aspire to the cha- racter of merchants. Ten years ago, the former state of things prevailed in Canada; of late, however, a great alteration has taken place, and at this moment some of the most extensive houses in Montreal consist of native partners, who are not inferior to those of the British establishments either in respect of funds or of profes- sional knowledge. The beneficial effects of this change may be easily conceived. As long as the wholesale trade remained in the hands of English merchants, the accumulated pro- fits of years were not unfrequently withdrawn from the colony by their return home. When, on the other hand, a native retires from the pursuits of trade, his capi- tal forces him to seek some mode of investment which will secure an income without the inconvenience of per- sonal superintendence,—hence the banking institution, the insurance company, the railroad, and the canal. The 52 COMMERCE OF THE CANADAS. People's Bank, already mentioned, has been established entirely by the savings of colonial industry. As the habits of the Canadians are much less expen- sive than those of the British, the rate of accumulation will become much more rapid than it has ever yet been. Their frugal manner of life cannot but give great stabi- lity to trade, improve the reputation of the mercantile body generally, and establish in the minds of our mer- chants and manufacturers that high degree of confidence which is the mainspring of commercial intercourse. In conclusion, it may not be uninteresting to state, that the total importations into all the North American colonies amount to about £5,000,000 currency. Of this not more than £4,000,000 currency are paid for by ex- ports, the remaining £1,000,000 may consequently be said to be the value of British capital annually invested in Canada, in the manner pointed out in a former page. SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 53 CHAPTER II. Social State of Canada, Different Classes of People—French Habitans—Their Tenures— Outward Appearance—Mode of living-—Religious and moral Character—Manners in Upper Canada—Mode of living—Native Indians—Their Number—Catholic Indians—Hurons of Loretto —Different Tribes—Effects of Protestant Conversion—Govern- ment Expenditure on them—Present Dress and Mode of living —Religious Instruction in Lower and Upper Canada—Education. The inhabitants of Canada are divided into three classes, among which no complete amalgamation has yet been formed. These are the original French colonists, com- monly called habitans; the British settlers; and the Indian tribes. The habitans, at the time of the conquest, formed al- most the whole of the European population. They had occupied the best lands along the banks of the St Lawrence, between Quebec and Montreal; a consider- able extent of those upon the Richelieu; and a small space on the Chaudiere, the Yamaska, the St Maurice, and other tributaries of the great river, as well as a detached settlement on the fertile shores of the Detroit. These tracts had been granted to persons of distinction and to favourites, usually in large blocks, which, as already stated, they held under the title of seigneurs. But it accorded not with their habits to clear and cultivate for themselves grounds covered with an unbroken forest; nor would the task be undertaken by farmers on the terms of an ordinary lease. The proprietors were there- fore obliged to make them over, in small lots, under the feudal title of fiefs, to hard-working men, who, on re- 54 SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. ceiving this permanent interest, were willing to encoun- ter the toil. The annual payment or quit-rent is in general exceedingly small, amounting on some proper- ties only to 10s. a-year, with a bushel of wheat and two fowls. The seigneur has, besides, certain feudal claims; a tithe on fish, mill-dues, and, more especially, payments on sale or transference, which in some cases amount to a fifth of the purchase-money.* The occupants of these fiefs or farms, under the bur- dens now specified, are virtual proprietors of the soil, which they cultivate with their own hands, aided by their families. They are described as a particularly contented, industrious, and amiable race of people; and the lots, though much subdivided in. the course of suc- cession, are still sufficient to maintain them in simple plenty. They till their lands with diligence, though without skill, having scarcely adopted any of the modern improvements. Their study is to produce from the farm every thing they need; not only the whole of their food, but their candles, soap, and even sugar. From flax of their own raising, too, and the wool of their own sheep, they are enabled to manufacture almost every article of clothing. Their houses, though generally built of wood and only one story high, are whitewashed, and tolerably commodious. A partition in the middle separates the kitchen from the principal apartment, at one end of which are the bedrooms. There is a garden which, though in a somewhat rude and straggling state, and cultivated by the females only, yields a comfortable sup- ply of the more common fruits and vegetables. The personal appearance of the habitans is peculiar. They are tall, thin, and, from exposure to the climate, almost as dark as the Indians. They have thin lips and often aquiline noses, with small, dark, and lively eyes. Many of the girls are pretty oval-faced brunettes, with fine eyes, good teeth, and glossy locks. The dress is nearly after the old fashion of the French peasantry. * Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 376, 377. McGregor, vol. ii. p. 426. SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 0/ The men wear the capot, a large gray coat or sur- tout, covering nearly the whole body, and tied with a girdle of brilliant colours. On the legs they have mo- cassins, and on the head a straw hat in summer, and a red bonnet in winter. The hair is still tied in a long queue behind. The women wear short jackets or bed- gowns (mantelets), with petticoats distinct, and some- times of a different colour, and caps instead of bonnets; a mode of dress formerly common in Scotland, and not yet wholly disused. They have long waists, and some- times the hair tied behind in a large club. At church, or other occasions of full dress, they adopt the English fashion, but display a much greater variety of showy colours. Hair-powder is sometimes worn, and beet-root employed as rouge; but both in their dress and houses, they are perfectly clean. The habitans are frugal and moderate in their ordi- nary diet, which mostly consists of different kinds of soup. They have, however, their joursgras, or great feast-days, particularly before and after Lent, when large companies assemble, and the board is spread with every delicacy which their larder can afford. The table groans beneath immense turkey pies, huge joints of beef, mutton, and pork, followed by a profusion of fruit-puddings. Ex- traordinary justice is said to be done to these viands, as well as to the rum which follows; but the younger members of the company are soon roused by the sound of the violin; and the dancing, of which they are pas- sionately fond, engages them till a late hour. Wed- dings, above all, are celebrated by a mighty concourse of friends and acquaintances. Twenty or thirty of the country carriages bring in parties to witness the cere- mony, which is followed by feasts and dances, not un- frequently prolonged for several days. The young people, however, have a somewhat rude method of ex- pressing their opinion of an unequal union, especially if arising from the relative age of the parties. They as- semble at night in large bodies, sounding various dis- cordant instruments, horns, drums, bells, kettles, ac- 7 58 SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. coinpanied by loud shouts; and a contribution to the church or some charitable purpose is indispensable to obtain a respite from this jocular persecution. The short summer is necessarily spent in almost unremitting- labour; but when ice and snow have covered the ground, the gay season begins, and in their carioles or little chaises on steel runners, which pass swiftly over the frozen surface, they visit their neighbours, and spend much time in social intercourse.* The Canadian French, like their forefathers, profess the Roman Catholic religion with much zeal, and in a manner which occasionally approaches superstition. The roads are marked by crosses erected at the side; their houses are filled with little pictures of the Madonna and child, waxen images of saints, and of the crucifixion; and there is a profuse expenditure of holy water and candles. They reluctantly establish their dwelling beyond hear- ing of the church bells, and on Sundays the attendance is crowded. They have, however, those inadequate notions as to the sanctity of that day, which are ge- neral in Catholic countries. When worship is over, the remainder is devoted, without reserve, to amuse- ment. "Sunday," it is said, "is to them their day of gayety; there is then an assemblage of friends and rela- tions ; the parish-church collects together all whom they know, with whom they have relations of business or pleasure; the young and old, men and women, clad in their best garments, riding their best horses, driving, in their gayest caleches, meet there for purposes of busi- ness, love, and pleasure. The young habitant, decked out in his most splendid finery, makes his court to the maiden whom he has singled out as the object of his affections; the maiden, exhibiting in her adornment every colour of the rainbow, there hopes to meet her chevalier; the bold rider descants uj>on and gives evi- dence of the merits of his unrivalled pacer; and in win- * Bouchette, vol. i. p. 405-409. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 565-569, 594. SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 59 ter the powers of the various horses are tried in sleigh or cariole racing; in short, Sunday is the grand fete." Even the violin and the dance in the evening are not con- sidered unsuitable. Notwithstanding these customs, the religious spirit of the Canadians appears sincere, and is attended with great benefits. Their general conduct is inoffensive and praiseworthy. Crimes of an atrocious description, as murder and violent assaults upon the person, scarcely ever occur. Property is perfectly safe, both from the thief and the robber; the doors of the houses stand open, and all sorts of goods are exposed without any precaution. They scarcely ever engage in those furious personal conflicts which, among the Ame- ricans of English descent, are often carried on with such violence ; they know neither duelling, boxing, nor goug- ing. On the contrary, they mutually treat each other with all the ceremonious politeness of the French school. One of the first things taught to a child is to speak deco- rously, to bow or curtsey to its elders or to strangers. This politeness is not accompanied with any degree of insincerity or servility, above which last they are com- pletely raised by their independent situation. They are said to be generous in relieving those in distress, liberal and courteous to all who have any claim on their hospi- tality. The custom of parents and children living to- gether, often to the third generation, in the same house, marks a mild and friendly temper. The only form under which hostile passions are vented is that of litigation, to which they are immoderately addicted, being favoured by the comparative cheapness of law. M. Bouchette defends this as securing them from violent and turbu- lent modes of terminating their differences. The habitans are not a stirring, enterprising, or im- proving race. They tread in the steps of their forefathers, following the same routine, and with difficulty adopting the most obvious improvements of modern husbandry. Although extensive tracts lie in their immediate neigh- bourhood unoccupied, they resign them to the English and Americans, and have scarcely at all extended the 60 SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. range of their original settlement. Even their ami- able qualities tend to retain them in this stationary condition; to which we may add their social disposition, their attachment to their kindred, their church, and the rites of their religion. They feel as if in leaving these things they would leave all. Their range of information has hitherto been very limited; and their priests, it has been alleged, by no means favour the diffusion among them even of the first elements of education ; so that the majority of the adults cannot even read or write. But the legislature have lately made great exertions to im- prove them in this respect, and it is hoped that the rising generation will be more enlightened.* The society in Upper Canada, with the exception of the small French settlement at Detroit, presents a very different aspect. A great majority of the inhabitants consist of emigrants recently arrived from Ireland, Scot- land, and England, who have not yet made much change in their original ideas and habits. Those established at successive periods during the previous half century, are not represented by Mr Howison, Mr Talbot, and other writers, under a very favourable light. The tone, espe- cially in the western districts, appears to have been in a great measure given by such Americans as came, not from the civilized portions of the Union, but from the back wood tracts, breathing rather the spirit of Ken- tucky than of New England. Disbanded soldiers and sailors were not well calculated to improve the breed; and even the voluntary emigrants were not always composed of the respectable classes who, under the pressure of the times, have lately embraced this resource. The removal of the ordinary restraints of society, and the absence of religious ordinances and ministration, concurred in giving to them a reckless and unprin- cipled character* Intoxication, encouraged by the cheap- ness of spirits, is indulged to a lamentable degree, and is often productive of general ill conduct and ruin. Little * Bouchette, vol, i. p. 404-413. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 458, 561-567. SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 61 regard is paid to the Sabbath, and other sacred institu- tions; and the ear of the stranger is wounded, not only by abusive language, but by swearing to an odious and disgusting degree. Pugilistic contests are carried on with a violence rivalling those of Kentucky, and have not always been unaccompanied by the savage practice of gouging. Mr Talbot, though he admits that he met with many respectable females, charges a large propor- tion of the sex with a disregard and even an insensibility to their first duties. Although a spry lass, as she is termed, is sure of repeated offers, and is never long of being united in the bonds of matrimony, she may fre- quently before that event have given birth to one or two children. Our author was in company with a lady who volunteered to the company the information, that "her Betty" had been two years old at her marriage. The correcter feelings, on this subject, of females from the old country are contemned as ridiculous. Nay, where so little delicacy prevails, and the children are so valuable a pos- session, the bringing two or three into the world in this irregular manner, instead of being a bar to marriage, proves, it is said, an additional attraction, by making the young lady a species of heiress. After marriage, she makes an active and industrious wife, but expects from her husband much deference, and even that he should wink at occasional frailties. These faults are described by Mr Gourlay as rapidly disappearing, though Mr Talbot, and even Mr Shirreff, found them still too pre- valent; but the increased means of instruction, and the example of respectable immigrants, will, it may be hoped, gradually effect a thorough reform. No people in the world live better than the inhabitants of Upper Canada. The abundance of produce, and the low price at which it can be sold, naturally inclines them to take the full use of it. Three copious meals, often of twelve or fourteen dishes each, are daily served up, called breakfast, dinner, and "supper, but consisting generally of the same component parts ; among which are specially enumerated, green tea, fried pork, honeycomb, VOL. ir. D 62 SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. stilted salmon, pound cake, pickled cucumbers, stewed chickens, apple-tarts, maplc-molasscs, pease-pudding, gingerbread, and sour crout. They arc not very social in their daily habits, to which indeed the almost im- passable state of the roads opposes great obstacles; but they are fond of large parties, and in a favourable season five or six families often unite, and, without any notice, drive to visit another at the distance of ten or twelve miles. Such an arrival would not always be very op- portune in an English household; but "in this bind of plenty," the flour-barrel, the pork-tub, and the fowl- house, afford at all times materials for meeting such an emergency ; and the board is soon spread with a plentiful meal. The dance is an amusement of which they are passionately fond. No inn is considered worthy of the name, unless it be provided with a spacious ball-room, which is called into requisition as often as convenience will permit. Intellectual recreations have not hitherto attracted all the attention which they merit. Mr Talbot, during a residence of five years, never saw above two individuals with books in their hands; and in one case it was a medical treatise, consulted for health. The sources of improvement already enumerated, however, have already made a great impression, and will, we doubt not, erelong wipe off this reproach from the Canadian people.* There remains yet undescribed a small but interesting portion, the remnant of the Indian nations. It has ap- peared mysterious how tribes once so powerful, without war or bloodshed, should have silently disappeared, and only a handful survive. The occupation of their hunt- ing-grounds by European settlers, the introduction of destructive diseases, particularly small-pox, and the free use of intoxicating liquors, have no doubt materially thin- ned their numbers. Our researches, however, have led us to suspect, that the diminution has not been nearly so * Talbot, pp. 21, 35-43, 59, GO, 118. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 252. Shirreff, p. 3«9. SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 63 great as is supposed; in other words, that the original numbers were much exaggerated. We have had occa- sion to observe, that the Iroquois, the most powerful people in America, and occupying a territory extending several hundred miles in every direction, were not esti- mated by the French to include more than 3000 war- riors. Yet they enjoyed a better climate, and were not so entirely ignorant of cultivation as the tribes north- ward of the St Lawrence. The Indians, under British protection, are dispersed in small villages and settlements in different parts of Upper and Lower Canada. The charge made by Mr M'Grcgor'* that they have not been kindly treated by our government, seems scarcely well founded; for not only do they remain peaceably under her sway, but they have repeatedly taken up arms in her cause against the " Big Knives," as they term the Americans. In con- sideration of their services, and in compensation for the en- croachments made on their domain, each individual, on repairing to a fixed station, receives a certain amount of goods as an annual present; and this grant affords the means of estimating the number residing within the pro- vinces. In Lower Canada, in 182B, it amounted to 21)22, exclusive of about 450 Micmacs, or wandering tribes, from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The number in Upper Canada to whom, about the same time, dona- tions were made, was 12,919 ;+ making in the two pro- vinces 15,841. The estimate thus obtained, however, is not quite so accurate as could be wished. Several thousands came from beyond the western frontier, a distance in some cases of four or five hundred mites, and even from the territory of the United States; but in consequence of the signal services rendered by them during the last war, pledges had been given, which Bri- tain must now fulfil. On the other hand, in the immense forest territory which the hand of cultivation has not * Vol. ii. p. 573. •J- Papers relating' to Aboriginal Tribes. Ordered by House of Commons to be printed, 14th August 1834, p. 2.i-«!5. ^4 SOCIAL STATE OP CANADA. yet approached, there are doubtless very considerable numbers who retain their wild independence, and hold no relations whatever with Europeans. We may notice, in particular, the vast tracts to the east and north of Quebec, whence no mention is made of any resort to the stations of distribution. The Indians of Lower Canada have been converted to the Catholic religion, and their spiritual concerns are superintended by five missionaries, who receive salaries of from £40 to £70 per annum. They appear much attached to these instructors, and show a deep sense of their religious duties; yet they have admitted scarcely any change in their original habits, or made any progress in industry. Their husbandry, as formerly, is on a small scale, of the rudest description, and carried on entirely by women and old men. "The Indian tribes," said the late Lord Dalhousie, "continue to be warlike in their ideas and recollections. Insignificant as are some of the tribes now in Lower Canada, civilized and accustomed to social life, there is not one of them that does not boast of the warlike days of their chiefs and warriors; even now, the word warrior is assumed by every young man; he is trained up to it, and has a higher idea of the approba- tion of his chief, or the consideration of white men, in that character of an active hunter or warrior, than he has of any other object or use of his existence." The missionaries, though they execute their spiritual func- tions with zeal and diligence, not only take no pains to instruct them in reading or writing, but effectually oppose any efforts for that purpose, at least when made by Protestant teachers. We even suspect that they indulge rather than check the warlike spirit of their flocks; since it appears, that on the annual religious festival called the grand fete de Dieu, the Indians are in the habit of marching to church in military order, headed by their chiefs, bearing arms, and amid the music of drums and fifes.* * Papers relating to Aboriginal Tribes. Ordered by House of Commons to be printed, 14th August 1834, pp. 6-9, 96, 97. SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 65 A few miles northward from Quebec is the Huron set- tlement of Loretto, consisting of sixty-seven men, sixty- five women, and forty-seven children. This poor remnant of a race once so powerful, holding only forty acres of land, derive a precarious subsistence from hunting, fish- ing, and some trifling articles made by their females. They recently preferred a claim to the fief of Sillery, a fine tract extending a league along the St Lawrence, near Quebec, in virtue of a grant made to then* ancestors in 1651. The case being brought before the courts, it was argued by the crown lawyers that the grant had been made to the Jesuits in general terms, for the purpose "of assembling the wandering nations of New France, and instructing them in the Christian religion;" that, in 1699, these missionaries, representing that the Indians had quitted the spot on account of the soil being exhaust- ed, requested and obtained a grant of it for themselves; and that it remained in their possession till the extinc- tion of their order in 1800, when it devolved on the British government. On these grounds the judges decided against the Iiurons. We cannot help refer- ring, however, to certain facts in our historical narra- tive, founded on authorities which we incline to be- lieve were unknown to either party in this contest. It there appears that the grant immediately followed the destruction of the Huron nation by the Iroquois, when the Jesuits, as the only means of saving the rem- nant of the tribe, removed them to Quebec. The date and the name of the principal settlement seem to show, that however general the terms may have been, the grant was made virtually for the benefit of these un- fortunate fugitives, and to the Jesuits only as their trus- tees. If this be admitted, we know not how for their quitting it at one time for another spot, without any formal relinquishment, could be considered as vacating their title. On the loss of their cause, they sent two deputies to London, who very earnestly solicited an in- terview with their great father. Sir George Murray evaded this demand, but received them kindly, and 66 SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. though he could not re-open a legal decision, offered them grants of crown lands in other quarters; but they replied, that an arrangement which would separate them, and require a complete change in their mode of life, could not be felt by them as any real advantage. In the vicinity of Three Rivers are 82 Algon- quins, and near St Francis and Becancour, on the opposite side, 359 Abenaquis. These tribes inhabit rude villages, composed of very poor bark huts, though somewhat better than the ordinary wigwams. They once possessed a considerable extent of land, the greater part of which has been wrested from them under various pretences by designing individuals; and to prevent such frauds, it is proposed that no alienation of property by these untaught tribes shall be held valid until it has been sanctioned by government. Farther down the river, are three settlements of Iroquois, one at Sault St Louis and Caughnawaga, amounting to 967; another at St Begis of 348 ; and a third of 282 at the Lake of the Two Mountains. This tribe, once powerful and even intel- ligent, are now indolent, wretched, and despised by their own countrymen. Those of Sault St Louis possess some land, though, from mismanagement, it produces little; and a late claim for an addition, founded on minute boundary questions, was fruitless, though they also sent two deputies to London to enforce it. At the Lake of the Two Mountains are likewise S55 Algonquins and 250 Nipissings. These have no land to cultivate, but, by their activity in hunting and supplying Europeans with furs, they have placed themselves in a more comfortable condition than any other Indians in Lower Canada. They complain much, however, of the extended colonization on the Ottawa, by which their hunting grounds are greatly narrowed.* In Upper Canada, along the St Lawrence and Lake Ontario, the Mississaguas are the leading tribe. Those * Papers relati 'g- to Aboriginal Tribes. Ordered b}r House of Commons to be printed, 14th August 1834, pp. 23, 25, 34, C6, 84. SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 67 of Kingston and Gananoqui, only 82 in number, are described as worthless and depraved; but such as dwell on the Bay of Quinte and Rice Lake, amounting re- spectively to 143 and 317, have been converted to Chris- tianity, and are much improved. On the Bay are also 319 Mohawks, many of whom have applied themselves to agriculture, and even adopted in some degree the Euro- pean dress, though mixed in a grotesque manner with their native attire. On the river Credit, which falls into the western part of Ontario, are 180 of the same nation, who have been greatly civilized by their conversion. Around Lake Simcoe and in its vicinity, about 550 Chip- pewas reside, under their chief, Yellowhead. These also have expressed a strong desire for instruction and the knowledge of religion, but have not yet experienced those benefits in an equal degree. The banks of the Grand River, which falls into Lake Erie, to the extent of six miles on each side, was, by a proclamation of General Haldimand, set apart for the Mohawks and Six Nations, who occupy it to the number of about 2000. Some part of these lands has been sold with the consent of go- vernment, and the proceeds lodged in the British funds, yielding an annual revenue of £1500, which is distri- buted among them in goods. They still hold 260,000 acres of an excellent soil, over which they have spread themselves in small villages, and many of them attempt the simpler modes of farming. Farther west are the Munseys, on the Thames, 445 in number, and 309 Hurons, connected with the French settlement on the Detroit, and converts to the Catholic form of worship.* With the last exception, all the tribes in Upper Ca- nada, till within these few years, remained in their pri- mitive state of rudeness and ignorance. They are now, however, willing converts to the Christian faith, receiv- ing instruction in reading and writing : their morals are * Papers relating to Aboriginal Tribes. Ordered by House of Commons to be printed, 14th August 1834, p. 27-30. 68 SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. greatly improved, and, in short, the way is paved for their adopting generally the habits of civilized life. This good work has been almost entirely accomplished by teachers from the United States, belonging to the "Canada Conference Missionary Society," auxiliary to that of the Methodist Church of New York. The Indians have al- ways shown themselves desirous to be instructed. In 1827, the tribes when receiving presents at the remote station of Drummond Island, intimated to the agent that there was at Michillimakinac a school, or place where the natives were taught to live as the whites do, "to mark their thoughts on paper, and to think the news from books (read and write)." It was in their power to send their children thither "to get sense;" but not being partial to the Big Knives, and hearing that their great father at York was teaching their brethren to "cut up the ground and be beloved of the Great Spirit," they would rather be instructed by him. In the same year, the Chippeways at Gwillimbury, through their chief Yellowhead, delivered successive strings of wampum, importing that they wished to be settled together, to pursue agriculture, and "to worship that God which is known to the whites in the good book." The work of conversion and civilisation was already j^roceeding, through the exertions of the New York mis- sionaries. Their first success was on the river Credit, in. the Home District, where they were greatly aided by Mr Peter Jones, alias Kakkewaquonaby, the son of a Welsh father by an Indian mother, and thoroughly acquainted with their customs and language. They formed themselves into a village, where Sir Peregrine Maitland built for them twenty houses ; they added fifteen for themselves, with a mill; and the Methodist Society aided them in erecting a chapel, schoolhouse, and workshop. They now renounced the "fire-waters" (spirits), the effects of which had been so pernicious; and without giving up hunting, combined with it the culture of the ground and the rearing of cattle. Accord- ing to the report of the Rev. Mr Magrath, they had, in SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 69 March 1828, brought thirty-five acres into cultivation, and possessed nine yoke of oxen, twelve cows, and six horses. The adults were taught to get by heart the most essen- tial doctrines of religion; but for the children of both sexes schools were established, attended by thirty-five boys and thirty-six girls. The Mississaguas near Belle- ville soon followed the example of their brethren, and, with the aid of the society, formed a village on Grape Island, in the Bay of Q,uinte. Finding this position too limited, they applied for more land, and were allow- ed to select the requisite number of vacant lots in the Midland District. This salutary process w^as soon after- wards extended to the Mississaguas on the borders of Rice Lake, and of Mud Lake, northward of Cobourg. They occupied, by right, the islands on the former, and, on the petition of their teachers, were allowed besides 1200 acres of waste land. Improvement was next ex- tended to the Chippeways, near Lake Simcoe. They were entitled to three islands, but Sir John Colborne thought it more for their benefit that they should be located on its north-western shore, and on the road to Lake Huron. In these objects about £3000 were spent, chiefly saved out of the annual presents. Another establish- ment has been formed at Munseytown, on the river Thames, and it appears that much has been done among the Six Nations, particularly the Mohawks, on the Grand River. In short, there seems no room to doubt, that the whole of this savage race will soon be brought within the pale of Christianity and civilisation. Vehement objections have been taken against the religious body by whom this change has been effected. They are accused of propagating the political creed of their own country, accompanied with sentiments of hos- tility to the established church. It does not appear, howT- ever, that any disloyal or turbulent proceedings have re- sulted; and when the}'' are doing so much good, it would certainly be very inexpedient to obstruct their opera- tions, until some efficient substitute shall be found. Sir John Colborne expressly says, that the established 70 SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. clergy have not effected any Indian conversions; and the worthy Bishop of Quebec candidly observes, that, whoever were the instruments, the effect must be a source of satisfaction; and that the hand of God seems to be visible in it. The society allow £40 or £50 a-year to their missionaries, and maintain ten schools, attended by 251 pupils. The Indians, as already observed, have certain fixed stations to which they resort for the purpose of re- ceiving their annual presents. These are, in Lower Canada, Quebec, to which, in 1827, there came 652; St Francis, 541; Caughnawaga, 967; Lake of Two Mountains, 887; and St Regis, 348. In Upper Canada, they are, Kingston, 859; York, 781; Fort-George (Niagara), 1857 ; Amherstburg, 5906 ; andDrummond Island, 3516. The expense became very large dur- ing the war, when their services were so valuable. Between 1813 and 1816 it averaged £150,000 a-year. Since that time it has been reduced to about £16,000; which, with £4400 for management, raises the In- dian department to £20,400 a-year. This, in Upper Canada, is estimated at 18s. 9d. to each individual, for which slender remuneration some travel 500 miles. References have been made from the Colonial Office, to ascertain whether this sum might not be still further re- duced, and paid in money, by which the estimates could be formed with greater precision. To the first point, it has been replied by the governors, that the donation is one to which wre are bound by the faith of treaties, made in return for important services; and its discon- tinuance would excite the deepest indignation, and provoke an hostility which might be attended with dis- astrous consequences. Probably, like all rude nations, the Indians, instead of viewing these gifts as in any degree humiliating, pride themselves upon them as testimonies of respect, perhaps even as a species of tribute. As to the payment in money, it was deprecated in the strongest terms by almost all the chiefs and those interested in their welfare; because the immediate consequence would be SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 71 its conversion into spirits, thereby causing a serious injury instead of a benefit. The principal articles pre- sented to them in 1832, were, 35,700 yards of different kinds of cloth, the prime cost varying from Is. Id. to3s.4d.; 4200 yards of linen; 33,800 yards of cotton and calico, 7d. to Is. 7d.; 84,500 yards gartering, of scarlet, green, and fancy colours, f d. per yard; 20,000 yards blanketing, Is. lid. to 5s. 9d.; 9260 pairs of combs; 6700 shoemakers' awls; 8740 butchers'knives; 870 kettles; 18,160 sew- ing needles; 240 guns, 12s. 9d. to 30s.; 16,200 lbs. of lead ball; 46,300 lbs. shot; 20,000 flints; 3450 lbs. car- rot tobacco, £17, 10s. per cwt. Since the diffusion of civilisation, many of the Indians have consented, and even desired, to exchange these presents for houses, implements of agriculture, and other useful objects. A considerable number have even begun to wish for money, which happily they no longer abuse as formerly, but rather find the most convenient instrument in procuring whatever they may happen to want. Asance, a chief, said, that at York "he found it convenient when hungry to be able to put his hand into his pocket, and find something jingling there for which he could get bread." It may be observed that the Indians in Upper Canada are entitled to the annual pay of £5107 cur. (£4426 sterling), for lands ceded by them to government, who give the value in goods. As the crown obtained in exchange nearly 5,000,000 of acres of fertile land, we do think that this slender annuity ought not to exhaust the kindness of the British ministry towards this unfortunate race. They receive also £1267 sterling for property sold to private individuals, the greater part of which is lodged in the funds. This sum is paid in money to the chiefs.* The Indians, as formerly observed, retain in general their original fashion of dress; but instead of composing it entirely of the skins of wild animals, they have * Ibid. pp. 16, 17, 42, 135-137, 127-132, 136, 54, 55. Martin p. 218. 72 SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. Domiciliated Indians. adopted, as more commodious, materials of English manufacture. For the outer covering, or great coat, a blanket is decidedly preferred; the shirt beneath is chiefly of calico or printed cotton; the leggings and pouches of common cloths. The gartering, of gaudy colours, serves for binding and ornamental borders. ^ The mocassins only, an article so extremely suited to their ha- bits, cannot be composed of any better material than their own deer-skin. When, however, any particular piece of finery strikes their fancy, they eagerly seek to pro- cure it, and combine it, often fantastically, with their old habiliments. The vicinity of Europeans, where it does not induce the destructive habit of intoxication, affords them various means for bettering their condition. A ready sale for venison, wild ducks and other feathered game, and for the fish which they spear, is found among settlers who have themselves little leisure for angling or the chase. The skins and furs also of the animals caught by them are readily bought by the merchants. The women make baskets, trays, and other utensils, of birch bark, and sometimes of the inner rind of the bass- wood and white ash; which, when ornamented with porcupine quills, dyed in beautiful colours, form elegant SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. 73 articles of furniture. Their mocassins, similarly adorned, are often purchased by Europeans for winter use. They cannot however be depended upon for making or pro- curing any article to order. They produce and bring their commodities to market when it suits their own convenience; and they are disposed to drive a pretty hard bargain, especially the females, on whom that task usually devolves. The converted Indians are said to display a simple, fervent, and sincere devotion. They pay a particular regard to the sanctity of the Sabbath; and while singing hymns on the evening of that day, their rich soft voices, rising on the still air, are extremely sweet. This principle of piety, having produced the valuable fruit of inducing them to renounce the ruin- ous habit of intoxication, has made a most happy change in their condition; and since the evils incident to the savage have thus been removed, perhaps the admirer of the picturesque in human life may not feel impatient for that thorough amalgamation with Europeans, which some of their friends ardently desire. They may be will- ing that some trace should still survive of the peculiar costume, aspect, and occupations of this remarkable ab- original race.* The means of religious instruction in Lower Canada have long existed on a liberal scale. The great majority of the inhabitants, as formerly observed, are French Roman Catholics. They support their clergy by a con- tribution of a twenty-sixth part of the produce of their lands, which does not, however, as has been sometimes represented, form a compulsory assessment, since Prote- stant converts may discontinue payment. This affords to upwards of 200 vicaires and cures an average income of £300 per annum, which, in Canada, is very liberal. They are described as respectable in character and at- tainments, very attentive to their parishioners, and extremely beloved by them. They have been accused as hostile to the diffusion of knowledge ; yet no mention * Weld, p. 379-382. Backwoods, p. 162-170. 5 /I SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. is made of any opposition made by them to the late remarkable spread of elementary schools. The bishop, who has under him two coadjutors and four vicars- general, receives from government a stipend of <£l000 a-year. There are also monastic establishments, con- taining upwards of 300 monks and nuns. The English Church has assigned for its support a seventh of all the lands unoccupied by the habitans, and formed into townships. This proportion appears large, and has even been complained of as such, yet it has not hitherto pro- duced any great revenue. The clergy of this church are at present forty in number, at the head of whom is the Bishop of Quebec, with a stipend of £1000 a-year. There are fourteen Presbyterian ministers, connected with the Church of Scotland, partly paid by govern- ment; and also twelve Methodists of the Wesleyan per- suasion. Upper Canada, as already hinted, was long miserably destitute of the means of religious instruction. In 1800, according to Mr Talbot, there were only three clergy- men in the country; in 1819 they had increased to ten; and in 1824 were still only sixteen. Since that time effective measures have been taken to supply this great deficiency. There are now forty-three clergymen be- longing to the English established church ; and two arch- deacons, at Toronto and Kingston, subject to the Bishop of Quebec, have each £300 a-year. The remainder of the clergy received, in 1835, an income of £6784, lis. 8d., of which £5484, 18s. was defrayed from the proceeds of the ecclesiastical reserves, which, as in Lower Canada, consist of one-seventh of the uncultivated lands ; the rest was paid out of the crown revenue. The Catholics have twenty-four priests, of whom the bishop, bearing the title of Regiopolis, has £500 ; the rest receive £1000 annually divided among them, out of the public purse. From the same fund were paid, in 1835, to the ministers of the Church of Scotland, £1586 ; to those of the Presbyterian Synod of Upper Canada, £700; £171 was granted to the fund for building Catholic churches; £550 was SOCIAL STATE OF CANADA. /O given for the same purpose to the Scottish Church; and £550 to the Wesleyan Methodists. From this fund was also allowed £2344, lis. 8d. for missionaries of the Church of England. There are said to be also twenty-eight Methodist and forty or fifty Baptist churches, which appear to be supported by the congre- gations. The means even of the most common education were long extremely deficient in Canada. This want was equally felt in the lower province, where the Catholic clergy, though diligent in their religious ministrations, either opposed or did nothing to forward elementary instruction. They particularly interfered to prevent attendance on the schools organized in 1817 by what was termed the Royal Institution, as being chiefly under the management of Church of England clergymen. In 1829, however, the legislature voted for this object £6439, which was gradually increased to upwards of £20,000. In that year the number of scholars was 14,753, of whom only about a third paid fees. In 1835, the number of free scholars had risen to 72,498, of those paying to 25,160; showing thus a wonderful increase both in the gross number and in the proportion of those who defrayed their own charges. In 1836, how- ever, the vote of the House of Assembly for this patriotic purpose was negatived by the Legislative Council; a step which seems not unworthy of the severe animadversions made on it by the popular leaders. The Council stated that their motive was to induce the people to contribute more towards the education of their families. This was admitted to be desirable as an ultimate object; but it could not justify the abrupt withdrawal of the means by which nearly 40,000 children were educated, without allowing time or even legal authority to substitute any other. In Upper Canada also, the government is making great exertions to remove that cloud of ignorance in which the country was once involved. A college at Toronto is supported on a liberal footing. There are 76 SOCIAL STATE OP CANADA. also grammar schools in every district, to the teach- ers of which £100 yearly is allowed hy the legislature. The scholars attending them amount in all to about 350. The sum of £7380 also was granted in 1835 for the support of common schools, estimated to amount to several hundreds, and to educate about 20,000 chil- dren. In the same year the legislature voted £180 and £90 to the Mechanics' Institutes at Toronto and Kingston. POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 77 CHAPTER III. Political State of Canada, Government under the French—British Arrangements—Constitu- tion granted to the Canadas—Division into Upper and Lower —Revenue—Military Force—Justice—Reflections on the pro- posed new Constitution—Enmity of Races—Best Modes of appeasing- it—Executive Government—Its Collision with the Assembly—Origin of the late Disturbances—Remedies suggested —Views of Sir Francis Head—Distinction between Foreign and Internal Affairs—Executive Council—Representative Assembly —Its Defects—Best Mode of raising its Character—Legislative Council—Proposed Union of the Provinces—Its Advantages— Dangers to be guarded against—Municipal Institutions. The political constitution of Canada has undergone various changes. Under French dominion, after the early- companies were broken up, the sovereign assumed a jurisdiction almost quite absolute, not being checked, as at home, by the influence of the nobility or the parlia- ments. The necessity of delegation, however, and fear lest the governors should aim at independence, induced the cabinet to divide the administration among several heads; a system which rendered it weak rather than free, producing, as we have seen, frequent and violent collision among its members. These jealous feelings, moreover, caused the royal council to lend a ready ear to complaints from every class. The clergy, especially the monastic and missionary orders, who had taken a large share in the first settlement and were richly endowed, enjoyed great influence both in the colony and with the court. In 1759, Canada was conquered by the arms of Britain, VOL, 11, e 78 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA, and by the treaty which followed was permanently annexed to her empire. It is generally admitted, that no people, completely subdued, were ever more liberally treated than the French colonists in that country. Not only was their property preserved inviolate, but they were also invested with all the rights of citizens, and ren- dered admissible to every office on the same footing as British subjects. The Catholic religion did not merely enjoy full toleration, but the large property with which it had been invested was preserved to it entire. As a farther boon, the law of England, civil and criminal, including the trial by jury, was introduced. The improved se- curity afforded by the latter code to person and life was duly appreciated; but in regard to property and civil jurisdiction, the eoutume de Paris, with the ordinances of the French kings, though forming a complicated, per- plexed, and inconvenient system, had been so interwoven with all the habits of the settlers, that they could not be persuaded to prefer one decidedly better. The civil law, indeed, had scarcely a fair trial, being administered by somewhat unlearned judges, partly naval and military officers, partly citizens not bred to the profession. In the prospect of a contest with the United Colonies, it became necessary to conciliate the Canadians, and a statute (14th Geo. III. cap. 83) was passed, called the "Quebec Act," founded, upon a report of the crown lawyers, by which the French system was revived in the province, with the exception of the criminal branch, which con- tinued to be similar to that of England. Although the rights of person and property had thus been from the first secured, the people had not yet been admitted to any share of political privilege. The admi- nistration, civil and military, was exercised by one in- dividual, uniting the functions of governor and com- mander-in-chief; and though the Quebec Act provided that there should be a legislative council of at least twenty- three members, the nomination rested entirely with the sovereign. The natives, long unaccustomed to any other species of rule, for some time felt no dissatisfaction; but at a later period, when they had opportunities of observ- POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. J9 ing the operation of a more liberal system in England and the United States, a desire for improvement arose, and in 1784 a petition was presented for the establishment of a representative constitution. The British settlers took the lead, but many of the French joined them. Their request was not granted till 1791, when Mr Pitt pro- posed and carried in Parliament a scheme of government resembling that of the mother-country. By this act the upper province, which had long been rising in importance, was separated from the lower, and a distinct constitution appointed for each. The repre- sentative body in the latter consists of eighty-eight mem- bers, four from each of the cities of Quebec and Montreal, two from Three Rivers, one from William-Henry or Sorel, and a varying number, but most commonly two, from each of the counties. The qualification of electors in the country arises from the possession of landed pro- perty amounting to 40s. a-year; in the towns, from owning a dwelling-house of £5 a-year, or renting one of <£10; and no religious disability exists. The members hold their seats during four years, and there must be an annual session, which usually continues through the months of January, Februa^, and March. The gover- nor has the same power in convoking, proroguing, or dissolving them, that the king has in England. For the last three sessions, the members have been allowed ten shillings a-day while sitting, and four shilling's a- league for travelling expenses. The legislative council exercises the attributes of the House of Lords in this country, having power to alter and even to reject all bills sent up from the lower house; they can also originate bills, which, however, must pass the ordeal of the representative assembly. It was at first proposed that this body should consist of hereditary nobi- lity, selected from the great landed proprietors; but as such a class could scarcely exist in a new country, where so few possessed large fortunes or the means of acquiring them, it was finally determined that the members should be appointed for life by mandamus from the king. The governor, with the aid of an executive council of 80 POLITICAL STATE OP CANADA. eleven, appointed like himself by the sovereign, exer- cised all the executive functions. No act passed by the legislature could become law till it received his assent, which he had power also to suspend till the measure had been submitted to the government at home; and even after it had been sanctioned by him, and come into operation, the king retained the power of disallowing it within two years. No new tax could be imposed with- out the consent of the Assembly; and though this law was not retrospective, the existing burdens were so very light, as to make the exception of little consequence. The jurisdiction of the legislature extended to every object connected with the colony; but any act affecting religion, its ministers or revenues, or the waste lands belonging to the crown, was to be laid before the two houses of Parliament, and remain there for thirty days before the royal assent could be given. The constitution of Upper Canada was made nearly an exact copy of this on a somewhat smaller scale. The House of Assembly comprised originally sixteen mem- bers, which, with the increase of population and settle- ment, have been raised to sixty-two; one for each of the towns of Toronto, Kingston, Niagara, and Brock- ville, and, in general, two for each county. The departments of finance, military defence, and administration of justice, need not be treated at great length, as they will doubtless be greatly modified in the process of new-modelling which the constitution of the two provinces is about to undergo. The most considerable branch of revenue is derived from the duties on imported goods, which are paid almost wholly in Lower Canada; but as the upper province receives a considerable quantity of the commodities, it is allowed a varying proportion of the income, formerly a third, now raised to two-fifths. There are besides licenses of several descriptions,—fines, duty on emigrants, money raised by the sale of land and of timber; which last, with some smaller'items, are termed the casual and territorial branches. The entire revenue of Lower Canada in 1834 amount- POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 81 ed to £156,589. Of this there was expended on the civil government £18,648; collection of revenue, £11,474; justice, £7381; churches and schools, £23,167; surveyors' departments, roads, and public works, £30,334; local corps and militia, £316; pensions, £1036 ; miscellaneous (including emigration), £15,832. The income of Upper Canada in the same year was £108,841. The branches of expenditure were,—civil government, £20,851; collection of revenue, £2101; judicial, £4980; churches and schools, £17,409; roads and public works, £95,407; local corps and militia, £585; pensions, &c. £4665 ; interest of debt, £10,654; miscellaneous, £5778. We can give frtm private sources a more detailed account of the revenues of the upper province for a later period. They are divided into those belonging to the crown, which are there still considerable, and the pro- vincial, which are at the disposal of the House of Assembly. The former stood thus in 1835 :— RECEIPT. Payment by Canada Company, . £20,000 Crown lands, 4,328 ... timber, 4,693 Fees on grants, 2,040 Rents, .... 381 Fines, .... 203 Seizures, 1,387 EXPENDITURE. £33,032 Civil government, £8,908 Public offices, 1,630 Aid in building chapels, Catholic, Scotc h, and Wesleyan, 1,271 Presbyterian Synod, 700 Scotch ministers, 1,586 Church of England missionaries, 2,345 College, 1,000 Purchase of lands from Indians, 5,515 Expense of an exploring party, 1,135 Location of emigrants, 3,913 commuted pensioners, 508 Catholic priests, 1,000 Surveys, Canada Company, 1,518 Roads and bridges, 1,468 £32,497 82 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. Of the provincial revenue the following is the esti- mate for 1836:— RECEIPT. Debentures, Proportion of import duties (one-third), Licenses, . Duties on imports from United States, Bank dividends, Tolls on Burlington Canal, Kettle Creek Harbour, EXPENDITURE. To complete service of 1835, . Interest of debt, . - . Justice, Civil estimate, Contingencies of legislature, Common schools, District schoolmasters, Militia pensions, Officers of legislature, Lighthouses, Agricultural societies, Steam dredging-machine, Sundries, Improvement of the St Lawrence, Redemption of debentures, £379,222 . 55,000 8,250 12,000 2,000 1,800 400 £458,672 £14,363 27,463 7,223 9,272 10,000 3,150 1,200 900 890 1,600 800 500 2,066 280,000 99,245 £458,672 The large sum raised by debentures, and constituting by much the greater proportion of the receipts, was for the improvement of the navigation of the St Lawrence, an object laudable in itself, but beyond the resources of the province; through which and some similar under- takings it has incurred a debt of nearly a million, and thereby involved itself in considerable embarrassment.* The British Government have usually maintained three regiments of the line in Lower Canada, but this number of course has been of late much augmented. The militia of that province were returned in 1827 at about 80,000 effective men, though these had among them only 10,000 muskets. Only a small portion can be at present fit for service. The militia of Upper Canada * Martin's British Colonies, vol. iii. p. 143. Colonial Expendi- ture and Revenues (Aug. 10, 1836), p. 9-11. Private information. POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 83 exceeds 50,000, who in critical circumstances have proved themselves equally brave and loyal.* Justice is administered by two courts of King's Bench at Quebec and Montreal, each consisting of a chief-justice and three subordinate ones. There are provincial judges in the districts of Three Rivers, Gaspe, and St Francis ; but there is no supreme tribunal, which Mr Buller considers a serious defect. There lies, how- ever, a general appeal to the executive council. Each district contains a sheriff, a coroner, a prothonotary, and a clerk of the peace. Courts of Quarter Sessions have been partially established; those others which take cog- nizance of cases not exceeding £6, 5s. currency, are considered by some to be useful, though others allege that they encourage litigation. In the upper province there is one court of King's Bench, with two puisne judges, and a local one in each of the eleven districts.t Such had been for nearly fifty years the constitution of Canada. But in consequence of events well known to our readers, and already narrated, it has been to a great extent dissolved, and the British Parliament are now employed in the important task of its reconstruc- tion. The necessity for this important change has arisen while the present work was in course of passing through the press; and as affairs have now assumed such an aspect as makes a call upon every one who can throw any light upon the subject, the author does not feel justi- fied in withholding the suggestions that have occurred to him in the course of a long and attentive consideration of it. He has observed that even the ablest writers for the public press proceed in most cases upon very imperfect knowledge of colonial matters, and view them chiefly according to their bearings upon the supposed, interests of parties at home. In the process of collecting materials for these volumes, he could not fail to acquire some knowledge of Canada, and he is not conscious of being biassed by connexion with any faction whether in this country or in the colony. In this impression he is * Martin, vol. iii. pp. 140, 280. . t Lord Durham's Keport, Appendix C, p. 14-17. 84 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. not a little confirmed by the circumstance that his views do not coincide exactly with those of any of the leading statesmen, having been studiously formed on the exclu- sive grounds of public principle and constitutional law. It may be desirable, before entering upon the main questions connected with this subject, to clear the way by the consideration of an important preliminary. Lord Durham has stated in very strong terms his con- viction that enmity arising from difference of race is the most deep-seated source of the evils in the lower province. His lordship here coincides with a numerous party in this country, who represent the French Canadian as a de- termined rebel, whose complaints of grievances were only a pretence to justify his rising in arms and attempting to shake off the British connexion. He considers this hostility so rooted that a whole generation must pass away before there can be even a chance of its removal; and under this view the situation of Lower Canada is exhibited as quite hopeless.* The evils arising from this cause are, in fact, represented as so enormous that one year must not be allowed to pass without a remedy,t and yet the only one proposed, being the union of the two provinces, though probably an ultimate good, will most certainly in the first instance imbitter the enmity. The habitans will unquestionably consider it to be, what it really is, a plan to deprive them of their represen- tative majority, and place them under British control. We are inclined however to believe, that this anti- pathy is by no means of such a deep and irreconcilable nature as Lord Durham and others suppose. Let it be remembered, that for nearly sixty years this people remained perfectly happy and contented under English sway. During two great wars, when the most favour- able opportunities for emancipating themselves were afforded, they not only rejected all the invitations of the enemy, but took an active part in repelling his inroads. Before the hostilities of 1813 the majority of the assembly had already commenced their contest with the executive; why then, if their object was to ^Report, p. 22-27. f Ibid. p. 93. POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 85 separate from Britain, did they throw away so good a chance, when her arms were so completely occupied in Europe, that a general rising would have been almost certainly successful? Indeed we greatly doubt if mere dif- ference of race ever produces alasting enmity, unless when inflamed by political feelings. For instance, the Highland and Lowland Scotch, as is well known, are completely dissimilar in origin, language, manners, and character. From the days of Montrose down to the rebellion in 1745, hostility reigned between them, because in the great struggle between popular rights and prerogative they embraced with ardour opposite sides. But when that contest closed, and Pitt, in the war of 1756, enlisted the Highlanders in the royal army, they became the most gallant defenders of the British crown. All jealousy has entirely ceased between them and their neighbours in the plains, who even take pleasure in recording the exploits performed against themselves by those hardy mountaineers. We are not aware of any hostile senti- ment existing between the Welsh and the English, or the Bretons and the other French. The Cossacks, though in many respects alien to the Russians, and retaining all their native peculiarities, are amongst the bravest troops of the Czar. In India there appears no existing enmity between the Mohammedans and Hindoos, now that both are under a common yoke. Even that detached portion of the Canadian French settled on the river Detroit, though they might have alleged the same grounds of discontent with the others, showed themselves during the late commotions perfectly loyal. We have then no hesitation in asserting, that feelings connected with the difference of race have assumed their present exasperated tone solely in consequence of having been combined with a political conflict, the nature of which we shall presently endeavour to point out. Lord Durham has stated as his fixed opinion, that as the first object should be to make the lower province entirely English, this alteration ought to be immedi- ately commenced, and firmly, though cautiously, fol- lowed up. Unluckily, his lordship gives scarcely a 86 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. single hint as to the precise measures to be adopted for accomplishing this purpose. To make a Frenchman an Englishman by act of Parliament, will, we fear, be a most arduous attempt. We regret this language the more, as well as its reported repetition by the British minister, since, contrary we believe to the intentions of both, it may seem to sanction the demand made by a powerful party, that the French Canadians should hence- forth be treated as a vassal race, excluded from all political influence and privilege. Besides, it seems difficult to ima- gine how any direct measures could be adopted for the proposed end, which would not partake, if not of perse- cution, at least of exclusion and privation, imposed upon them merely because their origin was not thesame as ours. Independently of all other objections, there seems room to fear that such treatment would only make them cling with a more dogged and gloomy obstinacy to their national feelings, which would then be necessarily combined with enmity to the ruling power. The only mode, we apprehend, in which a government can harmonize two different races, is to treat both with perfect impartiality, and to recognise no distinction whatever between them. It is thus, by his lordship's own statement, that the Ame- ricans have acted in Louisiana; it is thus, in fact, that people of the most different origin, creed, and character, migrating into the United States, are made to live together on good terms. It is, no doubt, difficult without minute local inquiry to decide on the very best mode for regain- ing the affections of the habitans. At present they seem reduced by the injudicious subdivision of property to a state of indigence, out of which they have scarcely the means of emerging, and therefore it might be desirable to aid them in any attempt to better their circumstances. With this view prizes and other modes of introducing improved agricultural processes; small grants of land in convenient situations with the means of transporting thi- ther their social arrangements and religious institutions; and, finally, some preference as to employment in any public works which may be carried on throughout their territory, are means which at least merit consideration. POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 87 We shall nowproceed to examine the different branches of the colonial government, the defective working of which led to the late convulsion, and endeavour to ascertain the mode in which they may be advantage- ously reconstructed. The executive may properly be noticed first, as being the one in regard to which per- haps the real ground of dissatisfaction existed. It does not appear that the late disastrous contest can be regarded as arising from grievance on the one side, or from oppression on the other. The colonists enjoyed perfect security of person and property; their taxes were exceedingly light; their church enjoyed all its privileges and property; and it is gratifying to add, that religious dissension had no share in the struggle. All the influence of the clergy was exerted against the out- break, and had doubtless much effect in mitigating its violence. The successive governors were men of respect- able character, mild manners, and had been popular elsewhere in similar situations. The movement, then, was not excited by suffering ; it was a dispute for power. In Britain, ever since the representative system was fully organized, a distinct understanding has prevailed, that those who can command a majority in the House of Commons must be the chief advisers and ministers of the crown. We know not, indeed, of any principle in the constitution, nor can we recollect any law or compact, by which this rule is established. During the long struggle which issued in the supremacy of the popular body, we are not aware of their having ever urged any direct claim that the king should have no ministers but such as were agreeable to them. The language usually held is, that the persons who administer the government are respon- sible to the representatives of the people; yet they have no recognised form of enforcing such responsibility, and if desirous to bring to trial any public man, they can do it only by impeaching him before the Lords. The crown alone names its own servants, and alone dismisses them. But ever since the Lower House acquired their present power, the sovereign has found it impossible to carry on public affairs with advantage, upon any other basis than appointing a 88 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. ministry acceptable to them. Whether intended or not, this result inevitably arises from the practical working ot the representative system, and hence the head of such a government can in no case with safety refuse to yield to it. In considering the course of administration hi Lower Canada with reference to this principle, there will ap- pear good reason to concur with Lord Durham, who has, we think, rendered an important service by drawing to it the attention of the public. Indeed, while he regards it only as an accessory to the grand evil of the difference of race, to us it appears the main source of the malady, having chiefly given to that national distinction its ma- lignant character. The fact is, that during a long series ot years, the parties commanding an overwhelming majority in the House of Assembly were, on that special ground, excluded from every office of trust, profit, and dignity: i( Hac fonte derivata clades." If we examine the whole train of the Assembly's pro- ceedings, we shall find that their movements from the first were directed to obtain a control over the execu- tive. With this view they began by offering to defray the whole expense of the civil government; an apparent boon, which, though at first rejected from suspicion as to its object, was ultimately accepted. Still consider- able funds remained at the disposal of the governor, and available when the ordinary supplies were refused. Hence it became the principal aim of the popular party to have all these yielded up, and to obtain the uncontrolled mas- tery over the whole of the colonial revenues. With the same view, they evaded the grant of a permanent civil list, foreseeing that, as the imperial exchequer defrayed the naval and military expenditure, if the civil officers were entitled to a fixed allowance, the administration could be carried on without any reference to the will ot the Assembly. The laudable efforts made by successive cabinets to remove the grievances complained of, only ur^ed the reformers to farther demands. They thus acquired a high idea of their own power, yet they did not obtain what they really wanted; for, from the POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. oy evidence of Sir James Kempt, it appears, that in 1828, many years after the struggle had commenced, the chief offices were still in the hands of the minority.* Subse- quently, indeed, the government was thrown open to a great extent, and Lord Gosford went out with such liberal intentions, that had the leaders of the Assembly possessed prudence and moderation, they might have peaceably attained their object. But in the politic, as in the natural body, the removal of the exciting cause will not at once heal a deep-seated malady. Long resentment had rankled in their minds; a train of concessions had led them to believe that perseverance would ultimately gain for them all they might ask; and they had committed themselves with their followers by violent demands. Delusive ideas had also been formed of their own strength, and of the disposition towards them, both of the mother- country and of the United States. They were thus im- pelled to that criminal course which ruined their cause, and involved the provinces in confusion and bloodshed. In considering this contest as connected with differ- ence of race, we may observe, that as the executive were from the first almost exclusively British, as soon as the majority, who were French, began to aim at power, the struggle necessarily assumed a national character. Yet Lord Durham admits that, till very lately, a consider- able number of English, attached to popular principles, ranked under their banner. It was not, seemingly, till the one party began directly to plan treason and separa- tion, that the latter shrunk back, and left the rebel fac- tion. The former, from their limited intelligence, and from defects in their electoral system to be afterwards noticed, were brought under the influence of a few leaders, whose impulse they blindly followed, and of whose disappointed ambition they became the victims. The conduct of these individuals cannot be justified, scarcely even palliated; yet we suspect, that the same system will always be found more or less inconsistent with public tranquillity, The assemblies may complain that the mere enactment of laws is an imperfect pri- * Minutes of Evidence of Committee, 1834, p. 90. 90 POLITICAL STATE OP CANADA. vilege, when the officers administering them are desirous to nullify their operation. The popular leaders will gene- rally be able, active, and stirring individuals, possessing a paramount influence over the rest of the community. We should be sorry, indeed, to underrate in any degree the ob- ligations which rest on every public man to regard his country's welfare as superior to any private interest; but the legislator must make his calculations on the world as it is, and cannot expect such perfect disinterestedness in the bulk of mankind. With some of the ablest, per- sonal ambition will be the principal motive; and even many who are sincerely desirous to serve their country will, in return for their exertions, expect a share of the honour, power, and emolument of office. If disappointed, they will be too likely to array themselves and the great body of the people against the government, and to keep the country in a state of incessant agitation. It has appeared the more necessary to dwell upon this topic, since a different view has hitherto been taken, even by liberal statesmen. The Commissioners of In- quiry, though they admit that the exclusion of the members of the Assembly from office was a main cause of the recent disturbances, refused to sanction the principle which would have rendered the executive responsible to that body.* The general instruction given to gover- nors is to choose public servants without reference to any political or party distinctions. For example, Lord Glenelg writes to Lord G-osford in these words :—" It would be scarcely possible to find any terms more emphatic than those employed by the Earl of Ripon, to enjoin the utmost impartiality in the distribution of public offices in Lower Canada, without reference to national or political distinctions, or to any con- sideration, except that of superior capacity and fit- ness for the trust." To Sir Francis Head he says :— "In the selection of persons to execute public trusts, you will be guided exclusively by the comparison of the claims which the different candidates may derive from past services, or from personal qualifications." t While * Report, p. TlO. + Instructions, &c. pp. 47, 57, 58. POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 91 it is impossible not to applaud these principles in the ab- stract, we cannot but suspect that they are competent only to an absolute government. In a free constitu- tion, while political feeling is still so warm and violent, and men array themselves with such determination on opposite sides, the attempt to carry on the administra- tion and fill executive departments without any reference to party seems chimerical. It cannot be attempted in the mother-country, how then can it be practicable amid the somewhat less polished feelings of a colony \ A deliberative assembly is advantageously composed of the most opposite elements, the collision between which may bring out a combined result nearly representing the general opinion; but an executive body must be com- posed of members whose sentiments closely approxi- mate, and who can act together in harmony. Since, then, the administration must be in the hands of some one party, that which possesses a commanding influence in the As- sembly is likely, not always indeed, yet in the general course of things, to be more able, more effective, and as- suredly more popular, than those whom a governor, even with good intentions, may select. He finds himself, on his arrival, surrounded by a circle of old officials, military officers, rich merchants, well informed men, zealously loyal, and eager to smooth the way before him. Very probably they possess a dexterity in business, which their opponents had no opportunity of acquiring. He easily persuades himself that these are the fittest men to govern, and finds a body already formed around him, be- yond which it would be very troublesome to penetrate. This appears in fact to be the class by which colonies have hitherto been ruled; and, though in many instances re- spectable, they have in general little sympathy with the mass of the people, or with the assemblies, which they are apt to represent as turbulent and factious meetings, that ought to be kept in check as much as possible. It may here be proper to notice the theories of Sir Francis Head, supported, as they were to a certain ex- tent, by a successful practice. This clever but speculative writer contends, that a man in office "ought to make 92 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. public opinion follow him, and never attempt to follow it." He certainly, by his energetic character and popular talents, succeeded in doing this to a remarkable degree. He changed the character of the Assembly, and procured a majority favourable to his measures, so that his course, if not his principle, was strictly constitutional. But this ta- lent of commanding acquiescence is a peculiar one, which cannot be expected or required in an ordinary ruler, with whom a deference to public opinion, though here ridi- culed, "as allowing his head to be emptied of its contents and stuffed with republican brains," is a necessary qua- lity. In denouncing the fatal system of conciliation, and declaring that cool, stem, unconciliatory measures are the most popular in Canada, Sir Francis goes farther, we suppose, than any statesman will be inclined to follow. These observations, however, are by no means to be understood as recommending that the selection should be made out of the violent extremes of faction. In the present excited state of political feeling throughout the world, something in the nature of a juste milieu, seems the only system upon which a country can be safely governed. We cannot however help observing, that office has great influence in mitigating the excesses of patriotic zeal. It is not probable that men will attempt to overthrow a government of which they are at the head. Even those excluded from power, when convinced that this privation arises from the adverse opinion of their countrymen, and can only be removed by a change in their views, will cease to regard the existence of the su- preme executive as an insuperable bar to their ambition. The only important objection urged against this prin- ciple is that which represents it as inconsistent with the unity of the empire, and amounting in effect to a separa- tion. The Commissioners on Grievances contend, that all union with the parent nation through the head of the executive would be thereby brought to an end, and the provinces rendered virtually independent.* We can- not, however, but agree with Lord Durham, that this dif- ficulty is removed as soon as we distinguish between the * Report, p. 110. 2 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 93 external and internal affairs of a colony. The former include war and peace, foreign intercourse and negotiation, commerce with the mother-country and with other states, to which we should add the disposal of the waste lands, and the concerns of emigration. These appear to include all the particulars in which the interests of the two parties are connected together; and in these respects, the autho- rity of the administration at home must be paramount, whilst the colony, if dissatisfied, can obtain relief only by petition and remonstrance. Upon this basis the general and particular governments of the United States have for upwards of fifty years maintained a union profitable to both parties, although the one does not even appoint a single officer employed in the other. It is said that the power of the sovereign, as exercised through the gover- nor, would by such proceedings be entirely annihilated. But it would not be more so than at home, where he has been repeatedly obliged to change his ministers in com- pliance with the expressed wishes of Parliament; and it must be more annoying to be dictated to, in reference to the servants immediately around his person, than with regard to those who are to administer for him the affairs of a distant province. We have included among the functions of the imperial government the disposal of the waste lands, and the arrangementsof emigration, although the control of these particulars was pertinaciously de- manded by the Assembly, who complained of gross abuses committed in their management. Yet it appears that such territories, as long as they remain unappropriated, belong less to the colony than to the general empire ; and accordingly, in the United States, they are at the sole dis- posal of the central government. Indeed, though great deference is due to local opinions, there does arise in cer- tain circumstances an interest opposite to that of the mother-country. In the infant state of a settlement, it is manifest that immigration is. advantageous to those already located; but afterwards, by raising the price of land, exciting competition in various shapes, and perhaps deranging political relations, it becomes an object of jeal- 94 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. ousy. These influences acted strongly on the Assembly of Lower Canada, and are felt also in the United States, where the great influx of settlers has excited complaint, and been even subjected to somewhat severe restrictions. It may be finally observed, that among the officers, the choice of whom ought to be guided by the opinion of the xlssembly, the governor and those immediately attached to his person camiot properly be included. He represents the crown, and must therefore be independent of any local influence. In regard to the internal con- cerns of the colony, he, and the cabinet through him, would, under the proposed system, possess all the powers of the sovereign, so that it seems not either decent or correct in the commissioners to represent him in that case as the mere "mockery of a nominal governor."'"' In respect to those particulars, wherein connexion with the general empire consists, he must be guided by directions from London, and can receive from the Assembly only advice or petition. We concur with Sir Charles Grey, that he might derive advantage from a small council, distinct from that for internal affairs, composed of per- sons connected with the mother-country, and qualified to offer advice respecting these important relations. In order to give due effect to the principle now stated, it is obvious that the executive council can no longer retain the almost immutable character which it originally possessed; but must become removable as the ministry is at home. Still an important question remains, whe- ther it should consist, like the British cabinet, of govern- ment officers, each filling and being responsible for a public department; or should, as has hitherto been usual in the colonies, be partly composed of individuals follow- ing private or professional pursuits, and serving the public as counsellors only. Lord Durham decidedly prefers the former system, which certainly has stood the test of experience on the great scale of national affairs. There is, however, a wide difference between the two cases. The large emoluments and extensive patronage enjoyed by British statesmen, render their situations ob- * Report of Commissioners on Grievances, p. 111. POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 95 jects of ambition to the first men in the country. But in a colony the corresponding places could not without ex- travagance be rendered equally desirable ; and there may be persons eminently qualified to give advice, for whom it would be more eligible to pursue mercantile, legal, or other lucrative occupations. While, therefore, respon- sible ministers form the head of the government, there may be an advantage in including in the council some able and influential individuals, who do not take any actual part in the administration. We regret to find, since writing these remarks, that the British minister still declines admitting, even as to in- ternal affairs, any responsibility of the executive, similar to that of the cabinet at home. His lordship dwells chiefly on the supposed cases of the misconduct of a militia regiment in the field, and of a difference of opinion between the home and colonial minister on the subject of foreign affairs. Both these, it is manifest, belong to the external relations of the colony, which must be under the supreme direction of the imperial government. Even in regard to internal affairs, cases may no doubt arise, such as slavery, where interference becomes justi- fiable; but these are only exceptions, such as must occur to every general rule. There indeed seems no pro- priety in establishing the system by legislative enact- ment, or even by formal declaration, neither of which steps has ever been taken in Britain. There is required only a general tacit understanding, such as exists here. We are gratified to find Lord John Russell represented as admitting that such a harmony between the two depart- ments is desirable; and according to Sir Francis Head, ministers have established it in New Brunswick and elsewhere. Probably, therefore, though disavowed in principle, it may henceforth, more than formerly, be practically acted upon. The next object to be attended to is the constitution of the Representative Assembly; for their own acts, coupled with the statements of Lord Durham, make manifest that improvement is much wanted. The reck- less violence of faction, as well as their local jobbing 96 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. and petty manoeuvring, mark a decidedly low tone of political feeling. It seems almost indispensable that their character and views should be somewhat refined, before they be elevated to the prominent place proposed to be given to them, or the executive government be committed to the hands of their leaders; the greater part of whom, though they would doubtless have been very different persons if possessed of power, are certainly not such as we should wish to see at the head of a British settlement. The only remedy suggested by Lord Dur- ham, that, namely, of preventing them from passing money-votes independently of the executive, and from vesting the funds in commissioners of their own appoint- ment, is certainly very inadequate. It might prevent some of the evils that now occur, but would have no tendency to change the composition and character of the Assembly. The only fundamental remedy, though it might not accord with the views of that nobleman and of other eminent statesmen, would, it is presumed, be found in giving a certain influence to property in the elections. The qualification in the rural districts, which comprehend almost all Canada, has already been stated as the old English one of 40s. in land; which, in the mother-country, was at the time of the Reform Bill raised to £10. Even the former amount in Britain, from the difficulty of procuring land at all, restricts the franchise within comparatively narrow bounds. But in Canada., where this species of possession is to a certain extent in the hands of almost every individual, the result is nearly equivalent to universal suffrage. The species of qualification now proposed would be • attended with two important advantages. It would se- cure, generally speaking, a higher degree of intelligence, and at the same time an aversion to disturbance and revolutionary excitement. Both these objects are pecu- liarly important in the colonies, where a ruder spirit of independence prevails, and the standard of education's still much inferior. In Lower Canada, an overwhelming majority of the electors are unable to read or write; while the means they possess of enlarging their ideas by POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 97 observation or intercourse with the world are extremely limited. This is a constituency which even an intelligent radical could scarcely view with complacency. Their favour will naturally be gained by leaders daring and violent, recklessly urging extreme measures; whose sway in the Assembly, whether in or out of office, could not be very consistent with public tranquillity. It will, no doubt, be urged, that means ought to be employed to remove this ignorance,—a suggestion in the propriety of which we readily concur; yet it would be chimerical to imagine, that the mere setting up a number of schools would instantaneously accomplish the desired object. Such institutions would act only upon the young, who, in growing up, might still imbibe largely the ideas and habits of their seniors; so that more than a generation must pass before any very decided change could be produced. The example ofN the United States will probably be adduced by those who are adverse to such a limitation. It is not necessary to enter into any lengthened compari- son, or to inquire, whether among the acknowledged merits of their political system the evils of its almost universal suffrage are not perceptible. It may be enough now to observe, that throughout a large portion of the Union, there has forages been a very wide diffusion of intelligence; that through another section equally extensive the preva- lence of slavery forms a severe property qualification; and finally, that this constitution being in its basis purely de- mocratical, affords no ground for reasoning in relation to a colony which, as long as it is attached to Britain, must share the mixed government of the mother-country. Another obvious advantage of giving some weight to property is5 that without any national proscrip- tion, it would materially dimmish the influence of the French population, and proportionally raise that of the British. How important this object is, even on the supposition of a union between the two provinces, will presently appear. With regard to the amount of quali- fication, there cannot certainly be any good ground for making it less than our own rate of ilO. On the con- trary, considering that the diffusion of property is much 98 POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. wider, and that of intelligence more limited, double that amount would not probably be too high. It would in fact be less exclusive than the lower rate in this country, since there is scarcely an individual in the Canadas who, with ordinary intelligence and vigorous exertion, might not elevate himself to the possession of it. The Legislative Council is another important institution which has not worked very satisfactorily, and yet there appears great difficulty in devising any improvement upon it. Its members, appointed by the crown for life, have been accused of being too subservient, while its col- lisions with the Assembly have been extremely violent. Lord Durham, who allows that, on repeated occasions, it has acted as a salutary check on the irregular proceed- ings of the latter body, nevertheless considers its constitu- tion as inconsistent with sound principles, and requiring revisal. He does not, however, make any suggestions on the subject, and ministers, it appears, do not intend to propose any change, except as to the selection of its members, either from the representative body or from the holders of important offices, and as to the duration of their functions, to be limited to eight years. If the Assembly shall have its character raised, and at the same time obtain an executive acting in harmony with it, there will probably cease to be the same wide disjunction between the two legislative bodies. It would be improper to conclude without noticing the plan of a union between the two Canadas, so strongly re- commended by Lord Durham, and which the British cabi- net have announced their intention to propose. The reasons in its favour, indeed, appear to be very strong. Al- though we hope to see the enmity of the French inhabit- ants overcome much sooner than his lordship antici- pates, yet, considering its present intensity, some years must previously elapse ; and during that interval it would be manifestly inexpedient to assemble a legislature in Lower Canada. The chief sway in the government could not, it is obvious, be given to a party who have been endeavouring to 'subvert it; while the superiority of their opponents could only be secured by imposing POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 99 certain humiliating disqualifications. If, therefore, this province were to stand alone, it might be necessary to permit a temporary exercise of absolute power, until the ferment now existing should in some degree subside. The arguments, however, urged by the noble lord against such a measure appear very conclusive. "With the experience of a free government, and the example of the United States in their neighbourhood, it could scarcely fail to ag- gravate the spirit of discontent; and a delegated autho- rity would not probably command sufficient respect. It is therefore only by the proposed union, that, without proscription or disfranchisement, the French party can be prevented from regaining their majority in the repre- sentation. The measure, moreover, seems urgently called for by the relative position of the two provinces, which renders their continued separation extremely inconveni- ent, especially to the upper, which is thus excluded from all direct communication with the sea. Accordingly, though such unions are usually at first unpopular, Upper Canada has shown a disposition decidedly favourable to it. The House of Assembly, who have declared this union indispensable, must better express the sentiments of the people than the Legislative Council, who, by a small majority, have withheld their assent. Even they, however, express a willingness to consider any plan which the British Government may propose.* We really see no ground for that precipitate haste demanded by Lord Durham and his friends, in a measure which, as already observed, can have no immediate effect in removing the main evil, consisting in French discontent. The delay till 1842 proposed by ministers, seems on the whole eligible, as enabling the measure to be maturely considered, and giving time for the violent and agitated feelings kindled during the recent contest to assume gradually a calmer tone. There is here, however, a serious danger, to which Lord Durham has not sufficiently adverted. He cal- culates that out of a million in both provinces there are 450,000 French.t If, therefore, the system of election * Correspondence (6th June 1839), p. 3-6. -f Report, p. 110, 100 POLITICAL STATE OP CANADA. continue unaltered, they will return nine against eleven of the members of the united House of Assembly; and such a minority, seeking not only to oppose, but to overthrow a government, would, it is manifest, prove exceedingly embarrassing. Nor is this by any means the whole evil; for there is in Upper Canada a party of some strength decidedly republican, who having acted along with the French, would probably act so again ; and these, reinforced by others who, from various causes, might happen to be discontented, could scarcely fail to secure a majority. This is not a merely speculative conclusion; for in the last meeting of the Assembly in the lower province, a healing measure proposed by Mr A. Stuart, a moderate oppositionist, was negatived by sixty-two to fifteen. The loyalists in the Assembly called by Sir Francis Head, in the upper province, were reckoned at forty-two to nineteen.'"' Thus we have— Government. Opposition. Lower Canada, . . 15 62 Upper Canada, . . 42 19 Both together, . .57 81 Majority against Government, 24 Lord Durham, in alluding to the chance of such a result, argues that the immigration of a single year would restore the equilibrium. Such an assembly, however, would exert every effort to prevent this influx, and the very condition into which the colony would be thereby thrown would greatly tend to deter British settlers from proceeding thither. Besides, it has neither been custo- mary, nor would it be at all convenient, to re-arrange the electoral districts annually according to changes of population. The distribution once made must subsist for a considerable interval, during which the malecontent party would remain masters of the representative body. It seems evident, therefore, that the proposed union can take place with no safety unless in connexion with some arrangement ensuring an immediate and decided * Correspondence relative to Lower Canada, p. 43. Return, Sir F. Head, Upper Canada, p. 23. POLITICAL STATE OF CANADA. 101 majority to the British party in the Assembly. A rise in the property qualification, which has been shown on other grounds to be highly expedient, would in this respect have a considerable influence. The proposed new distribution of districts, in which respect is to be paid, not to popula- tion only, but to extent, and the prospect of their being filled up by successive bodies of emigrants, will produce a similar effect, and does not seem liable to serious objection. We shall conclude with a subordinate, but still very important object, to which Lord Durham has devoted a laudable degree of attention. One of the greatest evils under which he considers the country to labour, is the ab- sence of any institution such as would give to the people a control over their local affairs. Among the French inhabitants, it appears there never was any institution by which they were brought together for an admmistra- tive purpose, nor had they in their character, like the Anglo-Saxon race, any principle of energy or self-govern- ment to supply what was wanting. The southern dis- tricts were first peopled by settlers from the United. States, who formed them into townships, after the model of those in the country they had left; but this course was checked by the British authorities. Under the new plan of government preparing for Canada, it is proposed to remedy this defect. Yet it seems to deserve con- sideration, whether, until the present excitement of fac- tions has somewhat abated, such assemblies could take place without a perilous collision, and even some degree of oppression on the part of the majority. An arrange- ment of districts, making each to contain exclusively either French or English inhabitants, would in a great measure avert this danger. Yet it would tend to prolong the separation and retard that union of feeling between the two races which is so desirable. It seems, therefore, a measure not to be engaged in hastily, nor without the most minute attention to its arrangements and details. With regard to Lord Durham's proposal of a general union of the provinces, we reserve its consideration till & future occasion, when we propose to give a general sum- mary of British America. See Vol. III. Chap. IV. 102 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHAPTER IV. General View of the Maritime Provinces. Situation and Extent—Character of the Coast—Fisheries—Forests —Early Voyages—Sir Humphrey Gilbert—His Equipment— Adventures on the Voyage—Transactions in Newfoundland— Loss of his largest Vessel—Final Catastrophe—French Voyages —Nova Scotia. The maritime, or, as they are sometimes termed, the seaboard provinces of British America, consist of New- foundland on the north, Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick on the south, with all the intermediate islands lying outside the river St Lawrence. Northward of this, on the coasts of Labrador and Hudson's Bay, there are detached stations of some importance, but no connected range of settlement. These territories are situated be- tween 43° 25' and 51° 39' north latitude, 52° 44' and 67° 53' west longitude; but from their separated and insular position, the limits now described do not convey any precise idea of their extent, which has been esti- mated at about 81,900 square miles.* This range of coast appears, with scarcely one excep- tion, to be the most broken and diversified on the surface of the globe. The waves of the Atlantic, and the con- tinued action of that mighty current called the Gulf Stream, have scooped it into islands and peninsulas of every form. Between these are to be found expanses of water equally various in their size and shape ; interior seas, broad bays, deep gulfs, and long channels. These * Bouchette, vol. ii. pp. 1, 92, 180, 235. MARITIME PROVINCES. 103 extend the benefits of maritime communication to the most inland parts of the country; while the numerous smaller openings or coves produce harbours as spacious and secure as any in the world. Nature, along the whole of this coast, presents an aspect peculiarly dreary. Though included within what we account in Europe the temperate zone, yet owing to the climatic difference which distinguishes America, the face of the land, for nearly half the year, is entirely cover- ed with snow. The scene is rendered still more gloomy by large mountains and fields of ice, which, breaking up in spring from the shores of Greenland, float into these latitudes, where they appal the mariner, and disappear but slowly beneath the influences of summer. The im- pression is heightened by dense fogs enveloping the shores during a great portion of the year, when they would otherwise exhibit a more cheerful appearance. An idea of barrenness was long closely associated with this range of territory, naturally suggested by the ex- treme rigour of the climate, and by the bleak aspect of its coasts. The surface is diversified by numerous emi- nences, not indeed of alpine elevation, yet giving to it a rough character, and when laid bare by the action of the waves, forming a broken and rocky border, of very unpromising appearance. The soil, even in the most favourable situations, was completely covered with al- most impenetrable forests, which defied cultivation with- out such previous labour as the early settlers were little inclined to bestow. These original impressions have in a great measure disappeared before the investigations of modern enterprise. It has been found that the length and severity of the whiter is fully compensated by the intense heat of the summer, which during its short duration ripens even the most valuable grams. Be- hind the rocky screen of the coast, a careful survey has discovered fertile valleys and plains, sufficiently exten- sive to afford subsistence to many millions of people. The trees, by a vigorous exertion of industry, can be gradually cleared away, when there is disclosed a virgin 104 GENERAL VIEW OF THE soil of great fertility. Even the climate, except at one particular season of the year, is by no means so disagree- able as was at first apprehended ; it is even distinguished by peculiar salubrity. The cultivation of these countries has therefore been begun, and is in a state of considerable progress; but as only a small part has yet been subjected to the plough, the produce does not afford a maintenance even to its present limited population. Under every drawback, however, these districts have acquired great commercial importance from their fisheries and their timber. For the former their coasts are per- haps the most favourable in the world. Not only do their vast extent and deep winding bays afford ample opportunities and commodious stations, but the banks in their vicinity, rising nearly to the surface of the water, are of extraordinary extent, and attract the fish in vast numbers from the surrounding seas. The great one of Newfoundland appears unrivalled in magnitude and pro- ductiveness. The cod too, with which it chiefly abounds, is of excellent quality, and, by the simple process of drying, its palatable and nutritious virtues can be almost entirely preserved. So important was this branch of industry considered, that in a very short period after the first discovery of these shores, it ranked among the greatest objects of European enterprise. The next grand feature consists in the forests which overspread an immense extent of these regions, filling every valley, mounting to the summit of every hill, and forming one uninterrupted covering. The hand of cul- tivation has yet made only a very small inroad upon this vast wilderness. The splendid tints of its varied foliage are described by Mr M'Gregor to be almost without example: "In Europe, in Asia, in Africa, and even in South America, the primeval trees, how much soever their magnitude may arrest admiration, do not grow in the promiscuous style that prevails in the great general character of the North American woods. Many varieties of the pine, intermingled with birch, maple, beech, oak, and numerous other tribes, MARITIME PROVINCES* 105 branch luxuriantly over the banks of lakes and rivers, extend in stately grandeur along the plains, and stretch proudly up to the very summits of the mountains. It is impossible to exaggerate the autumnal beauty of these forests: nothing under- heaven can be compared to its effulgent grandeur. Two or three frosty nights in the decline of autumn, transform the boundless ver- dure of a whole empire into every possible tint of bril- liant scarlet, rich violet, every shade of blue and brown, vivid crimson, and glittering yellow. The stern, in- exorable fir tribes alone maintain their eternal sombre green. All others, in mountains or in valleys, burst into the most gloridus vegetable beauty, and exhibit the most splendid and most enchanting panorama on earth." * These shores were naturally the first towards which North American discovery was directed. The Cabots, Cortereal, and Verazzano, pursued their course exclu- sively either along them or the neighbouring part of the United States. Cartier, as we have seen, ascended the gulf and river of St Lawrence; but his spirited expedi- tion had no immediate result, and this object was not followed up for a considerable time. The numerous English voyages to this quarter had chiefly in view the discovery of a north-western passage to the East Indies. Yet, even under Henry VIII., so long ago as 1536, an effort was made to colonise New- foundland, at the expense and under the auspices of Mr Hore, a wealthy merchant of London. It became, how- ever, wholly abortive, and had indeed a most disas- trous issue.t But in the reign of Elizabeth it was re- newed on a great scale, by individuals the most dis- tinguished in the nation for rank and talent. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, of Compton, in Devonshire, power- fully seconded by Sir "Walter Raleigh, undertook to establish settlements on the coasts which England claimed * M'Gregor, vol. i. pp. 79, 80. f Edinburgh Cabinet Libraiy, No. I., Polar Seas and Rep-ions. 4th edition, p. 190. b y 106 GENERAL VIEW OF THE in virtue of the discoveries formerly made by the Cabots. The queen, though she declined embarking any treasure in this enterprise, lavished on its authors privileges and immunities almost regal. These indeed in that age were most freely bestowed, and seem to have been necessary to tempt adventurers to seek, across a stormy ocean and amid a thousand perils, new provinces in unknown and barbarous regions. By letters patent of 11th June 1578, Sir Humphrey, his heirs and assignees for ever, were to have, hold, occupy, and enjoy, all "heathen and barbarous lands" which he might discover; and wherever, in the next six years, he should form a settlement, no one else was to approach within '200 leagues. He was to exercise all the functions of administration, civil and criminal, both by sea and land. Her majesty merely reserved to herself homage and a fifth of the gold and silver which the region, it was hoped, would be found to contain.* Sir Humphrey, inspired with these brilliant hopes, embarked a large part of his fortune in a western expe- dition; and the only difficulty was to procure seamen willing to engage in such a rough and hazardous enter- prise. Those whom alone he could assemble were chiefly volunteers of doubtful character, whose courage failed when the moment of embarkation came; and desertion so thinned their numbers, that he was obliged to set sail with a mere handful of regular mariners. He soon after- wards encountered the most tempestuous weather, and was driven back with the loss of a handsome ship, and also of its captain, Miles Morgan, an officer whom he highly esteemed.t These disasters seemed enough to shake the firmest determination, especially as the knight of Compton had no longer sufficient fortune left to fit himself out again to any adequate extent. By the liberal aid, however, of Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir George Peckham, and other dis- tinguished friends, he succeeded in furnishing another squadron, though on a scale that would now be deemed * Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 135-137. •{- Ibid. vol. iii. p. 146*. 6 MARITIME PROVINCES. 107 very insufficient. The largest vessel, called the Raleigh, furnished hy Sir Walter, was of 200 tons burden. The admiral hoisted his own flag in the Delight of 120. The Golden Hind and the Swallow, of 40 each, and the Squirrel, a little bark of only 10, completed the equip- ment. The crews, though amounting to only 260, could not he collected without including persons con- demned for piracy on the narrow seas,—a crime then prevalent; they formed a desperate band, and, as will afterwards appear, they were by no means inclined to relinquish their original vocation. He succeeded, how- ever, in procuring individuals skilled in various trades, —masons, carpenters, and workers in metal; nor did he omit musicians, morris-dancers, hobby-horses, and other means of recreating the eyes and gaining the affections of savage tribes. Thus prepared, Sir Humphrey sailed on the 11th of June 1583; but he soon encountered many reverses si- milar to those by which he had been formerly baffled. On the third day sickness broke out on board the Raleigh, his largest ship, the crew of which immediately forsook him, and returned to the shores of Britain. The com- mander, however, pushed on, nor allowed himself to be discouraged, even when, on the 20th of July, the Swallow and the Squirrel were separated from him in a thick fog. About the end of that month, he with his two remaining vessels came in view of the great bank of Newfoundland, its vicinity being indicated by the incre- dible number of seafowl that darkened the air. On the 30th he reached the coast, by the aspect of which his followers appear to have been variously affected. It being then the height of summer, the surface even of this wild region was clothed with verdure, and adorned by wild fruits and flowers. But Parmenius, a learned corres- pondent, plainly states, "My good Hakluyt, of the maner of this countrey what shall I say, when I see nothing but a very wildernesse." All agree, however, as to the vast profusion of the finny tribes with which both the seas and rivers were replenished. 108 GENERAL YIEW OF THE The squadron had here the satisfaction to meet their lost companion, the Swallow, which presented a spec- tacle not a little surprising. Her crew, chiefly con- sisting of pirates, had been very indifferently clad; but now they appeared on deck handsomely attired, and, in transports of joy, were dancing and waving their caps in the air. Sir Humphrey lost no time in inquiring into the cause of a transformation for which this part of the world seemed to afford such slender materials. He obtained a most unsatisfactory solution. Happening to meet a French vessel returning from the fishery, the crew "following still their kind," cast upon her a long- ing eye. Knowing, however, their captain to be an honourable man, they merely besought permission to go on board and borrow a few articles which they urgently wanted. Having obtained leave, with strict injunctions to abstain from every kind of violence, they proceeded to the ship, seized the crew, stripped them of clothes, food, and every article they could find, and then by winding cords round their heads, produced such exquisite torture, that they rendered up their most hidden stores. Having effected all this with wonderful expedition, "like men skilfull in such mischiefe," they returned to the Swallow; but their boat being upset several of them were drowned, and the rest suffered afterwards the full penalty of their crime. The fishery on this shore was found already in a state of activity, thirty-six vessels, sixteen of them English, being busily engaged in it; andSir Humphrey immediately assumed the entire sovereignty, as vested in him by the queen's patent. His first step was to cause each of his ships to draw up a list of their wants, the duty of sup- plying which was then partitioned among the different fishermen, foreign as well as native. They are said to have complied with the utmost alacrity, not only furnishing what was demanded, but adding wines, mar- malade, biscuit, and other delicacies, with a daily allow- ance of fish. The officers were also entertained at great festivals, given every week on the nomination of a fishing MARITIME PROVINCES. 309 admiral for that period. "In short," says Hayes, " we were supplied as if we had bene in a countrey or some citie, populous and plentif ull of all things." This delight at having their property taken from them might have appeared mysterious, but for a hint dropt by Parme- nius, who says, " They being not able to match us, suffer us not to be hunger-starved." The discovery vessels being armed, while the others were only fitted out for peaceful pursuits, possessed the means of enforcing their own terms. The commander proceeded now to avail himself of this advantage, in order to establish a permanent do- minion over that remote region. Having fixed his head- quarters at St John's, he proclaimed that a circuit of two hundred leagues in every direction was held by him in full right under her majesty, and by virtue of her grant; demanding a presentation of wood and water in token of possession, by himself, his heirs, and assignees, for ever. The English laws, constitution, and form of worship, were established. It was ordained, that who- ever should attempt any thing prejudicial to this newly acquired dominion, should be forthwith tried and ex- ecuted ; and any person who should utter words " sound- ing to the dishonour of her majesty," should lose his ears. Lofty as were these pretensions, they are said to have been acquiesced in with the utmost cheerfulness,— a circumstance for which we suspect an explanation must be sought in the intimation afforded by Parrnenius.* Sir Humphrey, however, did not attempt to form a settlement in this dreary latitude. Many of his men, disgusted with the country and the prospect of winter- ing there, and longing to return, disappeared in various directions. Their character rendered them most un- scrupulous as to the means. One party seized a fishing- vessel, turning the crew on shore; others laid a plot to treat in a similar way the ships of the squadron; but this was discovered and defeated. Some fled into the * Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 148-165. VOL. II. G 110 GENERAL VIEW OF THE woods, in hopes of making their way to England in other barks. As the sick, too,.had become numerous, the commander sent them home in the Swallow, taking with him only the three other vessels ; for the Squirrel also had j oined them at another part of the coast. Having sailed on the 20th August, he directed his course to Sable Island, recommended, on no very satisfactory intelligence, as an eligible station. Unfortunately, too, the sailing direc- tions were doubtful and imperfect; so that, after quitting Cape Race, and venturing into the open sea, they were soon involved in much perplexity. Sir Humphrey, having apparently formed an overweening estimate of his own skill in seamanship, to which he had not been bred, disregarded the warnings given by the master of the Delight, that he was carrying the vessel towards dangerous shoals and banks. Cox, of the Golden Hind, was of the same opinion; but being in the rear, was obliged to follow. In his narrative he says, that on the night of the 28th, the crew of the Delight were so little aware of their danger, that they were gaily sounding trumpets, hautboys, and other musical instru- ments; but it was "like the swanne that singeth before her death." On the 29th, there arose a violent gale from the south-east, with heavy rain, and so thick a mist that they could not see a cable's length. Cox next morning thought he saw white cliffs, but it seems to have been only the foam of the breakers. The soundings, however, indicated that they were passing over dangerous banks. Signals were immediately made to the Delight; but before they could be acted upon, this their largest ves- sel had struck, when presently her whole stern went to pieces. The two others could afford no aid, being obliged to save themselves by standing immediately out to sea. The only means of escape was by a little pinnace, into which sixteen men leaped, including the master; but the captain, Maurice Brown, refused to leave his ship, and, with the rest of the crew, doubtless perished. Those in the boat could scarcely command their senses, or believe it possible, that in this little skiff, MARITIME PROVINCES. 111 amid a dark and stormy ocean, they could reach on these strange shores any haven of safety. Their danger was much increased by being completely overcrowded, so that Edward Headly proposed to choose four by lot, and cast them into the sea; but Clarke, the master, declared they would live and die together, "advising to abide God's pleasure, who was able to save all as well as a few." They were tossed six days on the ocean, without any food but sea-weed, or any drink but salt water. Headly and another died; the others, quite exhausted, at last came in view of the shores of Newfoundland. They crept with difficulty to a sheltered spot, where they formed a habitation of boughs, and collecting the berries that grew round them in profusion, recruited their strength. Afterwards, when sailing along the coast, they met a Biscayan vessel, which kindly received and con- veyed them to the harbour of Passages.* Sir Humphrey having sailed in the little bark called the Squirrel, with the view of more closely surveying the shore, had escaped this catastrophe. The news struck him indeed with the deepest dismay; yet he was re- luctant to abandon the design, till the seamen, repre- senting the miserable extremity to which they were reduced, urged the necessity of returning to Europe "before they all perished." The crew of the Golden Hind, though too distant for speech, pointing to their mouths and ragged clothes, strongly enforced the argu- ment. He felt that no choice was left, yet bitterly lamented the loss of his vessel, his men, his books and papers; and it was surmised that hopes, though falla- cious, of having discovered gold, mingled in his regret. He expressed an unshaken determination to prosecute his career of discovery; declaring that though his whole fortune was sunk, he would make such representations to the queen, as would induce her to advance the means of equipping a still larger expedition. Arrangements being now made for crossing the At- * Hakluyt, vol. iii. pp. 155-157, 164, 165. 112 GENERAL VIEW OF THE lantic, Sir Humphrey was urged to quit the petty bark in which he had been sailing, as very unfit for such a voyage, and go on board the Golden Hind. But in reply, he resolutely declared "I will not forsake my little company, with whom I have passed so many stormes and perils." Hayes suspects that he was in- fluenced by some idle rumours that had gone abroad, as if he wanted courage at sea; and that he "preferred the wind of a vaine report to the weight of his owne life." The vessels, however, sailed in safety three hundred leagues, till they reached the meridian of the Azores. A storm so violent then overtook them, that men who had spent all their lives afloat had never seen the like. The waves, it is said, broke "short and high, pyramid- wise," owing, it is added, to their being moved by con- flicting tides and currents. In the afternoon of 9th September, the Squirrel was seen in extreme peril amid these terrible billows; yet as she approached the Hind, the sailors observed Gilbert sitting with a book in his hand, and heard him call to them, "We are as near to heaven by sea as by land." Dark- ness fell, the storm still raged, and lights having been put up, the crew of his consort kept their eyes fixed on them as the signals of mutual safety. A little past midnight, the light in Sir Humphrey's vessel suddenly disappeared; and neither he nor his companions were ever heard of more. The Golden Hind, almost a wreck, returned, the sole remains of that gay and flourishing armament which had so lately set forth to occupy and rule the northern regions of the new world.* Such an issue could not fail to throw a damp even on the intrepid spirit of that age; and yet the project was by no means renounced. Sir George Peckham, who had liberally contributed to the first voyage, recommend- ed the enterprise as strongly as ever, and wrote a long- treatise on western planting, by which he endeavour- ed to stimulate the nation to a fresh effort. In 1583, * Hakluyt, vol. iii. p. 155-159. MARITIME PROVINCES. l 113 Captain Christopher Carlile addressed a memorial on the subject to the Muscovy Company, who appointed a committee to confer with him; and a plan was agreed upon, but seems never to have been carried into execu- tion. Raleigh, who soon became the guiding star in discovery, turned his whole attention to more southern and brighter regions, and the bleak shores of North Ame- rica were for a long time almost entirely disregarded. The French had early directed their attention to this coast, and distinguished themselves by the voyages of Verazzano, Cartier, Roberval, and La Roche. These, however, had proved ultimately abortive, and were even in several cases attended with signal disaster; but that people were now about to undertake one on a larger scale, and leading to more durable results. As this, how- ever, paved the way towards the formation of the colony of Nova Scotia, we will reserve it to the next chapter, which treats of that important subject. 114 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND CHAPTER V. General Description and History of Nova Scotia. Extent and Limits—Mountains—Streams—Soil—Climate—First Settlement by De Monts—Captured by the English—Colony under Sir William Alexander—Ceded to France — Contests among- the Proprietors—Conquered by the New Englanders*— Wars with the Indians—Cape Breton captured—Restored—Set- tlement of Halifax—Disputes with France—War—Expulsion of the Acadians—Capture of Louisbourg—Return of the Acadians —Representative Assembly—Peace with the Indians—Nova Scotia during the American Contest—Increased by numerous Re- fugees—Subsequent Events. Nova Scotia, according to its present limits, forms a large peninsula, in advance as it were of that long line of the American coast which extends south-west from the mouth of the St Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. It is separated from the continent by the Bay of Fundy and its branch of Chignecto, stretching north-east from the Atlantic to within a short space of the Baie Verte, or Green Bay, connected with the Gulf of St Lawrence. The narrow interval of eight miles between these two bodies of water forms the isthmus by which alone this country is united with the main body of America. On the other side is New Brunswick, once part of the same province; while opposite to its south-western extremity lies a portion of Maine, the most northerly of the United States. On the north-east, it borders on channels con- nected with the Gulf of St Lawrence, such as Northum- berland Strait, St George Bay, and the Gut of Canseau. All the remainder of the coast is washed by the Atlantic. Nova Scotia, thus bounded, lies between 61° and 66° SO' west longitude, and 43° 25' and 46° north latitude. HISTORY OP NOVA SCOTIA. I ] 5 It extends in an oblique line from north-east to south- west ; the extreme length in this direction being estimated by M. Bouchette at 383 miles. The breadth varies considerably, being in the north-eastern part only thirty or forty miles. It then shoots out rapidly, and at the peninsula, which forms the vertex of a species of triangle, exceeds 100. But this dimension is maintained only for a short space; and the remainder, between the Bay of Fundy and the Atlantic, does not average above sixty. The entire superficies is stated by Mr Halibur- ton at 15,617 square miles, or 9,994,880 acres.'"' • The surface of the country is broken and of various aspect, but nowhere approaches to an alpine elevation. There are several ranges, indeed, which, hi the language of the country, are called mountains; but as the highest does not exceed 600 feet, they cannot rank above mere hills. Ardoise, the most elevated, not far from Windsor, commands a prospect which Mr M'Gregor considers to be, in all British America, surpassed only by that from Quebec. The ranges run generally in the direction of the country, from north-east to south-west. The ridge called the North Mountain extends, at a small distance,, along the Bay of Fundy, terminating in the bold cliff of Blomidon, which overlooks the Basin of Minas. In the interior, between it and the Atlantic, stretches a less- known series, called the Blue Mountains. Those named Horton are on the eastern side of the Minas Basin, while the Cobequid heights lie near the frontier peninsula. These eminences, where they face the Atlantic, have been broken by its waves into the most rugged forms; high cliffs and long ledges, composed chiefly of granite and other primitive rocks. The coast also is scooped out into numberless coves and bays, and diversified by myriads of rocky islets. It is therefore completely iron- bound, and has conveyed that impression of barrenness and desolation which has so generally attached to this * Bouchette, vol. ii. p. 1. Haliburton's Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia (2 vols 8vo, Halifax, 1829), vol. ii. pp. 2, 3. 116 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND country. Yet its highest cliff, Aspotagoen, about thirty miles south-west of Halifax, does not rise above 500 feet; so that the scenery cannot be called sublime, still less smiling and beautiful; but it is strikingly wild, pictur- esque, and romantic. A more solid advantage is obtained from the deep water and shelter almost every where af- forded by the rocky shores and islands; so that a vessel may lie in perfect safety while the most violent tempest is raging without. The numerous indentations along this frontier afford also many spacious harbours, which can scarcely be equalled in the world. The north-eastern coast, along the gulf, is much smoother, while the in- terior is only gently undulating, and very fertile.* The numerous streams descending from these various ranges render Nova Scotia one of the best watered regions- on the face of the earth. Though, from the form of the country, they cannot have a very long course, yet being full of water, and containing generally bays and inlets, they are commonly navigable, even for large vessels, a considerable way upwards. They have usually, too, on their borders a strip of fertile land, which relieves the monotony even of the most barren districts. In many cases they spread into lakes, but seldom of very large extent. That of Rossignol, however, in the centre of the south-west district, is supposed to be nearly thirty miles long, and the Great Lake, on the Shubenacadie naviga- tion, may be about ten. These waters, surrounded by hills of varied form, clothed with wood to their summit, present many scenes of extreme beauty, which surprise those who expected to find in this province only a gloomy waste .f The capacity of the land for agricultural pursuits varies according to the different situations. The whole Atlantic coast is generally barren, as, besides the naked cliffs front- * M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 3, 4, 95. Bonchette, vol. ii. p. 7. Ha- liburton, vol. ii. pp. 3, 4. Moorsom's Letters from Nova Scotia (London, 1030), p. 19. t Bonchette, vol. ii. pp. 73 #. Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 7« Moor- som, p. 18. HISTORY OP NOVA SCOTIA. 117 ing the sea, the ground for a considerable distance inland is strewed with stones, beneath which indeed in many cases good soil is to be found; but the clearing of them is much too hard a task for a young settlement. There are, however, occasional exceptions, particularly near Lunenburg, and in the narrow alluvial tracts, on the banks of the rivers, which are exceedingly productive. The ranges of hills, even when their summits are richly wooded, have not unfrequently their lower declivities covered with an accumulation of loose sand and debris, which renders them altogether unfit for the purposes of cultivation. There are also several peat-bogs, from one of which, called the Cariboo, the Iiorton and Annapolis rivers take their rise. With these deductions, the western part of the country, along the Bay of Fundy and its branches, and the northern, which bounds the Gulf of St Lawrence, two divisions comprehending the larger portion of Nova Scotia, possess a very considerable degree of fertility.* The climate of this territory, in point of temperature, corresponds generally with that of Lower Canada, mo- dified, however, by its maritime situation. From this cause, the frost' of winter, though equally strong, has not the same fixed and long duration. It does not fully set in till about the 20th December, and even in January a decided thaw frequently occurs. Mr Haliburton does not reckon on more than six or eight weeks of sleighing in the season. By the end of March, the severity of winter ends, but is ill exchanged for a succession of chill damp winds, caused apparently by the dissolution of large fields of ice in the northern seas. The real spring approaches tardily and irregularly, and May ends before the fields are fully clothed with ver- dure. A summer of three months is then marked by that intense heat which prevails over all Ame- rica. It has often, from the vicinity of the ocean, and * M'Gregor* vol. ii. pp. 7, o\ Haliburton, vol. ii, p. 6. Moor- som, pp. 19,' 20. 118 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND perhaps of its melting ices, the disagreeable accompani- ment of heavy fog, which, in this heated state, seems to steep the inhabitants in a vapour bath. It is felt, how- ever, only on the coast, and to a certain distance inland, not reaching the interior or the Bay of Fundy. It only occurs, too, when the wind blows from the sea; for the land-breezes produce a bright and clear sky. As in the other Atlantic states, with a vast continent on one side, and on the other an ocean equally extensive, a shifting wind occasions here also very sudden changes of temperature. Captain Moorsom has known the varia- tion amount to fifty degrees in twenty-four hours, and was assured that it has been observed as high as sixty- two. According to this writer, " in summer the winds from north to west are accompanied by fine, clear, bra- cing weather ; while any thing from south to east brings fog or rain. The wind from west to south produces pleasant yet variable or showery weather; and from north to east we expect only that which is raw and disagreeable. In winter, the north-west quadrant be- comes identified with a clear dry atmosphere and intense cold; the south-east with rapid thaw and floods of rain. The south-west is marked by moderate frost and slight thaws; and the north-east winds come charged with cold raw mist, or heavy snow storms." These different •results seem sufficiently accounted for by the position of the province in respect to land and sea.* The autumn in this climate is long and delightful,—• commencing at the close of August, and often not ending till the middle of December. The latter portion is ren- dered agreeable by the prevalence for days and even weeks of that soft transparent haze called the Indian summer. The nights at the hottest season are cool and refreshing, so that the open air may then be fully en- joyed ; and the aurora borealis and other aerial meteors are common, though not so brilliant as in arctic latitudes. * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 348-352. Moorsom, pp. 152, 153, 161-168. HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 119 The violent extremes and changes incident to this climate might be supposed hurtful to the human consti- tution; yet it is extolled as in an eminent degree salu- brious. The very agitations seem to prevent those fatal diseases which arise from a putrid and stagnant atmo- sphere. The intermittent fever, so frequent in the United States and even Upper Canada, is unknown; typhus is rare and slight; and the ravages of the yellow fever have never been felt. Rheumatism and local inflammation are the maladies from which the people suffer most severely; to which may be added pulmonary consump- tion, though not to the extent that might be supposed. The depth of winter is of course a trying season; yet the sick-list of the 5 2d regiment is stated by Captain Moorsom to have stood lower than in the summer months. The general healthiness is said to be proved hy the longevity of the people, among whom the age of ninety is not uncommon, and many even pass that of a hundred.* Although the early attempts of the French to settle upon this coast were, as already observed, fruitless and even calamitous, yet the value of the land and the profit- able trade of which it might be made the theatre, had not escaped the notice of the nation in general. That people, and particularly the Huguenots, were then inspired with a strong spirit of commercial enterprise. In return for a few showy but trifling articles, they obtained from the savages precious furs, seal-skins, and the- teeth of the sea-horse, commodities at that period scarce and highly prized in the European market. Even the fisheries had already risen into importance ; and an old mariner, named Scavalet, is mentioned as having, previous to 1609, made forty voyages to Canseau. In 1603 a spirited attempt, on a considerable scale, was made by a gentleman named De Monts. He obtained from Henry IV. unlimited privileges, such as were then always lavished upon individuals willing to engage in * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 352-356. Moorsom, pp. 154, 155. ]20 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND such arduous undertakings; including not only the dominion of the colony, but the monopoly of the fur-trade throughout its whole extent. De Monts had sailed as a volunteer up the St Lawrence along with Chauvin, but not having gone higher than Tadoussac, he knew nothing of the fine territory afterwards dis- covered on that great river. The Atlantic coast appeared to him less difficult of access, and from its more southerly situation likely to enjoy a milder climate. He stipulated, for all the country lying between the 40th and 46th degrees of latitude, thus embracing Nova Scotia on the north, and New York on the south. Though a Calvinist, he was obliged to engage that both professions should be tolerated among the settlers, and that the Catholic alone should be taught to the Indians. A liberal expendi- ture and the enterprising spirit of the age enabled him speedily to equip four vessels, two of which were com- manded by himself, while the others were employed, at different points, in conducting his own trade and pre- venting that of others.* The vicinity to France, and his ignorance of the more southern coasts, led him to touch in the first instance at Nova Scotia, which he reached on the 16th May 1604. At a point near its southern extremity, he found a French captain named Rossignol engaged in trade; and forthwith exercised his privileges, by confiscating the vessel and cargo, allowing to the seaman only the con- solation of giving his name to the place, now changed to Liverpool. Thence he proceeded to the head of the Bay of Fundy, making a fruitless attempt to penetrate through it into the St Lawrence. At one point where he stopped for a short interval, the crew were much dismayed to find, on re-embarking, that Daubre, a clergyman of good family, was wanting. They continued here some time, vainly making calls and signals, and then proceed- ed. On returning, however, sixteen days after, a hat and handkerchief were seen fastened to a pole; and a * Halliburton, vol. i. p. 9-13. . Charaplain, tome i. pp. 55, 56. HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 121 party having landed, the unfortunate priest was found. He had lost himself in the woods, and being obliged to subsist on roots and berries, was reduced almost to a skeleton. As the season advanced, they fixed their settlement on an island near the mouth of the river St Croix. They cultivated a piece of ground, erected a fort with neat apartments, a commodious magazine, and a chapel in the form of a bower, composed of growing trees bent together. But winter soon set in with a severity for which they were quite unprepared. They had not sufficient wood for fuel; and being under the necessity of drinking melted snow and living on salted provisions, were attacked by scurvy in its most virulent form, for which they knew no remedy. At the end of this dreadful season, De Monts sail- ed southward in search of a milder climate. He reached Cape Cod; but the territory was found inhabited by numerous bands of hostile natives, who were too strong for his small party. He returned to St Croix, and havin obtained a seasonable reinforcement, removed to a spot on the Bay of Fundy, which when formerly passed had appeared very desirable, and was named Port Royal. The whole country, including New Brunswick, was called Acadia. He himself repaired to France for farther supplies; but his people, having raised grain and ve- getables, and procured abundance of venison, either by hunting or purchase from the savages, contrived to pass two winters very agreeably. During the mild season they renewed their attempts to settle farther south ; but these were fruitless, and even attended with loss.* In the following summer, while the party were anxi- ously waiting the arrival of their chief with the promised reinforcements, they were appalled by the intelligence that his connexion with America had ceased. All the merchants concerned in the fur-trade and fishery had j oined in complaining, that his privilege was exercised with such violence as to put an entire stop to both occupa- * Haliburton, vol. i. p. 14-26. 122 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND tions ; that they and their families were ruined ; and that all the revenue derived from these sources was lost to the country. The court hereupon arbitrarily annulled the privilege which they had so rashly granted; and in com- pensation for the 100,000 livres spent by De Monts, only 6000, or about £250, was allowed. Even this was too large a sum for the French treasury to pay. He was merely empowered to levy it from the fur-traders; an expedient, says Champlain, which "was like giving him the sea to drink." The attempt to enforce such a tax, besides the trouble and odium, would have in- volved him in expense exceeding any probable income. Though there seems ground to suspect, even from the statements of his own friends, that he carried too far his excessive and pernicious privilege, yet such an abrupt deprivation can scarcely be justified. Notwithstanding the consternation diffused by this intelligence, Pontrincourt, one of the party, much at- tached to Port Royal, determined if possible to maintain that settlement. He repaired to France, represented its advantages, and obtained a grant of it; on condition, however, that he should attend to the conversion of the natives, and receive two Jesuits as part of his establish- ment. Deeply impressed with the belief, that if those persons accompanied him he would hold only half the jurisdiction, he delayed receiving them under various pre- texts; and when this could no longer be resisted, he is reported to have said, that they must leave him entirely to rule the people on earth, and merely guide them to heaven. As they showed dissatisfaction with this limited function, and were otherwise somewhat roughly treated, they sent home loud complaints. A pious lady, Madame de Gourcherville, was then induced to fit out a vessel with every thing requisite for forming under them a separate colony, which was established on the eastern coast, at La Have. But while this settle- ment was in progress, Argall, an English captain, on his way to Virginia, having received notice of it, ap- peared before the place, and, after a short conflict, in HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 123 which one of the priests was killed, captured it, and carried off most of the inhabitants to James Town, Afraid to acknowledge such a flagrant breach of the peace with France, he pretended that they were pirates; but when the governor expressed his determination to hang them as such, Argall, to avert this catastrophe, owned the real state of the case. The English ruler was so far from being dissatisfied, that he immediately sent the captain with a fresh expedition to root out the colony at Port Royal. That officer arrived and effected his object without resistance; the settlers either fleeing into the woods, or being carried away prisoners. So little were colonies then valued, that France made no com- plaint of this violent aggression, beyond demanding the restoration of her men; nor did Britain take any mea- sures for turning her conquest to account.* From this time, however, the crown of England held itself owner of this territory, and neglected it only from the little value then attached to colonies not containing gold and silver. But in 1621, the poetical brain of Sir William Alexander, author of several works that were noted in that age was struck with a desire of trans- atlantic dominion; and at that period little solicitation was requisite to obtain the gift of a kingdom in America. Being a favourite of James I. and Charles I., and created successively Sir William and Earl of Stirling, he received a free grant of the vast territory extending from the St Croix to the St Lawrence, including Nova Scotia, (which name was now first given to the whole region) New Brunswick, and even the islands in the gulf, as far as Newfoundland. He was invested with the usual extravagant and even regal powers, uniting the functions of Lieutenant-general, Justice-general, and High Lord of Admiralty, and having power to form a constitution, create titles of honour, appoint bishops, judges, and all other officers. No reservation was made, except of a tenth of the royal mines of gold and silver, * Charnplain, tome i. pp. 58, 59. Haliburton, vol. i. p, 28-39.. 124 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND and five per cent, on the imports and exports, after the iirst seven years.* Charles I., in 1625, gave a novoda- onus, or renewal of this patent,t to which he added, in 1628, a similar one, whereby he made over the whole course of the St Lawrence, as far as the Gulf of Cali- fornia, on which the upper lakes were then supposed to border ; a grant which would have included all Canada, and much of the finest part of the United States. J To promote these objects, an order of baronets was created, each of whom was to hold jurisdiction over a tract ex- tending three miles along the coast, and ten towards the interior, and to receive in full property 16,000 acres of land. In return, each was bound to fit out six men for the colony, or to pay 2000 merks. By a singular regulation they wrere allowed to take seisin or legal pos- session, not on the spot, but on the Castle-hill of Edin- burgh, Nova Scotia being included in the county of that name.§ This extensive jurisdiction conferred on Sir William was ridiculed by some of his witty companions, who de- rided his attempt to rise from a poet to a king, and, like another Alexander, seeking a new world to reign over. He appears never to have visited his dominions in person, though he lost no time in sending out a vessel with a body of settlers. They sailed in 1622 ; but in consequence of various delays, the navigators could not, in the first year, proceed beyond Newfoundland, where they were obliged to winter. Next spring they coasted along the ceded terri- tory, but were much disappointed to find all its principal points, including even Port Royal, re-occupied by French settlers, who showed no inclination to withdraw. It was judged expedient to return to England, where they spread the most flattering reports of the value and beauty of this transatlantic region. When, therefore, war soon * Narrative of oppressive Proceeding's against the Earl of Stir- ling, by Himself (4to, Edinburgh, 1836), p. 53-C7. + Ibid. p. 75. $ Ibid. j). 125-131. § Case of the Honourable the Baronets of Scotland and Nova Scotia, pp. 10,27. 2 HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. J 25 after broke out with France, Sir William found no dif- ficulty in fitting out a small squadron, which he sent in .1627 under his eldest son, accompanied by Kertk, al- ready mentioned as a refugee who became distinguished under the name of Sir David Kirk. In that and the fol- lowing year, they reduced the forts of Port Royal, St Croix, and Pentagoet. At the former place they erected a new fortress on a considerable scale, where young Alex- ander took up his residence as governor of the country.* One of the prisoners in the captured transports was Claude de la Tour, a gentleman of fortune and enter- prise, who held part of the country from the French crown. Being brought to England, and introduced to Sir William, he wras persuaded to second the baronet's views by making him master of that portion of the coast held by himself, and introducing there a party of Scottish emigrants; but on reaching the fort held by his son, near Cape Sable, the youth indignantly re- fused to concur in an arrangement which he accounted treasonable. He even repulsed his father in an attempt to carry the place, and offered him only an asylum in its immediate vicinity. La Tour, however, returned to Britain, and not long after procured from Lord Stirling an engagement to cede to him Cape Sable, with a con- siderable extent of coast and territory adjoining.t Young Alexander died in America, and was succeeded by Sir George Home. In 1629, Kirk, as already re- lated, made the conquest of Canada, reducing Quebec, and taking the garrison prisoners. Britain was now mistress of all this part of the country ; yet by the treaty of St Germains in 1632, Charles I., without much con- sideration, agreed to restore all the settlements there in * Deuchar, Alexander (Genealogist, Edin.), MS. Memorial (from the Stirling- family papers). ■f This lias in general been represented as the entire cession of Nova Scotia, with the exception of Port Royal, but erroneously. The indenture, dated 30th April 1630, is in the possession of Mr Deuchar, but the transaction is said never to have been completed. —Deuchar, Alexander, MS. Memorial. Haliburton, p. 43-46. VOL. II. H 126 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND the same state as before the war. Orders were sent to Home to demolish the fort; to remove all the inhabitants, goods, and stores ; and leave the bounds altogether waste and unpeopled, as when the Scots first landed. The sum of £10,000 was granted to Lord Stirling in compensa- tion for the expenses incurred by him. His patent was acknowledged to be still in force, as the king pretended that he had only ceded the particular spots, and retained his full right to form settlements in the country. He even appointed a commission to consult with his lord- ship and the baronets on the means of promoting such an undertaking. France - would probably have viewed the subject in a different light; but, as may be well supposed, these persons did not feel inclined to adven- ture either themselves or their money again in a similar enterprise."* The court of Paris having regained possession of this territor}^ divided it in 1634 among three individuals. They assigned most of the middle districts to the young La Tour, the father apparently being dead; the north- ern part to a person named JDenys; and the southern to Razillai, who received a commission as commander- in-chief of Acadia. This last was succeeded by Daubre de Charnise, between whom and La Tour there arose a deadly feud, each seeking the entire possession of the colony. The contest was waged with savage and re- lentless animosity, and with little regard to the autho- rity of the mother-country. La Tour for some time procured aid from Boston, which gave him the ascend- ency; but Charnise intimidated the governor of that place by threatening the resentment of the king his master. The opposite cause was then chiefly supported by the exertions of Madame de la Tour, a female of heroic temper. Being attacked during her husband's absence in his principal fort on the St John, she beat * Case of the Baronets, pp. 28, 32-34. Claims founded on the ■above grants and transactions are at present strongly urged both by the Baronets and heirs of the house of Stirling; but into this question our subject does not require us to enter. HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 12J off the assailant with great loss. But Charnise, watching his opportunity, surprised her soon after when she was again left alone and had only a handful of men to defend the place. She was obliged to surrender, when the victor faithlessly hanged all the garrison, and, as is reported, compelled herself to appear in public with a halter round her neck. Such barbarous treatment, coupled with the ruin of her affairs, so affected this high-spirited woman, that she died after a short interval. La Tour, stripped of every thing, returned after some time to France, where he retrieved his affairs in a very singular manner. Charnise being dead, he married the wi- dow of his deadly enemy. His sister-in-law, too, a canoness of St Omer, dying about the same time, bequeathed to him all the claims of the family to this foreign possession. The bequest being sanctioned by the government, he set -out and took peaceable possession of the whole country, with the exception of the small portion held by Denys, whom he did not disturb. He was doomed, however, never to remain at rest. Le Borgne, a new character, appeared on the scene, claiming as a creditor of Char- nise, and stigmatizing La Tour as a favourer of heresy. Having thus obtained a transference of all his rights, he arrived with an armed force, and in the most violent manner endeavoured to crush at once both the present possessors. He took Denys prisoner, destroyed La Have, burning a chapel which had cost above .£4000; and hav- ing occupied Port Royal, wras preparing to attack La Tour in his last hold on the St John, when a more formidable competitor presented himself.'"' Oliver Cromwell having seized the reins of power in England, declared war against France, and waged it vigorously, with the special view of extending his foreign possessions. In 1654 he despatched an expedition against Nova Scotia, under the command of Major Sedge wick. There was no force, even had it been united, sufficient to resist that officer; so that, after defeating La Tour, * Haliburtoti, vol. i. p. 51-60. 128 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND lie advanced against Port Royal, where Le Borgne by no means made that resistance which had been expected from his previous resolution. He soon yielded the place, and his son, endeavouring to fortify himself at La Have, was made prisoner. La Tour, who always accommodated himself to cir- cumstances, seeing the country in possession of the English, hastened to make his submission, and urged his claim, founded on the transaction between his father and Lord Stirling. He was favourably listened to; and in conjunction with Temple, afterwards Sir Thomas, and William Crowne, persons probably of great interest with the Protector, obtained a grant of the greater part of the country. The former bought up the share of La Tour, spent £16,000 on fortifications, and opened a very advantageous trade and fishery. But all his pro- spects were blasted by the treaty of Breda, concluded by Charles II. in 1667, in virtue of which Nova Scotia was again made over to France. Temple endeavoured to save something by insisting on a distinction between the limits of Nova Scotia and of Acadia; but not being supported by his government, he was obliged to deliver up all.*"" The French thus resumed full possession of the colony, which, in fact, they had almost exclusively occupied, though in a slight and careless manner; for the absence of gold and silver, and even of any rich marketable produce, made it be viewed as a barren and unpromis- ing settlement. A few straggling immigrants stationed themselves from time to time along the coast; and yet, according to an enumeration made about 1680, the whole population did not exceed 900. Even the fishery, the only productive branch, was carried on by the English. A few forts were scattered at wide intervals; but so weak and small, that two of them were taken and plundered by a single piratical vessel of no great force. In this situation, after the breaking out of the war • Haliburton, vol. i. p. 61-65. HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 129 consequent upon the Revolution of 1688, Acadia appear- ed an easy conquest. The achievement was assigned to Massachusetts, the resources of which were hy no means ample; but the commander, Sir William Phipps, con- trived to equip an expedition of 700 men. On the 20th May 1690, he appeared before Port Royal. It soon sur- rendered, on advantageous terms, which Phipps, dis- covering that the place was weaker than he had supposed, did not faithfully observe. He merely dismantled the fortress, and left the country a prey to pirates, by whom it was unmercifully ravaged. The Chevalier Villabon, therefore, who arrived soon after from France, recon- quered it by simply pulling down the English and hoist- ing the French flag. The neighbouring Indians, always partial to his countrymen, were easily induced to join them against the enemy, and aided in capturing the strong frontier fortress of Pemaquid, where these savage warriors were guilty of some of their usual acts of cruelty. The Bostonians, thus roused, sent a body of 500 men un- der Colonel Church, who soon regained the country, with the exception of one fort on the St John. He then called on the Acadians to join him against the Indians, their former allies, and on their refusal, plundered and burned many of their habitations. The situation of these colonists, while passing continually from hand to hand, was truly lamentable. They were naturally and strongly attached to France, their native country; yet the English, after the most slight and partial conquest, claimed of them all the duties of British subjects, and, on failure, inflicted the wonted penalties of rebellion. No attempts were made to wrest the province out of the hands of Britain till the treaty of Ryswick in 1696, when William, having secured his most essential objects, followed the usual policy of allowing the French to resume this dis- tant and little valued possession.* This peace was speedily succeeded in 1702 by the memorable war of the Spanish Succession under Queen * Haliburton, vol. i. p. 66-70. 130 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND Anne. That contest, distinguished in Europe by the victories of Marlborough and other splendid events, was also marked by an increased importance attached to co- lonial acquisitions; while the settlers in North America seemed to feel even more deeply than their countrymen at home the animosity which divided the two nations. The ignorant and extravagant grants made by each party were found, as discovery extended, more and more to clash with each other, and afforded constant pretexts for hostility. The reduction of Nova Scotia was again left to Massachusetts; and she was encouraged to undertake it by the assurance, that what should be gained by arms would not again be sacrificed by treaty. The first expedi- tion, which consisted of 550 men, was despatched in 1704 under Colonel Church, who found little resistance while committing ravages which did honour neither to himself nor his country. Three years afterwards, a force of 1000 soldiers was sent to complete the conquest of the coun- try; but Subercase, the French commandant at Port Royal, conducted the defence of that place with such spirit and ability, that the assailants were twice obliged to raise the siege with considerable loss. The determination of the New Englanders, however, could not be shaken. After two years spent in prepa- ration, they assembled a much larger force, consisting of five regiments, four of them levied in the colony. It was placed under the command of General Nicholson, who arrived at Port Royal on the 24th September 1710, when Subercase, with a garrison of only 260, declining to attempt a vain resistance, obtained an honourable capitulation. The troops marched out with the ho- nours of war, and were conveyed to France. The deed of surrender, signed on the 2d October, forms the era when, after so many vicissitudes, Nova Scotia was per- manently annexed to the British crown.'* The intelligence of this disaster was received at Paris with a regret not before felt on similar occasions; it * Haliburton, vol. i. p. 83-87. HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 131 being clearly foreseen, that if' the country could not he reconquered by force of arms, there was no hope of regain- ing it by treaty. Yet the urgent state of affairs in Europe rendered it impossible to detach from that quarter any considerable expedition; and the governor of Canada was deterred from hostile operations by a threatened in- vasion of his own territory. Overtures were made to the merchants of Roehelle to equip an armament, which would be rewarded by large and profitable establishments on the coast; but they rightly judged that the expense of such an enterprise would be heavy, and the profit doubtful. The English, however, were considerably ha- rassed by risings among the native French and Indians, down to the peace of Utrecht in 1713. Although that treaty did not fulfil all that was expected, it secured to Britain the full sovereignty of Nova Scotia, with the exception of Cape Breton and the other islands in the Gulf of St Lawrence.* General Nicholson, who had conquered the country, was in 1714 appointed governor, and five years after- wards was succeeded by Colonel Phillips. The name of the capital was changed from Port Royal to Annapolis. But though the right of Britain to Nova Scotia was now fully acknowledged, she found it a possession not a little troublesome. Attempts were made to attract settlers both from England and the American colonies ; but, ow- ing to the rigour of the climate and the hostility of the two races by which it was peopled, only a few could be induced to remain in the country. The regular popula- tion at that period, of whom 4000 were males able to bear arms, consisted of Acadians of French descent, zealously attached to their native government, and in deep dismay at being transferred to another. They were, notwithstanding, treated with some share of liberality, being allowed either to leave the country or take the oath of allegiance. The former step, however, would, they found, involve the loss of all their property ; while to the * Haliburton, vol. i. p. 89-92. 132 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND latter they showed the utmost reluctance. As all violent measures were prohibited, the discussion remained for some time in suspense. At length a considerable num- ber took the oath, though with the avowed reservation of not being required to fight against their countrymen. They were not charged with any taxes, and were allowed still to trade with France and her dependencies. The fishery, however, was still chiefly carried on by the New Englanders.* The country was inhabited by another race, who had an earlier and a stronger claim to it. The Indians were beyond measure astonished on being informed that they were subjects of the King of Great Britain, transferred to him by a treaty to which they were not parties. They were always, it is admitted, warmly attached to the French, while they regarded the English with deadly hostility; a circumstance which must give rise to painful suspicions respecting the conduct of our countrymen to- wards this unfortunate race. On their inquiring whether such an arrangement had really been made, the French commanders informed them that they had never been mentioned in the treaty, and consequently were consider- ed an independent people ; while the British maintained that they were as a matter of course made over along with the territory. The Indians set at nought this last conclusion, and carried on a long and desperate war, in which their rapid movements and skill in the arts of sur- prise enabled them to gain many advantages. In 1720 they plundered a large establishment at Canseau, carrying off fish and merchandise to tbe value of £20,000; and in 1723 they captured at the same place seventeen sail of vessels, with numerous prisoners. The British inhabit- ants of Nova Scotia were obliged to solicit the aid of Massachusetts, which in 1728 sent a body of troops against the chief Indian fort on the Kennebeck. It was stormed, the warriors pursued with great slaughter, and Ralle, their Catholic missionary, put to death, it is alleged, * Haliburton, vol. i. p. 92-97. HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 133 with circumstances of great cruelty. The savages were thus for some time overawed, though they only watched an opportunity of renewing hostilities.* After an unusually long peace, the habitual enmity of the two nations broke out in a fresh war, declared by France in March 1744. (Juesnel, governor of Cape Breton, immediately fitted out expeditions which took Canseau, and twice laid siege to Annapolis, but without success. These movements were condemned by the court as premature, and tending to endanger the safety of Louisbourg, which was then ill prepared for defence. That city, well situated for fishing though in a barren country, had been fortified by the French at an expense of £1,200,000, with a view to make it the bulwark of their possessions in North America. It was surrounded by a stone wall, two miles and a half in circuit, and by a ditch eighty feet wide. When, therefore, Shirley, go- vernor of New England, proposed to the council the ex- pediency of reducing it, the plan was at first rejected as visionary; though on reconsideration, it was carried by a single vote. Extraordinary zeal, corresponding to the magnitude of the enterprise, was employed in the prepara- tion ; and yet the force destined against this great fortress, garrisoned by regular troops, consisted entirely of militia and volunteers, hastily levied and led on by Colonel William Pepperal, a gentleman extensively engaged in commerce. Massachusetts furnished 3200 men, Connec- ticut 500, and New Hampshire 300. They were animat- ed with a species of religious enthusiasm, as entering on an anti-papal war. Mr Whitefield, the celebrated me- thodist preacher, furnished a motto, and a chaplain car- ried on his shoulder a hatchet to demolish the images. The army embarked in a number of small vessels, and early in April 1745 arrived at Canseau. Here they were detained three weeks; but the French wrere so little on their guard, that they learned nothing of the presence of an enemy even when in their close vicinity. Applica- • Haliburton, vol. i. p. 101-106. 134 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND tion had been made to Commodore "Warren, then on the West India station, for the assistance of the fleet; but to Shirley's great disappointment, he did not consider him- self authorized to take such a step. This, however, was concealed from the troops; and on their arrival at Can- seau, they were gratified to find the commodore, who, in consequence of subsequent instructions, had come to join them. On the 30th April the English came in view of Louisbourg, and being quite unexpected, easily effected a landing; they even took a battery, and turned the guns against the city. They had, nevertheless, to sustain during a fortnight the laborious task of drawing cannon through a morass, where they were up to the knees in mud, and exposed to the enemy's fire. It was the 28th May before the batteries could be completed, and active operations commenced ; and such was the strength of the place, that the besiegers were repulsed in five successive attacks, in the last of which they lost 189 men. But the works were now considerably damaged, and Warren having captured the Vigilant, a line-of-battle ship, contain- ing 560 men and supplies, Duchambon, the governor, lost courage, and capitulated on the 18th June. On view- ing the strength of the fortress, the victors were perfectly astonished at their success; and the French commander excused himself on account of the mutinous disposition of. his garrison. The achievement was highly creditable to a body of merchants and husbandmen, destitute of either skill or experience in military affairs. The reduction of the island of St John, now Prince Edward, soon followed, and by hoisting the French flag from the captured forts, the colonists decoyed into them a South Sea vessel and two East India ships, the cargoes of which were valued at £600,000.* Extraordinary chagrin was felt by the court of Louis at a disaster for which they must have been little pre- pared. To retrieve it, an expedition was fitted out on so great a scale as to render the American seas for the * Haliburton, vol.• i. p. 107-123. HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 135 first time the main theatre of war. It consisted of seventy ships, including eleven of the line, having on board upwards of 3000 disciplined troops. Being placed under the Duke d'Anville, an officer of great reputation, it was intended first to reduce Louisbourg, then Anna- polis, next Boston, afterwards to range along the whole coast of North America, and finally to visit the West Indies. Early in the summer of 1746, the armament sailed from Brest, and passed unnoticed a British squa- dron placed to observe its motions. Admiral Lestocq left Portsmouth in pursuit, but was repeatedly driven back by contrary winds, and hence the colonies were left to depend on their own resources. Here, however, the good fortune of the French commander terminated. He had a most tedious and tempestuous passage, being ninety days in reaching Chebucto; and by that time four ships of the line were so shattered as to be obliged to return to Europe, while three, sent under Admiral Conflans by the West Indies, had touched at the point of rendezvous, but not finding the fleet, had also set sail homewards. D'Anville, overpowered, it should seem, by distress and disappointment, died suddenly; and Destournelle, the vice-admiral, in a few days became delirious, and ran him- self through the body. In these calamitous circumstances, it was out of the question to attempt Louisbourg; but De la Jonquiere, governor of Canada, having assumed the command, determined to proceed against Annapolis. In rounding Cape Sable, however, he had to sustain a fresh tempest, which so dispersed and injured the remaining ships of the fleet, that they instantly steered for Europe. Thus this mighty armament, which was expected to effect the conquest of all North America, was completely baffled, without striking a blow or meeting an enemy. The colo- nists regarded it as a special interposition of Providence, and celebrated the event by a general thanksgiving. The French, however, were indefatigable. De la Jon- quiere was immediately sent out with thirty-eight sail; but having on his way encountered Admirals Anson and Warren, he was completely defeated, losing a ship of the 136 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND line and six richly laden East Indiamen which he had under convoy. The settlers then could not allow them- selves to doubt, that in the treaty now negotiating, Cape Breton and Louisbourg, so important for the safety as well as compactness of their territory, would be secured to them. But the British ministry, with a view to pre- serve entire the possessions of their ally, the empress queen, and to maintain the balance of power in Europe, agreed to restore these conquests. However sound might be this policy in itself, its result could not fail to prove very mortifying to the American provincials, who had made the acquisition by so brilliant an exertion of cour- age and enterprise.'x" Britain now began to pay more attention to Nova Scotia. Hitherto it had been quite a French country, peopled and cultivated throughout by that hostile nation. It was suggested, that of the large number of soldiers and sailors discharged in consequence of the peace, a part might with great advantage be located as agriculturists, and thereby provide the colony with an English popula- tion. This project was embraced with ardour by the Earl of Halifax, then President of the Board of Trade and Plan- tations. Fifty acres were allowed to every private, with ten additional for each member of his family. A higher allowance was granted to officers, in proportion to their rank, till it amounted to 600 for all above that of cap- tain. By this encouragement, 3760 adventurers, with their families, were induced to embark in May 1749. They were landed, not at Annapolis, but at Chebucto, named henceforth Halifax, after the patron of the ex- pedition. Though situated in a country less fertile and as yet wholly uncultivated, it was considered more fa~ vourable for trade and fishery; and as £40,000 had been voted for the transport of the settlers, they were con- veyed in the most comfortable manner. Yet they could not avoid being somewhat appalled when, on their first arrival, they beheld a scene, grand and beautiful indeed, * Haliburton, vol. i. p. 127-134. HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA, 137 but consisting only of an unbroken immensity of forest, which it was incumbent on them to remove before their possessions could be of any value. The only inhabitants visible were small bands of savages, who glanced on them a jealous and hostile eye, and then fled into the interior. The Honourable Edward Cornwallis, who had been ap- pointed governor, nevertheless inspired the settlers with a spirit of activity and emulation; planks and other materials were procured from New England; and before winter a neat wooden town with spacious and regular streets had been reared. The enforced idleness of that season wTas not a little dangerous to many of the immi- grants. However, a strict police was established; the government was lodged in a council of six, who, uniting the executive with legislative and judicial functions, formed a somewhat arbitrary body; but there were scarcely materials as yet for any other. Parliament con- tinued to support the colony by annual grants, which in 1755 had amounted to the enormous sum of £415,584** Although the settlers seemed thus firmly established, they soon found themselves in an uneasy and difficult position. The Indians made at first some friendly over- tures ; but the influence of their old allies is said to have soon determined them to resume a system of the most active hostility. The English, notwithstanding their military habits, were ill prepared to meet the desultory warfare of enemies who, stealing through the depth of swamps and thickets by paths which none but themselves could tread, appeared, struck the blow, and vanished. They even made attacks upon Halifax; and the colo- nists could not remove from that place singly or in small parties, for extending or improving their settlement, without imminent peril. When made captive, their fate was dreadful—scalping, torture, and death ; or if spared, they were dragged by long marches through trackless forests, sufferingintolerable hardships. Many were carried to Louisbourg, where they were purchased as an article * Haliburton, vol. i. p. 135-142. 138 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND of merchandise. The French professed themselves ac- tuated solely by a wish to save them from the dread- ful fate that otherwise awaited them; yet these tender feelings, it was observed, never prevented them from extorting most exorbitant ransoms. There is great rea- son to believe, that no means were employed to conciliate this unfortunate and injured race. It was determined to treat them, not as regular enemies, but as traitors and rebels; and that they might be rivalled in barbarity, a price was put upon Indian scalps. Another circumstance "which placed the colony in an uneasy situation, was the boundary contests with France. The government of Louis contended, that the British dominion extended only, as the name of Nova Scotia now does, over the peninsula separated from the continent by the Bays of Fundy and Chignecto; while, according to the English, it reached from the St Croix to the St Law- rence, and thus included all that large and fine country now named New Brunswick. As the question has been long since settled by conquest and treaty, it is needless to enter into the arguments adduced by both parties; but each at the time maintained them with the utmost pertinacity. The French, in support of theirs, sent detachments which, aided by strong bodies of Indians and a few Acadians, erected the fort of Beau Sejour on the neck of the peninsula, and another on the river St John. The governor hereupon sent Major Lawrence with a detachment of troops to dislodge them from the former position ; but finding it too strong, he retired; and on his return with augmented force, was only able to drive in the outposts, and erect a counter-fort to keep the adversary in check. The court of St James's made loud complaints touching these encroachments; while that of Paris, unwilling as yet to commit itself in open hostility, dismissed a few English prisoners, and made a vague promise of sending instructions to the governor of New France to abstain from every offensive step. Hostile feelings, however, continued to ferment, and fresh causes of dissension arose, till, in April 1755, Admiral Bos- HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 139 cawcn commenced the war by capturing several vessels on the coast of Newfoundland. Hostilities having thus begun, a force was immediately fitted out from New England, under Lieutenant-colonel Monckton,to dislodge the enemy from their newly erected forts. That officer landed on the 4th June, and having forced a strong intrenchment, invested Beau Scjour. which was carried hy mere bombardment in four days, the garrison being allowed to retire to Louisbourg. He reduced with still greater ease another stronghold in which they had placed their chief magazine, and thence sent a squadron to the post on the St John, which was found abandoned.* The campaign had thus opened with complete suc- cess; but in other quarters its events were much less auspicious. General Braddock having been sent at the head of a strong force to invade Canada, was defeated with the almost entire loss of his army. In Europe, too, the war began unfavourably; while the powerful reinforce- ments sent by the French to Louisbourg and other posts in America, gave much reason to apprehend an invasion of Nova Scotia, where they would find a friendly popu- lation, both European and Indian. These circumstances certainly placed the government there in a critical situa- tion, and afforded a slight palliation of the inhuman step upon which they determined. The Acadians, as the French settlers were called, amounted at that period to 17,000 or 18,000. They had cultivated a con- siderable extent of land, possessed about 60,000 head of cattle, and lived in a state of simple plenty. They were a peaceful, industrious, and amiable race, almost exactly similar to the habitans of Canada, whom we have already described. They made no secret of the deep attachment which they still cherished for their native country, and had resisted every invitation to bear arms against it. A few individuals had joined the In- dians, and about 300 were taken in the forts, all of whom, on account of alleviating circumstances, had ob- * Haliburton, vol. i. p. 142-168. 140 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND tained pardon. But these were only exceptions; the great body of the Acadians remained tranquilly occu- pied in the cultivation of their lands. Yet in a coun- cil held on the subject, Admirals Boscawen and Mostyn, with Governor Lawrence, formed the ruthless determina- tion to tear the whole of this people from their homes, and scatter them through the different provinces of Ame- rica. Their lands, houses, and cattle, were, without any alleged crime, declared to be forfeited; and they were only allowed to carry with them their money and house- hold furniture, both of extremely small amount. Trea- chery was necessary to render this tyrannical scheme effective. The natives of each district were commanded to meet at a certain place and day on urgent business, the nature of which was carefully concealed; and when they were all assembled, the dreadful mandate was pro- nounced, small parties of them only being allowed to re- turn for a short time to make the necessary preparations. They appear to have listened to their doom with unex- pected resignation, making only mournful and solemn appeals, which were wholly disregarded. When, how- ever, the moment of embarkation arrived, the young men, who were placed in front, absolutely refused to move; and it required files of soldiers with fixed bayo- nets, to secure obedience. No arrangements had been made for their location elsewhere, nor was any compen- sation offered for the large property of which they were now deprived. They were merely thrown on the coast at different points, and compelled to trust to the charity of the inhabitants, who did not allow any of them to be absolutely starved. The Pennsylvanians had the modes- ty to propose that they should be provided for by being sold as slaves; but they made such loud and just remon- strances that this iniquity was not carried into effect. Still, through hardship, distress, and change of climate, a great proportion of them perished. So eager was their desire to return, that those sent to Georgia had set out, and actually reached New York, when they were arrested. They addressed, a pathetic representation to the English HISTORY OP NOVA SCOTIA. 241 government, in which, quoting the most solemn treaties and declarations, they proved that their treatment had been as faithless as it was cruel. No attention, however, was paid to this document, which, we should be glad to believe, never reached Lord Chatham. Notwithstanding the barbarous diligence with which tins mandate was executed, it is not supposed that the number actually deported exceeded 7000. The rest fled into the depth of the forests, or to the nearest French settlements, enduring incredible hardships. To guard against the return of the hapless fugitives, the govern- ment reduced to ashes their habitations and property, laying waste even their own lands with a fury exceed- ing that of the most savage enemy. In one district, 263 houses were at once in a blaze. The Acadians, from the heart of the woods, beheld all they possessed con- signed to destruction; yet they made no movement till the devastators wantonly set their chapel on fire. They then rushed forward in desperation, killed about thirty of the incendiaries, and then hastened back to their hiding place.* We turn now to a more pleasing theme. The reverses sustained at the commencement of hostilities roused an extraordinary spirit in the nation. This was most fully seconded by William Pitt, who, elevated by the public voice to the helm of affairs, began hi 1757 his splendid ministerial career. He imniediatety prepared to carry on the war with the utmost vigour; and as colonial rivalry between Britain and France was then at its height, North America became its main theatre. Early in 1757, an army of about 5000 men from England, and 6000 from New York, had been assembled at Halifax under Lord Lou- doun, with a view to attack Louisbourg; but the ac- counts, seemingly exaggerated, of the great force assem- bled at that place, deterred him from making the attempt. The enemy meantime took advantage of this concentra- tion of the English, to obtain possession of Lakes Cham- plain and George, and of all the country in their vicinity. ^Halliburton, vol. i. p. 171-398. VOL, II. I 142 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND Pitt, immediately on his accession to power, wrote circular letters to the colonies, urging them to the most vigorous exertion, and promising active co-operation from the mother-country. Early in the following year, Admiral Boscawen went out with a powerful fleet and an army under Major-general Amherst. The provincials also did their duty; and in May 1758 an armament of 150 sail and 14,000 troops were assembled at Halifax, whence they took their departure on the 28th of that month, and on the 2d June anchored near Louisbourg. That place was defended by nearly 8000 men, six ships of the line and five frigates, three of which were sunk at the mouth of the harbour, with the view of blocking up its entrance. Amherst had under him Generals Law- rence and Whitmore; but Wolfe, though in a subordi- nate station, was already selected as the man who was to undertake the most arduous services. While the two former made only a show of landing, the real attack in another quarter was intrusted to him. His troops were very much exposed; and the enemy, reserving their fire till the English were near the shore, opened on them a most tremendous discharge of cannon and musketry, which did great execution, and sunk a number of the boats. The soldiers, however, cheered and animated by their brave commander, pushed forward, gained the beach, and soon drove their antagonists before them. The stores and artillery were then landed; and the next object was to occupy a post whence the fortress could be most advantageously assailed. Wolfe, with 2000 men, attack- ed and quickly carried it; upon which strong batteries were immediately erected, and opened with powerful effect. Steady and regular approaches were now made, and the walls began to be seriously damaged. A striking accident at this crisis favoured the Briiish. One of the largest of the enemy's ships blew up with a dreadful ex- plosion; and the flame was speedily communicated to two others, which were in a short time completely re- duced to ashes. Admiral Boscawen then employed a flotilla of boats with 600 men to enter the harbour, and HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 143 attack two ships of the line stationed there. This daring enterprise completely succeeded; one of the vessels was driven ashore and destroyed ; the other was brought out in triumph, under the fire of the batteries. The loss in this gallant exploit was only sixteen killed and wounded. The French commander seeing the fleet annihilated, the harbour in possession of the assailants, and several breaches in the walls, considered it impossible to protract the de- fence. He proposed a capitulation, which was agreed to and signed on the 26th of July 1758, by which himself and his whole garrison surrendered as prisoners of war.* Immediately after this success, a detachment of troops under Lieutenant-colonel Lord Rollo took possession of St John's Island; and above 4000 Acadians who were found there instantly proffered their submission. The succeeding campaign was directed entirely against Cana- da; and, by a brilliant union of skill and valour, it terminated, as already related, in the complete conquest of that country. Nova Scotia suffered nothing from the war farther than a groundless panic excited in 1761 by the landing and partial success of some French troops in Newfoundland. But so great was the alarm, that th e go- vernment ordered the small remnant of the Acadians to be collected and shipped off for Massachusetts. The people of that colony, however, positively refused to incur any addition to the heavy expense already sustained through these unfortunate exiles; and the* ships were obliged to convey them back to Halifax. On the 3d November 1762, the preliminary treaty was signed, and the definitive peace was concluded at Paris on the 10th February 1763. Although its terms did not in every respect satisfy the nation, yet in regard to North Ame- rica, France was compelled to transfer to her victorious rival all her possessions on that continent.t Meantime the best efforts of the government were used to extend the progress of cultivation and settlement, * Halilmrton, vd. i. p. 202-206. + Ibid. vol. i. pp. 240,241. 144 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND though all they could do was insufficient to fill up the dreadful blank which they themselves had made. Even before the war, a very considerable body of Germans had been induced, through liberal promises from George II., to emigrate to Nova Scotia; and on their arrival at Halifax they were, to the number of 1453, transported to a place named from their country Lunenburg, where lands were assigned to them. Though, like the other colonists, they had long and severe contests with the Indians, in the course of some years they brought their establishment into a flourishing condition. As soon as the triumphant issue of the war in Canada admitted of the disbanding of a considerable part of the military force, the British ministry wished to locate them on the cultivated lands from which the Acadians had been ex- pelled. Governor Lawrence, however, objected in the strongest terms to this plan, urging that it would be attended with great expense, and that they would form of all others the least steady and useful settlers. He thought it wiser to circulate proposals in the agricultural colonies, as well as the mother-country, offering 100 acres to every head of a family, with 50 additional to each of its other members. In return, they were only re- quired, after the expiry of a certain period, to pay a quit- rent of Is. per acre, and to enclose and bring under cul- tivation a third-part every ten years; so that the whole might be completed in thirty. Every protestant sect was allowed full liberty of conscience, with freedom from every tax for supporting the established church; but no license was given to papists. These offers were favourably received. Boston furnished 200 emigrants, Rhode Island 100, New London 100, and Plymouth 180; in all, 580. Ireland also sent 200; and from that coun- try there came a continued succession of settlers, though the influx from New England was by no means sup- ported at its original rate. After the peace, the case of the Acadians naturally came under the view of government. Not the slightest advantage had been derived from their barbarous treat- HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 145 ment, as the country had never become the theatre of war; and there remained no longer a pretext for con- tinuing the persecution. Yet Governor Wilmot had the inhumanity to propose, that they should be sent to the West Indies, where death probably would soon have freed their masters from any farther trouble. The admi- nistration at home, with a more equitable spirit, allowed them to return, and to receive lands on taking the cus- tomary oaths. This act of justice, however, was as im- perfect as tardy ; since they received neither the property of which they had been plundered, nor any compensa- tion. Nevertheless, a considerable number did return; though in 1772 the whole body was found to be only 2100; and of these 800 belonging to Cape Breton were probably original settlers on that island or refugees to it. Thirteen hundred, then, were the poor remains of 17,000 or 18,000 who had composed this once flourishing colony; and yet, though left with nothing but their own industry, they have brought themselves into as thriving a state as before. The number of English inhabitants in that year was reported to the Board of Trade at 17,000, making in all 18,300. Before the war, however, the French alone were estimated at that amount, exclusive of the British population, who must have been 6000 or 7000; so that Nova Scotia had not yet recovered to the full extent the loss occasioned by the expulsion of so many of her people.* It may be proper to mention, that some time before the taking of Louisbourg, Governor Lawrence had formed the resolution of granting to the colony the boon of a representative Assembly. The qualification was the pos- session of a freehold; the original number of members was twenty-two; but provision was made for admitting the smaller townships, and those to be afterwards erected. The House of Assembly, thus constituted, met at Halifax on the 2d October 1758, when certain complimentary speeches and addresses were exchanged between them * Haliburton, vol. i. pp. 219-223, 234, 235, 243, 244, 250. 146 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AN© and the governor. Two measures suggested by him were, however, passed over without notice; one to pro- vide for the expense of the local government; the other to confirm the previous legislative acts of the council, leaving room for addition and amendment. Disputes soon arose with that body as to the forms of procedure, which they insisted should not be servilely copied from the British Parliament, and not conducted in the French language. They then proceeded to the unwelcome mea- sure of demanding a list of all fees received in the various d epartments of government. This was conceded in every instance, except those of the Admiralty, as being exacted under the sanction of the Board in Eng- land. The Assembly, however, voted this refusal to be a high contempt of their privileges, and expressed their belief that it arose from the interest which certain mem- bers of the council had in those fees, which they insisted were most exorbitant. But the executive authority did not yield. The Assembly also passed a bill disqualifying persons enjoying situations of emolument under govern- ment from sitting in either house; but this measure, aimed directly at the council, was negatived by them. Notwithstanding these dissensions, a considerable number of useful laws were passed by mutual consent.* In 1761, the British placed themselves for the first time in amicable relations with the Indian tribes. A treaty was concluded with Argimault, chief of the Mon- guash, at the " great talk" leading to which, both the legislative bodies, as well as the magistrates and public officers, were present. The natives agreed finally to bury the hatchet, and to accept George III., instead of the king formerly owned by them, as their great father and friend. The president boasted of the lenity with which they had been treated; and, whatever may have formerly taken place, there was now a sincere desire to follow a conciliatory course. As complaints against the traders, by whom they seem to have been overreached, * Haliburton, vol. i. pp. 209-218. HISTORY OP NOVA SCOTIA. 147 had formed the chief excitement to vindictive measures, government determined to take this traffic into their own hands. Officers were appointed for its manage- ment, and by agreement with the chiefs, prices were affixed to the different descriptions of furs. This arrange- ment, however, was liable to many objections, and has not been persevered in.* Britain, with regard to her hold on that country, was placed in a critical situation during the long and ardu- ous contest which issued in the independence of her older colonies. The apprehensions from this source, how- ever, proved happily unfounded. The stamp act in 1765, and the tea-duties in 1767, were both submitted to without opposition. The circular letter of the Mas- sachusetts Assembly in 1768 was sent to that of Nova Scotia, but, through the influence of the governor, no notice was taken of it. In 1770 a considerable fer- ment appears to have prevailed, since by a resolution of the public authorities, "town meetings for discussing questions relating to law and government" were de- clared illegal, and prosecutions threatened against such as should attend them. In 1775, when hostilities actually broke out, an unfortunate altercation arose between the governor and Assembly. The former, remarking on the inconvenience occasioned by the frequent absence of the members, proposed to obviate it by reducing the quorum from twelve to nine, and making four new ones for the town and county of Halifax; but the House indignantly repelled the suggestion as replete with mischief and sub- versive of real representation, since with a dependent council and the majority of such a quorum, his excellency /would possess a power completely dictatorial. The measure was not persisted in, and the colony displayed on the whole a spirit decidedly loyal. A declaration of attachment to government and determination to defend it was numerously signed; several companies of militia were called into active service; and measures were * Haliburton, vol. i. p. 230-234. 148 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND taken to raise a complete regiment. To conciliate the Acadians, it was resolved to employ them uniformly as couriers, paying them at a liberal rate, and a small corps of them was embodied for the general defence. The United Americans, however, having apparently overrun the greater part of New Brunswick, attempted hostile operations against Nova Scotia, both by the peninsula and the St John; and in September 1775 they burned the fort at the mouth of that river. Next year they induced the Indians in the same quarter to agree to furnish 600 warriors; but Mr Michael Francklin prevailed on the latter to withdraw from this engage- ment, and to conclude a treaty of peace with England. In 1779 that people again assembled on the river in great numbers, and in a menacing attitude; but they were appeased by promises of presents; and this was the last threat of an Indian war.* During the same period attempts were made against the fort of Cumberland, which commands the peninsula at the head of the basin of that name. The Americans were joined by some malecontents, and disaffection appears to have spread through the surrounding territories. The people in the districts of Truro, Onslow, and London- derry, having been called upon to take the oath of alle- giance, all refused except five, and their deputies were in consequence excluded from the House of Assembly. No serious rising, however, took place. Two whale- boats, despatched by the Americans in November 1777, carried off a valuable ship out of the harbour of Pictou; but they were beaten and the vessel retaken by Lieu- tenant Keppel. For some time after the year 1772 the colony did not advance, but rather declined,—a circumstance which has been ascribed to unfortunate speculations in land. The population in 1781 was estimated not to exceed 12,000. The termination, however, in 1783, of the American war, separating from Britain all the more southern colonies, * M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 48,49. Haliburton, vol. i. p. 244-259. HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 149 produced a prodigious influx of refugees. The num- ber who arrived prior to September was reckoned at 18,000, and 2000 more landed in the following month. Many of these new citizens possessed considerable pro- perty, as well as regular and industrious habits; so that they formed a most important acquisition. Several ad- ditional townships were erected; Shelburne, before al- most entirely deserted, rapidly acquired upwards of 10,000 inhabitants; emigrants from Nantucket esta- blished a whale-fishery at Dartmouth; while saw and grist mills were established in various parts of the pro- vince. A considerable proportion of these settlers di- rected their course to the region beyond the peninsula, which, thereby acquiring a great increase of importance, was in 1784 erected into a distinct government under the title of New Brunswick. Cape Breton was also separated from Nova Scotia, where considerable dissatis- faction was felt at its jurisdiction being so much reduced. Still the population of the province, as stated by Gover- nor Parr, in the year just mentioned, was 20,400; and in this very imperfect estimate, while Halifax was only rated at 1200, Lunenburg and Liverpool were altogether omitted; so that the whole number could scarcely have fallen short of 30,000. * Nova Scotia, during the following years, presented few of those vicissitudes which afford materials for his- tory; but she made continued advances under a succes- sion of popular governors. In 1785 her increased im- portance was acknowledged by the establishment of a regular line of packets between Falmouth and Halifax. In 1787, on the recommendation of the government at home, the Assembly brought under review the means of diffusing education; and an academy, aiterwards convert- ed into a college, was founded and endowed at Windsor. The only serious cause of discontent appears to have been the conduct of the supreme judges, whom the As- sembly, from 1788 to 1790, first complained of, and then * Halibuiton, vol. ii. p. 259-265. M'Gre^or, vol. ii. p. 50. 150 GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND impeached. Their measures, however, were opposed by the local council; and the matter, being finalty re- ferred to his majesty, seems to have ended without any practical result. The colonists appear to have been highly delighted by a visit in 1787 from his late majesty when an officer in the navy, and afterwards by the re- sidence for some years in a military command of Prince Edward, duke of Kent, father to the reigning queen. The latter, on leaving the colony, was presented with a grati- fying testimony of the esteem in which he was held.* In 1792, Governor Parr, after being ten years in office, was succeeded by John Wentworth, created a baronet in 1795, and who gave equal satisfaction. The long war with France, which broke out in 1793, conferred much additional importance on the country, through the great value of Halifax as a naval station. Having become the rendezvous of the fleets employed in America, many rich prizes were brought into its port; and this favour- able state of things was scarcely at all interrupted during the short interval of peace which followed the treaty of Amiens. Nothing worth notice appears to have occurred till 1808, when Sir John Wentworth was succeeded by Sir George Prevost. This governor is considered as having done a good deal to improve the colony, by opening- roads, encouraging industry, founding schools, and plac- ing the militia on a better footing. In 1808-9, he was absent about five months assisting in the capture of Mar- tinique. Being promoted in 1811 to the government of Canada, he was succeeded by Sir John Coape Sher- brooke, also considered an able ruler.t The war with the United States, which broke out in 1812, materially advanced the prosperity of Nova Scotia. Halifax, as a naval station, became more important than ever; numerous prizes were carried in, by the sale of which large fortunes were made. This, no doubt, was a * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 266-270. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 51. -|- Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 271-289. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 52. HISTORY OP NOVA SCOTIA. 151 somewhat ephemeral source of wealth, and was followed by a severe reverse; yet the property therehy acquired was afterwards invested in more permanent objects. Scarcely any of the evils of war were felt, the government of Maine having expressed a wish to observe neutrality on the New Brunswick frontier, a proposal which was readily acceded to ; so that though the militia were order- ed to hold themselves in readiness, their services were not required. In August and September 1814 an expe- dition was sent against the American coast, which, without bloodshed, took the fort of Castine on the Pe- nobscot, and reduced an extent of 100 miles along the sea border. All this, however, was restored at the peace.* In December of the same year the war, with its tem- porary advantages to this country, was terminated by the treaty of Ghent. In 1816, Sir J. C. Sherbrooke was transferred to the government of Canada, when the legis- lature voted £1000 to present him with a sword. His place in Nova Scotia was filled by theEarlofDalhousie, who proved also extremely popular. The foundation of the college bearing his name, and of a central board for the promotion of agriculture, distinguished his adminis- tration. Being in 1820 promoted to Quebec, his duties were confided to Sir James Kempt, under whose rule the people still considered themselves happy.t In 1828, he was, in the usual course of service, raised to the government of Canada, and his office filled by Sir Pere- grine Maitland. That gentleman, after governing six years, was succeeded by Sir Colin Campbell, a distin- guished companion in arms of the Duke of Wellington. Under these governors, the country has continued steadily to advance in wealth and prosperity. Some discontents have lately been expressed as to the composition of the council; but the demands on this subject have been, to a great extent, complied with ; and the people have displayed the most decided loyalty, on occasion of the late Canadian disturbances. * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 295. M'Greg-or, vol. ii. pp. 54, I f Haliburton, vol. ii. pp. 296, 299, 303. 152 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION CHAPTER VL Topographical Description of Nova Scotia. General Divisions—Country on the Atlantic—District of Halifax— City—Dartmouth—Northern Part of Halifax District—South- western—Lunenburg—La Have—Queen's County—Liverpool— Shelburne—Argyle and Yarmouth—Territory on the Bay of Fundy — Annapolis County—The Acadians—Digby—Annapo- lis Township—Bridgetown—Basin of Minas—King's County— Hants—Windsor—District of Colchester—Truro—Bay of Chig- necto—Minudie—Country on Northumberland Strait and the Gut of Canseau—Cumberland County—Township of Wallace— Pictou District—Town—County of Sydney—Dorchester—Guys- borough—Cape Breton—Extent and Situation—Appearance of the Country—Climate—Population—Coal District—Town of Sydney—Island of Scatari—Ruins of Louisbourg—Arichat— Port Hood—Cheticamp—Island of St Paul—Bay of St Anne- Bras d'Or—Settlements on its Coasts. The territory of Nova Scotia naturally divides itself into three grand portions, each possessing a distinctive and peculiar character, to which we shall adhere in prefer- ence to the more artificial divisions. These are, 1. The territory on the Atlantic ; 2, That on the Bay of Fundy and its branches ; and, 3, The north-eastern coast, watered by channels connected with the St Lawrence. The country on the Atlantic consists of the district of Halifax, the counties of Lunenburg, Queen's, and Shel- burne. Its general character, as already described, is broken, bleak, rocky, and naked, diversified only by a very few patches of rich ground very well cultivated. On the other hand, its happy position, projecting as it were from the rest of the continent, and its admirable har- bours, afford advantages for fishery and foreign trade, scarcely equalled in that part of the world. These cir- cumstances attracted, in the first instance, numerous OF NOVA SCOTIA. 153 bodies of immigrants, though many of them, on experi- ence of its ungrateful soil, have removed elsewhere. Still the facilities presented for trade and the pursuits of in- dustry have bestowed upon it a metropolitan character, and supplied the inducements which have drawn thither one-half of the population. Of this division the most important part is occupied by the district of Halifax. It forms the north-eastern por- tion of the coast, and exactly corresponds with its general character, going somewhat beyond the others in its ste- rility, in the excellence of its harbours, and the advantage of its situation. It has no considerable stream communi- cating with the interior; but this defect is supplied by a canal which, reaching from the capital to the river Shu- benacadie falling into Cobequid Bay, thus forms a com- munication directly across the country, bringing into the town the produce of some of the finest tracts. The districts of Pictou and Colchester rank as part of the county just named; but, belonging in situation and de- scription entirely to the second and third divisions, they will be noticed under these heads. The city of Halifax, the capital of this country, and the third town in British America, is situated on one of the best of the fine harbours with which this coast abounds. A bay about sixteen miles deep, is narrowed near the middle by an island, above which it spreads into the broad expanse of the Bedford Basin, containing ten square miles, and capable of accommodating a thousand vessels of the largest size. This advantage, and its greater proximity to Europe, led as we have seen to the esta- blishment there in 1749 of the first English colony. The disadvantages of soil were overlooked; and great efforts were employed to draw from it a supply at least of the first necessaries of life. . The removal of the trees, how- ever, served to expose the thin sprinkling of earth which covered the rocky surface. The attempt was for some time given up, and the place became dependent, even for hay, upon Massachusetts. Since that period, by bounties and other encouragements, the greater part of the land in the vicinity has been forced into cultivation. 154 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION The fine expanse of water, the high shores, and the re- mains of the original forests which crown every height, render the approach to Halifax very pleasing and pictur- esque. On closer observation, however, the barren sod and stunted trees are found to give a monotonous cha- racter to the scene. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, this town has enjoyed no small degree of prosperity. Its advance, it is true, has been chiefly in recent times, since in 1790, forty years after 5000 emigrants had settled in the district, it con- tained only 4000 individuals, inhabiting 700 houses. It experienced a great increase during the last war, when, as already mentioned, it became a principal naval and military station; all the prizes taken from the enemy being brought in and sold there, and a great contraband trade carried on. The peace, which withdrew these means of wealth, produced at first a serious reaction. The spirit of commercial enterprise, however, soon ral- lied; in 1817, it was declared a free port, and has since obtained the privilege of warehousing. Its merchants have been distinguished by so much steadiness and pru- dence, that in eight years there occurred only one bank- ruptcy. It has thus become an important depot, and has attracted to itself the greater part of the trade of Nova Scotia. The number of houses, which in 1817 was 1200, had increased in 1828 to 1580, containing a population of 14,439. In that year, the imports amounted to £733,000, while the exports were valued at £247,000; and there belonged to the place no fewer than seventy-three square- rigged vessels, and seventy-seven schooners. The manu- factures are as yet on a small scale, and confined to articles of immediate consumption; consisting chiefly of soap, candles, leather, snuff, rum, gin, whisky, porter, and ale. Halifax is built on the south-western side of the bay, and on the declivity of a hill rising from the sea to the height of about 250 feet. Wood is the prevailing material, there being, ten years ago, only eighteen public and fifty- five private buildings of stone; and of brick, not quite forty. Eight streets extend through the centre, crossed '''Iillllliiilllf'" g$te$ Ml •'ijI'-I'VliJ-l1 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 157 by fifteen others. The town, which is about two miles in length and half a mile in breadth, has been greatly im- proved in consequence of extensive conflagrations, which, consuming large portions of it, made way for better and more regular buildings. The streets are now generally spacious, the principal one well paved, and the others macadamized. The houses, indeed, are extremely un- equal as to form and height; but many are handsome, even the wooden ones being often neatly finished and painted white. The Province Building, erected for the accommodation of the government offices, is generally described as the most splendid in all North America. This must of course be understood in a qualified sense, when compared especially with those in the United States. It appears, however, to be really an elegant structure; 140 feet long, 70 broad, and 42 in height, adorned with a colonnade of the Ionic order ; and is constructed of fine brown freestone, carefully hewn and polished. Dalhousie College is a handsome edifice of the same material-; though unfortunately not ytt efficient as a seat of edu- cation. The Catholic chapel, likewise constructed of stone, is spacious and well built; the other places of worship, of wdiich two belong to the church of England, two to the Presbyterians, and four to other denominations, aim at convenience rather than ornament. Along the shore are large and commodious wharfs, and an excellent dock-yard, covering fourteen acres, and forming the chief depot of naval stores in the British colonies. The society of Halifax is described as more completely English than that of any other American town. The officers of government, the numerous body of military, and the great merchants connected with the mother-country, form so large a proportion as decidedly to establish this character. The British visiter at a convivial party almost forgets that he is not at home. The gentlemen are said to be uncommonly well educated and intelligent; the ladies handsome and agreeable. An intense interest is felt with regard to arrivals from Europe ; and the naval and military officer is welcomed with a degree of hos- VOL. II, K 158 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION pitality which, though attended with some danger to his steadiness, makes him usually prefer this to any other transatlantic station. On walking out into the street, however, a scene quite peculiar is presented. Tall lank husbandmen, with light blue jackets and trousers, straw hats, and Wellington boots, are seen driving wagons of hay from the neighbourhood. Troops of wretched negroes, the men and boys half naked, the women in tawdry colours, expose for sale wild fruits and brooms. An Acadian and his wife, in their neat national costume, traffic in the produce of their dairy. A few strange-look- ing beings, the aborigines of the land, loll basking in the sun; while others of the same class are indolently hold- ing in their hands, as if for sale, baskets and trinkets worked with beads. These are contrasted by the brilliant naval and military uniforms, and the gay attire of the European fashionables. Instead of heavy wagons with powerful horses, goods are conveyed on a machine called a truck, forming a species of inclined plane, drawn by an ill-conditioned animal. Though there seems to be a prejudice against walking, four-wheeled carriages are little used, and hackney coaches not at all. The streets are filled with gigs, cabriolets, or light sledges, often driven by their owners. The markets are excellently supplied with meat, vegetables, and, above all, with fish of various kinds and at very moderate prices.* On the north-eastern side of the great bay composing the harbour, lies the township of Dartmouth, which en- joys a soil considerably less steril, and contains some very productive spots, carefully cultivated by industrious Ger- mans. The territory is traversed by a chain of small lakes, which have been advantageously employed as part of the Shubenacadie canal navigation. The town itself lies di- rectly opposite to Halifax, about a mile distant, whence a constant intercourse is carried on by means of a steam- vessel. This place has passed through many vicissitudes. Founded in 1750, it was destroyed six years afterwards by * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 10-19. Bouchette, vol. ii. p. 13-15. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 72-86. Moorsom, pp. 9,10, 29-32. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 159 the Indians, with every circumstance of the most merci- less cruelty. No attempt was made to restore it till 1784, when, as formerly mentioned, a number of families were induced to come from Nantucket, and establish a whale- fishery. They carried on the trade with activity and success till 1792, when they suffered severely by the failure of a great house in Halifax; and receiving very tempting offers from Milford in South Wales, they quitted the country and repaired thither. The town again experienced a revival during the last American war, when numerous prizes were brought into its harbour; but this ended at the peace. Yet it has since been rather advanc- ing, though it has in no degree rivalled Halifax, the po- pulation of the whole township in 1827 being only 1070.* The part of the county of Halifax which extends hence about 100 miles to the border of that of Sydney, ex- hibits very decidedly the general character of this coast; numerous rocky bays forming excellent harbours, but the soil rugged and stubborn in a degree almost unequal- led. Still there are the usual strips of intervale along the rivers, and fertile patches at the head of the bays, which, with small fishing-stations, support a scant}' po- pulation. The coast for about twelve miles adjoining Dartmouth has been formed into the township of Law- rencetown, and the country behind into that of Preston. Here, in 1784, was formed a settlement chiefly of free negroes, who showed an unusual degree of industry; but the agents of the African Company somewhat in- judiciously induced them to remove to Sierra Leone, where many fell victims to the climate. The remain- der of the tract has not yet been thought worthy of being formed into townships. Yet the Musquedoboit, which falls into the sea near the boundary of Lawrence- town, is a fine river, having on its banks some noble timber, and several thriving settlements, the population of which exceeds 1300. A few miles farther on is * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 25-27. Bouchette, vol. ii. pp. 15, 20. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 93,94. 100 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION Jeddore Bay, which forms a very capacious harbour, but being obstructed by mud shoals, can be entered only at Jo w water, when these become visible, and there remain still channels deep enough for the largest ships. About forty miles beyond is Knowles Harbour, which receives the Charles, a considerable river, from a chain of lakes. Here a fleet of large vessels may lie in safe anchorage, with a good bottom; and the surrounding shores abound with various descriptions of line timber.* We return now to the territory south-west of Hali- fax, which, with the county, extends to the other side of St Margaret's Bay, a deep and spacious inlet, about twenty miles distant from that which forms the harbour of the capital. This coast bears not merely the usual rocky aspect, but has been rendered exceedingly desolate by a dreadful conflagration, which at an early period stripped it of the extensive forests with which it was covered. It has, however, the usual proportion of good harbours, on each of which is a small fishing village. That of Sambro, being peculiarly safe and commodious, is much resorted to by coasters. St Margaret's affords not only plentiful accommodation for shipping, particu- larly at Head Harbour, but has a border of tolerably fertile land, which, since 1783, has been successfully cultivated by French and German settlers. The county of Lunenburg extends about forty miles south-west from that of Halifax. The appearance of the coast is extremely various, and comprises three large bays, Mahone, Lunenburg, and La Have ; the first of which is the most spacious, extending ten miles by twelve, and containing about 200 small islands. These, which are verdant and finely wooded, together with the winding shores, and the lofty cliff of Aspatagoen, unite to form a landscape that, for picturesque grandeur, is said not to be surpassed in America. Gold River, a stream of some magnitude, flows in from the interior. The bay of La Have is also very extensive, guarded on the sea side by * Bouchette, vol. ii. p. 16. Halihurton, vol. ii. p. 29-33. OP NOYA SCOTIA* 161 two large islands, and diversified within by several smaller ones. A river of the same name falls into it, be- ing navigable fifteen miles up, and broken above by two considerable falls. The chief settlement, however, bearing the name of the county, is in the middle and smaller bay divided into several branches. It was called Merliguesh till 1751, when the settlement of Germans was formed. Emigrants were attracted from among that people by liberal pro- mises; so that during three years no fewer than 16L5 were landed at Halifax. They were struck with dismay at the sight of the barren coast to which the}'- had been invited; but it was then too late to retreat. On the 7th June 1753, there arrived at the spot now called Lunen- burg, 1453 persons, who, having had land assigned to them, were required immediately to erect dwellings. The dreary aspect of the place, however, and the attacks of the Indians, excited such discontent that they em- ployed the arms given to them for the purpose of de- fence, in exciting an insurrection, which was with diffi- culty suppressed. The colonists then received a supply of hogs, sheep, and cattle, hi certain proportions, and after 1754 were required to provide for their own sub- sistence. But this was altogether beyond their power, at a time when they could not stir from the town without peril of death and torture; and though a high price was offered for Indian scalps, they earned very few premiums at the expense of their savage neighbours. Little progress was made in the improvement of their lands, which were comparatively fertile, till the treaty with the natives in 1760, when they began to cultivate them with such industry, that they were soon able to supply provisions to the British fleets as well as to Halifax. They sus- tained, however, a severe reverse in 1782, when a squa- dron of American privateers surprised the place, and de- stroyed or carried off property to the value of £12,000. Yet they recovered from this blow, and derived benefits from the last war with the United States. After a temporary depression at the cessation of hostilities, 162 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION Lunenburg continued to advance, and in 1828 contained upwards of 200 dwelling-houses built on a regular plan, with four churches, twenty-two stores, a court-house, and jail. It trades with the West Indies, Newfoundland, and Canada, having owned, in 1833,180 vessels of the burden of 9000 tons; its exports amounted to £22,000, and its imports to £18,000. About 20,000 quintals of fish are exported, nearly a third being procured from the coast, and the remainder from Newfoundland and Labrador. The inhabitants continue to live in the old German style, in houses somewhat clumsy, having the outside of the walls painted of various colours. Within are to be seen strong old-fashioned furniture, Dutch clocks, look- ing-glasses, stiff old pictures, mixed with English carpets and curtains. The stove and the double feather-bed are found extremely comfortable in this climate. They are an industrious, honest, and useful race, though their obstinate adherence to the German language excludes them in a great degree from the means of extending their information. The population of the township is 5038. Mahone Bay was not settled till 1760, when a party from New England founded the township of Chester. Discouraged, however, by its unpromising soil, many of them abandoned it; but their place was supplied by Germans from Lunenburg, who, by their steady indus- try, have brought it into a thriving state. The town is neat, and possesses fourteen small vessels, with seven saw- mills, which are employed in preparing timber for exportation. The whole population amounts to 2092 souls. La Have Bay contained an early French station, of which there are still some traces ; but its real settlement was similar to that of Chester. In 1760 it was occupied by 260 persons from Connecticut, who abandoned it after a few months' residence. These were succeeded, and the district now called New Dublin rendered pros- perous, chiefly by Germans. The river drives thirty saw-mills used in the preparation of lumber for expor- OF NOVA SCOTIA. 163 tation, which takes place here to a greater extent than from any other port. Population 2275.* Queen's County extends about thirty miles along the coast, and its soil is particularly stony and unproductive. It has, however, the usual advantages of situation, con- taining the harbours of Medway, Liverpool, Mouton, and Jolie. The first receives a considerable river of the same name; the second a still larger one, the Mersey, which is connected with Lake Rossignol, and thus com- municates by boat navigation with the Bay of Fundy. On this river, the spot called Rossignol was in the year 1760 settled, under the name of Liverpool, by a colony from Massachusetts. They suffered at first ex- treme hardships, being obliged, during a whole winter, to subsist entirely upon wild rabbits. They persevered, however, and have rendered it now the best built, and one of the most flourishing towns in the province. It owns fifty-six vessels, many of which are engaged in the Labrador fisheries. There is a bay here so favourable to the curing of fish, that 20,000 quintals have been at one time spread on its shore to dry. On the river are nume- rous mills, which afford a large supply of timber for ex- portation. During the war, more privateers were fitted out from this than from any other port; but the peace, of course, deprived it of that precarious source of wealth. The harbour admits large vessels, but has a bar only nine feet deep at low water. On Coffin's Island, at its mouth, is a beacon 70 feet high, with revolving lights, the best on the coast. The inhabitants erected, at a cost of £4000, a drawbridge 1100 feet long across the harbour. The exports and imports in 1833 were worth £71,287, and in 1834 it was made a warehousing port. The population of the township is 4342. Port Medway, to the east of Liverpool Bay, affords good fishing, and contains a hamlet bearing its name, and another called Mill Village, which are small but respectable. Port Mouton, on the other side, became * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 130-141. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 98, 99. 164 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION in 1783 the place of settlement for a corps named the British Legion, which had served with distinction under Colonel Tarleton ; and so sanguine were the expectations formed, that it was erected into a township under the name of Guysborough. The settlers, however, soon found themselves disappointed in the soil and situation, and their calamities were completed by a dreadful fire which, consuming houses, furniture, and every thing they pos- sessed, reduced them to the utmost danger of perishing by famine. They removed, therefore, to Chedabucto; and this bay, with the adjoining ones of Ports Jolie and Hebert, are now inhabited only by a few fishermen and lumberers.* The county of Shelburne is very extensive, occupying nearly all the south-western extremity of Nova Scotia, and terminating the range of Atlantic coast. It is, on the whole, a rugged territory, traversed in the interior by ranges of the Blue Mountains, and containing on the seashore marshy tracts, which, however, may be rendered productive by great labour, should circumstances ever justify a free expenditure of capital. It contains several good rivers; the Sable, with a course of about twenty miles ; the Jordan or Shelburne, forming a fine harbour near its mouth; the Clyde, flowing forty miles through a very picturesque country, and bearing some resem- blance to the stream of the same name in Scotland; the Tusket, considerably larger, running along the border of Annapolis, forming numerous lakes, and being navi- gable eight miles upwards for large vessels and thirty- two for boats. 0 Shelburne remained almost unoccupied till the close of the American war, when numerous refugees from the United States unfortunately chose this district as -their place of retreat. About 473 families from New York formed themselves into a society, with rules and dis- cipline. They arrived on the 4th May 1783 at Port Rose way, and began with great activity to lay out the * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 144-149. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 99, 100. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 165 plan of a regular and handsome town, which, amid great rejoicings occasioned by a visit from Governor Parr, was named Shelburne, after the minister of the day. In autumn, a large accession of settlers arrived, raising the population to upwards of 12,000. About half a million sterling is supposed to have been spent in founding this town, which was expected to eclipss Halifax, and become the capital of Nova Scotia. Amid their enthusiasm, however, they had not duly considered how subsistence was to be procured. The ungrateful soil could not yield it; they were too far up the bay for good fishing ; and the harbour, though perhaps the very finest in Nova Scotia, could not at once attract commerce from its accustomed channels. The place was therefore deserted as rapidly as it had been filled ; most of the people returning to the States, while some went to other districts of the province. It is now only a small village, containing in its whole township not more than 2697 inhabitants, who divide their attention between fishing and agriculture. Barrington, the adjoining township, has much of its ground covered with a black chocolate-coloured turf, capable of being rendered permanently fertile, but only at the expense of an amount of labour which cannot at present be afforded. The inhabitants, 2180 in number, came chiefly from New England, and subsist almost entirely by fishing. This occupation employs sixty-nine vessels besides boats, and is so successful, that 22,000 quintals used to be exported in one year. Off this coast is Sable Island, a barren spot, famous for the first dis- astrous settlement of the French; and on a small ad- joining islet is Cape Sable, the most southern point of Nova Scotia. * The townships of Argyle and Yarmouth occupy most of the coast facing the south-west, and looking towards the United States. The shore here relaxes gradually in its stern and rocky aspect, but does not afford equally good harbours. A considerably greater proportion of the surface is productive, though, from its marshy nature and the moist breezes from the ocean, it is better fitted 166 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION for pasturage and the dairy than for grain. The more fertile tracts are chiefly along the river Tusket and the large expanse of Argyle Bay, which forms its estuary, and contains about 300 islands named the Tuskets, afford- ing excellent shelter for small vessels. The Acadians brought a considerable portion of this territory under cultivation; and a few of them, among whom is a de- scendant of La Tour, having returned to it, occupy the villages of Pubnico and Eelbrooke. Argyle was chiefly settled by loyalists and disbanded soldiers, of whom, though the circumstance is not mentioned, the name appears to indicate that a considerable number must have been Scotsmen. The place is not large ; but the township, situated on the eastern border of the river and bay, con- tains 2790 inhabitants. Yarmouth, on the opposite side, is more fertile, and has been brought under higher culti- vation by a colony from New England. The township contains 4350 inhabitants, and yields annually about 5000 tons of hay, 120,000 bushels of potatoes, and 100,000 lbs. of excellent butter and cheese. In 1833 its trade employed 37,379 tons of shipping, and its ex- ports and imports were valued at £81,124. Settlements extend about fifteen miles up the river, whose banks abound in picturesque scenery.* We come now to our second division of the country, consisting of the territory along the Bay of Fundy and its two great terminating branches; on the right the Minas Basin, which ends in Cobequid Bay; on the left the Chignecto Channel, which extends into Cumberland Basin. This division comprises the counties of Anna- polis, King's, Hants, with the district of Colchester at- tached to Halifax county. It removes to a great extent the brand of sterility which the ocean-coast already de- scribed had affixed to the province. The land is chiefly of two kinds, valuable though opposite, marsh and upland. The former consists of low grounds on the rivers and bays, composing not narrow intervale, but * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 177-196. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 102-104. Addresses, Nova Scotia, 29th June 1836, p. 2. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 167 extensive alluvial tracts. They are, indeed, liable to inundation; but when protected by barriers against that evil, they become exceedingly fertile. The Acadians, whose chief seat was in this district, had formed a large portion of dyked land; but when they were robbed of it, the new settlers found the defences very much injured, and had not for a long time either skill or perseverance sufficient to restore them. The uplands appear in the form of long ridges covering a great part of the country, and called by the natives mountains, though scarcely entitled to the name of hills. Their summits, broad and level, when cleared of wood, show a light and dry soil, which is easily cultivated, and pro- duces very good crops. Settlement, as yet, has rarely been carried more than three or four miles from the coast, but is gradually extending. The variegated surface of hill and dale, the farm-houses, cultivated fields, and rich meadows, breaking in upon the still almost unbroken forest, with the long bays and inlets on which these border, exhibit scenery which travellers describe with admiration. In a detailed view of this coast, the county of Anna- polis claims the first place. It extends along nearly the whole coast of the Bay of Fundy, before it begins to separate into its upper branches. At the bottom is the deep bay of St Mary, formed by Long Island and the narrow peninsula of Digby Neck. Higher up, the An- napolis flows from the north-east, parallel to the shores of the first-mentioned bay, leaving between them a long narrow strip of land; till at length, spreading into a broad estuary, it falls into the sea at the chief town. On each side extend ranges of what is called the North Mountain. Annapolis forms a fertile tract, containing large ranges both of dyked land and of productive up- land. The most southern township, bordering on St Mary's Bay, is Clare, interesting as the principal spot occupied on their return by the exiled Acadians. It was allot- ted to them in 1768 by Lieutenant-governor Francklin, 168 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION as a very poor compensation for what they had been deprived of, being a mere tract of uninhabited forest. It was good land, however, and capable of being improved by the abundance of sea-weed on the shore ; and by the dili- gent use of these5 advantages they have made the settle- ment very flourishing. In 1800 they numbered 1050 souls, which in 1828 had increased to 2038. They chiefly raise barley and potatoes, for which, as well as the surplus of their fishery, they find a market at St John, New Brunswick. They show an aversion, which can excite no surprise, to the society of the English ; but among themselves lead the same cheerful, pious, con- tented life, as the habitans of Lower Canada. They have a handsome chapel at each end of the settlement; in one of which has officiated for thirty years the Abbe Segoigne, a highly respectable French emigrant, who acts as a father as well as an instructor, and commands their entire veneration. In 1820 a dreadful conflagra- tion consumed nearly all their property; but being aided by liberal contributions from the inhabitants of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, they have completely retrieved this loss.* In ascending the bay, we find the two townships of Digby and Clements, reaching inland to a considerable distance, and possessing the general advantages of this part of the country. The latter, in particular, is a fine farming district, adorned by a beautiful valley formed by Moose River. An iron-foundery has been established here, which threatens to strip the banks of their beautiful forests; but its success is not yet quite decided. Digby is mostly maritime; and the town of that name, on a hill near the influx of the Annapolis, contains about a hun- dred houses. Its convenient site for fishing as well as for affording shelter to vessels on a coast almost destitute of harbours, must secure to this place an increasing im- portance. With the adjoining districts, it was cele- brated for its herrings, extremely well cured, and known , * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 161-174. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 110, 111. OP NOVA SCOTIA. 169 over all America under the name of Digby Chickens; but since 1819 they have become much less numerous. This want is in a great measure compensated by the mackerel fishery, which the mariners of this township pursue along the coast of New England as far as Cape Cod. They make three or four trips in a season; and, besides a considerable quantity consumed at home, export them largely to New Brunswick and the West Indies. The population of Digby is 3614, that of Clements 1611. The township of Annapolis, along the left bank of the river of that name, forms a fine range, including large tracts of alluvial soil well enclosed, while even the higher grounds, when cleared of stones, yield good crops. It is now almost entirely a rural district; for the town, once the capital of French Acadia, and distinguished by so many important events, is now only a village of fifty or sixty houses, with churches, and a respectable semi- nary. There are remains of the public buildings and fortifications, but these are rapidly going to decay. The surrounding land being the property of government, checks the extension of the place, while the rise of Digby and other towns in more convenient situations, seems to preclude it from ever attaining its former importance. The population of the township of Annapolis, compre- hending a part of Dalhousie settlement, is 2578. The long narrow strip of land between the Anna- polis and the sea, is divided into the townships of Gran- ville and Wilmot, the first containing a population of 2526, the second of 2294. It is traversed and almost filled by the low ridge called the North Mountain, whose heights and declivities include much fine soil, while along its base lie rich alluvial tracts. The territory consists almost en- tirely of farms, with scarcely a village except the neat and thriving one of Bridgetown, so named from a bridge that here crosses the river. The coast, though high, is quite unlike the opposite one, nowhere broken into har- bours ; to remedy which want, a pier has been formed at Wilmot, and is found commodious for its small trade.* * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 157-176. M'Uregor, vol. ii. p. 107-115. 170 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION Beyond Annapolis county the Bay of Fundy narrows to a strait, which opens into the Basin of Minas. This broad inlet, with the smaller bay of Cobequid in which it terminates, is bordered by some of the highest and at the same time most fertile land in Nova Scotia. The tide rushes into it with extraordinary rapidity, preceded by the phenomenon called the bore, a line of foam four feet high, extending across the bay, and rushing over the sands at the rate of more than four miles an hour. It recedes with equal celerity, leaving many miles of the shore dry; and when its periods are carefully at- tended to, it materially aids the progress of the mariner. King's county, having one side on the Bay of Fundy and the other on that of Minas, consists of the townships of Aylesford, Cornwallis, Horton, and Parrsborough. The first on the Fundy was settled in 1784 by loyalists; it nearly resembles Annapolis, but has no town of consequence. Cornwallis and Horton, bounded by the Minas Basin, include some very bold heights, part of the northern chain bounded by Cape Blomidon, and also those called the Horton Mountains. From these about nineteen streams fall into the basin, and form large tracts, not only of that alluvial border called in- tervale, but of those marshy lands which, when dyked, become so particularly fertile. This labour was dili- gently performed by the Acadians, who had enclosed above 7000 acres, among which was the Grande Prairie, comprising upwards of 2000. Some years after their expulsion the domain wras occupied by settlers from New England; but the bulwarks were found greatly dilapidated, and long time and much expense were neces- sary ere they could be fully restored. The tract has since become surprisingly productive, yielding in several parts fifty bushels of wheat an acre, while others are covered with almost innumerable herds of cattle. The views from several of the heights above Horton comprise every element of landscape, and are considered by many the very finest in Nova Scotia. Parrsborough is a town- ship of this province, on the opposite side of the water. OP NOVA SCOTIA. 171 It is broken and hilly, but not so as to be unproductive; and since 1783 has been settled to a considerable extent. The capital, of the same name, is a small village on the neck of land between the bay and the Minas Basin.* Hants county extends from the borders of King's along the whole south-eastern shore of the Minas and its branch of Cobequid Bay, till it is bounded by the Shubenacadie. It consists generally of the same features as those just described; hills of considerable height in the background ; numerous rivers flowing from them into the basin; fertile tracts of intervale or marsh on their banks; uplands covered with dense forests, and generally susceptible of good cultivation. Among the hills, Ardoise, in the rear of Windsor, ranks as the highest in the province, commanding, as has been already observ- ed, a magnificent prospect, and giving a general grandeur to the surrounding scenery. This county is distinguished by its copious deposites of gypsum, lime, and in some places of coal, the first of which is exported to a very considerable extent. The townships are Falmouth, "Windsor, Newport, Rawdon, Kempt, and Douglas. Of these, Windsor is by far the most important. It is watered by the Avon and St Croix, whose united stream is very small, unless at full tide, when the sea rushes in so copiously as to convert it into a broad channel, twenty or thirty feet deep, and capable of receiving large vessels. The dyked marshes, amounting to 2500 acres, are con- sidered the very finest in the province, and the Acadians exported thence great quantities of wheat. After their expulsion, the tract was first neglected, and then made v over in large grants to men in power; hence its im- provement was a long time retarded; but this subject of complaint is now entirely removed. There is good upland, though the very elevated heights in the rear are cold and barren. The shelter afforded by them, how- ever, renders the climate so mild, as to enable the in- habitants to raise peaches and other delicate fruits. * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 115-127. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 117-119. 172 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION Windsor, agreeably situated at the junction of the two rivers, is one of the principal towns of Nova Scotia. It contains about ISO houses, which are neatly built, and surrounded by orchards. The university, which is the chief seminary in the county, is finely situated on an eminence about a mile distant. It consists of five houses constructed of wood, each three stories high, with two suites of rooms on a floor; the whole under one roof. Within its grounds is the collegiate school, a handsome freestone edifice, the mode of instruction pursued in which will be noticed under another head. The influx of the tide renders Windsor a port, whence packets sail to St John and St Andrew, New Brunswick, as well as to other places. The chief export is gypsum, which abounds in the township, forming a high mural precipice several miles along the banks of the St Croix. The air is con- sidered remarkably healthy. The other townships do not contain any place of im- portance, and comprehend little that is not included in the general description of the county. Newport, between the Avon and a considerable stream called the Kennetcook, possesses nearly all the advantages of Windsor; in particular the same minerals, with the addition of excellent freestone. It is well cultivated and densely inhabited. Kempt, on the other side of the Kennetcook, has good uplands, with cod and herring fisheries. It yields, however, to Douglas, whose dyked marshes along the Shubenacadie are not surpassed even by those of Windsor. To an abundance of the other minerals, it adds coal and slate. Rawdon, in the rear of Newport and Kempt, has a good but rather unimproved soil, which is chiefly employed in supplying hay to Hali- fax. Falmouth, on the other side of Windsor, adjoins to Horton, which it very nearly resembles."* On rounding the head of the bay and passing along its north-western shore, we find the large district of Col- chester, which ranks as part of the county of Halifax, * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 100-113. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 117-122. 5 OP NOVA SCOTIA. 173 though in point of situation and character it belongs altogether to the range now described. It possesses the same qualities as the Hants townships, and seems scarcely at all inferior in richness of soil, mineral wealth, par- ticularly coal, happy situation, and beauty of scenery. The fine expanse of water by which it is bordered is every where navigable, and affords good harbours. Truro township extends from the Shubenacadie river to the head of the narrow inlet in which the Minas ter- minates. It has a good soil, is well cultivated, and contains inexhaustible quarries of gypsum, lime, and freestone. The absence of the French settlers was supplied in 1761 by Irish emigrants, and it has ever since continued to improve. There is a village of its own name, tolerably large, divided into lower and upper, though the former is little more than a range of contiguous farm-houses. The site is described as peculiarly beautiful. The two ham- lets appear amid richly cultivated fields, relieved by finely swelling uplands, and backed by wooded and un- dulating hills, while the eye commands the whole of the Bay of Minas, with its varied shores, forming a circuit of about sixty miles. The houses are handsome and com- modious ; there are Episcopal and Presbyterian churches, a court-house, good inns; in short, all the appendages of a country town on a respectable scale. The townships of Onslow and Londonderry, and the settlement of Economy, present on the whole the same agreeable aspect. The Cobequid Mountains, in the back-ground, send down into the Bay of Minas many little streams, on whose banks is a fair proportion of intervale and dyked marsh, while their declivities com- prise abundance of fertile upland. They are dotted with a number of small villages, but none of importance.* To complete the description of the territory connected with the Bay of Fundy, it will be necessary to notice the part of Cumberland county situated upon its most western portion, called the Bay of Chignecto, which * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 39-41. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 123, 124. VOL. II, L 174 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION divides Nova Scotia from New Brunswick. The upper branch, called the Cumberland Basin, receives the rivers Missiguash, La Planche, Nepan, Maccan, and Hebert, on which are the township of Amherst and the settlement of Fort Lawrence. This district, early occupied by emigrants from Massachusetts and from Yorkshire, is well cultivated and flourishing. The higher grounds are not very productive; but the dyked marshes, con- sisting of about 5000 acres, equal any in the country. They are chiefly used for pasturing numerous herds of cattle, the butter and cheese produced from which find a ready market at St John, Miramichi, and Halifax. On the opposite sides of the Missiguash were the rival forts of Lawrence and Beau Sejour, the theatre of the obstinate contest between the French and English. The latter, with its name changed to Cumberland, has been rebuilt, and is still kept up; and the intrenchments formed by our countrymen when besieging it remain visible. Lower down, towards Parrsborough, is the settlement of Minudie, where Governor Francklin as- sembled a remnant of the Acadians, who had escaped from the proscription formerly endured. They com- pose nearly fifty families, who subsist comfortably on 3000 acres of dyked land, with a good fishery of shad; they live in their usual secluded and happy manner. In this vicinity is a valuable quarry of grindstones, pro- ducing not less than £10,000 a-year.'* The third general division, as originally laid down, consists of the coast facing the north-east, and bordered by channels connected with the Gulf of St Lawrence, but enclosed by the adjacent islands of Cape Breton and Prince Edward. It comprises most of the county of Cumberland, the district of Pictou (attached to Hali- fax), and the county of Sydney* This territory, while it displays nothing of the severe and rugged character peculiar to the ocean-coast, is in many parts destitute of that luxuriant soil which enriches the Bay of Fundy; 'Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 61-65. McGregor, vol. ii. p. 125. 7 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 175 but it is generally capable of good cultivation, and after being long neglected, has of late been very much im- proved. Many tracts are finely wooded, and the great Vein of coal by which it is traversed promises, from the scarcity of that useful mineral in other parts of America, to prove of the utmost importance. There are also valu- able iron mines. The shore, neither broken nor rocky, presents not those fine harbours which, distinguish the Atlantic border; yet it is not seriously deficient in that important respect. To connect our present description with that which precedes, we will begin with the county of Cumberland. The districts situated on Chignecto Basin have been already surveyed. On the opposite side, Baie Verte or Green Bay approaches so closely to the extremities of Cumberland Basin as to leave only an interval of about eleven miles, forming the isthmus that connects Nova Scotia with the American continent. A canal across this neck of land has long been projected; and it seems wonderful that it has not yet been carried into effect. According to an estimate obtained by Sir Howard Douglas from an eminent engineer, it could be construct- ed for £68,000, affording a depth of eight feet of water; or for £45,000, allowing only four and a half. The former dimension seems decidedly the more satisfactory, as it would afford a passage to vessels fitted also to navi- gate the open sea. The communication would doubtless greatly benefit Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as other rarts of British America. The remainder of this county consists chiefly of Wallace township, having its principal settlements on the rivers St Philip and Pugwash, the bays of Wallace and Tatamagouche. This tract is generally fruitful, with good fisheries of salmon, shad, and gaspereaux. As it abounds also with particularly fine timber, the attention of the inhabitants has, to the regret of many, been chiefly attracted to that trade, and cultivation is comparatively neglected. The settlers are for the most part loyalists from New York, who repaired thither at 17@ TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION the end of the American war; and they were joined, about twenty-five years ago, by a party of Highlanders. The former erected the settlement of West Chester, on the very summit of the Cobequid Hills ; but this station, injudiciously chosen, has not been prosperous.'"' After Cumberland comes Pictou district, usually, but with no great propriety, ranked in the county of Halifax. After having been long neglected, it has become one of the most important in the whole province. The soil, without being luxuriant, is throughout good, and the mineral products highly important. The French, before 1763, had only formed a few small settlements, which they then abandoned. Soon after, a company at Phila- delphia, chiefly under the direction of Dr Witherspoon, an eminent divine, sent thither a colony from Maryland. About eight years later, they were reinforced by about thirty families from the Scottish Highlands; for whose subsistence, however, so little provision had been made, that being in danger of perishing, they were obliged to cross the hills in the depth of winter to procure a supply. They received at the end of the American war an ac- cession of disbanded troops, who did not, on the whole, prove an advantage ; but on their arrival, measures were taken to procure a clergyman. The people obtained the services of Dr McGregor, a Highland minister belonging to the Secession Church. As soon as it was reported to his countrymen that the Gospel was preached in their native language, this district proved the favourite resort of the immigrants from that quarter. In 1790 was built the first house in the town and port of Pictou, which in 1827 contained 1439 souls, and had become the chief seat of trade on the coast, exporting fish, oil, timber, and other articles, to the annual value of £100,000. The place is built in a very irregular and crowded manner, but contains many good houses, an unusual proportion being of stone. An academy established in 1816 appears to have been of great advantage to the country. The Bay * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 66-73. M'Greg-or, vol. ii. pp. 126, 127. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 177 '/ of Pictou receives three rivers, called East, Middle, and West, each bordered by flourishing settlements. On the first are the Albion coal mines, which will be more par- ticularly noticed hereafter. The town and whole district, according to Mr M'Gregor, are decidedly Scottish. "In the streets, within the houses, in the shops, on board the vessels, and along the roads, we hear little but Gaelic or broad Scotch. The Highland dress, the bagpipe, and Scottish music are also general." We regret however, to learn, that the peace of the district has been disturbed by religious dissensions, chiefly on subjects of church government.* The county of Sydney, with which our description of Nova Scotia will terminate, consists of the angular space hy which the north-east coast now delineated passes into the south-west one, facing the ocean, and belongs partly to both. It is divided into two districts, upper and lower. The former is decidedly the best in an agricul- tural point of view; its soil, both alluvial and upland, being equal to any in the country. It was peopled only by a small remnant of Acadians till the year 1784, when a detachment of the Nova Scotia regiment was located on the southern coast. They remained, however, surrounded by a desert, till the emigrations which took place from the Scottish Highlands in 1795 and 1801; and a favourable report being soon spread, fresh arrivals have succes- sively followed, till the population has risen to upwards of 7000. A large extent of the coast, with the adjoin- ing' one of Pictou, has received the name of Arisaig, in- cluding settlements called Knoydart, Moydart, and such like; and the traveller, who every where meets the lan- guage, dress, and hospitality peculiar to this hardy race, can scarcely believe himself not to be on the western coast of Scotland. The opposite extremity, round St George's Bay, comprises the settlements of Pomquet, Tracadie, and Aubushec, possessed by the Acadians, who, here as elsewhere, pursue their peculiar mode of * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 50-57. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 128-134. 178 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION life, except that they employ themselves more in fishing and the coast trade. The chief town, Dorchester, form- erly called Antigonish from its situation on a large bay of that name, is a neat little place, with a very hand- some Roman Catholic chapel, Presbyterian and Baptist meeting houses, and about forty-five private mansions. In the lower district, the townships of Manchester and Guysborough, extending along the channel of Can- seau and round the great bay of Chedabucto, occupy as it were the transition part of the province, running in an oblique line from one coast to another. The bay now mentioned is the best fishing-ground in Nova Scotia, and scarcely surpassed by any in the world. Cod in vast numbers appear early in the season, while herrings of superior quality abound in summer. But these are much surpassed by the shoals of mackerel in spring and au- tumn. In Guysborough harbour 2000 or 3000 barrels of the latter have been caught in one day, and a seine has sometimes been known to enclose from 800 to 1000 barrels at a single draught. In each of the years 1824 and 1825 there were caught, on a coast of not more than twelve miles, 60,000 ban-els. Crow Harbour and Fox Island, the two chief seats of the fishery, were formerly free to all; but now several persons, in virtue of grants from govern- ment, levy a ground-rent and other exactions, which seem justly complained of. In this rough trade, the property of the seines is often violently invaded and contested. At the head of Chedabucto Bay, Milford Haven, a long narrow inlet, ranks as harbour to Guysborough, a finely situated village, the court town of the district, with thirty houses, three places of worship, and some good buildings. The entrance of the port is narrow and difficult; but it admits vessels of 500 tons, and affords perfect security. Manchester, on the opposite side of the inlet, though seve* ral detachments of disbanded troops and loyalists were located upon it, has never risen into any importance. After passing Cape Canseau, on which is a small village, the boundary of Sydney becomes a portion of the great Atlantic coast first described. It presents the usual OF NOVA SCOTIA. 1 79 characteristics, a rocky territory, and magnificent har- bours, but without any traffic in which to employ them. On Country Harbour, one of the best of these, a settle- ment called Stormont was attempted, but failed; and there is now only a small trade in timber and fish. Farther on occurs the St Mary, a fine river with three branches, navigable for ships ten miles upwards. There is good land too on its higher banks; but the settlement has been retarded by improvident grants made with the view of establishing a salmon-fishery, which is now dis- continued. Sherbrooke, near its mouth, derives some advantage from ship-building and the export of timber.* Cape Breton, called by the French L'Isle Royale, is a large island immediately adjacent to Nova Scotia, and now forming one of its counties. It lies between 45° 27' and 47° 5' north latitude, and between 59° 38' and 61 ° 50' west longitude, its greatest length being about 100 miles, and its extreme width 80. It comprises an area of about two millions of acres. A long line of the coast directly faces the county of Sydney, and is separated from it by the Bays of St George and of Chedabucto, and by the channel called the Gut of Canseau, wdiich, in one place, is only a mile broad. At Cape Hinchinbrooke, the direc- tion changes, and for about sixty miles, as far as Cape Breton, faces the south-east, nearly parallel to the At- lantic coast of Nova Scotia. This may be considered as the base of the island, and thence two opposite shores stretch northward, facing respectively the east and the west. Approaching each other, they terminate almost in a point at Cape North, whence, at the distance of fifty miles, the coast of Newfoundland forms the opposite "boundary of the entrance into the Gulf of St Lawrence. The whole circuit, with the exception of the west coast, is singularly irregular, diversified by deep bays and long promontories. A large portion is even filled by a mediterranean sea, called the Bras d'Or, communi- * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 77-98. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 136-140. 180 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION eating with the Atlantic by two narrow channels, itself spreading irregularly, and broken into almost innumer- able bays of every size and shape. At one point it approaches within less than a mile of the opposite coast, dividing the island into two peninsulas connected by that narrow isthmus. Cape Breton is thus formed into two divisions, southern and northern, of which the first is not much above a third of the other in extent; yet, from its happy situation and noble harbours, it has been the seat of the earliest and most flourishing settle- ments.* The surface of Cape Breton generally resembles that of Nova Scotia, being broken and hilly, yet nowhere rising to alpine dimensions. This is particularly the ease with the southern division, none of whose eminences are sup- posed to exceed 600 feet; but in the more northern por- tion, the land gradually swells, till it presents to the ocean the formidable cliff of Cap Enfume (Smoky Cape), The actual elevation of this headland, however, has never been accurately measured, and is variously con- jectured. M. Bouchette conceives it not to exceed 1500 feet. Mr M'Gregor, from repeated views,was disposed to estimate it at 1800; while Mr Haliburton had heard it affirmed to be half a mile, which would exceed 2600. The south-eastern coast, beaten by the ocean, is formed into magnificent harbours, similar to those on the correspond- ing part of Nova Scotia, But the more northern, and especially the western shore, faces the sea with a bold wall of rock, which only at very distant intervals allows an entrance to vessels. It presents, therefore, a most inhospitable aspect to the mariner, and has been the scene of frequent and disastrous shipwrecks. In re^ gard to fertility, an unfavourable impression has been received from causes nearly the same as in Nova Scotia. The south-eastern coast, as well as the extreme north, are decidedly barren ; and these being the lines along which navigators usually sail, have been viewed as specimens * Bouchette, vol. ii. p. 73. HalibnrtoD, vol. ii. p. 201-203. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 181 of the whole, when, in fact, they are only exceptions. Thin, rocky, and swampy spots, are indeed interspersed throughout; but, upon the whole, the proportion of fertile land is said to be fully as great as in Nova Scotia. It has not, indeed, her luxuriant dyked marshes, the best soils in Cape Breton being those called upland; but the quality of these is considered by Mr Haliburton to be superior. He estimates that, of the entire surface of 2,000,000 acres, 800,000 may consist of small lakes, barrens, and swamps, leaving 1,200,000 fit for cultiva- tion. Of these, between 700,000 and 800,000 have been granted or occupied, so that there remains from 400,000 to 500,000 open for settlement. Extensive beds of ex- cellent coal, large quarries of gj^psum, and important iron mines not yet worked, rank among the leading advantages of this island.* The climate nearly resembles that of the adjacent continent. The heavy fogs, however, do not sweep along so large a portion of its coast, but are confined to that which faces the south-east, while the remainder generally enjoys a serene sky. It is, at the same time, more moist, and also more variable than that of Canada. The frosts of winter, though equally intense, are fre- quently interrupted by strong and sudden thaws, which are extremely inconvenient. They break up the com- munications, deprive vegetation of the covering of snow which protects it, and leave it unsheltered to the action of cold, which soon returns in full intensity. Yet these variations do not produce the injurious effect on the hu- man constitution which might be supposed ; on the con-* trary, Cape Breton, like the adjoining territory, is con-' sidered particularly healthy. This island was early and long occupied by the French, being even, as we have seen, restored to them after Nova Scotia had been finally ceded. They attach- ed the greatest importance to a possession which, from * Haliburton, vol. ii. pp. 245, 258, 259. Bouchette, vol. ii. pp. 75, 76. 182 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION its situation on the Gulf of St Lawrence, was consider- ed the bulwark of Canada, and also as securing their communication with the West Indies. When Britain became final mistress of the territory, she viewed it father as a post from which her enemy must be exclud- ed, than one whence she herself could derive much advantage. The fortifications of Louisbourg were rased to the ground; but the hostile population still inspired apprehension, and the productive capacities of the island were much underrated. It was not till 1800 that they were discovered by'the Scottish Highlanders, who then began an immigration which has continued at the rate of from several hundreds to upwards of a thousand annually. They now greatly outnumber the original Acadians ; and these two races, with a remnant of Indians and a few American loyalists, formed in 1827 a popula- tion of 18,000, at present probably amounting to at least 25,000. They have occupied all the coasts both of the sea and of the Bras d'Or, where they combine the occupa- tions of agriculture and fishing. For this last the wind- ing shores and numberless bays of Cape Breton afford facilities scarcely equalled in any other part of the world ; besides which, they have ready access to the great banks of Newfoundland and Labrador. Although their industry still operates in a very imperfect degree, they export a considerable quantity offish, some lumber and coal, and even afford a supply of corn and cattle to the markets of Halifax and Newfoundland. In stating such particulars as respect this island, we will commence with the southern division, following the coast, on which the settlements are exclusively situated. Its most eastern part, stretching thirty miles from the entrance of the great Bras d'Or, may be called the coal district, the cliffs which face the ocean being through- out streaked with veins of that mineral. Some of these $eams having taken fire and burnt for several years, have been reduced to cinders, which present a very singular appearance. At the head of a fine bay, the first on this coast, is OF NOVA SCOTIA. 183 Sydney, which, since the fall of Louisbourg, has ranked as the capital. The harbour is capacious and secure; a low bar, without obstructing the entrance, breaks the force of the waves. On the shore are fine coal mines, from which Halifax is chiefly supplied; but unfortunately they lie outside the bar, so that vessels find some diffi- culty in lading. The town is built on a peninsula be- tween two branches of the inlet which forms the harbour. Besides the advantages now stated, Sydney is admirably situated for the fishery, and surrounded by a good agri- cultural district; yet from some cause which no writer has distinctly unfolded, it has never risen to any im- portance. It remains a mere village, of about sixty houses and 450 inhabitants. There are in it the usual structures which belong to a county town; but the Roman Catholic chapel is the most handsome. The next bay is that of Lingan, deficient as a harbour, but containing some beds of good coal, wrhich, like those of Sydney, are now worked by the Albion Mining Company. Cow Bay, where they terminate, and Miray Bay, are only separated by a low barren peninsula. The latter is beautiful and spacious, receiving a fine river, that flows thirty miles through the interior. The land, too, though light, is very well fitted for pasturage; but its settlement is much obstructed by a large grant improvidently made. Opposite to its most eastern point is the island of Sca- tari, barren and rocky, yet affording a good station for fishermen. From its situation, it is usually the first land made by vessels going from Europe to that part of America; and as they are apt, in steering westward, to get out of their reckoning, the approach is often firsi announced by the roar of its breakers. Shipwreck is fre- quently the consequence ; so that a light-house upon this spot appears urgently called for, and its erection is now contemplated by the British government. Under shelter of the island is the small port of Mainadieu, inhabited "by active mariners, who are employed in fishing and in conveying coals from Sydney to Halifax. Near the ex- tremity of an opposite promontory is the small island of Cape Breton or Puerto Nuevo, called by sailors Port 184 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION Novy, which may be considered as forming the south- eastern extremity of the great island. Being low, it bears few marks of the violent waves of the Atlantic, which have dashed against it during so many ages.* From this point begins the broken and rugged south- western coast. For about twelve miles it is rocky, yet low, and what the sailors call hummocky, with only one or two fishing-villages. Then appear the ruins of Louis- bourg, a singular spectacle in the New World, where every thing is usually found advancing. The place, in- deed, has been so completely swept away, that some attention is necessary to discover even the outline of the principal buildings. The walls were blasted with gunpowder; the materials of its edifices were carried away for the construction of Halifax and other towns on the coast; and the whole is now invested with a covering of turf and moss. Yet by the aid of a guide it is still possible to trace the contour of the plan, though broken by wide gaps, and the foundations of the batteries; even the sunken ships may in calm weather be discerned at the mouth of the harbour. The capa- cious casements, once filled with instruments of destruc- tion, now afford shelter to a few sheep that feed on the sward above them. The surrounding country is barren; yet, considering the noble harbour, the numerous rills of fresh water, and the advantages of situation, it seems unaccountable that nothing should be left but a few fisher- men's huts. It would almost seem as if settlers were deterred by the gloomy contrast between its present desolation and the commercial activity, as well as naval and military pomp, which it formerly exhibited, t Immediately beyond this spot, in the deep bay of Gabarus, is a settlement of American loyalists. Hence to St Esprit, the coast, composed of red earthy banks, contains only some small fishing-stations ; and the coun- try, for a great depth inland, is said to be barren, though * Haliburton, vol. ii. pp. 207-214. 245-247. M'Gregor, vol. i. p. 386-389. f Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 214 219. M'Gregor, vol. i. p. 388-392. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 185 abounding in game. Beyond, the soil improves greatly, and on Grand River it is very valuable, particularly on the upper banks, which are adorned by a chain of beau- tiful lakes. This tract is settled by Scottish emigrants. For about twenty-five miles to the entrance of the channel of Canseau, the coast is broken into a variety of small inlets occupied by Acadians, wTho cultivate patches of good land, and, at the same time, carry on an active fishery. At its wrestern extremity, Lennox Channel separates it from the considerable isle called Madame, about sixteen miles long, and of very irregular out- line. There is some rich soil round the lakes in the in- terior; but the chief value is derived from commodious fishing bays. Arichat, on the south coast, is the most important place, and is supposed by Mr McGregor to contain nearly 2000 inhabitants, chiefly Acadians. The trade is for the most part in the hands of Jersey mer- chants, who employ the people of the neighbourhood in taking fish, which they transport to Europe and the West Indies. From this port, the principal in Cape Bre- ton, there were exported in 1828,39,200 quintals dry cod and 12,559 barrels pickled fish ; 220 vessels were owned; and in 1833 there were built 2000 tons of shipping.* The Gut of Canseau, as it is usually termed, is a deep navigable channel, bordered, on the Cape Breton shore, by a dense colony of Highlanders, reaching about four miles inland. This coast has also an excellent harbour near its centre, at Bear Island Point, the trade of which is rising into importance. Beyond the channel, the Scottish settlement continues about twenty miles towards Port Hood, an excellent harbour, the last on this coast. s It is the county town for the northern district, and has a considerable export of cattle to Newfoundland. Far- ther on the coast becomes very high and bold, parti- cularly at the abrupt headland of Cape Mabou, where there is a harbour for small vessels; and the Highlanders, * Haliburton, vol. ii. pp.219, 221. M'Gregor vol. i. pp. 393, 394. Addresses, Nova Scotia, 20th June 183(5, p. 8. 186 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION mixed with some Irish settlers and American loyalists, still continue to render its steeps productive. About fifty miles north of Port Hood, the Marguerite or Salmon, a considerable river flowing from a large lake in the south-west, falls into the sea. Its banks are occu- pied by an old and flourishing settlement of Acadians, who employ their fertile lands in rearing cattle and growing potatoes, to which they add, as usual, an active fishery. They possess the coast to the extent of sixteen miles, or as far asCheticamp, where the Jersey merchants have also a station. Beyond this point to Cape St Lawrence, an interval of thirty miles, the coast, almost uninhabited, consists of a range of high and steep cliffs, which do not afford a single opening to shelter the mariner. As vessels in the north-west storms of November and December are often driven upon this lee-shore, it has become the scene of frequent and most calamitous shipwrecks. The crews cast on this dreadful coast frequently lose their way in the woods; nor do they often reach an inhabited place with- out undergoing the greatest hardships. Mr Haliburton advises them in all cases to make for Cheticamp along the shore, a route which they cannot mistake. Cape St Lawrence and Cape North form two pro- montories which, at the extremity of this island, face the gulf with their lofty cliffs. Between them is a bay, said to have in its rear some extent of good land, though yet unoccupied. About ten miles north-east from Cape North is St Paul, a steep and naked rock, on whose precipitous sides thousands of seamen have perished. Vessels entering the gulf, perplexed by thick fogs and conflicting currents, and deceived by the deep water which is found almost close to its base, are too often driven against it, and instantly destroyed. Human bones are constantly seen washed among its rocks; while under water lie numerous massive anchors, the only remains of the many noble ships that have here been dashed to atoms. Coins, too, are frequently thrown on the adj oining coast by the waves. A light-house, with gongs. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 187 or a cannon that would be heard through the mist, is most urgently wanted on this spot.* Indeed, government have announced their readiness to erect one here and at Scatari, provided the Colonial Assemblies will contribute towards furnishing the means of supporting them. On the other side of Cape North is Aspy Bay, which receives a number of streams bordered by fine land, that has attracted a considerable number of settlers. More southward, the coast becomes very bold, and includes Cap Enfume, already mentioned as the highest point in the island. A bay north of it contains Inganish, a small fishing-station; but the land is generally barren. About twenty miles south from this cape, the Bay of St Anne, after narrowing to a strait, spreads upward into one of the safest and most spacious harbours in America. Its shores are fertile, and exhibit grand and picturesque scenery. The French at first made this their principal station, under the name of Port Dauphin, but afterwards entirely abandoned it in favour of Louisbourg, whose position on the ocean they considered preferable. It was almost deserted, till about twenty years ago, when it was occupied by a Scottish colony, who have rendered it one of the most flourishing settlements on Cape Breton.t We have now made the circuit of the coast; and the interior is only known so far as it extends along that large winding gulf called the Bras d'Or. Between Syd- ney on the south and St Anne Bay on the north are its two entrances, separated by the long unoccupied island of Boulardrie. The most southerly and narrowest one soon opens into a smaller expanse, called the Little Bras d'Or. Its coasts for about twenty miles are fit for culti- vation, and occupied by Scottish emigrants, while at the entrance an active fishery is carried on by Irishmen from Newfoundland. The northern channel, broader and deeper, is considered the entrance to the Great Bras d'Or, of which it even constitutes a part; its shores con- sist of bold gypsum cliffs. At the end of Boulardrie, these • Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 223-232. M'Gregor, vol. i. p. 396-398. + Haliburton, vol ii. p. 231-234. M'Gregor, vol. i. pp. 399, 400. 188 TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF NOVA SCOTIA. two channels unite, and form a wide sea, whence stretches about twenty miles to the westward a long winding bay, whose branches, Bedeque, Watchabuktctckt, and others which our organs cannot pronounce, terminate in the larger gulf of Whycocomagh, whence a good deal of timber is exported. The shores, throughout its whole length, are settled by Scotsmen. In another direction the united Bras d'Or contracts into a narrow strait named Barra, but then immediately expands into the main body of this immense lake. - A little beyond the strait it throws out Denys Bay, diversified by many crooked inlets; ad- joining to it are the creeks of Great and Little Malaga- waatchkt. The central expanse terminates in two bays on the east and on the west. The former, called St An- drew, is about twenty miles long, and becomes very nar- row, before it closes in the inlet called Tweedmooge. The western one, only about fifteen miles in length, but much broader, is named St George. That of St Peter is comparatively small, but important from approaching within 900 yards of the bay of the same name on the southern coast; the Bras having stretched fifty miles across from sea to sea. A deep cut through this isthmus would, as we have already suggested, be of the greatest advantage, not only to the inland navigation, but to en- able vessels bound to Halifax to avoid the stormy course round Scatari Island. In 1825, Mr Hall the engineer estimated that it might be executed for £17,000. The shores of this great inland sea are rarely bold or high. Numerous streams, from 60 to 100 feet in breadth, flow into it by sluggish and winding channels, forming at their mouths low marshy islands, overhung by the dark heavy foliage of the hemlock and spruce. On ascending the rivers and creeks, however, the prospect materially improves; wooded hills and rich meadows form scenes at once picturesque and fertile. With the exception of a tract occupied by Micmac Indians on St Andrew Bay, the whole has been settled by Scottish Highlanders, a great proportion of whom emigrated from the Hebrides.* * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 235-243. M'Gre0or, vol. i. p. 401-404. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE OF NOVA SCOTIA. 189 CHAPTER VII. Industry and Commerce of Nova Scotia. Agriculture—Different Soils—Chief Products—Mode of Culture —Minerals—Coal—Gypsum—Sandstone—Metals—Fisheries— Timber—Commerce—Various Articles of Export and Import. Agriculture, which the abundance of unoccupied land should naturally render the principal source of prosperity to a new colony, was long viewed in Nova Scotia as a subordinate and inferior occupation. Many were attracted by the more stirring and animating pur- suits of fishery and the lumber-trade. The importance of the country as a naval and military station led government to form large establishments, which gave employment to numerous individuals; while in time of war, privateering offered the chance of suddenly acquiring ample fortunes. These occupations were considered not only more profitable, but more genteel, than tilling the soil on a small scale, and by personal labour. Mr M'Gregor complains that the people would rather earn a livelihood as petty shopkeepers and pedlars than by cultivating their own lands. The failure, however, of the more brilliant but precarious sources of emolument, drove them at length to this more solid and permanent one; and the experience of its benefits has induced them to persevere. The system of management was long- extremely defective; but in 1817 the formation, under the patronage of the late Earl of Dalhousie, of an agricultural board with numerous brandies, and the impulse given by a series of letters published hy Mr VOL. II. M 190 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE John Young under the signature of Agricola, have in- duced a sensible improvement.* % Farming in Nova Scotia is carried on under circum- stances resembling those of Lower Canada, yet with cer- tain important variations. The climate, though some- what less severe, is not on the whole more favourable; for the thaws, which break the continuity of winter, produce no advantage, and the frequent rains, caused by vapours from the Atlantic, are inconvenient. The end of May usually arrives before the fields afford good pasturage. A more striking difference consists in the surface; for while the cultivated parts of Canada are almost one uniform plain, this province is traversed by ranges of hills, which, though not lofty, are broad, and often steep. From these descend numerous streams, which, when swelled by the winter snows, inundate the lower valleys. Again, the Bay of Minas and its long branches, are subject to very high tides, laying under- water all the level shores. Hence arises the distinction of soils into upland, intervale, and marsh. The uplands, situated on the summits or declivities of the hills, are beyond the reach of inundation. Their quality is various, and generally indicated by the trees wdiich grow on them. A great proportion is rocky and barren; but many elevated tracts, though scarcely ever equal in fertility to the lower grounds, afford at least good pasturage. Intervale is the name given in America to the flat land along the rivers, annually inundated by the melted snows in spring, termed the freshets, which, in the course of years, deposite a rich and deep layer of alluvial matter. This soil in its natural state is too moist for cultivation; nevertheless, when properly managed, it yields very plentiful crops without the aid of manure. The marsh consists of the very low grounds regularly placed under water, either by the streams, or by the more violent tides that flow into the inner bays. These, conformably to their name, * M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 142-144. 6 OF NOVA SCOTIA. J 91 would be completely useless, had not a species of industry, of which the Acadians set the example, con- verted them into the finest lands in the country. Piles of timber, connected by small trees and branches, and covered with earth, form what is called an aboiteau, whereby the water is excluded, leaving, however, a sluice which can be opened and shut at pleasure. These in- terior waters, fed by numberless streams that have in- undated their banks, are absolutely discoloured by the alluvial matter thus poured into them, and which they deposite on the shores. This mud during three or four years is too soft to admit of cultivation. First, how- ever, weeds begin to spring, which are gradually followed by coarse luxuriant grass; and the surface being then fit for the plough, yields, for a succession of years, most luxuriant crops either of wheat or of hay.* While Canada is a corn-country, grazing in this pro- vince is the chief branch, for which it seems naturally adapted by its hilly surface and copious irrigation. "Without receiving any especial care, the breeds of domestic animals are decidedly superior; the horned cattle being large, well formed, and suited for fatten- ing, though they undergo that process somewhat too sparingly for an English taste. The butter and cheese made in the western districts might compete with the second class of our dairy produce. The sheep are numerous and thriving; their flesh good; but the wool is scanty and of inferior quality, though valuable for domestic use. The horses are small, but active and verv serviceable. It is somewhat odd that the hogs, which in Canada are of an excellent kind, are here miserable in the extreme, though some efforts are now making to improve them. While grain is thus a secondary object in Nova Scotia, the defect is particularly conspicuous in wheat, its finest species. Though reared with advantage even in Lower * Haliburton, vol. ii. pp. 351, 361-363. Moorsora, p. 184-188. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 146, 147. 192 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE Canada, it succeeds here only partially and at great ex- pense. Large crops are raised in some of the dyked enclosures; but elsewhere it is found liable to rust and other casualties, which render the result very precarious. It is alleged, indeed, that, with more careful and skilful culture, these evils might be avoided ; but this improve- ment can scarcely be expected for a long time to come. Though the farming of Lower Canada is by no means such as it ought to be, the more common kinds of grain are raised easily and of good quality. The difference appears to consist, not in the temperature, which is even higher in Nova Scotia, but in the broken weather during spring and early summer, the alternations of frost and thaw, and the chilling fogs from the Atlantic. The hardier species of oats, rye, and barley, being found quite conge- nial, are produced very abundantly. The climate of the western districts ripens even Indian corn, though it is sometimes nipt by the autumnal frosts; and this circum- stance gives to it a curious pre-eminence over England, where that grain cannot be brought to maturity. Beans are advantageously grown in the intervales. Potatoes are said to be actually superior to those grown in any other part of America, the native seat of that valuable root; and if so, they must be at least equal to any in the world. They form accordingly a staple culture, averaging 200 bushels an acre. Culinary vegetables are generally good. The climate is fitted for various fruits, provided atten- tion be paid to them, which it seldom is; however, not only apples, but plums, pears, quinces, cherries, and, in very favourable situations, even peaches and grapes, may be grown in the open air. The greatest value, however, is attached to that species of apple called winter fruit, well adapted for cider, which is made largely in the western districts, and a good deal even exported.* The mode of agriculture differs in few particular's * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 366-375. oorsoin, p. 196-203. M'Gre- gor, vol ii. pp. 140, 147. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 193 from that practised in Canada. The bringing in of new lands takes place on a smaller scale, Nova Scotia being the resort of comparatively few emigrants, though its own increased population is rapidly spreading over it. The system of aboiteau continues to be employed for forming many portions of fertile land. More ex- tensive upland tracts are improved by the laborious process already described of cutting and burning; the expense of which, when executed by hired labourers, is estimated by M, Bouchette to vary from £3 to £4, 10s. per acre. This high rate appears to arise from the com- paratively small number of immigrant labourers, while most of the natives aspire to occupy a farm of their own. The few workmen are chiefly farmers' sons still residing with their parents, who engage themselves at high wages for the summer, or for the busiest part of harvest. The operations are said to be performed hurriedly and with little attention to neatness; indeed it can scarcely be otherwise when hired servants are so few, and the season for their employment so short. The difficulty of a market is also considerable. Even at Windsor, a sale in general cannot be effected at less than six months' credit, and by taking a proportion of the price in goods. The neglect of manure was long as great as on the St Lawrence; but the recent spirit of improvement has led to the general use of that furnish- ed by live-stock, and even, in many instances, of the lime with which the country abounds.* Throughout Nova Scotia, including Cape Breton, the number of acres in crop was reported in 1827 not to exceed 327,076, while 9,668,801 remained still uncul- tivated. The corn produced did not appear to be above 655,175 bushels, of which only 173,712 were wheat, the rest consisting of other grains not specified; but there were 3,766,827 bushels of potatoes and 178,371 tons of hay. The horned cattle amounted to 127,642; * Bouchette, vol. ii. p. 57. Moorsom, p. 205-209. Halibur- ton, vol. ii. pp. 370, 3/J. 194 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE horses, 14,074; sheep, 197,375; hogs, such as they are, 80,223* The mineral products of Nova Scotia are extensive and valuable, forming already a large proportion of its exports, and promising to rise rapidly in importance. Coal, the most useful of any, particularly abounds, and lias its value greatly enhanced by the great demand for it over the whole of the American continent. The chief bed, on the northern, coast near Pictou, is estimated to comprehend an area of about 100 square miles; but this space is intersected by large dykes and interrupted by faults, so that the actual extent is not yet ascertained. There is some reason to think that it may stretch consider- ably farther, though sunk too deep to have yet been traced. It has a glossy, jet black appearance, is highly charged with bitumen, melts and cakes like that of New- castle, and when the tar is dissipated, burns like coke. It is extremely well adapted for manufactures, espe- cially in iron. Farther east, near Pomket and Dor- chester, copious indications of this mineral have been discovered, but not yet examined. In Cumberland also, pretty large veins have been traced, though the quality is not uniformly good. Cape Breton is equally distinguished for its stores of this precious mineral. The Sydney coal-field, extend- ing along the coast from the capital to Miray Bay, and thence inland to the great entrance of the Bras d'Or, is estimated to contain 120 square miles of workable coal. It is generally of excellent quality, and in great part adapted for domestic use as well as for manufactures. In the western district of this island, too, there appears to be a considerable bed, though not yet scientifically explored. Both the Pictou and the Sydney fields are extensively worked by a body called the Albion Mining Company, formed by Messrs Rundell, Bridge, and Company, jewel- lers, London, who, we believe, held them from the late * Tables for 1832, p. 20. OF NOVA SCOTIA. VJ5 Duke of York, to whom those of Nova Scotia had been granted. They have now merged in the General Mining Association, who, for the annual payment of £3000 to government, have a right also to those of Cape Breton. This body now hold, with a few reservations, all the mines in the colony on a lease of sixty years; a circumstance which has been considered by some as unfavourable, while others argue that the capital of so wealthy a company could not otherwise have been brought to bear upon such an object. In the mines of Nova Scotia they are said to have invested £130,000, with which piers have been constructed, railroads laid down, steam-engines, mills, shops, and houses erected, and about 500 men employed. The produce of the Pictou field in 1835 was 14,820 chaldrons, of the Sydney 22,877; valued together at £30,274. This was somewhat less than hi 1832 and 1833. From Nova Scotia 11,785 chaldrons were export- ed to the United States; from Cape Breton 9125 were sent to Nova Scotia; 4617 to other parts of British America; and 8942 to the United States.* The object next in importance is the calcareous forma- tion usually called gypsum, and sometimes plaster of Paris from the large deposite under that capital. The copious beds found in Hants and other western districts have been already described. In the United States it is highly prized as a manure, and the quantity exported thither varies very considerably. In 1832 it was 35,508 tons; in 1833 it had risen to 92,590; in 1835 had fallen to 32,678; but 11,113 were then sent to other colonies. It is valued at about 6s. 6d. per ton. Of the sandstone which abounds in the province, one species, from its hard texture and high polish, proves extremely useful as grindstones, and is celebrated over * Haliburton, vol. ii. pp. 421, 429, 430. MGregor, vol. ii. pp. 135, 13b'. Jackson and Alger, Mineralogy and Geology of JS ova Scotia (4to, Cambridge, America, 1832), p. 77- Bouchette, p. 83. Bliss, p. 40. The information relative to 1835 here, and in the rest of the chapter, is derived from highly respectable private sources. 196 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE America under the appellation of " Nova Scotia blue grits." It is found chiefly in the county of Cumber- land between the coal and limestone, forming a stratum about forty-four feet thick. Mr Haliburton states that about 1800 tons are annually exported to the States, where it brings from fourteen to eighteen dollars per ton. It was valued in 1835 at £10,000. There is abun- dance of excellent freestone, for which the circumstances of the country do not yet create much demand. The same may be said of the lime, which has been discovered lying in vast beds underneath the coal.* The metallic wealth of Nova Scotia is also consider- able, though, from the scarcity of capital and high price of labour, it is not yet turned to much account. The coal-field of Pictou is interspersed with abundant and valuable ores, particularly of clay ironstone. Along the South Mountain extending west of Annapolis river and basin, there runs a thick vein of ore differing in some respects from that just mentioned; having a slaty structure, abounding with organic remains, and being rich in metal. Its continuity has not been fully traced; but from the number of places at which it has been seen, there seems little doubt that this failure is solely owing to the dense covering of forest which overspreads that part of the country. With the view of working this vein, there was formed in 1825 the Anna- polis Iron Company, who at considerable expense have formed works, one at Nictau, in the upper part of the township, and another more advantageously situated eight miles from the capital. The latter has afforded a considerable quantity of very fine ore; but doubts are yet entertained whether the great expenses incidental to the situation will not preclude a profitable competi- tion with British iron. There are also considerable veins connected with the eastern coal-field of Cape Breton, but none of them are yet opened. Very fine ores of cop- * Haliburton, vol. ii. pp. 431, 432. Tables 1832, p. 19; 1833, p. 11; 1835, p. 13. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 197 per are diffused over a great extent of the north-western part of Nova Scotia, though in too small quantities to encourage working. Hopes are, however, entertained that these may be connected with a large bed at some depth beneath the surface.* Fishery naturally forms an important branch of the industry of a country so well fitted for it by the great reach of its coasts and its numerous and deep bays. The adjoining banks also, though not possessing the extreme richness of those of Newfoundland, are very productive. It is accordingly prosecuted to a great extent, but chiefly in little barks fitted out from different parts of the island, and by individuals who combine it with the very dissimilar pursuit of farming. Many of the fishermen too are so poor that their vessels and tackle must be furnished by others, to whom they account for the produce. They have also a severe com- petition to encounter. By the treaty of 1783, explained by a convention in 1818, the Americans enjoy the right of fishing, if not less than three miles from the shore, and even of putting into the harbours, should they stand in need of repairs, wood, or water. The New Englandcrs, possessing a larger capital and making fishery a separate business, carry it on more skilfulty, and, it is said, draw a greater produce from the seas surrounding Nova Scotia than the natives themselves. The stranger approach- ing the coast sees it bordered by long lines of shallops busied in drawing up the treasures of the deep; but he learns with surprise that, so far from having any con- nexion with the country which lies before him, they be- long to a rival state three or four hundred miles distant. It is alleged also, that by loosening a jib-boom, or by emptying water-casks during the night, they easily reduce themselves to such a state of distress, as may entitle them under the act to enter a harbour. An active barter * Haliburton, vol. ii. pp. 163. 164, 448-452. Jackson and Alger, pp. 74, 75, 83, 84. 198 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE then commences, and articles suited to the market are exchanged for the best of the fish taken by the natives. This, however, though it may injure the revenue, must often be advantageous to the fishermen, who thereby obtain a readier return for their produce than by the tedious process of curing and exporting. On the whole, without entering into difficult questions of maritime in- ternational law, we may observe that a positive agree- ment, even if rashly made, seems scarcely to admit of remedy; and we may hope that the advancing industry and capital of the country will ultimately prove more than equal, on its own shores, to the enterprise of rivals carrying on the fishery under so many local disad- vantages. The different seats and objects of this branch of industry have been pointed out in the local description. The spe- cies are chiefly cod, herrings, and mackerel; but the two last are almost exclusively for home consumption,—cod, wet or dry, being the only important article of export. In 1832, it appears that 570 ships and 640 boats were employed, producing 170,455 quintals of dry and 37,488 barrels, 111 tierces, and 72 kegs, of pickled fish, the value of the whole being reckoned at £173,000.* In 1835, the number of vessels of all kinds was 1698, the produce 209,409 quintals dry and 61,132 pickled fish; value of both £201,702, 14s. Attempts have been made to carry on more distant fisheries ; but the great capital and high wages required render it difficult to do so with profit. According to Mr McGregor, bounties have been necessary to enable the people to compete with the Americans on the coast of Labrador. We have not in any account of provincial expenditure discovered such an item, which we pre- sume, therefore, has been at all events discontinued. Very spirited efforts have been made in the arduous * Young-, British North American Colonies, p. 40-54. Colo- nial Tables 1832, p. 20. OP NOVA SCOTIA. 199 department of the whale-fishery. By a report to the House of Assembly, dated 8th March 1833, it appears that, since 1825, three thousand tons of shipping had been fitted out for this destination. The vessels had been equipped at an expense of from £8000 to £10,000 each; they had returned from their first voyage, and two were now on their second and third; but the heavy expense of supplying imported articles and engag- ing foreign masters had rendered the adventure unpro- fitable. Hopes were held out, however, that, as native seamen became familiar to the trade, it might return a full remuneration. On this statement it was resolved that a bounty of £2 per ton should be granted to the first six vessels of not less than 200 tons which should be employed for two years in a South Sea voyage. The seal-fishery also, which has been attended with so much advantage to Newfoundland, has recently attracted the attention of this colony. By a report in 1833, it appears that the trade had for four years been successfully carried on by about twenty vessels from Cape Breton on the shores and islands of the Gulf of St Lawrence; but that those which proceeded from Halifax, Lunen- burg, and Liverpool, to the north of St John, New- foundland, had to contend with tempestuous seas and other difficulties, which had induced many to retire from so hazardous an enterprise. The legislature hereupon granted 15s. per ton on all vessels above fifty tons, and 10s. on all under that burthen, which should be occu- pied in this fishery. The export of train and sperma- ceti oil amounted in 1835 to 130,636 gallons, valued at £10,950; that of seal skins to 15,639, value, £1433 * Timber in its various forms is a large, though perhaps not increasing, staple of the province. It is brought in a greater or less quantity down nearly all the rivers which * Journal and Proceedings of the House of Assembly of Nova Scotia 1835, pp. 432, 450. Appendix, pp. 25, 26. Colonial Tables 1835, p. 12. 200 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE reach the sea on the eastern and northern shores. On the first are La Have, Port Mcdway, and Liverpool; on the other, Pictou and Port Wallace, with many others enumerated in our local survey. This country cannot, indeed, boast those magnificent pine forests which in New Brunswick enrich the banks of the St Croix and the Miramichi; but the birch growing- in Pictou is reckoned the best in North America. The chief export is of wood cut down into its. smaller forms, as deals, battens, boards, planks, staves, and shingles; amounting in 1832 to £98,888 ; in 1833 to £82,144 ; in 1834 to £122,897 ;* in 1835 to £115,148. The particulars relative to 1834 are given below with the other exports. In regard to commerce, that of the British colonies was long fettered by several impolitic restrictions. They were considered by the mother-country solely as an estate to be managed for her benefit, and from which the utmost possible amount of profit was to be drawn, without any regard to reciprocal advantage. Even the great Lord Chatham had such benighted views on this subject, that he denied the right of the colonists to make even a nail for themselves. This illiberal system, however, injured herself to a degree which the small profit derived from the compulsory pas- sage of their goods through her ports by no means compensated. The prevalence of sounder views and the urgency of political circumstances induced successive relaxations, particularly in regard to the conveyance of timber and fish to the Mediterranean and the West Indies. At length, by an act passed in 1825, all the weightier restrictions were removed, and the colonies were placed, as to trade, on the same footing with other parts of the British empire. Halifax, and afterwards Pictou, were then declared free warehousing ports; and the provinces generally enjoyed for some years the * M(Gre£or, vol. ii. p. 168. Haliburton, vol, ii. p. 1832, p. 19; 1833, p. 11; 1834, p. 11; 1835, p. 12. 54. Tables OF NOVA SCOTIA. 201 exclusive trade with the West Indies; for though the Americans were offered access to it on condition of put- ting our commerce on the footing of the most favoured nations, they did not for some time accede to the prof- fered terms. Towards the close of 1830, however, they withdrew their prohibitions, in consequence of which, on the 5th November, the Order in Council was recalled, and their commodities, with the exception of fish, were allowed to be imported at moderate rates into those isl- ands. This, in 1831, caused a falling off in the shipping employed by the colonies in this trade from 95,205 tons to 58,540 inwards, and from 95,196 to 75,896 out- wards, while the American tonnage rose from 5366 to 48,845 tons. The northern settlements, however, it appears have stood the competition very well, since in 1833 they sent to the West Indies a value of £509,476, while the American amount was only £415,130. In regard to Nova Scotia, while in 1830, previous to the readmission of the republicans, the tonnage employed in this trade was 28,545 inwards and 24,800 outwards, in 1835 it had risen to 34,320 inwards and 38,022 outwards.* The advantageous situation of this province, parti- cularly of its Atlantic coast, extends its trade beyond the mere exchange of its own produce for that of other countries. Being the part of British America nearest to Europe, to the West Indies, and to the United States, it serves, in a good measure, as we have already stated, the purpose of an entrepot between them and the other colonies. Accordingly we shall see in the following- tables that her exports include large amounts of sugar, rum, wine, and even tea, the produce of distant lands. The tables here subjoined of exports and imports for 1834, including every particular of any importance, have been published by authority. * Halibwton, vol. ii. p. 377-383. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 152, 153. Bliss, pp. 88, 93-108. Colonial Tables 1833, p. 165. 202 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE STATEMENT OF THE QUANTITY AND VALUE OF VARIOUS ARTICLES OF MERCHANDISE IMPORTED INTO THE COLONY OF NOVA SCOTIA DURING THE YEAR 1834. Description of Goods. Quantity. Valu Sterling ein Money. £ £ Apparel and slops .... value 8,723 Bacon and hams, foreign, lbs. 12,302 220 Beef and pork, British and Colonial, barrels 352 800 Foreign . 3,145 8,608 Beer and ale gallons 14,385 1,121 Books value 2,265 Brass and copper, British; i40 266 Bread and biscuit, British and Colonial barrels 175 .... Foreign 3,820 3,638 Butter, British and Colonial . firkins 4 5 Foreign .... 234 301 Cabinet and upholstery ware . value 1,7H Candles, British and Colonial boxes 762 1,452 Foreign .... 561 622 Cheese, British .... lbs.' 4,200 136 Foreign .... 1,570 24 Clocks and watches .... value 2',583 337 Coals tons 1,212 Coffee, Colonial .... lbs. 166,880 6,258 Foreign .... 129,970 4,100 Copper, sheet and old 76,679 3,393 Cordage ...... cwts. 4,852 7,473 Corn, Indian corn, foreign 19,865 3',311 .. Other grain, British and Colonial bushels 2,340 404 • Foreign 27,856 5,323 .. "Wheat-flour, foreign . barrels 33,675 47,146 .. Indian corn meal, Colonial . 718 614 Foreign . 26,643 22,585 Total value of grain, meal, and flour 79J383 Cotton wool, Colonial lbs. 9,945 216 Cotton manufactures, British yards 1,202,861 30,276 Not entered by the yard ^ British | value 4,499 Foreign and East India .. 260 Total value of cotton manufactures 35,*035 Dye and hard woods, mahogany . logs 530 2,343 Other sorts /tons \ pieces 245 \ 474/ 2,907 Total value of dye and hard woods 5,250 Earthenware and chinaware, British value 2,328 Fishing tackle .... 4,180 Fruits of all sorts, fresh . 1,036 3,421 dry . 59*, 883 Glass, window, British . cwts. 3,722 .. Flint 16,977 1,216 .. Bottles 93,360 694 Plate, and other kinds value 138 Foreign . 350 Total value of glass "81 6*,i20 Guns number 172 Gunpowder lbs. 5,791 210 Haberdashery, British . value 10,930 Hats, beaver and felt 3',262 8,947 .. Straw and Leghorn .. 904 Foreign 250 Total value of hats . 4^416 Carry forward, £214,484 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 203 Description of Gooda. Brought forward, lbs. value lbs. value yards gallons value lbs. gallons value lbs. value lbs. Hemp tons Hides and skins, hides of all sorts number goat Indigo Iron, bar and pig, British .. Wrought Foreign Lead, British .... Leather, British and Colonial Manufactures of British Foreign Linen manufactures, British . „.. .. .. British, not entered by the yard value .. Foreign, not entered by the yard Total value of linen manufactures Molasses, British a,nd Colonial Foreign . Musical instruments Oakum Oil, olive .. Train and spermaceti Painters' colours Pepper, East India Pickles Pimento Ilice Saddlery and harness . . , value Salt, British and Colonial . . bushels .. Foreign Silk manufactures, British . . value Foreign & East India .. Total value of silk manufactures Soap, British and Colonial . . boxes .. Foreign Spirits, British Colonial . . gallons Rum, British Possessions Cordials .... Brandy, Geneva, and other \ foreign spirits . • j"" Total value of spirits . Stationery of all sorts, including paper value Sugar, raw. Colonial . . . lbs. .. Foreign ... refined, British . Tallow, foreign .... casks Tea lbs. Tobacco, unmanufactured . . Manufactured, and snuff, > , „ British and Colonial / vaIue .... Foreign ... 96 3,765 181,324 2,500 ,347,240 54,185 23,968 208,085 723,800 19,780 66*,688 11,088 120,423 9',720 43,432 398,774 305^654 21,486 4,330 252 1,084 688,550 780 29,519 ,262,496 486,108 160,117 137 ,251,480 228,800 Sterling Money. 9,382 1,652 500 10,204 50 • 11,534 42,222 1,205 421 592 2,411 25,581 1,712 202 348 724 2,492 826 4,307 1,327 438 63 19 48 5,746 10,254 3,840 176 - 69,351 4,288 47,573 8,273 3,031 2,394 138,887 3,815 250 Vegetables, potatoes ... Wine of all sorts . . . gallons Wood and lumber, staves and heading number .... Other wood . value Total value of wood and lumber Woollen manufactures :— Entered by the piece, British . pieces Entered by the yard .. . yards Other sorts value Total value of woollen manufactures Miscellaneous articles . . . value Total value of imports into the colony 42,705 901,732 6,198 41,124 7,540 7,670 592 18 7,667 15,210 15,769 3,753 2,110 • 21,632 25,370 • £703,917 204 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE STATEMENT OF THE QUANTITY AND VALUE OF VARIOUS ARTICLES OF MERCHANDISE KXPORTUJD FROM THH COLONY 01? NOVA HCOTIA DURING THE YKAH 1034. Deboripticm of Gomk, Bacon and hams, British and Colonial lbs. Boof and pork .. .. barrels Boor and alo gallons Broad and biscuit, British and Colonial cwta. I UOR8 "\(1rkms Butter Coals tons Ohooso, British and Colonial . lbs. Com bushels .. Wheat-flour, Colonial . barrels .... Foreign . .. Other sorts of meal, Colonial Total value of eom and meal Dyo and hard woods, logwood . tons .... mahogany Fish, ood, dry .. wet tons number value tons value number gallons .. Herrings .. Mackerel .. Salmon .... .. Other sorts . Fruits Furs Gypsum ..... Hides and skins, hides . .... Seal skins . .... Other sorts Total valuo of hides and skins Iron, unwvought . wrought Live stock, neat cattle . .... Sheep and swine Molasses Oil, train and spormacoti Pimento lbs. Salt bushels Rico lbs. Spirits, rum gallons Brandy, and other sorts . Sugar, raw cwta. Tea lbs. Tobacco, unmanufactured, Colonial .... manufactured, foroign . valuo Vegetables of all sorts . Whalebone lbs. Wine of all sorts .... gallons Wood and lumber, pine timber . tons quintals barrels ( boxes \ barrels 1(5,420 4,1)71 4,45(5 402 705 \ 490 J 13,005 27,(504 (5,200 7,705 50 64J IfiOi 252 149,7041 52,150 3,(505 \ 104) 40(5 1,40G£ 65.47SJ 12,327 35,325 500 "4 200 211,055 179,047 51,400 2,793 95,400 23,170 (520 772,(506' 5,700 60,200 13,000 2,009 5,12(5 (530 11,374 75 505 £ 319 12,41(5 297 504 2,001 13,004 5to 0,13(5 3,091 1,014 12,(572 (570 1,257 02,(540 41,598 495 319 2,713 11(5 1,104 6,145 20,003 12,241 3,250 565 32 256 13,241 16,024 1,054 99 795 1,990 120 7,211 712 753 359 3,017 520 534 Ash, birch, &c. Masts, yards, &c. numbor .... Oars ... Deals and deal-ends, "\ f. . battens, boards, y™*^ and planks . 'j^mber Carryforward, 24,047 2,227 7,440 5,907,410 I 3,118j 5.12B 27,325 .. 1,047 .. 573 ,. 59,037 ,. 93,900 £2627265 OP NOVA SCOTIA. 205 Description of Ootids. Brought forward, Wood & lumber Shingles Lathwood . . feet Staves . number Other sorts of wood value Total value of wood Miscellaneous articles . Total 4,078,< 199 450 2,804,727 £DUtiMH 262,265 3,747 •• 630 . . 21,781 2,031 100,81)7 19,485 . . £404,647 STATEMENT OF THE QUANTITY AND VALUE OP VAIUOU: ARTICLES OF MERCHANDISE IMPORTED INTO THE COLONY OP CAMS BURTON DURING THE YEAR 1834. Description of floods. Bread and biscuit, British and Colonial barrels .... Foreign . Cabinet and upholstery ware . value Cheese, foroign .... lbs. Cordage ewts. Corn, British and Colonial . . bushels .. Foreign .. Wheat-flour, British and Colonial barrels Foroign . .. Indian corn meal, foreign Total valuo of grain, meal, and Hour Cotton wool, Colonial . '. . lbs. Fishing tackle .... valuo Fruits of all sorts, fresh ... dry . Glass, plate, and other kinds, foroign Hats, straw and Leghorn Homp tons Hides and skins, hides of all sorts number Indigo lbs. Iron, wrought, foreign . . . valuo Lead, British .... lbs. .. Foreign . . . . Loather manufactures, British . value Foreign Linen, British, not entered by the yard Molasses, British and Colonial ". gallons Oakum lbs. Oil, olive gallons Rice lbs. Salt, British and Colonial . . bushels .. Foreign Soap, foreign boxes Spirits, rum, British plantation '. gallons Brandy, Geneva, mid other foreign \ spirits ) Total value of spirits Sugar, raw, Colonial . . . lbs. Tobacco, foreign .... valuo Wino of all sorts .... gallons Wood value Miscellaneous articles ... Total value of imports into the colony, VOL. II. mty. 440 £ 264 2*072 240 14 3 113 10 35 44 li7l 1,428 1,15-2 1,124 3 6 120 27 249 14 583 2!) K fi',900 2a 3i:it 2,240 20 165 28 2,120 79 6,600 306 4,480 40 2 1 18,259 1,714 1,057 174 1,888 7,364 140 9,009 312 476 2,644 «. .. ,£10,501 'N 206 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE STATEMENT OP THE QUANTITY AND VALUE OF VARIOUS ARTICLES OF MERCHANDISE EXPORTED FROM THE COLONY OF CAPE BRETON DURING THE YEAR 1834. Description of Goods. Quantity. Value in Sterliug Money. * £ Beef and pork, British and Colonial barrels 87 259 Butter firkins 56 173 Coals tons 8,374 6,068 Corn bushels 142 11 Fish, cod, dry .... quintals 12,329 8,795 .. wet . . barrels 1,876 1,377 salmon 50 150 Fruits value 2 Hides and skins, hides . number 72 72 Seal skins . 400 60 Other sorts value 4 Total value of hides and skins 136 Iron, unwrought .... tons 14 65 .. wrought .... value 126 Oil, train and spermaceti gallons 22,697 1,148 Vegetables of all sorts . value ioo i20 49 Wood and lumber, oak timber tous Pine timber 3,024 2,468 Ash, birch, &c. . 120 131 Masts, yards, &c. number 82 21 Oars 243 24 Deals and deal-ends, (.feet [number 2,873 \ 50/ battens, boards, and planks . „ 30 Shingles 12,500 8 Staves . 27,581 90 Other sorts of wood value 132 Total value of wood Miscellaneous articles . 3,024 804 Total .... £ 22,187 We can now present our readers with the following table for the year 1835, which will not only bring down the information to a later period, but exhibit in a more detailed and interesting view the intercourse with each particular country. I. EXPORTS. Britain North American Colonies British West Indies . United States Prince Edward Island Brazil . Italy .... Spain . . Gibraltar, &e. The Azores St Thomas . Value. £86,719 13 349,621 4 228,498 7 102,260 15 35,868 0 9,761 11 3,771 5 3,190 11 2,980 10 3,403 2 1,924 15 £827,999 15 9 Ships. Tons. Men. 105 27,703 1,205 1301 76,161 4,162 390 38,022 2,224 767 67,600 3,213 74 3,255 176 9 1,255 70 2 400 19 2 294 21 2 179 12 4 341 20 3 283 15 2659 1215,493 11,137 j OF NOVA SCOTIA. 207 II. IMPORTS. Britain American Colonies West Indies United States Prince Edward Island Canton Calcutta and Mauritius Gibraltar The Azores Spain .... Hamburg . Bremen (ballast) Jersey .... Porto Rico . Hayti .... Havannah . Brazil St Thomas . St Pierre and Miquelon Value. £220,735 13 157,230 0 212,349 9 113,518 4 14,40.9 15 54,236 0 3,472 0 4,730 2 1,515 14 85 0 4,451 15 539 5 0 5,923 10 0 1,412 0 0 000 0 0 15 0 0 18 0 0 2.5 0 0 £795,278 8 10 Ships. 1211 352 755 93 1 1 1 5 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 1 Tons. J Men. 23,217 75,719 34,320 70,859 4,435 270 187 110 415 126 275 30G 182 308 270 138 100 140 07 1,174 4,098 2,010 3,440 219 13 10 5 22 7 10 13 12 24 10 10 12 11 4 2523 211,582 11,122 As the tables for 1834, in respect to particular colo- nies, do not distinguish the countries to and from which the articles were exported, some notices of this kind, in regard to them, will, Ave conceive, be interesting. To Britain the exports of Nova Scotia are chiefly wood, of which, in 1835, the leading articles were 1,216,892 feet deals; 15,052 tons of timber; 48,385 feet birch plank, with 2025 oars. To these may be added 187 barrels of pickled fish, and 606 casks of oil. In return she imported almost all her manufactured articles in woollen, linen, cotton, hardware, apparel, haberdashery, and such like; also most of her wine, to the amount in 1835 of 281 hhds. and 217 quarter-casks; Geneva, 132 hhds.; also about 10,000 quarters wheat. To the West Indies the exports consisted of 161,962 quintals dry and 41,815 barrels pickled fish; lumber in different shapes; 4820 barrels pork; 8973 barrels wheat-flour, oats, bread, butter, cheese, onions, her- rings, and similar articles. In return were received rum, 6392 puncheons; sugar, 1993 hhds., 409 tierces, 1721 barrels; coffee, cocoa, tobacco, and cigars. To the other North American colonies Nova Scotia gent in 1835 gypsum to the amount of 11,113 tons; 208 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE OF NOVA SCOTIA. wheat-flour, 16,507 barrels, doubtless re-exported from the United States. She exported also innumerable articles, the produce of Britain and the West Indies, of which, from her commercial activity, she has be- come the depot for these countries. Fish, under dif- ferent circumstances, is both exported and imported, the former to the amount of 12,943 quintals dry and 9068 barrels pickled; the latter being not less than 40,337 quintals dry and 13,602 barrels pickled. She received also, chiefly we suppose from New Brunswick and for re-exportation, large quantities of deals, boards, and other timber. To the United States the chief articles sent are coals, which in 1835 amounted to 11,785 chaldrons; gypsum, 32,678 tons; grindstones, 91 tons, 33,670 No.; hams, 14,385 ; seal-skins, 10,563; oats, 5998 bushels; a con- siderable quantity of herrings, salmon, and oysters; codfish, 6966 quintals dry, and 6809 barrels pickled. In return were received 20,746 bushels wheat; 12,228 rye; 5940 Indian meal; staves, 1,495,600; shingles, 423,600 ; some beef and pork ; and a few candles and hats, To the other parts of America, and chiefly to Brazil, this province sends 16,145 quintals dry fish; to St Thomas, 1742 barrels pickled fish; while from Porto Rico she receives sugar and molasses; from St Do- mingo, logwood and mahogany; from the Havannah, coffee, cigars, and sugar. With reference to Europe, exclusive of Britain, there were exported to Italy 5780 quintals dry fish; to Spain 5801 quintals; to the Azores, 160, with boards and staves; to Gibraltar, coffee, logwood, and similar com- modities. From Gibraltar and the Azores she took the value above stated chiefly in wine; from Spain a very small quantity; from Hamburg, beans, bread, furniture, and wine. From Calcutta and the Mauritius, one vessel brought a cargo of champagne, wax-candles, sperm oil, pepper, tea, and other luxuries. One from China brought tea to the value of £54,236, with which this colony appears in a great measure to have supplied those adjoining to it. SOCIAL AN© POLITICAL STATE OF NOVA SCOTIA. 209 CHAPTER VIII. Social and Political State of Nova Scotia. Population — Anglo-Americans — Scots in Pictou — Acadians— Negroes—Indians—Religious Professions— Education — Poli- tical Constitution—Judicial Establishment — Revenue — Mili- tary Defence. The statistics of Nova Scotia, in regard to population as well as to other particulars, are less advanced than those of the sister colonies. No census has been taken since 1827, when one, said to be very accurate, gave 123,848. A previous enumeration, hi 1817, had shown only 82,053. This would indicate an increase of fifty per cent, in ten years; and if we suppose the same rate of progression to have continued, it will have produced in 1837 upwards of 180,000. We suspect, ho we ver, that the first census was less complete than the second ; and also that immigration may have been somewhat diminished in consequence of the superior attraction of other provinces. We should hesitate, therefore, to estimate the present amount at more than 170,000. Cape Breton, overstated by Bou- chette and Haliburton at 30,000, was found hi 1827 to contain only 18,700, and at the same rate must have in- creased to 26,000 or 28,000. We shall thus have very nearly 200,000 for the population of this important colony. Society hi Nova Scotia has been composed of a great variety of elements. In Halifax and other populous dis- tricts, the inhabitants of British origin have shown a strong disposition to assimilate ; but in the remoter settlements, founded by detached bodies from different countries, the 210 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE peculiarities of each have continued more unaltered than if they had remained in their native seats. The Anglo-Americans, who emigrated in consequence of the revolution, form the most numerous class, and in a great measure give the tone to the whole. Coming generally from the northern and most improved states, they brought habits peculiarly serviceable in extend- ing cultivation over a new country. Instead of that minute division of labour so well suited for carrying in- dustry and skill to perfection in advanced communities, a settler of this order prides himself on fabricating every article with his own hands. If placed in any new situa- tion, he learns whatever trade may be found necessary. He constructs the framework of his house, makes the farm-implements, and even shoes his horses. If situated on the coast of a river or bay, he builds a vessel, and car- ries his produce in it to market. This is not the way to accomplish the best work, and indeed should be dis- continued as soon as possible; but in infant settlements it is attended with great convenience. Not unfrequently, too, such a man takes delight in breaking up a fresh spot, disposing of it, and then proceeding to another. The largest of the recent colonies is that already de- scribed as formed by the Scots in Pictou and other dis- tricts on the northern coast. The Highlanders, who chiefly compose it, are in some respects well fitted for this arduous undertaking. Their adventurous spirit and powers of endurance enable them to defy those first hardships which appear so formidable to other settlers. But when, by these exertions, they have supplied their most urgent wants, a spirit of contentment is apt to steal upon them, which becomes a bar to subsequent improvement. Provided they can secure those humble accommodations to which they were accustomed on their native mountains, and find themselves surrounded by their friends and countrymen, nothing seems wanting to their happiness. Among small parties who have re- mained in such a situation, the original character is said to be preserved with a purity which in Scotland has in OF NOVA SCOTIA. 211 a great measure given way before the increased inter- course with other parts of the empire. Many of those who emigrated fifty years ago are still alive, and appear genuine representatives of the plaided warriors who fought at Culloden. The memory of the Stuarts, al- most obliterated at home, is still deeply and tenderly cherished, though it no longer inspires any disloyal feel- ings towards the reigning dynasty. Almost every set- tlement has a piper to perform the rude martial music which once resounded in the glens of Rannoch and Lochaber; and at all festive meetings, the strathspeys and other Highland dances give occasion to exhibitions of almost preternatural agility. It has, at the same time, been observed, that the High- landers, when placed in contact with other settlers, cease to be so easily satisfied, and their pride inspires them with a desire to emulate, and even to excel. The Low- land Scots, by their steady habits, their desire to do well, and to advance themselves in the world, form a valuable accession to the colony. The Irish, with tastes directly opposite, seek oftener the immediate advantage afforded by good wages, than a remote independence, to be earned by toil and self-denial. Such immigrants, however, must be very convenient in a country where the want of labourers is so extreme. The English farmer, whose ideas of well-being consist so much in neatness, order, and cleanliness, can with difficulty be reconciled to a situation where work must be done so roughly and superficially. When not prematurely discouraged, how- ever, perseverance enables him ultimately to triumph; and he then displays, within doors at least, those good qualities to which he attaches so much value. There is a considerable German colony established at Lunen- burg, which Mr Haliburton represents as nearly assimi- lated to the other inhabitants; while Mr M'Gregor describes them as retaining their manners and even language completely unchanged. Of these very opposite statements we incline to prefer the latter, which seems a picture drawn from the life; while the other is pro- 212 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE bably suggested by observations made in the vicinity of Halifax.* Another race, to whose wrongs and sufferings we again reluctantly advert, are the Acadians. In the local survey, the different sites have been pointed out, where the remnant of them are now settled; these are chiefly Clare, in Annapolis, Isle Madame and other spots in Cape Breton, They are substantially the same race with the French habitans; who, however, on account of their less polished habits, and also of frequent in- termarriage with the Indians, frequently term them "les sauvages." A large proportion are employed in fishing, especially on Cape Breton, where the females work excessively hard, performing every task, after the men have merely caught and split the fish. In the rural districts, their dress and appearance resemble, with some small variations, those of their countrymen on the St Lawrence. The shafts of ridicule are effectively wielded in checking the slightest adoption of the costume of their conquerors. One youth having unwarily put on an Eng- lish coat, lost for ever his own name, and acquired that of Joe Peacock. Those engaged in agriculture resemble the Canadians in their industry and economy, gayety at festivals, attendance at church, purity of morals, early marriages, and large families of fat chubby children.t Another unfortunate race have at different times been thrown in considerable numbers on the shores of Nova Scotia. In the course of the American war, many negroes from the southern states sought an asylum there; and in 1792, the Sierra Leone Company, with a ques- tionable philanthropy, conveyed 1200 of them to that part of the African continent. Many, however, fell vic- tims to a climate no longer congenial to them; the rest became turbulent and unruly. Soon after, a desperate insurrection was raised in Jamaica by a body of inde- pendent blacks termed Maroons, who had established * Haliburton, vol. ii. pp. 279, 293-295. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 98, 99, 180-188. f M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 199-203. Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 280. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 213 themselves in an almost inaccessible retreat in the centre of the island, whence they committed dreadful ravages. Being overawed by the operations of Lord Balcarres and General Walpole, they at length surrendered, on con- dition of being conveyed to another colony, where they might receive lands. Nova Scotia was chosen; and the people there, on the arrival of these desperate rebels, were agreeably surprised to see a set of men not only handsome and vigorous, but in their appearance extreme- ly neat and orderly. On the invitation of Prince Ed- ward (Duke of Kent), they cheerfully agreed either to be enrolled for military service or labour at the forti- fications, and were considered a valuable acquisition to the country. As the novelty wore off, however, and winter brought with it both privation and leisure, they fell into disorderly habits, despising industiy, and spend- ing then- time in cards and cock-fighting. Several vain attempts being made to induce them to cultivate the soil, they in the end became entirely dependent on the British government, at an annual cost of no less than £10,000. It thus became a matter of urgent expe- diency that they also should be transported to Sierra Leone ; and this was effected in 1800. The system, how- ever, of making Nova Scotia an asylum for negroes was not yet renounced. In 1815, during the last American war, a considerable number of this class of fugitives were received on board the British squadrons, particularly in the Chesapeak. As they came, however, under the expectation of subsisting without hard labour, they were as useless as the others, and proved a mere burden on the colony, from which it was partially relieved in 1821. by the transportation of ninety of them to Trinidad. Of each of these successive arrivals, some portions remained, which have now increased to the number of 3557, of whom 1726 are males and 1831 females. They have settlements- of some extent laid out for them at Hammond's Plains and Prescott, both in the vicinity of Halifax; and yet they have never made any progress in cultivating the soil. The situation, indeed, of a settler 214 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE on wild lands, who must encounter much hard wTork with only distant returns, tries the perseverance of the most industrious European; it was, therefore, unfortu- nate that it shoiild have fallen to the lot of individuals never accustomed to labour at all, except under the most stern compulsion. Almost the only benefit they derive from their grants is obtained by collecting the spontaneous produce, wild fruits and brooms, and bringing them to market. In all seasons of scarcity, their sufferings be- come deplorable, and pathetic appeals are made to the charity of the British government. Yet a certain num- ber, who have engaged as domestic servants, and parti- cularly as cooks on board ship, show themselves very useful. Even the principal horse-dealer in Halifax is said to be a negro.* There remains yet another outcast race, namely, the original possessors of the country. The Indians here and in New Brunswick belong generally to one tribe, known under the name of Micmacs. In 1772, they were esti- mated at 865, and are supposed to have since decreased; but their present number lias not been ascertained. Those who repair to Quebec to share in the annual dis- tribution of presents, are stated by Major-general Darling at 652; though an official document shows that in 1827 there came only 196 Micmacs and 79 Amalicites, the latter chiefly from Ristigouche in New Brunswick. Doubtless, however, it is only a few who undertake so long and severe a journey. They are described as na- turally inferior to the tribes on the lakes, and are now in a more forlorn and degraded condition. The hunting of the moose and cariboo, their only favourite pursuit, is much limited owing to the increased occupation of the country by Europeans. The offer of land is made to them, and several have established themselves on farms, where they rear in a slovenly manner a few cattle, but they shun all laborious culture. They do not, however, as sometimes supposed, abscond into remote and unfre- * M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 204-208. Moorsom, p. 125-131. Colonial Tables 1832, p. 16. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 215 quented regions; on the contrary, their favourite re- sidence is the vicinity of the towns, where they find sale for their game, fish, and the little ornamental works which their females fabricate. In winter, indeed, the remoter woods and lakes are frequented for a plentiful supply of game ; but from May to November, the smoke of a dozen wigwams in an adjoining cove indicates their vicinity to a populous place. Each of these abodes consists merely of a few poles placed upright and fastened at the top, the whole being then covered with birch bark, which renders it impervious to rain. Under these roofs, the squaws are said to sit whole days, framing ornamented baskets and other trifles of moose-hair or porcupine- quills, variously coloured, and wrought upon bark. Their canoes are often seen crossing from a camp opposite to Halifax, with articles to dispose of. On this voyage, listlessness and apathy characterize all their movements; and even on reaching the shore, a long talk is occasionally held in their unimpassioned tones, before landing. At length their goods are exposed on the bank; but when, the squaw meets her female friends, her silence is in- stantly exchanged for loud laughter and loquacity, and every passing object becomes the theme of animated remark. The produce of their sales is too often expend- ed on the means of intoxication; and scarcely any part is laid up for an evil da}r. This improvidence is heightened by a lavish hospitality, which makes them feel it in- cumbent to share whatever they have with any wander- ing countryman who may happen to join them. In pe- riods of urgent distress, they repair to the government- house and implore aid from then* father, as they call the governor, by whom their case is in general favourably considered.* The religious professions in Nova Scotia, like the classes of the population, are extremely various, and none can be considered as possessing a numerical ascendency. * Report on the Aboriginal Tribes (Pari. Paper, Aug. 14? 1834), p. 34. Moorsom, p. 111-117. 216 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE The following is given as the result of the census of 1827:—• Church of England, 28,659 Church of Scotland, 37,225 Dissenters from these two churches, 4,825 Roman Catholics, 20,401 Baptists, 19,790 Methodists, .... 9,408 Lutherans, 2,968 Quakers, Universalists, &c. 255 Doubtful, 317 123,848 This does not include Cape Breton, the returns from which were not considered accurate; and from the in- crease of population, each of these numbers must now be considerably augmented, though they probably preserve very nearly the same. relative proportion. Complete toleration is granted to all these sects; their members are equally eligible to public offices; none of them are required to contribute to the maintenance of the others; nor is support given to any out of the provincial re- venue. The Church of England, however, is considered as the established one, and derives a portion of its funds through a society incorporated in 1701 for propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Notwithstanding this title, the object of the corporation in recent times has chiefly been to supply a body of regular clergy to the members of the episcopal communion settled in the North Ame- rican colonies; in aid of which they were wont to re- ceive an annual grant from the Imperial Parliament. Their teachers are termed missionaries, but, generally speaking, do not at all lead the wandering life which the name seems to imply ; they are simply parish ministers, though with somewhat extensive charges. The coun- try is divided into thirty-two parishes, and the rectors receive from £150 to £300 a-year from the society or from the crown; which, with glebes and fees, affords here a comfortable income. In 1787, Nova Scotia was erected into a bishopric, the head of which draws no OF NOVA SCOTIA. 217 revenue from the colony, but holds merely a spiritual jurisdiction over the members of his own church. His diocese extends also over New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, and the Bermudas. The Presbyterian Church, formed chiefly by the great emigration from Scotland, appears, as above, the most numerous in the colony. The synod of Nova Scotia is divided into the presbyteries of Halifax, Pictou, and Cape Breton, and consists of seventeen members. They receive no support from government, but have since 1784 derived some aid from a society in Glasgow, though, as this last demands an entire union -with, the Church of Scotland, which all are not inclined to yield, some dis- sension is said to have arisen. The Roman Church con- sists of the Acadians, with some Irish settlers, and a few of the earlier Highland immigrants. The Indians also profess this faith, though without allowing it to work much change in their manners. The Catholics are go- verned by a bishop, resident at Antigonish or Dorchester, with twelve or thirteen subordinate priests, chiefly from Britain or France, as there is no seminary for their in- struction in the province. Their adherents are said to be the least informed part of the community, and most completely under the control of their spiritual guides. The Baptists are stated to have about thirty-five mi- nisters of all classes. Their church-government is in- dependent, the power residing entirely in the members of each particular congregation. They hold annually, however, a general conference, in which questionable points are amicably adj usted. The Wesleyan Methodists, a less numerous body, have fourteen of what they term circuits, in which twenty-eight missionaries are employ- ed; but these embrace also Prince Edward Island. Once a-year is held, subordinate to the Conference in England, a general meeting, to which are transmitted such surplus funds as can be collected for missionary purposes, while aid is afforded in the maintenance of the poorer chapels. The Lutherans, we presume, con- sist of the German colony at Lunenburg. On the 218 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE whole, the system appears somewhat less liberal than in Upper Canada, nothing in the nature of an esta- blishment being granted; though in the more remote districts, some aid to the contributions afforded by their poor and scattered inhabitants would certainly be desir- able. It is at the same time stated, that the exertions made by the settlers, amid many difficulties, to provide themselves with religious instruction, arc highly credit- able.* The people of Nova Scotia have always bestowed a particular attention on education, a provision for which, with the intelligence consequent on it, existed there when much neglected in other transatlantic colonies. The institution highest in dignity is the college at Windsor, which enjoys all the privileges of a university, being en- titled to confer degrees and to teach the whole circle of the sciences. As yet, however, the funds have not been sufficient for founding more than four chairs. The parlia- mentary grant for its support was withdrawn in 1833, and it is now supported only by £'200 from the provin- cial government, and £300 raised by subscription. A very illiberal clause, requiring from all students sub- scription to the Thirty-nine Articles, has of late been repealed. The attendance, however, is by no means great, being reckoned in 1830 at twenty, and in 1833 having fallen to ten. Dalhousie College was founded in 1820 at Halifax, on the model of that of Edinburgh; and £9750 was invested in the three per cents, for its sup- port, but this sum not being found sufficient to bring it into operation, it is now proposed to unite it to that of Windsor, as it seems inexpedient to maintain two such institutions for so young a country. The Presbyterians have formed an academy at Pictou, where the languages, as well as natural and moral philosophy, are taught. It receives a grant of £400 from the provincial government, * Haliburton, vol. ii. p. 298-306. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 177-179. Moorsom, p. 132-140. Bouchette, vol. ii. p. 64-66. Oliver & Boyd's New Edinburgh Almanac and National Repository for 1839, p. 397 • OF NOVA SCOTIA. 219 with £60 of voluntary contributions, and was attended in 1833 by forty youths. There is also a Baptist semi- nary at Horton, attended by eighty students, and a gram- mar school at Annapolis, by sixty. The former, in 1833, received from government £85, the latter £150. There are at Halifax five public schools,—the National and St George's (on Dr Bell's plan), the Acadian (Lancaste- rian), the Catholic, and the Grammar School. These receive, in all, £550 from government and £600 from voluntary contributions, and are attended by 1100 scholars. There were besides, in 1835, over the coun- try, 448 common schools, supported by £4667 from the provincial revenue, and £12,453 from private sub- scription. They were attended by 15,292 scholars, of whom 1153 were taught gratis. Forty schools are also supported by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.* The constitution of this country does not differ very materially from that of Canada. The principal officer, in whom the executive power is invested, is termed only lieutenant-governor, and is considered subordinate to the governor-general at Quebec. The supremacy of the latter, however, has hitherto been exercised only in the general direction of military affairs during war: he interferes not in the civil jurisdiction. It has been not unusual to make the government of Nova Scotia an apprenticeship as it were to that of Canada; Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, the Earl of Dalhousie, and Sir James Kempt, having been raised from the one to the other. He ranks also as lieutenant-general, vice-admiral, and chan- cellor. His legislative and executive powers appear exactly the same as in Canada. The people have a sin- gular check upon his mal-administration, in being al- lowed to prosecute him in the English court of Queen's Bench, though we are not aware that any such action has ever been raised. The House of Assembly, as to functions and compo- * Halliburton, vol. ii. pp. 17, 55. M'Greg*or, vol. ii. pp. 174,214. Colonial Tables 1832, p. 17; 1833, p.